meni —— ——— = —— _ — —— eS ——e — —_— % S Ss AS) 2 & S S NS AY LIBRARY Of the UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO OF THE LATE e A A ue PH ZS y ¥ j >, y Ws J i, y EG Mi sin beed~ ie Ye | (Lenk Was a Lk | ek je Epes: HORSES AND STABLES. BY LIEUT.-GENERAL SIR F. FITZWYGRAM, BART. WITH ILLUSTRATIONS. Fifth Edition. - LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO. 39 PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON NEW YORK AND BOMBAY 1901, [All Rights are reserved. Adlarii & Son, Printers, London and Dorking. PREFACE TO FIFTH EDITION. Tue Author desires to acknowledge with very warm thanks the valuable assistance which he has received from V. Colonel J. Drummond-Lambert, C.B., Late Director-General Army Veterinary Department, in bringing this Edition up to date. The principal changes in the present (5th) Hdition are In Chapter J, on Ventilation, the Air-brick wnder manger is struck out; it is retained over the manger, page 7. ‘The other means of: ventilation remain as before. Par. 18b, Moss Litter. Chapter 24, Influenza : Some considerable change has been made in treatment. Chapter 29, Glanders and Farcy. Do. do. Chapter 50, Grease and Cracked Heel. Do. do. Par. 633, Side bones, not caused by calkins. Par. 876, Aging of Horses: When some teeth show more wear than others, the age is generally gauged by the younger looking teeth. Par. 931, Dishing: A “dishing” horse usually stands with his Toes turned a. To counteract this, he should be shod, so that during progress he will carry them straight. ‘l’o this end he should be shod with a shoe quarter of an inch wider than the Crust on the outer quarter; but the shoe on the inside should be made about quarter of an inch narrower than the Crust ; and the Crust must be rasped down to fit the shoe. The Clip of the shoe must not be placed in the centre of the front, but about three-quarters of an inch towards the outer side. Par. 1021, Navicular disease, cause of. With reference to Mr. Blunt’s very interesting letter in the Postscript: Indian experience, I believe, thoroughly supplements his experience. The Arab of the Desert, though thorough-bred on both sides, is not reproduced on either side of the Persian Gulf. The progeny grows 15 to 16 hands high, but loses all the best qualities of the Arab. I had a hope that first-class Arabs brought to this country and kept on dry soil and fed on hard food might have blessed Mr. Blunt’s patriotic endeavour to produce the true Arab of greater stature. But it has not been so, and I am sorry for it. BF. W. FITAZWYGRAM. LIST OF PLATES. PAGE PLANS OF STABLES ‘ih PAVING. ; : : ae ae! WINDOW, TO DROP BACK : | GRASSES 3 “4 HERBAGE : : : - . 48 WEEDS. ; $ : ‘ ] Hock, BoNES OF : . : Hock, CONFORMATION OF : : Forer-LEG, BONES OF : 4 ; FORE-LEG, CROOKED : ; ; ForE-LEG, TENDONS AND LIGAMENTS OF . Hock-JoINntT, LIGAMENTS OF : Knexz, Fronr VIEW OF BONES OF Orr. EYE, THE , : ; : TEETH, THE : ; . atthe end SKELETON : : : CoNFORMATION OF VARIOUS POINTS , Foot, THE : SHOES, FoRE AND HIND . : TIPS : ‘ TURNED-UP FORE-SHOES . : Hinb SHOES FOR OVER-REACH : LAMINITIS . SON TERN © S. | ae cl ea CHAPTER 1.—VENTILATION AND CONSTRUCTION OF STABLES woe CHAPTER 2.—IMPROVEMENT OF STABLES OF FAULTY CoNsSTRUC- TIOR, .... es re vf i ieee Ok CHAPTER 3.—StTaBLeE FIrrinas kis ia mac Sk CHAPTER 4.—WATERING AND FEEDING ee “es ee ae) CHAPTER 5.—Forace ... - ve “9 ss ue ee CHAPTER 6.—GRoOOMING ma Ae aus _ neh USE CHAPTER 7.—SHOEING... ee a es as ores ei . CHAPTER 8.— EXERCISE fe ve = a re i CHAPTER 9.—STasLe MANAGEMENT _.... ee ee gts sole Pana Sb, CHAPTER 10.—BtLoop, ARTERIES, AND VEINS ... x. ce 04 CHAPTER 11.—PuLsz ... ba a3 Ue ia ae LOS CHAPTER 12.—ABSORBENTS ... a Be ss see, ele CHAPTER 13.—SrructurE anp Uses oF Various MEMBRANES AND TISSUES ... - tA sd eS bee CHAPTER 14.—NERvous System ot oe i akee CHAPTER 15.—Goop Nvrs1ne... sé Seat Se root 26 CHAPTER 16.—InFEcTION AND CONTAGION joie weet a koe CHAPTER 17.—ActTION AND USES OF MEDICINES Ht pee i) al CONTENTS. PAGE CHAPTER 18.—INFLAMMATION ... ae ae Fos re 162 CHAPTER 19.—Or INFLAMMATION, ARTIFICIALLY INDUCED, AS A CURATIVE AGENT ae ue on oe Le: CHAPTER 20.—ABSCESSES = sa ae a: ... 192 CHAPTER 21.—ULCERATION AND SLOUGHING .... ma PLOW. PAR Ee PeE CHAPTER 22.—AcutTe DISEASES OF THE ORGANS OF RESPIRA- TION ... ew Sy a ce ee AD CHAPTER 23—CuHRonNIc DISEASES OF THE ORGANS OF RESPIRA- TION ss. des sais 26 nag we 224 CHAPTER 24.—INFLUENZA wi iz ie Pie .. 232 CHAPTER 25.—Nasau GLEET ... Bt wy svi ... 242 CHAPTER 26.—STRANGLES ore re Ad sa we. 244 CHAPTER 27.—RHEUMATISM ... me at x6 ». 249 CHAPTER 28.—DropsicaL SWELLINGS ... im Pr . 202 CHAPTER 29.—GLANDERS AND FARCY... a tee ... 200 P Ale Es eae CHAPTER 30.—CoLic anp INFLAMMATION OF THE INTESTINES... 262 CHAPTER 31.—Map Aanpb SLEEPY STAGGERS ... wee woo ee. CHAPTER 32.—MEGRIMS OR VERTIGO ... ee ee » oS ene CHAPTER 33.—TEtTanus or LocKJAW ... ie me sos NS CHAPTER 35a.—PARALYSIS ... oH ae Seep wo, ‘209 CHAPTER 34.—STRINGHALT ... x an ES. .. 283 Pein ive CHAPTER 344.—REPAIR OF INJURIES TO VITAL STRUCTURE... 284 CHAPTER 35.—DISEASES OF BONES sn ~*~ iB, Per sete) CONTENTS. CHAPTER 36.—FrRactuRES OF BONES . CHAPTER 37.—CoNFORMATION OF THE Hock CHAPTER 38.—Spaviw... CHAPTER 39.—Sp.iint... CHAPTER 40.—Sore Suns, RING-BONE, AND OSSIFIED CARTI- LAGES... PART VT. CHAPTER 41.—BursaL ENLARGEMENTS CHAPTER 42.—DETEcCTION OF THE SEAT AND CaUSsE OF LAME- NESS ... CHAPTER 43.—Symetoms oF VARIOUS DISEASES AFFECTING THE FEET ... CHAPTER 44.—Sprains oF TENDONS AND LIGAMENTS OF THE FORE-LEG CHAPTER 45.—Sprains or TENDONS AND LIGAMENTS OF THE Hinp Lee CHAPTER 46.—Po.ut Evin anp FistuLous WITHERS CHAPTER 47.—OpeEN Joint CHAPTER 48.—FLEsH WouNDS CHAPTER 49.—WaARBLES OR SLIGHT TUMOURS AND SITFASTS FART VLE CHAPTER 50.—GREASE AND CRACKED HEELs ... CHAPTER 51.—Mance... CHAPTER 52.—RinGcworM CHAPTER 53.—Wakrvts... CHAPTER 54.—Bors anp Worms 324 331 vill CONTENTS. PAR SAW ee CHAPTER 55.—DIsEASES OF THE KIDNEYS AND BLADDER Ee aes CHAPTER 56.—THE LIVER ee haz BS i: peel CHAPTER 57.—DIskASES OF THE EYE ... te oa: 4700 PAR xe CHAPTER 58.—AGE, AS INDICATED BY THE TEETH = . 416 CHAPTER 59.—LAMPAS Sih Fer aa at .. 426 CHAPTER 60.—CoNFORMATION... a at am .. 428 a Hints ON PuRCHASE OF HORSES Ace wa 456 CHAPTER 61.—THE Law OF WARRANTY neh a. .. 458 PARK, xX CHAPTER 62.—PRINCIPLES OF SHOEING eos disie OR ae 0c 08 ce A ' ' i} ' 1 ~ ‘S) S ' ' ' ' ‘NVIg aNoouyj— “T “ATAVIS ANIT WTIONIS PLATE 6. Pran M SECTIONS TO ILLUSTRATE RIDGE VENTILATION BY MEANS OF LOUVRES. FIG-N?2. FIG .N°S ScaLE 4 Fert To One Incu. PLATE 7. PAVING BRICKS. Fig. 1. Fig. 2. Fig. I. g Cross-cut objected to. Enlarged Plan. Paving Recommended. (See Para: 10.) avd core Fall L"to each Stall rounder Big, 2: ; Section of Brick Fig. 3. PLAN OF STALL WITH CONCRETE PAVING. —= —= — S——S = a : “a > = / ff / / / / y) / // y, ff y/ ff j / ; N We \ \ ON | y/ ale T 111 OO Fig. 4. PLAN OF 4 STALL STABLE WITH CONCRETE PAVING AND CHANNELS. PLATE 8, ~ a = es SS ~ STABLE LATCH. HORSES AND STABLES. CHAPTER 1. VENTILATICN AND CONSTRUCTION OF STABLES. 1. Importance of pure air. 2. Circulation of the blood. 3. Effect of breath on air. 4. Composition of the air. 5. Cireulation of the air. 6. Natural facilities for ventilation. 7. Escape of foul air. 8. How the place of foul airis supplied. 9. Amount of cubical space required by horses in stables. 11. Faulty plans of construction in stables. 12. True prin- ciples of construction. 13. Louvre boards. 14. Plans of ceiling. 15. Ventilation of stables with rooms over them. 16. Paving. 16a. Drains and paving. 16b. Litter sheds. 17. Floor of the stable to be higher than the ground outside. 18. Drainage. 18a. Underground drains. 18b. Health without drains. 19. Slope of stalls. 20. Site of stables. 21. Aspect. 22. Walls and foundation. 23. Light. 24. Fireplaces. 25. Dimensions and cost. 26. Cheaper construction. 27. Loose bozes. 27a. Ventilation and draughts. Loose bores and stalls. 27b. Constant attention needed to ventilation. 28. Argument against the need of ventila- tion. 29. Conclusion. 1. Importance of pure Avr. Pure air is as important to the integrity of the blood as wholesome food to the maintenance of the body. The importance of pure air can hardly be adequately appreciated without some knowledge of the course of the circulation of the blood and also of the composition of the air. It is not, however, intended, either in this or any succeeding chapter to enter into any minute descriptions of structures or processes ; but an endeavour will be made to give concisely, and it is hoped sufficiently, broad principles and facts which may enable the non-professional reader to understand the subject referred to. 2. Circulation of the Blood. By each contraction or beat of the heart bright scarlet highly vital- ized blood fresh from the lungs is forced through the arteries to all parts of the body. The arteries dividing and subdividing become smaller and 1 2 CHAPTER 1. smaller, and ultimately terminate in very minute hair-like tubes, called capillary vessels or capillaries. These vessels abound in every vascular structure, and from them each structure absorbs those special nutrient particles which are required for its growth or repair. In the capillaries the arterial or outward-bound system of the circulation ends. In these same capillaries the venous or return circulation commences. Into them also are returned the waste and used-up products of the system. Reversing the previous order the capillary veins now enlarge and coalesce and carry back to the heart dark, purple venous blood, charged with the waste matters of the tissues, and among these with carbonic acid gas. The impure blood thus brought back by the veins is carried to the right side of the heart, and thence at each contraction or beat of that organ is forced into the lungs. The lungs contain an infinite number of cells, which through the bronchize and windpipe communicate with the outer air. On the outside of these cells the blood-vessels are spread. The blood thus exposed to the air takes up from it a portion of its oxygen, and gives off the carbonic acid gas and various volatile organic matters which have accumulated in it, as described above. Thus freed from impurity, and containing more oxygen, the blood again becomes bright scarlet and adapted for “the nutrition of the body ; and in this state it is returned to the left side of the heart for renewed circulation through the frame. From birth to death this process is always going on. 3. Effect of breath on the air. The impurities of the blood are thus transferred to the air. Air, therefore, which has been much breathed in contains too little oxygen and too much carbonic acid gas, and is besides loaded with the organic impurities given off by the lungs and also by the skin. Hence it is obvious that the condition of the blood and the health of the animal depend very much on the purity of the air supplied to the lungs. 4. Composition of the air. Pure air consists of about four-fifths of nitrogen and one-fifth of oxygen with small proportions of carbonic acid gas, aqueous vapour, ammonia, ozone, and other constituents. For the purpose of purifying blood, oxygen is the chief useful part of air. Nitrogen adds largely to its volume and dilutes the oxygen, which would otherwise be much too active. Any excess of carbonic acid gas is unwholesome, and an addition of ‘5 per cent. is sufficient to render air irrespirable. 5. Circulation of the air. Nature undisturbed takes her own means, into which it is not necessary here to enter, of restoring the purity of the air, or, in other VENTILATION AND CONSTRUCTION OF STABLES. 5) words, of maintaining in their due proportion the proper constituents of the air. But in a closed room or stable there are no means by which she can carry on her restorative processes. Hence the need of ventilation. It is absolutely necessary to maintain or restore the proper constituents of the air, if we wish for health for ourselves or our horses. 6. Natural facilities for ventilation. Fortunately the peculiar properties, or rather the state of the gases which respectively constitute foul and pure air, afford great facilities for ventilation. Heat causes all matters to expand, some more and some less ; but gases under the influence of heat expand very rapidly, and to a very great degree ; and as they expand, they of course become lighter. As a general rule, foul air in a stable is also heated air. It is only necessary to breathe on the hand to feel that our breath is generally warmer than the air. And besides the breath a certain amount of heat is given off from the bodies of all living animals. Carbonic acid gas, though at equal temperatures heavier, is nevertheless, when heated, as it is when first given off from the lungs, lighter than pure air. 7. Escape of foul air. The lightness of heated foul air at once affords the key for getting rid of it. It is only necessary to provide the means of exit in the highest part of the stable, and it will escape by its own inherent lightness. In fact we may get quit of it without any trouble. But, on the other hand, supposing that the foul air has no means of escape, what becomes of it? It has risen to the top of the stable, because being heated it is lighter than the surrounding air. It will escape if it can, but if we deny it the opportunity of doing so, it must remain in the stable. It then gradually cools, and as it cools descends and becomes mingled with the air of the stable, and is in due course again presented to the nostrils to be breathed. Although we cannot see this movement of foul air in a room or stable, it may easily be shown by experiments with coloured gases. 8. How the place of the foul air is supplied. But supposing the foul air to have an exit above, how is its place, how is the vacancy caused by its escape, to be supplied by fresh air? If there are no apertures except those above, it is clear that by the continued ascent and escape of heated foul air a tendency to a vacuum will be created in the stable. It is well known that the pressure of the atmosphere is equal to 14 lbs. per square inch. When, then, even a tendency to a vacuum has been created, the pressure of the air on the outside is sufficient to overcome the upward current of heated air; and cold, fresh air will rush in at intervals to supply the vacancy. When the vacancy is supplied, the upward current and escape of heated air will be resumed until another tendency to a vacuum is created, when a similar 4, CHAPTER 1, indraught will occur again. Hence the unpleasant sensation of cold draughts coming down suddenly on the head, so often complained of in rooms ventilated only from above. To provide against any such sudden change in the direction of the current it is necessary to admit by another and lower series of apertures a certain proportion of the fresh air required. It is not necessary that the lower apertures should be large enough to admit a volume of air equal to that which is escaping above, because, if the upper apertures are properly constructed, a considerable proportion of air will be constantly and regularly—not in sudden draughts—entering on the windward side, whilst the foul air escapes on the leeward side. In addition to which a certain amount of air comes in through the windows and under the doors, even though closed. There is, however, confessedly great difficulty in arranging apertures for the admission of fresh air without causing an unpleasant draught in some portion of the room or stable. In this lies the more difficult and more neglected part of ventilation. No one hkes the sensation of a cold draught on their own persons, and horses also appear to dislike it almost as much as human beings. It is well, however, to remember that horses, in this respect, unlike men, rarely suffer in health from cold, unless they are heated at the time, and excepting also those doing very fast work, the pores of whose skins are consequently very open. Their food, however, goes less far, their coats become less sleek, and the highest development of condition cannot be attained when the animals are subjected to such discomforts. 9. Amount of cubical space required by horses in stables. It has not yet been ascertained how much, or rather what is the minimum quantity of fresh air required by horses in stables. In a state of nature the horse, we know, enjoys perfect freedom of air and exercise. He is, moreover, constantly exposed to all the vicissitudes of weather and climate, for he does not, like many other animals, make cover or shelter for himself. A “mare’s nest” has become a proverb. > We may, therefore, assume that in the domesticated state he ought to have an abundant supply of fresh air, with regular exercise ; and further, that he is not likely to suffer from any moderate amount of cold, although no doubt the increased action of the pores of the skin, which results from fast work and grooming, creates an increased degree of susceptibility in these respects. Unfortunately we have but few statistics to guide us as to the quantity of air required by horses in stables. Some approximate idea may, how- ever, perhaps be gathered from a comparison with that required for human beings. The Army Sanitary Commission, after much investigation, have recommended that a minimum space of 600 cubic feet should be allowed for each soldier in a barrack room. Now, assuming that the capacity of the lungs of a horse is six times greater than that of a man, we might — VENTILATION AND CONSTRUCTION OF STABLES. 5) argue that six times greater space, or 3000 cubic feet, would be required for each horse in a stable. Various circumstances, however, modify this calculation. The horse is not fed on animal food, and therefore the emanations given off from his body are less noxious than those proceeding from human beings ; and, again, as he is far less susceptible of injury from draught or cold than man, it is possible to give to stables a greater degree of ventilation than would be tolerable in a room; and lastly, and chiefly, the horse cannot, as men too often do, close the means of ventilation. Arguing from the experience gained in barrack stables and elsewhere, the author believes that with the concomitants of good ventilation, good drainage and paving, light and cleanliness, 1200 cubic feet, with a ground area of about 87 feet per horse, are sufficient for the maintenance of health. But no amount of cubical space, however great, will secure pure air, unless the plan of the construction of the stable and the venti- lation is good. See pars. 11 and 12. But, in regard to cab-horse stables, it must be remembered that the horses stand in the open nearly half of the twenty-four hours. As a general rule, cab stables are very well ventilated, clean, and well drained. Cab owners have learned by experience to be excessively particular about ventilation, cleanliness, and drainage. In many cab stables which the author has visited the windows have been wholly removed, and the doors are left wide open all night. Of late years there has been a very great and general improvement in the health, condition, and management of cab horses. In the first edition of this book, the author expressed his opinion that the average duration of the London cab horse, from one cause and another, or probably from many causes combined, did not exceed two and a half years. He is glad to be able to say, from recent observations, that the present average duration is from 34 to 4 years. 11. Faulty plans of construction in stables. Many stables from their construction are difficult to ventilate properly. In some the construction is such that proper ventilation is impossible. In others ventilation is easy enough, but at the expense of an objection- able degree of draught on the horses. Lastly, be the construction what it may, insufficient cubical space necessitates an amount of fresh air passing through the stable in order to keep it sweet, which must make it cold and draughty. The six plans annexed will serve to explain our meaning as to faults of construction. Plan A is an eight-stall stable of very frequent construction. It has a door and two windows in front. If the windows are large enough, and if the paving and drainage are good and the cubical space sufficient, the construction is not very bad; but it is open to the objection, that it gives no thorough ventilation, and consequently there is no sufficient circulation of air through the stable. The windows and doors are all on 6 CHAPTER 1. one side, namely on that furthest from the horses’ nostrils. The air enters behind the horses and passes through the stable, and picks up whatever foul emanations may have arisen from the bedding, urine, &c., before it is presented to the nostrils to be breathed. Again, the horse stands in the portion of the stable in which the air is most stagnant. We shall make suggestions hereafter for the improvement of these and other stables of defective construction. Plan B represents a four-stall stable of a construction very common in London. It has only one door and one window at one end. ‘There is no thorough ventilation. The horse nearest to the window may get some pure air, the second must get less, and the evil increases with each suc- ceeding horse. It is impossible to have pure air in a stable of this construction. It is radically bad. Plan C. The mischief is of course immensely augmented when this plan of construction is applied to a six- or eight-stall stable. In London of late years the evil of this plan has been greatly dimin- ished by making the skylight at the end, if there is one, to open. Plan D represents an eight-stall stable having a door and window at each end, with the horses standing in a single row or line. Plan E represents a stable of similar construction with sixteen stalls, the horses standing in two lines with a passage between them. This was until recent years the ordinary barrack construction. Both these stables have the great advantage of thorough ventilation. They can therefore be kept pretty sweet, but not without a sensible amount of draught. It is obvious, however, that only the horses next to the windows obtain really pure air. All the rest must imbibe air tainted by the breath of the horses nearer the windows, and by the other emanations of the stable. The evil necessarily increases as the centre of the stable is approached. Plan F is a double-line stable of similar construction to E, but with 26 horses on each side—7.e. 52 in all. If there is a window on each side over each horse the stable will be healthy ; or if other buildings inter- fere with windows, louvre boards running the length of the stable may be substituted. 12. True principles of construction. From the peculiar properties of heated air, as explained in the early part of this chapter, there need be but little difficulty in getting rid of it. The best means of doing so will be detailed hereafter. The real difficulty lies in providing for the admission of fresh air in quantities sufficient to maintain the purity of the stable without causing in some part or other a sensible and inconvenient draught. This diffi- culty, however, or, in other words, the need of draught, decreases in proportion as the air has a less distance to travel before it is presented to the nostrils of the horse. With this view it is essential, as a primary rule, that no more than two horses should be placed between the opposite sources of air. Plan G. VENTILATION AND CONSTRUCTION OF STABLES, 7 fA In_all the windows should be placed on both sides along the length of the stable. It is then immaterial, as regards ventilation, how | many horses the stable is constructed to hold. The air has no greater _ distance to travel than the breadth of the building. There should be “a window over the head of each horse two feet six inches in width and three feet in height. Details as to the best construction of windows and the means of obviating unpleasant draught from them when open will be found under the head of Stable Fittings, in Chapter III. In the plan marked H the sills of the windows are placed eight feet above the floor. x” In single-line s stables there should be a row of air-bricks in the front — wall about 14 inches above the , and a similar row in the back wall above the wi - For pattern of air-brick see-Platée 8. a "— By mmeans of the air-bricks there will be a gentle and scarcely per- ceptible stream of air, permeating the stables, and passing out through “the upper apertures. 3) In double-line stables with drop-back windows on both sides, the main- __ tenance of pure air is not difficult. Windows, however, may require to _ be . closed, and therefore it is desirable to have a row of air-bricks on each _ side “above the windows. The lower ventilation will be best secured by be considerable, but at no one point will it be so great as to create a Sensible and unpleasant draught. It will be gradually, gently, and con- pees tare through the whole stable. Sh, Traverse openings are objectionable. They are very apt to get oked, and it is very difficult to clear them out. : li ie reader will now kindly turn back to plans A, B, C, D, E, and F, he will readily perceive the points in which those constructions are respectively defective. Plans G, H, I, and K, show various views of a sixteen-stall stable of the description which the author would recommend. Though the plans are drawn for a sixteen-stall stable, yet the same «construction is equally available and suitable for a less or greater number of horses. Plan L shows a single-line stable for five horses on similar principles, except that there is only one horse instead of two between the opposite sources of air. 13. Lowvre boards. For ready means of affording exit for foul air no construction offers so great facilities as an open roof with louvre boards at its ridge running the whole length of the stable. In double-line stables the depth of the louvre should be sixteen inches (plan H), which will afford a ventilating outlet of about four feet of each horse. In stables in which the horses stand in a single line or row the depth of the louvre may be reduced one half. For reasons almost similar to those which have been urged in regard to the admission of fresh air, it is very essential that the foul air ~ 8 CHAPTER 1. ¥ should have an exit along the whole length of the stable instead of mer rely by holes, pipes, or Tunnels in one, or two or three places. “Louvre boards are often objected to on account of their_admitting “rain, wind, and snow. When they admit rain, or an excessive ammount - wind, the fault lies in the architect or carpenter. If each board is m wide enough to overlap well the board below, and if the pitch iss cull “ciently steep, no serious inconvenience will be felt. The different constructions of louvres shown in plan M will, perhaps, explain our meaning. A louvre constructed as represented in fig. 1 will no doubt admit rain, wind, and snow. Fig. 2 will be pretty safe. Fig. 3 will be quite secure against all but snow, which will find its way into every place which is not perfectly closed. The intervals between each board should be three inches, and the breadth of the boards themselves _ “should be nine inches. The pitch of the boards should form an angle of | ys sixty degrees. In some very exposed situations broader boards aad a a greater mitch may be required. For reasons connected with good light in the stable, it will hereafter (under the head of Windows and skylights) be recommended that the “boards” be made of thick, rough 3-inch glass. 7 »© The pitch of the roof should be somewhat steep. In plan H the height of the roof is one half its span. Mer 13a. For cart and other horses doing slow work a raised tile along the apex of the roof is a pretty good and very cheap substitute for louvre boards. 14. Plans of ceiling. “ Open roofs, notwithstanding the great facilities they afford for ventila- tion, are often objected a because the absence of ceiling generally implied i in the term “open” roof, is apt to render the stable unduly hot in summer and unduly cold in winter, and especially at night. _ This objection, and it is me eae. a very serious objection, may be obviated without losing any of the real advantages of an open r oy ‘putting a ceiling on the roof, but at a distance of twelve inches from it. _ The current of air between the slates and the ceiling will keep the stable cool in summer, whilst the distance between the ceiling and the slates will prevent the cold from striking through in winter or at night. ~This is a curious, but practical fact. Some little extra expense will be incurred by placing the ceiling at this distance from the roof, because the depth of the subsidiary rafters usually employed is not above five inches. There is, however, no great difficulty or expense, because the ceiling may be attached to the prin- cipal rafters. The detail of the plan of ceiling is shown in Plan I along the lines marked 4 B andc pv. It will be observed that the space near the apex of the roof immediately under the louvre boards, shown in the plan by the open lines from B to c, is not ceiled, so that there ‘may_be no interference with the outlet of the foul air. VENTILATION AND CONSTRUCTION OF STABLES. 9 y Or the stable may be ceiled in the ordinary manner with the exception of an_ of-a-yard wide in the middle along the whole length of — the stable (Plan K). The plan of ceiling is marked F E and =F, the portion between E and £ being omitted & Though the cubic contents of the stable are much reduced by this plan, yet the “horses will derive a considerable amount of advantage from the air circulating between the ceiling and the roof. With ceilings on either of the above plans, there is no reason why the louvre boards should not be made fixtures, even in stables intended for horses doing very fast work, such as hunting or racing. But if the owner likes to go to the expense, and can trust the discretion of his servants, there is no mechanical difficulty in making the louvre boards to open and shut. Either side may then be closed or left open according to the wind and other circumstances. But, for the ordinary class of horse in ordinary work fixed louvres are to be preferred in most situations. Where, however, stables are built in very exposed or bleak situations, or where there is a strong prevailing wind, it may be neces- aay to board up one side of the louvre ridge. ™ Ceilings, such as those proposed, are unquestionably advantageous for all horses, and their adoption or otherwise is simply a question of expense. The increaséd cost per horse in building a stable will be about £5. 15. Ventilation of stables with rooms over them. The foregoing suggestions for louvre ventilation have been made on the supposition that there are no rooms or lofts over the stables. If it ‘is desired to have rooms or lofts over the stable, as is generally the case in towns where the ground is valuable, the means of egress for foul air, though it need not be bad, yet must necessarily be inferior to that described above. Air-shaits lined with zinc and running through the roof into the external air are the best substitutes for louvre ventilation. The open- ings into the air will require to be protected by a cowl at the top, and a _ board should be placed about six inches below the bottom of the air-shaft with the view of breaking up and diffusing any occasional downcast draught. There should be one shaft of twenty-four inches in diameter for every two horses. It is scarcely of much use to make any recommendations as to the position of the air-shafts in a stable, where there are rooms above, because they must necessarily be fixed with reference to the convenience of the inmates of those rooms. If there are only lofts, the shafts may be placed on both sides ; or one set of shafts of double size may be placed along the centre. A board should be placed about six inches below the bottom of each air-shaft with the view of breaking and diffusing any occasional downcast current. In other respects the addition of rooms or lofts over the stable need not occasion any alteration in the construction recommended in Plans G, H, and L. 10 CHAPTER 1. Neither lofts nor rooms should communicate directly with the stable. If a loft used for storing hay or corn communicates with the stable, the food will become tainted with the emanations rising from below, and the health of the animals will suffer. If rooms communicate with the stable, the health of the inmates, especially children, will suffer. 16. Paving. ~y- The material required for really good paving must be non-absorbent, watertight, easily cleaned, durable, and not slippery. It is not, how- ever, easy to find a material which combines all these requirements. ~Most materials, in proportion as they answer the first-named require- ments, fail in the last. i as Granite cubes, 6 inches deep are by far the most durable. The first cost, however, is great, and they have the disadvantage of be- coming slippery after a time, but at some little expense they can be re- roughened by the chisel. As the substance of the stone is homogeneous throughout they will stand re-cutting without injury. The cavalry stables at Aldershot, which were laid down with granite cubes nearly 40 years ago, are still in use. Hard-burnt bricks, known by various names in different localities (blue, iron, vitrified, adamantine, clinkers, &c.), are also much used, and are much cheaper than granite. The best come from Staffordshire. They are very good at first, but it is impossible to bake the brick equally hard throughout ; and hence, when the outer face is chipped or other- wise worn through, this sort of paving very rapidly wears into holes. With the view of diminishing their slipperiness, it is the custom to indent the bricks with transverse as well as longitudinal channels. But this practice is most objectionable because the transverse channels cannot be swept out thoroughly, and consequently they retain a portion of the urine and débris of the dung and bedding. Stalls paved with transverse cut bricks are seldom, if ever, sweet. (Fig. No. 1.) ~ 16a. Drains and Paving. If granite cubes are used, the drainage is almost necessarily confined to one drain down the centre of each stall. This is a disadvantage. If bricks are used, the best results will be gained (in the Author’s opinion) by longitudinal drains, one drain in each brick. See Plate 7. Fach channel should be 1} inches wide, and 3 of an inch deep. This paving will give sufficient foothold, as the channels are crossways to the horse when he turns round. These longitudinal channels have the advantage that they can be swept perfectly clean without extra trouble to the servant, and they also afford drainage to every portion of the stall. It will be observed that the channel is formed in the centre of the surface of the brick. The channel must be V-shaped. If round at the bottom the urine will not drain off. VENTILATION AND CONSTRUCTION OF STABLES. eh Great care should be taken to get bricks of the very best quality. The best bricks at a somewhat higher price are cheaper in the end than an inferior article at a lower price. In order to prevent the percolation of urine through the interstices of the stones or bricks into the-ground below, itis essential that all paving should be laid in cement. ~~ Of late years various kinds of Concretes and Cements have been tried for paving. They, as long as they remain perfect, have the great advan- tage that no urine can percolate through and foul the ground underneath. This a ge is So-great-and-so essential to health, that the author has no hesitation in recommending them. ~ Tn all paving, whatever be the material used, the work must be very careiully executed under close supervision by an architect or competent foreman, or the result will be failure. The cost of making the substructure cannot be stated with any accu- racy, as it will vary very widely according to the cost of the necessary material in the neighbourhood. Care must be taken to get the materials from a thoroughly trust- worthy firm. # All paving requires to be laid on a substantial bed of concrete 6 inches _ thigk- and Phe conerete-itselt should rest~on a bed of broken stones 12 inches deep. No paving will long stand the great moving weight of horses unless it has a sound unyielding substructure. No paving, whatever the material employed, will be really sweet and isanless tis whole of the bedding is removed from the stable at the morning stable hour and turned outside. The paving must then be “swept thoroughly clean and left to the drying and purifying influence of the air until the horses are dressed after their return from the morning Texercise, when they may be bedded“down again. ~~ Everydoor and wittdow in the stable should be set open whilst the horses are at exercise. 16b. Litter sheds. ; YA shed should be provided for the protection of the litter in wet weather. This shed should be apart-from, though near, the stable. If placed against the stable wall the fumes arising from the litter will enter the stable through windows. Again, though this may by care be avoided, the litter generally blocks up the lower ventilating apertures. otn fine weather the litter should be spread out in the open, when it will, if turned over twice during the morning, get thoroughly aired and _Sried, 7 ‘7 : 79. Floor of the stable to be higher than the ground outside. The floor of a new stable should be made eight inches higher than f ground outside. We name this considerable elevation, partly be- cause it facilitates natural and surface drainage, and in some degree a ee 12 CHAPTER 1. secures the stable from damp, partly on account of the tendency of new oors to sink, and still more on account of the probability of the soil outside becoming higher from constant gravelling or repairs. It is a fact easily to be observed that the floors of most old stables are lower than the ground outside, though it is improbable that such was the original construction. A pavement about 16 feet wide along the front of the stable is a very convenient annex for many purposes and especially for spreading out the bedding. Surface drains are the best for stables. Each stall should drain into he main ee aa Jd run well behind the heel-posts so that the bedding should not get into it. When the main drain gé ide the stable, it should be continued as a surface drain for ten feet, after which it may be safely discharged into an underground drain. A considerable amount of space between the stable and the point of underground discharge is desirable in order to prevent any effluvia from the underground drain, which is often more or less choked, from reaching the stable. It is also useful in preventing solid matter from being carried into the underground drain. The distance, in fact, acts as a kind of natural trap. _The channel of the main drain should be open, saucer-shaped, of smooth material, impervious to moisture, and with as few joints as possible. Vitrified tiles, sometimes called gutter bricks, or slabs of stone “chiselled to the proper shape, set in cement, or wide open wrought iron conduits answer exceedingly well. Cast iron conduits frequently break under the treading of the horses, and are a constant source of annoyance. Narrow iron pipes, almost closed at the upper side, such as are generally used, do not answer, because they very readily become choked, and in fact require to be cleaned out with a picker every morning, a duty which is apt to be neglected. For the drain in the stall a fall of 1 in 80 will be required; and the same for the main drain in the rear of the stall. Any collection of débris in the channel, and any consequent tendency of urine or water to lodge, — can easily be cleared away by the broom. At its starting-point the level of the main drain should be but very little below the surface of the floor, but its depth must necessarily increase towards the outfall. In long stables undue depth of the main drain may be avoided by making it fall from the centre to both ends of the stable. ay18a. Underground drains. Of course it is possible to utilise underground drains. But as a prac- tical fact the best plan is to take up the drains, re-make the soil, and adopt surface drainage. VENTILATION AND CONSTRUCTION OF STABLES. 13 186. Health without drains. It is a practical fact that stables can be sweet and the horses healthy without any drains at all. From various reasons—level of ground, sur- rounding buildings, 2 or 3 tiers of horses, etc.—it may be impossible to drain the stables. The main factor in this system is moss litter aided by abundance of fresh air and cleanliness. Every morning every atom of the bedding, which is wet or otherwise tainted is removed from the stable. The rest is raked to the sides and front of each stall. The floor is then thoroughly swept down and exposed to the air until the horses are bedded down. If the tainted litter is wholly thrown away, 50 lb. per horse per week will be required. If the litter is dried and used again, 30 lb. to 40 lb. may be sufficient. Experience for several years past has abundantly shown that the health of horses can be maintained under this system, if it is thoroughly carried out. ‘A. 19. Slope of stalls, _ Phe ae add Be ~ Horses undoubtedly stand most comfortably on_a perfect level, and any slope_more than absolutely necessary for drainage purposes is_ decidedly objectionable. Any great degree of slope is positively injurious, p because it throws an “iiidue stress on “the > hind quarters and also on the fiexor_ tendons of the fore-legs by reason of the toe being more » elevated_ than the heel. eas ees : 20. Site of stubles. The well-bred horse is a native of a dry country, and loves dryness. Tn dajap he soon loses 4 all life and “spirits, and “becomes | s debilitated. Disease of any sort is very ‘apt to super vene on * debility. eel shold, pi should be deeply thorough-drained. The soil selected should, if possible, be gravel. The situation “should ‘Be ‘mode- y high, open, and with facilities for natural drainage. ‘Bleak situa- . ona are not ancl. Tea Buildings in ‘the immediate eiehhousknad: aim igh, are objectionable. The ordinary. custom of erecting stables and_ coach-houses round three sides of a square is not the best. The air always hangs more > or less i Tn any such almost: enclosed space. x 21. Aspect of stables. A northern aspect is cold and cheerless, male a southern aspect is often unduly hot in summer. In stables with windows on both sides _east and west aspects-will, as a genéral rule, be found most advantageous... The one side will have the morning, a “and the other the afternoon sun. a “There should be a ae at en end or in in the middle on each side, as. stable is very are, i is desirable to have doors a at the. sides eat : en am = 14 OHAPTER 1. 22.) Walls and foundations. ~The material used in building will of course depend on the cost in the particular locality. If the maintenance of an even temperature be an “object; the walls ought to be thick, and they may also be plastered on the inside. But, except for such special purpose, nothing answers so well for the inside of the stable as glazed bricks of any neutral tint. If they cannot be procured, the inside walls should be well pointed and neutral-tint washed. A stable such as that shown in plan G, where the horses stand in double line with a broad passage down the centre, will need walls of fourteen inches thick, if built in brick, on account of the rather wide span and consequent weight of the roof. But single line stables on a similar plan will not require more than a nine-inch wall. The foundations should be laid on slates, or on two courses of hard bricks set in cement, or in asphalte in order to prevent the damp from _ ‘Tising by capillary attraction. New stables should be well and thoroughly aired and dried before they are inhabited. 23, Light. Ventilation, paving, drainage and sufficient cubical space, such as recommended above, will render it possible to obtain almost perfect purity of air both by day and night. But light and the supervision of the owner are likewise necessary in order to ensure cleanliness, and the best stable management. Windows, such as those described, will undoubtedly give more light than is found in most stables, and probably sufficient for the mainten- ance of the health of the eyes. But the best light for the purpose of supervision is that introduced vertically from the roof. It shows the sides and corners of the stable, and enables the cleanliness or otherwise of every part to be seen at once. In unceiled stables, a row of glass “slates ” can be introduced without expense in the original construction of the roof; and if placed on the north side will not cause an undue glare. Skylights in other aspects are open to the objection, that during certain hours of the day, especially during summer, they cause an undue glare, and the rays of the sun fall directly on the bodies of the horses. This may be rectified by white-washing the glass. Details as regards various sorts of windows will be given under the head of Stable Fittings, Chapter III. 24. Open fireplaces. The horse in a state of nature attains his highest physical development in a warm dry climate, as in Arabia. In cold climates, in Shetland for instance, the breed dwindles down to a pony. In wet and moderately VENTILATION AND CONSTRUCTION OF STABLES. 1,555 warm pastures, such as Flanders, the horse grows large and coarse. In cold wet climates the horse is not, we believe, found in the wild state. Warmth and dryness we may therefore assume are needed for the development of the best powers of the animal, though the former is not essential to his health. The Shetland pony is perfectly healthy, hardy, and enduring. Pure air and freedom from positive damp will be obtained by the plans of building already recommended, and a fairly even temperature by night and day may be maintained, if thick walls and ceilings are also adopted in the construction ; but sufficient warmth and perfect dryness will be wanting during many days and nights in the course of the year in this climate. Clothing will do much to supply the animal’s body with warmth, exercise and grooming with high feeding will do more; but none of these will raise the temperature of the stable, or get rid of the moisture inherent in the air in this country on certain days and in certain seasons. If the matter rested here, it would not signify much—the coat might stare a little, the food might be to a certain degree wasted in maintain- ing the heat of the system instead of producing flesh, and the general condition might be somewhat lower than it would be under perfectly favourable conditions of warmth and dryness. But the matter does not rest here. The groom will have the stable warm, whilst probably from ignorance he will not object to its being moist or even damp and foul. He will stop the egress of the foul moist heated air produced by respiration, and also the ingress of cold fresh air; and by these means, aided by the caloric loaded with impurities given off by the breath and bodies of the animals, he will raise the air to the desired temperature. In some cases he will crowd an additional number of animals into the stable in winter on the plea that they will keep each other warm. The air, however, will be foul and moist, not pure and dry, such as the well bred horse loves. As a matter of fact the groom is quite right in desiring warmth for the horses under his charge; and any owner of horses will do well to meet his views by supplying the stable during the latter part of the autumn, winter, and early spring, with heat artificially generated, such as that produced by open fires. Open fires, though somewhat more expensive, are better than stoves or hot air or hot water apparatus, because they assist and promote ventilation. There is really no good reason why the owner of valuable horses should grudge the expense of open fireplaces. A grate is not an expensive article, nor will coals form any material addition to the expense of a hunting or racing establish- ment. The horses will gain in health and condition far more than is counterbalanced by the trifling extra cost. (95. Dimensions and cost. Six feet is a fair average width for stall, but very large horses require - 16 CHAPTER 1. an extra foot. The length of the stalls should be 11 feet inclusive of the_ heel-post. j ~_If the stable be 16 feet, which is a fair average width, it will be best _to allot 11 feet to a stall, and 5 feet to the passage. i. e ~The height of the walls from the floor to the spring of the roof should be twelve feet. In order to give this height in the inside, after allowing for the floor ‘being ‘raised 8 nahee —— the ground outside, the_walls will really require to be 12 feet 8 inches, as eis in plan H. The pitch of the roof should be somewhat steep, A height of one half the breadth gives a fair pitch. Plan H. Flattened roofs, though — “they may cost a lit tle less in the original outlay, ar are a constant source a of trouble and expense. The dimensions, which are shown in plan G with an unceiled open roof, will give about 1700 cubic feet per horse. With a ceiling placed close along the roof as in plan I, there will be 1660 cubic feet, and with a ceiling placed as in plan K 1030 cubic feet per borse, exclusive of the air circulating between the ceiling and the roof, 26. Cheaper, construction of stables. All horses, even though the commonest, equally need for the main- tenance of health the essential requirements of good” ventilation, paving; drainage, light, cleanliness, and sufficient..cubical space ; though they do “not equally seed warmth and the maintenance of an even ho ty to a It becomes, therefore, necessary to consider how the essentials can best be retained, whilst the cost is reduced. rita: Louvre boar ds demand a certain amount of extra strength in the roof, and are also in themselves a somewhat considerable item of expense. In leu of them the crown tile may be simply raised along the whole length of the ridge of the roof. The ventilation, though inferior to that given by louvre boards, will be fairly good, and the plan is much cheaper. In a stable intended only for cart or other horses doing slow work much expense may be saved by making use of felt instead of slates or tiles for the roof. Good felt properly tarred every third year will last about twenty years. Corrugated iron may also be used. It has the advan- tage of being incombustible. But on the other hand, it is hot in summer and cold in winter. As the timbers necessary to carry these light materials need not be at all strong, they will require to be supported by posts in the centre. These posts can be furnished with brackets, and thus conveniently made available for hanging up harness. Again, boarded partitions between stalls are by no means essential. A bale hung by a rope is sufficient. The windows, instead of being hung or made to drop back, can be simply made to open on a pivot in the centre. Economy may be also practised, according to local circumstances, in the material used for the walls. In some places, where the nature-of the — soil affords facilities for making it, concrete may be used, and_much SS money saved. VENTILATION AND CONSTRUCTION OF STABLES. 17 Good paving, good drainage, and ample light, and ventilation are _ essentials in stables of any class ; and the author thinks that any saving. “which entailed deficiency in these points would be very ill-judged. SL a 27. Loose Boxes (see Par. 38). C 27a. Ventilation and Draughts. Loose Boxes and Stalls. Whilst a constant supply of fresh air is essential to health, draughts are most objectionable. The question is how to supply a sufficient amount of fresh air without a draught in some part or other of a stall or loose box. This trouble has puzzled all human ingenuity in public halls, where every part of the hall is occupied; and probably the desired end, namely, the admission of fresh air without draught in some part or other of the hall cannot be achieved. There must be a draught ; the real question is, how to get out of it? In a stall, where the horse is tied up, and practically in a fixed position, he may not be able to get out of it; but in a loose box the horse can get out of it, and he has instinct enough, or call it sense enough, if you will, to do so (always provided he is not tied up). For this reason, and almost for this reason alone, the author has no hesitation in recommending loose boxes in preference to stalls. 27b. Constant attention needed to Ventilation. Our climate is very variable, and therefore the amount of ventilation in a stable requires to be adjusted not once a day, but constantly throughout the day. A good servant will look to this most important point, especially if he find his master takes an interest in it. 28. Argument against the need of Ventilation, &e. In opposition to the views, which have been expressed above as to the paramount necessity of ventilation, light, cleanliness, drainage, and suffi- cient cubical space, it is often urged that the great majority of horses get on without them. To this we reply, first, that the average amount of sickness and mor- tality among horses is far greater than it need be under more rational treatment and management; and, secondly, that though the horse in common with other animals, and indeed with man, has a certain power of adapting himself to the circumstances in which he may be placed, yet it is evident that the conditions of nature ought to be followed as nearly as possible. Animal life is always most perfectly developed, and its functions best performed by conforming to those conditions. 18 CHAPTER 1, 29, Conclusion. Much more, however, than these primary essentials are needed to ensure health and condition in the domesticated horse. Careful atten- tion to diet, grooming, exercise and general good stable management must be added. IMPROVEMENT OF STABLES OF FAULTY CONSTRUCTION. £9 CHAPTER 2. IMPROVEMENT OF STABLES OF FAULTY CONSTRUCTION. 30. Ventilation. 31. Paving. 32. Light. 33. Deficient space. 34. Con- clusion. 30. Ventilation. Tue recommendations which have been made in the preceding chapter in regard to the construction of new stables would be incomplete without some suggestions for the improvement of defective buildings. In our suggestions we shall endeavour to carry out, as far as circumstances admit, the principles laid down above. For illustrations of plans of bad construction the reader is referred to plans A, B, C, D, E, and F in the preceding chapter. All such stables, unless surrounding buildings interfere, may be radically improved by making windows on both sides along the whole length, and by making an aperture under each manger, and inserting in it an air brick. If, however, as is often the case in towns, circumstances, or perhaps the covenants of the lease, even though no buildings interfere, prohibit the making of windows, apertures nine by six inches should be inserted in the wall near the ceiling on both sides; or, if no aperture can be made, air bricks should be inserted in the front wall. If surrounding buildings or other circumstances prevent the possibility of making apertures along the length of the wall, an air flue with an aperture of four and a half inches by three under the mangers should be carried along the whole length of the stable; and another air flue with apertures of double the size, or nine inches by six, should be carried along close to the ceiling. The size of the outlet air flues must be the sum of the combined areas of the apertures, and will, therefore, vary according to the number of the horses in the stable. It is absolutely necessary that each air flue should open at both ends directly into the external air. The exterior openings must be protected by perforated zinc, to prevent excessive draught. Ventilation by means of louvre boards along the ridge of the roof should also be provided in every case, where rooms over the stables do not prevent its adoption. Where rooms interfere, air shafts of two feet in diameter, in the proportion of one shaft for every two horses, should be carried up through the ceiling and intervening rooms to the outside of 20 CHAPTER 2. the roof. A board should be placed about six inches below the bottom ot each air shaft to break and diffuse the draught; and the top of the shaft should be protected by a cowl. When merely a loft intervenes, it should be removed, or at least thrown open in the centre, and proper ventilation and light thus secured through the roof. If the owner objects to the expense of any such alterations, he may at least have ventilating panes put in the windows and gratings in the doors, or insist on the windows being left partially open both by day and night. Nothing answers better than cutting two inches off the bottom and one inch off the top of the door. The horses’ coats may suffer from the amount of air thus rudely introduced by this latter plan, but their health will improve. d1. Paving. Good paving is essential to health. It may always be obtained, even in the oldest stable, at a certain expense. Advantage, unless the stable is very deficient in height, may also be taken of the repaving to raise the floor, and thus secure the possibility of good surface drainage. 32. Light. If the light is deficient, it is very important, both for the sake of cleanliness as well as for the health of the eyes, to improve it.. The question of the best means of introducing light is so mixed up with the nature of the surrounding buildings, that it is difficult to make any suggestions which will be practically useful. Vertical light, when it can be obtained, is by far the best. 33. Deficient space. If the cubical space per horse is insufficient, the simple remedy is to diminish the number of horses in the stable. Twelve hundred cubic feet has been already stated to be a sufficient allowance in a well venti- lated, well paved, drained, and cleanly kept stable; but if these acces- sories are wanting, a much larger amount of space should be allowed. 34. Conclusion. Finally, in every stable, however ill constructed, much may be done by keeping the doors and windows open as much as possible and by scrupu- lous cleanliness. STABLE FITTINGS. 21 CHAPTER 3. STABLE FITTINGS. 35. Size of stalls, partitions, &e. 35a. Breadth of passage behind horses. 36. Inside walls. 37. Doors. 38. Loose boxes. 39. Latches. 40. Slides or bolts. 41. Hinges. 42. Coller ropes or chains, and logs. 43. Casting in the stall. 44. Head collars and neck straps. 45. Foot-fastenings. 46. Muzzles. 47. Mangers. 48. Hay racks. 49. Forage ii and lofts. 50. Paving, slope of stalls, and drainage. 51. Windows. 52. Slings. JR \ 35. Size of Stalls, Partitions, ke, For stalls divided by partitions a width of six feet is desirable for orses of the ordinary size; whilst for large carriage horses seven feet _ “should be allowed.- ~ The length should be 11 feet including the heel_post. The passage ae should be 5 feet. The heel post, into which the partition is in- sd, should be ro rounded off, so as to be as little likely as possible to “Gnjure ee aes horse if he kicks against it. A height of séven feet and a a_half should be given to the upper end of _ the partition, in order to prevent the horses from a biting at each other, whilst five and a half feet will be sufficient for ‘the 2 remainder, | Both in pattern” Straight iron n railings do not answer, as horses_are apt to. to. ‘catch at them with their teeth. ; tte —Loarding of the partivions should not be continued within 6 jachesof the wall. The interval or open space will act beneficially by _ allowing the air to circulate freely along the back wall of the stable, ‘With a like view to ventilation, and also in order to preserve the wood- “work from t rious effect of damp, an interval of two inches should_ “be left between the bottom of the partition and the floor of the stable. Oak is the best material for the boarding of partitions, but it is _ expensive. Good red deal, one and a quarter inch thick, answers~very_ well, and is comparatively cheap. For stables divided by bales a width of five feet six inches is sufficient, though six feet are preferable. It is essential that the mode of hanging the bale should be such that it may be easily unhooked in case the horse gets cast. Where each horse is of great value the owner will naturally wish to guard himself against the risk of one horse kicking another by putting ap CHAPTER 3. partitions between the stalls; but in a sanitary point of view bales are preferable, both because they interfere less with the circulation of air through the stable and because the stable is more easily swept out and kept clean. On the other hand, horses lhe down much more in boxes than between bales. /35a. Breadth of passage behind Horses. Horses are tied to the manger, and cannot get further back than the collar ropes allow. Therefore, if the long partitions recommended above are used, the width of the passage may be reduced to the same extent as the partitions are lengthened. With long partitions five feet_will be sufficient breadth for the passage in single-line stables, and eight feet in double. If short partitions are used, six and a half feet will be required ‘in single-line stables and nine feet in double lines. 36. Inside Walls. Glazed bricks are the best material for the inside of-walls. They may be obtained in most localities at a price very little exceeding that of ordinary bricks. They have the great advantage of n moisture or other emanations of the stable, and may ‘be kept clean and nice-looking for years by simply washing with water. aa ear ta Sf ordinary bricks are used for the wall, it will be an advantage to put - glazed China tiles over the manger, as that part of the wall otherwise soon looks dirty and black. If the cement with which they are fastened — is good they answer well. If the expense of either such fittings is objected ee eeein well-pointed brick wall, which can be grey-washed as often as need be, answers better “than plaster or woodwork. The latter, indeed, is objectionable, especially _ over the manger, as horses are apt to gnaw it, and dirt and vermin may harbour in and behind it. 37, Doors. The doors of many modern stables are hung on iron bars-above, and aré made to traverse to the side. In situations where room is an object, this fitting is advantageous ; but for ordinary purposes the common door, which is more easily shut and therefore less likely to be left open, is pr re- Aerable. ¥ Doors should be four and a half feet wide and at least eight feet _ in height.” Horses are apt to be startled on going into or coming out of “stables, and then sometimes throw up their heads ; and if the door is low may strike them against the lintel, and may in consequence ever after be shy in entering or leaving the stable. Stable doors which do not traverse should be divided into two equal _portions, except in sick boxes, where for reasons given in the next para- graph the height of the lower part should not exceed three feet six inches. As a yule, stable doors should open outwards, and_should be STABLE FITTINGS. 93 furnished with a catch in the wall to prevent their swinging to suddenly in windy weather. 38. Loose Bozes. Many modern stables are divided into boxes instead of stalls. The pla agés, principally because the horses can stand out of a draught. Most of us know the extreme discomfort of sitting in draught, and the risk of colds, coughs, and rheumatism. Ten feet six inches square are quite sufficient t for stable loose boxes, : and the difference _ 1 building a stable is but small. e two end boxes, if more room is thought desirable, can be, without cost, enlarged by taking in the passage at ‘each end. The doors of loose boxes should always open outwards or traverse to the side. A door fitted with the ordinary latch, if it opens inwards, may occasion a serious accident, such as an injury to the eye, if the horse happens to be standing near it when it is suddenly opened. But such loose boxes are no substitute for detached loose boxes, which should always be provided for sick horses. Stable boxes share the common air of the stable; but those intended for sick animals require - a purer air- than_is_commonly found_in a stable, and, moreover, they generally need to be kept ata” lower temperature than is desirable-fer— “horses horses in full work, aN It is not ae to make sick boxes over-large. Twelve feet_ y fourteen with a = heighh t of twelve féet is sufficient. In addition to the ~ustal manger and ha a loose boxes intended for sick horses ee “be provided with a Stage fixed in the wall about two ) feet six inches e ground, on which a pail m may be ht hung. Sick horses carry their heads S prefer to feed near the ground. or sick boxes, when the door is on hinges and divided into two parts, the lower portion should not exceed three “feet six inches in height. If peer, a sick oe who stands with his head drooped down may not be able to get it ove 5 Jf age Be sie to got Tver the e door so | sO as to enjoy the fresh air. _A bar, however, should be provided to go across the _upper_b half, as. otherwise horses, _ especially young ones, are apt to try and jump out. It is essential that “this bar b> pinced.susictontly high above the half door to allow the horse “to get his head in and out easily between it and the door. If the space is narrow, an accident may occur to the animal in drawing back his head, if he happens to get frightened. If a traversing door is used, three bars will be needed so as to enable it to be left open. For sick boxes, however, the ordinary door divided into two parts is decidedly preferable, because the lower half shelters the patient’s legs from draught, whilst he can put his nostrils over it. _ 9 Latches. — off ‘as to reduce the chance ‘minimum, there i is a _possi- ili y that a rein or r stirrup | leather may eatch i in in them when the horse is 94, CHAPTER 3. led in or out_of the stable. A pattern of a very cheap but serviceable — SS psn oon -< Ba ee Taten is, esven in Plate 8.0 7 = , 40, Slides or Bolts. Slides or bolts, if counter-sunk and furnished with a flush-bolt on both sides, are in some respects preferable to the best latches. The groove, however, in which the bolts work, requires to be kept oiled and free from dust and other débris. pa 41. Hinges. The only really serviceable hinges for large doors are those of the old- fashioned T-pattern, such as until lately were rarely seen except on old ehurch doors. Doors on such hinges will generally hang true for years, whilst the hinge itself adds to the strength of the door by bracing and binding it together. 42. Collar ropes or chains, and Logs. _The rope should be just long enough to allow the horse to_lie_down__ comfortably.Any greater length is objectionable. As-an ordinary rule the log should just reach the ground when the horse is standing near his manger. Tf longer than this the rope or chain will become slack in the — portion between the collar and the manger, and then the horse may get his foot over it. If shorter it will interfere with the convenience of the animal in lying down. A rather heavy log should be used, which by its weight may assist in keeping the rope in a state of tension. The horse may be relieved of the weight of the log by placing a large ring or T on the rope immediately above the manger ring. The manger ring should be large, so that the rope may run easily and freely through it. The practice of tying the rope to the ring of the manger is very objectionable, and is a frequent cause of accident. Chains, though not often used in private stables, are safer than ropes, because their weight, especially when assisted by a rather heavy log, prevents any liability to become slack. The principal objection to chains is the noise made by the animals drawing them through the rings of the manger. lopes are preferable to leather straps, both because horses are less apt to gnaw them and because being round they run more easily through the manger ring. They are also cheaper. In some stables the stall is boarded up flush with the front of the manger, and the lower part of the rope then runs behind the boarding. ~ An accident may occasionally be prevented by this arrangement ; but the extra boarding seriously interferes with the current of air through the stable, and dirt and dust are apt to accumulate behind the bearding. Horses, which are given to bite their neighbours, or are apt to turn round in their stalls, should be secured by a rope or chain on both sides of the manger. 5. eee STABLE FITTINGS. 25 43, Casting in the stall. Casting in the stall generally arises from the animal getting his legs entangled in the rope. This accident will rarely happen, where due care is taken in regard to the length of the rope, and the use of a log is insisted on. Casting occasionally arises from the horse endeavouring to turn or roll in his stall. In such cases fastening on both sides, as recommended in the previous paragraph, will be found useful. If any particular horse acquires a habit of rolling, and in consequence fre- quently gets cast, he had better be kept in a loose box. 44. Head collars and neck strups. Some horses are very difficult to secure at night by head collars. All, however, may be effectually fastened by means of a neck strap. A horse cannot slip a neck strap drawn to the proper degree of tightness, because the circle of the strap round his neck is less than that required to go over his head. The objection to neck straps is the injury which they cause to the mane. Of head collars the best are those which approach most nearly to the principle of a neck strap. The great point in fitting a head collar is to take care that the back strap is long enough to come close up against the throat. Again, the neck strap should not pass over the crown of the head collar, but through a loop attached in rear of it. The strap round the neck will then be so short, without being unduly tight, that the horse cannot easily get it over his head. See Plate 8. 45. Foot-fastenings. Horses, which break or slip their collars, may all be effectually secured by a strap buckled round one of the fore fetlocks and attached to a peg driven fast into the ground. The strap should be about 12 inches long. It is a practical fact that this fastening will hold almost any horse. A few horses may pull against it for a few days, and perhaps make the fetlock sore. The strap in such case may be shifted to the other fetlock. Almost all horses, however, after a few pulls find themselves powerless, and give up with a good grace the attempt at geiting loose. 46. Muzzles. A really good muzzle is yet a desideratum in stable economy. It is difficult to combine free ingress and egress of air with closeness sufficient to prevent a greedy horse sucking in hay and straw. Wire muzzles interfere but little with the breathing ; but some horses break even the best of them, whilst most succeed in sucking in a certain amount of hay and straw through them. Leather muzzles are objection- able, because they interfere with the egress of the air. Those made of straps of leather are less injurious than solid leather with air holes. A nose band fitted on the collar by closing the mouth answers as well as anything. The horse, it will be remembered, breathes through his 26 CHAPTER 3. nostrils. But this contrivance, though effectual as a temporary remedy, would be uncomfortable to the animal for any length of time. The best mode of tackling a greedy feeder is to bed him down with saw-dust, peat moss, or some material, which he cannot eat. 47. Mangers: Mangers should be made somewhat deeper than the usual pattern, and with a slight lip on the inside, so as to prevent the horse from spilling his corn, which he is apt to do, especially when it is mixed with chaff. A cross bar placed near each end will answer the same purpose; but it is in some degree objectionable, because it interferes with the thorough and easy cleaning of the manger. Mangers should be made without corners or angles in which dirt can lodgé. The material should be non- absorbent. Slabs”of @lazed fire brick “answer well, and in places where the locality affords thé-material,—are> very cheap. Iron mangers are used in barracks ae answer exceedingly well. 48. Hay Racks. Many in the present day object to the ordinary hay rack placed above the horse’s head. It is certainly not the natural position for food, but the low rack has the disadvantage that the horse may injure himself by getting his foot or head into it. To render such an accident as little likely as possible, the low rack should be made shallow and without any projecting rim on the inside of the upper bar. Again, with low racks the horse is apt to pull out all the hay, in order to choose the best locks, and then the remainder gets trodden under his feet. The author is inclined to think that the old is the best. 49. Forage stores and lofts. Forage is best kept ina building detached from, though near to the ~~ stable. ~-Where-a loft over the stable, as is usually the case in-towns, is used for the purpose of storing forage, care should be taken that there is no direct communication feeveed it and the stable. -Nething can well be more objectionable than tainting the food with the. ‘emanations of t = _stable. 50. Paving, slope of stalls, and drainage. These important questions have already been considered at length in the latter part of the first chapter in reference to the construction of stables. 51. Windows. Ample-light is essential to the health ofthe eyes. Light is indeed_ food and_exercise to them. Without ample light the eyes cannot he ’ STABLE FITTINGS. PAF strong. Ifthey are altogether deprived of light, the optic nerve becomes aralysed-and blindness is the result. Again, ample light is essential tothe Ses of the stable. A dark Stable -bedirtywithout the owner findmg it out, and, in good truth, ark stables are dirty, and a dirty stable must be unhealthy. Both eyes and lungs are especially liable to injury from the the gases _produced by — impurity. There is an idea that horses put on flesh more rapidly in a dark than in a light stable. It may be so, and it is certain that dealers generally keep their stables somewhat dark. But the main object of the dealer in doing so is, we suspect, to show his horses off to the best advantage to a customer. Horses brought suddenly from comparative darkness into light do not see well at first, and therefore step high in order to avoid possible obstacles in the way. The defective vision so occasioned will scarcely be pleaded as an advantage except for a special purpose such as the above. Windows, as distinguished from skylights, are intended for purposes of ventilation as well as for giving light. Skylights, however, can be made to open. ler Air bricks and ventilating openings are all very well in their way, but f or all real freshness in stables there is nothing like windows wide open enever the weather admits. heneve es_are out at exercise, every docr and window should be set wide open. our sorts of windows are commonly used in stables of the better class, namely, Ist, the ordinary sash windows, which, if furnished with ropes and pulleys, so as to let down easily from the top, answer well enough. They are, however, open to the objection, that a direct draught may come on the horses, and on this account it is often necessary to close them altogether at night and in cold windy weather. A couple of panes of perforated glass are useful in such windows. 2nd. Windows, which turn on a pivot, in the centre. These may be set open to any required degree. They are the cheapest construction, and answer well enough, especially where many small windows are used ; but they are in some degree open to the objection of causing a direct draught on the horses. 3rd. Windows, which do not open wholly, but are furnished with glass louvres, are used in some stables. They are objectionable, inas- much as they are not calculated to admit a sufficient amount of air. 4th. Windows working on hinges at the bottom, as shown in the plan annexed, may be made to open to any required degree. They offer every advantage. They afford ample ventilation, and yet do not throw a direct draught on the horses. They should be blocked, so as to prevent their closing within six inches at the top. As no direct draught can come on the horses, when they are closed to this degree, the author thinks that no injurious result can ever arise from their being left open to the above degree at all times and seasons. Plate 8. When a stable is furnished, as recommended above, with windows on 28 CHAPTER 4. both sides, the sort of window to be adopted is not very material, because the requisite amount of fresh air can at all times be obtained from the windows on the lee side without causing an injurious amount of draught. 52. Slings. A set of slings is a useful adjunct in a stable. When due and con- stant care is used in their adjustment and frequent readjustment, they are calculated to give great relief in some cases of severe injury; but without such care, they often do more harm than good. CHAPTER 4. WATERING AND FEEDING. 53. Course of the food. 54. Course of water. 55. Small size of stomach. 56. How often is it necessary to feed? 57. Best times for feeding. 58. Regularity desirable in the hours of feeding. 59. Necessity of good forage. 60. Of watering. 61. Quantity of water to be given at one time. 62. Horses to be watered before being fed. 63. No objection to watering horses when warm. 64. Dirty v. clean water. Hard v. soft water. 65. Scouring. 66. Delicate feeders. 53. Course of the food. Ir may be useful in the first instance to trace very briefly the course of food from its reception by the mouth to its final evacuation. Food is gathered by the lips and front teeth. It is worked about by the tongue and cheeks, and is carried by their action to the back teeth or grinders, which by a lateral and slightly rotatory motion of the lower jaw reduce it to a pulp. During this process it is mixed freely with the saliva and mucous secretions of the glands of the mouth. Saliva is essential to the due preparation of the food for digestion. When it is sufficiently prepared, it is passed on in portions by the action of the muscles of the tongue to the cesophagus or gullet, and thence to the stomach. The stomach is a pouch lined for about one third of its surface with a dense cuticular membrane, and the remaining two thirds is lined with a soft reddish villous mucous membrane. The muscular coat of the stomach is furnished with three layers of fibres, namely, the circular, longitudinal, and oblique. By the action of WATERING AND FEEDING. 29 these three series of muscles the food is rotated over the cuticular and villous linings of the stomach; whilst by the secretions of the softer or villous lining it is supplied with a fluid called the gastric juice, which is essential to the further process of digestion. The food at this stage is called chyme. The action of the muscular coat producing rotation of the food is due to nervous influence ; but the immediate stimulus on the nervous system of the stomach is the food itself. When the stomach is quite empty, the rotatory motion ceases, and the pouch is then in a state of contraction and quiescence. During the successive rotations such portions of the food, as have become sufficiently soluble, are gradually pressed forward and passed on to the small intestines. In them it is further mixed with the secretions of the pancreas, liver, and intestinal glands. The admixture of these juices completes the preparation of the food, and it is now ready for absorption into the system. The process of absorption is efiected in the following manner. The abdominal veins and the lacteal absorbent vessels of the intestinal linings take up from the food its nutritive parts, which in this state are called chyle. The chyle is carried by the absorbent vessels through the mesenteric glands into the thoracic duct, and by it is ultimately discharged into one of the large blood-vessels on the left side of the neck near the heart. It is by this constant admixture of material taken up from the food by the absorbents that the necessary supply of blood is maintained. From the blood thus maintained by the food are furnished the materials _ required for the maintenance and renewal of the body. The food supplies the blood, which in its turn supplies the body. To revert to the course of the food. When the veins and absorbents of the small intestines have taken up from the food its nutritive parts, the refuse is passed on to the large intestines. In them a further system of absorbents take up from the refuse whatever little nutriment may yet remain in it; and the residuum, along with the waste products of the body excreted into the intestines, is cast forth by the anus as dung. Such is the preparation and course of the food. 54. Course of water. The course of water through the body is somewhat different from that of solid food. Water does not lodge in the stomach, but merely passes rapidly through it and the small intestines on its way to the cecum or blind gut, which may be considered as the real water stomach of the horse. The ceecum, we may mention, is one of the large or lower intes- tines. From the cecum the water is gradually taken up by the veins and absorbents according to the requirements of the system, and poured into the large blood-vessels in the neighbourhood of the heart. Eventually, along with the effete or worn out nitrogenous matters and 30 OHAPTER 4. certain salts, it is excreted partly from the lungs in the form of aqueous vapour, partly from the skin in the form of perspiration, and in larger and more notable quantities it is discharged from the body as urine through the medium of the kidneys. 55. Small size of the stomach. The capacity of the horse’s stomach is small in comparison to his frame. He therefore requires to be fed frequently. In a state of nature the horse is almost constantly browsing, and yet it is rarely so full as to be unable to exert his power of flight. Convenience, however, of servants, and the hour at which we require the domesticated animal for work, must in some degree modify our times of feeding. 56. How often is it necessary to feed ? Experience has shown that it is sufficient to feed the horse three times a day. Less frequent feeding is decidedly objectionable. The corn should be divided into three portions, and the hay into two. It is best not to give any hay at the feed preceding the time at which the animal is likely to be required for work. He will do his work easier if his stomach is somewhat empty than if it is distended with hay. Hence, if a horse is used in the morning, the portion of hay should be omitted at the early feed, and reserved for midday and evening. If, on the other hand, he is required for work in the afternoon, he should get his hay in the morning and evening. Hunters, however, whose work occurs about the middle of the day, may with advantage, in the author’s opinion, though he is aware it is not the usual practice, be allowed half their usual portion of hay along with their morning feed of corn. The same remark applies to troop horses, whose work generally does not begin before 9 a.m. Cart horses, whose work is always slow, should be fed with hay three times a day. é 57. Best times for feeding. Horses should not be fed, when heated, immediately after work. The stomach is not then in a good state for the proper digestion of the food. If the horse is exhausted, as may often occur with hunters after a long day’s abstinence, a bucket of warm gruel, which is very easy of digestion, should be given at once; but the corn should be withheld until the animal is cool and has been dressed. By that time, under the influence of the gruel and of the rest, the stomach will probably have recovered its tone. The best time for feeding as a general rule is at the close of each stable hour. The horse will then feed more quietly, comfortably, and more at his leisure than when servants are bustling about. Besides which many horses, if disturbed whilst feeding, are apt to knock about and spill their corn. WATERING AND FEEDING. 31 08, Regularity desirable in the hours of feeding. Regularity in the hours of feeding is a matter of some importance. Over-lengthened abstinence is for the structural reasons explained above in itself injurious ; and the mischief is often aggravated by the animal eating to excess when he gets his food. An over-hearty meal is hurtful. at any time, but it is especially so when the stomach is weakened by long fasting. Undue pressure and irritation are the result, producing indigestion, and in some cases gastritis, colic, &c. 59. Necessity of good forage. It is absolutely necessary that the food supplied should be good and sound. Inferior or damaged forage of any sort, such as mouldy hay, damp or kiln-dried oats, or green meat kept till stale, or grazing on fouled ground, very readily produce intestinal disturbance or disease. Besides which we cannot expect to develop the best powers of the animal, unless we supply him liberally with the best nutriment. 60. Of watering. From feeding we pass on to watering. How often should horses be watered, and what quantity should be given at one time! The anatomical structure of the horse may here guide our practice. The stomach or receptacle for solid food, as has been stated above, is very small, and consequently the horse requires to be fed frequently ; but the cecum or water gut, on the other hand, is very large. It is not uncommon, indeed, to see a horse drink two or even three pails of water at one time, and most of this passes tolerably direct to the cecum. Hence it is probable that he does not require to be watered often. In a state of nature, though no doubt the succulent nature of the food in part at least supplies the place or want of water, it would be impossible that all the horses on a large plain could be constantly down at the river side. It has been generally noticed in camps that horses standing in the open air, though fed on dry food, never drink more than twice and often only once in the day. But in stables it is certain that horses drink readily and are refreshed by being watered at least three or four times aday. It is not very difficult to conceive that the difference between the close warm atmosphere of a stable and the cool refreshing air of heaven may sufficiently account for this. Though, for the reasons given above, it is not at all necessary, yet there is no objection to horses having water constantly before them,—provided the water in the trough is wholly drained off and supplied afresh at each stable hour. 61. Quantity of water to be given at one time. Of the quantity of water to be given at one time, the horse himself is in general the best judge. Excepting in a few cases, such as where the horse is excessively hot or exhausted, or has from any cause been kept without water for an undue length of time, or where there is a tendency 82 CHAPTER 4, to purgation or diuresis, the horse may safely be allowed to drink as much as he lkes. 62. Horses to be watered before being fed. It is a cardinal rule in stable management that horses should be watered before being fed. The contrary practice is exceedingly likely to cause colic, otherwise called gripes. The reason of this is simple enough. Water does not remain in the stomach. It merely passes very rapidly through it on its way to the cecum. If the stomach is full, the water is very apt to carry with it from the stomach into the small intestines some portions of the food before it is properly prepared for transmission. Now undigested food, though natural to the stomach, in which it ought to be digested and prepared for transmission to the intestines, acts on the latter as a foreign body and produces irritation. 63. No objection to watering horses when warm. It is a somewhat singular fact that horses may be watered with safety almost immediately after their return from work, even though somewhat heated. Probably the friction from grooming, which takes place about the same time, prevents the occurrence of a chill. Many regiments water their horses on their way home from a field day, if a river or troughs are handy, and it is certain that no mischief results from the practice. Probably in this case the further slight exercise in returning home prevents mischief. There is less risk of chill from drinking cold water, when the body is still actively warm, than when the system has begun to flag. If, however, the horse is thoroughly tired and fagged, the water should be made slightly tepid, or a bucket of warm gruel may be given instead. In such cases there may not be sufficient vitality to raise a large quantity of cold water to the temperature of the body; and hence the animal may become chilled, and his coat will stare, his bowels may become deranged, and further serious consequences may result. 64. Dirty v. clean water. Hard v. soft water. It is very commonly, but erroneously, supposed that horses prefer muddy to clean water. The origin of this idea is the fact that the horse prefers soft to hard water, and will drink indifferent soft in preference to clearer-looking hard water. But he will never drink bad soft in prefer- ence to good soft water, nor will he drink bad hard in preference to good hard water, except in so far as all hard water becomes more or less soft by standing and exposure to the air. Where a number of troughs with a stream running through them have been placed in line, the author has often known his horse, though taken to the last, walk to the first in order to get the cleanest water. Water for the horse should always be drawn fresh. If it is too cold, the chill may be taken off by adding a little warm water. The very ordinary practice of refilling the pails after watering and allowing them as WATERING AND FEEDING. 30 to stand in the stable until wanted again, in order to take off the chill, is objectionable, because the water so exposed must imbibe some of the de- leterious gases present in most stables, and therefore must become tainted. Hard water, which contains an excess of saline and mineral substances, does not as a general rule agree as well with horses as soft water, such as that obtained from a river or pond. It is apt to produce irritation of the bowels and, as a secondary effect, a staring coat. The salts contained in hard water may be in a great degree precipi- tated by boiling, and most waters become softer by being exposed to the air. Any sudden change in the kind of water supplied to horses is apt to cause derangement and even irritation of the mucous membranes of the bowels, especially a change from soft to hard water. Hence if the water is very hard, it should be boiled before being given to valuable horses, particularly if they are not accustomed to it. Nain or other soft water stored in tanks soon becomes full of decom- posing vegetable matter in hot weather. Ss 07115 11) ao a To horses predisposed to scour, water should be given frequently and in reduced quantities, and in winter the chill should be taken off by mixing it with a very little warm water. Perhaps the best plan is to leave ‘water always before such horses, because when so supplied they drink less than when watered at intervals. A diminished quantity of water taken into the system by lessening the secretions of the intestines decreases the tendency to purgation. If reduction of the quantity of water does not produce the desired efiect, it may be mixed with a little wheaten meal, which has a slight astringent effect on the bowels. If further measures are needed, boiled linseed or some such demulcent should be mixed with the oats; and it is as well to bruise the oats, because their ends are liable to cause irrita- tion on an over-sensitive intestinal lining. Horses disposed to scour should be stinted of their water before going to work. Some horses will scour unless a little hay is given to them in the morning before they are watered. Not infrequently, however, the real cause of scouring will be found in an irritable state of the bowels induced by the presence of various crudities arising from imperfect digestion or previous torpidity. In such cases, if the animal is strong and hearty and not usually predisposed to the complaint, a mild dose of purgative medicine may be beneficially administered, followed by tonics. Scouring, especially where a tendency to it exists, may readily be brought on by any sort of neglect or bad management, such as by wash- ing the legs and not drying them, by letting the animal stand sweating after exercise without being dried and cleaned, by copious draughts of cold water when the body is heated, or by being watered immediately before fast work. Light-coloured horses, especially if also long in the 3 34 CHAPTER 9. back and slack in the loin and light in the barrel, are predisposed to this affection. 66. Delicate Feeders. Both care and skill are needed in regulating the diet and tempting the appetite of delicate feeders. Some will reject their food altogether if it is given them in large quantities ; whilst they will eat it if only a small quantity is offered at a time. Others again will not feed, unless they are allowed frequently to moisten their mouths with water whilst eating. Water should be kept constantly before such animals. Others again, apparently of a nervous or timid disposition, will not feed unless there is a spare stall between them and the next horse. Many horses feed very slowly, and are consequently robbed of half the food by their more vora- cious neighbours. The remedy is, if possible, to allow a spare stall, or to rack up the neighbouring quick feeder as soon as he has finished his own portion. A little linseed boiled to a jelly and mixed with the corn will induce others to eat more freely. Hay slightly damp and sprinkled with salt is palatable to some horses, who will reject it when dry. A pretty frequent change of food is acceptable to some delicate feeders. A small quantity of beans, for instance, may be added to the oats, which may be given crushed. When the animal has lost its relish for these, barley or pale malt may tempt the palate for a time. A little wet bran with the oats is grateful for a time to some horses. For others carrots or green forage may be substituted for hay, or mixed with the hay. Delicate feeders will often eat freely during the night, when all is quiet around. Again a very common cause of apparent loss of appetite is some irregularity in the molar teeth, which hinders due mastication. In all cases, therefore, a careful examination of the state of the teeth should be made. In many cases it will be found that the edges of these teeth have become as sharp as razors. The remedy is to file the edges down level. A good servant will always watch the peculiarities of the appetite of the horse under his charge, and will generally be able to adjust the feeding and tempt the appetite, so as to make the animal carry flesh. Tonics no doubt increase the appetite, but no servant should be allowed on any pretence whatever to administer them at his own dis- cretion. CHAPTER 5. FORAGE. 67. Chemical analysis of food. 67a. Division of foods. 68. Oats. 69. Characteristics of good oats. 70. Weight of good and bad oats. 71. Mode of weighing a bushel. 72. Various defects in oats. Kiln drying. Foxy i ‘ { FORAGE. 35 oats. Fumigation or bleaching. Damp oats. Softness. Mustiness. Mouldiness. Sprouting, dirt, stones, want of winnowing. 73. Distinetion between old and new oats. 73a. Crushed oats. 74. Other grain. 75. Beans. 75a. Peas. 75b. Wheat. 76. Hay. 77. Chopped hay. 78. Waste of hay. 79. Quality and value of hay. 80. Upland, lowland, and water-meadow hay. 81. Distinction between upland, lowland, and water- meadow hay. 82. Characteristics of good upland hay, 83. Characteristics of inferior and bad upland hay. 84. Lowland hay. 85. Grasses which compose good upland hay. 86. Inferior grasses. 87. Very inferior grasses. 88. Bad grasses. 89. Upland herbage 90. Lowland herbage. 91. Re- capitulation. 92. Weeds. 93. Of the time of cutting and saving hay. 94. Of late cut hay. 95. Of saving hay. 96. On making hay. 97. Mow- burnt hay. 98. Dust in hay. 98a. Second crop or aftermath. 98b. Dis- tinction between old and new ha y. 98c. New v. old hay, as regards feeding. 98d. Irish hay. 98¢e. Pressed hay. €8f. Clover hay. 98g. Green forage. 98h. Carrots. 98i. Gruel. 98). Bran. 98k. Linseed foods. 981. Boiled foods. 98m. Straw. 98n. Artificial foods. 980. Concentrated foods. ; t i er On tlt a 67. Chemical analyses of food. Iv is difficult, if not impossible, to estimate accurately by means of chemical analyses the nutritive value of the various substances used as food. All food must of course contain certain nutritive constituents ; but it does not follow that the food which possesses those constituents in the greatest abundance will produce the most beneficial results. Diges- tibility, readiness of assimilation, absence of unduly heating properties, and many other qualities are needed in order to make a substance pos- sessing the necessary ingredients available as food. Chemistry is a valuable but not an infallible guide, and its indications require to be. tempered by the test of experience. aaa pa Oe erat | 67a. Division of Foods. The author does not deem it necessary to enter into a minute descrip- tion of the chemical elements of foods. It will be sufficient to mention _ that all nutritive foods are divided into three great principles, viz. nitro- genous, non-nitrogenous, and inorganic. Nitrogenous elements contain the various forms of albumen, the func- _ tions of which are to provide material for the repair and nourishment of _ the various tissues of the body, namely, bone, muscle, or flesh, &c. __ Nitrogenous elements exist in all animal and in some vegetable foods. They are nearly identical in their chemical composition, whether found in animal or vegetable food. For instance, the albumen, gluten, and legumen of vegetables are composed of the same chemical constituents, _and in nearly the same proportion, as the albumen, fibrin, and casein of - animal foods. 36 CHAPTER 5. Non-nitrogenous elements include starches, sugars, oils, and fat, usually classed under the head of carbonaceous principles. Their func- tions are to supply materials for the production of animal heat ; which is produced by the combustion (in a chemical sense) of the carbon and hydrogen of the food with the oxygen of the air. Secondly, to supply fat, which enters largely into the composition of various substances of the body, and which is stored up or deposited in considerable quantities in different parts of the animal frame. Fat is technically known as adipose tissue. Fat is not wholly derived from oleaginous materials, but also from the starches and sugars of vegetable foods, being readily formed from these constituents by chemical decomposition in the animal body. Besides nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous elements there are also certain ¢norganic principies in foods, consisting of water and saline materials, which are necessary for the purpose of keeping up the supply of similar constituents existing in the various tissues of the body. From the above description it will be readily understood that horses doing hard and fast work require food containing a large proportion of both Nitrogenous and Non-nitrogenous principles. Not only is the waste of the various tissues accelerated by long-continued exertion, but chemical combustion also takes place more rapidly. If the nitrogenous elements are not supplied in sufficient quantities to repair the “ waste,” the animal will fall away in muscle. If the non-nitrogenous elements are not supplied in quantities sufficient to compensate for the chemical combustion, the fat stored up in various parts of the body will be called upon to supply the deficiency, and the ‘animal will become thin. Non-nitrogenous. | nose : | Nitro- : | genous, | Starches | Fatty Salineand| Woody | Water. and sugar.| matter. mineral, fibre. Faia > 2 — : i Oats 6 , | 12:9 53'8 6:0 3°5 108 13:0 Beans . : | 25° 45°9 16 al 94. 14°5 Barley ° : Aad Oas: 63°7 2:0 26 oe 14-0 Maize : “ | 10:4 68°5 5a 16 30 11-4 Bran : 2 | 14:2 50'4 42 61 11-0 14:0 Linseed. ; Ss) ORS 19°6 370 374 72 12°8 Gram (not including husks) 22°70 63°18 3°76 2°60 — 11°39 Kulthee (not including | | husks) . 0 | 23°27 59°38 2°20.|} 3:19 — 12°03 Hay ; | 97 | 41:0 2:5 |» 62 ee a asia | Clover hay. : | 12°3 38°2 2:2) bes 26:0 14°3 Rye-grass . - dj] Behe 12:02 0-91 215 0°06 | 71:43 Meadow-grass oso 9°72 08 2-0 45 80°0 Lucerne | 383) 1362 | o82 | 304] 874 | 69-95 Clover | 427 | 845 | 069) 1s2| 376 | 81-01 Carrots 0-7 77 20-2" 9 ee 33 | 87:0 FORAGE, 37) 68. Oats. Of grain for the horse long experience has proved oats to be the best. Of the quantity to be given experience is also our best guide. The regulation cavalry allowance of ten pounds per diem unquestionably is sufficient for horses in ordinary work. This weight is about equivalent to what is usually understood as three feeds. But where the work is severe, horses should be allowed as much oats as they will eat. Hunters so fed will not consume on the average of the winter more than from fourteen to fifteen pounds or possibly sixteen per diem. The reader may be surprised at the small amount of the average ; but it must be remembered that horses eat but little on the day or days on which they are employed in hunting or other such long work. If an unlimited quantity of oats were given for one day to a horse usually re- stricted to a small allowance, he would of course eat a great deal more on that day. The author lately selected a horse with a good appetite, whose usual ration was ten pounds, and gave him as much as he liked. The first day he ate twenty-two pounds, the second day the same; but on the third day he only consumed eighteen pounds, and for the three succeed- ing days he averaged seventeen, but on the seventh he ate only sixteen. At the Newmarket training stables the average quantity consumed by each horse is reckoned at from two and a quarter to two and a half bushels per week ; or assuming the oats to weigh 44 lb. per bushel, from about fourteen to sixteen pounds per diem. On the other hand, it must be remembered that the oats given by trainers are the very best, and contain a greater amount of nutritive material than those generally sup- plied by owners to their horses. Large carriage horses in ordinary gentlemen’s work require 14 lb. per day. On this allowance they ought to be kept in the best possible condi- tion. It is the amount allowed by one of the principal London firms, when they contract to ration the horses which they let out on job. Cab horses in London generally eat about from 18 to 20 Ib. of oats a day. It appears, at first sight, singular that they should eat more than hunters or horses in training. The fact, for it is a fact, may probably be accounted for partly by their being in the air some eight hours a day, partly by the long, fatiguing nature of their work, which causes a great consumption of animal material, and partly by the excellent habit of cabmen of putting on the nose-bag whenever the horse happens to be unemployed on the stand. The cabman is practically aware of the fact that the more he can get his horse to eat the more work he will do. It must also be borne in mind that the oats given by cabmen, though they are sensible enough not to waste their money on a very inferior article, are not the best. The quality of the oat must also be taken into con- sideration in reckoning the quantity which a horse will eat, or which he requires to keep him in good condition. 38 CHAPTER 5. 69. Characteristics of good oats. Good oats are clean, hard, dry, sweet, heavy, plump, full of flour, and rattle like shot. They have a clean and almost metallic lustre. Each oat in a well-grown sample is nearly of the same size. There are but few small or imperfect grains. The hard pressure of the nail on an oat should leave little or no mark. The kernel, when pressed between the teeth, should chip rather than tear. The skin skould be thin. The size of the kernel will be less in proportion as the skin is thick. The colour of the oat is not very material, but white oats are generally thinner in the skin than black. Again, black oats will grow on inferior soils. Short plump oats are preferable to large long grains. Bearded oats must have an excess of husk. Oats are not necessarily bad because they are thick- skinned or bearded; but they must contain a less amount of flour per bushel than thin-skinned oats without beards. Good oats are entirely without smell of any kind, except that of earth in new samples. In testing oats by smell a double handful at least should be taken for the purpose, and not merely a few grains. The fiour should be almost tasteless, except a slight sense of milky sweetness to the palate. In tasting oats the purchaser should put a con- siderable number into his mouth without looking at them, in order to get a fair average of the grains. If he selects one or two oats to taste, he is sure to choose good grains. In testing oats for quality it is a good plan to spread out a quantity on a table or sheet of paper. The small and imperfect grains can then readily be detected. Good samples should be free from any admixture of small black seeds. Inferior foreign oats are neariy always so mixed— sometimes in great quantities. The small black seeds weigh heavier than oats, and, if numerous, give a deceptively heavy weight to the sample. They consist principally of the seeds of the wild rape, tares, and charleck, or wild mustard. 70. Weight of good and bad oats. Good oats weigh about 42 lb. per bushel. Very good samples reach 44 or 45 Ib., and from a few districts oats as high as 48 or even 49 Ib. may be obtained in favourable seasons. Fair marketable oats weigh about 39 lb. The Government in their contract for oats for the cavalry stipulate for a weight of 38 lb. per bushel. Very inferior lots do not weigh above 32 Ib. Very dirty oats, sometimes on account of the dirt and sand in them, weigh better before than after they have been cleaned ; but as a general rule the effect of cleaning and winnowing a sample is to make it weigh more per bushel. The principal part of the refuse which is thrown out consists of husks and of small, imperfect, or mouldy grains, which are very light in proportion to bulk. FORAGE, 39 In some experiments made by a miller for the author he found that a fair sample of oats, per bushel, 30 lb. per bushel yielded Flour, 19 lb. 7 oz. = 155 Ib. 8 oz. 34 Ib. = Bi 22 |b. 5 oz. = 178 |b. 8 oz. 38 lb. _ a a 26 lb. 14 0z. = 215 Ib AT 5, = » B321b. 902. = 260 lb. 8 oz. Another sample at 32 lb. yielded 19 lb. 15 oz. of flour, Sieos ib. ,, 26 1b. 7 oz. at 42th: ,, 30 lb. 14 oz. 247 lb. at4A-tb: ,, 33 lb. 14 oz. ~ 271 lb. Another analysis will be found in the Addendum. 159 lb. 8 oz. per quarter. dell Shs lb. 8 OZ. I] tl Ih I From the above it will readily be seen that good oats, even at a high figure, are cheaper for feeding purposes than inferior samples at a lower price. The increase in weight per bushel is mainly in flour. The husk forms a much larger proportion in light than in heavy oats. But besides the question of weight, there is the far greater question of the nutritive value of the flour from fully well-grown and well-matured ears over flour from ill-developed ears, the produce of a crop grown on poor soil or under bad climatic conditions. There is no value in any crop except what is extracted from the soil; and if the soil is poor or from bad treatment impoverished, the nutritive value of the produce can be but small. Dealers often offer to make up the weight of a lot of oats to the stipu- lated number of pounds per bushel by giving an increased quantity. This practice should not be permitted. Good oats yield more flour per pound than inferior oats. Besides which the flour in light oats is always inferior in quality to that contained in well-grown, fully ripened, and well-developed grains. HE. g. a quarter of oats at 32 Ib. will weigh 256 Ib. per quarter, and, according to the second of the above tables, contain 159 lb. 8 oz. of flour. Tf 80 lb. oats be added in order to bring it up to the weight of a quarter at 42 lb., viz. 336 lb., there will be an addition of about 64 lb. of flour, making the total weight of flour 1654 Ib.; whilst in a quarter of oats at 42 |b. (natural weight) the flour is 249 lb. Besides which the difference in the quality of the flour (see above) must be taken into consideration. 71. Mode of weighing a bushel. In the preceding paragraph we have explained that the value of oats is in a great degree dependent on their weight per bushel. In buying oats, it is customary to stipulate that the lot shall weigh so many pounds 40 CHAPTER 5. per bushel. In weighing them for this purpose it is of course the object of the seller to get as many oats as possible into the measure, and thus to increase the apparent weight of the sample per bushel; whilst the object of the buyer is to make them weigh as light as he can, or in other words, fill the measure with the least possible quantity of grain. Tricks are often played on the unwary, and sundry devices are adopted, such as moving the measure once or twice while it is being filled, or shaking it, or knocking against it with the scoop in pouring in the grain, or heaping it over-full, and pressing down the grain, when it is “ struck.” The effect of these devices is to cause the oats to lie close together, and thus to make the measure hold more than it otherwise would. But apart from such tricks, which of course are easily seen and checked, a very considerable difference may be produced in the apparent weight of oats according to the way in which the measure is filled. In the wholesale trade the bushel measure is pushed into a large heap, and turned over gently and struck at once. It is essential that the heap be large, or the measure will not be filled without the aid of a scoop. A good deal of practice is required to do this in a workmanlike way. This gives the true, otherwise called the “natural” or “ trade” weight. In the retail trade some other methods are commonly used. The fol- lowing are the results of various ways of weighing a bushel of oats, of which the natural or trade weight was 38 Ib. Filled quickly from a large shovel, and the strike applied at once, the measure held 384 lb. The success of the operation depends on the measure being placed on a firm basis, so that it will not move or shake, and on its being filled quickly. The oats then have not time to run together and consolidate. The measure in consequence holds almost the least possible quantity. Filled from the mouth of the sack, by allowing the oats to run in freely and quickly, the measure held nearly 38% lb., when the operation was neatly and well managed. There is a good deal of knack in getting the oats to run freely. The mouth of the sack must be opened wide, and the sides should be well turned down, so that no interruption may occur in filling the measure. Care must be taken that the mouth of the sack does not touch the measure. With this view, the sack should be placed on a raised platform. The foot-board of the scales will answer for this purpose. Filled very quickly from a small scoop, the measure held 39 Ib. Filled somewhat slowly from the same scoop, 394 lb. Filled from a shovel held at the hip, the grain being allowed to flow or trickle in slowly, the measure held 42 lb.; or in other words, the sample was made to appear to weigh 42 lb. instead of 38 lb., the natural or trade weight. Here both the height from which the grains fell, and the slowness of the operation, combined in causing consolidation. Different samples, no doubt, will give somewhat varying results accord- ing to the greater or less tendency which they may possess for con- solidating ; but from these details the intending purchaser will readily FORAGE. 41 see that, in order to get the article he contracts and pays for, it is neces- sary that he should know how to weigh a bushel. The shape of the measure to a certain degree affects the weight of the oats. In a narrow deep measure, the oats will consolidate when poured in, and the apparent weight will be increased. In the bushel legal measure, the depth is not to exceed one half the diameter. In addition, however, to knowing how to do it, there is a good deal of knack and practice required to fill the bushel properly ; and the reader, if he tries the above experiments for himself, will probably at first fail to get the true weight. The best plan, however, of testing the true weight is by means of a very simple machine, which can easily be made by any carpenter. Make a box 30 inches deep by 12 by 12 inches, which will hold about 1} bushels. At the bottom make a hole 4} by 4} inches, and fit it with a sliding door underneath, which must fit easy, and fill it with oats. Underneath the box, at a distance of five inches below it, place the bushel measure. Draw back the door, and let the oats run through. When the measure is rather more than full, push back the door. Then “strike” the measure, and weigh the bushel and its contents. Deduct the weight of the measure, and you have the natural or trade weight of the oats. This is the best and simplest plan, and there can be no mistake. The box may be placed on a stand, or hung to a bracket fixed at the requisite height in the wall. The next best plan is to purchase a large scoop, holding rather more than a bushel, and from it to fill the measure at once, and then strike it. Even, however, with the proper mode of weighing, tricks are sometimes played by dishonest dealers, which affect and increase the weight of a sample. Ii a sample, for instance, before going to market receives a good shaking, the friction thereby caused will rub off a good many of the awns and asperities of the husks, and the seeds will then flow in more easily into a compact mass, and thus the weight per bushel will be increased ; whilst the remainder of the lot, which have not been subjected to the same friction as the sample, will not yield the weight supposed. Again, certain descriptions of oats give, if we may use the expression, deceptively good weight. Very smooth and well-closed oats, for instance, lie closely together, and leave but little space unoccupied; and there- fore, though they may contain but little flour, they may still weigh fairly well. Another sort with really better filled grains, but with rougher coats, may weigh less. Again, some very good-looking smooth large foreign oats give a great weight per bushel on account of the almost woody nature of their husks. Lastly, damp oats, which have not been damp sufficiently long to cause them to swell, may give an unfairly good weight. The purchaser, therefore, whilst relying on weight as one great, and in tnost cases the best test, must take care to note well all the other charac- teristics of the lot he proposes to buy. In testing samples of oats in the sack it is a common practice in the 42 CHAPTER 5, trade to thrust an ordinary smooth walking-stick rapidly into the sack. If the grain is of good quality and condition and free from dirt, &e., the stick will pass down comparatively easily. If, on the other hand, the oats are damp, badly screened, and otherwise of inferior quality, more difficulty will be experienced in the attempt. 72. Various defects in oats. Kiln drying is a process resorted to in order to get rid either of damp- ness or softness or of both defects. Oats so dried have a peculiar and easily recognised smell and taste, and in some cases there is a loose and shrivelled appearance about the ends of the husks. This arises from the kernel having swollen when damp, and afterwards contracted in size when the damp was suddenly expelled in the kiln. The colour of the oat is also deepened, and often assumes a reddish hue; but the colour, as will be explained presently, may be got rid of by fumigation. The process of kiln drying in itself damages the flour to a certain degree ; but the great objection to kiln-dried oats arises from the flour having been in most instances, as regards English oats, damaged before they are sent to the kin. No amount of drying, we need scarcely say, will restore damaged flour to its original condition, or in fact make bad into good flour. An attempt is often made to get rid of the smell by spreading out the oats in thin layers to the action of the air, and then mixing them with new fresh-smelling oats immediately before they are offered for sale. Foreign oats, even though in good condition, are nearly always slightly kiln-dried before being put on board ship to pre- vent their heating in bulk during the voyage. This process, if the oats are in good condition, as they often are in the finer climates of the Continent, is almost unobjectionable. Oats which have been badly saved, or have become dirty from any cause, are sometimes washed to improve their colour, and are then put in the kiln to be dried. Very good new oats are occasionally slightly kiln-dried to harden them and make them resemble old oats, and thus increase their value. Foxy oats are those which have heated from being kept in bulk, when not perfectly dry; and in consequence have undergone to a certain degree a process of fermentation. They are easily recognised by a red- dish and sometimes very red colour, and by a peculiar bitterness of smell and taste. They are unfit for horses. The nutritive quality of the flour is in a great measure destroyed. They act injuriously, especially on the kidneys, and produce excessive staling and cause the horse rapidly to lose condition. The red colour is sometimes got rid of by fumigation. Fumigation or bleaching is a process resorted to in order to get rid of the heightened colour imparted to the oats by the process of kiln-drying or by their having become foxy. The dark colour is got rid of and an unnaturally white hue is given by subjecting the oats to the fumes of sulphur. This fraud may be detected by taking a handful of oats from the heap and bringing it quickly up to the nose, or by applying the nose directly to a hollow made in the heap. fire FORAGE. 43 When, however, the process is well managed, the smell is exceedingly faint. Several large factories have been erected in various parts of Fhe country, in which the processes of washing, kiln-drying, and fumigating are carried on under the same roof. Damp oats are objectionable, and should not be taken. Dampness, however, is in some measure a question of degree, and of the length of time during which it has existed. Continued damp, especially when the oats are stored in bulk, soon produces softness, mustiness, or sprouting. Softness is the first effect produced by damp. The flour, though not in perfectly good condition, may still be wholesome, but any such defect militates against good hard condition in the horse. Mustiness is a further stage resulting from damp. Musty oats are easily recognised by the smell. They are altogether unfit for food, and ure sometimes poisonous, being in an incipient stage of decomposition. When examined under the microscope a fungoid growth may be detected on the inner skin. Mouldy oats are in a state of positive decomposition, and are obviously unfit for food. Sprouting is a process of new growth or germination in the oat in- duced by damp combined with some amount of warmth under certain conditions of the weather. In this respect it will be seen that sprouting differs from mustiness or mouldiness, which are processes of decompo- sition and death of the grain. Oats, which have sprouted, are quite unfit for food. Other defects in oats are dirt, stones, and want of proper winnowing. These defects, though they militate against the value, may be remedied by screening and winnowing. 73. Distinction between old and new oats. The chief distinction between new and old oats lies in the smell. New oats smell fresh and of the earth. There is a decided earthy smell about them, which is lost in the old oat. Old oats, if newly thrashed out, may smell fresh, but there is not the earthy smell about them. As a rule, however, they smell rather musty and frequently of rats. In new oats the outside of the husk in well-saved samples is bright and shining, having almost a glazed appearance, especially in the black variety. In old oats this glazing is lost. The outside, though it may be perfectly clean, is dim and the ends of the husks in white oats, and the point of the kernel in both white and black oats, are always a little darkened. Badly saved new oats may in these respects sometimes resemble old oats ; but in such cases they will probably be distinguished by their softness. The taste of the new oat is fresh and somewhat milky ; and its flour, when moistened in the mouth, readily adheres together. The taste of the old oat is slightly bitter. In the mouth the flour feels dry and is not easily moistened. In the new oat there is a certain degree of juiciness, 44 CHAPTER 9, sweetness, and milkiness about its flour. In very dry seasons these dis- tinctions are less observable than in ordinary years. New oats as a general rule are softer than old; but here again the season, the state of the weather for some time preceding the sample coming to market, and the dampness perhaps of the place in which they have been stored, may cause old oats to handle as soft as new. On the other hand, in very fine seasons new oats may come to market almost as dry and hard as old in average years. In bearded varieties the beards are well preserved in new samples ; but from old oats a considerable proportion of the beards have generally fallen off or been knocked off by friction in carriage, &c. In all kinds the ends of the grains from the above causes always look shorter and sharper in old than in new samples. The husk also becomes tight and locked round the kernel. The skin of the kernel of a new oat is covered with a very fine prickly down composed of very minute hairs. In the old oat the kernel appears and feels more smooth. If the husks are stripped off, this distinction will be quite perceptible to the palate in chewing a few grains of each. All the above distinctions except the first are subject to so many modi- fications according to varying circumstances, that we must advise the reader, whilst not altogether neglecting them, to form his opinion chiefly by the presence or absence of the earthy smell. 73a. Crushed oats. Crushed oats are frequently given with advantage, especially to greedy feeders and animals that bolt their food without sufficiently masticating it. Oats, however, should never be purchased crushed, as inferior grain can easily be, and generally is, substituted for that of better quality. If crushed oats are used, it is advisable to buy a small hand-mill. The oats can then be crushed as required, and the quality can be ensured. 74. Other grain. Indian corn, Barley, Gram. Indian corn crushed or ground is often used in lieu of oats, when the price happens to be moderate, or the quality of the oat crop is indifferent. It answers very well, and some horses put on flesh better with it than with oats. It should be given mixed with about an equal quantity of bran and chopped hay, the whole being slightly wetted. About the same weight of meal may be given as the horses had been accustomed to of corn. Many persons prefer giving Indian corn whole after soaking it for some hours. This process softens the grain and causes it to swell. In this condition it is more readily masticated, and is supposed to be more - easy of digestion. The author has not tried it in this form, and hesi- tates to recommend it. In some foreign countries other grain is substituted for oats, some- FORAGE. 45 times because oats cannot be procured, sometimes because those grown in the locality are inferior. Barley is a common substitute. It is more heating than oats, and is apt to produce constipation, derangement of the bowels, and consequent irritetion of the skin. On this account it is often desirable to combine it with clover, lucerne, grass, or other green meat as a corrective. The same remarks apply to Gram, a species of pea, which is commonly used in India as a substitute for oats. When a new description of grain is given in lieu of that to which the horse has been accustomed, it is always desirable to introduce the change gradually if possible. Beans contain more nutritive material than oats, but if given in excess are heating. Beans are beneficial to horses employed on very hard work, especially to old animals and to those which are a little overtasked. About two pounds per diem in addition to the usual quantity of oats is a fair allowance, but the amount may be increased or diminished according to circumstances. Beans weigh half as much again as oats, and hence servants in giving them out by measure sometimes allow a good deal more than they intend. Beans should be hard, dry, sweet, plump, sound, one year old, and should weigh from 60 to 64 lb. per bushel. They should invariably be split, as otherwise they are apt to pass whole through the intestines. English beans only should be given. The skins of foreign, especially of Egyptian beans, are often so hard as to render them utterly indigestible in the horse’s stomach. Beans otherwise good are often damaged by an insect, which eats out the kernel. This defect is easily seen. New beans are less nutritious than old, and are moreover apt to produce flatulence and colic. Yoa. Peas. Peas contain nearly as much nutritive material as beans, and are extensively used in some stables. Like beans they should be given split, and should be plump, dry, sound, and at least one year old. 75b. Wheat. Wheat should not be given to horses if any other grain can be procured. It is unsuited to the horse’s stomach, and is likely to produce Serious intestinal derangements. In cases where no other grain can be procured, wheat may be given if previously parched. The parching process appears to destroy the viscidity of the gluten which causes this grain to be so difficult of digestion in the stomach of the horse. 46 CHAPTER 5. 76. Hay. For horses in ordinary work the cavalry allowance of twelve pounds per diem is sufficient. It is very commonly thought that horses in hard work should be limited in regard to hay; but if, as has been recom- mended above, horses in such work are allowed as much oats as they will eat, it is unnecessary and injudicious to put an arbitrary limit on their hay. Practically it will be found that horses, which are not limited in regard to oats, will not usually consume above six pounds of hay per diem; and nobody probably would wish them to have less. A horse cannot be maintained in health on grain alone. The stomach needs a certain amount of mechanical distension, and without it will not act properly. The same fact is noticed in man, in whom highly concen- trated foods, however nutritious, will not maintain health or even life. 77. Chopped hay. Chopped hay has been highly recommended, but except a little for the purpose of mixing with the corn of greedy feeders, the author cannot see any advantage in its use. The argument commonly put forward in its favour, namely, that by chopping the good and bad parts are so mixed that the horse must eat the bad with the good, in his opinion tells seri- ously against the plan. A horse is better without bad hay in his stomach than with it. Bad forage of any sort is false economy, and the horse in rejecting it shows more sense than his master in trying to force him to eat it. Hay should always be chopped at home, as that sold by dealers is generally made from inferior and damaged growths. If horses are fed from the nose-bag, as is the practice where the hours of work are long, chopped hay must of course be used. 78. Waste of hay. Great waste of hay is frequently occasioned by careless servants stuffing the rack with perhaps half a hundredweight. Then indeed the horse selects only the very choicest locks, and pulls about and breathes over the remainder and eventually tramples it under his feet. If no more than twelve pounds are given with three feeds of corn, or half that quantity where the horses have an unlimited supply of corn, they will not in general waste or reject wuch that it would be good for them to eat. With some horses, however, it is necessary, in order to avoid waste, to divide the hay into four instead of the usual two portions during the day. 79. Quality and value of hay. The quality and value of hay depend— Ist. On the grasses and herbage of which it is composed. 2nd. On the soil on which it has been grown. 3rd. On the time at which the grass has been cut. 4th. On the way in which it has been “ saved.” FORAGE. 47 All these points will be further considered in detail. N.B.—If in a sample of the hay, a variety of the best grasses, such as rye-grass, meadow fescue, meadow foxtail, cat’s-tail, &c., are found, but attenuated, it is a proof that the soil, though naturally good, is in bad heart, 2. €. impoverished by over-cropping or want of manure. The hay is worthless. There is no virtue in grass except such as is extracted from the soil. For an illustration, compare No. 3 meadow foxtail and No. 17 slender foxtail. It is true that these are different varieties. But meadow foxtail grown on impoverished, though naturally good soil, will look very much like slender foxtail. 80. Upland, Lowland, and Water-meadow hay. Hay may be broadly distinguished as either upland, lowland, or water- meadow. Upland is the best. None but upland hay should be used for horses doing fast work. Lowland hay is inferior. Water-meadow hay is altogether unfit for horses. These terms, which are in common use and generally well understood, are not in all cases strictly accurate, ¢. g. a low-lying meadow may repose on a dry formation, and in addition may be well drained; and if so, it may grow fine, commonly called upland grasses. On the other hand, a meadow may lie high and yet may be a swamp, and will therefore grow coarse, commonly called lowland or even water-meadow grasses. Still for all practical purposes these expressions may be used, and will be understood by all practical men. Certain grasses grow on/y on upland meadows, others on/y on lowland, whilst others are found only on water-meadows. Some sorts are found both in upland and lowland meadows, whilst others are found both in lowland and water meadows. Im short, no very sharp line of demarca- tion can be drawn between grasses of upland and lowland and water- meadow growth. They shade into each other according to the pecu- liarities of the soil. The best upland grasses will, however, be found only in upland meadows, but the inferior upland grasses will be found in moderately dry lowland meadowvs, and vice versd, the best sorts of lowland grasses may be found, to a certain extent, on upland meadows. The same remarks apply to lowland and water-meadow grasses. The inferior lowland grasses may be found in water-meadows, whilst the best _water-meadow grasses may be occasionally, though more rarely, found in lowland meadows. ’ 81. Distinction between upland, lowland, and water-meadow hay. Upland hay is known generally by the fineness and firmness of the stalks or stems, and by the narrowness of the leaves of its grasses. Specially, it is recognised by the prevalence of certain grasses (of which hereafter) which do not grow on lowland; and, again, by the prevalence 5 j to) 48 CHAPTER 5. of certain sorts of herbage (of which hereafter) which do not grow on lowland. Lowland hay is known by the coarseness of the stalks and by the broad leaves of its grasses (of which hereafter), and by the absence of good upland herbage. The hay, though coarser, is softer, less firm and crisp than upland hay. The colour is also darker. Water-meadow hay is at once recognised by its very coarse, broad, often reed-like stalks, and by the very broad, often flag-like leaves of its grasses, and by a large admixture of sedge, and of plants approaching the nature of sedge, and rushes. See No. 19, Rushes, No. 20, Sweet- reed grass (Glyceria or Poa aquatica), No. 21, Ribbon-grass (Digraphis arundinacea). Water-meadow grass is quite unfit for horses, and will be not further alluded to. The above are only general distinctions. The minuter distinctions, as — regards upland and lowland hay, will be detailed below. CO bo 2. Characteristics of good upland hay. Good upland hay should be moderately fine, somewhat hard, sweet- smelling, and well saved. The colour should be green, and should convey an idea of newness. Very little heating or fermentation should have taken place in the stack. Some slight heating is, however, almost: unavoidable if the crop is cut early, as it ought to be, whilst the juices © are still in the grass, or, in other words, before it has run to seed. This slight heating will prevent the best early-cut hay from being very green. A preference has been shown in London of late years for very green hay, arising from the idea that when of this colour, it is most nearly in its natural state; but, for the reason given above, this idea, if carried | too far, is a fallacy. Other causes, such as a shower of rain falling on the grass when © nearly ready to be carried, or exposure to a very hot sun, will often cause hay to lose its very green colour, though it may not have suffered any real damage. The flowering heads of the grasses ought to be present in abundance. Hay, which consists of an undue proportion of leaves, is inferior. Every fibre should be firm and crisp, and should appear distinct. The fibres in ~ good upland hay often lie in one direction. In machine-tossed hay, how- ever, the direction of the fibres is not so well preserved as in that made by the hand-rake. A tangled confusion of the constituents is a sign of badly saved or lowland hay. The perfume of the best upland hay, ~ though not so strong, is very like that of new-mown grass. If masticated — it has a mild avout! whilst lowland and inferior growths have a strong pungent taste. i Hay grown on good soils is also distinguished by the number and~ variety of the grasses. Horses prefer hay composed of a variety of good grasses to that consisting of only one sort, even though that sor ‘ may be the very best. i aN. = PLATE 9, B Meadow Foxr-tail (Alopecurus pratensis.) AY = LN — Seg, No. 2. Meadow Fescue. (Festuca pratensis.) BEST GRASSES. X Rye Grass (Lolium perenne.) PxaTE 10 BEST GRASSES. 7 | LAA SS S ZA AAAZZZZ Fe ZZ WSASSSsss SS Fr LZLZZ Za. ee WIESS SEO a ite ———— WES y (\ IM WE | No. 4. No. 5. No. 6. | Meadow Cat's-tail or Timothy. Crested Dog’s-tail, Sweet Vernal in Flower. Sweet Vernal ind (Phleum pratense.) ( Cynosurus cristatus.) (Anthoxanthum odoratum.) INFERIOR GRASSES. Puate 11. No. 7. No. 8. Cocksfoot. Smooth Meadow Grass, (Dactylis glomerata.) (Poa pratensis.) INFERIOR GRASSES, CONTINUED. PrateE 12. No. 10. < 3m Be Ses yas oo =e ws ©» Be | sts SESuS - S oe oo iS ‘= a a So SS Ss 3 w~ 9 ss n> 25 g =e sam QS H ‘_ a Ss ~ fo} > S a = uu ~ by — Meadow Soft Grass, in very full flower. z So es ES =a = A ea Yr. > A No. 13. Fiorin Grass. (Agrostis stolonifera.) =e (5 SX <—<— = = SSN SSS — SN = SQ, . == = yD SS Za Re LL fs ZED = . ZZ a ? —« Se eae — L ZZ’ 2 LA ZL |) PF tz No. 12 Field Brome. (Bromus arvensis.) wn & mn Lvl st oe S [of ie) I io & fy ‘i 4 bi 6S | > ering head only. (Avena elatior.) No. 11 False Oat. inal ICR Ga rae enon dary ph et Lo aay Ne dros PuaTE 14, VERY INFERIOR GRASSES, CONTINUED. No. 14. No. 15. Rough-stalked Meadow Grass. Quaking Grass. (Poa trivialis.) (Briza media.) : BAD GRASSES. PuaTe 15. me No. 16. No. 17. No. 18. No. 19. irrel-tail,or Com- Slender Fox-tail. Tufted Hair Grass. Common Rush. Meadow Barley. (Alopecurus (Aira cespitosa.) (Juncus conglomeratus.) pratense.) agrestis.) Flowering head only. WATER MEADOW GRASSES. PLATE 16. No. 21. Ribbon Grass. ( Digraphis arundinacea.) No. 20. Small flowering head. Reed Sweet Grass (Glyceria or Poa aquatica.) HERBAGE. PLATE 17. aR Ue: Ly, LY, ° { SS) SY 2 SS oS pa cS m=, No, 22. No. 23. No. 24. ite or Dutch Clover. Red Clover. Little Yellow Clover. Trifolium repens.) (Trifolium pratense.) (Lotus corniculatus.) PLATE 18. HERBAGE. No. 25. No. 26. No. 27. Little Yellow Vetch. Saintfoin. ; Hop Trefoil. (Lathyrus pratensis.) (Hedysarum Onobrychis.) (Trifolium procumbens.) SD *. No. 28. Rib Plantain. (Plantago lanceolata.) No. 29. Hard or Blackheads, or Knapweed. (Centaurea nigra.) PraTE 19. No. 30. Rattle in Seed. ( Rhinanthus crista-galli.) PLaTE 20. WEEDS. No. 31. No. 32. Common Bank Sedge. Small Sedge. Wood Rush. (Carex riparia.) (Luzula campestris.) — WEEDS. PLATE 21. No. 34.—Silveriweed, or Goose Grass. Part of the leaf. (Potentilla anserina.) No. 33.—Cat’s-ear in flower. (Hypochxris radicata.) NB In Hay this weed shrivels up greatly, and the stalks become a mere thread. WEEDS. PLATE 214A. SLND OSS RY Ns Small Leaf. ae 8 S 5 GS iss SS) Ss os a2 os | Le ite) oO iS) A, WEEDS. PLATE 218, No. 36.— Plantain, a common Weed of no value. ; | t * é a 1 S 2 VJ j AB n y a j a s iy e . 7 ‘4 7 ; - - = a ae ad + - FORAGE, 49 A proportion of herbage, that is of plants (not weeds) other than grass, is desirable. The different kinds of clover, especially white or Dutch, and the other varieties of trefoils, constitute the great mass of good up- land herbage. These plants are generally abundant where the soil on which the crop is grown is good. Herbage makes the hay sweet and palatable. Hay composed only of the best grasses is not relished so well as when mixed with a proportion of herbage. N.B.—Herbage is a conventional name for plants other than grasses (not weeds) in hay. In a botanical point of view the name is not strictly correct, as all grass is herbage. A mixture of weeds in hay is objectionable. The presence of flowers which have not lost their colour, such as butter- cups and the flowers of trefoil and clover, is always an item of value in hay, as it shows that the crop has been cut early in the season, before the grasses have lost their juices and nutriment. A similar favourable indication is given by certain early grasses, such as sweet vernal (No. 6), being still in flower, 7. e. not run to seed. Hay from artificial grass, if early cut, well made, and not over-heated, is suitable for horses. Most samples are, however, deficient in aroma. Rye-grass is most commonly grown for this purpose ; but the farmer, solicitous to obtain quantity, too often delays cutting until the grass is in seed, and the quality of the crop is then reduced. To recapitulate. The characteristics of the best hay are cleanness, firmness, crispness, and green colour, delicacy in taste, aroma, and appearance, the presence of flowers of their natural colour, the presence of numerous grasses, with sweet vernal and other early grasses in flower, and a proportion of good herbage. Brightness of colour is an essential requisite as regards market value, but many samples of inferior colour possess no other actual inferiority. Hay should be one year old. It is then at its best. The author docs not believe that hay is improved by keeping for three or four years. 83. Of inferior and bad upland hay. Upland hay, though as a rule superior to lowland hay, may be good, inferior, or bad of the sort. The best grasses grow only on good soils. The goodness of any soil is, however, largely dependent on manure being duly supplied. The best natural soil will seldom nourish the best grasses year after year without renovation by manure. Without proper dressing, the grasses become poor and thin, or very fine and wanting in firmness. The soil, in fact, has become exhausted, the fibres of its grasses become attenuated, and the hay is soft and silk-like. The herbage also in such cases is generally deficient. Such very fine hay, though perfectly wholesome, is not nutritious, and is therefore unfit for horses doing fast work. The Want of herbage is, however, often remedied by sowing clover in the autumn. Good upland soils, properly cared for, produce the best grasses in the A a0 OHAPTER 95. best condition. Inferior soils, or even the best natural soils if badly cared for, produce inferior grasses. Hay grown on such soils is usually hard as distinguished from firm, over-dry, and deficient in colour, aroma, nutriment, and herbage. There are also very poor upland soils, which, especially in dry seasons, grow very little grass. Some are so poor that they will not produce erass sufficient for haymaking. . It must be remembered that there can be no nutriment in grass except what it extracts from the land. Therefore poor land, or land in bad heart, must grow poor innutritious hay. Some soils produce grass not merely of inferior varieties, but bad of the sort, which is easily recognised in hay by a peculiar sour appearance and taste, and often by a darker colour. The smell, if any, may probably have an odour of turpentine. Hay grown under trees is readily known by the long, lanky fibres of its grasses, by its lightness, softness, and absence of aroma; except when grown under fir trees, when a smell of turpentine may be detected. It is very objectionable. 84. Lowland hay. Lowland hay is known—lIst. By the coarseness of the stems of its erasses, by the broad leaves of its undergrowth, and by a large admix- ture of coarse herbage and weeds. 2nd. The direction of the stems and — leaves is not well preserved. It is a tangled mass. 3rd. The colour is — darker than that of good, well-saved upland hay—though the latter, if 4 heated or badly saved, may be dark. 4th. It has a stronger and less © delicate aroma. 5th. The texture is more woolly; and the sample, — though each leaf or stem may be coarser, yet feels more soft or less firm. — Altogether it lacks the firmness, crispness, cleanliness, freshness of — appearance, and delicacy, both of substance and aroma, of good upland hay. Lastly, lowland hay is at once recognised by the absence of the © best grasses, which will be presently described as characteristic of upland — soils. : 85. Of the grasses which compose good wpland hay. The Stems or Flowering heads denote the grasses. bs The leaves, which surround those heads, are not easily recognised. Therefore we look to the stems as indicating the grasses. According to — the prevalence or otherwise of certain stems, so will be the quality of — the hay. iy No. 1. Rye-grass (Lolium perenne) grows naturally on most good up- land soils. It contains much nutriment. It is also found on poorer soils if dry, but on such it dwindles in size. It is also extensively cultivated as an artificial grass on lands under rotation. The hay made from it is good for horses. The variety known as Italian is often grown with sewage. Here it becomes coarse, and, though valuable for cows, is unfit for horses. : ee io ORI, eS FORAGE. 51 No. 2. Meadow Fescue (Festuca pratensis) is a very good upland grass. It forms a considerable bulk of the permanent grass on good upland soils. Its presence denotes good soil. It varies much in its forms, often almost resembling rye-grass, and at other times branching out even more than represented in Fig. 2. There are several other varieties of Pestwca, some of which are larger, others smaller than the pratenszs. No. 3. Meadow Foxtail (Alopecurus pratensis) is a very good early grass, and is found on good deep soils. It requires moisture, and there- fore will not flourish on light dry soils. It closely resembles cat’s tail, but is distinguished from it by long hair-like awns. No. 4. Meadow Cat’s tail, or Timothy (Phlewm pratense), is a very good grass, and often forms a considerable bulk of good upland hay. It is, however, best adapted for moist rich soils. No. 5. Crested Dog’s-tail (Cynosurus cristatus) is a very good upland grass. It is well adapted to light and medium soils. Having long roots, it will resist dryness better than most other upland grasses. No. 6. Sweet-scented Vernal (Anthoranthum odoratum), though it has no great nutritive value, is very beneficial in hay on account of the fragrance which it imparts. It is a very early grass, and runs early to seed. Hence, if it is found in flower in hay, it is especially favourable as a test that the crop has been cut in good time. If, on the other hand, it has run to seed, it shows that the cutting has been delayed. The above are the best upland grasses; and in proportion as upland hay contains them, it is good. Some few of them, it will be seen, require that the soil should be moist as well as rich. 86. Of inferior grasses. No. 7. Cock’s-foot (Dactylis glomerata) is a somewhat inferior grass. It grows on both good and inferior soils. It also flourishes under the shade and drip of trees. Hence it is sometimes termed Orchard-grass. It is coarse and hard, but as it contains a good deal of nutriment, it is constantly employed as a mixture by agriculturists. No. 8. Smooth Meadow-grass (Poa pratensis) is inferior, and contains but little nutriment. It grows abundantly on all soils, whether wet or dry. There are numerous varieties of this grass, some fine, some coarse, _ according as the soil is dry or wet; but they all bear a general resem- blance. No. 9. Soft Meadow-grass (Holcus mollis) is another abundant but inferior grass. It grows on all soils. When dried as hay, it has a soft spongy feel. It contains but little nutriment. No. 9 a shows the same in early flower. No. 10. As much may be said of Yorkshire fog (Holeus lanatus), which it very closely resembles. These last two grasses are found to a certain extent in all samples of hay, but in inferior hay they form the great bulk. 52 CHAPTER 59. 87. Very inferior grasses. No. 11. False Oat (Avena elatior) is a very common class of grass, especially abundant on light and calcareous soils, and often growing on hedgebanks. Ne o. 12. The Field Brome (Bromus arvensis) is a coarse, common grass. It grows on low-lying ground, and, although not found in water-meadows, will flourish on almost any description of soil. No. 13. Fiorin grass (Agrostis stolonifera) is an inferior, very plentiful grass, and will grow on any soil. It has, however, been found useful, yielding a weighty crop on salt marshes, reclaimed bogs, and other damp soils, where the better grasses would not thrive. No. 14. The Rough-stalked Meadow-grass (Poa trivialis) is a common inferior grass, found on all soils, but especially abundant on poor soils, whether wet or dry. Though unsuitable for horses, cattle thrive pretty well on it. No. 15. Quaking-grass (Briza media) is not abundant, but is found to a certain extent on most poor and low-lying soils. Here and there a few straggling specimens occur on good soils. 88. Of bad grasses. No. 16. Squirrel-tail or Meadow Barley (Hordeum pratense) is a sign of bad and wet land. It has no nutritive value, and is much disliked by horses on account of its bristles, which hurt the gums. No. 17. Slender Foxtail (Alopecurus agrestts) marks poor land, and is common in waste places and road-sides. It can hardly be distinguished from meadow foxtail, except by its being smaller and much more slender. It has no nutritive value. In some districts a variety of this grass grows very tall and large on wet, undrained land, and is locally known as Black. erass. ; No. 18. Tufted hair-grass (Aira cespitosa) is very tall, and grows in bunches or large fasencks. It marks very poor soil and low land. Its presence in hay is an invariable sign of worthlessness. The drawing shows the flowering head only. No. 19. Rushes “(Juncus communis), though not grass, may here be mentioned. They are a marked sign of wet, undrained land. They will, however, continue to exist for years in drained land unless well stocked up, though decreasing each year in size and number. The above are the principal grasses which, according to circumstances, prevail in upland and lowland meadows. A purely upland grass will not be found at all in lowland meadows. Others, however, are common to both, but become ranker and coarser in their stems and leaves in propor- tion as the soil is wet. ‘ 89. Upland herbage. : Of the plants constituting good upland herbage, the several varieties of the Trefoil are the most important. No. 22. White or Dutch Clover (77rifoliwm repens) flourishes on eood upland soils, wherever there is a fair proportion of lime in the soil. FORAGE. 53 No. 23. Common Red clover (Z'rifolium pratense) is found in abund- _ ance on most good soils, and to a certain extent on other soils, as long as they are dry. _ No. 24. The Little Yellow Clover (Lotus corniculatus) is good herbage, and prevails on most dry upland soils. It varies a good deal in its growth and appearance in different places. _ No. 25. The Yellow Vetch (Lathyrus pratensis) is found on soils, whether rich or poor, if dry. These latter two, as they ripen, are apt to become bitter and unpalat- able. No. 26. Sainfoin (Onobrychis sativa) is found only on fairly good soils. No, 27. Hop trefoil ({rifoliwm procumbens) is found on both good and poor soils, if dry. 90. Lowland herbage. Lowland herbage consists of a great variety of plants. It is easily re- _ cognised by its broad coarse leaves and general rankness. 91. Recapitulation. Good hay contains a large proportion of the best grasses, along with the trefoils and other good herbage, and only a small proportion of the inferior grasses. Inferior hay, on the other hand, consists mainly of the inferior grasses, with only a small, or perhaps no admixture of the best grasses, whilst good herbage will be wanting. Inferior hay generally contains an unduly large proportion of leaves to “Stems. The absence of a good proportion of stems to leaves is always a sign of inferiority, whether the hay be upland or lowland. The best upland hay consists mainly of the grasses numbered from 1 to 6, with almost always some admixture of the rather inferior grasses _ numbered from 7 to 10. Inferior hay will contain but little of the grasses numbered from 1 to 6, _a very large proportion of those numbered from 7 to 10, and some pro- _ portion of those numbered from 11 to 15. __ Very inferior hay will contain none of the grasses numbered from 1 to Bs, and the bulk will consist of those numbered from 7 to 15, with some of those from 16 to 19. _ The specimens of water-meadow grasses are numbered from 18 to 21. 92. Of Weeds. : The presence of weeds in hay is generally an unfavourable sign. They “indicate land either in bad heart, or naturally poor or wet. _ Buttercups, however, are often found in considerable quantities on fair moist soils. There are four varieties of buttercups—all more or less acrid. The long-stalked and bulbous varieties are found in considerable quantities on most fair moist soils. The creeping and celery-leaved varieties are found on wet marshy soils. 54 CHAPTER 5. Dandelions grow on good soil, but their presence shows that the land has not been kept clean. Sorrel grows on light soils. It gives a subacid taste to hay. A small quantity is not objectionable. The Rib Plantain (Plantayo lanceolata) is a common weed, growing on all soils. It is not objectionable in hay. No. 28. Hard or Black heads, otherwise called Knapweed (Centaurea nigra), are coarse, tough, and quite indigestible. No. 29. Rattle (Rhinanthus crista-galli) grows on poor land. Its abundance in any sample of hay is a sure sign of poor land, though a very little is sometimes found on good soils. It is a great nuisance to the farmer. No. 30. Common Bank Sedge (Carex riparia), if large, indicates very inferior wet soil. Its presence should cause any sample to be rejected. Smaller — varieties, some very small, are, however, found on poor upland soils. No. 31. Smaller forms of sedge are sometimes found on upland, and are not injurious, though indicating poor soil. The Wood-rush (Luzula campestris) is very common on upland soils. Its presence in any considerable quantity indicates an inferior quality of | hay. No. 32. | Cat’s-ear (Hypocheris radicata) is most objectionable. It has a bitter taste, which will cause horses to reject the whole lot of hay, so much do they dislike it. It has a flower somewhat like the dandelion. No. 33. ; Silverweed or Goose-grass (Potentilla anserina) is found on clayey 93. Of the time of cutting hay and saving hay. sands. No. 34. j Coltsfoot (Zussilayo farfara) abounds in all moist chalky soils and | clays. No. 35. t : Hay may be composed only of the best grasses and herbage, and yet — may be inferior or bad, because— Ist. It may have been cut too late ; or— | 2nd. It may have been badly saved. hey a. - 94. Of late-cut hay. This is a very common evil. The farmer often delays to cut in the hope of obtaining a greater bulk of under grass. This is especially apt — to be the case in dry seasons; or, on the other hand, the crop in wet seasons may be left to stand over-long in the hope of finer weather. The crop should be cut before the grasses have run to seed. The permanent grasses flower and seed every year. In common with all such plants, the nutriment of the plant passes into the seed for the reproduc- tion of its kind in the succeeding year. We all recognise the effect of seeding on the stem or straw of corn. The straw is almost worthless for feeding, because the nutriment of the plant has passed into the seed. This is also to a great degree the cas hm + 2m FORAGE. 5d in regard to grass, though not to so great an extent as in corn, as the grass plant does not absolutely die. Still it exhausts the greater part of its nutriment in its efforts for the formation of its seed. It may be asked, Why should not a horse eat hay seeds as he will eat corn seeds? The Author cannot say, but as a matter of fact the horse will not eat them. Again, the seeds generally fall out when the grass is ripe, and are, therefore, lost. It is, therefore, essential to good nutritive hay that the crop should have been cut whilst the grasses are yet in flower, 7. ¢. before they have seeded. Fortunately it is very easy to recognise in hay the grasses which have seeded, and those which have not seeded. 95. Of saving of hay. Again, hay may be composed of only the best grasses and herbage, and may also have been cut in good time, and may yet be inferior, bad, or even worthless, on account of having been badly saved. This, however, is always a question of degree. No absolute rule can be laid down. A moderate shower of rain, falling on the best upland - grass, will cause it to lose its green colour in hay, which yet may be in perfectly good condition, and none the worse as regards real value. Any considerable degree of wet falling on hay, especially when nearly dry, will cause it to lose its natural bright, clear, healthy appearance, and will make it more or less deficient in aroma, and more or less of its nutritive qualities will be washed out. As stated above, it is a question of degree. -Hay which has long been exposed to the action of rain, wind, and sun, is easily recognised by a ragged, confused, broken, washed-out appearance, and by dinginess of colour. This subject will be further explained in the succeeding paragraph on making hay. 96. On making hay. The following few remarks on making hay, extracted from a number of the ‘ North British Agriculturist,’ though they may at first sight seem foreign to the scope of this work, will assist the reader in forming a right estimate of its value. “Tn the operation great attention and quickness are required in order to retain in the hay all the nutritive qualities of the grass. If the grass can be converted into hay without any alteration in its composition, and with little or no loss of its feeding properties, the water only being ex- tracted, it will then be as well made as possible, and will possess the greatest value. With this view it should not lie long in the field after being cut, but should, if possible, be carried the second or third day. Rain will cause the crop to lose its green colour, but does not of itself really injure the new-mown grass, as is often supposed. Mischief, how- ever, ensues if the grass is injudiciously turned over in wet weather, because the blades become bruised and injured in the process, and then 56 CHAPTER 5. the rain washes out the sugar, gum, and other soluble properties. For similar reasons hay ought not to be turned over on damp days, when the air is saturated with moisture.” “Tt is desirable that a crop be cut as soon as it reaches maturity, before any of the nutritive qualities are gone. It is essential that it be cut before the flowering heads have fully seeded. When the mowing is delayed later, the hay will be deficient in nutriment and aroma, and its constituent fibres will be as dry as straws. In grasses, as in other annual vegetable productions, the process of seeding exhausts the plant, and the stem no longer contains nutriment or moisture.” Hay made from grass which has been purposely left standing until perfectly ripe, with the view of threshing out the seed for sale, is alto- gether worthless. 97. Mow-burnt hay. Mow-burnt is a name given to hay which has heated in the stack, either—Ist, from having been stacked too soon, 7. e. before the juices of the grass are sufficiently dried; or 2nd, from the grass having been stacked when wet from rain or dew. Mow-burnt hay is easily recognised by its dark colour and high smell. Whether or not it is fit for use is entirely a question of degree. Slightly mow-burnt hay may be used with impunity, especially if given in moderate quantities mixed with sound hay. WHorses are fond of it, but it is apt to affect the kidneys. On the other hand, hay may be so mow-burnt as to be a mere cinder. Such is obviously unfit for use. 98. Dust in hay. Dust in hay commonly arises from the hay having got slightly damp, and having afterwards become quickly dry without passing into the stage of mouldiness. The apparent dust is the débris of the outer coats of the stems and leaves, which decay and fall off in the process of heating, which has taken place as the result of damp. In different atmospheric conditions, or perhaps in another place of storage, hay not more damp might have become mow-burnt or mouldy. Dust may also arise from hay having been overdried before being car- ried, or from having been much exposed to weather. In the first-named case the dust arises from breaking up of the outer coats of the fibres from over-dryness, and in the latter from decomposition owing to expo- sure. Dust is occasionally due to a blight having fallen on the crop whilst growing. Dust, from whatever cause arising, is always an unfavourable feature in hay. 98a. Second crop of hay, or aftermath. The second crop of hay, whether of upland or lowland growth, other- wise called the aftermath, is very inferior to the first, and is unfit for — ' 3 ¢ ‘ \ FORAGE, HV horses. Its characteristics are softness, absence of stems and flowering heads, and total want of perfume. It consists chiefly of the leaves which grow round the stems of the grasses. The stems, after being cut in the first crop, do not in general grow again during the summer. Such stems as do grow, lack the firm, bright, healthy appearance of the first crop. The colour of the hay is always dark, and the various fibres and leaves lie in confusion. 98b. Distinction between new and old hay. In the stack there is seldom any difficulty in determining whether the hay is old or new. The weather-beaten appearance or otherwise of the outside tells its tale pretty clearly. On a single truss, however, apart from the stack, it is very difficult to form a correct opinion. Some London salesmen, whom the Author has consulted on this point, agree in saying that they form their opinion chiefly, if not entirely, on their knowledge of the peculiarities of the growth of the crop in each year in the district from which the market is supplied. (Hay, we may remind the reader, is always drawn from a not very extensive district round the market. It is too bulky to pay for lengthened carriage, except under extraordinary circumstances.) For instance, the crop of one year may be marked by abundance of herbage, that of another year by absence of that feature ; or that of one year, as in the hot dry season of 1868, may be distinguished by being universally well saved and also scanty in quantity, whilst in another the crops may be all heavy, or in another year the hay on account of prevailing wet weather may be, as a general rule, badly saved. More than one of these peculiarities may be present in a crop, and may serve to distinguish it very easily from the growth of the previous year. It never happens that the growth in two successive years presents exactly the same features. As hay is not kept above two or, at the outside, three years, the difficulty of bearing in mind the peculiarities of each crop during such very limited period is not great. The wine merchant, who recognises by the bouquet the vintages of many years, has a far more difficult task in his trade. The salesmen appear to prefer this method of distinguishing old from new hay to any of the other distinctions, which the Author will presently endeavour to point out, because it is indepen- dent of those changes in colour, smell, softness, dryness, &c., which are caused by the process of heating or fermentation, to which hay in this country is usually subjected. At a distance, however, from the district in which the crop is grown, this special knowledge, on which the salesmen seem to rely, would fail. There may have been, for instance, heavy rain in one district at the proper season, and in consequence a heavy crop with abundance of herbage; whilst the crops in another district, from a difference in weather, may be light. Of late years hay has been brought from great distances, and therefore the above hints are not as safe a guide as they were 50 years ago. To aid the general reader, who cannot be expected to possess the above- 58 CHAPTER 9. mentioned special knowledge, we shall endeavour to point out some dis- tinctions, by which in most cases, though perhaps not positively, new and old hay can be distinguished. Two great difficulties are met with at the outset. Changes are very rapidly produced in new hay by heating or fermentation, which cause it to simulate in almost every respect the appearance of old hay; and secondly, well-saved old hay, which happens not to have heated at all, very closely resembles new hay. New hay, apart from any change which may be produced in it by heating, is marked by green colour, by the perfect freshness of its perfume, by the sappiness of its fibres, by the preservation of the natural colour of its flowers, and by the absence of consolidation. If, however, no fermentation takes place in the stack, the green colour of the grass, the freshness, though not the perfect freshness, of its perfume, and the natural colour of its flowers, may remain for almost any length of time. The sappiness of its fibres, however, will gradually and sensibly diminish as the year draws on. In some seasons the outside of the fibres may be quite dry in perfectly new hay; but if the outer coat be peeled off, the inner stem will be found to be sappy. In old hay the inside of the fibre will be as dry or nearly as dry as the outside. Sap is retained longest at the knots. Hence in cases of doubt the fibre should always be examined at the knots. If the inside of the knot is dry, it affords some proof that the hay is old. Old hay is usually marked by loss of green colour, by absence of fresh perfume, by dryness of its fibres, by loss of colour of its flowers, fre- quently by greater consolidation, especially towards the centre of the stack, and in some cases by a musty smell. The outer trusses, however, often retain almost all the peculiarities of new hay. Hence it is much more difficult to give an opinion about one truss than about a load. All the above-mentioned peculiarities of old hay may, however, be found in new hay, when it has been in stack for a couple of months or even less, and has heated. For instance, the green colour of its grasses may be lost by a few days’ fermentation, and so likewise the colour of its flowers. The perfume will also change from that of a new-mown grass to the smell (in extreme case) of mow-burnt hay. Again, consolida- tion is due to heating, not to the gradual effect of weight and time, as is often supposed. New hay immediately after fermentation will be nearly as much consolidated as it will ever be; whilst a stack, which does not ferment, will scarcely have sunk at all at the end of a couple of years. Fermentation or heating, we must remark, though a farmer would probably smile at so simple a remark, is not a process continually going on or even going on for any considerable length of time in a stack. Owing to the state of the grasses, aided perhaps by the state of the weather and other circumstances, fermentation takes place, runs its course, and then ceases. If it exists to any great degree, or if it lasts for any considerable length of time, the chances are that the stack catches fire. Stacks of hay do not heat evenly or equally all over. The heating generally commences in the centre, and runs to one side or the other - FORAGE. 59 according to the wind or other local circumstances at the time. The opposite side may not be affected at all. The outer part is seldom much affected, even on the side to which the heating runs. Old hay, as a general rule, is harder than new; but in exceptionally dry and hot seasons, the grasses composing new hay may be so dried, and even burnt up, that from the very first they are as hard and dry as the fibres of old hay. On the other hand, a great deal of mow-burnt hay, whether old or new, will handle quite soft. Again, the climate at the particular time at which the stack is cut and brought to market, will affect the moisture and flexibility of the fibres. The Author has known two-year-old hay in hot damp weather handle and twist as flexibly as grass. Further, a stack of old hay, when first opened and cut and thereby exposed to the air, will often sweat in particular states of the weather, and the hay in the trusses will handle like new hay. After a few days, however, the effect of the renewed sweating will go off, and the hay will again handle hard. The weeds often found in hay generally afford valuable information as to its age. The sap remains longer in their strong and coarse fibres than in the more delicate stems of the grasses. Of these the Black-head (Centaurea nigra), No. 29, may be taken as an example. Its stalk, but more especially the pods containing the seed, long retain moisture, and may thereby prove the hay to be new, when the state of the grasses might lead a person to think that it was old. The leaves of the Rib-grass (Plantago lanceolata), No. 28, also afford some indication. In new hay they are brown, soft, and flexible, whilst in old hay they are black and friable, 7. e. break and crumble to pieces on .the application of friction. These latter indications may, however, be present in new hay after it has heated. The degree in which all the above signs respectively exist will ob- viously vary much according to the month in which the examination is made. They must therefore be applied with discrimination. These remarks on the distinctive differences between old and new hay may seem at first sight to the reader to be so full of qualifications as io be neither very clear nor explicit. The subject is, in fact, a difficult one, and does not admit of drawing any sharply defined definitions. Apart from a special knowledge of the growth of the year and the preceding year, no rule can be given for distinguishing old from new hay. The Author believes he has laid before the reader all the distinctions, and the necessary qualifications to those distinctions, which exist. The in- tending purchaser must balance one fact or appearance against another : and with care and practice, and the assistance of the above data, he will probably after a time be able to form a pretty correct opinion. The best means, however, of acquiring a thorough knowledge on this subject is to give up a few mornings to going round a hay market with a respect- able and intelligent salesman. 98c. New v. old hay, as regards feeding. New hay, as is well known, has a tendency to cause scouring ; but in 60 CHAPTER 9. November well-saved examples are sufficiently dried to render them in- nocuous in this respect. In the Author’s opinion new hay may be given safely after that date to hunters which are not limited in their oats, though he is quite aware that popular opinion is opposed to this view. Hay of one year is desirable, though not essential, to hard condition. After a year and a half, hay, he thinks, loses much of its nutritive quali- ties. It becomes over-dry and, if the expression may be used, stale. Well-saved samples may retain their perfume for two, or even three or four years ; but, nevertheless, they have lost much of their feeding quali- ties. Rose leaves and lavender kept in closed jars will retain their scent for twenty years, although so dried up as to crumble to dust in the hand. 98d. Irish hay. It is the custom of Irish farmers to leave the hay out in the fields for at least two months in cocks, until it is so thoroughly dried that it does not afterwards heat. Much of the nutriment, however, is extracted out of it, as we might expect, by the effect of the sun, wind, and rain during that long period. As the hay does not ferment, there is but little difficulty in distinguish- ing old from new. The state of the weeds generally pretty abundantly found in it affords the best indication of its age. Great reliance may be placed on the state of the Rib-grass (Plantago lanceolata), No. 28. For the first month or so it remains almost green, for the next three months it is brown, for the succeeding three it is black, but pretty flexible. After this time it breaks and crumbles away with a little friction. The Black or Hard-head, No. 29 (Centaurea nigra), a harsh, stubborn weed, retains the moisture in its stalk for the first three months. After that period the moisture will only be found in its knots and in the pods. After six months the moisture has left the knots and remains only in the pods. About March the sticky moisture, which has hitherto glued together the seeds in their pod, has dried up, and the seeds are easily separated from each other when the pod is opened. Another plant, known as the Silver- weed or Goose-grass (Potentilia anserina), No. 34, affords excellent indi- cations of the age of hay. It is easily recognised by its growing in bunches. In new hay the under side of the leaf is white. An alteration in colour gradually takes place, until at the end of nine months the under side is quite black, and the leaf crumbles to pieces on friction. Coltsfoot, No. 35 (Tussilago farfara), the under side of the leaf, which is at first white, affords indications similar to those given by the silverweed. The Thistle retains something of its green colour and is sappy till spring. In old hay it will be found excessively shrivelled, dry, and brittle. The Dock retains its colour and sap for about four months, and after that period gradually becomes dry, brittle, deep red, and eventually black. 98e. Pressed hay. Pressing does not injure hay. But the purchaser must bear in mind that frauds are very possible unless due care is taken. FORAGE. 61 98f. Clover hay. Clover hay is much relished by horses. It is very useful in putting on flesh, but militates against very hard condition and good wind, and is therefore not recommended for horses doing fast work. The most valu- able hay is that made from clover only; but the crop is often—indeed usually, sown with rye-grass, and hence there is frequently, especially in the first cutting, a large admixture of the latter in it. The produce of the first cutting is the best, that of the second is much coarser. The third growth is not often made into hay. It consists chiefly of leaves, as the stalks do not grow a third time. It is generally fed down. The most common defect in clover hay is mouldiness or a tendency to it, indicated by loss of colour in the flowers and general blackness. It is, in fact, a difficult crop to save well on account of the great amount of juice in its fibres and leaves, especially in the first cutting of the year. 989. Green forage. Green forage is laxative and cooling, and therefore well suited for sick or young horses, especially when first taken up from grass. The quantity given to the latter should be gradually diminished, as the system becomes accustomed to more stimulating diet and the warmth of stables. Green forage, if given to horses in fast work, is very lable to cause bowel complaints. From its bulk and laxative action it militates against the hard condition necessary for fast or full work. It is not, however, so objectionable for cart horses, whose work is slow; yet it causes even these to sweat much and easily, and not unfrequently, especially in early spring, brings on bowel complaints. Green forage of whatever sort should be young and fresh. Grass, rye- grass, lucerne, and sainfoin are to be preferred when they can be obtained. Vetches and clover are also used. Green forage, when old, loses much of its succulence, and vetches in particular become heating. If stale it is apt, from rapid decomposition, to produce colic and intes- tinal disease. Clover, vetches, and other plants of the Trifoliwm variety contain an acrid principle, which is apt to affect the kidneys. Grass, rye-grass, lucerne, and sainfoin are free from this objectionable property, and are therefore more suitable for sick horses than the varieties of Trifolium. 4 Green forage should always at first be given rather sparingly. Many horses die every spring from neglect of this precaution. 98h. Carrots. Carrots are often very acceptable to sick horses, and are especially valuable at those seasons of the year when fresh grass cannot be procured. New carrots are the best. None but sound roots should be selected. They should be sliced longways. If cut transversely they are apt to cause choking. They may be given by themselves or mixed with oats or 62 GHAPTER 9. mash. But the sick horse, whose appetite is very capricious, will more often be tempted by the carrot alone. 987. Gruel. Gruel made from oatmeal is palatable and refreshing to a tired horse. The stomach seems to assimilate it more readily than hard corn. The very best fresh coarsely ground oatmeal should be used. Good gruel is made by putting about a double handful of oatmeal into a pail and pouring on it a little cold water. After being well stirred, a gallon and a half of hot, but not boiling, water must be added, and the whole stirred again. Boiling water should not be used, because it pro- duces a more starchy compound than is suitable for the stomach of the horse in an exhausted condition. The temperature should be reduced to that of new milk before it is given. If the horse is very much over- tasked, it may be advisable to add to it a wine-glassful of spirits or a pint of ale. Gruel may also be made from boiled linseed, and many persons prefer it to oatmeal gruel. It should be prepared by boiling about one pound of linseed in two gallons of water. The fluid should be strained, and forms a nice drink. The residuum may be utilised by mixing it with bran in the form of a mash. 98). Bran. Bran, when fresh ground and wetted, is useful as a laxative. It acts mechanically on the lining membrane of the stomach by causing a slight irritation, which increases the secretions and thereby quickens the pas- sage of the contents of the intestines. In the cavalry a bran mash is usually substituted for the feed of oats on every Saturday evening, partly because the horses are not exercised on Sundays, and partly as a preventive to constipation, which might otherwise arise from being kept on hard food exclusively year after year. Whether from this practice or not, it is certain that troop horses do not require those periodical doses of physic which in many stables are supposed to be essential to the maintenance of health, A bran mash should be made as follows :—The bran should be placed in a clean stable pail, and as much boiling water poured in as the bran will absorb. Half an ounce of salt may be added, and the whole should be covered up to keep in the steam until sufficiently cool. A pound of well-boiled linseed is a valuable addition. Dry bran in small quantities is said to have an astringent effect. It is often given after physic, if over-active, to stop its further action. A handful of flour, however, in water will answer this purpose better. Bran should invariably be fresh ground. 98k. Linseed. Linseed is the seed of the flax plant, and is a valuable food for horses in low or debilitated condition. It is slightly laxative, is soothing to _ C2) eae FORAGE. 63 excoriated mucous surfaces, and has a marked effect in improving the horse’s coat. It may be given boiled either in the form of a mash with the addition of bran, or may be mixed with the oats, or given in the form of gruel. 987. Boiled foods. Boiled foods fatten, but do not give strength and firmness to the muscles. They are, therefore, unsuitable for saddle or carriage horses, though perhaps they may answer for animals in slow work. Even in these, however, they are apt to produce colic, indigestion, and sometimes rupture, probably from the facility with which this description of food may be bolted without due mastication. 98m. Straw. Straw must be either wheaten, oaten, or rye, and should be clean, dry, and not much broken in the thrashing. Steam-thrashed straw is inferior to that thrashed by manual labour, inasmuch as it is more broken. Wheaten is generally preferred to oaten straw, and certainly looks nicer in the stable; but there is no real objection to the latter, except that, when new, horses are apt to eat it. This, however, may be pre- vented by a proper arrangement of the bedding. tye straw is very good, but in most localities its cost is a bar to its use. Barley straw is inadmissible. It is apt to induce disease of the skin. 98n. Artificial foods. _ All food to be useful must supply the special nutrient materials re- quired by the particular animal. For most horses the ordinary articles of food, namely, hay and corn, answer best. Some animals, however, have delicate digestions, others are troubled with want of appetite. Stomachics mixed with the food of the one may assist digestion, whilst tonics may be useful to the latter. Again, in animals as in men, it some- times happens that there is some want of nutrition in some part of the system, which must be supplied before the animal will thrive or put on flesh. A harsh coat, for instance, indicates a want of oily material in the system, which may often be beneficially supplied by giving boiled linseed. Tn other cases the special want may be of fibrinous material in the blood, and then doses of iron will be useful. These instances might easily be multiplied. After a severe debilitating illness, when the system is thoroughly ex- hausted, nothing will be found to answer better than a quart of strong beef soup daily, either given as a drink, if the patient will take it in that way, or mixed with corn. The same recipe will, in some cases, but not in all, answer in putting flesh on a horse which, though in good health, remains persistently thin. Most of the artificial or patent foods advertised in the present day are compounded of a great number of stimulating and fattening ingredients, by means of some one of which the special need of the system may very | 64 CHAPTER 5. possibly be supplied. But it is as well to remember that most artificial stimulants cease to have any effect after a time. The chief objection to the use of such foods, even in cases where they act beneficially, consists in the excessive price at which they are sold. The component parts of these foods are easily ascertained by analysis, and, indeed, in most cases are well known. The owner of horses may as well make them for himself as pay a hundred or two hundred per cent. over their value. On this subject the Author has ventured to extract the following sen- sible remarks from the valuable work on ‘The Horse in the Stable and the Field,’ by Stonehenge, pp. 231-2: “ Puring the last five or six years various artificially prepared foods have been introduced to the notice of the public, under the names of ‘Thorley’s Food for Cattle,’ ‘Henri’s Horse and Cattle Food, &c. The advertisements of the patentees would lead to the belief that their horse and cattle foods contain more real nourishment than the various kinds of food which have hitherto been given to horses and cattle, but chemical DEES shows the incorrectness i these statements. ‘The following observations in the ‘ Field’ of the 18th of Tokoaes 1860, put the matter in its true light, and show that as a mere article of food these preparations are far from economical : ‘It is not surprising, when artificial foods should thus come to be adopted as so much fattening power, that various mixtures should be employed largely impregnated with stimulating substances. They are thus made extremely palatable to the animal, who naturally enough thrives upon the good things provided for him. We will not now stop to inquire how far this stimulus may be permanently beneficial, even admitting the temporary advantage ; our object is simply a cash account. If the price of cake, ranging at about £10 a ton, forms the limits from which any ordinary return can be expected, how can an article, sold at a price realising from 300 to 400 per cent. on the cost price of the mate- rials of which it is composed, ever bring any return at all? ““Such savoury condiments, dished up at from £40 to £50 a ton, have no more fattening powers than the ordinary cakes and meal, of which, indeed, their bulk is principally composed. Locust beans, the different oil-cakes, and Indian corn form the basis of these cattle foods so often paraded before the public, with which sundry stimulants, making a kind of curry-powder concoction, are mixed up. This, though it may be highly agreeable, yet at the price above stated forms a most costly addition to the ordinary feeding cost, and an animal once pampered on such material can hardly fall back on ordinary food ; hence the price of fattening is greatly enhanced, but without any increase of the saleable carcass, for there is a natural limit in this direction. “A compound at £40 a ton will make no more flesh than oil-cake at £10; but if the farmer approves of, and will have, the compound, let him simply mix the materials himself. There is no secret in the com- position, for the test is at hand in a simple analysis. “ 5 “* Looking at this composition, it will be evident at a glance that the chief ingredients are the ordinary commercial locust-bean, Indian corn, and oil-cakes. “«These form its bulk, and constitute nine tenths of the whole, the remainder being made up of condiments and stimulants, the sulphur and antimony being intended to act upon the skin in the production of a fine coat, and the fenugreek for a kind of mucilage to prevent any ill effects that might arise from the stimulating character of the food. ““These ingredients have no doubt been selected with skill, and an animal may be expected, and not unreasonably, to thrive upon such savoury substances. For this precious article (which it unquestionably is) the modest sum of about 42s. a cwt. is demanded, or at the rate of £42 a ton, or upwards of 300 per cent. on the cost price, even taken at the valuation given above, which for the one tenth or stimulating portion might be considerably reduced, if the several materials were bought at wholesale prices. “We prefer, however, to take the ordinary trade valuation, in order to give the widest margin possible for the cost—this, after all, being the simple point at issue. If a farmer wishes for the article, the use of which, containing as it does so much stimulating matter, is very question- able, and chooses to pay from three to four times the intrinsic value, it is of course at his option to do so; but as the whole question of farming is one of paying, we will put it plainly: Can it pay to feed animals on substances costing from £40 to £50 per ton? A knowledge of the con- stituent elements of these foods may induce a pause before the outlay is made. ) 66 CHAPTER 6. 7 i) ““Some supposed great secret has no doubt with a few acted as a charm, on the principle of “Omne ignotum pro magnifico; ” but the analysis at once dispels this illusion, and nothing remains but the cost and its result, mere matters of ordinary calculation.’ ” A small quantity of powdered ginger, or any cheap aromatic spice mixed with the ordinary feed of oats or hay, will often cause a delicate feeder to relish his food, will assist digestion, and will probably answer as well as the highly advertised and very expensive patent foods. Some horses at first object to the taste of spice, and therefore a very small quantity only should be given to begin with. All such artificial aids to digestion should be discontinued as soon as the system recovers tone. 980. Concentrated foods. | These foods may perhaps be useful for a few days; for instance, for cavalry employed on a raid in an enemy’s country, where supplies cannot be possibly obtained, but they do not answer for ordinary use. The stomach requires a certain amount of mechanical distension to enable it to carry on its digestive operations. Hence, as soon as the stomach be- comes really empty, the concentrated food is useless. CHAPTER 6. GROOMING. 99. Reason of the need of grooming. 100. Structure of the skin. 101. — Glands of the skin. 102. Perspiration. 103. Structure of the hair. 104. © Shedding of the coat. 105. The Whiskers. 106. Objects gained by groom- ing. 107. Useofthe brush in grooming. 107a. Shampooing. 108. Method of grooming. 108a. Dandy brush. 109. Neglect of grooming. 110. Sub- sidiary uses of grooming. 111. Improper means used to produce short and glossy coats. 112. Time for grooming. 113. Horses to be groomed imme- diately after exercise. 114. Danger of allowing a horse, when heated, to stand undried. 115. Cold produced by evaporation. 116. Eatremities to be dried first. 117. Special precautions in regard to the back and — loins. 118. Of washing the skin. 119. Of drying the legs. 119a. Of — washing the legs. Flannel bandages. 120. Of leaving horses to dry by evaportion. 121. Minor memoranda. 122. Grooming by machinery. 128. Time required to clean a horse. 124. Breaking-out after cleaning. 125. Conclusion. 99, Reason of the need of Grooming. The question is often asked, “ Why does the stabled horse require con- stant grooming, whilst the same horse turned out into a field does well enough without it?” GROOMING. 67 The question cannot be answered in the form in which it is put. It is not the fact of living under cover, but the active work and the high feeding of the stabled horse, which necessitates grooming. Cavalry horses in camps, for instance, require grooming just as much, and in some re- spects more than they do in barracks. It is the work and the food, not the shelter, which constitutes the difference between the domesticated animal and the horse in a state of nature. 4 By work, and especially by fast work, the secretions of the glands of the skin are enormously increased. Furthermore, the horse which is § worked hard must be fed on highly nutritious food; and from this cause ' also the secretions of the skin are largely increased. Nature must be _ assisted by artificial means to remove these increased secretions, or the pores of the skin will become clogged and the health will be deteriorated. The greater the action of the skin, the greater must be the attention _ paidtoit. As long as the horse remains in a state of nature, taking only the exercise required for gathering his food, and feeding only on laxative diet, grooming is not needed, because the débris of the food and the excretions of the system are carried off mainly by the action of the bowels _ and kidneys. The cart horse, whose work is slow, can get on with very little grooming. The hunter and the racehorse, on the other hand, whose whole systems are developed to the utmost, require much more grooming than is necessary for carriage and ordinary riding horses. Grooming, or in other words, cleanliness of the skin is not, as many suppose, a mere matter of appearance, or of a rough or smooth coat ; _ but it is essential to the general health and condition of the domesticated animal. This fact will become more plain after we have considered the structure of the skin and its glands. 100. Structure of the Skin. _ The skin is a dense, yet porous, membrane investing the whole body. It is composed of two layers, namely, the outer or upper, called the cuticle or scarf skin, which is hard and insensitive, and an under or inner layer called the cutis or true skin, which is sensitive and vascular. These two layers are easily separated, as is seen in cases of slight burns or in the vesicles raised by a blister. The cutis, or true skin, is thick and full of blood-vessels, nerves, and absorbents. From it the layers of cells which constitute the cuticle, or outer skin, are formed. Tach cell is originally round and filled with _ moisture ; but as the moisture evaporates the cells become flattened, and being laid in a series one over the other, they form the cuticle or outer skin. The outer scales are constantly being cast off in the form of dandriff or scurf, and are as constantly renewed by the secretion of new cells from the true skin below. The skin varies very much in substance. In parts much exposed, as in front of the knee, it is very thick; in parts less exposed, as behind the knee, it is thin; whilst on the inside of the thigh, where it is not exposed at all, it is very thin. 68 CHAPTER 6, 101. Glands of the skin. . In the skin, having their origin a little below the true skin, are two sets of glands, namely, the “sweat ” and the “oil” glands. The Sweat glands secrete perspiration, and terminate by long-necked tubes on the surface of the skin. Though each gland is minute in itself, yet collectively they form one of the largest secreting organs in the body. Erasmus Wilson, in his work on the skin, says that he has counted as many as three thousand in a square inch of skin taken from the palm of a man’s hand. The number of sweat glands, however, varies greatly in different parts of the body. The Oil glands secrete an oily material. They open, some on the surface, but mostly into the tubes of the hairs. Each hair tube is fur- nished with one or more of these glands. Wherever there is much fric- tion or motion in the skin, the oil glands are very numerous, as, for example, at the heels, and in the bend of the knee and hock. 102. Perspiration. It has been said, and we believe correctly, that a horse in hard condi- tion and hard work gives off through the pores of the skin, or, in other words, by means of the sweat glands, during the twenty-four hours, an amount equal to that excreted as dung. Perspiration in a greater or lesser degree is always going on, even when the animal is in a quiescent condition. When imperceptible it is called “insensible” perspiration, and when secreted in larger quantities as fluid it is known as “ sensible ” perspiration. Excretion of worn-out materials through the skin, of course, goes on in some degree in the horse in a state of nature; but the full development of these glands is only produced by hard work, high feeding, and grooming. They are then excited to a greater degree of energy than exists or is required in a state of nature. Hence, artificial means, or, in other words, means greater than those supplied by nature, must be put in action by man in order to maintain the health of the skin. The healthy or unhealthy condition of the skin is very readily shown by the appearance of the hair, otherwise called the coat. If the skin is unhealthy, the coat is harsh and dry. Again, if the skin is not properly cleaned, dirt remains, not merely in the coat, as many think, but in the system. A very important set of drains, namely, the glands of the skin, are choked, and the whole system, or in other words, the general health, must in consequence suffer. The other drains of the body, namely, the lungs, the kidneys, and the bowels, are in action in the horse in a state of nature as much as in the domesticated animal. Hence, they do not, except in disease, require any artificial stimulus. 103. Structure of the Hair. Hair invests every portion of the skin, with a few minor exceptions. It springs from the cellular tissue, on which the true skin rests. Each “a one GROOMING, 69 hair-root is enclosed in a distinct sack of its own called a follicle. The base of the sack is supplied with blood-vessels, from which the materials for the formation of the hair are secreted. The manner of the growth of the hair is similar to that of the outer skin, namely, by cells. The cells are pushed up by new cells forming below. They gradually become flattened and elongated into fibres to form the central shaft of the hair, whilst the outer part is covered by flattened cells or scales overlapping each other like slates on the roof of a house. The cells are cemented together by adhesive matter, which is secreted as they grow. 104. Shedding of the coat. Twice in the year, namely, in spring and autumn, the horse sheds his coat. At those seasons the nourishment of the old hair is arrested, the soft pulpy extremities shrink and dry up, and the hair becomes detached and falls off ; whilst at the same time a new hair is formed and pushed up by its side. In autumn longer hairs are supplied as a protection against the cold of winter. In spring these long hairs are cast off, and shorter ones are supplied for summer use. It is not very evident why nature every year goes through this double course of shedding hair in the horse, when the same object might apparently have been attained by an increased growth of the summer coat at the beginning of winter. Probably, in order to admit of longer growth, the hairs of the mane and tail are not shed. Their roots are situated more deeply in the sub- cutaneous tissue. 105. The Whiskers. The whiskers have a similar origin to the hairs of the mane and tail ; but being supplied for the purpose of protection they are made stiff, so that whatever is felt at the tip may also be felt at the root. Into the root of each whisker-hair runs the nerve, which supplies it with its delicate power of sensation. It is the fashion of the day to trim off these whisker-hairs ; but it is wrong on principle, though probably the loss is of no great consequence to the domesticated horse. 106. Objects gained by grooming. Grooming answers two principal and several subsidiary ends. First, it removes from the skin those particles of perspiration, dust, and dirt which otherwise would impede and clog the free action of the sweat and oil glands. Secondly, it removes the scurf or worn-out cells which are no longer required on the surface of the skin, and which would, especially when cemented together by particles of sweat, add to the obstruction of the glands. The subsidiary uses of grooming will be adverted to here- after. 70 CHAPTER 6, 107. Use of the Brush in grooming. In order that grooming should produce the two above-mentioned prin- cipal effects, it is necessary that the skin be cleaned with a good bristle brush, strongly applied and well laid on. For these purposes rubbing the skin with a wisp or rubber, though it may answer some of the subsidiary uses of grooming, is not sufficient. A wisp, especially a damp wisp, such as is often used, will not clean the skin. It might be supposed rather to plaster in the scurf and dirt. Such rubbing, however, does produce a certain beneficial effect, inasmuch as it is generally laid on with a good deal of force ; and the friction has undoubtedly a considerable influence in cleaning the skin. Against these arguments in favour of the brush it may be urged, that in racing stables the wisp and rubber, though the use of the brush is not altogether neglected, are largely employed. It would be absurd to say that trainers do not understand their business. We think, however, that a distinction may fairly be drawn between thoroughbreds in training and other horses. The skins of the former are finer, their coats are shorter, and they are invariably dried and cleaned immediately after exercise, before the sweat has had time to cake in the pores of the skin or in the coat. Still we must add that we have seen many horses brought to the post from second-rate training stables, whose coats have looked as if they would have been none the worse for a more constant application of the brush. After the skin has been thoroughly cleaned with the brush, a wisp or rubber may be used with the view of giving it a last polish. It is not, however, at all essential. 107a. Shampooing. In India the native groom often cleans his horse by hand-rubbing or shampooing. The practice is good and has an excellent effect on the skin. It would be difficult, probably impossible, to get English grooms to adopt a practice so novel. But in many stables, where a number of young lads are employed, it might be possible to train them, and the Author believes that the practice would be found most beneficial. The action of the hand never irritates the skin, which the brush frequently does, especially the tender skin of young thoroughbreds. 108, Method of grooming. The thorough cleaning of the skin of the horse is an operation requir- ing both skill and hard labour. To make his labour effective, and to pro- duce the greatest effect with the least expenditure of power and in the shortest time, the groom should aid his muscular strength with his weight. He should therefore stand well away from the horse, and lean his weight on the brush, which thus used will penetrate the coat more effectually, and with less exertion to the man, than if worked only by his muscular strength. GROOMING. 71 The principal working of the brush should follow the natural direction of the hair. It will not penetrate it as deeply and thoroughly when worked against it as with it. To remove, however, external dirt or sweat, which may have caked in the coat, it may sometimes be necessary to brush against the hair. 108a. Dandy Brush. Where labour is scarce, as in very many stables, the dandy brush will, in a rough sort of way, do its work in cleaning quicker than the horse brush, and from the friction it produces, it has a very beneficial effect on the skin. 109. Neglect of grooming. When ercoming is neglected, the horse, for the reasons already given, soon loses flesh and condition, and generally deteriorates in health ; whilst eventually actual disease of the skin may be the result. Among the more common diseases arising from neglect of grooming are those which are caused by the presence in the skin of parasitical insects, such as mange and lice. The insects inducing these dis- orders, when not disturbed by the action of the brush, breed rapidly. All such diseases are the sure and certain sign of neglect. These insects will not attempt to obtain a lodging in skin where the pores and glands are in healthy action, and where they are constantly disturbed by the use of the brush. 110. Subsidiary uses of grooming. Whilst good grooming is necessary for the maintenance of the health of the domesticated horse, it is also needed for several subsidiary ends. It is essential to the glossiness, and also to the shortness of the coat, which horsemen so much love to see, and to the development of the highest powers of the animal. Glossiness of coat is due partly to the absence of dirt, débris of worn- out materials, and particles of perspiration among the hairs, partly to the mere mechanical effort of friction in polishing the hair, but mainly to the increased secretion drawn forth from the oil glands of the skin under the friction of good grooming. Short coats are due partly to the warmth produced in the skin by the frequent friction of grooming, and partly to the maintenance of an even and moderately warm temperature in the stable. Increase in the length of the coat is indeed a provision of nature against cold. If such increase is not required, the winter coat is scarcely longer than that of summer. In some tropical climates, for instance, where the warmth in winter is little less than that in summer, or in deep coal mines where the changes of the season are not felt, or even in well-managed stables, where an equal temperature is maintained and the warmth of the skin is assisted by clothing and good grooming, we find but little difference between the length of the summer and winter coats, Fie CHAPTER 6. Different breeds of horses vary very much in the length of their coats. The high-bred horse, which was originally brought from a hot climate, still retains much of the shortness of coat natural to his original habitat. Horses, however, even of the same breed, vary much in the length of their coats, even though placed under exactly similar circumstances. This may probably be accounted for by greater or less strength of circulation in the particular animal. Age has also frequently a great effect on the length of the coat. Old horses, whose circulation is becoming languid, are generally supplied by nature with longer coats than younger animals. 111. Improper incans used to produce short and glossy coats. Short and glossy coats, as a general rule, indicate good grooming and careful stable management, whilst long dull coats argue the reverse. But we must caution the reader against the practice of some servants of administering tonics and other stimulants, which, by artificially exciting the system, produce temporarily a good external appearance, but in the long run are the fruitful parents of disease. 112. Time for grooming. The highest powers of the horse can only be developed by careful attention, not to one or two great points, but to every point which con- cerns his health and comfort. Of primary importance, in connection with health and comfort, is the time or times at which the operation of grooming is performed. Unquestionably the horse ought to be groomed, that is, to have re- moved from his skin in the morning those insensible emanations of the pores which have accumulated during the night and the latter portion of the previous day. Equally, too, immediately after exercise he needs to have removed from his skin the more sensible emanations of the pores, commonly called sweat. In most stables, however, it is usual, when the master does not require the horse during the day, to combine these two occasions in one. The horse is taken out to exercise early in the morning, and cleaned after- wards. This plan answers pretty well, but it is undoubtedly inferior to that practised in cavalry and racing stables, where the horses are cleaned in the morning and exercised after breakfast, and cleaned again after exercise. The other plan, however, saves much time and labour. If the master requires his horses during the day, the animals must, of course, be cleaned in the morning, and again after the ride or drive. Owners are often very much disappointed that their horses do not improve or thrive as much as they expect, when they use them least. The reason may perhaps be found in some degree in the fact that they are generally least groomed when least used. Every horse should be groomed, or, in other words, have the pores of the skin thoroughly cleansed at least twice in each day. A horse which has not been exercised during the day, in some respects requires more labour to get his skin thoroughly clean than if he had been ee a one ca Cj) Bie Namie ym GROOMING, 73 at work. A little gentle perspiration every day, and occasionally a some- what freer opening of the pores, greatly assist the process of grooming. Indeed, it is very difficult, if not impossible, to keep a horse’s skin clean, unless the action of the brush is aided by bringing the glands of the skin into more active use by means of sensible perspiration. 113. Horses to be groomed immediately after exercise. Not only is it necessary that the horse should be groomed after exer- cise, but it is essential that he should be groomed immediately after exercise. All the pores of the skin are then open, and the brush will more effectually clean the skin than if the operation is delayed until the skin has cooled and its pores have closed, and the perspiration has dried and caked over them. No horse which is heated, or has been perspiring, should ever be allowed to stand undried one moment longer than is absolutely unavoid- able. When a delay cannot be avoided, the evil consequences should be reduced to a minimum by clothing him warmly, and putting flannel ban- dages on his legs ; or where these advantages are not available, by allow- ing the saddle or harness to remain on, and by preventing any draught from coming on the animal. In other cases the evil may be mitigated by getting a boy to lead him about briskly, until the servant is ready to attend to him. 114. Danger of allowing a horse, when heated, to stand undried. Neglect of such precautions is likely to end in a chill, which may be followed by serious disease. When a horse is heated, his whole circula- tion is quickened, and an increased quantity of blood is determined to the surface of the body. A chill will drive this blood suddenly to the inward and vital parts. Nor is the evil confined to driving to the internal organs the blood, which may happen at the moment to be on the surface. It may be far greater, because, though the horse may be chilled externally, yet the excited state of the circulation continues for some time longer. The heart does not at once accommodate its action to the external change, but continues to send blood rapidly through the system. This continued supply, repelled from the surface, is forced on the already overloaded internal vesels. Hence may arise serious disease, such as inflammation of the lungs or plure, bronchitis, or other inflammatory or congestive affections. 115. Cold produced by evaporation. Many people are not aware of the extreme cold produced by evapora- _ tion, such as that resulting from the action of a draught, or of the sun or wind acting on a wet surface, such as the coat of a horse when sweating. On this principle, cooling drinks are made in hot climates by tying a wet flannel round a bottle and hanging it up in the sun or wind. A long, thick coat, therefore, is no protection to a horse against catch- 74 CHAPTER 6. ing cold. On the contrary, for the above reasons, we believe it increases the liability. Though it is especially essential, for the reasons given in the preceding paragraph, that horses which are wet from sweating should be dried immediately on their return from work ; yet the above remarks, though in a less degree, apply also to all horses which, from any cause, such as rain or the state of the road, return wet to their stables. 116. Hatremities to be dried first. It should be a standing rule that the legs should be dried before the body, both because the circulation gets feebler in proportion as the part is distant from the heart, and because all parts which, like the legs in the horse, or like the hands and feet in man, expose a large surface in pro- portion to their bulk to the action of external cold and evaporation, are peculiarly susceptible of chill. If two horses return from work at the same time, both sweating or wet, in charge of only one servant, the legs of both should be dried and bandaged before the bodies of either are touched ; but in such case it is essential that rugs be thrown over the bodies of both horses. 117. Special precautions in regard to the back and loins. Many a cough or cold is produced by injudiciously removing the saddle, and exposing the heated back and loins to the cold, whilst the groom is employed about the extremities. It should be a standing rule not to remove the saddle or harness until the servant is ready to dry the back. In addition to this precaution, if the horse is hot, a rug should during the intervening period be thrown over the loins and back; and if very hot, a second rug should be added across the loins. 118. Of washing the skin. Water has very little effect in cleansing the skin of a horse. The hair acts as a thatch, and water penetrates through it with difficulty, ex- cept when it is out of order, and then acts as an irritant. Besides this, it tends to check the action of the oil glands, and to render the coat dry and harsh by removing the oily secretion. Water, therefore, should not be applied to the coat, except with the view of washing off external mud, and so saving time and trouble to the servant. In all such cases, however, it is necessary that the part be dried immediately, or skin disease, such as cracked heels, grease, and mud fever, will probably soon appear. 119. Of drying the legs. The legs should not be washed. The mud and dirt should be removed by rubbing the legs with loose wisps of straw and ordinary rubbers. This, though by far the best practice, is troublesome to servants. GROOMING. "a 119a. Of washing the legs. Flannel bandages. The ordinary practice is to wash the legs, and wrap them in flannel bandages. The groom then cleans the body; and by the time he has done this the legs have probably dried. He should then brush them out, exactly as if they had not been washed—for the water has not cleaned the skin, but has only removed the external mud and dirt. If this is pro- perly done, there is not much objection to washing the legs. But the practice is open to much abuse, and often results in cracked heels, grease, and mud fever. 120. Of leaving horses to dry by evaporation. We cannot close this chapter without warning owners of horses against the common practice of idle servants leaving the horses after exercise in the morning to dry by evaporation, whilst they get their breakfasts and indulge in a pipe afterwards. Ji horses are exercised in the morning, and the breakfast hour interferes with proper timely attention to them, they should at least be warmly clothed, and have their legs bandaged, before the servant leaves, and the time allowed for breakfast should be reduced to a minimum. Similarly at other times, after the owner has had his horse out, the servant is apt to leave him to dry by evaporation, whilst he cleans the saddle, bit, or harness. 121. Minor memoranda. - The nostrils should be carefully sponged out twice a day. The wings of the nostrils should be gently distended by the fingers, and a well- wetted sponge passed into the opening. This will remove the dust from the delicate lining membrane. The dock should be cleaned both morning and evening. The sheath likewise requires to be cleaned occasionally by passing the hand up it, and clearing away any sebaceous matter which may be adherent to it. Many a horse, which has been supposed to be suffering from disease of the kidneys, is merely irritated by a dirty penis, or by a collection of sebaceous matter encrusted on the point of the urethra, which interferes with the free passage of the urine. White and grey legged horses in dirty weather require to have their lees washed with soap and water in order to make the hair look clean. We have already stated that water has no real effect in cleansing the skin. Especial care should be taken that the legs are dried immediately after the washing. Such horses frequently suffer from cracked heels, grease, and rheumatism from neglect of this precaution. 122. Grooming by machinery. In some large establishments machinery somewhat similar to that used in hair-dressers’ shops for brushing the hair, has lately been set up for grooming horses. It appears to answer extremely well, and certainly Saves an immense amount of time and trouble. 76 CHAPTER 6. 125. Time required to clean a horse. A good groom ought to be able to clean a horse thoroughly in the morning or after ordinary work, when his coat is short, in half an hour. Vifteen or possibly twenty minutes more may be required after work, if the horse returns very hot or very muddy. If the horse has a very thick or long coat twenty minutes more may be added to the above periods. Not only ought the groom to be able to do it within these periods, but the master ought to insist that he does it thoroughly in that time. Some exceptions, however, must be made to the above general rules. There are some thick woolly coated animals, which cannot be dried after work in winter by any amount of time or exertion which a servant can be expected to give. Such animals ought, however, to be clipped or singed. 124. Breaking out after cleaning. Some horses break out again and again into a cold sweat after they have been dried and cleaned after exercise. They must be dried again, at least the first and second time, after which it is generally safe to put the clothing on. Breaking out is usually connected either with a thick woolly coat, or with debility, or perhaps with both combined. The remedy in the first case is removal of the coat, and in the latter it will consist in good feeding, good grooming, and regular exercise in addition to removal of the coat if need be. 125. Conclusion. The effect of daily good grocming is readily recognised in the bright, clean, and healthy appearance of the coat. If the fingers are run through it, no trace of soil will be left on them. On the other hand, if the skin is not clean, the fingers will be soiled, and white streaks of dirt and dust will be apparent in the parts through which they have passed. Scurf and débris of the perspiration will also be seen about the roots of the hairs. If the groom has absolutely neglected the horse, encrusted sweat and mud from the previous exercise will probably be found on the coat, especially under the belly and be- tween the legs; and the mark of the saddle, on account of the horse having perspired more freely under it than in other parts, may still be apparent ; or stains from where the horse has been lying down at night will be left. With a view of testing the cleanliness or otherwise of the skin, the hollow of the side of the hocks, the knees, the points of the hips and shoulder, and the head and neck, may be more particularly examined. Every owner ought occasionally at least to run his fingers through the coat of his horse before ke mounts, or when he visits his stable after the horse has been cleaned on his return from work. He will also do well to see that the feet are properly washed out in the morning or after exercise. It is in vain to expect that servants, however good they may - EXERCISE. le be at starting, will long continue to give the time and labour required daily to groom horses, as they ought to be groomed, unless the master is able to and does appreciate the result of their labour. Horse owners are cautioned against allowing the practice that prevails amongst grooms of forcing off the old coat in the spring, when the pro- cess of shedding commences. Nature will complete this process in her own time, and any attempt to hasten it frequently results in leaving the animal bare in patches, and rendering him more susceptible to chills and colds. CHAPTER 7. SHOEING. 126. In a previous edition the author referred his readers to his treatise, ‘Notes on Shoeing,’ published by Smith and Co., Waterloo Place ; but in the present edition he has reprinted the substance of that work at the end, Chapters 62, 63, and 64. The object of putting it at the end, instead of in this, its more proper place, has been to avoid alterations of the numbers of paragraphs, which under this arrangement are the same as in the previous editions, CHAPTER 8. EXERCISE. 127. Need of exercise.” 128. Muscles. 129. Tendons. 180. Ligaments. 131. Lungs and other organs of respiration. 132. Gradual work. 133. Regularity of work. 134. Stage-coach horses. 135. Neglect of exercise. 136. Aye, &c., to be considered in regulating the amount of exercise. 137. Good feeding necessary. 138. Amount of exercise needed. 139. Grass-fed colts. 140. Corn-fed colts. 141. Irish colts. 142. Horses from dealers’ stables. 145. Exercise of riding or harness horses. 143a. Exercise in wet weather. 144. Hzercise of hunters. 145. Summering of hunters. 146. But will legs and feet stand continual work? 147. Exercising ground in summer. 148. Artificial exercising ground. 149. Temporary ride during a frost. 150. Expense of keeping horses up through the summer. 151. Size of stud required for hunting. 152. Kind of exercise most suitable for hun- ters in summer. 153. Objections made to harness work. 154. Hunters in 78 CHAPTER 8, B autumn to be occasionally exercised in deep ground. 155. Hard condition to be antecedent to fast work. 156. Of two hours’ so-called exercise. 157. Of exercising in clothing. 157a. Exercise or work in bandages. 158. Time for exercising horses. 159. Training of race horses. 127. Need of exercise. As air is to the lungs or food to the stomach, so is exercise to the due development of the muscles, tendons, ligaments, and respiratory organs. In the horse, on account of the active exertions which we require from him, we wish to get the muscles as firm, the tendons and ligaments as strong, and the respiratory organs as vigorous as possible. We therefore give exercise, more or less severe according to the use for which the particular horse may at the time be required. In the ox and sheep, and other animals which are used for food, we wish to have the flesh less firm and more tender; and therefore we give little or no exercise. 128. Muscles. Muscle is simply flesh. Anatomically considered, it is made up of bundles of fibres laid parallel to each other. The tenacity or strength of the fibres depends chiefly on the use to which they are subjected. When disused, they become soft, flaccid, and incapable of sustaining any great strain, Muscular development is a very important element in the strength of a horse. Muscles under nervous influence possess a power of contraction. By means of this power they act upon and control the tendons, and in fact regulate the movements of the body. Hence in one sense muscles are the real motive power in the animal frame; but it must not be for- gotten, that the muscles themselves are set in motion by the action of the nervous system. Hence if a nerve is paralysed, the muscle to which it goes, loses its power of contraction. Muscles are occasionally ruptured by an over-violent strain ; but injury to them commonly consists in some of the fibres being torn across. The blood-vessels, however, which ramify about the fibres, are more frequently ruptured by any such strain than the fibres themselves. This result is marked by extravasation of blood in the part under the skin, 129. Tendons. Tendons are dense, firm, fibrous, almost inelastic organs. They are attached at their upper extremities to the ends of muscles, and at their lower extremities are generally inserted into the eminences of bones. They possess no power of motion or contraction in themselves, but are acted on by the muscles to which they are attached. Tendons are found wherever strength combined with lightness is required, and where muscle on account of its bulk would be inadmissible. Tendons, like muscles, strengthen and develop, when properly and EXERCISE, 79 regularly used. They lose in power and firmness when not used. They require constant use in order to give them the strength, which is needed to enable them to sustain the violent usage, to which in the horse they are so often subjected. The amount of use and strain to which they ought to be subjected, must of course depend on the nature of the work for which the horse is intended. But before we subject any particular horse to hard and severe training, it is always necessary to consider whether his make and shape are such as to fit him for that work. Harness work causes the least strain, next to it comes ordinary riding, next hunting, whilst racing and steeple chasing occasion the greatest strain. Many a horse, which will not stand the training necessary for racing or steeple chasing, will stand for hunting. Many again, which will not stand the strain of hunting, may answer very well for ordinary riding ; whilst others, which are not sound enough for riding, may last for years in harness, 130. Ligaments. Ligaments are of similar structure to tendons. Some ligaments possess a certain degree of elasticity. The same remarks, however, generally apply to them as to tendons. Further and more detailed information in regard to the structure and organisation of muscles, tendons, and ligaments will be found in Chapter 13. 131. Lungs and other organs of respiration. ‘The power of the lungs to sustain long and violent exertion is likewise very much a matter of habit. The lungs, unless accustomed to it, cannot sustain the violent work often required of them. If such work is required of a horse, some fast exercise must of course be given; but the reader will do well to remember that hard condition of the muscles and tendons ought to be antecedent to fast work. When the physical powers are fully developed, when the necessary condition of body is attained, it will not require any great amount of galloping to put the horse “in wind.” It is, however, very needful that the owner should take care that the animal, which he intends for fast work, possesses the _ necessary formation and capacity of chest. 132. Gradual work. Muscles, tendons, ligaments, and the respiratory organs may by patient, constant, and increasing use be gradually brought to perform safely an amount of work and to support a strain which, without such progressive training, they would be wholly unable to stand. The power of doing work and of sustaining fatigue is, if we may use the expression, cumulative. Provided that the horse be kept in good condition, it increases from day to day and from year to year, until from age the animal powers begin to fail. 80 CHAPTER 8. . 133. Regularity of work. Regularity of exercise is also an important element in the development of the highest powers of the horse. The horse in regular work will suffer less in his legs than another ; for he becomes gradually and thoroughly accustomed to what is required of him. The whole living machine accom- modates itself to the regular demands on it, the body becomes active and well conditioned without superfluous fat, and the muscles and tendons gradually develop. Horses in regular work are also nearly exempt from the many accidents which arise from over-freshness. 154. Stage-coach horses. As a proof of the value of regular exercise we need only refer to the stage-coach horses of former days. Many of these animals, though by no means of the best physical frame, would trot with a heavy load behind them for eight hours at the rate of ten miles an hour without turning a hair; and this work they would continue to do for years without ever being sick or sorry. Few gentlemen can say as much for their carriage horses. No horses, in fact, were in harder condition. 135. Neglect of exercise. On the other hand, if exercise be neglected, even for a few days in a — horse in high condition, he will put on fat. He has been making daily the large amount of material needed to sustain the consumption caused by his work. If that work ceases suddenly, nature will, notwithstanding, continue to supply the new material; and fat, followed by plethora and frequently by disease, will be the speedy consequence. : 136. Age, condition, &c., to be considered in regulating the amount of exercise. ; The amount of exercise to be given at any particular time to any par- ticular horse must depend on many considerations, such as his age, feed- ing, condition, constitution, make and shape, on the state of his legs, on the purpose for which he is intended, and in many cases on the amount of time at disposal for preparation. The art of the groom or trainer is to feel his way in each particular animal up to the fullest development of his powers without over-working or over-straining them. 137. Good feeding necessary. All exercise causes an increased consumption of animal material. This consumption or waste must be repaired by good feeding. If the wear and tear of the body is not sufficiently replaced by new supplies intro- duced in the shape of food, the horse will obviously lose flesh ; and under such circumstances additional exercise, far from producing strength or giving muscle, will cause greater debility. EXERCISE, 81 138. Amount of exercise needed. Having laid down the general principles on which we think the amount of exercise ought to be regulated, we shall now endeavour to apply those principles to the various classes of horses. 159. Grass-fed colts. All exercise for a young horse must at first be gentle, and the increase must be gradual. For horses of three or four years old just taken up from grass half an hour’s walking exercise is sufficient. In the second month the time may be increased to an hour, and the horse may carry a saddle, and during one fourth of the time he may be quietly lounged. From the beginning of the third month most young horses may be ridden quietly for an hour, and perhaps trotted with a light weight on them during half that time. From the fourth to the sixth month one hour and a half’s ordinary work in the mandce mav not be too much. gy dung horses, thus be fit for ordinary “ c 9 7 OD Erratum. —Page 80, par. 134, line 4. trangles or other For “ eight hours ” read “ one hour.” FITZWYGRAM'S HORSES AND STABLES. Corn-fed colts may be brought into work earlier and quicker than those which have been fed on grass only. High feeding forces and develops the frame and strength, and consequently corn-fed colts are generally as much developed as grass-fed animals a year or two older. Race horses, for instance, are run at very early ages. Thorough-bred animals are sup- posed to come to maturity sooner than other breeds ; but this earlier development is, we believe, merely the result of the high feeding, of which well-bred animals generally have the advantage, 141. Trish colts. In Ireland it is not uncommon to see four and even three year old grass-fed colts in the hunting field. It is impossible that the muscles, tendons, and bones at that early age, except where the system has been forced by high feeding almost from birth, can be sufficiently developed to stand the amount of wear and strain incidental to such violent exercise. It is in fact no rare thing to find horses, which have been so used or rather abused, broken down at five years old. The same unfortunate results are also common enough in England. 142. Horses from dealers’ stables. Horses from dealers’ stables generally require special care and attention to bring successfully into work. They should, indeed, be treated almost with the precautions recommended above for young horses. They are 6 80 CHAPTER 8. 133. Regularity of work. Regularity of exercise is also an important element in the development of the highest powers of the horse. The horse in regular work will suffer less in his legs than another; for he becomes gradually and thoroughly accustomed to what is required of him. The whole living machine accom- modates itself to the regular demands on it, the body becomes active and well conditioned without superfluous fat, and the muscles and tendons gradually develop. Horses in regular work are also nearly exempt from the many accidents which arise from over-freshness. 154. Stage-coach horses. As a proof of the value of regular exercise we need only refer to the stage-coach horses of former days. Many of these animals, though by no means of the best physical frame, would trot with a heavy load behind them for eight hours at the rate of ten miles an hour without turning a hair; and this wor’ 72 "=; ee mano ere being sick or sorry horses. No horses, aS Sr ee a ey On the other ha horse in high condition, he will put on fat. He has been making daily ~ the large amount of material needed to sustain the consumption caused by his work. If that work ceases suddenly, nature will, notwithstanding, continue to supply the new material; and fat, followed by plethora and frequently by disease, will be the speedy consequence. 136. Age, condition, &c., to be considered in regulating the amount of exercise. The amount of exercise to be given at any particular time to any par- ticular horse must depend on many considerations, such as his age, feed- ing, condition, constitution, make and shape, on the state of his legs, on the purpose for which he is intended, and in many cases on the amount of time at disposal for preparation. The art of the groom or trainer is to feel his way in each particular animal up to the fullest development of his powers without over-working or over-straining them. 157. Good feeding necessary. All exercise causes an increased consumption of animal material. This consumption or waste must be repaired by good feeding. If the wear and tear of the body is not sufficiently replaced by new supplies intro- duced in the shape of food, the horse will obviously lose flesh ; and under such circumstances additional exercise, far from producing strength or giving muscle, will cause greater debility. EXERCISE. 81 138. Amount of exercise needed. Having laid down the general principles on which we think the amount of exercise ought to be regulated, we shall now endeavour to apply those principles to the various classes of horses. 139. Grass-fed colts. All exercise for a young horse must at first be gentle, and the increase must be gradual. For horses of three or four years old just taken up from grass half an hour’s walking exercise is sufficient. In the second month the time may be increased to an hour, and the horse may carry a saddle, and during one fourth of the time he may be quietly lounged. From the beginning of the third month most young horses may be ridden quietly for an hour, and perhaps trotted with a light weight on them during half that time. From the fourth to the sixth month one hour and a half’s ordinary work in the manége may not be too much. By the end of six months the great majority of young horses, thus gradually and systematically got into condition, should be fit for ordinary work. A few of the weaker and those reduced by strangles or other sickness will require further time and care. 140. Corn-fed colts. Corn-fed colts may be brought into work earlier and quicker than those which have been fed on grass only. High feeding forces and develops the frame and strength, and consequently corn-fed colts are generally as much developed as grass-fed animals a year or two older. Race horses, for instance, are run at very early ages. Thorough-bred animals are sup- posed to come to maturity sooner than other breeds ; but this earlier development is, we believe, merely the result of the high feeding, of which well-bred animals generally have the advantage. 141. Trish colts. In Ireland it is not uncommon to see four and even three year old grass-fed colts in the hunting field. It is impossible that the muscles, tendons, and bones at that early age, except where the system has been forced by high feeding almost from birth, can be sufficiently developed to stand the amount of wear and strain incidental to such violent exercise. It is in fact no rare thing to find horses, which have been so used or rather abused, broken down at five years old. The same unfortunate results are also common enough in England. 142. Horses from dealers’ stables. Horses from dealers’ stables generally require special care and attention to bring successfully into work. They should, indeed, be treated almost with the precautions recommended above for young horses. They are 6 82 CHAPTER 8. usually very fat and soft. They sweat freely, and in consequence are very liable to chills, coughs and colds, if neglected after exercise. Their respi- ratory organs also are unused to any violent exertion, and hence are very subject to disease, if injudiciously excited. The digestive powers of their stomachs are also frequently debilitated and deranged by the constant use of tonics. 143. Hzercise of riding or harness horses. For horses in ordinary condition, such as those used for riding or driving, two hours’ work in the course of the day, provided that in that time a distance of ten miles is traversed, is a fair quantum. When the owner cannot give this amount of work to his horses, he should insist on his servants exercising them in the morning for such a period as will make up this time and distance each day. There is nothing servants dislike so much as properly exercising horses. It takes up, of course, a good deal of their time, and makes no immediate outward show. Tar more horses in gentlemen’s stables suffer from too little than from too much regular work. 143a. Hvercise in wet weather. When the weather forbids exercise, grooming is the best substitute. The Author particularly calls attention to this, because, where there is no external sign of dirt, servants are very apt to neglect cleaning the pores of the skin. 144. Hyxercise of hunters. Hunters generally get work enough during the season, but are seldom fit to go till it is half over. We propose to consider, first, why they are not fit to go, and, secondly, how they may be got fit by the beginning of the season. It will be admitted that hunters are tolerably fit at the end of the season. It has been asserted in these pages, though many for various reasons will question it, that “ condition ” is cumulative, 2. e. goes on and increases with time. If “ condition ” is cumulative, why should not a horse be in better form at the beginning of a season than he was at the end of the previous year! Are there any insuperable difficulties in the way? Is the expense too great? Are not the wear and tear and liability to accident far greater in horses that are not fit to go than in those which are thoroughly fit? Is it not a fact, that when a hunter has got thoroughly well seasoned, neither weak nor over fresh, he seldom comes to grief? It is alleged, however, that there are insuperable difficulties in the way of maintaining hunters in condition through the summer, that legs and feet will not stand continual work, that horses hard wrought in winter require rest in summer, that ground suitable for exercise cannot be found, and, lastly, that keeping horses up through the summer is very expensive. We will take these objections seriatim. Whilst we fully admit that the highest development of the powers of nature, such as that required EXERCISE. 83 for racing, cannot be maintained at their utmost for any length of time ; yet we cannot see the difficulty of maintaining a horse in condition through the summer, that is, in such condition that no preparation is needed for hunting, except a few gallops to improve the wind, if only the animal be well fed, well groomed, and exercised two hours a day. It is an advantage, or at least more profitable, if the owner can utilise the horse by riding him or working him in harness during the summer months. Officers’ horses in cavalry regiments are so treated, and they are gene- rally in better condition without any preparation at the beginning of the hunting season than the horses of most sporting men after a vast amount of preparation, physic, and work. 145. “Summering” of hunters. The so called restorative process of “summering” hunters is open to many objections. The animal after his four months’ holiday comes up fat, gross, weak, and out of sorts. He requires physic and sweating to reduce his bulk, extra grooming to bring his skin into order, beans to give firmness to his muscles, and carefully regulated, and relatively to his condition severe exercise to develop his strength and wind, and after all he is generally not half fit to go at the beginning of the season. All this, unless we are in error about officers’ horses, is needless waste of time and trouble, and, moreover, a severe and unnecessary trial to the animal’s constitution. Again, if health is to be preserved, horses, which for eight months in the year are accustomed to be groomed, ought to be groomed during the remaining four. It is a fallacy to suppose that the horse, when thrown out of work, does not require to be groomed. In reality he needs it far more for some months, than when at work. The secretions of his body, which have made use of the pores and glands of the skin (vide Chapter 6, on Grooming) as their organs of excretion, continue to do so for some time after those glands have ceased to receive the stimuli, namely, exer- cise and grooming, which originally brought them into activity. Hence they choke, and in consequence effete matters remain in the system ; and in the end the horse requires, as we might expect, two or three doses of physic to clear his system. Here, then, is a break-down of the theory of summering hunters. The so-called restorative process ends in an amount of constitutional disturb- ance which requires physic to correct it. This constitutional disturbance, caused by want of proper exercise and grooming during the summer months, has been, we believe, the origin of the three doses of physic traditionally supposed to be essential to getting hunters into condition. 146. But will legs and feet stand continual work ? But it may be said,—granting that a horse may be in better condition from having been worked through the summer, yet his feet and legs will not stand this perpetual strain and hammering. Feet, we answer, if of good conformation and properly shod, never 84 CHAPTER 8. sufier from work. Joints, tendons, and ligaments may suffer, but feet from their construction are not likely to suffer either from age or work. The foot of an old horse is just as sound as that of a young one. The legs and joints, we admit, do suffer from work, or rather if over- worked, fail before other parts of the frame. The question, however, is not whether they suffer from work, but whether they suffer more from regular than from intermittent work. Arguing from the structure of joints, tendons, and ligaments, we should conclude that intermittent, especially severe intermittent work, would affect them more injuriously than continued strong work. The severity of work is comparative to the power of sustaining exertion. Let a man not used to walking take a long walk and he will find it severe work, and his joints next day will be stiff and sore all round. Let another man used to that degree of exercise take the same walk, and he will not find it severe. Severity of work, then, is in a great degree comparative to what the person or horse is accustomed to. Among the more common effects of work are wind-galls, thorough-pins, and other enlargements about the joints. These all result from increased secretions of synovia thrown out by nature to preserve the joints and tendons from the irritation caused by work. As in the case of the man alluded to above, joints and tendons which are accustomed to the required amount of exertion will be less likely to suffer from irritation than those not accustomed to such exertion. Sprains, also, which are another occasional effect of severe work, must be less likely to occur when the ligaments and tendons are fully and regu- larly developed than when they are in a weaker state, as must be the case at the beginning of a hunting season, when the horse has been idle through the summer. The same remarks apply to spavins, splints, and other exostoses, which result from irritation and inflammation in the bony structures. But it may be asked, “ Do not horses, which have suffered from the severity of work during the hunting season, require to be laid up and rested?” If a tendon or ligament is sprained, the horse must of course be laid up and further treatment will be necessary ; or, again, if any disease is set up in the joints, rest and treatment will be required. But supposing no such accident to have occurred, and supposing that the tendons, ligaments, and joints merely show “ work,” their recovery will be promoted rather than retarded by fair and reasonable exercise, by good feeding and good grooming during the summer. No doubt a horse which shows “ work ” requires abstinence for a time from severe work, such as hunting; but we question whether he will be the better for total cessation from work. In all such cases the tone of the system requires to be stimulated rather than let down. 147. Exercising ground in summer. Again, it is alleged that ground suitable for exercise cannot be found insummer. Fairly soft ground may generally, we reply, be found in any EXEROISE. 85 neighbourhood up to the end of May. In June a newly-mown grass field can always be obtained, the soil of which, having been protected from the sun, will be soft for at least a month after. Some other field, which may have been mown later, will probably bring us to the beginning of August. About this time a new stubble is generally available, and makes good exercising ground. If, however, in any particular locality it be impossible to find suitable fields, it is better to make artificially an exercising ground rather than run any risk of the horses being insufficiently prepared. 148. Artificial exercising ground. Good exercising ground may be made at no great expense. The first essential of course is drainage, both because all ground on which water has lain becomes very hard when dry ; and because a dry sound bottom is essential to the preservation of the tan, litter, or whatever material may be used as the basis of the artificial ride. Economy in the cost in the particular locality will necessarily regulate the choice of the material used in forming the ride. A circle of about four hundred yards will be sufficient. 149. Temporary ride during a frost. During a frost a temporary ride sufficient to trot horses round may always be formed by means of refuse litter from the dung heap. 150. Expense of keeping horses up through the summer. ’ Lastly, as regards the expense of keeping hunters up through the summer.—The owner of a large stud may say, “I have too many horses to be able to work them through the summer, and it would cost a fortune to feed them high and keep servants to groom and exercise them.” Our answer is very short. “Keep fewer.” It is better to have six horses that can go, than a dozen that can’t go; and not only is it better in point of enjoyment, but it is also cheaper. 151. Size of stud required for hunting. A good horse in good condition ought to go three days a fortnight with hounds in most countries. At this rate only four horses would be required to hunt six days a week. Accidents, however, and illnesses will occur, and it is necessary to make allowances for these; though much fewer accidents will occur with horses thoroughly in work than with others, and illnesses with good stable management ought to be very rare. Making all allowances, six hunters and perhaps a hack, if the distances to cover are great, ought to see a hard-riding man through six days a week from the beginning to the end of the season. If the owner wishes to have a second horse out every day, it may be necessary to add two more to the above number. Masters of hounds, we may observe, very seldom keep more than the above proportion of horses 86 CHAPTER 8. for their huntsmen ; and it is quite certain that gentlemen’s horses during the day do not generally do more work than the huntsman’s. 152. Kind of exercise most suitable for hunters in summer. The system of throwing hunters out of work in summer is, for reasons given above, we believe, little more than a prejudice founded on ignor- ance, custom, and supposed economy. When the hunting season is over, the kind of exercise best suited to the particular animal should be adopted. Saddle work may suit some, harness may be better adapted to others, whilst a few may require to be led. We only urge that horses should get sufficient exercise of some sort; but we believe that on the whole light harness work answers the best. 155, Objections made to harness work. Many owners object to saddle horses being put into harness because it is apt, they think, to make them go heavy in hand. Heavy harness work no doubt has this tendency, because horses in drawing large loads lean on the collar in order to assist the draft by their weight ; but light harness work is not open to this objection. Nothing, for instance, can be more suitable for hunters in summer than a pair-horse brougham, provided the coachman has “ hands.” Coachmen, however, very generally have heavy “hands,” and the complaint of the ill effect of harness work will more often be found to be due to this cause than to any inherent effect of draft. 154. Hunters in autumn to be occasionally exercised in deep ground. While it is obviously desirable, as a general rule, to select sound ground for exercise, whilst it would probably be injudicious to gallop a horse in a deep ploughed field, yet some exercise in deep ground at a smart trot with or without clothing, according to circumstances, should not be neglected in the preparation of the hunter in autumn. It is as neces- sary to accustom a horse to the ground in which he will have to go, as it is to accustom him to the pace required of him. 155. Hard condition to be antecedent to fast work. Before quitting this portion of his subject, the Author desires to repeat that horses cannot be galloped into condition. If a horse is weak, fast or — severe work will only make him weaker ; if he has a big belly, fast work will produce disease ; if he is soft, fast work will make him run up light. Hard condition must be antecedent to galloping; and if the condition is really hard, very little galloping is necessary to put the horse in wind. 156. Of “two hours” so-called exercise. It has been stated above, that two hours’ exercise during the day, pro- vided that in that time a distance of ten miles is traversed, is sufficient EXERCISE. 87 for the purposes of health and for the maintenance of the condition re- quired for the ordinary purposes of riding and driving. It is necessary, however, to give a caution against what servants often call two hours’ exercise. In most establishments it will be found that it means little more than an hour and a quarter, and all the time at a walk. Servants are generally supposed to go to the stable at six o’clock in the morning, but are usually somewhat later. Sweeping out the stable, watering, feeding, and saddling occupy some twenty minutes, and it may probably be the half-hour before the horses really leave the stable. They ' are generally brought in again by a quarter to eight, that is, in time to allow the servants to tie them up, unsaddle, and rub down their legs before their breakfast, which is usually at eight o’clock. This is what is called two hours’ exercise in most establishments, but a great many do not come up even to this very moderate mark. 157. Of exereising in clothing. A question is often asked, whether horses ought to be exercised in clothing? In moderate weather it is better that they should be accus- tomed to go without it. It is false in principle to habituate a horse to the need of an artificial protection, which on other occasions it is impos- sible to give him. It may indeed be urged, that horses are usually taken to exercise at an earlier and more chilly hour than they are ridden by their owners. On the other hand, it may be replied, that horses at exer- cise need clothing less than at other times, because they never need and certainly never ought to be kept standing ; whereas in the uses to which the owner puts his horses, it must occasionally, if not frequently happen, that they are kept standing for a considerable time, perhaps even when heated. Horses, however, which have been recently clipped or singed, ought to be exercised in clothing. A single rug or hood will be sufficient under ordinary circumstances. More harm than good is caused by exer- cising in too heavy clothing. When it is desired to sweat a horse, the question of clothing, or no clothing, or double clothing, will of course depend on the amount of flesh and coat which the particular animal happens to carry. 157a. Exercise or work in bandages. When horses are ridden in bandages in deep ground or muddy ground, it sometimes happens that the mud works between the bandage and the skin, and causes excessive irritation and swelling, somewhat resembling mud fever. 158. Time for exercising horses. It is the practice in most stables to exercise the horses in the early morning, for the servants after exercise to go to breakfast, and for the horses to be cleaned after breakfast. The object of this arrangement is to save the servants the trouble of grooming the horses a second time. 88 CHAPTER 9. Apart from any questions connected with grooming, which were dis- cussed in the previous chapter, the practice of exercising horses in the early morning is objectionable. During a great portion of the year the air at that time is generally cold and raw. It is injudicious to pull a horse suddenly out of a warm stable into the chilly air of early morning. Nine o’clock is quite early enough to take the horses out. When they return from exercise, they can then be cleaned at once; whereas if they are taken out in the morning, they are always left to stand for nearly an hour, whilst the servant gets his breakfast. Again in the early morning the owner is seldom up and about, and in consequence the regulated period of exercise is often cut short by one half. Other abuses, such as a resort to the public house and tying the horses up outside, are more likely to occur at an early than at a late hour. On the other hand, when the horses are taken out at nine o'clock, the owner has the opportunity without trouble to himself of checking the time of going out and returning. 159. Training of race horses. The treatment and training of race horses is a somewhat different subject, and one which is beyond the scope of the present treatise. The condition of race horses is not, as in other horses, cumulative. The con- dition in which they are required for racing is the very highest. The system cannot for long be sustained at an extreme pitch. The object of the trainer is to bring his horse to the very highest pitch of condition on a given day ; whilst the object of the owners of hunters and other horses is to have their powers fully developed and sustained for a lengthened period. CHAPTER 9. STABLE MANAGEMENT. 160. Introduction. 161. Temperature of stables. 162. Artificial warm- ing of stables. 1683. Of stables in summer. 164. Registering thermometer. 165. Stables, both cold and close. 166. Damp stables. 167. Change of stables. 168. Horses brought from grass into stables. 168a. Horses from the country. 169. Horses to be cleaned immediately after exercise. 170. Best time for exercise. 171. Of drying horses, when very hot or wet. 172. Warm baths. 173. Artificial removal of coat. 174. Singeing. 175. Clipping. 176. Shaving. 177. Hair not to be removed from legs in rough hunting countries. 178. Manes and tails. 179 —180. Bedding. 181. Of horses which eat their bedding. 182. Bedding to be taken outside every STABLE MANAGEMENT. 89 morning. Litter sheds. 183. Clothing. 184. Hand rubbing the legs. 185. Flannel bandages. 186. Wet linen bandages. 187. Of putting on band- ayes. 188. Bandages to joints. 189. Persistent coldness of legs. 190. Feet. 191. Arrangement of horses in the stable. 192. Kicking in the stable. 193. Sleeping whilst standing in stable. 194. Weaving. 195. Crib-biting. 196. Wind-sucking. 197. After a hard day's work. 198. Physic. 199. Bran mashes. 199a. Working life of horses in various employments. 160. Introduction. In the preceding chapters an endeavour has been made to lay down the broad principles, which are the basis of good stable management. These essentials, to recapitulate, are: Ist, an ample supply of pure fresh air at all times in the stable; 2nd, judicious watering and feeding ; 3rd, good forage; 4th, good grooming ; 5th, good shoeing ; 6th, sufficient and well regulated exercise. These are no doubt simple recipes for successful stable management,— too simple perhaps for many, who believe that there is a mystery in stable management known only to a few. Yet from neglect of these common and obvious requirements, few horses look as well as they ought to do. Many become sick or lame, and thus entail trouble, expense and loss, which might easily have been avoided. To ensure the highest development of health and strength, not one or two or even three of these essentials are sufficient, but all must be com- bined. You cannot have strength in a chain, if any one link be defective. . The present chapter will be devoted to the practical application of the principles already set forth. 161. Temperature of stables. Whilst purity of air in a stable is absolutely essential, the maintenance of an even and moderately warm temperature is also a matter of great importance. The horse is a native of a warm climate, and both thrives and puts up flesh in warmth. His food will go further and his coat will look better in a warm than in a cold stable. In spring, autumn, and winter a stable should, we think, be kept as comfortably warm as possible without making it close and offensive. Warmth is good for horses, but purity of air is more essential. Good air must never be sacrificed to warmth. Cold air will but produce a staring coat, whilst foul air is the ready parent of disease. The best test of the purity of air in a stable is the sensation felt on first going into it from the external air. The best time for testing the sufficiency or otherwise of ventilation is the early morning, before the stable has been cleaned and aired. In a well drained, well paved, well ventilated, and cleanly kept stable the temperature may generally be maintained at from fifty to sixty degrees. Ill drained, ill paved, badly ventilated or dirty stables cannot 90 CHAPYER 9. with safety be kept as warm as those of which the sanitary condition is more favourable. Many varying circumstances, however, of situation, whether bleak or sheltered, of thickness of walls, of ceiling or absence of ceiling, of rooms overhead, of adjacent buildings and such-like considerations, must modify any general rules as to temperature. Some regard too should be paid to the state of the external atmosphere. With the thermometer, for in- stance, at zero out of doors, a stable would be injudiciously warm at from fifty to sixty degrees, although that temperature may be taken as a fair average for most seasons of the year. 162. Artificial warming of stables. When the weather is celd and more warmth is desired,—instead of shutting up too closely the stable and thereby destroying the purity of the air,—it is better to have recourse to additional clothing or to arti- ficial heating. The latter is very seldom applied to stables, but we feel sure that it would in the long run be much better economy to go to the expense of fires than to run the risk of the many diseases which are generated by foul air. An open fire, though more expensive than a stove, is of far greater service, because, whilst it gives warmth, it also assists the ventilation. 163. Of stables in summer. In summer time stables generally require to be kept as cool as possible. Doors and windows can scarcely be opened too freely. In some cases where the stables have a southern aspect, an awning along the front will be found advantageous. The question of the best aspect for a stable has been already considered in Chapter 1. 164. Registering thermometer. A registering thermometer to show the extremes of heat and cold is a useful adjunct to a stable. The cost of this instrument is but a few shillings. Servants do not understand the danger of impure air. Fre- quently of an evening, when they think that there is no fear of the master again visiting the stable, in their ignorant anxiety for the horse’s health and for the glossiness of his coat, they stop up every opening through which the pure invigorating air can enter. A registering thermometer is some check on this practice, though of course it is very inferior to an occasional visit from the master in the morning before the stable is opened. 165. Stables, both cold and close. It is quite possible to have a stable both cold and close. Such stables are generally also damp. They are most objectionable, and are the con- stant source of disease. ~~ STABLE MANAGEMENT. 9] 166. Damp stables. The horse in his best and highest form is the native of a dry, warm, sunny country. He loves both warmth and dryness. In damp stables he loses all life and spirit; and debility, generally followed by disease, soon supervenes. New stables should be thoroughly aired and dried before horses are put into them. 167. Change of stables. Horses rarely suffer in health from a change even suddenly from warm to cold stables, provided they are dry; but a change from cold to warm stables generally produces coughs and colds. In like manner horses turned out to grass from warm stables seldom catch cold, whilst those brought into warm stables from the open almost invariably suffer. 168. Horses brought from grass into stables. When horses, which have been lying out at grass or in open yards, are brought into stables, every door and window should for many days be left wide open, and the temperature should only slowly and gradually be increased, and during this transitional period any symptoms of disease should be carefully watched for. 168a. Horses from the country. It is the practice among dealers in large towns, especially with horses fresh from the country, to turn them round for some hours on the side reins or pillar chains in inclement or foggy weather. This changes the atmosphere they breathe, which is never so stagnant in the passages or gangways as at their mangers. 169. Horses to be cleaned immediately after exercise. No one point in stable management should be more strongly insisted on, than that the horse be not allowed after exercise, and especially after fast exercise, to stand without being at once rubbed and cleaned. The reasons for this were given in the latter part of Chapter 6, on Grooming. In private stables, when horses are exercised in the morning, it is the common but injurious practice for servants on their return to tie them up and leave their legs wet, whilst they have their breakfasts. An hour or more is often let slip in this way. As morning is the most convenient time for exercise, and as servants require breakfast, the evil perhaps cannot be altogether avoided ; but it may be much reduced by the master insisting that the legs are dried or bandaged and the horses clothed before the servants leave, and that not more than half an hour is spent at breakfast. 92 CHAPTER 9. 170. Best time for exercise. Though it is usual to take horses out in the early morning on account of the time and trouble thereby saved, yet the really best time for exer- cise is after breakfast. In the morning the servant is often late in starting and in a hurry to get back to his breakfast. Hence the quantum of exercise is cut short. Again, the climate in winter time is less bleak and cold at a later hour, and the servant, having had his breakfast, can at once on his return get to work at his horse. The animal too has then had his morning feed and water some two hours or more, and is therefore more fit for fast exercise, a point of some importance in the preparation of a hunter in the autumn. The servant also has more time to clean out the stable properly in the morning, and the master can better ensure a proper length of exercise. Other reasons specially connected with grooming in favour of exercising after breakfast have been already given in the chapter on that subject. See also Chapter 8, on Exercise. Whilst the horses are at exercise, the doors and windows of the stable should be thrown wide open, so that during that time the interior of the building may get the advantage of a thorough change of air. 171. Of drying horses, when very hot or wet. It is always an object of much importance to get a horse, which returns very hot or very wet after hunting or other severe exercise, dried and cleaned as soon as possible. Two or three men therefore should be set to work at once on him. When the sweat is running off profusely a scraper will answer better than a wisp or cloth. 172. Warm baths. On exceptional occasions, when a horse returns from work more than usually dirty, wet, or tired, there is no objection to washing him all over with warm water, or giving him, as it is termed, a bath. After such washing the horse should be thoroughly dried, and then warmly clothed all over and flannel bandages applied to his legs. The warm water is probably refreshing at the moment to a tired animal, and also soothing to any little irritation about the joints or other parts ; but the chief object of this mode of cleaning off the outside dirt is first to save the servant time and trouble, and secondly to enable the horse to lie down and rest an hour sooner than he otherwise would. But though under exceptional circumstances such treatment may in the first instance be beneficial, it must be remembered that water does not really clean the skin of the horse. As soon therefore as the animal has sufficiently rested, his skin must be cleaned by the application of the brush in the usual manner. ee STABLE MANAGEMENT. 93 173. Artificial removal of the coat. With good grooming, good stables, and the maintenance of an equable temperature, few well-bred horses, except in old age, ought to require the artificial removal of their coats. When, however, it is requisite, there are three means by which it may be effected, namely by singeing, by clipping, and by shaving. Each has its own advantages, according to circumstances. 174. Singeing. Some horses sweat much in autumn, and are worth nothing until their coats are off. Let such be singed. Singeing cannot be begun too early, whilst clipping must not be done until the coat has fully grown and set. The only real art in singeing is to begin early enough and to remove the fresh growth every week. Gas answers best for the operation. 175. Clipping. Other horses are the better for being worked in autumn in clothing or with their coats on, and will be more fit at the commencement of the hunting season on account of the extra sweating so caused. Let such be clipped or shaved. The horse’s coat should be fully set before it is removed by clipping. 176. Shaving. Shaving is a very neat and effectual mode of removing the coat. Some nicety however is required in hitting off the right time for the operation, namely, about a week before the coat sets. If done sooner, the coat grows again, and the horse may require to be singed afterwards. If de- ferred later, he may be bare all the winter. The part of the back under the saddle should not be shaved, but clipped. 177. Hair not to be removed from the legs in rough hunting countries. In rough hunting countries it is not desirable to remove the hair from the legs of hunters, from the swell of the arm or thigh downwards. 178. Manes and tails. Manes and tails should be brushed, not combed. A comb pulls out the hairs, and will soon make a mane or tail thin. A switched tail may always be produced by combing it at the end. Almost any mane may be made to lie on the side desired by frequently damping and brushing it, or if need be, by plaiting it with lead. Civi- lians prefer the mane being laid to the off side. With troop horses it is always laid to the near side, with the view of enabling the dragoon to take a lock of it in his hand before mounting. The practice of mounting with a lock of the mane in the bridle hand is good, because it lessens the chance of giving the horse a chuck in the 94, CHAPTER 9. mouth from the bit. Most horses which are unsteady on being mounted, have become so from having received such chucks. The saddle also is less likely to shift from its proper position, when the rider is assisted in mounting by having hold of the mane. 179—180. Bedding. One great item in a horse’s comfort, and consequently in his aptitude to carry flesh, is a good bed. Every horse should be bedded down at mid- day. Where straw is abundant, there is of course no difficulty in doing this ; but where the allowance of straw, as in troop stables, is limited to eight pounds a day per horse, there is some difficulty in combining daily bedding down with good beds. As regards economy of straw, it is essential not to give the horse a chance of eating it. With this view no fresh straw should be placed within its reach. The fresh straw should be brought in first, and put not merely at the bottom, but also in rear of the stall; and then the old litter should be brought in and put at the top and in front. The horse will not readily eat it, and by the following morning the new straw will have become somewhat tainted, and may then be mixed and dried along with the rest. Servants, however, generally prefer to put the new straw on the top, partly because it makes the stable look nicer, and partly because it keeps the clothing cleaner. Again, great care should be taken in the morning to thoroughly shake up and cleanse the bedding from dung, and any parts which may have become rotten should be thrown out. Good straw rapidly deteriorates if these precautions are not taken. On the other hand, careless servants often throw away along with the bad parts much good bedding, which might be dried and used again. Bedding should be shaken up and turned over at least twice in each forenoon, so as to expose every part to the drying and purifying influence of the sun and air. It is, however, a mistake to expose it over-much to the action of a very hot sun, as it makes it too dry and brittle. Every stable ought to be swept out perfectly clean every morning, and all bedding should be removed outside. The paving of the stables will never be perfectly dry and sweet, unless it is exposed to the drying and purifying influence of the air for at least four or five hours each day. The cleanliness and dryness of the floor of the stable are essential items in stable management. 181. Of horses which eat their bedding. Some horses eat their bedding to an extent which is not merely incon- venient on account of the difficulty of maintaining their beds, but which is absolutely injurious to their wind. It is noticeable that horses doing little work and standing idle during the greater part of the day are espe- cially apt thus to gorge themselves. . os a EE STABLE MANAGEMENT. 95 When the ordinary devices of muzzling or of giving the horse only the oldest and worst litter for his bed have failed, we know of but one remedy, namely, the substitution for straw of some article which he cannot eat. Sawdust makes an excellent bed, and in many places it may be obtained at half the cost of straw. About 100 lb. per week is suffi- cient to keep up a bed for one horse. Care must, however, be taken to entirely remove and renew the sawdust at least once a week. Sawdust is an absorbent of urine, and also a deodorizer. From this latter quality its impure state is often not recognised. It is not a chemical agent, but only a deodorizer (see par. 323). In Ireland black bog mould is often used. Sea sand, when obtainable, answers very well, and makes a cool and pleasant summer bedding. Of late years moss litter has come into use, and if kept clean and dry answers very well. 182. Preservation of bedding. A shed outside the stable should be provided for the reception of the litter in wet weather (par. 16a). If, however, there is no such con- venience, the litter should nevertheless be removed from under the horses and well shaken up and cleansed, and placed temporarily in a spare stall or in the passage, until the horses are cleaned. It had then better be replaced under the horses, because if retained long in a mass it will heat and ferment and deteriorate. Wet weather should not be admitted as an excuse for allowing the bedding to remain in the stalls, or, in other words, for the stalls not being properly swept out and cleansed in the morning. . In no case should the litter be stored under the manger. Strange to Say, servants generally do store it under the manger, though the least reflection might convince them that in this position more than any other it must taint the air which the horse has to breathe, whilst the ammonia arising from it must be injurious to his eyes and lungs. In fine weather the litter should always be placed in the open air rather than under a shed. 183. Clothing. Good large heavy rugs, weighing eight pounds, answer quite as well as what is technically called clothing, and have the advantage of being about half the price. The rug should be hollowed out over the withers, and in addition to the ordinary roller the two ends in front should be brought together and secured by a broad strap and buckle. For most horses one rug in summer and two in winter are sufficient. Old horses, as a general rule, require more clothing than younger animals. Breast-cloths, especially where large rugs secured in front are used, are unnecessary. All clothing ought to be brushed and exposed to the purifying influence of the sun and air for some hours daily. Advantage may be taken of the period of exercise and grooming for this purpose. The clothing of horses, 96 CHAPTER 9, as is the case with the clothes of men, absorbs the emanations of the body, and therefore requires to be frequently cleansed and purified. Separate suits for day and night are very desirable. In hot summer weather the rug may be taken off, and a linen or calico sheet, chiefly as a protection against flies, may be substituted for it. If horses are exercised in clothing, a separate suit should be kept for the purpose. It is not desirable that the horse should stand all day in the clothing which has absorbed his perspiration and other emanations whilst at exercise. If, however, separate suits are kept for day and night, this extra suit will not be needed, as the horse may be exercised in the night suit, which can afterwards be dried and aired during the day. 184. Hand rubbing of the legs. Hand rubbing of the legs is very useful in relieving any little fulness arising from over-work, or in other cases from the absence of proper exercise. The pressure and friction thereby given excites the blood- vessels and absorbents to increased action. 185. Flannel bandages. Flannel bandages are useful in several ways. By their pressure they act to a certain degree like hand rubbing; and again by their warmth they operate as a mild fomentation, and thereby reduce heat, swelling, and slight inflammation. Ordinarily they are used as a means of saving the servant the time which would otherwise be required to dry the legs, when wet. 186. Wet linen bandages. Wet linen bandages are useful in reducing the heat of superficial inflamed parts. They do so both by the actual cold of the bandage, and_ still more by evaporation. The mode in which warm and cold bandages produce their effects will be described more fully in Chapter 17, under the heads of fomentations and cold applications. 187. Of putting on bandages. Few servants understand how to put on bandages. They need adjust- ment according to the purpose for which they are required. Those in- tended to give pressure of course require a certain degree of tightness, whilst those intended for warmth should only be tight enough to prevent their slipping down. Servants, however, nearly always put on bandages too tightly, forgetting or not knowing that each succeeding fold increases the pressure underneath. The bandage should be rolled up before it is applied, and the winding on should begin from the lowest part upwards. a STABLE MANAGEMENT. 97 188. Bandages to joints. It is difficult to bandage any joint, except the fetlock, so as to give pressure or restrain motion. If it be desired to prevent motion, as in some cases of broken knee, the better plan is to apply splints; or to blister lightly the neighbouring parts with a view of making them tender and stiff, so that the patient may be disinclined to move. As a general rule, where joints are bandaged, it is essential that the horse be tied up by the head to the rack to prevent his lying down. The patient, in the act of lying down or getting up, nearly always bursts a tight bandage. If the object of the bandage be only to maintain warmth in the part after fomentation, as in cases of sprain in the hock, or on the other hand to reduce the heat of the part, it may be conveniently effected by a covering made of felt or of several plies of flannel cut to the requisite shape and sewn together, with a hole for the point of the os calcis, and fastened in front with a number of straps. This covering may be kept moist with hot or cold water according to circumstances. 189. Persistent coldness of legs. When, in spite of friction and bandages, the legs remain persistently cold, as is often the case in various debilitating diseases, a mustard embrocation or ammonia liniment may be advantageously rubbed on the parts, and the bandages may then be reapplied. Some further directions on this subject, which is connected with disease rather than with stable management, will be found in succeeding chapters. 190. Feet. Feet, if the shoeing is good, as a general rule require nothing but cleanliness to keep them in health. They should be picked out and washed clean every morning and again after exercise. 191. Arrangement of horses in the stable. The arrangement of horses in a stable, especially where bales only are used, is a matter of some importance. Some horses take a special dis- like to others, and will constantly bite, kick at, or fight with them ; whilst they will stand quiet next to particular animals. A vicious horse should be put in a corner stall, and if possible, should have a spare stall next to him. A horse which is given to bite his neighbours, may, if put in a corner stall, be still further restrained by passing the collar rein through a ring driven into the side wall instead of through the ordinary ring in the centre of the manger. Again, any horse that feeds slowly may advantageously be placed in a corner stall; and his more voracious neighbour should be tied up short as soon as he has done feeding. 7 98 CHAPTER Q. 192. Kicking in the stable. Some horses, by kicking in the stable, are constantly laming or dis- figuring themselves, and endangering the lives or limbs of their atten- dants or of other horses, besides smashing partitions and walls. Kicking is a very troublesome vice, and many plans may perhaps be tried, before one can be found which will stop it in any particular animal. There is, in fact, no one recipe to stop kicking, but among many remedies which may be tried, some one will generally be found to be effectual. When the common remedies, such as a log fastened to the hind leg, or a piece of furze hung up in rear, have failed, it is well to try the effect of a strap connecting one or both hind legs with one fore-leg; or both hind legs may be strapped together, but some horses, notwithstanding their hind legs are tied together, manage to kick by raising both hind legs at the same time. A block of wood or gutta percha, made to fit exactly into the hollow of the heel, and fastened in front by a strap fre- quently effectually prevents kicking in the stable. Most horses may be stopped from kicking, when being groomed, by strapping up one fore-leg in the manner recommended some years back by Mr. Rarey ; but in this case it is essential that a good substantial bed should be kept under the horse, as otherwise he may injure himself by slipping or falling on his knees. It is not uncommon to find, that horses, which have been stopped from kicking by the use of one of these plans, learn after a time to kick in spite of it. Another plan must then be tried. In the great majority of cases, however, where horses are vicious, the servants are the real culprits. Ill tempered or idle or even timid servants cause horses to be, or allow them to become vicious. With good servants and gentle treatment very few horses give, or at least long continue to give trouble. 193. Sleeping, when standing in the stable. Some horses sleep when standing and rarely lie down, and seem to do well. It appears to be natural to them. But others, who indulge in this habit, are apt to fall down and cut their fetlocks. In such cases the habit has probably arisen from the horse having, at some time or other, been cast in the stall. The remedy is of course to induce the horse, if possible, to lie down. A loose box offers the best chance of effecting this object. If this fails, the only preventive to injury is a thick padded boot running completely round the fetlock, in addition to a good substantial bed in front, so that the parts may not be injured, even if the animal falls. It is essential that the boot should go completely round, because a boot covering only the anterior part may slip, and thus leave unprotected the part which needs protection. If the horse suffers in his legs from not lying down, he may be put in slings at night, or a very broad strap may be fastened from one heel post to the other, against which the animal may lean. STABLE MANAGEMENT. 99 This latter plan gives very little trouble, and often answers exceedingly well. 194. Weaving. Weaving, or constant oscillation from side to side by motion of the fore-legs, accompanied with a corresponding motion of the head from side to side, is a curious and favourite trick of some horses. No parti- cular harm seems to result from it, nor does it appear to be catching among other horses. As a general rule, horses do not weave unless they are tied up, but some will go through the motions even though loose. The trick arises from nervousness at the approach or presence of any one. Though the animal may appear to be always weaving, yet such is not the fact, as the owner may easily satisfy himself by placing the horse in some stable where he can watch him without being seen or heard. 195. Crib-biting. Crib-biting is a serious evil, and generally increases rather than dimin- ishes with age. Several causes give rise to it. It is sometimes learnt by young horses catching at the manger or at any rail which may be within their reach when they are being groomed. In other cases it may originate in mere playfulness or want of occupation. The use of deal or any unseasoned wood, which horses like to gnaw, for stable fittings is apt to induce the trick. But most commonly crib-biting arises from some acidity or chronic irritability of the stomach, which produces a craving for something to appease it, 7. e. to suck in wind. . Crib-biting, if much indulged in, damages the teeth, and is said in some instances to do so to a degree which interferes with feeding. But inas- much as mastication is performed by the posterior teeth, it is not pro- bable that the domesticated horse can suffer any great inconvenience from injury to the incisor teeth. The office of those teeth is principally to nip off the blades of grass, a duty which is not often required in the stabled animal. Crib-biting, however, from the amount of wind sucked into the stomach often seriously interferes with the digestion, and hence is a common cause of flatulence and colic, whilst, again, by impairing the digestion, it often prevents the horse carrying flesh. In its incipient stage crib-biting may be retarded, if not arrested, by dressing all the stable fixtures within reach with coal tar, which must be renewed as often as necessary; and it is advisable in all cases, having regard to the disease arising from irritability of the stomach, to keep water always within reach. The use of a wooden bar placed across the mouth, and attached at each end to the head collar has also been recom- mended. Acting somewhat as a gag, this is said to have a good effect in arresting this tiresome and evil habit. A strap drawn tightly round the neck is much recommended as a pre- ventive. If sufficiently tight it will prevent the horse from swallowing the air, which is his chief object in cribbing, and on this account it often hinders him from pursuing the habit. It is, however, a question whether 100 CHAPTER 9. a strap drawn tight enough to prevent the trick, may not do injury to the muscles of the throat, and thus produce serious mischief. It has also been recommended to place a ball on a strap to give more pressure on the windpipe. The use of a swinging manger in the box, and the absence of any projection likely to be seized by the teeth has been found to pre- vent this habit. It will, however, probably recur when opportunity offers. Crib-biting is generally supposed to be very catching. No doubt the trick is sometimes learnt by one horse from another, but inasmuch as it generally arises from derangement of the stomach, this cannot be the case to any great extent. In all cavalry regiments a few crib-biters may be found, but though no trouble is taken to separate them from other horses, it is not found that the habit extends. The Author has no great confidence in any one of these remedies. It is, however, advisable to try them one after the other, and perhaps one may be found which will be successful with a particular horse. 196. Wind-sucking. Wind-sucking is similar in its causes and effects, and requires the same treatment as crib-biting. 197. After a hard day’s work. After a hard day’s work the horse should, if possible, be given a loose box. If he seems fatigued or has fasted long, a pailful of gruel given at once, before the operation of cleaning is begun, will be acceptable and easy of digestion. Whilst being cleaned he may be given some hay, of which he will eat a little, and which will revive the powers of his stomach, and get it into a state fit to assimilate the corn. As soon as cleaned, he should have his feed of corn mixed with about a pound of linseed boiled to a jelly, and afterwards his hay as usual. After he has been thoroughly dressed and cleaned, dry flannel ban- dages, in lieu of those originally put on after washing or rubbing down his legs, should be applied and left on during the night. The warmth and pressure derived from them will help to reduce any little swelling or effusion or “ gumminess ” arising from the day’s work. On the following morning, after being thoroughly groomed and his legs hand-rubbed, the horse, if standing in a stall, may be taken out for half an hour’s walking exercise ; but if in a loose box the exercise may be dispensed with. At mid-day he should be again thoroughly groomed and his legs hand-rubbed. Nothing refreshes the horse more, or sooner re- stores the energies of the system, than grooming and hand-rubbing. Tk the legs continue puffed, the bandages may be reapplied. A diuretic ball is commonly recommended after a hard day’s work as a means of reducing puffiness of the legs and joints. That it will pro- duce this effect the Author does not question, becaus2 it will excite in- creased action in the kidneys, and in this way draw off any superfluous secretions from the system. But inasmuch as those secretions remain in STABLE MANAGEMENT. 101 the system on account of debility or want of tone in the vital powers, it seems to him that the remedy is in a wrong direction. The horse re- quires not depletion but tone. The vital powers will best recover them- selves under the influence of rest, good feeding, good grooming, hand- rubbing, and pure air and a little walking exercise. 198. Physic. Some few words on Physic can hardly be omitted in a treatise on stable management, though physic will scarcely ever be required, if the manage- ment be really good. Some owners of horses give physic periodically, others only when pre- paring for fast work a horse that has been out at grass or is from any cause out of condition. Three doses of purgative medicine are by many supposed to be necessary for the preparation of a horse for hunting. Sensible men do not give physic unless it is needed; and they avoid giving it, when the object sought can be attained by other and less injurious means, such as by an alteration of diet or exercise. Most physics are poisons more or less strong, and why put ever so small a quantity of poison into the system unnecessarily? It is probable enough that horses do occasionally require medicine; but there is no sense in giving it when not required. The physic given on these periodical occasions is usually purgative. If the stomach and intestines are healthy and have nothing in them which needs to be forcibly ejected, why disarrange them by thrusting on them medicine? The old-fashioned answer, we presume, would be “to prevent their setting out of order.” How the disturbance of a healthy system can be supposed to effect this, we must leave to others to explain. Few horses on the average enjoy such good health as troop horses, and yet from one year’s end to another they never, unless really ill, get physic. Let medicine then be restricted to those cases in which it is really required, and even then let it be given as sparingly as possible. If proper and timely notice is taken of the premonitory symptoms of ailments, little active treatment will ever be necessary. Bran mashes instead of corn for a day or two, deprivation of hay, a cooler stable, and above all a loose box, with plenty of pure fresh air will probably do all that is needed, and will do it much better and more safely than physic. 199. Bran mashes. Whilst the periodical administration of purgative medicine is injurious, it is yet good practice to give horses on Saturday evening, if Sunday be a day of rest, a cold bran mash in lieu of the evening feed of corn. Bran mash is cooling and slightly laxative, and therefore a fitting preparation for a day of rest. A warm bran mash for a sick horse is made by pouring boiling water on bran in a pail, and covering it with a cloth to retain the steam. A handful of dry bran thrown on the top of the mash will answer the same purpose. 102 CHAPTER 9. 199a. Working life of horses in various Himployments. Some few statistics may be interesting and valuable. The statistics, however, refer only to the duration of horses in the employments for which they were bought. It does not follow that a horse is worn out, because he is no longer fit for the work for which he was bought. Many, in fact most of them, may be fit for slower or lighter work for many years to come. The Author desires to return his warm thanks to those, who have so kindly supplied him with the following information. a | 3 a = ue | s od a | Ee ot | rey Qa Sass = | 32,| Be) es a ray! & g B | zg = | iS) ep ze ie) aa se GA F 495. Symptoms. The horse is sick and off his feed, and perhaps has a slight catarrh - with feverish symptoms. In a day or two the glands under the jaw or _ behind the ear begin to swell. Partly from the efiect of the fever which _ accompanies the attack, and partly from sympathy the throat also be- comes sore ; and hence arises difficulty in swallowing with much slobber- _ ing and occasionally some acceleration of the breathing. _ When the tumour forms regularly in the submaxillary space, and is of _ the ordinary size, the abscess generally comes to maturity without much _ trouble or inconvenience. If, however, the tumour is situated high up towards the parotid _ glands, the distress in the breathing will often be very great, and the feverish symptoms will run high. The noisy breathing, which forms so marked a feature in most severe cases, and from which the disease obtains its name, is owing partly to the tumour, formed in the neigh- _ bourhood of the parotid glands, pressing on the larynx, and partly also _ to the inflamed and swollen state of the lining membrane of the larynx, _ which becomes inflamed by sympathy. The tumour often becomes _ exceedingly large, and the patient may get excessively weak from being unable to masticate his food. In some cases the animal may be in _ danger of suffocation from obstruction of the breathing caused by the size and situation of the tumour. Again from general derangement of the secretions of the body, owing to the eruptive disease existing in one part, the pores of the skin cease to act properly, and in consequence the skin becomes dry and the coat is harsh and staring. 496. General Treatment. As usual with eruptive diseases, Strangles runs a regular course. The great object in treatment is to assist nature to develop the eruption fully and quickly. If the eruption is checked in the external part, in which it usually first appears, it is very apt to fly to another, and perhaps to some internal glandular structure. Hence, instead of treating this disease with depletives, as some of its ‘symptoms, and especially the fever might seem to indicate, we must endeavour to keep up the strength of the patient. Herein, however, lies the chief difficulty. The horse is sick and not 246 CHAPTER 26. inclined to feed. His throat is sore, and at best he can take nothing but soft food. Hence good nursing becomes the main point in the treat- ment. The patient’s appetite must be carefully watched and tempted with anything that he will eat. In bad cases grass is not only the best, but is often the only food, that the animal can be tempted to swallow or to attempt to swallow. Carrots cut lengthways are the best substitute, when grass cannot be obtained. Bran mash is sometimes palatable for a day or two, but in general it soon becomes distasteful. Linseed gruel may also be offered. If the patient is able to eat it he should be sup- plied with corn softened by boiling water being poured over it with the addition of bran and linseed. Whilst it is desirable to give the animal whatever he will take, it is also necessary that the food should be offered him in a softened condition. Hay, put into a bucket and boiling water poured on it, is also palatable. The steam arising from it will also be found to be beneficial by soothing the inflamed surfaces. A little scalded crushed oats, or a small barley or malt mash is often eaten with relish. Stale bread may also be offered. Warm clothing must be applied to the body, and bandages to the legs. At intervals, if the legs get cold, the bandages should be removed, and the parts rubbed with the hands, until warmth is restored. The patient should be placed in a cool well-ventilated box with abundance of air both day and night. Cool fresh air in this in common with all diseases, in which the respiratory passages are affected, is of the utmost importance. But on no account whatever should the patient be subjected to any cold draught. This caution is needed whenever the respiratory passages are affected. But nevertheless the air in the sick box or stable must be pure and fresh. If the bowels are constipated, they must be relieved by the use of laxative food, or if need be by injections ; but no strong purgative medi- cine must be given, both for fear of checking the eruption and also on account of its tendency to reduce the strength and perhaps bring on superpurgation. If any medicine is needed, half a pint of linseed oil may be given, and repeated after twenty-four hours if necessary. The fever which accompanies the eruptive attack will disappear as soon as the disease has run its course. Should it, however, be excessive, it may be advisable to allay it with ordinary febrifuges, but no lowering treatment is admissible. 497. Treatment of the Local swelling. From the general disease we now turn to the Local swelling. Our object must be to induce the process of suppuration or formation of matter. In most cases it will be sufficient to keep the part warm with layers of flannel. But if the suppurative process needs further assist- ance to bring it to maturity, fomentations followed by a warm poultice of boiled carrots or turnips applied to the part and retained in position by an eight-tailed bandage will be beneficial. The greatest care must be taken in all cases to ayoid a chill in the part, which would check the STRANGLES. 247 formation of matter. Hence fomentations, if applied, must be followed by a poultice. Blisters have been recommended, but are objectionable in the early stage at least, because they tend to disperse the swelling instead of developing the abscess. When, however, the tumour has begun to soften, a light blister will assist in bringing on the desired action in cases where the progress is unduly tardy. 498. Opening of the Abscess. It has been generally recommended that when an abscess is pointing externally, it should be opened, as soon as it appears ready to burst, at its most depending point, so as to afford the best and freest exit for the matter. If it is determined to adopt this treatment, the incision must be kept open and clean, and the abscess very gently pressed, and occa- sionally injected with warm water by means of a syringe in order to clear away any matter which may be adhering to its sides. Or a small piece of tow may be put into the opening, and occasionally removed to prevent the wound from closing too soon. When the abscess is deep-seated, very great caution is needed in the operation for fear of injuring with the lancet any of the blood-vessels in its neighbourhood. Any considerable flow of blood may prove fatal to an animal already in a weak and debilitated state; and again if the lancet should cut through the duct of the salivary gland, we may have a very troublesome fistulous sore, discharging saliva. It is also urged that an incised opening will heal more rapidly and be less liable to leave a blemish than the irregular opening made by Nature. This is true, but with good care and attention to cleanliness, no blemish ought to result from either. Again, in opening the abscess by the lancet, there is a danger, and it is a real danger, of opening it before it is really ready to burst. If an abscess is opened immaturely, its natural development will be ‘checked, and it will be very likely to re-form on the mesentery, lungs, or other internal structures, when a fatal result is only too probable. The better plan, however, is to leave nature alone. Nature will at the right time, neither too soon nor too late, cause the abscess to open. We may assist in developing the process of suppuration; but the time, at which the abscess is fully formed and ready to burst, depends on Nature. Occasionally it happens that the tumour is so placed on the side of the throat, that by pressing on the windpipe it causes extreme difficulty in breathing. In such cases it may be necessary to open it, even though not fully matured; and if it can be laid well open with safety, the operation will give relief. In extreme cases relief to the breathing can only be obtained by opening the windpipe by the operation known as tracheotomy. This operation is very simple and quite safe in the hands of a Veterinary Surgeon. Though the glands about the head are the usual seat of the tumour, yet abscesses may, as mentioned above, form in any of the glandular structures, 248 CHAPTER 26. If the tumour should form in any of the internal glandular structures, such as the mesentery, liver, or lungs, it will probably be fatal. During life we cannot be certain of its existence in any such situations. We can only surmise it by the symptoms, namely, low fever and’ emaciation. We must in such cases trust to Nature; but whilst we trust in her, we must do all we can to assist her powers by sustaining the system by generous diet and good nursing; and we must especially avoid any treatment, such as the administration of purgative medicine, which would lower and debilitate the system. The tumour of Strangles may also form in different parts of the body apart from the glandular structures, as for instance on the shoulders, in front of the chest, &ec. 499. After-treatment. The after-treatment consists simply in the continuance of good nursing and careful attention to appetite, diet, and ventilation, and properly regulated exercise, until the strength is restored. The patient in general recovers rapidly ; but if he is much debilitated, vegetable, followed by mineral tonics, will be beneficial. 500. Treatment by Depletives. By some writers depletives and purgative medicines have been recom- mended in Strangles; but reason and experience alike militate against any such treatment. Depletives will certainly check and perhaps dis- perse the eruption, which it ought to be our object to develop. The disposition to the eruptive fever will, however, remain, and the animal will not thrive. In other words, the morbid material, which nature has been seeking to get rid of by means of the eruption, will remain in the system, and injuriously affect the general health. Again, the object of purgative medicine is in general to eliminate from the system certain matters, of which it is desirable to get rid. Why then interfere with the operations of Nature in strangles, when she is striving in her own way, that is, through the medium of the eruption, to free the system from morbid matter? Nature requires to be assisted, not to be opposed. The great object in treatment is to keep up the strength by nutritious softened diet, and thus to enable Nature to carry out her processes of relief by means of the eruption. 501. Is this disease infectious ? This disease is beyond doubt contagious. It is also generally believed to be infectious. It is therefore desirable that any case should be at once separated and isolated. The disease is certainly promoted by cold damp weather. Horses seldom take Strangles a second time; and on the other hand, few horses escape it altogether. J RHEUMATISM. 249 502. General remarks. Most horses are observed to sicken some days before an attack of Strangles, and some slight fever is also present. The disease itself is always accompanied with more or less febrile symptoms. These are sometimes very slight, and at other times severe. When Strangles in a healthy animal forms regularly in the submaxil- lary space, and the tumour is of the ordinary size, the abscess comes to maturity without much inconvenience or trouble to the patient. The throat is of course more or less sore, and there is a nasal discharge. But if the animal is in low condition and the swelling or tumour is situated high up towards the parotid glands, the distress in breathing is often very great and the feverish symptoms will run high. Cases sometimes occur, which can hardly be recognised as Strangles, though it is probable that they are connected with the disease, but in a very mild form. 5 Bip ioe » ounce . : ; eek 9» pint : , : auOry: » pound . . : «lb. » quart . : . . Otj. | », gallon . : : She o+ 530 @HAPTER 70. But it must always be borne in mind that almost all Medicines dete- riorate by keeping, and the more volatile soon lose their power alto- gether. Those which are marked * should be renewed annually, and especial care should be taken at all times to keep them carefully stop- pered and excluded from light. All medicines, however, should be kept in a closed box, and the stoppers at once replaced after use. Again, those who have no experience in making up prescriptions are very liable to make mistakes, possibly fatal ones. Therefore it is always advisable, in the absence of a professional man, to send the prescription to a chemist to make up. N.B.—In the absence of a V.S., great care should be taken to give medicine time to act before repeating the dose or giving other drugs. Though such mistakes may not be fatal, yet they often impede recovery. The most common mistake, and one liable to end fatally, is to administer a second aloetic ball when the previous one has been broken in delivery, or delay occurs in purgation. Their united action may not improbably cause superpurgation, which is very difficult to check in the horse. The Author does not recommend the owner to lean too much on him- self when he can get professional assistance in time. But in out-of-the- way places, and especially in the Colonies, where this work has some circulation, advice often cannot be got, and under such circumstances this Addendum to the previous Edition may be found useful. 1062a. Useful Stable Appliances. In addition to the ordinary stable utensils, the undermentioned appli- ances, though not indispensable, will be found useful. (1) Leather knee bucket, 36 inches deep by 12 diameter; for fomen- tations. (2) Eight feet india-rubber half-inch hose, with stopcock and female screw to fit stable yard tap. (3) Leather muzzle. (4) Leather poultice boot. (5) Neck cradle. (6) Side lines with plaited loop. (7) Pillar reins for each horse. (8) Set of three short tooth rasps (Arnold, West Smithfield). (9) Leather blocks to fit heels with strap aud buckle, to prevent kicking in stable. (10) Hock caps to prevent capped hocks. (11) “Pudding” boots to prevent capped elbow. (12) Metal enema funnel. CHAPTER 70. GENERAL SURVEY OF A HORSE. 1063. General Survey. It is of great importance that this survey should be made in a sys- tematic manner, otherwise defects are easily missed. The following routine is suggested : a a le ee Se eee GHNERAL SURVEY OF A HORSK. 315 1. Take note how the horse stands in the stable. Whether he stands fairly on all four legs, or “ points,” or favours one. 2. Whether he Cribs or Wind-sucks, par. 195. 3. Note carefully how he turns in the stable. Stiffness, especially in the hock, is more noticeable in the act of turning short than at any other time, par. 606. 4. Bring him near the door, about a foot or two inside the stable, and examine his eyes, pars. 839—863. 5. Bring him out, and let the groom a¢ once trot him in hand with a very slack rein, at the rate of about five and a half miles an hour, about twenty-five yards in a straight line away from you. Take care that the groom does not hold short or catch at his head. You can then best see whether he goes Level, 7. e. sound, par. 651. 6. Then let the horse stand square and firm on his legs. Stand yourself about eight feet directly in front of the horse. Carefully look at him from that distance, beginning from between the ears, and let your glance come gradually down to the fore-feet, noting any defects en route and especially observing whether the feet are pairs. 7. Next, keeping the same distance from the horse, go to the near side of the neck, and observe whether there is any mark of his having been bled. 8. Then move to opposite the chest, and you will see any defect, such as an enlarged knee or any enlargements on either side of his front. 9. Move along the near side (keeping the same distance, eight feet), and note the conformation of the Ribs and Loins, pars. 912—914. Also any double action of the Flanks, indicative of Broken Wind, par. 465. ‘In case of doubt a guarantee should be exacted. 10. Keeping the same distance off, stand behind the horse. You will at once see if there is any defect about the quarters, par. 915. And especially if the Hips are of equal height, 7. e. not one “let down,” that is no fracture of the point of the hip-bone, par. 588. 11. Follow the same course on the off side, finishing off at the front of the horse. This General Survey need not take more than three minutes. 12. This general survey finished, then begin again at the Head. a. Standing on the near side, look into the Mouth fer Age. Chap. 68. 6. Open the mouth wide, and see that the Tongue is perfect, and also the Molar Teeth, par. 877a. c. Examine the near Nostril for any suspicious discharge, par. 414, Common Cold, and par. 525, Glanders; also par. 887. d. Look in his Face. A good deal as regards Temper is to be gleaned from the Face. e. Feel the Poll and raise the Fore-lock, especially. of a harness horse, par. 710. f. Pass the hand along the channel of the Jaw to the throttle, par. 892. g. Cough the horse. 13. Still standing on the near side, pass your right hand down the front of the near fore Limb, particularly feeling the front of the Knee, 5382 CHAPTER 70. roughing up the hair thereon to see if there is any scar or “ broken knee.” In case of doubt a wet sponge passed over the knee may reveal the unevenness of a cicatrix. 14. Pass your hand down the front of the Shank bone, grasping it lightly, and pass it on to the fetlock and coronet bone, when any en- largement, splint, Chap. 33, or ringbone, par. 628, or side-bones, other- wise termed ossified cartilages, par. 633, ought to be felt, 2. e. detected. 15. Then turn round, and with the left hand examine the back part of the same near fore-leg for sprains of Tendons and Ligaments, Chap. 44; mark of Speedy cut, pars. 618 and 1000; Brushing, par. 999 ; Wind- galls, par. 644, ete. 16. Pick up the near foot, and see that it is all right, Chaps. 62 and 65. 17. Ascertain whether the horse has been Neurotomised, par. 1026. The operation is performed in the hollow just above the fetlock, and at the side of the pastern. If so, a scar will be left and detected, if the hair is roughed up. 18. Bend back the knee to see if the point of the fetlock will touch tite forearm, as it ought to do if the knee is all right. 19. Give the foot to the groom to hold, and stoop down and see if the abdomen and groin are clear of any swelling or fistula, and in case of a horse examine the sheath. 20. Go through the same process in the hind as you have done in the fore-leg. Commence by standing, as before, eight feet from the horse at a right angle to the rear line of the hock. In this position you will best detect curb, if any (par. 702), also thoroughpins (par. 641). Then carefully feel for spavin, Chapter 38. N.B.—The best position from which to detect, 2.¢. see any enlargement on the seat of spavin is to stand in front of the horse and look between his fore-legs; but it must also be felt and ascertained to be bone. There may be enlargement such as a thickening of the intezuments, resulting from a blow or a distended vein which may not be bone. The worst class, however, of spavins are those between the bones, which can neither be seen nor felt ; and their ex- istence can only be surmised by the nature of the stiffness in the action of the hock which they produce, par. 604. Thoroughpins are also easily seen on the side of the hock, par. 641. 21. Pass your hand down the front of the shank bone, lightly grasp- ing it, when any defects, enlargements, ringbone, etc., will be at once detected. 22. Pass your hand down the rear part of the near hind leg to the foot and note any enlargements, such as windgalls and callous thickening from a blow. 23. Lift up the tail and see if that region is perfect, especially if a mare. 24. Then go to the horse’s head on the off side and proceed as directed for the near side, again finishing at the tail. 25. This manual survey need take very little time, not more than ten minutes. | NOTES ON DENTISTRY. 58a" 26. The above course having been completed, then try the horse’s wind, and see if he is a grunter or thick in the wind, or whistler, or roarer, par. 454—-469. For these give him a thorough good bustling, at a fast pace if a horse in work, or lounge him if unbroken or a stallion. 27. Next have the fore-shoes taken off and carefully examine the feet for corns, false quarter, sandcrack, seedy thrush, pumice sole, bad frogs, etc., Chapter 65, Diseases of the Foot, and Chapter 62, on Conformation of the Foot ; and then have them replaced. 28. After this (the horse having been galloped), allow time enough for him to cool down, and then give him a final trot in the manner de- scribed in No. 5, and note whether he moves freely and level. 29. Lastly let the horse be pressed backward, “ backed ” to see whether he can do that well; and then let him be turned short and quickly round both ways to see that he is not chinked in the back or paralysed, par. 569. 1064. If with these directions, “ Where to look for defects,’ you miss seeing anything wrong, it will not be because you did not look for it, but because you failed to see or feel it when you were looking or feeling for it. CHAPTER 71. NOTES ON DENTISTRY. By Lieut.-Colonel Matrumws, Royal Horse Guards. 1065. Development of the Teeth—Birth to five years old. The science of equine dentistry has been of late prominently brought before the minds of owners of thoroughbred stock by the mishaps of Friar’s Balsam and Orme on the eve of valuable engagements. Throughout the period of racing life, z. e. from two to five years old, dentition is actively progressing with its attendant irritability of temper on account of the often acutely painful condition of the mem- brane of the mouth accompanying the development of the teeth. In the human subject, the by no means distant prototype of the horse, the child is thought fortunate if he pulls through this period, though no attempt is made to force muscular development. It is always a period attended with querulousness and a strong predisposition to febrile disease and derangement of the bowels, the follicular structure of which is undergoing similar and extremely sympathetic development. During the earlier years of the horse, soft food, such as grass, is more natural and less irritating to the membrane and gums, which are being 5bt CHAPTER 71. pierced by the upcoming teeth, and the teeth themselves are not at this period fully adapted to the mastication of hard food. But for the purpose of training it is necessary to force on the muscular development of the young race-horse. Hence he is, and practically must be, kept mainly on corn. The tender mouth and teeth are called upon to prepare this hard food for digestion, and constant irritation of the gums and teeth is the result, and this irritation and pressure is of course aggravated by the snafile; hence the young animal often becomes frac- tious in his gallops. Reports of horses in training frequently note that such and such a colt has taken to pulling, or is no longer a boy’s horse, or has displayed unusual temper at the post. These signs should be an unerring guide to what is occurring in the mouth, No branch of veterinary surgery demands closer attention than this, and trainers, experts as they undoubtedly are in the management and care of growing horses under the critical conditions of early life, will de- rive the greatest assistance by frequent consultations with their veterinary advisers, At the present day the great majority of dental specialists are un- qualified practitioners, unacquainted with the usual phenomena atten- dant on disease affecting parts other than the teeth. They are no doubt extremely skilful in manipulation of the teeth, but too often treat the symptoms they see, and not the causes which produce those symptoms. As a matter of fact dental disorders are usually concurrent with affec- tions of the mucous linings and intestines, and therefore the assistance of a Veterinary surgeon is necessary. Irregularities in early dentition, short of deformity and other than those caused by clumsy dentistry, are simple and generally easily re- moved by skilled aid with slight incisions and gentle extraction. Nature if given a fair chance, and unimpeded in the horse by syphilis or other hereditary disease, produces a regular set of teeth. See Dentition for the earlier ages, par. 868, also Plates 39, 40, and 41. 1066. Of the Molars or Grinders. As age progresses, after the completion of dentition no less than during the development of the teeth, the attendance of the veterinary surgeon is necessitated by irregularities produced in the teeth by wear or disease, which frequently seriously hinder mastication and produce indigestion and loss of condition. Frequent instances are on record of horses sold as useless, the result of irregular or diseased teeth, com- pletely recovering their condition and original value on mechanical removal of the cause by surgical operation. It should never be forgotten that where dental irregularity interferes with mastication the horse may be ravenously hungry, loses condition, and therefore after relief has been given by dentistry, great care must be taken to prevent his over- gorging himself with food, which may result in rupture of the stomach. NOTES ON DENTISTRY. 535 How to examine Molars. Ist. Make the “ acquaintance ” of the horse, 7. e. handle and convince him that no harm is intended. 2nd. Loosen or remove the head collar. The groom should hold the horse. 3rd. Open the mouth, and gently, but firmly, take hold of the free portion of the tongue, turning it upwards but always keeping it inside the mouth, as if about to give a ball. Then pass the free hand along the surface of the teeth, when any sharpness of their edges, or any irregularity in the line of wear, or any sign of caries will be at once perceptible. Especial care should be taken to examine the posterior molars on either side, in which in many cases the mischief lies. In all cases of examination of the molars each tooth should be exa- mined individually. Signs of Disorder in the Molars. Ist. The horse is observed to feed slowly, mouthing his food, and probably holding his head on one side with streams of saliva trickling from his mouth. This is popularly known as slobbering. In some cases fairly masticated pellets of food are ejected from the mouth. This is known as quidding. In advanced cases there is a very foetid smell. Congestion of the blood-vessels of the mucous membrane of the mouth, commonly known ‘as lampas, is also present. The fourth, fifth, and sixth molars are deve- loped up between three and four years old, and therefore between these periods there is a special liability to an accumulation of partially chewed food between them, which rapidly becomes fcetid. 1067. Causes of Quidding. The ejection of partially masticated food arises from several causes, z.e. from impaction of food between the molars, from defective or de- formed teeth, from sore throat or abscesses in the mouth. It may also arise from causes apart from disease of the teeth, e.g. barbed seed in hay or grass will produce a painful disease of the membrane and, as a result, quidding. 1068. DEFORMITIES. It would be idle to attempt a description of the various freaks of nature, which must be dealt with as they arise. Some of them are capable of being relieved by surgical aid or by extraction. Occasionally they render the animal useless on account of the loss of condition, which they entail by mechanical interference with mastication. 536. CHAPTER 71. Size of Molars. Plate 46, fig. 2, delineates the third molar taken from upper jaw of a seven-year-old horse. Drawn exactly the natural size, it shows at a glance the difficulty presented to the removal of a mature molar, sur- rounded as it is by thin plates of easily frangible bone which compose its socket. With age the fang becomes considerably shortened, and extraction an easier matter. So with temporary or deciduous teeth, which are easily removed as Nature absorbs their fangs before the growth of the per- manent teeth. Irregularities in Growth. These are many and various, from the Parrot Mouth, in which the upper incisors overlap like the beak of the parrot; or the contrary, where the lower jaw projects, and the horse is said to be underhung. Or in other cases from excessive dévelopment of one molar from disease of its opposing tooth. Plate 46, fig. 1, a. Not unfrequently one or more temporary teeth become permanent and overcrowd the jaw. An interesting case occurred in my own experience with a four-year- old, which failed to develop the lower tusks, and extreme poverty of condition resulted till nearly five and a half years old, when one tusk appeared very close to the centre of the jaw, and with it a rapid im- provement in condition, which he has since maintained ; but there is no sign of the missing tusk. From irregularities of wear, probably produced by disease of one or other of the teeth, the end molars, both in front and rear, are peculiarly apt to overlap their opposing teeth, Fig. 1, B. Extra molars sometimes appear, and do but little harm if opposed by corresponding teeth in the other jaw. Premature removal of the milk teeth with the intention of hurrying on the growth of the permanent teeth, sometimes results in non-appear- ance of the latter. Thus perhaps there may be four incisors only in the lower jaw, while there are six in the upper jaw. The treatment of these irregularities is the work of a man intimately acquainted with the anatomy of the head. Surgical relief is alone of any use. Projecting molars sometimes occur from want of uniformity in width or length of jaw, and in other cases from disease in crown of opposing tooth, which ceases to present the customary attrition from wear. Where far advanced, the hypertrophied tooth may attain such a size as to par- tially lock the jaw when mastication is attempted. See Fig. 1, a. Or the projection arising from first-named cause takes place either at first or last grinder as shown at B. Surgical aid in skilled hands is the only remedy. NOTES ON DENTISTRY. 537 1069. Caries of the Teeth. Caries or decay consists in the destruction by progressive softening and wearing away of the hard tissues of the tooth, originating always from without and usually affording a cavity for the lodgment of saliva or food. It usually occurs in the molars and generally at their crowns. ' Caries is due to loss of vitality in the structure known as Dentine, which renders it unable to resist the chemical action of the saliva. Caries may also arise from injuries or from masticating pebbles in the food ; but more frequently from constitutional causes. Sharp Edges of Molars. In aged horses, especially whene the inferior jaw-bone is proportionally narrower than the upper, the outer edges of molar teeth become ex- tremely sharp, and by their needle-like points so seriously lacerate the cheeks as to hinder mastication. Thousands of these cases exist all unsuspected by owners or attendants, and it is in the periodical reduc- tion of these growths that the equine dentist is especially needed. In- deed, it is necessary in all unaccountable cases of loss of condition to examine the molar teeth. Dental Cough. The sound of Dental Cough is of a sonorous hacking character. It arises from sympathetic inflammation of the throat, and is most frequent in third and fourth year, 7. e. during the growth of the permanent teeth. It disappears with maturity. 1070. Dental Fever. During the active stage of dentition, some horses suffer from constitu- tional disturbance accompanied by loss of appetite, debility, unthrifti- ness, a tendency to diarrhoea, quickened pulse; but without cough or other symptoms indicating that the fever is due to disease of any internal organs. On examining the mouth, the gums are heightened in colour, swollen and tender, with increase of saliva. Horses from three to four years of age are more subject to this form of dental irritation than those of a more tender age; and it is perhaps for this reason that horses between two and three years old often stand work better than those between three and four. The treatment consists in giving relief to the immediate local cause, and complete rest and suitable diet, till recovery takes place. Surgical aid may be required. It will be readily seen from the foregoing enumeration of dental ills, especially affecting the molars, what an important part dentition plays . in the physical capacity of the horse during its development, and the great relief which the skilful operator is enabled to afford. It also clearly shows how carefully the molars should be examined for soundness, 538 CHAPTER 71, 1071. Hernia. (Omitted in its proper place.) Hernia (rupture) is the protruding of any organ from its natural cavity. Such ruptures most often occur (1) in the wall of the abdomen ; and (2) between the hind legs, viz. ventral or scrotal. The former generally results from accidental violence, such as the prod of a cow’s horn. The latter is congenital. As regards the first a truss would be the obvious remedy, but is not available in horses. A horse, however, with abdominal rupture may do slow steady work for years. But strangulation of the protruded gut is liable to occur at any moment from any sudden or severe effort, and the result will probably be fatal. -* As regards the second the treatment is essentially surgical, and can only be attempted by a veterinary surgeon, it RAL. 34 ADDENDA. 539 ADDENDA. The Author appends a more complete table of the value of Oats from 34 lbs. up to 44 lbs. Oats, lbs. per ianirele Weight of meal. See ef weal. Husk. Waste. Ibs. oz. Ibs: OZ. lbs. oz. lbs. oz. 34 Be 10 15 OF 15 36 238 15 eas TO 1 1 88 wb 14 Ly io i bt SE: O 14 40 28 4 2 6 10 14 O 14 42 30 4 2 0 10) “1s O 15 44 32 «65 2 1 Io 12 Gls , o . - (Omitted. ) Erysipelas is a febrile, inflammatory, superficial disease, which, from jts starting-point, spreads very rapidly. * * * Par. 903. For “ Fetlock,” read Pastern et infra. * * * Of gauging the age of Horses at and after 9 years old. A friend of mine has asked me to bring forward his crotchet for judg- ing the age of horses of 9 years old and upwards. He pleads as follows. “The public generally are afraid to buy a horse over 8 years old,— z.e. after the marks are out; whilst many horses are alrhost in their prime at 9, and often do good service for many years longer.” “ Horsemen, of course, can gauge the age by the changes which take place in the form of the teeth after the marks are worn out.” My friend wishes to introduce a system which, though not so accurate as the changes in the form of the teeth, yet may enable an outsider to get a pretty good knowledge of age after the marks are worn out. 540. ADDENDA. His system, though not really new, is very simple, and for outsiders very useful. “ Sometimes at 9, always at 10 years old, a dark yellow streak begins to appear at the upper end of the groove in the centre of the upper corner tooth.” This streak at first is not more than } inch in breadth or length, but increases in length each year about 4, until it reaches the lower end of the tooth about the age of 20, POSTSCRIPT. 541 POSTSCRIPT. Mr Wilfrid Scawen Blunt has kindly allowed me to print his very interesting letter to me, regarding his Arab breeding in the country. NEWBUILDINGS Prace, HorsHam, SUSSEX ; April 11th, 1901, Dear GENERAL FirzwyGRaM, Since the first edition of your book appeared, I have somewhat altered my ideas on Arab breeding in England. I have found by experi- ence that nothing of value is to be gained by attempting to increase the height of pure bred Arabs beyond what seems to be its natural point, 14 hands 2 inches. There is no difficulty, by selection and high feeding, in so increasing it, and both on the Continent and in America, Arabs are bred in this way up to 15:2 and even 15:3; but the result is unsatisfactory. The horse loses his compactness, and becomes leggy and less enduring, and his type little by little disappears. I have consequently for the last twelve or fifteen years made it a rule to weed out of my stud everything over 14°3, and to content myself with a selection for strength and beauty within that limit of height. I weed out also everything under 14:1, and have now got my breeding stock to a nearly uniform height of 14:2, which I find the best. In this way I have been able to preserve the -type unaltered, and with it the best qualities of the breed. The Arab horse at his best is so good a horse that he does not need improving. With regard to cross breeding, I have but a limited experience. The late Lord Bradford crossed Arab mares he got from me with first-class thoroughbred stallions, and with fair racing results, even in the first generation ; and I still believe that the reintroduction of the best Arab blood would improve the thoroughbred stock of the country for turf purposes. But I have not been rich enough to try the experiment my- self. My only cross breeding has been with Suffolk mares put to Arab stallions. In this cross I entirely believe, as producing a most service- able animal for carriage work. Indeed, I am convinced that, in breeding from cart mares of any kind, a really good Arab stallion of 14-2 can be trusted to get a better average of foals than a big thoroughbred stallion of equal apparent quality. His produce with cart mares will run up to 15-2 and 15:3. It is as sires for half-bred stock that I consider the Arab of most prac- tical use in this country. With regard to your last question, I have no recent statistics as to the racing speed of Arabs, and, indeed, I have ceased to interest myself in this branch of the Arab question. Yours very truly, . WitrreD Bunt. [edz] —_ bo DIRECTIONS FOR SHOEING HORSES, DIRECTIONS FOR SHOEING HORSES WITH ORDINARY FEET. Reprinted from a Pamphlet, 1896. For use in the forge. 1.—Before removing the Old Shoe, each Clench should be carefully and fully raised. Note 1. 2.—The Crust or Wall is not to be rasped. Note 2. 3.—The Sole is not to be pared out. Note 3. 4.—The Frog, if healthy, is not to be pared, or even trimmed. Note 4. 5.—The Bars are not to be cut away. Note 5. 6.—The seat of Corn is not to be pared out. Note 6. 7.—The Crust or wall is to be lowered as much as may represent what would be worn away if the foot were not shod. Remember that there is a greater growth of horn at the toe than in other parts of the foot. Therefore more will require to be taken off at the toe than elsewhere. Therefore shorten the toe. Especial care must also be taken that the feet are made the same length. 8.—When the Crust has been lowered all round, then make the ground surface quite level all round with the Rasp. 9.—To ascertain whether the surface is level, the Shoe may be applied sufficiently warm to mark any inequalities, but not hotter than is neces- sary for this purpose. 10.—When the surface has been made level, take off the sharp Edge of the Crust with the Rasp,—in other words, blunt it. This is necessary to prevent its splitting. 11.—All Shoes should be Flat to the sole, not seated-out. For Riding and Light Draught horses make a shoe to fit the foot, neither longer nor smaller, nor larger than the crust, except at the heels, where it may be not more than one-eighth inch wider than the crust. Note 11. For Heavy Draught horses in towns where the streets are paved, it is found necessary to make the shoes wider and longer at the heels than the crust. Unless this assistance is given, the horse cannot get a firm hold, and therefore he will be liable to slip and roll, and soon become lame. For Heavy Draught horses, employed on farms, etc., it is necessary DIRECTIONS FOR SHOEING HORSES. 545 to shoe at the heels according to the nature of the ground and the work to be done. On deep ploughed lands it is found advantageous to make the shoes longer and wider at the heels, in order to prevent the feet from sinking deep into the ground. 12.—* Dumping.” It is the common practice of incompetent and careless Shoers to put on a shoe smaller than the crust, and then in order to make an apparent fit, to rasp the outside of the crust down to the shoe. This serious fault is commonly called ‘“ Dumping,” and is most injurious. It is wrong to rasp the outside of the crust, as this hurtful practice produces two evils. Ist—The outer and strongest horn-fibres are destroyed; and 2nd—The gluey superficial layer which covers the outside of the crust is destroyed, and then the natural moisture of the horn, which is essential to toughness, escapes, and the horn itself be- comes brittle and unsound. This and “ Dumping” are the very greatest causes of brittle and broken feet. 13.—The width of the shoe should vary according to the breed of the horse. For light horses, # inch is sufficient, if the shoe really fits and the crust is sound. One inch is the width in common use. For Heavy horses the width must be increased to 14 or 2 inches. Flat feet require wider shoes, 7. e. more cover than natural and upright feet. 14.—Weight of Shoes. For light horses, 14 or 16 oz. will, in general, be sufficient. But some horses wear their shoes more than others ; and, again, the material used on the roads makes a difference, often a great difference, and much will also depend on the amount of work. For heavy horses, 1? lbs. to 24 lbs., or even more is common. 15.—Duration of Shoes. One month is a fair average time, but the amount of work, and material used on the roads, affect the wear. 16.—Removal of Shoes. Whether Shoes are worn out or not worn out, they should be removed at the end of a month and refitted. The growth of the horn renders this necessary. See Note 6 (par. 5). 17.—Shoes. “Countersunk” shoes are better than fullered, as they are stronger, and the nails get a better hold. 18.—Nails. Countersunk nails should be used. They get a better hold than those rose-headed nails. Nail heads should not project below the shoe, as friction with the ground will soon wear off the heads, and then the nails lose their holding power. 19.—Nailing. For nag and carriage horses, with fairly good feet, the nails should be brought out about one inch on the crust. If the feet are all flat, they should be brought out somewhat lower. For cart horses, whose feet are larger and generally flatter than in better bred horses, 1 inch would be a fair average height. But regard must be had to the state of the feet. Nails get a better hold when high, but as serious evils result from too high nailing, it is safer to err on the side of too low rather than too high. 20.—Five or six nails are sufficient for ight horses. Seven or eight, and sometimes more, are used for heavy horses. 21.—Position of Nails. The front nail on each side should be in the anterior portion of the quarter, and the remaining nails should 544 DIRECTIONS FOR SHOEING HORSES, evenly divide the distance to the heels. Nails at the toe are not of much use, as the leverage .at the toe often breaks them; and, further, the wear at the toe wears off their heads, and they become useless. 22.—Calkins for Heavy Draught Horses. In London Calkins are not generally used. In Manchester, Liverpool, Dublin, and many other large towns, where the streets are paved with granite blocks, calkins are used both on the inside and outside heel; and in some towns Toe pieces also are in use. If one Calkin only is used on the outside heel, the inside heel of the shoe should be raised to the same height. This is necessary in order to give a level bearing to the tread. Calkins have the disadvantage of raising the frog above the ground, and thereby preventing its develop- ment. The frog, if large and sound, is Nature’s stay against slipping. See Note 4. 23.—Clenches should not be rasped after being turned down. They should be carefully flattened by the hammer. Any filing lessens their power of holding. 24.—Clips. If the crust is sound, and if the fitting of the shoe is accurate, and the nailing is good, toe clips on the fore-feet are not abso- lutely necessary. If clips are used, the crust should not be pared out more than the depth of one-eighth of an inch to receive the clip. On the Hind feet, two clips, one on each side, are generally needed to strengthen the hold of the nails. Toe clips are commonly used on the feet of heavy horses; but in the case of riding or harness horses doing fast work, they would be apt to cause over- reaches, For horses that kick against the stall posts, quarter clips are necessary. Explanatory Notes. 1.—Clenches. The careful and complete raising of each clench sepa- rately is necessary in order to avoid injury to the crust ; and each nail should be drawn separately, or a large piece of the crust may be dragged away. 2.—The Crust or outer Wall of the hoof sustains the whole weight of the body. The crust is only about half an inch in thickness. Any rasping outside materially weakens it. 3.—The Horny sole protects the sensitive parts of the foot above it from the ground, stones, etc. It is not thicker than is necessary for this purpose or “duty.” It is, therefore, a grave mistake to pare it, as it will not grow too thick. It flakes off or “exfoliates” of its own accord in due time. 4.—The Frog, like the sole, only requires to be let alone. It is Nature’s pad or cushion to lessen concussion in the upper structures when the foot comes to the ground. It can never grow too big. It thrives on concussion. If pared, and thereby deprived of use, it will dwindle away. arr ee. DIRECTIONS FOR SHOEING HORSES, 545 The Frog, when well developed, also acts as a stay against slipping. A good sound frog is a better stay than calkins. The Frog, if sound, should not be trimmed. But if it has become ragged (generally from having, by paring, been deprived of concussion with the ground, or in other cases from standing in wet dirty litter in the stable) the ragged parts should be carefully cut off. From either of the above causes, the frog may become affected with “ Thrush.” 5.—The Bars are Nature’s support against contraction at the heels, and must on no acount be cut away. Nor must the sole in the interspace between the bars and the crust be pared out. This filling up of the interspace acts as a support to the bars and the crust against contraction at the heels. The practice of so-called “ opening the heels” is strictly forbidden. 6.—Corns are due to pressure on the seat of “corn.” Corns generally occur on the inside, because the greater weight falls on that side. The seat of corn is the angle between the crust and the bars. The ordinary causes of pressure on the seat of corn, are—Ist. The cutting away of the bars and the paring out of the sole between the crust and the bars. 2nd. From the shoe at the heels not having a fair bearing both on the crust and the bars. 3rd. From short shoes, that is, shoes less than the full length of the crust. The ends of the shoe then come on and dig into the seat of corn. 4th. From shifting of the bearing of the shoes due to bad fitting and bad nailing. This occurs most frequently when the crust has been weakened by rasping its outside. 5th. From the non- removal of the shoes every month. The growth at the toes, which is greater than at other parts of the foot, carries the shoe with it, and then the shoe becomes shorter than the foot, and in consequence its end presses on and digs into the seat of corn. 7.—If the fit and nailing are thoroughly good, an increased width of the shoe at the heels is not needed. But as the best fit and nailing cannot always be expected, a slightly increased width at the heel will be useful in preventing the ends of the shoe from coming down on the seat of corn, if in the course of wear it becomes somewhat displaced. What to Look for in a Newly-shod Horse 1.—No mark of the rasp on the hoof. 2.—Sole has not been pared out. 3.—Frog has not been pared unless ragged. 4.—-Bars have not been cut away. 5.—Nailing as regular as the state of crust admits of. 6.—Nails in a normal hoof brought out one inch above the shoe, and in flat feet a little lower. 7.—Shoe neither larger nor smaller than the crust, or longer than the hoof, except in heavy draught horses. 35 546 DIRECTIONS FOR SHOEING HORSES. 8.—Feet the same length. 9.—Nails fitted accurately into the nail holes. 10.—Clenches not rasped after being turned down. [Copies of this Article, printed as a single sheet in large type, for the use of the Forge, can be obtained, price 3d. Longmans, Green & Co., Paternoster Row, London.] eR = GLOSSARY OF SOME MEDICAL TERMS. ABscess, PoRULENT.—An accumulation of pus in some tissue or organ of the body. body. (2) General debility arising from want of nourishment. ABSCESS, SEROUS.—An accumulation of | AUscULTATION.—A method of distinguish- fluid in some tissue or organ of the body. ABSORBENTS.— (1) A term applied to medicines which possess the power of | sucking or drawing off morbid matters | (2) Vessels which ab- | in the system. sorb or take up various fluid elements of the body. Acurk.—A term applied to diseases with violent symptoms, which terminate in a few days in relief, cure, or death. ADHESION.—The means by which parts, naturally or artificially separated, be- come united. ALTERATIVES.—Medicines which induce ing disease by listening to sounds within the chest either by direct «pplication of the ear or by means of a stethoscope. Brrz.—A thick, yellow bitter fluid se- ereted from the blood by the liver. | CaAPILLaRies.—The hair-like extremity of change or correct morbid conditions, | without producing marked effects. AN&MIA.—A state of body arising from deficiency or impoverishment of the blood. ANZSTHETICS.—Remedies applied to pre- vent pain by temporarily destroying sensation. ANCHYLOSIS.—Stiffness or fixture of a | joint. ANEURISM.—A pulsating tumour contain- ing blood. Dilatation of an artery. ANIMALCULA.—Very minute animals, in- visible to the naked eye. ANoDYNES.— Medicines which pain. ANTISEPTICS.—Chemical agents which pre- vent decomposition of tissues by forming a chemical combination with one or more of their constituents. ARTERIES.—Vessels which convey the | assuage | blood from the heart to all parts of the | body. AspHyxi1A.—Suspended animation. focation. ASTHENIC.—(1) A type of disease marked by great debility—the opposite to sthenic. (2) Loss of strength. ASTRINGENTS.— Medicines which have the power of contracting muscular fibre, and of coagulating certain fluids. They thus restore toneand check morbid discharges. AtropHy.—(1) Wasting away of the Suf- | a vein or artery. Caries.—Ulceration or rottenness of a bone. CATHETER.—An instrument introduced into the bladder through the urethra. CHANCRE.—An ulcer. CuHkRoNICc.—A term applied to diseases of long duration—the opposite of acute. CIcaTRIxX.—The scar left after a wound is healed. Scab. CoacuLum.— (1) The fibrin and corpuscles of blood when separated from the serum or watery part. (2) A clot. ConGEstTion.—Abnormal accumulation of blood in any part. ContTaGion.—Communication of disease by contact. Convutsioxs.—Violent and involuntary contraction of the muscles. CRASSAMENTUM.—The fibrin and corpus- cles of the blood when separated from the serum or watery part. Cyst.—A bag or sac containing matter or fluid. CystTitis.— Inflammation of the bladder. Decoctions.— Medicines procured by boil- ing in water. DEoporizERs.—Agents which disguise odours, acting mechanically. Draenosis.—The forming of an opinion as to the nature and seat of a disease. DicEstion.—The process by which a por- tion of the food is rendered fit for ab- sorption into the venous blood. DISINFECTANTS.— Agents which chemically decompose noxious matters. : Drastics.— Powerful purgatives. DrEncH.—Medicine given in a fluid form. DysENTERY.—Inflammation of the mucous lining of the bowels with bloody evacua- tions. 548 EFFusIon.—The outpouring of the watery part of blood through the coats of over- loaded blood-vessels. Emutsion.—A milky substance, produced by uniting oil and water through the intervention of some alkaline or muci- laginous substance. ERYSIPELAS.—See Addenda. Exostosis.—An abnormal deposit of bone. FEVERISH syMPTOMS.—Increased heat, quickened pulse, languor and thirst. FUNCTIONAL DISEASE.—Disease due to improper working of an organ, as dis- tinguished from structural disease of the organ itself. GANGRENE.—A term applied to the first stage of mortification. Hy@rene.—The branch of medicine apper- taining to health. IpropaTHic.—A term applied to a disease which is not dependent on, or produced by, any other complaints. INCUBATION OF DISEASE.—The period betweer the generation of a disease and its full development. InFECTION.—Communication by the air. INFLAMMATION.—See Chapter 18. InFuston.—Medicine produced by pouring water of any temperature over plants, herbs, ete. InocuLaTIon.—The communication of disease by inserting infectious matter under the skin or into the system. Leston.—Any kind of wound or bodily injury. Maceration.—The infusion of substances in cold liquids. Marienant.—A serious disease tending to a fatal issue. Miniary.—A term applied to small tuber- cles like millet seeds. Mucriztaee.—(1) A term applied to slimy, gummy substances, such as linseed tea, gum and water, etc. (2) The fluids which lubricate certain parts of the body. Mucvs.—A fluid substance secreted - by the mucous membranes. Muscres.—A mass of fleshy fibres capable of contraction and relaxation. Narcorics.—Agents which first stimulate and afterwards depress vital power. Nopvu.es.—Little hard tumours on a bone or other tissue. (ipEMA.— Watery swellings in any part of the body. ORGANIC DISEASE.—Disease of an organ itself, as opposed to improper working of the organ. of disease GLOSSARY. PanacEA.—A medicine pretending to cure all diseases. PaTHoLoGy.—The science of treatment of diseases. PEeRcussion.—The striking of a part of the body in order to determine by the sound the condition of a near inlying organ. PERISTALTIC.—The worm-like motion of the intestines by which their contents are constantly carried forwards. PLETHORA.—(1) A redundancy of blood. (2) A full habit of body. PURULENT.—Relating to pus. Pus.—A cream-like fluid secreted in sores or abscesses. It may be healthy or un- healthy. PustuLE.—A small conical swelling or pimple containing pus. PuUTREFACTION.——Decomposition of flesh. Ramiry.—The separating and dividing into numerous branches. REFLEX ACTION.—Action or directed back to a state of rest. action is involuntary. REGURGITATION OF BLOOD.—A throwing or pouring back of blood. RIGORS OR SHIVERING.—A symptom of a severe chill, the result of a flow of blood from the surface of the body on to some internal vital organ. A sym- - ptom of serious disease. SECRETION.—A component part of the fluid separated from the fluid itself, e.g. saliva separated from the blood. SEGREGATION.—A separation of animals to prevent the spread of contagious disease. SeRRaTED.—Indented, jagged like a saw. Sotution.—A dissolving, e.g. salt dis- solved in water becomes a solution of salt. SpreciFio.—(1) A medicine supposed to ensure a certain result. (2) Peculiar to itself, e.g. a specific disease. SporapDIc.—A disease, dependent on causes common to al! animals, but affecting only a few. STHENIC.—Strength. As affecting a robust animal, as opposed to asthenic (see Asthenic). STRUCTURAL DISEASE.—Disease of an organ itself, as opposed to functional derangement. Styprics.—Agents which stop bleeding. Syncope.— Fainting. TRAUMATIC.—Applied to wounds. TyeHor.— Low, subacute. VEINS.—Vessels which convey the blood back to the heart. VESICLES.—Small blisters or vessels con- taining fluid. motion Reflex er it TD) xX. PAR Abscesses, nature and treatment of —Chap. 20 392 | — formation of, in diseases of respi- ratory organs . 447 — formation of, in str: ingles 497—8 — mode of opening P « oo7 — serous 400 Absorbent system—Chap. ‘12 218 — lacteals 221 — lymphatics . 222 Absorption of new growths and de- posits 391, 602, 622 | Accidents and diseases, ordinary causes of 269 — erroneous ideas as to 268 Aconite 5 EY Action in w: alking, tr otting, : and gal- _ loping ‘ 930 — in walking, defects in . 931 — of fore-leg 996 Adhesion and organis:tion of lymph in inflammatory diseases . dd4 — in diseases of respiratory organs. 446 — healing by 735, 744 Adipose tissue or fat ‘ . 238 Aftermath, or second crop of grass . 98a Age, as indicated by the teeth— Chap. 58 864 — to ie considered in regulating amount of work 136 Air, importance of pure . - 1 — effects of breathon . : 3 = composition of ‘ ; 4 — circulation of 5—8 — amount of, required by horses in stables : a — change of, beneficial to sick horses 5 264 — cool fresh, as tonic - aoe — foul, escape of : : ts Aloes . ; 287 Alteratives 319 Alum . 307 Amaurosis 856 PAR’ Ammonia as diffusible stimulant 300 — and mustard. . 3836 — as stimulant to skin 388 — liniment of . 389 Analyses, chemical, of food ; 67 Anesthetics 303 Anchylosis os Doz Animal pain . 1042 — soul . 1048 Aniseed 304 Antimony, poisoning by —Chap. 68. 1057 — turtarised 298 Antiseptics 324. Antispasmodics . 302 Apoplexy 559 Appendages of the eye 833 Applications, cold 316 Aqueous humour . 825 Arab . . page 541 Areolar or cellular tissue . . 235 Arnica 690 Aromatics as slight tonics 304. Arrangement of horses in stables 191 Arsenic as caustic 306 —as tonic : . 304 — poisoning by —Chap. 68 . 1057 Arteries, veins, and blood—Chap.10. 200 Arterial and venous blood. 206 —and venous systems . : 2 Artificial exercising ground 148 — foods - ; - 98m — warming of stables 162 Arytenoid cartilage 455—7 Aspect of stables : eo Astringents. . 307 Auscultation as regards the pulse 216 — in acute diseases of respiratory organs—Chap. 22 . 407 — in chronic diseases of respiratory organs—Chap. 23 450 Backs, conformation of 911 Back and loins, special precautions in drying . MILF 550 INDEX. PAR, PAR. Bacteriology—Chap. 67a. . 1056 Bones, fractures of —Chap. 36 584 Bales, stables divided by . . 385 Bone, qualities of, in different Balls, aloetic ‘ . 287 breeds : 883, 926 — alterative 319 Bots and worms—Chap. 54 781 — cordial 304 Bowels, evacuation of (see Purga- — cough 322 tives) - : 283—91 — fever 322 — inflammation of—Chap. 30 533 — mode of deliv ering 325 — spasm of—Chap. 30 533 Bandages, flannel 119, 185 — as affected in influenza - 480 — flannel, for sick horses . 252 Boxes, loose 27—38 — sweating 254 — for sick horses 279 — fomenting . 254a Brain (see Nervoussy stem—Chap. 14) 241 — linen, wet . : 186 — fevers (see Bes eal eo 547 — linen, for sick horses . 253 Bran. 987 — linen, in open joint 721 —inmashes . ; - 199 — dry pressure. . 645a — in poultices . 313 — putting on of 187 Breaking out after cleaning 124 — to joints : 188 Breath, effect of, on air . : 3 — in open joint : - 721 Breeding (see also Postscript) 935 —towounds . : - 751. Broken wae 47 . 714 Bars of the foot 948 — wind : 465 Baths, warm 172 ~Bronchitis 428—31 — Turkish : 293 Brush, use of, in grooming 107 Bathing, cold, to legs 256 | Brushing, cutting, or interfering 999 Beans : . 75 Bursal enlargements—Chap. 41 637 Bedding or litter 179 Bursa, synovial 638 — for greedy horses 180 Bushel of oats, mode of weighing a> tide — for sick horses 263 — sand in lieu of moss litter 180 = Calculi in urinary organs . 794—8 — sawdust in lieu of 180 | Calkins 986 — shed for . . - 182 ) Camphor - 3801 Belladonna 298, 301 Canker 3 667, 1019 Belly, conformation of - 924 Cantharides in reduced strength . 382 Bile 805 | — in full strength 386 Biniodide of Mercury in reduced Capillary vessels - - 3 strength 384 Capped hock 704 — in full strength 387 Capsular cataract 850 — as stimulant and absorbent 385 — ligaments 234 — as application to sprains 689 Capsule of lens. : 827 Bishop-ing of teeth : 872 Capsulo-lenticular cataract 851 Bladder, diseases ene e 55 785 | Carbolic acid, as disinfectant . 3823 Bleached oats . . 72 | — paste 309, 743 Bleeding : . 295 Carbonic acid gas : 2, 4 Blemishes from wounds . 758a —weightof . - - 6 Blisters—Chap. 19 . 3872 | Caries of bone . . 516 Blistering round coronet . - 1033 — of teeth . 1069 Blood, arteries and veins—Chap. 10 . ae Carrots 989 — circulation of — for poultices . 313 — temperature in health and disease Se Cartilage 231 Blood-spavins 648 — fibro- 232 Bloody urine 800. — iuberarcieules fibro- . - 233 Blowers, high 461 — the arytenoid - - 457 Bluestone = . 806 Cartilages, ossified 6383—6, 665 Body, conformation of 879,925 Casting in stall. : . 43 Bog-spavin . 640 Cataracts 847 Boiled foods : 98k — capsular 850 Bolts or slides for doors . - 40 —capsulo-lenticular 851 Bones, diseases of—Chap. 35 — lenticular 849 — structure and nutrition of—Chap. }571 — spurious 855 35 : — absorption of 852 — exostoses on. 580—1 Catarrh, common “ 3 BaD, INDEX. 551 PAR. PAR. Cattle plague or panes - 1036 | Colts, exercise of, to be gradual 136—41 Caustics : . 809 | Coma—Chap. 31 ; 547 Cautery, actual . 306, 378 | Common cold or catarrh . 412 — thermo- . - 390a | —ophthalmia . 840 Ceilings of stables 14 | Concentrated foods peSoe Cellular or areolar membrane 235 | Condition, essentials to produce 160, 937a Chaff . : : ah eae Chains, collar . 42 Chapped heels—Chap. 50. 761 Chemical analysis of food 67 Chest, conformation of . 898 Chills. 113—17 Chloroform . 3034 Chopped hay 77 Chorvid coat of eye 821 Chronic cough . 450 — diseases of organs of respiration —Chap 23. : 450 — foot lameness 669 Chyle. 53 Cicatrix 752 Ciliary ligament . . 828 Circulation of blood ; . 2 — of air 5—8 Clean v. dirty coat, how to distin- guish 125 Cleanliness ; 953 Clicking or forging 1001 Clipping 175 Clot or crassamentum 202 Clothing 183 — of exercise in 157 — for sick horses 251 -Clover 98 f — ha : 98e Clysters or enemata 291, 1062a — in colic - 540 Coagulation of blood - 205 Coats, artificial removal of 173—6 — glossy and short 11U — do., improper means used to pro- duce : 111 — shedding of . 104 Coffin bone, eouforination. of 905 — disease of 905 — joint, injuries to 728 Colchicum 503 Cold, common, or catar ot 412 — applications . 316 — extreme, produced by evapor ation 115 — as tonic 304 — water, apparatus for applying stream of . 265 Coldness, persistent, of legs 189 Colic—Chap. 30 : 262 Collars, head 44. Collar ropes or chains 42 Collodion ; 309 Colour of blood. 207 — of horses 933 — and distinctive marke . 936 — hard, to be antecedent to fast work . 155 —in hunters . 144—55 Conformation—Chap. 60 . 878 | Congestion of blood in inflammation 331—6 — of liver 810 — of lungs (see Acute diseases of respiratory organs, also other diseases—Chap. 22) . 407 | Conjunctival membrane 823 Constitution . . 934 | Construction of stables—Chap. Gis. 1 — faulty plans of : 11 — good plans of 12 | — ceiling of 14 | — cheap plans of 26 Consumption, pulmonary . - 470 Contagion and infection—Chap. 16. 267 — conveyed by water trough . 273 Contracted feet . 670, 957 Contused wounds 756 Cooling drinks . 317 Copper, salts of, as astringents 307 — as caustics : 306 | — as tonics 304. Coronet, blistering round, . 1033 Corn (see Oats). — other than oats 74 | Cornea 819 Corns. . 1009 Corpora nigra . - 829 Corpuscles, red and white, of blood 203—4 Corrosive sublimate 306 Cost and dimensions of stables 25 — cheap construction of do. 26 Coughs, distinctive sigus of various 410, 411 — chronic, of 450 Cough balls 322 Counter-irritation 375 Counter-sunk nail-holes 975 Cracked heel—Chap. 50 . 761 Crassamentum . - 202 Crib-biting 195 Croton farina | 2894 — oil. - 2895 Crust or wall of frauk. aeons of 9403 — effects of rasping on 944, — of lowering and rasping 946 — prevention of splitting. 947 Crystalline lens . 827 Cubical space, amount required in stables - - : 9 — in various stables 10 552 INDEX. PAR. PAR. Curb . 702 Dropsical ve 28 509 Cuticle or scarf skin 100 | Dustinhay . 98: Cutis or true skin 1CO | Dysentery 541 Cuts (see Flesh wounds— Chap. 48). 731 Cutting, interfering, or brushing 999 | Ears, conformation of 5) tO) Cystitis 792 | Effusion of serum in inflammation . 353 — in diseases of lungs and pleure . 445 Daily exercise, amount of. 143 | — in formation of exostoses 391, 580 Damp stables 166 | Elbow lameness. : . 696 Dealers, horses from stables of 142 | — capped . 400a Demulcents : . 3808 | — wounds of 729 Dentistry—Chap. 71 ; . 1065 | Electricity : . 569e Dentition : . 877a | Emergent cases—Chap. 69 . 1062 Deodorisers and disinfectants . 323 Emollients 312 Deposits, absorption of new 391, 602, 622 | Emphysema . 467 Depressants 294 | Enemata or clysters 291, 1062a Diabetes 801 | — in colic 540 Diaphoreties 293 | Enlargements, bursal—Chap. 41 637 Diffusible stimulants . 800 | — nature and causes of 637 —9 Digestion, process of—Chap. 4 . 53 | — bog-spavins . 640 Digestive ointments 310 | — thorough-pins 741 Digitalis 298 | — windgalls 644. Diluents . 311 | Enteritis or inflammation of intes- ; Dimensions and cost of stables Go 248) tines 541 Direct union, healing by . 734 | Epsom salts. 290 Dirty v. clean coat, how to distin- Erysipelas (see Addenda). guish : . 125 | Escharotics or caustics 306 — v. clean water . 64 | Ether 303 Diseases and aeoidentas ordinary Examination to detect seat of lame- causes of 269 ness—Chap. 42 649 — erroneous ideas as to 268 | — of eye for cataract 848 Diseases, prevention of 267 | — of foot 661 — seldom transmitted by infection Excessive staling 801 or contagion 272 | Exercise—Chap. 8 127 — sequels of 276 | — reason of need of 127 — ot foot—Chap. 65 997 | — effect of, on various organs 128-33 — home-bred and foreign 1038— 41 | — regularity in, desirable 133 — origin of—Chap. 67 . 1045 | — neglect of : 135 — specific . 1046 | — age, condition, ete., to be con- — spontaneous . . 1055 sidered : ; = 136 — germs of, growth of . 1051 | — of young horses 139—42 Disinfectants and deodorisers 277, 323 | — of riding or harness horses 2 Aas Disinfection of stables after malig- — of hunters 144—55 nant diseases 531 | — in clothing 157 Diuresis or excessive st: ling 801 | — best time for 158 Diuretics 292 | — hard condition to be antecedent to Dock, conformation of . 923 work 155 Doors for stables : . 387 | — horses to be groomed immediately — for loose boxes : oso after : 1138, 169 — for sick boxes . 388 | — summering of hunters. 145 Dorsal vertebree, conformation of 894 | — best time for. 170 Douche, water, forapplicationto parts 265 | Exercising ground in summer 147 Drainage ; ; . 18 | — in frosty weather 149 . — in old stables . 82 | — artificial 148 Draughts on horses in health ; 8 | Exfoliation of bone : . 579 — on sick horses : 248 | Exhaustion after work, treatment of 197 Drenches, mode of giving . 326 | Exostoses, mode of formation 580—1 — objections to 288 | — symptoms of lameness caused by. 655 Dressings, external 309, 310 | Extensor tendons, duties of 679 — for flesh wounds 743—5 — seldom sprained 679 Drinks, cooling . 317 | External form—Chap. 60. 878 INDEX. 093 PAR. PAR. Extremities, liable to chill. 116 | Flesh wounds—Chap. 48 . 5 el — to be dried first 116 | Flexor tendons, duties of . 676 Exudation and organisation of — sprains of : . 682 lymph 354 | Floor of stable (paving) .« = 6 — in diseases of respiratory organs. 446 | — tobehigherthan ground outside. 17 Evacuants 283—91 | Fomentations 255, 312, 314. Evaporation, cold produced by 115 | Food (watering and ene) Ch: “P. — danger of leaving horses todryby 120 4 35 Eye, the—Chap. 57 : . 816 | — (forage)— Chap. 5 ; eo’ — structure of . 816—38, 889 | — artificial ; , . 98k — diseases of 839—63 | — boiled : : . 98k — pink . 473a@ | — chemical analyses of . Od) — worm in 784 | — concentrated 98n Eyelashes 835 | — course of ‘ - 5, Ok Eyelids, lacerations of 861 | — water , . o4 | — for sick horses 5 ae) False quarter . 1013 | — nitrogenous, non- nitrogenous 67a Fang-hole or secondary mark 873 | — Thorley’s, Henri’s, ete. 98m Farcy—Chap. 29. 524 Foot lameness, symptoms of—Chap. — diseases mistaken tor } sek 43 ‘ ; 654, 661 Farrier, directions for shoeing 988 | — chronic, symptoms of 669 Fascia . 236 | — fastenings . 5 ais Fat or adipose tissue 67a, 238 | — structure of—Chap. 62 940 Febrifuges ; 320 | — shape of 954: Feeders, delicate . 66 | — size, etc. : 955 Feeding and water ing—Chap. dee 9) 53) || — ‘diseases of—Chi ap. 65 . ~ Bei Feet, diseases ae 65 . 997 | Forage—Chap. 5 : Sold, — size of 955 | — oats : : 68 —73 — to be pairs 956 | — other grain . : Ra dead — outer case of 942 | — beans ‘ 5 SE — crust or wall of 943 | — hay 76—98e — shape of 954 | — green 98f — expansion or contraction of 957 | — stores : : . 49 * — structure of . 941 | — carrots : 98h — symptoms of lameness ‘in—Chap. Forehead, conformation of 885 43 ; : . 661 | Fore-leg, action of 994 — rings on c F 7,907 | Fore- shoes, form of toe of 994 — do not wear out 190—146 | — wear of 993 — fore-, conformation of . 907 | Forging or clicking - 1001 — hind, conformation of . 920 Foxy oats MOD ATS — contracted 670 | Fractures of bones—Chs , 36 584 Femur, conformation of 916 | Friction 5 OH — sprains of ligaments of 706 | Frog, the 909, 952 Fetlocks, conformation of. 903 | — puncture of . . 1008 Fetlock-joint (fore) sprains of 691 | Frogs, conformation of 909 (hind) : 708 | Frost, shoeing for 4 991 — wounds of 728 | — temporary ride during 149 Fever. 337 | Fullered shoes : , geil — balls . 3821 | Fumigated oats. . sn Oe — mud - . 7674 Fibro-cartilage . 232 | Ganglia, nervous 241 Fibrous tissue, yellow and white . 234 Gangrene or mortification 448 Fireplaces in stables : . 24 | Gentian 300, 304: Firing : 390 | — in combination with aloes . 288 — by thermo- -cautery . 390a | Germs of diseases—Chap. 67 . 1045 First intention, healing by 735 | — home - . 1049 Fissures in wall of foot 1012 | — foreign . 1049 Fistule : 395 | Ginger 304 Fistulous withers . 718 Giarders and Far cy —Chap. 29 518 Fittings of stables—Chap. 3 . 85 | — diseases sometimes mistaken for. 529 Flesh or muscle. . 287 | Glands, structure and uses of 240 504 INDEX. PAR, PAR. Glands of skin . 101 | Hay racks ; - - 48 Glaucoma 859 | — upland, lowland, and _ water Gleet, panel Ohi ap. 25 . . 487 meadow 80—88 Glossiness of coat ; . 110 | — time of cutting 93—96 Goulard lotion . 309 | — mowburnt . : oS Grain (oats) 68 722\y-= dustan : 5 Bs — other than oats 74, 756 | — aftermath or second crop 98a Gram. . 74 | Head, conformation of 884 Granulations, healing by . 737—8 | — setting on of é 893 — excessive . 748 | — collars : . 44 Grass as food for sick horses 98f, 259 | Healing—Chap. 48 », (al — horses brought into stables from. 168 | — modes of : 733—40 — fed colt . 139 | — dressings for wounds . 743—8 — varieties of, in hay 79—91 | Heart, action of 217 Grease and cracked heels—Chap. — as affected in influenza 482 50 c : - 761 | Heels, cracked—Chap. 50 761 Green forage. . 98f | Hepatitis, acute 812 Grey and white legs, cleaning of . 121 | Hepatisation of lungs . 446 Grinders or back teeth 866 | Herbage, varieties of 89, 90 Gripes or colic—Chap. 30 533 | Hernia (see Postscript). Grooming— Chap. 6 : . 99 | High blowers 461 — reason of need of 99—102 | Hind quarters, conformation of 915 — objects gained 106 | Hinges é yeti — use of the brush 107 | Hips, conformation of 913 — method 108 | —injuriesto . 588 — subsidiary uses of 110 | Hock, conformation of— —Chap. 37 595 — neglect of - 109 | — (see also Spavin—Chap. 38) 600 — time for 112—17 | — (see also Sprains of hind legs— — time required to cleana horse . 123 Chap. 45) . . 699 — breaking out after cleaning 124 | — mode of examining 612 — by machinery 122 | —yremarkson . : 5) UL7/ — clean v. dirty coat 125 | — capped . : . 704 — improper means used to obtain short and glossy coat 5 — washing the skin ° 118 — washing the legs 119, 120 Glossitis Old Gruel, mode of making 98h — for nutritive enemata . 5 gh Grunting 462 Gummy legs 197 Guts, entanglement of, or intussus- ception 545 Hemorrhage, stoppage of . 742 Hair, structure of : 1038 Hand-rubbing beneficial . 184. — to sick horses : . 262 Hard and soft water c . 64 Harness work, objections made to 153 Haw, or membrana nictitans 838 Hay . : 76—98e — distinction Retween newandold. 986 — new and old, as regards feeding . 98c — quality and value of . 5) 8 — lrish : : 98d — allowance of . , Be The — waste of , 5 5 fis — chopped ; : Tian: — clover 5 5 muse — loft 2 > . 49 — wounds to joint 726 Home-bred diseases - 1040 Horses, working life of . 199¢ Humerus, conformation of . 897 Humors in legs 292, 517 — (see also Dropsical swellings— Chap. 28) . 509 — (see also Weed) . 226 — of eye 825—7 Hunters, feeding of : » 68 — exercise of : . 144 — summering of 145 — to be exercised occasionally in deep ground in autumn . 154 — exercise suitable to, in summer . 152 Hydrocyanic acid 289 Hydrothorax 443 Ignorance, cost of . 1041 Improvement of old stables —Chap. 2 =. Pew) Incised Onde Incisor teeth Indian corn Z 74 Infection and contagion—Chap. 16. 267 Infirmary stables, special precautions as to ventilation and cleanliness 278 Inflammation—Chap. 18 . 327 — theory, nature, and causes of 327—30 INDEX. 905 PAR. Inflammation, phenomena of 31—36 — fever : . 337 — effect on nutrition of part af- fected ; 338 — local, diffused, and specific 339 — acute, subacute, and chronic 340 — signs of 341—8 — symptoms indicating locality of. 349 — sthenic and asthenic types of 350 | — results of ; 351—6 | — treatment 357— 67 — after effects . 368 — treatment by depletives, etc. 369 — of bladder 792 — of bone and periosteum . 580 — of eyes 839 —62 — of intestines 541—6 — of joints (open joint)— Chap. 47 716 — of joints, stiff (anchylosis) 582 — of bursal enlargements—Chap. 41 637 — specific 370 — curative 371 — of kidneys 786 — of lungs and organs of respira- tion—Chap. 22 607 —of tendons and ligaments (sprains)—Chaps. 44 and 45 673, 699 — artificially induced—Chap. 19 — as supplemental to curative and reparative action 372, also Chap. 344, 570a — as stimulant to parts deficient in 372 | PAR. Jaws, fractures of 592 Joints, bandages to 188 — conformation of ; . 901 — open—Chap. 47 - . 714 — structure of . : Byte — stiff : - 582 — synovial . 5 ANS — oil ‘ - 230 — shoulder, injur iesto . . 729 — stifle oc 730 — hock op 726 —navicular ,, : 5 VPA — fetlock 3 . . 728 — elbow A : a (ee Kicking in the stable 192 Kidneys, diseases of —Chap. 55 785 — (see also Diuretics) 292 — as affected in influenza 421 Kiln-dried oats , 72 Knee, broken—Chap. A. 714 — conformation of 901 — wounds of, not producing open joint : 724 Lacerated wounds 755 Laceratious of eyelids . 861 Lachrymal duct 833, 862 — passages, diseases of . 862 | Lacteals, functions of se PR — diseases of . - 223 Lameness, detection on seat and cause of—Chap. 42. 649 Lameness in a eae 43 661 Laminitis 1027 — chronic 1032 — symptoms of 663 Lampas—Chap. 59 877 Laryngitis and sore throat 416 Larynx, structure of 456 | Latches 39 Lead, acetate of 307 — poisoning by—Chap. 68 1057 Leather soles 1003 Leg below the knee, conformation of 910 Legs, persistent coldness of . 189 — swelled 92, 517 — (see also Dropsical sw sane Chap. 28) . 509 — (see also Weed) 226 Lens, crystalline 827 Lenticular cataract ; - 849 Lesions (see Wounds, Chaps. 34 and 48) 372, 731 Lice . : 7744 Ligaments, sprains of, in fore- les— Chap. 44. Oe — sprains of, in hind leg— Chap.45 694 — effect of exercise on 129, 130, 146 — structure of . 234, vital energy 373 | — as excitant to absor bent system . 376 — agents used to produce 377—90 — counter-irritation . 375 — irritants ae to produce artificial —Chap. 377—91 Misch “Chap. 24 471 Injuries to vital structures, repair | of—Chap. 344 . 5706 | Inoculation 274 Inter-articular fibro- -cartilage 233 Interfering or brushing 999 Intestines, inflammation of 541 Intussusception . » 445 Iodide of potassium 381a, 804 Iodine 307, 381 Iodoform 491 Iris 828 Irish colts 141 Iron, salts of, as tonics 304 — as caustics 306 — as astringents 307 Irritants—Chap. 19 eee. | — action and uses of 372—91 — firing . 390 — blisters 377— 91 — setons . 382 — stimulants 372—84a Itchiness of skin 774 928 673—79 — remarks on confouetion of — duties of 006 INDEX. PAR. PAR’ Ligaments, metacarpal 683 | Mercury, biniodide of, in reduced — suspensory ; 684 strength 884 — sheaths of, injuries to . 692 | — in full strength 387 Light ; 23, 33 | — perchiloride . . 384a — “(see also Windows) ; . 51 | Metacarpal bones (see Splint—Chap. — improvement of, in old stables . 33 39) 614 Liniments 309 | — bones, remarks on conformation — digestive do. 310 of - 5 Oe — of ammonia or tur pentine 380 | — ligament, duties of 677 — soap . 880a | — sprains of 683 Linseed 987 | Metatar sal bones, confor mation pene 918 — boiled 308 | Milk for sick horses 259 ==roll 289 | Molar teeth for extraction 866 — for poultices 313 | Mouth,age as indicated by— Chap. 58 864 Lips, conformation of 888 | — conformation of A 888 Litter (see Bedding) sheds 16a | Mortification 356 Liver—Chap. 56 785 | — in disease of respiratory or gans . 448 — as affected in influenza 476 | Moss litter 3 180 Lockjaw—Chap. 33 . 565 | Mucilage (see Glossary) . page 548 Lofts for forage ; . 49 | Mucous membrane M a 22 Logs . : . 42 | Mud fever P . 7674 Weis: confor eration of . 914 Muscles,structureand functions of 128, 237 — strains of 658, 709 | — developed by exercise . 128 — and back, special precautions for — conformation of 927 drying 3 . 117 | Mustard so Loose boxes 27, 38, 247 | — and ammonia . 8830 — boxes for sick horses . 279 | Muzzle and nose , 887 Lotions, cooling : . 318 | Muzzles : : . 46 Louvre boards . ; Peels Lowland hay. . 84 | Nails, form and material of 972 Lucern, as food for sick hor Ses 98 f | — how many required 970 Lungs, acute diseases of —Chap. 22 407 | — position of 973 — chronic diseases of—Chap. 23 450 | — to be frequently examined gyal — effect of exercise on 131 | — driving of O74 — structure 424 | — clenching of 978 — as affected in influenza 478 | — picking up of - 1006 Lymph, formation of, and adhesion 354 | — and nailing, importance of 980 — — exudation and organisation of, in — rose-headed . 976 diseases of respiratory organs . 446 | Nail-bound a ae) Lymphatics j 222 | Nail-heads 975—80 — not to project : 977 Machinery, ee by . . 122 | Nail-holes, counter-sunk . 975 Manes é . 891 | — punching of 974 — and tails 178 | Nailing “tight” 979 Mange—Chap. 51 . 768 | Narcotics 301 Mangers . 47 | Nasal bones, fractures of . 591 Marks, Gaetmcunes and colour 936 | — gleet—Chap. 25 487 — in the teeth. 871—4 | Nauseants : 299 Mashes, bran, etc. 987, 199 | Navicular disease, cause ane ieee Medicines, action and uses of— ment . 1021 Chap. 17 280 | — bone (fore- -feet), confor mation of 906 — to be kept in stock—Chap. 69 — (hind) conformation of 919 Megrims or vertigo—Chap. 32 561 | — disease, symptoms of . 664. Melanosis 760a | — joint, wounds of Ga Membrana mien ins or haw 838 | Meck, conformation of 892 Membranes, various—Chap. 13 227 | -— of bladder, inflammation of 795 — areolar or cellular 235 | — straps : : . 44, — conjunctival 823 | Necrosis 578 — mucous 227 | Nephritis 786 — serous 230 | Nervous system—Chap. 14 241—51 — synovial 638 | — loose boxes and quiet . 24.7 INDEX. 557 PAR. | PAR. Nerve, optic 830 | Paving, and cost of various sorts 16, 31 Neurotomy . 1026 | — improvement of, in old stables 31 Nitrate of silver . 3806 —to be higher than ground outside 17 Nitre. 290, 292, 319 | Peas . 75a — sweet spirits ‘of Pedis, os 905 Nitric ether } 300, 302 _— Pelvis, conformation of 913 Nitrous ether — fracture of : 588 Nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous Periosteum, structure of 575 foods 67a — inflammation of 580 Nose, conformation of 886 Peritonitis or ainiaAtion of tes — fracture of bones of 591 tines 541 — running from, precautions as to. 260 | Permanent teeth 868—76 Nostrils, conformation of 886—7 Perspiration = LOZ — discharge from . 260 Phrenitis (see Stag geers—Chap. 31). 552 — to be sponged ont twice daily . 121 | Physic, action and uses of— Chap. Nursing, good—Chap. 15. 246 17; also par. 198 280 Gale Wack _ 304 | Rot to be given periodically 198 Gata =. f 68—73 Picking up a nail : . 1006 — allowance of, ‘to horses . 68 enews ae — characteristics of good and bad. 69 | + ae : aaBe —weight of . "70 ates structure of 425 i ritis Ss eta a bushel : eS Pleuro- pneumonia— Chap. 22 423—49 Bleaching. Damp Dirt and Saanen: Ss. neumonia = Foxy. Fumigating. Kiln drying. oT nee Mouldiness. Mustiness. Softness. ite oe an 68 z Huet ol Want of ane Paly “ sine — crushed 73a z — distinction between new and old 73 Posen 28 standing ; eG (Edema—Chap. 28 500 Potassium, iodide of ; 386, 804 Oil, linseed , 289 aetna F a < 312, a = ahve : 1 revention of disease F 67 15E Speedy cut (latter part) . 618, 1000 Stumbling 931a, 998 Splint —Chap. 39 . 614 Sulkiness and vice 937 Spongiopiline 315 Sulphuricacid . 306 Sprains of tendons and ‘ligaments — ether 540 (fore-leg)—Chap. 44. 673 Summering of hunters 145 — of hind leg—Chap. 45 . 694 Superpurgation. 285 — degree of injury caused by . 698 Suppuration 355, 392 — ofsheathsoftendonsandligaments 692 Suspensory ligament 678 —84 — of shoulder 695 Survey, general, of horse—Chap. 70 1063 — of suspensory ligament . 684 | Sutures ; 751 — of fetlock-joint : - 708 | Sweat or perspiration . 102 — of loins - . 709 Swelledlegs . . ey, Stable fittings—Chap.3 . - 35 Swellings, ‘inflammatory 345 — management—Chap. 9 160 — dropsical—Chap. 28 509 Stables, ventilation and construction Synovia . 230 of—Chaps. 1, 2 - 1,20 Synovial membranes 230, 638 — appliances useful in 1062a — joints F . 2 ES —aspectof. =. ob — cheap construction of . . 26 Tail, conformation of 921 — artificial warming of 24,162 Tails and manes 178 —changeof . : . 167 Tartar emetic 298 — damp : =) 166" | ‘Eears - 836 — drains 18,32 Teeth— Chap. 58 864 — temperature of 161 | — mark in 871 —— registering thermometer for 164 — bishop-ing 872 — in hot weather 163 — structural alterations with 865 — of horses brought into, from grass 168 — further changes and collateral — plans of—faulty : eee 8 | circumstances indicating age 874 -——do., good. . 12 | Temperature, animal . 217a — cubical contents of various . 10 | — in disease 483 — — Space required : ‘ 9 — of stables ; 161 — light : - 23—33 Tendons and ligaments, conforma- — loose boxes : 27, 38 tion of 129, 928 — dimensions and cost . . 25 — structure of . ‘ 234, 674 — walls and foundations . 22,36 — of fore-leg, sprains of—Chap. 44 673 — windows : - . 51 —of hind leg, sprains of—Chap. 45 699 — site of 20 — extensor, duties of 679 Staggers, mad and sleepy—Chap. 31 547 — flexor, duties of : 676 Staling, excessive 801 — strengthened by exercise 129 Stalls, slope of . - . 19 —vremarks on conformation of 928 — width of : : . 385 —and ligaments, distinction be- — partitions between ; . 8d tween 234, 674 Standing, position of horse in 932 — sheaths of 692 Starch for astringent enema 291 | Tetanus or lockjaw —Chap. 33 563 — for stifening bandages 587 Thermo-cautery . 3902a Sthenic inflammation 350 Thermometer, registering . . 164 Stiff joint 582 | — clinical . 2174 560 Thick wind Thorough-pins . Throbbing of arteries Thrush : — chronic — neglected — symptoms of. Tibia, conformation of — fractures of . Time, best, for exercise — for grooming : — required to clean a horse — racing, English and Arab Tips Tissues, Spenepnee of various—Chap. 118: — cartilage — fibro-cartilage — inter-articular fibro- — fibrous, yellow and white — areolar or cellular — fascia — muscular — adipose — ligamutous and fandinons Toe, seedy Tonics, mineral and vegetable Treads Trephining Trifolia, objectionable as " food sick horses . Trotting action . Tumours, slight, or war bles Turned-up shoes —Chap. 64 Turpentine, as diuretic —asliniment . Tusks. Ulceration and sloughing—Chap. 21 ; also par. 356 Ulcers, varieties of Ulna, conformation of. Union, modes of, in flesh wounds— Chap. 48 Unnerving for spavin — for navicular disease Upland hay : Urinary organs—Chap. 55 Urine, bloody — retention — excessive in quantity Veins. Venous and arterial blood. — system Ventilation—Chaps. 12. — arguments against — natural facilities for — improvement of, in old stables— Chap. 2 — of infirmary stables — boxes — - of stables with rooms over them. INDEX. PAR. | PAR. 452 | Vermifuges = 1 480 641 Vertebra, conformation of dorsal 894 . 846 | Vertigo or me 32 561 666,1015 Vesicants 385 . 1017 | Vetches : : 4 syf . 1018 Veterinary sciexuce, PHT of — 666 Chap. 66 . 1034 916 — sanitary science, progress of . 1036 593 —and human medical science, dist 158, 170 tinction between . 1037 112—17 — sanitary legislation . 1038 123 Vice and sulkiness 937 935 | Villi . 228 983 | Vital structures, repairs of injuries 227 to—Chap. 33a - - 569 231 Vitreous humour : 826 232 233 | Walking action. : - 930 234 Wall or crust of foot . 943 235 Walls and foundations of stables 22 236 | — inside of , oO 237 Warbies . 759 238 Warming, artificial, of stables 24, 162 674 Warmth of body in disease . 250 . 1014 Warranty, law of—Chap. 61 938 304 | — responsibility of V.S. . . 939a _ 1003 Warts—Chap. 53 781 492 Washing of skin - 118 for Water, hard and soft 3 auee O4e GEA \ean clean and dirty 64 930. ~=©— for sick horses 258 759 — apparatus for applying cold stream 265 992 +Watering and feeding—Chap. 4 53 292 Water-meadow hay 80, 81 310 Weaving 5 - 194 875 Weed . 226, 517 Weeds in hay 92 Weighing oats, mode of 71 401 Wheat : : 75b 404 Whiskers : - 2 05 900 Whistling : 463 White fibrous tissue 2 . 234 731 | White and grey legs, cleaning of . 121 611 | Wind, broken . : 465—9 - 1026 — thick : é . 452 80—83 | Wind-sucking , 196 - 785 | Windgalls 644 800 | Windows 51 796 | Withers, conformabioniet - 894. 801 | — fistulous - 713 209 | Wood-wool, medicated 754 206 Work (see Exercise). 9 | Working life of horses }199 —cabandjob . : 2g Worms—Chap. 54 ; « fe ¢ | Worm in theeye 784 Wounds, flesh—Chap. 48 731 | — of joints—Chap. 47 714 ae Yellow fibrous tissue ; . 234 15 | Zinc, sulphate of : . 807 PRINTED BY ADLARD AND SON, BARTHOLOMEW CLOSE, E.C., AND 20, HANOVER SQUARE, W. PiatTe 22. Bones of the Hock. 1. Astragalus. 6. Os calcis. 2. Cuneiform magnum. 7. Tibia. ‘ 8. Great metatarsal, or cannon 3. Cuneiform medium. Rone: 4, Cuneiform parvum. 9. Inner small metatarsal. N.B.—Cuboid is on outer side of cuneiform bones, and therefore does not appear in above diagram. Pruate 23. Conformation of Hock. Fig. 2. Too far behii Too much bent. Hock.—Too straight. Best position. Position usually recommended. PLATE 24. Conformation of Hock. Hocks— Too close. (Too much in.) Prominent os calcis. Strong hock “ well let down.” Hocks— Too wide. (Too much out.) Badly developed os caleis, “ Weak” hock “not well let down.” e Mon & O ww PLATE 25. Bones of Fovre-leg. ie \ ‘ih =. \ aK | wi : Ayana Inner-side View. . Great metacarpal, otherwise called the cannon or shank bone. . Inner small metacarpal or splint bone. . Outer ditto. . Sesamoid bones. . Upper pastern or os suffraginis. . Seat of speedy cut. Posterior View. Great metacarpal bone. Outer small metacarpal or splint bone. Inner ditto. Sesamoid bones. PLATE 26. Crooked Fore-legs. PLATE 27. Tendons and Ligaments of the Fore-leg. eee A Flexor perforatus. ofiorthe B Flexor perforans. §, Splint bone. sea 77 C Metacarpal ligament. ee D Superior sesamoideal , ligament, or true suspensory. E. Extensor tendon. Foe. vn Insertion of Metacarpal ligament into Flexor 1 ' perforans. i ppai, 0 j i M. Great lee eo Superior sesamoideal be aa i Sa D ligament at bifurca- bone. I! - | tion. J ll SAG ifs -------——- B Flexor perforans. E. Extensor tendon. ~----- AN Flexor perforatus. Soaee d — Sesamoideal ligament at its insertion into fetlock (on both sides). es ¥ Continuation forward of branch of the sesa- . moideal ligament. Po oe ee B Continuation of the Flexor perforans— afterwards inserted into the lower side of the os pedis. ween ee Coffin bone. PLATE 28, View of the Bones of the Off Knee. | mae Doo AR TUT TT) i) | ot ] | | | ; | } . | 1. Cuneiform. 4, Unciform. R 2. Lunar. 5. Magnum. 3. Seaphoid. 6. Trapezoid. N.B.—The trapezium or bone at the back of the knee is not shown in this drawing. Pate 29. Ligaments of Hock Joint. A Seat of curb. a ——<—- 1. Conjunctiva. 2. Cornea. 3. Sclerotic coat. 4. Choroid coat. 5. Retina. 6. Aqueous humour. 7. Vitreous humour. 8. Crystalline lens. PLATE 30. . Capsule of lens. | Less . Pupillary opening. . Corpora nigra. . Ciliary ligament. . Hyaloid membrane. . Optic nerve. . Arteries and veins. “sqit OUT, *sauog prouresesg ‘auoq UTyoo Jo ‘stpad sE ‘troysed [jRuIs 10 “VU0.L09 SO “qutol Fo0e7 “OL *sam0q plouttses * ‘auxeqsed jem “muaqysed er “uraqsed 4VaIS 10 ‘sTUTSVAYNS SO ‘souog pedavongzosy *SOTIOG [BSAB]BIIU JUaTIH * “BOUL [BSILAVJOM [[BAIS * "SLO[VO SO BUqIT * ‘qarol agg ° "wiqhh “InmdaT ° a) 0 he ‘MAOTIS Jou ‘SIqud MUNI, “PT Suny ‘ST —“ZIA ‘sol0q “Ban 10 ‘qguiof aappnoys *sn.own fT *RAGQOWIOA [BS.OP TOTIOINE atT} JO sassaooud ‘umnizodray, * ‘aouy qo ‘sndary * ‘oqo jo gurod to ftouRsDa|O * ‘snipey ¢ ‘quiol Moqia * *aynduog ° *@Iqaq1oA [was{II0Q * "BAQOIAIA [BALIVG * "RAIQOQIOA requin'y ; snouds Lq poutog ‘saougtM * A anh 6 ‘'S “a ‘d ‘O ¢ JO Suiysisaos “stare © : : meni ‘eiqaqioa [usioq “f sadvyavo [24809 *MIGI4laA [BOTAIAD 9 ‘8811 “O PLATE 31. PLATE 32. PLATE 33. PLATE 34. A—Withers; B—Scapula ; C—Humerus. Fig. 5. Fig. 5a. Fig. 5b. Fig. 5e. PLATE 35. Fig. 9. A. Long pastern. B. Short pastern. Good knee. Calf or buck knee. Small knee. Fig. 10.—Section of a Foot. A A. Crust or wall. k. Coffin bone, or os pedis. : 6 b. Insensitive lamine. 7. Navicular bone. my, ec. Sensitive lamine. X. Seat of sprain of tendon pass- 2 D. Insensitive sole. ing over the navicular bone. bY E. Sensitive sole. mm. Flexor perforans tendon. Jf. Insensitive frog. N. Great pastern bone. G. Sensitive frog. O. Extensor pedis tendon. H. Coronary band. P. Long inferior sesamoid liga- I. Small pastern bone. ment. The apparent position of the Os pedis pointing down so much at the toe is due to the section being made in the centre of the bone, where it is most concave. The lateral appearance would be fiat. y Figs. 11, lla, and 114. Puate 36. PLATE 37. PuLaTe 38. Fig. 16. Fig. 16a. Fig. 16d. Fig. 18c. PLATE 39. Fig. 0.—The Foal. nnn ny Fig. 5.— Five years. PLATE 41]. Fig. 7.— Seven years. Fig. 8.— Eight years. Fig. 9.— Nine years. PLATE 42, Fig. 10.—TZ'en years. Fig. 11.—Eleven years. Fig. 12.— Twelve years. Fig. 13.—Sixteen years. PLaTE 43. Fig. 14.— Twenty years. Fig. 15.— Twenty-four years. h nell © Fig. 16.—Extreme age. Fig. 17.—Eetreme age. PLaTE 44, Fig. 18.—Section of a Tooth. Fig. 19.— Real and simulated marks. A—Infundibulum. B—Fang Hole. Fig. 19a. Fig. 29 — Parrot mouth. Fig. 20.— Removal by the saw of successive portions of a Tooth. Fig. 21.— Original form of a Tooth. LS s D ALN a () pa 4 PuaTE 45. SLOPE OF THE TEETH AT DIFFERENT AGES. Fig. 22.—Two years. Fig. 23.—Six years. Fig. 25.—Highteen years. Fig. 26.—Extreme Age. — LK — Fig. 28.—The Tusks. four years. Five years. Six years. Hight years. Twelve years. Old. re > PLATE 46. ----CROWN Pie.2. Molar Tooth—Upper Jaw. Natural size. A. The wall or crust. I. Flexor perforans tendon. B. Insensitive sole. X. Seat of sprain in navicular disease, D. Sensitive sole. O. Navicular bone. C. Insensitive frog. | L. Sensitive lamine. F. Sensitive frog. LL. Insensitive lamine. E. Coronary band. K. Os pedis. G. Small pastern bone. M. Long inferior sesamoid ligament. H. Great pastern bone. N. Extensor pedis tendon. The apparent position of the Os pedis pointing down so much at the toe is due to the section being made in the centre of the bone, where it is most concave. The lateral appearance would be flat. A— Crust rasped high up. A—Crust rasped low down. Crust lowered and shortened from underneath (par. 946). PLAIE A HNLH EVs 4—Cleft of froz. b 6—Cleft of frog. C—Frog. D—Seat of corn. B—Bauars. A—Sole. E—Crust or wall. Ground surface of the foot. Fig. 7. PLATE 50. Fig. 8. IN un Wy AN MY yl Y Uf Seated-out Shoe. A A A—Seating-out. PLATE 51. Fig. 9. : Y yj SSS fea SS S535 Concave ground surface. Fig. 11. Fig. 10. Rose-headed nails. Countersunk nails. PLATE 52, Fig. 12. Fullered and seated-out shoe. A Tip. PLATE 58. Under inner posterior edge of the toe rounded off. Hind Shoe. Fig. 15. A—Calkin turned up wide. B—Calkin turned up narrow. Under inner posterior edge of to2 not rounded off. PLATE 54. Fig. 16. Turned-up toe—ground surface. B B— Web narrowed and sloped off at heels. A A—Upper surface of shoe flat to sole. i , | iy : < \\ ie TTL o Yp YY Yj Yy Uy / y) Nh Turned-up toe—sole surface. PLATE 55. SS SSS SSS SS le Sy Nails for Roughing without Penetration of Crust. Fig. 22. SS SS os = SS SS Ss CSE = | American Ice Shoes. Russian Ice Shoes. PLATE 56. Outward appearance of Hoof in Laminitis. Section of Hoof in Laminitis. Oxi \ a NS a Whee © SSS e heen = « UO EES SE oy Horses and stables ~ “SS 7 L Ah Any Fitzwygram (Sir) Frederick Wellington John PLEASE DO NOT REMOVE CARDS OR SLIPS FROM THIS POCKET UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO LIBRARY = — ee Ades NCS ANS = eneaoe <