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THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY
05B0RN LIBRARY OF VERTEBRATE PALA.ONTOLOGY

ProRented "^lovember "^ j , l.^iiO

THE HORSE

By J. H. WALSH, F.R.C.S.

AND

HAROLD LEENEY, M.R.C.V.S., Etc.

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THE HORSE

IN THE STABLE AND THE FIELD

HIS VARIETIES

MANAGEMENT IN HEALTH AND DISEASE

ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, Etc.

By J. H. WALSH, F.R.CS. (Stonehenge)

EDITOR OF ' THE FIELD
AUTHOR OF ' BRITISH RURAL SPORTS,' ETC.

REVISED BY HAROLD LEENEY, M.R.C.V.S., Etc.

WITH TWO HUNDRED AND THIRTEEN ILLUSTRATIONS Di HakKISON WEIR,
ZWECKER, AND OTHERS

SIXTEENTH EDITION, IN TWO VOLUMES

WITH FOUR COLOURED PLATES

VOL. II

LONDON
GEORGE ROUTLEDGE AND SONS, Limited

NEW YORK : E. P. DUTTON AND CO.
1907

5?. 9. U^~

PRINTED BY
COWAN & CO.. LTL\ -^

PERTH

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J-:)'

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CONTENTS

PAGE

THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE
CHAPTER XVII

CLASSIFICATION OF THE VARIOUS ORGANS, AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE SKELETON

Classification of the various organs — Of the structure of bone — Of the skeleton in
general — The artificial skeleton — Number of bones composing the skeleton —
General anatomy of the spinal column — Of the head and face and of the hyoid
arch — Of the thoracic arch and anterior extremities — Of the pelvic arch and
hind extremities — The tail — -The fore and hind extremities considered as organs
of locomotion ............. 344

CHAPTER XVIII

DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY OF THE SEVERAL BONES

The head — Bones of the cranium — -Bones of the face — The lower jaw — The teeth —
Os hj'oides — Characters of Vei t/ebra3 in general — General characters of the
cervical vertebi'oe — Peculiarities of certain cervical vertebrae — General characters
of the dorsal vertebrae — Peculiarities of the dorsal vertebra3— General characters
of the lumbar vertebraj — Peculiarities of the lumbar vertebr£e — The sacrum — The

i coccygeal vertebrae — The ribs and their cartilages — The sternum, or breast-bone

— Scapula, blade-bone or shoulder-blade — Humerus, the upper arm-bone — The

, bones of the fore-arm (os brachii) — Tlie carpus (knee) and metacarpus (cannon) —

The phalangeal bones (pasterns and foot) — The pelvis — The femur (round-bone)

and jjatella — Bones of the leg— Metatarsal and posterior phalangeal bones . . 354

CHAPTER XIX

OF THE JOINTS, AND THE TISSUES ENTERING INTO THEIR COMPOSITION

General remarks — Cartilage — Fibrous tissue — Fibro-cartilage — Synovial membranes
— Classification of the joints — Movements of the joints — Articulations of the
vertebral column — The ligamentum nuchoe, or great cervical ligament, and other
peculiarities in the ligaments of the neck — Movements of the vertebrae in general,
and of certain of their joints in particular — Thoracic articulations — Peculiarities
in the articulations of the lumbar vertebrre — The lumbo-sacral articulation and
sacral ligaments — The coccygeal joints — The temporo-maxillary articulation —
The sacro-iliac articulation — Ischio-pubic sj'mphysis — The shoulder joint — The
elbow joint — The knee joint (carpus, or wrist) — ^Inter-metacarpal articulations —
Fetlock joint — The pastern joint — The coffin joint^The hip joint — Stifle joint or
coxo-femoral articulation — Tibio-fibular articulation — -The hock joint — Tarso-
metatarsal articulation — Terminal articulation of the posterior limbs . . . 391

xii CONTENTS

CHAriER XX

THE MUSCrL.\R SYSTEM

PAOK

I'hvsiolojiy of muscle — Cutaneous muscles— Muscles of tlie head — Anterior maxillary
region --Muscles whose otlicc it is to move the lower jaw— Muscles of the external
car — External muscles of tiie eyelids— Ocular region — Muscles of the tongue-
Muscles of the jtharvnx — Laryngeal region — Palatine region — Superficial niusclea
of the neck and trunk — Lateral cervical region — Inferior cervical region — Superior
cervico-occipital region — Inferior cervico-occipital region — Muscles connecting
the scapula witli the iioad, neck, and ciiest — Muscles of the tliorax — Dorsal
region — Muscles of tlic ahdoinen — Superficial alnlominal region — Deep abdominal
region — Pelvic region— Muscles of tlie fore extremity — External scapular region
— Antero-inferior scapular region — The internal scapular region— Postero-external
scapular region — The antero-external humeral region— The posterointernal
humeral region — Muscles of tlie arm and foreleg — Muscles of the haunch —
(Jluteal region — External iliofemoral region— Anterior iliofemoral region —
Internal ilio-femoral region — The deep muscles of the iliofemoral region —
Anterior femorocrural region — Posterior femoro-criiral region .... -129

CHAPTER XXI

THE THOR.\CIC ORGANS AND THEIR APPENDAGES

Contents of the thorax — The blood — General plan of the circulation — The heart and
arteries— Tiie veins — Piiysiology of respiration — Mcclianism of the ])ulm(inary
apfxxratus^The nasal orifices and cavities — The larynx — The tradica and lironchi
— The lungs — Pulmonary glands, etc. ......... 456

CHAPTER XXII

THE ABDOMEN AND PELVIC VISCERA

'J'hc abdomen and its contents — Phj'siology of digestion — Structure of glands and
physiology of secretion — Depuration, and its office in the animal economy —
Anatomy of the salivary glands, pharynx, nsojjhagus, and stomach — The
intestines — The liver — The spleen^The pancreas— The kidneys — The pelvis —
The bladder — Tlic organs of generation, male and female ..... 47-t

CHAPTER XXin

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

Physiology of the nervous 8}'stem — Chief divisions of the nervous system — The
spinal cord— The medulla oblongata — The encephalon — The sympathetic system 490

CHAPTER XXIV

SPECIAL ORGANS

The organ of smell —The eye — Tiic ear — The organ of touch — The foot . . . 496

THE DISEASES OF THE HORSE
CHAPTER XXV

THE DISE.\SES AND ISJrRI>:S OF BONE

General remarks — Splints — Ringbone and sidebone — Bone spavin — Exostosis of the
humerus and scapula — Fistula — Poll evil — Caries of tlie jaw — Osteo sarcoma —
Eractures — Split pastenis , 506

CONTENTS xiii

chaptp:r XXVI

INJURY AND DISEASES OF THE JOINTS, MUSCLES, AND TENDONS

PAGE

Diseases of muscle, tendon, and ligament — Inflamed tendinous sheaths — Inflamed
bursie mucosaj — Strains — Those of the back and loins — Of the shoulder — Of the
knee — Of the fetlock — Of the coflin joint — Of the suspensory ligaments — Of the
back sinews — Breaking down — Strains of the hip "joint, stifle, and hock — Curb —
Dislocation — Wounds of joints .......... 523

CHAPTER XXVII

DISEASES OF THE THORACIC ORGANS AND THEIR APPENDAGES

Cfciieial remarks — Catarrh or cold — Influenza — Bronchitis — Chronic cough — Laryn-
gitis, roaring, whistling, etc. — Pneumonia and congestion of the lungs — Pleurisy
— Broken wind — Thick wind — Spasm of the diaphragm — Diseases of the heart —
Diseasef. of the blood-vessels of ths chest aiul nose ...... 537

CHAPTER XXVIII

DISEASES OF THE ABDOMINAL VISCERA AND THEIR APPENDAGES

General remarks — Diseases of the mouth and throat — Dyspepsia— Gastritis —
Stomach staggers — Grass staggers — Rupture of the stomach — Colic : Gripes or
fret — Flatulent colic — Inflammation of the bowels — Twisted gut — Peritonitis —
Constipation — Diarrha?a — Calculi in the bowels — Diseases of the liver — Diseases
of the kidneys — Diabetes — Inflammation of the bladder — Diseases of the gener-
ative organs — Cancer of the penis .......... 553

CHAPTER XXIX

DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

Paralysis of the lips — Epilepsy and convulsions — Megrims — Mad staggers— Sun-
stroke— Rabies, or madness — Tetanus, Lock jaw — Apoplexy and paralysj.« —
String halt , 571

CHAPTER XXX

DISEASES AND INJURIES OF CERTAIN SPECIAL ORGANS

Diseases of the ear — Diseases of the eye — Toi'n eyelids — Inflammation of the eyes —
Periodic or constitutional ojjhthalmia — Cataract — Amaurosis — Buck eye . . 578

CHAPTER XXXI

SKIN DISEASES

Mange — Lice — Poultry lousiness — Ringworm— Eczema — Itchy tail — Mallenders and
Sallenders — Harness galls and sitfasts — Chapped or cracked heels — Swelled legs
—Warts 582

CHAPTER XXXII

FEVERS AND SPECIFIC DISEASES

Specific fevers— Stable fever — Influenza — Strangles — Bastard strangles — Anthrax,
or Loodiana fever — South African horse sickness — Glanders — Farcy — Inflam-
matory (edema, or water farcy — Purpui-a Hemorrhagica — Scarlatina — Azoturia
— Rheumatism ............. .'iSQ

CHAPTER XXXIII

DISEASES OF THE FEET

Corns — Sandcrack — False quarter — Quittor — Thrush — Canker — Laminitis — Seedy
toe — Brittle feet — Villitis — Tread — Pricked foot — Contraction of the foot — Navi-
cular disease — Accidents to the legs and feet 598

xiv CONTENTS

CHAPTER XXXIV

PARASITES

PA(IB

Worms — Bots , . . . . . . . . . . . ,018

CHAPTER XXXV

METHODS OF CONTROL

The twitch — Tlie luiltcr twitch — Side lines — Hobbles — Slings — Anresthesia . . G21

CHAPTER XXXVI

OPERATIONS

Bleeding — Firing — Setons and rowels — Blistering — Castration — Docking — Un-
nerving— Reduction of liernia — The adniinistnition of medicines — Clysters —
Back-raking .............. 627

ON THE ACTION OF MEDICINES
CHAPTER XXXVII

THE ACTION OF MEDICINES, AND THE FORMS IN WHICH THEY ARE PRESCRIBED

Alteratives — Ana?sthetics — Anodynes — Antacids — Anthelmintics — Antispasmodics
— Aperients — Astringents — Blisters — Caustics — Charges — Clysters — Cordials —
Demulcents — Diaplioretics — Digestives — Diuretics — Embrocations — Emulsions —
E.xpectorants — Febrifuges — Lotions — Narcotics — Refrigerants — Sedatives —
Stimulants — Stomachics — Styptics — Tonics — Vermifuges — Electuaries — Pes-
saries— Suppositories 639

CHAPTER XXXVIII
Shoeing 655

CHAPTER XXXIX
A list of veterinary drugs, with their actions and doses . , . ■ 675

CHAPTER XL
On soundness ; and on the purchase and fale of horses ...... 681

THE ANATOMY OF THE HOESE

CHAPTER XVII

CLASSIFICATION OP THE VARIOUS ORGANS, AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE SKELETON

CLASSIFICATION OF THE VARIOUS ORGANS — OF THE STRUCTURE OF BONE — OF THE SKELETON
IN GENERAL — THE ARTIFICIAL SKELETON — NUMBER OF BONES COMPOSING THE SKELETON
— GENERAL ANATOMY OF THE SPINAL COLUMN — OF THE HEAD AND FACE AND OF THE
HTOID ARCH — OF THE THORACIC ARCH AND ANTERIOR EXTREMITIES — OF THE PELVIC
ARCH AND HIND EXTREMITIES— THE TAIL — THE FORE AND HIND EXTREMITIES
CONSIDERED AS ORGANS OF LOCOMOTION.

CLASSIFICATION OF THE VARIOUS ORGANS

The body of the Horse, like all the vertebrate animals, may be con-
sidered as made up of several distinct apparatuses or systems. Of these, the
first is a machine composed of the bony skeleton, or framework, the various
parts of which are united by joints and moved by muscles. Secondly, there
are contained within the thorax the organs which supply the Avhole body with
the means of nutrition in the form of blood, and purify this fluid. Thirdly,
in the abdomen are presented to view the important organs which assimilate
the food to the condition of the blood ; while in the adjoining cavity, the
pelvis, are the urinary and generative apparatuses. Fourthly, the nervous
system may be considered, as comprising the grand centre of the mental
faculties, and, also, as presiding over and controlling the whole of the
functions performed by the several organs ; and fifthly, certain special
organs, as, for example, those of sense, and likewise the foot, will complete
the whole circle of systems to be reviewed. Each of these groups will,
therefore, be described in a separate chapter.

OF THE STRUCTURE OF BONE

The bones are composed of a tissue peculiar to them, enveloped b}'^ a
membrane, the periosteum. They contain a semi-fluid of a fatty nature, the
marrow^ and are pierced in various directions by blood-vessels and nerves.

313 A A

o^i THE STRUCTURE OF BONE

The proper tissue of tlic bones is made up of two distinct substances,
cither of which may be removed by artificial means, leaving the other entire.
If, for instance, a bone is submitted to tlic licat of a furnace, it retains its
shape and rigiflity, but becomes much winter in coh>ur, and is rendered
extremely brittle. In fact, tlie mineral salts entering into its composition
are left, but the animal matter binding them together is completely decom-
iu>sed and carried oiX in a gaseous form. On the other hand, by immersing
a bone for two or three weeks in diluted liydrochloric acid, the earthy salts
arc dissolved, while tlie animal matter is untouched. Here the bone retains
its original shape, but it is soft and flexible ; and instead of presenting its
usual opaque yellowish-white colour, it is semi-transparent, and resembles the
ordinary gelatine of the shops. According to Rerzillius, bone is chemically
composed of the following constituents — namely, cartilage, reducible to
gelatine by boiling ; blood-vessels ; phosphate of lime ; carbonate of lime ;
lluate of lime ; phosphate of magnesia ; soda and chloride of sodium.

Considered mechanically, the bones form the framework of the animal
machine. In the limbs they are hollow cylinders, admirably fitted by their
shape and texture to i-esist violence and support weight. In the trunk and
head they are flattened and arched, to protect the contents of the cavities
they form, and to provide an extensive surface for the attachment of
muscles. In certain situations their extei'ioris raised into projections called
processes, which serve as levers for the nuiscles to act upon ; in others they
are grooved into smooth surfaces for the easy gliding of tendons, when these
are stretched between the fleshy part of a muscle and one of its attachments.
Lasth', they sometimes present a large hollow for the lodgment of the belly
of a muscle, as in the case of the scapula. These difiln-ently shaped bones may,
therefore, be classed under the following three heads : —

1st. The long hones consist of the humerus, radius, ulna, femur, tibia, and
fibula ; the metacarpal and metatarsal bones (called, in horsemen's language,
the cannon bones), the phalanges (pastern bones), and the ribs. These bones
are all divisible into a central cylindrical shaft, and two heads or extremi-
ties. The shaft is usually of a prismoid form, dense in texture, and
presenting a longitudinal tube in the interior, called the medullary canal,
which contains marrow. The heads are broad, to articulate with the next
adjoining bones, and are covered with a thin layer of cartilage, which will
be described in the chapter treating of the joints. Their outer sui-face is a
hard osseous layer, "within which is a mass of cells containing red medullary
niatter, to be present I3' described.

2nd. llie Jlat hones arc composed of two laj'ers of dense tissue, one on
each surface, having between them another of a cellular nature, called the
diploe. As a matter of course, from their shape, they have surfaces, borders,
and angles ; in addition to which they have projections, called processes, of
various shapes. They consist of the chief bones of the head, the scapula, and
pelvis.

3rd. The irregular hones comprise the lesser bones of the head and face, the
vertcbne, sacrum, sternum, carpal and tarsal bones, the sesamoid bones, the
bones of the foot, and the i^atelhe. They resemble the flat bones in their
structure.

When microscopically examined, bone is seen to be made up of a dense
and homogeneous substance (basis substance), in which are numberless

THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE 345

minute cells (corpuscles of Purkinje). The basis substance is partially
fibrous and slightly laniellated, the layers being concentric in long bones and
parallel in flat ; it is traversed in all directions (more especially in the long
axis, where there is one) by canals (Haversian canals), which frequently
branch and inosculate, giving passage to vessels and nerves. In certain
situations the lamellaj separate, and leave between them spaces of various
sizes, called cancelli. Besides entering into the composition of the basis
substance, the lamellse are collected concentrically round the Haversian
canals, the boundaries of which they form, generally to the extent of ten to
fifteen layei's. Both the compact and spongy tissues are, therefore, com-
posed of the same elementary structure, the former being especially intended
to afford resistance to violence with as little weight as is consistent with its
office, for which reason it is hollowed into a tube ; while the latter is enlarged
as much as possible without unnecessarily adding to its weight, the problem
being solved by its development in a cellular form.

The j^eriosteum is a dense fibrous membrane which covers every part of
the surface of the bones, excepting their extremities when they enter into
the composition of a joint, its place being then occupied by cartilage (see
Joints). When this membrane covers the bones of the skull it is called
pericraniiim, and when it invests the cartilages of the ribs it receives the
name perichondriiim. It is full of blood-vessels, especially in the young, and
they freely communicate with those of the surrounding soft parts. Hence it
is extremely liable to inflammation, either caused by injury to itself or to
the parts which cover it.

The mar7-07v, or medullaiy substance, is contained in the cavities formed
within the bones, being of a yellow colour and oily nature in the shafts of
the long bones ; and more or less red, from the admixture with blood, in the
flat and irregular bones, and in the heads of the long bones. It is contained
within the areolar meshes of a membrane, which lines these cavities,
answering to the periosteum, which has been already described. This
medullary membrane is of excessive tenuity, and is composed of blood-vessels
ramifying in fine cellular tissues. The use of marrow in the animal economy
is not very clearly demonstrated.

In the embryo, all the bones originally exist in the state of cartilage,
being soft and flexible. By degrees vascular canals are developed within its
substance, by the union of its cells in rows. These concentrate towai'ds
some one or more points, which in a long bone are one in the centre of the
shaft and one at each extremit3^ Starting from this point (pu7icfu7u ossifi-
cationis), fibres run out, embracing clusters of cells, and sending branches
between the individuals composing each group. In this manner the
network, characteristic of bone, is formed, the cells uniting to form the
permanent areolte and Haversian canals. At first the contents of the cells
are transparent, then granular, and finally opaque, from the pressure of
amorphous mineral matter. The several ossified portions are quite distinct
for a long time in the young animal, and may readily be separated by boiling
or maceration.

343 THE SKELETON IX GENERAL

OF THE SKELETON IN GENERAL

TiiK NAMt; ski:li:iu\ hus Lcl'Ii gi\ tu fruin the Greek wurd o-kcAAu) (to dri/),
it being the only part of the body which will bear desiccation without
change of form. In the vcrtehrata it is an internal bony framework, but in
the Crustacea it invests tlic soft parts, and forms an insensible covering to
them, while at the same time it serves the purpose of locomotion. In both
these divisions of the animal kingdom the skeleton forms a series of arches
or rings, capable of moving on each other, but so firmly attached as to
secure protection to the important organs contained within them. In the
horse, as in all the higher mammalia, these rings or arches are double — one
set, the superior, being continuous throughout the whole length of the
animal from the head to tlie root of the tail, and containing the nervous
system ; while the other lying below, but closely connected to them, is
interrupted in certain localities, being found to exist chiefly in three regions :
— 1st, where it forms the jaws and bone of the tongue; 2nd, where, by
means of the ribs and sternum, it constitutes the thorax and its appendages,
the anterior extremities ; and, 3rdly, where, in tlie shape of the pelvic arch,
it protects the organs of generation, and, through the posterior extremities
prolonged from it, assists in locomotion. The superior of these arches, from
containing the brain, and its prolongation, the spinal cord, is called the
neural arch. The inferior is termed the luvmal arch {oXfia, blood), because it
protects the lieart and its large blood-vessels as the latter pass from the
thorax towards the head and posterior extremities. In all the vertebrata
the neural arch consists of one continuous cavity, defended from end to end
by bony plates, strongly joined together ; and in some of the lower forms
(lizards) the ha>mal arch is nearly as complete, these animals having cervical
ribs ; while the dugongand some others are furnished with ribs in their tails.
Consequently, it is fair to consider the whole skeleton in the superior forms
of the animal kingdom as composed of two series of arched plates, firmly
united together, but still allowing more or less motion, and serving to protect
the centres of the nervous and sanguineous systems, from which they have
received their names.

THE ARTIFICIAL SKELETON

The boxks of the Horse, as of theullier mammalia, may be preserved with
their natural ligamentous attachments connecting them in a dry state, in
which condition the skeleton is called a natural one. It is usual, however,
to macerate them so long that all the soft parts readily separate, leaving the
bones without any of the ligaments or cartilages which are firmly fixed to
them during life. They are then put together by wires, etc., the cartilages
being represented by leather and cork. In this way it often happens
that the proportions are not exactly preserved, and, on reference to an articu-
lated skeleton in any nmseum, the inexperienced eye ma}- be greatly misled.
Thus it is very common to represent the thorax in the artificial skeleton as
much shallower than it is in nature, where its lower margin is on the
average about midway between the top of the withers and the ground. Again,

348

TIIF. ANATOMY OF THE HORSE

r^ fi ri i-i ii rH f-l i-l r-l C4 n 71 f < fl f <

«««««»■»*»»»

NUMBER OF BONES COMPOSING THE SKELETON 349

in the fresli state, the intervertebral fibro-cartilage is in some pai*ts of tlie
spine of considerable thickness ; and if the proper substance is not artificially
supplied, the skeleton will be too short, or if too thick a material is added it
will be too long. In the engraving of the skeleton occupying the opposite
page, which is drawn from the skeleton in the Museum of the Koyal
Veterinary College, London, the spine is con^ectly represented, but the thorax
is too shallow, and the scapula, together with the whole fore extremity, i.s
placed too far forward.

NUMBER OF BONES COMPOSING THE
SKELETON

The skeleton is composed of two hundred and forty-seven separate bones,
which are united by joints to form the spine, thorax, pelvis, tail, and fore
and hind extremities. The spine is finished anteriorly by the head, which
is divided into the cranium and face, and contains the teeth. Separated
from the head is the os hyoides, which completes the number of bones.
Thus :—

The spine consists of 7 cervical, 18 dorsal, and 6 lumbar vertebrae —

Total 31

The thorax is made up of the dorsal vertebnie, with 18 ribs on each

side, and the sternum in the middle — Total 37

The pelvis comprises 2 ossa innominata (or ilium, ischium, and pubes),

and 1 sacrum — Total 3

The TAIL contains on the average 17 bones 17

The fore extremity is made up on each side of the scapula, humerus,

OS brachii, and 8 carpal bones, 3 metacarpal, os sufFraginis, os coronfe,

OS pedis, OS naviculare, 2 ossa sesamoidea — Total on both sides . . 40

The hind extremity has the femur, patella, tibia, fibula, 6 tarsal bones,

3 metatarsals, os suffraginis, os coronte, os pedis, os naviculare, 2 ossa

sesamoidea — Total 38

Bones op the cranium 10

Bones of the face and lower jaw ". . 18

Teeth 1 40

Bones of the internal ear, 4 in each organ 8

Os hyoides, or bone of the tongue, made up of five sections ... 5

Grand total 247

GENERAL ANATOMY OF THE SPINAL COLUMN

The vertebral or spinal column is the first rudiment of internal skeleton
seen in the lower vertebrate animals, and this constitutes the type of that
great division of the animal kingdom. In the horse, also, it is the portion
of the skeleton first developed in the embryo, and foi'ms the centre around

^The teeth are not strictly speaking bones, but as the general reader usually regards
them as such, and the distinction is a purely scientific one, we have allowed them to count
in the usual wny

n.-jO THE ANATOMY OF THE HOU.SE

which all the other parts aro framed. At its first appearance it is a
cartilaginous cylinder, surrounding and protecting the ])i-iniitive trace of the
nervous system ; but as the embryo increases ingrowth, jutintsof ossification
are developed corresponding to each vertebra, the wholi' tube being fnuilly
divided into distinct pieces called vcrtehnv, to which the bones of the head
are a prolongation, corresponding in their nature, though differing out-
wardly in form.

The vcrlehrcv are divisil;le into true and false, the former reacliing from
the head to the pelvis, and the latter extending thence backward, being
respectively called the sacrum and coccyx.

The trur vrrd'lra- comjirise the 7 cervical, IS dorsal, and G lumbar
vertebra?. Each consists of a body, from which two lamina? or plates project
upwards, terminating in a spinous process. In addition to these are two
lateral projections (transverse processes), which serve the purpose of firmly
connecting the vertebra? together by means of the muscles attached to
them, and also to the ribs and extremities below. Lastly, each vertebra
has two small surfaces befoi-e and the same number behind (articular
surfaces), which form distinct joints between them. The details of these
parts, and the peculiarities met with in each set, will be described in the
next chapter.

Between the body, the lamina^, and the spinous process is an opening
more or less triangular in shape, in which lie the spinal cord and its
investments. The edges of this opening are attached to those before anfl
behind by ligamentous tissues (ligamenta suhjiava), which, opposite each
intervertebral space, are pierced by openings on each side to give exit to the
vertebral nerves passing out to the exterior of the body and to the ex-
tremities. Opposite to these openings the bone is notched above and below,
and these intervertebral notches complete the parts common to the whole
series. Thus the vertebral or sjiinal column serves as a firmly secured
but flexible tube for the lodgment of the spinal cord, while at the same
time it gives passage to its nerves. By this formation it is far less liable
to injury, and also more useful as an aid to locomotion, than if it were made
of one solid piece of bone, which, from its length, would be readily broken.

OF THE HEAD AND FACE, AND OF THE HYOID

ARCH

Modern anatomists, following out the idea first .suggested by Maclise
and Owen, consider the head as made up of six vertebra; ; the posterior one,
or that nearest to the neck, being the occipital bone, the next two being
made up of the temporal bone, and the ultimate vertebra? consisting of the
sphenoid and ethmoid bones. This is a somewhat fanciful h^-pothesis, when
worked out in detail ; but it is obvious that the several bones of the skull
subserve the same purposes as the vertebrre, and resemble those parts of the
skeleton in forming a series of irregular arches to protect the brain, the
division into separate pieces being far more secure than if the whole were
in one.

The bones of the face, including the lower jaw and os hyoides, depend
from the neural arch or brain-case much in the same way as the ribs and

THE EXTREMITIES 351

pelvic bones posterior to them are attache 1 to the vertebi'pe, and though they
inclose oi^gans of less vital importance, yet they are perfectly analogous to
these parts in their types and in the offices waich they perform.

OF THE THORACIC ARCH AND ANTERIOR
EXTREMITIES

Lying in the horse at some distance posteriorly to the three first
segments of the hcemal arch (the bones of the face, lower jaw, and os hyoides),
and separated from them by the neck, where there is a hiatus, the thoracic
arch and anterior extremities depend from the vertebrae corresponding to
them. In many of the higher vertebrates the fore extremity is firmly
united by a joint to the thorax, and may be considered with it ; but in the
horse it is only attached by muscles, the thorax being slung between the
upper edges of the blade-bones by means of two broad sheets of muscular
fibres. Hence the collar-bone is entirely absent in this animal ; and thus,
while he is free from dislocations and fractures of that bone, to which he
would be constantly subject if it were present, he is rendered more liable to
strains and rheumatic inflammations of the muscular sling, by which freedom
of action is impaired.

In the articulated skeleton it is usual to consider the thorax as made
up by the eighteen dorsal vertebrae superiorly, the eighteen ribs and their
cartilages on each side, and the sternum with its cartilages below. But the
cavity of the thorax, as bounded by the diaphragm posteriorly, is not nearly
so large as would be supposed from a consideration of the dry skeleton, for
though the diaphragm is attached to the twelve posterior ribs near their
cartilages, yet its surface is so convex towards the thoracic cavity, that a
very large space within the bony thorax is really occupied by the abdominal
organs. This will be hereafter more fully explained in examining these
parts at page 456 e^ seq.

THE PELVIC ARCH AND HIND EXTREMITIES

Behind the thorax occurs a second interval corresponding to the loins,
where the hsemal arch is deficient ; but at the pelvis the circle is completed
by the bones of the ischium, ilium, and pubes, imited to the sacrum above,
and having the hind extremities firmly articulated to them at the hip joints.
The pelvis constitutes not only a firm and solid case for the protection of
the large blood-vessels, and of the urinary and genital organs, but it is also
intimately connected with locomotion, to which the posterior extremities
largely contribute.

THE TAIL

This organ appears to be intended chiefly to protect the body from
insects ; but it also serves to some extent as an aid in balancing the body
when rapidly moving in any new direction. It is made up of from fifteen
to eighteen bones, which will be described in the next chapter.

35-2 TITE ANATOAIY OF TTTE TTOP.SE

THE FORE AND HIND EXTREMITIES CON
SIDERED AS ORGANS OF LOCOMOTION

Tin: sicvKUAL iKtNKS wliuh iuc runni'ctod to!,'i'tlicr t(i f<inii the cxtreiuitiea
must be regardotl, first, as ui'gaiis of support, and, secondly, as the primary
means of locomotion. Each extremity consists of corresponding divisions,
the ilium being the analogue of the scapula; the femur of the humerus;
tlie tibia and libula of the ulna and radius; the tarsus of the carpus; and,
lower down, the bones of the fore and hind extremities being precisely similar
in their forms. There is, however, a want of exact correspondence in the
form and direction of the joints, which has been nmcli insisted on by homolo-
gists, and which Mr. ^laclise has attempted to explain in his very interesting
article on "The Skeleton," contained in the Cydojia'dia of Anatomy and
Physioloyy edited by Dr. Todd. It appears to me that this does not make
matters niore simple, but the reverse, and that the proper point of view is
to regard the humerus and femur as homologous, and the tibia, with the
patella, as analogous to the ulna and its olecranon process. The interven-
tion of the ligament between the patella and tibia does not affect the use
of the former as a lever ; and botli joints being perfectly hinge-like in their
actions, there is no other important difference. Descending to the next
joint, the os calcis stands out as an important lever, and is represented in
the carpus by the os pisiforme (called by Percivall os trapezium), each
having important muscles inserted in their upper edges. It is true that
the one is an agcjit in what is called extension, while the other is engaged
in flexing tlie limb; but this is onl}' dependent upon the limit to motion
in either direction. Below the carpus and tarsus there is no necessity for
continuing the comparison.

Reg.xrding the ltmbs as means op support, it must be remembered that
the fore-Jimbs are neai'er the centre of gravity, and, therefore, sustain more
weight than the hind. The fore-quarter is suspended between the bases of
the two shoulder-blades, chiefly by the serrati magni, and in such a way as
to require no sj^ecial muscular contraction. The four parts of which the
limb itself is composed being bent at various angles, are prevented from
giving way by the muscular actions of the extensors of the humerus and
ulna, the carpus (or knee) having little tendency to yield, and the pastern
being supported by the flexor muscles and suspensory ligament. The hinder
limbs, though sustaining less weight, are not so favourably circumstanced
for this purpose, the angles between their several parts being generally more
acute. But if these are attentively regarded, tliere is not so much dili'crence
as is generally supposed. Thus, the first joint, the iliofemoral, forms a less
acute angle than its analogue, the shoulder joint (see Fig. 1, n, m). Again,
though the stifle joint is considerably bent, it is not more so than the elbow
joint, which will be clear on comparing the two in the skeleton given at
page 348. The chief disadvantage sustained by the hind-limbs as means
of support will be found in the hock, as compared with the knee, the latter
being nearly straight, while the former is much bent : but as it has a long
lever to assist it (the os calcis), and as this is kept in position by the power-
ful iiamstriug muscles, each of which serves its pui'poses far more completely
tlian the flexor of the carpus inserted in the os pisiforme, it may readily be

THE EXTREMITIES 353

understood that the hind-limb is not greatly at a disadvantage in supporting
, the weight of the body.

As AGENTS OF LOCOMOTiox, the offices of the fore and hind limbs are
widely different. Each has been already described as consisting of four
sections, bent at angles on each other. In the fore-limb these angles are
framed to serve as springs, so that when the feet touch the ground, they
are enabled to adapt themselves so as to avoid altering the line of progres don
of the body. In those animals which have small and short fore-legs, as the
kangaroo and hare, the most rapid locomotion ever consists in a series of
curves ; whereas, in the horse at full speed, the body progresses in one
straight line, owing to this elastic structure of the anterior limbs. So, also,
in descending from an extraordinary leap, the springy action of the fore-
limbs of the horse is so powerful that he can get off again without dwelling,
whereas the kangaroo and hare must depend almost entirely upon their hind-
legs, and consequently stop for a second after their descent. On the other
hand, the angular formation of the hind-limbs is intended to enable the
animal to drive its whole body forward, by first flexing all the joints, and
thus drawing their feet under the belly ; and then suddenly extending them
with the feet fixed on the ground, the weight is necessarily propelled. Or
if the feet ai-e not fixed they are lashed out backwards, developing the
action so well known as "kicking." The difference between the powers
displayed by the two limbs, in straightening their component parts, is well
displayed in comparing kicking with the striking out of the fore-foot, which
is common enough among vicious horses. It is true that the latter will
sometimes cause a severe blow ; but it could very rarely break a limb, which
is the least amount of mischief to be apprehended from the full force of a
lash out with the hinder-limb.

35-t

THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE

CHAPTER XVIII

DKSCRirTIVn ANATOMY OF THE SEVF.RAL RONES

TIIF. HEAD — BONES OK THE CRANIUM — BONES OF THE FACE— THE LOWER JAW — THE TEETH
— OS HYOIDES— CHARACTKR-S OF VERTEBR.E IN CiENERAL — GENERAF. CHARACTERS OF
THE CERVICAL VERTEBK.E — rEClTLIARITIES tiF CERTAIN CERVICAL VERTEBRAE — GENERAL
CIL\RACTERS OF THE DORSAL VERTEBR.E— PECULIARITIES OF THE DORSAL VERTE-
BR.E— GENERAL CHARACTERS OF THE LUMBAR VERTEBR.E— PECULIARITIES OF THE
LUMBAR VERTEBR.E — THE SACRU.M — THE COCCYGEAL VERTEBR.E— THE RIUS AND THEIR
CARTII..\GES — THE STERNU.M, OR BREAST-BONE— SCAPULA, BLADE-BONE OR SHoUI.DKR-
BUVDE— HUMERUS, THE UPPER ARM-BONE— THE BONES OF THE FORE-ARM (OS BRACHIl)
— THE CARPUS (KNEE) AND METACARPUS (CANNON) — THE PHALANGEAL BONES (PAS-
TERNS ANP lOOT)— THE PELVIS — THE FEMUR (ROUND-BONE) AND P.\TELLA — BONES
OF THE LEG— .METATARSAL AND POSTERIOR PHALANGEAL BONES.

THE HEAD
Is COMPOSED of the bones of the crauium, face, and jaw.

2

Tic. 2.— Pr^m .> .

1. Occipnt.

2. Parietal bone.

3. Frontal bone.

4. Petrous portion of temporal bone.

5. Zygomatic arcli.

6. Lachrymal bone.

t THE Head and Fack.

7. Malar Iwne.

S. Posterior maxillary l)one.

9 — 11. Nasal bone.

10. Anterior maxillary bone.

11. Temporal fossa.
12, 13. Lower jaw.

BONES OF THE CRANIUM

The CRANIUM, or brain-case, is small as compared with that of man, and
occupies less than one-fourth of the whole head. It is made up of nine
bone.s, three of which are pairs and three single ones. These bones are
in most parts made up of two tables, with a cellular structure interposed,
called the dijilue, which is in certain situations expanded into large cells, as
in the frontal sinuses. They are connected together bj' serrated sutures,
except where the temporal bone overlaps the parietal, and in that situation,
on each side the *iVnll ^me thin scale Csquama) overlaps the other. The two

BONES OF THE FACE 355

frontal bones unite to form the anterior part of the cranial cavity and
the upper walls of the orbits, leaving a space between them for the reception
of the ffthmoid bone. The tico jiarietals are situated at the upper and
lateral parts of the brain-case, and are of an irregularly quadrilateral figure
— each meeting its fellow in the median line on the top of the head. The
temporal hone overlaps the parietal on each side, with its squamous portion,
while the petrous part runs in towards its fellow on the opposite side, con-
stituting a part of the floor of the brain-case, and separating that cavity
into two. It contains within its bony structure the true organ of hearing.
The occipital hone occupies the bick part of the cranium, and makes up the base.
It has a large opening (the foramsn magnum), for the passage of the medulla
oblongata, and vertebral arteries ; and on each side of this are large smooth
articulating surfaces, for the attachment of the atlas vertebra. The sphenoid
hone is of a most remarkable shape, resembling slightly a bat, with its wings
partially expanded. The body and wings complete the middle of the base
of the skull, and the legs go to form part of the walls of the nasal cavity
and mouth. Lastly, the cethmoid bme is made up of a cribriform plate sup-
porting the anterior lobes of the briin, and giving passage to the olfactory
nerves, which spread over the cellu'ar structure that constitutes the whole
substance of this bone. Another thin plate contributes to form the inner
and posterior wall of the orbits.

BONES OF THE FACE

The face is made up of the nasal, posterior, and anterior maxillarj',
molar, lachrymal, and palate bones, the four turbinated bones, vomer, and
lower jaw.

Fia. 3. — Longitudinal Section of Head.

1, 2, 3. The upper walls of the cranium. 10. Petrous portion of temporal bone.

4. Frontal sinus. 11. Vomer.

5. Nasal bones. 12. Inferior turbinated bone.

6. Superior turbinated bone. 13. Palatine plate of posterior maxillary.

7. ^Ethmoidal cells. 14. Posterior maxillary bone, outer wall.

8. Sphenoid bone, uniting with 15. Anterior maxillary' bone.

9. Occipital bone.

The nasal hones are long and thin, forming the roof of the nostrils.
Posteriorly they are broad, and taper gradually forwards to a sharp point.
The postei'ior maxillary hones are triangular in shape, thick behind, and
presenting thin edges in front. The anterior maxillary hones are of an
irregular shape, being connected with the corresponding edges of the
posterior maxillary and nasal bones, and completing with the former the
roof of the mouth. The malar hone has an irregularly triangular shape,

356 THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE

presenting its broad base forwards, and is connected with the temporal,
posterior maxillary, and lachr3-nial bones. The lachrymal bones form the
internal corners of the orbits, where they are very thin, and are hollowed
out to receive the laclnymal sac, and give passage to its duct. The palafe
bones are of a very irregular shape, and are connected with the frontal,
sethmoid, sphenoid, posterior maxillary, inferior turbinated bones, and
vomer. The turbinated bones, two in each nasal cavity, are attached to
its outer walls one above the other, and appear to be intended merely for
the purpose of extending the surface for the expansion of the olfactory
nerve. The vomer resembles in shape the share of the plough, after which
it is named, and rises up in the middle line of the back of the division
between the nostrils.

THE LOWER JAW

TiiK LO\vt;n JAW resembles in general shape the letter V, the point being
•rounded off fomvards and receiving the incisor teeth, while the two branches
are broad, tliin, and sliglitly cur\ed, being surmounted by the condyles for
articulation with the glenoid cavity of the temporal bone, and giving
lodgment to the tushes and grinders. The two lines of alveolar caAdties are
not so wide as those of the upper jaw, and consequently the two sets of
teeth do not exactly correspond.

THE TEETH

The teeth are developed within their appropriate cavities or sockets,
which are found exactly corresponding with their number in the upper
and lower jaws, being narrower in the lower than in the upper. Before
birth they are neaily all in a state of incomplete growth, covered and con-
cealed by the gums, but soon afterwards they rise through it in pairs, the
first set, or milk teeth, being in course of time superseded by the permanent
teeth as in all the mammalia. The following is the formula of the com-
plete dentition of the hoi*se : —

Incisors {J-, canine ^, molars y^.

Each tooth is developed within its corresponding cavity in the jaw, and
is made up of three distinct substances — cement, enamel, and dentine.
The cement of the horse's tooth (sometimes called crusta petrosa) closely
corresponds in texture with his bone, and, like it, is traversed by vascular
canals. The enamel is the hardest constituent of the tooth, and consists of
earthy matter arranged in the animal matrix, but contained in canals, so as
to give the striated appearance which it pi'csents on splitting it open.
Dentine has an organized animal basis, presenting extremely minute tubes
and cells, and containing earthy particles, which are partly blended v.ith the
animal matter in its interspaces, and partly contained in a granular state
within its cells. These three substances are shown in the annexed sections
of an incisor tooth, one of which. Fig. 4, is of the natural size, while the
other. Fig. 5, is shown under the microscope.

In the mol.\u teeth the arrangement of these three substances is the

THE TEETH

351

same, except that the cement and enamel dip down into two or moi'e cavities
instead of one, and are also reflected in a sinuous manner upon the sides.
This inequality in the hardness of the component parts of these teeth causes
them to wear away with different degrees of rapidity, and thus leaves a
rough surface, wliich materially aids in grinding down the hard grain
which forms a large portion of the animal's food. In the upper jaw, the
table presented by each molar tooth is much larger than those of the
corresponding lower teeth, and thei-efore it is easy to distinguish the one
from the other.

Fia. 4.— Section of Incisob.

e. Cement on external surface.

c. Cement reflected within the cavity.
e. Enamel also reflected.

d. Dentine.

». Tartar, coloured black by decomposition of
food, contained within the cavity.

Fio. 5.
Section of a Portion of Incisor (magnified).

c. Cement.

c. Enamel. d. Dentine.

The temporary or milk incisors differ in shape a good deal from the
permanent set. The milk teeth are altogether much smaller, but especially
in the neck, which is constricted in them, whilst in the permanent set,
which go on growing as they wear out, the diameter is nearly the same
throughout. The former are also whiter in colour, and have grooves or
indentations on their outer surfaces, running towards the gum. Lastly,
the mark on the table is much slighter than in the pei^manent teeth.
The temporary molars are not distinguishable from the permanent teeth of
that class.

As A CONSEQUENCE OF THIS ARRANGEMENT OP PARTS, the teeth, as they
wear down, present a different appearance according to the extent to which
their attrition has reached. On this fact is founded a means of arriving at

358 THE ANATOMY OF THE nORSE

a knowledge of the ago of tlic liorsc after he has shed his luilk teeth, which
as a rule lie does in jKiirs at certain fixed periods. In order, therefore, to
be able to estimate the age of the horse from his teeth, it is necessary to
ascertain, as nearly as may be, the exact time at which he puts up each
pair of his milk or sucking teeth, and afterwards the periods at which they
are replaced b)' the permanent teeth. Finally, it becomes the province of
the veterinarian to lay down rules for ascertaining the age from the degree
of attrition which the permanent teeth have undergone. For these several
purposes, the horse's mouth must be studied from the earliest period of his
life up to old age.

In horseman's language the incisors are called nippers, the canine teeth
tushes, and the molars grinders.

By the end of the first year the colt has cut his twelve nippers and
sixteen grinders, which usually pierce the gums at the following months.
Before birth, the eight anterior grinders have generally shown themselves,
followed about a week after foaling by the two central nippers. At the end
of the first month another grinder makes its appearance all round, and in
the middle of the second the next nipper shows itself. By the end of the
second month the central nippers have attained their full size, and the
second are about half-grown, requiring another month to overtake their
fellows. Between the sixth and ninth months the corner nippers are cut,
and towards the end of the first year reach their full size. This first set of
nippers consists of teeth considerably smaller in size than the permanent
teeth, and somewhat difFei*ent in shape. They are more rounded in front,
and hollow towards the mouth, the outer edge being at first much higher
than the innei\ As they wear down, these two edges soon become level,
but the corner nippers maintain this appearance for a long time. At six
months the central nippers are almost level, with the black "mark" in
their middle wide and faint ; and about the ninth month the next nipper
on each side above and below is also worn down almost to a level surface.

During the second year the following changes take place : — In the first
month, and sometimes towards the end of the first year, a fourth grinder is
cut all round, which commences the set of permanent teeth, the three first
molars only being shed. At a year and a half, the mark in the central
nippers is much worn out, and has become very faint ; the second is also
worn flat, but is not so faint ; and the corner nippers arc flat, but present
the mark clearly enough. In colts which have been reared on cora and
much liay, the wearing down proceeds more rapidly than in those fed upon
grass alone.

The third year is occupied by the commencement of the second dentition,
which is effected in the same order in which the milk teeth made their
appearance. Both sets are contained within the jaw at birth, the permanent
teeth being small and only partially developed, and lying deeper than the
milk teeth. As the mouth grows, it becomes too large for its first set of
teeth ; and the roots of these being pressed upon by the growth of the
permanent set, their fangs are absorbed, and allow the new teeth to show
themselves, cither in the places of the former, or by their sides, in which
case they arc known by the name of ivoJf's teeth. This change proceeds in
the same order as the cutting uf the milk teeth, commencing with the first
grinder, which is shed and replaced by a permanent tooth early in the

THE TEETH

359

third year, a fifth grinder (permanent) making its appearance about the
same time. Towards the end of this year the sixth grinder shows itself, but
grows very slowly, and the central nippers above and below fall out, and are
replaced by permanent ones, which, as before remarked, are considerably
larger in size and somewhat different in form.

At three years the mouth presents the appearance shown in Fig. 6,
the development of the permanent teeth varying a good deal in different
individuals. At three years and four or six months, the next nipper all

Fig. G.— Three-Year-old Mouth.

B. Anterior maxillary bone.

1. 1. Central permanent nippers, nearly full-

grown.

2. 2. Milk teeth worn down.

3. 3. Corner milk teeth, still showing central

mark.

4. 4. Tushes concealed within the jaw.

round falls out, and is replaced by the permanent tooth. The corner
nippers are much worn, and the mark in them is nearly obliterated.
About this time also the second grinder is shed.

At four years of age the mouth should differ from that represented in
Fig. 6 in the following particulars : — The central nippers begin to lose their
sharp edges, and have grown considerably in substance. The next nipper
all round has grown nearly to its full size, but not quite, and its edges are
still sharp, with the mark deep and very plain. The corner milk nippers
still remain, unless they have been knocked out for pui'poses of fraud, wliich
is sometimes done to hasten the growth of the permanent teeth, and give
the horse the appearance of being four or five months older than he is.

B B

360

THE ANATOMY UF THE HORSE

Brtwef.x four and a half and five years, the corner nippers are
shed, and the tush protrudes through tlie gum. These changes are shown

in Fit

At five years the mouth is complete in the number of its teeth ; and
from this date it becomes necessary to study their aspect in botli jaws.
Fig. 8 shows the upper teeth at this age, by comparing which witli Fig. 7
the slight growth in the half-year may be traced. In the lower teeth of the
same inouth, the edges of the central cavities are much more worn away,

Fio. 7.— Morrn or thf Colt at Vcvn asd a Half Years.

\. Antorior inaxtllary bone.
1.1. Central ni]>pers, considerably worn down.
2. 2. The next jair, fully di'veloped, with their

edges slightly worn.
8. 8. Comer i>erraanont nijipcrs, in a state oi

growth, with the edges of tlie cavity
sharp, and the mark ver>' plain.
4. 4. The tushes showing themselves through
the gum, but not full-grown.

I lie central nipper having only a small blaik speck in the middle of a smooth
surface, while the next is much worn, and the corner teeth, though showing
the mark very plainly, bear evidence of having been used. The tush is
much grown, with its outer surface regularly convex, and its inner concave,
the edges being sharp and well defined. The sixth molar is at its full
growth, and the third is shed to make room for tlie permanent tooth in its
place. These two hist-named teeth should always be examined in cases
where there is any doubt about the age. After five years, no further
shedding occurs in any of the teeth.

The six-year-old mouth is the last upon which any great reliance can be

THE TEETH

361

placed, if it is desired to ascertain the age of the horse to a nicety ; but by
attentively studying both jaws, a near approximation to the truth may be
arrived at. It is ascertained that the nippers of the upper jaw take about
two years longer to wear out than those of the lower ; so that until the
horse is eight years old, his age may be ascertained by referring to them,
nearly as well as by the lower nippers at six. But as different horses wear
out their teeth with varying rapidity, it is found that this test cannot be
implicitly relied on ; and in crib-biters or wind-suckers the upper teeth

Wg. 8.— Upper Nippers and Tcsees at Five Teabs Old.

1. 1. Central nippers, with the mark still im-

obliterated.

2, 2. Next nippers, with the mark still jilainer.

3. 3. Corner nippers, with the edges very sligiitiy wunt
4. 4. Tushes well developed, and still showing the
groove on the outside plainly.

wear out wonderfully soon. Fig. 10 is taken from the lower jaw of a six-
year-old horse, showing the marks of the central nippers almost obliterated
but still presenting concentric circles of discoloured brown tartar in the
middle ; next to which is the cement, then the enamel, and the dentine,
with a thin layer of enamel outside. Up to this age the nippers stand
nearly perpendicular to each other, the two sets presenting a slight convexity
when viewed together, as seen in Fig. 2, page 354. Afterwards the nippers
gradually extend themselves in a straight line from each jaw, and, in the
very old hoi'se, form an acute angle between them.

3G2

THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE

At AnnuT thf, F.ir.riTii yrah tlio upper nippors present the same appear-
ance as already ileserihed in tlie lowei- nipjiers at six 3'ears old. Both tushes
are considerably worn away at their j)oints, and the upper ones more so
than the lower.

At nine years of age the upper middle nippers arc worn down com-
jilctely. The next pair have a slight mark left, but their surfaces are quite
level, and the coi-ner nippers liave only a black stain, without any central
depression.

After nine years the age of the horse can only be guessed at from his
teeth, which gradually grow in length, and arc more in a line with the jaw.

Fio. 9.— Lower Nippers and Tushes at Five Vfars Oli>.

1. 1. Central nippers, with their marks almost

entirely worn out.

2. 2. Next nijipers, showing marks jiartially

woni.

3. 3. Comer nipjiers, with the mark plainly seen,

but the edges jiartially worn.

4. 4. Tushes, with the grooves inside almost

obliteratetl.

The section of each nipper presented to the eye becomes more and more
triangular instead of being oval, as seen in Figs. 10 and 11 ; but after about
the twelfth year the triangular section disappears, and the tooth becomes
nearly round. In accordance with the increase of length is the colour of the
tooth altered, being of a dirty yellow in very old horses, with occasional
streaks of brown and black. The tushes wear tlown to a very small size,
and very often one or both drop out.

Allusion has already been made to the practice of ^emo^^ng the milk
nippers for the purpose of inducing a more rapid growth of the next set,
which, however, is not materially aflected by the operation, but dishonest
dealers have recourse to another deception, called bishoping, by which an

THE TEETH

363

aged horse may be passed off upon an inexperienced person for a six-year-old.
The plan adoped is to cut off all the nippers with a saw to the proper length,
and then with a cutting instrument the operator scoops out an oval cavity
in the corner nippers which is afterwards burnt with a hot iron until it is
quite black. It is extremely easy to detect the imposition by carefully
comparing the corner nippers with the next, when it will be seen that there
is no gradation from the centre to the corner nippers, but that the four
middle ones are exactly alike, while the corners present a large black cavity,
without a distinct white edge to it, the dentine being generally encroached

Fig. 10. — The Lower Nippers and Tushes of a Six-Year-Old Hokse.

B. The lower jaw.

1. 1. The central uiiipers, with the marks worn out.
2. 2. The next nipijers, with the marks disappear-
ing.
3. 3. The corner nippers, showing the mark plainly

enough, but with the edges of the cavity
considerably worn.
4. 4. The tuslies, standing xip three-quarters of an
incli, with their points only slightly
blunted.

upon without any regularity in the concentric rings. Moreover, on compar-
ing the lower with the upper nippers, unless the operator has performed on
the latter also, they will be found to be considerably moi'e worn than the
lower, the reverse of which ought naturally to be the case. Occasionally a
clever operator will burn all the teeth to a properly regulated depth, and
then a practised eye alone will detect the imposition. In the present day
there is not so great a demand for six-year-old horses as was formerly the
case, and purchasers are contented with a nine or ten-year-old mouth if the
legs and constitution are fresh. Hence bishoping is seldom attempted
excepting with horses beyond the age of eleven or twelve ; and the mere use

Mi

THE ANATOMY oF TUK iluKSE

of tlie huming-iron without cutting off tlie teeth will seldom answer the
jturposes of the "coper." Formerly it was very common to see mouths with
the corner nippers burnt to show a " good mark," and nothing else done to
them ; but, for the reasons given above, the plan is now almost entirely
abandoned.

Irregul.\rities in the growth of teeth are by no means uncommon in the
horse, often caused by the practice of punching out the milk teeth to hasten
the growth of the permanent set. Instead of having this effect, however,

I'lo.ll. — UrPEB NiPi'KRs IN Tin: Kk;iit-Year-Old
llonsE.

A. Anterior maxillary bone.

1. 1. Centnil nippers," woni to a piano surface.

2. 2. Next pair, still showing a slight reumaut

of the cavity.
8. 8. Comer nippers, showing the mark plainly

enough.
4. 4. Tushes, more worn down th.in in the lower

jaw of the six-year-old mouth.

Fio. 11a.— Lowi R NuTEiw and LEt-r Tush
OF A VERY Old Horse, tuu Kight uav-

INQ KALLEN OUT.

the teeth are induced to take a wrong direction, and not meeting their
fellows they do not wear down as they naturally should. In punching out
the corner nipper it is very often broken off, and the fang is allowed to
remain in the socket. The consequence is that the picking up of the fcKxl
does not hasten the removal of the fang of the milk too|U, and instead of
accelerating the growth of the permanent tooth in the -lIHLral position, it
retards it and sometimes drives it to seek a passage through Tiie gums behind
its proper socket. Here, not meeting the corresponding nipper of the upper

THE VEHTEBK^ IN GENERAL 365

jaw, it grows like a tush, and has sometimes been mistaken for a second
tooth of that kind. Some horses are naturally formed with " pig jaws " —
that is to say, with the upper longer than the lower — and in these cases the
whole set of teeth grow to a great length, and interfere with the prehension
of the food.

OS HYOIDES

The OS hygides in the horse consists of five distinct pieces, contributing
to the support of the tongue and larynx. One of these (the body) is central,
the other four are in pairs called the greater and lesser horns. They are
connected by ligaments.

The body resembles a two-pronged fork in form, having a central portion
flat, an appendix, or spux', which lies in the centre of the muscles of the
tongue, and two branches. At the sides of the central portion are two little
knobs for the articulation of the lesser cornua.

The horns are four in number, two short and two long; the former
ascend obliquely from the sides of the bodies, and end in oblong flattened
smooth surfaces for the attachment of the long horns. These are much
larger than the short horns, constituting two long, flat, thin bones, which
give attachment to the stylo-hyoideus and hyoideus magnus muscles, and
also to the constrictors of the pharynx. The bones composing the os
hyoides are delineated in connection with the larynx in the twenty-first
chapter.

CHARACTERS OF VERTEBRAE IN GENERAL

Every vertebra from the head to the sacrum is made up of certain
parts, to the uses of which in the animal economy attention has been already
drawn at page 350. These are — 1st, a body, which may at once be recog-
nized as the central and most substantial part; 2nd, projecting upwards
from its upper edges are the two lamince, or sides of the ring, in which lies
the spinal cord ; 3rd, at the upper part of the ring is a projection, more or
less marked, called the spinous process ; 4th, projecting outwards from each
side of the body is a lateral process, intended to give insertion to muscles,
and in the region of the back affording a firm attachment to the ribs. In
addition to the connection between the bodies of the contiguous vertebrse by
means of a thick fibro-cartilage, there is also a distinct articular surface on
each side of the anterior and posterior faces of the body, which is placed
upon a projection called the articular or oblique process. Thus, each
vertebra has four oblique processes, two transverse processes, a spinous
process, and two laminae or sides to its large foramen, in addition to its
body. This last part presents an anterior and a posterior surface, more or
less oval, by which it is united to the next adjacent vertebrre ; a superior
face, which forms the floor of the spinal canal, and an inferior face, which is
clothed with muscle on each side of a projecting rough line, called, wherever
it is marked, tj^lHtferior spine.

ThroughouWthe^ine no two vertebrae are exactly alike, even the sixth

:iW

rill': ANATU.MY or the ilOil.SE

and sevL'utli dorsal showing a slight change of form in the inclination of
their spinous processes. ]lut between the first and second cervical and
the last lumbar the difTerence is so marked, that they are not at once
perceived by the casual observer to belong to the same class of bones.
Tn this change the transition is gradual, the sixth and seventh cervical

resembling the first and second dorsal, and so on in .succession fi'om before
backwards.

GENERAL CHARACTERS OF THE CERVICAL
VERTEBRi^

In thk iiui;m; thk ckhvk.al vKitiEUK.K are (.ach very kni- ;is compared
witli those of most of the mammalia, bemg, however, exceeded in this respect
by the camelopard. They present an irregularly euljuidal shape, and ma}- be

THE CERVICAL VERTEBRA

367

distinguished from those of the back and loins by the following characters :
— 1st. The inferior spine of the body is strongly marked, and terminates
posteriorly in a tubercle (Fig. 12, j^). 2nd. The head of the body which
looks forward is very globular, and the corresponding cavity in the posterior
surface is of a cup-like shape (Fig. 1 2, i,), but larger than the head, in order
that it may receive the inter-articular cartilage which intei^venes. 3rd. The
spinous processes (Fig. 12, 3^ 4^ 5^ „) are very slightly marked. 4th. The
transverse processes (Fig. 12, b, b, b) wee unusually lengthened from before
backwards and downwards, and are each pierced with a hole for the passage
of the vertebral artery. 5 th. The four articular or oblique processes (Fig.
12, i5_ 15, 15) project greatly, and have an inclination from above downwards,
backwards and inwards. Each fossa for this purpose is large and deep.

PECULIARITIES OF CERTAIN CERVICAL
VERTEBRAE

The first cervical vertebra (counting from the head) has received the
name of atlas in human anatomy, from its surmounting all the others ; and
though in quadrupeds there is no longer the same reason for the appellation,
it has been extended to them. It deviates more completely than any of the
others from the type of all, the most remarkable differences consisting in

Fig. 13.— Fore View ok the Atlas.

1. Upper spine.

2. 2. Wings or alse.

3. Hole for the passage of the spinal cord.

4. Lower spine.

5. S ifaces for articulation with the condyles

of the occiput.
C. Holes for the passage of the vertebral

arteries.

the almost total absence of body, and in the division of the large foramen
into two portions by a projecting ridge on the inner side of each lamina.
This ridge is not well shown in the fore view of this bone (Fig, 1 3), where
it is concealed by the articular surfaces, but it is easily seen in Fig. 14.
Below it the foramen is occupied by the tooth-like (odontoid) process of the
second cervical vertebra, which is confined in its place by a ligament stretched
across from one ridge to the other. Upon this, as on a pivot, the atlas
turns, carrying with it the head, and allowing of those lateral movements
which could not otherwise be accomplished. On each side of the spinal
foramen are the articular surfaces (Fig. 13, 5), which are covered with
cartilage, and form a firm hinge-like joint between the atlas and the occiput.

368

THE ANATOMY OF TliE liOK8E

Still more externally are the wings or extended lateral processes (Fig. 13, o),
having a hollow deeply cut in them, and ending in a small hole through
which the vertebral artery passes on each side to enter the cranium, making
a sharp convolution in th.e cavity thus formed for it. The posterior surface

Fio. 14. — Back View of tue Atlas.

1. U]'per spine.

2. 2. Wings.

3. Spinal foramen.

4. Lower spine.

5. 5. Surfaces articulating witli clcntata.

6. Surface articulating with the odontoid process

of the dentata.

shows the corresponding margin of the spinal foramen (Fig. 1 4), of which the
one part (6) is occupied by the odontoid process, and the other (3) by the
spinal cord. On each side of this are the articular surfaces, by which it is
attached to the corresponding surfaces of the second vertebra, and still
more externally are the alte or wings. The superior and inferior spinous
processes are shown at 1 and 4 in each engraving.

Fic. 15. — Antftiior View of the Second Vertebra, called Dentata or Axis.

1. Superior spine.

2. 2. Transverse processes.

3. 3. Surfaces articulatiuf; with corresponding ones

on the posterior part of tlio atlas.

4. Odontoid process.

5. Inferior s]iine.
0. Sjiinal foramen.

7. 7. Foramina for the passage of the vertebral
arteries.

The second cervical vertebra, called axis from its being the centre
on which the atlas turns, and dentata, from its presenting a tooth-like
process for this pui'pose, approximates somewhat more nearly to the usual
type, but is remarkable for the process already alluded to, which is .shown
at ^^ Fig. 15. Inferiorly this part is smoothly rounded, to enable it to
play against the first vertebra, while superiorly it is flatter, and is in

DORSAL VERTEBRAE 369

apposition with the transverse ligament. The four articular processes are
shown at 3, 3, Fig. 15 and g, 5, Fig. 16. The lateral processes are Avell
shown at 3 ., in both engravings, and the posterior oblique processes at
5 g^ Fig. 16. In this latter engraving at 4, the large hollow cavity
(glenoid) is shown, by which the body of this vertebra unites with the
head of the third.

The third, fourth, and fifth cervical vertebrae closely resemble the

6

Fig. 16. — Posterior View of Second Cervical Vertebra.

1. Spinal foramen. 4. Glenoid cavity articnlating with the head of

2. 2. Transverse processes. third cervical vertebra.

3. 3. Posterior view of the anterior articular 5. 5. Posterior oblique processes.

surfaces. 6. Inferior spine.

type of all ; but the third has commonly a more elevated spine, and is
thinner across the upper part of the body.

The SIXTH has no inferior spine ; its transverse processes are trifid.

The seventh vertebra is the shortest, and approaches in its characters
to those of the dorsal region. Its body posteriorly presents two semilunar
hollows for the articulation of the head of the first rib on each side. The
superior spine is elevated and sharp, and the transverse process is short
and obtuse, being sometimes without the foramen for the vertebral artery.

GENERAL CHARACTERS OF THE DORSAL
VERTEBRAE

The eighteen dorsal vertebra differ greatly in general appearance
from the cervical, though they still resemble the type of all. Thus, instead
of being cuboidal in shape, and without prominent processes, they have
each a long spinous process projecting upwards about two or three times
the depth of the body, as shown at j, ,, ,, Fig. 17. The spinal hole is com-
paratively small, and the transverse pi'ocesses short. On each side of the
upper and lower margin of the body is a smooth hollow, which, together
with its corresponding surface in the vertebra, above all (or below, as the
case may be), lodges the head of a rib. There is also a second articulating
surface on the transverse process, by which the tubercle of the rib is con-
nected with the vertcbraj.

370

TllK ANATU.MY 01' TUK llolisr:

PECULIARITIES OF THE DORSAL VERTEBRiE

Tin: iiit^T DuKSAi, \ KLM KiiHA (Hlli'is froui the others in iijunuachiug to the
form of the cervical, as manifested in the shortness of the spinous process,
which terminates in a point, and by the large size of its obliijue processes.
The second and third gradually assume the dorsal type.

The seventeenth and eighteenth vertehric are devoid of the articulatory sur

FiQ. 17. — Dorsal Vertebka!.

A. Profile view of a dorsal vertebra .seen from the

left.
1. Siiinous process.
•J. Cody.

3. Convexity 0!i body.

4. 4. Surfaces for the arliculation of the rib

tubercle.

5. Posterior obliquo jirocess.

0. Siirfoce for articiiLition of the head of tliu

rib.
7. Concavity on body.

B. Fore view of a dorsal vertebra.

1. Spinous process.

2. Convexitv on bo<ly.

3. 3. Transverse iirocesscs

4. 4. Anterior oblique pi-oceases.

5. 5. Surfaces for the articulation of the

head of tlie rib.

0. Sjiinal liole.

Back view of a dorsal vertebra.

1. Spinous process.

2. Concavity on bod.v.

3. 3. Transverse processes.
5. 5. Back obli(ine processes.

0. 0. Surfaces for the articulation of the

head of the rib.
7. Spinal liole.

faces on their transverse processes ; the eighteenth also is without the
articular surfaces on the posterior and external faces of its body, there being
no ribs here to articulate with it.

The spinous processes, as far back as the twelfth, take a direction upwards
and backwards ; the thirteenth takes a direction upwards, and those poste-
rior to it take a direction upwards and forwards. The third, fourth, and
fifth spinous processes are the longest, and afterwards they gradually
(liiniiii^li in Iciiulh.

LUMBAR VERTEBRA

371

GENERAL CHARACTERS OF THE LUMBAR
VERTEBRAE

These are five, and sometimes six, in number ; the body is short and
thick ; broader from side to side than from before backwards ; flattened
superiorly, convex inferiorly, but not presenting so prominent a spinous
ridge as the dorsal. Its articular convexity before and concavity behind
assume rather an oval shape. The superior spinous process is shorter
than the average of the dorsal vertebrae ; it has broad, flat sides, and protu-
berates at the front of the summit, having a slight inclination forwards ; the
transverse processes, large and flattened above and below, stand out hori-
zontally at right angles to the body for a considerable distance, contrasting
strougl}' with the corresponding parts of the dorsal and cervical regions.

Fio. IS.— Profile View op the Lumbar Verteeh^, seen from the Left.

A. Profile view of luinljar vertobrK.

1. 1. 1. etc. Spinous processes.

2. 2. 2. etc. Transverse i recesses; the analogues of

tlie ribs.

3. 3. 3. etc. Oblique jiroccsses.
a. a. a. etc. Bodies.

h. b. Articulating surfaces on trausverse processes,

by means of which the fifth articulates
with a similar surface on the sixth, and
the sixth with a corresponding surface
on the sacrum.

c. Surfaces articulating with corresponding ones

on the last dorsal vertebra.

d. Surfaces articulating with the sacrum.

The oblique processes are larger than in the dorsal region ; they project

from the roof of the arch in a horizontal direction (3^

Fig. 18);

the anterior surfaces in each of these joints are concave, widely separated
and look inwards ; tlie posterior are convex, nearer together, and look
outwards.

PECULIARITIES OF THE LUMBAR VERTEBRiE

The fourth lumbar vertebra possesses two surfaces of articulation
on the posterior border of its transverse process.

The fifth (or the sixth, if there is one) assumes somewhat the characters
of the first sacral bone. The transverse processes, which are longest in the
middle of this region, gradually shorten towards the sacrum. On the fifth

372 THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE

tliere is posteriorly an articular surface of an oval form, and on the sixth
there is a similar one on each surface, the posterior being slightly concave,
and fitting to a corresponding facette on the sacrum.

THE SACRUM

This bone, in form irregularly prismatic, is made up from the conjunc-
tion by ossification of five vertebrae, in which latter condition it is found
in the embryo. It is united in front with the last lumbar vertebra by
three articulatory surfaces (^, ^, o. Fig. 1 9) posteriorly with the first bone

Fio. 19.— The SAcnrM.

1. Fore view of the sacrum.

2. 2. 2. etc. Spinous i>roi't>sse.s.

3. I.jiteral free siirf;i<o.

4. Head articulating witli the concavity on the

head oJ the last lumbar vertebra.
.I. .'i. Oblique processes.

(■'. t). Surfaces articulating with transverse pro-
cesses of last lumbar vertebra.

7. 7. 7. etc. Foramina for the passage of the inferior
sacral nerves.

S. 8. Surfaces articulating with the ilium.

of the coccyx, and on each side with the ilium or hip-bone, by a large
rough surface (g, g Fig. 1 9). The whole bone is slightly curved, with its
concavity downwards. This inferior surface is broad and smooth, forming
the superior boundary of the pelvic basin. On it are plainly traced four
transverse lines, marking the situation of the original divisions into separata
bones. Here are also four large holes on each side for the passage of the
inferior sacral nerves. The superior surface is furnished with five spines
(o o 2, 2 Fig. 19), corresponding to the spinous processes of the luir.l)ar
vertebra\ They unite at their bases, but are distinct above, terminating
in a protuberance which is sometimes bifid. The two sides are thick and
concave in the middle, and terminate posteriorly in a rough lip. Ante-
riorly they form an irregular surface, having an inclination from above
downwards, backwards, and inwards. The inferior portion of this face is
lined with cartilage, which is attached both to it and to the ilium, while

COCCYGEAL VERTEBRA 373

the superior has a set of strong ligamentous fibres similarly attached.
The base looking forwards has been already described as consisting of three
articular surfaces, above which is the spinal foramen. The apex is only
marked by the surface of articulation with the first bone of the coccyx,
above which is the spinal foramen, here obliquely cut and small, and pre-
senting also the rudiments of oblique and transverse processes.

THE COCCYGEAL VERTEBRAE

These bones form the skeleton or bony basis of the tail, receiving their
name from kokkv^, a cuckoo, whose bill was supposed to i^esemble this part in
the human body. They vary in number from sixteen to eighteen. In the

FED C B A

Fig. 20. — Profile View of Coccygeal VERTEBRiE.

1. 1. 1. etc. Bodies. 3. 3. 3. Transverse processes.

2. 2. 2. Spines ; the lips forming the first are 4. 4. 4. etc. Fore surfaces by means of which the

joined, forming the neural arch, the second bodies articulate,

partially so, and the third are ojien. 5. 5. 5. Back surfaces of articulation.

A, first ; B, third ; C, eighth ; D, sixteenth ; E, seventeenth ; F, eighteenth, or last coccygeal vertebra.

first four or five all the characters of a vertebra are present, as shown below
at A B ; but these are gradually lost, and the bones at last assume the form
of simple spines, D e F, the intermediate grade being seen at c. Here there
are two little processes (2), evidently abortive neural arches or lateral
laminae, but not meeting together to form the spine. This whole set of
bones is simply intended as a strong and flexible whip, to be moved by the
four sets of muscles lying along, and attached to the sides of each.

THE RIBS AND THEIR CARTILAGES

The ribs (costce) have been described at page 351 as forming the lateral
boundaries of the thorax. They are eighteen in number, of which the nine
anterior (true or sternal) extend by means of their cartilages to the sternum,
while the cartilages of the remainder do not extend so far, and they are
therefore styled false or asternal (see Skeleton at page 348).

The ribs are all long flattened bones, irregularly twisted on themselves,
and so arranged that, when forming the walls of the thorax, they readily
increase the volume of its contents by being drawn nearer together and
towards the apex. In doing this they revolve upon their extremities as
upon two centres, the superior admitting of motion from their formation as
joints, and the inferior from their elastic cartilaginous structure.

374

THE ANATOMY OF TllK HOUSE

Eacli rib is ilivisiblc into a body and two extreuiitics. Tlic body lias
two flat surfaces and two borders ; the latter of which are concave and thin,
anteriorly convex, and rounded }H)sterit)rly. The head or superior extremity
\aries in the true and false ribs, as will be better seen by reference to the

f^^ -.

Fig. 21.— a True and F.m.sk Rib.

A. Profile view nf a >eft tnie or stenial rib.

2. Tuborrlc toi ailaohment to transverse process

of vf^i tebra.

3. Up«d, true.

4. Body.

5. Junction of rib and its corresponding sternal

cartilage.
0. Strnal cartilago>

B. Profile view of left false or asternal rib (eigh-

teenth).
2. Tubercle fused in one with the head.
8. Head.

4. Body.

5. Junction of false rib and asternal cartilage.

C. Astniial cartilage.

C. Viewof llic upper extremity of stcriiul rib inverted

to sliow the male by wiiicli tlie articulating
surfaces on the upjier part of the rib corre-
spond to the nine anterior dorsal vertebnc.

1. Body.

2. Tubercle, sejiarate.

3. 4. Uead (true), showing the two surfaces of

articulation, and the notch in which the
round lig.iiuent is attached.

D. View of tlie hi.sta.stern:il rib, also inverted to show

tlio fusion of tubercle and head together.

1. Body.

2, 3. Tubercle fused with head.

engraving (Fig. 21), where one of each kind is delineated. The cartilages
are all attached to the ribs by firm union of their fibres to a deep pit in the
extremity of each rib. They serve the double purpose of giving elasticity
to the thorax in the act of respiration and of enabling it to bear severe
shocks without fracture.

Among the several rib.s, the first is the thickest and shortest, and is
irregularly arched ; the second is very slight!}- cui-ved : from this point they

STERNUM, OR BREAST-BONE 375

increase in length and breadth to the ninth ; from the ninth to the last
they become more curved and short. In the seventeenth and eighteenth
the articulatory surface of the tubercle becomes confounded with that of
the head, and the neck is wanting (see o, 3 B, Fig. 21).

THE STERNUM, OR BREAST BONE

The stehnum, which forms the inferior boundary of the thorax (see page
403), forms in the adult one long keel-like bone, of a spongy or cellular
nature, more or less divided by cartilage ; but in the embryo it, like the
sacrum, is made up of distinct pieces, six or seven in number. Anteriorly

\

Fio. 22. — Profile View of Sternum (Breart-bone).

1. 1. 1. etc. Pits for attachment of costal cartilages. 3. 3. Posterior extremity with its ensiforin car-
2. 2. Anterior extremity ending in cariniform tilage.

cartilage.

the breast-bone is prolonged in a manner resembling the keel and figure-head
of a ship, being clothed with cartilage, which is hence called caxiniform
(carina, a keel) (o, .i, Fig. 22). Posteriorly it terminates also in a cartilage
of a thinner and more flexible form, and called, from its resemblance to a
sword, ensiform (ensis, Lat. sicord) or xiphoid (i^^os, Gk. sivord).

The sides are occupied above by the cavities for the insertion of the
costal cartilages, and below by a rough sui'face, to which the fibres of the
pectoral muscles are attached. The superior face forms a very lengthened
isosceles triangle, having its apex forward. It is slightly hollowed from
before backwards.

The three anterior divisions of the sternum present broad lateral
surfaces ; the thi-ee posterior have projecting sides inclining downwards, and
forming the boundaries between the inferior sui'face and the sides. The
ribs are received into cavities in the cartilage existing between the separate
bones, the last posteriorly having, however, an additional pit in its middle
for the cartilage of the eighth rib.

SCAPULA, BLADE-BONE OR SHOULDER-BLADE

Intervening between the thorax and the fore extremity, and pi'esenting
large surfaces for the attachment of muscles to connect these two parts of
the skeleton, is the scapula or shouldei'-blade. It is a triangular flat bone,
and lies obliquely on each side of the anterior part of the thorax, with its

c c

376 THE ANATU-MY (Jb' TilK llUitsE

apex looking downwards and forwards, and its base upwards and backwards
(see page 348).

It presents three fossae, tliree borders, and three angles ; in addition to
which there are the spine, the coracoid process, and the glenoid ca\ ity.

The FOSSiE are two externally, (a) the anterior, and (b) the posterior
fossa, divided by the spine (j_ Fig. 23). These lodge and give attachment to
the fibres of the supra and infra-spinatus muscles, while the internal fossa,
sometimes called the venter scapuhe (belly of the scapula), in the same
way subserves the use of the subscupularis.

Fio. 23.— Outer Surface ok Left .Scapula.

1. Spine. h- Posterior fossil.

2. Coracoid process. c.Siiperior costa, to which the cartilage ia
8. Glenoid cavity. attached.

a. Anterior fossa.

The superior border is rough for the attachment of the broad strip of
cartilage, wliich increases the leugtli of the blade. The anterior border is
thin, while the posterior is compai'atively thick.

The two superior angles present nothing very remarkable, but the
inferior is occupied by the coracoid process anteriorly, and by the glenoid
cavity posteriorly — which latter is a smooth oval cavity, lined with cartilage.
It receives the head of the humerus.

On account of the important offices belonging to the muscles which
occupy the fossae on this bone, and since it is found that in proportion to
the extent of the latter will be the muscular power, horsemen examine with
great care the due development of the scapula. Unless it is long and
bi'oad it may alway.s be predicted that the hunter will be powerless in using
his fore-legs "in dirt," or in getting out of other dilliculties ; and though
some hacks with short shoulders may go well euougli, yet, in the majority,
such will not be the case. Heavj^ draught-horses, in which a great thickness
of muscle is heaped upon the blade, are not so dependent upon its length
and breadth, as has been already .shown in treating of the external form of
(lie horse at page 107.

HUMERUS, THE UPPER ARM-BONE

377

HUMERUS, THE UPPER ARM-BON

Lies between the scapula and elbow, in an oblique direction from the
point of the shoulder downwai'ds and backwards.

Like all the long bones, the humerus may be described as consisting
of a body or shaft and two extremities.

The body, which has a prismatic section, looks as if it had been twisted
on itself. In the upper part it is expanded laterally to form the external
tuberosity (5^ Fig. 24) on the outside and the scabrous tubercle (4, Fig. 25)
internally, both being for the attachment of muscles. Towards the lower
extremity it becomes rounded, and then suddenly spreads out to present the

Fig. 24. — External View of Left Humerus.

1. Body of Iramerus with mnsciilo-spiral groove.

2. Head.

3. External tubercle.

4. Tubercles in front of head.

5. External tuberosity.

6. Sigmoid fossa.

7. Olecranon fossa.

8. External condyle.

9. Internal condyle.

wide surface which ends in the condyles on each side with the intervening
articular surfaces.

The superior extremity, larger than the inferior, presents for consideration
a head and four tubercles. The head is the hemispherical smooth part, pro-
jecting posteriorly. It articulates with the glenoid cavity of the scapula,
which it much exceeds in extent of superficies. Anteriorly, the head is
surmounted by four tubercles ; three directly in front are between two
smooth grooves, which are covered with cartilage. The outer, or fourth
tubercle, is joined with the tuberosities by a protuberant ridge, the external
edge of which serves to guard against dislocation.

The inferior extremity is made up of two condyles, or knuckle-like
projections (g^ q, Fig. 24), having between them the smooth articular surface for
the elbow joint. This surface is broad, and assumes a segmental form, being

378 THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE

rliviflofl into three portions by projecting lines— First, a middle groove, which
terminates in front in the coronoid fossa and behind in the olecranon fossa,
each being for the reception of the corresponding processes of the ulna and
radius, tliereby checking the motion of the joint. Second, the exteiiial

7

Fill. 25.— Ls'TERN-AL View of left HturERi-s.

A. B'xlv or sliaft. 5. Internal de)>ression to which the internal lateral

1. The liead. ligament is attachefl.

2. Tubercles on tlie head. ''■■ Back i>art of inner condyle.
8. Internal tubercle. V. Internal condyle.

4. Scabroiis tubercle.

groove, which is comparatively slightly marked ; and third, the smooth
sui-face lining the internal condyle. All of these fit accurately into the
articular surface of the ulna and radius, to be presently described, allowing
of nothing but a hinge-like motion. Of the condyles, the inner is larger and
more projecting than the outer.

In the young foal the two extremities are distinct epiphyses, united to
the shaft by cartilage only.

THE BONES OF THE FORE-ARM (OS BRACHII)

In the human subject, and in the dog and cat among our domestic
animals, the bones of the fore-arm are distinct, and may readily be separated
from each other as the ulna and radius. In the early periods also of the
life of the horse the same condition obtains, but when he is matured, these
bones are indis.solubly united by ossification. The line of junction can
always be traced, and there is an opening left which is called the radio-
cnhital arcacU, and gives passage to an artery and vein. It will be therefore
understood that the tenn os hrach ii means the bone composed of the united
ulna and radius, and that in alluding to each of the.se di\'isions we only
speak of them, in analogy with human anatomy, as separate bones. By

THE FORE-AEM

379

Semicircular fossa funned by the radius and ulna for the elbow
joint.

Body of the ulna.

Olecranon process.

Articulating surface.

Body of the radius.

Surface articulating witli the condyle of the hunierus.

Tubercle to which tlio coraco-radialis muscle is attached.

Articulatory surfaces corresponding to the ujiijer row of knee-
bones.

Os pisiforme. '^

— cuneifornie.

— lunare. ,- Bones of the knee.

— unciforme. I

— magnum. J
Metacarpus or cannon-boni'.
External small metacarpial bone.

"^ubercle to which tlie tendon of the muscle (extensor metacarpi

mngnus) is attached.
Joint uniting with the os suffragiuis.
Os suffragiuis.
External sesamoid bone.
Os corona?.
Os pedis.

22. Wings of pedal bone.
Os naviculare.

drawing a line from the back of the condyle of the humerus till it cuts the
posterior edge of the shaft of the os brachii about its middle, the line of
demarcation may easily be arrived at.

The Radius forms the bulk of the os bracJiii, supporting the weight of the
body upon its head, and conveying it to the
carpus through its lower extremity. Its shaft
is long, smooth, and convex anteriorly ; rough
for the attachment of muscles, and concave
posteriorly. The superior extremity is expanded
and presents an articular surface divided into
two fosspe by a slight ridge, the inner of the
two being broader and more circular. On each
side of these pits is a slight projection, called
the lateral process, to which the corresponding
ligaments are attached. The inferior extremity,
which is also expanded, is remarkable for the
variously shaped pits slightly marked on its
articular surface, each being intended to fit one
of the carpal bones of which the knee is made
up. There is a prominent internal lateral pro-
cess, and one less distinct on the outside marked
with a groove.

The ulna (or ulnar division of the os brachii)
is much shorter than the radius, and can scarcely
be considered as having two extremities, its
lower end being cut off in an oblique direction
and terminating in a sharp point, so as to look
like a splicing of the one bone to the other. It
may be considered as consisting of a short body
(2, Fig. 26), surmounting which is the olecranon
process (3) behind, and the articular surface (4)

Fig. 26. — Bones of the Fore-Ami, Knee, Cannon, Pastekns,
AND Foot.

380

THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE

in flout. Deact'iidiiig from the body is the thin wctlge of boue uliicli is
united indissolubly with the shaft of the radius at the point marked 5,
and may be traced down to the car[)al joint.

The articular surface comprises part of the elbow joint, and has below it
some roughened inequalities for the attachment of ligaments.

The olecranon ^jroccss, or elbow, is of considerable size and strength, form-
ing a strong lever for the action of the triceps muscle, which is inserted in
its point. Its anterior edge has a sharp point, which deepens the articular
lavity, and checks the motion of the joint from being carried too far.

THE CARPUS (KNEE) AND METACARPUS
(CANNON)

The knee of the horse corresponds with the wrist of man, and though the
name so well known to horsemen will probably alwa3^s be maintained, yet
scientifically each of the bones i-eceives the corre-
sponding names, and the whole group is called the
carpus.

The anterior surface of the carpus is convex ; the
posterior, concave and irregular, and marked by bony
prominences.

It consists of eight bones, disposed in two rows,
one above the other, as follows : —

The first, or top row, beginning to enumerate
from Avithin outwards, consists of the scaphoid, lunar,
cuneiforme, and pisiforme bones.

The second, or lower row, consists of the essa tra-
pezoid, magnum, and unciforme, and sometimes of a
small fioating bone situated behind the trapezoid.

The superior row may be described as follows : —

Os ScAPHOiDES {(TKCKpri, a cradle), the largest of
this row, articulates superiorly Avith the inferior and
inner extremity of the radius, internally by means of
two distinct facettes with the os lunare, and inferi-
orly with the os trapezoidcs and os magnum.

Os LuxAEE (luna, the moon) articulates superi-
orly with the radius, internally as before mentioned
with the OS scaphoides, and externally through the
medium of two facettes with the os cuneiforme.

Os Cuneiforme (cuneus, a tccJge) articulates supe-
riorly with fhe iirferior and outer extremity of the
radius, inferiorly with the os unciforme, and pos-
teriorly with the OS pisiforme.

Os Pisiforme (pisum, a j^ea) is situated at the

postero-external side of the top row, and presents

for description two surfaces and four borders. The

external surface is unevenly convex, and elevated

for ligamentous attachment. The internal surface is concave and porous,

and also roughened for ligamentous attachment. The anterior boi-der

?io. 27. — FoiiE View of
THE Carpal Bones, cow-

MONLY CALLED TUE KnEE.

'2. Lower extroinity < f
radius.

3. Ulna, lower exUtiiiiU

of.

4. Os pisifonue.

5. — cuneiforme.
t>. — lunare.

7. — scaphoides.

8. — unoifonne.

9. — magnum.

10. Larjte metaoaiijal bone.

11. Small metacarpal bone.

THE CARPUS AND I\LETACARPUS

381

Fig. 28.— Os Pisifokme.

1. Body of OS pisiforme.

2. Surface articulating

with inferior ex-
tremity of the ra-
dius.

3. Surface articulating

with the cuneiform
bone.

presents two smooth ovoid surfaces : the superioi' one articulates with the
radius ; the inferior with a corresponding surface, mentioned as occurring
on the posterior surface of the os cuneiforme. The
three other borders, namely, the superior, posterior,
the inferior, are unevenly convex, and roughened
for the attachment of ligaments.

The bones of the inferior row, viz. the Os Trape-
zoiDES (rpdireCa, a table), Os Magnum (the large
bone), and Os Unciforme (uncus, a hook), articulate
laterally one with the other, superiorly with the
top row of bones, and inferiorly with the three
metacarpal bones.

The Metacarpal Bones, answering to the bones
in the palm of the hand of man, are three. One
(metacarpus magnus) is much larger than the other
two, which, from thus supporting, are sometimes
called splint-bones.

The Metacarpus Magnus, or cannon-bone, has a
body and two extremities, the superior of which
articulates with the carpus while the inferior rests
upon the next phalanx, or great posterior bone (see
Fig. 26).

The body is convex and smooth, anteriorly and
laterally ; thus forming two-thirds of a cylinder.
Posteriorly it is flattened ; its sides, extending from
above, downwards, to about three inches above its
inferior extremity, present two triangular scabrous
surfaces, on the upper parts of which two smooth
articulatory spots occur, to which the small meta-
carpal bones are attached.

The superior extremity presents a smooth ar-
ticulatory surface which is, for the most part, flat;
it slopes ofi", however, on its outer side for articulation
with the OS unciforme. There is also another small
spot which slightly declines, situated at the outer
side of the head of the inner small metacarpal bone.
This spot articulates with the postero-inferior surface
of the OS trapezoides. The flat surface articulates
with the OS magnum, to which it corresponds in
figure. Its anterior and lateral edges are somewhat
roughened.

The inferior extremity presents two smooth
condyloid surfaces, separated by a smooth semicircular
eminence, which articulate with a corresponding for-
mation on the superior extremity of the os suffraginis.
On the sides of each of the condyles a depression
occurs.

Ossa Metacarpi Parva are in number, two ; external and internal. In
form they are pyramidal, presenting bases turned upwards, apices down-
wards, and bodies or middles.

Fio. 2'^t —Back View of
THE Large and Small
Metacarpal Bones.

2. Metacarpus magnus.

3. The surfaces above ar-

ticulate with the lower
carpal bones.

■i. 4. External and internal
small metacarpal bones.

5. 5. Condyloid surfaces ar-
ticulating witli corre-
sponding ones on tlio
upper extremity of tlie
OS suffraginis.

0. Eminence articulating
with a corresponding
depression on the upper
extremity of the os suf-
fraginis.

3S2 THE ANATOMY OF THE H0R8E

Till': UASE is surniuuntoJ by a smooth aiiiculiilui}' surface, surrouiidt'd
inferiorly by roughened tuberosities, except anteriorly, where two smootli
articular surfaces occur, which articulate with corresponding surfaces
mentioned as existing on the mctacai-pus magnus.

The body is trifacial. The anterior surface is rough, and articulates
with the metacarpus magnus. The inner surface is excavated. The outer
surface is convex and smooth. The apex terminates in a bulbous extremity,
which looks posteriorly, and does not articulate with the metacarpus magnus.

THE PHALANGEAL BONES (PASTERNS AND

FOOT)

Beyond the metacarpus in the horse, there is only a single bone in each
joint, the five fingers being merged in one. The same number of phalanges,
however, is maintained, counting from the metacarpus to the distal phalanx,
which is the pedal bone. The whole may, therefore, be considered as
analogous to one human finger, with the addition of the two sesamoid bones,
and the na^dcular bone, all three of which are intended to assist in giving
leverage to the tendons moving these parts. The highest of these is the
OS svffraginis or larger pastern, the next the 05 corona or lesser pastern, and
the lowest the os 2icdis or coffin-bone.

The Os Supfraginis and its Ossa Sesamoidea
may be taken together, the latter lying on each
side of the back of its superior extremity, but play-
ing only on the large metacarpal. They are sepai-ately
shown at Fig. 30. The os sufiVaginis has a body and
two extremities.

The body shows an anterior surface, which is con-
Fio. 30.— Ossa Sesamoidea. ^^^ ^^^ smooth ; and a posterior which is rough and
flattened, and presents superiorly a triangular space,
bounded latci'ally by two roughened ridges, which meet at a point inferiorly.
The superior extremity presents two shallow conca^•ities, which are
separated one from the other by a deep transverse canal. Behind these
concavities, two tubei'osities exist for the attachment of the crucial
ligaments.

The inferior extremity has two semi-cylindroid convexities, divided
transversely by a shallow depression, which is widened posteriorly.

Os CoRON.E (corona, a coronet) is in form a parallelogram with four
surfaces.

The anterior surface is convex and roughened, presenting two tuber-
osities below.

The posterior surface is smooth, and has superiorly a semilunar smooth
surface.

The superior surface pi-osents two ovoid concavities, divided by an
eminence running from behind forwards, and bounded, anteriorly and
posteriorly, by two roughened projections. These form the lesser fetlock
joint with the bone above.

The inferior surface resembles the corresponding part of the os
suftV.'iirinis.

THE PHALANGEAL BONES

383

Os PEDIS {the bo7ie of the foot, formerly called the coffin-buue). In form it
is semilunar, divided into wall, sole, articulatory surface, and retrossal
processes, commonly called wings (see Fig. 31).

The wall, the semicircular prominent part, possesses some degree of
declivity, increasing in circumference from above, downwards. It is full of
foramina, and rough. Superiorly, the bone bulges out, forming the coronal
process (8, 8). The middle part of it terminates in a peak, which looks
slightly backwards — the cacumen coronse (the peak of the coronet).

The wall terminates posteriorly in wings ; the retrossal processes

Pio. 31. — Posterior View of Phalanges.

A. Os suffraginis.

1. 1. Surfaces articulating -witli the

lower extremity of the large meta-
carpal bone.

2. Groove.

3. Rough surface for the i in plantation

of ligaments.

4. 4. Inferior extremity articulating

with

B. Os coronffi.

5. 5. Superior articulatory surfaces.
0. 6. Inferior articulatory surfaces.

C. Os pedis.

7. 7. Articulatory surfaces.
S. S. Coronal process.
9. 9. Scutiform processes.

10. 10. Retrossal processes.

11. Surface articulating with a corre-

sponding one on the navicular
bone (12.)

D. Os naviculare.

12. Surface articulating with the os

coronffi.

13. Surface over which the flexor pedis

perforans tendon glides.
1 14. 14. Points nttaclied to the pedal
bone by ligaments.

(10,10); each wing is divided into two parts by a groove, which runs
through it from before, backwards.

The inferior surface or sole is divided into an anterior semilunar
plantar surface, and into a posterior sharp semicircular edge which divides
it from the tendinous portion. The former is slightly concave, porous, and
bounded by the inferior circumferent edge of the wall.

The superior articulatory surface, semilunar in form, presents two
lateral concavities, separated by an eminence. The eminence is bounded
anteriorly by the cacumen coronte, which stands before it, the point looking
backwards. Posteriorly, it is bevelled off for articulation with the os
naviculare.

Os Naviculare (navis, a ship), sometimes called the shuttle-bone, in form
is semilunar and elongated. It is divided into four surfaces and two
extremities.

The superior surface presents, in its centre, an eminence, which declines
laterally, leaving two slight concavities.

384

THE ANATOMY OF TJIE HORSE

The inferior surface presents two slightly convex divisions, with a
prominent smooth ridge dividing them, running from behind forwards.

The anterior surface presents superiorly <a smooth triangular articula-
tory surface, and inferiorly a porous, roughened face.

The posterior surface is triangular, roughened, and porous. The
extremities, the internal and external, turned upwards, terminate obtusely.

THE PELVIS

The general features belonging to the pelvis have been alluded to in
the last chapter, and the sacrum which forms its upper wall has been
described in this. It remains now to ascertain the shape and anatomical

Fio. 32.— riiotiLE View ok the two Ossa Innominata.

1. 1. Wings of the iliac bones.

2. 8. Pubic bone.

3. Ischiac bone.

4. 4. Supeni-posterior spinous process of the two

ossa ilii.

5. Antoro-inferior spiiiuus proce.<is of the left ilium.

6. The narrow part or neck of the ilium.

7. 7. Obturator holes (foramina).
9. 9. Tuberosity of each ischium.

10. Aci'tfibi'luin.

bearings of the bones which complete the arch. These in the embryo are
three on each side, uniting below in the median line by symphysis, and
above to the rough surface on the side of the sacrum. These three are 1st,
Os ischi ; 2nd, Os ilii, and 3rd, Os ptibis. The whole bone, which is firmly
united in the adult, receives the somewhat paradoxical denomination of
Os iniiomiiiattim, or the unnamed bone.

On referring to the skeleton at page 348 it will be apparent that the
attachment of this bone to the sacrum is so arranged that it shall act as a

THE FEMUR 385

spring in breaking the jars received by the hind extremity from tlie ground.
Its oblique direction, its comparatively short surface of attachment to the
sacrum, and its own great length show this most plainly, especially when
compared with the human pelvis, in which a very different formation
prevails. In the horse it forms, with the sacrum, the first of a series of
angles, the second being between it and the femur, the third at the stifle
joint, and the fourth at the hock.

In the embryo the three bones are quite distinct, the cartilaginous lines
of separation being visible for some time after birth, running through the
cup-like cavity which forms the socket of the hip joint. The portion lying
above and in front of this cavity, and taking in also two-thirds of its own
cup, is the OS ilii. Posteriorly to the cavity, the bone is divided into two
strong branches by a large opening, the obturator foramen, and that portion
which lies above it is the os ischii, while the lower division is the os pubis.
It is needless to describe these bones separately.

The bone as a whole may be considered as divided into two parts by
the contracted neck which forms its middle. The anterior of them is
hollowed out externally for the reception and attachment of the glutei
muscles. Internally it is rough, and gives attachment to the strong car-
tilage and ligaments which bind it to the sacrum. The processes extending
forwards are called the spinous processes of the ilium (see Fig. 44).
Behind the neck the bone swells out slightly for the development of the
cotyloid (/corvArj, a cup) cavity, or acetabulum. This is nearly three inches
in diameter, and is surrounded on all sides but that looking towards the
obturator foramen by a prominent lip. The interval is called the notch,
and corresponding with it is a rough depression in the cotyloid cavity,
where the cartilage is absent, and to which the round ligament of the hip
is attached. Behind the cotyloid cavity is the obturator hole, apparently
intended to lighten the bone, being filled up by a strong membrane, the
obturator ligament. Above this opening is the ramus of the ischium, which
bone also enters into the composition of the hip joint as already described.
Posteriorly the ischium terminates in a rough protuberance, the tuberosity
(9-9, Fig. 32), which is the rounded projection felt and seen on each side the
root of the tail in the living horse. Below the foramen is the os pubis, the
anterior part of which is the ramus, and the small section of the cotyloid
cavity which it forms, while posterioi'ly the body unites with the os ischii,
to form, with the corresponding bones of the opposite side, the symphysis,
or connecting joint between them.

By the conjunction of the two ossa innominata an oval ring is nearly
completed, the deficiency being supplied by the sacrum above. The
anterior margin of this ring is the brim of the pelvis, and it is upon the
size of this as compared with the foal that parturition is in general rendered
easy or difficult.

THE FEMUR (ROUND-BONE) AND PATELLA

The Os Femoris, the strongest and heaviest bone in the body, is situated
between the os innominatum and the tibia. It takes an oblique direction
from above downwards and forwards, and presents a central part or body,

386

THE ANATOMY 01< THE HORSE

;uid two extremities. It was furmerly called the round IjDne, fruiu l)eing in
the centre of the part called by butchers " the round."

The body, although compressed, is nearly cylindrical towards its centre;
anteriorly, the bone is convex and smooth ; posteriorly, flattened and
rough ; superiorly and inferiorly, it is expanded to meet the enlarged
extremities.

The superior extremity is prolonged into a thi<;k, flattened ueclc,

Fir. ns.— Tfte Femur, rATtriALLT detached from itii; Cotvloid Cavity.

A. External view of posterior half of the os in-
nominatum.
a. Rough surface for the attachment of muscles.
6. Cotyloid rim.
c. Tuberosity of the ischium.

1 . Cotyloid ca\-ity.

2. Dei'ression in which the roimd ligament

(ligamentuui teres) is lixod.

3. Obturator liole.

n. External view of the right femur.

-I. Head of the femur (round-bone).
.'). Trochanter majo" cxtemus.
(■>. Tubercle on the head of the femur.
7. Trochanter minor cxtemus.
S. Fossa for muscul.ir insertion.
'.1. 0. Trocldc.ar surfaces for articulation with the
patj^lla (knoe-cai>).

10. External coudylc.

11. Surfaces articulating with upper extremity of

the tibia, or leg-bone.

directed upwaixls and inwards, so as to form an obtuse angle with the
.shaft. At the point of union are two eminences (trochanters, rpoxav, to
run or roU) ; one on the outer, and the other on the inner side ; and it is
from between these that the neck arises.

The trochanter major is prolonged from the postero-external margin of
the body, and nearly in a line with its axis : it is a large irregular projec-
tion, rising into a pyramidal eminence. I''osteriorly, at its base, it presents

THE FEMUR 387

an oval civifcy, the digital fossa, for the attachment rif several small muscles.
Inwardly it presents a concavo-convex smooth surface ; outwardly, a convex
and rough one. From the back of the great trochanter a prominent line
runs vertically down, terminating in the trochanter minor oxternus ('', Fig.
33) ; and from this again a roughened ridge descends, taking a course
downwards and slightly forwards to the oval fossa situated above the
external condyle (8).

The neck is surmounted by a hemispherical smooth head, coated with
cartilage, and lodged in the acetabulum ; on it is a deep ovoid fossa, which
gives attachment to the ligaraentum teres.

The trochanter minor internus, a conical rounded eminence, arises from
the posterior and internal side of the bone. It is placed above the tro-
chanter minor externus, which is on the opposite side.

The inferior extremity has on each side an eminence (the external and
internal condyles), separated by a deep fossa. Between these anteriorly
two articular surfaces occur (external and internal), separated by a
semicircular groove, in which the patella plays.

The external condyle is larger and projects more forwards than the
internal ; its articular surface is also broader : the internal presents a
tuberosity on its inner surface.

The articular surfaces of both condyles are covered with cartilage, and
united anteriorly to the prominences before mentioned, where they form a
pulley-like surface, concave from side to side, over which the patella glides.
Inferiorly, from before backwards, these prominences converge together,
and terminate abruptly on the postero-interior surface of the bone ; thus
leaving a space between them and this interval, which has been denominated
the intercondyloid fossa.

The patella, stifle-bone, or knee-cap, lies on the lower extremity of
the femur, at the anterior part of the stifle joint.
It is quadrangular in form ; its anterior surface is
converse and rough ; its posterior being covered with
cartilage is smooth, and is divided by an eminence
running over it into two shallow cavities (the super-
ficies of the internal being the larger), which corre-
spond with the trochlear pi'ominences, situated ante-
riorly to the condyles of the femur. Superiorly it Fio. 34.— Posterior View
presents a triangular roughened space, bounded by its

two lateral angles, which gives attachment to muscles, 2.' 3."surfaceT|iidin<'ontiie
and inferiorly we notice a fourth angle. These angles trochleas of the fe-

are all blunt and slightly rounded off.

BONES OF THE LEG

The tibia (so called because the ancient shepherds used this bone as a
flute) lies between the femur and tarsus (hock), forming an angle with each.
It is broad, and of a spongy texture above ; contracted and dense below,
when! it is felt immediately beneath the skin and tendons.

The body is of a triangular or pinsmatic shape above, its angles gradually
founding off V'elow, and then expanding laterally to meet the condyles of the

388

THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE

lower extremity. The anterior angle is the shin, and at the upper part of
this is a strong tubercle (3, Fig. 35).

The superior extremity has two irrogiilarly oval and slightly hollowed
articulatory surfaces, which revolve upon the condyles of the femur, the
cavity being deepened in each by the intervention of the semilunar cartilage.
Between them are to be seen a sharp elevation and two pits to which the

Fig. "5.— Tibia, Fibula, and Tarsus.

A. Tibia.

1. 2. Articiilatorv snrfacfis.

3. Tuberosity.

4. Spine.

5. External niallenlim.

C. Surfaces articulating with astraj^alns

B. Fibula.

C. Or calcis.

7. Point of hock.

I). Astragalus.

E. Cs scapUoides.

F. O.S cuneiforme innfiiiuic

0. Os cuboidcs.

II. Os cuneiforme p.Trvum.

1. Upjier pnrt of large metatarsal bone.

K. Ujiper portion of tlio external sm.nll nietnlarsn)
bone.

crucial ligaments are attached. In front is the tuberosity to which the
ligament of the patella is fixed. On the sides of the head are the condyles,
rough for the attachment of the corresponding ligament'^, and the external
having an oval articular fossa for the head of the fibula.

The INFERIOR OR TARSAL E.XTRE.MITV is inuch Smaller than the superior,
but wider than the body, and nearl}' quadrilateral ; its anterior border is flat
and rough ; its posterior border is also flat, and presents numerous foramina.

THE HOCK

389

The external border is prominent and rough, and has a groove in its centre.
Depending from each side is a process (the internal and external malleolus
of human anatomy), serving to strengthen the articulation with the
astragalus, and the internal being considerably the longer. Between these
are two deep grooves, smoothly covered with cartilage, and having a projection
in the middle similarly clothed. The direction of these grooves is obliquely
forwards and outwards. Both the malleoli are lined with cartilage, which
enters into the joint.

The Fibula is a slender bone, having a slight enlargement at its superior
extremity to form the head. On its inner surface thei'e is a layer of
articular cartilage to form the joint with
the tibia. Below it has a bulbous end,
which is free, and affords attachment to
the ligamentous fibres which connect it
with the tibia. Between the two bones
there is a considerable space, occupied by
a thin membrane.

The Tarsus, or hock, is made up of
several bones connecting the tibia above
with the metatarsus below. It corre-
sponds with the ankle of man ; and if the
term wrist were to be applied to the
knee of the horse, as suggested by certain
writers, in order to be consistent the
hock must be called the ankle, which
would lead to endless confusion. The
better plan is to retain the names by
which these parts are known in our ordin-
ary language, and to adopt the nomencla-
ture of the anatomical school for any
scientific description. Thus the cai'pus
and tarsus of the anatomist are rendered
into the knee and hock of the horseman
without impropriety, and at the same time
without any chance of a misunderstanding.

The tarsus consists of six bones, dis-
posed in two rows, the astragalus and os
calcis forming the vipper one, but the
former bone alone entering into the tibio
tarsal, or hock joint, with the tibia.

The Astragalus {aa-rpdyaXos, a die) is
an irregular bone, situated in front of the
OS calcis, between the tibia and the os
scaphoides : it is divided into five sur-
faces : first, the supero-anterior surface, pulley-like and articulatory, cor-
responds with the inferior extremity of the tibia, and consists of two
semicircular prominences, separated by a deep groove, taking a course
obliquely outwards and forwards ; secondly, the inferior presents a smooth
convex surface with a roughened depi'ession posteriorly, for ligamentous
attachment, and articulates with the superior face of the os scaphoides;

Fia. 36. — Internal View OF Tarsal Bones.

2. Inferior extremity of the tibia.

a. Internal malleolus.

b. External malleolus.

3. Os calcis.

4 and 5. Surfaces of articulation on the
astragalus, which, together with
corresponding ones on the tibia,
form the great hinge-joint of the
skeleton.

c. Tubercle on the astragalus for the attach-

ment of ligaments

6. Os scaphoides.

7. — cuneiforme magnum
S. — cuneiform parvum.

9. — Large metatarsal bone.
10. Internal f^mall metatarsal bone.

.^

39C THE ANATOINFY OF TTTE HORSE

tliinlly, the posterior is irregular, and presents on its surface four smooth
faces for articulation with the os calcis, which are separated by roughened
excavations. The external side is marked by ligamentous impressions ; the
internal, smoother than the external, presents behind and below a little
tubercle, which gives attachment to ligaments.

The Os Calcis {the heel-hone). — This bone, forming the point of the hock,
presents two surfaces, two borders, and two extremities ; the external
surface is almost plain ; the internal is excavated as a groove ; the anterior
is slightl}' concave ; the posterior is straight and roughened ; on the superior
exti-emity is a thick tuberous termination, to which the hamstrings are
attached ; its infei'ior extremity is large and concave, and presents four
surfaces for articulation with tlie astragalus, os cuboides, and os scaphoides,
and a median rough interspace to which ligaments are attached.

The Os Cuboides {kv^os, a cube) is situated on the postero-extemal sides
of OS cuneiforme magnum and os scaphoides, between the inferior extremity
of the OS calcis and the head of the external small metatarsal bone and also
a portion of the superior extremity of the large metatarsal bone. It presents
six surfaces : a superioi", which articulates with the os calcis : an infei'ior by
two facettes corresponds to similar ones situated on the large and external
small metatarsal bones just mentioned ; intei'nally two arthrodial surfaces
occur, which face with similar surfaces on the os cuneiforme magnum and
OS scaphoides. The external, anterior, and posterior surfaces are roughened
for ligamentous attachment.

The Os Scaphoides is in figure triangular ; the superior surface, smooth
and slightly concave, is entirely articulatory, with the exception of a little
croove, running to its middle from the outer side ; this surface corresponds
with the under surface of the astragalus. The inferior surface is similar to
the superior, except that it is slightly convex, and articulates with the
superior surface of the os cuneiforme magnum, and also on its internal
angle with the os cuneiforme parvum ; it ofiers also, on its postero-external
face, two small diarthrodial surfaces for articulation with the os cuboides ;
in the rest of its extent, it is roughened for ligamentous attachment.

The Os Cuneiforme Magnum. — This bone, although smaller than the
scaphoid, at the same time greatly resembles it ; its superior surface articu-
lates with the inferior surface of that bone ; the inferior surface articulates
with the large metatarsal bone ; its external border is provided with two
ai'throdial spots for articulation with corresponding ones on the os cuboides.
The internal border also offers a spot which articulates with a similar one on
the OS cuneiforme parvum ; its anterior border is roughened throughout.

Tin: Os Cuneifohme Parvum is situated on the internal side of the
tarsus This bone, smaller than all, is prolonged from before backwards,
flattened from one side to the other, and articulates with the os cuneiforme
magnum and with the large and internal small metatarsal bones, to which
it corresponds by four surfaces covered with cartilage.

METATARSAL AND PHALANGEAL BONES 391

METATARSAL AND PHALANGEAL BONES

The Metatarsal and Phalangeal bones, known to the horseman as the
cannon-bones, the pasterns, and the hind-feet, resemble so closely those of
the fore extremity, that it is unnecessary to repeat the description of then)
here.

CHAPTER XIX

OF THE JOINTS, AND THE TISSUES ENTERING INTO THEIR COMPOSITION

GENERAL REMARKS — CARTILAGE — FIBROUS TISSUE — riBRO-CAKTILAGE — SYNOVIAL MEM-
BRANES— CLASSIFICATION OF THE JOINTS — MOVEMENTS OF THE JOINTS — ARTICULATIONS
OF THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN — THE LIGAMENTUM NUCHCE, OR GREAT CERVICAL LIGA-
MENT, AND OTHER PECULIARITIES IN THE LIGAMENTS OF THE NECK — MOVEMENTS OF
THE VERTEBRAE IN GENERAL, AND OF CERTAIN OF THEIR JOINTS IN PARTICULAR —
THORACIC ARTICULATIONS — PECULIARITIES IN THE ARTICULATIONS OP THE LUMBAR
VERTEBRAE — THE LUMBO-SACRAL ARTICULATION AND SACRAL LIGAMENTS— THE COCCY-
GEAL JOINTS — THE TEMPORO-MAXILLARY ARTICULATION — THE SACRO-ILIAC ARTICULA-
TION— ISCHIO-PUBIC SYMPHYSIS — THE SHOULDER JOINT — THE ELBOW JOINT — THE
KNEE JOINT (carpus, OR WRIST). — INTER-METACARPAL ARTICULATIONS — FETLOCK
JOINT — THE PASTERN JOINT — THE COFFIN JOINT — THE HIP JOINT — STIFLE JOINT OR
COXO-FEMORAL ARTICULATION — TIBIO-FIBULAR ARTICULATION — THE HOCK JOINT —
TARSO-METATARSAL ARTICULATION — TERMINAL ARTICULATION OF THE POSTERIOR
LIMBS.

GENERAL REMARKS

The JOINTS are all formed between two or more separate bones, having a
soft and elastic substance interposed, whose structure varies with the amount
of motion. Where this is extensive, as in the joints of the limbs, the
adjacent surfaces are covered with a peculiar kind of cartilage arranged in a
thin and very smooth layer upon them. In addition to this protection
against friction and vibration, the bones are firmly bound together by strong
bands of white fibrous inelastic tissue under the general name of ligaments,
each bundle receiving a distinct appellation. In those situations where the
motion is limited, a mixture of cartilage and fibrous tissue is inserted
between the ends of the bones and attached to both, as in the vertebrae,
ischio-pubic symphysis, etc. ; while in order to reduce the vibration and
friction in certain important joints fibro-cartilages are introduced, with both
surfaces free, and in contact only with the usual layer of cartilage, as in
the stifle and jaw. A lubricating fluid (called synovia) is required to reduce
the amount of friction ; and to produce it, as well as to keep it within
proper limits, a membrane (synovial) is developed. This is attached to each

392 THE AXATO:\IY OF THE nORSE

bone in a peculiar manner, to be presently described. Lastly, an elastic
fibrous tissue (yellow) is met with in certain situations, the most remarkable
being the great ligament of the neck. Each of these diflferent structures
will i-equire a separate description ; for as the diseases of the joints are of
great importance, a knowledge of the structure of their component parts
must be carefully obtained before entering upon the treatment with any
hope of success.

CARTILAGE

True cartilage (which is familiarly known to all when it shows the
large white masses in a breast of veal, as dressed for the table) is a homo-
geneous, white, semi-transparent substance, possessing a certain amount of
elasticity, and easily cut with a knife. In the early embryo it exists as the
sole foundation of the skeleton, bone being afterwards deposited in its
meshes and finally substituted for it. This is called the temporary cartilage.
In after life it invests those parts of the bones wliich enter into the com-
position of the joints (articular cartilage, which is what we ai'e considering
just now), and also forms the costal cartilages, the ensiform and cariniform
cartilages, and those of the larynx, trachea, and nose. lieticidar or
memhraniform cartilage, differing slightly from true cartilage, is met with in
the Eustachean tube, the external eai', and the epiglottis.

Structure. — On putting a slice of true cartilage under the microscope, it
is seen to consist of a number of minute cells disseminated through a
vitreous substance. The cells are oval, oblong, or polyhedral in shape, and
more or less flattened b}' packing. The membrane forming the cell-wall is
usually blended with the matrix, but sometimes consists of concentric layers.
White fibres usually enclose the mass of cells, and even dip sometimes into
those cells more superficially placed. The cells or coi'puscles are contained
in hollow ca\'ities, called lacunte. Sometimes they do not entirely fill up the
lacuna?, so that a vacant space is left. The coi-puscles are usually dispersed
in groups, varying in size and form, through the matrix ; the groups towards
the surface of the cartilage are generally flattened conformably with the
sui'face. In articular cartilage, the matrix in a thin section appears dim
and presents a granular aspect, the cells and nuclei of which are small.
The parent-cells enclose two or three younger cells. The groups they form
are flattened near the surface and lie parallel with it. In the internal part
of this cartilage the cells assume a linear direction, and point towards the
surface. Near its attached surface cartilage blends with the bone, the cells
and nuclei of which become surrounded by little granular bodies, which
.seem to be the rudimentary deposit of bone. In costal cartilage the cells
are very large ; they contain two or more nuclei, which are clear and
transparent, and some contain a few oil globules. The cells, internally
situated, form oblong groups, disposed in lines radiating to the cir-
cumference. We observe a great quantity of intercellular tissue, in the
form of white fibrous structure, the fibres of which are parallel and
straight.

Periciioxdrium (TTept, around, and xovbpoi, cartilage) is a white fibrous
substance, which covers the external surface of all cartilages, except those

FIBROUS TISSUE 393

of the joints. In this membrane the blood-vessels which supply the carti-
lage with blood, ramify. It is analogous to the periosteum which covers
the extei'nal surface of bones.

Nerves. — No nerves have been traced into any of the cartilages ; they
are destitute of sensation while free from inflammation.

Blood-vessels. — Cartilage is non- vascular ; it receives its nourishment
from the bone and perichondrium by imbibition. The law of endosmose
coming into operation when the tissue is thick, as in the costal cartilages,
canals are formed through which the vessels pass to supply the parts
which are too far removed from the pei'ichondrium. In articular carti-
lages no vessels enter. When cartilage is removed by mechanical means,
or by absorption, it is not regenerated, and when fractured, as in the ribs,
there is no reunion by cartilage, but by fibrous, or most frequently by
osseous deposition.

Chemical Compositiox. — True cartilage contains three-fifths of its weight
of water. It is ascertained that the cells and the intermediate substance
are composed of different materials. The membranes of the cartilage cells
are not resolved by boiling, and offer a lengthened resistance to alkalies
and acids. The contents of the cells coagu.late in water and dikite acids,
and are dissolved by alkalies. The intermediate substance consists of
chondrine, which differs from gelatine in not being precipitated by the
mineral acids.

FIBROUS TISSUE

Fibrous tissue exists very generally throughout the body, being com-
posed of fibres of extreme minuteness. It is found under three forms, as
white fibrous tissue, yelloiv fibrous tissue, and red fibrous tissue.

White fibrous tissue is composed of cylindrical fibres of exceeding
minuteness, transpai-ent, and undulating. They are collected first into
small fasciculi and then into larger bundles, which, according to their
arrangement, compose thin layers or membranes, ligamentous bands or
tendons. The membranous form is seen in the periosteum and peri-
chondrium, the fascise covering various organs, the membrane of the brain,
■etc. — Ligaments are glistening and inelastic bands, composed of fasciculi of
fibrous tissue generally ranged side by side, sometimes interwoven with each
other. These fasciculi are held together by separate fibres, or by areolar
tissue. They are of all forms, from the round band to the expanded
membrane known as a capsular ligament. — Tendons are constructed like
ligaments, but usually in larger and more rounded bundles. Sometimes they
are spread out in the form of aponeuroses.

Yellow fibrous tissue is also known as elastic tissue, from its most
prominent physical characteristic, in which it differs from white fibrous
tissue. It is so elastic that it may be drawn out to double its natural
length, without losing its poAver of returning to its original dimensions.
Its fibres are transparent, brittle, flat or polyhedral in shape, colourless
when single, but yellowish when aggregated in masses. When this tissue is
cut or torn, the fibres become curved at their extremities in a peculiar
manner. It is met with in the ligamenta subflava of the vertebra, tho

301 TTTK ANATOMY OF THE HORSE

ligaiiu'iitum colli, the cliortUe vocales, and membranes of the lainyx and
trachea, and the middle coat of the arteries.

Red fibrous tissue, also called contractile tissue from its possessing the
power of contracting under certain stimulants, is intermediate between
3'ellow fibrous tissue and muscular fibre. Its fibres are cylindrical, trans-
jiarent, of a reddish colour, and collected in bundles. It has no connection
with the joints, but is met with in the iris, around certain excretory ducts,
and in the coats of the veins.

Chemical Composition. — The fioxibility of fibrous tissue is owing to
the presence of water in it, of which it contains about two-thirds of its
weight. A tendon or ligament will readily dry and become brittle.
Acetic acid causes it to swell up, and here the aciu discloses the existence
f)f nuclei and elastic fibres. It is chiefly composed of gelatine, which is
extracted by boiling.

Blood-vessels. — AVhite fibrous tissue contains few blood-vessels. They
usually follow the course of the fasciculi ; in ligaments they run in a
longitudinal direction, sending off communicating branches across the
fasciculi, and eventually forming an open network. The periosteum is much
more vascular, but the vessels do not strictly belong to the membrane, as
the ramifications found in it are chiefly intended for supplying blood to the
bone which it covers.

Nerves. — Small tendons contain no nerves, and large ones only small
iilaments. In the periosteum, nerves are abundant ; they exist there
chiefly for supplying the bones with sensibility. The pain caused in rheu-
matism, which is an intensely painful disease, is a proof of the sensibility of
wliite fibrous tissue.

FIBRO-CARTILAGE

This sunsxAXCE, intermediate in structure and uses between cartilage
and fibrous tissue, is composed of a network of white glistening fibres col-
lected into fasciculi of various sizes, and containing Avithin its meshes cells
and a sub-fibrous tissue resembling that of true cartilage. Fibro-cartilage
admits of arrangement in four grouj^s : —

1. IxTEHAirncuLAR FIBRO-CARTILAGE is placed between the moving
surfaces of bones. It serves to connect them together, to facilitate their
gliding motion, and to act as a cushion, thus preserving the articular sur-
faces from attrition, and the bones from the effects of sudden concussion.
It is usually placed where much motion is enjoyed, as in the lower jaw
and knee, in the form of round oval plates growing thinner in the centre.
Marginal cartilages such as that around the cotyloid ca\ity are of the same
kind.

2. Stratiform fibro cartilages form a thin coating to the bony grooves
over which tendons play.

3. Interosseous fibro-cartilage occurs between the vertebra^, at the
isohio-pubic symphysis, etc.

4. Free fibro-cartilages are met with in the tarsal cartilages of the
eyelids, etc.

SYNOVIAL ME^EBRANES 395

SYNOVIAL MEMBRANES

The synovial membrane is a thin layer, which invests tne articular
cartilages of opposite bones, and is continued from one to the other by
Ijcing reflected beneath the ligaments which connect them. It resembles
ihe serous membrane in being a shut sac or bladder, and a synovial capsule
may be compared to a small bladder, containing only as much fluid as will
adhei'e to its interior, placed between the opposite ends of two bones
forming a joint. The secretion formed by it, synovia (^crvv, togethei-, woV, an
('(jg), is alkaline, and contains albumen, which is coagulable by boiling,
lleale has ascertained, by the aid of the microscope, that this membrane is
actually reflected over the articuJar cartilage, a point which has been long
disputed. Besides the joints, the synovial membranes also form smaller
sacs which lubricate the tendons as they pass over the ends of the bones,
and which are called hursce onucosce. The epithelium lining these mem-
branes is of the kind called tesselated ; it is developed in the same manner
with that of other free surfaces, being continually reproduced as it is worn
away. Synovial membranes, in many situations, are closely and completely
invested externally by fibrous layers — the fibrous capsules, as they are
termed. These fibrous coats are met with especially in situations where
the articulation is either wholly unprotected or but thinly covered by
soft parts ; or where a very firm connection is required, as in the hip
joint. They are absent where muscles or ligaments rest upon the articu-
lation ; or where, for special purposes, the synovial membrane is exposed
to more considerable movements, as in the knees.

The synovial capsule is attached, either simply to the cartilaginous
surface, extending thence directly to the other bone, or it may, in the first
place, besides the cartilage, also invest a larger or smaller extent of the
surface of the bone itself, and then pass to the second bone, with which it
is connected in the one way or the other.

Synovia is a viscid transparent fluid, of a pale straw colour, slightly
alkaline. In chemical and general characters it is like the serum of the
ulood. A drop of synovia is found to contain — fat molecules, epithelial
cells, and small granular corpuscles, bearing a close resemblance to the
white corpuscles of the biood. Tliis fluid od account of the presence of
albumen, is coagulable by heat.

CLASSIFICATION OF THE JOINTS

The skeleton has ah'uady been descril:)ed as composed of different pieces
of bone, united to each other in various manners : from this union result
the articulations, which are sometimes very movable ; sometimes joined to
lach other through the medium of long digitations or teeth, which fix them,
if not to immobility, at least to a very constrained movement ; and, lastly,
united together through the medium of cartilage, the elasticity of whicli
permits latitude of movement. In the lirst case, the articulations take the
name of diarthrosis or movable articulations (5td, throwjli, and dpdpof, a
limb) ; in the second, synarthrosis {ffw, together, and dpdpov, a limb) ; and

396 THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE

llurdly, amphiarthrosis (aixcf>L, ahouf, and apOpor), partaking, at the same
time, of the two ckisses of articulation above mentioned — namely, synar-
throsis, in the continuity established by the articular surfaces ; and
diarthrosis, in the limited extent of movement it permits.

The guide to the classification of joints is the configuration of their
articular surfaces, and the movements they allow.

DiARTHRODixVL JOINTS are ai'ranged under three distinct classes : —

1. Enarthrosis. This kind of joint is characterized by the reception of
an articular head into a cavity of appropriate form. It is the seat of most
extensive movements ; namely, flexion, extension, adduction, abduction,
circumduction, and rotation. Example : Acetabulum with femur.

2. Ginglymus. A perfect hinge-joint, the articular surfaces of which
are configured in a trochlear arrangement, in such a manner that two or
more prominences may fit into two or more excavations of appropriate form
for their reception. Their only movements are flexion and extension.
Example : Tibia with the astragalus.

3. Arthrodia (a kind of shallow articulation), consisting almost of plain
surfaces. Gliding is the only possible movement. Example : the Carpo-
metacarpal articulation.

Synarthrodial joints are included under four heads, all of which should
be examined as parts of the bony skeleton : —

1. Harmonia, in which the bones arc joined by apposition, as in the
nasal bones.

2. Schindylesis, in which a ridge or keel projects into a cleft. Example :
Vomer with sphenoid.

3. Gomphosis. Like a nail in its socket, as the teeth in the alveoli.

4. Sutura. Indented, and subdivided into sutura serrata, as in the
frontal bones, and sutura squamosa, as in the union of the parietal and
temporal bones.

The amphiarthrodial joints are often smooth, and formed after the
manner of diarthrodial surfaces. x\t other times they are more or less
rough. These joints are united together for the most part by fibro-cartilage.
Their extent of movement depends on the thickness and elasticity of the
interarticular fibro-cartilage. They do not glide, therefore, one over the
other. Only one species of amphiarthrosis exists of which the articulations
of the vertebra?, the ischio-pubic symphysis, and the intermetacarpal joints
are examples.

MOVEMENTS OF THE JOINTS

TiiK motions permitted in the joints are four — namely, gliding, angular
motion, circumduction, and rotation.

1. Gliding is the simple motion of one bone ujion the other, without
materially altering their relations.

2. Angular motion may be either limited to one plane, as in the trace-
hinge, or it may be extended to more, when the motion becomes nearly
allied to circumduction. The elbow and hock are examples of the former,
as, indeed, are most of the horse's joints.

3. CiHCUMDL'CTioN is a motion very little seen in the large joints of thig

ARTICULATIONS OF THE VERTEBRA 397

animal, and is confined to the hip and shoulder joints, in which it is far
more limited than in the corresponding joints of the human frame. It
is displayed when a limb is made to describe a segment of a large cii^cle
around the joint which connects it to the body.

4. Rotation is the movement of a bone on its own axis, and is only seen
in the horse in the joint between the two first vertebrae of the neck.

ARTICULATIONS OF THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN

The vertebra are connected together by ligaments, fibro-cartilage, and
synovial membranes ; the first two serving to retain them in position ; the
last to facilitate motion. They correspond, fiz'stly, by their bodies ; secondly,
by their spines ; and thirdly, by their oblique and transverse processes. It
is necessary to state, that the general details into which this study leads
us will apply only to the articulations which unite the six loAver cervical
vertebrae, the dorsal and lumbar vertebrae, and the sacrum.

The bodies connect themselves by their surfaces, which in the cervical
region represent, 1st, the anterior, or true head; 2nd, the posterior, or
glenoid cavity, which receives the head of the vertebra immediately behind
it. In passing from the first dorsal to the sacrum, these tend to efface them-
selves, and become plainer ; nevertheless, they preserve throughout the one
its convexity, and the other its concavity. Their means of union are — (1)
fibro-cartilages, interposed between the articular surfaces ; (2) a common
superior vertebral ligament ; (3) a common infeidor vertebral ligament.

The intervertebral fihro-cartilages are circular or elliptical discs, convex
before, concave behind ; firmly fixed to the surfaces of the bones which
they separate. The fibro-cartilaginous substance which forms them is
composed of an external laminar part, constituting the circumference of an
internal soft or pulpy part, which occupies the centre. The laminar part
forms more than half the whole mass, and consists of laminae, or plates of
fibro-cartilage, and fibrous tissue, alternating one with the other. The
central part is a pulpy, elastic material, which is of a yellowish colour, and
destitute of the concentric arrangement seen externally. The fibro-cartilages
join at their circumference the two common vertebral ligaments, and in the
vertebrae of the back help to form the intervertebral cavities destined for
the reception of the heads of the ribs.

The superior vertebral ligament within the spinal canal, and attached to the
posterior sui^face of the bodies of the vertebrae, extends from the dentata to
the sacrum. In the neck, it spreads across the bodies ; but in the back and
loins it is broader opposite the intervertebral cartilage than opj)osite the
bodies of the bones. It adheres firmly to the fibro-cartilages and to the
contiguous margins of the bodies of the vertebrae ; but it is separated from
their middles by a transverse venous plexus.

The inferior vertebral ligament reaches from the fifth dorsal vertebra to
the first bone of the sacrum ; becoming broader and broader as it approaches
the sacrum, along its course it connects itself to the inferior spines of the
bodies of the vertebrae and to the intervertebral discs.

The union op the vertebra through their spinal part is effected by a
superior spinal ligament and an interspinal ligament.

398 THE ANATOMY oF TJIK IIORSE

Thf fiii/}m-spitioiig I'ujniii^nt consists of small toiiiprcssed buntlles of lon<,'i
tiidinul fibres, extoiuling fn)in the hist cervical spine to the spine of the
anterior coccygeal bone, and thus forms a continuous cliain.

Thf interspinal Hytiminits consist of fibrous plates, filling up the spaces
between the spines, and attached before and behind to their opposite Iwrders.
One set of tliese fibres passes from the anterior border of one spine to the
posterior border of the one before it, taking a direction from below, forwards
and upwaitls ; another set runs from tlie posterior border of the spine to the
anterior bonier of that situateil behind it, taking a direction from below,
upwards and backwards.

TnK ARCHES OR PLATES are connected together by tlie ligamenta vcrtebi;i-
tuni subtlava. These ligaments consist of yellow and white fibrous tissue.
Their attaclmient extends from the roots of the oblique processes to the origin
of the spinous processes. Their anterior edges are attached to the posterior
edges of the vertebral plates wliich are in front. Their posterior edges are
attached to the anterior edges and inferior faces of the plates which are

Tio. 37.— PRoni.E View of the Lioamests

COMMON TO THE VERTEBR.t.

2. 2. Bodies of vertebrae.

3. 3. Siiines.

4. 4. Transverse processes.

5. lli-ad of the body,
(i. Oblique process.

V. Hole of conjugation.

8. Glenoid cavity.

'.K Supra-spinous ligament.

10. Inlra-spinous ligament.

11. Intorvertebnil (ibro-cartilnge.

li!. 12. Inferior common vertebral ligament.

behind. Tlie ligamenta subflava do not exist between the occiput and atlas,
or between the athvs and dentata.

Inter-transverse LIGAMENTS are situated between the transverse processes,
running from the transvei*se process of one vertebra to the same process of
the one next to it.

The oblique processes are united by synoWal capsules one to the
other. These capsules, throughout the vertebraj of the back, are pro-
tected by wliite fibrous tissue, but in the cervical region the fibres
covering the capsules are yellow and elastic, and on this account, and
owing to the size of their arthrodial surfaces, latitude of movement is
permitte<l to a greater extent than is noticed in any other vcrtebi-al
region.

THE LIGAMENTUM NUCHCE, OR GREAT CERVI
CAL LIGAMENT, AND OTHER PECULIARITIES
IN THE LIGAMENTS OF THE NECK

In thk nkck a much greater latitude of motion is reijuired, to admit of
the lowering of the head in grazing, and of raising it for various purpose.s,
as well as balancing its great weight at all times. Liiteral flexion and

LIGAMENTS OF THE NECK

399

rotafcion on its ou'ii axis ai-e also net essitaied for the purpo«e of d free Ling
the muzi'le right and left of the straight line, an! for these severaJ
motions the following deviations from the ordinary vertebral joints are
■developed.

The ligamentum xuciice, or great cervical ligament, is intended to
relieve the muscles of the neck in supporting the head by its natural or
inherent elasticity. It is entirely formed of yellow elastic tissue, and
occupies the angle formed postei^iorly by the anterior dorsal spines, and
inferiorly by the cervical spinous processes, thus separating the cervical
muscles of the right side from those of the left.

Profile View of toe Great Ligament of the Neck.

Crest of the occiput.

2. Cervical vertebrae.

3. Dorsal vertebrre.

4. 4. Dorsal spines.

5. 5. Cordifonn or funicular jiortion of the
lisamentum nuchoe.

6. Cordifcirm portion of the ligamentum colli mix«

ing with the supra-spinous ligament.

7. 7. Liiniellary iiortinn of the ligamentum nuchoe.
S. 8. S. luterspiuous ligaments.

It is divided for description into two parts — a funicular and lamellary
portion. The first, designated under the name of the cord of the cervical
ligament, is represented by a large band, which extends immediately from
the dorsal spinous processes to the top of the head, divided into two
lateral lips by a mesian line. The cord is connected posteriori}^ with the
supra-spinous ligament, and is inserted anteriorly into the scabrous pit,
situated just below the crest of the occiput. It is covered superior^ by
a mass of thick adipo-fibrous tissue, much developed in low-bred animals.
Inferiorly it gives off the lamellary portion, which is composed of two
plates united by cellular membrane. These lie between the two sets of
muscles, and give off six tongues or slips, which unite with the spines of
the six posterior cervical vertebrse, mixing with the fibres of the inter-
spinous ligaments.

The Atlas is united to the occiput by lateral ligaments, which bind
it3 articular surfaces to the condyles of the bone — also by two inferior
liganients and synovial capsules.

The iivo lateral ligaments, broad and membranous, arise from the supero-

<00

THE ANATOMY OF TIIK 1IOR8E

lalonil bonier of the arcli of tho :itlas, and are attaclicJ to the s.ides of th)
condyles of the oceiput, or rather between the condyles and the styloM
processes.

Th: f(»n/ 'ittferior llijameiit arises from the tubercle on the inferior surface
of the atlas, and is attached to the basilar process of the occiput.

The short iiifir'wr lujamcnt arises from tlie tubercle on the inferior surface
of the atlas, is attached to the foramen magnum of the occiput, and is con-
necte<l with the theca vertebralis.

A thin fibrous ligament (the occipito-atlo'ul) surrounds the entire articular
tion ; it is attached anteriorly to the condyles of the
occiput, and posteriorly to the articulatory surface of
the atlas. This membrane is thin and clastic in-
feriorlv ; superiorly it is formed of two bundles of
librt's which cross one another like the letter X.
Internally it is lined by synovial membrane.

Tin: AXIS, OR VKHTEBRA DEXTATA, is united to the
atlas, and partially also to the occiput, as follows : —

1. Articular surfaces are formed on the odontoid
process of the axis, and also on the sides of its body
close to the root of that part. These correspond
with similar faces on the inside of the ring of the
atlas, and also on its posterior side.

2. The lifjaments connecting the rings of the ticn
verti'f>r(r together, or the superior and inferior atJo
axoid ligaments. The former represent the inter-
spinous ligaments of the other vertebrse — being yellow,
el.istic, and formed of two laN'ers, which are con-
tinuous with the capsular ligaments — the latter is a
large thin band, which is stretched from the inferior
face of the axis to the inferior spine of the atlas,
lying concealed by the longus colli muscle. Besides
these two ligaments, there is also a capsular liga-
ment, which commences from the sides of the
superior atlo-axoid ligament, and after uniting with
the Ixtrders of the odontoid ligament is confounded
with the fibres (tf the inferior atlo-axoid. In fact,
it is a mesh of white fibrous tissue connecting the
three together.

3. The odontoid ligaments, which are covered by
the superior atlo-axoid ligament. On cutting through
these the following sets of fibres will be made apparent : — First, a transverse
Iwind arises from the root of the odontoid process, and dividing into two like
the letter V, is attached on each side to the ridge on the inferior part of the
ring of the at-l.-is, a few thin fibres passing on to be attached to the basilar
(iroces-s and cond_vles of the occiput, .iecondh/, a strong band arises from
the point of the odontoid process, and is attached to the middle of the ridge
on tlic inferior part of the atlas. Thirdly, a few fibres pass across from the
inside of the ring of the atlas on one side to the corresponding part of tho
Dther. These serve to strengthen the capsule, but the y hav.i not the sub-
itanct) of the corresponding liiramenl in th ; hunir-,n fim lo.

Fio. 30. — SfPERiOR View of
THE Joists formep be-
tween THE Fiu.st Two

VeKTEBR.C of THE XECK
AXD BETWEEN* THE ATLAS
ANT) OCCIPCT.

.\. Superior fibres of the occi-

pito-atloid ligament,
r.. Atlas.
C Vert«bm dontita, showing

the sui'orior atlo-nxoid

lipaniPiit.
T1. Thinl n-rvii-al vertobra,
I'. 1'. Transverse prcoessea

of dentata.
1. 1. Odontoid ligament.

THORACIC ARTICULATIONS 401

MOVEMENTS OF THE VERTEBRAE IN GENERAL
AND OF CERTAIN OF THEIR JOINTS IN PAR-
TICULAR

The amount op motion between any two vertebrae is extremely limited,
with the exception of the atlo-axoid articulation, in which the degree of
rotation is considerable. But when the spine is viewed as a whole, these
slight individual movements multiplied together are sufficient to allow of
flexion and extension, as well as of inclination to either side. In the region
of the back the joints are rigid, in the loins less so, but in the neck and tail
great liberty is allowed. Flexion and extension, as well as lateral motion,
are dependent entirely upon the elasticity of the intervertebral substance,
which allows of one part being compressed while the other is extended.
Thus, when the loins are arched upwards the lower edge of this substance
is compressed, while the upper part assumes a more expanded condition, and
at the same time the spinous processes are separated more widely, and their
ligaments are stretched. The reverse of this takes place when these bones
are arched downwards, while in lateral inclination the sides are compressed
and expanded in a corresponding manner. Very slight rotation of the
whole sjjine, or more properly twisting, is permitted by the elastic nature of
the intervertebral substance ; but in the atlo-axoid articulation a perfect
rotation occurs around the centre of the odontoid process, allowing the
muzzle to be turned in either direction, which could not be done without an
arrangement of this nature. The capsular ligaments and the supei'ior and
inferior atlo-axoid ligaments are necessarily lax to allow of this motion.
Lastly, the great ligament of the neck serves to support the weight of the
head, which would be too great for the muscles of the neck, in consequence
of the length of leverage which is presented.

THORACIC ARTICULATIONS

The articulations which unite the bones composing the thorax may be
divided first into costo- vertebral articulations, or those which unite the ribs
with the spine ; secondly, chondro-costal, or those which unite the ribs with
their cartilages ; thirdly, the chondro-sternal, or those which unite the
cartilages with the sternum ; fourthly, the articulations of the cartilages
among themselves.

Each rib (with the exception of the first and last) is connected with the
bodies of two vertebrpe, the three bones, together with the intervertebral
substance, forming two joints which are separated fi'om each other by a
band of fibres passing from the head of the I'ib to the intervertebral sub-
stance. Besides these thei-e is also an articulation between the rib and the
transverse process of the vertebra behind it.

The superior costo-vertehral ligament connects the head of each rib to the
sides of the bodies of the vex'tebrte, and is divided into three bundles, of
which one bundle (the middle) passes to the corresponding intervertebral
filjro-cartilage, whilst the anterior passes to the body of the vertebra before,,
the posterior to the body of the vertebra behind. This ligament is called

402

THE ANATOMY ()F TIIK HORSE

the superior stclliito lijjjameiit. Fnmi tin- inferior surface of the nock there is
11 ligament, wliich is ilisposed in the same way inferiorly as the foregoing is
Buperiorly, in attaching the ribs to the bodies of tlic vertebras. This is called
the inferior stellate ligament.

The in(''r-artir)tlaf I igamrnt, or ligamentum <e7'e.^, consists of a thin bundle
of lon"iludin.d fibres, and arises from the ridge dividing the two articular

Fio. 40.— SiTERion View ok Costo-Vertebbal Articulatioks.

A. A. A. cti\ Points wliere the vertebral arches arc

itinoviil in onler to expose.
1. 1. etc. Sujierior common vertebral ligament.

B. B. eto. Tninsvi-r.-M' iiioccs.scs.

2. 1. etc. Superior costo • vertebral or stellate

ligament.
S. 3. 3. etc. Surcrior costo-transverse ligament.

surfaces ou the head of the rib from which it passes to be implanted on the
side of the intervertebral substance.

There are tico distiio't symn-'ml capsules — an anterior and a posterior — set
Ijack to back, and separated by the inter-articular ligament.

The COSTOTRANSVERSE ARTICULATION. — On the superior surface of the
tubercle of the rib is a smooth convex articular surface, which is in apposition
with a smooth concave surface, situated on the transverse process.

Two ligaments strengthen this articulation. First, the posterior costo-
transverse ligament consists of a short fasciculus of fibres, which passes
from the jmsterior surface of the summit of the transverse process, to the
rough surface uncovered by cartilage at the posterolateral part of the tuber-
cle. Secondly, the anterior transverse costal ligament is formed of a bundle
of white, thick, short fibres, which take a course from the anterior surface
of the transverse process near its base, to the excavation which is close to
the neck of the rib. This ligament is clothed behind by synovial membrane
and in fiont by adipose tissue, which separates it from the costovertebral
articulation.

The last two, namely, the 17th and 18th costotransverse articulations, are
confounded with the corresponding costo-vertebral joints.

The ciiondro costal articul.\tio\ may be referred to the subdivision
gomj>hosis of the .synarthrodial joints. It is foimed by the implantation of
the inferior extremity of the rib into the superior extremity of the cartilage,

THORACIC ARTICULATIONS

403

which presents a surface corresponding with the rough depression in the end
cf the rib. Further strength is given to this articulation by the periosteum,

Fig. 41. — Inferior View of the Costo-Vertebral Articulations.

1. 1. etc. Inferior common vertebral ligament.

2. 2. etc. Inter-fibro-cartilaginous disc.

3. 3. etc. Inferior costo-transverse ligament.

4. 4. etc. Inferior costo-vertebral ligament.

which, in passing from the bone to the cartilage, forms a strong uniting
band.

The cnoNDRO-STERNAL ARTICULATIONS occur between the inferior extremity
of the cartilage of each rib, and the oblong cavities existing along each side
of the sternum. The eight anterior cartilages form, with the fossae in the
sternum, eight corresponding articulations.

The joints which result from the union of these two surfaces are

Fig. 42.— Profile View of Sterno-Costal and Chondro-Costal Articulation.';.

1. 1. Anterior end of sternum and cariniform car-

tilage.

2. Ensiform cartilage.

3. 3. etc. Sternal cartilages.

4. 4. etc. Chondro-stenial articulations.

5. 5. etc. Ends of the true ribs with the articula-

tions between them, and the cartilages
seen bitween 3 and 5.

enveloped on all sides by fasciculi of white and extended fibres, the whole of
which constitute a ligamentous capsule. The superior fibres aie sometimes
described as the superior chondro-sternal ligament. The inferior are continu-
ous with the origin of the pectoral muscles.

The foremost chondro-sternal articulation is not separated from the corre-
sponding one on the opposite side. The two cartilages being close together,

404 TlIK ANATO:\IY OF THE ITOKSE

their synovial ca|>sule is continuous, and the two ubloim /o,s>Yr on the stornum
unite oni' with the other. It must be further noticed that this articuhition
frc(]uently occurs on the cariniforni curtihige, whicli is anterior to the first
Ixme of the sternum.

As regards the two jiosterior sternal cartilages, they are in close apposition
one with the other, and fit into one common fossa situated on the posterior
hone of the sternum, and with it form one synovial joint.

A thin fasciculus of fibres connects the cartilages of the 8th and 9th
ribs to the ensifoi-m or xijihoid cartilage, called the chondru-xiphoid
liijameut.

A similar fiusciculus to the foregoing connects the cariniforni an'l xiphoid
cartilages together — the carino-xlphoid ligament.

The asternal or false cartilages are united one to the other by a j'ellow
ohustic ligament, which extends from the fore extremity of each to the
posterior border of the preceding cartilage.

On the si:n:uiou .vxd inferior surfaces of the sternum, ligamentous
fibres may be observed running longitudinally, called the superior and
inferior sternal ligaments. The longitudinal fibres are mixed with those
radiating from the costal cartilages, especially inferiorly, where they blend
with aponeuroses of the pectoral muscles.

PECULIARITIES IN THE ARTICULATIONS OF
THE LUMBAR VERTEBRA

The four anterior lumbar vertebra? have nothing remarkable about
them, but the fifth difiers in having on the posterior part of each trans-
verse i)rocess an articular surface furnished with a synovial capsule, for
uniting it with the sixth. This last has also four articulatory surfaces on
its transvei*se processes — two anteriorly, which unite with the correspond-
ing ones on the fifth ^•ertebra just described, and two posteriorly, which are
similarly furnished with synovial capsules, and which unite it with the
Bacrum.

THE LUMBRO-SACRAL ARTICULATION AND
SACRAL LIGAMENTS

The fibro-cartila(;e intervening between the last lumbar vertebra
and the sacrum is unusually thick, and the joint is protected also ex-
ternally by some strong longitudinal fibres passing from bone to bone. The
last lumbar vertebra joins the sacrum not only by its body and articular
processes (which latter are oval, with their long diameter from side to
side), but also by two oval and slightly concave articular surfaces, which
articulate with corresponding faces on the last lumbar vertebra already
alluded to.

Besides tue articul.vtions between the lumbar vertebne and the sacrum,
there are also ligaments between the spines of the .sacrum itself, which aie
no longer of much use after the separate bones of which it is composed aro
united by ossification.

THE COCCYGEAL JOINTS

405

THE COCCYGEAL JOINTS

The sacro- coccygeal and inter -coccygeal articulations are con-
structed much after the same principle as the other vertebral articula-
tions. The coccygeal bones, however, are only united together by their
bodies. The anterior and posterior articulatory surfaces of each vertebra

Fig. 43. — Articulations of the Lumbar Vertebr.b with the Sacrum.

a. Last three lumbar vertebrae.

B. Sacrum.

C. C. Iliac bones.

1. 1. Transverse process of fourth lumbar

vertebra.

2. 2. Transverse process of fifth lumbar vertebra.

3. 3. Transverse process of sixth lumbar ver-

tebra.

4. 4. etc. Inferior common vertebral ligament.

b. 5. Ligamentous fibres covering the capsules oe-

tween the transverse processes of tlie fourth

and fifth lumbar vertebrae.

6. G. Capsular ligaments ssaiting together tlie fifth

and sixth lumbar vertebrae.

7. 7. Liimbo-sacral ligaments.

8. S. Sacro-iliac ligaments.

are both convex, and their inter-articular fibro-cartilage is hollow on both
surfaces. As to ligaments, they are i^epresented by bundles of longitudinal
fibres spread on the surfaces of these bones, which they envelop in a
common sheath.

THE TEMPORO-MAXILLARY ARTICULATION

The lower jaw articulates on each side by one of its condyles with
the glenoid cavity of the temporal bone. Between them is placed an
iMter- articular fibro-cartilage, with one synovial membrane above and
another below it.

The articular surfaces above mentioned do not exactly fit one into the
other. This, however, is corrected thi'ough the interposition of a fibro-
cartilaginous disc between them. This disc represents an irregular plate,
flattened above and below, thicker in front than behind, moulded on each

40G Tin: ANATOMY OF THE TIORSE

surface, wliicli it sepamU's, so tliat its supeiior face presents in front a con-
cavity to receive the tubercle on the zygomatic process of tlic teinjjoral bone,
and a convexity beliind, which is lodged in its glenoid cavity. As to its
inferior face, it is indented by an oblong furrow, in which the condyle of the
inferi»)r maxillary lx»no is imbedded.

Thfxe boms an: united by a. capsular ligament, covering a synovial capsule,
and two lateral ligaments, one external and the other internal.

A fibroim cover, a true capsular lit/aiueut, surrounds this articulation, and
is attached by its etlges to the articular surfaces which it unites, as well as
to the bordei-sof the inter-articular libro-cartilage ; thus fonning two distinct
capsules, namely, one superiorly, and one inferiorly, which are lined inter-
nal! v by synovial membranes. The larger of the two, after lining the upper
surface of the disc, is reflected upward to the glenoid cavity of the temporal
bone. The inferior synovial membrane is interposed between the inferior
surface of the cartilage and the condyle of the lower jaw ; and thus a double
joint is constituted.

The external lateral ligament is a short fasciculus of fibres, attached
superiorly to a tubercular prominence, situate on the supero-external part
of the squamous temporal bone, and inferiorly to the external surface of
the condyle, and to the postero-external surface of the neck of the lower
jaw, just below the cond^de ; its fibres take a backward and downward
couiNe.

77t>,' internal lateral ligament is looser and more elongated than the external.
It extends from the inner surface of the squamous temporal bone to the
cartilage and inner surface of the condyle of the superior maxillary bone,
reaching down to the inner part of its angle.

^Movement. — The temporo-maxUlary articulation is the centre of every
movement of the lower jaw. These are — elevation, lowering, lateral
movement, and horizontal sliding, which motions together accomplish the
grinding action necessaiy to triturate the hard grain upon which the
horse feeds.

THE SACRO-ILIAC ARTICULATION

Tins JOINT establishes the union of the posterior members with the spine,
and is formed by the sacrum and os innominatum. It belongs to the arthro-
fiial order of joints. On each of these two bones is a large and irregular
articular surface, lined with a thick layer of cartilage, which is firmly united
to them. The joint thus formed is strengthened by four ligaments, namely
— 1, the sacro-iliac ; 2, the superior ilio-sacral; 3, the inferior ilio-sacral ;
and 4, the sacro-sciatic.

The sacro-iliac ligament is composed of large ligamentous fibres, which
everywhere envelop the articulation, by firmly attaching themselves at their
extremities to the impressions around the articular surfaces, situated on the
sjicrum and internal border of the ilium. The inferior half of this ligament
is covered by the psoas muscles. Its ix>sterior half, much stronger than the
former, is hidden by the ilium.

The superior ilio-sacral ligament is a large, strong, short ligament, which,
arising from the internal ]>art of the ilium, is carried backwards and fixes

THE SACRO-ILIAC ARTICULATION

407

itself upon the sacral si3ines, where it mixes its fibres with the supra-spinous
ligameut of the lumbar vertebrfe.

The inferior ilio-sacral ligavient is a triangular and very resisting mem-
branous band, formed of parallel fibres running obliquely from above
downwards, and from before backwards. It is attached by its antero-
inferior edge to the superior half of the ischiatic border and the intei'nal
angle of the ilium, mixing itself with the preceding ligament ; its superior

^^

Fio. 44. — Profile View of the Ilio-Saceal and Sacro-Sciatic Ligaments.

A. Os ilium.

B. Os pubis.

C. Os ischium.

D. Femur.

E. Troeiiauter major extemus.

F. Large tubercle iit the heiid of femur.

G. Head of the femur.

H. Riin of the cotyloid cavity.
K. K. Sacral si.>iiR's.

N. M. O. Tubercles on the antero-iuferior
spinous process of the ilium.

1. 1. Superior ilio-sacral ligament.

2. 3. -i. Sacro-sciatic ligament.

border inserts itself upon the roughened ridge which bounds the sacrum
laterally ; its posterior border is united to the aponeuroses which cover the
coccygeal muscles.

The sacro-sciatic ligament is a vast membranous expansion, stretched
upon the side of the pelvis, between the sacrum and the os innominatum ;
it serves rather as an inclosure for the pelvic cavity than as a means of
securing the firmness of the sacro-iliac articulation. Its form is irregu-
larly quadrilateral, presenting four borders — a superioi', attached to the
lateral roughened edge of the sacrum ; an inferior, inserted in the ridge
below the cotyloid cavity ; an anterior, unattached in a great part of
its course, and serving as a protection to the large vessels and nerves
which pass through the sciatic notch ; and lastly, a posterior margin, which
splits into two laminse, between which the semi-membranous muscle takes
its origin.

A synovial viembrane covers the sacro-iliac ligament, but furnishes a small
quantity of synovia.

Movements. — The two sacro-iliac articulations, through which all the

E E

408 THE ANATOMY (>F Till: HORSE

I'fforts of impulsion are communicated to the trunk by the posterior members,
without interfering with the transmission of locomotive force, permit but a
slight gliding movt-ment of their arthrodial surfaces. Indeed, this articula-
tion seems exclusively designed to prevent the fractures to which these bones
Would l)e incessantly exposed, were they attached in a more intimate manner,
us, for example, by bony union.

ISCHIO-PUBIC SYMPHYSIS

The two ossa inxomix.vta are firmly united together in the median
line below, by the corresponding edges of the ischium and pubes. In
the foal this is a distinct joint, possessing an inter-articular cartilage,
and some transverse ligamentous fibres above and below ; but in the adult
hoi-se the two bones are firmly united by ossification, and the ossa inno-
minata together form a complete arch, without the slightest movement
between them.

THE SHOULDER JOINT

TuE scAPULO-iiL"Mi;i!AL ARTICULATION, couunouly known as the shoulder
joint, belongs to the division Diarthrosis ; subdivision, Enarthrosis. It is
formed by the scapula uniting with the humerus, at an obtuse angle.

The AKTiCfLAU sfKFACES whicli compose this joint are the head of the
humerus, and the glenoid cavity of the scapula. On examining these bones,
described and illustrated at pages 376-7, it will be seen that the head of the
humerus is semi-globular, while the cavity in the scapula is very superficial,
and incapable of maintaining the former in its place without some collateral
aid. It is somewhat remarkable that the ligaments of this joint are ex-
tremely weak, being confined to the lax fibres surrounding the synovial
capsule, which is so loose that after removing all the other soft parts, and
making a small opening into the joint, the two bones may be readily separated
for some distance ; these fibres are superiorly fixed around the margin of the
glenoid cavity, and inferiorly round the head of the humerus. Chauvcau
states tliat a ligament descends from the coracoid process of the scapula,
which diverges and becomes inserted into the tubercles at the anterior part
of the head of the humerus. He also states that it is loose, and therefore
facilitates much motion, but it is not easy to separate it from the capsular
ligament. This is longer posteriorly than anteriorly, and presents postero-
laterally two stays, similar to two jiieces of tape. The external one, arising
from the outer lip of the glenoid cavity, is attached to the outer and back
part of the head t>f the humerus. The internal one arises from the inner
edge of the glenoid cavity, and is attached to the inner and back part of the
lieail of the humerus.

But (his di'Jiciency in ligamenis is made up by a much more powerful
material in resisting dislocations. The whole joint is surrounded by elastic
nuiscular fibre or by tendinous bands, having the same kind of support — thus
it ha.s in close apposition the following muscles, viz. —

THE SHOULDER JOINT

409

Anteriorly, the Coraco Humeralis, and Flexor Brachii.

Externally, the Antea Spinatus, and Postea Spinatus.

Posteriorly, the Scapulo-Humeralis Posticus, etc.

Internally, the Subscapularis, etc.

Whenever, therefore, any violent strain is thrown upon the joint, which
would force the head of the humerus forwards, the Coraco Humeralis and
Flexor Brachii contract and prevent the accident.
In the same manner, each of the above muscles acts
in its own direction, and the result is that dislocation
of the humei-us in the horse is extremely rare.

The movements of the shoulder joint in the
horse are much more limited than in man, and indeed
they are almost confined to flexion and extension.
When all the muscles are cut away from the joint,
rotation and circumduction may be easily effected ; but
in examining its movements during life, it will be
evident that neither one nor the other of these acts
can be effected in any appreciable degree ; this is at
■once proved if it is attempted to tui'n the foot in-
wards or outwards, when it is flexed at the knee,
during the life of the horse, for beyond the slight
motion of the whole limb, including the scapula, the
foot is firmly fixed, and there is not the slightest
rotation or circumduction at the shoulder joint. With-
out the power of pronation and supination possessed
by man, and partially by the dog and cat, the above
actions would be worse than useless, and it is alto-
gether a mistake to ascribe to any other of the domestic
animals, as Chauveau has done, in addition to flexion
and extension of the shoulder joint, the four move-
ments of abduction, adduction, circumduction, and
rotation.-"- It would much puzzle that generally accu-
rate anatomist to turn the horse's foot up in front so
that its possessor could see the sole ; yet if circum-
duction and adduction were permitted, this could
readily be done as by the domestic cat or dog in
licking the inside of the fore-^ The shoulder

joint is, in fact, a true hinge (ginglymus) in the horse, ass, cow, sheep,
and goat, but in the first of these animals it is more especially limited
in its movements, by the enormously powerful muscles which surround
the joint, and which are constantly tense, though extremely elastic, and
giving way to every voluntary movement. It is a beautiful provision of
nature, to enable the horse to bear the shocks which his shoulders have
to sustain in coming down from a leap with a great weight on his back,
and without it he would be rendered comparatively useless to man.

Fio. 45. — Profile View of

THE ScAPULO-HuMERAL,

OR Shoulder Joist.

A. Inferior third of sca-

pula.

B. Coracoid process of

scajjula.

C. Analogue of the acro-

mion process.

T>. Rim of glenoid cavity.

E. Superior third of hu-
merus.

1. Capsular ligament.

2. Tendon of the coraco-

radialis muscle.

^ Under certain circumstances, lame and otherwise injured horses prove the possession-
of those movements claimed by Chauveau, but only to a very limited extent. — Editor.

410

THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE

THE ELBOW JOINT

C)i: THE HUMERO-UADio-LLNAU AIM u I i.vTiuN. — This joint 18 formed betwccu
till' lower extremity «>f the humerus above, and the junction of the radius
and ulna below. It is a complete hini^'e, and has no power of pronation or
supination lus in man. eonseijuently there is no necessity for the peculiar
additional joint between the radius and ulna, observ-
al)le in man and partially in the dog and cat ; but tho
two bones are firmly ossified together in the adult,
as already described at page 379.

These bones are connected together l)y three liga-
ments, two lateral (an internal and an external), a
capsular ligament, and a sj-novial capsule.

Tlie intermd lateral lli/ament arises from a fosi-a
I n\ the side of the internal condyle of the humerus ;
it takes a vertical course, expanding as it descends :
imd is inserted partly on the roughened inner border
of the articular cavity of the radius. Its middle fibres,
v.'hich are tho longest, take the same course as the
formei-, assuming while passing over the radius the
shape of a cord, which is inserted into the inner and
fore part of the radius about three inches below the
former insertion.

TJie external lateral liyament is shorter but stronger
than the internal. It arises from the superior fossa
and ridge surrounding it, on the outer surface of the
external condyle of the humerus, and is inserted into
the tuberosity on the upper and external part of the
radius. Its superficial fibres take a vertical coui-se,
whilst its internal fibres take an oblique direction,
from top to bottom and from back to front.

The capsular lif/ament is attached by its superior
border to the surfaces surrounding the cond^des of the
humerus ; by its infenor border, to the circumference
of the superior part of the radius ; and by its posterior
Ixinlcr to the circumference of the articular surface of the ulna.

The sifnuvial membrane is short anteriorly, very extended, and spread out
p>steriorly ; where it forms three sacs, which tend to facilitate flexion of
the joint.

TiiK M0VEMENT.S of the elbow joint are confined to flexion and extension,
it being a pure hinge, but these actions do not take place exactly in the
same plane. For instance, if the knee is bent and the foot brought up to
the ell)ow, the frog will not correspond with that projection, but will be
almost entirely outside it, while the knees will also be wider apart when
both are llexed and raised towards the bosom, than when the horse is stand-
ing. This arrangement is brought about by the oblique direction of the
l>ulley-like articular surfaces on the humerus, ulna, and radius, and appeal's
to \yo designcfl to prevent the foot from hitting the opposite leg as it passes
it in trotting. When the obliquity is insufficient, either cutting of the

Fm. 40.— rosTERion View
Of l-EfT Elbow Joint.

A. rnfi'riorthird of the Im-

iiienis.
D. n. Extornnl nnd iiitomnl

condylps.
C. Olecranon process of

ulna.
P. I(.idius.

1. External lateral liga-

ment.

2. Internal lateral lifpi-

ment.

3. 3. Filiro - rartilnKinons

sulxst-ineo unitiri;; thr
ulna to the Kuliii-i.

THE KNEE JOINT 411

fetlocks or speedy cutting is sure to be manifested ; if too great, the awk^vard
gait known as "dishing" is established. Extension is not nearly so com-
plete as in the human subject, being limited by the greater length and
breadth of the olecranon process, the upper part of which forms a prominence
which fits into the corresponding fossa of the humerus, and thus serves as
a check to the extension of the fore-arm. In most men the upper arm and
fore-arm can be made to fall into one straight line, but in the horse there
is always a considerable angle.

THE KNEE JOINT (CARPUS, OR WRIST)

This articulation is a very complicated one, and in order to understand
it thoroughly, it will be necessary to examine the parts composing it under
three divisions. 1st. The articulations between the several carpal bones.
2nd. The Eadio-carpal articulation ; and 3rd. The Carpo-metacarpal joint ;
to which must be added (4) the examination of cei"tain ligaments common
to all three.

1. The two eows of caepal bones, which have been described in the dry
state at page 380, ai'e furnished with cartilages on the faces, by which they
correspond, thus forming a series of nearly plane arthrodial surfaces, having
synovial capsules, but embracing several of them in one. It may be remem-
bered that these bones are arranged in two rows, the upper one consisting
of the scaphoid, lunar, cuneiform, and pisiform bones, while the lower com-
prehends the OS magnum, the trapezoid, and the unciform bones.

The tipper row is united together by six ligaments, three anterior and three
interosseous. The anterior ligaments consist of flattened bands of fibres
which lie in front of the knee, and connect the four bones together, passing
latei-ally from one to the other. The interosseous are strong and short
fibres concealed between these bones, and attached to the rough excavations
between the distinct facettes on the several bones to which allusion has
been made at page 380, the ligament connecting the pisiform bone with the
scaphoid being particularly well marked.

The hones of the second roiv are, in a similar waj^, united by anterior and
interosseous ligaments, but instead of being three, there are only two of
■each, in correspondence with the diminished number of bones. It is un-
necessary to describe them more minutely.

The ttvo rows again, between which is a partial hinge joint, ai'e united
by three special ligaments, in addition to those common to the whole knee
joint, which will be presently described. Two of the special ligaments
consist of very short fibi-es lying behind the carpal bones, and covered by
the great posterior ligament. The third is larger than these, and extends
from the pisiform bone to the unciform, and to the head of the external
small metacarpal bone (see r,. Fig. 48). It is united on the outer side
with the external lateral ligament, and internally with the common posterior
ligament. To its posterior border are attached the outer fibres of the sheath
of the flexor tendons.

The synovial capsules proper to these articulations line all the above
ligaments and articular surfaces, being reflected from one to the other, and
forming also pouch-like prolongations upwards l)etween the bones of eacli

41:

TIIK ANATOMY OF TIIK HOrxSE

row, !is far as the interosseous ligaments, and downwards in a similar manner
Nfillier of the ascending pouches is continuous with the radio-carpal capsule,
hut the external of the two lower ct)mnuinicates with that of the carpo-
metacarpal joint. This fact is sometimes important in punctured wounds
of the knee joint.

2. The it.vDio-rAiU'AL ahticulatiox, formed by the union of the lower
end of the radius with the upper surfaces of the scaphoid, lunar, cuneiform,
and pisiform bones, is a true hinge, but somewhat limited in the amount of

its motion. The lower end of the cannon-bone can
describe fully ninety degrees of a circle around the
knee joint as a centre ; but the full extent of this
motion is divided between the three several articu-
lations to which I have alluded, the radio-carpal
taking considerably the largest share. 2'he lower
end of the radius presents an irregular articular sur-
face, longer from side to side than from before
backwards, and a non-articular pit or fossa hollowed
out to receive a projection of the lunar bone during
the flexion of the joint. On each side of these are
the lateral processes. The upper surfaces of the
carpal hones are moulded exactly to fit the inferior
extremity of the radius, and a loose synovial capside
passes from one to the other, extending downwards
between the three innermost carpal bones as far as
their intero-sseous ligaments, and sometimes also to
the capsule between the pisiform and cuneiform
bones.

The li(/aments proper to this articulation, in ad-
dition to those common to the whole knee joint, are
three. Of these one forms a large rounded cord,
attached to the radius above, and to the cuneiform
bone below, taking an obli(|ue direction downwards
and inwards beneath the common posterior liga-
ment. The second, much smaller in size, is ex-
tended between the external lateral process of the
radius and the pisiform bone, being partially covered
by the common external lateral ligament, but allow-
ing a small triangular space to intervene, through
which the synovial capsule is sometimes protruded
in diseased conditions of this joint. The third, still
more thin and weak in its fibres, is situated beneath
the second, and arising from the radius is inserted in the lunar bone, and
into the interosseous ligament which unites the pisiform and the scaphoid
bones (see 3, Fig. 49).

3. The carpo-metacarpal articulation is formed above by the three
inferior carpal bones, and below by the heads of the three metacarpal bones,
together constituting a limited liinge joint. These surfaces above and
below arc in close apposition, and are lined In- one common synovial capsule,
which, as already mentioned, cumnumicates with that between the two rows
of carpal bones.

J

Vtn. 4T. — AxTERK ill View ok
TIIK I>£iT Knee Joi.st.

A. Inferior third of the ra-

dius.

B. Cumnronn bono.

C. Lunar l)onp.

1). .Si-ajdioid bono.
K. L'ncifonn liono.
1;. The gTt'.it Ixme.
II. Trajx-zoid Ixm.-.
K. Sui>orior thinl of meta-

i-ari u-.
1. .Sraj ' .,i,.iit.

•J. Ext. .-.m.-iit.

8. 3. Ii ■ ■ a li-ii-

nii'iii.

4. 4. Li^inenta existing lx>-
twt-en upper row of
rar|>al tKjno«.

6. 5. Cariio-uicUcarpal liga-
ment.

THE KNEE JOINT

413

Besides the cdmmon ligaments, there are seven proper to this joint — three
anterior, two posterior, and two interosseous.

Of the three a7iterio7- ligaments, the external one, covered by the external
lateral ligament, unites the unciform bone to the outer small metacarpal
bone. The middle one unites the os magnum to the large metacarpal bone.
The internal one unites the trapezoid to the inner small metacarpal bone.

Fio. 4S.— Back View of Left

Knee Joint, seen oblique-
ly FROM THE Right, and
showing the deep-seated
Ligaments.

A. Inferior third of radius.

B. Pisiform bone.

C. External small metacarpal

bone.

D. Internal small metacarpal

bone.

1. External lateral ligament.

2. 3. Scapho - metacarpal liga-

ment.

4. Radio-lunar ligament.

b. Ligament between the pisi-
iform, unciform, and ex-
ternal small metacarpal
boiie.

Fig. 49. — Baok View op
Right Knee Joint, show-
ing the superficial Liga-
ments.

A. Inferior third of radius.

B. Superior third of large

metacarpal bone.

C. Internal small metacarpus.

D. External small metaearxal

bone.

1. Internal lateral ligament.

2. External lateral ligament.

3. Ligament between the ra-

dius, lunar, and pisi-
form bones.

4. 5. Ligament between the

unciform, pisiform,
and between the ex-
ternal small metacar-
pal bones.

6. Strong band of ligamentous

fibres, binding down
the flexor tendons in
their sheath or groove.

7. 7. Groove for the passage

of the porforans and
perforatus tendons.

The tivo posterior ligaments, described by Rigot, are very difficult of
demonstration, being only with the greatest care separated from the common
posterior ligament. One of them, however, is capable of being made out
by dissection, as a strong band of fibres passing from the back of the
scaphoid bone to the inner small metacarpal bone (see o 3, Eig. 48).

The tivo interosseous ligaments ascend from the roughened depressions
existing between the three metacarpal bones to the interosseous ligaments
of the second row.

4U THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE

4. TllK LIOAMKNTS CoMMuN TO TlIK WIIOI.K KNKi: JOINT are foUr two

latonil, an anterior, and a posterior.

The external lateralJidnmeut is a thick cord, formed of two kinds of fibres,
a deep-seated and a .sui)erricial set, which take a crucial direction. It arises
from the external lateral process of the radius, and descends vertically on
the side of the knee joint. In its passage, it gives off a band to the
]>isiforni bone, and also to the os unciforme, and terminates at the head of
tlie external small metacarpal bone. This ligament lies on the carpal bones
and cai)sular ligament.

The internal lateral lujument, analogous to the preceding, and situated en
the opposite side, is thicker and larger. It arises from the internal lateral
process of the radius, and terminates on the supero-anterior and internal
surface of the large metacarpal and head of the internal small metacarpal
bones. The iibres of this ligament take a crucial direction ; in its passage
downwards, it gives off three little bands, namely, one to the scaphoid bone,
one to the os magnum, and one to the trapezoid.

The anterior or capsular ligament covers the anterior face of the carpal
articulations. Its superior edge is attached to the inferior extremity of
die radius; its inferior edge is attached to the superior extremity of the
lar<^e metacarpal bone ; its right and left borders are in contact with the
lateral ligaments; its external face is connected with tendons, etc.; its
internal face is lined, at certain points, by synovial membrane. This
ligament is formed of transverse fibres, more or less oblique, crossed and
recrossed.

The posterior litjamoit — one of the strongest of the animal economy —
covers the posterior surface of the knee. It is inserted superiorly into the
transverse ridge which bounds the articular surface of the radius. At the
l)osterior part of the carpal bones, it becomes attached to the inner border
of the pisiform bone, the posterior surface of the os magnum, the cuneiform
and scaphoid bones terminating on the postero-superior extremity of the
large metacarpal bone. The scapho-metacarpal ligament, described as part
of the posterior ligament of the carpo-metacai-pal joint, is with ditliculty
separatefl from this ligament.

The knkk is the centre of two very extensive movements, namely,
extension and llexion ; to which three others, very limited in their extent,
may be added, namely, adduction, abduction, and circumduction.

As alrrafhj mentioned, all the carpal articulations do not take an equal
part in the execution of these movements ; in fact, it is evident that they
chielly take place in the radio-carpal ginglymus, and in the imperfect hinge
formed between the two rows of carpal bones. Each of these articulations
participates in the movements of the knee, nearly in the same proportion,
the superior perhaps being slightly the more extensive, and both perform
their otlice in the same manner.

In fh'.rion, the first row of bones turns from before backwards on the
radius ; the inferior row moves in the same way on the superior row. The
metacai-pus is carried backwards and upwards, thus relaxing the comnKjn
posterior ligament. The anterior ligament, on the contrary, is rendered
tense. The articular surfaces, especially those of the second joint, separate
in front from one another.

In extension, the metacarpus is carried below and forw.irds by an inverse

FETLOCK JOINT 415

mechanism. This movement is arrested when the radius and the meta
carpus are placed in the same vertical line, as in the standing position.

In flexion, the bony radii do not directly approach each other ; the
inferior extremity of the metacarpus is always carried outwards. The
movements of abduction, adduction, and circumduction are not able to be
performed until the foot is bent up under the fore-arm, and are then only
capable of being very partially carried out.

The jjlain arthrodial surfaces existing between the lower row of carpal bones
and the superior metacarpal extremity, only admit of a simple sliding of
the surfaces in contact. The limited motion of this articulation can have
but a secondary influence over the general movements of tlie knee ; but it
favours them by permitting the carpal bones to change their reciprocal
connections, and thence lends itself, through the medium of the radio-carpal
and inter-carpal gingl3^mi, to a more exact coaptation of the articular surfaces
which constitute them.

INTER-METACARPAL ARTICULATIONS

Each small metacarpal bone articulates with the large metacarpal bone
through the medium of two diarthrodial surfaces, situated on the inner
part of their heads ; a third, of a synarthrodial character, occurs on the
anterior part of the body. Each of these articulates with corresponding
surfaces on the large metacarpal bone.

All interosseous ligament, composed of very short and strong bundles, is
interposed between the synarthrodial surfaces, and fixes them solidly one on
the other.

The inter-metacaepal articulations allow only of a very slight
vertical slidina: movement.

FETLOCK JOINT

The fetlock joint is formed by the junction of the inferior condyloid
extremity of the large metacarpal bone with the biconcave surface of the
OS sufFraginis, and by the anterior smooth surfaces of the ossa sesamoidea
with the posterior part of the cond^des of the same metacarpal bone. Ic is
a perfect hinge.

2'he ligaments forming the Ijond of union between these surfaces are as
follow : — First, those which belong to the ossa sesamoidea ; secondly, those
which connect the os coronse and pastern together ; thirdly, a ligament
common to both. Besides which, there is a synovial capsule.

1. The first have received the general names of the sesamoideal liga-
ments, and are six in number, namely, three inferior, two lateral, and an
i n ter sesamoideal.

The inferior sesamoideal ligaments are divided into three, namely, the
superficial, the middle, and the deep. Of these the first is a narrow band,
flattened behind and before ; arising from the middle of the fibro-cartilagin-
ous mass, which completes behind the superior articular surface of the os
coronse, it continues slightly expanding as it ascends, until it reaches the

410

THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE

biises of the oi5sa sesamoidea, to wliich it is inserted, mixing also with the
int«r-sesamoideal ligament. The middle is of a triangular shape, and is
formed of three bands, two lateral and a median. It is often confounded
with the first ligament, although easily distinguishable from it by its
lower insertion. Fixed in common, inferiorly, to the apex of the triangular
ridge situated on the posterior surface of the os suffraginis, these three

"15. 50 — Anteriiir View of Fetlock

AND rASTER>f JOINTS.

1. 1. 1. Lower row of cair-'il bones.

2. Metacari'al bone.

8. Extom.ii sp-s-inioid bone.
4. Suffragineal bone.
6. Coronal Iwne.

6. Peilal bone.

7. Tendon of the extensor pedis.

li. Long ligament which blends inferiorly
with the tendon of the extensor
pedis.
9 Toint where the extensor tendon be-
gins to expand.
Ki k 11. Points to which the extensor

tendon is att-ichcd.
12. 12. Lateral cartilages.

FlO. 51.— POSTERTOR ViEW OF FETLOCK LKV

Pastern Joisra.

A. Metacarpal bone.

B. B. Sesamoid bones.

C. Suflfragineal bone.

D. Ck)ronal bone.

E. E. LaUral cartilages.

F. Navicular bone.

1. 1. 1. Lower row of carpal bone*.

2. 2. Suspensory ligament.

3. 3. Bifurcation of same, in order to join the
sesamoid bones.

4. 4. Inter - sesamoideal fibre -cartilaginous sub-
stance.

5. Point over which the tendon of the flexor pedis
pcrforans plavs.

C. Inferior superficial sesamoideal ligament.

7. 7. Middle inferior sesamoideal ligament, under

which the deep-seat«l ligament is jilaced.
S. 9. 10. Ligament connecting the navicular and

coronal bones.
11. Ligament connecting the pedal and navicular

bones.

bands diverge, the two lateral to be attached to the bases of the ossa
sesamoidea, the median becoming confounded with the surrounding liga-
ments. The deep-seated ligament is formed by two little bands, hidden by
the middle ligament, thin and short. These are fixed above to the bases of
the ossa sesamoides, and below to the superior extremity of the os suffra-
ginis near the edge of its articular surface. This ligament is in close
contact with the synovial membrane.

The lateral sesamoideal ligaments are formed by two thin plates, which

FETLOCK JOINT 417

extend from the base of each sesamoid bone to the tubercle which exists
on the superior side of the os coronpe. On their internal faces they are
lined with synovial membrane.

The inter-sesamoideal ligament consists of fibro-cartilaginous substance,
which runs from the posterior part of one sesamoid bone to that of the
other, spreading over the external surface of the outer, and internal surface
of the inner bone. It is composed of the fibro-cartilaginous substance in
which the ossa sesamoidea were originally developed. This mass of fibrous
matter, in common with the posterior and internal faces of the two bones,
forms the smooth pulley-like groove over which the flexor tendons play.

2. The ligaments connecting the cannon-hone to the pastern (or, in scientific
language, the metacarpus to the os sufifraginis) are three, namely, two
lateral and a capsular.

Each lateral ligament consists of two bundles of fibres, one superficial and
one deep-seated, firmly united together at their adjacent surfaces. The
superficial arises fi'om a projection on the infero-lateral part of the large
metacarpal bone, just above the condyloid surface. It descends vertically,
so as to terminate on the lateral parts of the superior extremity of the os
suffraginis. The deep-seated one is attached strongly to the excavation on
the lateral surfaces of the anterior extremity of the large metacarpal bone,
and directs its course from the ossa sesamoidea to the superior extremity of
the OS suffraginis, where it is fixed, by mixing its fibres with the lateral
sesamoideal ligaments.

The capsular ligament is a very resisting membranous expansion, which is
attached to the edges of the cartilaginous articular surfaces of the bones
composing this joint. It is internally lined with synovial membrane.

The suspensory ligament, which should be carefully studied on account of
the numerous accidents to which it is liable, is attached to all four of tl e
bones entering into this joint, and may be described as being composed of a
strong band of white fibrous tissue, sometimes having intermixed a few
bundles of muscular tissue. It is thin and comparatively weak towards the
knee, but as it approaches the fetlock joint, it almost equals the back
sinews in substance, and its volume and wiriness to the touch may be taken
as some test of the power of any particular leg in resisting a " break down."
Occupying the space between the two small metacarpal bones, and lying
close against the large metacarpal, it arises from the posterior common
ligament of the knee joint, from a projection on the back of the large
metacarpal bone just below it, and from the inner sides of the heads of the
small metacarpals. Descending thence close to the large metacarpal bones,
it splits into two strong bands, each of which is attached to the upper edge
of the corresponding sesamoid bone, a few fibres passing on to re-unite below
the joint and become continuous with the tendon of the extensor pedis in
front of the os coronse.

The synovial capsule of the fetlock joint is prolonged forwards in the form
of a Gul de sac lining the bifurcation of the suspensory ligament. There is also
frequently developed, in front of the joint, a pouch communicating with
this capsule which lines the posterior surface of the extensor tendons.

The movements of the fetlock joint are almost entirely confined to flexion
and extension, a very slight lateral motion being permitted when the liga-
ments are relaxed, as in passive flexion of the leg.

418

Till': ANATOMY oF TIIK lIOTtSE

THE PASTERN JOINT

The 9fveraJ {Htrts wliic-li enter iatu the fonnation uf this joint are the twd
lateral eunilyles on the inferior extremity of the os sullraginis, and the
corresi)onding cavities on the os corona;. This last surface is completed
l)ehind by a very dense and thick libro-cartilage, which acts partly as a
li','anient, and partly by increasing the depth of tlie articular surface. It is
attaehed above by six fibrous bands, of which two are continuous with the
inferior sesamuideal ligaments, and four pass on to the sides of the os
suflVaginis. l.elow it is lixed to the os corona?, between the articular surface
and the tubercle behind it. This fibro-cartilage forms a smooth surface
IMjsteriorly for the flexor pedis pei-forans to play over, and is continuous on

ii€

02. — External ViBW of the I'asteun
Joint.

Inferior thiixl of the large metacari«>l
bone.

Kxtemal scs-mioid bone.

iSuffragineal bono.

Coronal bone.

Navicular bone.

I'edal bone.

One division of the suspensory liga-
ment.

Lateral sesaraoideal ligament (external).

Ligamentous fibres given to the exten-
sor )iedi3 tendon by the susiiensory
ligament.

Inferior suiierficial sesamoideal liga-
ment.

C. 7. Kxtensor pedis tendon.

External lateral pUalangio - iiedal liga-
ment.

External lateral cartilage.

each side with the two divisions of the llexor pcrforatus. In addition to
these structures, and the synovial capsules lining them, the joint is pro-
tected by two lateral ligaments, and in front b}' the extensor tendon.

The lateral ligaments, t\nQ^ and strong, take an oblique direction from
above downwards, and from before backwards, one on each side of the joint.
They arise from two depressions, just below the tubercles on the lateral
parts of the os suffraginis, and terminate at the superior edge of the os
eorona'. Their lowest fibres prolong themselves beyond this bone to gain
the extremities uf the os naviculare, and constitute the posterior lateral
ligaments of the euHin joint.

The synovial membrane lines the posterior surface of the extensor tendons
anteriorly, the lateral ligaments, and the fibro-cartilage ; it forms posteriori}'
u cul de sac, which mounts up between this and the posterior surface of the
OS suffraginis.

TuE MOVEMENTS of this joint are simply of extension and flexion when
the muscles are in action ; but when they are relaxed there is some slight
lateral motion.

THE COFFIN JOINT 419

THE COFFIN JOINT

The coffin joint is made up of the lower end of the os coronpe, inserted
in the concavity of the pedal bone, and supported behind by the navicular
bone. These are lined by one continuous synovial cajisule, and pi'otected by
ligaments which may be divided into two sets. First, those connecting the
OS corona3 to the os pedis. Secondly, that between the os navicularo and the
OS pedis, which is of an interosseous character, being short, and composed of
very strong fibres ; and tldrdly, the ligament on each side connecting the os
navicvdare with the coronet.

1. The corono-2)edal ligaments are two on each side, one anterior and the
other posterior. The former consist of two large, thick and short bundles of

Fir,. 53. — PoRTRKioR View of
THE Coffin Joint.

A. Coronal bone.

B. Navicular bone.

C. Pedal bones.
1. Corono-navicnlar ligament.
•2. 2. Lateral ligaments of the

navicular bone.
3. Pedo-navicular ligament.

fibres attached above to the sides of the os coronse, and below to the lateral
edges of the cacumen corome of the pedal bone (see page 418). Each is
partly covered posteriorly by the lateral cartilage in which it becomes lost,
while the anterior edge is continuous with the tendon of the extensor pedis.
The jjosterior latercd ligament on each side commences above from the lower
fibres of the lateral ligament of the pastern joint, and from the sides of the
lower end of the os coronse. It descends obliquely backwaixls, and is inserted
in the retrossal process of the pedal bone, and in the upper edge of the
lateral cartilage.

2. Beticeen the os navicidare and the os jyedis is a very short but strong
band of fibres in the nature of an interosseus ligament. It arises from the
groove on the lower and fore edge of the os naviculare, and passes forward
to be attached to the back part of the plantar surface of the pedal bone.

3. Two lateral ligaments, one on each side, attach the os naviculare to the
sides of the coi-onal bone.

The synovial membrane is inserted around the margins of the cartila-
ginous articular surfaces of the os coronoe, os pedis, and os naviculaj-e ; in
front it is attached to the tendon of the extensor pedis, at the posterior part
of the OS naviculare, and between this surface and the tendon of the flexor
pedis perforans another capsule occurs.

The movements of the cofiin joint are similar to those of the fetlock and
pastern, with the addition of a very limited gliding motion enjoyed between
the OS naviculare and os pedis.

420

TTIK ANATO:\IY OF THE ITORSE

THE HIP JOINT

The coxo-ff.moral auticulatiox, ok iiih joint, is formod by tlie cotyloid
cavitv of the os innominatum receiving tlie globular head of the femur.
The articular sui-faces of each are clotlied with cartilage, excepting at the
iKttch in the former, and a rough surface on the internal side of the latter,
to which the round ligament is attached.

The Lir.AMKNTS oi this articulation are the pubio-femoral, cotyloid, trans
verse, round or ligamentum teres, and capsular.

The pnhio-femoral is situated above the cotyloid ligament, but takes a
course under tlie transverse ligament. It arises from tlie edge of tlio

Fio. 04.— PiiOFiLK View of Left IIip Joint.

1. Ilia" portion of os innoniinatum.

2. Isi'hiuni.

3. Femur.

4. Trochanter major cxtcrnus.

Cotyloid ligament.
G. Cai'Sillar ligament covering the
cotyloid ligament.

acetabulum, and from the notch in the head of the os femoris, in company
with the ligamentum teres, and is inserted at the symphysis pubis, where
it meets its fellow on the opposite side.

The edije of tlie acetabulum is deepened by a layer of fibro-cartilage, called
the cotyloid ligament. This bridges across the notch, and forms a complete
circle.

At the notch in the edge of the acetabulum, where the fibres of the
cotyloid ligament cross one another, and are continued from side to side,
so as to render the circumference complete, some fibres are added distinct
from the fibro-cartilage, and being both looser and broader, have been
named the trausverse ligament.

The iufrr-articufar round ligament, or I'ujamentum teres, is compo.sed of
three fasciculi of fibres, forming a thick, dense body, attached by one
extremity, which is round, to the pit in the head of the os femoris, and

THE HIP JOINT

421

by the other, wliich is broad and trifid, to the margins of the cotyloid
notch, where its fibres are blended with the fibro-cartilaginous ring and
transverse ligament.

The capsular ligament is attached by one exti^emity to the margin of the
acetabuham, and by the other to the edge of the cartilaginous surface of the

Fig. 5

1. 1. Iliac portion of OS inuominatum.

2. femur.

3. Head of femur.

4. Ischium.

-View of Hip Joint.

5. Pubio-feinoral ligament.

6. Transverse ligament.

7. Ligamentum teres, or round ligament.

8. Obturator foramen.

head of the femur. The superior circular edge of this cajDsule is chiefly
attached to the bone within four or five lines of the cotyloid ligament.

Movements. — The coxo-femoral articulation is one of the joints which
enjoys the most extensive and varied movements ; namely, flexion, exten-
sion, abduction, adduction, circumduction, and i^otation of the thigh upon
the pelvis. The mechanism of these diverse movements is most simple.

STIFLE JOINT, OR COXO-FEMORAL ARTICU-
LATION

The stifle joint is formed by the union of the inferior extremity of the
femur, with the superior extremity of the tibia, and the posterior surface of
the patella.

Articulatory surfaces. — To constitute this articulation, the . femur
opposes at one part its two condyles to the large undulating surfaces on
the upper extremity of the lateral tuberosities of the tibia : at the other
part its trochlear articulatory surface, to the posterior face of the patella.
Between the tibia and femur are the two semilunar cartilages.

The semilunar fibro-cartilages are two crescent-shaped bodies, placed on
the articulating surfaces at the head of the tibia, and interposed between
these and the condyles of the femur. The outer border of each is thick and
convex, the inner thin and concave ; leaving the central parts of the
superior surface of the tibia uncovered by them. The internal semilunar

4:

TlIK ANATOMY OF THE TIORSE

one superior,

cartihiifi' is neurl}- of a semi-circular form ; lariror and tliinnor tlian the
external, it is inserted by its anterior extremity to an i-xcavatiuii in front
of the tibial spine, and by its posterior extremity to a little pit behind the
spine : it is in close relation with the posterior crucial ligaments. The
ixOrnal semihtvar cartilage fixes itself in front, near the anterior insertion
of the opposite fibro-cartilage : its posterior extremity gives off two cords,
the other inferior. The foinier, which is the longer and
stronger of the two, is attacherl to the fossa at
the back of the space between the condyles. The
latter, thinner and broader, is spread out upon the
posterior edge of the external tibial articulating
surface.

The synovial luembranc lines tlie contiguous sur-
faces of the parts entering into the composition of
the stifle joint. Commencing to trace the rellections
of this membrane at the border of the patella, it
will be found to line the capsule, but below that
bone it is separated from the antenor ligaments by
a considerable quantity of adipose tissue, which pro-
longs itself to the inter-condyloid holloAV, where it
is attached ; from this it is reilected over the semi-
lunar cartilages, around the crucial ligaments, and
forais a partial covering for them, inclosing them
as far as their attaclunents. At the sides of the
patella it forms two slight folds, the ligamenta alaria.
Finally it ascends in front of the femur, and passes
downward to the margin of the patella.

2'he li'/anieufs are, first, those which imite the
femur to the tibia, consisting of the lateral, the
crucial, the posterior, the transverse, and the cap-
sular ; and, secondly, those uniting the patella to
the tibia, which are three, an external, a middle,
and an internal.

1. 77ie lateral lii/ament^ are fibrous bands, situ-
ated on the sides of the articulation, more behind
than in front ; they become relaxed during flexion,
and hold the bones strongly together during exten-
sion. The External, a rounded, cord-like fasciculus
«)f fibres (the longer and stronger) passes from the tuberosity of the external
condyle of the fenmr to the head of the fibula ; its direction is almost
vertical. The Internal, broad and flat, connects the tuberosity of the in-
ternal condyle of the femur with the upper and inner edge of the tuberosity
of the tibia. It adheres to the internal semilunar cartilage.

The crucial (»• interosseous ligaments are placed at the posterior part of
the joint, external to the synovial membi-ane, but partially invested by it.
Their direction is oblique, so that they cross or decussate somewhat like
the letter X. One is named the anterior, the other the posterior. The
Anterior is fixed by its inferior extremity to the groove formed on the
summit of the tibial spine, and by its superior extremity to the inter-
condyloid hollow, and to the inner part of the external condyle. The

Kio. 56.— Posterior View of
Stiklk Joint.

A. Inferior third of femur.

n. H. Condyles.

!t. .Sujioriur thinl of the tibi.T.

E. Fibula.

F. Patella.

1. Internal lateral ligament of

the jiatella.

2. External lateral ligament of

the femoi-o-tibial articu-
lation.

3. Internal lateral ligament of

tho femoro-tibial articu-
lation.

4. Posterior crucial ligament.

5. 5. Semilunar cartilages.

STIFLE JOINT

423

fibres which enter into its composition are slightly bent and spiral. The
Posterior, longer than the preceding, and oblique, is attached infeinorly
to the back part of the pit behind the tibial spine, and superiorly to the
fore-part of the inter-conclyloid hollow, as well as slightly to the side of the
inner condyle of the femur ; its fibres are directed upwards and forwards.

The 2^osterior ligament, Ugamentum pasticum, belongs to the class of
membranous ligaments ; it is formed of white and yellow fibres, which
interlace with one another in different ways, and
is pierced by numerous openings for the transit
of blood-vessels, etc. It is attached by its superior
border beneath the coiidyles of the femur, and by
its inferior to the posterior circumference of the
superior tibial surface. Its internal surface em-
braces the condyles of the femur, and adheres to
the posterior crucial ligament, as well as to the
inter-articular semilunar cartilages.

The transverse ligament. — Towards the front
of the Joint the convex borders of the inter-
articular fibro-cartilages are connected together by
a transverse band, denominated the transverse
ligament.

Under the head of the capsidar ligament are
described certain strong portions of fibrous mem-
brane which cover exposed parts of the synovial
sac. The first, the longest and strongest, termin-
ates in the pit situated on the inter-condyline
hollow. The second, thin and flattened, is in-
serted upon the external surface of the tibia.
The third passes from the outer edge of the patella
to the external condyle of the femur (see ,_ Figs.
57 and 58). The fourth corresponds with this
on the inner side of the joint. These are some-
times described as independent ligaments.

2. Ligaments of the patella. The external
lateral ligament is the longest and strongest, being
a flattened band attached by its inferior extremity
to the supero-anterior point of the tubei'osity of
the tibia, and by its superior to the anterior sur-
face of the patella. This ligament is united to
the internal ligament by an aponeurotic expansion, which is very resisting.

The internal ligainent of the patella forms also a flattened band, longer,
but not so large as, and thinner than, the preceding. Its inferior extremity
is attached to the internal side of the anterior tuberosity of the tibia. Its
superior extremity, much thickened, becomes fibro-cartilaginous, and is
inserted in the projection on the inner and upper border of the patella.

The middle ligavient, a rounded cord (situated, as its name indicates,
between the two preceding ligaments), covers and assists in protecting the
synovial capsule in front.

Movements. — During flexion and extension, which are the chief
motions permitted, the semilunar fibro-cartilages which are fixed on the

F F

Fig. I

'.—External View or the
Left Stifle Joint.

A. FeiT'.ur.

B. External condyle of femixr.

C. Trochlea.

D. Tibia.

E. Fibula.

F. Patella.

1. Strong band of fibres.

2. External lateral ligament, or

the capsular ligament, con-
necting the patella with
the external condyle.

Great ligament of the pa-
tella.

External ligament of the
patella.

Semilunar flbro-cartilage.

3. 3.

4. 4.

5. 5.

.}21 TIIK ANATOMY OF THE HORSE

.superior tihi.-il .surfai-os, tiaiisfdniiiiiL; tlioin into glciiuid cavities, move upon
the citiulylos of the foiuur, from bi-ftire backwards, or from behind forwards,
according to the movement executed. But at the same time they glide,
in a very appreciable manner, upon tlio superior extremity of the tibia.
Thus, at the time of ilexion, they move from behind forwards upon thia
extrcnnty, and are brought backwards during extension. Rotation takes
place from within to without, or vice versa, and is produced not only by
the first movement of the cond^-les in their glenoid cavities, but by the
displacing of the semilunar cartilages on the superior extremity of the
tibia.

TIBIO-FIBULAR ARTICULATION

Tins ARTICULATION' is formed by the union of the little arthrodial spot,
found at the internal sui'face of the head of the fibula, with a corre-
sponding surface upon the external and superior tuberosity of the tibia.
Short and strong fibres envelop these surfaces on the sides, and keep them
firmly in contact. The fibula is again attached to the tibia — 1st, above, by
little ligamentous bundles, ci'osscd in the shape of an X, which form the
superior part of the arcade, or bridge, formed between the tibia and fibula ;
2nd, in tlic middle, by a .sort of aponeurotic membrane, of which the breadth
diminishes from above downwards, like that of the interval which it fills ;
3rd, below, by a ligamentous band, which joins the fibula to the external
tuberosity of the inferior extremity of the tibia, where this cord divides
and unites with the two external lateral ligaments of the tibio-tarsal
arti 'ulation.

The movements of this articulation are very limited.

THE HOCK JOINT

Two BONES only concur to form the ginglymu.s, or true hinge, constituting
the hock joint : these arc the tibia and astragalus. Tico artkniatory surfaces
are situated on the sides of the inferior extremity of the tibia, presenting
two cavities, separated by an eminence, upon which a little spot often
exists, uncovered by cartilage of incrustation. The astragalus presents, on
its antero-superior border, two semicircular prominences, separated by a
deep cavity which exactly corresponds to the inferior tibial eminence just
mentionecl, all being covered by cartilage.

The tihia and astrar/abts are united by seven ligaments : two external
lateral, three internal lateral, one anterior, and a posterioi*.

The external lateral ligaments are two, distinguished according to their
relative position. The superjicial external ligament is a large cord, flattened
in its inferior lialf. It descends from the external tuberosity of the tibia,
behind the groove which separates this into two parts : taking a vertical
course, it attaches itself succes.sfully to the astragalus, the os calcis, os
cuboidcs the large metatarsal bone, and to the head of the small external
metatarsal bones. This ligament gives off fibres, anti'riorly to the tendon
of the extensor pedis, and behind it mixes with the oalcaneo-metatai-sal

THE HOCK JOINT

425

ligament. The deep-seated external ligament, much shorter than the pre-
ceding, is attached superiorly upon the anterior part of the external tuber-
osity of the tibia ; it takes a course obliquely downwards, to the outer side
of the astragalus and os calcis, where it is attached.

Fig. 58. — External View of
THE Hock Joint.

A. Tibia.

B. External malleolus of tibia.

C. Os calcis.

D. Large metatarsal bone.

E. Caii.sular ligament o] lonod and

jiartially removed.

F. Prominence in head of ex-

ternal small metatarsal
bone, sometimes mistaken
for cnrb.

G. Astragalus.
H. Cuboid bone.

1. Scaphoid bone.
K. Cuneiform bone.

2. 2. Calcaneo-tibial ligament.

3 (fe 4. Ligaments between the
astragalus and os calcis.

5. Cuboido-metatarsal ligament.

6. Great calcaneo-cuboid liga-

ment.

The internal lateral Ugame^its. — These are three cord-like bands, of which
there is one superficial, one median, and one deep-seated. The superficial
internal ligament, the strongest and largest of the three, arises from the
infero-intei'nal tuberosity of the tibia, and inserts itself on the astragalo-

FiQ. 59. — Internal View oj
THE Hock Joint.

A. Tibia.

B. In ternal malleolus.

C. Os calcis.

D. Large metatarsal bone.

E. Internal small metatarsal

bone.

F. External small • metatarsal

bone.

G. Astragalus.

H. Scaphoid bone.

1. 1. Ligament common to the

OS calcis, astragalus, and
internal small metatarsal
bone.

2. Ligament between the tibia

and astragalus.

3. Calcaneo-astragalan ligament.

4. Ligament between the astraga-

lus and OS calcis.

5. Calcaneo-cuboid ligament.

6. Calcaneo-metatarsal ligament.

metatarsal ligament, to the tuberosity on the internal surface of the astra-
galus, the small cuneiform bone, and to the internal borders of the two
remaining tarsal bones, viz. the scaphoid and cuneiform, and to the upper
and inner surface of the large metatarsal bone, and head of the inner small
splint bone. The median internal ligament is composed of two cords,
attached in common beneath the preceding, to the internal tubei"osity of

42G THE ANATOMY OF THE H0K8E

the til)ift ; tlioy tuko a coui-se backwards and downwards, and ti-nninatc,
one on the a.stia;,'alus, tlit* other upon the lower and inner surface of tho
08 cnlcis. The iiitinial (hrji l!(/anieiit is an extremely thin band ; it is
attached alM>ve to the tibia, just below the attachment of the middle liga-
ment, and below to the iislra;4alus, nearly at the same point as the suiierior
insertion of the middle lij;ament.

y/w aiitrrliiv /i(/it)Nriit is a thin layer, formed of decussating fibres,
stronger without than witliin, atladied by its superior edge to the tibia, and
by its inferior edges to the astragalus and to the os euneiforme parvum.

7'hr jtontvrior li>j(tnieut, similar in structure to the anterior, is attached to
the wime bones, behind their articular surfaces.

The st/uovial vicmhraue is de\eloped on the internal surface of the two
capsular ligaments, covered also by the three internal and the external deep
ligaments.

^Movements. — This joint allows only of flexion and extension ; but to
Avoid contact between the foot and the tibia in the act of flexion, the tibio-
nstragalan articulation causes tho bones below to deviate outwards, owing
to the obliiiuity of the articular surfaces.

ARTICULATIONS BETWEEN THE BONES
OF THE TARSUS

The cai.canko-asthaoalan ai{ticulatio\ between tlie bones <tf the first
row is a compound arthrodia, resulting from the coaptatitm of three or four
articular surfaces on the posterior face of the astragalus to corresponding
faccttes on the antero inferior part of the os calcis. The lateral ligaments
of the tibio tarsal articulation are common to this joint; and we .also have
four ligaments proper to it, a superior, external, internal, and an interosseous
ligament.

The siij>rrior aatvayalo-calcaiican lujanicnt, formed of very shoit and
parallel fibres thrown from one bone to the other, is situated near the
superior extremity of the trochleiw astragalan surface, and lined by the
.synovial membrane of the tibio-tarsal articulation.

The lateral I'ujamcitts are two very thin bundles, which unite the os calcis
to the astragalus laterally, hidden under the ligaments which bind the tibia
to the tarsus.

The inlerosaeoiis lUjnment is very strong, and occupies a great part of
the roughened excavations which separate the arthrodial surfaces of the
OS calcis and astragalus. These do not possess proper synovial membranes,
that is, membranes proper to each, with the exception of one, formed on
the upper and outer part of this articulation, wliere a distinct synovial
niembranc exists. The superior arthrodial surface is, however, .sometimes
Kuppliwl with synovial membrane, 1)y a prolongation from the tibio-tarsal
capsule. Two prolongations ascend from the capsule of this articulation
Ih'Iow the inferior arthrodial surf.ices of the os calcis and astragalus, and
thus facilitate a gliding motion, whieh is very limited.

Tni: MOVEMENTS are so limited as to be almost null.

In the akti(UL.\tions of the bones of the second row among them-
selves, the cuboid bone joins with the os scaphoides by two arthrotUal sur-

ARTICULATIONS BETWEEN BONES OF THE TARSUS 427

face?, one anterior, the other posterior ; and also with the os cuneiforme
magnum by two similar surfaces. The os scaphoides articulates with the
magnum by a vast convex surface ; the cuneiforme and magnum articulate
internally and laterally with the parvum.

The ligaments which keep these diarthrodial surfaces in contact are
numerous. The astragalo metatarsal and the posterior tarso-metatarsal
ligaments are common to this articulation. They consist of —

Two anterior ligaments, running from the cuboid to the os scaphoides
and magnum, one above and the other below the groove between these three
bones.

Two interosseous ligaments from tlie superior and inferior sides of the
forenamed groove.

An interosseous ligament, running from the os scaphoides to the cunei-
forme parvum.

An interosseous ligament running from the os scaphoides to the cunei-
forme magnum.

The synovial membrane is foi^med between the os scaphoides and os
cuneiforme : this membrane belongs also to the two arthrodial surfaces
existing on the upper parts of the internal surface of the os cuboides and
OS cuneiforme parvum. A capsule pi^oper also exists between the superior
surface of the astragalus, the superior surface of the os scaphoides, and os
cuboides. As to the arthrodial surfaces between the os cuneiforme medium
on the one side, and the os cuboides and cuneiforme parvum on the other,
they are supplied with synovial membranes by two prolongations from the
tarso metatarsal synovial capsule.

Movements. — Scarcely any.

Articulations between the two rows. — This arthrodia is formed by
the union of the inferior extremity of the astragalus and os calcis, on the
one part, with the superior extremity of the os scaphoides and os cuboides
on the other. This articulation has six principal ligaments.

The two suj)erficial lateral ligaments of the tibio-tarsal articulation.

The calcaneo-metatarsal ligament, which unites the posterior border of
the OS calcis to the cuboid bone and to the head of the external small meta-
tarsal bone.

The astragalo-metatai'sal ligament is a large radiating fasciculus, whose
fibres run from the tuberosity of the astragalus, diverge, and become con-
founded with the internal supei-ficial tarsal ligaments on the ossa cunei-
forme magnum, scaphoides, and the superior extremity of the large meta-
tarsal bone.

The posterior tarso-metatarsal ligament is very strong, and unites, poste-
riorly, the tarsal bones to the three metatarsal bones ; it is continuous
below with the suspensory ligament ; it mixes at the sides with the cal-
caneo-metatarsal ligament, and with the internal and sujierficial tarsal
ligament.

An interosseous ligament is attached to the four bones which form this
articulation.

It is provided with a synovial capsule, which always communicates
in front with the tibio-tarsal capsule. This capsule prolongs itself supe-
riorly between the os calcis and astragalus, to lubricate the two inferior
arthrodial surfaces between these bones. It also descends between the

428 THE AXATO:\[Y OF THE ITORSE

OS scaphoidcs, os cuboidos, and the little artlirodial spots between the 08
cuneifunne and os cub<»idos.

Movements. — Xwy limited ; gliding motion is only enjoyed.

THE TARSO-METATARSAL ARTICULATION

This joint is formed by the meeting of three bones of the tarsus (the
cuboid, OS cuneiforme magnum, and os cuneiforme parvum), with the supei-ior
extremities of the three metatarsal bones, which arc kept in contact tlu'ough
the medium of the superficial lateral ligaments of the tibio-tarsal articulation,
the calcaneo-metatarsal and asti-agalo-metatarsal ligaments, and by a strong
interosseous ligament, divided into three fasciculi, which are attached
inferiorly to the three metatarsal bones.

The propeu synovial capsule of this joint mounts between the
cuboido-scajihoid arthrodial surfaces and those which unite the ossa cunei-
forme magnum and par\uni ; it descends between the inter-metatarsal
articulations.

Movements. — Similar to the preceding.

INTER-METATARSAL ARTICULATIONS

These are precisely similar to the inter-metacarpal articulations described
at page 412.

REMAINING ARTICULATIONS OF THE POS-
TERIOR MEMBERS

The descriptions of the several joints of the fore-iimbs at pages 395, 396,
397, will sulhce for those of the hind-legs.

PHYSIOLOGY OF MUSCLE 429

CHAPTER XX

THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM

PHYSIOLOGY OF MUSCLE — CUTANEOUS MUSCLES — MUSCLES OF THE HEAD — ANTERIOR
MAXILLARY REGION — SIUSCLES WHOSE OFFICE IT IS TO MOVE THE LOWER JAW —
MUSCLES OF THE EXTERNAL EAR — EXTERNAL MUSCLES OF THE EYELIDS — OCULAR
REGION — MUSCLES OF THE TONGUE — MUSCLES OF THE PHARYNX — LARYNGEAL REGION
— PALATINE REGION— SUPERFICIAL MUSCLES OF THE NECK AND TRUNK — LATERAL
CERVICAL REGION — INFERIOR CERVICAL REGION — SUPERIOR CERVICO-OCCIPITAL REGION
— INFERIOR CERVICO-OCCIPITAL REGION — MUSCLES CONNECTING THE SCAPULA WITH
THE HEAD, NECK, AND CHEST — MUSCLES OF THE THORAX — DORSAL REGION — MUSCLES
OF THE ABDOMEN — SUPERFICIAL ABDOMINAL REGION — DEEP ABDOMINAL REGION — •
PELVIC REGION — MUSCLES OF THE FORE EXTREMITY — EXTERNAL SCAPULAR REGION
— ANTERO-INFERIOR SCAPULAR REGION — THE INTERNAL SCAPULAR REGION — POSTERO-
EXTERNAL SCAPULAR REGION — THE ANTERO-EXTERNAL HUMERAL REGION — THE
POSTERO-INTERNAL HUMERAL REGION — MUSCLES OF THE ARM AND FORE-LEG — MUSCLES
OF THE HAUNCH — GLUTEAL REGION — EXTERNAL ILIO-FEMORAL REGION — ANTERIOR IIIO-
FEMORAL REGION — INTERNAL ILIO-FEMORAL REGION — THE DEEP MUSCLES OF THE IIIO-
FEMORAL REGION — ANTERIOR FEMORO-CRURAL REGION — POSTERIOR FEMORO-CRURAL
REGION.

PHYSIOLOGY OF MUSCLE

With trifling exceptions the whole of the movements of the body and limbs
are performed by the agency of that peculiar substance, known in our butchers'
shops as " flesh," and recognized by anatomists as muscular tissue. This
constitutes the chief bulk of the soft parts external to the three great
cavities (the cranial, thoracic, and abdominal), and in the half-starved subject
of the knacker or highly-trained race-horse, in which the fat has almost
entirely disappeared, the ordinary observer will detect nothing but muscles
(with their tendons) and bones beneath the skin covering the limbs. On the
trunk they are spread out into layers varying in thickness, sometimes inter-
rupted by flat tendons, so as to form, at the same time, a protection to the
organs within, easily capable of extension or contraction, and a means of
moving the several parts upon each other.

Tendons resemble ligaments in being composed of white fibrous tissue,
described at page 393. They serve to connect muscle with bone, and are
useful as affording an agent for this purpose of much less compass than
muscle itself, and also of a structure not so easily injured by external
violence. Thus they are generally met with around the joints, the muscular
substance chiefly occupying the space between them. There are three
varieties of tendon. L Fimicular, consisting of cord-like bands ; 2 Fasci-
cula7; including bands of a flatter and more expanded nature ; and 3.
Aponeu7-otic, which are membranous, and are chiefly met with around the
abdomen. The fibres are firmly attached to the bones, which generally
present rough surfaces for this purpose, and are also closely incorporated
with the periosteum. This union is so strong that it very rarely gives way;
and when extreme violence is used, either the bone itself breaks, or the
tendon snaps in its middle. Tendons are non-elastic.

430 THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE

To THE NAKF.D EYE an ordinary musolo appears to be composed of a
number of small bundles of fibres, arranged in parallel linca, and connected
by a fine membrane. These bundles may still further be separated into
what seems at first to be elementary fibres ; but wlien placed in the micro-
scope, they are found to be themselves made up of finer fibres united into
fasciculi by delicate filaments. These ultimate fibrilhe arc polyhedral in
section, according to the observations of INIr. Bowman, so as to pack closely
tOgethei-, and are variable in size in different classes and genera of animals.
They also differ in appearance, one class presenting stripes wliile the other is
without thom. The former includes all the muscles wliose movements are
under the control of the will as well as those of the heart, and .some of the
fibres of the a-.sophagus, while the latter is composed of the muscles investing
the stomach, intestines, bladder, etc., which aro comprehended under tho
general term involuntary.

The Sarcolemma is the name given by 'Mv. Bowman to the areolar tissue
investing each fibre, sometimes also called myolemma. It is very delicate
and transparent, but tough and elastic ; in general it has no appearance of
any specilic structure, but sometimes it presents an aspect as if there was an
interweaving of filaments.

When a fibkilla of striated muscle is examined under tiie microscope
of a high magnifying power, it is seen to present a beaded appearance, as
if made up of a linear aggregation of distinct cells, alternately light and
dark. When the fibrilla is relaxed, each cell is longer than it is broad ;
but, during the action of the muscle, it assumes the opposite dimensions,
the increase in one diameter being always in proportion to the diminution
of the other. As the contraction takes place the substance becomes firmer
than before, but the bulk remains the same, the mass merely gaining in
thickness what it has lost in length. The application of certain stimu-
lating agents will produce the contraction for a certain period after life
is destroyed, varying according to the vitality of the animal experimented
upon and the nature of the individual muscle. This is called irritability
in the striated muscles, which exhibit powerful contractions, alternating
with relaxations — while in the involuntar}" muscles a more steady, per-
manent, and moderate contraction is met with, to which the name of tonicity
has been given.

Pi' re muscular fibre appears to be identical in composition with the
fil)rine of the blood, being made up of about seventy-seven parts water,
fifteen and a half parts fibrine, and seven and a half parts of fixed salts. The
whole of the flesh of the body is largely supplied with blood, and it is found
by experiment, on the one hand, that if this is cut off contraction ceases
very speedily after ; and on the other, that in proportion to the amount of
muscular action will be the demand for fresh supplies of blood. None of the
striated muscles, except the heart and the muscles of respiration, can go on
acting without intervals of rest, during which repairs in their structure are
effected. If, therefore, the voluntary muscles are to be brought into tho
highest state of vigour and development of size, they must be regularly
exercised and rested at proper intervals. During the former condition
blood is attracted to them, and at the same time that fluid itself is rendered
more fit for the p\irposes of nutrition ; while during the latter period the
increased flow of blood continuing allows for a complete reparation of the

CUTANEOUS MUSCLES 431

tissues. Thus we find the muscles of the well-trained race-horse full and
firm to the touch ; but if sufficient intervals of rest are not allowed between
his gallops, they will present a very different feel, being flabby and wasted,
and indicating that he has been " overworked."

The voluntary muscles assume various shapes, according to their posi-
tions and offices. Sometimes they are merely long strips of muscular
tissue, with a very short tendon at each end, as in the levator humeri,
and are then called fusiform. At others their fibres radiate, as in the
latissimus dorsi, which is hence called a radiating muscle. A third set
ai'e called ppAiniforrti, from their fibres being attached to one side of a
tendon, or hipenniform, when they are fixed to both sides like the full
tail or wing feather of a bird. A muscle with two masses of its tissue
connected in the middle by a tendon is called digastric.

The special nomenclature of muscles is founded upon: 1st, their posi-
tion, as tibialis, pterygoideus, zygomaticus ; 2nd, upon their action, as
flexor, extensor, levator ; 3rd, upon their direction, as obliquus, rectus,
transversalis ; 4th, upon their attachments, as scapulo ulnaris ; and 5th,
upon their division into separate portions or heads, as biceps, triceps,
digastricus, etc.

In describing each muscle it is usual to speak of it as having an origin
from one bone, or set of bones, and an insertion into another, the former
term being generally assigned to the more fixed division of the two. This is,
however, merely for the sake of convenience, and is entirely arbitraiy.

BuRS^ MUCOSA, which are shut sacs, varying in size from that of a pea to
a moderate pear, and lined with synovial membrane (see page 395), are placed
on all the prominent points of bone over which tendons glide. Thus there
is a large one on the point of the hock, and another on the elbow, both of
which sometimes inflame and become filled with synovia, constituting the
states known as capped hock and elbow. A third situation is just above the
sesamoid bones, where the swelling from inflammation receives the name
of windgall. Where, as in the legs, the tendons have to glide to a great
extent, they are invested with synovial sheaths, which are bound down by
white fibrous tissue at the points where the strain is the greatest. In the
LIMBS the muscles are bound up into masses by strong but thin layers of
intercrossed white fibrous tissue, which receives the name of fascia. In
the hoi^se this is very firmly attached to the surface of the muscles beneath,
and greatly interferes with the clean dissection of them.

CUTANEOUS MUSCLES

Immediately beneath the skin there is a thin layer of muscle, spread
over nearly the whole surface of the body, and called panniculus carnosus.
It is attached internally to some of the most prominent points of the
skeleton, chiefly through the intervention of the fascia, which binds down
the various groups of muscles. Externally it is inserted at short intervals
into the inner surface of the skin, and into the cellular membrane beneath
it. Its action is to throw the skin into folds or wrinkles, in so sudden a
manner as to dislodge flies or other irritating insects. It is also powerful
enough to shake off particles of dust or dirt which have fallen upon the
part, and are not glued to it by an}' adhesive matter

432

THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE

MUSCLES OF THE HEAD

TuE MUSCLES OF THE HEAD iirc in numlKT above .sixty, cliiefly arrangexl
in pairs, which correspond exactly with each other. Want of space will
not permit a minute description of each ; but the most important will
be found alluded to sufficiently to give an idea of their position and
action —

Fin. CO.— ScPERFiciAL Muscles of tuf. IIrad.

1. Massptpr.

2. Nasalis longus labii superioris.

3. 4. Levator lubii superioris alseque nasi.

5. Dilatitor naris lateralis.

6. Zygoinaticu.').

7. Hotractor labii inferioris.

8. Depressor labii inferioris.

0. Dilatator naris anterior.

10. 10. Orbicularis oris.

11. a. a. Orbicularis palpebrarum.

— 6. Levator palpebixe superioris, or comigatoi
sujiercilii.

12. Parotido auricularig.

13. Splenius.

ANTERIOR MAXILLARY REGION

Zygomaticus. — Situation on the middle of the side of the face. Origin —
from the anterior two-thirds of the zygomatic ridge. Insertion — to the angle
of the mouth. Action — to retract the angle of the mouth.

Levator labii superioris al.«;que nasi is situated on and above the
side of the face. Origin — from the lachr}'Tiial, malar, and superior maxillary
bones. Insertion — to the supero-posterior part of the nasal opening, and to
the anteroinferior part of the nostril and upper lip. Action — to dilate the
nostrils and to retract the upper lip.

Retractor labii superioris is situated on the side of the face.
Origin — from the anterior part of the zygomatic ridge, and from the
corresponding part of the superior maxillary bone. Insertion — to the
sides of the no.stril and superolateral parts of the upper lip. Action — to
retract the upper lip.

Nasalis longus labii superioris is situated on the upper part of the face.
Origin — from the infero-extcrnal part of the lachrymal and malar bones,
and from the inferior part of the superior maxillary bone ; at the cartilages

MUSCLES OF THE HEAD 433

of the nose the tendons, the one on the right side and the other on the left,
blend together and unite in one common tendon, which is inserted upon
the superior part of the uj^per lip. Action — to corrugate the upper lip, and
thence to raise it.

Caninus is situated over the two anterior molar teeth. Origin — from the
superior maxillary bone, near its junction with the anterior maxilla. Insertion
— to a roughened depression on the inferior maxillary bone, just behind the
lower tush. Action — to assist in closing the mouth.

Dilatator naris anterior is situated in front of and between the nostrils.
Origin — from the supei'O-anterior surface of the os nasi. Insertion — to the
anterior part of the alar cartilages, blending with the orbicularis oris.
Action — to I'aise the uj^per lip.

Nasalis brevis labii superioris is situated behind the nostrils. Origin
— from the superior and anterior maxillary bones, and from the suture
uniting them. Insertion — to the supero-anterior part of the septum nasi,
and to the skin of the false nostrils. Action — to dilate the nostrils.

Buccinator is situated between the upper and lower jaws. Origin —
from the tuberosity of the superior maxillaiy bone, and from the outer walls
of the alveolar cavities of the upper molar teeth. Insertion — to the outer
walls of the alveolar cavities of the lower molar teeth. In front it is
blended with the orbicularis oris. Action — to draw back the angle of the
lips, and tighten the outer wall of the mouth.

Retractor labii inferioris is situated on the anterior part of the lower
jaw. Origin — from the extemial part of the lower jaw, just behind the last
molar tooth. Insertion — to the inferior part of the lower lip. This muscle
blends with the orbicularis oris. Action — to retract the lower lip.

Naso transversalis is situated between the two alar cartilages. This
muscle runs between the antero-internal borders of each cartilage to which
it is attached, and its action tends to approximate them.

Depressor labii superioris lies upon the anterior part of the upper jaw.
Origin — from the anterior maxillary bone, and from the outer border of the
alveoli of the incisor teeth, extending as far back as the tush. Insertion —
to the upper lip and inferior nasal cartilages. Action — to assist in dilating
the nostrils, and in retracting the upj)er lip.

Orbicularis oris. — This sphincter muscle is situated within the border
of the lips. Origin — from the outer surfaces of the superior and inferior
maxillary bones. Insertion — it interlaces with its own fibres at the angles,
and is also attached to the glandular substance and skin of the lips. Action
— to contract the opening of the lips, and compress them against the jaws.

Depressor labii inferioris lies along the side of the lower jaw. Origin
— from the side of the lower jaw, close to that of the buccinator. Insertion —
into the fat of the prominence of the chin.

Levator menti is a little square muscle bracing the soft parts, covering
the chin, up against the jaw. It aiuses from the edge of the alveolar process
of the corner tooth on one; side, passes beneath the chin, and meets there its
fellow of the opposite side.

434 THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE

MUSCLES WHOSE OFFICE IT IS TO MOVE THE

LOWER JAW

Temporalis is sitiuitod on the top :uk1 sides of the head. Orir/in — from
the occipital, parietal, s(|uamt)us plate, and zyi,'omatic process of the temporal
bones. Jnsprtion — to the coronuid process of the lower jaw. Action — to
raise the lower jaw, and thus to assist in mastication.

Masseter forms the prominence of the cheek. Or'ujin — from the inferior
surface of the zygomatic ridge. Insertion — to the whole of the external
surface of the angle of the lower jaw. Action — to elevate the lower jaw,
and thus assist in mastication.

Stylo maxillarls lies behind the lower jaw. Origin — from the styloid
process of the occipital bone. Insertiun — to the angle of the lower jaw.
Action — to retract the jaw and assist in opening the mouth.

Pterygoideus externus lies within the jaw. Origin — from the ala of
the sphenoid bone. Insertion — into the rough depression at the inner side
of the root of the condjde of the jaw. Action — to raise the jaw and draw
it forwards.

Pterygoideus ixterxus is situated below the external pter3'goid, and
passes in a more horizontal direction. Oriyin — from the ala of the sphe-
noid bone, from the palate bone, and the tuberosity of the superior maxillary
bone. Insertion — to the inner side of the angle of the jaw. Action — each
muscle acting separately draws the jaw towards the opposite side, and the
two acting alternately produce the grinding motion necessary for reducing
the food.

MUSCLES OF THE EXTERNAL EAR

Six pairs of muscles move the cartilage of the ears in all directions ; but
they are not of sutlicient importance to require any description here.

EXTERNAL MUSCLES OF THE EYELIDS

Orbicularis palpebrarum is a layer of thin muscular fibre, shown at Fig.
60 a a. It forms a plane around the edge of the lids, extending upwards
and downwards, and having a tendon at the inner angle, by which it is
attached to the frontal and lachrj'mal bones Its action is to close the lids
and draw them towards the inner angle.

Levator palpebr.e superioris. — Fig. GO i is a thin slip of muscle which
is attached above to the aponeurotic expansion and skin of the forehead,
and below to the orbicularis palpebrarum. Its action is to raise the upper
eyelid and wrinkle the brow.

MUSCLES OF THE NECK AND TRUNK 435

OCULAR REGION

Eight muscles are lodged within the orbit for moving the eyelid and eye.
They are severally named from the offices which they perform.

MUSCLES OF THE TONGUE

Ten muscles are attached to the os hyoides, or bone of the tongue, for the
purpose of moving it backwards and laterally, and also to serve as agents in
the various movements of the tonirue.

MUSCLES OF THE PHARYNX

As the mouth contracts to form the funnel-shaped tube which ends in
the oesophagus, the latter is clothed with several muscles, which aid in
driving the food backwards. These are the hyo-pharyngeus and palato-
pharyngeus and the three constrictors of the pharnyx.

LARYNGEAL REGION

The cartilages op the larynx are moved by seven pairs of small but
beautifully defined muscles, named after their attachments.

PALATINE REGION

Two muscles move the soft palate, the tensor palati and cii'cumflexus
palati ; but they can only be made out by a careful dissection of these
parts.

SUPERFICIAL MUSCLES OF THE NECK AND

TRUNK

The muscles of the neck and trunk are so intimately blended together
by their several attachments that they must be examined together. It will
be impossible to describe more than the superficial ones ; but the most
important being those which connect the trunk with the extremities, they
will be selected as more especially deserving attention.

436

THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE

LATERAL CERVICAL REGION

Splenius is situated on tlie superiur i);irt of tlio neck. Origin — from
the tlirce anterior dorsal spines. Inserlion — to the mastoid process of the
petrous portion of the temporal bone, Ci'cst of the occiput, wing of the

Fio. 61.— Superficial Muscles of the Neck and Trcsk.

Paratiflo anrioularis, turneil back, showing 34.

parotitl pland. 35.

17. Levator Inimeri. 30.

Stenio-maxillaris. 37.

Splenius. 38.

Cen'ical port ion of serratus magntis. 39.

Cen'ical jiortion of tra]iezius. 40.

Dorsal portion of tnijiezius. 41.

Latissinius tlorsi. 42.

Costal digitations of serratus niagnus. 43.

d. d. d. d. etc. Intercostal muscles. 44.

Deltoid. 45.

Postea siiinatus. 40.

Triceits extensor brachii. 47.

Srajmlo ulnaris. 48.

Pectonilis transversus. 49.

Extensor jicdis. 60.

Extensor ossis suffraginis. 51.
Flexor mctacari"i externus

Flexor nietacariii internus.

nieilius.

30. Obliqnus abdominis externus.

Suiierticialis costaruni.

filuteus inaxinius.

Tensor vaginic fenioris.

Gluteus externus.

Triceps alxluctor feinoris (part).

Seini-uienibranosus and semi-tendinosua.

> Triceps abductor fenioris (remainder).

45. Extensor pedis.

Flexor pedis accessorius.

Flexor pedis perforaus.

Peroneus.

Flexor pedis perforatus. "

Gastroeneniius internus.

Tendon of gastrocnemius exteraus.

atlas, transverse process of the second, third, fourth, and fifth cervical
vertebra, and to the lateral parts of the ligamentum nuchoe. Action — to
draw the head on one side, when one muscle acts ; when both together to
erect the head.

Compll:.\us major is situated under the splenius. Orijin — from the

SUPERIOR CERVICO-OCCIPITAL REGION" 437

transverse processes and spines of the six anterior dorsal vertebrpe. Insertion
• — to the obHque pi'ocesses of all the cervical vertebrae, wing of the atlas,
tubercle on the occipital crest, lateral parts of the ligamentum nvichce, and
by blending with the tendon of the splenius to the mastoid process of the
petx'ous portion of the temporal bone. Action — to erect the head.

Traciielo mastoideus is deeply seated under the splenius. Ori(jin —
from the transverse processes of the two anterior dorsal spines. Insertion
— to the oblique processes of all the cervical vertebrae, wing of the atlas,
and mastoid process of the petrous portion of the temporal bone. Action
— similar to the splenius.

Spinalis colli lies close to the bodies of the vertebrte, between their
oblique and spinous processes. Orvjin — from the oblique processes, of the
five posterior cervical vertebrte and the first dorsal. Lwcrtion — to the
spinous processes of all the cervical vertebrce but the atlas. Action — to bend
the neck upwards and backwards.

INFERIOR CERVICAL REGION

Sterno-maxillaris is situated on the inferior part of the neck. Origin
— from the supero-anterior part of the cariniform cartilage. Insertion —
(opposite the thyroid body it becomes tendinous) to the posterior angle
of the inferior maxillary bone. Action — to depress the lower jaw, and,
through it, the whole head.

Sterno-thyro hyoideus is situated above the sterno-maxillaris. Origin
— from the infero-internal part of the first rib, and from the supero-anterior
part of the carinifoi'm cartilage. Insertion — half-way up the neck it
bifurcates, one part going to the postero-external part of the body of the
thyroid cartilage, the other to the spur process of the os hyoides. Action
— to draw the tongue and larynx backwards and downwards.

Subscapulo hyoideus is situated on the antero-superior part of the neck.
Origin — from the supero-internal part of the body of the humerus, just
below the inner tubercle. Insertion — to the under side of the root of the
spur process of the os hyoides. Action — to depress the os hyoides, or if that
is fixed, to aid the last muscle in lowering the head.

SUPERIOR CERVICO-OCCIPITAL REGION

Five pairs of small and short muscles connect the atlas and dentata
with the head, occupying the space known as the poll. These are com-
plexus minor, rectus capitis posticus major and minor, obliquus capitis
superior and inferior. Their action is to raise the head and preserve the
union of the bones intact.

Scalenus connects the first rib with the two posterior cervical verLebrte.
Action — to depress the neck, and, when that is fixed, to raise the first rib
in forcible inspiration.

LoNGUS COLLI is deeply seated on the under side of the vertebra. lo arises
by fleshy digltations from the bodies of the six anterior dorsal vertebra, and

438 THE ANATOMY OF THE IIOKSE

is inserted into tlic bodies, transverse processes, and lower s^^ines of all the
cervical vertebnT', except the atlas, which has a tendinous insertion only
into its body. Action — to Ilex the neck.

INFERIOR CERVICO-OCCIPITAL REGION

This is occupied by three muscles, antagonists to those of the poll. They
are rectus capitis anticus major and minor and obliquus capitis anticus, and
connect the bodies and transverse processes of the cervical vertebrse with
the cuneiform process of the occipital bone. Their action is to bend the head
on the neck.

MUSCLES CONNECTING THE SCAPULA WITH
THE HEAD, NECK, AND CHEST

Besides the subscapulo hyoideus, which has been described in con
nection with the inferior cervical region, the following nine muscles con-
nect the shoulder with the head, neck, and chest. When these are
dissected, the anterior extremity may be removed and separately examined.
The two first may be considered as occupying the humero-cervical region,
the three next the dorso-scapular region, and the four last the scapulo-
thoracic region.

Levator humeri is situated on the antero inferior and lateral parts of
the neck. Origin — from the mastoid process of the petrous portion of
the temporal bone, crest of the occipital bone, wing of the atlas, and
transverse processes of the second, third, fourth, and sometimes fifth
cervical vertebra?. Insertion — slightly to the spine of the scapula and
shoulder-joint ; to the inferior part of the ridge of the humerus, that
extends from the outer part of the outer tubei'cle ; and to a depression,
"scaber canalis," on the antero-inferior part, with the pectoralis traus-
versus. Action — to raise and draw the shoulder forwards ; to turn the
neck on one side ; or, should both nmscles act at one and the same time,
to depress the head.

Rhomboideus longus is situated on the supero-lateral part of the neck.
Origin — fi'om the lateral part of the ligamentum nuchoe as far anteriorly as
the third cervical vertebra, and posteriorly as far as the anterior part of the
second dorsal spine. Insertion — to the inner surface of the superior angle,
border, and cartilage of the scapula. Action — to draw the scapula upwards
and forwards.

Trapezius is situated upon the side of the withers and neck It presents
the figure of a right-angled triangle. Orijin — from the ligamentum nuchco
and spines of the dorsal vertebra? as far back as the eleventh. Insertion —
to a tubercle on the spine of the scapula. Action — to elevate the scapula,
and to draw it forwards and backwards.

Latissimus dorsi is situated on the lateral part of the chest and back.
Origin — from the ligamentum nuclue as far anteriorly as the second dorsal
spine, and posteriorly as far as the fascia lumborum at the eleventh dorsal

MUSCLES OF THE THORAX 439

spine. Insertion — to the rough tubercle on the inner side of the body of
the humerus. Action — to draw the humerus upwards and backwards.

RiiOMBOiDEUS BBEVis, lying upon the side of the withers, has its orvjin
from the spines of the second, tliird, and fourth dorsal vertebrae. Insertion
— to the inner ptu-t of the superior border and cartilage of the scapula. This
muscle is clothed externally with yellow elastic tissue. Action — to elevate
the scapula.

Pectoralis transversus is placed on the lateral, anterior, and posterior
parts of the breast. Origin — from the lateral and posterior parts of the
cariniform cartilage, over which it plays, being lubricated by a bursa, and
meets its fellow by a white tendinous line. Insertion — to the antero-inferior
part of the body of the humerus, " scaber canalis," and the fascia covering
the leg. Action — it forms a sling to support the trunk, and to keep the arm
close to the chest during locomotion.

Pectoralis magnus is situated on the infero-lateral part of the thorax.
Origin — from the fourth, fifth, and sixth bones of the sternum, ensiform
cartilage, and the cartilages of the four posterior true ribs. It is attached
by fascia to the external oblique muscle of the abdomen. Insertion —
bifid : one portion to the internal tubercle at the head of the humerus ;
the other consists of a few fibres, which pass over to the external tubercle
at the head of the humerus. Action — to draw the shoulder downwai-ds
and forwards.

Pectoralis parvus lies between the fore-leg and side of the thorax. Origin
— from the lateral parts of the cariniform cartilage, and slightly from the
four anterior bones of tlie sternum. Insertion — to the outer tubercle at the
head of the humerus, and to the supero-anterior border of the scapula,
reaching nearly to its antero-superior angle. Action — to assist the last-
named muscle.

Serratus MAGNUS is situated between the shoulder-blade and side of
the chest. Origin — from the transverse processes of the four posterior
cervical vertebrae, and from the entire length of the first, second, third,
fourth, and fifth ribs as low as their cartilages ; from the sixth, seventh,
and eighth as low as their middles ; digitating with four portions of the
external oblique muscle. Insertion — to the superior border, and by a few
fibres to the ventral surface and cartilage of the scapula. Action — it
tends greatly to support the trunk in a sling, especially when the weight of
the body comes down with a sudden shock, as in jumping. The two muscles
are more or less concerned in all the motions of the scapula, and will become
dilators of the chest, whenever they are contracted, while the limbs remain
fixed points.

MUSCLES OF THE THORAX

The ribs are approximated to each other by two layers of muscles, which
cross each other, so that when acting together the greater length of fibre
given by this arrangement increases their power. These are the intercos-
tales externi and interni.

Lateralis sterni and sterxo costales assist the intercostals in contract-
ing the chest.

G G

410 THE ANATOMY OF Till:: HORSE

SuPERFiciALis cosTARUM lios Oil tlic back ill the furin of a tliiii layer of
ajxnicurosis, edged witli llesliy slips, wliich iiidigitatc with those of the
(ibliqiius abdominis exteriius (see Fig. Gl). Its action is to raise the ribs and
increase the capacity of the chest.

Tkansversalis COSTARUM IS situated on the supero-lateral part of the
thorax. Or'vjin — from the ribs close to the spine. Insertion — to the
transverse process of the last cervical vertebra?. Action — to aid the last-
named muscles.

Levatohes COSTARUM are fifteen or sixteen muscular slips, which con
nect the transverse processes of the dorsal vertebra? with the anterior
borders of the ribs, in the spaces between their tubercles and angles
Action — to raise the ribs and enlarge the cavity of the thorax.

DORSAL REGION

LoNGissiMUS DORSI lies along the back beneath the muscles of the supe-
rior extremity (which have been removed). It is a large powerful muscle,
and forms the chief mass of the soft parts constituting the loins and back.
Origin — from the crest of the ilium, side of the sacrum, and spinous and
transverse processes of all the lumbar vertcbrte. Insertion — to the angles
of the twelve posterior ribs, and to the transverse processes of all the dorsal
vertebrjB, and of the three posterior cervical. Action — to bend the back,
and thus raise either the fore or hind-quarter, when the other is fixed. It
is the main agent in rearing and kicking, and is strongly called into play
in galloping and leaping.

Spinalis dorsi is situated deeply on the sides of the withers. Orlf/in
— it is closely connected posteriorly with the last muscle, being attached
to the spinous processes of the posterior dorsal vertebrae. Insertion — to the
sjtines of the six or seven anterior dorsal vertebra?, and the three or four
jiosterior cervical. Action — to assist the longissimus dorsi in rearing and in
raising the fore-quarters in galloping.

Semi-spinalis dorsi is deeply buried beneath the two last muscles, with
wliich it co-operates in its action.

MUSCLES OF THE ABDOMEN

These are naturally divided into two groups, according to the
positions which they occupy and the offices they perform. Thus the
superficial abdominal muscles form the lower walls of the cavity of the
abdomen, while the deep abdominal muscles bound it anteriorly and
superiorly.

SUPERFICIAL ABDOMINAL REGION

The abdominal muscle.s, four in number, constitute the lower walls of the
belly, and together form, as it were, a strong sheet, by means of which the
intestines and abdominal organs are kept in position. After reflecting the

SUPERFICIAL ABDOMINAL REGION 441

skin, they are seen to be covered by the pannicuhis carnosiis and a thick
layer of yellow fibrous tissue, through which their division into tendon and
muscle can faintly be discerned. These must be dissected off to bring into
view the true abdominal muscles, when the following lines of demarcation
will be discerned —

1. The linea alba, which occupies the median line from the os pubis
to the ensiform cartilage, and consists of a tough layer of white fibrous
tissue, which unites the muscles of the abdomen together. At a little
more than a third of its length from the pubes is found a lozenge-shaped
space in which the tissue is almost entirely absent, and through which in
the foetus the umbilical vessels pass. This is the umbilicus, or navel, of
the adult.

2. On the surface of the rectus are several transverse white lines — the
linese transversales.

3. Near the edge of the rectus muscle commences the linea semilunax'is,
which marks the union of the fleshy and tendinous portion of the external
oblique.

Obliquus abdominis externus is situated on the lateral parts of the
belly. Origin — by fleshy slips from the fourteen hindermost ribs, where
it indigitates with the serratus magnus and latissimus dorsi, and from
the fascia lumborum, reaching to the antero-superior spinous process
of the ilium. Insertion — tendinous into the whole length of the linea
alba, and by two strong divisions into the os pubis, between which is
formed the triangular space called the external abdominal ring. The
posterior of these, stretching from the ilium to the os pubis, is called
the crural arch, and corresponds with Poupart's Ligament in human anatomy.
Action — it flexes the pelvis on the thorax, and has the power of contrac-
tion, and, by this means, of expelling the feeces, and in the mare the
fcEtus ; it also serves to force up the diaphragm, and thus to aid in
expiration.

Obliquus abdominis internus lies deeper than the foregoing muscle.
Origin — from the transverse processes of the lumbar vertebrae and antero-
inferior spinous process of the ilium and crural arch. Insertion — to the
inner surface of the cartilages of the three or four last ribs, and to the
ensiform cartilage ; also in close union with the tendon of the external
oblique to the linea alba. Action — to expel the fseces and urine, and to act
as above. Like the last, it is also a muscle of respiration.

Transversalis abdominis is still deeper than the last-mentioned muscle.
It has its origin from the transverse processes of the lumbar vertebrae,
antero-inferior spine of the ilium, and symphysis pubis. Insertion — to the
inner surface of all the ribs, except the three last, linea alba, and ensiform
cartilage. Action — to assist the two muscles above, and to support the
burden of the viscei'a.

Rectus abdominis is placed on each side the median line beneath the
viscera. Origin — from the symphysis pubis. Insertion — to the cartilages
of all the ribs, except the three first, linea alba, ensiform cartilage, and
four posterior bones of the sternum : it blends with the lateralis sterni,
covering the sides of the sternum. Action — to brace the middle parts of
the belly, and to contract the thoracic cavity.

The parts connected with hernia formed hy the abo\e muscles are : —

412 THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE

l.st. The umbilicus, wliich leaws a weak place in the alxlominal parietcs,
especially at and soon after l)irtli, through which umbilical rupture takes
place. 2ncl. The external ring, and the canal of which it is the outer
boundary, together with the internal ring, which should bo carefully
examined by the student of veterinary surgery. Want of space will,
however, forbid more than a general description here. The external ring
has already been described as formed by the posterior tendinous fibres of
the external obliiiuo, and through this descends the spermatic cord to the
scrotum. In tracing backwards and outwards this cord to the point where
it enters the wall of the abdomen, it will be found to lie between the fibres
of the crural arch and those of the internal oblique, supported by the
peritoneum and a thin fascia, which is continued from the edge of the
transvcrsalis muscle, but is not so distinct as the corresponding part in the
human subject. About three or four inches from the e.xternal ring this
fascia is pierced by the cord, and this part is called the internal abdominal
ring, the space between the two rings being the inguinal canal. (See
Spermatic Cord, Chapter xxii.)

DEEP ABDOMINAL REGION

The acdomex is bounded by a muscular wall anterior]}', which forms a
movable septum between it and the chest, and is called the diaphragm.
Superiorly also there are the muscles which serve to bend the spine down-
wards, in opposition to the dorsal muscles.

The diaphragm consists of a large flat muscle and two crura, with a thin
circular layer of tendon in the centre. The former arisen by fleshy digitations
from the cartilages of the ribs, from the eighth to the sixteenth inclusive,
and from the ensiform cartilage. It is inserted into a central flat tendon of
a circular shape. Each CRUS arises from its corresponding side of the bodies
of the lumbar vertebrae : the two cross each other opposite the seventeenth
dorsal vertebra, and again decussate after allowing the esophagus to pass
through, being finally attached to the central tendon. Between the crura
and tlie bodies of the vertebra? the aorta passes backwards, and in the
central tendon is the opening for the vena cava posterior. The action of this
muscle is to diminish the capacity of the thorax by reducing the convexity
of its surface.

Semi-spi\alis lumborum, intektraxsversalis lumborum, and sacro
LUM BALIS, are three muscles having numerous attachments to the transverse
processes of the posterior dorsal and lumbar vertebra; and sacrum. Their
action is to approximate the pelvis to the thorax, and thus to oppose the
dorsal muscles by rounding the back.

Psoas magnus is a long and strong muscle lying beneath the spine. Its
origin is from the necks of the last two ribs, and from the bodies and
transverse processes of the last doi-sal and all the lumbar vertebra?. Insertion
— into the trochanter minor internus of the femur. Action — to flex the
haunch upon the pelvis, or, if the hind-leg is fixed, to assist the three last
muscles in rounding the back.

Psoas parvus lies along the inner side of the P. magnus. Origin — from

PELVIC REGION 443

the heads of the last three ribs, and from the bodies of the three last dorsal
and all the lumbar vertebrae. Insertion — into the brim of the pelvis. Action
— to assist the last muscle in rounding the back.

Iliacus is situated in the iliac fossa. Oriyiu — from the crest of the ilium
external to the sacrum, from the venter and anterior spinous process.
Insertion — with the psoas magnus into the trochanter minor internus of the
femur. Action — to Ilex the haunch.

PELVIC REGION

Several muscles are attached to the pelvis : 1st, for the conti'ol of the
anus ; 2nd, for the genital organs, and accelerating the flow of urine ; 3rd,
for the movements of the tail.

Retractor axi is a funnel-shaped layer of thin muscular fibres arising
within the pelvis, and inserted into the margin of the anus. Action — to
prevent the anus from being forced outwards by the expulsive efforts of the
abdominal muscles.

Sphincter ani is attached above to the coccyx, and encircles the anus
with fleshy fibres, which serve to close it.

Cremaster is a thin layer of muscle which is attached to the yellow
fascia covering the abdomen, and to the internal oblique, from which it
descends upon the spermatic cord after it passes through the external
abdominal ring, and is inserted into the fibrous covering of the testicle.

The muscles of the penis, vagina, and clitoris have no general interest;
they are, erector penis, triangularis penis, and accelerator urinse, in the
male ; and sphincter vaginse and erector clitoridis in the female.

The coccygeal muscles are described as in four sets, erector, depressor,
CURVATOR, and compressor coccygis, the names of which bespeak their
actio7is. They all arise from the pelvis and pelvic ligaments, and are
inserted into the corresponding sides of the bodies and transverse processes
of the coccygeal bones.

MUSCLES OF THE FORE EXTREMITY

The muscles of the fore extremity are classed in three divisions —
viz. those of the shoulder, arm, and leg. In the two first of these great
confusion exists, in consequence of the diffei'ent names given to them by
English and French veterinary writers. Percivall only enumerates twelve,
while Chauveau gives fifteen;^ the former not considering the long
extensor of the fore-arm as a distinct muscle, but as a part of the triceps.
The scapulo humeralis posticus (or grele of Chauveau) is omitted alto-
gether by Mr. Percivall, though quite a distinct muscle, and jjlaying
a most important part in supporting the capsular ligament of the

^ Chauveaii's arrangement is now generally accepted. For the detailed anatomy
of the muscles see McFadyeau's Analomy of the Horse.

444

THE AXATO:\IY OF THE TTORSE

shoulder joint, and proven tin,;,' it from Ixiiii,' pincliod in the motions
of tlio joint. The omission of the seapulo hunieralis externus by our

chief EngUsh authority is most unaccountable,
as it is recognized by all previous writers on
the subject.

EXTERNAL SCAPULAR
REGION

Antf.a RPiXATi's lies upon the anterioi
fossa of the scapula. Or'ujin — from the an-
terior angle, border, fossa, and anterior sur-
lace of the spine of the scapula. Insertion —
1 lifid : one part to the outer, the other to the
inner tubercle at the head of the humerus,
tlie insertion extending from the tubercular
summits to a roughened depression, just
posteriorly placed to each. This bifid in-
sertion embraces the tendon of the flexor
brachii. Action — to draw the scapula into
the same line with the humerus.

PosTEA SPiNATUS is situated upon the pos-
terior fossa of the scapula. Origin — from
the posterior angle, border, fossa, and pos-
terior surface of the spine of the scapula.
Insertion — bifid : one portion to the postero-
external tubercle ; tlie other is tendinous,
and passes over the posteroexternal tubercle
to a depression just below the outer tubercle.
Action — to fix the scapula on the humerus or
vice versd.

h

flo. c2. — e terjjal vikw of thk mcscles o? tke fork
Extremity

1. Antca sjiinatus.

2. Postea sjiinatus.

8. Soapulo huinonilis extenius.

4. Teres externus vel minor.

5. Insertion of antca sjiinatns.

C. Hunionilis exti'rnus and tloxor brachii abova.

7. Sc'ai'ulo ulnnris.

8. Triccjis extensor brachii.

9. Extensor metacarjii niagnus. a. c. Tendon of the same

receiving ligamentous slij'S.

10. Extensor pedis.

11. Extensor sullraginis.

12. Flexor metaeariii externus.

13. Flexor pedis perfonms. e. Tenilon of the s.ime.

14. Flexor i>edis perforatus. d. Tendon of the same.

INTERNAL SCAPULAR REGION 445

ANTERO-INFERIOR SCAPULAR REGION

CoRACO HUMERALis is Situated on the infero-internal part of the
shoulder. Origin — from a tubercle on the inner side of the coracoid
process of the scapula. Insertion — bifid : one portion on a tubercle on
the middle third of the antero-internal part of the body of the humerus ;
the other passes over the insertions of the teres internus and latissimus
dorsi, just below which points it is inserted. Action — to extend the
humerus and draw it inwards.

Flexor brachii is placed upon the antero-inferior part of the shoulder.
Origin — from the antero-inferior part of the coracoid process of the scapula,
passing over the trochlea formed by the tubercles of the humerus. Inser-
tion— to the supero-anterior and inner part of the body of the radius.
Action — to extend the radius, and at the same time to elevate it.

THE INTERNAL SCAPULAR REGION

SuBSCAPULARis fiUs up the venter scapul b. Origin — from the two inferior
thirds of the ventral surface, extending from the anterior to the posterior
border of the scapula. Insertion — to the inner ridge just below the lesser
tubercle of the humerus. Action — to draw the humerus inwards and
upwards.

Teres internus vel major is situated upon the posterior part of the
shoulder. Origin — from the inner surface of the supero-posterior angle
and from a slight indentation internally placed to the posterior border of
the scapula. Insertion — to the rough tubercle on the inner side of the
body of the humerus, in company with the latissimus dorsi. Action — to
draw the humerus inwards.

ScAPULO ulnaris lies upon the posterior part of the shoulder. Origin —
from the supero-posterior and inner part of the scapula, extending from
its angle to just above its glenoid cavity. Insertion — to the olecranon and
to the postero-internal part of the ulna, extending from its summit to where
the ulna joins the radius. Action — to assist the caput magnum of the
triceps.

ScAPULO HUMERALIS POSTICUS is situated upon the posterior part of the
shoulder. Origin — bifid ; one part from the superior two-thirds of the
inner surface of the posterior border of the scapula, the other from above
the postero-internal surface of the glenoid cavity. Insertion — to the
supero-posterior part of the humerus. Action — it serves as a ligament,
protecting the joint.

Triceps extensor brachii (caput parvum) is situated on the infero-
internal part of the shoulder. Origin — from the internal and middle third
of the humerus. Insertion — to the olecranon and to a tubercle on the
supero-internal part of the ulna, close to the olecranon. Action — to extend
the arm.

44G

THE ANATU-MY OF THE HORSE

POSTERO-EXTERNAL SCAPULAR REGION

Triceps extensor braciiii (caput magnum) is situated upon the infero-
posterior part of the shoulder, occupying the angular intei-space between
the scapula and humerus. Origin— irom the whole length uf the posterior

Fio. C3.— Internal View of the Muscles of the SnorLDER and Arm.

<i. a. Cartilago at the base of the scapula.

1. Insertion of serratus niiignus tumeil up.

'.'. Insertion of rhoniboiileiis longus.

3. Insertion of rhoniboideus brevis.

4. 5. Subseapularis.

C. Teres intemus vel major.

7. Insertion of latissinuis dorsi.

8. Triceps extensor brachii (eaput magnum).

P. f'oraco hunieralis.

10. Insertion of pectoralis.

11. Flexor brachii.

12. Tiioei's extensor brachii (caput tcrtium).

13. Extensor nietacari'i inagnus.
11. Flexor nietacarpi int4'niU3.

1 J. Flexor metacarpi medius.

border as high up as the superoposterior angle of the scapula. Insertion —
to the inner and upper part of the olecranon. Action — to approximate the
scapula and humerus, and thus raise the elbow joint ; if the former is fixed,
to extend the arm.

Triceps extensor BRAcnii (caput medium) lies upon the infero-external
pait of the shoulder and huinorus. Origin — from the humerus, just behind

MUSCLES OF THE ARM AND FORE-LEG 447

a ridge afc the postcro-external part of the superior third. Insertion — to
the supero-external and posterior part of the olecranon. Action — to extend
the arm.

Teres exterxus is situated upon the postero-external part of the
shoulder. Origin — from a little tubercle just below the supei'o-posterior
angle, and from the lower border of the scapula. Insertion — to a ridge
descending from the outer tubercle of the humerus, and to the ligament
which extends from the outer tubercle to the outer condyle of the same
bone. Action — to flex the scapula on the humerus, or the humerus on the
scapula.

ScAPULO HUMERALIS EXTERNUS lies upon the postero-external part of the
shoulder. Origin — from the inferior two-thirds of the posterior border of
the scapula, just above the glenoid cavity, and fx'om its dorsal surface.
Insertion — to the middle of the ridge extending from the outer tubercle of
the humerus. Action — to flex the humerus, and draw it outwards.

THE ANTERO-EXTERNAL HUMERAL REGION

HuMERALis EXTERXUS lies On the infero-external side of the upper amn.
Origin — from the infero- posterior, inner, and outer surface of the body of
the humerus, and winds round that bone. Insertion — to the supero-anterior
and internal part of the radius. Action — to flex the arm.

THE POSTERO-INTERNAL HUMERAL REGION

Anconeus is situated upon the hollow space between the condyles.
Origin — from the supero-posterior part of the lower third of the humerus.
Insertio7i — to the antero-external border of the ulna and capsular ligament
of the joint. Action — to extend the elbow, and to protect the capsular
ligament during the movement between the two bones.

MUSCLES OF THE ARM AND FORE-LEG

Extensor metacarpi magnus is situated on the anterior part of the ai*m
Origin — from a ridge situated at the antero-external part of the humerus,
and also from a depression just above the external condyle of the humerus.
Insertion — to the antero-superior part of the os metacarpi magnum.
Action — to extend the leg.

Extensor pedis is situated upon the antero-external part of the arm.
Origin — from the fore-part of the external condyle of the humerus, and
from a ridge just superiorly placed to it; from the outer part of the head,
and from the anterior and supero-external part of the body of the radius ;
and from the capsular ligament of the elbow joint. Insertion — to the
coronal process of the os pedis, adhering firmly to the capsular ligament of
the fetlock joint. Action — to extend the knee, metacarpals, and pasterns,
and to elevate the toe.

us

TITK AXATO:\rY OF TTTE HORSE

Flkxor MKTACAnn EXTF-RNUs is situatcd upon the postcro external side of

tlie arm. Or'ujln — from a ridge on tlic external surface of the heel process

of the external condyle of the humerus. Insertion — bifid : one to the

supcro-posterior part of the pisiform bone ; the other

passes through a sheath to the head of the external

small metacarpal bone. Action — to flex the leg.

Flexor metacarpi medius lies on the postero-
internal part of the arm. Or'ujin — bifid : one from
the middle of a ridge extending along the internal
condyle of the humerus ; the other from the supero-
intcrnal and posterior part of the ulna. Insertion —
bilid : one part to the supero-posterior part of the
OS pisifoiinc, and to the posterior annular ligament ;
the other to the posterointernal part of the head
of the inner small metacarpal bone. Action — to
Ilex the leg.

Flexor metacarpi internus is situated on the
posterointernal side of the arm. Orit/in — from a
ridge behind the internal condyle of the humerus.
Insertion — to the head of the os metacarpi parvuni :
previous to its insertion, it enters a sheath formed
by the annular ligament. Action — to flex the leg.

Flexor pedis perforans et perforatus is situ-
ated on the posterior part of the arm. Origin —
common to both muscles, from a ridge on the heel
process of the internal condyle of the humerus.
Insertion — of perforatus bifid, to the external and
internal border of the supero-posterior part of the
OS coronas. Insertion — of perforans ; after receiving
a strong bundle of ligamentous fibres from the pos-
terior carpal ligament, it pierces the two divisions
of the flexor perforatus, opposite the pastern, and
spreading out is attached to the postero-inferior part
of the OS pedis. Action — to flex the knee, and bend
the fetlock and pastern joints.

Ulnaris accessorius is deeply seated at the pos-
terior part of the arm. Origin — from the whole of
the internal concave surface of the ulna. Insertion
— to the tendon of the flexor jicdis, with which it

Fio. C4.— Axtero-external View of tue Muscles of tue Fore-Leo.

Antca sjiinatus.

Postea sjiinatus.

4. Seajiulo huuicralis cxtenms.

Teres exterims.

Tricejis extensor braohii (cajmt iiingnum).

Pectoralis tninsversus, (liviilod.

Triceps extensor bracbii ;caiiut medium).

Flexor brachii.

Extensor metiicarjii magnus.

Humeralis externus.

Extensor pedis : a. tendon ; 6. band from external lateral ligament ; c

insertion.
Extensor suffi-aginis.
Flexor niotacirpi extenius.
Extensor nietacar]>i obliquus.

MUSCLES OF THE ARM AND FORE-LEG

449

blends. Action — to assist the pc.forans and perforatus in flexing the
knee, etc.

Extensor suffraginis is situated on the postero-external part of the

Fio. 65.— View of the External MuscLEf? Of the Haunch and Thigh.

1. Gluteus maximns.

2. Gluteus externus.

3. Tensor vaginae femoris.

4. Vastus externus.

5. 5. 5. Triceps abductor femoris.

6. 7. Biceiis rotator tibi.alis, or semi-membra-

nosus and semi-tendinosus.

8. Extensor pedis.

9. Peroneus.

10. Plantaris.

11. Gastrocnemius intemus.

12. Gastrocnemius externus.

fore-arm. Oriyin — from a tubercle in the posterior and external part
of the radius; from the above bone as far down as the ulna reaches,
and from the shaft border of the ulna. Insertion — to the supero-anterior
part of the os suflfraginis, and to the capsular ligament of the fetlock
joint. Action — to extend the fetlock.

450 THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE

Extensor metacarpi orliquus is .situated on tlie infero-antcrior part of
the arm. Orhjlii — from the infero-antcrior and outer part of the radius,
extending as high up as tlie middle. Inaerlion — after passing underneath
the tendon of the extensor pedis, and over the tendon of the exten.sor
metacarpi magnus, to the supero-anterior part of the os metacarpi internum.
Action — to confine the tendon of the extensor metacarpi in its place during
action and to extend the leg.

Radialis accessorius is situated on the infero-posterior part of the
arm. Origin — from the posterior part of the mitldle of the radius. Inser-
tion— to the tendon of the perforans, which it joins opposite the carpo-
metacarpal articulation. Action — to assist the perforans.

MUSCLES OF HAUNCH

The difficulties experienced b}' the student in distinguishing the muscles
of the shoulder are as nothing when compared with those he will encounter
in making out the muscles of the haunch. The latter are firmly connected
together by fascia, so that their fibres must be divided bj' the knife in order
to make them agree with any description which is given of them by com-
parative anatomists. To comply with the desire to retain the names used
in human anatomy, this has been done to a most ridiculous extent; but
unfortunately, as the analogj^ is very slight, the imagination of the dissector
has been called into play and different anatomists have pursued a varied
nomenclature, to the great annoyance of the student. Thus the triceps
abductor femoris of our text is the biceps of Percivall, and the long vaste
of Chauveau, but it should either be regarded as one large mass of muscle,
in common with the semi-niembranosus and scmi-tendinosus, or if it is
divided from them it must itself be described as a tricipital muscle, for it
has three distinct insertions. Again, Mr. Percivall describes the rectus as
a separate muscle from the two vasti and crureus, and appends a fifth, to
which he gives the name of rectus parvus. This appears to correspond w;ith
the grele anterieur of Chauveau, and if the analogy of human anatomy is to
be taken as a guide, it should properly be described as the crureus. By adopt-
ing the same plan as with the muscles of the shoulder joint, the student
will be able to ascertain at a glance to which description, in the two authori-
ties I have quoted, each particular muscle can be referred.

SYNONYMS OP THE MUSCLES OF THE HAUNCH.

NAJfKS rSED IN THE TEXT. MR. PERCIVALL's NOMESCLATL'RE,

Gluteus externus .... Gluteus externus . .

,, niaximus maxiimis . .

,, internus .... ,, miiiiimis . . .

Tensor vaginte femoris . . Tensor vaginaj . . .

Triceps abductor femoris. . Biceps abductor . .

Biceps rotator tibialis . . Adductor tibialis . .

„ ., . , fRectus ....

Tnfemoro rotulteas . . • ^ vastus ext. and int.

Rectus parvus Rectus parvus . .

Sartorius Sartorius ....

CHAUVEAU S KAMK3.

Fessier superficiel.
,, moyen.
,, profond.
JIuscle du fascia lata.
Long vaste.
f Denii-tendineux.
I Denii-membraneux.

Triceps crural.

Grele ant(5rieur.
Long adducteur.

GLUTEAL REGION

451

SYNONYMS OP THE MUSCLES OP THE HAUNCH {continued).

NAMES USED IN THE TEXT.

HR. PERCIVALLS NOMENCLATURE.

Adductor longus

Gracilis Gracilis . .

rectiiicus Pectineus

f Adductor longus
■ \^ ,, magnus
,, brevis .... Adductor brevis

Pyriformis Pyriformis . .

Obturator externns . . . Obturator externus
,, iutcrnus ... ,, iuternus

Gemini Gemini ...

CHAUVEAU S NAMES.

Court adducteur.
Pectine.

► Graud adducteur de la cuisse.

Petit adducteur de la cuisse.
Pyramidal.
Obturateur externa.
,, interne.

Jumcaux du bassin.

GLUTEAL REGION

Gluteus externus forms the top part of the haunch. Origin — from the
Spine of the third sacral bone and lower tubercle on the antero-inferior
spinous process of the ilium. Insertion — to the anterior part of the
troclianter minor externus.

Gluteus maximus is situated on the middle part of the haunch. Origin
— from the ligamentous structure of the longissimus dorsi, from the spine
of the second and third sacral bones, the sacro-sciatic ligament, the top of the
supero-posterior spine, the antero-inferior spine, crista, and dorsal surface of
the ilium. Insertion — to the posterior part of the trochanter major externus
and superior part of the tubercle.

Gluteus internus is situated under the maximus. Origin — from the
posterior half of the dorsum ilii and a small portion of the ischium. In-
sertion— to the upper part of the tubercle at the head of the femur. The
action of the glutei is, to extend the femur on the pelvis, and to assist in
the acts of kicking and rearing. They are the main propellers of the body.

Tensor vagina femoris is placed on the antero-external part of the
haunch. Origin — from the outer part of the lower tubercle on the antero-
inferior spinous process of the ilium. Insertion — to the superior part of
the patella. Action — to assist in extending the thigh.

EXTERNAL -ILIO FEMORAL REGION

Triceps abductor femoris occupies the posteroexternal side of the haunch
and thigh. Origin — from the third and fourth spines of the sacrum, and
from the anterior part of the tuberosity of the ischium. Insertion — by
three attachments. First, to the posterior part of the femur and lateral
part of the patella. Secondly, to the lateral part of the ligament extending
from the patella to the spinous ridge on the tibia. Thirdly, to the ridge
on the tibia and fascia, which binds down the flexors and extensors. Action
— to rotate the leg and to turn the hock outwards.

Biceps rotator tibialis is situated on the postero-external side of the
haunch. Origin — from the last bone of the sacrum, the two anterior coccy-
geal bones, and posterior part of the tuberosity of the ischium. Insertion —
to the antero-internal and mesian part of the tibia and fascia of the \Qg
Action — to rotate the leg.

452 THE ANATOMY oF THE HOUSE

ANTERIOR ILIO-FEMORAL REGION

Tkifk.moko kotul-?=:us consists of a mass of niusclo l3'ing bciiraLh tho
tensor vaginte, and forming the anterior prominence of the hauncli. It
consists of three divisions — tho rectus, vastus cxternus, and internus.
Rectus femoris is anterior and superior to the other portions. Orirjin
— from the ilium, just above the acetabulum. Insertion — to the anterior
part of the capsular ligament and superolateral part of the patella.
Action — to extend the thigh and draw it under the body. The two
vasti consist of a mass of muscle occupying the front and sides of the
femur, and lying beneath the rectus. Origin — from the whole of the
u] per part of the femur to the roots of the trochanters. Insertion — to
the ujiper edge and sides of the patella. Action — to assist the rectus in
extending the thigh and lifting the stifle under the body in progression.

Rectus parvus is an humble imitation of the human crureus, lying
deep beneath the rectus femoris on the upper part of the femur. It is a
small cylindrical muscle, having its origin from the ilium external to that
of the rectus femoris, and its belly lying between the two vasti close
upon the bone ; it is inserted on the anterior face of the femur. Its
action is chiefly to defend the capsular ligament of the iliofemoral
articulation.

INTERNAL ILIO-FEMORAL REGION

Sartorius lies on the antero-internal part of the haunch. Origin —
from the inferior part of the transverse process of the first sacral bone
and venter ilii. Insertion — to the inner and inferior part of the lateral
ligament of the patella, and through the medium of the gracilis to tlie
supero-internal part of the tibia. Action — to bend the leg and to draw it
inwards.

Gracilis is situated on the internal part of the haunch. Origin — from
the anterior and posterior ends of the symphysis pubis. Insertion — to
the spinous ridge on the supero-internal part of tho tibia. Action — to
raise the leg and draw it inwards.

Pectineus lies close to the sartorius. Origin — from the anterior surface
of the OS pubis, near the symphysis and acetabulum. Insertion — to the
ridge of the femur, leading downwards from the trochanter internus.
Action — to flex and adduct the femur.

Adductor longus lies at the back of the mass of internal muscles of
the haunch. Origin from the inferior surface of the ischium, and from
the adjacent fitscia. Insertion — by two portions, which are distinguished
as separate muscles by some anatomists. One (A. magnus) into the pos-
terior face of the femur external to the adductor brevis ; the other (A.
longus), to the inner and upper part of the internal condyle. Action — to
adduct and rotate the femur inwards.

Adductor brevis lies covered by the adductor magnus. Origin — from
the inferior surface of the os pubis. Insertion — to the square rough surface
on the posterior face of the femur. Action — to adduct the femur.

MUSCLES OF THE THIGH AND LEG

453

Fin. 66.— Internal View of the Deep Muscles
OF the Thigh and Leo.

Fig. 07. — External View of the Muscles of
THE Leg.— (Thigh of the IIorseman.)

a. b. c.

Ischium and pubes divided at the sym-
jihysis.

1. Sacro-sciatic ligament.

2. Adductor (brevis et longus).
8. Rectus.

4. Vastus internus.

5. Pectiueus.

6. Gastrocnemius extenius.

7. Flexor pedis accessorius.

8. Tendon of the gastrocnemius passing

down over the hock to becomo the
flexor pedis perforatus.

9. Flexor pedis perforana.
10. Extensor pedis.

1. Vastus extemus.

2. Rectus.

3. 3. Gastrocnemius extemus (divided).

4. Gastrocnemius internus.

5. Plantaiis.

6. 6. Flexor pedis perforana.

7. Peroneus.

8. 8. Extensor pedis.

9. 9. Tendon of the same.

10. Sus]iensory ligament.

11. Long ti-ndon of gastrocnemius (flexor pedis

jierforatus).

12. Tendon of flexor pedis perforaus.

ioi THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE

THE DEEP MUSCLES OF THE ILIO-FEMORAI

REGION

Four small muscles attach the fussa uf the trochanter major to tho
pelvis, and rotate the femur outwards.

PvRiFOKMis. — Orujin — from the transverse processes of the sacrum, and
the internal face of the ilium by fleshy fi])res, which are inserted into tho
trochanteric fossa. Action — to rotate the femur outwards.

Obturator externus and internus are attached, one to the outside and
the other to the inside of the margins of the obturator foramen, and to
the two faces of tlie fascia which fills it up. Insertion — by separate
tendons into the trochanteric fossa.

Gemini arise by two bundles of fibres from the supero-postcrior part
of the ischium. Insertion — to the trochanteric fossa. Action — the same as
the three last-named muscles.

ANTERIOR FEMORO-CRURAL REGION

Extensor pedis lies superficially on the anterior part of the leg.
Orifjin — from a depression on the anteroinferior and external part of the
external condyle of the femur. Insertion — to the coronal process of the os
pedis. Action — to flex the hock and extend the foot.

Peroneus lies on the antcro-extcrnal side of the leg. Origin — from
the head of the fibula and outer part of tho tibia. Insertion — to the
supero-anterior part of the os suffraginis. Action — to assist the foregoing
muscle.

Flexor metatarsi is situated on the antcro-internal side of the leg.
Origin — in common with the extensor pedis, from the outer condyle of
the femur, and from the upper part of the anterior face of the tibia.
Insertion — to the os cuboidcs and to the large and small metatarsal bones.
Action — to flex the hock.

POSTERIOR FEMORO-CRURAL REGION

Gastrocnemius externus lies along the posterior part of the leg.
Origin — in two portions from the fossa just behind and above each condyle
of the femur. Insertion — to a depression on the centre of the point of the
OS calcis. Action — to elevate the point of the hock, and thus to extend
the leg.

Gastrocnemius internus is situated on the postero-mesian part of the
leg. Origin — from the inner part of the ridge which surrounds tho fossa
behind and between the two condyles of the femur. Insertion — above
the hock it becomes tendinous, and passes over the point (from which it is
separated by a large bursa mucosa, the seat of capped hock), and descends
along the back of the flexor tendons, where it corresponds with tlie flexor

POSTERIOR FEMORO-CRURAL REGION 455

perforatus of the fore-leg, to be finally attached to the supero-postexnor
part of the os coronse. Action — to extend the hock and flex the fetlock
and pastern joints.

Plantaris is situated on the posteroexternal part of the thigh.
Origin — from the superior part of the head of the fibula. Insertion — to
the supero-external part of the os calcis. Action — to assist in extending
the hock.

PoPLiTEUS lies at the back part of the stifle. Origin — from the lateral
part of the external condyle of the femur, from which it winds round the
head of the tibia. Insertion — to the supero-internal and posterior part of
the tibia. Action — to fles the stifle joint.

Flexor pedis perforans is situated on the postero-external side of the
leg. Origin — from the supero-external part of the tibia, from the body of
that bone and to the posterior part of the fibula. Insertion — to the
posterior part of the plantar surface of the os pedis. Action — to extend
the hock and to flex the fetlock and pasterns.

Flexor pedis accessorius lies on the postero-internal part of the leg.
Origin — from the supero-external part of the tibia and side of the fibula.
Its insertion is blended with the tendon of the flexor pedis.

H H

456

THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE

CHAPTER XXI

THE THORACIC ORGANS AND THEIR APPENDAGES

CONTEjrrS OF THE THORAX — THE BLOOD — GENEKAL PLAN OF THE CIUCILATION'— THE HEART
AND ARTERIES — THE VEINS — PHYSIOLOGY OF RE^JPIRATIOX — MECHANISM OF THE
I'ULMONARY APPAUATUS — THE NASAL OUIPICES AND CAVITIES— THE LARYNX — IHE
TRACHEA AND 13ItONCUI — THE LUNGS — PULMONARY GLANDS, ETC.

CONTENTS OF THE THORAX

The THORAX, or chest, is tli.at cavity formed by the bodies of the dorsal
vertebrce superiorly ; by the ribs and their cartilages with the connecting
muscles laterally ; by the sternum inferiorly ; by the diaphragm poste-
riorly ; and by the inner margins of the first ribs and body of the first

dorsal vertebra anteriorly. It contains
the central parts of the important organs
of circulation and I'espiration, and gives
passage to the oesophagus, as it connects
the pharynx with the stomach. As
these lie within it, they are allowed to
play freely in performing their func-
tions, by being enveloped by smooth
serous membranes, called the pleura
and the /)e?7Vrtrf/iw»i, the latter being
also protected by a fibrous layer. A
section of the thorax, as shown in the
plan, Fig. 68, will give some idea of the
relative situation of these organs and
their investments, as well as of the
shape of the cavity itself in this direc-
tion. The heart is shown at A, lying
between the two bags of the pleura, in
the space called the vicdiastimnn. The
lungs are shown at B B, covered by a
fine serous membrane (H TV), pleiira jml-
monalis, except at their roots, wjiere the air-tubes and blood-vessels pass into
tlieir substance. This portion of the pleura is continuous with the serous
membrane lining the ribs (G G, pleura costalis), which thus allows them to
expand and contract freely, by allowing one surface to glide against the
other. Thus, the pleura on each side covering the lungs, and reflected
thence to the inside of the ribs, and the thoracic side of the diaphragm,
forms a shut sac or bag, which in the natural state contains only sufficient
scrum to lubricate its walls ; but in disease this is often increased to an
enormous extent, ending in dropsy of the chest, or in a collection of pus
when the membrane is greatly inflamed. The shape of the thorax in a
longitudinal direction is sho\vn at Fig. 69, in wliich its posterior wall, the

Fio. 68. — Sectional Plan of Thorax and its
Contents (thkouoh the Girtu-place).

A. Heart.

B. 13. Lungs.

C. E. D. F. W.alls of the thorax.
G. G. Pleura costalis.

H. H Pleura ruliuonalis.

CONTENTS OF THE THORAX

457

diaphracrm (12, 12), is seen separating the stomach (alO, 11) and the
liver (a small section of the left lobe of which ';niy is shown) from the lungs

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(14) and the heart (15), while the trachea (13, 13) is seen entering through
its anterior boundary, below the oesophagus (9, 9, 9), and the aorta passes
close to the spine above the latter.

458 THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE

As tlie walls of the tliorax expand by the action of tlic muscles which
move the ribs, as well as by the contraction of the diaphragm, rendering
its thoracic surface less convex, the cavity is enlarged and air is drawn in
through the trachea, constituting the act of inspiration. On the other
hand the contraction of the walls, and the forcing upwards against the
diaphragm of the stomach and liver, b}' the action of the abdominal muscles,
reduces the size of the thorax, forces out the air, and induces expiration.
The repetition of these two actions is known by the general term respiration.

Before proceeding to describe the heart and lungs, it will be necessary to
examine the blood, for transmitting which fluid to all parts of the body the
heart and its vessels are formed ; while, for its proper aeration, the lungs,
windpipe, and larynx are intended by nature.

THE BLOOD

The blood, supplied from the food by the digestive process hereafter
to be described, furnishes all the tissues of the body with a constantly
I'enewed stream of the materials which they severallj' require, whether for
their nutrition or for the functions of secretion and excretion performed by
the various organs devoted to these purposes. It is necessar}'-, therefore,
that this fluid should be composed of elementary matters capable of com-
bining to form the materioJs required, or of those substances ready prepared.
Thus, the muscles demand for their proper action fibrine and oxygen, both
of which are largely combined in arterial blood, while the nervous system
cannot respond to the calls of its grand centre without having a due supply
of fatt}' matter, also, in combination with the oxygen obtained by respira-
tion, which, however, is not only intended to afibrd this gas, but also to
remove the carbon that would otherwise accumulate to a prejudicial extent.
For these several purposes the blood must be supplied with liquid elements
by absorption from the digestive organs, and with its oxygen, by imbibition
through the delicate membrane lining the lungs on which it is spread as it
passes through the system of blood-vessels especially set apart for that
purpose. When it is considered that the stomacli, bowels, liver, panci-eas,
and spleen are all occupied almost solely in supplying the fluid with its
grosser materials, and that the heart, lungs, kidneys, and skin are constantly
engaged in circulating it, supplying it with oxygen, and purifying it from
noxious salts and gases, its importance in the animal economy may be
estimated as it deserves.

As IT CIRCULATES in, or immediately after it is drawn from, its appro-
priate vessels, the blood consists of an opaque, thickish fluid, composed of
water, fibrine, albumen, and various salts, and called Liquor sanguinis,
coloured red, by having suspended in it a quantity of red corpuscles of a
peculiar nature, being white. When drawn from an artery or vein, and allowed
to remain at rest for a few minutes, a coagulation takes place, by which the
blood is separated into the clot (coagulum) and the serum. The former is
composed of fibrine, having entangled in its meshes the corpuscles ; and the
latter is the liquor sanguinis, without its fibrine. As in all of the mammalia
but the camels, these bodies are circular flattened discs, and are of the same
size (nearly) in all animals of the same species, whatever may be the age or

GENERAL PLAN OF THE CIRCULATION

459

sex. According to Messrs. Prevost and Dumas, the blood of the horse
contains less solid matter than that of man, in the proportion of 9'20 to 12*92
in 1000 parts. The temperature is about 99 "5 degrees of Fahrenheit's
thermometer ; the pulse varies greatly according to the breed of horse, being
as slow as 32 to the minute in some heavy cart-horses, and as high as
42 in high-bred and sensitive specimens of the race. The shade of colour
in the I'ed corpuscles depends upon the proportion of carbonic acid and
oxygen combined with them. If the former preponderates, a deep purple-
red is developed, known as that of venous blood : while a liberal supply of
oxygen develops the bright scarlet peculiar to arterial blood. The saline
matters dissolved in the liquor sanguinis consist chiefly of the chlorides of
sodium and potassium (which comprise more than one-half of the whole
salts), the tribasic phosphate of soda, the phosphates of magnesia and lime,
sulphate of soda, and a little of the phosphate and oxide of iron.

GENERAL PLAN OF THE CIRCULATION

The blood is circulated through the body, for the purposes of nutrition
and seci-etion, by means of one forcing joump, and through the lungs, for its
proper aeration, by another ; the two being united to form the heart. This
organ is therefore a compound machine,
though the two pumps are joined together,
so as to appear to the casual observer to
be one single oi'gan. In common lan-
guage, the heart of the mammalia is said
to have two sides, each of which is a
forcing pump ; but the blood, before it
passes from one side to the other, has to
circulate through one or other of the sets
of vessels found in the general organs of
the body, and in the lungs, as the case
may be. This is shown at Fig. 70, where
the blood, commencing with the capillaries
on the general surface at A, passes through
the veins which finally end in the vena
cava (B), and enters the right auricle (C).
From this it is pumped into the right
ventricle (D), which, contracting in its
turn, forces it on into the pulmonary
artery (E), spreading out upon the lining
membrane of the lungs, to form the capil-
laries of that organ at F, from which it is
returned to the left auricle (G) through
the pulmonary veins. From the left auricle
it is driven on to the left ventricle ; and
this, by its powerful contractions, forces the blood through the aorta (I), and
the arteries of the whole body, to the capillaries (A), from which the descrip-
tion commenced. But though this organ is thus made up of two pumps, yet
they are united into one organ, and the two auricles and two ventricles each

Fig. 70.— PLA>f of the Circulation.

A. Capillaries on the general surface.

B. Vena cava.

C. Right auricle.

D. Riglit ventricle.

E. Pulmonary artery.

F. Capillaries of the lungs, uniting to form

the pulmonary veins, which enter

G. The left auricle.
H. The left ventricle.

I. The aorta posterior, dividing into smaller
arteries, and united with the capilla-
ries at A.

J. The trunk of the aorta anterior.

•IGO THE ANATOMY OF THE llOK.SE

contTcOct at tlie same moment, causing only a double sound to be heard,
instead of a quadruple one, when the car is applied to the chest. In the
diagram it will be seen that one half of the cavities and vessels is shaded,
indicating that it contains dark blood, while the other contains blood of a
bright red colour. But though we commonly call the one venous, and the
other arterial, the distinction only applies to the general circulation ; for
that of the lungs is exactly the reverse, the pulmonar}' artery (E) containing
dark l)lood, and the pulmonar}' veins bringing it back to the heart after it
is purified, and has again received oxygen sutlicient to develop the .scarlet
colour again. Between the auricles and ventricles, and again at the open-
ings of the latter cavities into their respective arteries, valves of a form
peculiar to each are placed, so as to allow of the free passage onwards of
the blood, but not of its return by regurgitation. If they become diseased,
the action of the hcai-t is impeded, and the circulation of the blood is more
or less seriously interfered with. So, also, if the muscular fibres, of which
the walls of the auricles and, in niuch thicker la3'ers, of the ventricles are
composed, become weak by want of proper exercise, or from the deposit of
fat in their interspaces, a corresponding degree of mischief is effected in the
passage of the blood. The force with which the left ventricle contracts
may be estimated from the fact, that if a pipe is inserted in the carotid
artery of a horse, and held perpendicularly, the blood will rise in it to a
height of ten feet ; and the i-apidity of his circulation is such, that a saline
substance w-ill pass from the veins of the upper part of the body to those
of the lower in little more than twenty seconds. Now, as this transmission
can only take place through the curi'ent that returns to the heart, and
passes thence through the lungs and back again, afterwards being forced
into the lower vessels through the aorta, it follows that every particle of
this fluid passes completely through the whole circulation in the above short
period of time.

THE HEART AND ARTERIES

The heakt of the house (composed, as has been ahead}' mentioned, of
two auricles and ventricles, with their several valves, and placed within the
thorax in the space called the mediastinum, between the two sacs of the
pleura) is covered by a fibro-serous sac of its own called the 2'^J'i(^(^'''(^if<"i-
It is situated opposite the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth ribs, immediately
in front of the diaphragm, and above the sternum, as shown in Fig. 69, at
page 457. It presents an irregular cone, with the base turned upwards, and
the apex directed towards the sternum. It is about ten and a quarter
inches from the base to the apex, seven inches in its antero posterior dia-
meter, and five and a quarter from side to side. In weight it varies from
six and a half to seven pounds ; but these dimensions can only be taken as
an approximation to the actual average. The right auricle and ventricle
are directed forwards, and the left backwards. The auricles have much
thinner walls than the ventricles, and the muscular substance of the left
ventricle, occupying the apex of the heart, is very much thicker than that
of the right. The organ is supplied with blood for its nourishment by two
arteries (the coronary), which leave the aorta close to its origin, and their

THE HEART AND ARTERIES 461

trunks lie in the space on each side between the two ventricles. The
movements of the heart may be carried on independently of the brain and
spinal cord, if these parts are gradually removed ; but if they are suddenly
destroyed or partially injured, it ceases to beat. Its nerves are derived
from the pneumogastric and sympathetic.

The pericardium is made up externally of a thin layer of white fibrous
matter, attached to the roots of the great vessels above, and by a few pro-
longations to the sternum below, and the central tendon of the diaphragm
behind. Within this the heart lies, loosely covered with a serous bag,
which also lines the fibrous coat above mentioned, and forms with it the
pericardium as a whole. The use of the external layer is to restrain the
movements of the heart within due bounds, and of the serous layer to allow
it to play freely without being restrained by the friction of its exterior
against the surrounding parts, which would be the case in the absence of
the double sac of serous membrane which it is endowed with. Like the
pleura, this sac, during health, contains only sufficient serum to lubricate
it ; but after inflammation or congestion, serum, lymph, or pus are thrown
out, so as to intei'fere with its proper functions.

Each artery has three distinct coats : an outer cellular coat, capable
of great distension ; a middle coat, consisting in part of yellow fibrous
tissue and in part of non- striated musculai fibres, which is highly elastic ;
and an inner serous coat, intended to diminish the friction of the blood
as it rushes on. It is in the elastic middle coat that the power resides of
equalizing the flow of blood, retarding its velocity when the vessel con-
taining it is near the heart, and accelerating it at a distance from it. In
this way the intermittent jets which are produced by the ventricular con-
traction become at length converted into a continuous stream, having
midway between the two extremities developed the artei'ial pulse, which
can be felt in all the arteries of any size throughout the body, and most
conveniently within the lower jaw, at the submaxillary artery.

The capillaries are generally spoken of as a distinct system of small
blood-vessels, but no line of demarcation can be demonstrated either at
their junction with the larger branches of the arteries, or with the veins ;
and they should be regarded simply as the minute terminations of the one
set and commencement of the others, together making a fine network of
vessels which vary greatly in the mode of their ramifications, according as
they minister to muscular fibre, gland, or membrane. Lilse the arteries
themselves, they possess the power of contraction and dilatation, which is,
apparently, under the influence of the nervous system. Thus, on the
application of a local stimulus, the capillaries of the part admit more blood
without any increase of the heart's action, and this may go on to the states
known as congestion and ivjlammation according to the presence or absence
of other circumstances bearing upon their action.

The arteries are arranged in two great groups, one of which has been
sufliciently alluded to at page 460, as conveying black blood to the lungs;
the other commences at the left ventricle as the aorta, and dividing at once
into the anterior aorta and posterior aorta, supplies the corresponding
parts of the body with arterial blood, after branching ofi" into innumerable
subdivisions. This is clearly marked in the accompanying plan, which
indicates the po'-dtion of the heart in the thorax, and most of the principal

462 THE ANATOMY OF THE HOUSE

arteries of the body; l»ut being on so small a scale, it can only convey a
general idea of their numbers and the situation at which they each leave
the parent trunk.

The aorta, or great artery of the bod}', as it emerges frttm the sub-
stance of the heart and rises towards the spine, describes a curve whose
convexity looks upwards and forwards. Immediately above the valves at
its root are the origins of the two coronary arteries, supplying the heart as
described at page 460. About two inches above these it gives off a large
branch — the anterior aorta — supplying the anterior extremities, the neck,
and the head ; the hinder portion is called the posterior aorta, and is destined
to afford blood to the walls of the thorax and abdomen, to the contents of
these cavities, and to the hinder extremities.

The anterior aorta is about an inch and a half in length before it
gives off any of its branches. It ascends between the two laminaj of the
anterior mediastinum, lying above the right auricle and below the trachea,
with the vena cava on its right hand. Opposite the body of the third
dorsal vertebra it divides into the right and left arteria innominata. The
former is considerably the larger of the two, being nearly double the
diameter of the left. This is owing to its supplying both the carotids in
addition to those which it has previously given off in correspondence with
the left arteria innominata. These branches common to both are seven
in number : —

1. — A. dorsalis branches backwards, and supplies a twig to the superior
mediastinum, and the four or five first intercostal arteries.

2. — A. servicalis superio?', distributed to the muscles of the neck lying above
the spine.

3. — A. vertehralis, a vessel of considerable size, is given off behind the
first rib, and passes beneath the transverse process of the seventh
cei'vical vertebra to enter the foramen in that of the sixth. From
this it proceeds through the foramina of all the cervical vertebra in
succession, and enters the foramen magnum to supply the base of the
brain with blood.

■1. — A. thoracica interna, given off opposite the last artery, descends at once
to the upper and inner surface of the sternum, on each side of which it
lies, supplying the intercostal mus^Jes, and, inosculating with the inter-
costal arteries, terminates by meeting the ascending branches fruin the
epigastric artery.

5. — A. thoracica externa, a small branch which is given off externally to
the first rib, and descends at once to the inferior surface of the sternum,
on the muscles covering which it terminates.

6. — A. cervicalis inferior is a short branch, and supplies the muscles and
glands at the root of the neck.

7. — A. axillaris descends at once to the inside of the fore extremity, and
supplies the scapula, arm, and leg. It is the continuation of the main
artery after it has given off the above branches, and lies deeply
imbedded in the cellular membrane which fills up the space between
the sternum and the shoulder joint. Here it supplies {a) three or
four thoracic branches ; {b) the A. dorsalis scapulae ; (c) A. subsca-
pularis ; the destinations of which will be explained by their names. It

THE AEITERIES

463

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464 THE ANATOMY OF THE liOilSE

then I'uns along the inner side of the liead of the os liuineri, where it
receives the name of A. humeralis, and gives off three or four muscular
branches, having the ulnar and spiral nerves on its inner side, and in
front the radial nerve, with the humeral veins behind. Above the
elbow joint, and in front of the humerus, it splits into three, A. ulnaris,
spiralis, and radialis ; the last again dividing into two, A. plantaris
externa and A. P. interna, which will again be alluded to in describing
the anatomy of the foot.

The commox cauotid artery, which is the continuation of the right A.
innominata, after it has given off its axillary branches, ascends along the
lower face of the trachea for a very short distance, and then divides into
the right and left carotids, which lie on each side the trachea, gradually
sinking deeper among the muscles of the neck till they arrive at the level
of the larynx, when they respectivel}' divide into three branches — A. carotidoca
externa, A. occipitalis, and A, carotidoca interna. In this course they supply
the thyroideal artery and several small muscular branches. The external
carotid gives off («) the submaxillary artery, which has a number of branches
supplying the muscles of the pharynx, palate, and face ; (h) the parotideal ;
(c) internal pterygoid ; (d) branches to the masseter and auricular muscles ;
and finally (e) the internal maxillary, which penetrates deeply behind the
lower jaw, and supplies those parts ; then going on to the eye, for which it
gives off a special branch, the ocular, destined to the muscles of the eye and
the fat in which it lies.

The occipital artery passes backwards, deeply hidden by the muscles
of the neck and the transverse process of the atlas, where it unites with the
vertebral artery.

The internal carotid, a comparatively small artery, ascends towards
the base of the skull, which it enters at the point of the petrous part of
the temporal bone, and supplies the brain in common with the vertebral
artery, with which it freely anastomoses.

The posterior aorta must now be described. It is much longer and of
larger diameter than the anterior, commencing opposite the fourth dorsal
vertebra, where it lies at some little distance below the body of that bone.
Passing upwards and backwards it becomes closely connected with the
bodies of the vertebra, lying a little to the left, and having the ossophagus
and vena azygos on the right, and the thoracic duct on the left. Here it is
called the thoracic aorta ; but passing through the crura of the diaphragm
it enters the abdomen, and receives the name of abdominal aorta. The
thoracic division supplies small branches to the bronchi and oesophagus, as
well as the intercostal arteries to all but the four or five anterior intercostal
spaces. After passing through the diaphragm, the aorta gives off the
phrenic arteries right and left to the diaphragm, and then supplies the
important arteries of the viscera, namely ; (a) the Cidiac artery, dividing
into the splenic, gastric, and hepatic arteries ; (6) the anterior mesenteric ;
(c) the renal ; (d) the spermatic ; (e) the posterior mesenteric ; {/) the lumbar
arteries ; and finally, just below the last lumbar vertebra, it subdivides into
{g) the two internal, and Qi) the two external iliac arteries. In the horse there
is no common iliac artery, as in man, the four being given off in one group,
out the two internals generally forming a short continuation of the trunk.

THE ARTERIES

465

The internal iliac artery has a very short trunk, which passes back-
wards and outwards in close connection with the sacrum. Its first branch
is (a) the umbilical artery. It then gives off (b) the artery of bulb, after
which and just opposite the sacroiliac articulation it divides into a leash of

Fig. 72.— Branches of the Right Akteria In-nominata.

1. Posterior aorta.

2. 2. 2. 2. Intercostal brandies of posterior

aorta.

3. Anterior aorta.

4. Right arteria inuoniinata, ending in common

carotid and

5. Axillary artery.

6. 6. 6. A. dorsalis.

7. 7. A. cervicalis superior.

8. 8. 8. Vertebral artery.

0. 10. Inosculations of these three arteries.
11. Origins of the internal and external thoracic
arteries.

branches, which are (c) the obturator, (d) the lateral sacral, and (e) the
gluteal artery. The umbilical artery is almost entirely obliterated in the
adult, but a small branch still remains passing along the cord which exists
as the only remnant of the large artery which in the foetus carries on the
circulation peculiar to that condition. The artery of the bulb supplies the
bladder and the internal organs of generation. The obturator artery gives
off branches to the muscles of the haunch, and finally ends in the internal
pubic artery, which gives blood to the penis and adjacent organs. The
lateral sacral artery proceeds backwards along the side of the sacrum

466 THE ANATOMY VF TJli: llUK.SE

to the bones of the tail, along which it ramifies. Lastly, (he {/luteal
artery passes out of the pelvis through the hole in the sacro-sciatic
ligament in company with the sciatic nerve, and supplies muscular branches
to the glutei.

The exteknal iliac auteuy is smaller than the internal, and takes the
same course as far as the articulation, beyond which it passes, lying just
within the brim of the pelvis, in close contact with the psoas and iliacus
muscles and covered by the peritoneum. About midway between the
symphisis pubis and the anterior sjiinous process of the ilium it gives oflF
the circumllex artery of the ilium, and then receives the name of the
femoral artery. At this point the femoral vein lies posterior to it, and it
is also accompanied by the internal saphena nerve. Proceeding in an
oblique direction down the middle of the haunch, it reaches the hollow at
the back of the stifle joint, where it is called the 2^02)lit(eal artery, and
opposite the head of the tibia this bifurcates into the anterior and posterior
tibial arteries. Just after emerging from the pelvis it gives oft' a con-
siderable hnmch, 2))'oJ'unda J'enioris, then the ejiiyastric ; and in running
down through the muscles of the thigh it gives off" numerous small branches
to them.

THE VEINS

Ttie veins generally correspond with the arteries, the blood of which
they return to the heart. Thus there is a large vein Avhich conveys all the
blood from the anterior half of the body supplied by the anterior aorta, and
this is called vena cava anterior. In a similar manner the poste7-ior vena
cava is made up of veins which accompany the several arteries that are
found throughout the body, with one remarkable exception connected with
the secretion of bile. If the splenic and mesenteric A'eins ai'e traced they
will be found to unite together into a large trunk, which, instead of going
on to empty itself into the vena cava posterior, enters the liver, where it is
called the vena portce, and branches out again like an artery, the general
purposes of which it serves by furnishing blood for the secretion of bile.
This will be more fully described under the head of the liver, in the next
chapter. From the terminations of the portal veins and hepatic artery the
hepatic veins arise, and these empty themselves into the posterior vena
cava, just behind the diaphragm. Besides that brought by the two venae
cavse, the blood from the heart itself enters the auricle through the coronary
veins.

Although, in general, the veins and arteries correspond in their rami-
fications, yet there is a large class of superficial veins Avhich arc not
accompanied by any of the latter vessels. In horses which for many
generations have been accustomed to fast work, these superficial Acins
are strongly developed, and are particularly plain in the Arab and his
descendants. As a consequence of this, and of the fact that many of the
arteries are accompanied by two veins, the whole number of veins is much
greater than that of the arteries, and the internal area of the former may
be considered to be nearly double that of the latter. In their walls the
veins are much thinner than the arteries, though like them they have

THE VEINS 467

three coats, the serous and cellular being very similar in structure, but the
fibrous is very much thinner and devoid of muscular fibres. A feature
peculiar to the veins is the existence of valves, which are sometimes single,
at others double, and occasionally arranged in threes and fours around
the interior of the large veins. They vary in numbers, and are altogether
absent in the pulmonary veins, in the vense cavse, and the vena portse.

The anterior vena cava is made up of the jugular vein, the pectoral,
vertebral, axillary, and cervical veins, and the vena azygos. The jugular
vein, which is that usually selected for bleeding, returns the blood from the
brain, jaws, and neck, along each side of which it lies, separated from the
carotid artery in the upper part of the neck by a layer of oblique fibres
belonging to the levator humeri. In the lower half the vein becomes more
deeply seated, approaches more closely the carotid artery, and, entering the
chest with it, falls into the vena cava anterior between the first and second
ribs. Near its termination it receives the superficial brachial vein (the plate
vein), which passes up in front of the arm, along the anterior edge of the
flexor, and winding upwards in the hollow between the arm and sternum
joins the jugular vein. The vertebral and axillary veins correspond with
the arteries of the same name, the divisions of the latter contained within
the foot being described with that organ. The left axillary vein receives
the contents of the thoracic duct which opens into it close to its junction
with the vena cava.

The posterior vena cava commences by the junction of the two common
iliac veins (each made up of an external and internal iliac corresponding
to the arteries of the name). It is then joined by the lumbar veins, the
spermatic and renal veins, after which, and close to its termination, the
hepatic and phrenic veins empty themselves into it.

The pulmonary veins, commencing with eight trunks as they emerge
from the lungs, soon unite into four, in which number they enter the left
auricle. They carry arterial blood, and differ in this respect from all the
other veins of the body, as has been already mentioned.

PHYSIOLOGY OF RESPIRATION

The essence of the act of breathing consists in the absorption of oxj^gen
from the air, and the excretion of carbonic acid from the blood which is
circulated through it. In a state of rest this intei'change must go on with
regularity, for carbonic acid is constantly developed by the decay of the
tissues, arising from the peculiar necessities of the muscular and nervous
tissues, and by the conversion of the carbon of the food which appears to be
required for the development of heat. But when the muscles of the whole
body are called into play with unusual rapidity and force, the development
of carbonic acid is largely augmented, and thus, not only is there a necessity
for extra means of excreting the carbonic acid, but there is also a demand
for more oxygen to unite with the carbon, which is the result of the dis-
integi^ation of the muscular fibres employed. Hence the acts of respiration
are more complete and rapid during exercise than in a state of rest, and
while much more carbonic acid is given off, a greater volume of oxygen, is
absorbed from the air which is inspired.

4G8 THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE

Jt is found itv KXPKUiMKNT that if veiious blood is exposed to the
action of oxygen, through a thin membrane such as bladder, it absorbs
a portion of that gas, and changes its colour from dark red to a bright
scarlet. This is in accordance with the recognized laws of endosmose and
exosmose ; and as the blood circulates in very fine streams within the
vessels of the lungs, whoso walls are much thinner than an ordinary
bladder, it may readily be understood that it is placed in more favourable
circumstances for this interchange of gases than when tied up in a large
mass within a comparatively thick membrane. On examining the structure
of the lungs, they are found to be made up of a pair of cellular sacs, com-
municating with the trachea, which admits air into them ; and these
sacs are furnished with a fine network of capillary vessels distributed on
their walls, and on those of the numerous cellular partitions of which they
are composed. Thus the blood, as it enters the lungs in a venous state, is
submitted under very favourable circumstances to the agency of atmospheric
air; it readily absorbs the oxygen while it gives oflF large volumes of
carbonic acid gas, the result of the combination of previously absorbed
oxygen with the carbon given off by the various organs of the body already
alluded to.

TuE EXACT CHEMICAL CHANGES whicli have taken place in the atmospheric
air exhaled from the lungs and in the blood itself are believed to be as
follows : — 1. A certain portion of oxygen has disappeared from the air.
2. It has received a considerable volume of carbonic acid. 3. It has
absorbed fresh nitrogen. 4. It has parted with some of the nitrogen of
which it was previously made up. The last two changes cannot readily be
demonstrated, but are inferred from the fact that, under varying conditions
of the body, the nitrogen in the exhaled air may be either above or below
the proper proportion. Besides these, the air also receives a considerable
(quantity of moisture, and some organic matters, which in certain cases are
largely increased. The changes in the blood are not so fully known ; but
it is now the general opinion of physiologists that the formation of
carbonic acid does not take place in the lungs, but that the blood arrives
there surcharged with it already made, and not with carbon, as was
formerly believed. The action chiefly consists in the excretion of this
carbonic acid, and in the absorption of oxygen, which is stored up for the
several purposes for ^Yhich it is required in the course of its circulation
through the body. Magnus demonstrated by experiment that arterial and
venous blood contain very different quantities of carbonic acid, oxygen, and
nitrogen in a free state, for on obtaining, by means of the air-pump, a
volume of the gas contained in each kind of blood, and analyzing them, he
found them to be made up as follows : —

Arterial. Vonous.

Carbonic acid i)'2'3 71 "6

Oxygen 23-2 15-3

Nitrogen H-5 IS'l

It appears, therefore, that in passing through the capillaries, the gas in the
arterial blood loses about eight per cent, of oxygen, and receives about nine
iier cent, of carbonic acid, which action is reversed as it passes through the
lungs.

NASAL CAVITIES 469

MECHANISM OF THE PULMONARY APPARATUS

Although the whole of these parts are not contained within the
thorax, it will be convenient to examine them together, since they all
mutually bear upon each other both in health and disease.

The pulmonary apparatus of the horse consists of four parts — First,
the nasal cavities, destined to prepare the air for entering the larynx ;
second, of the larynx, which acts as a portal or guard against the admission
of noxious matters floating in it ; third, of a set of tubes, consisting of the
trachea and bronchi, which convey the air from the larynx to the aii'-cells ;
and fourthly, of the air-cells themselves, where the changes are effected in
the blood, for which the lungs are specially designed.

THE NASAL ORIFICES AND CAVITIES

The nasal orifices in the horse and ass differ from those of the other
domestic animals, and also from the human nostrils, in being the sole means
of admitting air to the lungs. The ox, sheep, dog, cat, etc. can breathe
either through the nostrils or the mouth, but the horse is prevented, by the
formation of his soft palate, from drawing in air through his mouth, and
hence he requires nostrils of a size calculated to admit an extra supply of
air.-*- The 07'ifices or nostrils consist of an oblong opening on each side of the
nose, separated from each other externally by the skin covering the carti-
laginous alee, which encircle three-fourths of the opening. These alse,
together with the septum, which divides the two nostrils vertically, con-
stitute the five cartilages of the nose, all being lined by the Schneiderian
membrane, upon which the nerves of smell are freely disti'ibuted. Each
nostril has two flexible and easily dilated alse — a superior or internal ala,
having a broad cartilaginous plate, and an inferior ala, of a crescentic
shape, with its concavity tui^ned inwards. The four al?e, when in position,
resemble the letter X, and form a framework which keeps the openings
always patulous, while it resists the actions of the muscles when they draw
the external folds of the skin away from it in order to enlarge the openings.
Two little pouches of skin are found internally above the true nostrils, and
ai^e called the false nostrils, the use of which is not clearly demonstrated.
At the inner and inferior part of the nasal fossa, underneath the fold of
skin covering the inferior ala, is the orifice of the nasal duct, which leads
down from the eye, and conveys the surplus secretion of lachrymal fluid
from that organ to the nose. In the ass and mule this orifice is found just
within the superior ala. If these alse are not of full size and the nostrils
patulous, it may generally be surmised that the other organs of respiration
are equally undeveloped, and that the horse's wind will be proportionally
bad.

The nasal cavities, or foss^, are partly bounded by bone, and partly
by the cartilage known as the se2Jtuin nasi. The sui-face of membrane is
much increased by the convolutions of the turbinated bones, so that
the air, as it passes through these chambers, is warmed if cold, and if

^ It is often observed tliat horses breathe through an open mouth shortly before they die.

470 THE ANAT03IY OF THE HORSE

dry it is moistcncil, so as to render it fit for respiration. Tlie frontal,
{ptlnnoidal, splicnoidal and maxillary sinuses also open into these fossae,
the -whole of them being lined by a continuation of the Schneiderian
membrane.

THE LARYNX

Immediately ueiiixd and below the nasal cavities is the larynx, which
serves the double purpose of acting as a portal to the inspired air, and
of forming the few vocal sounds uttered by the horse. It consists of five
cartilages, united together by ligaments, and moved by a number of deli-
cate muscles. It is lined with a fine mucous membrnne, and is supplied,

J

FiQ. 73.— Profile View of the Os Hyoides and Larvnx.

1. Lateral plates of the thyroid cartilage. 6. Spur jirocess, or ai>pendix.

2. Ei'iglottis. " 7. Shorthorn.

8. Thyro-livoid membrane. S. Long horn of the os hyoides.

4. Boily of the tliyroid cartilage. 9. 9. 9. 0. Cartilaginous rings of the trachea.

5. Branch of the body of the os hyoides. 10. 10. 10. Membranes connecting these rings.

like all other parts of the body, by its proper vessels and nerves. It is
suspended from the os hyoides, or bone of the tongue, by a strong but
thin membrane, and terminates posteriorly in the trachea, or air-tube
loading to the lungs.

The thyroid cartilage (^vpcos, a shield, elSo?, like) is composed of two
lateral plates, each presenting the form of an oblique-angled parallelogram,
joined together in front, and separated by a considerable bpace behind,
which is occupied by the cricoid cartilage. The point in front which
corresponds with the pomum Adami in man, is called the body. The
posterior angles of the lateral plates are each terminated by a prolongation,
called a cornea or ala — the two superior being united by ligaments to the
OS hyoides, and the two inferior to the cricoid cartilage. In the upper
part of the anterior angle is fixed the epiglottis, by means of the union
called amphiarthrosis.

The cricoid cartilage (^piKos, a ring, €1805, like) is a complete ring, but
it is much deeper behind than before. It is somewhat depressed from side
to side, especially in those horses which are deficient in wind. On the
upper edge behind it has two rounded surfaces, which articulate with the

THE LARYNX

471

a pitcher, tlho<;,

arytenoid cartilages. In the middle is a vertical ridge, to which
ffisophagus is united by cellular membrane, and on each "side of this is
hollow for the lodgment of muscles.

The arytenoid cartilages {apvTaiva
number, are triangular in form, broad and
thick below, and pointed above. They
give attachment to the vocal chords, and
are the means hj which these are rend-
ered tense or lax, open or close, by the
action of the muscles of the larynx.

The epiglottis (eTrtyAwTrts) is a carti-
lage of a heart shape, attached to the
angle between the lateral plates of the
thyroid cartilage. When pressed back-
wards, it closes the rima glottidis or
fissure between the vocal chords, and in
this way prevents the food from j^assing'
into the larynx.

By the aid of these cartilages, and
of the ligaments connecting them, as well
as by means of the muscles which move
them, a triangular opening called the
rima glottidis is formed, having its base
behind at the arytenoid cartilages and its
apex in front, below the epiglottis. The
sides of this opening are formed by liga-
mentous bands, attached to the arytenoid
cartilages, so that as these are drawn
backwards they are rendered tense ; and
if they are drawn apart the rima or
fissure is widened and admits more air.
When this fissure is contracted, either
by thickening of the edges or by the
wasting of the muscles which keep it
open, roaring or whistling is produced ;
so that it is important to arrive at a correct idea of its mechanism

the

10

'iG. 74.— Posterior View of the oa Htoides
AND Larynx.

1. Epiglottis.

2. Aiytenoid cartilages.

3. Cricoid cartilage.

4. Spur jirocess, or appendix of the os hyoides.

5. 5. Branches of the body of the os hyoides.

6. 0. Short horns.

7. 7. Long horns of the os hyoides.

8. Membrane completing the back of the
trachea.

9. 9. 9. Tracheal rings incomplete behind.
10. 10. Membrane between the rings of the

trachea.

THE TRACHEA AND BRONCHI

The trachea is a flexible and elastic tube, formed of a series of incom-
plete cartilaginous rings, about fifty in number, connected together by an
elastic membrane, which also fills up the space left at the back of each
ring. It passes down the lower margin of the neck, and, on arriving at
the level of the base of the heart, it divides into two bronchi or lesser
tubes, of somewhat the same character and structure as itself. In its
course, it has the sterno-hyoideus and tliyroideus in front, the oesophagus
behind ; and the carotid artery, with the pneumogastric, recurrent, and
sympathetic nerves on each side ; the jugular vein being more superficial

I I

472 THE ANATOMY OF TJiH IIORSF.

than these, but also on the side of the tracliea. At tlio upper and hack
part of the trachea a hayer of muscular fibre is found, connecting together
the posterior edges of the cartilages. The office of these muscular bands is
to diminish the area of the trachea.

The BRONCni consist at first of the two tubes into which the trachea
divides, the right being the more capacious of the two. Afterwards they
subdivide, like the branches of a tree, into lesser tubes, still called bron-
chial, which finally open into the air-cells of the lungs. These tubes difler
from the trachea in that each ring of cartilage is made up of several distinct
pieces, which overlap each other, and thus allow of considerable dilatation
during forcible expiration. The rings are held together by an elastic cellu-
lar substance, and are lined first b}' a fibrous layer, with which it is supposed
that some muscular tissue is mixed up, as in the larger bronclii, and
internally by fine mucous membrane.

THE LUNGS

The lungs consist of two conical spongy bodies, adapted to the shape
of the thorax, the left being the smaller of the two. Between these halves
of the lungs is a space called the mediastinum, already described, occupied
by the heart, great blood-vessels, nerves, and glands ; they ai-e capable of
great dilatation by the act of inspiration, and of being again reduced in size
l)y expiration. In structure, they are made up of three distinct parts — (1)
an external or serous coat, called the pleura, described at page 456 ; (2) a
middle or true pulmonary tissue, consisting of the intercellular passages
and air-cells, of the arteries and veins, lymphatics and nerves, bound
together by an areolo-fibrous tissue, and called t\\Q jiarenchyma ; (3) the ter-
minal branches of the bronchial tubes. The j^^f^ura is simply a \a.ycv of
serous membrane, liable to its peculiar accidents and diseases, hereafter to
be described. The ;^jare?/c/<yma has a beautiful pale rose colour in the healthy
subject. Though very delicate, it strongly resists external violence, and is
not easily torn. It is divided into a vast number of little polyhedral
lobules, each of which receives one of the terminating branches of a bron-
chial tube, and is again broken up into a cluster of air-cells, on the
walls of which the capillary branches of the pulmonary arteries and veins
are thickly spread out. The extent of surface upon which these vessels
ramify is enormous, probabl}'' ten or twelve times that of the skin. The
parenchyma of the lungs appears to be entirely passive in respiration, being
filled with air by the expansion of the cavity in which it lies ; and that,
again, being due to the act of the inspiratory muscles.

The BROXcniAL tubes divide and subdivide until they diminish to a
diameter of -^g of an inch, when they terminate in the intercellular passages,
by which they communicate with the air cells. At their terminations, the
mucous membrane ceases abruptly, the fibrous envelojie being alone con-
tinued, together with the vascular network common to both. Thus the
mucous membrane lining the bronchi, and the fibrous walls of the air-cells,
are quite distinct ; and this will account for each being often the seat of a
peculiar inflammation, without extending to the other.

PULMONARY GLANDS 473

PULMONARY GLANDS, ETC.

In connection ayitii the luncs are three bodies, the uses of two of which
are not very clearly made out. These ai-e the thyroid body, just below the
larynx ; the thymus gland, chiefly developed in the foetus ; and the bron-
chial glands, which are merely lymphatic glands of the usual character,
situated around the principal divisions of the bronchi.

The thyroid body is not very fully developed in the horse, and has little
interest connected with it, seldom being enlarged, as in the dog and in the
human species. It consists of two oval masses, about the size of an egg,
lying on each side of the trachea, just beneath the larynx, and connected
by a band or middle lobe. The use of the thyroid body is not
ascertained.

Just within the thorax, and in close contact with the trachea, a some-
what similar body to the preceding is met with in the foetus and young
foal ; but it soon wastes away as the young animal grows up. This is the
thymus gland (known to cooks as the sweetbread), resembling in shape the
thyroid body, but of a paler colour. Like it, the use of this gland is
not fully known ; but in structure it is more like the conglomerate
glands, and Sir Astley Cooper, who examined it most minutely, supposed
that it is intended " to prepare a fluid, well fitted for the foetal growth
and nouinshment, from the blood of the mother, before the birth of the
foetus."

The bronchial glands are mei^ely lymphatic glands, similar to those in
other parts of the body, and grouped around the large bronchial tubes.
They are of a greyish colour, stained with black in patches.

474 THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE

CHAPTER XXII

THE ABDOMEN AND PELVIC VISCERA

THE AnPOMEN AND ITS CONTl-.NTS— PIIYSIOLnGY OF DIGESTIOX— STRUCTURE OF GT.ANDS
AND rilYSIOLOaY OF SECRETION — DErURATIOX, AND ITS OFFICE IS THE ANIMAT,
EC0N0:MY — ANATOMY OF THE SAUVARY GLANDS, I'lrARYNX, O^SOPIIAfJUS, AND STOMACH
— THE INTESTINES— THE IJVKR— THE Sl'LEEN — THE TANOREAS— THE KIDNEYS— THK
PELVIS— THE BLADDER— THE OKCANS OF tJENERATION, MALE AND FEMALE.

THE ABDOMEN AND ITS CONTENTS

Lying immediately behind the thorax, from whicli tlu'v ure separated
only b}' the diaphragm, are tlic important organs of digestion, and tlie
space in whicli they are closely packed is called the abdomen. This part
is capable of being distended downwards and sideways to an enormous
extent, or of contracting till the lower walls approach very closely to the
upper. The anterior boundary, as before remarked, is the diaphragm, the
plane of which moves considerably in active respiration, causing the flanks,
or postei'o-lateral walls of the abdomen, to rise and fall, in a corresponding
manner, and thus to indicate the extent of distress in an exhausted animal,
or aii}^ peculiarity of breathing, as in "broken wind," or in the several inflam-
matory conditions of the lungs. Posteriorly, the boundary is an open one,
being the anterior boundary of the pelvis, and corresponding with the brim
of that cavit}'. Superiorly are the crura of the diaphragm, the lumbar
vertebra^ and psoas and iliacus muscles ; and laterally, as well as inferiorl}',
the abdominal muscles, and cartilages of the false ribs. Although the
abdominal muscles are capable of great dilatation, yet in the natural con-
dition they maintain a gentle curve only from their pelvic to their costal
attachments, and hence the depth and width of the back ribs and pelvis
are the measure of the ordinary ca^iacity of the abdomen. Shallow and
narrow back ril)s give a small abdominal cavit}', and generall}' speaking a
correspondingly weak condition of the digestive organs ; for though this
rule is not invariable, yet it is one which maj' be held as a suflicient guide
for practical purposes. Instances do occur of stout and hearty liorses
possessed of contracted middle-pieces, but they are so rare as to be merel}'
objects of curiosity. The small space which is devoted to the organs of
digestion in the horse whose back ribs are shallow will be readily under-
stood by reference to the annexed section, in which the enormous mass of
intestines and the liver have been removed, leaving only the stomach and
spleen. When the walls of the abdomen are distended laterally and down-
wards, as they ahvaj's are in horses at grass, the capacity of the abdomen
is at least doubled.

The contents of the abdomen are the stomach, the liver, the pancreas,
Ihe spleen, the small and large intestines, the mesenteric glands and
chyliforous ducts, and tlie kidne3's, together with their vessels and nerves.
Some of these organs are fixed close to the spine, as the kidneys and

THE ABDOMEN AND PELVIS

475

pancreas; but the others glide upon each other as they are alternately
empty or full : and to facilitate this motion they are (like the lungs)

^-^
-^c.

S -

3 o -! a

a «

s

fc( .3

invested with a serous coat, the peritoneum. They may be divided into
the hollow organs, which form one continuous tube (the alimentary), and
the solid viscera, which, with the exception of the spleen, are all of a

476

THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE

glandular structure, though differing iu their miuute anatomy. The
alimentary canal consists throughout of three distinct layers : the external
serous coat {]>crito)ical), the middle or tmiscidar coat, and the internal
mucous coat, wliich are unitcil by cellular membrane, sometimes regarded
as forming two distinct additional coats.

TuE PERITONEUM, like the pleura, is a serous membrane, forming a shut
sac, and arranged in such a manner that all the abdominal organs are
behind it, and two layers of it must be divided before reaching the interior
of ftuv of the organs from the lateral or inferior boundaries of the abdomen.

FiQ. 76.— Sectional Pl.vn of the Iloi.b.. „

A. A. Largo intestines.

B. B. B. Small intestines.

C. C. C. reritoncum covering intestines.

D. D. reritoncum lining the walls of tlio ab-

domen.

E. E. Folds connecting the large intestine

with the iiarietal peritoneum, called
mesocolon.

...N BEUl.VD THE STOMACH AND LlVEB.

F. F. Folds connecting the small intestines
with the same, and called the mesen-
tery.
O. Abdominal muscles.
H. H. Ribs.
1. I. lAiinbar muscles.
J. J. Kiibieys embedded in fat.

This will be better understood by examining the annexed plan, in which
the solid black part represents the interior of the peritoneal sac, a space
usually extremely small, but capable of being distended to a great extent
by a secretion of serum from the internal surface, as in abdominal drop.sy.
The white line indicates the whole continuous surface of the peritoneum
inclosing the black space, which is exaggerated, in order to render the plan
more distinct. It will thus be readily understood that unless the perito-
neum is detached from the upper walls of the abdomen, and its layers are
separated, as at E E, the viscera cannot be reached without di\ i<Hng it
twice ; first, as it lines the walls of the abdomen; and .secondly, as it closely
covers the organ which it is desired to open. In certain conditions it is
important to remember this, as for instance in distended states of the
colon, when it may be a question whether the bowel may be punctured
from the flank without wounding the peritoneum. It is a very delicate
and irritable membrane in the horse, and should never be interfered with if
it is possible to avoid it. Its secretion is a clear serum, merely sufficient

PHYSIOLOGY OF DIGESTION 477

in health to lubricate the surface, but in disease becoming very profuse and
greatly altered in character.

The muscular coat of the hollow viscera varies in thickness ; but
the whole of it belongs to the unsti'iped division of muscles, and its action
is purely involuntary. In all but the large intestines the fibres are
arranged in a circular direction, but in these they are divided into sets, one
circular, and the other collected in separate longitudinal bands. By the
consecutive action of these fibres (called peristaltic), the food is driven on-
wards from one end to the other of the alimentary canal.

The mucous membrane, which lines the whole length of the alimentary
canal, from the mouth to the anus, is continuous with the skin at these two
orifices — with the mucous membrane lining the air-passages of the lungs at
the entrance to the larynx — with that investing the nasal passages and
cavities at the antero-superior part of the pharynx — and, lastly, with the
internal ear through the eustachian tubes which open into the back of
the pharynx. It is also reflected into the ducts of the salivary glands,
which open into the mouth, and into those of the liver and pancreas, so
that it has very extensive communications with these several organs. Like
the skin, this membrane has a base composed of primary membrane, called
the coriutn, on which are scattered the glands that secrete the gastric juice,
imbedded in loose areolar tissue. In the intestines we shall find it exten-
sively supplied with absorbents, which open upon its velvety pile or villi,
and the whole protected by epithelium, which serves an important part in
the production of the mucus everywhere found upon its surface when in a
healthy state. In the oesophagus it is thick, and disposed in longitudinal
folds, allowing of lateral distension. In the stomach it exists in coarse
folds or rugce, and in the intestines it is gathered into sharp folds, chiefly
manifested in the duodenum. It is extensively supplied with blood
throughout its whole surface, but especially where it lines the stomach and
small intestines, and it is also liberally furnished with nerves, chiefly derived
from the great sympathetic system.

The abdominal viscera are supplied with blood by branches from the
aorta, passing between the folds of the peritoneum to reach their destination,
excepting in the cases of the kidneys and pancreas, which have no such
folds. The same folds also include the veins returning the blood to form
the vena portie (see page 466), and also the lymphatics and chyliferous ab-
sorbents, to be hereafter described.

The nerves are chiefly derived from the great sympathetic system ; but
branches from the cerebro-spinal system are also distributed to the contents
of the abdomen, and especially to the stomach, by means of the pneumo-
gastric nerve.

PHYSIOLOGY OF DIGESTION

Before proceeding to examine into the anatomy of the abdominal
organs, it may be well to investigate the nature of the processes which are
carried out by them. To do this, the food must be traced from its
prehension by the lips and teeth to its expulsion from the anus. Thus,
commencing with the mouth, we find it there ground into a coarse pulp,

478 THE ANATOMY OF THE HOil«E

and mixed with the .sali\;i, which acts as a kind uf J'ermcnl iu cuuvertiiig
the starchy matters, which form so large a proportion of the horse's food,
into sugar, and, Avith the aid of the gastric juice, into the proteine
compounds necessary for the formation of flesh. Perfect mastication and
insalivation are therefore highly important processes to healthy digestion.
When it reaches the stomach, the food undergoes still further changes by
the agency of the gastric juice and of maceration ; but this organ being
small in the horse, it cannot remain tlicre long enough to be converted into
perfect chyme (the result of the first process of digestion), but is passed on
into the duodenum for that purpose. Here it is further elaborated, and
receives the bile and pancreatic juice, which are poured out through their
ducts opening on the internal surface of this intestine. The nutritious
parts of the food ai'e now gradually converted into chi/Ie ; and as it passes
into the jejunum and ilium, it is there absorbed by the lymphatics (here
called lacteah), whose mouths open upon the villi thickl}^ lining this part of
the canal. These unite into one duct (the thoracic), and the chyle is by it
carried into the veins through an opening at the junction of the left vena
ca\'a anterior with the axillary vein. From the small intestines, the food,
minus its nutritive portions, is passed on into the large intestines, and
finally I'eaches the rectum and auus, in the form known as fteces. The
peculiar offices performed by the bile and pancreatic fluid will be described
under the sections treating of each of those organs.

The absorption of txuiD from the interior of the alimentary canal is
effected in two different modes — first, by the lacteals, which take up the
chyle through their open mouths ; secondly, by the veins, which absorb it
through their walls by the process known as endosmose. In the former
case, the chyle is at once carried to the heart ; but in the latter it passes
through the liver, and becomes purifietl and chemically altcre<i in that organ.
The lacteals pass through the mesenteric glands, which lie between the
layers of the mesentery.

STRUCTURE OF GLANDS AND PHYSIOLOGY OF

SECRETION

A GLAND may be defined to be an organ whose office it is to separate
from the blood some peculiar substance, which is poured out through an
excretory duct, whose internal surface is continuous with the mucous
membrane, or skin. A simple gland is, in fact, nothing more than a pouch
of mucous membrane ; and a collection of these pouches constitutes a
compound one, which, if the groups of which it is composed an; loosely
bound together like grapes, as in the salivary glands, is called coiiglomcrate ;
while if they are united into a solid mass, such as (he liver, the term
conglobate is applied.

By secretion is understood the process of separation of various matters
from the blood ; the term being also applied to the products of the process,
such as sa.liva, bile, etc., which are commonly known as secretions. These
are all i-emoved from the blood for one of two purposes — first, in order to
be employed for some ulterior object in the various processes going on in
the body, either for its own preservation, or that of others ; or, secondly, as

DEPURATION 479

being injurious to its welfare, and therefore to be discarded. The term
secretion is sometimes confined to the former, while the latter action receives
the distinguishing term excretion : but as in many cases the fluid which is
removed as being injurious to the system is also used for beneficial purposes,
the distinction is not capable of being strictly maintained. The nature of
the process is essentially the same in all cases, being carried out by the
development of simple cells, each possessing its own independent vitality.
These cells select certain ingredients from the blood, and then set them
free by the rupture of their walls ; and being situated on the free
surface of the lining membrane of the gland, which is continuous with
the mucous membrane or skin, the secreted fluid gradually reaches the
one or the other. It is impossible, at present, to ascertain the precise
means by which eacli gland is made up of cells having special powers of
selection ; but that the fact is so is capable of demonstration. Thus, the
cells of the liver select the elements of bile ; those of the salivary glands
saliva ; and so on. But, as we shall hereafter find, there are minute points
of difference in the arrangement of these cells in the different glands. It
is now ascertained that the elements of the various secretions exist in the
blood ; and therefore the office of the glands is confined to the selection and
separation of their products, and they have little or nothing to do with
their conversion.

DEPURATION, AND ITS OFFICE IN THE
ANIMAL ECONOMY

The whole op the various secretions which go on in the body are
necessary for the due preservation of its health ; but the most important of
the class alluded to above as excretions, must be removed from the blood, or
death will speedily ensue. Thus, if saliva and gastric juice, as well as the
other secretions aiding digestion, are not mixed with the food, the nutrition
of the body will be imperfectly carried on, and its health will suffer. But
if the elements of bile and urine are retained in the blood, not only is the
system upset, but absolute death is produced in severe cases. Hence it
follows, that attention to the state of the organs of depuration, or excretion,
is of more importance even than to those of secretion, using these terms in
the sense explained in the last i;)aragraph. The chief organs of depuration
are the lungs, which remove carbon from the blood ; the liver, which
secretes the bile ; the kidneys, which get rid of the urea ; and the skin,
which relieves it of its superfluous wateiy and some small proportion of its
solid particles. Experiment shows that the retention of carbon, or urea, in
the blood is speedily followed by death ; while the non-secretion of bile, if
entire, poisons the system ; and in milder cases, its absence from the
alimentary canal interferes with the due elaboration of the chyle.

480 THE A^'ATUMY UF THE llOHSE

ANATOMY OF THE SALIVARY GLANDS,
PHARYNX, CESOPHAGUS, AND STOMACH

Till': SALIVARY GLANDS iiic grouped around the jaw, three ou each side,
and are named the parotid, submaxillary, and sublingual glands.

The parotid (so named from its proximity to the ear, rrapa, near ; ovs,
Sjioi, the ear) is the largest of the three, and lies in the space between the
ramus of the lower jaw and the petrous part of the temporal bone, covered
by the parotido-auricularis muscle (see Muscles, Fig. 60). It is enveloped
in a case of dense cellular membrane, being itself made up of a number of
little lobes, each of which has an investment continuous with the external
one. The lobes have each an excretory duct, and these unite together like
the stalks of a grape, to form one single duct, which passes along the inner
part of the angle of the jaw, along the border of the masseter, piercing the
mucous membrane of the mouth opposite the second molar tooth. The
SUBMAXILLARY GLAND lics within and before the angle of the jaw, and is of
the same structure as the parotid. Its duct passes forward by the side of
the root of the tongue, and opens on the side of the froenum. The sublin-
gual GLAND is the smallest of the three, and is situated between the middle
of the tongue and the lower jaw. Its ducts, wliich are several in number,
open on the side of the froenum of the tongue, close to the orifice of the
submaxillary gland. The saliva secreted by these glands contains various
saline and earthy matters identical with those of the blood, and a peculiar
substance called pfyaliiie, which is the ferment used in the digestive
process. The earthy phosphates in the saliva collect around the teeth,
being held together by animal matter, and forming what is known as tartar.

The pharynx and cesophagus receive the food from the back of the
mouth and convey it to the stomach. The former is a funnel-shaped bag,
lined with mucous membrane, and covered by the three constrictors of the
pharynx, wliich suspend it to the os hyoides and palate bones. Posteriorly
it lies close to the spine, being only separated by a thin layer of muscles
(see anterior cervico-occipital region). Anteriorly and superiorly it opens
into the mouth and nasal cavities, from which it is separated by the soft
palate and epiglottis. Posteriorly and superiorly the eustachian tubes open
into it bell-mouthed ; and iuferiorly it contracts to connect itself with the
cesophagus. The velum-palati is so arranged as to act as a vahe in
preventing the entrance of air into the larynx through the mouth, but in
the act of coughing the latter is convulsively drawn down, and the valve
ceases to cover its orifice, so that forcible expiration can then be effected.

The (esophagus commences where the pharynx ends, being at first
placed behind the larynx and in front of the cervical vertebrae. It soon
inclines to the left, where for several inches the passage of a bolus may
be observed in the living horse, again ascending and passing into the
thorax above it. On reaching the crura of the diaphragm it passes
through the opening made for it by the decussation of their fibres (see
Diaphragm), and is connected with the stomach about the centre of its
anterior cur\e. Throughout this course it has a muscular coat, composed
of striped fibres at its ■ommenceineut, but afterwards they are unstriped.
It is lined bv mucous membrane, which is very thick and white.

THE STOMACH

481

The stomach is situated on the left side of the abdominal cavity, im-
mediately behind the diaphragm. It resembles in shape the bag of the
Scotch bag-pipes, having two openings, two curvatures (a lesser and a
greater), two surfaces, and two sacs, which are generally divided by a
constriction as shown in the accompanying engraving. Its volume varies
with its contents, but in the horse of average size it will not contain
more than three gallons, while the stomach of man, whose weight is only

Fig. 77.— The Stomach and Spleff.

1. Pylorus (tied with a li;^atuie).

2. 2. The pyloric sac.

3. Cardiac orifice (tied).

4. 4. The cardiac sac.

6. 5. 5. The gi'eater curvature.

6. 6. 6. The lesser curvature.

7. 7. The spleen.

S. 8. 8. Omentum attaching the stomach to the
spleen.

one-eighth that of the horse, holds three quarts. It lies across the
abdomen, with its anterior surface in contact with the diaphragm on the
left side, and in the middle having the liver between it and the central
tendon of that muscle. Its posterior face is in contact with the colon ;
its inferior or larger curvature with the spleen, attached to it by the
omentum, and separated from the abdominal muscles by the curvatures
which the colon here makes. The left, or cardiac sac, is in contact with
the supero-lateral walls of the abdomen and the left extremity of the
pancreas, approximating to the anterior border of the left kidney. The
right, or pyloric sac, is in contact with the light lobe of the liver, and
the curvatures of the colon. Like the rest of the alimentary canal within

182 THE A^'ATU.MY Ui: THE liUK.SE

llic abdouicu, the stomach is miido up of tlireo coats; the external serous,
which is a continuation of the peritoneum; the middle or muscular ; and
tlie internal, or mucous coat. On slitting it open and examining the
interior, it is at once apparent that the two sacs are very dilTerently lined.
The cardiac mucous membrane resembles in appearance the interior of the
a'sophagus, being whitish brown, tough, comparatively dry, and covered
with a thick layer of epithelium. On tracing the mucous membrane to the
loft sac, it presents an abrupt line of demarcation opposite the constriction
between the two sacs. Beyond this, to the right, it is of a brownish red,
marbled with lighter shades of the same colour, easily torn, and covered
with a very thin epithelium. The left sac is in fact a simple reservoir of
food, while the right is the true organ of digestion. Each of the two
orifices also presents a peculiarity. The cardiac is slightly constricted, and
has several small folds of mucous membrane around it, which accounts for
the rarity of Aomition in the horse. On the other hand the pyloric orifice
is larger, and is merely surrounded by a raised cushion, which no doubt
can be closed by the muscular sphincter, the fibres of wliich envelop it,
but which is most probably kept patent during the ordinary process of
digestion. The muscular coat of the left sac is composed of three planes,
the fibres of which pass in difierent directions, all tending to empty its
contents into the right. The latter sac is, however, surrounded by only
one plane of muscular fibres, all passing in a circular direction, forcing the
contents towards the pylorus. The arteries of the stomach are large and
numerous, being derived from the aorta through the superior gastric, the
I'ight and left gastric, and the vasa brevia, which are given ofi" by the
trunk of the splenic artery. The veins empty themselves into the vena
portre ; and the nerves are derived from the pncumogastric and .solar plexus
of the sympathetic.

The mucous membrane of the pyloric sac of the stomach is made
up almost entirely of tubular follicles closely applied to each other, their
blind extremities resting upon the submucous cellular membrane, wliile
their mouths open into the stomach ; they are arranged in bundles or
groups, bound together by a fine areolar membrane, and the follicles from
each of these groups open into small pits or depressions, which may be
seen in the interior of this part. They secrete the gastric fluid, which
contains besides other matters, of which the acid, so variable in its nature,
is [the most remarkable, a peculiar organic compound known as pcpsine,
which seems to be a main agent in the digestive process, acting, like
ptyaline, as a species of ferment, but of a more powerful kind. From the
researches of physiologists it appears that the acid is the solvent, while
the pepsine acts in converting the dissolved materials into a condition fit
for absorption into the blood, there to be used for the general purposes of
that lluid.

THE INTESTINES

The intestines, large and small, constitute a hollow tube, very variable
in diameter, and measuring from eighty to ninety feet in length in an
average-sized horse. They extend from the stomach to the anus : and

THE INTESTINES 483

though nature has only divided them into two poi'tiuns, tlie small and
large, yet anatomists have subdivided each of these into three more —
namety, duodenum, jejunum, and ileum : crecum, colon, and rectum. All
have three coats : the external, or peritoneal, which is very partial in the
duodenum and rectum ; the middle, or muscular ; and the internal, or
mucous ; but the last two ai'e also differently arranged in the large and
small intestines.

The small intestines are about seventy feet long, and vary from an
inch to an inch and a half in diameter, except at their commencement,
where there is a considerable dilatation, forming a sort of ventriculus or
lesser stomach. They are gathered up into folds, in consequence of the
mesenteiy, which attaches them to the superior walls of the abdomen,
being of very limited extent as compared with their length ; and thus
they may be described as presenting two curves, a lesser mesenteric
curvature, and an outer or free one covered by the peritoneum. The outer
layer of the muscular coat consists only of a few scattered fibres, while the
inner one is circular in its arrangement, and though thin as compared with
the stomach, yet it is easily distinguished. The mucous coat is gathered
into a few longitudinal folds when empty, which are very marked at its
commencement; but there are no valvular appendages, as in the human
intestines. It is everywhere studded with villi or little projections, like
the pile of velvet, through the open mouths of which the chyle is taken
up ; and beneath it are numerous glands, named after their discoverers.
The small intestines are liberally supplied with blood by the antei'ior
mesenteric artery. Commencing at the pyloric opening of the stomach, the
small intestine swells out into a second little bag, having, like that organ,
a large and small curvature, the former being presented to the lesser
curvature of the stomach. The enlargement soon ceases, and this part of
the intestine (in England called duodenum) is bound up against the walls
of the abdomen by the root of the mesentery and mesocolon. It then
crosses the spine and entei's the left lumbar region, where it becomes
loose or floating in the cavity of the abdomen, being only retained by
the mesentery (see plan, Fig. 76, page 47G). About twenty-four inches
from the commencement it receives the name of jejunum, which it retains
until within the same distance of its termination, when it becomes ileum :
but in the Erench school it is divided only into the fixed portion or
duodenum, and the loose or floating portion, comjDrehending what is here
called the jejunum and ileum. In this course it receives the biliary and
pancreatic fluids ; the duct from the liver, and that from the pancreas,
opening together into the duoden.um, six or seven inches from the pylorus.
At its termination in the c?ecum there is a valve, called ileo coical, which
prevents the return of the contents of the caecum into the ileum.

The large intestines, as their name implies, are of much greater
diameter than the small; but thc}^ are not above one- third of their length.
Instead of being convoluted, they are puckered into pouches by a peculiar
arrangement of the longitudinal muscular fibres, which are collected into
bundles or cords (« a, Fig. 78), and, being shorter than the intestine, gather
it up into cells. The mucous membrane also has very few villi, which
become more and more rare towards the rectum. At the commencement
the gut is enlarged to an enormous size, and forms a ciil de sac called the

484

THE ANATOMY OF THE HOUSE

caecum, whicli is about four feet long, and ternuiiatcs in a point, the wlii)le
being compared to a jelly-bag, and forming a reservoir, where the watery
particles of the food are absorbed, leaving the fsecal matter in a compara-
tively solid state. Indeed this gut at once receives nearly all the water
which is swallowed, it passing through the stomach and intestines without

Fio. 78.— TuE Laiioe: and Small Istestixe3, df.tached.

1. The duodenum, with its cul de sac removed.

2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. The convolutions of the jejunum

and ileum.

3. 8. The niosentery.

4. The apex of the ca?cum.

5. Its body.

6. 6. Commencement of colon.

7. 7. Transverse colon.

8. Tonnin.-il portion of the colon.

9. Rectum.

a. a. Muscular Kinds of colon.

any delay, when of course, as this sac has only one opening, it must
alternately receive and disgorge its contents, the valve at the entrance of
the ileum preventing its retui-n into the small intestine. The c;ecum
occupies the right flank, and takes an obliipie direction from above down-
wards and forwards.

The colox e.vtends from the ileo-ca;cal valve, occupying the right flank,
in an elliptical direction to the left flank, where it ends in the rectum, and
thus ends very near the point where it began, after traversing nearly the
whole abdominal cavity. It is of such an enormous capacity that it will

THE LIVER 485

hold from twelve to thirteen gallons of water. Its largest diameter is at
the commencement, from which it begins to contract, and as it crosses from
the right of the abdomen near the liver to the other side, where it is in close
proximity to the stomach, it is contracted to a comparatively small diameter,
but enlarges again as it lies in the left ilank. Like the CJBcum, it has
three longitudinal muscular bands for three-fourths of its course, but these
af terwai'ds are reduced to two, and as it merges in the rectum they disappear
altogether, the longitudinal fibres being then equally distributed. The
caecum and colon are supplied with blood by the posterior mesenteric artery.
The rectum, or straight gut, begins on the margin of the pelvis, from
which it extends in a straight line to the anus. It gradually expands to
form a considerable reservoir for the fseces, and is uncovered by peritoneum
after its commencement.

THE LIVER

This important organ is in close contact with the right side of the
diaphragm. It is of an irregular figure, thick in the middle and thin at the
edges ; divided into three lobes ; convex on its anterior surface, where it is
adapted to the concave aspect of the diaphragm ; concave posteriorly. The
colour is that which is so well known, and peculiar to itself. It is every-
where invested by the peritoneum, excepting the spaces occupied by the
large veins as they enter and pass out, and the coronary ligament which
suspends it, as well as the three other folds of peritoneum, which have also
received particular names.

The structure of the liver is most peculiar ; but it will be impossible to
enter fully into its minute anatomy for Avant of space. Suffice it to observe
that it is composed of lobules, of an areolo-fibrous connecting medium (which
has received the name of the capsule of Glisson), of the ramifications of the
vena portse, hepatic artery, hepatic veins, hepatic duct, lymphatics and
nerves, enclosed in the investing peritoneal coat. The portal vein returns
the blood from the stomach and small intestines to be circulated through
the lobules, and from this the bile is secreted. It distributes its numberless
branches through canals which are everywhere worked out in the substance
of the liver, and from which the lobules are supplied. From these, which
are each a small gland perfect in itself, the bile is received by a network of
minute ducts, ultimately coalescing to form the hepatic duct, which opens
into the duodenum. The secretion of bile is entirely from the venous blood,
and the hepatic artery is solely destined to nourish the gland. The nerves
are chiefly from the sympathetic system, a few small branches being derived
from the pneumogastric through the solar plexus. The horse has no gall
bladder like the cow, as well as the human species.

The function of the liver is doubtless chiefly of a depuratory natui'e ;
besides the separation from the blood of the compound known as bile, it
appears to be the manufactory in which glycogen is produced. The fluid
which it pours into the intestine has the quality of arresting putrefactive
action in the ingesta, emulsifying fats with the assistance of the pancreatic
and other secretions, and stimulating the walls of the intestines to perform
their duties.

4SG Till-: AXATO.MY OF THE HORSE

THE SPLEEN

TriK SPLKKV can scarooly he foiisidt-rcil jis a .inland, ina-^mucli as it has no
excretory duct, but it contains within its substance a number of little bodies,
called .Aial]>i.<,diian corpuscles, which most probably perforni the same oiKce
as the absorbent glands. Its weight as compared with the whole bod}' is
about the same as in man, whose spleen weighs six ounces, wliile that of the
horse rarel}' exceeds three pounds. It is attached by the lesser omentum
(a fold of the peritoneum) to the stomach (see Fig. 77, page 481), and occupies
tlic left side of that organ. It is covered by a serous coat continuous with
the peritoneum, and its internal structure is spongy, and made up of cells
which contain a large quantity of blood.

Tjik fuxctiox of the spleen is not positively ascertained, but it is believed
to perform the ollice of a reservoir for the blood reipiired by the stomach,
witli which it is closely connected by a set of vessels (vasa brevia), and
also to effect some change in the blood itself.

THE PANCREAS

TiiK PANCREAS IS an elongated gland resembling in structure the salivary
o-laiids, placed close to the spine, above the stomach. It has two excretory
ducts, which carry the pancreatic lluid secreted by it into the duodenum
through a valvular opening common to it and the hepatic duct. The use of
the pancreatic fluid appears to be similar to that of the saliva.

THE KIDNEYS

TiTE KIDNEYS are two oval organs situated beneath the psoas muscles, and
only retained in their position by the fatty cellular membrane which en-
velops them, and by the upward pressure of the other abdominal viscera
below them. The right kidney is completely within the ribs, but the left
scarcely advances at all beyond the eighteenth rib : each averages about
forty ounces in weight, but there is a considerable variation in size and
form. Unlike the corresponding organ in the cow, the horse's kidney is
not split up into lobules, though there is some little irregularity of outline
and surface, as may be seen in the annexed figure, which was taken from a
.specimen somewhat remarkable in these respects. A transverse section
sliows the internal structure, which is composed of a central cavity, the
pelvis, into which the urine flows, and from which it is carried to the bladder
by the ureter. In this pelvis several conical projections are visi\:)le, having
minute openings around their apices, which are the terminations of the
tubuli uriniferi composing the substance of the internal part of the organ.
The external is the true secreting portion, and in this are contained a
multitude of minute red globular bodies, composed of a flexus of capillary
vessels, and of a coil of tube in connection with the uriniferous tubuli, both

THE KIDNEYS

48^

being enclosed in a membranous capsule. Each cone is contained within a
cup-like pouch of the pelvis, which is called a calyx.

Fig. 79.— The Kidney.

A. Fissure through which the vessels enter and the ureter passe.*; out.
1. 2. 3. 4. Surface of kidney.

At the anterior extremity of each kidney is a small body called the
suprarenal capsule, the use of which is not ascertained.

Fig. 80.— Transvekse Section of Kidney.

n. Pelvis.

1. 2. Ureter.

3. 3. PnpillK or conrs.

4. 4. 4. 4. Tubular portion.

5. 5. 5. 5. External cortical portion.

K K

488 THE ANATOMY UF THE HOK.-^E

THE PELVIS

TiiR CAVITY OF Tin; itoDY kiiowii as the i)elvis is sitiuiteil Ix-lilml tlio
abdomen, with which it coinniimioates freely, each being Hneil b\' a continua-
tion uf the peritoneum. A ridge of bone (the brim of the pelvis) is the line
of demarcation anteriorly. The sacrum and os coccygis bound it superiorly,
the anus posteriorly, and the ossa innominata inferiorly and laterally. It
contains the bladtler and rectum in both sexes, and in each the organs of
generation peculiar to it.

THE BLADDER

The bladder is a musculo-membranous bag destined to contain the urine
as it is gradually received from the ureters, which bring it down from the
kidneys. It lies in the middle of the pelvis, occupying also more or less of
the abdomen according to its condition in point of repletion or emptiness.
It is of an oval shape, with its posterior extremity somewhat more pointed
than the other, and called its neck. At this point it gives origin to the
urethra, a canal for carrying off the urine. It receives the two ureters afc
its superior surface, about an inch in front of the neck, where they pierce
the several coats in an oblique direction foi'ming a complete valve, which
prevents the return of the urine, and so invisible that the presence of two
openings is scarcely ever suspected by the ordinary observer. Only about
one-third of the bladder is covered by the peritoneum, the remainder being
made up solely of the muscular and mucous coats, which compose all the
hollow viscera. It is retained in its place by the cellular membrane which
connects it with the lower walls of the pelvis, posteriorly by the urethra,
and by the folds of the peritoneum, which are continued from it to the
sides of the pelvis, and are called the broad ligaments of the bladder.

THE ORGANS OF GENERATION, MALE AND

FEMALE

The male ougaxs of generation consist of the testes and their ducts,
the vasa deferentia, the latter conveying the semen to the urethra or to the
vcsiculse seminales, which are oval bags connected with the upper surface
of the neck of the bladder. Here the seminal fluid is stored up for use,
and when wanted is conveyed into the vagina by means of the external
organ or penis. The anatomy of the testicles is that which mainly concerns
the horse-master, as they are generally removed by operation. They are
contained within the scrotum, which is externally composed of skin, wrinkled
in the foal, but subsequently distended by the size and weight of its contents.
r>cneath this is a layer of a pale yellowish fibrous membrane called the
dartos, which envelops the testes and forms a separation between them. A
thin coat of cellular membrane alone separates this from the double serous
membrane, the tunica vaginalis, which almost entirely envelops each testis,
just as the pleura dues the lung. In the early stages of f<vtal life the testes

THE GENERATIVE ORGANS 489

are contained within the abdomen above the peritoneum, but being attached
to the scrotum by a thin muscle (the cremaster), they are gradually dragged
doAvnwards through the inguinal canal ; and each brings a double layer of
peritoneum, which continues its connection through life, so that fluid injected
into the cavity of the tunica vaginalis will flow into the peritoneum. Hence
inguinal hernia in the horse becomes scrotal in a very short space of time,
and rarely remains confined to the former position. The testicles with their
appendages, the vesiculas seminales, form the semen by the usual process of
secretion. They are of about the size of a duck's egg, and besides their
attachment by the reflexions of the tunica vaginalis to the scrotum, they
have also the spermatic cord which suspends them to the inguinal canal
through which it passes. This cord it is which is divided in castration, and
it is well to ascertain its component parts. They are, 1st. The artery
which supplies the testicles witli blood, and is of considerable size and
tortuous in its course. 2nd. The artery of the cord, small and unimport-
ant. 3rd. The veins which accompany these arteries. 4th. The nerves
and absorbents, the division of the former giving great pain and causing a
slight shock to the system. 5th. The vas deferens or duct carrying the
semen to the urethra, and possessing walls of such thickness that it feels
like whipcord under the finger. These several parts are connected together
by cellular membrane and covered by the two layers of reflected peritoneum,
namely, the tunica vaginalis and tunica vaginalis reflexa, by the thin layer
of cremaster muscle, as well as by a fourth investment, a continuation of
the superficial fascia of the abdomen. All these parts must be divided be-
fore the canal is reached, for operating in castration.

The female organs of generation are essentially the ovaries, the utei'us
and its appendages forming the bed in which the embyro is nurtured to
maturity. The ovaries are two small oval bodies, about the size of large
walnuts, situated behind the kidneys, and having the fimbriated extremities
of the fallopian tubes hanging loosely adjacent to them. These tubes, one
on each side, terminate in the uterus, which is of a remarkable shape in the
mare. It consists of a body and two horns. The body has a mouth, or os,
which opens into the end of the vagina, while, in itself, it is oblong, and in
the unimpregnated state it is entii'ely contained within the pelvis. Anteriorly
it divides into two horns (cornua), which diverge towards the loins, turning
upwards, and lying under the wings of the ossa ilii (see Fig. 75, page 475).
They terminate in rounded extremities. Each cornu receives the fallopian
tube of its own side, the opening being so small as scarcely to admit a silver
probe. The vagina lies between the bladder and rectum, and is about
eighteen inches in length ; it is lined with mucous membrane, and surrounded
with muscular fibres, which form the sphincter vaginae.

-190 THE ANATOMY OF THE llOllsE

CHAPTER XXTTT

THE NKRVOUS SYSTKM

rilYSlOLuGY OF THE NEKVuCS SY.SIEM— CHIEF lHVIsInNS OF THE NEIlVOrS SYSTEM— THE
SPINAL CORD— THE MEDULLA OBLONOATA — 1 HK F.NCEl'iJALOX — THE SYMI'ATUETIO

SY'JTEM.

PHYSIOLOGY OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

HiTiiEHTu we lui\o been cngageJ in exaiiiiiiiiig into the conformation of
the framework of the body ; into the structure and action of the muscles,
which serve to move this "framework ; and into the several organs which
atturd nourishment to the whole, and keep it sound and in good order.
"We have now to consider the prime mover of all these several agents, the
nervous system, which may be compared to the fuel that heats the water
of the steam-engine, and converts that apparently most simple and inno-
cent fluid into the powerful agent which is capable of developing almost
any amount of force. This fuel, however, is itself inactive until it is
endowed with life by the agency of fire ; and, in the same wa}-, the nervous
system of the animal being must be provided with the living principle, of
whose nature we can only judge by its effects when present, and by the
cessation of all action when absent. There are many processes which are
carried on in the animal as in the ^•egetable without the necessity for any
direct stimulus from a nervous centre, such as the growth of each sejiarate
tissue throughout the body, which takes place in the former, just as it
does in the latter, by a species of cell-de^■clopment and metamorphosis
independent of nervous energy ; but though this growth is thus accom-
plished, yet it would soon be starved out for want of pabulum, were it
not for the supply of food to the stomach, which requires the mandate of
the nervous system for its performance, and so on with every corresponding
action of the body.

The nervous system is made up of two distinct substances, one grey
in colour, and granular in structure, which is the seat of all nervous power ;
the other white and fibrous, which is the telegraph wire by which this
power is communicated. Sometimes the grey matter envelops the white,
and at others it is enclosed within it, but in every case each has its peculiar
otfice as above mentioned. Each collection of grey matter is called a
ganglion, whatever its shape may Ije ; but the white fibres may be either
in the form of commissures for connecting the ganglia together, or they
may be agents for communicating with other organs, and are then called
nerves.

CHIEF DIVISIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

Ik the house, as in all the vcrtcbrata, the nervous S3'stem is made up
of the following parts. 1st. The ganglia, which are intended to subserve
what are called the retlex actions of the organs of locomotion, etc., and >vliicl)

THE SPINAL CORD

491

occupy the whole length of the spinal cord, one on each side. 2nd. The
respiraiory yanylia, situated liigher up towards the brain, constituting the

r-i f>i QQ ^ ^ '-O t~~

part called medulla oblongata, and placed in superintendence over the
functions of respiration, mastication, and deglutition. 3rd. A series of

402

TTTT: AXATOAfY OF TITE TTOP.SE

ganglia

controlling the organs of special sense, situated at the base of the
brain. Jth. The ccrebcllinn, which seems speci-
ally intended to conilnne and balance tlio several
muscular actions of the bod}-. 0th. The cerebrum,
whicli is the seat of intelligence and will. 6th.
The sympathetic system of ganglia, which speci-
ally controls the vital organs of circulation, diges-
tion, and depuration. The first five divisions are
generall}^ included under the head of the nervous
system of animal life, the last being considered
ttj be peculiar to organic life. The diagram on
the preceding page will show at one view the
chief comiioiu'ut parts nf the two systems.

THE SPINAL CORD

at

The spinal conn ma}' be considered to be the
primary division of the nervous system, l)ecause
it represents the lowest development of this organ
in the animal kingdom. But instead of consist-
ing of a series of locomotive ganglia, as in the
(u-ticiduta, it is hei'e found in the shape of two
long masses of grey matter, covered with ■white
filjres, Avhich serve to communicate between the
several parts of which it is composed.

Opposite each joint, between the vertebra?, a
nerve is given off, which passes out in the foramen
specially contrived for its exit, and thence goes
on to its destination. Each of these nerves has
two distinct origins ; one from the upper part of
the grey central matter (the sensitive root), the
other from its inferior surface, which is the motor
portion. The superior has an accession of grey
matter ai'ound it, soon after the union of its
nervelets, called its ganglion, beyond which the
two divisions unite to form a large nerve, wliich
soon begins to subdivide again for supplying the
several parts of the body. The terminating
branches reunite in loops, so that tliese nerves
may be consitlered to form a complete circle,
those of sensation receiving impressions from the
parts on which they are distributed, and conveying
them to the central ganglion, wliile the motor
nerves cause the muscles which they supply to

tu:. S-2.— SriXAL Ccnp KEMovrp from its Canal.

. n. Tioots of the sjiiiLil nrn'es.

The filunieiits go'iig to unite to form each of the.se nen'c
Clear s]accs between the roots of the nerves.

THE MEDULLA OBLONGATA 493

contract on receipt of the proper stimulus from the centre. The spinal
nerves are from forty-two to forty-three in number on each side ; namely,
eight pairs of cervical, seventeen pairs of dorsal, six pairs of lumbar, live
pairs of sacral nerves, and six or seven coccygeal. Each of these nerves
divides at once into a superior and inferior branch, the latter giving off a
small nervelet to communicate with the sympathetic, and then going on
to suppl)?^ the lower parts of the body and the extremities. The cord varies
somewhat in size in the several regions of the spine. It commences at the
occiput of full size, then diminishes to the fifth cervical vertebra, where
there is a slight swelling, after which it is gradually reduced in dimensions
to the loins, whei'e it sjDreads out into a wide but thin plate, after which
it divides into its terminal branches, which have been compared to a
horse's tail.

THE MEDULLA OBLONGATA

The medulla oblongata is the anterior enlarged portion of the spinal
cord, of a conical shape, which extends to the pons varolii. On its inferior
face it presents two pyramidal bodies, and on its superior two flattened
cords, the corpora restiformia, while between the two are the corpora
olivaria. On making a section of this part, the corpus olivare is seen to be
chiefly composed of grey matter, and is a ganglion, superadded for the
special purpose of establishing the respiratory function. From its lower
border pi'oceed the filaments, which unite to form the hypoglossal nerve,
while from the upper side emerge the glosso-pharyngeal and pneumogastric
nerves.

THE E N C E P H A L O N (£ r, in, KifaX,), head)

The cerebellum together with the cerebrum form the mass of the
encephalon, and they may be examined together with advantage. The
two completely fill the cavity of the cranium, and are invested by three
membranes ; — the dui'a mater, fibrous and strong ; the pia mater, vascular
and tender ; and the arachnoid, a serous membrane of the ordinary character.
The dura mater also dips down between the lobes of the cerebrum to form
a protection against lateral displacement called the falx, and is spread across
from one petrous bone to the other, constituting the tentorium cerebelli.
The mass of the encephalon in the hoi-se is small as compared with that of
man, weighing not quite a pound and a half, while the human brain
averages three pounds in the male, and four or five ounces less in the
female. Taking into consideration that the body of the horse weighs at
least eight times as much as a man's, it follows that the bx'ain of the latter
is relatively sixteen times as large as that of the horse. The cerebellum
occupies the postero-superior part as the head is usually carried, and is
much smaller than the cerebrum, being only one-sixth of its volume
Examining it from above it presents three lobes ; a middle and two latera
lobes. The former is prominent, and subdivided into lobuli by severa
grooves, constituting the anterior and posterior vermiform processes. The

494

THE AXATOMY OF THE HORSE

lateral lobes are flattened and oval, to corresponil witli the inferior surfaces
of the tentorium cerebelli. The cerebellum is made up of alternate layers
of grey and white matter, the former being distributed throughout the
interior in such a way that when sliced it presents an arborescent appearance.
On parting the hemispheres of the cerebrum, the convolutions on tlie surface
of which are composed of grey matter, a white band slightly striped from

Fio

■View of the Supeuiok Slkkace of the Escf.phai.on.

n Anterior tennination of the longitudinal fissure.
h. b. Lateral hcmif-pheres of the cerebrum,
c. c. c. Corpus callosum.

<?. Jliddle lobe of the cerebellum.

c. (. Superior uieilian fissure.

/. </. Membranes covering the spinal cord.

side to side makes its appearance. This is the corpus callosum, which is
the great commissure, and consists entirel}' of white fibrous matter, uniting
the two halves. Beneath this, on each side, are the lateral ventricles, and
Avithin each are the optic thalamus and corpus striatum, with the choroid
jilexus l^'ing between. Turning the brain with its inferior surface in view
it presents anteriorly the continuation of the longitudinal fissure. On each
side of this are the olfactory nerves, which look like prolongations of the
hemispheres. Close behind these two are the optic or second pair of nerves,
connected together bv their commissure. Then two small white bodie«. the

THE SYMPATHETIC SYSTEM 495

corpora albicantia, and behind these again tlie third pair of nerves, supply-
ing the muscles of the eye. Still further back is a scjuare eminence, the
pons varolii, from the sides of which the fourth and fifth pairs of nerves
arise, while its posterior border gives origin to the sixth pair in the middle
and the seventh externally to these. The eighth and ninth nerves have
already been alluded to, as arising from the medulla oblongata.

THE SYMPATHETIC SYSTEM

Tins DIVISION OF THE NERVES coiisists of a series of ganglia, lying on each
side the spine, from the head to the coccyx, communicating with the cranial
and spinal nerves, and distributing branches to all the internal organs of
digestion, circulation, dej)uration, and generation. The branches of dis-
tribution accompany the arteries, forming a plexus, or series of meshes,
around each of them. In the head there are four small ganglia, in the neck
three, and posteriorly a small ganglion lies opposite each vertebra. The
posterior cervical ganglion communicates Avith the spinal nerves of that
region by a branch which accompanies the vertebral artery, and sends
forward filaments to form the bronchial and cardiac plexus, the former
being largely supplied also with branches from the pneumogastric nerve.
From the dorsal ganglia a large nerve is formed, the greater splanchnic nerve,
and also the lesser splanchnic, which enter the abdomen close beneath the
crus'of the diaphragm, where they give off a number of branches which,
together with filaments of the pneumogastric nerve, unite on both sides to
form the semilunar ganglion, or collection of ganglia arranged somewhat in
that shape. They lie close to the posterior aorta, and surround the root of
the cceliac artery, supplying branches to form the phrenic and the splenic
plexus, the gastric plexus, the hepatic plexus, the anterior and posterior
mesenteric plexus, the renal plexus, and the spermatic plexus, all surrounding
the corresponding arteries and supplying the important organs whose names
they bear.

496 THE ANATOMY OF THE HOUSE

CnAPTEU XXIV

SPECIAL 0Ri;AX3

THE onnAN of smei.l— the kye— the ear— the organ of tovcu— the foot

THE ORGAN OF SMELL

TnE NOSE of tlio liorso, like all the soiipedcs, is endowed with a sensibility
far greater than that of man ; but in this respect he is not equal to many
other animals, such as the dog and cat kinds, and the sole use which he
makes of this sense is in the selection of his food. I have already alluded
to the nasal fossae at page 469, and need only here remark that the large
mass of nervous matter composing the olfactory nerves pierces the cribriform
plate of the aHhmoid bone in numerous fibrilUv, which spread over the
membrane (Schneiderian) lining the tethmoidal cells, the turbinated bones,
and the septum nasi.

THE EYE

TiiF. orgav of siciit may be considci'cd as consisting, first of all, of an
optical instrument very similar to the camera obscura, now so commonly
used in photography, and, secondl}", of the parts which are employed to
move, adjust, and protect it from injury.

The eye itself consists of three transparent humours, which answer the
purpose of the lens of the camera, by collecting the rays of light upon the
back of the eye. There are the aqueous in front, the crystalline lens in the
middle, and the vitreous humour behind. The first is a perfectly trans-
parent and limpid iluid, secreted by the lining of the chamber in which it
lies, and capable of being rapidly renewed in case of a puncture letting
it out. The lens, on the contrary, has the consistence of very hard jelly,
and is arranged in concentric layers, like the coats of an onion. It is
merely a double convex lens, precisely like that of the camera in its action,
and is the chief agent in producing the impression of an object upon the
sensitive part of the eye. Behind it is the vitreous humour, composed like
the aqueous of a limpid fiuid ; but instead of being unconfined except by
the walls of the chamber in which it lies, it is bound up in a network of
transparent cells, which give it the consistency and appearance of a
delicate jelly. Upon the perfect transparency and proper shape of these
humours depends the sight of the animal. But in addition to the risk of
blindness from any defect in these parts, if the investing coats or membranes
are inflamed or disorganized, their functions are not performed, and the
sight is either impaired or destroyed. Thus the rays of light may be fairly
collected, so as to throw the impression of every object within the sphei'e
c£ vision upon the back of the eye, and yet the horse may be blind, becausu

THE EYE 497

the retina or expansion of the optic nerve is disorganized by disease.
When inflammation attacks the coats of the eye, it generally extends to the
investments of the humours, and to the substance of the lens itself, produc-
ing cataract or o^Dacity of that part ; but it is possible to have the sight
impaired from a mere defect of shape in the anterior coat, so as to make the
surface too convex, and thus alter the focus of the sight. This is the
" buck-eye," which leads to shying, and is perfectly incurable. The
membranes are, first, the cornea, a perfectly transptarent coat, placed in
front of the eye, and inserted, like a watch-glass, in the sclerotic coat
covering the posterior four-fifths of the globe. The latter is a white
fibrous membrane, strong and inelastic, so as to afibrd protection to the
parts within it from external violence. This forms the white of the eye,
which, however, is only occasionally visible in the horse. Beneath the
sclerotic is the choroid coat, consisting of a network of blood-vessels, and
lined with a black pigment, which again has on its internal surface, at the
part opposite the pupil, a greenish-white iridescent lining, called tapetum
lucidum, or luminous carpet. Lastly, within the whole of this surface is
spread a beautiful expansion of the optic nerve, called the retina, which
receives the impressions derived from the rays of light, forming a distinct
figure upon it exactly similar to the objects which are presented to it,
except in j^oint of size, and in being inverted. Beyond these parts, there is
a provision made for moderating the rays of light, according to their
intensity. This is effected by means of an opaque septum, pierced with an
oval hole ; the former being called the iris, and the latter the j^upil. The
substance of the iris itself is composed of contractile tissue, which has the
power of expanding or contracting the pupil in obedience to the impression
produced upon the retina ; and thus, if the eye is examined in a strong
light, the pupil will appear large when shaded by the hand, but contracts
immediately on exposing the eye. The horse's iris is brown, varying some-
what in shade in different individuals, and at the upper part of the pupil it
presents one or two little floating appendages, which serve to moderate the
sun's rays. Sometimes the brown colour is absent, and the iris is either
partially white or light blue, in which case it is called a " wall eye " ; but
though this is considered unsightly, it does not interfere with vision. The
iris is stretched across the chamber of the aqueous humour, and is thus
enabled to act freely. There are many other delicate structures worthy
of being examined, but want of space must prevent any further allusion to
them.

The appendages of the eye are: 1st. The conjunctiva or membrane
protecting the exposed surface of the eye. 2nd. The eyelids. 3rd. The
membrana nictitans or haw. 4th. The muscles of the eye. 5th. The
lachrymal apparatus. 17ie conjunctiva covers the whole front of the eye,
being thin, and perfectly transparent in a healthy state, but on the occur-
rence of inflammation speedily becoming red and puffy. It is reflected from
this face to the inside of the eyelids, and the whole membrane is extremely
liable to inflammation from any external irritation. The eyelids have
nothing very remarkable about them, being merely cartilaginous shutters
covered with fine skin, and lined with conjunctiva, and I'aised and lowered
by muscles peculiar to them. The membrane nictitans or haw is a cartilage
lying just within the inner corner of the eye, but capable of being thrust

-198 THE ANATOMY OF TITE TTOR.SE

nutwiinls so as to partially cover it when the iiuiseles retract the eye, and
tor want of space drive it forward. This happens whenever tlic eye is
irritated either by au insect or by the dust or hayseeds which are so often
deposited upon the conjunctiva, and which, causing the eye to be drawn
back, disphice the fat deposited on the back of the orbit, and this again
pushes forward the haw. For tliis reason in all iiritable states of the eyo
the haw is prominent.

The barb.vrous practice of excising it as an offending body lias happily
ceased with the advent of skilled veterinary surgeons. The inusdea move the
eye in all directions, and have the peculiar property of keeping the long
diameter of the pupil always nearly in a line parallel with the horizon.
Practicall}' they are not of any great importance. The lachrymal apparatus
consists of the lachrymal gland, situated beneath the outer wall of the orbit,
and secreting the tears, which are intended to wash the conjunctiva clear of
any foreign body. The secretion is thrown out upon its surface through a
number of small ducts, and traversing from the outer angle to the inner, is
conducted through two small openings in the lids to the lachrymal sac, and
from that bv the nasal duct to the nose.

THE EAR

This organ is divided into the external ear for collecting the waves of
sound, and conveying them inwards, and the internal ear which is situated
within the petrous part of the temporal bone. The latter is a very com-
](licated and dehcate organ ; but its formation does not differ in any essential
features from that of the other vertelirate animals, nor are the diseases
attacking it in the horse of any particular importance, so that its description
will be omitted.

THE ORGAN OF TOUCH

The sense op touch is necessary for the proper appreciation of the
mechanical form and nature of the objects placed in apposition to the body,
and of their temperature. It is seated generally in the terminations of
the nerves of sensation on the skin ; but there are certain parts specially
endowed with these nerves, which in the horse are the lips and the four
extremities.

The skin is composed of two layers, one internal and living termed the
dermis or chorion, the other a secretion from it, and called the epidermis,
the inner and freshly secreted layer of which is the rcte viucosum of the
old authors. The dermis constitutes nearly the whole substance of the skin,
and varies in thickness in different regions of the body, and also in the
nature of its attachment to the subjacent parts, being very loosely connected
in some, and in others so tight that it cannot bo pinched up. It consists of
a layer of cellular and elastic fibres crossing each other in all directions, and
abundantly supplied with blood-vessels and nerves. Its external surface is
provided with numberless little elevations termed papillio', each of which
contains the tcrminatiou of a nerve : and it is pierced with an immense

THE ORGAN OF TOUCH

499

number of holes, some of ■which allow the hairs to pass through, others are
the pores through which the sweat is poured out, and others again are
follicles for the secretion of sebaceous or half-oily fluid, for the purpose of
lubricating the skin. These last are particularly numerous at the flexures
of the joints, as at the inner part of the hock, knee, and heel, in each of
which situations they are liable to become clogged, leading to the conditions
known as mallenders, sallenders, and cracked heels, which will be hereafter
described.

The epideemis, cuticle, or scarf skin, is very thin but tough, and in the
horse its innermost layer is generally of a dark slate colour, the better to
protect the dermis from the ra3's of the sun. It is composed of scales
agglutinated together, and its internal surface is reflected in the form of

Fio. 84. — Nerves of Sensation 81i??lied to the Lips of the Horse, showing also the Origin of

THE JuouLAE Vein.

fine sheaths around all the hairs which pierce it, and of linings to the
sweat pores and sebaceous follicles. As fresh cuticle is secreted the outer
layers fall off; and in the horse this growth is very rapid, so that in a very
few days the coat of hair becomes loaded with them if it is not regularly
cleansed. The}^ affbrd a great protection against wind and rain, and for
that reason they should not be removed by friction from those horses
svhich are abou.t to be turned out of doors.

The hairy appendages of the skin of the horse are of two kinds : — 1st.
The general coat. 2nd. The horsehair, which is of a thicker and stiffer
kind, and grows from the top of the neck, forming the mane, from the
dock as the tail, from the backs of the legs, and from the eyelids and lips
to act as feelers in enabling them to avoid injury. Each hair is secreted by
its bulb, which is seated partly in the dermis and partly in the cellular
membrane, closely subjacent to the true skin. Unless, therefore, the whole
thickness of the dermis is destroyed, the bulb may be safe, and the hair
is restored in the course of time. The coat is shed twice a year, in spring
and autumn, the secretion from the bulb ceasing for a short period, and the

500 THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE

liuir, losing its cuiiiiectioii, falls uut ; but tlic young liair soon takes its placo
and grows to a length suited to the temperature to which tlie skiu is exposed.
The horsehair on the contrary is not shed, but if it is plucked out it is
reproduced, though slowly.

EvKUY PART OF TJIK SKIN' is sensible to impressions from external objects,
but the sense of touch, such as we possess in the fingers, can (.»uly be said to
reside in the lii)s, and partially in the feet. All these parts ure profusely
supplied with nerves of sensation, and the horse may often be observed to
use them in examining external objects, especially his lips, which are the
most delicate of his organs of touch. The engraving on page 499, of a pre-
paration of the nerves of the face, shows this distriijution very clearly, and
will give an idea of the numerous ramifications of sensitive nerves supplied
to the lips. The feet are also largely supplied with nerves, though not to the
same extent as the human fingers ; and being covered with horny matter,
the sensibility of the surface is greatly reduced : still there can be no doubt
that the horse uses them occasionally in making out the nature of objects
presented to him : and this is especially the case with the fore-feet, though
it will sometimes happen that the hind extremities are used for the same
purpose ; as, for instance, in ascertaining the nature of a hard body before
kickiusr at it.^

THE FOOT

It is necessary to examine the structure of the foot most carefully, not
as an object of curiosity connected with the sense of touch, but on account
of the numberless diseases and accidents to which it is subject. No part of
the horse is so liable to the effects of hard work and mismanagement as
this, and there is consequently none which more requires our care both in
health and disease. The bones and ligaments entei'ing into the composition
of this organ have already been described; the former at page 383, the
latter at page 419. We have now to examine into the structure of the
sensible and insensible parts which cover these bones.

The parts entering into the composition of the foot will be better
understood by a i*eference to the annexed section of the phalanges or
fingers terminating the metacarpal or metatarsal bones, as the case may be.
with their investments. It will be seen that thei'e is very little space
between the pedal-bone and the crust, which, together with the sole, forms
a horny case or natural shoe, for the sensible and delicate investments of
the bone. So small is this space, that when intlammation takes place there
is no room for any swelling (the invariable accompaniment of that disease)
and intense pain is occasioned, as well as rapid disorganization of the
structure itself. The horny case is attached to the foot by a delicate
membrane, which lies in folds upon the pedal-bone, and it can be torn away
by violence, or when putrefaction has commenced, with great ease. These
parts are here separately displayed. The several parts which we shall have

^ The editor has had hundreds of unnerved liorses under observation, but failed to
discover any difl'eienee in their manner of using the front feet, to ascertain the nature of
an object in which they were interested. Do tlicy not employ the feet merely to move
au object for better inspection or mure couvcuicnt application of the lips":

THE FOOT

501

to examine, commencing from without, are — Ist. The horny case or hoof j
2nd. The parts which secrete it ; 3rd. The arteries which supply it with
blood ; and 4th. The pedal-bone and cartilages, as well as the navicular bone,
which it encases.

The hoof consists of three distinct parts, which, though in the recent
state they are inseparably united, may be readily separated after maceration
for a few days in strong soda-water. These are the external wall or crust,
the sole or slightly concave surface foi'ming the bottom or floor of the case,
and the triangular central portion of this called the frog. The crust reaches
from the edge of the hairy skin to the ground, and averages about three

Fig. 85.— Section of the parts L^•lEr.I^•G into the composition of the Foot and the Fetlock and

Fastebn Joints.

A. Os suffragiuis.

B. Os corniue.

C. Os pedis.

V>. Os naviculare.

E. E. The perforaus and pcrforatus tendons.

G. Inferior sesanioideal ligament.

H. Cleft of frug.
I. Side of frog cleft.
J. Sole.
K. Crust.
L. Coronary substance.

inches and a half in depth. The front is the toe, the back the heel, and
the intermediate part the quarter on each side. It is described as a section
of a truncated cone. When examined from the side, the anterior surface
should form an angle of about forty-five degrees with the line of the sole,
and the upper edge or coronary band should join the sole, so as to leave a
moderate substance at the heel ; for if too great the foot does not expand,
and is liable to disease from that cause ; or if too thin and narrow, the foot
is weak and gives way downwards, ending in a convexity of the sole instead
of the reverse. The front of the crust is rather more than half an inch in
thickness, and in a strong foot of average size gradually diminishing to the
quarters, at the back of which it is generally bai'ely a quarter of an inch
thick, especially at the inner of the two. This proportion is however
confined to the fore-foot, for in the hind there is little difierence between
the toe and quarters in point of thickness. The superior border, or curonary

502

THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE

band, is marked by its whitish colour. On its external surface it resembles
the crust below ; but internally it ditfers in being smoothly excavated,
Avhilst the crust exhibits perpendicular striio, corresponding with the laminte;
but this is not well shown in Fig. 8G. In examining the cut of the sole, Fig.
88, it will be seen that the crust is bent inwards towards the frog at the
heel on each side : these are the bars, which in the natural foot appear as
sharpened prominences, extending from the heels into the centre of the foot,
between the sole and the frog, and which are useful as buttresses, supporting
the crust from being crushed inwards by the superincumbent weight. The
sole is the plate at the bottom of the foot, which should be slightly concave
downwards, and is fixed to the inner edge of the crust, and the outer sides
of the bars, and not to their lower surfaces. Its usual thickness is about
one-sixth of an inch, but it will vary greatly in difierent horses, and it is
thicker where it runs back between the bai-s and the crust. It is secreted

. Fig. so.— The Hoor.

A. Outer surface of crust.

B. Inner surface of crust.

C. Ui'per surface of sole.

D. Part corresj^ondiug with the cleft

of the frog.

E. Coronary band.

Fio. ST.— Kr.'iXT View of the
Foot, wjtu the Hoof re-
moved.

A. Coronary substance.

B. 5000 Lai'uiuic.

Fig. 88.— The ikder surface
OK THE Foot.

A. Cloft of frog.

B. H. Sole.

C. Cleft between heels.

in plates, which can readih' be separated with a knife in that direction.
The frog is the prominent, triangular, and elastic substance, which fills up
the space between the heels posteriorly, the bars on each side, and the sole
in front. In the middle is a longitudinal fissure, called the cleft, the sides
of which should form an angle of about forty-five degrees. In front of this
cleft is a solid wedge of the elastic horny substance, constituting the frog,
which lies immediately beneath the navicular bone, and has received the
name of the cushion. Posteriorly it is spread out into a thin band on each
side N\hich covei-s the bulbs of the heels, and passes round the upper part of
the wall constituting the coronary froyband of Bracy Clark, which is con-
tinuous with the coronary substance. The structure of the horn which
forms these three divisions varies a good deal. In the crust it is fibrous,
somewhat i-esembling whalebone in this respect, but not quite so hard ;
these bristly fibres are united by a gelatinous substance, but they are
arranged so as to lie in straight lines descending from the coronary circle
to the ground. The wall may, therefore, be considered as composed of hairs
agglutinated together, and each secreted by one of the villi, which are so
thickly spread over the surface of the coronary circle. The sole is also

THE FOOT

503

fibrous, but not nearly so much so as the wall ; and the fibres are not
arranged in so parallel a manner, taking rather an oblique direction from
behind forwards, and being more easily sepai'ated into scales. The fro"-
differs from both, in possessing finer fibres and in smaller quantity, in
comparison with the gelatine, which formation renders it more soft and
elastic and also more prone to decomposition. The horny matter is some-
times coloured a greyish brown, sometimes white, and sometimes marbled
by a mixture of the two colours. (These parts are shown more clearly in
the article treating of Shoeing in Chapter xxxii.)

The hoof is developed by secretion, which has its seat in the coronary
substance and laminre. It consists in
a pouring out on their surface of a
plasma, in which rounded cells develop
themselves, in correspondence with
the villi from which the secretion is
poured out. These cells are arranged
in layers, corresponding with the se-
cretory surface. In the crust this
growth takes place from the superior
border to the inferior, but in the sole
and frog, from the internal surface to
the external. This growth is constant
through the life of the animal, and it
would give the hoof an excessive de-
velopment if it were not either for
the wear of the soil in the unshod
horse, or the action of the smith's
knife in the shod one ; but the in-
crease of the wall being solely from
above downwards, it does not I'equire
any reduction on its external surface.
The coronary substance, sometimes
called the coronary ligament, is a fibro-
cartilaginous band intervening between
the skin of the leg and the hoof,
covered with cuticle externall}^, and
with villi, which form a secretory sur-
face on the edge towards the hoof. It
is most liberally supplied with blood,
as we shall presently see, and is at-
tached to the upper part of the

coffin-bone and extensor tendon by cellular tissue. It gradually becomes
thinner as it descends \\])on the pedal-bone, and ends in jDuckers or folds,
which are continuous with those of the laminae, and are not even separable
from them by maceration. The lamijice thus continuing upon the pedal-
bone, consist of about five hundred pai-allel folds or plaits, plentifully
supplied with blood, and forming a secretory surface, which aids the coro-
nary substance to form the horn. They lie upon an elastic substratum of
fibrous periosteum, which is of great service in taking off the jar from the
foot in its battering upon hard roads, for it appears that the weight of the

L L

Fio. S9.— View of Vessels of the Foot, injected.

1. Plantar vein.

2. Plantar artery.

3. Branches to the coror.arv substance and laminae.

4. Posterior division of plantar arterj'.

5. Pcriiendicular branch.

6. Anastomosis with opposite plantar artery.

504 THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE

Lody is suspended y>c»» these plates, and not carried %ipon the sole. The
laminje are continuous at the toe with the sensible sole, which is a vascular
membrane covering the floor of the pedal-bone, and secreting the horny sole.
In the centre of the posterior part of this is the sensible I'rog, which is of
nearly the same shape as the horny frog, and is still more liberally supplied
w ith blood than the sensible sole.

The arteries supplying these vascular structures with blood, and the
veins taking it back, are of great importance. Cummencing with the large

metacarpal arter}', which is the continu-
ation of the radial below the knee, we
find it descending by the side of the
tendo-perforatus under the posterior-
annular ligament. Immediately above
the fetlock joint it splits into three
branches ; the middle one passing to
the deep parts of the leg, and the two
others, forming the plantar arteries,
descend on each side the posterior joint
to the postero lateral parts of the co-
ronary substance. Here they divide
into two leading portions, the anterior
running round to meet its fellow of the
opposite side, and giving off with it a
complete fringe of vessels, which are
displayed in the accompan3-ing repre-
sentation of an injected preparation of
the foot. The branches uniting in
front of the foot and encircling the
coronary ligament are called the supe-
rior coronary circle. The posterior
Fio.oo.-ViEwoF -rnE a^^es of toe Frog division of the plantar artciy gives off,
AND Sole, injected. opposite the pastern joint, the artery

A. i.o\viT porous surface of pedal-bone. of the frojj, which descends obliqueh*

B. literal siirfaof of pwlal-bone. . , .,'" i i.i i i. c i.t

C. C. The plantar veins. inwarcls tlU'OUgh tlie SUbftance 01 tlie

]). I). Tne plantar arteries. sonsiblo fro" and divides into two

E. Lateral cflrtilage contraetcd by drying. btnsioit IIO^, dnu uniutb lllio \\\0

i". Veins of the frog, injected. branches within it, after which it sup-

plies the whole of that substance with
numerous vessels, and then goes on to the sole, to which it gives off a
number of radiating branches. After giving off the artery of the frog, the
plantar artery ends posteriorly in the lateral laminal branch which passes
through the foramen in the ala of the os pedis, and supplies the laminae.
Thus the whole of these structures are full of blood-vessels, for not only
are the arteries above described ramifying thus extensively upon them, but
the blood is returned by corresponding veins.

The pedal and navicular hones have been minutely described at page
383, but there are also two cartilaginous ])lates at the back of each ala of
the pedal 1)000, which are of considerable importance. These are called the
lateral and inferior cartilages. The lateral cartUancs extend backwards and
outwards from the posterior and upper borders of the coftin or pedal-bone.
They are united in front with the expanded terminations of the extensor

THE FOOT 505

tendon, and by cellular membrane with the lower end of the os coronfe.
Posteriorly they wind upwards around the ala of the pedal-bone, to Avhich
they are firmly fixed, forming the foundation for the heel. But in addition
to these lateral or true cartilages, there are also two others, of a fibro-
cartilaginous nature, which commence from the sides of the former and
proceed forwards towards the heels of the pedal-bone, and spread inwards
upon the surface of the tendo-perforans. They are scarcely worthy of being
described as distinct cartilages, and appear more like ordinary condensed
cellular membrane.

It will thus be seen that the foot of the horse is a most complicated
structure, which is liable to derangement whenever the hoof or horny case is
interfered with, and this may occur either from mismanagement in shoeing,
causing mechanical injury, or from inflammation of the secreting surface,
which will end in the formation of imperfect horn, or from punctures or
other wounds of the foot. Perhaps in no organ does an injury so soon
produce a return at compound interest, for the inevitable first result is a
malformation of the hoof, and this again only adds to the original mischief.
Hence it is that in the foot, more than in any other part even, prevention
is better than cure, for in many of its diseases it happens that a cure cannot
be obtained without rest ; and yet it is also the fact that the secretion of
horn will not go on perfectly without the stimulus of necessity afforded by
exercise. The position of the leg is such that its veins have a hard task to
perform at all times in returning the blood from the feet, but when the
horse is not exercised at all they become doubly sluggish, and congestion in
them is almost sure to occur.

THE DISEASES OF THE HOESE

THE ACCIDENTS TO WHICH HE IS LIABLE
AVITII TIIEIK TREATMENT

CHAPTER XXV

rnr, pise.vsks axd injukiks of coxn

GENERAL REMARKS— SPLINTS — RINGBONE AND SIDEKONE— BONE SPAVIN— EXOSTOSIS OP
THE HUMERUS AND SCAPDL.\ — FISTULiV — POLL EVIL — CARIES OF TUE JAW — OSTEO SAB-
COMA — VKACTURES — SPLIT PASTERNS.

GENERAL REMARKS

The DiSEASiis of cone arc not commonly attended by any constitutional
disturbance, and neither require an examination of general symptoms, nor
the adoption of any but local treatment, beyond that attention to the health
which is ahvays necessary. They may all be included under the heads of,
— 1st. Exostosis, or increased growth of bone. 2nd. Caries, or ulceration,
3rd. Anchylosis, or unnatural union of two bones, in consequence of
exostosis, or caries, or both. Jth. Fractures, or disunion by external force.
Malignant diseases of the bone also occur very rarely in the horse, so that
it -will be scarcely necessary to occupy any space with their description,
especially as they are perfectlj- incurable.

Exostosis is the result of increased action in the nutrition of the part,
and is much more prevalent in 3-oung horses than in old. It may be
recognized by a hard swelling of the part, which in recent cases is painful
on pressure ; but sometimes its site cannot be reached with the finger, and
the disease can then only bo detected by its efTccts. A blow upon any of
the bones when unprotected by anything but .skin will produce inllammation
followed by exostosis; but the most ordinary cause is the over-stimulus of
hard work. Heavy horses are more prone to exostosis than light ones,
partly from the weight of their bodies and their high lumbering action

JO'J

SPLINTS 507

jarring their limbs in a greater degree, but also from the more spongy and
open texture of their bones which admit of the pressure of large blood-
vessels within them, and are thus more liable to congestion, and consequent
morbid secretion. Exostosis is shown in the form of splints, ringbone,
sidebone, or ossified lateral cartilages, spavin, as well as in the growths
which occur occasionally in other parts of the body which have received no
distinguishing name.

Caries (ulceration) occurs as a consequence of inflammation, and in the
horse either results from external injury, as in poll evil and fistulous withers,
or from mismanagement, or heredity as in navicular disease, which latter
affection will be considered under the diseases of the foot. It is always
attended with pain, and in severe cases with the formation of sufficient
matter to require an outlet, but in very restricted ulcerations, such as occur
in navicular disease, the pus passes into the joint, and is reabsorbed with
the synovia.

Anchylosis, when it is the result of caries in the two adjacent sui'faces
of a joint, produces union between them, but in the horse it is generally of
a secondary kind, the result of bony growths (exostosis) thrown out from
the surfaces of the two l)ones near the joint, which, coalescing, unite into
one mass, and thus destroy all motion.

SPLINTS

The strict definition' of this disease is " an exostosis from the lower
part of the small metacarpal bone, connecting it by bony union with the
large metacarpal bone," but among horsemen, any bony growth from the
cannon-bone is considered a splint, and the latter is almost as common as
the former. The regular splint rarely attacks the outer small metacariDal
bone alone, but sometimes in very bad cases both are implicated in the
disease, a specimen of which is given in Fig. 92, on next page. It is
difficult to give a valid reason for this greater frequency of splint on the
inside than on the out, but it is commonly said that the inner splint-bone
receives more of the weight of the body than the outer one, and that it is
more under the centre of gravity, but as it is merely suspended from the
carpus, and is not supported from below (in any way, mediately or directly),
this can produce no injurious effect upon it. The fact is so, however,
whatever may be the cause.

The Symptoms of splint are generally a greater or less degree of lameness
during its formation, but sometimes it may go on to attain a large size without
any such result, especially if its growth is slow, and the horse is not severely
worked. AVhile the periosteum or membrane covering the bone is inflamed
and stretched, much lameness is often present, but when the first inflam-
matory action subsides the animal may go sound again. Thus we find a
young horse come out sound and fall lame on the journey when splint is the
cause, while a foot lameness may be marked on the starting, but pass off on
the road with the increased circulation of the blood, and additional secretion
of synovia or joint oil. A night's rest and a cold bandage may appear to
restore the animal to soundness, but on being put to work or even moderate
exercise the lameness will often recur. Though splints or exostoses which

508

THE DISEASES OF THE HORSE

would be so called on the front legs often occur on the hind-limbs they
are seldom a cause of lameness. There are some horses with what has been
called a bony diathesis, prone to throw out bony deposits with the slightest
provocation and sometimes with no other cause than the weight of their
own bodies. Chargers and other light horses that have been sound enough

f'^y^i.

Fig. 91.— Sri.iNT attachiso Internal Small
Metacarpal Bone.

1 . IntPmal small inetaf.iriial bone.

'J K.xternal small met.icarijal.

S. Liirge mptaoarjial bone.

4. 4. IJony growth constituting a large splint, and

attaching the small to the large metacarjial

bone.

^■^■:

FlO. 92. EnORMuLo tSFLINT, ATTACniNO BOTH

Small Metacarpals to the Large.

1. Large metacarp.il bone.

2. 3. Mass of exostosis connecting the three

metacariial boni's together.

at their duty are apt to form these bony deposits when enforced idleness and
good feeding combine to overload them with fat.

The importance or otherwise of a splint depends both upon its position
and the age of the subject. Those situated high up and near the knee or
backward, so as to involve the tendons or their sheaths, are of serious
import, while there is no great objection to their presence if well forward,
not long and diffuse, and upon the lower third of the splint-bone. If large
enough to be in danger of being struck by the foot of the opposite leg, they
are dangerous as well as unsightly, and may bring down the rider without a
preliminary stuml)le. Very few mature horses are to be met with that are

SPLINTS 509

.absolutely free from some callosity that may be called a splint, and notwith-
standing the fact that they seldom give trouble, they are, as it were, sleeping
dogs, and may at any time be awoke to activity and be a source of lameness
when the subject is put to unusual exertion.

The Treatment of a splint will depend upon the state in which it exists, and
upon the purpose to which the horse possessing it is destined. If no
lameness exists, and the blemish is not objected to, it is far better not to
meddle with it, for in the course of a few years it may disappear by
absorption. Although lameness from splint will generally cease with
complete rest, there will in the majority of cases be a larger growth when
thus left to nature, than if treated with some blistering material. Of these
there are a great variety, but probably for the particular purpose under
review none answer's so well as biniodide of mercury in the form of an
ointment, and in the proportion of one to seven, eight, or ten parts of any
convenient vehicle, as lard, vaseline, lanolin, or butter. Befoi^e applying it
the patient should have an aperient dose of from three to five drachms of
aloes (see Physic). The patient should be secured to the pillar reins when
blistered for this or any other cause in fx'ont, and there is a right and a
wrong way of setting about it. Two stout hempen halters, the one put on
in the usual way and the other left-handed, are to be preferred to any kind
of bridle and bit, since some horses are very violent when suffering the pain
of a blister, and not a few mouths have been injured by a i-eckless disregard
of consequences in trying to get at the seat of pain. The halters should be
so fastened that the patient cannot get his head low enough to touch the
blistered parts by raising the limb. The veterinary surgeon takes all
necessary precautions, while the damaged muzzles and eyes one often sees
as the result of amateur blistering are generally to be traced to the neglect
of these very necessary restraints. The morning should be chosen for
operations of the kind when the groom is in attendance, and can pacify the
patient and see that he does not get into any difficulty. The worst of the
pain will then have passed off before the attendant leaves his charge for the
night. Many of the destructive blisters advertised at extravagant prices
should be avoided, as they too often contain bichloride of mercury and
induce sloughing of the skin and permanent blemishes which no after-
treatment can avail to remove. Splints vary so much in size, as well as in
their production of lameness, that no absolute rule can be laid down as to
their treatment — in one case a single application and two or three weeks' rest
may prove all that is needed, while in another it should be repeated at short
intervals several times. In some of the diffuse splints before referred to,
the seton may have to be adopted, or scarification. Neither of these
operations should be attempted by the horse- master, who had better seek
the aid of a capable veterinary surgeon when any but a simple splint has to
be treated. It is the custom to clip the hair closely over the part to be
blistered, and it certainly looks more workmanlike, but is not at all necessary
if the inunction of the blistering material is thorough. Some eminent
veterinarians prefer not to clip any but a coarse, hairy leg, giving as a reason
the probable greater amount of absorption to follow from the pressure of a
dry hard scab. The "quality of mercy" makes one wish to soothe an
inflamed leg next day with warm fomentations, but it had better be left
alone^ taking care only to anoint with some simple dressing, as lard or

510 THE DISEASES OF Till: HORSE

vasrliiio, llie skin In-low tlio Mistered lunlioii in order to avoid scalding tho
sound skin with mattci- from above. To the judgment of the professional
attendant sliould be left the question of (iring in those cases where other
means have failed, or from the nature of the exostosis make it probable that
they would so fail. Pyro-puncture is tho name given to the operation
which leaves the minimum of blemish if the a-ctual cautery must be used. It
.'.s done with an instrument having a number of fine steel points, or else by
(he insertion at regular intervals of a pointed iron or an aluminium point
heated by passing the vapour of benzol through an appai'atus designed for the
purpose, and of great utility to the expert, but not to be recommended to
the amateur, since it requires a good deal of pi'actice for its efficient use, is
very costly, and liable to get out of repair, JA\\o, firing, or " diamond," is
also adopted with success in many instances, and would appear to liave tlie
eflfect claimed by its advocates of binding down the parts, as it were, witli a
permanent bandage and support, but the value of an animal so operated
upon is, of course, veiy mucli lessened, as he will never lose the marks.

RINGBONE AND SIDEBONE

These terms, often indiflerently used by the horseman, are quite distinct,
as affecting different structures. Ringbone, like splint, is a growth of bono
u]ion bone, while sidebonc is the conversion of cartilage into bone.

Ringbone for convenience of description is generall}'- divided into high
and low, and first received its appellation from the growth surrounding or
nearly surrounding the bones affected. It is called high when growing upon
the long pastern (os suffraginis), and low when the short bone (os corona) is
aflected. Both may be involved and include the pedal or coffin-bone as well
in one mass of bony deposit, uniting them into a common anchylosis and
destroying their natural movements.

The fore-limbs are more pi'one to this disease than tlie hind, but any or
all may be affected. Heavy draught-horses are such frequent subjects of
sidebone (ossification of the lateral cartilage) that it is probable in time to
eome it will have to be no longer considered as a cause of unsoundness, but
an example of evolution.

Symjitoms. — Lameness as a rule accompanies the formation of ringbone,
but in many heavy animals used only at a walking pace a considerable
deposit often takes place Avithout being observed, until some unlucky twist
or slip excites active inflammation, and calls attention to the cause. With
light horses the concussion produced by faster paces is pretty sui'e to produce
early lameness, the animal as a rule failing in his work rather than showing
a "stable" lameness. Careful manipulation will generally demonstrate the
seat of pain, and early ti'eatment is hopeful.

Treatment of ringbone is very similar to that of splint, but more time
should be allowed for rest before putting the animal to work. Care should
be taken to avoid irritating the hollow of the heel by filling it first with
lard before using a blister.

Sidebone. — The lateral cartilages described elsewhere as prolongations of
the pedal-bone should in a sound horse yield to the pressure of the thumb,
and in the very young animal be easily compressed towards the heel, but in

RINGBONE AND SIDEBONE

511

tlie heavy d ran ulil -horse they beeoiiH^ dense at an early age, and to find a
mature animal that has been long at town work without some degree of
ossification is the exception rather than the rule. Many horses so affected
work sound year after year without suspicion of lameness, but in their case
the gradual deposition of ossific matter in place of cartilage cells never
amounts to inllammatory action but merely degeneration. With others,
particularly the carriage-horse and the hack, lameness is a first symptom,

Fio. P3.— Casf. of Rinouonf: and Sidebone occurhing in a 7inAVY Dr^Av-iiORSE.

1. Os suffraginis.
'J. Os corona'.
3. Os iicdis.

4. Coiupletft union by ossitic matter bftween tlio

OS pedis and os coronit, but still incomiiletu
in the joint above.

5. Coiiiiili'te union of the three bones.

and tlie affection is of much more serious import in horses destined for fast
work. Causes are heredity, concussion, and blows, as from treads. Bad
shoeing undoubtedly contributes toward its production.

The Treatment. — While splints, ringbones, and other ossific deposits may
be wholly absorbed in course of time, and as the result of exciting the
absorbent vessels with blisters, the same cannot be said of sidebones. They
may be greatly modified by similar treatment, and " cured " for all practical
purposes, but the cartilage never parts with the bone cells that have been
deposited within its proper structure. The diminution of a sidebone so
noticeable as a result of successful treatment is due to absorption of the
surrounding deposit upon the other structures adjacent, hence it does not
make the horse sound from a buyer's point of view — the expert will still
detect it.

The lameness of sidebone is not merely the result of change of structure,

D12 THE DISEASES OF THE HOUSE

as we have seen in those cases that liave continued at work without detec-
tion, but is caused by pressure of the growtli upon some sensitive part.
The api)liiati<in of blisters wlierc sidebone is the trouble sliould include tho
whole coronary band, as stiniulatinu' it to increased activity results in the
early formation of a new ring of hoof larger than before, and giving room to
the morbid growth of bony material which may be undergoing al)sorption at
the same time.

Bad cases are treated with the firing iron both by puncture and lines,
when it is usual to draw the hot iron through the coronet with a view to
"opening it out," as it is called. Recognizing the need of giving additional

FiJ. 91.— SlDEBONB.

1 . Toilnl bone. 2. 3. The lateral eartilagps ossified.

room in the foot in bad cases of sidebone, Major Fred Smith has adopted the
plan of sawing through the hoof and putting the horse to work almost
immediately.

The shoes should be removed and tips take their place to protect the toe
from breaking away. This should be done either before operation or else
deferred for two or three weeks till the first soreness has passed away, and
it becomes possible to handle the parts without giving pain or causing
blemish, but the foot should never be deprived of protection during the
action of a blister, as the crust is very liable to be broken by the horse
pawing with the pain. The necessary restraint which adds so much to the
discomfort of a blistered horse may be the sooner relaxed by using what is
known as a cradle. These can be purchased of saddlers ; but a handy man
can make one in an hour with a bundle of sticks and some string. A\'hen
this appliance is adjusted round the neck so that the patient cannot gnaw
the tender spot, he may have the liberty of a loose box or paddock. In
case of a horse scratching his head with a hind-foot, the cord employed in
the cradle should never be so stout and strong as not to break away if he
hangs up in it. For the same reason an orchard is a bad place to turn out,
as offering inducements to rub, and adding to the risks of getting hung up.

BONE SPAVIN

This disease, so frequently the cause of lameness in those horses which
use their hocks severely (as for example race-horses, hunters, carriage-horses,
cavalry, and more particularly cart-horses), consists in exostosis from the

BONE SPAVIN

513

adjacent external sui-faces of the tarsal bones, always sliowing itself at the
inner side of the hock joint, on the scaphoid and cuneiform bones, and ex-
tending to the head of the internal small metatarsal bone. As in the case
of splint, the occurrence of exostosis on the internal rather than on the
external side of the hock has been accounted for by the supposition that
increased Aveight is thrown upon the internal small metatarsal bone, from
the turning up of the outer heel of the shoe, which is the common practice
of smiths. It appears to me, however, that the contrary is the case, and
that tliough more stress is laid upon
the foot on that side, there is less
weight on the inner side of the hock,
which has a tendency to spring open
in that direction. This will cause a
strain upon the ligaments connecting
the tarsal bones, and nature coming
to their aid throws out bone, which
ultimately substitutes anchylosis for
ligamentous union between these bones.
In all the actions of the hind-leg, from
the natural shaj)e of the hock, and
more especially in those horses which
are naturally " cow-hocked," there is
a tendency to yield inwai'ds rather than
in the opposite direction. The con-
sequence is that there is more strain
upon the ligamentous fibres which con-
nect the scaphoid with the two cunei-
form and the internal metatarsal, than
upon those uniting the cuboid with
the OS calcis and external metatarsal
bone. Hence, although exostosis does
sometimes show itself in other parts of
the tarsal bones, it here, as in the fore-
leg, is almost always confined to what
is called the "spavin place," namel}^, the
contiguous surfaces of scaphoid, cunei-
form, and internal metatarsal bones. In
very bad cases the articular cartilage

becomes involved, and there is not only an external casing of new bone, but
the internal surfaces absolutely coalesce or anchylose.

Symjdoms. — Lameness is an almost invariable symptom at the commence-
ment, and may continue throughout the life of the animal. As a rule, the
pain and consequent lameness is most manifest wlien first coming out of the
stable or after a rest. Many horses continue to do useful work though
spavined, as they " warm up " as it is called, and throw off all symptoms of
pain when they have gone a little way, as many an inexperienced purchaser
has learned to his cost ; though he may not have " swopped horses in crossing
a stream," he may have purchased a horse with spavin that comes out dead
lame after the day of the fair at which he was sold.

In the early stages of this afiection it is often difficult to detect, and

Fia. ?5. — Antero-internal View of Exosiosij

CONSTITL'TINU SPAVIN.

1. Os scaplioides.

2. Os cuneifoniieparvum.

3. Morbiil growth of bone, constituting

disease known as bone spavin.

4. Large metatarsal or cannon bone.

the

5U THE DISEASES OF THE HORSE

needs tlic trained hand und eye of the expert whose intimate knowledge of
the anatoni)' of tlie joint enables liini by careful comparison and the particu-
lar action oi hock lameness to decide as to its nature. When developed, a
hard bony enlargement can be both seen and felt.

yjd' 2'reatment should be directed to the abatement of the inflanmiation
which gives rise to jjain, and also to promote absorption of the new
growth. It is often asserted that the disease cannot be cured, and that a
spavined horse will always remain the subject of it, and therefore unsound.
But practically it is known that many a hock which has been the seat of
undoubted spavin loses all external ei>largement, and no lameness is shown
in it, although tried most severely through a series of years. Still on dis-
section after death, the ligaments will not show their natural white and
glistening structure, and the tarsal bones will be to a certain extent united
by anchylosis. In very bad cases there will be also caries of the articulatory
surfaces, and with it inflammation of the synovial membranes, which may
and often does exist without the carie.s. Now as these are much more
formidable diseases than exostosis, and far more diflicult either to cure or
palliate, it follows that although certain remedies will be generally success-
ful with genuine bone spavin (exostosis), yet the}^ will fail when the above
complication exists. This ulceration of cartilage is known as occult spavin,
and often puzzles experts to decide positively as to its existence. Experi-
ments have been recently made with the Rontgen rays which may lead to a
more certain method of diagnosis. A correspondent of The Field, July 18,
1896, writes : —

" By the courtesy of the Pean of the Boyal A^eterinar}' College, Professor
J. M'Fadyean, I witnessed within the last few days further experiments in
the new photography by Professor Hobday and Dr. Rowland. This time
the subjects were a dead horse and a living donkey. Each exposure lasted
about five minutes. The parts examined were the near knee and hock of
the horse and the near hock of the ass. The photographs show well-marked
spavin in the anch^dosed condition of the hock joints. The results in each
case may be considered satisfactory, and give promise of considerable utility
in the future, after further experiment and experience shall have perfected
the application of the new photography to veterinary purposes.

" The living animal — the ass — had to be subjected to chloroform ; and here
one of the great difliculties in applying the new science to animals arises.
They cannot be made to keep still long enough to be jihotographed by the
process without the use of anjesthetics, and even then the operation may not
at all times prove satisfactory.

" Professor Hobday and Dr. Rowland are, I believe, the first — at least in
this country — to apply Rontgen rays to veterinary diagnosis."

The treatment must therefore be adapted to the exact nature and extent
of the disease. Prior to the adoption of any plan the joint should be rested,
the outer heel of the shoe should be lowered, the corn should be taken awav,
and the system cooled by appropriate treatment. After these precautions
are taken, the next thing is to decide upon the remedies which will be suited
to the case. They consist in — 1st. Blistei*s, wdiich have a tendency to cause
absorption ; 2nd. Firing ; 3rd. Setons, with or without subcutaneous scarifica-
tion ; -tth. Division of the nerve. If there is simply a slight exostosis, with
little lameness, and no evidence of the joint being implicated, the biniodide of

BONE SPAVIN 515

mercury may be applied as described at page 509. Repeated dressings will
be necessary, and the joint must have at least two months' absolute rest,
the horse being placed in a loose box. This I'emedy is often successful, bub
it will fail utterly where the exostosis is extensive, or there is caries, or even
severe inflammation of the synovial membrane. Firing is the usual plan
adopted for spavin, and on the first intimation of the disease it is often adopted.
Its chief advantage is, that while it is a certain means of establishing a strong
counter-irritation, it has no tendency to cause any increase of inflammation in
the structures beneath the skin, and therefore the good it does is unalloyed by
any counterbalancing evil. It is now the fashion to deny its use, and horse-
masters are often tempted to try some substitute for it in the hope of escaping
a blemish ; but too often they are compelled to submit to it at last, and probably
after the disease has been aggravated by some " unfailing " remedy. If there is
a strong desire expressed to avoid a blemish, the vetex'inary surgeon is perfectly
warranted in doing all in his power to effect a cure without the use of the
irons ; but the mere fashion of the day should not induce him to decry a
plan which has for so many years been proved to be successful. In human
surgery the same course has been adopted, and for the last thirty or forty
years the actual cautery has been voted " barbarous '' in this country. Now,
however, a counter current is setting in, and it is the general opinion of the
first hospital surgeons of the day that, in certain diseases of the joints, no
remedy is so efiicacious. All sorts of attempts are made to render the
use of the hot iron less repugnant to the senses ; but in the case of the
horse it is only necessary to measure its comparative utility and the amount
of pain which it gives. The former has been already considered, and as to
the latter, if the irons are properly heated, I much doubt whether their
action is not less painful than that of any other counter-irritant.

Setons, perhaps, give less pain if skilfully insei-ted, and they are admirable
remedies, having nearly the same beneficial effects as firing, and leaving a
far slighter blemish. They shovild be passed beneath a considerable track of
the skin, covering the " spavin place," and the tape requires to be smeared
with blistering cerate to produce sufficient irritation. Their use by them-
selves is often suflicient, but when preceded by subcutaneous scarification
they seem to act even more certainly than firing. Mr. Holmes, of Beverley,
has obtained great celebrity for his treatment of spavin on this plan, and
undoubtedly not without foundation. Some of his cures have been very
remarkable, as even old-standing and extensive growths of bone have been
reduced, and the hocks have remained sound afterwards. It requires an
intimate knowledge of the anatomy of the parts to avoid doing mischief by
cutting into one of the joints. There is always afterwards considerable effusion
into the subcutaneous cellular membrane, demanding two or three months
for its removal : but as the spavined horse requires that interval of rest, this
is of little or no consequence. AVhen the disease has gone so far that no
method of treatment will remove it, the nerve above the hock may be
divided, which will enable the horse to work without pain for a time, but
the disease goes on the faster, and the benefit derived is only temporary.

516

THE DISEASES OF THE HORSE

EXOSTOSIS OF THE HUMERUS AND SCAPULA

Tin: HEADS of the boxes adjacent to most of the joints of tlie body are
more or less subject to exostosis, thougli not so frequently as those of the
pastern-bones and tarsus. Kext to these probably conies the shoulder joint,
the neighbourhood of wliich is often the seat of this disease, but seldom to

Fig. P6.— Asciivi.osis of the Shoulder Joint from Exostosis.

A. Si'apula.

B. Humerus.

C. D. Exostosis around the sin ulJer joint producing
anchylosis.

the extent shown in the case from which tlie accompanying engraving is
taken. It represents the left scapula and humerus of a horse, which were
completely anchylo.sed, and of course there co-existed a proportionate amount
i>f lameness during the progress of the disease, while after the anchylosis
took i>lace the want of action must have been complete. An examination
by the hand of the point of the shoulder would readily detect so large a
growth of bone as this ; but smaller ones are occasionally thrown out beneath

FISTULA 517

the mass of muscles surrounding the shoulder joint, and consequently be-
yond the reach of the most accomplished finger.

Treatment. — If a correct diagnosis could be made it is extremely doubtful
if any treatment would be successful, such cases generally are not seen
except at post-mortem examinations of subjects that have long been valueless.
It has only a pathological interest to the veterinary student, and may be
dismissed as beyond the scope of this work.

FISTULA

Fistulous wounds are met with in other parts besides the withers, but
to the horseman fistula means an open wound following upon a swelling in
or near the shoulder-blades or that part of the animal designated the
withers. It is at all times a troublesome disease, and not rarely incurable
for reasons that will presently be seen.

Causes. — These are blows and contusions, not necessarily violent but
repeated, as when an ill-fitting collar jolts upon the withers in going down-
hill, or a saddle too narrow or in want of stufling pinches the tissues
beneath. In the gentleman's stable fistula is now of rare occurrence, and
was becoming less common in agricultural districts until the general
adoption of mowing-machines, which have proved very fruitful of wrung
and fistulous withers. The first indication may be " collar pride," or the
patient slave may endure the pain of a forming abscess until an enlargement
is observed by the attendant. The swelling, at first hard and extremely
painful, becomes softer as matter forms beneath and gradually comes to a
point, when it breaks, discharges a quantity of thick pus as in the case of
an ordinary abscess, but instead of healing up, there is subsidence of the
swelling and the establishment of a drain from which a thin but variable
discharge is poured out, a puckered opening in the skin shows a distinct
tube inside from which the matter flows, and if this is traced to its source
branches may have been established which run under the blade-bone
(scapula), and ramify among the loose connective tissue, where, in the
living subject, it is impossible to reach except by the forcible injection of
fluid agents. These constitute the incurable division, but there is often
very little pain and perhaps no lameness in an old-established case, and
such horses are worked for years in country districts where visits are
not expected from oflicers of the Royal Society for the Prevention of
Cruelty to Animals. No doubt many horses with this disease can work in
a breast-collar without pain or inconvenience, but it can hardly be supposed
that an ordinary collar can be so fitted as to avoid pressure upon the parts
afiected.

Treatment. — Early recognition of the injury and fomentation with hot
water may bring the abscess to a head so quickly as to avoid the bur-
rowing which causes the establishment of the drain. "When the soft place
or " point " of the abscess yields very readily to the pressure of the finger, it
may be assumed to be ready for the lancet, which should be boldly plunged
into it, and the matter evacuated by gentle pressure of a sponge dipped in
moderately hot water. A pledget of tow dipped in turjoentine and pushed
into the cavity will ensure its pretty complete evacuation the next day, and

518 THE DISEASES OF THE HORSE

promote the healing process by gninulatioii within. It is an old-fashioned
method, but attended with so much success as to merit notice as an
alternative to the more modern treatment, which consists in syringing out
the cavity with dilute carbolic acid, a solution of bichloride of mercury or
of Condy's Fluid, and attempting to retain a lotion similarly constituted on a
wetted pad in contact with the wound. The patient generally frustrates
these attempts on the part of the surgeon, and it is usually best to apply
dry powders in the shape of iodoform, boric acid, or salicylates which can be
dusted over the parts from time to time.

If a fistula is once formed, or there is even reason to suspect it, heroic
measures should be taken. There is really nothing to be feared from the
use of the most powerful agents, and those men to be met with in different
parts of the country who undertake to cure on the piinciple of " no cure no
pay " meet with a large measure of success, because they have no fear of
bad consequences from the use of those destructive agents whose properties
they do not understand in any other connection. A cure is often effected
without obtaining a depending orifice or introducing a seton ; the powerful
escharotics employed appear to have the effect of sloughing out all the
impediments to discharge of the deep-seated matter, and granulation taking
place from the bottom of the wound eventual recovery is certain.

This rough, and, as we have said, often successful method of treatment
does not commend itself to the modei'n surgeon, who will accomplish his
aim with greater certainty by observing the usual rules and seeking for
effectual drainage, sometimes by the introduction of a drainage tube, at
others by a seton, as circumstances may dictate. A tube ma}^ be pushed
into the furthermost extremity of the sinus when it is not possible, from its
situation, course, and direction, to obtain a dependent orifice. The tubing
sold by chemists for infants' feeding-bottles answers the purpose well, when
notches have been cut at intervals of about an inch throughout the length
to be used. It may be retained in place by a couple of stitches through
the lips of the wound. Caustic solutions should be introduced by means
of a syringe each time that the drainage tube is taken out and cleared of
the matter which has a tendency to accumulate within it. The remedies
usually selected are chloride of zinc, bichloride of mei'cury, sulphates of
copper and zinc, and acetate of lead. The first-named has such an affinity
for water, that when a solid stick of it is pushed into a sinus it will do its
work more rapidl}' than any other agent, finding its way to the branches of
a fistula, and occasionally succeeding when others have failed. Its chief
disadvantage is, that when it has done its work the parts arc so long a
time in commencing to granulate. Bichloride of mercury either alone or in
combination with sulphate of copper is most affected by the hereditary
" specialist " referred to above. Kitrate of silver, in the large quantities
often needed for established fistula, is expensive, and no better than the
remedies named for destruction of the sinus, but promotes healthy and
durable granulations in the final stage. If the discharge decreases in
quantity and becomes thicker, assuming the appearance of healthy pus,
and a probe brings up a stain of bright-red blood, it may be assumed that
repair is taking place, whether or no a slough or " core " has been cast out
of the wound. The caustic dressings will be no longer needed, cleanliness
and free drainage being all that is necessarv.

POLL EVIL 519

Setoning is a generally successful plan where enlai'gement takes place on
both sides of the withers, and one is higher than the other. If the long
needle used for the purpose is made to follow the direction of the sinus and
passed from above downwards, coming out on the other side in such a
manner as to form a drain, both abscesses are simultaneously drained.
Tape or stout cord is generally employed, and the ends secured by knotting,
or a piece of wood. Tying the ends in a loop has the objection that it may
hang up. The seton is dressed with one or more of the agents before
mentioned, and from time to time drawn backwards and forwards until
there is reason to suppose from the character of the discharge that its
presence is no longer necessary.

POLL EVIL

Poll evil is now rarely met with in good stables, but almost confined to
the low dark dens in which the poorer class of townsmen stable their horses,
or the mean hovels that do duty in some agricultural districts. The
disease is of similar character to that of fistula and caused in the same way.
It has been frequently traced to blows on the poll in going through low
doorways, or from the pressure of ill-fitting and heavy harness, and occasion-
ally, it must be added, from wilfully striking a horse between the ears.

The Symptoms are restiveness when the collar is put over the head and the
bridle placed upon it, soon to be followed by swelling and the formation of
an abscess. This is often a very long time in forming, but sooner or later
it breaks, discharges, and leaves a fistulous wound.

Treatment is the same as for fistulous withers, but more care must be
exercised in the use of powerful caustics, as that portion of the spinal cord
between the two first bones of the neck (Atlas and Dentata) is compara-
tively open and liable to injury. Many cases prove incurable as the sinus
runs under the wing of the atlas and cannot be reached by surgical or other
means.

CARIES OF THE JAW

The upper jaw, from its exposed situation, and the lower from the
same cause, and also from the abuse of the bit, are liable to mechanical
injury, which ends in caries (ulceration), or sometimes in necrosis (morti-
fication), of the part. Caries of the lower jaw, between the tushes and
grinders, is extremely common, owing to the barbarous punislmaent which
is inflicted by the use of long levers to curb bits, together with tight curb
chains. The bony plate forming the roof of the mouth is also often injured
by the pressure of the part when a tight nose-band is employed to keep the
mouth shut. Either may be known by the existence of a sore of a peculiar
character ; there is a depression indicating a loss of substance, and in this
lies a mass of unhealthy granulation (proud flesh), which is not attached to
the surrounding surface, being only fixed to the bottom, of the cavity, or
perhaps partially on one side. A watery and ofiensive discharge goes on
constantly, but this is lost in the saliva, and very often the only circum-
stance that draws attention to the disease is the constant bleeding from the

M M

520

THE DISEASES OE THE HUKSE

mouth, on the slightest contact of the bit. When this occurs, the mouth
l)eing full of pi7ik froth, it should be carefully examined, and the state of
things here described will generally be found to exist. The treatment should
consist in the adoption of a bit pressing upon another part of the mouth,
changing the curb for a snaffle. The wound should be kept open by the
use of caustic (lunar) daily, which should be pushed deeply into it for a
couple of seconds, and will destroy the unliealthy granulations. By con-
tinuing these measures, taking care not to do more with the caustic than
necessary to keep down the fungous growth, a cure can always be effected
in course of time, without the aid of the trephine or chisel to cut away the
diseased bone.

OSTEO SARCOMA

The jaws are occasionally attacked by a malignant growth from their

cellular structure of a substance partaking of the nature both of cartilage

and bone. It increases sometimes to an enormous size, and forms a large

irregular tumour, which interferes terribly with their function-^, often

Fio. 97. — OStSo Sarcoma of t^e Lower Jaw.

growing so as to prevent the closure of the teeth. This disease is repre-
sented in Fig. 97, as far as the osseous tissue is concerned ; but the soft
growths, which occupied the central parts of the tumour, have been removed
by maceration. The symjjtoms are entirely local, and when a large,
unwieldy, and irregularly hard swelling on either of the jaws is met with,
it may safely be set down as belonging to this class of disease. No treatment
is of any avail except excision, which can rarely be carried through without
rendering the horse unserviceable for his ordinary duties.

FRACTURES

Bones are not unfrequently broken in the horse ; but as the accident
generally occurs either during the violent exertion of the muscles of the
limb, or from great external force, it follows that in most cases the injury
to the soft parts is so great as to forbid the hope of a perfect reparation.

The veterinary as compared with the human surgeon is at a great

on

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LU
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FRACTURES 521

disadvantage, his patient will not lie in bed restrained by the fear of being
a cripple for life, but as a rule uses his best endeavours to undo every kind
of appliance that ingenuity can invent. Neither is it enough to have saved
his life and turned him out of hospital on crutches ; he must be absolutely
sound again or he will never repay the owner for maintenance — not to
mention his doctor's bill. It is for this reason that horses with broken
bones are usually slaughtered, and not as many people suppose because
nature will not repair fractures in this animal. Broken bones are, however,
often successfully treated by country practitioners in colts and young horses
on grass or farm keep, where as a matter of mere business calculation it
would not pay to attempt it in the town-kept and adult horse, unless for
some exceptional reason, as in a mare sufficiently valuable to be retained for
breeding.

The symptoms op simple fracture ai-e a greater or less degree of
deformity of the limb, swelling, pain on motion, and a peculiar grating or
jarring which is felt rather than heard, and which has received the name
of " crepitus." The last symptom can only be made out when the broken
ends of the bone can be brought together ; but when this is impossible,
the alteration of form is in itself sufficient to lead to a detection of the
nature of the accident. In fractures of the head and spine there is no
crepitus felt, and the effect of pressure upon the brain and spinal cord will
be often the sole means of coming to a correct diagnosis. Fractures of the
pelvis are very difficult to make out, unless the ala of the ilium is broken
off, which is a common accident, for here the unnatural flatness of the hip,
showing itself without any great difficulty of moving the hind-leg of that
side, plainly marks that there is no dislocation, and that the case can only
be one of fracture. It is always the result of a blow, either when the horse
is cast in a stall or in passing through a narrow doorway, or from a similar
cause ; and there will therefore be some swelling of the soft parts which
will interfere with the examination at the time, but as nothing can be done
to restore the broken portion to its place, and as there is no doubt about
the diagnosis from dislocation, this is of little consequence. Fractures of
the ribs cannot be readily detected ; but as they almost always follow a
kick on the part, and as they do not require any treatment unless their
broken ends press upon the important viscera of the thorax or abdomen, it
will be well to wait for the symptoms which are caused by this mechanical
irritation before resorting to bandages, etc. When a fracture occurs in any
of the bones of the limbs which are concealed by a large mass of muscle,
the total inability to use the member, and the loose way in which it is
connected to the body, so as to allow it to be moved in any direction,
indicate the general nature of the case without difficulty, though a careful
examination must be made by a skilful surgeon before the exact particulars
relating to it can be ascertained.

The Treatment will depend upon the bone which is broken, and whether
the fracture is simple or compound. In most cases of the latter description
none will avail, and the horse had better be destroyed.

If the bones of the skull are fractured, unless there are symptoms of
pressure on the brain, it is advisable to leave all to nature, simply keeping
the patient quiet and low, and, if in a high state of plethora, bleeding and
physicking.

522 THE DISEASES OF THE HORSE

A nnOKEN LOWKR JAW is by no means uncommon as the result of a kick.
The best treatnicnt is to sot the fracture, and tlien mould some gutta-percha
to it, which may bo confined behind by strips round the forehead and poll,
and before by a padded strap passed through the mouth between the nippers
and tushes, and beneath the tongue. The horse must be fed upon mashes
and steamed food. A special apparatus known as a face cr.adle has been
invented by Mr. Walker, Veterinary Surgeon, of Bradford, and is illus-
trated in Professor Williams' work on veterinary surgery.

I\ FRACTUKEs OF TiiK sriNR AND PELVIS nothing can be done beyond rest
and lowering, if necessary, by physic.

Broken ribs, when they cause inHammation of the lungs or liver by their
sharp ends pressing upon these organs, may be treated by buckling two or
three ordinary rollers abreast of one another tightly round the chest, so as
to prevent the natural dilatation of the thorax, which takes place in
inspiration, and which keeps up the irritation by constantly moWng the
ends of the ribs. The general means necessary to adopt to relieve the
internal mischief will depend upon its extent.

WuEN EITHER THE SCAPULA, HUMERUS, OR FEMUR is broken, all that can
be done is to sling the horse, and by bandages endeavour to bring the limb
into as natural a position as possible, and keep it there. There must of
necessity be great displacement of the ends of the bones, and these cannot
by any means be brought into apposition ; but the sides in contact with one
another, as they over-ride, will unite in course of time, and this is all that
can be achieved by the utmost efforts of the veterinary surgeon.

Fractures of the lower part of the tibia, of the radius, of the cannon-
bones, if simple, must be treated by adjusting the ends (which is the chief
difficulty, and will often require strong extension to be employed), and then
adapting to the sides of the bones splints of wood, gutta-percha, plaster of
Paris, lead, or other flexible metal.

If, by the aid of assistants, the parts can be brought into a good position,
these may be carefully adjusted to maintain it, and may be kept in place by
tapes or sti'aps fastened moderately tightly around them. It is useless,
however, to attempt a minute description of the means to be employed,
which can hardly be understood without a demonstration. Many horses
have I'ecovered a fair use of the limb by the application of splints, without
slinging, as they will take care to avoid resting on that foot in consequence
of the pain it gives ; but under the care of an accomplished veterinary
surgeon slings will aflford the best chance of recovery.

SPLIT PASTERNS

In the adult horse the fracture most often treated with success is
that occurring in the long or short pastern (os sulYraginis and os corona).
If broken transversely the case is not very hopeful, or if splintered into
numerous fragments as sometimes happens ; but in what is called a split
pastern, where the fracture occurs in the long axis of the bone, the prob-
abilities are in favour of recovery. There may result a considerable ring of
bone around the pastern, but much of it will be afterwards absorbed.

Treatinent consists in a cooling dose of aperient medicine and mechanical

DISEASES OF MUSCLE, TENDON, xVND LIGAMENT 523

support. This may be given in a variety of ways, but there is probably
none better than a preliminary wrapping with tow (to avoid making the
skin sore), and then a series of starch or glued bandages which are i^etained
in their proper place if the heel is filled up with tow or wool and they are
put on from the hoof upwards. With three legs to rest the weight upon
the patient generally learns to get up and down without injury to the
affected limb. If he does not do so, slings may be tried, but they always
need a watchful eye to see that they do not cause sores or get too slack
when the horse has learned to depend on them. Patients in slings for
whatever cause varj- very much in behaviour; with some they are the means
of saving life and with others of practically no use.

CHAPTER XXVI

INJURY AND DISEASES OP THE JOINTS, MUSCLES, AND TENDONS

DISEASES OF MUSCLE, TENDON, AND LIGAMENT — INFLAMED TENDINOUS SHEATHS— IN-
FLAMED BURSiE MUCOSA — STRAINS — THOSE OP THE BACK AND LOINS — OF THE
SHOULDER — OF THE KNEE— OF THE FETLOCK — OF THE COFFIN JOINT — OF THE SUS-
PENSORY LIGAMENTS — OF THE BACK SINEWS — BREAKING DOWN — STRAINS OF THE HIP
JOINT, STIFLE, AND HOCK — CURB — DISLOCATION — WOUNDS OF JOINTS,

DISEASES OF MUSCLE, TENDON, AND
LIGAMENT

Muscle is subject to simple atrophy, with or without fatty degeneration
The disease shows itself by a wasting away of the part, accompanied by a
flabby feel to the touch. It is often difficult to account for the sudden
wasting of a part that has not been thrown out of use by lameness or
other recognized cause. The theory most generally accepted at the present
day is some injury to the nutrient nerves of the part.

In agricultural districts it is by no means rare for colts, which are put to
plough at two or three years, to manifest a sudden atrophy of the shoulder
muscles, particularly those on the blade-bone (antea and postea spinatus),
but in such a case it can easily be imagined that the position of one foot
on the ridge and the other in the furi'ow may result in some injury to the
immature tissues of the animal. Recovery is however the rule, and it is
generally supposed that friction with some stimulating liniment assists to
restore the muscles, whether by rousing the nerves to greater action or
merely by bringing increased nutrition to the part by a greater blood supply
is not clear, probably both.

Acute inflamjiation op the synovial membrane is seldom met with ;
but a chronic state, inducing an excessive secretion of synovia, is extremely
common. The most usual situation is at the hock, where the swelling has

524 THE DISEASES Ol' THE HORSE

received the name of bog-spavin and thoroughpin ; but tliey also occur at
the fetlock and knee joints ; in the former case being sometimes confounded
with windgalls, which are inflamed bursie mucosre (see "Windgalls).

BoG-SPAViN is very ajft to attack young horses when they are overworked
before being fully seasoned, but it may occur at all ages. It shows itself
at the inner side of the joint, because here the ligaments are wider apart,
and there is more room for distension. Its seat is the capsule between the
tibia and astragalus, which is here unprotected by any strong fibrous
co\ering, and readily yicUls to the gradual pressure of the secretion from its
internal surface (see Fig. 58, G H, page 425).

Thoroughpin maybe either an increased secretion of the synovial capsule,
between the astragalus and os calcis, or between the scaphoid and cuneiform
bones, or of the bursa mucosa lying between the tendo Achillis and the
tendo perforatus. In the first of these cases it often coexists with bog-
spavin, and the synovia may be made to fluctuate from one bag to the other,
the only line of demarcation being the astragalo-calcanean ligament (see
Fig. 58, G, page 425).

Both bog-spavin and thoroughpin may exist, or either separately, without
occasioning lameness ; but where they are just established, there is generally
some small degree of active inflammation, which causes a slight lameness on
first going out of the stable, but soon disappearing.

The 'Treatment should be by pressure, kept up for a long time, by means
of a carefully-adjusted truss. Failing success by pressui'e, a blister-charge
and a long rest may succeed. These are made of pitch, resin, and bees-wax
with the addition of a small quantity of cantharides or Si)anish fly. They
are applied hot and covered with chopped tow or wool, which prevents the
bedding from sticking to the part when the horse lies down. A slight
amount of irritation of the skin is produced and some effusion under it,
which acts as a cushion ; the contraction and pressure of the charge acts
for a considerable time as a bandage, as it does not as a rule come off
until the hair of the part is moulted.

Line firing is also adopted for the production of a permanent support, as
wherever the lines heal up a new and inelastic tissue takes the place of true
skin, but this should only be resorted to when other measures have failed ;
it should be done thoroughly if done at all, the whole hock being covered.
These dropsical conditions are successfully treated b}' an operation for the
removal of the redundant fluid by an aspirator, under aseptic conditions,
and an injection of a special preparation of iodine.

Delicate young foals are subject to a rheumatic inflammation of their
synovial membranes, specially displayed in the knees and hocks, and
apparently caused by exposure to cold. It seldom goes on to produce dis-
organization of the cartilages, but the capsular ligaments are distended with
thin yellow synovia, causing considerable stiffness. The cellular tissue
around the joints also becomes edematous, and the legs fill all the way
down to the feet. It is commoidy known among breeders as the "joint
evil," and though in itself it is not dangerous, yet it marks the existence of
constitutional weakness which is likely to occasion some more fatal malady.
The Treatment should consist in attending to the general health by
strengthening the mare, which is best done by giving her a drachm of
sulphate of iron in her corn twice a day. The joints of the foal should be

INFLAMED TENDINOUS SHEATHS 525

rubbed with equal parts of soap liniment and spirit of turpentine, and it
should be assisted to stand for the purpose of sucking at regular short
intervals if it is unable to help itself. In aggravated cases, however, the
foal is not likely to I'ecover its general strength, and it may \yi better to
destroy it, but so long as it can stand and feeds well, hopes may be entertained
of the joints recovering.

INFLAMED TENDINOUS SHEATHS

Every practical horseman is aware that the sheaths in which the
back sinews and other tendons are lodged are liable to inflammation and
thickening, without the tendon itself being involved. By passing the
hand down the leg, an irregular network may be felt surrounding the
tendons, which move up and down without disturbing it ; and the surround-
ing cellular membrane is also thickened, and become hard and unyielding.
There may be considerable heat about the part, but often it is quite cool ;
and the disease may continue for months without any great lameness, and
with nothing to draw attention to it (excepting a slight stiffness on leaving
the stable) but the sensation communicated to the hand. At length, an
unusually severe day's work sets up active inflammation, the leg rapidly fills,
and there is so much lameness as to cause the horse to be thrown by.

Treatment. — In the early stage Captain Hayes recommends a compress of
dry cotton- wool under a bandage, applied with a moderate degree of pressure.
It is often surprising what this simple remedy will accomplish, but if it fail
an evaporating lotion may be tried. Linen bandages should be saturated
with it and frequently renewed, and only walking exercise permitted. In
established cases where the thickening has become permanent a fly-blister
may be necessary and a two or three months' rest. Chamois leather adapted
to the shape of the leg and neatly sewn on is used both as a preventive and
curative measure.

INFLAMED BURS^E MUCOSiE

These synovial bags are liable to inflammation, either from hard work,
as in windgalls and thoroughpin, or from blows, as in capped hock and elbow.
The latter take on the character of serious abscesses. In all horses a
subcutaneous bursa exists on the cap of the elbow and hock ; and these
become inflamed and filled with a very thin synovia, when they are bruised.
They never extend beyond a certain size, and have no tendency to burst ;
nor are they inclined to a healthy termination of their own accord, but go
on in the same condition from year to year.

Capped elbow can be successfully operated upon when it has passed the
stage when friction may be expected to reduce it, and fresh injury prevented
by a pad or cushion made specially to prevent bruising when the horse is
lying down. The swelling, which is at first of a fluid nature, is sometimes
cured by passing a drainage tube through it from above downwards. It
.may consist of india-rubber piping about a quarter of an inch in diameter,
and having notches at frequent short intervals. Irritant agents are forced
into the tube, and in this way the secreting membrane is destroyed. With-

526 THE DISEASE.- OF Till: JlOilSE

out such treatment tl)c tumour becumcs sulidified. The method of procedure
then is to first cast the patient with hobbles, and then having secured him
in a favourable position, make a bold incision the whole length of the tumour,
dissecting out the cyst c(>inpletel3'so that only the loose folds of skin remain.
No portion of this aiiii.uently superfluous skin must bo removed, as in a few
days it will appear as if the ojierator had introduced a larger tumour instead
of removing the existing one, so great is the subsecpient swelling. This may
be induced to subside and the tendency to fdl up with new material prevented
by the application of a fly-blister to the skin on either side of the surgical
wound. In the majority of cases nothing more is left than a slight thicken-
ing and a coarseness of the hair around the parts not previously observable.
WiNDC.ALLS, OK ruFF.s, are the most usual forms of these enlargements,
and may be observed in the legs (hind as well as fore) of nearly every hard-
worked horse, after a time. Great care in the management of the legs by
bandaging will sometimes keep them off, and some horses have naturally
no tendency to form them ; but in most cases, on examining the legs, just
above the fetlock joints, of horses at work, a little oval bag may be felt on
each side, between the back sinew and the bone. If recent, it is soft and
puffy ; but if the work is hard, and the windgall is of long standing, it
will be as tense as a drum. The synovial bag has no communication with
the fetlock joint ; but there is another sac in front of the joint, and beneath
the tendons of the extensors, which is often enlarged, though not so much
so as the seat of the true windgall, and which is generally, though not
always, continuous with the synovial capsule of the joint. The treatment
consists in pressure by means of bandages, and the application of cold
lotions, if the legs are hot and inflamed. Blistering and rest will remove
them entirely; but no sooner is the horse put to work again, than they
return as badly as ever. There is no radical cure but subcutaneous
puncture and scarification, and this will produce too much adhesion to be
advantageously applied.

The Foini of TiioitouonpiN in which the bursa mucosa between the
tendo Achillis and the tendo perforatus is inflamed and filled with synovia,
has been alluded to at page 52-i, and its treatment is there described.

Cappkd riocK is always the i-esult of a bruise of the superficial bursa,
which is situated on the point of the hock, immediately beneath the skin.
It is generally caused by lying on a bare floor. Some horses have a habit
of getting the bedding from under them, and this is one of the results ; it
may also indicate either that the possessor has kicked in the stable or in
harness ; but it is more frequently caused in the former way than in the
latter. The swelling is sometimes slight, being then just sullicient to show
the point slightly enlarged, and to gi\c a soft, puffy sensation to the fingers,
. where there ought to be nothing but bone felt beneath the skin. The
bursa always rolls freely on the bone, and when large, it can be laid hold of
and shaken like a bladder of water.

Trcntmont. — In recent cases massage aided by equal parts of soap
liniment and water may succeed in dispersal of this unsightly but other-
wise harmless swelling. Evaporating lotions are also reconnnended, and
these may be applied on a piece of stout calico or fine canvas shaped into a
cap, carefully fitting the point of the hock ; and this being tied by several
pieces of tape in front of the leg, will allow not only of the application of cold

STRAIN OV THE BACK AND LOINS 52'/

lotions, but of pressui'e also. By this plan, continued for 8ome weeks, con-
siderable enlargements have been removed, but they are very apt to return
on the slightest bruise. Special trusses are made for the prevention of
capped hock, and they often effect a cure by removing the cause when
absorption of the fluid follows, if not of long standing.

STRAINS

The fibres op muscles, ligaments, and tendons, and the fascia
covering them, are all liable to be overstretched, and more or less
mechanically injured. This is called a strain, the symptoms of which are
similar to the inflammation of the part occurring idiopathically. They are
heat, swelling, and pain on pressure or movement, shown by flinching in
the one case, and lameness in the other. In some cases there is considerable
effusion of blood or serum, the former occurring chiefly in the muscles, and
the latter among the torn fibres of the tendons or ligaments. — The symptoms
and treatment will depend upon the part injured, which will be found
described under the following heads.

STRAIN OF THE {BACK AND LOINS

When a young horse has been hunted or ridden with hounds over any
kind of fence, he is very apt to ovei'-exert himself in his awkward attempts
to clear the obstacle, and next day he will often show a stiffness of the
loins and back, which is seated in the large muscles connecting the pelvis
with the thorax. He is said to have " ricked his back," in the language of
the stable, and if the mischief is confined to the muscles alone, he may
generally be permanently cured, though he will be more liable to a return
than an animal which has never suffered from any accident of the kind.
If, however, the spinal cord is injured, either from fracture of the verte-
brae, or from effusion of blood or serum pressing upon it, the case is
different, and a perfect cure is seldom obtained. It is, however, very
difficult to form a correct diagnosis between the one case and the other, and
the treatment may generally be conducted with a hope that the more
important organ is uninjured. When there is complete paralysis of the
hind extremities, so that the horse can neither feel nor use them in the
slightest degree, the case is hopeless (see Diseases of the Nervous System).
For the management of the strain of the loins, an aperient dose may be
given, and the diet lowered, green meat if obtainable, perfect rest and
quietude enjoined. When the sprain affects the muscles imder the loin
(the Psofe muscles or " undercut " of the butcher), diuretic medicines, as
nitrate of potash, appear to act advantageously, but if the muscles on the
top (Longissimis dorsi, etc.) are the seat of mischief, much may be done to
relieve them with external remedies. A warm compress composed of a
double fold of thick flannel or serge dipped in warm water, frequently
renewed, and covered over with oiled silk or india-rubber sheeting, answers
well, or a pillow-case may be filled with bran previously scalded and
applied when the temperature is such that one's naked elbow can
comfortably be placed in it. This takes a long time to cool if covered

528 THE DISEASES OF THE HORSE

with some material that will prevent evaporation. If good uursii.y cannot
be ensured, and the poultices or compress properly attended to, it ivill be
better to trust to a stimulating liniment which will not allow the skin to
get cold, as in the invervals of poulticing by an indiflferent attendant.
In large establishments where casualties must necessarily be expected,
the Fomenting Rug invented by ^Ir. Field, and manufactured by Mr.
C. H. Huish, will be found an invaluable appliance ; it vnh maintain a com-
fortable heat to the part required for five or six hours without requiring
attention. If in about ten days the animal is not making good progress a
charge may be spread over the loins, and a long rest enjoined.

STRAIN OF THE SHOULDER

Shoulder strain was formerly very often chosen as the seat of lameness
in the fore extremity, solely because the case is so obscure that it is beyond
the knowledge of the unskilful examiner. Many cases of navicular disease
and other lameness in the foot not clearly defined are often attributed to
the shoulder. Chronic lameness of the shoulder is comparatively rare, but
drop jumps in the hunting-field, and collisions with the stall post, or street
accidents cause temporary and often very acute lameness.

The Symptoms are dragging the toe, and an inability to extend the
limb ; when compelled to move, the leg is moved in an outward direction
in the form of a half-circle. "When the muscles are strained (serratus
magnus, pectoralis transversus, etc.) the animal may evince acute pain
when the limb is pulled up forcibly or drawn back.

Treatment. — Rest, but not absolute inaction, is necessary, compulsory
gentle exercise for a few minutes night and morning at a walking pace
being found the best restorative. There is so much tendency to effusion
which must needs be again absorbed that the absolute rest formerly pre-
scribed for man and beast is not found to be desirable. Many a black-
smith (not in receipt of club pay) will recover a sprained wrist with a
leathern strap around it by continuing at his work in less time than if he
carried the arm in a sling. Warm fomentations relieve tension, and rubbing
with a saponaceous embrocation tends to give mobiUty to the parts rendered
stiflF by the reparative process going on within. Tempel, Biittner, and other
Continental veterinary authorities, advocate the injection into the aflfected
parts of morphia and atropine, which is said to give immediate relief ; but
the curative effect must be due to the fact that the animal, freed from pain,
can be induced to take the necessary exercise above recommended. Unless
there is a known history of the cause the amateur should not trust himself
to diagnose shoulder lameness, since the great majority of lamenesses attributed
to that region prove to be in the foot.

STRAINS OF THE KNEE

The knee, unlike its analogue in the human subject (the wrist), is
seldom strained in the horse, in consequence of the strong ligaments which
bind the bones of the carpus together. Still it sometimes happens that
the internal lateral ligaments are overstretched, or, in calf-kneed horses,

STRAIN OF THE COFFIN JOINT 529

the posterior common ligaments, or that connecting the scaphoid with the
pisiform bone, or probably all these, will suffer from over extension. The
accident may be recognized by the heat and swelling of the part affected,
as well as by the pain given on using the joint. The anterior ligaments
are seldom strained, but are liable to injury from blows received in various
Avays. The treatment should be conducted on the same principles as those
of strains in the shoulder. Cold applications will seldom do anything but
harm in the early stage j but after hot fomentations have relieved the active
mischief, by encouraging the effusion of serum into the surrounding cellular
membrane, the former may be used with advantage. When the heat and
other signs of active inflammation have disappeared, the biniodide of mercury
ointment may be rubbed in, avoiding the back of the joint (see Blistering).

STRAIN OF THE FETLOCK

This accident shows itself at once, in consequence of the superficial
nature of the joint, by swelling, heat, soreness to the touch, and lameness.
It may be of a slight and temporary nature or involve important ligaments
and be of a lasting character. Treatment. — Warm fomentations, a bran or
linseed poultice, an aperient dose if in full corn, followed by cold applications
and the support of a bandage. If these fail a cantharides blister may be
necessary, followed by a long rest in a loose box or very small paddock,
where the patient cannot gallop about.

STRAIN OF THE COFFIN JOINT

Dissection proves that this joint is sometimes the seat of strain ; but
it is almost impossible to ascertain its existence with certainty during life.
The diagnosis is, however, not of much consequence, as the treatment will
be the same, whether the coffin joint or the navicular joint is the seat of the
mischief. In the absence of corns and all other evidence pointing to previous
lameness or shoeing troubles, in the sudden demonstration of acute pain, point-
ing of the foot, considerable heat around the coronet, and tenderness on pressure
of the heel, we have some of the symptoms indicating a strained joint. As
in any acute foot lameness some benefit may be anticipated from an aloetic
purge, the animal should be at once prepared (see Physic, page 302), and a
dose proportioned to his age, size, and condition administered. Poulticing
or warm fomentations give relief by permitting expansion of the foot and
the engorged vessels in the neighbourhood of the joint. After the acute
symptoms have passed away, cold lotions or wet swabs should be constantly
applied, and the treatment concluded with a mild blister around the
coronary band. In all joint injuries a long rest should be prescribed in a
roomy box where the patient will take just sufficient exercise to promote
the secretion of healthy synovia.

STRAIN OF THE SUSPENSORY LIGAMENTS

The suspensory ligament not being elastic like the back sinews (which,
though not in themselves extensible, are the prolongations of muscles which

530 THE DISEASES OF THE HOKSE

hiive that property), is very liable to strains, especially in the hunter, and to
a less degree in the race-liorse. On reference to pages 444, 448, tlie inferior
connections of this part will be seen to be the two sesamoid bones, by a
bifurcation of its subst.mce, and as these bones support the pastern joints
by the inferior sesanioideal ligaments, wlion the suspensory ligament is
strained the whole apparatus is rendered useless, because the pain occasioned
by the extension of the upper ]>art prevents the horse from putting his
weight upon the foot. The accident is readily made out, for there is locjil
swelling and tenderness, and in the well-bred horse, which is alone likely
to meet with a strain of this kind, the leg is rarely sutKciently gummy to
prevent the finger from making out the condition of tlie ligaments and
tendons. Tliere is no giving way of the joints as in "break down," but on
the contrary the leg is tiexed, and if the case is a bad one, tlie toe only is
allowed to touch the ground. In ordinary cases, however, there is merely
slight swelling of the suspensory ligament in a limited spot usually near its
bifurcation, or sometimes in one division only, close above the sesamoid bone
to which it is attached. The liorse can stand readily on that leg, but on
being trotted he limps a good deal. Sometimes, however, there is a swelling
of the part without lameness, but in this case the enlargement is generally
due to an effusion of serum into the cellular covering of the ligament, and
not to an actual strain of its fibres. The treatment will depend greatly
upon the extent of the mischief ; if thei'e is no great injury done, and the
enlargement is chiefly from effusion of serum, rest and cold applications by
means of bandages or otherwise will in the course of two or three months
effect a cure. Generally, however, the case will last six or eight months
before the ligament recovers its tone, and in a valuable horse no attempt
should be made to work him before that time. Where the swelling is
small, as it generally is, bandages have no power over it, as the projection
of the flexor tendons keeps the pressure off the injured part. Here, dipping
the leg in a bucket of water every liour will be of far more service than a
bandage, and the sudden shock of the cold water will be doubly ettlcacious.
After all heat has disappeared the biniodide of mercury may be used as a
blister two or three times, and then the horse may either be turned out, or
put into a loose box for three or four months, after which walking exercise
will complete the cure.

STRAIN OF THE BACK SINEWS

In Tnis AcciDi:xT the position of the leg is the same as in strain of the
suspensory ligament, and tliere is no giving way of the joints. The flexor
tendons are enlarged, hot, and tender, and there is great lameness, the horse
having the power to flex the joints below the knee, but resolutely objecting
to extend them, by bearing what little weight is unavoidable upon his toe.
The case is often confounded with a "break down," but it may readily be
distinguished by the fact that in the latter the joints give way on putting
the weight upon them, whilst in mere strains they do not, and the tendency
is to the opposite extreme. Frequently after a bad strain of the flexor
tendons, the fetlock is "over shot," or beyond the upright, in consequence
of the continued flexion of the joint, to prevent pressure upon the injured

STRATI? OF THE BACK SINEWS 531

fibres, and in the management this result should be carefully guarded
against. The injury is generally confined to the sheath of the tendons,
which in most cases gradually puts on an inflammatory condition for some
time before actual lameness is observed. In bad cases, however, the liga-
mentous fibres which are given off by the posterior carpal ligament to the
flexor tendons are ruptured, greatly increasing the amount of inflammation
and subsequent loss of strength. In any case the tendon feels spongy, and
slightly enlarged, and there is more or less soreness on pressure and on
being trotted, but in the latter case exercise removes the tenderness, and
very often temporarily causes an absorption of the effused fluid, which is
again deposited during rest. This state of things goes on for a time, the
groom doing all in his power to alleviate it by wet bandages, etc., but at
last a sevei'e race or gallop brings on an extra amount of inflammation, witli
or without actual strain of the fibres of the tendon, and then there can be no
doubt about the propriety of rest and severe treatment. It often happens
that both legs are slighty affected, but one being more tender than the other,
the horse attempts to save it by changing legs, the consequence of which
is that the comparatively sound tendons are strained, and he returns to
his stable with both legs in a bad state, but with one of them requiring
immediate attention.

Treatment. — ^An aloetic purge and warm fomentations. A high-heeled
shoe (called a patten) should be put on the foot, so as to allow the horse to
rest part of the weight upon the heel without distressing the tendon, and
this will have a tendency to prevent him from over-shooting at the fetlock
joint, which he will otherwise be very apt to do, from constantly balancing
his leg on the toe. After three or four days the hot fomentations will have
done what is wanted, and a cold lotion may be applied by means of a loose
linen bandage. The best is composed as follows : —

Take of Ammonium Chloride 2 oz.

Vinegar | pint.

Methylated Spirit | pint.

Water 2 quarts. Mix,

With this the bandage should be kept constantly wet, the application being
continued for a fortnight at least, during which time the patient must be
kept cool, by lowering his food. At the end of three weeks or a month
from the accident, the leg must be either blistered or fired, the choice de-
pending upon the extent of injury, and the desire to avoid a blemish if such
a feeling exists. The latter is the more efl[icacious plan, no doubt, but
blistering will frequently sufiice in mild cases. If, however, the tendons at
the end of a month continue greatly enlarged, a cure can hardly be expected
without the use of the "ii'ons."

BREAKING DOWN

Great confusion exists among trainers as to the exact nature of this
accident, which is considered by the veterinary surgeon to consist in an
actual rupture of the suspensoiy ligament either above or below the sesa-
moid bones, which, in fact, merely separate this apparatus of suspension into
two portions, just as the patella intervenes between the rectus femoris and

532 THE DISEASES OF THE HORSE

the tibia. Whichever part of tlio suspensory apparatus is gone (whether
the superior or inferior scsanioidal ligament is ininiatcrial), the fetlock and
pastern joints lose their whole inelastic support ; and the flexor tendons,
together with their ligamentous fibres which they receive from the carpus,
giving way, as they must do, to allow of the accident taking place, the toe
is turned up, and the fetlock joint bears upon the ground. This is a com-
plete " break down " ; but there are many cases in which the destruction of
the ligamentous fibres is not complete, and the joint, though much lowered,
docs not actually touch the ground. These are still called breaks down, and
must be regarded as such, and as quite distinct from strains of the flexor
tendons. The accident generally occurs in a tired horse, when the flexor
muscles do not continue to support the ligaments, from which circumstance
it so often happens in the last few strides of a i-ace. The symptoms are a
partial or entire giving w^ay of the fetlock joint downwards, so that the back
of it either touches the ground or nearly so, when the weight is thrown
upon it. Usually, however, after the horse is pulled up, he hops on three
legs, and refuses altogether to put that which is broken down to the ground.
In a very few minutes the leg " fills " at the seat of the accident, and be-
comes hot and very tender to the touch. There can, therefore, be no doubt
as to the nature of the mischief, and the confusion to which allusion has
been made is one of names rather than of facts. Treatment can only bo
directed to a partial recovery from this accident, for a horse broken down
in the sense in which the term is here used can only be used for stud pur-
poses or at slow farm work. A patten shoe should at once be put on, and
then fomentations followed by cold lotions should be applied, as directed in
the last section. As there must necessarily be a deformity of the leg, there
can be no objection on that score to firing, and when the severe inflammation
following the accident has subsided this operation should be thoroughly
performed, so as to afford relief not only by the counter-irritation which is
set up, and which lasts only for a time, but by the rigid and unyielding case
which it leaves behind for a series of yeai-s.

STRAINS OF THE HIP JOINT, STIFLE, AND HOCK

The hip joint, or hound bonr, is liable to be strained by the hind-feet
slipping and being stretched apart, or by blows against the side of the stall,
when cast, which are not suflicient to dislocate the femur, but strain its
ligaments severely. The consequence is an inflammation of the joint, which
is evidenced by a dx'opping of one hip in going, the weight being thrown
more upon the sound side than upon the other. This is especially remarkable
on first starting, the lameness soon going off in work, but returning after rest.
The case, however, is a rare one, and its description need not, therefore,
occupy much of our space. When it does happen, it is very apt to lead to
a wasting of the deep muscles of the haunch, which nothing but compulsory
work will restore to a healthy condition. The only treatment necessary in
the early stage of strain of the hip joint is rest and cooling diet, etc.; but,
after six weeks or two months, a gradual return to work is indispensable to
effect a cure.

Strains of the stifle, independently of blows, are rare ; but the latter

CURB 533

often are inflicted upon this joint in hunting, leaving little evidence exter-
nally, so that it is almost always doubtful whether the injury is the result
of a blow or strain. The sijm^ytoms are a swelling and tenderness of the
joint, which can be ascertained by a careful examination ; and on trotting
the horse, there is manifested a difficulty or stiifness in drawing forward the
hind-leg under the belly. Treatment. — Physicking in the early stage, together
with hot fomentations to the part, continued every hour until the heat sub-
sides. After a few days, if the joint is still painful, a large blister should
be applied, or a seton should be inserted in the skin adjacent.

The hock itself is liable to strain, independently of the peculiar accident
known as " curb." When it occurs, there is some heat of the part, with
more or less lameness, and neither spavin, thoroughpin, nor curb to account
for them. The injury is sometimes severe, and is known as " sprung " hock,
or trifling, and relieved by fomentations for a day or two, followed by cold
lotions, as prescribed for strain of the back sinews.

CURB

By a reference to page 425, it will be seen that the lower part of the
posterior surface of the os calcis is firmly united to the cuboid and external
metatarsal bone by two strong ligamentous bands, called the calcaneo-
cuboid and calcaneo-metatarsal ligaments. The centre of these ligaments is
about seven or eight inches below the point of the hock, and when a soft
but elastic swelling suddenly makes its appearance there, it may with
certainty be asserted that a " curb " has been thrown out. The accident
occurs somewhat suddenly ; but the swelling and inflammation do not
always show themselves until after a night's rest, when the part is generally
enlarged, hot, and tender. The precise extent of the strain is of little
consequence ; for whatever its nature, the treatment should be sufficiently
active to reduce the ligaments to their healthy condition. Some horses
have naturally the head of the external small metatarsal bone unusually
large, and the hock so formed that there is an angle between the large
metatarsal bone and the tarsus, leaving a prominence, which, however, is
hard and bony, and not soft and elastic, as is the case with curb. Such
hocks are generally inclined to throw out curbs : but there are many
exceptions, and some of the most suspicious-looking joints have been known
to stand sound for years. Curbs are seldom thrown out by very old
horses, and usually occur between the commencement of breaking-in and
the seventh or eighth year, though they are not unfrequently met with in
the younger colt, being occasioned by his gambols over hilly ground. The
treatment should at first be studiously confined to a reduction of the inflam-
mation; any attempt to procure absorption till this is effected being injurious
in the extreme. If there is much heat in the part, the corn should be
removed, and a dose of physic given as soon as practicable. The curb should
then be kept wet (by means of a bandage lightly applied with the lotion
recommended for capped hocks), and this should be continued until the
inflammation is entirely gone. During this treatment, in bad cases, a
patten shoe should be kept on, so as to keep the hock as straight as possible,
and thus take the strain off the ligaments which are affected. After the

634 TH£ DISEASES OF THE HORSE

part has become cool, it may bo reduced in size, liy causing absorption to be
set up ; wliicli is Ijcst cfTected by the application of mercury and iodine
(botli of wliich possess that power), in sucli a shape as to cause a blister of
tlie skin. The biiiiodide of mercury has this double advantage, and there
is no application known to surgery which will act equally well in effecting
the absorption of a curb. It should be applied in the mode recommended
at page 509, and again rubbed on at an interval of about a week, for three
or four times in succession, when it will generally be found that the
absorption of the unnatural swelHng is effected ; but the ligaments remain
as weak as before, and nothing but exercise (not too severe, or it will
inllame them again) will strengthen them sufficiently to prevent a return.
Friction with the hand, aided by a slightly stimulating oil (such as neats-
foot and turpentine mixed, or neatsfoot and oil of origanum, or, in fact,
any stimulating essential oil), will tend to sti-engthen the ligaments, by
exciting their vessels to throw out additional fibres ; and in course of time
a curb may be considered to be sufficiently restored to render it tolerably
safe to use the horse again in the same way which originally produced it.

In many instances firing is necessary, and if the blemish of a few lines
drawn across the seat of curb is not an insuperable objection on the part of
the owner, it will prove more lastingly successful than any other treatment.
As a surgical blemish it is less to be objected to than any other, as it was
formerly the custom with some breeders, especially in Ireland, to fire colts on
this part as a preventive measure.

DISLOCATION

By dislocation is meant the forcible removal of the end of a bone from
the articulating surface which it naturall}' occupies. In the horse, from the
strength of his ligaments, the accident is not common; those that do occur
being chietly in the hip joint, and in that between the patella and the end
of the femur.

Dislocation of the hip joint is known by the rigidity of the hind-leg,
which cannot be moved in any direction, and is carried by the horse
when he is compelled to attempt to alter his position. There is a flatness
of the haunch below the hip, but the crest of the ilium is still there, and
by this the accident may be diagnosed from fracture of that part. No treat-
ment is of the slightest avail, as the part cannot be reduced, and the
horse is useless except for stud purposes. The accident is not very common.

DISLOCATION OF THE PATELLA

This is a not uncommon accident of colthood on hilly ground or where
drop jumps are taken sideways while at play with others. The symptoms
are lameness, deformity, tucking up of the flank, and loss of flesh. There is
a partial dislocation also wliich is due to weak ligaments becoming elongated.
With some adult horses this form becomes habitual, occurring repeatedly.
The external vastus muscle contracting spasmodically draws the patella
outwards; with relaxation of the muscle the patella goes into its place again
with a click that can bo heard at several paces distant.

WOUNDS OF JOINTS 535

Treatment. — In a true or complete dislocation no time should be lost in
placing the patient under the influence of chloroform, so as to completely
relax the muscles. There is no objection to casting him with hobbles
previous to administering the ana3sthetic, as the only accident likely to
liappen is i^eductiou of the dislocation itself. When sufficiently under its
influence the hobble on the affected leg should be undone, the toe drawn
forcibly forward by an assistant while the operator by manual pressure
induces the patella to pass over the eminence and into its trochlea. It can
be seen, felt, and heard as a rule to go into its place. Great care should be
exercised in letting the animal get up again lest luxation occur again in the
act of rising. The hobbles should be noiselessly removed, and the patient
allowed to remain on the ground as long as he likes. When the attendants
see that he is determined to rise, the affected stifle and leg should be
pressed upon during the act. As soon as he has gained his feet a smart
blister should be applied, covering plenty of space, as the greater the
tumefaction the better ; the effusion under the skin and around the joint
acts as a cushion and a support, while the soreness induced will restrain
the patient from undue exertion of a part requiring repose.

The introduction of a long seton has a somewhat similar effect and is
in favour with a good many country practitioners, whose familiarity with
the accidents of colthood should make their opinion valuable.

WOUNDS OF JOINTS

The knee is the joint most frequently suffering from wound, as in the
majority of falls it is the part brought in contact with the c/touikI.
Whether the joint itself is injured, or only the skin, the accident is called a
"broken knee," and for convenience' sake it will be well to consider botn
under the present head.

When a broken knee consists merely in an abrasion of the skin, the
attention of the groom is solely directed to the restoration of the haw
which will grow again as well as ever, if the bulbs or roots are not injured.
These are situated in the internal layer of the true skin, and therefura
whenever there is a smooth red surface displayed, without any difierence m
the texture of its parts, a confident hope may be expressed that there v,'i]l
be no blemish. If the skin is penetrated, either the glistening surface of
the tendons or ligaments is apparent, or there is a soft layer of cellular
membrane, generally containing a fatty cell or two in the middle of the
wound of the skin. Between a simple abrasion, wounded tendons, and onen
joint, there is so wide a difference that all sorts of treatment may bo
required.

In all injuries to the knee, the genei'al rule may be laid down to reduce
inflammatory action, as far as possible by fomentation and poultices, in the
first instance, as the case is from the first, and by its cause, removed from the
category of wounds to be treated antiseptically or by dry processes. There
is generally so much bruising of the tissues adjacent, that the final mobility
of the knee and usefulness of the horse depends upon eai'ly relief and
preventing the formation of adventitious material as a result of continued
inflammatory action. Nor is it an objection that increased swelling results?

N N

536 THE DISEASE:^ OF THE HOUSE

from warmth and moisture continuously applied, since these conditions
favour absorption by giv'ing room to the vessels.

If contimkd too long such treatment will result in the production of soft
and spongy granulations, but for the first few days there will be none to
contend with. In order to retain a poultice on the knee without tying the
tapes too tight either above or below it, a couple of bandages or a foundation
of tow should be wrapped round the leg below. A dose of aloes and a reduced
diet should be enforced, as there is much tendency to sympathetic fever in
serious injuries to joints, and as the animal cannot in such cases lie down, he
had better have his head tied up, since some horses will eat their poultices and
others will gnaw a wound, though the majority will not interfere with it.
When the reduction of pain and inflammatory symptoms warrant the
discontinuance of poultices, the knee may be carefully cleaned and a pad of
soft lint or calico dipped in carbolized oil, bandaged lightly over the
surface and renewed at least twice a day. With the appearance of healthy
granulations all covering may bo discontinued and the wound only dressed
with carbolized oil. Tlie evaporation that follows exposure, causes con-
traction in the direction desired, and the object to be studied is to so
treat the wound as to obtain only the minimum of blemish. Profuse
granulations threatening to rise above the level of the knee should be
lightly touched at the most prominent points with nitrate of silver (lunar
caustic), while the less vigorous growths in the depressions are making
progress towards a level surface, which, being attained, is made to form a
scab by an equal dressing all over with the caustic. If this scab is roughly
removed and the raw surface touched over again with the silver nitrate every
few days a smaller one is each time formed, and the edges of the skin made
to approximate much more closely than if left to nature. The " bumbley "
knees one often sees are quite unnecessary, for however badly a knee is
broken, it may be made level by good surgery.

When the joint itself is opened the case is much more serious, and
there is a risk not only of a serious blemish, which can seldom be avoided,
but of a permanent stiffness of the leg, the mischief sometimes being suflS.-
cient to lead to constitutional fever, and the local inflammation going on to
the destruction of the joint by anchylosis. The treatment should be directed
to cleanse and then close the joint, the former object being carried out by
a careful ablution with warm water, and an antiseptic, as C: ndy's fluid,
continued until there is no doubt of all the dirt and grit having been
removed. Then, if there is only a veiy small opening in the capsular liga-
ment, it may be closed by a careful and light touch of a pointed iron
heated to a red heat. Generally, however, it is better to apply some dry
carded cotton to the wound, and a bandage over this, leaving all on for
four or five days, when it may be removed and i-e-applied. The horse
should be physicked, taking care to prevent all chance of his lying down by
racking him up. He will seldom attempt to do this on account of the
pain occasioned in bending the knee, but some animals will disregard this
when tired, and will go down, somehow. When the cotton is re-applied,
if there are granulations above the level of the skin, they must be kept
down as recommended in the last paragraph, and blister may be applied.
By these means a very extensive wound of the knee may be sometimes
cured, but it is doubtful whotlior the majority of open joint cases are

DISEASES OF THE THORACIC ORGANS 537

worth treatment. Many so-called cures were never open joints at all, but
the persons treating them have mistaken the saffron-coloured discharge
from an open bursa for the inflamed synovia of the joint.

The knee is sometimes punctured by a thorn in hunting, causing great
pain and lameness. If it can be felt externally it is well to cut down
upon it and remove it ; but groping in the dark with the knife among
important tendons in front of the knee is not on any account to be
attempted. The knee should be well fomented five or six times a day,
until the swelling, if there is any, subsides, and, in process of time, the
thorn will either show its base, or it will gradually free itself from its
attachments and lie beneath the skin, from which position it may be safely
extracted with the knife or forceps.

CHAPTER XXVII

DISEASES OF THE THORACIC ORGANS AND THEIR APPENDAGES

GENERAL REJIARKS — CATARRH OR COLD — INFLUENZA — BRONCHITIS — CHRONIC COUGH
- — LARYNGITIS, R0.4R1NG, WHISTLING, ETC. — PNEUMONIA AND CONGESTION OF THE
LUNGS — PLEURISY — BROKEN WIND — THICK WIND — SPASM OF THE DIAPHRAGM
DISEASES OF THE HEART — DISEASES OF THE BLOOD-VESSELS OF THE CHEST AND NOSE.

GENERAL REMARKS

The isiportance of soundness in the resjiiratory apparatus is so fully
recognized, that in common parlance it is put before the organs of locomotion,
a popular expression being " sound in wind and limb." It is true that good
wind is useless without legs ; but the diseases of the latter are known to be
more under control than those of the chest, and hence it is, perhaps, tliat
the wind is so carefully scrutinized by all purchasers of horses. There is,
also, much greater difficulty in ascertaining the condition of the lungs and
their appendages, and the ordinary observer can only judge of them by an
absolute trial ; while the state of the legs may be seen and felt, and that of
the feet can be tolerably well ascertained by a very short run upon hard
ground. So, also, with the acute diseases of these parts ; while the legs and
feet manifest the slightest inflammation going on in them by swelling and
lieat, the air-passages may be undergoing slow but sure destruction, without
giving out any sign that can be detected by any one but the practised
veterinarian. In most of the diseases of the chest there is disturbance of
the breathing, even during a state of rest ; but in some of them, as in roar-
ing, for instance, no such evidence is aff"orded, and the disease can only be
detected by an examination during, or immediately after, a severe gallop.
Roarers will often grunt when threatened with a stick, but it is nob a reliable
test.

538 THE DISEASES OF THE HORSE

CATARRH, OR COLD

Catarrh may Lo considered under two points of \iow ; cither as an
inflammation of tlie mucous membrane of the nasal cavities, accompanied by
slight general fever ; or as an ephemeral fever of three or four days' dura-
tion, complicated with this condition of the nose. The latter is, perhaps,
the more scientific definition, but for common purposes it is more convenient
to consider it as mainly consisting in tlie most prominent s3-mptom. There
is invariably some degree of feverishness, sometimes very considerable, at
others so slight as to be easily passed over. Usually the pulse is accelerated
to about forty or fifty, the appetite is impaired, and there is often sore
throat, "with more or less cough. On examining the interior of the nostrils,
they are more red thaii natural, at first dry and swollen, then bedewed
with a water}'^ discharge which soon becomes yellow, thick, and, in bad
cases, purulent. The eyes are generally involved, their conjuctival coat
being injected with blood, and often some slight weeping takes place, but
there is always an expression of sleepiness or dulness, partly owing to the
local condition of the organ, and partly to the general impairment of the
health.

Causes. — Chills from exposure to draught or sudden alternations of
temperature, as from a hot stable to a cold one, or vice-versd. Hoi"ses
more often suffer from catarrhal fever when brought in from a cold pure air
to the vitiated atmosphere of the stable than when turned out to gi-ass
without proper preparation.

JVeatment. — Consists in good nursing while combating special symptoms,
these varying in individuals as well as in type in different j-ears.

If sore throat is a prominent sv.mi»tom, counter-irritation should be
resorted to. Few things answer better than mustard mixed as for the
table and rubbed over the affected part. Ammonia and soap liniment
have an advantage over mustard, inasmuch as the application may be
repeated at short intervals, but as a rule one moderate vesication with
mustard is all that is necessary. Constipation being common, with increased
internal temperature, a saline aperient or small dose of linseed oil ma}' be
given, but on no account aloes. The inhalation of Friar's Balsam upon
scalded bran suspended by a nosebag is calculated to give relief where the
discharge is thick and got rid of with ditliculty.

The food should be moistened and of a laxative character; cut grass and
vetches in summer ; carrots, scalded chaff and corn with linseed tea, etc.,
when green food is not obtainable. The extremities should be kept warm
by bandaging and the body clothed, pure but not necessarily warm air
being desirable.

An apparently simple cold may at an}' time lead to more serious
disorders, as pneumonia or bronchitis, and upon the exliibition of any
symptom the horseman does not understand he should call in the veterinary
surireon ere it is too late.

INFLUENZA 539

INFLUENZA

By THIS TERM is generally meant an infectious febrile disease in which a
common symptom is a catarrhal condition of the mucous membranes
of the respiratory tract. It varies greatly, not only in its manifestation in
individuals, but in different years it assumes varying forms, at one time
having all the appearances of a feverish cold, at others causing glandular
swellings, and an abscess like that of strangles, liver complications, resulting
in jaundice, lameness of the right fore-limb in supposed sympathy with the
liver, and sometimes partial paralysis of a limb or limbs. Our forefathers
described it as the " distemper," and naturally so since it makes its presence
felt in as many shapes as the distemper of dogs. It is found almost
simultaneously on three continents, but whether the germs are carried
through the air faster than by ocean steamers is not proved. In North
America and in South Africa it takes on a type in which intense redness
of the conjunctival membrane is a conspicuous feature, and for this reason
is known as " pink eye " among the many other names accorded it. Its
history in varying forms has been traced for centuries ; but what climatic or
other conditions favour its spread or increase its intensity does not appear.
There are many theories and perhaps a specific bacillus, but there is certainly
no specific with which it can be treated.

The Symptoms are at first those common to febrile attacks, in which
dulness, staring coat, perhaps shivering and loss of appetite are among
those most usually observed ; sore throat, cough, difficulty in swallowing, and
general malaise. Increased temperature, which may be ascertained by the
clinical thermometer ^jie?* rectum.

TreaUnent. — Is directed especially to the amelioration of the prominent
symptoms in each case, but with a general regard to the fact that great
prostration and loss of nerve force is to be guarded against. Powerful doses
of quinine, gentian, and the mineral acids in small quantity tend to maintain
the patient's strength, while local applications in the form of stimulating
linunents to the throat or other parts are undoubtedly useful. The appetite
should be tempted with variety in the way of food, and only a little at a time
offered to the patient. Carrots, linseed, crushed oats, and damped chaff should
be tried in turns, and if the animal is very low and absolutely refuses his
food he may be for a time sustained by the administration of eggs and milk,
gruel, etc. With a falling temperature appetite returns, and restoration to
health and vigour may l^e aided by iron and quinine, gentian and calumba, a
little table salt in the food — in a word, good nursing, which comprises
bandaging, clo'^hing, exercise when capable of benefiting by it, and all those
attentions to the wants of the sick which to some men devoted to animals
appears to be a natural gift, while others never acquire it. Unless some
serious complication accrues or the catarrhal symptoms invade the bronchi,
or substance of the lungs, horses seldom die of influenza, but like their nurses
succumb to sequelre brought on by resuming their ordinary avocations too
soon.

640 THE DISEASES OF THE HORSE

BRONCHITIS

Bronchitis is an iiinammatiun of the mucous membrane lining tlie bronchi,
and ahuost invariably extending to these parts through the trachea, from
the larynx and nasal passages, which are primarily affected as in ordinary
cold. The membrane in the early stage becomes filled with blood, and as
a consequence, the diameter of the tubes is diminished, attended by some
difficulty and increased rapidity of breathing. After a time a frothy mucus
is poured out from it, and this still further interferes with respiration, and
necessitates a constant cough to get rid of it. These si/mptoms are always
present, but they will vary greatly in intensity, and in the rapidity with
which they progress, from which circumstances bronchitis is usually said to
be acute or ckronic, as the case may be. In (he acute forvi there are also
several variations, and veterinary writers are in the habit of again sub-
dividing it into acute and sub-acute, but the two leading divisions are
sufficient for all practical purposes. It begins with the usual premonitory
appearances of a severe cold, accompanied by a staring coat and entire loss of
appetite. The breathing is somewhat accelerated, the temperature increased,
ani-l the pulse of greater frequency and less force. The ears and legs vary
in temperature, the visible mucous membranes are injected, and a cough
which is hard, dry, and painful. On auscultation there is a dry rattling
sound, very different from the crepitation of pneumonia, and as soon as
mucus is secreted, succeeded by gurgling and soap-bubble sounds easily dis-
tinguished when once heard. If the attack goes on favourably, the cough
becomes loose, and there is a free discharge of mucus, both from the lungs,
as evidenced from the nature of the cough, and from the nostrils, as shown
by the running from them.

On the other hand the prognosis is unfavourable when the breathing is
very laborious, with the legs extended, and the cough constant and ineffectual
in affording relief.

Treatment. — Counter-irritation still commends itself to the majority of
veterinary practitioners as likely to afford the most immediate relief
combined with those internal remedies which in human medicine are known
as expectorants.

Bronchitis pure and simple without the larynx being involved is
infrequent, and it is usuall}?^ advisable to apply mustard to the throat and
down the course of the trachea till the thick muscles of the brisket are
reached, where the application would be useless as being so far from the
affected tubes. The sides of the chest immediately behind the elbows may
receive a share of attention in some cases, but as a rule the veterinarian
contents himself with covering the parts already named.

Where laryngeal symptoms do not preclude the administration of a ball,
the following will be found suitable and may be given twice a day : —

Take of Digitalis i drachm.

Calomel i drachm.

Tartar Emetic 60 to 80 grains.

Nitre 2 drachms.

Mix with treacle.

Chronic bronchitis seldom exists except as a sequel to the acute form^

CHRONIC COUGH 541

and after adopting the balls recommended for that state, it may be treated
by attention to the general health, and the exhibition of an expectorant
ball twice a day, composed of the following materials : —

Take of Gum Ammoniacuni ^ ounce.

Powdered Squill 1 drachm.

Castile Soap 2 drachms.

Mix and make into a ball.

CHRONIC COUGH

By this term is understood a cough that comes on without any fever or
evidences of the horse having taken cold. It differs in this respect from
chronic bronchitis, which generally supervenes upon the acute form, and is
always attended in the early stage by feverishness. It appears probable
that chronic cough is dependent upon an unnatural stimulus to the mucous
membrane, for it almost always makes its appearance when much corn is
given without due preparation, and ceases on a return to green food. It is,
therefore, very commonly termed a stomach cough. The symptoms are all
summed up in the presence of a dry cough, which is seldom manifested
while in the stable, but comes on whenever the breathing is hastened by
any pace beyond a walk. Two or three coughs are then given, and the
horse perhaps is able to go on with his work, but after resting for a few
minutes, and again starting, it comes on again, and annoys the rider or
driver by its tantalizing promise of disappearance followed by disappoint-
ment. Very often this kind of cough is caused by the irritation of worms,
but any disorder of the digestive organs appears to have the power of
producing it. The usual treatment for chronic bronchitis seems here to
be quite powerless, and the only plan of proceeding likely to be attended
with success, is to look for the cause of the irritation, and remove it.
Sometimes this will be found in a hot stable, the horse having previously
been accustomed to a cool one. Here the alteration of the temperature by
ten or fifteen degrees will in a few days effect a cure, and nothing else is
required.

Again, it may be that the corn has been overdone, in which case a gentle
dose of physic, followed by a diminished allowance of corn, and a bran-mash
twice a week, will be successful. If the stomach is much disordered, green
food will be the best stimulus to a healthy condition, or in its absence a
few warm cordial balls may be tried. The existence of worms should be
ascertained in doubtful cases, and if they are present, the proper remedies
must be given for their removal. Linseed oil and spirit of turpentine,
which are both excellent worm remedies, are highly recommended in chronic
cough, and whether or not their good effect is due to their antagonism to
worms, they may be regarded as specially useful.

A very successful combination is the following mixture : —

Take of Spirit of Turpentine 2 ounces.

Mucilage of Acacia 6 ounces.

Gum Ammoniacum \ ounce.

Laudanum 4 ounces.

Water 2 quarts.

Mix, and give half-a-pint as a drench every night : the bottle must be well shaken
before pouring out the dose.

5i2 THE i)l;SKA8E« UE TliE ilOiltSE

LARYNGITIS, ROARING, WHISTLING, ETC.

One of the most common diseases among well-bred horses uf the present
day is the existence of some mechanical impediment to the passage of the
air into the lungs, causing the animal to " make a noise." The exact nature
of the sound has little or no practical bearing on the cause that produces it;
that is to say, it cannot bo predicated that roaring is produced b}' laryngitis ;
nor that whistling is the result of a palsy of some particular muscle, but
undoubtedly it may safely be asserted that all lesions of the larynx, by
which the shape and area of its opening (rima glottidis) are altered and
diminished, are sure to have a prejudicial effect upon the wind, and either to
produce roaring, whistling, wheezing, or trumpeting, but which would result
it might be difficult to say, although the precise condition of the larynx
were known, which it cannot be during life. Veterinary surgeons were
formerly puzzled by often finding on examination of a roarer's larynx
after death no visible organic change in the opening, and many were
led to imagine that this part could not be the seat of the disease. On a
careful dissection, however, it is found that a muscle or muscles whose
office it is to dilate the larynx is wasted and flabbj'^ (crico-arytenoideus
lateralis and thyro-arytenoideus). The other muscles are perhaps equally
atrophied, but as their office is to close the opening, their defects are not
equally injurious, and at all events are not shown by producing an unnatural
noise.

The cause of this wasting is due to some defective nerve supply, and
careful examination and dissection shows it is degeneration of its structure
and interruption of the curi'ent. It is a subject which has occupied the most
eminent veterinarians with hitherto very little progi-ess towards an accurate
knowledge of its pathology. It was hoped at one time that excision of a
portion of cartilage would prove a success, but experiments upon a goodly
number of army horses proved that the relief was only temporar}^, and that
falling in of the larynx and a still greater diminution of its calibre followed,
so that the operation was early abandoned.

A MORE SUCCESSFUL OPERATION is that of traclieotomy, which consists in
the introduction of a metal tube into the trachea, permitting the air to be
breathed direct into the lungs instead of passing through the ordinary way.
The place usually selected is between the third and fourth rings of the trachea,
where the windpipe has the smallest amount of muscular covering, but
the plan adopted and the instrument invented by Mr. Jones, M.R.C.V.S.,
of Leicester, has certain advantages over the old method. This gentleman
inserts the tube very high up, where it can only be seen by a person looking
under the horse's head, and in a position where it is less likely to meet with
external violence. The tube is provitled with a plug which can be kept in
it at night only, and must not be left out in swimming or the creature
may be drowned. The owner of a favourite hunter so operated on is
generally satisfied with about two seasons, and such horses find their way
into cabs at a nominal sum. For several reasons it will be necessary to
examine first of all into the several kinds of inflammation, etc., to which
the larynx is subject, and then to investigate as far as we may, the nature,

LARYNGITIS, ROi^RING, WHISTLING, ETC. 543

mode of detection, and treatment of the several conditions known to horse-
men by the names of roaring, whistling, etc., which are only symptoms of
one or other of the diseases to which allusion will presently be made.

By acute laryngitis is meant a more than ordinary inflammation of
the larynx, and not that slightly morbid condition in which the mucous
membrane of that organ is always involved in " the passage of a cold into
the chest." In the latter state the ear detects no unusual sound, and
indeed there is plenty of room for the air to pass. But in true laryngitis,
on placing the ear near the throat, a harsh rasping sound is heard, which
is sufiicient at once to show the nature and urgency of the symptoms.
The mucous membrane is swollen, and tinged with blood ; the rima
glottidis is almost closed, and the air in passing through it produces the
sound above described, which, however, is sometimes replaced by a
stridulous or hissing one. In conjunction with this well-marked symptom
there is always a hoarse cough of a peculiar character, and some con-
siderable fever, with frequent respiration, and a hard, wiry pulse of seventy
to eighty.

Fio. 08.— Jones' Patent Tbacheotomy Tobe.

I'reatment. — No time should be lost in producing counter-irritatior., and
mustard, which is everywhere obtainable, is as good as anything else for the
purpose ; the most distressing cases are usually relieved by its application
in a very short time. If it fails and suffocation threatens, the tracheotomy
tube referred to at page 542 must be inserted without loss of time. Large
doses of emetic tartar, digitalis, and calomel were formerly prescribed, but
modern treatment with electuaries is much safer, and probably more
effectual. A given quantity, as a teaspoonful, is smeared upon the back
of the tongue, with the double advantage of acting topically as well as

544 THE DISEASES OF THE HORSE

througli the ordinary iiKHliiun of the circulation. The following is a suitable
preparation : —

Extract of Belladonna 1 dracliin.

Nitrate of Pntasli 2 drachma.

Honey 2 drachma.

Mix for one dose.

Thirf quantity may be safely given three times a day. With abatement
of the acute symptoms extract of gentian may be substituted for belladonna
as calculated to restore appetite and enable the animal to recover from tlie
weakness induced by a severe attack. The administration of both balls and
drinks is attended with some danger, and if the latter are given the head
should not be held up for long together, and only small " go-downs " at a
time attempted. The electuary is undoubtedly the form of medicament
to be chosen for cases of the class under consideration.

Gruel and soft food generally should be given, and the bedding must not
be of a kind that a greedy animal would eat during convalescence. The
greatest care must be taken to prevent a relapse, by avoiding all excite-
ment either by stimulating food or fast exercise.

Chronic laryngitis may occur as the result of the acute form above
described, or it may come on gradually, without any violent inflammation
preceding it. In either case the symptoms are similar in their nature to
those met with in the acute form, but less in degree. The noise made is
not nearly so harsh, and can often hardly be heard on the most careful
examination. The peculiar harsh, grating cough is, however, always pre-
sent, and by it the nature of the case may generally be easily made out.
The disease often accompanies strangles, although in nine cases out of ten
it is overlooked by the careless attendant. Very commonly, however, it
makes its ravages in so insidious a manner that no susjiicion is felt of its
presence, until the horse begins to make a noise, though he must in all
probability have shown by the cough peculiar to the complaint that it has
been working its way for some weeks at least. Such cases chiefly occur in
the training stable, and are due, according to my belief, to the enormous
quantity of oats which it is now the fashion to give to colts from the
earliest period of their lives, increased to seven and eight feeds a day during
the second year. Continued spirit-drinking has precisely the same effect
upon the human being, and the harsh stridulous cough of the confirmed
drunkard marks the existence of ulceration of the larynx, in the only way
which he will allow it to be displayed, for he is not, like the horse, made to
exert his powers of running, whether his wind is good or bad. There is, of
course, a considerable difference between the two diseases, but there is
sutHcient analogy between them to explain why the stimulus of over-corning
should affect the lar}'nx in preference to any other part. It would be
difficult to show the connection between the two in any other way, beyond
the simple fact that roaring has become general in an exact proportion to
the prevalence of the present fashion of feeding. The advocates of the plan
will say that though the two have come in together, yet it is merely a
coincidence, and not a consequence, the one of the other ; but if it can be
shown that in man a sirailai- cause produces a similar effect, the argument
is strengthened to such a degree as to be almost unanswerable. But what>

ROARING

545

ever may be the cause there can be no doubt that the treatment is most
troublesome, and often baffles the skill of the most accomplished veterinarian.
Blistering and occasionally line firing has been attended with good results.
The frequent application of a x-emedy that is slightly vesiccating, as white
oils, turpentine diluted with oil, oil of cantharides, etc., is often beneficial,
but before any definite line of treatment is decided upon it will be well to
thoroughly examine the back of the mouth with the aid of Huish's speculum
or gag. This instrument (Fig. 99) enables one to get a good view of the
fauces, and by drawing out the tongue with the hand it may be possible to
detect an ulcerated condition of the rima glottidis. If this is found to be

Fia. lO.— Gag showikq Rubber-covered Bars fixed for Operation on Incisors.

the case an application of solution of nitrate of silver on a camel-hair pencil
may do more towards efiecting a cure than any other treatment, however
long continued.

Careful dieting in all cases of laryngitis, or of chronic cough from what-
ever cause, will do much to alleviate the symptoms. Linseed in various
forms is among the most valuable agents to be employed either as a food to
be eaten or the expi-essed oil poured over the usual feed. Most horses will
take it readily in this way and even acquire such a liking for it as to look
round with dissatisfaction if at any time it is omitted.

Roaring is the bugbear of the purchaser at the hammer, and not without
good reason. The most experienced veterinarian or dealer will often fail to
ascertain its existence, in spite of all the artifices he may call into play.

546 THE JJirSEAfcsES OE THE iiOllSE

Not the slightest sound is lioanl during a state of quiescence, or even when
the liorse is trotted or galloped for the short distance which "the ride " will
aflFord. The blow on the side given with due artistic effect elicits no grunt,
and yet the animal is a confirmed roarer, and not worth a shilling, perhaps,
for the purpose to which he is intended to be devoted. On the other hand,
many a sound horse is condemned as a roarer for giving out the obnoxious
grunt ; and though there is no doubt that this sign may be relied on in a
great many cases, jot it cannot be accepted as either negatively or positively
a certain proof. The only real trial is the noiseless gallop on turf or plough,
when the ear can detect the slightest sound, and can distinguish its exact
nature, and the precise spot from which it proceeds. Many a horse will,
when he is excited, make a harsh noise in his breathing, accompanied by a
kind of " gluck," proceeding from a spasmodic flapping of the velum palati,
but on galloping him all this goes off, and he may probably exhibit excellent
wind. Such cases I have many times known, and they would be con-
demned as unsound by those who have had little experience, or are content
with a careless and ineflicient trial. Stallions are particularly prone to
make this kind of noise, and it is extremely difficult to ascertain their sound-
ness in this respect by any means which can be safely resorted to. The
causes of roaring are of three kinds: 1st. Inflammation, which has left a
thickening or ulceration of the mucous membrane, or a fungous growth from
it ; 2nd. Paralysis of the muscles ; and .Srd. An alteration of the shape of
the cartilages of the larynx, produced by tight reining.

In roaring ])roduced hy an ulcerated or thickened condition of the mucous
membrane, or by a fungous growth, the sound elicited is always the same in
proportion to the rapidity of respiration. None of the ordinary expedients
by which the breath is introduced in a modified stream (such as a full meal,
or pressure on the nostrils or windpipe) will be of much avail, and the
horse roars sturdily whenever his pace is sufliciently accelerated. If a horse
so affected can be made to grunt by the blow o\\ the side, the sound will
always indicate the disease, for it will be harsh and rough, and not the
natural grunt of the animal. It is usually supposed that no treatment can
be of the slightest avail here. Setons, blisters, and embrocations are all
useless, as has been proved in numberless cases ; and beyond the palliation
which can be aftbrded by enijiloying the horse only at such a pace as his
state will allow, nothing else can be suggested. In some cases the roarer
will be able to do f)rdinary harness work, which, however, in hot weather,
will try him severely ; in others he may be so slightly affected as to be fit
to hunt in a country where, from its nature, the pace is not very severe ;
but by confirmed roarers the slow work of the cart is all that can be performed
without cruelty.

"WiiiSTLiNO, PIPING, AND wiiKEZiNO, are tcrms applied to those horses which
do not actually roar but make abnormal sounds which are perhaps best
described by such names.

There is no longer any question as to the hereditary nature of roaring,
and it may be hoped that its recognition may load in the near future to a
diminution :a the number of animals so aflccted.

PNEUxVJONIA AND CONGESTION OF THE LUNGS 547

PNEUMONIA AND CONGESTION OF THE LUNGS

These diseases, associated as they are in human practice, and spoken of
as different stages of the same affection, have quite a different significance
for the veterinarian. Pneumonia he understands as inflammation of the
paraxchyma or lung substance, but congestion of the lungs is a condition
in which the pulmonary vessels are engorged as a result of over-exertion
in an unfit state, and not caused by cold or invasion from other parts of the
respiratory tract.

Pneumonia. — The causes are much the same as those which produce
catarrh or common cold, such as exposure to cold, draughts when heated,
damp stables, injudicious clipping, crowding aboard ship and other unhealthy
conditions by svhich an adequate supply of pure air is not pi-ovided. By
invasion, or extension, as when bronchitis primarily exists, and the paren-
chyma becomes associated with it, when it is called broncho-pneumonia, or
by extension from the pleura, when the condition is known as pleuro-
pneumonia.

Symptoms. — Rigors, or shivering fits, usher in most acute inflammatory
affections, but are not always observed by the attendants. Refusing the
food may be the first symptom noticed, and further examination show that
the coat is staring, the extremities cold, the visible membranes more or less
injected, the breathing hurried and shallow, with cough variable in character.
It is not the loud, harsh cough of laryngitis, but deeper and infrequent, as if
the pain caused in coughing were so great as to induce the animal to suppress
it altogether. There are to be met with unmistakable cases of pneumonia
in which cough is not present at all. The internal temperature rises rapidly,
and the animal wears a dejected aspect. As the disease progi'esses, the
breathing becomes more and more difiicult and the lungs consolidated or
else gangrenous, and death ensues.

Treatment. — As with the other inflammatory disorders of the respiratory
tract counter-irritation with mustard, applied early, is usually good treat-
ment, but many eminent practitioners prefer hot compresses around the
cliest, and special appliances are made for the purpose similar to those
referred to in connection with sprains of the lumbar region (see page 527).
A sheet dipped in hot water and wrung out quickly may be applied with a
sufficient covering of other materials to prevent rapid evaporation. Pure
air, and that as cool as the circumstances permit, should be obtained while
clothing the body and bandaging the extremities to keep up the circulation.
To reduce the temperature of the body and the frequency of the pulse while
inci'easing its force will be the chief object of any medicines prescribed.
Aconite and digitalis have the reputation of bringing about this desirable
result, and three or four doses ma}'' be given at intervals of as many hours,
but they are not remedies to be persisted in for any length of time, and a
change may be made to belladonna and nitrate of potash. Bicarbonate
of potash may be given in the drinking water, or salicylate of soda, but
in this way of giving medicines care must be exercised to dissolve the
medicament in only just so much water as the horse will drink, or he
will never get two doses of equal proportion.

If the application of mustard is quickly followed by the usual results it

548 THE DISEA8E8 OF THE HORSE

is regarded as a hopeful symptom, but the animal that appears indifferent
to the sting of it, and upon whoso skin no visible effect is produced, is not
very likely to recover. Good nursing and suitable environment is of the
utmost importance, and every inducement offered to the animal to lie down.
It is not true to say that horses affected with this disease never lie down,
but it is a common symptom, and doubtless militates against their recovery,
as a few minutes' sleep is more likely to be obtained at intervals if the
animal assumes a recumbent posture. Tonics, as quinine, vegetable bitters,
and mineral acids are helpful in restoring the patient's strength when the
temperature has come down to nearly normal, but some considerable time
should be allowed to elapse before he is put to work, as the products of
inflammation must have time to be carried away before it is safe to call
upon the lungs for any great effort.

Congestion of the lungs. — To clearly understand the difference between
congestion and inflammation of the lungs the reader is referred to the
Physiology of Respiration at page 467. It is not congestion of the lung
substance itself, though it has that appearance to the unaided eye when
seen post-mortem. It is engorgement of those pulmonary vessels whose
oflfice it is to carry venous blood to the lungs for removal by contact with
the oxygen of inspired air. The known causes ai'e several besides others
not so clearly understood. To put a typical case before the reader we
will choose the hastily conditioned hunter, or the grass-bellied yeomanry
horse which the recruit in his pride parades on the first day of " permanent "
duty. The first has had too much corn and too little exertion, while the
latter is soft and full of blood, conditions altogether unfavourable for severe
muscular exertion. In the excitement of the chase (or under ordei's and a
heavy kit), the animal is overtaxed and the blood forced into the lungs is
not carried away ; the animal's distress tells a practised horseman that it is
time to pull up and turn his head to the wind, slacken his girths, and retire
from the field. If he has a liask in his holster the rider will give its con-
tents to his horse rather than himself, and probably no further trouble
will result. On the other hand, if the animal is urged to further exertion
his life may be the forfeit. Though ridden to a standstill he may presently
be induced to walk to the nearest hostelry, but he will not feed. His
cars and legs will be found to be cold, his eyes injected, not with the same
tint as in ordinary inflammation, but darker in colour ; blowing, trembling,
perhaps partial sweats, hanging his head in a corner and looking altogether
a picture of dejection. If successful treatment is not adopted he succumbs
in a day or two from literal " want of breath," or a portion of the lungs
may remain patent and he dies a few days later when the engorged part
has become putrid. Congestion of a less severe nature may show itself only
in dulness and shallow breathing, staring coat, loss of appetite, and the
symptoms above described only in a modified form. It is nevertheless ex-
tremely dangerous, and such cases after a few days suddenly take a turn for
the worse and death ensues when the owner may not have thought at all
seriously of the case. From what has been said it will be seen that con-
gestion of the lungs is sudden in its development and dangerous to the
iinimal's life

Treatment. — The disease being one of obstructed circulation, the rational
treatment is to give such remedies as enjoy the reputation of urging on the

PLEURISY 549

blood stream and diffusible stimulants which will enable the heart to carry
on the work at which it has failed. One may be a long way from a
veterinary surgeon or medical aid, but half-a-pint of whisky can generally
be obtained, and should be given in a quart of water in the absence of
professional assistance.

Once in a stable, and provided the disease has not made too much pi'Ogress,
bleeding from the jugular vein may be the means of saving the patient's life.
The attentive reader will have observed that the practice of blood-letting is
very rarely advocated in this work, but the disease we are considering is one in
which that operation is especially beneficial if performed at the right time.
It is a good plan to give a stimulant first and use the lancet some ten
minutes afterwards, there being a difficulty in getting the blood to flow.
There was a time when every farmer almost could and did bleed a horse or
a cow for any and every complaint, but since the evil has been generally
recognized and the custom fallen into desuetude, the subject of congestion of
the lungs may have to wait for the attendance of a veterinary surgeon
before it can be effected. He will judge by the character of the pulse
whether bleeding is likely to be beneficial, and may deem it advisable to
abstract two or three quarts of blood. With less blood to deal with and
an artificial impulse given to the heart by stimulants, a more general
distribution of the fluid may be effected, and some very excellent " cures "
are brought about in this way. There is a difference of opinion as to
the application of mustard to the sides of the chest, but the majority of
experienced practitioners are still in favour of it. Besides the popular
forms of alcohol, heart stimulants may be given of a more lasting character,
as digitalis, ether, aromatic spirit of ammonia, or the carbonate in solution.
Every effort should be made to re-establish the circulation in the parts most
distant from the centre, and the legs and ears should be wisped and pulled,
clothed and bandaged. While keeping the surface warm, the patient should
be placed in a box where he can obtain the largest amount of pure air,
tying up his head to the open door, if he is found to persistently hang it
down in the worst corner of the box. If the appetite is entii-ely lost the
patient may be sustained with milk and eggs given with the drenching-
bottle. Constipation should be guarded against by the use of laxative foods,
as bran, green meat, carrots, etc., or a soap-and-water clyster, a dose of
sulphate of magnesia or soda, but on no account should an aloetic ball be
given. Only walking exercise should be prescribed until the patient has
made considerable progress towards recovery.

PLEURISY

Is AN INFLAMED CONDITION of the membrane which lines the walls of the
chest and is reflected over the surface of the lungs. In health this serous
surface secretes a fluid intended to lubricate the chest and permit of the
movements necessary to respiration without the possibility of friction. If
the pleurae become inflamed, whether by association with pneumonia (pleuro-
pneumonia) or bronchitis (broncho-pneumonia) or the condition of pleuritis
exist alone, there will be an altered secretion. A period of congestion is

550 TILE i>lSl-:A.SE8 UF TliE llUii.SE

rapidly followed by one of effusion, which may go on to such an extent as to
constitute water on the chest (hydrothorax).

The causes are the same as pneumonia and bronchitis (see pages 540, 547).

llie Symptoms dilTer somewhat in tlie tenderness on pressure against the
libs, and a difHculty in turning, which is often accompanied with a grunt of
pain. In tlie congestive stage, if the ear is applied to the sides of the chest
a friction sound may be detected as of two pieces of paper rubbed together
between the fingers, and as tlio disease progresses the presence of fluid may
ije made out by a splashing or tinkling sound as of drops of water falling
into a well.

Treatment. — This should be the same as for other inflammatory diseases of
the chest (see Pneumonia, p. 547), but there should be no hesitation about the
application of mustard, since the dificased tissue is so comparatively near to
the skin, the very best results may be anticipated from counter-irritation.

BROKEN WIND

A BROKEN-WINDED HORSE can be detected at once by any horseman
possessed of experience, from the peculiar and forcible double expiration.
Inspiration is performed as usual, then comes a rapid but not violent act
of expiration, followed by a forcible repetition of the same, in which all the
muscles of i-espiration, auxiliary and ordinary, are called into play. This
is, of course, most marked when the horse has been galloped, but even
when he is at rest the double expiration is manifest at almost any ordijiary
distance from the observer.

More or less emph3'sema of the lungs is usually found after death, but in
not a few broken-winded horses is it absent, and the cause cannot be stated
with certainty. Over and above the residual air which is normal in health,
there is in broken wind an increased amount which the single and usual act
of expiration fails to expel. The causes are bad and innutritions food — musty
hay, outsides of hay-ricks, chopped straw and other food entailing a large
amount of digestion for very small results. It is also largely hereditary.

Treafmeiit. — Though no hope of curing broken wind can be held out, there
are many horses doing good work while badly affected with it. The symptoms
mav be very much ameliorated by judicious feeding and management. No
large quantity of food or water should be allowed at one time. All the food
given should be damped, and a bed provided, such as sawdust, or peat-moss,
that the animal will not cat: instead of dry hay, cut grass and clover, lucerne,
rye, carrots, boiled linseed or linseed oil mixed with the kibbled corn.
Treacle or molasses is a favourite remedy in France, and there is no doubr
that it is beneficial, as also occasional dosing with tar and fats, as suet ana
lard.

THICK WIND

Thick wixd is the horseman's teiTn for any defective respiration unac-
companied by a noise, or by the signs of empln-sema just alluded to. It
usually follows pneumonia, but it may arise from chronic bronchitis, occa-
sioning a thickening of the mucous membrane lining the broncliial tubes

SPASM OF THE DIAPHRAGM 551

and thus lessening their diameter. No treatment will be of any service
except such as will aid the play of the lungs mechanically, by a\'oiding
overloading the stomach, as mentioned in the last section.

Careful dieting, as for broken wind, has a modifying inSuence, and con-
siderable improvement may take place in recent cases by the absorption
of the morbid products of inflammation.

SPASM OF THE DIAPHRAGM

Some horses, wdien at all distressed by the severity of their gallops, com-
municate to the rider a piost unpleasant sensation, as if some internal part
was giving a fjudden blow or flap. This is not only a sensation, but a reality,
for the diaphragm being naturally weak, or overstrained at some previous
period, acts spasmodically in drawing in the air. If the horse thus aiTected
is ridden onwards afterwards, he will be placed in danger of suffocation and
death, either from rupture of the diaphragm, or from its cessation to act, or
from its permanently contracting and refusing to give way during expiration.
There is no cui'e for the weakness which tends to produce the spasm, and all
that can be done is to avoid using the horse affected with it at any very fast
pace, and over a distance of ground. Urgent symptoms may be relieved by
a cordial-drench, such as the following : —

Take of LaiKlanum 6 draclims.

Ether 1^ ounces.

Aromatic Spirit of Ammonia 3 draclims.

Tincture of Ginger 3 drachms.

Ale 1 pint. Mix.

Or if there is any difficulty in giving a drench, a ball may be made up
and given —

Take of Carbonate of Ammonia 1 drachm.

Camphor 4 drachm.

Powdered Ginger 1 drachm.

Linseed meal and ^yater sufficient to malce into a ball.

Either of the above may be repeated at the end of three hours, if relief
is not afforded. Increased strength may be given to the diaphragm by
regular slow work, and the daily mixture of a drachm of powdered sulphate
of iron with the feed of corn.

DISEASES OF THE HEART

The horse is subject to inflammation of the substance of the heart
(carditis) of a rheumatic nature, and of the fibro-serous covering (pericarditis),
but the symptoms are so obscure that no one but the professional veterinarian
will be likely to make them out. Dropsy of the heart is a common disease
in worn-out horses, and hypertrophy, as well as fatty degeneration, is often
met with among well-conditioned animals.

o o

i52 THE DISEASES OF THE II0R8E

DISEASES OF THE BLOOD-VESSELS OF THE
CHEST AND NOSE

Tiii: iiOKsi; is vluy subject to li.EMOURiiAr.E from the nose, coming on
during violent exertion, and many a race has been lost from this cause. Fat
over-fed horses are the most likely to suffer from iKomorrhage ; but most
people are aware of the risk incurred in over-riding or driving them, and
for this reason they are not so often subject to this accident (for such it
is rather than a disease) as they otherwise would be. It is unnecessary to
describe its si/mptoins, as the gush of blood renders it but too apparent, and
the only point necessaiy to inquire into is, whether the lungs or the nasal
cavities are the seat of the rupture of the vessel. In the former case the
blood comes from both nostrils, and is frothy ; while in the latter it gener-
ally proceeds from one onl\', and is perfectly fluid. The treatment should
consist in cooling the horse down by a dose of physic and a somewhat lower
diet ; but if the bleeding is ver}^ persistent, and returns again and again, a
saturated solution of alum in water may be syringed up the nostril daily, or,
if this fails, an infusion of matico may be tried, Avhich is far more likely to
succeed. It is made by pouring half-a-pint of boiling water on a drachm of
matico-leaves, and letting it stand till cool, when it should be strained, and
is fit for use.

n.TiMORRnAGE FROM THE LUNGS is a far more serious affair, and its control
requires active remedies if they are to be of any service. It may be caused
by the rupture of a large vessel, or on the contrary only some small capillaries,
and its volume will to a great extent indicate which. Perfect repose in an
airy box is a first necessity, and an avoidance of all excitement and fuss on
the part of attendants. Only such agents as act through the medium of
the circulation can be used, and of these gallic acid and sugar of lead are
the most likely to be of service in arresting the flow of blood. Suitable doses
(see Table of Doses) should be administered every hour if necessary, or until
the hfEmorrhage ceases. When it has been arrested there necessarily re-
mains an area of lung in which the cells are blocked up, and this has to
undergo certain changes before the parts can be restored, and cease to be a
source of danger. Pneumonia may follow from the presence of a blood-clot, or
one of these entering a vessel may be arrested in some other part and set
up a new area of inflammation. Apparently rapid and complete recoveries
often take place, but should be treated with the greatest care, not suffering
the animal to exert himself beyond what is necessary for gentle exercise.
No attempt should be made to train such a horse either for racing or hunt-
ing for some months, and even then he will bo liable to a recuri'cuce of the
accident and had better be put to work of a slower character.

DISEASES OE THE MOUTH AND THROxVT 553

CHAPTER XXVIII

DISEASES OF THE ABDOMINAL VISCERA AND THEIR APPENDAGES

GENERAL REMARKS —DISEASES OF THE MOUTH AND THROAT— DYSPEPSIA— GASTRITIS-
STOMACH STAGGERS— GRASS STAGGERS— RUPTURE OF THE STOMACH— COLIC : GRIPES
OR FRET — FLATULENT COLIC — INFLAMMATION OF THE BOWELS — TWISTED GUT —
PERITONITIS— CONSTIPATION— DIARRIICEA— CALCULI IN THE BOWELS— DISEASES OF
THE LIVER — DISEASES OF THE KIDNEYS — DIABETES — INFLAMBIATION OF THE BLADDER
— DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS— CANCER OF THE PENIS.

GENERAL REMARKS

Though not often producing what in horse-dealing is considered unsound-
ness, yet diseases of the abdominal viscera constantly lead to death, and
frequently to such a debilitated state of the body, that the sufferer is
rendered useless. Fortunately for the purchaser, they almost always give
external evidence of their presence, for there is not only emaciation, but
also a staring coat and a flabby state of the muscles, which is quite the
reverse of the wiry feel communicated to the hand in those instances
where the horse is " poor " from over- work in proportion to his food.
In the latter case, time and good living only are required to restore the
natural plumpness ; but in the former, the wasting will either go on
until death puts an end to the poor diseased animal, or he will remain in a
debilitated and wasted condition, utterly unfit for hai-d work.

DISEASES OF THE MOUTH AND THROAT

Several parts about the mouth are liable to inflammation, which Avould
be of little consequence in itself, but tliat it interferes with the feeding, and
this for the time starves the horse, and renders him unfit for his work,
causing him to "quid" or return his food into the manger without swallow-
ing it.

Injuries to the lips, tongue, lining membrane of the mouth, dental
troubles, eruptions, glandular swellings, and lodgment of foreign bodies are
among the causes of quidding.

Where any difficulty either in the prehension of the food or in mastication
is observed, the mouth should be carefully examined, and if nothing is to be
seen by the ordinary method of opening it and pulling the tongue on one side,
a proper mouth-gag (see page 545) should be used to make further search.

If a temporary tooth has become wedged it must be removed, and the
same remark applies to any other body that may have become impacted
between the teeth. Young horses, particularly yearlings at grass, are
subject to the formation of a bladder or blain inside the lips and upon the
side of the tongue, giving rise to distressing symptoms ; food is refused and
long ropes of viscid and perhaps discoloured saliva hang from the angles of the

}54

THE DISEASES OF THE HORSE

nioutli. Jf lliis is found to be the case the bhuldor should be immediately
hinced and with the evacuation of its contents early relief may be expected.
The sore surface should be sponged with a solution of alum or boric acid.
Vinegar diluted is a favourite remedy among breeders, but not so effectual
as those above named, since in a few instances a ragged ulcer is left with a
disinclination to heal up and foul-smelling breath. Alum is perhaps of all
remedies the best for mouth sores, and in the days of foot-and-mouth disease,
la"<'c rafijied sores might be seen almost healed with a few api'lications.
Old horses through irregtdarities of the teeth are liable to lacerated cheeks,
a id the tooth-rasp must be used lo prevent a recurrence of the trouble.

HUISH LONDON S.E.

FRONT VIE.W/

Fig. 00a.— C. EI. Iluisn's Tooth-rasp.

The old-fashioned instrument was a clum.sy contrivance, needing a very large
amount of manual power and some dexterity, but with the instrument here
illustrated the hoi'se-owner will effect a saving in his corn that will soon
pay the cost of one.

Sore throat. — By this term it is not intended to convey the idea of disease
of the respiratory tract, although an inflammatory condition of the fauces
often leads by sympathy or invasion to affections of the larj'ux (see
Laryngitis).

When the throat inflames, as is evidenced by fulness and hardness of this
part, and there is difficulty of swallowing, the skin covering it should imme-
diately be severely sweated, or the larynx will be involved and irreparable
injury done. The tincture of cantharides diluted with an equal part of
spirit of turpentine and a little oil, maybe rubbed in with a piece of sponge,
until it produces irritation of the skin, which in a few hours will be followed
by a discharge from the part. Six or eight drachms of nitre may also be
dissolved in the water which the horse drinks, with some dilliculty, but
still, as he is thirsty, he will take it. Sometimes eating gives less pain than
drinking, and then the nitre may be given with a bran mash instead of the
water.

CiiOKiNH. — This accident, which is of comparatively frequent occurrence in
other animals, is rare in the horse but attended with considerable danger.
It may occur in any part of the food passage from the back of the mouth to
the distant or cardiac end of the gullet.

2'he Causes. — Bad teeth, imperfect mastication, fright, drn:king with food
in the mouth, impaction of foreign bodies or diseased condition of the
oesophagus. Imperfect m.istication, either from bad teeth or greediness, may
result in a pellet of food passiLg into the pharynx iu a condition unfit for

DISEASES OF THE MOUTH AND THROAT 555

swallowing ; the muscles are unable to contract upon it with sufficient force,
and it becomes lodged, or, in the case of long hay or straw, it may be
entangled among the long and ragged molars at the back of the mouth. An
apple, round, smooth, and slippery, may pass beyond control of the
tongue, and lodge in the pharynx or any part of the oesophagus ; so also with
pieces of turnip or whole eggs, administered by the groom for conditioning
purposes. Nails, pins, needles, and other foreign bodies finding their way
into the manger are also occasional causes of choking. The term is further
applied to obstructions in the windpipe.

The SymiJtoms are very distressful ; the animal suddenly ceases feeding, a
spasmodic contraction of the throat and neck muscles gives him the appear-
ance of having a stiff neck, the nose is poked out, the breathing hurried and
loud, the eyes bloodshot, and gulping efforts alternated with attempts at
vomition and coughing.

Treatment. — The patient's fear and excitement must be allayed as far as
possible by a soothing manner on the part of the attendant, and an immediate
effort made to ascertain the nature and situation of the obstacle. A glance
at the left channel of the neck may show an enlargement, or an examination
of the mouth may lead to the detection of the offending body, or it may be
so low down in the thoracic portion of the gullet as to be invisible. If seen
from the outside and felt to be of a compressible nature, it may be so mani-
pulated as to pass on with but very little mechanical aid. It often happens
that only a very slight additional power is needed by the muscular tube
which for the moment has become paralyzed ; failing to remove the obstacle
with gentle pressure, other measures should be adopted. A little linseed oil
poured into the throat, and repeated in a few minutes, may alone accomplish the
purpose by lubricating the passage and softening the pellet. If it fail to do so
and the obstruction is not discovered to be in the pharynx, the mouth speculum
should be adjusted to enable the operator to pass a probang. This is a long
tube either of coiled wire or other material, covered with leather, and having
a cup-like portion at one end, and a ball at the other. The end chosen for
insertion should be oiled and passed over the tongue with gentle but con-
tinuous force until the object is reached, when, if the resistance is not too
great, it should be pushed on without hesitation right down to the stomach,
and the instrument withdrawn. It may be necessary to remove the probang
and give a little more oil and pass it again : the operator, unless he is an ex-
perienced veterinary surgeon, being liable to fall into the error of too much
haste. An obstruction such as an apple will often yield at the second
or third attempt, when the oil has had a softening effect. Nails, needles,
and the like, cannot of course be removed in this way, and must be carefully
sought. They do not cause such acute symptoms, and if not lodged in the
chest portion of the gullet may be found and cut down upon.

After treatment consists in abstinence, sloppy food, and if there is reason
to suppose that the lining membrane is injured, small quantities of oil or
glycerine and water may be given in sips or small "go-downs." Linseed tea
at frequent intervals will be found to have an emollient effect. If a horse is
subject to choking, it is not worth while keeping him, as it may be due to a
sacculated condition of the gullet for which there is no remedy.

556 THE DISEASES OF THE HORSE

DYSPEPSIA

Every domestic animal sufTers in health i£ he is constantly fed on the
same articles, and man himself, perhajis, more than tliey do. Partridges
arc relislied by him early in September, but toiijouvs po'drix would disgust
the most inveterate lover of that article of food. Dogs are too often made
to suffer from being fed on the same meal, flavoured with similar flesh or
broth, from one month to another. It is well known that cattle and sheep
must change their pasture, or they soon lose condition ; and yet hoi-ses
are expected to go on eating oats and hay for years together without in-
jury to health ; and at the same time they are often exposed to the close
air of a confined stable, and to an irregular amount of exercise. "We can-
not, therefore, wonder that the master is often told that some one or other
of his horses is " a little off his feed " ; nor should we be surprised that
the constant i*epetition of the panacea for this, " a dose of physic," should
at length permanently establish the condition which at first it would
always alleviate. It is a source of wonder that the appetite continues so
good as it does, in the majority of horses, which are koiit in the stable on
the same kind of food, always from July to May, and often through the
other months also. The use of a few small bundles of vetches, lucerne, or
clover in the spring, is supposed to be quite suflricient to restore tone to the
stomach, and undoubtedly they are better than no change at all ; but at
other seasons of the year something may be done towards the prevention
of dyspepsia, by A'arying the quality of the hay, and by the use of a few
carrots once or twice a week. In many stables, one rick of hay is made to
serve throughout the whole or a great part of the year, which is a very bad
plan, as a change in this important article of food is as much required as a
change of pasture when the animal is at grass. When attention is paid to
this circumstance, the appetite will seldom fail in horses of a good constitu-
tion, if they are regularly worked ; but without it, resort must occasionally
be had to a dose of physic. It is from a neglect of this precaution that so
many horses take to eat their litter, in preference to their hay ; but if the
same animal was placed in a straw-j'ard for a month, without hay, and
then allowed access to both, there would be little doubt that he would
prefer the latter. Some horses are naturally so voracious that they are
always obliged to be supplied with less than they desire, and they seldom
sufler from loss of appetite ; but delicate feeders require the greatest care
in their management. When the stomach sufiers in this way, it is alwa^-s
desirable to try what a complete change of food Avill do before resorting to
medicine; and, if it can be obtained, green food of some kind ''hould be
chosen, or if not, carrots. In place of hay, sound wheat or barley straw
may be cut into chaft', and mixed with the carrots and corn ; and to this a
little malt-dust may be added, once or twice a week, so as to alter the
flavour. By continually changing the food in this way, the most dyspeptic
stomach may often be restored to its proper tone, without doing harm with
one hand while the other is doing good, as is too often the case with
medicine. The use of the fashionable " horse-feeds " of the present day will
serve the same purpose ; and if the slight changes I have mentioned do not
answer, Thorley's food may be tried with great probability of success.

GASTRITIS 567

GASTRITIS

In the horse this affection may be acute or chronic. It is au inflamed
condition of the stomach, in which the secreting glands participate, and
result in failure to digest the food and a pouring out of excessive quantities
of fluid.

Causes. — Engorgement with food, particularly when it is of a coarse and
innutritions nature, as in the case of hill-ponies subsisting upon heath and
ligneous fibres with but little grass. Over-stimulating food given in exces-
sive quantity is another cause, or it may be induced by diseases in adjacent
structui'es, as the liver. The accidental or intentional administration of
irritant poisons, as arsenic, lead, and zinc, or by eating poisonous compounds
out of curiosity. Sheep-dips composed largely of arsenic and having a
saline taste are readily eaten when left within reach by careless persons.
The leaves of yew trees and the young shoots of some rhododendrons are
also causes of gastritis.

Symptoms. — These are abdominal pain evinced by restlessness, looking
round at the side, scraping with the front feet or striking at the belly with
the hind limbs ; and to differentiate between pain caused by any other
abdominal affection, we must look for other symptoms, as a frothy dischai'ge
of saliva from the mouth, or hanging ropes of thick glassy mucus from the
cornel's of it, a depressed and anxious countenance and nausea exhibited by
turning up the lip. The breath is more often sour and offensive than in
cases of prolonged colic, which in many respects it resembles. The conjunc-
tival membranes are reddened, the pulse is quick and irritable, and the
breathing hurried.

Treatment. — Before any remedial measures can be taken, it is of the
utmost importance to obtain a history of the case, and if possible ascertain
which of the causes enumerated is to be held responsible for the result. If
dietetic errors alone are traceable, in the correction of these, aided by
stomachic medicines, success may be looked for. A gentle purge with
linseed oil or saline doses consisting of Epsom or Glauber salts should be
first given, in order to get rid of offending material and prepare the way for
suitable food, which should be given in small quantities only and assisted by
such agents as nux vomica, calumba root, and either a course of alkalies,
bicarbonate of soda or potash, or else the mineral acids. When the alkalies
prove unsuitable a mixture of acids, as nitro-hydrochloric, may have the
desired effect, and although in theory it would seem that what is known as
an acid condition would be necessarily benefited by ant-acids, it is not always
the case in practice.

If acute gastritis is the result of irritant poisons, and their nature can be
ascertained, direct antidotes may be given to neutralize chemically any
remaining portion that may not have been already absorbed, or physiological
ones administered to counteract their effect. With the horse we are pre-
cluded from the use of emetics, and as a rule too much time is lost to
neutralize the poison or employ agents which will render it innocuous. If
either of the mineral acids have been given, or carbolic, an effort should bo
made to neutralize them with chalk, carbonate of soda or potash, or white-
wash from the walls. Eggs and niilk also mask the btvd effects, and mq,y be

558 THE DISEASES OF THE HORSE

given iu large quantities. Tlie foregoing are very rare causes, and can only
get into a hoi-se's stomach by an ignorant poisoner intentionally.

Arsenic, in the form of weed-killer or sheep-di]), lias ])roved fatal to not a
few, either from getting mixed with the food, or being discovered and eaten
by horses. It is also given, but happily less often in the present day, as a
vermifuge, and to make the coat shine, by lazy attendants. All that the
horseman can do in such accidental poisonings, is to give milk and eggs and
linseed tea while sending for a professional man, who should be informed of
the probable cause, an omission of common occurrence in the excitement and
hurry of dispatching a message. It is only by coming prej)ared with antidotes
that the veterinary surgeon can hope for any success.

With an abatement of the symptoms, careful nursing and diet may
succeed in restoring the patient to health, as the stomach is capable of
effecting wonderful repairs, as may be seen by the industrious student who
examines a large number at the slaughtei'er's yards.

CnRONic Gastritis pi-esents the same symptoms only in a less marked
degree, and the treatment is much the same, diet being the primary con-
sideration.

STOMACH STAGGERS

This disease is induced b}- over-gorging the stomach, and is a frequent
result of feeding upon cooked foods, which the animal swallows without sulli-
cicnt insalivation (see Digestion). "Watering after a full meal, long fasting
and greedy feeding, also contribute to distend the stomach beyond its capa-
city to contract upon the food within it.

Si/mptoms. — Colicky pain with eructations, pawing with the front feet,
trembling, sometimes vomiting and discharge through the nostrils. These
symptoms are common to gastritis, but a comatose condition follows. In so-
called staggers the animal stands in a dazed and stupid condition, resting
his forehead against the manger or leaning against a wall or post, and if
compelled to move staggers as if intoxicated. The breathing is slow and
laborious, actual snoring being not uncommon. The pulse is full in volume
and slow.

Treatment. — The comatose condition is best treated by copious bleeding,
without which a fit of delirium or rupture of the stomach may occur before
other remedies have had time to act. A full dose of aperient medicine may
be given at the same time, four to eight drachms of aloes in the form of a
bolus being a suitable one.

With convalescence great care in the matter of diet must be observed,
and the subject of this disease will always be liable to its recurrence.

GRASS STAGGERS

AViTii THE ADVANCE OF SUMMER and when the grasses are in seed, it is sup-
posed that some narcotic principle is developed in them, for it is at such
times this affection is met with. It does not come on with the sudden-
ness of sleepy or stomach staggers, and may appear among a number of
liorses at the same time. If noticed early, the animal is seen to walk with

RUPTURE OF THE STOMACH 559

his head down, or almost between his knees, and may even be made to trot
in that peculiar attitude. With the progress of the malady he becomes
paralyzed, is troubled to keep on his feet, staggers in his walk, and supports
himself against a tree or gate. Convulsions may cause his death.

Treatment. — If detected early in its manifestation, the disease may be cut
short with a full dose of aperient medicine, which should be combined with
calomel — aloes and calomel, in the form of a ball — but if it has gone on for
some time and the symptoms are severe, bleeding from the jugular vein
should be at once resorted to, the rectum unloaded with the hand, and a
clyster of soap and water thrown up. As soon as the aperient acts grass
staggers pass off: Change to another pasture, or hay in limited quantities,
may be advisable.

RUPTURE OF THE STOMACH

Tins accident is usually the result of previous engorgement and weakening
of the walls, when upon some extra exertion, the stomach being full, its
coats give way and more or less of the contents escape into the cavity of the
abdomen. It has been known to hajjpen from casting horses when full of
grass, and from falls while hunting or in harness. It is also attributed to
the action of great numbers of bots and the lesions produced by habitual
wind-sucking.

The Symptoms are similar to those of impaction of the stomach or acute
gastritis, and vomition is almost diagnostic, so seldom does it occur under
other conditions. The returned food comes through the nostrils (by way of
the posterior nares). There is every sign of collapse, as running down pulse,
cold extremities, haggard face, and panting breath, while partial sweats,
trembling, and reeling generally precede the fall of the animal in his death
struggles.

No Treatment can be attempted, but if there is any doubt in the
mind of the owner, the remedies advised for gastritis and engorgement
should be prescribed.

COLIC, GRIPES OR FRET

Acute abdominal pain is generally known by the above terms. It may
be evanescent and of very little importance, or have its origin in serious
diseases of the abdominal viscera. It is frequently observed to be hereditary,
and the subjects of it are more liable to a recurrence than horses that have
never suffered.

Causes. — Indigestion, excessive fatigue, watering on a full stomach, boiled
foods, constipation, impaction, and heredity. Diseases of the liver and other
organs taking part in digestion. Tumours, stones, and foreign bodies.

The common forms of colic have two principal causes, namely, spasmodic
contraction of the muscular coat of a portion of the intestine or distension
by gases eliminated by retained and fermented focd. The first is known as
spasmodic colic and the second as flatulent, but they may both be present
at the same time.

560 THE DISEASES OF HIE HORSE

The Si/mptoms of spasniodio colic arc acute abdominal pain evinced by
pawing and scraping with the front feet, stamping and striking at tlie
belly with the hind ones, looking round at the flank, crouching, lying down,
rolling, sometimes groaning, partial sweats, laying back the ears, anxious
countenance, ineffectual attempts to pass urine. Intervals of ease in which
the patient may resume the meal he had suddenly ceased to eat ; again all
the acute symptoms returning when the attendants imagine the attack has
passed away.

The passing of urine generally follows relaxation of the spasm, and this
has given rise to a very general belief among stablemen that cases of colic
are nearly always attributable to the kidneys or " in the water."

Treatment. — Diffusible stimulants and anodynes. Among the former,
aromatic spirit of ammonia, ether, nitrous ether, turpentine, brandy, whisky,
old ale, etc., have long enjoyed a reputation, while preparations of opium,
as the tincture (laudanum), chlorodyne, and other mixed sedatives are gen-
erally employed with good effect. Unloading the rectum with an oiled
hand (back-raking), clysters of w^arm soap and water, tobacco-smoke, etc.,
are recommended. The modern veterinarian, armed with subcutaneous
S3'ringe and tabloids of concentrated drugs, may inject morphia and aconite,
or belladonna, choosing the loose thin skin behind the elbow or other con-
venient situation. Hand-rubbing and kneading the abdomen with the
knuckles appears to be grateful to the patient in some instances. Walking
him about when in acute pain is a long-established custom based upon the
fear of twisted gut or rupture occurring in the animal's struggles upon the
ground if allowed to choose those attitudes which suggest themselves alike
to man and beast ; there can be no proof adduced that the former lesion is
brought about by rolling, but that rupture of an organ already distended
may so occur has some support in the fact that horses cast for surgical
operations, or falling in harness or the chase, occasionally come to an
untimely end in this way.

When an attack has passed off an aperient dose may be advisable, and a
general inquir}' into the feeding and management in order to prevent a
recurrence through any error of diet.

FLATULENT COLIC

While resembling spasmodic colic in the symptoms of pain and distress
and the suddenness of the attack, has the additional one of distended flank,
a drum-like condition is observed on striking the space between the last rib
and the hip, besides which there may be eructations and frequent flatus
from the rectum. A quantity of fermented food may generally be sur-
miscd, and a dose of aloes proportionate to the size and constitution of the
animal should be prescribed. It will be doing its work in removino
the mass of ingesta, while anti-spasmodic remedies are administered to
I'elieve pain, decompose gases, and reduce the tension of the bowels and
stomach. These gases are of variable composition, and remedies intended
to act chemically by decomposing them into harmless salts are not so
successful in practice as might be expected if an accurate knowledge of
them were possessed. For the most part they ai*e composed of carbonic

INFLAMMATION OF THE BOWELS 561

acid and sulphuretted hydrogen. Ammonia, otherwise than in the form of
carbonate, may have a speedy elfect in reducing the tympany. Chlorinated
lime in small doses, and freely diluted, is often beneficial, and carbolic acid,
with the same precautions as to dilution, appears to prevent or retard the
elimination of noxious gas. Linseed oil is a good remedy both for its
well-known effect in keeping down fermentation in the ingesta and for its
subsequent action as a laxative. Back-raking and clysters are j^articularly
useful in giving increased facilities for breaking off wind, and of softening
and assisting in the removal of hardened fseces.

Puncture of the large gut (colon) with a suitable trochar and canula is a
comparatively safe and very effectual remedy in the hands of the skilled
veterinarian, but without an intimate knowledge of anatomy it vvill not be
advisable for the horseman to attempt it.

Only during the paroxysms of pain is the pulse very much disturbed, and
the temperature is but slightl}^ raised, or not at all in cases of short duration.

INFLAMMATION OF THE BOWELS

Enteritis and Peritonitis often pass under this name. The former is a
disease of the middle or muscular coat of the intestine, or it may affect the
mucous layer also when it is known as muco-enteritis. It is a very fatal
disease, and not much is known of its true nature. There are some farms
and stables where it is prone to occur, and the most thorough investigation
may fail to discover any defect in the water or food. The death of horses
suffering from this malady in such a short time has led to the supposition
that some disease germ gets introduced into the intestinal wall, and post-
mortem examination of a superficial nature goes to confirm it by the
patchy character of the discoloured and diseased portion of the bowel.
While enteritis usually comes on without any appai-ent cause, it may also
be a sequel to colic, impaction or other disease. Chills and excessive fatigue
are also supposed to produce it.

Symptoms. — These have a common likeness to colic, but the patient's
behaviour is usually more temperate ; in the place of violent pawing and
rolling, he scrapes the ground uneasily and lies down carefully, not with
the abandon of a horse with spasmodic colic. He remains longer prone
and looks mournfully round from time to time, gets up again, scrapes,
crouches, and soon resumes his old attitude on the floor of the box. The
membranes of the eye and nostrils, in sympathy with the bowels, are very
much injected, the pulse irritable and small, and a high temperature is
persistently maintained throughout. There are no intervals or remissions
of pain as in colic. Clammy sweats alternate with coldness of the body
surface, and the legs and ears vary greatly — one leg will be warm and
another cold, the ears at one time warm and at another cold. As the
disease progresses, he will, if in a loose box, wander round and round
unhappily, with tail somewhat erect and trembling when he comes to a
halt. He may die in a fit of delirium, or gradually sink ; the quietness
which is often mistaken for improvement in his condition is but a precursor
of death.

Treatment. — In a disease tho origin of which is so ill understood, it is

5G2 THE DISEASES OF THE HORSE

not surprising that much difloronce of opinion exists as to tlio proper treat-
ment. Captain Hayes tlius sunnnari/.es the "principles of treatment." — " 1.
Give to tlie inlhimed part rest, which is best accompHshed by opium, a.s that
drug has a S2)ecial action in arresting the motion of the intestines. 2.
Administer a strong sedative to allay the pain which threatens the life of
the animal, and allow him to tide over the attack, for which purpose opium
is also suitable. 3. Check the action of disease germs, or, at least, of
decomposing food in the bowels, as may be done by Jeyes' Fluid or
carbolic acid."

Half-ounce doses of powdered opium in the form of extract, or like doses
of extract of cannabis indica may be given. Jeyes' Fluid may be ad-
ministered in half- or three-quarter-ounce doses in a pint of linseed oil or
other bland fluid, as mucilage of acacia, starch, or linseed tea. Hot foment-
ations to the abdomen, and the injection of warm water per rectum have
a soothing eflect, and are now very generally adopted by veterinary surgeons
in the treatment of this fatal complaint, from which but a small number of
recoveries take place.

TWISTED GUT

Tnis ACCIDENT is as a rule a sequel to some other disease, as colic, spasmodic
or flatulent, and is generally believed to result from struggling on the ground
(see Colic). Captain Hayes, whose experience as a breaker as well as
a veterinary surgeon, is perhaps unequalled, is " strongly oi opinion that
these violent movements never induced twist of the bowel, unless, possibly,
the relative positions of its parts are altered from their normal condition by
some unusual cause, such as distension."

The Sijin})toms during life are those of colic with some variations, but there
is practically no diagnostic one by which we can say with certainty that a
twist will be found after death. The pain is more continuous than in
ordinary colic, and before the animal dies a quiescent period is usual. There
is a flickering pulse which finally becomes imperceptible, sighing, trembling,
and deadly cold extremities, the animal generally trying to keep on his feet
till the last.

Treatment for twist, intussusception, and other accidental displacements
of the bowels is " expectant" — that is to sa}, -^^ we can do is to treat the
spasm and pain in the hope that relaxation of the parts affected may follow.
If displacement of a portion of the small intestine could be diagnosed with
certainty before any great amount of inflammation had arisen it would be
possible under the influence of chloroform to cut through the abdominal
parietes and reduce it, indeed it has been done, but the difliculties are great
and the prospects of recovery very small, as the predisposition of the horse
to peritonitis even under the most favourable aseptic conditions is almost a
fatal objection.

PERITONITIS

Inflammation of the lining membrane of tlie abdomen which also invests
the viscera is an extremely dangerous disease, and may be excited by com-

DIARRHCEA 563

paratively trivial causes. It is often idiopathic, arising from no known
cause, or may result from external violence, abdominal operations, castration,
punctured wounds, escape of food into the cavity, as in ruptured stomach and
bowel, or from sympathy with any inflamed organ in the abdomen.

Symjjtoms. — Hurried breathing, maintaining a fixed attitude with dis-
inclination to change it, icy cold extremities, total loss of appetite, quick
irritable pulse, depressed and anxious countenance.

Treatment. — The same as for enteritis (see page 561).

CONSTIPATION

This is usually due to dietetic errors, and is best corrected by laxative
food. Healthy fteces should be so well known to the practical horseman
that he should not fail to recognize constipation in its early stage when the
dung balls are small and glassy, and passed with an expulsive effort amount-
ing to straining, erecting the tail, and arching the back. If these signs are
disregarded, impaction and stoppage may follow.

Treatment. — An oily aperient, as a pint of linseed oil, and a few bran
mashes are all that is needed as a rule; the chief concern of the owner should
be to prevent a recurrence by a judicious admixture of laxative food. AVhen
constipation is the result of inactive liver an aloetic ball may be necessary,
and less stimulating food for a time until the bowels are properly regulated.

DIARRHCEA

While some horses are liable to constipation others are disposed to loose-
ness of the bowels, although there may be nothing in the food to excite it.
Horses with this predisposition to looseness are called " washy," and frequently
occasion a good deal of trouble to their keepers. Besides those whose dung
is habitually too soft in the stable there are nervous, irritable animals that
begin to unload the rectum at the sight of saddle or harness and become
looser and looser upon the road, the diarrhoea ceasing again when stabled.

Siqier-imrgation is diarrhoea induced by too large or too oft repeated
a dose of physic. It generally happens through failure of the first dose to
act, when the inexperienced give another and the medicine appears to be
cumulative in its effects.

Treatment. — This will vary according to the cause. The " washy " may
have a proportion of pea-meal and only dry foods allowed them. For the
excitable very little can be done except to carry one's own feed upon a
journey and avoid excitement and over-taxing the animal. When too
much aperient medicine is responsible, astringents may be given. Of these,
opium and catechu with chalk or bismuth may be chosen, and if there is a
distinctly acid odour with the evacuations, benefit may be derived from the
drinking of alkaline bicarbonates, as those of potash and soda, and a portion
of lime water added to the drinking water. Arrowroot and starch gruel
with eggs whipped up in them are also recommended. No bran or other
laxative food should be allowed, but as much well-seasoned hay as the animal
will take.

56i THE DISEASES OF THE HORSE

CALCULI IN THE BOWELS

A STOPPAGE IN THK HOWKLS .soinetimos obstinately persists, in spite of all
kinds of remedies, and, death taking place, it is found on examination that
a large calculus has blocked up the area of the canal. Sometimes one of
these calculi is found in the stomach, but this is extremely rare. On making
a section they are found to consist of concentric layers of bran, chaff, and
other hard particles of the food, mixed generally with some small proportion
of earthy matter, and arranged around some foreign body, such as a piece
of stone from the corn, or the head of a nail. Treatment is out of the
question, as it is impossible to discover the calculus during life, and even if
it could be ascertained to exist, no remedy is known for it. Those who are
curious about the composition of these calculi, will be pleased with the follow-
ing letter by Mr. Buckland, surgeon to the 1st Life Guards, in reply to an
inquiry made in The Field as to the composition of a calculus found in a
horse belonging to a correspondent : —

" Mr. C. Pemberton Carter having, in his interesting letter, requested me
to throw some light upon this subject, I have great pleasure in giving what
little information I am able to afford, with apologies for delay, as Aldershot
camp is by no means a favourable spot for scientific investigations or literary
pursuits. As regards the actual composition of calculi such as he has sent,
we learn from the catalogue of the museum of the Royal College of Surgeons
that they are composed for the most part of the phosphate of magnesia and
ammonia, with small quantities of phosphate of lime. They also contain an
animal and extractive matter, to which the brown colour of tlie calculus is
Q-sving. They also contain muriates of soda, and various alkaline salts derived
from the intestinal juices. The animal matter resembles that of all other
concretions, and separates in concentric laminae when the calculus is dissolved
in an acid. In moi-e impure varieties, grains of sand, portions of hay, straw,
etc., are frequently found embedded in the calculus, and there is one specimen
in the museum which contains an entire layer of vegetable hairs. Mr.
Carter remarks that ' his impression is that the calculus is made up of bran '
(chemically speaking). He is not far wrong, for we read in the College
catalogue, ' Most authorities agree that these calculi are formed from
phosphate of magnesia, contained in wheat, oats, hay, etc., and this opinion
derives confirmation from the circumstance that they occur most frequently
in millers' and breicers' horses, which are fed upon grains, bran, and sub-
stances known to contain a much larger proportion of magncsian salts than
other vegetable matters.' Mr. Carter has detected minute portions of wheat,
oats, and hay in the calculus, which therefore may be said to consist of two
substances, viz. the vegetable and the mineral. So much, then, for the
composition of the calculus ; now for its mechanical structure. Most
decidedly it may be compared to an onion, layer being packed over layer, so
as in section to present a ringed appearance. We ma}' also liken it to
other objects. It has lately struck me to examine the structure of a common
cricket-ball, which combines hardness, lightness, and elasticity in such an
admirable way. Upon making a section, I found the cricket-ball to be
composed of layers, one over the other, round a central nucleus. The layers
are composed of leather, alternated with a vegetable fibre, the nucleus being

DISEASES OF THE LIVER 565

a Lit of cork. The calculus in the horse is formed in a similar way. Tho
nucleus in Mr. Carter's specimen is a bit of flint ; in a capital instance I
have in my own collection, of a common shot, about No. 5 size, which has
been crushed by the horse's teeth, and subsequently swallowed ; in another
instance, of a chair nail of brass ; in another of a single oat-seed ; in another
of a minute bit of cinder, and so on, as it seems to be absolutely necessary
that these calculi should have a commencement — a starting-point. Where
is the school-boy who can make a gigantic snowball without beginning with
a small lump of snow or a stone, as a nucleus upon which he builds all the
rest?

" Mr. Carter seems to wonder at the weight of the specimen, 5 lbs. ; this
is by no means a large size ; in the museum of the Royal College of Surgeons
we have a very fine collection of calculi ; the largest, taken from the intes-
tines of a horse, weighs no less than 17 lbs., and is about the size and shape
of an ordinary skittle-ball. In the case where this is contained he will see
many other specimens, cut in sections to show the nuclei ; he will observe
that calculi also form in the intestines of the camel and of the elephant, and
even in the wild horse, for there is a good specimen from the intestines of a
Japanese wild horse. Stones, not trvie calculi, are sometimes found ii?
animals, which have been actually swallowed by them, and have not been
chemically formed in this walking laboratory. There is a case containing
several pebbles — thirty in number — found in the stomach of a cow at
Bar ton- under-Need wood, Burton-on-Trent. These stones belong to the
geological formation of the neighbourhood ; it is curious to see how they
have been acted on by the action of the stomach, for they are highly glazed
and polished. I have seen specimens of gravel pebbles which I took from
the gizzard of an ostrich, which are as highly polished as an agate mai'ble.
The bird swallowed the stones to assist its digestion ; the cow out of a
morbid appetite. I know of a somewhat similar instance that lately
happened : A young lady was taken ill, and died of very strange symptoms ;
it was subsequently ascertained that the stomach was quite filled with human
hair, which had moulded itself into the shape of the interior of that organ.
The poor girl had naturally very long and beautiful hair, and she had an
unfortunate habit of catching the loose hairs with her lips and swallowing
them ; in time they felted together, became a solid mass, and killed her —
a warning to other young ladies which should not be neglected. In the
lower animals we frequently find rolled balls of hair from the creatures
licking themselves. I have seen one at Bristol from a lioness ; it is formed
of hairs licked with her rough tongue from her cubs. Curious concretiom
are found in goats, etc., called ' bezoar ' stones ; they were formerly supposed
to have medicinal virtues : of this at another time.

"F. T. BUCKLAND."

DISEASES OF THE LIVER

The farmer's horse and those subsisting largely upon grass are rarely
subject to liver diseases, but the corn-fed and stalled horse of towns
participates in the evils of town-life in common with his master. Not only
do we stimulate our horses with excessive quantities of niti'ogenous food,

566 THE DISEASES OF THE HORSE

but k<^ep them in impure air, and the consequences are impaired function or
actual disease of tliis important organ.

The exact nature of liver disorders can seldom be ascertained during
life, yet treatment is generally successful, blind empiricism it may be called,
but the practical horseman will not mind that, if the result is good.

S)/mptonis. — If the liver fail in its office of pouring bile of a proper
quality and of sufficient quantity into the intestinal canal, digestion
is interfered with, the faeces are altex'ed in colour and of offi^nsive odour,
there is a loss of thriftiness on the part of the animal, the skin loses its
bloom and may be hide-bound, and the hairs feel harsh, while constipation
may be followed by diarrhrea. A sourness of breath and irregular appetite
and increased thirst is observable. The foregoing symptoms may be all due
to simple congestion or excessive blood supply, and a dose of calomel and
aloes put the matter right. On the other hand, there maj'^ be slow but
certain degeneration of structure taking place, that can only be arrested in
its progress by a return to the natural life of a horse at grass.

JAUNDICE

Is commonly spoken of as a special disease of the liver, but it is really
one of the symptoms or proofs of liver disease whereby the colouring
matter of the bile has been thrown into the general circulation, making its
presence easily seen in the mucous membranes, particularly those of the
conjunctivpe. Jaundice may be the result of acute or chronic congestion of
the liver, of interruption of the gall ducts, or of the common duct (ductus
communis collidicus), of cirrhosis or hardening and enlargement of the con-
nective tissue between the true liver cells which are thereby squeezed out of
existence. Abscesses and other tumours and malignant growths in a few
instances account for jaundice. We might summarize for the guidance of
the horse-owner, and say that a yellowness of the membranes that dis-
appears with physic after a short time is probably but a temporary functional
derangement of no serious importance, while a permanent staining of the
membranes is indicative of chronic disease, and probably serious degenerative
changes of structure.

Treatment. — Change of diet from stimulating food to grass if possible.
A summer's run will often do wonders even in cases of long st<anding, and
in which it is almost certain there is structural change. The sound portion
of the liver appears to make an effort to do the work of a whole one, and
the subject of disease may do much useful work again. The livers both of
horses and men one has known during life as comparatively cheerful and
healthy, often show an amount of degeneration which, without experience,
one would suppose to be inconsistent with continued existence. Salines in
the form of sulphates of magnesia and soda combined with nux vomica may
serve to keep a useful horse going, but no medicaments can compare with
the beneficial effi?cts of grass keep and pure air. In winter a straw-yard in
the country is to be preferred to continued drugging in the stable, as the
coldness of the atmosphere does good alike to the liver and legs of a stale
town horse.

DISEASES OF THE KIDNEYS 567

DISEASES OF THE KIDNEYS

These are by no means so common as is generally believed by stablemen,
who are too fond of dosing with nitre and diuretics generally. Because
a horse passes thick urine thei'e is not necessarily anything the matter with
him, but many coachmen and grooms on seeing a little milky urine passed
are alarmed for the health of their charges. The salts and organic matter
are but feebly held in solution, and any change of diet may cause them to be
precipitated. The first bundle of green meat after a winter of dry food will
almost invariably result in thick urine, but a few days suffice for it to
become normal again. If, as many old writers state, the kidneys of the
horse are very liable to disease, it is because they are so liable to abuse at
the hands of their masters and of the quacks who attribute every abdominal
pain to " something wrong with the water."

Inflammation of the kidneys (nephritis) is generally produced by an
exposure of the loins to wet and cold, as in carriage-horses standing about
in the rain during the winter season. Sometimes it follows violent muscular
exertion, and is then said to be caused by a strain in the back ; under the
back it really is, for horses in jumping do occasionally strain the psoje
muscles, and by invasion or extension, one or more kidneys may be affected.
Usually only one, but that is no argument against the theory of loin-sprain
producing it, since the kidneys are not parallel or very close together.
Exposure to cold in a state of exhaustion, abuse of diuretic medicines,
absorption of cantharidine blisters, the presence of calculi, and in rare
instances parasites.

The Symptoms are a constant desire to void the urine, which is of a
very dark colour — often almost black. Great pain, as evidenced by the
expression of countenance and by groans, as Avell as by frequent wistful
looks at the loins. On px'essing these parts there is some tenderness,
but not excessive, as in rheumatism. The pulse is quick, hard, and
full. The attitude of the hind-quarters is peculiar, the horse standing in
a straddling position with his back arched, and refusing to move with-
out absolute compulsion. It is sometimes difficult to distinguish nephritis
from inflammation of the neck of the bladder, but by attending to the
state of the urine, which is dark brown or black in the former case, and
nearly of a natural colour in the lattei', the one may be diagnosed from the
other. To make matters still more clear, the oiled hand may be passed into
the rectum, when in nephritis the bladder will be found contracted and
empty (the urine being so pungent as to irritate that organ), while in
inflammation or spasm of the neck it will be distended, often to a large
size.

The Treatment to be adopted must be active, as the disease runs a
very rapid course, and speedily ends in death if neglected. The skin must
be acted on energetically, so as to draw the blood to its surface. The
application of hot water, as recommended at page 528, may be tried, and
in many cases it has acted like a charm, Failing the means for carrying
out either of these remedies, the loins should be rubbed with an embrocation
consisting of olive oil, liquor ammonije, and laudanum in equal parts, but
cantharides and turpentine must be carefully avoided, as likely to be

P p

568 THE DISEASES OF THE HORSE

absorbed, wlicn they would add fuel to tlic fire. A fresh sheepskin should
be warmed with hot (not boiling) water, and .applied over the back, and
the liniment should be rubbed in profusely every hour, restoring the skin to
its place inmiediately afterwards. ^Mustard is .sometimes used instead of
ammonia, and as it is always at hand it may form a good substitute, but
it is not nearl}' so powerful an irritant to the skin as the latter, especially
when evaporation is prevented by the sheepskin, or by a piece of any
waterproof article. A mild aperient may be given, as linseed oil ; if the
bowels continue obstinate give Ei")som salts, great care being taken to assist
its action by raking and injection, the latter being also useful as a fomenta-
tion to the kidneys. The diet should consist of scalded linseed and bran
mashes, no water being allowed without containing sullicient linseed tea to
make it slightly glutinous, but not so much so as to nauseate the patient.
Salicylate of soda among the newer remedies has been found valuable, and
may be given (in solution) in half-ounce doses at intervals of two or
three hours. Homopopathic doses of cantharides arc said to have acted
beneficially in the hands of persons whose testimony may be relied on.

DIABETES

True diabetes rarely, if ever, exists in the horse, but a spurious form is
comparatively common. Diabetes insipidus, pol^-uria or profuse staling is
not diabetes in the sense used by medical men, as sugcr is not present in
the mine, and the disease is gcnerall}' curable. The cause does not appear
to be in the kidneys themselves, they being merely agents in the elimination
of urine of low specific gravity. Long before physiologists suggested an
explanation, it was known by practical horse-keepers to result from certain
damaged forage, as musty hay or that which has been overheated in the
rick, kiln-dried oats and feeding upon roots (i. e. swedes and mangolds,
carrots, and in former times parsnijis). The explanation is now given in
the fact that irritation of a particular portion of the brain causes excessive
urination, and that blood influenced by disease germs derived from forage
may proA'e so poisonous in the brain as to set up this train of symptoms.

The Symptoms need but little description, as the groom's attention will be
arrested by the frequent desire of his horse to stale. Considerable thirst
accompanies the malady. The heart loses tone and the pulse is consequently
weak, there is loss of flesh, unthrifty coat, unnatural pallor of the gums,
sour breath, constipation, a disjiosition to sweat uihju slight exertion, and
dropsical swellings.

I'reatment. — A moderate dose of aloes, linseed tea, drachm doses each of
powdered nutgalls and sulphate of iron or iodine in similar doses for a few
days only. The amount of drinking water should be unlimited, and a com-
plete change of diet should be ordered whether or no the forage appears to
be good.

INFLAMMATION OF THE BLADDER

5G9

INFLAMMATION OF THE BLADDER

Is an extremely painful affection caused by retention of urine, injuries,
the presence of calculi, irritation of abnormal urine, by extension from the
kidneys, and occasionally from foreign bodies whose presence it is most
difficult to account for iii such a situation.

21ie Sympto77is arc much the same as nephritis, but examination per
rectum may discover the bladder to be full and unable to contract upon
its contents, the muscular coats being paralyzed. Frequent attempts at
micturation with constantly pi'otruded penis, arched back, anxious
countenance, high temperature, quick and irritable pulse.

Treatinent. — The same generally as for nephritis (see page 567), but by
the use of the catheter something may be done to relieve the pain, and by
forcibly syringing up the urethral passage a mixture of extract of belladonna
and glycerine diluted with warm water. Belladonna is the one active drug
f(jr which the claim can be made that it has a special soothing effect upon
the urinary apparatus, where opium for various reasons is inadmissible.
Demulcent drinks, as linseed tea and barley-water, should be given freely.

Fig. 100.

Urinary Calculi.

FiQ. 101.

Retention of urine may be due either to inflammation of the neck of
the bladder, occasioning a spasmodic closure of that part, or there may be
spasm unattended by inflammation and due to the initation of some offend-
ing substance, such as a calculus.

The Treatment in either case must be directed to the spasmodic constric-
tion, which is generally under the control of large doses of opium and
camphor, that is, from one drachm to two drachms of each, repeated every
five or six hours. If the symptoms are urgent, bleeding may also be resorted
to, and when the bladder is felt to be greatly distended, no time should be
lost in evacuating it by means of the catheter, which operation, however,
should only be entrusted to a regular practitioner accustomed to its use.

Calculi in the bladder are formed of several earthy salts, and present
various forms and appearances, which may be comprised under four divisions.
1st. The mulberry calculus, so named from its resemblance to a mulberiy,
possessing generally a nucleus (see Fig. 100). 2nd. A^-erysoft kind resemb-
ling fuller's-oarth in appearance, and being chiefly composed of phosphate of

570 THE DISEASES OF THE HORSE

lime and mucus (sec Fig. 101.) 3rcl. Calculi of a white or j'cllowish colour,
rough externally and easily friable (see Fig. 102). 4th. Those which are
composed of regular layers, and which are harder than the .second and third
varieties (see Fig. 103). These calculi .sometimes attain an immense size,
weighing several pounds.

The Symptoms are a difficulty of voiding the urine, which generally comes
away in jerks, the penis remains protruded from the sheath, which evidently
indicates that the horse feels as if his bladder was not relieved. Often there

Jrikary Calci LI.

is mucopurulent matter mixed with the urine^ which is rendered thick and
glutinous thereby, but this only happens in cases of long standing.

llie Treatment must be either palliative or curative. If the former, it
should consist in the adoption of the means employed for subduing irritation
and inflammation of the bladder which have been already described. The
cure can only be effected by removing the stone. This requires the perform-
ance of a difficult and dangerous operation (lithotomy), the details of which
can be only useful to the professed veterinary surgeon, and I shall therefore
omit them here.

DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS

Balanitis, or inflammation of the glans penis ((3d\aro<;, glans), is not un-
common in the hor.se, being brought on by the decomposition of the natural
secretions, when they have been allowed to collect for any length of time.
At first there is merely a slight discharge of pus, but in process of time foul
sores break out, and ver}' often fungous growths spring from them, which
block up the passage through the opening of the sheath, and cause consider-
able swelling and inconvenience. These are quite distinct from warts, which
occur in this part just as they do in other situations.

The 2'reatment requires some skill and experience, because mild remedies
are of no use, and severe ones are not unattended with danger. The parts
must first of all be well cleansed by syringing, or if the end of the penis
can be laid hold of, by washing with a sponge. The following wash may
then be applied, and it should be repeated every day : —

Take of Solution of CliloriJe of Ziiic (Burnett's Fluid) . . 2 drachms.

Water 1 pint. Mix.

DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 571

If the morbid growths are very extensive, nothing but amputation of the
penis or the use of corrosive subhmate will remove them. Severe haemorrhage
sometimes follows both of these measures, but it seldom goes on to a dangerous
extent. Still it is scarcely advisable for any one but a professional man to
undertake the operation.

CANCER OF THE PENIS

Cancer of the kind known as epithelioma sometimes attacks the penis of
the horse, and if allowed to remain attains to great dimensions, making it
impossible to withdraw the organ into the sheath. It generally begins at
or near the urethral orifice, and when once diagnosed as a malignant growth
no time should be lost in amputating the affected portion. It is not
attended with serious danger, htemorrhage being provided against by a
competent surgeon, and precautions taken to avoid injury and swelling to
the sheath from the discharges.

GoNORRHCEA may affect either sex, but geldings are usually exempt unless
by some traumatic cause, as the descent of small calculi, when urethral
ix'ritation is set up, Avhich stimulates the true gonorrhoeal discharge.

In stallions it is usually the I'esult of too much sexual intercourse during
the service season, and mares are infected in coitu. In this country it rarely
passes the limits of a simple clap, but on the Continent it at times becomes
malignant and even fatal.

Treatment consists in careful cleaning of the affected membranes by
syringing with warm water, to which has been added some mild astringent
as sulphate of zinc, alum, or boric acid. A cooling dose of physic may be
necessary, and a horse so affected should not be used for stud purposes till
perfectly recovered.

CHAPTER XXIX

diseases op the nervous system

PAKA.LTSIS OF THE LIPS— EPILEPSY AND CONVULSIONS — MEGRIMS — MAD STAGGERS — SUN-
STROKE— RABIES, OR MADNESS — TETANUS, LOCK-JAW — APOPLEXY AND PARALYSIS —
STRING-HALT.

Except in hot climates these are not very numerous. In India a
disease known as kumree with paralysis of the loins is described by Captain
Meyrick, Captain Hayes and others, and is comparatively common. In the
British Islands a somewhat similar affection is met with in the rich grazing
districts, and affects chiefly the heavy types of horse. As two and three

572 THE DISEASES OF THE HORSE

vear olds, wlion first put to work, it commences with nil tlio appearances of
muscular spraiii of the loins, but instead of recovery griulual and progressive
paralysis follows. At the same age an affection known as "shivering-
makes its appearance, and it is probable that they have a common origin
like the nervous form of distemper in dogs. I am not aware of any thorough
investigation, extending over a number of cases, that has proved red soften-
ing, or any other degeneration of the cord, to be the cause of the one or the
other, and although I have met with many cases of both, the opportunities
of making careful post-mortem examination are so few for a busy man, and
the dissection necessary so considerable, that I advance this opinion with
some reticence. When shivering is established, paralysis does not follow
during colthood, and the comparison holds good with the dog ; he either ha.s
chorea as a permanent condition, or is affected with paralysis at the time of
the attack, but the one does not lead to the other. That some form of con-
gestion initiates the attack cannot be doubted, as there are all the .symptoms
of pressure upon the spinal cord, which can be accounted for in no other
wa}'. Shivering resembles St. Yitus's Dance in the human subject and
chorea in the dog. There is either a jerking movement of the fore- or hind-
parts, or else an inability to co-ordinate the muscles.

Treatment is not likely to be successful for either of tho nervous dis-
orders alluded to in the previous paragraphs. That usually adopted is
countei'-irritation to the spine, bleeding, purging, and the administration,
in the case of paralysis, of strychnine over a considerable period and until
muscular twitchings are observed. Spinal sedatives, as chloral and the
bromides of potassium and ammonium, are sometimes given in cases of
shivering.

PARALYSIS OF THE LIPS

Tnis is said to be produced by the pressure of ill-fitting and heavy bridles.
Many low-bred horses have heavy pendulous lips from colt-hood, and old
ones are also disposed to drop the lower one. It seldom exists to the extent
of preventing prehension of the food, and as it is gradual in its approach
the animal learns to seize his food with his teeth or buries his mouth in it
instead of using the lips in the usual way.

Treatment, except in the early stage, is not likely to be of much use. All
pressure should be avoided, and stimulating liniments or a mild blister
applied over the nerves of supply (the seventh pair), beginning just below
the ear and rubbing in the chosen agent along the cheek.

EPILEPSY AND CONVULSIONS

TnESE DISEASES, Or symptoms of disease, are not often met with in tho
adult, but in the foal they sometimes occur, and are not unattended with
danger. The young thing will perhaps gallop after its dam round and
round its paddock, and then all at once stop, stagger, and fall to the ground,
where it lies, struggling with more or less violence, for a few minutes or
longer, and then raises its head, stares about it, gets up, and is appai-ently
as well as ever. It is generally in the hot days of summer that these

MEGRIMS 573

attacks occur, and it appears highly pi^obahle that tlie direct rays of the
sun playing on the head have something to do with it. Death seldom
takes place during the first attack, but sometimes after two or three repe-
titions the convulsions go on increasing, and the foal becomes comatose
and dies. A mild dose of linseed or castor oil is the onlj'- remedy which
can safely be resorted to, and as it is supposed that worms will sometimes
produce these convulsive attacks, it is on that account to be selected.
Epilepsy is so very rarely met with in the adult, and of its causes and
treatment so little is known, that I shall not trouble my readers with any
account of them.

MEGRIMS

This term is used to conceal our ignorance of the exact nature of several
disordered conditions of the brain and heart. In fact, any kind of fit,
not attended with convulsions, and only lasting a short time, is called by
this name.

The most usual symptoms are the following : — The horse is perhaps
trotting along, when all at once he begins shaking his head as if the bridle
chafed his ears, which are drawn back close to the poll. The driver gets
down to examine these facts, and observes the eyelids quivering, and the
nostrils affected with a trembling kind of spasm. Sometimes the rest will
allow of the attack going off, but most frequently the head is drawn to one
side, the legs of that half of the body seem to be paralyzed, and the horse
making a segment of a circle goes down, lies a few minutes on the ground,
and then rises as if nothing had happened beyond a slight sweating, and
disturbance of the respiration.

Treatment can be of little avail, however, unless a correct diagnosis is
made, for remedies which would be suited to congestion would be prejudicial
to a diseased heart. If the attack has happened v/hile in harness, the
collar should always be carefully inspected, and if at all tight it should be
replaced by a deeper one. A " piped " collar, hollowed out, where it would
otherwise press upon the trachea, will enable many horses to work that are
otherwise liable to symptoms of brain pressure. Bleeding gives immediate
relief, and if the driver lacks the skill and nerve to operate on the jugular
vein he may prick the palate with his penknife. A dose of aloes should
follow, and constipation be guarded against by judicious dieting. Horses
liable to megrims are dangerous creatures to use, and ai'e constantly changing
hands at auction sales, where they become quite well known to habitues, who
like to ascertain each new pui'chaser's address for their own purposes, when
the owner discovers he has not drawn a prize and is willing to make a
sacrifice.

MAD STAGGERS

Phrenitis or Mad Staggers are terms used to denote delirium and
violence, which may arise from a variety of causes ; as a sequel to
inflammatory diseases, brain tumours, rupture of internal oi'gans, and
poisoning.

If the disease is caused by eating some toxic agent, as Indian vetches,

571 THE DISEASES OF THE HORSE

and the animal can be got at without too much risk, blood-letting is the
most likely thing to control the delirium, after which a bold dt se of aloes
may be given, but, as stated above, it is usually a sequel to some disease and
ends fatally.

SUNSTROKE

This disease is rare in England though not by any means unknown. The
condition is one of great prostration, and may be evinced by hanging the
head and blowing, or banging the head abbut and falling. When on the
ground the animal may struggle violently to get up again, and fail to do so,
as the hind-legs are paralyzed. Those cases in which the animal lies on his
side as if dead are the most likely to recover.

Treatment. — An ice-bag to the poll and cold w^ater afTusions over the
body and subsequent friction to the body and legs. A powerful stimulant,
as half-a-pint of brandy or whisky, should be given as soon as possible. A
cool and shady situation is desii'able, and if the patient cannot be moved
some sort of awning erected to keep off the direct rays of the sun. Horses
that have had one stroke are rendered more susceptible to the sun, and the
paralysis may to some extent remain after the severity of the attack has
passed away.

RABIES OR MADNESS

OxE REASON ONLY Can be given for describing this disease, which is
wholly beyond the reach of art ; but as the horse attacked by it is most
dangerous, the sooner he is destroyed the better ; and for this reason, every
person who is likely to have any control over him should be aware of the
symptoms. Rabies is not idiopathically developed, but must follow the
bite of a rabid animal. The dog, being constantly about our stables, is
the usual cause of the development of the disease, and it may supervene
upon the absorption of the salivary virus without any malicious bite, as
has happened according to more than one carefully recorded case. The
lips of the horse are liable to be ulcerated from the action of the bit, and
there is reason to believe that in the early stages of rabies these parts have
been licked by a dog, the saliva has been absorbed, and the inoculation has
taken place just as it w'ould do from any other wound. It is difficult to
prove that this is the true explanation of those cases where no bite has been
known to have occurred, but as the mouth has in each instance been shown
to have been abraded, there is some reason for accepting it as such. To
proceed however to the symptoms, Mr. Youatt, who had great opportunities
for examining rabies, both in the dog and horse, described the earliest
as consisting in "a spasmodic movement of the upper lip, particularly of the
angles of the lip. Close following on this, or contemporaneous with it, are
the depressed and anxious countenance, and inquiring gaze, suddenh', how-
ever, lighted up, and becoming fierce and menacing from some unknown
cause, or at the approach of a stranger. From time to time different parts
of the frame, the eyes, the jaws, particular limbs, will be convulsed. The
eye wall occasionally wander after some imaginary object, and the horse will

TETANUS— LOCK-JAW 575

snap again and again at that which has no real existence. Then will come
the irrepi'essible desire to bite the attendants or the animals within its reach.
To this will succeed the demolition of the rack, the manger, and the whole
furniture of the stable. Towards the close of the disease there is generally
paralysis, usually confined to the loins and the hinder extremities, or involv-
ing those organs which derive their nervous influence fi'om this portion of
the spinal cord ; hence the distressing tenesmus which is occasionally seen."
How paralysis can produce tenesmus is not veiy clear, but of the very general
existence of this symptom there can be no doubt.

A craving thirst with inability to drink may be a symptom, or, as in some
instances, a spasm may be induced by the sound of the bucket. Whenever,
therefore, these symptoms follow upon the bite of a dog, unless the latter is
unquestionably in good health, rabies may be suspected, and the bare sus-
picion ought alwaj-s to lead to the use of the bullet, which is the safest way
of killing a violent horse.^ There is only one disease {j^hrenitis) with which
it can be confounded, and in that the absence of all consciousness and, in
milder cases, of fear, so that no moral control whatever can be exercised,
marks its nature, and cleai'ly distinguishes it from rabies, the victim to which
is conscious to the last, and though savage and violent in the extreme, is
aware of the power of man, and to some extent under his influence.

TETANUS-LOCK-JAW

Tetanus, one form of which is known as lock-jaw, has its seat apparently
in the nervous system, but like many other diseases of the same class, the
traces it leaves behind are extremely uncertain, and are displayed more on
the secondary organs, through which it is manifested, than on those which
we believe to be at the root of the mischief. Thus the muscles, which have
been long kept in a state of spasm, show the marks of this condition in their
softened and apparently rotten condition. They, in fact, have had no interval
of rest, during which nutrition could go on, and have lost much of the
peculiarity of structure which enables them to contract.

The stomach often shows marks of inflammation, but as all sorts of violent
remedies are employed, this may be due to them rather than to idiopathic
disease. The lungs also are generally congested, but here, like the state of
the muscles, it may be a secondary effect of the long-continued exertions of
the latter, which nothing but the absence of all important lesions of the
brain and spinal cord would induce the pathologist to pay the slightest
attention to. It almost always follows some operation, or a severe injury
in which a nerve has been implicated, the most frequent causes being the
piercing of the sole by a nail, or a prick in shoeing, or the operations of
docking, nicking, castration, or accidental injuries, as broken knees.

Tetanus is now known to be due to a specific microbe, the tetanua
bacillus, and can be cultivated in the usual media and reproduced with
certainty.

21ie Symjdoms are a permanent rigidity of certain voluntary muscles, and
especially of the lower jaw (whence the popular name, lock-jaw). The mouth

■^ As rabies is now known to run its course and end fatally in less than ten days, the
afflicted horse may be given the benefit of the doubt, provided he is rendered secure
against inflicting injury upon his attendants or other animals.

576 THE DISEASES OF THE HORSE

is kept rigiilly shut, the masseter muscles feeUng as hard us a deal board.
One or both sides of the neck are rigid, in the former case tlie head being
tuined to one side, and in the hitter stretclied out as if carvt-d in marble.
Tiie nostrils aye diUited ; the eyes retracted, with the haws thrust forward
over them ; the cars erect and stiff, and the countenance as if horror struck.
The tail erect or persistently held on one side and partially elevated ; as
the disease progresses control of the extremities is lost, and then they become
rif'id, like the neck and head. The patient is scarcely able to stand, and plants
his feet widely apart to prop himself up. Tiic pulse varies a good deal, in
some cases being quick, small, and hard, and in others slow and laboured.
The bowels are generally costive, and the urine scanty; but this last symptom
is not so well marked as the state of the bowels alluded to.

Treatnient. — Anti-tetanin serum has not as yet proved a reliable remedy,
and we must be content to combat symptoms or else do nothing, the latter
policy being advocated by more than one eminent veterinarian ; cases of
recovery being recorded where the patient has been locked up in a loose box
with hay and water, no one being permitted to enter. The subcutaneous
injection of morphia and other sedatives has been tried ; the administration
of Indian hemp, chloral, sulphonal, bromides, and all the direct sedatives and
narcotics, but it is doubtful if any recoveries are due to the remedies em-
ployed. Any interference with the sufferer is calculated to bring on the
tetanic spasms. Chloroform inhaled subdues the spasm for a time, but it is
doubtful if any permanent benefit is derived from it.

APOPLEXY AND PARALYSIS

Usually these are only different degrees of the same disease, but there
are exceptions in which the latter is produced by some chronic affection of
the spinal chord or brain. As a rule both depend upon pressure made on
the brain by an overloaded state of the vessels, commonly known as con-
gestion, or by extravasation of blood, in which it escapes from them.

Apoplexy, known among writers of the old school as sleepy staggers, is
not often met with in the present day, owing to the improvement in the
management of our stables, and specially to their better ventilation. It is
marked by great .sleepiness, from which the horse can be with dilliculty roused,
soon going on to absolute unconsciousness, attended by a slow^ snoring respir-
ation, and speedily followed by death. The only treatment likely to be
successful is copious bleeding, purgation, and blisters to the head and neck.

Paralysis is marked by a loss of power over the muscles of a part, and
may be confined to one limb or organ or extend to more. It is a symj)tom
of pressure on, or disorganization of, soms part of the nervous system, and
must be considered as such, and not as a disease of the affected muscles.
Thus it requires a knowledge of anatomy to trace it to its seat, without
which its treatment would be conducted on false principles. By far the
most common form of paralysis is hemiplegia, or paralysis of the muscles
of the hinder extremities and loins, generally arising from an injury to
the spine. Sometimes the body of a vertebra is broken, and the parts being
separated, their edges press upon the spinal cord and produce the disease.
At others the vessels witliin the canal have received a shock, and the serous

STRING-HALT 577

membrane secretes (or allows to ooze out) a bloody fluid which presses upon
the cord, and produces the same effect but in a more gradual manner.

Whex a horse falls in hunting, and never moves his hind-legs after-
wards, but lies with his fore-legs in the position to get up, groaning and
expressing great pain and distress, it may be concluded that he has fractured
or dislocated his spine and that the case is hopeless. Sometimes, however,
after lying for a few seconds, he slowly and with ditHculty rises and is led
to a stable, but after two or three hours lies down and cannot be got up
again. Here there will be some difficulty in ascertaining whether the mis-
chief is confined to a strain of the muscles or is situated within the vertebral
canal. If the former is the case the pain is extreme, and generally there
will be some quivering or slight spasm of one or more of the muscles of the
hinder extremity, which feel naturally firm, while in paralysis they feel soft
and are as quiet as they would be after death. By attention to these signs
the two cases may be distinguished, but when the case is made out to be
true paralysis the treatment is not likely (even if successful in preserving
life) to bring about a useful restoration to healthy action. In valuable
horses an attempt may be made by bleeding, physicking, and blistering to
produce an absorption of the effused serum or blood, but the recovered
animal is seldom worth the outlay, and too often as soon as he is put to any
kind of work is subject to a relapse. The most humane and certainly the
most economical plan is to put him out of his misery at once by a pistol ball
or knife, but if it is determined to try what can be done towards efiecting a
cure, no better means can be adopted than those I have alluded to.

STRING-HALT

' This is a peculiar snatching up of the hind-leg, and is supposed to de-
pend upon some obscure disease of the sciatic nerve. It however is very
doubtful whether this explanation is well founded, and there is evidence that
in some cases the hock itself has been affected. The extensor pedis seems
to be the muscle most severely implicated, though not the only one which
is thrown into spasmodic action. No treatment is of the slightest avail.
Horses with string-halt are able to do any kind of work, but it is considered
to be a form of unsoundness.

578 THE DISEASES OF THE HORSE

CHAPTER XXX

DISEASES A\D INJURIES OF CERTAIN SPECIAL 0R0AN3

DISEASES OP THE EAR— DISEASES OF THE EYE — TORX EYEUDS — INFLAMMATION OF THE
EYES--PEniODIC OR CONSTITUTIONAL Ol'UTIIALMIA — CATARACT — AMAUROSIS —BUCK
EYE.

DISEASES OF THE EAR

Deafness is sometimes met witli in tiio horsr, l)ut I know of no s}'mptom.s
by Nvliieh its precise nature can be made out ; and \vithout ascertaining the
seat of the disease, it is useless to attempt to treat it.

Sometimes from a blow on tlie external ear inflammation is set up, and
an abscess forms ; but all that is necessary i.s to open it, so that the matter
can readily flow out as fast as it forms, without which precaution it will
not readily heal. Fistulous wounds are also met with and should be traced
to their source and laid open, unless the inner ear is involved, when operative
interference is not desirable. Keeping the meatus clean and using a little
antiseptic lotion, as carbolized oil or Condy's Fluid, is usually all that is
necessary, but sometimes these discharges are very offensive, and a veterinary
surfjeon should be asked to investigate the cause.

DISEASES OF THE EYE

Diseases of the eye and its appendages are happily of less frequent
occurrence in these days than they were under the old bad system of dark
and ill-ventilated stables. Still, accidents will happen, and we will briefly
glance at a few of the commoner ones.

TORN EYELIDS

Rarely does this occur at work, but as a result of ennui in stable or
paddock. Tlie veterinarian is frequently called in to patch up the most
ghastly-looking injuries, and it may be added with a very large measure
of success. In the stable the most frequent causes are nails in the walls or
mangers, splinters of wood, and rough edges against which the liorse rubs his
face. Hunters in going through fences may get injuries to the eyes, but
they are seldom torn.

Treatment consists in clearing the parts of any foreign body, and approxi-
mating the edges of the wounds by sutures as quickly as possible. A few
horses can be induced by the persuasion of the twitch to stand while this
operation is performed, and a painting of cocaine is a valuable aid, but with
well-bred or very irritable horses it is sometimes necessary to cast them in
order to get that perfect control which will enable the surgeon to bring the

INFLAMMATION OF THE EYE 579

lips of the wound together in sv;ch a manner as to avoid a "puckered"
appearance afterwards. No atom of torn lid should be excised, and the
most lacerated wounds should not be despaired of, as they have a wonderful
knack of " piecing up " at last, and only a little notch is usually left. A wet
pad of folded lint may be kept on by a very careful nurse, but if allowed
to get dry it will do more harm than good. The chief thing is to keep the
parts together, not even removing the clotted blood, which serves as a
bandage until some amount of granulation has taken place underneath.
The amateur's love of plaster is misplaced — it never answers upon a hairy
skin, and sutures are the only reliable means of mechanical adjustment. A
dark box is to be recommended in all cases of inflamed eyes or injuries to
their appendages.

INFLAMMATION OF THE EYE

Inflammation op the covering membrane, conjunctivitis, is not infrequent
and is very painful, sometimes leading to opacity and interference with
vision.

The causes are accidental, as from blows, the lash of the whip, hay seeds,
flies, or other foreign bodies getting within the lids, or from constitutional
causes as catarrh and influenza.

The Sijniptoms are drooping lid, extreme sensibility when approached
from the affected side, tears overrunning the cheek and intolerance of light.

Treatment. — The eye should be examined with the aid of cocaine solution,
and any foreign body deftly removed, frequently fomented with warm water
and a cooling dose of medicine given. A large cool and somewhat dark
box free from flies and dust should be provided, and the patient will probably
recover in a few days. If the whip has caused the trouble it may be found
in a day or so that there is a central spot of inflammation with a cloud
shading off" from it, and to prevent a permanent blemish it may be necessaiy
to excite the absorbents by introducing a weak solution of sulj^hate of zinc
or nitrate of silver. With the best of treatment a little nebula will often
be left, and although it may not be any detriment to the animal's vision it
depreciates his value and should not be disregarded in purchasing.

Injuries affecting the cornea and of a more severe nature than we have
supposed in the above paragraph, may result in an ulcer and possible escape
of the aqueous humour. These are capable of a good deal of amendment by
good treatment. The ulcers may be induced to heal by judicious touching
up with silver nitrate, and the aqueous humour will again fill up the
chamber. Some disfiguration will remain, but if the patient is not a hunter
and can see the ground uiider the scar he may remain as useful as before.

PERIODIC OR CONSTITUTIONAL OPHTHALMIA

This grave condition of the eye is fortunately becoming less common
than formerly. It appears to be hereditary and is prone to recur, ending at
last in blindness if the horse attains to old age. It not only affects tlie
conjunctiva and cornea but the middle eye, the iris becomes entangled in

5S0 TIIH DISEASES OF THE HORSE

bands of lympli wh'uh curtail its movements, and after repeated attacks
the Inimours become opaque and tlie lens is also involved.

S}/mj)toms. — These are very much like those of simple ophthalmia or con-
junctivitis but not perhaps so acute, more gradual in their manifestation
and more lasting. " Ten days in coming and ten days in going " is a
connnon estimate of its duration.

Treatment. — An aloetic ball, followed by small does of iodide of potas-
sium and the local treatment recommended for ordinary iiiilammation.
With a view to keeping the iris moving alternate doses of belladonna and
opium have been recommended.

CATARACT

C.VTARACT, or opacity of the lens, is very commonly the result of iritis,
its capsule having been coated with a layer of white lymph, deposited by
the inflamed vessels ; but it also sometimes makes its appearance without
being preceded by any of the signs of inllannnation. In the former case,
the early .symptoms are those of iritis ; but in the latter, the opacity often
goes on increasing, without the owner of the horse, or his groom, having his
attention drawn to the eyes, until he finds that he is nearly blind. This
progress is generally marked by the development of an unusual timidity ;
the previously bold animal is alarmed at objects advancing on the road, and
covered carts and Avaggons, of which he formerly took no notice, occasion him
to shy in the most timid manner. On examining his eyes carefull}', instead
of the beautifully clear pupil, with the reflection of tapetum hicidum shining
through it, there is seen either a mass of dull white, generally more opaque
in the centre, or an appearance of mottled, semi-transparent soap, or, lastly,
one or two distinct white spots, not quite circular, but with irregular edges.
In confirmed cataract, the white pupil can be seen at any distance ; but in
the very early stage, only a practised eye can detect the opacity, which,
however, is so manifest to him, that he wonders it is not visible to every
one else. The reason of this difficulty of detecting the alteration of structure
seems to be, that inexperienced examiners look at the eye in such a manner
that they are confused by the reflection on it of their own faces, hiding all
beneath. If, however, they will turn their heads a little more on one side,
this will disappear, and they cannot fail to perceive the disease. "When
cataract is clearly proved to exist, all idea of treatment may be abandoned,
as nothing but an operation can procure a removal of the opacity ; and that
would leave the horse in a more useless condition than before, since he
could see nothing clearly, and would only be subject to continual alarms.
In the human being, the operation is performed with great success, because
the lens which is sacrificed can be replaced externally by means of convex
glasses ; but in the horse, nothing of the kind can be done. Hence, it is
useless to dream of efiecting any improvement in this disease ; and if both
eyes are the subject of cataract, the horse is incurably blind. But supposing
there is a cataract in one eye only, is the other sure to go blind, or may a
reasonable hope be entertained of its remaining sound ] Here the history
of the disease must be examined before any opinion can be formed. If the
opacity followed an accident, there is no reason for concluding that the

AMAUROSIS 581

other eye will become diseased ; but if it came on idiopatliically, either
preceded by inflammation or otherwise, there is great risk of a repetition in
the sound eye. Nevertheless, instances are common enough of one eye
going blind from cataract, while the other remains sound to the end of life ;
and those are still more frequent in which the one sound eye continues so
for six or seven years.

AMAUROSIS

This is a palsy of the nervous expansion called the retina, produced by
some disease, either functional or organic, of the optic nerve, which is
generally beyond the reach of our senses, in examining it after death.

The Symjdoms are a full dilatation of the pupil, so that the iris is shrunk
to a thin band around it, and is so insensible to the stimulus of light, in con-
firmed cases, that, even when the eye is exposed to the direct rays of the
sun, it does not contract. In the early stages, this insensibility is only
partial ; and though there is such complete blindness that the horse cannot
distinguish the nature of suiTOunding objects, yet the pupil contracts
slightly, and the inexperienced examiner might pass the eye as a sound one.
The unnaturally large pupil, however, should always create suspicion ; and
when, on closing the lids and re-opening them in a strong light, there is
little or no variation in its size, the nature of the disease is at once made
apparent.

The Treatment of amaurosis must depend upon the extent to which it
has gone, and its duration. If recent, bleeding and a seton in close
proximity to the diseased organ will be the most likely to restore it.
Sometimes the disease depends upon a disor-dered condition of the stomach,
and then a run at grass will be the most likely means to restore both the
affected organs to a sound state. Generally, however, an amaurotic eye in
the horse may be considered as a hopeless case.

BUCK EYE

A BUCK EYE is, strictly, rather a congenital malformation than a disease ;
but practically, in reference to the utility of the animal, it matters little.
It depends upon an access of convexity in the cornea, by which the focus
of the eye is shortened too much, the image being thus rendered indistinct
as it falls on the retina. No treatment can be of the slightest use.

582 THE DISEASES OF THE llOKSE

CHAPTER XXXI

SKIN DISEASES

MANGE— MCE— POULTRY LOUSINESS— RINGWORM— ECZEMA— ITCHY TAH.— MALLENDERS
AND SALLENDERS— UARNESS GALLS AND SITFASTS— CUAITED OR CRACKED UEELS —
SWELLED LEGS— WARTS.

Many of these are troublesome and annoying both to the horse and his
rider, and the causes of some of them are still obscure. As they usually yield
to treatment, and it is not necessary for us to enter minutely into their
pathology, we will briefly consider those likely to be met with by the horse-
man

MANGE

Tins SCOURGE OF THE STABLE and of armies on the march, is caused by a
parasite similar to that Avhich causes itch in man, scab in sheep, and mange
in dogs. It is extremely contagious, and is communicable by stall-posts and
mangers as well as by actual contact of one animal with another. The
irritation which they set up is caused in their quest for food, as they first
bite the skin, and then introduce a poisonous principle which causes the
serum of the blood to come up in little vesicles, and upon these they feed.
There are three varieties of this insect with somewhat diflerent habits.

1. The Dermatodectes or Psoroptes is the most common in Britain.
These prick the skin only and revel in the scabs that result, the mane and
tail having a special attraction for them. A large proportion remaining on
the surface, their presence is easily determined by scraping and examining
with a lens of moderate power. The irritation set up is intolerablo, and the
host is to be found constantly rubbing against every available object until
the skin is hairless, raw and wrinkled. In some countries it is known as
" sweet itch," and its contagious nature not properly appreciated because the
habits of the parasite are such that he remains in a locality only so long as
there is plentiful food. In this respect he differs greatly from the second
variety, which is full of tcanderlust, and known as

2. Sarcoptes. — This is essential!}^ a burrower, not living on the surface,
but tunnelling in every direction, and the subject of his ravages may be
covered with mange in a week or two. The skin lias the appearance of
innumerable pimples, which, if carefull}' examined, will be foand to consist
of a tiny scab, to which a few hairs are adherent ; when scratched oflF a
small red sore is left. With constant rubbing the hairs come out, the skin
becomes wrinkled, dry, and shrivelled, and there is loss of condition and
spirits, as the victim gets little rest or sleep if badly attacked. As with all
parasites, whether of animals or plants, there are seasons in which they are
particularly active and aggressive, causing even the death of their hosts.
Among Shetland ponies, sarcoptic mange takes on such a severe form as from
time to time to destroy considerable numbers, and among the horses of a
great London distributing company a few years ago, a number died or had

LICE 583

to be killed from this cause. Experiments upon the humun skin have gone
to prove that, if transferred to it, the sarcoptes of the horse will live and
even multiply for a time, but not establish a permanent home.

3. The Symbiotes are not nearly so active, and affect chiefly the hairy
legs of heavy horses, seldom rising above the knee. They cause the animal
to rub one leg against the other and to stamp the ground, which is a symp-
tom of grease, and for which it is no doubt often mistaken.

Treatment. — For this disease we have fortunately a specific, discovered by
the old Friars, whose piety was more remarkable than their cleanliness.
Suli^hur is a certain cui'e for the itch of man, and making some time allow-
ance for hair and cuticular thickening in horses, we may make the same claim
for it, but it must be used in such a manner as to come into actual contact
with the enemy, who can also be attacked from within. A very good dress-
ing can be made by mixing together a gill of oil-of-tar, a quarter-pound of
sulphur (flowers of sulphur, also called sublimed sulphur), and half-a-gallon
of linseed oil ; olive or other seed oils are equally good, but expensive. This
may be applied with a water brush, a certain amount of friction being not
unwelcome to the patient, who will lean towards the hand that rubs him.
In an established case, when a lot of white, dry scab has become deposited
upon the sui'face, it may be necessary to first wash the horse with soft soap
and warm water to enable the lotion to penetrate. Paraffin is a popular
remedy, and effectual, but it is liable to blister, and if used should be diluted
with two or three parts of some bland oil, as linseed or cotton-seed oil, together
with sulphur. A second or third dressing should be used at intervals of
three or four days, as the eggs may not be destroyed, and a fresh crop result.

Sulphur may also be given internally, as it is exhaled by the skin,-"- and in
this way contributes towards the destruction of mange mites.

Sulphur and train-oil is an old remedy of repute, and mercurial ointment
or the compound sulphur ointment may do for circumscribed patches of the
first and third forms of mange.

All clothing should be destroyed unless it will admit of boiling. Harness
and saddlery is to be thoroughly dressed over with the lotion.

LICE

In former days lice were not uncommon in the horse, but they are
now comparatively rare. Still they are occasionally met with, and their
presence is readily ascertained, being of a considerable size, and easily seen
with the naked eye. They may be destroyed by rubbing into the roots of
the hair white precipitate, in powder, taking care to avoid sweating the
horse or wetting his skin for some days afterwards.

With farm horses, especially those which have wintered on barley straw,
there may be too many to deal with as above, and the patients should be
first washed on a sunny morning with soft soap and warm water, and after-
wards treated to a dressing of Jeyes' Fluid, in the proportion of one to fifty
of warm water, and then walked about until dry. If sufficient oil is used,
lice may be suffocated without any other dressing, but it takes a gi-eat

' Proof of this is given by the blackening of silver watches worn by persons taking
sulphur for some time.

^ Q Q

584 THE DISEASES OF THE HORSE

(luantity to saturate a long winter coat, and the creosote emulsion is the
cheaper and more effectual remedy.

POULTRY LOUSINESS

ALTiTOUon it is quite usual to have poultry among the horses of the farm,
and in some cases roosting in the stable, not to mention the perverse old hen
who will lay nowhere else but in a manger, and come flustering out when
the horse comes in, and this arrangement may exist for years without
trouble, yet every now and again horses become infested with poultry lousi-
ness, and suffer more irritation than with the species peculiar to themselves.
The same remedies will be found to answer as have been prescribed above.

RINGWORM

Any eruption upon the horse in the form of a broken circle is commonly
called by this name, but true ringwoi-m is caused by parasites. There ar«
two principal varieties, known as tinea tonsuroiis and favus ; they are both
contagious, and may also be transmitted to man ; a matter of quite common
occurrence in hot climates.

It affects the roots of the hairs, causing them to become brittle and fall
off. The ring which gives this disease its name in man is not so regular in
horses, and the fungus spreads in any direction. The middle portion, which
at first appeared sound, may presently be affected.

Treatment. — It is often troublesome to cure, and the more so because
some article of clothing, or maybe stable brush or rubber, has not also been
treated, or the bedding not destroyed. In one of the large London studs
this disease seemed as if it had come to stay, until moss litter was made to
give place to pine sawdust. There are many agents used in the destruction
of the troublesome fungus, which will subdue it at one time and fail at
another, and in such cases it is well to ring the changes. Jeyes' Fluid,
carbolic acid, picric acid, creosote, iodine, and all the mercurials have been
used with more or less success. Although it is usuall}" good treatment to
try mild remedies first, we would make an exception to ringworm, and first
paint the patches with tincture of iodine, and on alternate days rub in
citrine ointment (nitrate of mercury).

ECZEMA

Tnis NAME serves to describe any simple eruption characterized by watery
vesicles which break and leave more or less of a scab. They may be very
small individually, but coming in clusters and coalescing, form an unsightly
scab and some soreness. The parts most affected are the neck, breast, belly,
and thighs.

Causes. — These are usually thought to be chills to the skin when heated,
irritation from harness and clothing, infection, errors of diet, and possibly
parasites.

Treatment. — For a topical dressing carbolized oil one part in thirty

ITCHY TAIL 585

answers well enough, and is to be recommended in hot climates, where raw
surfaces are so likely to be poisoned by flies. A wash of glycerine and
Goulard water is also calculated to allay irritation and heal the abraded
surface. The diet should be carefully considei-ed, and any doubtful meal or hay
rejected and grass or bran mashes given, and a dose of aloes in the form of
a physic ball. The attack generally passes off in a few days under a suitable
regime.

There are some itchinesses, if we may be allowed to coin the term, which
do not fall into any of the squares marked out by pathologists, and treat-
ment must be experimental. Now and again a chronic case will suddenly
yield to washings with sulphuretted potash, and cover the prescriber with
glory, when all the Erasmus Wilsons of the stable have failed. It is a
filthy compound, but has a place in the Pharmacopoeia, and is used for some
intractable skin diseases of men.

ITCHY TAIL

This ANNOYma and disfiguring malady is one of the itchinesses which have
not yet had a parasite or a bacillus definitely assigned to it. Captain Hayes,
in his Veterinary Notes, throws a wide pathological net over it, thus — " The
animal is usually prompted to do this (rub the tail) by skin disease — •
parasitic or non-parasitic — of the part, or by reflex irritation, such as that
due to worms.'' If we add ennui nothing more need be said except how
best to allay the itching. Thoroughly washing with an abundance of soft
soap, and plentiful rinsings followed by a lotion composed of hydrocyanic
acid 2 drachms, solution of potash (liquor potassce) 4 drachms, and water
1 quart. This should be poured on to the tail while it is held up, so
that the lotion does not run off, but among the roots of the hairs.

If parasites are known to be within the rectum the usual remedies may
be adopted (see Bots). We have known horses to stop rubbing with no
other treatment but the introduction of a little lard or vaseline, when it
may be assumed that some dryness or itching within the spliincter has been
the cause of rubbing.

Bandaging the tail or encasing it with leather helps to preserve its
appearance, if it does little to stop the habit, but there is something, to me,
extremely ludicrous about a horse with his tail in what looks like a cax'bine
bucket, or even a bandage.

MALLENDERS AND SALLENDERS

These eruptions are both of the same nature, differing only in the locality
where they are displayed. The former shows itself in the flexure at the
back of the knee, and the latter at the bend of the hock.

The Symjitoms are shown in the appearance of a foul scurf mixed with a
few thin scabs, the skin underneath being stiff and unyielding. They are
generally brought on by washing the legs and leaving them undried.

The Treatment required is merely the application of the following ointment,
which should be well rubbed in every night : —

Take of Cerate of Superacetate of Lead 2 ozs.

Creosote 10 drops. Mix.

586 THE DISEASES OF THE HORSE

If the skin continues to be very hard and stiff, a little glycerine should
be brushed on two or three times a week.

There arc, however, constitutional cases of mallcnders where it is not
advisable to dry up the sore, as lameness is the allernative. The parts can
be kept clean and comfortable by the application of carbolic ointment or oil.

HARNESS GALLS AND SITFASTS

Mucn ANNOYANCK is caused the horse-owner Ijy galls protluced by saddleiy
and harness, and a good horseman will inspect it for himself from time to
time, so that no carelessness on the part of his servants shall throw a horse
out of W'Ork in this way. Some tender-skinned animals are so prone to gall
that no amount of care can prevent it at all times.

Symptoms. — When the skin is not broken and the injuiy not patent to all,
there may be only a crouching when the saddle is put on, or a swelling may
be found, hot, tender, and hard to the feel. The formation of matter may
follow, or instead, what is known as a sitfast.

Treatment. — Removal of the cause, fomentation or the application of cold
lotions on linen or other material that permits of evaporation. This treat-
ment will often disperse a gall if adopted early. If matter seems determined
to form it is well to encourage it by poulticing, and when ripe, introduce the
lancet and continue the poultices until the swelling subsides. No pressure
should be put upon the parts again until thoroughly healed.

Sitfast. — When the swelling is not absorbed nor an abscess formed, the
skin injui'ed may die, and lifting up round the edges continue to retain its
hold on the flesh iDy the central and li\ang portion. It is a troublesome and
tedious business waiting for it to come away, and no great harm is likely to
accrue if the impatient owner cuts it out, but he should take care that he
does cut it out and not off, or the delay will be all the greater. Whether by
time or force the removal of the dead skin is essential before any healing
can take place. Once removed the raw surface soon forms a healthy crust
and heals up.

CHAPPED OR CRACKED HEELS

The heel of the horse in health has a soft, unctuous feeling due to the
secretion of certain glands under the skin whose function it is to keep this
part supple during the many movements of the pastern and foot. From
causes to be presently named these become inflamed, the skin cracks and
lameness results, often accompanied with a good deal of pain and swelling.
If neglected it may run on to " grease " and the formation of warty excres-
cences known as grapes from a slight resemblance to that fruit in shape.

Causes. — When the weather is for a long time dry and dust is thick upon
the roads there is a continual shower of minute particles of powdered stones
being thrown upon the hairless portion of the pastern we call the heel, and
these summer cracks are often the worst of all to deal with. Long-con-
tinued wet weather, when wet instead of dry grit is in constant contact, and
evaporation goes on whenever the horse is at i-est. Snow and slush make
red the heel during exercise and cause it to crack when at rest. Cold winds,

SWELLED LEGS 587

washing the legs in the stable, or any of those causjs which roughen and chap
our own skins are liable to produce the same effects on the horse's heels.

Treatment. — Avoid washing the legs and feet, or if absolutely necessary
to do so, carefully dry them and anoint the heel with vaseline or any simple
ointment. Simple chaps may be cured by a wash made of glycerine and
water, by dusting over with flour and oxide of zinc, or by the application of
cai-bolized oil, but cracks may need a poultice if the heel looks red and angry,
and there is pain and lameness. A cooling dose of medicine may also be
desirable. The cracks themselves are apt to remain open when the surround-
ing inflammation has subsided. They take on the character of indolent ulcers
and need to be stimulated into reunion by the application of such agents as
nitrate of silver, sulphate of copper, etc., but these caustics should not be
too fi'eely used, as a crack that heals up too quickly is the more liable to
break open again. An excellent ointment for chaps and cracks is made of
cacao butter one part and vaseline five parts. Goulard's extract in linseed
oil is also a good application and especially suited to the inflamed heels pro-
duced by salt mixed with snow ; an abomination permitted on tramway tracks.
Grease, so often associated with cracked heels, or following upon them, is not
so much a disease of the well-bred horse as his hairy-legged brother in the
cart. It may be distinctly constitutional and hereditary, without chapped
or cracked heels, and when this is the case it is well to attack it from within.
Before any eruption is seen or abrasion of the skin manifest, there may be
stamping the ground and rubbing one leg over the other. This has been re-
ferred to in connection with, symbiotes (see Mange), and as the result of a
series of careful microscopic examinations, Mr. E. Martin, of the Royal Veteri-
nary College, is of opinion that many so-called cases of grease are the result
of these mange mites pricking for their food in cold weather, when the secre-
tions of the skin are not so abundant as to supply them with food.

Treatment. — Wash the legs with soft soap and water to ensure the
medicaments coming in contact v/ith the affected parts, and when nearly
dry rub in a lotion composed of —

Sulphate of Zinc 1 lb.

Sulphate of Iron 1 lb.

Sulphur' 4 ounces.

Carbolic Acid 4 ounces.

AVater 1 gallon.

Shake well and apply with a water-brush daily.

This has the effect both of repressing the fungoid growths and destroying

any parasites that may have their habitat among them. As an internal

remedy a ball twice a week may be given of the following ingredients : —

Sulphate of Copper 1 drachm.

Sulphur 4 drachms.

Nitre 2 drachms.

Treacle enough to form a bolus.

This may be varied with small doses of arsenic, but it is advisable in giving
such powerful drugs to act only under the advice of a skilled veterinarian.

SWELLED LEGS

Ordinary swelling op the legs, or cedema, occurs in every degree,
from a slight "filling,'' to which many horses are always subject whethe:

588 THE DISEASES OF THE HORSE

tlioy work or stand in the stable, to an enlargement extending up to the
stillos and elbows, somotimcs rendering the legs almost as round and as
hard as mill-posts. "When horses are first brought in from grass their
legs almost always fill more or loss, and until they are regularly seasoned
to their work there is seldom that clean condition of the suspensory
ligaments and back sinews which one likes to see even before the daily
exercise is given. The oedema appears to depend partly upon a deficient
action of the kidneys, but chiefly on the vessels of the legs not acting
sulficiently without constant walking exercise, such as is natural to the
horse when at liberty, and which he takes at grass. Half-an-hour's walking
will generally produce absorption completely, so that a daily remedy is
forthcoming.

2'he Treatment will greatly depend on the exact cause. If the swell-
ing is only due to the change from grass to the confinement of a
warm stable, time alone is wanted, taking care not to overwork the horse in
the meantime. Bandages will always assist in keeping down the swelling,
but they should not be used without necessity, as when once the horse
becomes accustomed to them his legs can hardly be kept fine without their
aid. If weakness is the cause, a drachm of sulphate of iron given in the
corn twice a day will often strengthen the system, and with it the legs.
Diuretics may be adopted as an occasional aid to the kidneys, but the}'
should be of the mildest kind, such as nitre, or they will do more harm, by
weakening the body generally, than good by their stimulus to the kidneys.
Indeed, they are often the sole cause of the legs filling, for some grooms use
them so continually, whether they are wanted or not, that the kidneys
become diseased and refuse to act, which is a sure foi'e-ruimer of oedema.
Where swelling of the legs is confirmed, bandages must be regularly applied.

WARTS

Warts are, generally, only to be considered as eyesores ; for, unless they
occur on the penis, they are not injurious to health ; nor do they interfere
with work unless they happen to appear on the shoulders beneath the collar
in a harness horse, which is very rare indeed. They are, doubtless, very
unsightly, and, for this reason, it is often desired to remove them, which
may be done by first picking off the rough outer surface, so as to make them
bleed, and then rubbing in, with a stiff brush, some yellow orpiment, wetted
with a little water. This will cause considerable inflammation, and in a
few days the wart will drop off, leaving a healthy sore, which soon heals.
Sometimes the whole wart does not come awa}' on the first application, in
which case a second must be made. When the glans penis is completely
covered with warts, the best plan is to amputate it, as it requires the
greatest caution and tact to remove them by arsenic or any other caustic
without destroying, also, as much of the penis as is taken away by the knife.

There are also to be met with, a variety of warts or encysted tumours
which may occur on any part of the body, but most frequently affect the
under surface of the belly and tliighs. They are easily I'emoved by cutting
through the skin and squeezing them out, as they liave no attachments,
being simply contained within a sac or cyst. No other treatment is needed

FEVEllS AND SPECIFIC DISEASES 589

CHAPTER XXXII

FEVERS AND SPECIFIC DISEASES

Sl'ECIFIC FEVERS — STABLE FEVEll — INFLUENZA — • STIIANGLES — BASTARD STRANGLES —
ANTHRAX, OR LOODIANA FEVER — SOUTH AFRICAN HORSE SICKNESS — GLANDERS — FARCY
— INFLAMMATORY (EDEMA, OR WATER FARCY — PURPURA HEMORRHAGICA — SCARLATINA
— AZOTURIA — RHEUMATISM.

Comparatively small causes give rise to increase of temperature in horses
and other symptoms of fever, as rigors, cold shivers, trembling, staring
coat, cold extremities, loss of appetite, increased number and diminished
force in the contractions of the heart whereby a small pulse is produced,
and if the thermometer be introduced into the rectum a rise of several
degrees above normal will be discovered. The temperature in health of the
average horse is about 99*5 degrees of Fahrenheit, and may vary in in-
dividuals from 1"5 above or below that. A slight chill from a change of
clothing, or standing in the wind when heated, a mild attack of indigestion,
sudden changes from the field to the stable, any of these things may induce
a simple attack of fever which may be evanescent in character, passing off
without any treatment or yielding to one of the ordinary fever draughts
which have so long been in use among horse-keepers. On the other hand
a rise of temperature may indicate some serious disease, and taken in con-
junction with other signs enable the attendant to diagnose the malady. The
experienced veterinarian will know how much importance to attach to a rise
of temperature, and its continuance for any length of time will put him on
his guard against some specific fever-disease. A sudden elevation of tempera-
ture, even to the extent of four or five degrees, may run down again in a few
hours, while a lower temperature maintained for a couple of days may be of
the most serious import. Temperature as indicated by the thermometer is a
valuable aid to diagnosis, but may easily lead the amateur astray if he be
not able to review the other symptoms of disease and appreciate their
siffnificanco.

SPECIFIC FEVERS

By these we mean such illnesses as follow upon the introduction into the
animal's system of disease germs which will produce certain definite diseases,
as glanders, influenza, anthrax, etc. Specific bacilli have been clearly
made out as the cause of glanders and anthrax, and it is only a question of
time and research when all the specific fevers will be known to be due to a
particular microbe. By further study of bacteriology there Avill doubtless
come a time when antagonistic microbes will be employed to cut short
the lives and prevent the multiplication of those germs responsible for
disease. Our present knowledge only enables us to select such agents as
we know to be prejudicial to germ life. First among these may be men-
tioned quinine, for without knowing what germs cause the many forms of

590 THE DISEASES OF THE HORSE

fever met with in tropicul cliiiuites we have blundered upon a remedy that
undoubtedly cuts them short. Carbolic acid, salicine, arsenic, and other
(h'ugs and suits have also a reputation in certain specific diseases.

STABLE FEVER

Ix all large towns, and particularly in old and crowded stables, there
appears to be an abiding fever germ which more or less affects new-comers
until they acquire immunity from it by one or more attacks.

The Symptoms are loss of appetite, hurried breathing, quick pulse,
increased internal temperature with extremities alternately warm and cold.

Treatment. — It may pass off without any, or develop a particular set of
symptoms, and no very definite rules can be here given.

In hot climates ^r.vLARiAL fever and relapsing fever are well known to
have a geographical distribution.

INFLUENZA

Tins is one of the specific fevers oidy too well known in the British
Islands, though appearing from time to time in different guises (see Chapter
XXVIL, page 539).

STRANGLES

This infantile disease is commonly contracted between the second and
fourth yQiiv of colthood, and varies in character in one season from that of
another, being apparently infectious among colts in ordinary j'cars, but
from time to time it assumes a severe form and attacks horses of all ages.
Beginning with a febrile attack, inappetence and the usual s}Tiiptoms of
sore throat, it soon runs on to the formation of an abscess between the
branches of the lower jaw which in course of time breaks, discharges a
(juantity of pus, and finally heals up if the colt does not succumb to
complications or starvation from inability to eat.

Symptoms. — If at grass, the colt ceases to play and stands about with
an appearance of general depression, attempts to graze but soon relinquishes
the effort owing to the pain of holding his head down. When brought into
the stable the symptoms common to sore thi-oat are observed, tenderness
about the space under the jaws, and more or less swelling of the glands
there situate. There is more or less fever as indicated by the thermometer.

Treatment. — The disease must run its course, and if it were possible to
arrest it, the procedure would not be advisable. It is desirable to encourage
the formation of an abscess. With the undisciplined colt we have to con-
tent ourselves with one or two stimulating applications such as turpentine
and oil or ammonia liniment, but with horses pi'operly broken, continuous
poulticing offers the best prospect of early suppuration, besides giving a
good deal of relief to the painful swelling. As soon as a soft place or
" point " is discovered, it may be opened with the lancet and the contents

ANTHRAX OR LOODIANA FEVER 591

allowed to escape. This operation should never be undertaken prematurely,
and some veterinary surgeons go so far as to prefer letting it break of its
own accord, but the proper time being chosen to make an incision there isi
undoubtedly an advantage in releasing the pus and enabling the animal to
feed again, and so save some days of vinnecessary suifeinng and loss of
strength. A simple digestive ointment such as the resin ointment of the
Pharmacopceia will help the wound to take on healthy action, and the
majority of cases will require no further treatment, granulation taking place
rapidly ; subsidence of the glandular enlargements, and a return to health
may be assisted, however, by mineral tonics, as sulphate of iron in drachm
doses daily in the food.

BASTARD STRANGLES

In older horses a milder form of strangles is met with and still passes
under the name given above. The disease is very similar, but usually
affecting only one side of the space under the jaw, the abscess being com-
paratively small and the constitutional disturbance less severe. The same
treatment may be recommended as for ordinary strangles.

ANTHRAX, OR LOODIANA FEVER

This disease is met with in many parts of the world, being common in
tropical climates, and comparatively rai"e in Britain. In India it is well
known by the second of the two names given above, and is prevalent in the
Bengal Presidency and in Burmah. It is commonly divided into two varieties
according to the parts it affects, but is always due to the anthrax bacillus.
When affecting the throat and involving the tongue it is called gloss-anthrax
or thoracic, and if the viscera are its centre it may be described as
abdominal.

Symptoms. — Sudden loss of appetite, extreme prostration, pulse quick and
feeble, membranes a yellowish or orange red, breathing hurried and shallow,
while the nostrils are dilated. The temperature has been known to reach
108°, while 107° is quite common. The distress increases until the animal
falls and dies.

Treatment. — In England no treatment is or should be attempted, as anthrax
is one of those contagious diseases where slaughter and burial six feet deep
are prescribed by law. If the so-called cures occasionally reported in this
country were investigated, they would probably turn out to be glossitis or
inflammation of the tongue from traumatic causes.

Major Fred Smith, who has had much experience in India, recommends
giving one ounce carbolic acid in a quart of water, and a drachm every hour
afterwards as long as required. If tumours appear, they may be laid open
and the interior dressed with neat carbolic acid. Half-ounce doses of iodine
given in form of ball are also recommended every four hours.

592 THE DISEASES OF THE HORSE

SOUTH AFRICAN HORSE SICKNESS

In many ukspects this resembles antlirax, but Majur Nuiin, who was sent
out to the Cape to investigate it, only found the anthrax bacillus, or a similar
one, after death, and that the spleen was nearly normal instead of, as in true
anthrax, containing tarry fluid and being enormously distended. The
pathology of African horse sickness is therefore undecided, but its distribu-
tion is much wider than was supposed when first it was noticed at the Cape.
The Italians at Massowah suffered from it, and it is known well among the
Dervish cavalry. Horses that have survived it are comparatively immune
and much valued, especially by travellers into the interior, who need " salted "
animals more than any one else.

GLANDERS

Tins FRIGHTFUL CONSTITUTIONAL DISEASE is due to a specific bacillus
gaining access to the blood. It is incurable, and therefore it is only necessaiy
to study its symjitoms, with a view to distinguish it from ozena, with which
alone it is liable to be confounded. Its chronic character and insidious
onset will serve to distinguish it from catarrh and strangles.

At its commencement it seems to be confined to the internal lining of
the nostrils, which is not reddened, as in chronic catarrh (ozena), but presents
a leaden or purple colour, sometimes of a deep shade, but at first generally
very light and pale. This is accompanied by a thin acrid discharge, trans-
parent, and without odour. Generally, one nostril only is affected, which in
this country is more frequently the left, and in France the right ; but why
this should be so has never yet been even conjectured Avith any appearance
of probability. This state of things usually only lasts for a few weeks, but
it may go on for an indefinite time, and is recognized as the first stage,
during which the health does not suffer, and the horse can, and of ten does,
go on with his ordinary work. It may be distinguished from ozena by the
purple colour of the lining membrane, and by the transparency and freedom
from smell of the discharge.

In the second stage the discharge increases in quantity, and though
still watery and transparent, it is slightly sticky, indicating the presence of
mucus. The lymphatic glands below the jaw enlarge, and become adherent to
the hone, feeling hard to the touch, and almost like exostoses. Here the
permanent character of the discharge and the adherence of the glands to the
bone are the diagnostic signs and distinguish it from ozena.

In the TiiniD stage the discharge increases rapidly, and becomes yellow
and opaque — in fact, it is pure pus. If the nose is carefully examined, its
lining membrane will be seen to present one or more sores, with depressed
centres and ragged edges, and surrounded by small varicose vessels leading
to them from all directions. The appetite fails — the horse loses flesh and
spirits — the coat is turned the wrong way — the skin is hide-bound, and the
legs fill slightly during the day, but go down at night — the nose is, at last,
frightfully ulcerated, the sores spreading to the larynx — ulcers break out on
the body — and the horse finally dies, worn to a skeleton.

FARCY 593

When the diagnosis of the disease is confirmed, as it is undoubtedly highly
contagious, both to other horses and to man himself, the patient must be
destroyed.

Doubtful cases are now decided by veterinaiy surgeons by the injection
of a cultivation known as Mallein. It is on the principle of tuberculin, at
which " all the world wondered " when the German Emperor forced the
hand of Dr. Koch and the press lost its head. Unlike tuberculin, however,
it is a reliable test and a means of preventing untold animal suiFeiing and
pecuniary loss to owners of horses.

FARCY

Is A SIMILAR DISEASE to glanders, ultimately developing into it, and so long
as farcied horses are kept alive glanders will be always with us. If the
reader desires to possess himself of all the infonnation obtainable and in a
condensed form, he should read Mr. Hunting's treatise on glanders and farcy,
when he can hardly fail to be a convert to that eminent veterinary surgeon's
views with regard to stamping it out. Farcy used to be considered amenable
to treatment, and was certainly kept in check for a very long time by the
use of drugs we need not name, and by the application of the hot iron to
the so-called " buds " which form in the course of the lymphatics, especially
of the hind limbs and on their inner aspect.

The Symptoms differ from glanders in not at first affecting the x'espiratory
tract or that part of it which is visible, swelling of a hind-leg being a common
warning of what may be expected, as also loss of condition and continued
febrile symptoms. The owner of an animal having any doubt in his mind
should call in an expert without delay and not tinker with a malady so
dangerous. The only disease it is likely to be mistaken for is inflammatory
oedema, which the old farriers called " water farcy."

The probable effect of the Glanders and Farcy Order of 1894 may be
gathered from a perusal of the annexed report presented to the Public Control
Committee of the London County Council. It is taken from The Field of
July 18, 1896. It (the order) requires the local authorities to slaughter
every glandered horse and to pay the owner compensation of not less than £2
or not more than a quarter the value of the animal before it became affected.
It also gives power to slaughter suspected animals, with the consent of the
owner, subject to the payment of full value as compensation if on post-mortem
examination the animal is found not to be glandered. The following reso-
lutions were passed by the Council for giving effect to the order : That every
horse, ass, or mule certified by a veterinary inspector to be diseased under
the Glanders or Farcy Order of 1894 be slaughtered as provided for in such
order, and every such veterinary inspector is hereby authorized and required
to cause the slaughter of every such diseased animal. That the sum of £2
be paid as compensation to the owner of every diseased horse, and the sum
of 1 Os. to the owner of every diseased ass or mule which has been slaughtered
in pursuance of Ai'ticle 13 of the Glanders or Farcy Order of 1894, except
in cases where there is reason to believe the owner knew of the existence of
the disease and failed to give notice thereof. That a post-mortem examina-
tion be made by one of the Council's veterinary inspectors of the carcass of

594 THE DISEASES OF THE HORSE

every animal certified to be diseased and slauglitered in pursuance of Article
13 of the Olanders or Farcy Order of 1894, and that the results of such
post-mortem examination be reported to the committee, but not communi-
cated to owners unless under the committee's authority. That the chief
oflicer do report to the committee any suspected cases of glanders where he
considers it desirable that the suspected animal should, with the consent of
the owners, be slauglitered under the powers given by Article 13 of the
Glanders or Farcy Order of 1894. The Council's veterinary surgeons were
required to take all the measures in their power to free their districts from
glanders, to keep all suspected stables and all stables in which disease had
existed within fifty-six days under observation, and to visit them fortnightly
and carefully examine the horses therein, and especially horses that might
have been in contact. Whenever a horse was suspected by the inspector,
whether because of outward indications or because it had been working with
or standing near to glandered horses, or for any other reason, it was marked
"suspected," and whenever possible isolated from other horses. In doubtful
cases the inspector was authorized, where he considered that course desirable,
to advise the owner to cause suspected horses to be properly injected with
mallein, and to adopt the precautions set out under the head " injection of
mallein " issued by the Council. The committee desired it to be distinctly
undex'stood that the employment of mallein injections for the purpose of
diagnosis of glanders shoidd rest entirely upon the advice and responsibility
of the veterinary inspector. The committee now reported that they had
had before them reports from the chief officer of the Public Control Depart-
ment showing the effects of the measures taken. These reports showed that
during the year, from November 19, 1894, to November 18, 1895, the total
number of glandered horses slaughtered was 1067, which was an increase
on the previous year, when the numbers were 968. The chief officer,
however, pointed out that the increase was more than accounted for by
the increasing use of mallein with suspected or in-contact horses, as during
the last six months alone 130 cases of disease had been diagnosed after the
injection of mallein. The chief officer also pointed out that one reason for
increase might be found in the importation of infected horses from Canada
and America. In October last, in a consignment of 64 horses which
reached Willesdcn from Canada, nine were found to be glandered, and
ordered to be slaughtered by the Middlesex County Council. As a large
proportion of the imported horses were purchased for use in London, it might
reasonably be inferred that some of the disease in London was due to that
source. The following statement showed the number of cases of glanders
which occurred in London in the two years before and the two years after
the passing of the order :

From Nov. 19, 1892, to Nov. 18, 1893 1734

From Nov. 19, 1893, to Nov. 18, 1894 986

From Nov. 19, 1894, to Nov. 18, 1895 1067

In the six months from November 19, 1895, to i\Iay 18, 1896, 414
cases of glanders were reported, of which 143 were diagnosed by the aid of
mallein. The committee had had the following documents before them,
which contained suggestions for the payment of increased compensation for
the purpose of inducing owners to take prompt measures for the discovery

INFLAMMATORY (EDEMA, OR WATER FARCY 595

of disease and the slaughter of suspected horses : Resolutions signed by
eighty-five of the largest horse-owners in London ; memorial from forty-five
Metropolitan veterinary surgeons ; and a letter from the London General
Omnibus Company. They had given careful consideration to the suggestions
made, but were not prepared at present to recommend any departure from
the practice adopted with regard to the payment of compensation. The
experience gained in the administration of the order had, however, confirmed
their opinion of the desirability — which they had on more than one occasion
urged upon the Board of Agriculture — of provision being made for (1)
Compulsory notification by veterinary surgeons of cases of glanders within
their knowledge, and (2) inspection and sanitary supervision of trade stables.
The committee further stated that they were also of opinion, having regard
to the statement in the chief ofiicers' reports as to the importation of in-
fected horses, that precautions should be taken against that source of
infection by requiring statutory evidence of freedom from disease before
horses were allowed to be imported. They had accordingly asked the
President of the Board of Agriculture to receive them as a deputation, in
order that they might lay before him a statement of their views.

The use of mallein has had a quite unexpected eflfect in spreading glanders.
Infected studs have been submitted to the test and a weeding process
pursued, the suspects being sent to auction sales, the moderately affected
kept at work, and stabled apart from the healthy, while the seriously ill
have been slaughtered after proof to the local authority. While a local
authority allows but .£2 for a clinically affected animal, a quarter value is
given for those apparently well but proved to be infected when voluntarily
submitted to the mallein test.

INFLAMMATORY (EDEMA, OR WATER FARCY

Inflammatory (Edema, "Monday morning leg," "weed," and some other
local names are given to a painful and swollen condition of a limb, moi'e
frequently a hind one, which has been erroneously called water farcy as
distinguished from true farcy. There is no connection, and the term is
only used here for convenience of the amateur who might not look for it
under its more scientific name.

Causes. — Over-feeding and insufficient exercise will account for most cases
among light horses, but with the heavy breeds, confined in town stables and
fed on beans, maize, and other highly-nitrogenous foods, there is an inability
to carry off effete material when the exercise ceases, even for a day or two.
The comparatively slow circulation in heavy horses and the less judicious
keepers may have something to do with it. It has been called Monday
morning disease, as after the day of rest it most frequently appears. No
great stud of draught-horses is exempt, especially after the enforced idleness
of public holidays. When these cause a cessation of work the opportunity
is generally taken of giving the physic balls for which several members of
the stud have been qualifying.

SymiJtoms. — Sudden and great swelling, which generally takes place in
the night. Extreme tenderness to the touch, some blowing, and perhaps
inappetence. On the limb being felt, the afflicted animal will sometimes

596 THE DISEASES OF THE HORSE

catch it up with so violent a jerk as to raise fears lest lie will fall down.
There is generally a clearly-defined portion of the limb afTected, above which
the patient is not sensitive. It has the appearance of having a cord drawn
round, at or near the gaskin, or in a front-leg just below the elbow. Its
sudden and acutely i)ain{ul nature serves to distinguish it from farcy or the
simple (edematous swelling of dcbilit}-.

Treatment. — A dose of physic, as juuch as seven or eight drachms to a
shire or dray-horse. Frequent fomentations with warm water, to which
Goulard's extract and glycerine has been added. As the pain is in the
distended skin, relief may be expected from anything that relieves the tension,
hence oily applications and ointments made from colt's foot or " grasshoppers "
have that efltect, the benefit being derived from the ointment base and not
the ingredients. As soon as the physic has excited the absorbents to renewed
activity the acute symptoms may be expected to abate, and not until then
should exercise be prescribed, as the acute pain caused in moving the limb
more than counteracts any possible benefit from it.

Diuretic medicines, as resin and nitre, are both curative and preventive,
and their use can hardly be objected to where horses are habitually fed with
too much corn in order to make them round and big. It is the price of
plethora.

In the country this disease is sometimes met with in under-fed and old
animals, and bears the relationship of " poor man's gout " to the " pains
arthritic that infest the toe of libertine excess." Tonics, as sulphate of iron
and copper, nux vomica and gentian, with a more liberal diet, may in such
cases prove helpful.

PURPURA HiEMORRHAGICA

This is a disease of the blood, wdiich appears to undergo some sort of
decomposition, either as the result of bad sanitation or following upon
some exhausting disease, as strangles and influenza. It is not considered
infectious.

Symptoms. — Sudden swellings about the head and face, neck, breast, or
belly, with more or less fever and great debility, while constipation is gener-
ally present. Small purple spots the size of a flea-bite may be seen on the
membrane inside the nostrils. The urine is very dark-coloured. The swell-
ings may suddenly disappear, and others come up on different parts of the
body, and the animal die when to all appearance he is convalescent.

Treatment. — To arrest the rupture of the red blood corpuscles and assist
the emunctories in getting rid of effete matter is our object. Until quite
recently the treatment generally recognized as the most successful was fre-
quent dosing with perchloride of iron and turpentine, but this has been
almost superseded by iodine in some form or other. Injection into the
trachea was first recommended, but has given place to the administration of
iodide of potassium in solution, in doses of about half-an-ounce every four
hours. The bowels should be kept open with clysters, and if the appetite
is retained a laxative diet consisting of bran, carrots, linseed, and cut
grass.

AZOTURIA 597

SCARLATINA

It must not be supposed that this disease resembles the fever ijnown by
that name in man, nor is it communicable from the horse. It is akin to
purpura, showing the spots (petechice) on the membranes and swellings
about the body, but with this difference : the petechise are scarlet instead
of purple, and the swellings small and exuding a serosity like that of
a blister. Sore throat is a prominent symptom in scarlatina and an excep-
tional one in purpura.

Treatment. — Good nursing and sanitaiy surroundings, freedom from
draughts and avoidance of chills being most important. Chlorate of
potash as a blood oxidizer is most in favour, and may be given in two
drachm doses for several days, followed by mineral acids and quinine or
gentian and calumba, if there is digestive feebleness.

AZOTURIA

Is THE RESULT of dietetic errors, and characterized by spasm and paralysis
of the hind-quarters, which comes on very suddenly when at work. It was
formerly called hysteria, as it was first observed in mares, but is not confined
to one sex. As a consequence of high feeding and incapacity to ajDpropriate
the rich products in the blood, a form of self-poisoning ensues, which in
some respects resembles both gout and lumbago in man.

Symjytoms. — Sudden and acute lameness, followed by complete failure of
the hind-quarters within a few seconds of what seems to be a false step.
The subject has probably travelled but a short distance, after a few days'
idleness in the stable, when this occurs. The pain evinced is very acute,
and the animal wears an agonized and often angry expression. It is with
great difficulty he is walked home, and it is probable that some horses are
slaughtered under the impression that the back is broken. The urine is very
dark-coloured and, if tested in the usual way, shows a great quantity of urea
and of hippurates, besides, in some cases, albumen.

Treatment. — Remove with care to the nearest available stable and support
in slings. Give a bold dose of aloes, back-rake and wash out the bowel with
clysters of soap and water. A pillow-case, full of scalded bran, laid over the
loins appears to give relief, but no blistering agents should be applied. If
the urine is not passed — its scalding quality and the difficulty of posturing
induces the animal to retain it — the catheter should be used to draw it off.
Bleeding from the jugular vein is recommended early in the attack, and
without waiting for the operation of the aloetic purge, half-ounce doses of
salicylate of soda may be given three times in twenty-four hours. The
debility produced in a short time is so great that a low diet should not be
prescribed when the animal has recovered sufficiently to desire food. Exer-
cise should be confined at first to a few minutes' walking, and increased
daily.

Bad attacks often leave permanent lameness or " catching " of one limb,
and the patient is predisposed to a recurrence of it.

598 THE DISEASES OF THE HORSE

RHEUMATISM

Although this is a convenient term used to describe obscure lameness, it
is very doubtful if genuine rheumatism is ever met with in horses. That is
to say, the rheumatic aflfection which in men and carnivorous animals is
accompanied with acute fever. The sudden transference of pain and lame-
ness from one limb to another is suggestive of rheumatism both in the
muscles and joints.

Treatment. — Local stimulation with soap liniment, white oils or turpentine
diluted with seven parts of an}" blund oil. Salines or the salicylate of soda
internally in doses of two to four drachms twice daily.

CHAPTER XXXIII

DISEASES OP THE FEET

CORNS — SANDCRACK — FALSE QUARTER— QUITTOn—TIIUUSII— CANKER— LAMINITIS — SEEDY
TOE — BRITTLE FEET — VILLITLS — TREAD — PRICKED FOOT— CONTRACTION OF THE FOOT —
NAVICULAR DISEASE — ACCIDENTS TO THE LEGS AND FEET.

CORNS

These troublesome results of bad shoeing, or subsequent neglect of the
feet, make their appearance in the sole of the foot, in the angle formed
between the crust and the bar (see Fig. 1 18 (e E,) Chap, xxxviii.). Where the
foot is properly prepared for the shoe, and the smith seats the heel of the
crust and the bar on a level surface, no corn will make its appearance
in a healthy foot ; but if a corn has previously existed, or if the shoe is
allowed to press upon the sole at this point, the delicate blood-vessels
of the sensible sole are ruptured, and, instead of secreting a sound horn,
capable of bearing the slight strain upon it which is required, a fungoid
growth is formed, presenting a reddish appearance, and exquisitely sensitive.
This morbid substance does not at all resemble the hard corn of the human
subject, which is a thickened secretion of cuticle, but it bears some com-
parison with the soft corns that form so often between the toes, and give so
much trouble in their removal. It is, in fact, a new growth, of a semi-
fungoid character, partly made up of granulations and partly of horny
matter, the two being closely united. The corn may arise from improper
pressure made on this part of the sensible sole, either directly from the
shoe, or indirectly by pressing a thin brittle crust inwards upon it. Generally,

CORNS 599

however, it is met with at the inner heel, from the shoe being overgrown
by that part of the foot when kept on too long. The outer nails do not
allow it to work in the contrary dii"ection, and if there is a clip on the
outer quarter this is rendered still more improbable. If, therefore, shoeing
is properly managed, corns may always be prevented, and we shall see in
the directions for shoeing, at Chapter xxxviii., how this is to be managed.
At present I have to consider how they are to be relieved or cured when
they are already established.

The ordinary mode op treating corns is simply to cut them out,
leaving the bar and heel of the crust full, and thus taking all pressure off
them. This enables the horse to do his work for about ten days, but then
the shoe must be removed, and the paring-out repeated, a process which
weakens the already weak crust by making additional nail-holes in it. The
shoe at the same time is generally " sprung," that is, it is so bent or filed
that the heel does not fully bear upon it ; but this does not last many
hours, and is of little real utility. The plan answers well enough for the
purposes of fraudulent sellers, as the horse runs sound for about ten days ;
and when he fails, and on taking off his shoe he is discovered to have a
corn, it is impossible to prove that it existed at the time of sale by any
evidence but that of the smith who shod him previously to it. Excepting,
therefore, in very slight and recent cases, in which it will sometimes be
followed by success, this plan of treatment is only palliative, and what is
worse, it tends to increase the weakness of the foot and consequent tendency
to the disease.

For the curative plan we must do something more than merely take
the pressure off the sole ; the bar and heel of the crust must also be relieved,
and the sensible sole must be stimulated, by a proper application, to secrete
healthy horn, as well as by pressure on the frog. If the horse is to be
rested, this can be done easily enough by taking off his shoes, but he may be
kept at work by putting on a bar shoe (Fig. 123, Chap, xxxviii.), and cutting
down the bar and crust, so as to throw all the pressure off them upon the
frog. A double purpose is effected in this way. First, the sensible sole is
relieved of the constant pressure which the crust bears upon it laterally ;
and, secondly, the jar on the frog, communicated through the shoe, from the
ground, induces a healthy action in the foot, and the sole has a greater
tendency to secrete healthy horn. There is no doubt in my mind that all
horses would work much better, and keep their feet in much sounder con-
dition, if their frogs could be brought into use, without being guarded as
they are by the ordinary shoe. This part is intended by Nature to take
upon itself great pressure ; and if it has not its natural stimulus it becomes
weak itself, and, moreover, it does not stimulate the surrounding parts to a
Iiealthy action, as it ought to do. The bar shoe is inconvenient for many
purposes, and, therefore, it is not generally applied ; but as a curative agent
these objections are to be disj)ensed with, and then it will be found to be
extremely valuable, not only in relieving the diseased part (the corn), but
in giving a healthy action to its seat, the sole. The smith should therefore
pare down the crust at the heel, so that when the bar shoe is applied it will
allow a penny-piece to be insinuated between the two surfaces. With this
the horse does his work comfortably on the road ; and in process of time,
that is, in two or three months, the heel grows up, and takes its own share

R R

600 'IHE DISEASES OF THE HORSE

of pressure, or a part of it, becoming gradually accustomed to the amount
Avliich it will have to bear when the bar shoe is discontinued. In the mean-
time a little of the following lotion ma}' be applied daily to the situation of
the corn by means of a feather : —

Take of Chloride of Zinc 1 tliaclnii.

Water G ozs.

Glycerine 2 ozs. Jlix,

In every case the bar shoe must be continued until tlirlicd of the crust and
the bar grow down strongl}- ; and then a common shoe may be applied, as
directed in Chap, xxxviii.

SANDCRACK

In the anatomical description of the foot, at page 383, it will be seer
that the crust is composed of fibres, running pai-allel to each other in i
direction from the coronet to the ground surface These fibres are glued
together firmly in a sound and strong hoof; but, in a weak one, it some-
times happens that the gelatinous matter is not in sufiicient quantity, and
then the fibres separate, and leave a crack of greater or less extent, accord-
ing to circumstances. This, called a sandcrack, happens at the thinnest
part, which is the inner quarter in the fore-foot, and the toe in the hind.
7'o cure it, the foot must be rested, or at least that part of it where the
crack occurs, which in the fore-foot may be effected by the use of a bar
shoe, throwing the pressure entirely on the frog, as recommended in the last
section on corns, and taking care that the crust behind the crack is not in
contact with the shoe. By adopting this plan, I have succeeded in curing
sandcracks during moderate work ; but if it happens in the hind-foot, com-
plete rest must be given, as the toe cannot be I'elieved by any possible con-
trivance. The next thing to be done is to open the crack slightly, so that
any grit getting into it shall not cause its further expansion ; and in doing
this, if there is any little cellular cavity, it should be exposed. If the crack
extends to the coronet, a V-shaped groove should be made in the hoof with
the firing-iron, the apex pointing to the ground and the lines terminating
on either side of the breach in the coronary band. A mild blister may
from time to time be applied to the coronary secreting surface, when the
hoof may be expected to grow down and the crack gradually disappear.
The Y has the effect of diverting concussion from the w'eakcst spot. The
jar can also be reduced by cutting out a little hollow at the other end
of the crack. In this way horses may be kept at work while the new
material is forming. It takes about a year to grow down, but horses vary
much in the rapidity with which their hoofs grow.

To prevent falling in or lapping over of the- edges, a wedge is sometimes
fitted into the space, and Mr. South, of Now ]>ond Street, London, has in-
vented an ingenious contrivance for the purpose.

QUITTOR 601

FALSE QUARTER

When, from an accident, the coronary substance is permanently injin-ed,
it ceases to secrete sound horn, and a strip of the crust, defective in strengtli,
runs all the way down from the coronet to the plantar edge. This generally
happens at the inner quarter, and is owing to the horse treading on his
coronet ; but it may also occur on the outside, either from the tread of
another horse, or from some kind of external violence. The result is
similar to that of a sandcrack ; there is no strength in the affected heel, and
lameness is produced.

The Treatment is very much the same as for sandcrack. In the first
place, the pressure must be taken off the quarter, and a bar shoe applied,
so as to convey the weight on the frog, as described under the head of
Sandcrack. The heel of the affected quarter should be lowered, and thus
further injury will be prevented. The next thing to be done is to stimulate
the coronet to a healthy action by blistering it, which must be done two
or three times, taking care that the blister ia not of too violent a nature,
and that the skin heals before a second is applied. By these means, a cure
may sometimes be effected ; but it takes a considerable time, and until the
quarter is reproduced in full strength, or nearly so, the bar shoe should be
continued. By its use, any horse with a sound frog can travel very well
on the road, even if the quarter is entirely and permanently separated from
the toe by inefficient horn ; and without it, the chance of a cure is not to
be reckoned on.

QUITTOR

By this term is understood a chronic abscess of the foot, the matter
always forming sinuses, from the difficulty which Nature has to overcome
in finding a way for it to reach the surface. Generally, the mischief is
occasioned by an overreach, or a bruise of the sole, or by the inflammation
resulting from a neglected corn, or from a nail-prick. From any of these
causes, inflammation of the delicate investment of the coffin-bone is set up,
pus is secreted, and, in woi^king its way to the surface, it burrows between
the horn and the bone, and forms one or more sinuses, or pipes, as these
fistulous tubes are called by the farrier. A quittor is recognized by the eye
and nose detecting an opening in the horn, from which a foul discharge
proceeds ; and on introducing a probe, it will generally pass freely in two
or three directions, sometimes giving a grating sensation to the finger, show-
ing that the bone is denuded, and most probably carious. There is generally
a considerable increase of temperature in the foot, and always more or less
lameness, with, in most cases, swelling of the bulbous heels and coronet.
On examining the sole carefully, some part will either show a difference of
colour from the adjacent horn, or there will be a yielding on pressure, owing
to its being undermined.

The Treatment must be conducted on the same principle as for fistulous
wounds. In the first place, a dependent oj)ening must be formed, so that no
matter shall be confined, but it shall be allowed to come away as fast as it

602 THE DISEASES OF THE HORSE

forms. Tliis can only bo done l^y probing ; and if tho original oponing is
in tlie coronet, the probe must be passed down as low as possible, and then
the sole should be pared away till the end can be reached. In tolerably
i-econt quitlors, this plan alone will allow the sinus to heal : but in old ones,
the internal surface has become callous, and no granulations are thrown out.
Here an injection should be thrown in every day with a syringe, a saturated
solution of sulphate of zinc being that generally recommonded ; but I have
found the chloride answer still better, using one drachm of the salt to a
pint of water at first, and going on up to two drachms. By injecting this
daily, and introducing a piece of lint, wetted with it, into the superior
opening, leaving the lower one free, I have cured many bad quittors, even
when there was evidence of caries of the cottin-joint. The disease requires
a careful adjustment of the remedies to its extent and nature, and a
theoretical description of it is of little use.

THRUSH

Any offensive discharge from the frog is called by this name, although
the cause and treatment may be as difTorent as possible. It varies greatly
in the fore and hind feet ; and, indeed, it must never be forgotten that, in
every case, the cause which has produced the discharge must be clearly made
out before any plan of treatment can be carried out with any prospect of
success. Sometimes thrush is merel}' the result of the decomposition of the
horny frog, from the foot being constantly kept wet with urine, which is
most common in the hind-foot. Here the surface becomes soft, and is
gradually dissolved : while the cleft, from its retaining tho moisture, is
increased in size. This state is often brought on by the too frequent use of
cowdung-stopping in horses with soft frogs ; and, instead of doing good by
his treatment of the foot, the groom is really destroying it by encouraging
the decomposition of the healthy defence which Nature has given to it. For
this kind of thrush, very little treatment is required if the cause which
produced it is withdrawn. Still, it is not always easy to keep the frog
dry, and stop the decomposition, without the application of some astringent;
and if the mere use of dry litter, and the application of tar ointment, do not
seem to harden the frog at once, it may be touched with a wash composed
of ten grains of bluestone to the ounce of water. This will soon dry it ; or,
if it fails by any chance, the chloride of zinc may be used in the same way,
by dissolving five grains in an ounce of water.

The second kind of thrush is that in which from a gross habit of body
there is a simple inflammation of the sensible frog, and instead of sound
horn being secreted, a spongy substance is deposited, which breaks away in
places, and the frog looks ragged and uneven, with a greasy surface, smells
very foul, and fe^Is hot to tho touch. Here the trenlmont must be general
as well as local. A dose of physic should be given, tho food should be of a
less stimulating quality, and care should be taken that regular exercise is
allowed every day. The stable should be kept cool, and of course attention
.should be paid to the cleanliness both of the food and the litter. As to
local remedies, they must not be of the stimulating kind which will suit the
thrush from decomposilion, or that presently to be described. The foot

THRUSH 603

should be placed in a bran poultice, and kept in it for some days, till the
united action of the local and general treatment have reduced the inflamma-
tion. After a few days it will be well to dress the frog with tar ointment,
or the poultice will do more harm than good, by causing the decomposition
of its horny covering, and indeed it is seldom that this wet application
should be employed for more than a few days. After this, all the good to
be derived from it has been accomplished, and the subsequent treatment
may generally be effected by attention to the health, and dressing the frog
with tar ointment. Sometimes it may be necessary to employ a slight
stimulus, and then the solution of chloride of zinc will be found to be the
best.

The third kind of thrush occurs in contracted feet, and is due to the
same cause, namely, chronic inflammation of the sensible frog, produced
by overwork, aided in many cases by neglect in shoeing. There is a
tendency to the secretion of unsound horn over the whole foot, sometimes
too thick and hard, and at others of a cellular structure, without sufficient
strength to bear the pressure of the road. The horny frog generally looks
shrunken and withered, and in its cleft there is a foul discharge, on wiping
out which a soft spongy matter may be seen at the bottom, which is the
sensible frog itself, but in a diseased condition. In bad cases, the sides of
the horny frog have separated, and even the toe is sometimes deficient of its
covering; but generally the horn has only disappeared in patches, and
there are ragged portions remaining. The disease here is of too chronic a
nature to be easily cured, and if there is much disorganization of the laminae
it will be almost impossible to eflect a perfect cure. The first thing to be
done is to clear away all the ragged portions of horn, so as to be able to
reach the sensible frog. Some tow is then to be smeared with the following
ointment : —

Take of Ointment of Nitrate of Mercury 1 drachm.

Zinc Ointment 1 oz.

Creosote 4 drops. Mix.

and pressed into the cleft of the frog, where it can best be retained by a
bar shoe lightly tacked on, and in this case taking its bearing on the heels
and not on the frog. Sometimes a wash answers better than a greasy applica-
tion, and then a strong solution of the chloride of zinc may be employed,
about six grains to the ounce of water. Tow dipped in this may be applied
in the same way as with the ointment, and either one or the other should be
re-applied every day. As the new horn grows, it must be kept supple by tar
ointment, and until it is fully developed the bar shoe should be kept on,
applying some degree of pressure by means of the tow, which should be
stuffed in so as to compress the frog, beginning with very light pressure,
and, as the horn increases in substance, augmenting it in proportion. By
attention to these directions a thrush of this kind may be cured, if the foot
is not damaged throughout, and even the frog may be restt)red to a compai-a-
tive state of health.

604 THE DISEASES OF THE HORSE

CANKER

Canker is goncrall}' an cxtcnsiim of tlic third form of thrusli, the fungus
spreading to the sensible sole, and afterwards to the colli n-bone itself. At
iirst the nn)rbid surface is concealed by the c»ld horn, but gradually this
breaks away, and then the extent of the mischief may be seen. A part or
the whole of the sole and the frog may be in a state of degeneration, gener-
ally depending upon the time during which the disease has been in existence,
and the care which has been taken of it, or the reverse. The only treatment
to be adopted is the careful removal of every loose piece of horn, so as to
expose the unsound surface to the action of remedies, and at the same time
to avoid poisoning it by the decomposing horn, which has a most irritating
effect. The sulphate of copper, and chloride of zinc, are the best applica-
tions, and they must be used in full strength. These cases, however,
require an experienced eye to enable the prescriber to judge of the proper
amount of caustic required ; and beyond suggesting the kind of remedy
required, no good can be done by written prescriptions. If it is impossible
to obtain the advice of a veterinarian, it will be better to begin by using a
mild caustic, and then increase the strength as it is found to be wanted.
Pitch ointment forms the best greasy application to the adjacent sound sur-
faces to protect them from the irritation of the discharge.

LAMINITIS

(Founder or Fever of the Feet)

The term laminitis is now familiar with every one at all accustomed to
horses. The disease has been I'ccognizcd for many years under the terms
"founder " and " fever of the feet." It consists in an inflammation (which
may be acute or chronic) of the parts between the crust or wall and the
pedal-bone, including the laminse, whence the name by which it is now dis-
tinguished. These parts are supplied with a profusion of blood-vessels (see
page 504), and when inflammation is set up in them, the progress which it
makes is rapid, and the constitutional disturbance is unusually great, owing
probably to the want of space for the swelling which accompanies all inflam-
mations, and especially of vascular substances. The causes are either — 1st.
Localization of fever, whence the name " fever in the feet." 2nd. The
mechanical irritation of hard roads upon feet not accustomed to them ; and
3rd. Long confinement in a standing position on boai'd ship. L<aminitis is
also metastatic, making its ai>pearance very suddenly in a horse suffering
from quite another disease, as congestion of the lungs and in mares after
foaling, there being a peculiar sympathy between the feet and the mucous
membranes. When it is recollected that in our system of shoeing, the
laminje are made to support the whole weight of the body in consequence of
the shoe being in contact with the crust only, it can oidy occasion surprise
that this disease is not more frequent. Nature framed the horse's foot so
that an elastic pad should interpose between its back parts and the ground,
intending that the edge of the crust should take its share, but not all of the

LAMINITIS

605

weight. The laminpe are therefore called upon to do far more than their
structure is designed for, arid when there is the slightest weakness or ten-
dency to inflammation, they are sure to suffer.

The acute form is generally the result of fast work upon hard roads, and
especially liable to it are the fat and over-fed ponies so loved of old ladies,
and those of the sporting publican who " corns " his trotter all the week and
drives him fast and far on a Sunday. The chronic form is often not sus-
pected until irreparable mischief is done, the elasticity of the laminse being
destroyed, and the foot having assumed a shape which utterly unfits it for
bearing the pressure of the shoe upon hard roads. When the disease has
been going on for a long time, the elastic substances between the laminre and
the pedal-bone, as well as the fine horny lamin8e between them and the
crust, lose the property of extension, and
the horn of the crust is secreted by
Nature of a more spongy character, and
much thicker in substance, than in
health. On making a section of such a
foot, the arrangement of parts will be
such as here delineated in Fig. 104, in
which 1 is the os sufFraginis, 2, the os
coronas, and 3, the pedal-bone, with its
anterior surface separated from that of
the crust (7) by a wide space occupied
by spongy matter. Here the toe of the
pedal-bone projects into the sole and
renders it convex, instead of being con-
cave, and corresponding with the lower
surface of the pedal-bone.

The laminae and elastic substances
between them and their contiguous struc-
tures no longer suspend the pedal-bone
to the crust, but the weight falls partly
upon the sole by means of the toe of the
pedal-bone, and partly on the frog,

which descends so low that in spite of the thickness of the shoe it touches
the ground. This descent of the frog is a very marked feature in laminitis,
and whenever it is apparent that disease may be suspected.

But to produce such a marked alteration op form as is here delineated
and described takes a long time, and even then it is only in a few cases that
the disease reaches to this stage. It will, therefore, be necessary to trace
its progress from the commencement, and the effects which are exhibited as
it goes on.

When acute laminitis sets in, there is a considerable amount of fever,
indicated by a rapid pulse, usually full and hard, and hurried respiration.
It may affect the front feet only, or all four. The animal puts all the weight
he can on the heels, and is unable to move. By putting his hind-feet under
his body and leaning somewhat backward with an arched loin, he appears
to find most relief, and this attitude often leads the attendant to suppose
that his back is hurt. If he is made to move, he does so with great diffi-
culty, after swaying his body undecidedly. On examining the feet, there is

Fio. 104.-

Section of the Foot in Confielied
Laminitis.

1. Os suffraginis.

2. Os coronaa.

3. Pedal-bone.

4. Navicular bone.

5. Frog.

6. Sole.

7. Wall or crust greatly thickened.

GOG THE DISEASES OF THE HORSE

great reluctance to alluw one to be picked up, on account of the necessity
which i« thrown upon the other of taking the wliole weight of the fore-
quarter. The coronet and hoof feel veiy hot, and if this state of things is
not speedily stopped, the lamina) cease to secrete horn, and the connection
between them and the hoof ceases, causing the latter to separate, and the
sensible parts to be exposed, covered with a thin scaly horn. This has
happened in many cases which have afterwards secreted new hoofs ; but the
horn is not so strong and useful as before, and a horse with such feet is not
fit for hard work on the road. If proper treatment is adopted, the inflam-
mation either subsides entirely, leaving no mischief behind it, or there is a
chronic inflammation left which induces the alterations of structure which
have been alluded to.

The Treatment should be by first removing the shoes, and then,
after paring down the sole so as to allow of the expansion of the
sensible parts, a large quantity of blood is taken from the toe, making sure
that a vessel of sufticient size is opened to produce a strong shock on the
heart and arteries, as well as to relieve the local aflection. If the blood
does not flow freely, the foot may be placed in a pail of warm water, but
when the operation is properly performed there is never any difficulty in
obtaining any quantity of blood which may be required. Next tack the
shoes on lightly again, and then give a smart dose of physic, or else, what is
perhaps a better plan, give the following : —

Take of Barbadoes Aloes

Tartar Emetic, of each 1 drachm.

Powdered Digitalis i draclim.

Syriiii enough to form a ball.

which should be given every six hours, until the bowels act, when the other
materials may be continued without the aloes. The feet should be kept
constantly wet and cool by tying a piece of felt or flannel around each
pastern, and allowing it to fall over the hoof, when it is to be continually
wetted, or poultices of bran and linseed may be continually applied. Any
application of moisture is calculated to relieve pain by permitting of expan-
sion. The administration of aloes is thought by some veterinary surgeons
to increase the risk of pulmonary congestion by metastasis, and there is
some doubt as to the advisability of enforced movement. Mr. Broad, of
Bath, who is an eminent authority on the subject, advocates gentle exercise,
and putting on a shoe as early as possible made of iron " twice the ordinary
thickness and thinned from behind the quarters, so that the heel part of the
shoe is wide and thin, and fitted rocker fashion, Avhich enables the horse to
throw his weight where he tries to, much better than he can in ordinary
shoes or without any."

CiiKOMC LAMiNiTis is generally first shown bj' a slight soreness or
lameness, generally appearing in both fore-feet, and, therefore, being often
overlooked by casual observers. In coming in from work the coronets
feel warmer than natural ; but this goes off during the night, and, for a
time, no great fears are entertained of the feet recovering their former con-
dition, the blame being, perhaps, laid upon the shoe. In a month or two,
however, the smith (who has, perhaps, been ordered to take off the shoes
two or three times, by which the injury is increased) finds that his nails do
not hold, and the quarters break away ; while the action of the horse

LAMINITIS 607

becomes more shambling every day, and he cannot make a sound trot on
any hard road, especially with a weight on his hack. In many cases a horse
with chronic laminitis can run in hand sound enough for an ordinary
observer ; but when the extra weight of a rider is placed on him the feet
cannot bear the pain, and the gait is shambling in the extreme. Such
animals have a strong propensity to save their toes, and prefer (if their
shoulders will allow it) bringing their heels to the ground first, so that,
although their action is excessively low and shuffling, they seldom fall.
An experienced horseman at once detects this peculiar style of going, and
condemns its possessor for laminitis. Indeed, it may be assumed as a rule,
that wherever the heel is put carefully down upon the ground with low
action, the foot is the subject of laminitis to some extent. When the heel
is naturally brought to the ground first, the knee is well bent, and the foot
is raised high in the air ; but in process of time work tells on it, the laminae
become inflamed, and then the action is reduced in height, and the feet are
moved in the manner peculiar to foundered horses, including those which
before they were foundered perhaps exhibited " toe action," or, at all events,
a level fall of the foot. This state of disease ought to be well studied, and
compared with the remarks on sound action at page 7 et seq., which it
will serve to illustrate and explain. The foot itself is changed in form, and
the toe and sole have more or less altered their relations, as explained
already. Sometimes there is a large space or cavity between the outer
surface and the inner, shown at 7, Fig. 104, page 605. This hollow in the
crust is more or less cellular, and the disease is called a " seedy toe," but
for what reason I am at a loss to know. The sole, moreover, is always
either flatter than natural or absolutely convex, and its horn is brittle and
spongy, constituting what is termed the "pumiced foot." The frog is
generally large and spongy ; and on placing a straight-edge across the shoe,
from heel to heel, it is found to touch that part, or nearly so, indicating
that the relations between it and the crust, as well as the sole, are
altogether changed from a natural state. The laminte are no longer slings
for the foot, but the whole pressure is taken by the parts lying beneath the
pedal or coffin-bone and the navicular bone. Such being the symptoms^
the next thing is to consider what can be done % If the disease is of long
standing, little hope can be given of a perfect recovery. The shape of the
external parts may be partially restored, but the internal delicate structures
no longer have the power of performing their offices \ and the elastic action
of the horse suffering from the effects of laminitis can seldom be restored on
hard ground. After proper treatment he may, and generally does, go on
turf well ; but either on hard ground or on plough (on the latter of which,
though soft enough for the laminte, the sole has to bear considerable
pressure) he is dreadfully sore and lame. This is shown after all inflamma-
tion has ceased, the foot being as cool as possible, and sometimes exhibiting
very slight evidences of previous mischief. In treating such cases, if there
is no heat or other sign of inflammation, bleeding and similar lowering
measures will be of no avail. They may be required soon enough, it is true,
for a foundered foot is always in danger of inflammation when battered ;
but until symptoms of this kind of mischief are exhibited it is better to
avoid all depletory measures. At the same time, everything which will
tend to keep off increased action should be avoided ; the horse should be

608 THE DISEASES OF THE HORSE

fed on the least heating food which Avill serve the purpose for which he
is intonded, and liis stable should 1)0 kept as cool as possible. Beans ought
never to be alluwed to the possessor of feet with the slightest suspicion of
founder ; and no more oats should be used than are necessary for the
condition required. For horses at slow work, bran mashes and nitre, with
small doses occasionally of physic, will serve to keep down the tendency to
inflammation, and by their use, joined to cold applications after work (they
are of no use at other times), and a cool stable, the horse may be enabled
to do moderately fast work. If the frog is not very prominent, a leather
sole, put on in the usual wa}-^, will save the jar, and in some measure
supply the place of the natural elastic tissue, destroyed in this disease.
Usually, however, it only adds to the mischief by increasing the pressure
on the frog, and then the leather must be introduced between the foot and
the shoe, but cut to the same shape as the latter, so as not at all to bear on
the frog. Many horses Avith slight traces of laminitis can work for years
with leather applied in this way, and it may be said to be the most useful
mode of treating this disease when exhibited in a mild form. Sometimes
by throwing a horse by for six months, taking off his shoes, and blistering
his coronets two or three times, a great deal of good may be done, but he
must be made to stand on tan or sawdust during the whole time, and never
allowed to go on hard ground, even for half-a-mile at a walking pace.
A modification of the shoe recommended by Mr. Broad will enable many
a horse to do useful work.

SEEDY TOE

Is the name given to a condition of the foot in which a defective toe
results from a cavity within the wall of the hoof extending from the plantar
surface upwards. It may spread in either direction and affect both front
and hind feet, but the toe of a front foot is its most frequent situation.
It is a common result of laminitis, but there are many cases in which no
inflammatory disease has been the precursor so far as can be ascertained.
The shoeing-smith is usually the first to observe it, and if not attended to,
the crust is soon broken and appears shelly and brittle. When the shoe
is removed there will be discovered a cheesy material between the sound
parts.

Treatment consists in picking out all the morbid deposit and pouring in
warm tar so as to thoroughly fill up the space, and replace the shoe in such
a manner that no clip shall press upon the defective parts, and no direct
bearing be imposed on them. The coronet should be gently stimulated
from time to time with a mild blister and the tar dressing repeated as often
as the removal of the shoe or opportunity affords. Many cases of seedy too
are in this way cured or the progress of the disease at least so far arrested
as not tu interfere with the animal's usefulness.

VILLITIS 609

BRITTLE FEET

In some feet the proportion of gelatinous material appears to be in-
adequate, and the wall of the foot is consequently brittle and difficult to
shoe, as the clinches of the nails chip away the foot, and if a shoe should be
cast on the road, serious damage to the crust may follow before the shoe
can be replaced. The defect may be congenital and is observed among
colts, or it may be the result of chronic indigestion according to Captain
Hayes, who points to the symjoathy existing between the sensitive laminae
and the mucous membrane lining the stomach and intestines.

Tar has the reputation of improving the quality of horn, and lanoline
also apj)ears to supply in a measure the material required.

VILLITIS

Inflammation op the coronet. Swelling all round above the foot ;
heat and some tenderness distinguish the cause of lameness, which is the
result of concussion, and therefore most frequent among roadsters with
high action, and in dry, hot climates. When a subject of this malady has
been rested, and wet swabs applied for a day or so, he may come out fairly
sound, but with work the pain returns and a shuffling gait, and ends in
lameness before a moderate journey can be accomplished.

Treatvient. — Remove the shoe and poultice ; give a mild aperient, laxative
food, preferably grass or lucerne, and when all inflammatory symptoms have
passed off, replace the shoe and blister the coronet with a one-to-sixteen
biniodide ointment. A turn-out on marshy land, but not a salt marsh,
should be obtained if possible, to complete the cure.

TREAD

The name describes the cause of an injury often met with in heavy
horses who tread themselves while turning in harness, or are trodden upon
by their fellows when harnessed side by side. It happens also to other
classes of horses when, from fatigue or debility, slippery roads or shoes
that have been "roughed," a false step is made. The amount of injury
done may be so slight as to be amenable to a dressing or two with Friar's
balsam or tincture of myrrh ; or it may be so severe as to cause death of
the skin ; injury to the coronary secreting substance, and eventually quitter.
Fomentation and efficient poulticing in the first instance may prevent the
more serious consequences, but if a slough begins to show it must be
patiently poulticed until it detaches itself from the living parts. This
process is sometimes facilitated by a mild fly-blister.

610 THE DISEASES OF TUE HOUSE

PRICKED FOOT

Because a horse is pricked in shoeing it must nut be too hastily assumed
that tlie farrier is to blame, since the most careful and skilful practitioners
of the art cannut avoid once in a way driving a nail awry. The nail may
" sliver " if a hand-made one, or be turned aside by an old " stub " which
could not be seen or felt. A restive horse may plunge at the moment of
striking, indeed one might find a great many excellent excuses for an
accident which is not after all so common as it is represented to be when
the number of nails driven in a given time is considered. The unpardon-
able sin in the smithy is trying to cover up the accident, when a poultice
for one night might have prevented the most disasti'ous consequences which
a prick will sometimes bring about. The smith does not always know himself,
if he has " put on the shoe too tight," as he calls it, for the horse may have
a habit of snatching his foot while in the lap of the fai-rier, and the moment
in which he flinched may not have been decisive. He may go sound for a
day or two, or even a week, before the pressure of a nail which does not
actually prick, but presses on the sensitive part, causes him to go lame.

Symptoms. — Lameness, at first slight, and perhaps decreasing with exer-
cise, but returning when rested. Pointing the foot in the stable. More
heat at one part of the foot than another when carefully felt and compared.
Absence of other causes of lameness.

Treatment. — There is a veterinary tradition to the efiect that " you
should have the shoe off if the horse is lame in the head," and it is no bad
rule to insist upon, so often is a lameness ascertained to be in the foot after
the shoulder and other parts of the limb have been treated without benefit.
Each nail should be examined for blood-stains or matter, the height of each
clench upon the crust carefully noted, the marks of drawn nails upon the
plantar surface examined and probed. The foot pinched round to see if it
is more susceptible to pressure in one place than another, and if it should
prove to be tender opposite a nail that was driven too high, or where a
drawn nail has left its mark, the place should be cut down upon, and the
direction ascertained. A farrier who neither pritchelled the holes in the
shoe nor put it on will be more expert in finding a prick than the man who
did it, as a rule, but an honest effort may fail to discover it at first, and
with the removal of the pressure of the shoe and a few poultices the
lameness may pass away. If it does not do so matter will form at the
seat of injury, and the lameness be very acute. Further search must be
made, and will end in liberating a drop of green sapjty fluid which has
been responsible for sucli intense pain, owing to its confined situation, where
no swelling can relieve it. The orifice should be enlarged to permit of free
drainage, and poulticed till no matter can be found, when a little astringent
application, as tincture of iron or Friar's balsam, may be applied to prevent
a soft spongy granulation rising above the level of the wound. Neglected
pricks run on till the matter, now consisting of pus, and finding no exit,
seeks the least line of resistance, coming through at the coronet. This is
also the case with festered corns or any injury which causes suppuration
within the horny box. A dependent orifice should be obtained and
poulticing assiduously practised, or quittor may result.

CONTRACTION OF THE FOOT 611

CONTRACTION OF THE FOOT

This reputed disease has long been the bugbeai^ of the horsemaster;
but it is now discovered to be a complete mistake. Some of the most
contracted feet in point of width are particularly free from all risk of
disease, and on the other hand many open ones are as liable to it. The
donkey, whose heels are shaped exactly like those of the contracted horse's
foot, is so seldom lame, that few can recall having seen one in that con-
dition, and, therefore, reasoning from analogy, one would be led to doubt
that this shape renders the horse prone to lameness. At the same time it
is quite true that in the disease which will next be investigated, the frog
withers and conti^acts, and the heels ai-e thereby drawn in ; but here the
contraction is a consequence and not a cause of disease, and certainly
cannot be considered as a disease in itself. Bad shoeing will do much to
cause either laminitis or navicular disease, and it will certainly produce
corns and inverted heels, but it will not waste the frog, or induce that
condition of the foot where the sole is arched so high that the frog does not
touch the ground when the shoe is off. Such a state of things can only be
brought on either by thrush or navicular disease, and is never the result of
the mechanical mismanagement of the foot, to which what used to be called
contraction was generally attributed. All sorts of plans have been sug-
gested for expanding the heels and for allowing them to expand ; but the
real truth is that so long as the frog is sound and the parts above it, allowing
the proper amount of pressure to be communicated to the sole, bars, and
heel of the crust, these latter divisions of the foot have no room to contract,
and of a certainty they never do. •

NAVICULAR DISEASE

This formidable disease, called also the navicular joint lameness, and
navicularthritis, is the chief danger to be aj^prehended from a good-looking
strong foot, just as the open flat one is prone to laminitis, and is rarely
subject to disease in the navicular joint. The reason of this immunity on
the one hand, and the contrary on the other, is this. The open foot, with
a large spongy frog, exposes the navicular bone and the parts in contact
with it to constant pressure in the stable, so that these parts ai'e always
prepared for work. On the other hand, the concave sole and well-formed
frog are raised from the ground by our unfortunate mode of shoeing, and
when the whole foot is exposed to injury from battering, and in addition
the tendon which plays over the navicular bone presses it against the os
coronre, the unprepared state in which this part is allowed to remain is sure
to produce inflammation, if the woi-k is carried far enough. Thus in each
case the weak part suffers, but occasionally, though very rarely, the foot
with an arched sole contracts laminitis, and the flat one is attacked by
navicular disease ; the exceptions, however, are so few that they may be
thrown out of the calculation, and from the shape of the foot alone it may
almost invariably be pronounced, when a horse is known to be subject to
chronic lameness, whether its seat is in the laminre or in the navicular joint.

612

THE DISEASES OF THE HORSE

When a foot is examined after death which is known to have been
the subject of navicular disease, the parts implicated are invariably either
the navicular bone, or the soft parts in contact with it, or often all together.
Most frequently on di\i(ling the tendon of the flexor perforans and turning
it down so as to expose the back of the joint between the navicular and
coronal bones, that part will be greatly thickened and inflamed, the tendon
being often adherent to it. In the healthy condition there ought to be no
adhesion of the fibres of the tendon to any part of the navicular bone but
its postero-inferior edge, to which the tendon is fixed by some few fibres,
the bulk passing on to be inserted in the os pedis. The posterior face of
the navicular bone should be beautifully smooth, and lined by synovial
membrane which forms a lubricating sac for it to play upon, and thus take
off the friction between the tendon and the bone. Such is Nature's provision

Fia. 105.— Ulceration of the rosiERioE Surface of the Navicular Bos«.

1. Lower or plantar surface of redal-bonc. 2. Small specks of exostosis.

3. Carious patcli.

a<^ainst mischief in this delicate part of the machinery of the foot, which
she keeps in order by the constant supply of synovia or joint-oil. But
when the sac is not stimulated to a healthy action by the pressure of the
fro" below it indoors and out, synovia is no longer seci-eted in proper
quantity, and as soon as the horse is put to hard work inflammation takes
place for want of it. The result is some one of the consequences of inflamed
joints. Either ulceration takes place in the postero-inferior surface, where
the tendon glides over it as shown in Fig. 105 (at 3), sometimes ending in
caries of the bone itself ; or adhesion takes place without ulceration of the
tendon with the surface of the bone, or there are small exostoses thrown
out, see Fig. 105 (2), or lastly there is simple inflammation without eitlier
adhesion or ulceration, and in this stage the disease is amenable to treat-
ment without leaving any trace behind.

The Symptoms of navicular disease are the same, whether the mischief
has extended to ulceration or not ; but the history will guide us in ascer-
taining how far it has gone. Of course they vary in degree, for there may
be only a slight extent of ulceration, or a high degree of simple inflammation ;

NAVICULAR DISEASE 613

but in the former case the lameness will not be so marked as in the latter,
though the prospect of recovery will be much less. There is always more
or less lameness ; but, in consequence of its affecting both feet, it is not so
marked to the careless observer as in some much more trivial cases where
only one is diseased. The distinguishing sign, though not absolutely in-
falhble, is the pointing of the toe, and at the same time resting the hind-
leg on the opposite side so as to relieve the navicular bone of any weight.
In laminitis, the object of the sufferer is to relieve all pressure as much as
possible, by bringing the hind-legs under the body, and by bearing the
weight of the fore-quarter on the heels. Here, the reverse of the latter
attitude is observed — the heels are not allowed to take any pressure, and
the toes alone are placed at all firmly on the ground. This is marked in
the stable by the pointing of the toe (in each foot alternately, if both are
diseased, but in the one only, if they are not both affected). Out of doors,
the toes dig into the ground, the heel never being brought firmly down, and
frequent stumbles mark the difference between this species of lameness and
laminitis. The subject of navicular disease generally walks sound ; but the
moment he is trotted, he goes as if his legs were tied together, his stride
being shortened in a remarkable manner, but without exhibiting the peculiar
fumbling gait of the foundered animal. As in his case, soft ground suits
him, and he has no fear of plough, because his sole is hard and unyielding.
Many tolerably confirmed cases of navicular disease may, therefore, be
hunted, except when the ground is hard, supposing of course that they are
kept off the road ; but no plan of management will enable them to bear the
jars incidental to harness-work or hacking. When one foot only is the
subject of navicular disease, it often happens that it is smaller altogether
than the other ; but it is somewhat difficult to say whether this is a cause
or a consequence of inflammation. One thing is quite clear, that many
horses are met with, still perfectly free from lameness, in which there is a
difference of size in their fore-feet ; but whether or no these are afterwards
invariably the subjects of navicular disease, it is almost impossible to
ascertain. It is, however, the general opinion, founded on experience, that
when this variation exists, navicular disease is extremely likely to attack
the smaller foot, if it is not already there ; and for this reason, horses with
sucli feet are generally avoided by the intending purchaser.

The Treatment of navicular disease, as before remarked, is only successful
in the early stage, before either ulceration or adhesion has taken place.
If a horse with strong concave soles suddenly becomes lame, points his
toe, and shows other signs that his navicular bone is inflamed, he should
be treated in the usual way suited to inflammation, and at the same time
liberty should be given to the vascular tissues to expand, by reducing the
substance of the horn. Bleeding at the toe has the double good effect of
abstracting blood, and at the same time weakening the sole, so as to allow
of the expansion which is desired. The operation should, therefore, at
once be performed ; at the same time, the whole sole may be reduced in
thickness, and the heels lowered in proportion. The foot should then
(after the shoe is tacked on) be placed in a cold bran poultice, which will
soften the horn ; and the system should be reduced by the exhibition of
the medicines i-ecommended under Laminitis, at page 606. But when the
disease itself is mastered, there is still a good deal to be done to prevent

GU THE DISEASES OF THE HORSE

tlic injurious ellccts which are so apt to follow. The liorse contracts a habit
of stepping on his toes, to prevent hurting his navicular structures ; and
hence the frog is not used, the heels of the crust and the bars are not
strained, and there being no stimulus to the soft parts which secrete them,
they waste and contract in size. If the human hand is allowed to lie idle,
the palm and the insidos of the fingers are covered with a delicate cuticle,
which affords so poor a protection to the cutis, that, on using it with any
kind of hard work, it actually separates, and leaves an exposed surface, which
speedily inflames. But by gradually exposing the same hand to pressure, a
tliickened and tougher cuticle is secreted ; and this will bear any moderate
amount of pressure or friction without injury. Nevertheless, even the
hand so prepared must be continually stimulated by work, or the skin
returns to its original delicate state, and is then exposed to the same risk
of injury as before. So it is with the horse's foot, even in a state of
health ; but this is far more marked after an attack of disease. The
tendency then is to produce the natural horny growths of a smaller sub-
stance than before ; and if the secreting surfaces are not stimulated by
pressure, they become doubly idle, and the frog, as well as the adjacent
parts beneath the navicular bone, shows a wasted and shrivelled appear-
ance. To avoid the risk of these ill consequences, the horse should be
placed, for two or three hours daily, on a bed of wet clay, which will allow
the shoe to sink into it, but will yet be tenacious enough to make firm and
steady pressure on the frog, while its low tempei'ature will keep down
inflammation. No plan is of so much service in producing what is called
expansion of the heels and growth of the frog as this ; not, as is commonly
supposed, from the clay mechanically pressing the heels out, but from the
stimulus of its pressure causing the soft parts to secrete more horn, and of
a sounder quality than before.

SnouLD THESE REMEDIES FAIL in restoring the foot affected with navi-
cular disease to a healthy state, recourse can only be had to the operation
of neurotomy, which is perfectly efficacious in removing the lameness ; and
if there is no ulceration, and merely an adhesion of the tendon to the bone,
it will, by causing the horse to step more on his heels, effect an absolute
improvement in the shape of the foot, and hence it is considered to have
produced a cure. And for all practical purposes it is a cure, inasmuch as a
horse previously useless can be made to work sound and perhaps continue
so for years. A good deal of unreasoning prejudice exists against this
operation, as many persons cannot be convinced that a horse is not more
likely to fall because he cannot feel his feet, and the very unfair comparison
is made between a really sound horse and an unnerved one, whereas the
comparison should be as between a hopeless cripple and a serviceable animal.
The late Mr. George Williams, who for so many years held the appointment
of veterinary surgeon to the Queen, was an earnest advocate of unnerving,
and perhaps operated on more horses than any other surgeon of his day.
He, like the present editor, who is proud of having been his pupil, rode
many unnerved horses and found them as sure-footed as others. I have
known unnerved horses die of old age and of all sorts of diseases, but
subjects that have not been operated on until the bone is extensively
diseased are liable to break down either by fracture of the navicular bone
itself or rupture of the t<»ndons, and then the toe turns up, the pastern goea

ACCIDENTS TO THE LEGS AND FEET 615

down, and the knacker may bo sent for without delay. The chief danger
lies in undiscovered pricks and festered corns which may lead to losing
the hoof, because no pain is evinced and separation may take place before
it is ascertained that anything is wrong. It should, however, be clearly
understood that there is no reason why, if detected, an injury to the foot
cannot be treated successfully, as the nerves of nutrition are not divided,
and I have worked a horse with a seton through a festered corn, the horse
trotting sound, until he recovered. I mention this merely as a proof, and
not as a practice to be recommended, as it was done to demonstrate the
practicability of treatment.

ACCIDENTS TO THE LEGS AND FEET

These parts are subject to a variety of accidents, trifling perhaps in
the cause which produces them, but serious in their effects, from the
lameness which ensues. The chief of these are ordinai-y cutting, speedy
cutting, and pricks of the foot either from putting the sole down upon
a nail or a piece of glass. Bruises and over-reaches also come under
this head.

Ordinary cutting may occur either in front or behind, the latter being
the more common. It is often met with in poor horses, where the flesh
is so reduced in substance that the legs are brought nearer together than
in a proper condition. Here all that is required is patience, till the legs
are restored to their proper relative position, taking care in the meantime
that there is no permanent injury done. Usually the inside of one or
both feet strikes the fetlock joint of the other leg in passing it, but some-
times the blow is given higher up, and it may occur anywhere on the
cannon-bone except just below the knee, when it is called " speedy
cutting," which will be separately considered. Sometimes this blow on
the side of the cannon-bone is either the cause or the efiect of a splint,
the blow of the foot having a tendency to produce exostosis (see Splints,
page 507). But if a splint is thrown out on a part of the cannon-bone
which comes in the way of the natural action, the horse whose foot pre-
viously passed clear of that part of the other leg will hit it, and not only
give pain, but cause a considerable access of inflammation in the previous
enlargement.

In the Treatment, therefore, of cutting, it is necessary to prevent the
habit being continued from the swelling produced either by a splint or by
previous blows. A horse perhaps, either from weakness or bad shoeing, hits
his leg and produces considerable swelling and soreness. Here, unless the
swelling is reduced or protected, there is no chance of preventing the cutting,
because there is a projection of the swollen soft parts right in the way of
the other foot. No alteration of the shoeing, and no increase of strength
or flesh, will be of service until the inflammation is reduced, and the sore,
if any exists, is healed, and this can only be done either by rest or by pro-
tecting the leg with a boot. The latter is the better plan, and wherever a
horse cuts it is, in my opinion, advisable to let him wear a boot for some
weeks, until the skin is quite sound again and reduced to its proper thick-
ness. A piece of an old rug folded round the leg so as slightly to overlap-

s s

616 THE riSEASES OF THE HOrxSE

and then tictl witli a tape ami turned down over the fetlock joint, is quite
■sutlicient to serve this temporary purpose, and being soft it is well calculated
to protect a swollen joint ; but if it is worn for any length of time, the
pressure of the tape and the friction of the grit from the road wear away
the hair, and cause an unsightly appearance, which is sometimes permanent.
Jf, therefore, the cutting is not rectified completely in the course of a month
or six weeks, a leather or india-rubber boot should be nicely adapted to the
j<^)int and buckled round it, the flat surface of the strap not having so
injurious an effect as the tape of the cloth boot. "When the cutting takes
place above the joint, a pad must be adapted to its inside, and fastened round
the cannon-bone by two or three buckles, according to the height at which
the injury takes place.

Such is the best mode of guarding against the injury done by cutting,
but we must also consider how it can be entire!}' prevented. In the first
place it should be carefully ascertained by what part of the foot or shoe
the blow is given. Most commonly it will be found, by chalking the
inside of the foot, that a small patch is rubbed clear of chalk, about half-
an-inch above the middle of the quarter, and corresponding with the hinder-
most nail-hole, especially when four inside nails are used. When this
is the hitting-point, if great care is taken to avoid driving in a nail there,
the tendency to cut can never be increased, as it often is by a raised clench,
and at the same time the rasp may safely be used to reduce the thickness
of the hoof at least the eighth of an inch, or often much more. The crust
is usually here about three-eighths of an inch thick, and very often it is
so sound that it will bear to be rasped down till there is only one-eighth
IvH, 2)7'ovided it has not to bear the 2)vcssure of a nail near it, and that the
reduction is not carried up too near to the coronet. In the hind-foot the
quarter is fully half an-inch thick, and it therefore will bear reduction
better even than the fore-foot. Sometimes the blow is given by the shoe
itself, which is fixed on so as to overlap the crust, and then the remedy is
simple enough, for this ought never to occur, and can easily be prevented
l)v any smith. But supposing, in spite of these precautions, the cutting
still continues after the horse is restoi'ed to his natural strength and flesh,
can anything be done by shoeing? In most cases this question may be
answered in the aflirmative, by the use of what is called a feather-edged
shoe, which will be described under the head of Shoeing in Chapter xxxviii.
By its aid the heels are both raised, not the inner one only (which is
entirely useless and even prejudicial, for then the ground surface of the
shoe is not a true plane), but both heels, the inner one being narrow, and
having no nail-holes beyond the two near the toe, so that there is no
danger of the web projecting ; nor is there any nail-hole required, with
the fear of a clench rising, or of the crust being weakened so as to pre-
vent its being thinned to a proper degree. By thus raising the heels (in
the hind-foot especially), the fetlock is less bent, and as in liorses that
cut there is almost always a tendency in their fetlock joints to bend in-
wards as well as backwards, this diminution of the angle will not only
strengthen the leg in a forward direction, but will also increase the dis-
tance between the joints, which is the object to be desired. In the fore-
foot the obliquity in this direction is not so frequent, and then the high
heel will be of no use ; indeed, it is only when the toes are much turned

ACCIDENTS TO THE LEGS AND FEET 617

out that this plan of shoeing the fore-foot is ever successful. When
cutting occurs before, unless there is this turn out, it is better to put the
shoes on in a perfectly level manner, and trust to the reduction of the
thickness of the quarter, and the absence of the third nail. If, with
these precautions, the horse, when in good condition, still strikes his fore-
legs, it will be better to put up with the constant use of a boot. Generall}',
however, if the inflammation is first subdued, and the foot is shod in a
perfectly true and level manner, taking care to rasp away the particular
part which strikes the other leg, it will be found that the cutting is
avoided.

Speedy cutting is more dangerous than ordinary cutting, because the pain
given by the blow is generally more severe, and is often so great that the
horse falls as if he were shot. On examining the leg of a confirmed speedy
cutter there is always apparent a small scab or bruise on the inside of the
cannon-bone, immediately below the knee ; but in slight cases rest may have
been used to allow the skin to heal, and then no mark may possibly be left.
A careful examination will, however, generally detect a small bare place,
partially concealed by the growth of the adjacent hair. In bad cases the
periosteum is swollen, and there is a considerable enlargement of the surface
of the bone.

In the Management of slight cases of this kind of cutting, the action
should be examined while the hoof is covered with chalk, and the latter
should be treated in the same way as already described. If, however,
this fails, as it generally does in this form of cutting, there is no remedy but
to put on a regular speedy-cut boot, in which there is a pad buckled on the
inside of the leg, and reaching from the knee to the fetlock. It must be
of this length, because otherwise it cannot be kept in its place, as the
leg allows it to slip down until it r-eaches the larger circumference pre-
sented by the joint. Where there is pain and swelling, caused by the
contusion, it must be treated in the ordinary way, by the application of
cold water and tincture of arnica, a wineglassful of the latter in two quarts
of watei'.

When a nail is picked up on the road, the prognosis will depend
upon the part which it has penetrated. If it has entered deeply into the
toe of the frog, the probability is that the navicular joint has been wounded,
or possibly the tendon of the flexor at its insertion into the pedal-bone,
either of which are very serious accidents. If the wound is further back,
there is less risk of permanent injury, as the bulbous heel or cushion of
the frog will bear a considerable amount of injury without permanent
mischief.

In any case the Treatment should consist in cutting away the horn
round the opening, so as to allow of a free escape of matter if it forms.
At the same time inflammation should be kept under by cold *' swabs " to
the coronet, or, better still, by putting the whole foot into a bran poultice.

Over-reaches, when slight, may be treated by the application of Friar's
balsam, or tincture of arnica in full strength, which will have a tendency
to dry them up and prevent suppuration. If, however, the heel is very
much bruised, a poultice must be applied, but even then a little tincture
of arnica should be sprinkled on it. When the bruise is so severe that
a slough or core comes away, the wound may be dressed with a piece of

618 THE DISEASES OF THE HORSE

lint, clipped in a solution of nitrate of silver, eight grains to the ounce
uf tlistillecl water, and over this a bran poultice. In most cases, how-
ever, it is better to foment the part wvW, and then apply the tincture of
arnica neat.

A BRUISE on a thin sole will sometimes cause matter to form, in which
case the horn must be cut away, and the case treated as for quittor. Before
matter forms, the horn should be reduced, and the foot should be placed in
a cold bnui poultice.

CHAPTER XXXIV

PARASITES
WORMS

There are a number of worms that cause loss of condition in horses,
and even death, when by their habits they pierce vital structures and form
nests, as with the strungulus armatus, who chooses for a liome the junction
of some important artery. Professor Cobbold, who made helminthology a
life study, says in his lutenial Parasites of the Domesticated Animals,
"Although the parasites of the horse and ass are sufficiently numerous as
species, their importance in relation to disease of these animals is, speaking
generally, far less than that which obtains in the case of other domestic
animals similarly affected. The large round worms (Ascaris megalocephala),
though occasionally present in great numbers, are i-eadily got rid of by a
dose of aloes. The flukes (Fasciola hrpaticn) are too unimportant and ivare
to merit attention. As to the strongles, which give rise to aneurisms in old
horses and donkeys {Stroiujidus armatus), no doubt they are sometimes the
cause of death, but the amount of mortality from this cause is exceedingly
trifling.

" A very small strongle {Slrongidus tctracanthus) is in some seasons a
source of serious loss among young liorses, and for a long time defied all
remedies. At the suggestion of Dr. Blanc, the well-known head of the
Indian Medical Department, and one of the Abyssinian captives, the
experiments tried by Miss Dillon on desperate cases proved that thymol,
in sufficient doses, is a certain destroyer of the pest. The doses, to be
efficacious, should be not less than fifteen grains in the early morning, the
same quantity at night, and a dose of castor-oil at midday the next day.
To be repeated in a week, if any sign remains of undestroyed ova.

* The sharp-tailed thread-worms or maw-worms {Oxynris curvida) certainly

PARASITES

61S

may occasion considerable irritation witliia tlie lai^ger bowel, but we can
easily expel them with purgatives. The worm in the eye (Filaria 2'>apillosa)
is confined to tropical countries, and moreover the inconvenience it creates
is readily cured by its removal. Lastly it is almost superfluous to mention the
occurrence of the gid hydatid {Ccenurus cerebralis) and other forms of cestode
larvae (Cysticercus fistularis), since the assistance of the veterinary pi'actitioner
is rarely demanded for the treatment of the disorders they produce.

" It assuredly does so happen that bad forms of parasitism in the horse
are comparatively rare; and this I take to be due, not so much to the
alleged innocuousness of the individual parasites themselves, as to the cir-
cumstance that horses are, as a rule, much more closely looked after, in a
sanitary sense, than most animals. The scrupulous cleanliness observed in
all large stables is eminently destructive to the welfare of parasites, and
the large proportion of dry and artificially prepared fodder consumed by

Fio. 105a.— Group of Bots attached to the Stomach.

horses leaves little opportunity for the transference of the ova of cestodes
and nematodes, which require a certain amount of moisture for their preserv-
ation in the free condition. Moreover, the drinking water supplied to
horses is, generally speaking, tolerably pure."

This summary on the part of the best helminthologist of the century
makes it unnecessary to trouble the reader with the life history and
detailed anatomy of worms with which the late professor was wont to regale
his classes.

Remedies. — For the intestinal worms of the round varieties, turpentine,
santonine, emetic tartar, iron, aloes, and thymol. For tapeworms — Areca
nut, iron and oil of male fern, infusion of kousso, aperients generally. For
doses see Anthelmintics.

BOTS

The larv^ of the oestrus egui, a species of gadfly, are often found in
large numbers, attached by a pair of hooks, with which they are provided,
to the cardiac extremity of the stomach ; they are very rarely met with in

620 TJIE DISEASES OF THE HORSE

the true digostive portion of tliis organ, but sometimes in tlio duodenum or
jejunum in small numlxTs. A group of these larva>, which are popularly
called bots, arc liere represented, but sometimes nearl}' all the cardiac ex-
tremity of the stomach is occupied with them, and ui>on the interstices aro
found little projections which are caused by those that have let go their hold,
and have been expelled with the food. Several of these papillae are shown
on the engraving, which delineates also the appearance of the bots them-
selves, so that no one can fail to recognize them when he sees them.
Another variety, known as fundament bots, are obsc^rved to attach them-
selves to the inside of the rectum, where they cause a good deal of irritati(jn.
The ily watches its opportunity to deposit the ova while the animal is in
the act of defteeation.

Stomach bots appear to do no harm in moderate numbers, but they
undoubtedly rob their host of a good deal of food.

Treaiment. — Destroy the eggs with paraffin or mercurial ointment rubbed
upon the hairs where they are deposited about the knees and shoulders by
the bot fl}', and the fundament bots by inunction of the rectum with the
ointment. The latter may be picked off with the faigei-s by the groom if
lie watches his opportunities.

CHAPTER XXXV

METHODS OF CONTROL
THE TWITCH — THE HALTER TWITCH — SIDE LINES — HOBBLES^SLINGS — ANESTHESIA

Besides those referred to in the part of this work dealing with the
breaker's art, there are occasions when for medical treatment or surgical
operations it is necessary to control the patient by methods which form no
part of the ordinary education of the horse. There are simple contrivances
known to horsemen, and others requiring hobbles and expensive gear, or else
the production of local or general anesthesia. Horses differ so in tempera-
ment that while oile individual will submit to firing with no greater restraint
than holding up a foot, another will have to be cast for the removal of a
wart.

THE TWITCH

This consists of a stout stick with a hole near one end through
which a loop of cord of about the thickness of box-cord or clothes-line
is fastened. The operator passes the loop over his left hand, and with
the thumb and fingers grasps the upper lip, on to which he places the loop,
and with his right hand proceeds to wind it tight so as to enclose and
compress this highly sensitive part of the animal (it will be remembered
that there is a plexus of nerves here situated), until he realizes that it
hurts him more to resist the twitch than to submit to some minor opera-
tion for which this cruel implement is used. Cruel it undoubtedly is,
and to be avoided when any other safe and effectual method of control
can be devised, but there are circumstances where its use is justifiable, and
the safety of human beings must ever take precedence over the comfort of
animals. There are not wanting foolish people who would expose the lives
and limbs of stablemen to great danger rather than theh' pets should be
put to the least pain or inconvenience, the base selfishness of which does
not strike them until after an accident has happened.

THE HALTER TWITCH

An ordinary hempen halter and rope answers well enough. This is
put on in the usual way, but there must be no knot or check in the rope,
which is made into a half-hitch, passed over the ears and the loop carried

621

G22 THE HORSE

under tlic horse's upper lip. Jerking the loose end inflicts pain, and to
avoid a repetition of it the animal may consent to remain steady. "With
each jerk the word of command should be given, " Stead}' ! steady ! " being
at all times a better word than " Woa," since the horse is taught to under-
stand by the latter that he is to halt, and a young one may show the same
confusion as the infant who has to learn that a certain word of one syllable
may mean " Thank you " or something nasty, and to be avoided. Both
the infant and the horse learn to diflerentiate, but it is b}' the tone only.

Strapping up a fore-leg with a stirrup leather may answer when some
operation has to be performed on the head or opposite fore-leg, or upon the
hind-leg of the same side as that in the strap. A horse cannot, or docs not,
cow-kick, that is to say kick with one leg without raising the loins, if the fore-
leg on the same side is held up, but he may kick with the opposite hind-leg.
A knee-cap should be put on, and a bandage from below the knee, so that, in
the event of the horse throwing himself down, the skin may escape blemish.
The leg can be secured by either passing the strap round the pastern and
the fleshy part of the arm, or suspended from a loop in a surcingle.

Blindfolding, says Captain Hayes in his Illustrated Hm'se Breaking,
is an efficient means of control with the majority of horses, although it
excites some to offer more vigorous resistance than they would otherwise do.
I have never found a horse which would, when blindfolded, attempt to kick
or strike out on the chance of hitting his man, unless he was touched about
tlie limbs or body.

SIDE LINES

These are either for securing a hind-leg, preventing kicking, or else
for the purpose of throwing the animal down altogether. An ordinary
rope such as wagoners use, preferably one that has become supple with
work, may be passed round the horse's neck like a collar and then be-
tween his hind-legs, and picked up again in such a manner as to bring it
round the pastern : it is then turned once round itself so as to make a loop
near the fetlock, and the end pulled through the collar or loop which was
first formed. If the foot is drawn forward sufficiently to prevent much
slack, the animal is not likely to get out of it, and it can be fastened off
with an ordinary hitch. It is a useful contrivance when a torn quarter has
to be sewn w^ and there are reasons for not casting.

The double side line is adjusted in much the same wa}', only that the
rope is first folded in the middle, and a knot made so that when put over
the horse's head it will be about the same size as his collar. The free ends
are carried between the hind-legs and passed through in exactly the same
way as a single line. Some operators allow the knot to fall on the chest
and pass the lines between all the legs, but more power for throwing is
obtained by keeping the knot on the top of the withers, and the lines out-
side the fore-limbs. With nothing more than an ordinary thirty-six-foot
wagon rope the castrator has performed for ages, and it is a very effectual
way of getting a horse down, if the assistants pull well together and behind
the horse, instead of, as often happens, in a zigzag, or in an}- position but the
right one. Side lines are now made by all the veterinarv instrument makers

HOBBLES

623

with rings or D's fitted in the collar portion, and with wide soft webbino- for
the hollows of the heels. The latter is a decided improvement on the old rope,

Via. 106.— Hobbled ready Foa Throwing on the Off Side.

Fio. 107. — Hobbles in Position for
Casting on the Near Side.

as sore heels, cracks, etc., often date from the casting of a colt for castration.
"When an animal has been cast the hind-legs are drawn up tight to the
belly and secured by half-hitches, and he is perfectly helpless until released.

HOBBLES

Casting by means of leather hobbles is the method generally adopted
by veterinary surgeons. Four stout straps with steel eyes or loops are

Fig. lOS,

severally buckled round tho pasterns, and a rope is passed througli the

62t

THE HORSE

Dj-es, so that the lo^'s being brought togotlior iho horse is thrown upon hia
side.' As soon as he feels his legs going he generally assists l)y his struggles
to secure his own downfall. No hitches are re(iuire.l with these modern

Fio. 100.

appliances, which \vill be better understood by the accompanying engravings
than any verbal explanation.

Peard's Patent Hobbles. — These hobbles gather up their own slack,
and each link as it is pulled forward through a steel cylinder is caught by
a spring and secured. They are most easily adjusted or removed from tho
legs by means of a hinged lock-bar over the straps, the hole of which fits
over a stud. One man can throw the heaviest animal.

SLINGS

It sometimes happens that instead of throwing horses down \vc have
occasion to hold them up, perhaps get them up when prone. It is a dillicult
task with a heavy horse, and in a cramped stable with no " head-room," as
butchers call height in their slaughter-houses. Whatever appliances are
used for raising a prostrate horse, the first thing to be ascertained is whether
or no a pulley can be placed at a sutlicient height above him to give tho
necessary power for raising so great a weight. With low ceilings a floor-board
or two may sometimes be removed, or in tho case of hovels with roofs of less
value than the tenant, three holes may be made to acconnnodatc as many poles,
and those being placed after tho manner of the gips3''s camp kettle and
lashed aloft, the necessary power can be obtained. It is not possible to

ANESTHESIA 625

describe the methods of getting the slings under the horse, but by judicious
lifting and pulling it can always be managed. The annexed engraving shows
where the slings are wanted, with breastplate and breeching to prevent the

Fio. 110.

patient slipping out at cither end. The chain is an "endless" one and docs
not slack ; the relaxing of the slings was always a difficulty with the old-
fashioned ones made with wooden pulleys and ropes

ANESTHESIA

In addition to the mechanical contrivances ah'cady described for gaining
control over horses, we are able to practise both local and general anaesthesia.
Cocaine in solution, 2 to 4 per cent., is a most valuable agent for reducing
the sensibility of the eye and of mucous membranes generally, so that tumours
and foreign bodies may be removed without the additional pain of twitch
and gag and hobble. If injected under the skin by a proper instrument, it
so reduces the pain of firing that it can often be done without casting.
Ether spray is not favoured by veterinary practitioners because wounds so
treated are apt to slough or be very slow in healing. Chloroform alone is
found to suit horses better than the A.E.C.^ mixture so much favoured by
human surgeons. There is practically no danger in the use of it, as it is
found most difficult to kill a horse intentionally even by prolonged inhala-
tion of large quantities. There are several approved muzzles invented by
veterinary surgeons, but they are quite unnecessary, there being safe and
convenient methods of chloroforming without any of these appliances.
It is of course presumed that the horse is already cast in hobbles, for, if
not, a muzzle must of necessity be used. The animal's head being firmly
held by two assistants, one nostril is thoroughly lubricated with vaseline
inside and out, a sponge the size of an orange is saturated with chloroform

^ Alcohol, ether, and chloroform.

G-2G THE nORSE

and squeezed out with the hand before being introduced inside the greased
nostril, where it is to be retained by gentle pressure, and the horse compelled
to inspire through the sponge only and exjiirc through the other nostril. It
is cunvcnient to use the left hand for retaining the sponge in position and
the right for compressing the other nostril during each act of drawing air
into the lungs, and relaxing it during each expiration. The patient not
only succumbs to the method quicker than by any muzzle we have seen
used, but is under such complete control that one can increase or diminish
the degree of insensibility in the patient at will. Those horses which go
under (juickly come out quickly, and there is no safety in the prolonged
inhalation of a mixture of atmospheric air and the vapour of chloroform ;
experience of a very large number of horses and other animals under the
influence of this agent induces me to say that it is the better plan to subdue
them quickly with pure chloroform alone.

If casting is objected to, either from the absence of hobbles, or from
fear of injury to the horse, a soft bed of straw should be provided, and a
strong halter must be put over the muzzle with two cords, one of which
should bo held by a man on each side. These will serve to guide the
horse in falling ; but it is extremely difficult to make sure of his going
down where he is wanted to lie ; and there is also considerable time lost
in securing him after he is down, which the safety of the operator
imperatively requires. The effect of the chloroform must therefore be
kept up for a much longer time than if it is given after the horse is cast
cind secured.

CHAPTER XXXVI

OPERATIONS

BI.EEDING — FIRING — SETONS AND ROWELS — BLISTERING — CASTRATION — DOCKING — UN-
NERVING— REDUCTION OF HERNIA— THE ADMINISTRATION OF MEDICINES— CLYSTERS—
BACK-RAKING.

BLEEDING

Bleeding is either performed in the jugular vein, when the whole system
is to be affected ; or when a part of the body only is inflamed, it may be
desirable to abstract blood locally, as for instance from the toe or from the
plate vein, in inflammation of the foot, and in ophthalmia from the vein
which lies on the face just below the eye.

The instruments used are either the lancet or the fleam, the former
being the safer of the two, but requiring some practice to manage it pro-
perly. In bleeding from the jugular vein a string is sometimes tied round
the neck below the part to be opened, which is four or five inches below
the fork in the vein (shown at page 465) in the upper part of the neck.
The skilled opei'ator, however, makes pressure with his left hand answer
the purpose of causing the vein to rise, and during this state either uses
the lancet with his right or the fleam with the aid afforded by the blow of
a short stick, called a "blood stick." When the blood begins to flow, the
edge of the bucket which catches it is pressed against the same part, and
as long as this is continued a full stream will run until faintness occurs.
After sufficient blood has been taken, the two lips of the wound are raised
between the fingers, and a small common pin passed through both, when
the point is cut off and some tow is twisted round, by wiiich the edges are
kept together and the pin is retained in position. In a couple of days
the pin may be withdrawn without disturbing the tow, and the wound
will heal with little or no deformity. Sometimes the blood continues to
flow beneath the skin after it is pinned, and a swelling takes place in con-
sequence. When this happens, cold water should be freely applied and the
head kept up by racking to the manger.

Inflammation of the vein will sometimes supervene upon bleeding, the
symjitoms being a slight swelling appearing in the evening, or the next day,
with a little oozing from the wound. These are soon followed by a hard
cord-like enlargement of the vein, which feels hot to the touch, and the
parts at the angle of the jaw swell considerably. The consequence generally

627

628 THE HORSE

is that tlio voiu is ohl iterated, occasioning some disturbance to tlie circula
tion, especially when the head is held down, as it is at grass.'

'I'he Treatment consists in cold applications as long as there is heat. When
the heat has subsided, and the vein remains enlarged, the biniodide of
mercury will procure the absorption of the new deposit, by rubbing it in as
recommended at page 630.

FIRING

TiiK ruurosE for which the heated iroi; is employed is twofold ; first,
to produce immediate counter-irritation, by which the previous inflamma-
tion is reduced ; and secondly, to cause the formation of a tight compress
over the part, which is permanent. The blemish which it leaves, and the
pain which it occasions, both during and after the application of the irons,
should cause it to be avoided when any equally useful substitute can be
employed ; but, unfortunately, there are many cases where it stands without
a rival, as being at once the safest and the most efficient remedy which can
be adopted. Blisters and setons can be made to cause the same amount of
counter-irritation, but have not the same effect in producing pressure upon
the parts beneath. The pain of firing can be relieved entirely at the time
of the operation by chloroform ; but the subsequent smarting is quite as bad,
and this is beyond the reach of any amesthetic. Independently, however, of
the interests of the master, it is also to the advantage of the horse to get
thoroughly cured ; for if he is not, he will either work on in misery, or he
will be consigned to the knacker'.s yard ; and, therefore, the adoption of the
most efficacious plan of treatment, even if somewhat the most painful, is the
best for both.

Firing may be performed standixo, b}- the use of the side line for the
hind-leg, or by fixing up one fore-leg when the other is to be operated on.
The firing-iron should have a smooth edge, about the thickness of a worn
shilling ; and it should be heated to the point when it shows a dull red in
the dark. "When the disease for which the irons are used is slight, the skin
should not be penetrated ; but in bad cases, where the mischief is great, and
particularly when it is wanted to have a good permanent bandage, the
cauterization must be deeper ; but this requires some practical knov>'ledge to
decide. The hair of the part should be cut veiy closely with the scissors,
or shaved ; then, having secured the leg, the iron is to be steadily but
rapidly passed in parallel lines over the skin, making just the proper pressure
which is required to burn to the requisite depth. A light brown mark
should be left, which shows that the proper effect has been produced ; and
the colour should be uniform, unless it is desired to penetrate deeper at
certain parts, which is sometimes practised with advantage. The lines are
sometimes made in a slanting direction round the leg, and at others straight
up and down ; but it is useless to describe the details of this operation,
which can only be learried by watching its performance by another hand.
Badly done firing is always an eyesore; but when the lines are evenly drawn,
and they have healed without any sloughs, caused by irregular or excessive

^ It is not found in practice to interfere with the health of horses at grass, sis col
lateral circulation is established and effectual.

SETONS AND ROWELS

629

SETONS AND ROWELS

Setoxs are pieces of tape or other material, passed through
and beneath the skin, leaving the two ends hanging out, either
tied together or with a knot upon each. The latter is the
safer plan, as the loop is always liable to be caught on a
hook or other projecting bod3% The needle with which the
passage is effected has a spear point, slightly turned up, and
an eye at the other end (see Fig. Ill), through which the
tape or cotton is threaded. They are made in all sizes, and by
their means a tape, smeared with blister cerate, may be passed
through a long track of the cellular membrane, by pinching up
the skin into a fold, and piercing this close to the body with
the needle, which is then to be carried straight through. On
drawing the tape out of the eye, it must be tied in a large
knot at each end, which will prevent its slipping out. In
three or four days a profuse discharge will come on, and it
must be kept up, if necessary, by repeated applications of
blister cerate, or digestive ointment, as may be necessary. The
ends should be sponged occasionally, to remove the accumulated
matter.

A SMALLER CURVED NEEDLE, about five Or six inches long, is
used for inti'oducing a seton into the frog, or beneath the eye.
For the former operation, a twitch is first applied, and the
foot is then buckled up to the arm, as described at page 622.
The needle then, armed with the tape, greased with blister
cerate, and a little oil to lubricate the surface, is thrust in at
the heel and out at the cleft of the frog, taking care not
to go deep enough to wound the tendon as it passes over
the navicular bone. The needle is then forcibly drawn through,
and the tape knotted, as already described. The openings
must be kept clean by sponging daily ; and in three or four
weeks the tape will have nearly worked its way out, when it
may be withdrawn.

Frog setoning is now rarely practised.

pressure, they shov/ that a master hand has been at work, and that the poor
beast has been treated scientifically. In very severe diseases, a blister is
sometimes applied over the part, immediately after the firing ;
but this can seldom be required, and as it aggiavates the
pain tenfold, it should be avoided, if possible. On the follow-
ing day, a little neat's-foot oil should be gently rubbed, or
brushed with a feather, over the leg ; and this should be
repeated daily, until the swelling which comes on has nearly
subsided. Less than three months' rest should never be allowed
for the operation to have its full effect, as, if the horse is put
to work before that time has elapsed, the disease will almost
certainly return. Indeed, it is far better to allow double this
time, especially if the horse is wanted for fast work.

O

iiif

Via. 111.

630 THE UORSE

BLISTERING

Whkn' it is ni:cii)i:i) tu hmsikk any part, the liair .should be cut ofT as
closely as possible ; the oiiitinent is then rubbed in with the hand for ten
minutes, leaving a good quantity smeared on the surface. If the legs are to
be blistered, the heels should be protected by lard. Considerable itching is
caused after the first two or three days, and many horses, if allowed, gnaw
the part to such an extent as to cause a serious blemish. It is therefore
necessary to keep the head away, which is done by putting a "cradle" on
the neck. The irritation of loose straw is very aggravating, and the stall
or box should either be bedded with tan, or sawdust, or with used litter, so
damp as to lie smoothly. It is generally the practice to put the blistered
horse on a bare floor, but he will often do great harm to his legs and feet
(which are of course unsound, or they would not be treated in this way), by
constantly stamping from the pain occasioned while the blister is beginning
to rise. When the legs are stiff and sore from the swelling, he stands still
enough, but at first thei'e is nothing of this kind to keep him quiet. At the
end of a week some neat's-foot oil should be applied every morning, with a
feather or soft brush, to keep the scabs as supple as possible. The various
formuke for blisters will be given in the list of materia medica.

CASTRATION

For REMOvixr, tiik testicles several methods of operation are in vogue.
It is generally performed when the colt is about a year old, and the months
of May and June are considered the most favourable, as being warm and too
soon for the main crop of flics, this operation being done, of course, while
the subjects are yet running free in pasture. In this country castration has
been successfully performed for centuries by men of very little education,
but expert in the art, which as a rule is an hereditary one. For the
preliminary part of their method, see casting with side lines at page
622. The colt being securely held down upon his left side, his hind-legs
drawn forward and his head kept as much as possible in a line with his
back, the operator first examines for possible rupture and then proceeds to
wash out the sheath with soap and warm water to clear it of that accumula-
tion which he calls " cod wax." During this preliminary work his irons are
getting hot in the fire basket which he carries about with him, if he has any
regard for time. He next grasps the scrotum with his left hand so as to
squeeze the testicles up and render the covering tense, when with a bold
sweep of his knife ho makes a clean incision, nearly the whole length of the
testis, which immediately escapes, and is seized with the left hand and held
firmly during the momentary struggle that follows ; the cremaster muscle
presently yields and the clam (see Fig. 112) is closed upon the cord and
divided by a very hot iron ; a little powdered resin is put upon the divided
surface and a partially cooled iron is brought to bear upon it, until a melted
pellicle of resin appears to have sealed the artery. The operator does not
immediately release the clams but eases them a little, and if a drop of bright
red blood comes up from the divided vessel he applies the actual cautery

CASTRATION

631

again. Removal of the second testis is but a repetition of what has been
here described. The traditions of the castrator vary in the different counties,
and some not only smear the clams with an ointment of verdigris, but
prefer to divide the scrotum with a keen-edged iron instead of a knife,
using a special iron for scaring the cord. The majority of colts are still
castrated in this way, but among veterinary surgeons whose greater
fitness makes the survival of the castrator only a question of time, several
other methods are employed. An American, styling himself "Farmer
Miles," created a good deal of sensation by introducing the Ecraseur
which is here illustrated (Fig. 113). The principle upon which it works

Fig. 112.— Castrating Claji.

is the crushing and squeezing together of the divided tissues in such a
manner as to preclude h?emorrhage. It usually succeeds, but if the artery
bleeds an hour or two after the operator has g&ne away it is a difficult
matter to stop it, and some deaths have occurred in this way. A decided

Fio. 118. — Ecraseur.

improvement upon it is the Huish-Blake castrator, which crushes the cord
and artery by means of a serrated metal disc placed in the slot (see Fig.
114 on next page), and a serrated blade and outside ledge.

Such an instrument, which can be used with one hand, offers great
advantages over the original Ecraseur, and the patentee has been at
some pains to collect reliable statistics respecting its use, which go t«j prove
that hsemorrhage or other bad results are very rare. This instrument is
specially favoured by those persons who practise what the Editor of the
Veterinary Record has called " acrobatic surgery," by which term he
describes the operation of castrating colts in the standing position. Why
a man should accept a serious risk to his own person, rather than allow a
slight risk to the owner's colt, I cannot conceive, but this method is becom-
ing very common among the more athletic members of the veterinary
profession.

Operation by Caustic Clam is a very old one, and has been revived with
the " standing " operation. It is very much more painful than the actual

T T

C32

THE HOUSE

cautery or the crusliing instrument previously described, as it is so lung in
effecting its purpose.

Castration by Torsion and by Ligature are not suitable to the horse, and
being but rarely practised iu England need not be here described.

.^.

Fig. 114.— Hlisii-Blake C.\stratob.

The art of the instrument maker, and the competition among castrators,
may account for a good deal of change iu the preseut-day methods of pcrform-

FiG. 11 lrt.—H dish's Caustic Cr,A>f.

ing this indispensable operation, but as fire is tlie most aseptic metliod of
all, it is not unlikel}' that the old plan will again come into favour when the

FiQ. 115.— Kroiint: axd Sesemanx's Caustic Clam.

motives for a new departure no longer exist, and the old gelder will have gone
with the dodo. A good deal of swelling after the opcratiim is quite usual
and may be disregarded .so long as the animal feeds m'cII and is not abnorm-
ally stiff in his hind-quarters. A finger dipped in carbolized oil may be
introduced into the wounds on the third or fourth day, if there is reason to
suppo.se that matter is imprisoned. Common tallow candles are much in
favour for this purpose, and I see uo objection to them even if they do cou-

DOCKING

633

tain an infinitesimal quantity of arsenic, a popular belief which has not been
verified to my knowledge.

DOCKING

About the advisability of this operation there has been much dispute, and
especially since Dr. Fleming was chief veterinary surgeon to the Army. He
was instrumental during his term of ofiice in rejecting all remounts that had
been docked, it being his opinion that horses suffer less from the annoyance of
flies, and use a long tail as a rudder in making short turns. Whatever other

Fia. IIG.— Docking Knife.

efiect this oi'der may have had, we know for certain that it keeps out of the
ranks a great many suitable horses, since breeders do not keep long tails on
their horses for the sake of the beggarly price given by the Army, while a
short dock gives a smartness to most horses, displaying their quarters to
advantage. Every drill season when the Yeomanry i-egiments are up for
" permanent duty," as their ten days' fagging is called, an officer is deputed
to purchase any likely-looking nags the troopers may have for sale, but as
nine out of ten of them are docked there are very few purchased.

To say that an operation is not a severe one is not to justify cruelty, and
if it is done only to enhance the smartness or the price of the animal it is
not defensible, but there are many harness horses in which docking is abso-
lutely necessary for the safety of persons using them ; they have long tails,
which they swish round in a circle and are prone to catch the reins, a most
awkward accident, liable with the best-tempered hoi'se to cause a collision
with another vehicle, or provoking a horse to kick in many instances. A
great many prosecutions against persons for docking have been conducted at
the instance of the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals,
but the results are indecisive. If the Bench is largely composed of country-
gentlemen with a practical knowledge of horses, the verdict is usually in

G3i THE HORSE

favour of the dofcndant, unless some crude and clumsy method has been
adopted, but if the case comes before a town stipendiary with more know-
ledge of the laws of evidence than the laws of driving, the decision may be
in favour of the Bociet}', whose oillcers are trained experts in giving evidence,
though they may be quite free from a desire to add to the annual list of
convictions which appeals so successfully to the pockets of subscribers.
Many colts are docked at the same time that they fire castrated, a practice
which should long ago have been put a stop to by the above-named Society,
if the zeal of its oilicers had been better directed.^

Pocking is very rapidly performed by the aid of the docking knife, which
is made on the principle of the guillotine. As the tail is removed at one
sudden and forcible chop, the horse need not be confined in anyway beyond
holding up his fore-leg, unless he is a very violent animal. The exact
length of the dock to be left being fixed upon, the hair is cut ofT close below
and the remainder tied back to the root of the tail. A tight ligature immedi-
ately above the site chosen for operation does away with the necessity for
searing with a hot iron, the method commonly adopted. The cut end may
be bound up in tow with a little perchloride of iron if the ligature becomes
slack or there is any disposition to bleed. It may be removed the next da}-.
"When the hot iron is used, resin is employed in the same way as described
under Castration (see page 630).

UNNERVING

The kerves distributed to the foot are sometimes divided for navicular
disease, as they lie on each side of the bone above the fetlock y int. No
one, however, should attempt this operation without having previously
seen it performed, as it requires considerable dexterity for its due execu-
tion. I have described such operations as can be wanted in the colonies,
where a veterinary surgeon cannot always be reached, but unnerving is
never required there, and I shall therefore omit any detailed account
of it.

REDUCTION OF HERNIA

"When hernia occurs in the cult, either at the navel or scrotum, it is
often desired to effect a cure by returning the bowel and causing the open-
in" to close by adhesive inflammation. If the colt is uncut, the performance
of the covered operation on the French plan will generally succeed, great
care being of course necessary to I'eturn the intestine before the clams
are applied. In umbilical hernia a similar method has been tried, but
the adhesion is too superficial to be of much use ; and the only successful
one is the passage of one or two skewers through the opposite edges
of the opening, and then winding some waxed twine round them, with a
moderate degree of force. This should not be sufficient to cause mortifica-

^ Since tlie aViovc lines -were penned the Royal Agricultnral Society of England has
passed a resohilion \vlii(.li \vill have the ctTcct of gradually disqualifying horses which
have had their tails docked. It may be hoped that docking for fashion's sake only will
fall into desuetude.

THE ADMINISTRATION OF MEDICINES

635

tion, or the opening will only be increased in size, and the bowel will pro-
trude without any covering of skin ; but it should be just sufficient to cause
adhesive inflammation, experience in such matters alone enabling the
operator to hit upon the right amount.

Fia. 117. — Huisn's Hernia Clamp.

In all operations for hernia chloroform is of great assistance, as it
prevents the risk of a protrusion of the bowel while the knife is being
used, which will otherwise sometimes happen during the struggles of the
horse.

This appliance is made by Mr. Huish in aluminium, thereby reducing
the weight 75 per cent.

THE ADMINISTRATION OF MEDICINES

The country gentlExMAN who has been more or less associated from child-
hood with the domesticated animals wiM hardly need to be reminded of the
great difference in size, habits, and constitution of patients fi'om time to
time requiring medical treatment.

The difference between the management of the unhaltered colt on the
hill-side and the ponderous dray-hoi'se suffering from mad staggers in a
narrow stall will sufficiently illustrate my meaning.

In the endeavour to administer medicaments we need to call into requisi-
tion all the arts of the pharmaceutical chemist, considerable strategy, and
not a little physical coui'age, if we would succeed in regular dosing with
the agents of our choice. Drugs are not forced down the reluctant throats
of animals in the wholesale manner of former times, but the difficulties
attendant on their administration offer to the idle an inducement to trust
too much to the Vis medicatrix naturce. Some of the methods adopted
in menageries may be studied with advantage : every device rather than
force is made use of, while in too many stables the twitch is employed
without first making the attempt to give an ordinary draught by simply
holding the head up.

The majority of horses accustomed to the restx'aint of bit and bridle will
take a draught without serious opposition if the head is held up by placing
the hand under the chin and introducing the fluid in small quantities. It
is the impatience of the operator which causes more than half the trouble in
drenching. One man will often succeed in giving a draua;ht where half-a-

G36 THE HORSE

dozen liave failod witli twitch and gag and pulleys. It should be borne in
mind that the objection to swallow a nauseous potion is an instinct of
self-preservation disjilayed by all animals, and chihhen too young to
reason with, or not having implicit coiifulence in their nurses. The un-
oecessary use of the twitch, thereby adding pain to nausea, is a survival of
that brutality which sanctioned nicking and cropping. A better use for
the twitcli, provided the coi'd is long enough, is to pass the loop into the
mouth, over the nose and behind the upper incisors, holding up the liead
by means of the stick instead of the common and dangerous practice of
using a stable fork, the tines of which are liable to inllict injuries when
a restive animal throws his head from side to side. There are instances
where twitching the nose may be justifiable, but a wide experience is
in favour of the conclusion that it is very rarely indispensable. When an
animal rears there are other methods of restraint, as putting him in a low
building and hobbling one leg, or the plan adopted for strikers, of attaching
a heavy bag of corn to a collar. Where spirituous preparations are
prescribed, the tinctures for instance, they must of necessity be given in
the form of draughts, but an intimate knowledge of modern pharmacj- will
enable the attendant in many instances to employ extracts or tabloids,
electuaries, suppositories, pessaries or injections, subcutaneous or otherwise.
The tabloid form of medicine naturally commends itself to the practitioner,
whether human or veterinary ; but it is not yet absolutely demonstrated
that the dry residues of evaporated tinctures are therapeutically of the
same value as the tinctures themselves, nor does analysis prove that, because
two substances give the same chemical formulaj they are physically the same
thing. If it were so, we might flavour our blanc-manges with turpentine
instead of oil of lemon.

Portability is a great point in veterinary medicine, and it is receiAang
increasing attention from our War Department. Balls and draughts are
alike unsuitable forms of medication in cases of sore throat, setting up
coughing and necessitating an attitude on the part of the patient both
irritating and dangerous. Balls are occasionally coughed up into the nasal
chambers, and draughts taken down the trachea, either accident producing
serious inconA-enience, and often very grave results. Electuaries, iii which
the medicinal agents are mixed with honey, treacle, or glycerine, are in such
cases the best forms of medicine to be used, the prescribed dose being
smeared upon a smooth spatula or flat piece of wood (as a lath) and freed
from rough edges, then placed upon the back of the tongue, which may bo
drawn slightly forward with the left or disengaged hand. In cases of
sore throat this form of medication has the double advantage of acting
topically as a gargle would do, and further by its introduction into the
circulating medium in the usual wa}'.

Reduction of the bulky draught into the form of a powdered tabloid
thrown upon the tongue is certainly "elegant pharmacy," as the disciples of
that art are wont to claim, and if experience confirms the claims to physio-
logical or therapeutic results and accurate dosage made by \hi vax'ious
manufacturers, many difliculties will be overcome in physicking animals.

The adoption of subcutaneous injections by veterinary surgeons is a
distinct advantage in many acute diseases. Active agents like morphine,
aconitine atropine, etc., are sold in standardized solutions and the dose can

THE ADMINISTRATION OF MEDICINES 637

be accurately measured ; the effect can be observed in a few minutes of a
drug that by the usual channel would take half-an-hour. Chemical changes
must necessarily take place in the stomach or duodenum before entering
into the circulation, and some proportion be lost in the bulky contents of
the stomach. That the fulness or otherwise of the stomach may have
a modifying influence upon the action of remedies introduced into it may
be proved by a familiar example in our own persons. A draught of
mineral water or saline taken before breakfast will readily effect the desired
purpose in the empty stomach, but fail altogether when taken after a
meal. It may be said then, that some medicaments can with advantage
be given subcutaneously, while others are better introduced into an empty
or a "prepared" stomach.

Powders as a form of medicament to be given in the food are not likely
to suffer in popularity among stablemen and horse-keepers not expert in
the art of administering draughts and balls or provided with the appliances
for subcutaneous injection. There is no difficulty in putting sulj)hur and
nitre, or any favourite nostrum, into a bran mash or sprinkling it upon
damped chaff or corn. It will always commend itself to the groom as a safe
and easy method. While the habitual use of so-called condition powders
or other medicines is to be condemned, it is often convenient to make use
of the manger as a receptacle for medicines. If we take samples of the
principal grasses in a pasture, or in the dried form, and chew them, the
prevailing acrid, bitter taste will perhaps account for so dainty a feeder as
the horse being willing to eat such bitter drugs as Epsom salts. It miglit
be supposed that very few horses would voluntarily take a medicine that
causes such wry faces when given to men, but actual experience proves
that a very large proportion of horses will take food so adulterated. In
fact, with the exception of pungent substances, as ammonia and camphor,
tar, essential oils, etc., there ai'e but few drugs which may not be given in
food to horses whose appetite remains with them in illness. Nay, some horses
have such gross palates, that they will take chlorodyne in a mash, this useful
preparation being redolent of oil of peppermint, than which there is nothing
more pungent, or it would be supposed more repulsive, unless it be assafoetida,
and experience has proved that many horses will eat the latter.

In giving a ball, place a halter on the head without a knot, so that the
Jaws may be widely opened. Then turn the horse round in the stall and
back him up to the manger, lay hold of the tongue and draw it out of the
mouth, grasp it with the left hand, which must also hold the halter-cord so
short that the strain is partly taken off the tongue, and then holding the
ball in the right hand with the fingers enclosing it like a cone, and the arm
bare, it should be rapidly carried to the back of the mouth and deposited
there, holding the head up till it is seen to pass down the gullet. Cautious
grooms use a balling iron, which gags the mouth and protects the arm, but
a handy man will have less difficulty in introducing his hand than in insert-
ing the gag, unless the horse is a determined biter, when it may be
absolutely necessary. In that case the gag is insinuated with as much ease
as a bit in a flat direction, and the handle being suddenly depressed, the
mouth is made to open, and the teeth cannot be brought together. Then
holding the handle together with the halter in the left hand, the right easily
introduces the ball into the pharynx.

638 THE HORSE

In Givixr, a drench two persons arc necessary, tlie operator standing at
tlie right shoulder, while the assistant is ready to steady the head and aid
hiui on the left. The operator raises the head with his left hand beneath
the jaw, and with his right he forces the lip of the bottle or horn into the
side of the mouth, and, raising the small end, pours the contents in. If
the horse is violent, a twitch must be placed on the nose, and held by
the assistant. The horn must not be passed far into the mouth, or any
unnecessary violence used, for fear of producing a cough ; in which case,
the hand must be instantly lowei'ed. A neglect of this precaution will
probably cause some of the liquid to pass into the larynx.

CLYSTERS

Are most valuable agents, if properly administered. The best syringe
for the purpose is Read's, by wdiich any quantity may be thrown up ; and
in colic, some gallons of warm water are sometimes required to produce the
desired effect. For an ordinary opening cl^'ster, a handful or two of com-
mon salt may be dissolved in five or six quarts of warm water.

BACK-RAKING

Is effected by passing the greased hand and arm into the rectum, and
withdrawing any hardened fteces which may have accumulated there.
^\'hen the quantity of these is great, the hand must be passed several times,
until it cannot reach any more. Whenever physic is given to an unprepared
horse, as is sometimes necessary in severe disease, this precaution should
never be neglected. There may be some trouble in passing an unusually
large hand into the rectum of a very small pon}'^, but no hand of average
size is nearly so large as the mass of dung commonly present ; and those
who are not above doing a dirty job when duty requires it, well know by
experience that the hand and arm may be passed to the shoulder without
gi\ing any pain whatever. Instruments are useful when they cannot be
dispensed with, but they are always liable to cause laceration.

ON TEE ACTION OF MEDICINES

THE DOSES IN WHICH THEY CAN SAFELY BE ADMINISTERED

CHAPTER XXXVII

THE ACTION OF MEDICINES, AND THE FORMS IN WHICH THEY ARE

PRESCRIBED

ALTERATIVES — ANESTHETICS — ANODYNES — ANTACIDS — ANTHELMINTICS — ANTISPASMODICS
— APERIENTS — ASTRINGENTS — BLISTERS — CAUSTICS — CHARGES — CLYSTERS — CORDIALS —
DEMULCENTS — DIAPHORETICS — DIGESTIVES — DIURETICS — EMBROCATIONS — EMULSIONS —
EXPECTORANTS — FEBRIFUGES — LOTIONS — NARCOTICS — REFRIGERANTS — SEDATIVES —
STIMULANTS — STO JIACHICS — STYPTICS — TONICS — VERMIFUGES — ELECTUARIES — PES-
SARIES— SUPPOSITORIES.

ALTERATIVES

This term is not very scientific, but it is iu very general use, and easily
explains its own meaning, though the modus oj^erandi of the drugs emplo3'ed
to carry it out is not so clear. The object is to replace unhealthy action by
a healthy one, without resorting to any of the distinctly defined remedies,
such as tonics, stomachics, etc. As a general rule, this class of remedies
produce their effect by acting slowly but steadily on the depuratory organs,
as the liver, kidneys, and skin. The following may be found useful : —

1. In Disordered States of the Skin —

Emetic Tartar 5 ounces.

Powdered Ginger 3 ounces.

Opium 1 ounce.

Syrup enough to form 16 balls : one to be given every night.

2. Simply Cooling —

Barbadoes Aloes 1 ounce.

Castile Soap li ounceg.

Ginger i ounce.

Syrup enough to form 6 balls : one to be given every morning. " Or,

3. Barbadoes Aloes H drachms.

Emetic Tartar 2"'draclinis.

Castile Soap 2 drachms. Mix.

639

640 Till: HOUSE

4. Al.TF.nATIVK r.AIX FOR GeNKUAL UsK —

IMaek Sulphurct of Antimnny 2 to 4 ilraclnns.

Suliihur 'J (liacliins.

Nitio 2 ihadmis.

Linseed meal and water enough to form u ball.

f). Fun c;knkrally Defective Skcuktions—

Flowers of Stilplmr 6 ounces.

Enu'tie Tartar y to 8 drachms.

Corrosive Siiblimati' 10 gi's.

Linseed meal mixed with hot water, enough to fonii G balls, one of whiih may Ix
given two or three times a week.

6. In Debility of Stomach —

Calomel 1 scrniile.

Aloes 1 Jra(.hiii.

Cascarilla Hark, "j

Gentian Root, - of each in powder .... 1 drachm.

Ginger, J

Castile Soap 3 drachms.

Syrup enough to make a ball, which may be given twice a week, orcvery other night.

ANiESTHETICS

An-ESTHETICS (a, not, privative ; at(TO?;crt?, sensation) produce insensibilit}'
to all external impressions, and therefore to pain. They resemble narcotics
in their action, and, when taken into the stomach, may be considered purely
as such. The most certain and safe way of administering them is by in-
halation, and chloroform is the drug now universally employed. The modus
operandi of the various kinds has never yet been satisfactorily explained;
and when the comparison is made, as it often is, to the action of intoxicating
fluids, we are no nearer to it than before. With alcoholic fluids, however,
the disorder of the mental functions is greater in proportion to the insensi-
bility to pain ; and if they are taken iii suflicient quantities to produce the
latter efiect, they are dangerous to life itself. The action of anaesthetics on
the horse is very similar to that on man (see Methods of Control, page 625).

ANODYNES

SoMF.TiMES CALLED NAUCOTics, when taken into the stomach, pass at onco
into the blood, and there act in a special manner on the nervous centres.
At first they exalt the nervous force ; but they soon depress it, the second
stage coming on the sooner according to the increase of the dose. They are
given either to soothe the general nervous system, or to stop diarrhoea; or
sometimes to relieve spasm, as in colic or tetanus. Opium is the chief
anodyne used in veterinary medicine, and it may be employed in very
large doses. Cannabis Indica and cocaine are also of service : —

7. Anodyne Drench for Couc —

Linseed Oil 1 pint.

Oil of Turpentine 1 to 2 ounces.

Laudanum 1 to 2 ounces.

Jlix, and give every hour till relief is alforded.

ANTACIDS 641

8. Anodyne Ball for Colic (only useful in mild cases) —

Powdeiod Opium 2 to 2 drachms.

Castile Soap 2 drachms.

Camphor 2 drachms.

Ginger IJ drachms.

Make into a ball with Liquorice powder and Treacle, and give every hour while the
pain lasts. It should be kept in a bottle or tin.

9. Anodyne Ball (ordinary) —

Opium 4 to 1 drachm.

Castile Soap 2 to 4 drachms.

Ginger 1 to 2 drachms.

10. Extract of Cannabis Indicus 4 drachms to 1 ounce as a hall mixed with any

meal.

11. Cocaine 5 grains.

Powdered Aniseed 2 to 1 ounce.

Oil of Caraway Seeds | drachm.

Syrup enough to form a ball.

12. Anodyne Drench in Superpurgation, or Ordinary Diarrikea —

Gum Arabic 2 ounces.

Boiling Water 1 pint.

Dissolve, and then add —

Oil of Peppermint 25 drops.

Laudanum 2 to 1 ounce.

Mix, and give night and morning, if necessary.

13. In Chronic Diarrhoea —

Bismuth ^ ounce.

Powdered Chalk and Gum Arabic, of each ... 1 ounce.

Laudanum | ounce.

Peppermint Water 10 ounces.

Mix, and give night and morning.

ANTACIDS

As THE TERM IMPLIES, these remedies are used to neutralize acids, whether
taken into the stomach to an improper extent, or formed therein as products
of diseases. They are often classed as alteratives, when used for the latter
purpose. They include the alkalies and alkaline earths. The bicarbonates
of soda and potash are those most often employed in veterinary medicine.

ANTHELMINTICS

Drugs which are used to destroy worms receive this name in medical
literature, when the author is wedded to the Greek language. Tlie ad-
mirers of Latin call them vermifuges, and in English they receive the
humble name of worm medicines. Their action is partly by producino- a
disagreeable or fatal impi'ession on the worm itself, and partly by irritatin«'
the mucous lining of the bowels, and thus causing them to expel their
contents. The following may be useful : —

14. Worm Ball (recommended by Mr. Gamgee) —

Asafcetida 2 drachms.

Calomel li drachms.

Powdered Savin li drachms.

Oil of Male Fern 30"drops.

Treacle enough to make a ball, which should be given at night, and followed
by a purge next morning.

642 THE HORSE

15. ilii.D DiiENCii FOR Worms—

Liiispcd Oil 1 pint.

Spirit of Tuipoiitiiio 2 ouiiues.

Mix, and give once a week, fasting.

ANTISPASMODICS

Antispasmodics are nieJicines whicli are intended to counteract excessive
muscular action, called spatim, or, in the limbs, cramp. This deranged con-
dition depends upon a variety of causes, which are generally of an irritating
nature ; and its successful treatment will often depend upon the employment
of remedies calculated to remove the cause, rather than directly tu relieve
the effect. It therefore follows that, in many cases, the medicines most
successful in removing spasm will be derived from widely separated divisions
of the materia mecUca, such as aperients, anodynes, alteratives, stimulants,
and toiiics. It is useless to attempt to give many formulai for their exhi-
bition ; but there are one or two medicines which exercise a peculiar control
over spasm, and I shall give them without attempting to analyze their mode
of operation.

16. Ix Colic—

Spirit of Turpentine 31 ounces.

Laudanum H ounces.

Solution of Baibadoes Aloes 2 ounces.

Give as a drench in thin gruel.

17. Clyster in Colic —

Extract of Belladonna is ounce.

Glycerine 2 ounces.

Solution of Aloes 1 ounce.

Dissolve in three quarts of warm water.

18. Antispasmodic Drench —

Gin 4 to 6 ounces.

Tincture of Cajisicum 2 drachma.

Laudanum 1 ounce.

Warm Water 14 pints.

Mix, and give as a drench, whin there is no iiiflanuiiation.

19.

Chloral h ounce.

Chlorodyne 2 to 3 drachraa.

Strong Liquid Ammonia 40 drops.

Ether 4 drachms.

Water 1 pint.

This may be repeated in two hours if no relief is obtained.

APERIENTS

Aperients, or purges, are those medicines which quicken or increase
the evacuations from the bowels, varying, however, a good deal in their
mode of operation. Some act merely by exciting the muscular coat of
the bowels to contract ; others cause an immense watery discharge, which,
as it were, washes out the bowels ; whilst a third set combine the action
of the two. The various purges also act upon different parts of the canal,
some stimulating the small intestines, whilst others pass through them

APERIENTS 64S

without affecting them, and only act upon the lai'ge bowals ; and others,
again, act upon the whole canal. There is a third point of difference in
purges, depending upon their influencing the liver in addition, which
mercurial purgatives certainly do, as well as rhubarb and some others,
and which effect is partly due to their absorption into the circulation, so
that they may be made to act, by injecting into the veins, as strongly as
by actual swallowing, and their subsequent passage into the bowels.
Purgatives are likewise classed, according to the degree of their effect,
into laxatives, acting mildl}^, and drastic purges, or cathartics, acting very
severely.

20. Ordinary Physic Balls —

Barbadoes Aloes 3 to 8 drachms.

Hard Soap 4 drachms.

Ginger 1 drachm.

This old-fashioned formula answers well enough where one ball is to be
made up, but since Professor Tuson's pharmacopoeia has been generally
adopted, masses of physic are kept containing a definite proportion of aloes,
the excipient being glycerine and the condition of the mass always suitable
for dispensing. Neither the veterinary surgeon nor the phai'maceutical
chemist spends his time in the preparation of single balls of the kind used
in routine practice, but the wholesale druggist supplies these things in
convenient form and accurate doses.

21. A Warmer Physic Ball —

Barbadoes Aloes 3 to 8 drachms.

Carbonate of Soda h drachm.

Aromatic Powder 1 drachm.

Oil of Caraway . . . ~. 12 drops.

Make into a ball.

22. Gently Laxative Ball —

Barbadoes Aloes 3 to 5 draclims.

Rhubarb Powder 1 to 2 drachms.

Ginger 2 drachms.

Oil of Caraway 15 drops.

Mix, and form into a ball.

23. Purging Balls, with Calomel —

Barbadoes Aloes 3 to 6 drachms.

Calomel i to 1 drachm.

Rhubarb 1 to 2 drachms.

Ginger ^ to 1 drachm.

Castile Soap 2 drachms.

Mix as in No. 17.

24. Laxative Drench —

Barbadoes Aloes 3 to 4 drachms.

Canella Alba 1 to 2 drachms.

Salt of Tartar 1 drachm.

Mint Water 8 ounces. Mix.

25. Another Laxative Drench —

Castor Oil 3 to 6 ounces.

Barbadoes Aloes 3 to 5 drachms.

Carbonate of Soda 2 drachms.

Mint Water 8 ounces.

Mix, by dissolving the Aloes in the Mint Water by the aid of heat, and then
adding the other ingredients.

GU THE HORSE

26. A Mild Openinc, Drench —

Castor Oil 4 ounces.

Eiisom Salts 3 to 5 ounces.

Gruel 2 pints. Mix.

27. A VERY Mild Laxative —

Castor Oil 4 ounces.

Linseed Oil 4 ounces.

Warm Water or Gniel 1 pint. Mi.v.

28. PcRGATivE Clyster —

('ominon Salt 4 to 8 ounces.

"Warm Water 8 to 16 pints.

ASTRINGENTS

Appear to produce contraction on all living animal tissues with wliicli
they come in contact, wliether in the interior or on the exterior of the body;
and whether immediately applied or by absorption into the circulation. But
great doubt exists as to the exact mode in which they act ; and, as in many
other cases, we are obHged to content ourselves with their effects, and to
prescribe them empirically. They are divided into astringents administered
l)y the mouth, and those applied locally to external ulcerated or wounded
surfaces.

29. For Bloody Urine —

Powdered Catechu ^ ounce.

Alum i ounce.

Cascarilla Bark in powder 1 to 2 drachms.

Liquorice Powder and Treacle, enough to form a ball, to be given twice a day.

30. For Polyuri.^ or Profuse Staling—

Opium ^ drachm.

Ginger powdered 2 drachms.

Oak Bark powdered 1 ounce.

Alum 2 drachms.

Camomile Tea 1 pint.

Mix for a drench.

3L External Astringent Powders for Ulcerated Surfaces —

Powdered Alum 4 ounces.

Armenian Bole 1 ounce.

32. White Vitriol 4 ounces.

Oxide of Zinc 1 ounce. Mix.

33. Asti;ingent Lotion—

Goulard Extract 2 to 3 drachms.

Water h pint.

34. Sulphate of Copper 1 to 2 drachms.

Water h pint. Mi.^c.

35. Astuingent Lotion for Sore Heels —

Solution of Diaeetatc of Lead 1 ounce.

Linseed Oil 1 pint. Mix.

36. O1NT.MENT for the Same —

Nitrate of Silver powdered i drachm.

Goulard Extract 1 drachm.

Vaseline 1 ounce.

Mix, and use a veiy small portion every night.

BLISTERS OR VESICANTS 645

BLISTERS OR VESICANTS

Blisters are applications which inflame the skin, and produce a secre-
tion of serum between the cutis and cuticle, by which the latter is raised in
the form of small bladders ; but in consequence of the presence of the hair,
these are imperfectly seen in the horse. They consist of two kinds —
one, used for the sake of counter-irritation, by which the original disease is
lessened, in consequence of the establishment of this irritation at a short
distance from it ; the other, commonly called " sweating " in veterinary
surgery, by which a discharge is obtained from the vessels of the part itself,
which are in that way relieved and unloaded : there is also a subsequent
process of absorption in consequence of the peculiar stimulus applied.

37. Mild Blister Ointment (Counter-Ireitant) —

Vaseline 4 ounces.

Venice Turpentine 1 ounce.

Powdered Cantliarides 6 drachms.

Mix, and spread.

38. Stronger Blister Ointment (Counter-Irritant) —

Spirit of Turpentine 1 ounce.

Sulphuric Acid, hy measure 2 drachms.

Mix carefully in an open place, and add —

Hog's lard ". 4 ounces

Powdered Cantharides 1 ounce.

Mix, and spread.

39. Very Strong Blister (Counter-Irritant) —

Strong Mercurial Ointment 4 ounces.

Oil of Origanum ^ ounce.

Finely-powdered Euphorbium 3 drachms.

Powdered Cantharides ^ ounce.

Mix, and spread.

40. Raiidly acting Blister (Counter-Irritant) —

Best Flour of jMustard 8 ounces.

Made into a paste with water.

Add Oil of Turpentine 2 ounces.

Strong Liquor of Ammonia 1 ounce.

This is to be well rubbed into the chest, belly, or back, in cases of acute
inflammation.

41. Biniodide of Mercury 1 part.

Lard or Vaseline 8 to 16 parts.

The last-named agent has almost superseded all the others, especially
when applied as a remedy for bony growths, as splint, sidebone, ringbone,
and spavin. The strength or proportion to be used is a matter of judgment,
depending upon a variety of circumstances, as breed, thickness of skin,
degree of ossification, and recent or chronic nature of the malady.

42. Liquid Sweating Blisters —

Cantharides 1 ounce.

Sjiirit of Turpentine 2 ounces.

Methylated Spirit of AVine 1 pint.

Mix, and digest for a fortnight. Then strain.

43. Powdered Cantharides 1 ounce.

Commercial Pyroligncous Acid 1 pint.

Mix, and digest for a fortnight. Then strain.

646 THE HORSE

CAUSTICS, OR CAUTERIES

Caustics arc substances \vliich Ijiiin a\\;iy the living tissues oi the
body by the decomposition of their elements. Tlie}' are of two kinds —
viz. first, the actual cautery, consisting in the application of the burning
iron, and called firing ; and, secondly, the potential cautery, by means of
the powers of mineral caustics, such as zinc chloride, lunar- caustic, corrosive
sublimate, etc.

FiRiNO is described in the chapter on Operations, at page G2S.

The following are the ordinary chemical applications used as potential
cauteries : —

4i. Fused Potass, difficult to manage, because it runs about in all directions, and littlo
used in veterinary medicine.

45. LuxAR Caustic, or Nitrate of Silver, verj' valuable to the veterinary surgeon, and

constantly used to apply to profuse granulations.

46. Sulphate of CorrEr., almost equally useful, but not so strong as Lunar Caustic ;

it may bo applied to all high granulations, as in broken kuees, and similar
gi-owths.

47. CoRUOSivE Suni.iMATE in powder, which acts most energetically upon warty

growths, but should be used with great care and discretion. It may safely bo
applied to small surfaces, but not without a regular practitioner to large ones.

48. Yellow Orpimen'T is not so strong as Corrosive Sublimate, and may lie usod with

more freedom. It will generally remove warty growths, by picking olf tlicir
heads and rubbing it in.

49. Muriate of Antimoxy, called Butter of Antimony ; a strong but rather un-

manageable caustic, and used either by itself or mixed with more or less water.

50. Chloride of Zixc is a most powerful caustic. It may be used in old sinuses la

solution, 7 drachms in a pint of water.

MiLDEv. Caustics :—

51. Verdigris, either iu powder or mixed with Lard as an ointment, in the proportion

of 1 to 3.

52. Red preoiiiitate, ditto, ditto.

53. Burnt ahun, used dry.

Mild Liquid Caustics : —

54. Solution of Nitrate of Silver, 5 to 15 grains to the ounce of distilled water.

55. Solution of Blue Vitriol, of about double the above strength.

56. Chloride of Zinc, 1 to 3 grains to the ounce of water.

CHARGES

Are adiiivSive plastkrs which are spread while hot on the legs or other
parts, and at once covered with short tow, so as to form a strong and un-
yielding support while the horse is at grass.

57. Ordinary Cuaroks :

Burgundy pitch 4 ounces.

liarbadocs Tar G ounces.

Beeswax 2 ounces.

Ked Lead 4 ounces.

Tlie Ihrce first are to be meltrd together, and afterwards tiie lead is to be added.
The mixture is to be kept constantly stirred until sutTuiently cold to be applied.
If too stilffwhich will depend upon the weather), it may be softened by the addition
of a little Lard or Oil.

CLYSTERS, OR ENEMATA 647

Charges ready spread in the form of bandages can be purchased through
wholesale druggists, and are much more convenient, but in many parts of
the world the ingredients may be obtained where the finished article is not
procurable.

CLYSTERS, OR ENEMATA

Clysters are intended either to relieve obstruction or spasm of the bowels,
and are of great service when properly applied. They may be made of
warm water or gruel, of which some quarts will be required in colic. They
should be thrown up with the proper syringe, provided with valves and a
flexible tube.

For the turpentine clyster in colic, see Antispasmodics.

Aperient clysters, see Aperients.

58. Anodyne Clyster in Diarriicea : —

Starch, made as for washing 1 quart.

Powdered Opium 2 drachms.

The Opium is to be boiled in water, and added to the starch.

COUGH BALLS

59. Extract of Belladonua J drachm.

Nitre 2 drachms.

Camphor 1 drachm.

Linseed and treacle to make a ball.

60. Powdered Digital!

Emetic Tartar .
Aniseed . .
Camphor . .
Nitre . . .
Linseed and treacle to make a ball.

J drachm.
^ drachm.
1 drachm.

1 drachm.

2 drachms.

CORDIALS

Are medicines which act as temporary stimulants to the whole system, and
especially to the stomach. They augment the strength and spirits -si hen
depressed, as after over-exertion in work.

61. Cordial Balls.

Powdered Caraway Seeds 6 drachms.

Ginger 2 drachms.

Oil of Gloves 20 drops.

Treacle enough to make into a ball.

62. Powdered Aniseed 6 drachms.

Powdered Cardamoms 2 drachms.

Powdered Cassia 1 drachm.

Oil of Caraway 20 drops.

Mix with treacle into a ball.

63. Powdered Cinnamon 1 drachm.

Powdered Gentian 1 drachm.

Powdered Ginger 1 drachm.

Linseed Meal ^ ounce.

Treacle enough to form a ball.

64. Cordial Drench —

A quart of good ale warmed, and 2 draclims of grated ginger.

U U

GiS THE HORSE

65. Cordial and ExrECTOUANT —

Towili'ivil Anisceil i ounce.

rowdcied Siiuill 1 draclim.

Powdered Jlyirli li di-achni3.

Balsam of Peni, enough to form a ball.

(.;6. Liiiuorieu Powder h ounce.

Gum Ammoniaeuni :! diachms.

Balsam of Tolu H drachms.

Powdered Squill 1 drachm.

Linseed meal and boiling water, enough to form into a mass.

DEMULCENTS

Are used for the purpose of soothing irritations of the bowels, kid-
neys, or bladder, in tlie two last cases by their effect upon the secretion
of urine.

67. Demulcent Drexcu —

Gum Arabic i ounce.

AVater 1 pint.

Dissolve, and give as a drench night and morning, or mixed with a mash.

68. Linseed 4 ounces.

Water . 1 quart.

Simmer till a strong and thick decoction is obtained, and give as above.

69. Marsh-mallow Drench —

Marsh-mallows A douDle handful

Water 1 quart.

Simmer, aa in No. 68, and use in the same way.

DIAPHORETICS

Have a special action on the skin, inci-easing functional activity.

70. Ordinary Diaphoretic Drknch —

Solution of Acetate of Ammonia 3 to 4 ounces.

Laudanum 1 ounce.

Mix, and give at night. Or,

71. Solution of Acetate of Ammonia 2 ounces.

Spirit of Nitric jEthcr 2 ouncea

Jfix, and give as above.

72. In Hide-Bound —

Emetic Tartar 1^ drachms.

Camphor h drachm.

Ginger 2 drachms.

Opium i drachm.

Oil of Caraway 1. '5 drops.

Linseed meal and boiling water, to form a ball, which is to be given twice or thrica
a week.

73. In Hide-bound (but not so efficacious) —

Antimonial Powder 2 dracnms.

Ginger 1 drachm.

Powdered Caraways 6 drachms.

Oil of Aniseed ." 20 drops.

Mix as above.

DIURETICS 649

These remedies require moderate exercise in clothing to bring out their
effects, after which the horse should be wisped till quite dry.

DIGESTIVES

Digestives are applications which promote suppuration, and the healing
of wounds or ulcers.

74. Digestive Ointment —

Ked Precipitate 2 ounces.

Venice Turpentine 3 ounces.

Beeswax 1 ounce.

Hog's Lard 4 ounces.

Melt the three last ingredients over a slow fire, and when nearly cold stir in the
powder.

The resin ointment of the British Pharmacopoeia is that now in general
use, but it is rather too stiff for convenient application, and many veterinary
surgeons employ less wax or more oil.

DIURETICS

Diuretics are medicines which promote the secretion and discharge of
urine, the effect being produced in a different manner by different medicines ;
some acting directly upon the kidneys by sympathy with the stomach, while
others are taken up by the blood-vessels, and in their elimination from the
blood cause an extra secretion of the urine. In either case their effect is
to diminish the watery part of the blood, and thus promote the absorption
of fluid effiised into any of the cavities, or into the cellular membrane in the
various forms of dropsy.

75. Stimulating Diuretic Ball —

Powdered Resin .3 drachms.

Nitre 3 drachms.

Castile Soap 3 drachms.

Oil of Juniper 1 drachm. Mix.

76. A More Cooling Diuretic Ball —

Powdered Nitre J to 1 ounce.

Camphor 1 drachm.

Juniper Berries 1 drachm.

Soap 3 drachms.

]\Iix, adding linseed meal enough to form a ball.

77. Diuretic Powder for a Mash —

Nitre a to f ounce.

Resin 2 to I ounce. Mix.

78. Another More Active Powder —

Nitre 6 drachms.

Camphor 1^ drachms. Mix.

79.

Gum Styrax ^ drachm.

Hard Soap 2 drachms.

Eesin Powder 1^ draclims.

Nitre Powder l| drachms.

Ginger Powder 1 drachm.

Oil of Juniper 20 drops.

Linseed meal and treacle sufficient to form a convenient sized ball.

650 THE HORSE

EMBROCATIONS

Embrocations or Liniments are stimulating or sedative external applica-
tions, inteuiled to reduce the pain and inflammation of external parts when
rubbed into the skin with the hand.

80. MusTAUD Embrocation —

Best Flour of .Miistanl 6 ounces.

Liquor of Aiiiinoiiia li ounces.

Oil of Tuiiieutiiie li ouuoes.

Mix with suUicient water to form a thin paste.

81. Stimulating Embrocation—

Camphor ^ ounce.

Oil of Turpentine li ounces.

Spirit of Wine 1^ ounces. Mix.

82. Sweating Embrocation for Wingalls, etc. —

Strong Mercurial Ointment 2 ounces.

Camphor i ounce.

Oil of Rosemary 2 drachms.

Oil of Turpentine 1 ounce. Mix.

83. Another, but Stronger —

Strong ]\Iercurial Ointment 2 ounces.

Oil of Bay 1 ounce.

Oil of Origanum ^ ounce.

Powdered Cantharides | ounce. Mix.

A popular embrocation universally used and sold as a proprietary
article is made as follows : —

84. One wliole Egg

Strong Acetic Acid li fluid ounces.

Oil of Turpentine iX fluid ounces.

Water lialf-a-pint.

First whip the egg and add the turpentine slowly and with frequent agitatiou, then
the acetic acid, and lastly the water.

The ammonia liniment of the British Pharmacopojia is a useful applica
lion for sprains, and is made by .simply agitating one part of strong Liquid
Ammonia with three parts of olive oil. Any other vegetable oil will do for
veterinary purposes, but none emulsify so completely as to satisfy the
pharmacist.

EMULSIONS

When oily matters have their globules broken down by friction with
nmcilafinous substances, such as gum arabic or yolk of egg, they are called
emulsions, and are specially useful in soothing irritation of the mucous
membrane, of the trachea, and bronchi.

85. Simple Emulsion—

Linseed Oil 2 ounces.

Honey 3 ounces.

Soft Water . . 1 pint.

Carbonate of rot;i-5i 1 ilrachm.

Dissolve the honey and potass in tiie water ; tli<;n add the linseed oil by degrees in a
large mortar, when it should assume a milky appearance. It may be given night
and morning.

EXPECTORANTS 651

86. Anotheh more active Emulsion —

Simple Emulsion, No. 85 7 ounces.

Cam[thor 1 drachm.

Opium in Powder i drachm.

Oil of Aniseed 30 drops.

Rub the three last ingredients together in a mortar with some white sugar ; then add
the emulsion by degrees.

Wheii bismuth and chalk and other heavy and insoluble agents are to
be given as draughts they are suspended in mucilage of acacia, or traga-
canth, glycerine, syrup, or . treacle ; they are not strictly emulsified, but
"held up" with shaking until they can be administered. Such arts as
eiuulsification belong to the phai^macist, whose skill is but poorly re-
munerated, and they are only referred to here for the benefit of those
readers who have not the advantage of a dispensaiy at which to get their
medicines prepared.

EXPECTORANTS

Expectorants excite or promote a discharge of mucus fr(jm the lining
membrane of the bronchial tubes, thereby relieving inflammation and
allaying cough.

87. Expectorant Ball in Ordinary Cciugh without Inflammation —

Gum Ammoiiiauum 4 ounce.

Powdered Stpii'l 1 dracluii.

Castile Soap 2 drachms.

Honey enough to form a ball.

88. In Old Standing Cough (Stomacu) —

Asafoetida 3 drachms.

Galbanum 1 draclim.

Carbonate of Ammonia 2 drachm.

Ginger 1^ drachms.

Honey enough to form a ball.

89. A Strong Expectorant Ball—

Emetic Tartar 2 drachm.

Calomel 15 grains.

Digitalis i drachm.

Powdered Squills h drachm.

Linseed meal and water euoiigli to form a ball, which is not to be repeated without
great care.

FEBRIFUGES

Generally called fever medicines, are given to allay the arterial and
nervous excitements which accompany febrile action. They do this partly
by their agency on the heart and arteries through the nervous system, and
partly by increasing the seci'etions of the skin and kidneys.

90. Fever Ball—

Nitre 4 drachms.

Camphor I5 drachms.

Calomel and Opium, of each 1 scruple.

Linseed meal and water enough to form a ball. Or,

91. Emetic Tartar IJ to 2 drachms.

Compound Powder of Tragacanth 2 drachms.

Linseed meal as above. Or,

652 THE HORSE

02. Nitre 3 drachms.

Camphor 2 dracliins.

iMi.x as above.

03. Cooling Powdek foi: I\lAsn —

Nitre 6 drachms to 1 ounce.

May he given iu a bran mash.

9i. Cooling Drench —

Nitre 1 ounce.

Sweet Sjiirit of Nitre 1 ounce.

Water . . . | pint.

LOTIONS OR WASHES

Consist in liquids applied to the external parts, either to cool them or to
produce a healthy action in the vessels.

95. Cooling Solution for External Inflammation —

Goulard Extract 1 ounce.

Vinegar 2 ounces.

Spirits of "Wine (Methd.) 3 ounces.

Water li pints.

Mix, and apply with a calico bandage.

96. Another, useful foe Inflamed Legs, or for Galled Shoulders ob

Back —

Sal Ammoniac 1 ounce.

Vinegar -1 ounces.

Spirits of Wine (Methd.) 2 ounces.

Tincture of Arnica 2 drachms.

Water i pint. Mix.

97. Lotion for Foul Ulcers—

Sulpliate of Copper 1 ounce.

Nitric Acid i ounce.

Water 8 to 12 ounces. Mix.

98. Lotion for the Eyes —

Sulphate of Zinc 20 to 25 grains.

Water 6 ounces. Mix.

99. Vert Strong One, and only to be oRorrED in —

Nitrate of Silver 5 to 8 grains.

Distilled Water 1 ounce.

Mix, and use with a camel-hair brush.

100. Cocaine 5 % solution for rendering the eye insensitive, previous to applic^-

iou of above, or for minor operations.

NARCOTICS

A distinction is sometimes made between anodynes and narcotics, but
there is no necessity for separating them in a work of this character.
(See Anodynes.)

REFRIGERANTS

Lower the animal heat by contact %vith the skin, the ordinary ones
being cold air, cold water, ice, and evaporative lotions. (See Lotions.)

STIMULANTS 653

SEDATIVES

Depress the action of the circulatory and nervous systems. They are
very powerful in their effects, and are conveniently divided into brain
sedatives and heart sedatives. As examples of the first class may be cited
chloral and the bromides, and of the second digitalis, opium and belladonna,
and digitalis, which is the drug commonly used for this purpose, has a
special quality known by the name of cumulative, that is to say, if
repeated small doses are given at intervals for a certain time, an effect
is produced almost equal to that which would follow the exhibition of
the whole quantity at once. Besides digitalis, aconite is also sometimes
used to lower the action of the heai"t, and by many it is supposed to be
equal in potency to that drug, without the danger which always attends
its use.

STIMULANTS

By this term is understood those substances which excite the action of
the whole nervous and vascular systems ; almost all medicines are stimulants
to some part or other, as, for instance, aperients, which stimulate the lining
of the bowels, but to the general system are lowering. On the other
hand, stimulants, so called par excellence, excite and raise the action of the
brain and heart.

101. Old Ale 1 quart.

Carbonate of Ammonia § to 2 drachms.

Tincture of Ginger 4 drachms.

]\lix, and give as a drench.

For other stimulants, see Cordials.

The term stimulant is here used in its popular acceptation. Alcohol in
its various forms may be a true stimulant in very small doses, but it is
usually regarded in medicine as a narcotic, because it first excites and then
depresses nerve force, whereas a true stimulant is not followed by any re-
action. The true stimulants in use for animals, such as ginger, capsicum,
cinnamon and other drugs, we are accustomed from a horseman's point of
view to regard as cordials, carminatives, or tonics.

STOMACHICS

Stomachics are medicines given to improve the tone of the stomach when
impaired by bad management or disease.

102. Stomachic Ball —

Powdered Gentian i ounce.

Powdered Ginger li drachms.

Carbonate of Soda 1 "drachm.

Treacle to form a ball. Or,

103. Cascarilla, powdered 1 ounce.

Myrrh 1| draclims.

Castile Soap 1 drachm.

Mix, with syrup or treacle, into a ball. Or,

G51 THE IIOR.SE

104. I'owileipil t'ahiJiilia .', to 1 ounce.

I'dwdiied Cassia 1 <ira',hni.

rowduied Khubiiib 2 drachms.

Mix as in No. 103.

STYPTICS

Styptics iire romodios whicli have a tendency to stop tlie flow of 1)loo(l
either from internal or external surfaces. The}' are used either by the
mouth, or to the part itself in the shape of lotions, etc. ; or the actual
cautery. Sometimes, however, the part cannot be reached, and is yet
within the influence of an injection, as in bleeding from the nostrils, for
which the following may be employed : —

105. Matico Leaves i oiuice.

Boiling Water 1 pint.

Infuse, and when cold strain and iiijeet into the nostrils.

For Internal Styptics, sec Astringents.

TONICS

AuoMKNT tlie viL;c)ur of the whole body permanently, whilst stimulants
-nly act for a short time. They arc chiefly useful after low fever.

106. Tunic Ball—

Sulphate of Iron ^ ounce.

Extract of Camomih' 1 ounce.

ilix, and form into a ball. Or,

107. Quinine 30 grains.

Ginger . 1 drachm.

Powdered Aniseed 1 ounce.

Conijiound Powder of Tragacaulh 2 drachms.

Syrup enough to make a ball.

VERMIFUGES, OR WORM MEDICINES
Auk DESCKiBED under the head of Anthelmintics, which aeo.

CHAPTER XXXVIII

SHOEING

To SHOE OR NOT TO SHOE, that IS the question which every few years
provides newspapers with cheap copy, when the sea-serpent's claims have
for the time failed to draw. Why wei'e ho^^ses first shod 1 There can be
only one answer to that question, and it includes a refutation of the oft-
rejieated statement that present-day horses have had their feet so spoilt by
shoeing that it has become a necessity. If it were true, which it is not,
that Arab horses are never shod on the dry and sandy soil of Arabia propei',
it would not prove that in this humid climate and on macadamized roads
horses' feet are able to bear the attrition which ordinary work necessitates.
Look in at the village farrier's, if you will, and choose a flat country as well,
and examine the feet of colts about to be shod for the first time. How
many will you find whose feet are not already broken and misshapen ? Still
more so is this the case when the ground is hilly and uneven, although
nature provides a harder and more upright foot for those bred on high
ground.

If, however, the feet of the unbi'oken colt are good enough to support
his frolics at pasture without artificial covering, thei'e are but very few
capable of bearing the strain of work upon the roads. The few consist of
horses used upon the fens for agricultural work, and now and again one
belonging to a faddist, who can accomplish a journey of a few miles upon
the level wooden or asphalt roads of the city and West-End of London.
Experiments have again and again been made, but ended in failure. The
evils of shoeing are many and great, but in accepting the services of the
farrier we are choosing the lesser evil. Mr. Hunting, in his Art of Ifor-se
Shoeing, says : " The gentleman with a fad, who occasionally appears in
England with unshod horses at work, is an unconscious impostor. He sets
his little experience against the common-sense and universal practice of others.
The shoeless experiment has been tried over and over again, but always with
the same result — a return to shoeing. In dry weather the hoof becomes
hard, and it is wonderful how much wear it will then stand on the hardest
of x'oads. In wet weather the hoof becomes soft, and then the friction on
hard roads soon prohibits work without shoes. If work be persisted in,
under such circumstances, the hoof rapidly wears away and lameness results.
Persons trying to prove a preconceived theory meet this difficulty by resting
the horse until the horn grows, but business men, w^ho keep horses for work

655

656

THE H0R8E

in all weathers, can afford no such luxury." The same excellent authority
tells us that Napoleon's retreat from i\[oscow depended for most of its hard-
ships and horrors upon the simple fact that his horses wei'C not shod properly
for travelling on snow and ice. Tlie horses could not keep their feet, and
were unable to drag the guns and wagons, which had to be abandoned.
During the Franco-German war Bourbaki's retreat became a confused rout
from a similar cause.

The anatomy of the foot has been described at page 502 et seq., and
it is therefore unnecessary to return to it again. It will, however, be
desirable, in describing the proper mode of preparing the foot for the

Fig. lis.— a Sound Foke-koot rREPAKED Fon tiik Shoe.

A. The heel of the crust.

B. The toe cut out to receive the clip.

C. C. The fiuarters of the crust.

D. D. The liar.s as they should be left with

the full frog between them.

E. E. The angles between the heel and

bars where corns aiiiiear.

F. F. The sole.

G. G. The bulbous heels.
H. The cleft.

shoe, to recapitulate the several parts which the smith has to work upon.
These are delineated in Fig. 118, of the proper form and proportions. In
effecting this, the old .shoe (excepting of course unshod colts) must first
be taken off, to do which the clenches nuist be raised with the tool
called the buffer, loosening any nails which may appear tight by driving
them back with the punch. Then taking hold of one web of the shoe,
raise it from its bed by lifting one side bodily and then the other, taking
care not to draw it off completely on one side, or the crust will be broken.
Next rasp the whole surface of the crust to a level, which will expose
any stubs remaining, and if there arc any they must be taken out. All
this is a mere mechanical operation, requiring no thought ; but now comes

THE FORM AND MANUFACTURE OF SHOES 657

the important part of the smith's work. It demands some knowledge of the
anatomy of the foot and also of its diseases. He must remember that he
has only about half-an-inch of horn at the thickest part between his knife
and the sensitive internal parts ; and though he can generally make a foot
look well by the use of his tools, he often only does this at the expense of
the destruction of a part which alone keeps the foot sound. Much will
depend upon the natural or acquired formation of the foot he has to shoe.
If it is very strongly covered with horn, great liberties may be taken with
it, as compared with one where the sole is flat and thin, and the crust very
shelly and weak. Generally he will only have to take an equal proportion
off from the whole concave surface of the sole, that is, supposing the foot was
properly prepared the last time it was shod ; but sometimes it will have
been allowed to grow greatly out of shape, and then much experience and
skill are required to know how far to go with the knife. A perfect model
must not always be carried in the eye, with a view to render the one before
the smith exactly like it, but he must rather consider how he can make the
best of the materials he has to work upon, which will generally be by pre-
serving horn rather than by removing it. If the foot is strong, the toe may
be slightly shortened, the heels of the crust and the bars may be lowered a
little ; the sole should not be pared out. The frog will only want to be
cleared of any ragged portions depending from it, and the attachment of the
bars to the crust must studiously be preserved. It is usual to clear out the
sole in the angular interval between the bar and the crust, so as to avoid all
risk of the shoe pressing upon the foot and causing a corn ; but if care is
taken to prevent the shoe from being twisted side-ways, this can never happen
and the sole may be left here on a level with the bar, unless it has previously
been the seat of a corn.

Such are the general directions for preparing the healthy foot for the
ordinary English shoe ; but supposing that there is any disease or tendency
to it, or that some unusual form of shoe is decided on, there will be a neces-
sity for certain modifications in the plan adopted.

THE FORM AND MANUFACTURE OF SHOES

In spite of the prolonged opposition of a powerful trades' union, machine-
made shoes are now largely used, though never likely altogether to displace
the hand-made article. There were many serious objections to them at first,
but these have been practically overcome, and really good shoes, capable, if
necessary, of cold fitting, are now turned out by the British and Colonial
Company. A great many different materials have, from time to time, been
tried, among them compressed leather, vulcanite, and pa2ner mache. None
answer so well as iron, although a mild steel is used for the short Charlier,
to which Mr. South has given the name of the " Rational " shoe. The
rapid cooling which is necessary in fitting shoes, makes steel too brittle or
else too slippery. New bar iron, plain, fullered or Rodway, is commonly
used for front shoes, and " doubles " for hind shoes of hard-woi'king horses.
Old shoes doubled and welded together and drawn out with heavy hammers
are more lasting than new and less brittle than steel.

The chief objects to be attained in any particular pattern or form of

658 THE nORSE

shoe arc — that it be light, easily and safely retained l)y few nails, capable
of wearing three weeks or a nionlh, and that it afford good foothold to the
horse.

The average weight of shoes —

Race Horses 2 ounces to 4 ounces.

Hacks and Hunlers 15 ounces to 18 ounces.

Carriage Horses 20 ounces (o 30 ounces.

Omnibus anil Vanncrs 3 lbs. to 3^ lbs.

Heavy Dray 4 to 5 lbs.

1. The common English shoe for general purposes is represented in the
annexed engraving, which shows both its surfaces. It is often made wider
at the heels than the foot it is intended for, but this is a great mistake, and
leads to the very mischief which it is intended to avoid. On examining the
foot represented at page G56, it will be seen that at the back part of the
crust on each side there is a considerable narrowing, or approach of the one
heel to the othei'. This should be exactly copied, so that when the shoe is
fitted neither heel will project a hair's-breadth beyond the other. The web
will vary in breadth according to the nature of the sole which it has to pro-
tect, being made broader for a thin, weak sole, than for a strong one. On
the internal or foot surface, the inner half or rather more is forged in a con-
cave shape, so as to make the inner edge much thinner than the outer.
This is called the concave seat, and is intended to keep all pressure off the
sole, and to prevent the ordinary sized pieces of grit and gravel which in-
sinuate themselves between the shoe and the foot from injuring the latter
by their presence. The web of this shoe is perfectly flat on the ground
surface, and is of the same thickness throughout.

Only the very best iron can be used to produce good nails. Nothing is
dearer than bad nails, which cause injury to the foot and loss of shoes.

A good nail should present certain forms of head, neck and shank. The
head should not be too broad at the top or it may become fixed in the nail-
hole only by its upper edge, and when the shoe has had a few days' wear
the nail loses its hold, and the shoe is loose. The neck should not be too
thick, as it is then liable to press on the sensitive foot and to break the
wall. The shank should not be too wide or too thick. The point should
not be too long or too tapered as this leaves insutlicient metal to form a
good clinch.

There are two methods of putting nail-holes into shoes — by " fullering "
and by "stamping." A stamped shoe is on. in which the nail-holes are
merely punched at certain distances, so as to leave four-sided tapered holes
of the exact shape of a nail-head. A fullered shoe is one having a groove
round the circumference through which the nail-holes are punched. Both
processes, when well-done, admit of nails being driven into the hoof with
equal safety and ease.

Whether stamped or fullered, there are a few more important points to
remember about the nail-holes. The wall is not of the same thickness
throughout, but becomes thinner towards the heels. Tlie inner side of the
foot is also somewhat thinner and more upright than the outer. The safest
position, then, for the nails is in the front half of the foot, but should this
position not present sound horn they may be placed further back. The
danger of placing nails near the heels is due entirely to the greater risk in

THE FORM AND MANUFACTURE OF SHOES 659

driving them through the thin horn. There need be no fear of interfering
with expansion.

Fig. 119. — Concave-seated Enoltsh SnoE for Off Fore-foot, showing both Surfaces.

A. Clip at Toe. C. C. Level bearing for heel of crust and bar to

B. Concave surface to lighten the shoe, and rest upon.

keep off pressure from the sole. D. D. Fullering for nail heads.

E. E. Flat web, ground side.

The distance of the nail-holes from the outer edge of the shoe should
depend upon the thickness of the horn of the wall, and therefore be greater

660 THE HORSE

in large shoes than in smaller, and greater at the toe than at the heels of
the same shoe.

Seven is the usual number of nails used, four on the outer and three on
the inner quarter, but for some horses five only will be made to answer well
enough. Feet vary so much that no absolute rule can be laid down as to
the proper number to be employed.

The shoe recommended by Mr. Spooner in his well-known and admir-
able work on The Foot of the Horse, is described by that gentleman as
follows : — " It is then a seated shoe, with the flat part rather wider than
common. The web of the shoe, for a moderate-sized horse used on the road,
is about an inch in width, but varying according to circumstances, and being
narrower at the heels, where the upper wearing surface is very slightly
bevelled outwards, than at the other parts ; the ground part flat, sometimes
fullered and sometimes stamped ; but when the former plan is adopted the
fuller is not deep, or too near the edge, but somewhat wider than common.
Three holes merely are stamped on the inside toe, and five on the outside
toe and quarters, with a clip at the toe and another at the outer quarter.
Sometimes, instead of a clip at the toe, the shoe is turned up in the French
fashion, as recommended by Mr. Goodwin ; this plan is very advantageous
when horses are in the habit of hitting the toe and tripping, or wearing it
in undue proportion. In contracted feet the application of this shoe has
materially enlarged the foot, quite as much as it is desirable to do ; indeed,
I believe if it were applied early, contracted feet would be altogether avoided.
It is also calculated in great measure to prevent corns, from bearing su easy
on the inside heel."

These are admirable directions, with the exception of the clip on the out-
side, which I strongly object to as destroying so much of the crust for no
useful purpose. Mr. Spooner's plan of filing the heels, with a slight inclina-
tion outwards, is excellent, as it has a tendency to prevent the heel of the
crust from curling inwards, and may possibly cause it to expand slightly in
the contrary direction. I confess, however, that I cannot see what there
is in his shoe to make " the bearing so easy on the inside heel." On the
contrary, the bevelling outwards of the heel of the shoe has a tendency to
cause an increase of pressure on the seat of corn, rather than to relieve it.
My own opinion is that it does neither the one nor the other, unless the
shoe is twisted bodily outwards.

The shoe used m hunting is made of a different shape as regards the
seating, being only slightly relieved with the file at this part, so as to avoid
any approach to convexity, and hollowed on the outside, in a manner similar
to the form adopted in the inside of the ordinary shoe, shown in Fig. 119.
This is intended to give a firmer foothold of the ground than the smooth
web of the common shoe will allow of, and answers that purpose most
eflfectually. In other respects, the hunting shoe is made exactly like the
common shoe, except that it is generally as light as possible, consistently
with a necessary strength. Sometimes the outside nails must be carried
considerably further back than I have here represented, and especially when
the horse to be shod is apt to pull off his shoes, or when ho is intended for
a deep clay country ; but for grass or any light arable, seven nail holes,
punched as I have represented in Fig. 120, and the nails well driven and
clinched, will keep on the shoe, without any danger of its getting a twist.

THE FORM AND MANUFACTURE OF SHOES G61

Here, again, I shall insert Mr. Spooner's admirable description of the shoe
recommended by him for this purpose : " For hunting, the shoe must be
narrower than for the road, and an additional nail may be placed on the
inside ; no evil will result from this, because in the field the pressure on the
crust is in a great degree relieved by the sole and frog. There must be
space for a piece of paper to pass between the foot and inner rim of the
shoe, but no more, as the foot can then be withdrawn from heavy soil with

Fio. 120. — Hunting Shoe for Off Fore-foot, concave on the Ground Side.
A. Couoavity made to give foothold and lighten the shoe.

less difficulty than when the usual space is permitted. To avoid overreach-
ing, the heels of the fore-shoe should scarcely project beyond the heels of the
crust" (they should not at all), "and they should be rounded off, instead of
being left square, as is usually the case. The hind-shoes should also, when
there is any disposition to overreach, be square at the toe, set a little within
the crust ; and the inner rim at the toe should have a piece cut out, so that,
instead of a sharp edge, there should be a rounded surface, which, of course,
is not so likely to catch the heels of the fore-feet." It will be seen that
this description tallies very closely with that wliich I have given above, the
only point of difference being the external concavity of the web, which I
believe to be of great importance in procuring a secure foothold. It also
allows the foot to be pulled out of wet clay far more easily than the flat
web ; and there is a reduction of useless weight, as the hunting shoe does
not wear out, except with those riders who keep to the roads, and they of
course should have a road shoe.

2. The French shoe differs from the English form in both its surfaces,
that which comes in contact with the foot being concave, while the other
is convex. To make it fit the foot, the toe and heels of the latter must be
pared away and made to fit the shoe, as here represented. The web is very

662

THE HORSE

wide, and punched with eight counter-sunk nail-holes, the English plan of
fullering not being adopted. The holes are also punched fully the third of
an inch from the edge of the shoe, and the nails are driven in a very great
slant, so that they come out little more than half-an-inch above the shoe, as
represented in Fig. 121. By adopting this plan, several advantages are said
to be gained, as compared with the English method, which Mr. Goodwin, who
advocates the French shoe (yet proposes another on exactly the opposite
principles), enumerates as follows : — " If we refer to the action of the fore-
leg, it will tend to explain some of the advantages to be derived from the
curved shoe. When a horse is about to move, the first indication of motion
is a bend at the knee, which necessaril}' raises the heels, and they become
more and more elevated, till the toe (which is the last part that leaves the
ground) is suspended for the moment that the foot is lifted. The base of
the foot, just at its leaving the ground, is almost perpendicular ; when the

Fio. 121.— The French Shoe.

knee is bent to its fullest extent, the foot is then in the same position, with
the heels of the shoe pointing upwards. If we consider this final part of
the motion of the limb, we find the movement of the foot very nearly
describe a semicircle, and on viewing the form of the joints connected with
action, the necessity for a curve at the toe is clearly demonstrated. Again,
the form of the shoe, worn out, at once shows that it must be more suitable
to put on a new one of that form, rather than to suffer the action of the
leg to be opposed until it is worn to that form. In the second part of the
action, when the foot comes to the ground, the quarters and heels touch
first, and they are the only parts occupied in placing it on the ground again.
There may be deviations from this general rule, as in those horses that
have bad action ; also when horses are drawing heavy weights, it must
necessarily differ. The fore-legs may be considered simply as pillars of
support, having no power of themselves to propel the body forward, pro-
gression being entirely performed by the hind parts ; and if it were not so,
the action would be different, as I have before observed it to be in those

THE FORM AND MANUFACTURE OF SHOES 663

horses vvhicii have great weights to draw, and this may be more readily
observed in any draught-horse going up-hill. I have offered these few
remarks on action, in order to bring the reader's attention to the curve of
the French shoe at the toe. This form of shoe certainly harmonizes more
with the motion of the fore-foot than the English does ; it affords a greater
surface of bearing at the toe than the projecting ridge of the straight
ordinary si oe, and is much more calculated to allow of the motion of the
leg and foot ; the labour of the muscles is also diminished, and the limb
Ijeing in its natural position, the ligaments have less imposed upon them ;
they are more at ease, and consequently are not so liable to be strained.
The shape of the coflin-bone is also another proof of the French system
being more consistent with the principles of nature than the straight
ordinary shoe. If the coffin-bone of a fore-foot be placed on a level surface,
the quarters and heels are the only parts in contact with it, which proves
that they are intended by nature to meet the ground first, and to bear the
greatev proportion of weight ; but if the quarters of the hoof be removed
(lowered or diminished) to admit of the straight shoe, the portion of weight
intended to be borne on the quarters must be thrown upon the heels ; and
hence the great mischief which ensues from the common (plain) English
shoe. A reference to page 379, where the coffin-bone is cai-efully delineated
in profile, will show the correctness of a part of this argument; for un-
doubtedly the lower surface of the edge of the coffin-bone is convex, and
therefore there is no impropriety in cutting away the crust till it is left of
an equal thickness between this bone and the shoe. But if it is decided to
adopt the French shape, it must never be forgotten that it is not merely by
cutting away the heels and toe that a foot prepared in the English way
can be fitted to a French shoe, but by allowing the quarters to grow at the
part where they are usually, in this country, sliced away to arrive at a
plain surface. If this is not done, the heels will be too much weakened,
and a corn will almost inevitably be pi'oduced in the inner one. The
directions given by M. Bourgelat, and by M. Janze in his quarto on shoeing,
are nearly the same ; namely, that the convexity should be two and a half
times the thickness of the shoe. This curvature is distributed so that the
toe shall be raised twice the thickness of the shoe from the ground, and the
heel the remaining half ; the bend at the latter part beginning at the hind-
most nail-hole, and that of the front of the shoe springing from the next
nail. There is a great deal to be said in favour of this method of shoeing,
grounded on the theory of action, which is not very clearly explained by
INIr. Goodwin in the remarks which I have quoted ; but the strongest argu-
ment is founded on the fact, that French horses are much sounder on their
feet than the English. It must be remembered, however, that the roads in
France are not like ours j they are either paved or composed of loose gravel,
both of which surfaces are more likely to suit the convex shoe than our hard
flint, gravel, or granite roads. But, independently of the difference in sur-
face in the shoes of the two countries, there is also a great variation in the
nail-holes, which in the French shoe are placed on both sides of the web, as
I have represented them on the outside (Figs. 120 and 121) ; thus the outer
heel is less confined in France than in this country, and to this fact I
attribute a great part of their superior success. It would be a long time
before so great a revolution could be accomplished as is necessary for the

X X

G6i THE HORSE

introduction of the French shoe into general use ; but I believe that it
would, on the wliole, be far superior to our own.

3. INIr. Goodavin has suggested an improvement on the French shoe,
consisting in making the heels of the shoe slightly convex towards the foot,
necessitating a double sweep in both surfaces. It is diilicult to convoy an
accurate idea of Mr. Goodwin's shoe without an illustration, but his object
is to place the heel of the crust on a sloping surface, so that when pressure
is matle downwards, it has a tendency to exjjand the heels. I believe, how-
ever, that all attempts to effect this object by mechanical means are
fallacious, and that it is only by causing a due development of the frog and
bars through the stimulus of pressure that it can be done. I therefore see
no advantage in INIr. Goodwin's alteration, and should prefer the French
plan, pure and simple.

4. Mr. Bracy Clark, in his great anxiety to prcA'^ent contraction, sug-
gested a liingo at the too of the shoe, by which it might be allowed to
expand with the foot. At first sight this looks extremely simple, and likely
to be efficacious, but there is one objection which completely explains the
reason of its utter failure in practice. It must be nailed on firmly to both
quarters, and at least four nails in. each will be I'oquired. If, therefore, the
heels are to expand, they must do so b)'^ a hinge or bend in the toe of the
foot, since the quarters are nailed to the shoe, and no yielding can possibly
take place between the four nails which are driven into each. Now the
toe is not the faulty part in contraction, but the curve takes place at the
back of the quarters, and moreover, the too being guarded b}^ the thickest
part of the horn in front, and strengthened by the angle which the sole
makes with it, cannot possibly expand or contract in the way which must
be accomplished to carry out the object of the hinged shoe. The plan is
therefore abandoned as practically useless, and theoretically founded on
fallacious principles.

5. Turner's unilateral suoe. This name is not very descriptive of the
plan which Mr. Turner, the well-known voterinar}'^ surgeon of Regent
Street, introduced. It is not a one sidod shoe, but a shoe nailed only on
the outside quarter and too. Fig. 122 is a feather-edge hind-shoe, with
somewhat similar nailing. Two clips are used, one at the toe and the
other at the back of the outside quarter. He also reduces the thickness of
the heel by filing away the ground sui'face, leaving a shoulder about throe-
quarters of an inch from tlic extreme point, and thus his shoe is nearly
exactly similar in principle to the French plan, excepting in not continuing
the curve to the toe. INIr. Turner considers that this prevents any pressure
being made at the seat of corn; but he forgets that iron is of a most un-
yielding nature, and that a blow given to the middle of the shoe is dis-
tributed equally over the whole of the under surface of the foot, and is not
confined to that part only immediately above it. I believe that his plan
is more likely to produce corns than to prevent them, as by reducing the
shoe up to a shoulder it is more likely to bond there, and then permanent
pressure would be made on the heel, which would be far moi'o likely to
produce a corn than occasional blows. As far as the mode of nailing on
the outside only is concerned, I believe it also is liable to objection, inas-
much as while it entirol}'- frees the inside half of the foot, it sacrifices the
outside in a terrible manner. It is quite true that the inner heel is weaker

THE FORM AND MANUFACTURE OF SHOES

6G5

than the outer, but a contracted foot is affected on both sides of the fro^,
and thus there is more mischief done to the outer heel than good to the
inner. The principle of avoiding confinement of the heel by nailing is good,
but the practice of sacrificing the outer one to the inner is not to be recom-
mended, where it is possible to avoid injury to either. As I before re-
marked, conti\action takes place in the back part of the foot and not at the
toe, and a nail di'iven considerably in front of the middle of the quarter has
no prejudicial efiect in confining the heel.

6. The half-moon shoe was strongly recommended by Professor Coleman,
in the belief that unless the frog touches the ground it is impossible to keep
up a due secretion of the parts which depend upon that organ for their

Fig. 122.

proper size and situation. His shoe was flat towards the foot, and concave
like the hunting shoe (Fig. 120) on the ground side of the sole, and would
allow of sufiicient parting out to give space between the two. If this could
not be done, the usual kind of concave seating (Fig. 119) was adopted. The
toe was made of the usual thickness, the web becoming gradually thinner
till it was reduced to one-third at the back of the quarter, where it ended.
In preparing the foot the toe was lowered considerably, so as to make up
for the difference in the thickness of the shoe, and thus take off the extra
jar which would otherwise be thrown upon it, and the additional strain on
the flexor tendons and suspensory ligament. Mr. Coleman did not expect
that any unsound foot could bear this shoe, nor that it could be used on any
horse whose heels had long been protected by iron, without a considerable
preparation by gradual work, but he thought that if adopted from the first
the frog and heels would bear the friction of our roads without suffering,
and if so, that the contraction would be entirely prevented. The plan was
tried on the Royal Artillery horses, and was reported on favoui'abl}', but it
was not long persevered in, and has never since, so far as I know, been
reintroduced. It is excellent in principle, but the general opinion is that,

666

THE HORSE

when carried into practice, few of our horses would Ijear tlie battering of
their heels which our hard roads would entail.

7. TiiK TIP is exactly similar in shape to the half-moon shoe, but is not so
carefully seated on the foot, because it is merely wanted for horses intended
to be turned out on soft ground. It is also generally made of equal thick-
ness throughout, but it would be better if the substance of iron were reduced

at the heels.

8. TnE PLATE OR RACING SHOE is merely a narrow rim of iron, flat on

Fio. 1'23. — Bar Shoe for Off Fore-foot : Fitted, but not nailed on.
A. A. Bulbous heels of the foot. B. 15. Fullering puuclicd with seven holes.

the side towards the foot, and grooved on the other. This groove gives a
good foothold, and conceals the nail heads also, so that no fullering or
countersinking is required. The breadth of the web is generally about half-
an-inch.

9. The bar shoe is never used in this country for sound feet, but it is
a great pity that some modification of it cannot be introduced so as to
obviate all the objections which apply to the ordinary shoe. It consists of
a complete ring of iron, similar in sliape to the ordinary shoe, as far as the
back of the quarters, but from that part bending inwards to meet the web
of the opposite side, with which it is welded. It is now used for two pur-
poses, exactly the reverse of each other. In the one case the foot is so pre-
pared that the frog shall touch the shoe, while the heels are quite free, and
are thereby relieved from all pressure. In the other the frog does not
come in contact with the shoe, which is solely supported by the crust and

THE FORM AND MANUFACTURE OF SHOES

667

havs. It may thus be made either to defeud the frog or the heels, which-
ever may be in fault, and it is one of the most valuable aids to veterinary
surgery. Should the frog be more prominent than the crust, the shoe
may be made thin in proportion, at the part where it covers the former,
and by this means it may be made exactly to fit the two when it is desired
to divide the weight between them. There are many weak-heeled harness
horses which would do their work far better if they were permanently shod
in this way, and but for the danger of pulling these shoes off, and the little
hold which they take of the ground, hacks might also sometimes be advan-
tageously shod with the bar shoe. It is unsightly, certainly, and at present
marks the existence of some disease, and for these reasons it is now seldom
employed, except on compulsion.

10. The patten is merely a bar shoe made square at the heels and
turned down at the back, so as to raise this part an inch from the ground.
The object is to relieve the flexor tendons or suspensory ligament. It is
also sometimes used in curb, with a view to relax the calcaneo- cuboid liga-
ment, and the tendon of the gastrocnemius internus muscle.

When the choice op the shoe is arrived at, the next thing is to make
it and put it on. The former is a mechanical operation, which an scai'cely

Fig. 124.— Machine-made Shoe — Fore-foot. Fio. 125.— Machine-made Shoe— Hind-foot.

be learnt without actual demonstration, and I shall omit all account of it
here, and refer the reader to Mr. Hunting's admirable treatise,^ from which
much of this chapter is derived, or to the larger work compiled by Messrs.
Dollar and Wheatley.^

11. A leather sole is often introduced between the shoe and the foot,
for the double purpose of lessening the vibration and protecting the sole
and frog from injury by blows against an irregular surface, such as new-
laid gravel, or granite, or I'ough paving. Sometimes, when the frog and
sole are sound, but from the action being very high there is a tendency
to jar the foot, the leather is cut to the exact shape of the shoe inside and
out, leaving the sole and frog uncovered ; but in general a piece of leather

^ The Art of Horse- Shoeing : A Manual for Farriers.
* Horse- Shoeing, and the Horse's Foot.

668

THE HORSE

is insiuuatcd between the two, with a straight edge, crossing from heel to
lieel, and after tlie nails are (h-iven and clenched, the outside edge is pared
off level witli the foot. Before, however, this is done, the space occupied

Fig. 126.— Front Shoes, most suitable von Riding and Carriage Horses.i

by the concavity of the sole, and the crevices in the cleft of the frog and
between it and the bars, must be carefully filled with tow, saturated with
a mixture composed of equal parts of tallow and tar. This not only keeps
the horn moist, but it prevents any grit or fine gravel from working its
way forwards through the crevices which are presented in the cleft of the
frog and at its sides. It is an extremely useful mode of saving the feet
of highactioued horses which are much used on our hard roads, especially
where the heels are weak. The leather must be well soaked in water

GRU>(Regd.)

Patk.nt Bar

Fio. 127. — Urquhart's Pads.

before it is used, and it will then accommodate itself to every slight irre-
gularity in the foot. It is often alleged that this plan allows the frog to
receive more pressure than with the ordinaiy shoe ; but the leather is so
yielding that this cannot really be the Ccose, especially as it is of the same
thickness throughout.

The pads illustrated above have now become general among those who
can afford to double the cost of shoeing, and on London roads they are a
comfort to the horse, enabling him to grip the greasy pavement, while
providing just that frog pressure contended for by many of the authorities

^ Manufactured hy the British and Colonial Horse-Shoe and Machine Company.

THE FORM AND MANUFACTURE OE SHOES 609

quoted in different parts of this volume. Numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, are Mr.
Urquhart's patterns, with which he claims to prevent slipping, contracted
and diseased feet ; economize the wear and tear of legs through absence of
concussion ; develop the healthy functions of the feet.

The "Grip" and the " Ring " pads do not cover the whole surface, and
thereby prevent healthy evaporation, as do the other patterns here shown.
Mr. Sheather, the well-known veterinary surgeon, seeks to obviate this
objection by his pneumatic pad. It is not solid like the ordinary frog-pad,
but hollow, and is compressed at each step, but immediately resumes its
prominent form on being relieved of pressure.

In nailing on the shoe very little art is required if the holes are punched
straight through far enough from the edge, and the crust is not broken or

unusually thin. If these precautions are not taken, the inclination of the
hole gives a bias to the nail which it is difficult to rectify, while, if the
holes are punched too near the edge, in order to get a sufficient hold they
must be driven with a very slight slant far up into the wall of the hoof, and
then the difficulty consists in bringing their points out at the proper place.
When the nails are all driven through, a notch is made beneath each with
the rasp; they are then carefully turned down and twisted off with the
pincers, leaving a proper length to clinch, when after a second hammering
to secure their being driven well home they are clinched with the hammer
by turning their points down into the notch previously made with the rasp.
The whole foot is then slightly rasped over so as to remove any rough edges
projecting beyond the shoe, and the operation is completed.

In the hind-shoe there is not so much variation as in that used for the

670

THE ilUil.SK

fure-foot, because the hind fuut is not nearly so subject to disease as the fore.
It is generally made thicker but narrower than the fore-shoe, and there is
no necessity to make it concave-seated, because the sole is not often tender.

A. Clip at toe.

Fio. 129.— Featuer-edoed Off IIind-Shoe.

B. Inside heel. C. Outside heel, with " calking."

nor is it ever so thin and flat as is common enough before. As the horse
stops himself by his hind-feet chiefly, he requires something to prevent his
slipping, and the common practice is to turn up one or both heels, which

FlO. 130.— GROt'Nn Sl'RFACE OF Near HlNr)SnOE.

A. The toe roumled off before and beliind. B. Inside heel, feather-edged-

C. Outside heel, with "calking."

projections are called " calkings " or " cogs " (see Figs. 1 29, 1 30, C). In horses
for heavy harness work it is necessary to use these on both heels, but as
the inner one is apt to cut the opposite fetlock joint, or brui.se the coronet

THE FORM AND MANUFACTURE OF SHOES 671

by treading on it, and one suffices for light work, tlie usual practice is to
turn up the outer heel only for all ordinary work, such as light, fast harness,
hacking and hunting. If, however, this is done, the inner heel must be
made proportionately thick, so as to give the horse a level bearing, without
which he never works in comfort. Many smiths maintain that this is not
necessary, because the calking sinks into the ground and does not there-
fore really raise that heel above the other. This is true enough when the
roads are soft ; but when they are hard, as even macadamized roads often
are, the calking sinks very little or not at all, and the twist complained of
is actually felt. It is the best practice, therefore, to shoe the hind-feet in
all light harness-horses, hunters, and hacks, with an outside calking, but
the inner web narrow but deep, or what is called " feather-edged." This is
shown in Figs. 122 and 129, which are views of such a shoe, specially adapted
to prevent "cutting," but also, as before remarked, useful for general purposes.
Mr. Miles recommends instead of this, for ordinary horses, that both heels
should be made of double thickness for about an inch, leaving a shoulder in
the ground surface at that distance from the heel, but this is just as likely
to cause " cutting " as the " calking," as there need be no more projection in
the one than in the other, and the nearer this is to the quarter the more
likely it is to strike the opposite leg, this part of the foot being wider than
the heels. I cannot, therefore, recommend the adoption of Mr. Miles' hind-
shoe, which has all the disadvantages of the double calking and of the
feather-edged shoe without the advantages of either. As I before remarked,
there can be no objection to the feather-edged shoe, which is not necessarily
without nails on the inside, and may be punched by using a deep fullering
so as to take two or three nails on that side. The toe of the hind-shoe
wears away very rapidly, being always brought to the ground before the
heel on level roads and in going up hill, in the latter especially so, while in
going down hill it wears away as fast as the heel. It should therefore be
made stouter and thicker than the fore-shoe, with a small clip in the middle
to prevent it fi'om being driven back out of its seat. The back edge as well
as the front side of the clip should be well rounded, as represented in Fig. 130,
to prevent any risk from overreaches caused by a cutting blow from the
latter, while the former, if left sharp, will be liable to catch hold of the
projecting heel of a fore-shoe and pull it off.

The time for removing the shoes of a horse must depend upon the work
he does, and the nature of his foot. If the quarters are thin or broken, the
less frequently the shoes are removed the better, up to a month, beyond
which no shoe should be allowed to remain on. Those that have plenty of
horn are better for a " remove " at the end of a fortnight, and the shoes of
horses doing no work should never be allowed to i-emain on for more than
three weeks at the outside, as the feet ax-e far more liable to contract while
at rest than when at work, provided alw&,ys that the latter is not so hard as
to pi'oduce inflammation and consequent deficiency in the secretion of the
horn.

During frosts, when the roads are rendered slippery by ice, tlie shoes
must be " roughed " in some way, to enable the horse to go with safety
upon it. The common method is to turn up the heels with a sharp " calk
ing," and sometimes also to rivet a sharpened projection at the toe. These
take hold of the ice and enable the horse to travel as easily as on the summer

672

THE HORSE

road as long as they are sharp, but in a few days the points wear down and
the shoe must be removed. Tn sli.i^ht frosts a few of the nails may be
punched out, and "frost nails," with larj;*^ heads, may be driven in their
places ; but these are of no use for any distance, as their heads soon wear
down. To avoid the necessity for this removal of the shoe at the commence-
ment and during the course of every frost, several plans have been invented,
but none of them answer the purpose, except that introduced to general
notice by Mr. White, in his Farrirnj, sixty years ago.

Alterations and improvements in the way of frost cogs have been made

Tig. 131. — Wuite's Pl\n of Rolouino Shoes.

a. llole drilled in ea( h heel, and tapped to roeeive
a sharpened calking or cog, shown full size.
h. Heel witli calking screwed in, ready for use.

c. Calking shown separately.

d. Side view of concave-seat«Ml fore-sho«, with

calkings screwed in (leduccd size).

by Dr. Fleming, l\Ir. Hunting, INIr Rogers and others, but they are all
modifications of White's plan

I have used it for many years, and can speak from experience as to its
great utility and extreme simplicity. The plan is as follows : —

A hole is drilled in each heel, and tapped to receive the screw at the base of
a calking (see Fig. 131). This is all that is necessary to be done at the time
of shoeing, as the cogs may be made in large numbers, and can be kept at
homo till they are wanted, when they may be hxed to the shoe in five
minutes on the appearance of a frost, and even if the horses are from home,
by merely carrying the necessary tool, wliicli is 8imi)]y a spanner made to
tit them (see Fig. 132, e). 1 have always be-n charged Ad. per slioe extra for
this punching of the heels and tapi)ing, and finding the taps myself, which
it ia better to procure, together with the calkings, from an engineer, the

THE FORM AND MANUFACTURE OF SHOES

673

former costing 6s., and the latter 2d. to M. a-piecc, if ordered by the
score.

The extra cost, therefore, for shoeing horses during three months of the
year in this way is about 3s. per month, which places the owner out of all
risk of accident or delay, and it is certainly not more than is paid for rough-
ing in the ordinary way on the average of seasons, while it saves the horse's
*eet from damage, and often prevents a broken knee or a worse accident.

Fig. 132. — Spanner and Taps foe Rouohino.
e. Siianner. /. g. Taps for tapping. J inch size.

The tapped hole fills with dirt, which can readily be cleaned out with a bit
of stick and it will always last as long as the shoe. No one who is likely
to want his horses roughed at a minute's notice should be without this
apparatus ; but there is always a difficulty with the smiths, as they
object to it on account of the loss of work which it causes to them.
But masters should remember that what is a loss to the one is a
gain to the other ; and as the choice rests with them, they can adopt
the plan if they like.

Since the first edition of this book was published, I have had so many

674 THE HORSE

inquiries for the best means of procuring these cogs and tools, that I have
arranged with a London engineer, wlio is to be depended on, to furnish them
when requii-ed. His prices are slightly higher than the Birniinghani charges,
but the quality of his work is far superior, as the taps are all hand-made.
The foregoing are the tools he supplies, with the prices. His address is
S. Morris, 50 Rathbone Place, Oxford Street, London.

The price of these is Gs., and the cogs 3s. per dozen. If a larger screw is
wanted — that is, three-eighths of an inch in diameter — the price is 8«. for
tools, and 4s. 6d. a dozen for cogs.

CHAPTER XXXIX

A LIST OP VETERINARY DRUGS, WITH THEIR ACTIONS AND DOSES

As A BROAD RULE, but admitting of many exceptions, the doses for animals
are calculated by their relative weight to man ; but veterinary therapeutics
are in a very backward state, and many of the remedies which have a
perfectly well-understood action on the human subject appear to be inert
with most animals. Goats, for instance, will eat strong shag tobacco without
experiencing any of its narcotic effects, and ergot is equally inopei'ative upon
cattle in large doses, although there are still persons to be found who
attribute abortion in cows to the small quantity of ergotized grasses in a
pasture. The veterinary profession is not so blamewox'thy as might be at
first supposed for this state of things. It has not the inherited wealth of
the medical profession, whose best men have laboured for many centuries,
to hand on knowledge to unborn generations, and only in quite recent years
has it copied the faults of its richer sister by multiplying materia medica to
such an extent that no practitioner can acquire a fair acquaintance with a
tenth part of the Pharmacopoeia. Again, experiments in doses upon healthy
animals are not permitted by the Vivisection Act. The most barbarous
practices are yet permitted by law, if done with the object of curing disease ;
but a healthy mongrel may not be chosen to watch the effects of pharma-
ceutical agents for publication, and any information acquired in this way
has to slowly filter into the student's note-book viva voce. It is to be
i-egretted that none of the veterinary colleges have applied for licences and
carried out a series of therapeutic experiments, which might have for their
result far greater benefits than the bacteriological cultivations which have
for so long engrossed some of the best men to the exclusion of more practical
matter.

Until such experiments have been carried out, Voltaire's description will
continue to hold good — i. e.

" Pouring in agents of which we know little, into bodies of which we
know less."

The dose for a horse means for one 15 hands 2 inches high, and not less
than five years old.

Doses Acc'oi:dixg to Age.

For a yearling
For a two-year-old
For a three-year-old
For a four-j'ear-old
For a five-year-old

... Oiie-third that for an adult.

... One-lialf that for an adult.

... Two-thirds.

... Three-fourths.

... The full dose.
675

676 THE HORSE

Doses AcooTtDiNG to Size and Class.

For a hunter or hack ... ... As above table.

For a heavy drauglit-horse ... One-foiutli more than a luinler.

For a cob 14 liands ... ... One fifth less tlian a hunter.

For a pony 13 hands ... ... Two-fifths less than a hunter.

Acetic acid; Distilled Vinegar. — Onlj'^ used externally, as an ingredient in

cooling lotion.s.
AcoNiTK ; Monkshood, Wolfsbane. — A most active poison in large doses.

Used medicinall}'^, it is a powerful general sedative, anti-spasmodio, and

anodyne ; and by many practitioners it is preferred to Digitalis. It is

generally given as a tincture, of which the dose is 10 to 15 droj^s.
Alcohol; Spirit of Wine, known as rectified spirit, and proof spirit. —

The latter is used as a stimulant, in the dose of 2 ounces to 6 ounces.
Aloes ; Barbadocs is the kind of this drug which is chiefly used in

veterinary practice. — Its action is cathartic in large doses, nauseating in

medium doses, and alterative in small. Dose, from 1 drachm to 6

drachms. For the foal, 5 grains may be given for every week of

its age.
Alum ; Sulphate of Alumina and Potass. — Action, irritant, astringent, and

sedative. Dose, 2 drachms to 2 ounces.
Ammonia, Aromatic Spirit of ; Sal Volatile. — Used in the same way as the

Liquor, which is generally substituted for it in veterinary medicine.
Ammonia, Carbonate of. — A strong diffusible stimulant. Dose, 1 drachm

to 4 drachms.
Ammonia, Liquor of; Caustic Ammonia, Spirit of Hartshorn. — A diffusible

stimulant internally ; externally, a strong irritant. Dose, 1 drachm to 6

drachms.
Ammonium, Chloride ; Sal Ammoniac. — Only used externally, dissolved in

water as a lotion, mixed with an equal quantity of nitre. One part of

the mixture should be dissolved in sixteen parts of watex', when it will

lower the temperature 40° of Fahrenheit.
Aniseed. — Stomachic and carminative. Dose, 1 drachm to 1 ounce.
Antimony, Chloride of; Butter of Antimon}'. — Used as a caustic.
Antimony, Oxide of; Antimonial Powder. — Little used in veterinary

medicine.
Antimony, Sulpliuret of. — A somewhat uncertain drug, alterative and

anthelmintic. Dose, 2 drachms to 1 ounce.
Antimony, Tartarized ; Tartar Emetic. — A very common febrifuge and

anthelmintic for horses, but of late asserted b}'^ the authorities of the

Edinburgh Veterinary College to be almost inert ; and this assertion is

supported by a number of experiments. Dose, 1 drachm to 6 drachms.
Arsenic, Fowler's Solution of; Liquoi' Arsenicalis. — A solution of white

arsenic with potass in water, each ounce containing 4 grains of arsenious

acid. Dose, li ounces to 2 ounces.
AusENic, White ; Arsenious Acid. — In large doses, an irritant poison ; in

small ones, a tonic, and having also a peculiar effect on the skin. Dose,

5 to 10 grains.
AsAFCETiDA, Guiii. — A mild stiimilant, carminative, and vex*mifuge. Dose,

2 drachms.
Belladonna ; Deadly Night.shade. — A narcotic acrid ooisou in large doses,

VETERINARY DRUGS 677

in small doses, anodyne and anti-spasmodic. Dose, of the extract, | drachm

to 2 drachms.
Calomel, Subchloride of Mercury. — Irritant, purgative, alterative, and

antiphlogistic. Dose, 20 grains to 1 drachm.
Camomile; Flowers of Antheviis Nohilis. — Stomachic, carminative, and

mildly tonic. Dose, of extract, 1 to 4 drachms.
Camphor; a peculiar concrete volatile oil from Camphora officinarum. —

Slight stimulant ; then sedative and anti-spasmodic. Dose, 1 drachm

to 4 drachms.
Cantharides; Blistering or Spanish Flies. — Given internally, irritant,

stimulant, and diuretic ; externally, rubefacient and vesicant. Dose,

4 grains to 20 grains. In homoeopathic doses it is given for bloody

urine.
Cantharides, Ointment of ; Blistering Ointment. — For recipes, see page 645.
Cantharides, Tincture of ; Liquid Blister. — Powdered cantharides, 1 ounce ;

proof spirit, 16 ounces ; digest for several days, and strain. An active

sweating or vesicating fluid.
Cantharidis Acetum. — A solution in ten parts of acetic acid of one of

powdered Cantharides. More active than the liquid blister.
Cascarilla ; Bark of Croton Eleuteria.—A warm bitter tonic. Dose,

1 ounce to 2 ounces, generally made into an infusion.

Castor Oil ; expressed from Jiicinns coimmtnis.- — Purgative. Dose | to 1

pint.
Catechu ; extract from Acacia CatecJm. — Astringent and antiseptic. Dose,

2 drachms to 5 drachms.

Chalk ; Carbonate of Lime. — Antacid and astringent in diarrhoea. Dose,

1 ounce to 2 ounces.

Charcoal ; Carbon. — A powerful antiseptic ; chiefly used externally to

foul wounds.
Chloroform. — Anaesthetic, stimulant, and antispasmodic. Inhaled in

doses of from | to 2 ounces. Given internall}'^ — dose, 1 drachm to

2 drachms.

Cinchona ; Bark of several species of Cinchona. — Astringent and tonic.

Dose, 1 ounce to 3 ounces.
CoLCHicuM ; Meadow Safii'on. — Cathartic, diuretic, and sedative. Dose

of the root or seeds, -| drachm to 2 drachms.
Copper, Sulphate of. — Tonic and astringent. Used externally it is a

mild caustic. Dose, 1 drachm to 2 drachms.
Copper, Sul^acetate of; Verdigris. — An external application in grease

and quittor.
Corrosive Sublimate, Chloride of Mercury. — An irritant poison. Used

as a caustic, or as a wash, dissolved in water, for mange, lice, etc.
Creosote. — Sedative, anodyne, astringent, and antiseptic. Dose, 20 to

30 minims. Used externally in skin diseases, mixed Avith lead or oil

— 1 drachm to 3 or 4 ounces.
Croton oil and seeds ; Croton Tiglium. — Internally a strong cathartic;

externally a counter-irritant. Dose, 10 to 15 seeds; of the oil, 15 to

20 drops.
Digitalis ; Foxglove ; leaves of Digitalis Purpurea. — A strong sedative

and diuretic. Dose, of the powdered leaves, 20 to 30 grains.

678 THE HORSE

Ether, Sulphuric. — Stimulant, narcotic, and antispasmodic. Dose, 2

drachms to 2 ounces.
Etuer, Spirit of Nitric. — See Sweet Spirit of Nitre.
Gallic Acid ; Tannin exposed to air and moisture. Dose, ^ drachm to 1

drachm.
Galls ; Excrescences of Quercus Infectoria. — A powerful astringent.

Dose, 4 drachms to 6 drachms. Used in polyuria.
Gentian; "Root oi Gentiana LiUea. — A bitter stomachic and tonic. Dose,

2 drachms to 1 ounce.
Ginger ; Root of Z'uigiher officinale. — Stomachic, cordial, and carminative.

Dose, \ to 1 ounce.
Glycerine; one of the products of soap-boiling. — A most useful emollient

external application, and an aperient introduced ^je7* rectum.
Gum Arabic. — Useful for making a soothing mucilaginous emulsion.

Dose, dissolved in water, 1 ounce.
Gum Tragacanth. — Similar in its action and dose to Gum Acacia.
Hellebore, White. — See Veratum.
Hemlock ; Leaves of Conium Maculattim. — Of little value as a medicine

for the horse.
Henbane ; Leaves of Ilyoscyamus Niger. — Not much used.
Iodide of Potassium. — See Potassium, Iodide of.
Iodine is given internally to produce absorption of morbid growths.

Dose, 1 drachm to 4 drachms. Externally it is applied in the form of

tincture.
Iron, Sulphate of; Green Vitriol. — Astringent and tonic. Dose, 1 drachm

to 3 drachms.
Juniper Berries. — Carminative and diuretic. Dose, 1 ounce to 3 ounces.
Lead, Acetate of. — Internally astringent, but not powerfully so in the

horse. Dose, 20 to 60 grains. Externally useful in the form of

solution as Goulard's extract, and with lard, etc., as the cerate of

acetate of lead.
Lead, Oxide of ; Litharge. — Used to make various plasters.
Linseed ; Liniim Usitatissimum ; Flax seeds. — Used scalded as an

emollient food, and for fattening purposes, in quantities of 4 to 6

ounces.
Linseed Oil. — A mild purgative. Dose, 1 pint to 2 pints.
Magnesia, Carbonate of. — A mild aperient for foals. See Rhubarb.
Magnesia, Sulphate of. — Epsom salts, an uncertain cathartic, but generally

diuretic. Dose, 2 ounces to 1 pound.
]\[arsii-Mallows ; Root of Altluea officinalis. — A mucilaginous emulsion

is made by boiling. See page 048. Also an ointment for inflamed

udders.
Mercurial Ointment; Ungucntiim Htjdrargyri. — Used externally for

mange and lice.
Mercury, Ammonio-Chloride of; White Precipitate. — Used as a local

application to kill lice.
Mercury, Nitrate of. — Used mixed with lard, etc., to form an ointment,

which is efficacious as a mild stimulant.
MuiUATic Acid ; Hydrochloric Acid. — In small doses, tonic, ^ to 1 drachm

diluted with water.

VETERINARY DRUGS G79

Mustard; Flour of the seeds of Sinapis Nigra. — Irritant applied

externally.
Nitric Acid. — A tonic when largely diluted. Dose, 1 drachm to 2

drachms.
Nux Vomica. — A stimulant to the nerves, and useful in paralysis.

Dose, 1 drachm of the powder.
Olive Oil. — Chiefly used as an ingredient in liniments.
Opium ; Juice of the Papaver Somniferum. — Primarily stimulant. Then

narcotic and anodyne. Dose, 1 drachm to 2 drachms.
FoTAss, Acetate of. — The same as the nitrate, but milder in its effects on

the kidneys.
Potass, Nitrate of; Nitre ; Saltpetre. — Diuretic and febrifuge. Dose, 6

to 8 drachms.
Potassium, Iodide of. — Diuretic and deobstruent, having the property of

causing the absorption of morbid growths. Dose, 2 drachms to 4

drachms.
Prussic Acid ; Hydrocyanic Acid. — Used in the form of diluted hydro-
cyanic acid, as a gastric sedative in inflamed stomach. Dose, 20 to 30

minims.
Pyroxylic Acid ; Medicinal Naphtha. — Narcotic, having a special action

on the bronchial mucous membrane. It is used in chronic cough. Dose,

i ounce.
Resin, or Rosin. — An active diuretic. Dose, 1 ounce to 2 ounces.
Rhubarb ; Root of Rheum Palmatum. — A mild purgative and stomachic,

chiefly employed for foals, combined with magnesia.
Salt, Common. — See Chloride of Sodium.
Savin ; Tops of Junipems Sabina. — Anthelmintic. The essential oil is

the best form. Dose, 3 to 4 drachms.
Silver, Nitrate of ; Lunar Caustic ; Lapis In/ernalis. — Used externally in

the solid form and in solution.
Sodium, Chloride of ; Common salt. — A useful addition to the diet of horses.
Spermaceti Ointment. — A very useful foundation for several external

applications.
Sulphur. — An efficacious remedy in several skin diseases.
Sulphur Ointment, Compound. — Sulphur, h pound ; white hellebore, 2

ounces; nitre, 1 drachm; soft soap, -| pound; lard, 1^ pounds: mix.

The most useful application in mange.
Sulphuric Acid. — A powerful caustic, only used externally.
Sweet Spirit of Nitre. — Diuretic, diaphoretic, antispasmodic, and

stimulant. Dose, |^ to 2 ounces.
Tannic Acid. — Powerfully astringent. Dose, 20 to 30 grains.
Tar ; Pix Liquida. — Used externally as an ingredient in ointments, and as

a stimulant to the growth of horn.
fuRPExNTTiNE, Spirit of ; Oil of Turpentine. — An excellent antispasmodic,

diuretic, and vermifuge. Dose, 1 ounce to 2 ounces ; or as a diuretic, ^

ounce to 1 ounce.
Vaseline — As a simple ointment or base.
Veratrum Album ; White Hellebore. — Sedative, for which purpose it is

highly lauded by Mr. Percivall, who gave it in doses of 20 to 30 grains.

Externally it forms an ingredient in several ointments.

Y Y

CSO THE HORSE

Zinc, Carl)onatc of ; Calamine. — Used externally in the form of ointment.
Zixc, Chloride of. — A strong caustic and antiseptic. Generally known as

8ir W. Burnett's disinfecting lluid, which contains 25 grains in each

fluid drachm.
Zinc Chloride, Sticks of. — For use as a powerful caustic instead of the

solution.
Zinc, Oxide of. — U.sed externally as a mild soothing ointment, mixed with

lard, and as a powder for chapped heels.
Zinc, Sulphate of ; White Vitriol. — Dissolved in water to form a, wash for

the ejes, and as an ingredient in grease lotion.

CHAPTER XL

ON SOUNDNESS ; AND ON THE PURCHASE AND SALE OP HORSES

The ELASTIC conscience of a HORSE-DEALER has become a by-word ; but
I confess that my experience does not lead me to conclude that the class
is more open to charges of unfair dealing than others. Few intending pur-
chasers of a horse will be content with anything less than what they
believe to be absolute perfection in him ; and if the seller tells the truth
about the animal he has to dispose of, his chance of a sale would be a poor
one. The dealer is, therefore, placed in the dilemma of being compelled either
to give his horse a chai'acter which he does not deserve, or to forego all chance
of a sale; and hence it is not surprising that he draws rather extensively upon
his imagination. According to my experience, however, amateurs are not
exempt from this failing ; and if I were compelled to purchase a horse from
character alone, I should far prefer relying upon that given by a respectable
dealer. The latter class are, no doubt, more skilled in hiding defects and
disease, and therefore it requires a more practical knowledge of the horse to
detect their artifices where they are sufficiently short-sighted to adopt them.
On the whole, however, it may generally be concluded that unless a gentle-
man has had an extensive experience in purchasing horses, he will do well
to place himself in the hands of a dealei', telling him exactly what he wants,
and not pretending a knowledge which he does not possess.

In all large towns there are men of some character and standing, who
may be selected for this purpose ; and in London, Dublin, Edinburgh,
Birmingham, Liverpool, Cheltenham, and other places there are repositories,
where horses are sold by auction on stated days. These auction-marts
save the vendor from some responsibility, as there are conditions of sale at
the head of the catalogue by which both buyer and seller are bound to
abide.

In a few cases horses are entered as sound, but more often with a veter-
inary surgeon's certificate of recent date. A number of professional men,
who from long practice are expert in the detection of unsoundness in the
bustle of the auction-yard, are always in attendance, and the buyer does
well to seek their advice.

Messrs. Tattersall's, of Albert Gate, London, and Messrs. Freeman's of
" Aldridge's," St. Martin's Lane, may be taken as examples of the usual
rules obtaining at permanent auction-marts, and are as follows : —

"All horses sold at this Repository as 'good hunters' must not only be
sound in ' wind and eyes,' but must be quiet to ride, have been hunted,

GSl

682 THE HORSE

and be capable of being liuiited. Horses described as hunters without the
word * good ' must have Ijecn hunted and be capable of Ijcing hunted, but
this description does not guarantee them sound in ' wind and eyes.'

" 4. Any horse sold at this establishment with a warranty, must, in case
the buyer contend that it does not correspond with such warranty, be
returned before five o'clock p.m. on the second day after the sale (Sunday
excluded), otherwise it shall be deemed and taken to be in all respects as
warranted as between all persons, and the nonreturn within the time
limited shall be a bar to any claim on account of any breach of warranty,
and the l:)U3'er shall be bound to keep and pay for the horse, whether it bo
or be not according to the warranty.

" 5. Should a horse warranted quiet in harness or to ride, be returned, it
shall be tried by an impartial person, to be named by the proprietors of
this establishment, whose decision shall be final and conclusive upon all
persons, and a fee of ten shillings for the trial shall be paid by the party
in error.

" 6. Sliould any horse, sold here, warranted to ride or draw, be considered
by the buyer to be incapable of working, from any infirmity or disease, it
may be returned here before five o'clock on the second day after the sale,
with a certificate from a veterinary surgeon to that effect ; if not so
returned with such certificate, it shall be taken not to have been returned
within the meaning of the 4th condition; and if such certificate be not
confirmed by another, to be furnished by the vendor within two days, or in
case the vendor shall neglect or refuse to furnish such certificate, the
auctioneer shall immediately appoint a veterinary surgeon, whose decision
shall be final and binding, and the whole expense must be paid by the
party in error.

" 7. No horse considered to be affected with glanders, mange, or other
infectious or contagious disorder, must, under any circumstances, be returned
in accordance with the 4th condition, but in lieu of such return, a notice in
writing, of the fact of the horse being so affected, and of the place where it
stands, must be given at this establishment within the time mentioned in
that condition, accompanied with the certificate of a veterinary surgeon
that the horse is so affected ; and in case of omission to give such notice,
accompanied by such certificate within such time, the said horse shall bo
deemed and taken to be as between all persons not affected with any such
disorder, and such omission shall be a bar to any claim on account of
the said horse being so affected, and the buyer shall be bound to keep and
pay for the same whether it be or be not so affected.

" 8. If such notice from the buyer, accompanied by a certificate, be given,
the vendor will immediately be required to procure a certificate from his
veterinary surgeon ; and in case of non agreement of these two opinions, or
in case the vendor neglect or refuse to furnish a certificate within two days
after his receiving the notice, then the auctioneer shall appoint a veterinary
surgeon, whose decision shall be final and binding upon all parties, and all
expenses must be paid by the party in error.

" When a horse is sold as ' quiet to ride and drive ' a warranty of
' workably sound ' is implied, and he * must be sound enough to be ridden
or driven.' '' ^

* Extract from a letter of Messrs. Tattcrsall, dated 1S96.— Editor,

SOUNDNESS, AND PURCHASE AND SALE 683

References have been made to a number of causes of unsoundness in the
course of these pages, and following the plan adopted in previous editions, a
list of diseases and accidents which have been settled as sufficient to entitle
the purchaser to return a horse if warranted sound, and a further summary
of those defects which are either insufficient or doubtful causes for re-
jection are given. The law of warranty is very unsatisfactory, and differs
in England and Scotland, while custom to a great extent supplants law in
Ireland. So well has it become known, that the custom of warranty is fast
dying out, and in its stead a reasonable trial and veterinary surgeon's
examination as to soundness is generally accepted by the purchaser, and
agreed to by the vendor. A warranty in England holds good " for ever,''
while in Scotland it covers a lunar month, but neither is fair to the seller,
as a horse may be perfectly sound and free from vice, and all or nearly
all that the seller represents him, and in a day or a week be lame from
accident or disease, or spoilt by bad handling. The vendor in giving a
warranty undertakes an unfair risk, making himself responsible for the folly
and incompetence of the purchaser or his servants.

The definition op unsoundness is, '• the existence of disease or alteration
of structure which does or will impair the horse's natural usefulness." The
judge's definition usually accepted by the veterinary schools is "anything
that does now or may hereafter interfere with the usefulness of the animal."

Vice also may be defined, on a similar principle, as " the prevalence of a
habit which interferes with the horse's natural usefulness." But these
definitions must be taken with some modifications, for there is not one horse
in a hundred which does not possess some disease or vice likely to impair
his general usefulness to some slight extent ; indeed, the proportion of
strictly sound horses may be considered to be much smaller even than this.
A bad feeder is so generally from a disordered state of stomach, and such a
horse cannot stand woi'k like one which will consume double the quantity of
corn, yet he would not be considered unsound ; nor would a horse be re-
turnable as vicious if he showed the usual symptoms of being "fresh,"
though they might impair his usefulness in carrying a timid rider. But
subject to such modifications, the above definitions may be accepted as
sufficient to make intelligible the terms. Unsoundness and Vice.

The following list comprises the diseases and injuries which have been
settled as sufficient to entitle the purchaser to return a horse warranted
sound : —

Bog spavin, when it is so severe as clearly to interfere with the action
of the joint; and blood spavin, as marking an aggravated foi^m of the
same disease.

Break-down, even though the horse is restored so as to run without
lameness.

Broken wind.

Cataract, in any degree.

Corns, unless very trifling ; but they should be discovered within a few
days of the sale, or it may be alleged that they have been produced by
subsequent mismanagement.

Cough, as long as it lasts. A horse with chronic cough is clearly
returnable.

Curbs constitute unsoundness ; but they must be show^n to exist at the

684 THE HORSE

time of purchase, for a horso may tlirow one out immediately after he ia
transferred to the purchaser.

Diseases of the organic kind, in any of the internal viscera.

Farcy.

FouNDEU, or LAMiNrns, whether it produces lameness or not, if it mani-
festly has existed, is to be accepted as unsoundness ; for when there is
evidence of its previous occurrence, the laminre are injured so much as
inevitably to lead to lameness when the horse is put to work.

Grease, and Glanders.

Mange.

Megrims, when the attack comes on subsequent!}- tu tlic sale, and can be
shown to have occurred before it.

An unnerved horse is unsound from the existence of the disease for
which the operation has been performed, as well as from the division of
the nerves.

Ophthalmia, if it can be proved to have previously existed, and comes on
&oon after the purchase, is to be received as unsoundness. So, also, when
any of the evidences of its previous px'esence can be detected, and are proved
by a veterinary surgeon, the horse is returnable.

Ossification of any of the structures adjacent to the joints is unsound-
ness, and hence ossification of the lateral cartilages will be considered so,
without doubt.

Pumiced foot, as evidence of laminitis.

QUIDDING.
QUITTOR.

Ringbones, and Sidebones, whether large or small, are undoubtedly
sufficient to constitute a horse unsound.

Roaring, whistling, etc., as interfering with respiration.

Ruptures of all kinds.

Spavin (bone), although it may not have occasioned lameness, if it ia
clearly the disease so named.

Stringiialt has been decided to be unsoundness (Thompson v. Patterson).

Thick avind, as marking some impediment to respiration.

Thrush, when it is in one of its severe forms, and not caused by mis-
management.

Thickening of the back sinews, or suspensory ligament, when exist-
ing to any extent easily appreciable, is to bo received as a proof of
unsoundness.

Returnable Vices are comprehended in the following list : —

Biting, when carried to any unusual extent.

Bolting or running away.

Crib-biting.

Kicking, when more than usual.

Restiveness, or refusal to proceed in the desired direction.

Rearing.

Shying, when marked.

Weaving in the stable.

The following diseases and accidents are generally considered not to
render their possessors unsound : —

Bog Spavin in a slight degree only.

SOUNDNESS, AND PURCHASE AND SALE 685

A BROKEN KNEE, unlcss the joint is injured so as to impair its functions,
is not considered to be unsoundness.

Capped iiocks and elbows do not produce any lameness, nor do they
in any way interfere with the action of the joints to which they are
adjacent.

Contraction of the foot is no evidence of disease, and, taken by itself,
is not sufficient to prove it to be unsound.

Crib-biting was decided, in the cases of Broennenhnry v. Haycock and
Scolefield v. Eohh, not to be unsoundness ; but Baron Parker ruled in the
latter that it came within the meaning of the word " vice." Undoubtedly
this is a habit which is generally attended by impaired digestion, and, as
such, it comes strictly within the definition given above ; but the law is as
I have stated it.

CuRBY HOCKS, though experience may tell us they are likely to be
attended by curbs, arc decided not to be unsoundness. In Broivn v.
Elkington, the attention of the vendor was directed to the hocks by the
purchaser before the sale, as likely to spring curbs ; but in the action on
the warranty it was held by Lord Abington that " a defect in the formation
of the horse, which had not occasioned lameness at the time of sale, though
it might render the animal more liable to be lame at some future time, was
no breach of warranty ; " and the Court of Exchequer confirmed this view
of the law, by refusing a rule for a new trial.

Cutting, on the same principle, is no breach of warranty, unless the horse
is lame from it at the time of sale.

A splint is not, in itself, evidence of unsoundness ; but if it is so situ-
ated as necessarily to interfere with the suspensory ligament or tendons,
or if it has already produced lameness, it is to be accepted as a mark
of unsoundness.

Thoroughpin, when existing to a moderate extent, is not sufficient to
render the horse unsound ; but this will always be a question of opinion,
and a horse with thoroughpin is, therefore, not to be warranted with
safety.

Thrush, occurring from mismanagement only, and not from any defect in
the horse, is clearly not to be considered as unsoundness.

Soreness of the joints from work, as it soon goes off after a short rest, is
not accepted as unsoundness.

WiNDGALLS are also only evidences of work, and do not usually cause
lameness. When this co-exists, it is sufficient to produce unsoundness,
without reference to the windgalls.

When a horse is purchased, with the conditions that he is warranted
sound, or free from vice, or quiet to ride and drive, the warranty must either
be in writing, or given in the presence of a disinterested third person. The
form of warranty is as follows, and it is better that it should be on the same
paper as the stamped receipt, though this is not absolutely necessary if it is
shown that the receipt is properly given.

Date.
Received of A. B.C. fifty pounds for a bay gelding, by Smallhopes, war-
ranted five years old, sound, free fi'om vice, and quiet to ride and drive.

50^. x.y.z.

686 THE HORSE

Any one or more of these points may be omitted, or the horse may simply
be warranted "a good liack," in which case he must fairly answer that
description. The terms "has been hunted," or "has carried a lady," are
not to bo trusted, as it is only necessary to prove in defence that the horse
lias seen hounds, and had a woman on his back.

Whether the horse under examination is to be warranted or not the
intending purchaser should never omit to look over every point where
unsoundness is likely to occur. To do this effectually it should be done
regularly, b}' which there is less ch.ance of passing over any serious defect.
The usual mode of proceeding is as follows. Under no circumstances, if it
can possibly be avoided, should the horse be looked at immediately after
having been out of doors ; and if he is of necessity brought to the purchaser,
let him be put in the stable and quietly rested for one or two hours at the
least, by which time the effects of most of the "coping" tricks will have
gone off.

Before the horse passes the stable door, stop him with his head just
inside, and in this position carefully examine his eyes. The light is exactly
suited to this, and the sensibility of the iris may be well judged of. Any
specks or opacities are also here readily seen. Then let him be led to a level
surface, and then proceed to look over every part, beginning with that
nearest the one already inspected, namely the mouth. Then " cough " him
by tightly grasping the larynx, by which some idea may be formed of the
state of his respiratory organs, after which the usual manoeuvre with the
stick may be practised if there is no opportunity of examining into his free-
dom from roaring in the saddle. Wlien these points are satisfactorily dis-
posed of, look to the position of the fore-legs, that is, whether they are turned
in or out, and if the latter feel the elbows, and see if they are confined or
" tied," that is too close to the ribs, also look for marks of cutting and speedy
cutting. Pass the hand down the back sinews and suspensory ligaments,
examine the knees for any marks, and then carefully feel the coronets and
lieels for any marks of oxostosis or ossification. Lastly, take a good look at
the front of the foot, and then lifting it inspect the frog, heels, and sole.
This will complete the front half of the body, after which the form of the
middle and loins should be regarded, and then, lifting the tail, the openness
or otherwise of the space round the anus will give some idea of the strength
of constitution, while the resistance afforded by the dock will be a sign of
the muscular strength of the back. Then look carefully at the hocks,
examine the spavin and curb places, and finish the whole by passing the
hand down the hind cannon bones to the fetlocks, and feel them in the same
order as in the fore-legs. Now let the horse rest a minute if his groom will
let him, with his head quite at liberty, and you will be able to judge of his
ordinary habit of standing, when unexcited. At the conclusion of this
careful examination while at rest, the action must be as minutely investi-
gated, by first having the horse walked ivith a loose rein, and then trotted
in the same tvay sloichj, when if he is sound he will put his feet down
regularly and firmly. Grooms, when they want to conceal defects, will not
let the head be loose, nor will they trot slowlj', but bustle the horse along
with their hands as close as possible to the mouth, so as to prevent any
nodding of the head as much as they can. A very good judge will be per-
haos able to select a pleasant hack or harness horse by seeing him thus run

SOUNDNESS, AND PURCHASE AND SALE G87

and afterwards ridden, but a far better test is to ride or drive him yourself,
when his freedom from vice, or disease, may be ascertained, as well as his
manners, and the ease of his various paces. No trouble should be spared
to get this real trial, which is worth ten per cent, on the purchase money,
for many a horse which looks to go well does not feel so, and it is well worth
that sum to be saved the trouble attending upon the possession of a horse
which does not suit. When, however, after such a careful examination by
a competent judge, and subsequent trial in the saddle or in harness, the
horse is found to be really likely to answer all the purposes for which he is
wanted, a few pounds should never prevent his being obtained.

INDEX

Abdomen, boundaries of the, 474 ; contents of,
ih. ; longitudinal sectional plan of the, 475 ;
transverse sectional plan of the, 470.

Abdominal diseases, general remarks on, 553.

Abdominal viscera, supply of blood to the,
477 ; nerves of the, ih.

Abyssinia, the horses of, '12, et seq.

Accident -i to the legs and feet, 6 1 5.

Action, locomotive, of horses, 141.

African horses, 21, 37.

Age of the horse, marks of, 357, et seq

Agricultural horse, the, 133.

Ali Bey, his description of the modern Arab,
27.

Alimentary canal, absorption of fluid from,
478. _

Alteratives, action of, 639 ; recipes for, ih.

Amaurosis, nature of, 581 ; symptoms of, ih. ;
treatment of, ib.

Amble, the, description of, 155.

America, list of English horses imported into,
47.

American horse, fastest trotting on record of,
43.

American match-trotting, extent of, 43-4.

American thoroughbred, the, 47 ; stoutness of
the, 52.

American trotter, the, 45 ; pedigrees of, ih.

Amphiarthrodial joints, 39G.

Anesthetics, action of, 640 ; recipes for, ih.

Anchylosis, nature of, 507 ; of the shouldev-
joiut, case of, 516.

Ancient methods of using the horse, 5.

Anodynes, action of, 640-1 ; recipes for, ih.

Antacids, action of, 640 ; recipes for, ih.

Anthelmintics, action of, G41 ; recipes for, ih.

Antispasmodics, action of, 642 ; recipes for, ih.

Aperients, action of, 642 ; recipes for, ih.

Apoplexy, nature of, 576 ; treatment of, ih.

Apparatus for breaking to harness, 213.

Arab horse, colour of the, 30 ; food of the, ih. ;
of antiquity, 4 ; pure, 29 ; speed of the, 30 ;
stallion, the, 29; the modern, 25; mare,
the, 33.

Arsenic, treatment of the effects of, 557-8.

Arteria, 461, et seq. ; aorta, 462 ; aorta, an-
terior, anatomy of, ih. ; aorta, posterior,
464 ; axillaris, 462 ; carotidcea externa, 464 ;
carotidoea interna, 464 ; cervicalis inferior,
462 ; cervicalis superior, ih. ; circumflexa
ilii, 463 ; coeliaca, 464 ; common carotid,
464 ; dorsalis, 465 ; epigastrica, 466 ; f emor-

alis, ih. ; gastrica, 462 ; hepatica, 4G4 ; iliaca
externa, 466; innominata, 462; plan of
branches of, 465 ; tibialis anterior, 466 ;
lumbalis, 464 ; masseterica, ih. ; maxillaris
interna, ih. ; mesenterica anterior, ih. ;
mesenterica posterior, ih. ; obturator, ih. ;
of the bulb, ih. ; of the frog, 503 ; plantaris,
ih. ; occipitalis, 461; parotidaja, 465; po-
plitasa, 466 ; profunda femoris, ih. ; ptery-
goidea interna, 465 ; renalis, 464 ; sacralis
lateralis, ib. ; spermatica, ih. ; splenica, ih. ;
submaxillaris, ih. ; iliaca interna, 465 ;
thoracica externa, 466 ; thoracica interna,
ih. ; tibialis posterioi", ih. ; umbilicalis, 465 ;
vertebralis, 462.

Arteries, arranged in two groups, 461 ; coats
of the, ih. ; plan of the, 463.

Arteries, supplying the abdominal viscera,
477 ; anatomy of the, 459 ; of the foot, the,
503 ; of the foot, view of, injected, ih. ;
of the frog and sole, view of, injected, 504 ;
of the stomach, 481.

Arthrodia, 396.

Articulation, astragalo-calcanean, 425 ; be-
tween the bones of the tarsus, ih. ; carpo-
metacarpal, 413 ; chondro-costal, 403 ; chou-
dro-sternal, ih. ; costo-transverse, ih. ; costo-
vertebral, 402 ; coxo-femoral, 420 ; femoro-
tibial, 422; inter-metacarpal, 415; inter-
metatarsal, 428 ; iuter-phalangeal, 417 ;
lumbo-sacral, 404 ; metacarpo-phalangeal,
415 ; of atlas with occiput, 400 ; of dentata
with atlas, ih. ; of the lumbar vertebroe and
sacrum, 404 ; of the thorax, 403 ; phalangeo-
pedal, 419 ; radio-carpal, 3J0 ; remaining,
of the posterior members, 428; sacro-iliac,
407 ; scapulo-humeral, 408 ; tarso-meta-
tarsal, 428 ; temporo maxillary, 405 ; tibio-
fibular, 424 ; tibio-tarsal, 425 ; view of costo-
vertebral, 402 ; view of metacarpo-phalan-
geal, 416.

Arytenoid cartilages, anatomy of the, 470 ;
view of, 471.

Asiatic horses, 35.

Astragalus, os, 389.

Astringents, action of, 644 ; recipes for, ih.

Atlas, articulation of, with occiput, 400 ; back
view of, 368.

Atlo-axoid ligament, superior, 400 ; inferior, ib.

Atmospheric air, changes produced in, by
respiration, 468.

Attitude assumed by horses in standing, 142.

G90

INDEX

Australian liorsc, tlic, 3G.
Austrian liorse, the, 57.
Average age of the horse, IG.

IjACK and loins, symptoms of strain iu, 527 ;
treatment of strain iu, ih.

Baek-rakiug, mode of performing, G38.

I'aek sinews, remarks on strain of the, 530 ;
symptoms of strain of the, ih. ; treatment of
strain of the. 531.

Balanitis, symptoms of, 570 ; treatment of, ih.

Bandages, two kinds of, 251 ; use and appli-
cation of, 284.

Barb, the, 19.

Barley as food for horses, 258.

Barrier bar for stables, 234.

Bar shoe, the, GG6 ; view of the, ih.

Bath, the Turkish, 300 ; plan of Turkish, 301.

Beans, used as food, 257.

Bedding of horses, 271 ; wheat straw for, ih. ;
refu.se tan for, 273 ; sand for, ih. ; sawdust
for, //;.

Bit, used for breaking, 204.

Bites of insects, treatment of, 83.

Biting, remedy for the vice, 294.

Bits, varieties of snaffle, 321 ; of curb, 323.

Blacking, recipe for harness, 317.

Bladder, anatomy of the, 488 ; diseases of,
569 ; calculi iu, ih.

Bladc-boue, tlie, J375.

Bleeding, remarks on, 627 ; when performed,
ih. ; instruments used iu, ib.

Blindness, caused by various diseases, 581.

IVisteriug, remarks on, 030.

Blisters, action of, G45 ; recipes for, ih.

Blood, physiology of the, 458 ; circulation of
the, 459; puiity of, in the racehor.se, 97;
spavin, identical with bog sjiavin, which
see, 524.

Blood-ve.ssels of the chest and nose, diseases of
the, 552.

Bog spavin, nature of, 524 ; symptoms of, ih. ;
treatment of, ib.

Bone, its structure, 344 ; office of, ih.\ medulla
of, 34G ; periosteum of, ih. ; enumeration of
the di.seases of, 506.

Bone spavin, nature of, 512; view of, ih.;
symptoms of, 513 ; treatment of, 514.

Bones, number of, composing the skeleton, 349.

Bots, nature of, 619 ; group of, attached to the
stomach, ib. ; uselessuess of treatment for,
620.

Bowels, 482.

Breaking down, remarks on, 531 ; symptoms
of, ib. ; treatment of, ih.

Breaking, halter used for, 203-4 ; superiority of
the ordinary method of, 212 ; for the saddle,
ordinary English method of, 203 ; Karey's
apparatus for, 205 ; to harness, 212 ; appara-
tus for, 213 ; bit used for, 204 ; importance
of forming the mouth in, 206 ; first thing
to be done in, 205 ; i-apid methods of, 211.

Breastbone, the, 375 ; profile view of, ih.

Breast-plate, the, 320.

Breast-strap, view of, 341.

Breathing, essence of, 467.

Breechen and kicking-strap united, view of,
341.

Breed of racehorses, object of encouraging
the, 95 ; of horses in India, 36.

Breeding, advantages and disadvantages of
each jtlau of, 167; best age for, 170; blood
most suitable for hunters, 179 ; causes of a

"hit " in, 168 ; choice of a sire and dam in,
174 ; concluding remarks on, 181 ; in-and-in,
165; imporlance of health in, 169; import-
ance of soundness in, ?7>. ; iiiiluence of the
siro and dam in, 171; kind of horse most
profitable for, ISO; out-crossing in, 166;
principles of, 161 ; selection of blood in each
class of horse, 176.

Bridle, the chain snaffle, 321 ; the Chifney
bit, 324 ; the curb, 323 ; the double-jointed
snaffle, 321 ; the double-ring snaffle, ih. ;
the gag-snaffle, j'/i. ; the Hanoverian Felham,
323 ; the ordinary curb, //'. ; the plain Pel-
ham, ih. ; the plain snaffle, 321 ; the snaffle
with double moutli-i)iece, ih. ; the twisted
snaffle, ib. ; the uujointed snaffle, ib.

Bridle hooks, 240.

Bridles, varieties of, 321 ; remarks on, ib.

British horse, the original, 5.

Broken knee, treatment of slight, 535 ; treat-
ment of, when the joint is opened, ih.

Broken wind, nature of, 550; symptoms of,
ih. ; treatment of, (7).

Bronchi, anatomy of the, 471.

Bronchial glands, anatomy of the, 473.

Bronchial tubes, subdivision of, 472.

Bronchitis, nature of, 540 ; symptoms of, ib. ;
treatment of, ib. ; treatment of chronic, ih.

Brood mare, the, 182 ; after treatment of the
foal, 190 ; early treatment of the foal, 189 ;
general management of the, 186 ; hovel for,
182 ; paddock for, ih. ; time of sending to
the horse, 186 ; treatment of the, when in
foal, 187; treatment of, after foaling, 188;
weaning of the foal, 190.

Brougham horse, the, 129.

Bucephalus noseband, the, 324.

Buck eye, nature of, 581.

Burnian horse, the, 24.

Bursa; mucosa?, anatomy of, 431 ; nature of
inflammation in, ih. ; varieties of inflamma-
tion in, 526.

Cab-horse, the, 129.

Ca3cum, anatomy of the, 484.

C'alcaneo-astragalau articulation, 388-9.

C'alcis, OS, 390.

Calculi in the bowels, nature of, 564 ; urinary,

569 ; symptoms of urinary, ib. ; treatment

of urinary, ib.
Canadian horse, the, 41 ; portrait of, 42.
Canter, the, 143; mode of starting into a, 144.
Capillaries, anatomy of the, 461.
Capped elbow, treatment of, 525 ; hock, cause

of, 526 ; treatment of, ib.
Capsule, the suprarenal, 487.
Caries, nature of, 507 ; of the jaw, 519 ;

symptoms of, /7*. ; treatment of, ib.
Carpo-metacarpal articulation, 412.
Carpus (wrist or knee joint), articulations of,

380 ; bones of the, ib.
Carriage-liorse, the, 129.
Carriage, brougham, or cab-horse, portrait of

the, 130.
Carrots, as food, 260.

Cart-horse, the Clydesdale, 138 ; the Lincoln-
shire, 137 ; the Suffolk, 134 ; mixed breeds

of, 139.
Cartilage, 392 ; articular, ih. ; blood-vessels of,

ib. ; chemical composition of, 393 ; fibro,

394 ; nerves of, 394 ; perichondrium of, 392.
Cartilages, the costal, 403; the lateral, 504;

of the ribs, 403.

INDEX

691

Casting, method of, 623 ; for operations upon
I the fore-leg, 622 method of, for castration,

ib.
Castration, 630 ; method of casting for, 622.
Cataract, causes of, 580 ; nature of, ih.
Catarrh, nature of, 538 ; treatment of, ih.
Catclipit, section of, 225.
Caustics, action of, 646 ; recipes for, ih.
Cecil, Lord Arthur, 139.
Celebrated match made by the Duke of

Queensbury, 73.
Cerebellum, anatomy of the, 493.
Cerebrum, anatomy of the, 493.
Cervical ligament, 398 ; view of, 399.
Cervical vertebrae, 366 ; peculiarities of, 3G7 ;

profile view of, ih.
Chaff, as food for the horse, 259.
Chaff-cutters, 259.
Chapped heels, treatment of, 581.
Charger, the, portrait of, 117 ; the Norman, 58.
Charges, action of, 646 ; recipes for, ih.
Chest, water on the, 550.
Chifney bit, the, 324.

Childers, the Devonshire, 82 ; the Flyiug, ib.
Chloroform, apparatus for administering,

625 ; mode of administration, ib.
Chondro-costal articulations, 403 ; view of, ib.
Chondro-sternal articulations, 403.
Chronic cough, nature of, 541 ; symptoms of,

ih. ; treatment of, ib.
Chyle, the, 478.
Circulation, plan of the, 459.
Classification of the horse, 7.
Cleveland horse, the, 139.
Clipping the horse, 278.
Clothes, remedy for tearing off the, 293.
Clothing for horses, 246.
Clover, for soiling, 260.
Clydesdale horse, 138.
Clysters, mode of administering, 647 ; action

of, ih. ; recipes for, ib.
Coach-house, 241.
Coachman, 245.
Cob, the, 112, 125.
Cocaine, 625.
Coccygeal joints, 405 ; vertebra, 373 ; profile

view of, ib.
Coffin-joint, anatomy of, 419.
Cold, nature of, 538 ; treatment of, ih.
Colic, nature of, 559; symptoms of, ih.\
flatulent, 560; signs of, ih. ; from stoppage,
symptoms of, ih. ; signs of spasmodic, ib. ;
J treatment of spasmodic, 561 ; treatment of
flatulent, ih. ; treatment of, from impaction,
ih.
Colon, anatomy of the, 484.
Colour of the Arab horse, 30.
Colt, breaking of the, 192.
Comparative stoutness of horses, 87.
Concealed manger for crib-biters, 238.
Condimental food, artificial, 262 ; recipe for,

ih.
Conestoga draught-horse, the, 54 ; portrait of

the, ih.
Congestion of the lungs, symptoms of, 548 ;

treatment of, ih. ; remarks on, 549.
Conjunctiva, anatomy of, 496.
Constitutional diseases, 550.
Contraction of the foot, 611.
Convulsions, symptoms of, 572 ; treatment of,

573.
Cord, anatomy of the spinal, 492.
Cordials, action of, 647 ; recipes for, ih.

Corn for the Iiorse, 254.

Corns, nature of, 598 ; treatment of, ib,

Coronre, os, 383.

Coronary frog band, the, 502.

Coronary substance, anatomy of the, 502.

Costae, the ribs, 374.

Costo-transverse articulations, 402.

Costo-vertebral articulations, 403; interior

view of, ib.
Cotyloid cavity, view of, 386.
Cough, nature of chronic, 541 ; symptoms of

chronic, ih. ; treatment of chronic, ih.
Covert hack, the,_118. _
Coxo-femoral articulation, 420.
Cranium, bones of the, 354.
Crib-biters, concealed manger for, 238.
Crib-biting, remedy for, 2'JO.
Cricoid cartilage, anatomy of, 470.
Cruiser in the power of his master, 196 ; with

leg-strap and siu-cingle on, 195.
Crust of the hoof, anatomy of the, 502.
Cuboides, os, 390.

Cuneiforme, os magnum, c90 ; os parvum, ih.
Curb-bit, the, 323.
Curb-bits, varieties of, 323.
Curb-bridle, the ordinary, 323.
Curb, nature of, 533 ; treatment of, 534.
Cushion of the frog, 502.
Cuts, stable management of, simple, 307.
Cutting, ordinary, 615 ; description of speedy,

617 ; prevention of, 339, 548 ; treatment of

effects of, 615 ; treatment of ordinary, 339 ;

treatment of speedy, ih.
Cystitis, symptoms of, 569; treatment of, ih.

Daily exercise of the horse, 288.

Damascus Arab, importation of, into England,

72.
Darley Arabian, the, 71.
Demulcents, action of, 648 ; recipes for, ib.
Dental formula of the horse, 7.
Dentata, anterior view of vertebra, 368 ; iws-

terior view of vertebra, 369.
Depuration, its ofSce in the animal economy,

479.
Dermis, the, 498.
Dervish horse, the, 22.
Devonshire Childers, the, 82.
Diabetes, symptoms of, 568 ; treatment of,

ih.
Diaphoretics, action of, 648 ; recipes for, ih.
Diaphragm, symptoms of spasm of, 551 ;

treatment of spasm of, ib.
Diarrhoea, nature of, 563 ; treatment of, ib.
Diarthrodial joints, 396.
Digestion, physiology of, 477.
Digestives, action of, 649 ; recipes for, ih. ^
Dislocation, nature of, 534 ; of the hip joint,

ih. ; of the patella, ih.
Dismounting, directions for, 324.
Distemper, nature of, 539 ; ti-eatment of, ih.
Diuretics, action of, 649 ; recipes for, ih.
Docking, operation for, 633.
Dongola, the horses of, 21.
Door for loose box, 224.
Doors of stables, 224.
Dorsal vertebrae, general characters of, 369 ;

peculiarities of, 370.
Drainage of stables, 224, ct seq. ; section of

catchpit for, 225.
Draught-horse, the Conestoga, 54.
Dray-hors<», the Lincolnshire, 137 ; portrait
of the, ih.

692

INDEX

Dressing of liorsos, 27.'^.

Driving a jxiir, '612 ; a single horse, 331 ; four-
in-hand, 313.

Drugs, Hst of, C75, et aeq.

Duct, the thoracic, 478.

Ducts, the lacrynial, 498.

Duke of Qneensburj', match made by, 73.

Duodenum, anatomy of the, 48.3.

Dy.«pepsia, nature of, 55G ; symptoms of, i/i.
treatment of, ib.

^.vn, anatomy of the, 498 ; diseases of the, (7'. ;
scratching the, remedy for, L'I)2.

Early maturity of tlie horse, 91.
East, the horses of the, 19.

Eclipse, pedigree of, 70 ; history of, 83 ; St.
Bel's measurement of, ih.

Eczema, 584.

Egyptian horse, the, 4, 20.

ElGow joint, the, 379; view of, iV). ; treatment
of capped, 520.

Embrocations, action of, 050 ; recipes for, ib.

Emulsions, action of, 050 ; recipes for, i/>.

Euarthrosis, 390.

Encephalon, anatomy of, 491 ; view of the
superior surface of the, ih.

England, first importation of tlie Damascus
Arab into, 72.

English thoroughbred horse, the, G7 ; general
history of the, i/i. ; thoronghlired horse of
1750, the, 09 ; horses imported into America,
list of the, 48.

Ensilage, unfit for horses, 201.

Enteritis, nature of, 501 ; symptoms of, ib.

Epidermis, the, 499.

Epiglottis, posterior view of, 471 ; anatomy of,
ib. ; view of, 470.

Epilepsy, .symptoms of, 572 ; treatment of, ib.

Essentials in the thoroughbred, 90.

Ethan Allen, the trotter, 40.

European Continental horses, the, 56.

Excretion, physiology of, 479.

Exercise, daily, of the horse. 288.

Exhaustion, treatment of, after work, 306.

ExMioor pony, the, 127.

Exostosis, nature of, 506 ; of the humerus and
scapula, 510 ; treatment of, ib.

Expectorants, action of, 501 ; recipes for, 77;.

External form of the horse, as indicated by
points, 8 ; formation of the raceliorse, 98.

Extremities, bones composing the fore and
hind, 352.

Eye, anatomy of the, 490; appendages of,
497 ; coats of, //). ; humours of the, ib. ;
simple inflammation of the, 579 ; .'^ymiitoms
of simple inflammation of the, //). ; treat-
ment of simple inflammation of the, ib. ;
treatment of injuries of, 578 ; eyelids, an-
atomy of the, 497.

Face, bones of the, 355.

False quarter, nature of, 001 ; treatment of, ib.

Farcy, symptoms of, 593 ; treatment of, ib.

Farm horses, feeding of. 270.

Febrifuges, action of, 051 ; recip:^s for, ib.

Feeding, theory and practice of, 260.

Feet, accidents to, 615 ; management of the,

285.
Femoro-tihial articulation, 423 ; external view

of, (/'. ; posterior view of, 422.
Femur, the, 386 ; view of the, ib. ; treatment

of fracture of, 522.
Fetlock joint, anatomy of, 415.

Fetlock, remarks on strain of the, 529; treat-
ment of strain of the, ib.

Fevers, remarks on, in the horse,590; symptoms
of simple, ib. ; treatment of simple, ib.

Fibro-cartilage, 391; interarticular, ib.

Fibro-cartilages, connecting, 394.

Fibrous tissue, white, 393.

Fibula, the, 388 ; view of the, ib.

Firing, method of performing, 623 ; remarks
on, //).

Fislierman, portrait of, 99.

Fistula of the withers, 517 ; nature of, ib. ;
symptoms of, ib. ; treatment of, ib.

Flemish horse, the, 64.

Floors of stables, brindled brick for, 228;
patent paving brick for, ib. ; yellow adaman-
tine clinkers for, ib. ; concrete for, ib.

Flora Temjile, the trotter, 46.

Flying Childers, the, 82.

Flying galloj), the, 153.

Foal, the, 190; after treatment of the, 189;
early treatmentofthe,t7).; weaning of the 190.

Food, coudimeutal, 262 ; recipe for, ib.

Food for horses, 251 ; of the Arab horse, 30.

Foot, the, 5(X) ; diseases of, 598, ct seq.

Foot, anatomy of the, 500 ; lateral cartilages
of, 504 ; section of the, 501 ; the parts
entering into the composition of, ib. ; view
of the under surface of, 502 ; with the hoof
removed, view of the, ib. ; contraction of
the. Oil.

Fore-arm, bones of the, 378.

Fore extremity, view of the bones of, 379.

Fore-foot, prejjariHl for the slioe, view of, 656.

Fore-quarter, relative proportions of the, 10.

Fracture of the femur, treatment of, 522 ; of
the humerus, treatment of, ib. ; of the
lower jaw, treatment of, ib. ; of the pelvis,
treatment of, ib. ; of the ribs, treatment of,
ib. ; of the scapula, treatment of, ib. ; of the
skull, treatment of, ib. ; of the spine, treat-
ment of, ib.

Fractures, remarks on, 520 ; symptoms of
simple, 521 ; treatment of simple, ib.

French horse, the, 58 ; stallions, list of, 59.

Frog, anatomy of the, 502.

Furze for soil'ng, 201.

Gallop, the flying, 153; variation in length of

stride of, ib. ; correct views of the, 152, et

seq. ; received interpretation of the, 151 ;

the hand, 150; the extended, 153.
Galloway, the, 125.
Galls, treatment of harness, 586.
Ganglia, nervous, 495
Gastric fluid, the, 482.
Gastritis, 557 ; cau.ses, ib. ; symptoms of, ib. ;

treatment of, 77).
General characteristics of the hor.se, 7,
General history of the thoroughbred Engli.sh

horse, 67.
General management of the brood mare, 186.
Generation, anatomy of the female organs of,

489 ; anatomy of the male organs of, 488 ;

theory of, 161.
Generative organs, disease of the, 570.
German horse, the, 57.
Gigster, the, 132.
Ginglymus, 390.
Girths, 320.
Gland, the kidneys, 487: the liver, 485; the

pancreas, 486 ; the sublingual, anatomy of,

480 i the parotid, anatomy of, ib.

INDEX

693

Glands, structure of, -478; anatomy of the
salivary, 480 ; bronchial, 473 ; the pulmon-
ary, ih.

Glanders, symptoms of, 59i2.

(Joddlphiu Arabian, the, 19 — 71.

fTOmphosis, 396.

Gorse, for soiling, 261.

Granary, construction of, 222.

Grass, for the horse, 351 ; turning out to, 309.

(Jrease, symptoms of, 586; treatment of, 587.

Greek horse, the, 2.

Greeu food, for horses, 260 ; for soiling horses,
ib.

Green oats for soiling, 261.

Groom, duties of, 245.

Grooming of horses, 273.

Gruel, 256.

Habits, of the horse, 7; out-door bad, 336.

Hack, the covert, 118 ; the road, ib. ; the
park, ib.

Hacks, preparation of, for work, 305 ; feeding
of, ib.

Hai-morrhage, from the lungs, treatment of,
552 ; from the nose, treatment of, ib.

Half-bred horse, the, 112.

Halters used for breaking, 203—205.

Hand gallop, the, 150.

Hands, attainment of good, in riding, 329.

Hanoverian horses, the, 65 ; Pelham, the, 323.

Harmonia, 396.

Harness, blacking, recipes for, 317 ; breaking
to, 212 ; choice of, 339 ; care of, 315 ; double,
view of, 342 ; directions for cleaning, 315 ;
details of single, 339 ; horses, preparation of,
for work, 304 ; method of drying, 238 ; room
in stables, 238.

Haw, anatomy of, 497.

Hay, chamber, 221 ; as food for horses, 252 ;
musty, 253 ; cjuantity recjuired of the, 254 ;
upland, 252 ; weather-beaten, 253 ; burnt,
253.

Head, bones of the, 354 ; division of the bones
of, ib. ; relative proportions of the, 350.

Health, upiland grass most useful in restoring,
311.

Heart, anatomy of the, 460 ; and arteries,
plan of the, 463 ; obscurity of diseases of
the, 551.

Heavy machiner, the, 131.

Heels, treatment of chapped, 586.

Hemisphere, Western, hoi-ses of the, 33.

Hempseed, for stallions, 259.

Hepatization of the lungs, 547.

Hernia, operation for reduciug, 634 ; the ana-
tomy of the parts connected with, 440.

Herbert's, Mr., account of wild horse of
America, 39.

Herod, history of, 74 ; pedigree of, ib.

Highblowing, see roaring, 516.

Highland pony, the, 127.

Hip-joint, 420 ; dislocation of, 534 ; ligaments
of, 420 ; rarity of strain of, 532 ; symptoms
of strain of, ib. ; treatment of strain of, ib.

Hobbles, description of, and method of using,
623 ; improved, 624.

Hock, the, 424 ; cause of capped, 526 ; treat-
ment of capped, ib. ; ti-eatment of strain of
the, 533.

Hock-joint, the, 424 ; anterior ligament of,
425 ; external view of, ili. ; internal vitiw of,
ib. ; lateral ligaments of, ib. ; internal later-
al ligaments of, ib, ; posterior ligaments of,

ib. ; strain of the, 533 ; synovial membrane
of, 426.

Hoof, anatomy of the, 500 ; development of,
bj' secretion, 503 ; view of the, 502.

Horse, action of the walk in the, 145 ; after
treatment of the foal of, 190 ; ancient
methods of using the, 5 ; Arab, food of the,
30 ; Arab, speed of the, ib. ; Arab, colours
of the, ib. ; advantages and disadvantages of
each plan of breeding, 167 ; American, fast-
est trotting on record, 43 ; apparatus for
breaking to harness, 212 ; average age of the,
16 ; malted barley and wheaten bread for
the, 258 ; beans and pease for the, 257 ; bran
mash for the, 259 ; bedding of, 271 ; best
age to breed from, 170; Burman, the, 24 ;
bit used for breaking, 204 ; blood most
suitable for breeding hunters, 179 ; bounding
on his hind-legs, the, 197 ; breaking of the
colt, 192; breaking to harness of the, 212;
breed of, in India, 36 ; remarks on the
buying of, 681 ; carrots for the, 260 ; cas-
tration of the foal, 191, 630; causes of a
" hit " in breeding, 168 ; chaff for the, 259
choice of sire and dam in breeding, 174
classification of the, 7; clipping the, 278
clothing, kind of, 246 ; prices of, 247 ; com-
parative stoutness of, 87 ; concluding
remarks on breeding, 181; corn for, 254;
daily exercise of the, 288 ; dental formula
of the, 7 ; distribution of weight in, 141 ;
dressing of the, 273 ; early history of, 1 ;
early maturity of the, 94 ; early treatment
of the foal, 189 ; English, imported into
America, a list of, 48 ; external form of,
as indicated by points, 8 ; feeding of farm,
270 ; feeding of harues^s, 269 ; first thing to
be done in breaking, 205 ; food of the, 251 ;
general characteristics of, 7 ; general history
of the English thoroughbred, 67 ; general
management of the brood mare, 186 ; grass
for the, 186 ; green food for soiling, 260 ;
grooming of, 273 ; gruel for the, 256 ; habits
of the, 7 ; halter used for breaking in, 203 —

205 ; hay for the, 187 ; history of, 7 ; hemp-
seed for the, 259 ; hovel for brood mare,
182 ; importance of forming the mouth in,

206 ; importance of health in breeding, 169 ;
importance of soundness in breeding, ib. ;
in-and-breeding, 165 ; increa.se of size in, 86 ;
increase of symmetry in, ib. ; influence of
the sire and dam in breeding, 171 ; jump-
ing, 157 ; leaping, ib. ; linseed for the, 259
locomotive action of, 141 ; management of
the feet in the, 385 ; maturity of the, 16
mental development of the, 17 ; methods of
restraint, 621 ; middle piece of the, 15
mixed breeds of cart, 139 ; mode of progrcs
sion in, 142 ; most profitable kind for breed'
iug purposes, 180 ; natural and acquired
paces of, 141 ; oats for the, 256 ; of
Abyssinia, the, 24 ; of Dongola, the, 21 ; of
the East, the, 19 ; of the Western Hemi-
splicre, the, 38 ; of Toorkistan, the, 35 ;
omnibus, on the management of, 257 ; on his
knees about to fall on his side, portrait of
the, 198; ordinary English method of
breaking for the saddle, 203 ; origin of the
thorouglibred, 70 ; other Asiatic, 35 ; out-
cross in bi-eeding, 166 ; i)aces of the manege,
157 ; pacing, 134 ; paddock for brood mare,
182; parsnips for the, 260; pease for the,
257 ; pedigrees of American trotting, 46 ;

694

INDEX

pcrioilical moulting of the, 17 ; pviuciplos of
breeding, ICil ; proportions of the various
points of the, 15 ; pure Arab, the, 25 ; pur-
chase of the, C81 ; Karey's apparatus for
breaking, '20o ; Itan y's niethod of train-
ing, 1!)^ ; relative i^roportions of the, 9 ;
roots for the, 2G0 ; salt for the, '2G3 ;
selection of blood in each class in breeding,
176; selling of, 085; singeing, 2S1 ; small
stomach of the, 18 ; stable clothing for, 316 ;
stoutni s.< of the Amerirtin thoroughbred,
52 ; superiority of the ordinary method of
breaking, 212; sweaters for the, 247;
sj'uouyms of the, 7 ; the agricultural, 13.3 ;
the Arab of antiquity, 4 ; the American
thoroughbred, 47 ; the Austrian, 57 ; the
Australian, 36 ; the liritish original, 5 ; the
brood mare, 182 ; the brougham, 129 ; the
cab, (V'. ; the carriage, ih. ; tlie Canadian, 41 ;
the charger, 117 ; the Cleveland, Lli) ; the
Clydesdale, 138; the cob, 112, 125; the
Concstoga, 54 ; the covert hack, 118 ; the
Darley Arabian, 71; the Egyptian, 4; the
English thoroughbred, 07 ; the English
thoroughbred of 175ii,()9; the Exmoorpony,
127 ; the European continental, 56 ; the fast
trotter, 132; the Flemish, 64; the foal of,
182 ; the French, 58 ; the Galloway, 125 ;
the German, 57 ; the gigstcr, 132 ; the
Godolphin Arabian, 19, 71; the Greek, 2 ;
the half-bred, 112 ; the Hanoverian, 65 ; the
heavy machiuer, 131 ; the Highland pony,
127; the Hungarian, 57; the Irish hunter,
116; the Italian, 56; the ladies', 124; the
Libyan, 4 ; the Lincolnshire dray, 137 ; the
modern thoroughbred, 67; the Moorish, 4;
the Morgan, 39; the New Forest pony, 124 ;
the Norwegian, 66 ; the Numidiau, 4 ; the,
of Scriptnj-e, 1 ; the park hack, 118; the
Persian, 34 ; the phaeton, 132 ; the polo
pony, 127 ; the Portuguese, 56 ; the Pi-ussian,
57 ; the roid hack, 118 ; the Koman, 3 ; the
Eussian, 65 ; the Shetland pony, 129 ; the
shire hoi se, 133; the South American, 38; the
Spanish, 56 ; the Sufifolk cart, 134 ; the
Swedish, GG ; the Tartar, 35 ; the trooper,
117; the Turkish, 35; the Vermont, 53 ; the
Welsh pony, 126 ; theory of generation of,
101 ; thoroughbred, essentials in the, 97 ;
time of sending brood mare to the, 186 ;
times made by, in the middle of the last
century, 90 ; times of the best American,
made in America an<l England, 91 ; times
of best modern English, ih. ; treatment of
the broo<l mare when in foal, 187 ; treat-
ment of brood marc after foaling, 188 ;
trimming the, 282 ; water for the, 264, et
seq. ; weaning of the foal, 190 ; wheateu
bread for the, 258 ; wild, of America, Mr.
Herbert's account of the, 39 ; wild Tartar,
35 ; use of bandages for the, 284 ; two kinds
of, 257.
Horsemanship, M. Baucher's method of, 210,
Hovel, the, for brood mare, 182.
Humerus, the, 377 ; and .scapula, 510 ; treat-
ment of exostosis of, ih. ; external view of,
377 ; internal view of, 378 ; treatment of
fracture of, 522.
Hungarian horse, the, 57.
Hunter, feeding of the, 209; choosing of the
half-bred, 114; blood most suitable for
breeding, 176; final i)re])aration of, 304;
mouth oi" the half-bred, 116 ; points essen-

tial to the half-bred. 111; preparation of,
291; the half-bred, 113; the Irish, 116;
height of the half-bred, 115 ; the thorough-
bred, 1 10 ; treatment of blows in the legs of,
306; treatment of exhaustion of the, ih. ;
tre;itment of overreach, ih. ; treatment of
thorns in the legs, ih.

Hydrophobia, see rabies, 574.

IIy<lr()thorax, a serpiel of pleurisy, 550 ; treat-
ment of, ih.

Ilyoides, os, 470.

Ir.EUM, anatomy of the, 484.

Hii, OS, 384.

IHo-CKcal valve, the, 484.

Ilio-sacral ligament, the inferior, 407 ; tho
superior, ih. ; view of, ih.

Importation of the Damas3us Arab into
England, 72.

In-and-in breeding, 165.

Iiu'isor teeth, sections of, 357.

India, breed of horses in, 30.

Indian pony, the, 41.

Indigestion (Dyspepsia), 556.

Inflammation of the bones, 507; of bursje
mucosiu, 525 ; of tendinous sheaths, ih. ; of
the bladder, 509 ; of the bowels, 501 ; of the
brain, 573 ; of the bronchi, 540 ; of the eye,
579 ; of the kidneys, 507 ; of the larynx
512 ; of the Itmgs, 547 ; of the pleura, 540 ;
of the stomach, 557 ; of the veins after
bleeding, 627.

Influenza, nature of, 539 ; treatment of, (7).

lunoniinatum, os, 384; upper view of os, ih,

Inter-metacarpal articulations, 415.

luter-metatarsal articulations, 428.

luter-phalaugeal articulations, 415.

Inter-sesamoideal ligament, 415.

Intestines, anatomy of the Lirge, 482 ; small,
483, et seq.

Intus-susceptiou, nature and symptoms of,
502.

Irish hunter, the, 1 10.

Iron fittings for stalls and loose boxes, 237.

Iron surface guttei", 226.

Ischii, OS, 384.

Italian horse, the, 56.

J.vw, osteo .sarcoma of, 520; symptoms of

caries of, ih. ; the lower, 356 ; treatment of

caries of, 520.
Jejunum, anatomy of the, 484.
Jog-trot, starting into the, 147.
Joints, general remarks on, 391 ; composition

of,!/'.; classification of, 395 ; movements of,

296 ; wounds of, 535.
Jugular vein, when obliterated, renders horse

uufit to be turned out, 312.
Jumping, 157.

Kicking out of doors, prevention of, 337 ;
in-doors, 294.

Kidneys, anatomy of the, 486 ; diseases of the,
507 ; .section of the, 487 ; situation of the,
480; view of the, 487.

Knee-joint (wrist, or carpus), ba^k view of,
381 ; remarks on strain of the, 528 ; symp-
toms of .strain of the, ih. ; treatment of
strain of the, 529 ; articulations of, 412 ;
movements of, 415 ; broken, 535.

L.vcni{VM.vr, .\rr.vR.\Trs, anatomy of, 498;
ducts, anatomy of, ih.

INDEX

695

Lacteals, the, 47S.

Ladies' horse, the, 124.
Lamiufe, anatomy of the, 502.

Laminitis, uatiire of, 604 ; symptoms of, 605 ;

treatment of, 606 ; chronic, ib.
Lamp, for singeing, 282.

Lanipas, or swelled palate, symptoms of, 553 ;

treatment of, il>.
Laryngitis, nature of, 542 ; symptoms of acute,
r)43 ; symptoms of chronic, 544 ; treatment
of acute, 543 ; treatment of chronic, 545.

Tj irynx, anatomy of, 470 ; view of, ih.

Lateral cartilages, ossification of, 512 ; sj'mp-
toms of ossification of, 510 ; treatment of
ossification of, 511.

Lfaping, 157.

Leg, bones of the fore, 379 ; of the hind, 334,
et seq.

Legs, accidents to, 615.

Libyan horse, the, 4.

Lice, destruction of, 583 ; poultry. 584.

Jiigament, astragalo-calcaneau, 426 ; capsular,
of the hip, 421 ; common to the carpal joints,
415 ; cotyloid, 420 ; disease of the, 523 ;
inferior atlo-axoid, 400 ; inferior vertebral,
S97 ; inter-articular costal, 402 ; inter-
sesamoideal, 417 ; of dorsal vertebrte, profile
view of, 398 ; of the os pisiforme, 413 ; of the
rows of the tarsal bones, 426 ; of the sternum,
403 ; of the temporo-maxillary articulation,
405 ; odontoid, 400 ; pubio femoral, 420 ;
the inferior ilio-sacral, 407 ; the long iuf<=rior
sesamoideal, 415 ; the true suspensory, 417 ;
sacro-iliac, 363 ; sacro-sciatic, 406 ; strain of
the suspensory, 529 ; superior atlo-axoid, 400 ;
superior costo-vertebral, 402 ; superior verte-
bral, 39 ; superior sesamoideal, 415 ; supe-
rior ilio-sacral, 406 ; suspensory, 417.

Ligameutum colli (or nuchas), 399 ; view of,
;7>. ; teres, 400.

Lighting of stables, 229.

Limlis, as agents of locomotion, 415 ; as means
of support, 141.

Iji u'olnshire dray-horse, the, 137.

Linea alba, 441.

Liuese trans versales, 441.

Linseed as food for the horse, 259.

Lips, the chief seat of the organ of touch, 500.

List of English horses imported into America,
48 ; of French stallions, 59 ; of drugs, 675.

Litter, remedy for eating the, 294.

Liver, anatomy of the, 485 ; disease of the,
565 ; function of, 485 ; structure of the,
ib. ; sj'mptoms of disease of the, 566 ; treat-
ment of disease of the, ib.

Lock-jaw, nature of, 575 ; symptoms of, ib. ;
treatment of, 576.

Loo.se boxes, 224 ; iron fittings, 232.

Lotions, action of, 652 ; i-ecipes for, ib.

Lower jaw, treatment of fracture of, 522.

Lucerne for soiling, 261.

Lumbar vertebras, articulation of the, with
sacrum, 405 ; general characters of, 371 ;
peculiarities of, 404 ; profile view of, 371.

Lumbo-sacral articulation, 404.

Ivunare, os, 380.

Lungs, air cells of, 472 ; anatomy of, ib. ;
lobules of, ih. ; parenchyma of, ih. ; remarks
on congestion of the, 548 ; symptoms of
congestion of the, ib. ; treatment of conges-
tion of the, ib. ; inflammation of (pneu-
monia), 547 ; treatment of haemorrhage from,
552.

Lying down at work, management of, 337.
Lymphatics of bone, 344.

M.\i)NESS, symptoms of, 574 : treatment of,
ib. ; nature of, ih.

Mad staggers, nature of, 573.

Magnum, os, 381.

Maize as food, 257.

Mallein, 593.

Mallenders, 585 ; treatment of, ib.

Malt as food, 257.

Manege, paces of the, 157.

Mange, insect, 532 ; nature of, ih. ; .symptoms
of, ih. ; treatment of, 583.

Mangers for stables. 234—236.

Manger and rack, the, 234.

Mare, management of the brood, 186 ; after
treatment of the foal of, 190 ; early ti-eat-
meut of the foal of, 189 ; general manage-
ment of, 186 ; hovel for, 182 ; paddock for,
ib. ; time of sending to the horse, 186 ;
treatment of, after foaling. 188 ; treatment
of, when in foal, 187 ; weaning of the foal of,
190 ; the Arab, 25.

Marshes, for turning out, 311.

Match, celebrated, made by the Duke of
Queensbury, 73 ; trotting in America, ex-
tent of, 44.

Matchem, history of, 82 ; pedigree of, 78.

Maturity of the horse, 16.

Meadow laud, producing grass, 310-11.

Medicines, action of, and recipes for, 639, et
s^cq. ; alteratives, ih. ; aua3sthetics, 640 ;
auodynes, ih. ; antacids, 641 ; anthelmin-
tics, ib. ; aperients, 642 ; astringents, 644 ;
blisters, 645 ; caustics, 646 ; charges, ih. ;
clysters, 647 ; cordials, ib. ; demulcents,
648 ; diaphoretics, ih. ; digestives, ib. ;
diuretics, 649 ; embrocations, 650 ; emul-
sions, t7>. ; expectorants, 651 ; febrifuges, ib. ;
lotions, 652 ; narcotics, ih. ; refrigerants,
ib. ; sedatives, 653 ; stimulants, ib. ; sto-
machics, ib. ; styptics, 654 ; tonics, ib. ;
vermifuges, or worm-medicines, ih.

Medulla oblongata, anatomy of the, 493.

Megrims, nature of, 573 ; symptoms of, ib. ;
treatment of, ih.

Membrana nictitans, anatomy of, 497.

Membranes, synovial, 395.

Mental development of the horse, 17.

Metacarpal bones, 381 ; view of the, ih.

Metacarpo-phalangeal articulations, 382; views
of, 383.

Metacarpus, bones of the, 380.

Metatarsal bones, the, 389.

Methods of using the horse, ancient, 5.

Middlepiece of the horse, 12.

Mode of progression in horses, 142.

Modem Arab, the, 25 ; All Bey's description
of the, 27.

Modern thoroughbred, the, 85.

Moorish horse, the, 4.

Morgan horse, the, 39.

Mounting, directions for, 324.

Mouth and throat, diseases of. 553.

Mouth, the three-year-old, 359 ; the six-year-
old, 363 ; the flve-year-oJd, 362 ; the four-
year-old, the lower jaw, 359 ; the six-year-
old horse, showing the lower teeth, 363 ; of
the eight-year-old horse, 364; of the very
old horse, ih.

Mucous membrane liningtheabdomiualviscen,
477 ; of the stomach, 482.

z z

GOG

INDEX

Muscle, anatomy of, 429; bursa) mucosw of,
431 ; diseases of the, 523 ; examined under
the microscope, 430 ; identical in composi-
tion with the fibrine of the blood,;'/). ; mode
of dcscribinj,', 431 ; uomencliiture of, )'/'. ;
phj'siology of, 429 ; sarcolemraa of, 430 ;
voluntary, 431 ; antero-iuferior scapular
region, 4 15 ; antero-exterual humeral region,
447 ; anterior femoro-crural region, 454 ;
anterior ilio-femoral region, 452; of the ab-
domen, 440; the coccygeal, 443; the deep
abdominal region, 442; dorsal region, 440;
deep ilio-femoral region, 454 ; of the exter-
nal ear, 43 1 ; external scapular region, 44 1 ;
external ilio-femoral region, 451 ; external,
of the eyelids, 434 ; of the fore-leg, 447 ;
antero-external view of, ih. ; of the fore ex-
tremity, 444; of the haunch, 450; external
view of, 419 ; of the head, 432 ; inferior-
cervical occipital region, 43S ; inferior cervi-
cal region, 437 ; internal scapular region,
445 ; internal ilio-femoral region, 452 ; of
the leg, external view of the, 453 ; laryngeal
region, 435 ; moving the lower jaw, 434 ;
ojular region, 435 ; of the pharynx, ih. ;
postero-internal scapular region, 44(3 ; pos-
terior-external scapular region, ih. ; posterior
femorocrural region, 454 ; palatine region,

435 ; pelvic region, 443 ; view of superficial,
of the neck and trunk, 436 ; superficial
abdominal region, 440 ; superior cervical
region, 437 ; connecting the scapula with
the head, neck, and chest, 435 ; of the
slioulder and arm, internal view of, 446 ;
superficial, of the neck and trunk, 436; of
the tongue, 435 ; of the thorax, 439 ; of the
arm and fore-leg, 443 ; lateral cervical region,
436 ; gluteal region, 451 ; postero-external
humeral region, 447 ; of the leg and thigh,
internal view of the deep, 453 ; of the fore
extremity, external view of, 448 ; view of
the superficial, of the head, 432 ; cutaneous,
431.

Muscular coat of the hollow viscera of tlie
abdomen, 482, tt svq.

Muscular system, the, 429.

SIusculus, 429 ; adductor brevis, 452 ; adduc-
tor longus, ih. ; anconeus, 447 ; antea spina-
tus, 444 ; biceps rotator tibialis, 451 ; buc-
cinator, 433; caninus, iV). ; complexus major,

436 ; compressor coccygis, 443 ; eoraco-hu-
meratis, 445 ; cremaster, 443 ; curvator
coccygis, 443; depressor coccygis, ih.; de-
pressor labii iuferioris, 433 ; depressor labii
superioris, ih.\ diaplu:agma. 442 ; dilatator
uaris anterior, 433 ; erector coccygis, 443 ;
extensor metacarpi magnus, 447 ; extensor
mctacarpi obliquus, 450 ; extensor pedis,
447 ; exten.sor suffraginis, 449 ; flexor
brachii, 445 ; flexor metatarsi, 454 ; flexor
metacarpi exteruus, 448 ; flexor metacarpi
internus, ih. ; flexor metacarpi medius, ib. ;
flexor pedis accessorius, 455 ; flexor pedis
perforans et perforatus, 448 ; gastrocne-
mius cxternus, 454; gastrocnemius in-
ternus, ih. ; gemini, ih. ; gluteus cxternus,
451 ; gluteus internus, ih.\ gluteus maximus,
ih. ; gracilis, 452 ; humeralis externus, 447 ;
iliacus, 443 ; lat'ralis stcrui, 439 ; latissimus
dorsi, ■ 438 ; levator humeri, ih. ; levator
menti, 433 ; levator palpebrje superioris, 434 ;
levatores costarum, 393; levator labii
superioris ala^que nasi, 432; longissimus

dorsi, 410; masseter, 434; nasalis longu.'s
labii superioris, 432 ; nasa!is brevis labii
superioris, 433 ; naso transversal is, ih. ; ob-
liquus abdominis exteruus, 441 ; obliquus
abdominis internus, 454 ; obturator exter-
nus, (7). ; obturator internus, ih. ; orbicularis
oris, 433 ; orbicularis palpebrarum, 434;pau-
niculus carnosus, 431 ; pectineus, 452 ; pec-
toralis magnus, 439 ; p^ctoralis parvus, ih. ;
pectoralis transversus, ih. ; peroneus, 454 ;
plantaris, 455 ; popliteus, ih. ; postea spiua-
tus, 444 ; psoas magnus, 442 ; psoas parvus,
ih. ; pterj'goideus externus, 434 ; pterygoi-
pterygoideus internus, ih. ; pj'riformis, 454 ;
radialis accessorius, 450 ; rectus abdominis,
441; rectus parvus, j''. ; retractor ani, 443 ;
retractor labii superioris, 432 ; retractor labii
inferioris, 433 ; rhomboideus brevis, 439 ;
rhomboideus lougus, 438 ; superficial costa-
rum, 44t) ; sartorius, 452 ; scalenus, 437 ;
scapulo-humeralis externus, 447 ; scapulo-
humeralis posticus, 445 ; scapulo ulnaris, ih. ;
semi-spiualis dorsi, 440 ; semi-spinalis lum-
borum, 442 ; serratus magnus, 439 ; sphinc-
ter ani, 443 ; spinalis colli, 390 ; spinalis
dorsi, 437 ; spleuius, 436 ; sterno-costalis,
439 ; sterno-maxillaris, 437 ; steruo-thyro-
hyoideus, iJ>. ; stylo-maxillaris, 434 ; sub-
scapularis, 445 ; sub-scapula hyoideus, 438 ;
temporalis, 434 ; tensor vaginaj femoris,451 ;
teres internus vel major, 447 ; teres externus,
ih. ; trachelo-mastoideus, 437 ; transver.salis
abdominis, 441 ; transversalis costarum, 440 ;
trapezius, 438; triceps adductor femori-;,
451 ; triceps extensor brachii, 446 ; trife-
moro rotulreus, 452 ; uaris accessorius, 448 ;
zygomaticus, 432.

Xarcotics, action of, G52.

Nasal cavities, 469 ; orifices, ih.

Natural histoi-y of the horse, 5.

Navicular disease, neurotomy for, 614 ;

symptoms of, 611 ; treatment of, 613.
Naviculare, os, 383.
Neck, relative proi^ortious of the, 10.
Nephritis, cause of, 567 ; symptoms of, ib. ;

treatment of, ih.
Nerves of the stomach, 482 ; supplying the

abdominal viscera, 477 ; the sympathetic,

495 ; the spinal, 492.
Nervous system, chief divisions of the, 490 :

disease of, 517 ; diagram of the, 491 ; of

animal life, 492 ; physiology of, 4 '0,
Neurotomy for navicular disease, 614.
New Forest pony, the. 126.
Norman charger, the, 58.
North America, wild horse of, 39.
Norwegian horse, the, C6.
Noseband, the IJuccplialus, 324.
Nose, ha.'niorrhage from the, 552.
Numidian horse, the, 4.

Oats, as food, 254 ; bruisers, 256 ; how given,

ih. ; kiln dried, 255 ; new, ih.
Object of encouraging the breed of racehorses,

95.
Odontoid ligaments, 400.
Oesophagus, anatomy of the. 480.
Oestrus equi, history of, 619.
Operations, shoeing, 655 ; administration of

chloroform, 625; methods of confining ths

horse, 621 ; bleeding. 627 ; firing, 628 ;

setous and rowels, 629 ; blistering, 630 ;

INDEX

G97

castrating, ih. ; docking, 633 ; unnerving,
634 ; reduction of hernia, ib ; admiuistra-
tion of physic, 035 ; clysters, 638 ; back-
raking, ih.

Ophthahiiia, symptoms of, 579 ; treatment of,
ih.

Original British horse, the, 4.

Origin of the thoroughbred horse, 70.

Os hyoides, 470 ; view of, 470-71.

Ossification of lateral cartilages, 510 ; view of,
511.

O.steo-sarcoma of the jaw, case of, 520.

Out-crossing breeding, 166.

Out-door vices, 336 ; treatment of, ih.

Over-reaches, stable management of, 306;
treatment of, ih.

Paces of the manege, 157.
Paces, natural and acquired, of horses, 141.
Paddock, the, for brood mare, 182.
Pancreas, anatomy of the, 486 ; function of,

ih.
Paralysis, nature of, 576; from injury of the

spine, ih. ; treatment of, 577.
Parenchvma of the lungs, 472.
Park hack, the, 118.
Parotid gland, anatomy of, 480.
Parsnips as food, 2G0.
Pastern joint, anatomy of, 418.
Pasture, nature of upland, 310.
Pasturing, 309.
Patella, the, 385 ; dislocation of, 534; internal

ligament of, 425 ; femoral capsule of, 422 ;

external lateral ligament of, ib. ; middle

ligament of, 423 ; internal lateral ligament

of, ib.
Patten, the, G67.
Pease as food, 257.
P.'digree of Eclipse, 76; of H?rod, 74; of

Matchem, 78.
Pedis, OS, 383.

Pelham, the plain, 323; the Hanoverian, ib.
Pelvis, the, 384 ; boundaries of the, 488 ; bones

of the, 384 ; cavity of the, 488.
Pepsine, 482.

Pericardium, anatomy of the, 461.
Perichondrium, 392.
Periodical moulting of the horse, 17.
Periosteum, 346.
Peritoneum, anatomy of, 476.
Peritonitis, nature of, 562 ; symptoms of, 563 ;

treatment of, ih.
Persian horse, the, 34.
Phaeton horse, the, 132.

Phalangeal bones, the fore, 382; the hind, 391.
Phalanges, posterior view of, 383.
Phalangio-pedal articulation, 419 ; view of, ih.
Pharynx, anatomy of the, 480,
Phrenitis, nature of, 573.
Physic, 302 ; cooling powers of, ih. ; iujurious

eifects of, 304 ; mode of administering, 637 ;

remarks on, 302.
I'hysiology of the blood, 458 ; of digestion,

477 ; of muscle, 429 ; of respiration, 467 ;

of secretion, 478 ; of the nervous system, 490.
Piping, nature of, see roaring, 542.
Pisiforme, os, 380.
Plantar artery, the, 663.
Plate, the, for racing, GG6.
Plate vein, anatomy of, 467.
Pleura, anatomy of, 456.
Pleurisy, symptoms of, 549; treatment of,

550.

Plunging, treatment of, 337.

Pneumouii, cause of, 547 ; symptoms of, ih. ;

treatment of, 548.
Points of the horse, 7.
Poll evil, nature of, 519 ; symptoms of, (Y;. ;

treatment of, ih.
Ponies, feeding of, 270.
Pony, the, 127 ; the Bxmoor, ih. ; the Highland,

ih. ; the Indian, 41 ; the New Forest, 12G ;

the Shetland, 129 ; the Welsh, 12G.
Portuguese horse, the, 5G.
Preparation, final, of the hunter, 304 ; for

work, ih. ; of hacks for work, 305.
Pricks, from a nail picked ujj on the road,

G17 ; in shoeing, GIO ; treatment of, in shoe-
ing, ih. ; treatment of, from a nail picked

up on the road, G17.
Progression, mode of, in horses, 142.
Proportions of the various points of the horse,

15.
Prussian horse, the, 57.
Ptyaline, 482,
Puffs, treatment of, 526.
Pulmonary apparatus, component parts of,

4G9 ; mechanism of, ih. ; glands, etc., 473 ;

tissue, the, 472 ; veins, 467.
Purity of blood in the racehorse, 97.

QcAETER, nature of false, 601 ; treatment of

false, ih.
Queensbury, celebrated match made by the

Duke of, 73.
Quittor, nature of, 601 treatment of, ih.

Rabies, nature of, 574 ; symptoms of, ih.

Racehorse, croup of the, 101 ; back of the,
ib. ; back ribs of the, 105 ; belly of the, ib. ;
bone of the leg of the, 108 ; coat of the, 110 ;
colour of the, 109 ; external formation of
the, 98 ; feeding of, 268 ; flank of the, 105 ;
fore-arm, or arm of the, 108 ; head of the,
lOG ; height of the, 109; hind-quarter of the,
108 ; knee of the, ih. ; loins of the, 101 ; mane
of the, 110 ; neck of the, 105 ; object of en-
couraging the breed of, 95 ; purity of blood
in the, 97 ; shoulder-blade of the, 107 ; tail
of the, 110.

Eaciug or hunting stable, 242.

Racks for stables, new forms of, 234, et seq.

Radio-carpal articulation, 380.

Radius, the, 379.

Rarey's apparatus for breaking horses, 205 ;
halter or bridle for colts, ih. ; leg strap. No. 1,
194 ; No. 2, 195 ; method of training, 192 ;
reflections on plans of, 202.

Rearing, management of, 337.

Rectum, anatomy of the, 485.

Refrigerants, action of, 652.

Reins, management of, 327.

Relative proportions of the fore-quarter, 10;
of the head, 9 ; of the horse, ih. ; of the
r.eck, 10.

Respiration, effect of, on atmospheric air,4G8 ;
physiology of, 4G7.

Rete mucosum, the, 498.

Rheumatism, symptoms of acute, 598.

Ribs, the, 374 ; cartilages of, 402 ; treatment
of fractured, 522 ; view of a true and false,
374.

Riding, and driving, 319 ; to hounds, 333 ; to
hounds, rules ailopted in, ih. ; to hounds,
directions for, ib. ; modes of starting the
horse in the various paces, 329 ; mounting

698

iNDEX

and (lismnnnting:, 3l'1 ; management of tlie
reins iu, 327 ; mecssity of good lianils in,
329 ; the seat in, 32r> ; starting into a gallop,
332; starting the horse into a jog trot iu,
330 ; starting into a regular trot in, ;'/'. ;
starting the horse into a walk in, 321) ; use
of spurs in, ih.

Itima glottidis, anatony of, 471.

IJiugboue, case of, "ilO ; nature of, )7'.; symptoms
of, (7'. ; treatment of, 571.

Koail hack, the, 113.

Koaring, liereditary nature of, .')^2 ; produced
by alteration in the shape of the cartilages,
ill. ; produced by thickening of the mucous
membrane, //'. ; produceil by paralysis of the
muscles of the lan,nx.//<. ; plan for stopping
the noise made in, 543.

IJoman horse, the, 3.

Hoots for the horse, 260.

Itoughing shoes, "White's mode of, 672.

Round worms, 018.

I'r.n at grass, choice of, 311 ; a winter's, 313.

Itunning away, management of, 338.

Rupture of the bowels, see Twist, 562.

Russian horses, the, 05.

liye-grass for soiling, 201.

Saceo-iliac articulation, 406 ; ligament, ih. ;

sciatic ligament, 407 ; view of, ib.
Sacrum, the, 331 ; view of, 405.
{^addlery, care of, 315.
Saddle airer, 239 ; brackets, 240 ; prices of

patent, ib. ; method of drying. 238 ; girth.«,

320 ; iron saddle-horse, 239 ; remarks on, ih.
St. Piel's measurement of Eclipse, 83.
Sainfoin for soiling, 201,
Sale of horses, remarks on, 681.
Saliva, composition of the, 480.
Salivary glands, anatomy of, 480.
Sallenders, symptoms of, 585 ; treatment of, )7).
Salt as food, 263.
S.uul for bedding, 273.

Sandcrack, nature of, 600 ; treatment of, ih.
Saunterer. portrait of, 101.
Sawdust for bedding, 273.
Scaphoides, os, 380.
Scapula, the, 376.
Scaj.ula, profile view of, 376 ; treatment of

fracture of, 522.
Scapulo-humeral articulation, 377; view of, 409.
Schindylesis, 396.
Scripture, the horse of, 1.
Seat in riding, directions for, 326.
Secretion, physiology of, 478.
Sedatives, action of, 053.
Seedy toe, nature and treatment of, 008.
Selling of horses, remarks on, 681 .
Sensation, nerves of, supplied to the lips, 498.
Sesamoidea. ossa, 382.
Sesamoideal ligament, the long inferior, 416 ;

superior, ih. ; the short inferior ligament, ih.
Sctou needh s. description of, 629 ; view of, ib.
Setons, insertion of, 029 ; remarks on. ih.
Shetland pony, the, 129 ; portrait of the, ib.
Shire horse, the, 133.
Shoe, Eracy Clark's hinged, 664 ; Mr. Good-

u ill's improvement on the French, ih.;

nailing on of, 009 ; remarks on the hind, )7<. ;

the bar, 0(50 ; the common English, 658 ;

the concave-seated, 659 ; the French, 602 ;

the half-moon, CG5 ; the mode of fitting, 65 '> ;

the patten, 667 : the racing, or plate, 6('6 ;

the. recommended by Mr. Spooner, 660 ;

the tip, CG'^ ; Turner's unilateral, 004 ; view
of liind, 0(i5, 667 ; view of the bar, 066 :
view of the concave-seated, 659; view ot
the French, 662 ; view of the, used in hunt-
ing, 001.

Shoeing, leather sole used in, 667 ; pricks in,
010 ; remarks on, ih.

Shoes, list of varieties of, 657—672 ; modes of
roughing, (j~i'2,et seq. ; patent machine-made,
667 ; view of patent macliine-made, 668 ;
White's mode of roughing, 672.

Shouldering, the bad habit, 338.

Shoulder joint, the, 409 ; profile view of, ib.

Shoulder, obli(iue, of the horse, 11; remarks
on strain of. 528 ; symptoms of strain of,
ih. ; treatment for strain of, ih. ; upright, of
the horse, 11.

Shying, management of, 336.

Sidebone, nature of, 510 ; symptoms of, ib. ;
treatment of, ih.

Side-line, description and US2 of, 622.

Singeing, 281 ; lamp for, 282.

Sitfasts, treatment of, 580.

Size, increase of, iu horses, 86.

Skeleton, the. 348 ; chief divisions of the, t'.;
in general, the, 347 ; number of bones com-
posing the, 349 ; the artificial, 347 ; view of
the artificial, 348.

Skin, anatomy of the, 498 ; hairy appendages
of the, 499 ; papillte of the, 498 ; the organ
of touch, 498.

Skull, treatment of fracture of, 521.

Sleepy staggers, 558.

Smell, anatomy of the organ of, 496.

SnaflBe, the chain, 322 ; the double mouth-
pieced, ih. ; the doulde ring, ih. ; the double-
jointed, ih. ; the gag, 323 ; the uujoiuted,
77). ; the plain, 321 ; the twisted, j7'.

Soiling, clover for, 260 ; furze for, 261 ; gors3
for, ih. ; gi-een food for, 260 ; green oats
for, 261 ; lucerne for, ib. ; remarks on, .308 ;
rye-grass for, 261 ; sainfoin for, ib. ; tares
for, 260 ; vetches for, ih. ; whins for, 261.

Sole, anatomy of the, 502 ; the leather for
shoeiug, 667 ; treatment of bruise of, 618.

Sore-throat, 554.

Soundness, remarks on the law of, 681.

South American horse, the, 38.

Spanish horse, the, 50.

Spasm of the diaphragm, symptoms of, 551 ;
treatment of, ih.

Spavin, nature of bog, 524 ; nature of bone,
512 ; symptoms of bone, ih. ; treatment of
bone, 514 ; view of bone, 573.

Speeii of the Arab horse, 30.

Spinal column, bones composing the, 349.

Spiual cord, anatomy of the, 492 ; view of, ib.

Spine, iujurj- of the, cau^ing paralysis, 576.

Spleen, anatomy of the. 486 ; function of, ib.

Splint, definition of, 507 ; symptoms of, ib. ;
treatment of, 509 ; view of, 508.

Spurs, use of, iu riding, 329.

Stables, various kinds of, 216 — 238 ; access-
ories, prices of, 240 - 241 ; yellow
adamantine clinkers for floors of, 228 ; a
barrier bar for, 234 ; aspect of, 217 ; chaff-
cutters for, 223 ; clothing, 245 ; clothing,
prices of, 246 ; coachman, 245 ; concrete for
floors of, 228 ; best bricks for floors of, ib. ;
doors of, 223 ; drainage of, 224, et .fetf. ;
enamelled tiles for. 237 ; fittings, 232 ;
foundations of, 218 ; granary of,221 ; groom,
245 ; grooved bricks for, i28 ; ground plan

INDEX

699

of racing or hunting, 241 ; harness room
for, 238 ; hay-chamber of, 221 ; height of,
219 ; implements, 246 ; iron mangers of,
234, et seq. ; lighting of, 229 ; management
of, 245 ; management continued, 289 ;
mangers for, 234 ; materials for mangers
of, -ib. ; materials for floors, 228 ; materials
for racks of, 234 ; materials for walls of,
223 ; necessity of airing new, 243 ; oat-
liruisers for, 256 ; plan of, for tliree horses,
242 ; prices of iron mangers, 236 ; prices of
wooden mangers, ib. ; proper temperature
of, 289 ; concealed manger for crib-biters,
238 ; duties, recapitulation of, 289 ; remedy
for eating the litter, 294 ; remedy for kicking
Ihe wall, 291 ; remedy for tearing off the
clothes, 293 ; remedy for weaving, ib. ;
remedy for vices, 290 ; remedy for scratching
the ears, 292 ; servants' rooms, 243 ; situ-
ation of, 217 ; stalls versus loose boxes, 220 ;
superficial area of, 219 ; the helper, 245 ;
tlie travis, 233 ; ventilation of, 229 ; walls,
lining of, 238 ; water-pipes for, 229 ; water
supply of, ib. ; windows for, ib. ; wooden
mangers of, 236.

Staggers, mad, nature of, 573 ; mad, treatment
of, ib. ; stomach, nature of, 558 ; stomach,
symptoms of, ib. ; treatment of, 559.

Stalls versus loose boxes, 220 ; iron fittings for,
232.

Stallions, list of French, 59.

Standing, attitude assumed by horses in, 142.

Starting the horse in his various paces, modes
of, 329.

Steeplechaser, the thoroughbred, 110.

Stench traps, 227.

Sterno-costal articulations, view of, 403.

Sternum, the, 375 ; ligaments of, 403 ; proper
view of, ib.

Stifle, capsular ligament of, 422 ; crucial,
ligaments of, ib. ; semilunar fibro-cartilages
of, 421 ; lateral ligaments of, 422 ; posterior
ligament of, 423 ; synovial membrane of,
422 ; joint, the, ib. ; symptoms of strain of
the, 476 ; treatment of strain of the, 532.

Stimvdants, action of, 653 : recipes for, ib.

Stomach, anatomy of the, 480 ; arteries of the,
482 ; mucous membrane of the, ib. ; nei-ves
of, (7). ; veins of, ib. ; view of, ib. : staggers,
nature of, 558 ; symptoms of, ib. ; treatment
of, 559.

Stomachics, action of, 653 ; recipes for, ib.

Stoutness of horses in 1759, 87.

Strain, nature of, 527 ; of the back sinew^i,
sj-mptoras of, 530 ; treatment of, 531 ;
of the fetlock, remarks on, 529 ; of the
fetlock, treatment of the, ib. ; of the hip
joint, symptoms of, 470 ; of the hip joint,
treatment of, ib. ; of the liip joint, rarity of,
532 ; of the knee, 528 : symptoms of, 529 ;
of the knee, remarks on, ;7(. ; of the knee,
treatment of, (7;. ; of the shoulder, remarks
on, 528; of the shoulder, symptoms of, ib. ;
of the shoulder, treatment of, ib. ; of the
stifle-joint, symptoms of, 532 ; of the stifle-
joint, treatment ( f, i/i. ; of the suspen.sory
ligaments, remarks on, 529 ; of the sus-
pensory ligaments, 530 ; .symptoms of, ih. ;
of the suspensory ligaments, treatment of,
ib. ; symptoms of, in the back and loins, 527 ;
treatment of, in the back and loins, 528.

Strangles, symptoms of, 590 ; treatment of, ib.

Strangulation of the bowels, symptoms of, 562.

Straw-yard, the, 314.

Striughalt, nature of, 577.

Structure of bone, 344.

Stumbling, management of, 338.

Styptics, action of, 654 ; recipes for, ib.

Sublingual gland, anatomy of, 429.

Submaxillary gland, anatomy of the, 480.

Suffolk cart-horse, the, 134 ; portrait of the,
136.

Suffraginis, os, 383.

Summering, remarks on, 307.

Superior cervical vertebral joints, view of, 366.

Superpurgation, treatment of, 563.

Suprarenal capsule, the, 487.

Suspensory ligament, 417 ; remarks on strain
of the, 530 ; symptoms of strain of the,
529 ; treatment of strain of the, 530.

Sutura, 396.

Sweat, mode of giving the ordinary, 298.

Sweaters for the horse, 247.

Sweating, process and object of, 296.

Swedish horse, the, 66.

Swelled legs, treatment of, 587.

Symmetry, increase of, in horses, 86.

Sympathetic system of nerves, 495.

Synonyms of the horse, 7.

Synovia, 395.

Synovial membranes, 395 ; diseases of, 5r5.

Tail, the, 351 ; bones of the, 373.

Tan, for bedding, 273.

Tares, for soiling, 260.

Tarso-metatarsal articulation, 428.

Tarsus, the bones of, 389 ; lateral ligaments of
the, 425; interosseous ligament of the, ib.
view of, 425.

Tartar horse, the, 35.

Teeth, after nine years, 364; at nine year.s,
ib. ; at about the eighth year, ib. ; at the end
of the first year, 358 ; bishoping of, 362 ;
composition of, 356 ; development of the,
ib. ; during the second year, 358 ; during
the third year, ib. ; horseman's nomenclature
of, ib. ; irregularities in the growth of, 364 ;
lower nippers and tushes at five years, 362 ;
mouth at three years, 359 ; mouth at four
years, ib. ; mouth at five year?, 361 ; of the
very old horse, 364 ; shedding of, between
four and a half and five years, 360 ; the six-
year-old mouth, 363 ; view of the mouth at
four and a half years, 360 ; view of the three-
year-old mouth, 359 ; view of upper nippers
and tushes at fiveyeai-s, 361 ; upper nippers
in the eight-year-old horse, 364.

Temporo-maxillary articulation, 434.

Tendinous sheaths, inflammation of, 525;
sheaths, treatment of inflamed, ib.

Tendons, anatomy of, 429.

Tendons, disease of the, 523 ;

Tetanus, nature of, 575 ; symptoms of, ib. ;
treatment of, 576.

Thick wind, nature of, 546.

Thigh bone, the, 386.

Thoracic arch, 351.

Thoracic duct, 478.

Thoracic organs, 456 ; remarks on the diseases
of, 537.

Thorax, articulations of the, 401 ; bones of the,
373; boundaries of, 4f>6; contents of, ib.\
longitudinal section of the, 457 ; plan of,
ib.

Thorns in the leg of the hunter, treatment of,
306.

700

INDEX

Tliorouglibrcil, essentials in the, 97; Euglish
horse, the, 07 ; general liistory of the, ib. ;
huut r, the, llU ; origin of tlio. 7"; stout-
ui'S< of the Ainoricau, Tc' ; the Enghsh of
1750, CO; the stecplc-chasiT, 110; the
nioileru, 65 ; the Auierieaii, 47.

Tliorouyhpin, nature of, 521 ; treatment of, ih.

Thread wonns. 018.

Thrush, varieties of, 602 ; treatment of, 603.

Tliymus gland, anatomy of the, 473.

Thyroid body, ;.natinny of the, il>.

Thyroid cartihiges, anatomy of, 470.

Tibia, view of the, 338.

Tibio-fil)nlar articulition, 389 ; tarsal articula-
tion, ill.

Tiles, enamelled for stables, 237.

Times made by horses of tlie middle of the
last century, 90 ; of the best American horses
made in America and England. 91 ; of the
hors?, best modern English, 90.

Tip, til?, G'Jl ; needed for the fore-feet iu
turning out, 312.

Tissue, white fibrous, 393.

Tonics, action of, 0.34; recipes for, ih.

Toorkistan, the horse of, 3').

Tooth, section of incisor, 357.

Touch, anatomy of the organ of, 498; sense of,
necessary to the appreciation of form, il>.

Trachea, anatomy of, 471.

Training horses, Rarey's method of, 192.

Trapezoides, os, 380.

Traps, various kinds of stable, 2J7.

Travis, the, of stables, 233.

Trimming, 278.

Trooper, the, 117.

Trot, the, 147 ; action iu tlie true, il>. ; st irting
into a, 331.

Trotter, the American, 43 ; the fast, 11; the
Norfolk, 132.

Trotting horses, American, pedigrees of, 46 ;
American, fastest on record, 43.

Turkish bath, description of the, 266 : plan
of, 267.

Turki.sh horse, the, 301.

Turning out, marshes for, 31 1 ; meadow laud
f.r, 310; to grass, 309.

Twitch, the, 621.

Ulna, the, 379.

Unciforme, os, 381.

Unilateral shoe, 064.

U^mer^^ng, remarks ou, 634.

Unsoundness of the feet aud legs, marshes
useful iu, 311.

Upland hay as food, 2.j2.

Upland pasture, nature of, 310.

Upper arm bone, the, 377.

Ureter, the, 487.

Urinary calculi, 569.

Urine, retention of, 500 ; treatment of re-
tention of, iO.

Valve, the ilco-cajcal, 483.

Vein, inflammation of, aftjr bleeding, 627 ; the

axillary, 407 ; the plate, ib. ; the superficiaj
brachi:il, ib. ; the vertebral, ib. ; of the
stomach, 482 ; the pulmonary, 467 ; the
superficial, 400.

Vena-cava, anatomy of, 407 ; anterior, anatomy
of, if). ; posterior, anatomy of, ib.

Venous blood, action of air ou, 468.

\'entilating shaft, 231 ; windows, 232.

Ventilation of stables, 229.

Vermifuges, action of, 054.

Vermont cart-horse, the, 53.

Vertebra atlas, 307.

'\''ertebra deutata, anterior view of, 368; pos-
terior view of, 309.

Vertebraj, l)od}- of, 365; cervical, 306; coccy-
geal, 373 ; general character of, 305 ; general
character of dorsal, 309 ; general character
of the lumbar, 371 ; general movements of
the, 401 ; peculiarities of certain cervical^
307 ; peculiarities of the dorsal, 370; peculi-
arities of tlie lumbar, 371 ; profile riew of
the cervical, 300.

Vert'bral colnnm, articulations of the, 397;
ligament, inferior, ib. ; ligament, superior,

Vetches for soiling, 260.

Vices, out-door, 330; treatment of, i'i. ; .shying,
ib. ; "rearing, 337 ; kicking, ib. ; lying down,
ib.: plunging, ib.; running away, 333;
stumbling, (7*.

Viscera, muscular coat of the hollow, 477.

Walk, action of the, 145 ; mode of starting the

horse iuto, 329.
Walking, rate of, 329.
Walls, stable, to be lined, 238.
Warts, removal of, 588.
Water, remarks on, 204 ; proper quantity of,

265 ; proper temperature of, 264 ; supply of,

for stables, 229.
Waterpipes for stables, 229.
AVeaving, remedy for, 293.
Weight, distribution of, in horses, 141.
Welsh pony, the. 126.
Western hemisphore. horses of the, 38.
\Vheat as food for the horse, 253.
Wheat straw for bedding, 271.
Wheezing, nature of, 540.
Whins for soiling, 201.
Whistling, nature of, 546.
Wild horse of America, Mr. Herbert's account

of the, 39 ; of North America, ib.
Wild Tartar horse, the, 3-J.
Windgalls. ti'catment of, 526.
Windows for stables, 229.
Winter's run, 313.
Withers, nature of fistula of, 517; symptoms

of fistula of, /7). ; treatment of fistula of, 518.
Work, preparation for, 294 ; treatment of the

horse after, 305.
Worms, intestinal, 018 ; symptoms of intestin-
al, ib. ; treatment of intestinal, ib.
Worm medicines, action of, 651.
Wounds of joints, 533.

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