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THE HORSE.

Digitized by the Internet Archive

in 2010 with funding from

University of British Columbia Library

http://www.archive.org/details/horseyouOOyoua

THE HORSE.

BY

WILLIAM YOUATT.

HEAD OF THE BLACK ARABIAN.

WITH A TREATISE ON DEAUGHT.

EDITED BY WALKER WATSON, M.R.C.V.S.

£it'm Jmpvcssion.

LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO.

39 rATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON
NEW YORK AND BOMBAY
1898

Richard Clay & Sons, Limited,
London ii Bunoay.

PREFACE

TFTK FOUETH EDITION.

^^O^c

The Authok's first edition of this work was published in the 3'ear
1831, at the request of the ' Society for the Diffusion of Useful Know-
ledge,' with a view of supplying a work of reference iu connection
with the natural history, general management, and treatment of the
horse, in health and disease. Since then it has passed through two
other editions, the last of which, by the late Mr. Gabriel, appeared
in the year 1861.

In undertaking the preparation of a fourth edition, the Editor has
endeavoured as much as possible to carry out the original intentions
of the author in accordance with the rapid advancement which
veterinary science has of late years made. In doing this, consider-
able alterations have been made. The remarks on the ' early history
and the different breeds of horses,' and the * treatise on draught,' are
nearly unaltered. The illustrations of the age of the horse, and some
remarks on Mr. Earey's method of * breaking in the horse' from
Captain Richardson's work, also remain as in the last edition. Ie
other respects the present edition will be found to have undergone
a thorough revision and arrangement, many fresh diseases have
been introduced, and the nature and treatment of others considered
in accordance with the principles of veterinary science at the present
day.

VI PREFACE.

The great object of the Editor lias been to make the work as prac-
tical as jDossible for all classes of readers, by avoiding as much as
circumstances would permit those technical details which none but
the scientific reader would comprehend. It will therefore necessarily
follow that any lengthened anatomical details must be omitted,
although it is believed sufficient have been retained to enable the
general reader to understand the more important parts of the frame.
The same remark applies to the chapters on medicines and poisons.

In conclusion, the Editor trusts that the alterations and additions
which have been made will tend to enhance the value of the work,
and render this the fourth edition equally worthy of the public
esteem and patronnge which have been accorded to its predecessors.

CONTENTS.

CHAP.
I.

II.

III.

IV.

V.

VI.

VII.

VIII.

IX.

X.

XI.

XII.
XIII.

XIV.

XV.

XVI.

XVII.

XVIII.

XIX.

XX.

XXI.

XXII.

XXIII.

XXIV.
XXV.

XXVI.

THE EARLY HISTORY OF THE ilORSE

THE FOREIGN BREEDS OF HORSES

THE HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH HORSE .

THE DIFFERENT BREEDS OF ENGLISH HORSES

BREEDING AND BREAKING IN ... .

THE GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF THE HORSE .

THE ZOOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF THE HORSE .

THE SENSORIAL FUNCTION . .

INJURIES AND DISEASES OF THE SKULL — THE BRAIN —
THE EARS — AND THE EYES

THE ANATOMY AND DISEASES OF THE NOSE AND MOUTH

THE ANATOMY AND DISEASES OF THE NECK AND NEIGH-
BOURING TARTS

THE CHEST .......

THE ANATOMY AND DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY
ORGANS ......

THE ANATOMY AND DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS

THE SKIN AND ITS DISEASES ....

THE FORE LEGS ......

THE HIND LEGS ......

THE FOOT .......

THE DISEASES OF THE FOOT ....

ON SHOEING .......

FRACTURES

OPERATIONS .......

A LIST OF THE MEDICINES USED IN THE TREATMENT OF
THE DISEASES OF THE HORSE

POISONS ........

THE VICES AND DISAGREEABLE OR DANGEROUS HABITS
OF THE HORSE ......

ON SOUNDNESS, AND THE PURCHASE AND SALE OF HORSES

A TREATISE ON DRAUGHT

INDT.X

LIST

OF

ILLUSTRATIONS.

PAGE

PAGE

Frieze from the Temple oi Minerva . 4

Nasal Cavity .

. 107

The Godolphin Arabian .

19

Muscles, Nerves, and Blood-vessels

Arab Mare and Foal

23

of the Head and Upp

iv Part of

Bay Arabian

24

Neck .

. 199, 237

Cossack Soldier accoutre

d fo

r his

The Palate

. 218

Journey

60

Glenoid Cavity

. 220

The Colonel .

67

The Teeth

221—229

Flying Childers

68

Spine and Ribs

. 244

Eclipse .

69

Oesophagus

. 312

Fleur-de-Lis

78

Stomach .

. 313

The Hunter

82

Intestinc'j

315, 317

The Hackney .

89

Bots

. 322

The Coach Horse .

95

"Worms .

. 331

Hie Suffolk Punch

99

Catheter ....

. 341

The Dray Horse

102

Pastems .

. 378

Thp Shetland Pony

106

Hock

. 386

Gag-bit .

119

Foot

. 395, 397

Spring Buckle ,

121

Shoe

434, 436

Skeleton of the Horse

. 14

0, 360

Sandal

440, 441

Muscles of the Horse

142

Slings, mode of fiiing

. 443

Head of the Horse .

145

Firing, method of

. 463

Spinal Cord

153

Hobbles, method of fixing

. 463

The Eye .

160

Nerve on the Inside of the

'Leg

. 470

Muscles of the Eye .

, 166

Diagrams illustrating th

e Pri

nciple

Tetanus or Locked J

d.V

. 179

of Draught .

ro4— 471

THE HOESE.

CHAPTER I.

THE EARLY HISTORY,

That tliis animal existed before the Flood, the researches of geologists
tkfford abundant proof. There is not a portion of Europe, nor scarcely any
part of the globe, from the tropical plains of India to the frozen regions of
Siberia — from the northern extremities of the New "World to the very
southern point of America, in which the fossil remains of the horse have
not been found mingled "with the bones of the hippopotamus, the elephant,
the rhinoceros, the bear, the tiger, the deer, and various other animals,
some of which, like the mastodon, have passed away.

There is scarcely a district in Grreat Britain in which the fossil remains
of this animal have not been discovered. In the majority of cases the
bones are of nearly the same size "^\dth those of the common breed of horses
at the present day ; but in South America the bones of horses of a gigantic
size have been dug up.

Whether the horse had then become the servant of man, or for what
pui'pose he was used, we know not. Every record of bim was swept away
by the general inundation, except that the ai-k of Noah preserved a rem-
nant of the race for the future use of man.

An interesting and valuable account of the history of the horse from the
earliest period is given by that learned and indefatigable naturalist, Col.
Hamilton Smith, in the 12th volume of the ' Naturahst's Library.' This
work, from the extent of its investigations, the largeness of its views, and
its careful series of inductions, render it one of the most comprehensive
and authoritative that has been produced. In allusion to these more
remote data, he says, ' "We know so little of the primitive seat of civilisa-
tion, the original centre, perhaps in Bactria, in the higher valleys of the
Oxus, or in Cashmere, whence knowledge radiated to China, India, and
Egypt, that it may be surmised that the first domestication of the post-
diluvian horse was achieved in Central Asia, or commenced nearly simul-
taneously in several regions where the wild animals of the horse form
existed.'

In the sacred volume, which, besides its higher claims to stand at the
head of ' The Farmer's Library,' contains the oldest authentic history of
past transactions, an enumeration is made of certain valuable gifts that
were presented to Abraham by Pharaoh, the monarch of Egypt. They
consisted of sheep, oxen, asses male and female, camels, men-servants and
maid-servants ; but the horse is not mentioned. This can scarcely be

7

2 EARLY HISTORY OF THE HORSE.

accounted for, except on tlie supposition that this noble animal was not
then found in Egypt, or, at least, had not been domesticated there.

The first allusion to the horse, after the period of the Flood, is a per-
fectly incidental one. It is said, in Genesis xxxvi. 24, of Anah, the son of
Zibeon, a contemporary of Isaac, who was bom about the year before
Christ, 1590, that he found the mules in the wilderness — the progeny of
the ass and the horse — as he fed the asses of his father. The wilderness
referred to was that of Idumea or Seii-. "Wliether these were wild horses
that inhabited the deserts of Idumea, or had been subjugated by man, we
know not. History is altogether silent as to the period when the con-
nexion commenced or was renewed between the human being and this his
most valuable servant.

' Fossil remains,' says the Colonel, ' of the horse have been found in nearly
every part of the world. His teeth lie in the polar ice along with the
bones of the Siberian mammoth ; in the Himalaya Mountains with lost,
and but recently ascertained, genera ; in the caverns of Torquay, Ireland,
»nd, in one instance, from Barbary, completely fossilised. His bones,
accompanied by those of the elephant, rhinoceros, tiger, and hyisna, rest
by thousands in the caves m Constadt, — in Sevron, at Argenteuil, — with
those of the mastodon, in Val d'Ai-no, and on the borders of the Rhine,
with, colossal urns. All the remains hitherto discovered appear so per-
fectly similar in their conformation to the domesticated horse, that they
can scarcely be ascribed to other species of the genus. From the commix-
ture of their remains, there cannot be a doubt that they have existed
too-ether with several great pachydermata ; but what is most deserving
of attention is, that while all the other genera and species, found under
the same conditions, have ceased to exist, or have removed to higher
temperatures, the horse alone has remained to the present time in the same
reo-ions without, it would appear, any protracted interruption, since from
the circumstances which manifest deposits to be of the earhest era, frag-
ments of its skeleton continue to be traced upwards in successive forma-
tions to the present superficial mould.'

Nearly a century after this, when Jacob departed from Laban, a singular
account is given, in Cen. xxxii., of the number of goats and sheep, and
camels, and oxen, and asses which he possessed ; but no mention is made
of the horse. This also would lead to the conclusion that the horse was
either not known or was not used in Canaan at that early period.

Another century or more passed on, and waggons — conveyances dra^-n
by animals — were sent to Canaan to bring Joseph's father into Egypt.
N'o mention is made of the kind of animals by which these vehicles were
drawn : but there are many fragments of the architecture of the early
ao-es, and particularly of the Egyi^tian architecture, in which the chariots,
eVen on state occasions, were drawn by oxen. We cannot, however,
come to any certain conclusion from this ; bat, at no distant period, while
Joseph and hif! father were still Hving, a famine, preceded by several
years of plenty, occurred in Egypt. Joseph, who had ai-rived at the chief
office in the state under PharaolL, had availed himself of the cheapness of
the com during the plentiful years, and had accumulated great quantities
of it in the royal granaries, which he afterwards sold to the starving
people for money, as long as it lasted, and then for their cattle and horses.
This is the first certain mention of the horse in sacred or profane his-
tory ; but it aifords no clue as to the purposes to which this animal was
then devoted. In a few j-ears, however, after the cessation of tliis famine,
some elucidation of this interesting point is obtained. "VYlien Jacob lay on
bis deathbed, he called his sons around him, and, undex the influerce of
that inspiration which has been witliheld in later times, prophesied what

EARLY HISTORY OF THE HORSE. M

would be tlie character and fate of their descendants. Of Dan lie says,
' Dan shall be a serpent by the way, an adder in the path that biteth the
horse's heels, so that his rider shall fall backward.' We have nothing hero
to do with the fulfilment of this prediction. That which principally con-
cerns the reader is the office which is, for the first time, assigned to the
horse. He is ridden.

We hear no more of the horse until the time of Job, who lived about
twenty years before the Israelites were brought out of Egypt by Moses.
He was well acquainted with the horse, and admired him on accoimt of
his unrivalled beauty and the purposes to which he was devoted. Job's
description of the horse is quoted in almost every work on the subject,
and Dr. Blair cites it as an instance of the sublimity of the inspii-ed
writers. ' Hast thou ' — the Divine Being is supposed to inquire of Job —
* given the horse his strength ? Hast thou clothed his neck with his
beautiful mane ? The glory of his nostrils is terrible. He paweth in the
valley, and rejoiceth in his strength. He hurries on to meet the armed
men — he mocketh at fear — he turneth not his back from the sword. The
quiver rattleth against him — the glittering spear and the shield — he
tSwalloweth the ground with fierceness and rage ; neither believeth he that
it is the sound of the trumpet (ordering a retreat). He saith among the
trumpets, Ha ! ha I — and he smelleth the battle afar off, and heareth the
thunder of the captains and the shouting.' The Hebrew word, which is
translated ' thunder ' in the 19th verse, also signifies the mane of a horse.
^V^loever has observed how much the mane of a thorough-bred perfect
horse, and under some momentary excitement, contributes to the noble-
ness of his appearance, \xil\ enter into the sublimity of the question, ' Hast
thou clothed his neck with his beautiful mane ? ' To ' clothing the neck
with thunder ' no meaning can be attached.

It appears from this that the horse, nearly 1500 years before the birth
of Christ, was used for the pui'poses of war. The noble animal which Job
described belonged to the cavalry service of that time.

The same author assig-ns to him another task. Job had been previously
speaking of the ostrich and of the hunting of that bird, and he says, ' What
time she hfteth herself on high,' — springs from the ground as she runs, —
' she scorneth the horse and his rider.'

In less than twenty years after this, we are told that Pharaoh ' took GOO
chosen chariots and all the horses and chariots of Egy]3t, and all the horse-
men, and pursued the Israelites to the Red Sea.' Here we seem to have
three distinct classes of horses, the chosen chariot horse, the more ordinary
chariots, and the cavalry. In fact, the power and value of the horse were
now fully appi'eciated. Buxtorflf says that the word 'parash,' or 'horse-
man,' is derived from the Hebrew root to prick or spur, and that the rider
derived his name from the use of the spur. It would seem from Berenger
that riding was at this period not only a famihar exercise, but had attained
a degree of perfection not generally imagined.

In what country the horse was first domesticated there arc no records
certainly to determine. The most ancient of all histories is silent as to his
existence in the time of Abraham ; although it can hardly be imagined
that this noble animal was not used when Nimrod founded the Babylonish
monaichy, full 200 years before the birth of Abraham — or Semiramis, 150
years afterwards, reigned over the sanve country — or the Shepherd Kings,
a Httle while before that period, conquered Egypt. It is natui'al tc
imagine that the domestication of the horse was coeval with the estabhsh-
meut of civilisation.

The author was disposed, in a former edition of this work, to trace the
first domestication of the horse to Egypt ; but farther consideration has

» 2

4 EARLY HISTORY OF THE HORSE.

induced him to adopt the opinion of Colonel Hamilton Smith, that it took
place in Central Asia, and perhaps nearly simultaneously in the several
regions where the wild animals of the horse forra existed. From the
higher valleys of the Oxus and from Cashmere the knowledge of his
usefulness seems to have radiated to China, India, and Egypt.

The original horse of the southern and western countries came from, the
north-eastern part of Asia, the domicile of those who escaped from the
ravages of the Flood. Indeed, without the aid of the horse, the advance-
ment of colonisation would have been exceedingly slow.

Colonel Smith is perfectly correct when he says that ' to ancient Egj-pt
we appear to be indebted for the first systematic attention to reviving and
improving the breeds of horses : numerous carved or outlined pictures
represent steeds whose symmetry, beauty, and colour, attest that they are
designed from high-bred t}']3es.' Grooms also are represented as ' rubbing
their joints, and sedulously attending to their comfort on every proper
occasion.' The horses, in all those tasteful works of art, are represented
as either being loose or harnessed to chariots ; no mounted cavalrj/ are to
be seen until a comparatively late period. It is the same with the bas-
reliefs of PersepoHs. On the frieze, however, of the temple of Minervrf,
in the Acropolis of Athens, built many years before the destruction of
Persepolis, there were numerous figures of men on horseback, but not one
of a horse harnessed to a chariot. The following cut was faithfully copied

from the frieze of that temple. This is a singular fact, that might lead to
a very wrong conclusion — namely, that the chariot was in common use in
Persia, and not known in Greece ; whereas the Persians were far more
decidedly a nation of horsemen than the Greeks, but chariots were
occasionally used by them in their solemn festivals in honour of their
divinities, and therefore naturally found on the frieze of their temples.
Among the Greeks, however, chariots were never used for the purposes of
war, but only in their public games. It may not be useless to pause for
a moment, and study the form and character of these horses and.theii'
riders.

There is considerable difference in the form and action of the two horses.

EARLY HISTORY OF THE HORSE. 5

The riglit-liand one, and tlie foremost of the two, is sadly defective in the
portions of the fore-arms which we are permitted to see. The near one is
poorly supplied -with muscle.

The ofi'-horse is out of all keeping. The large ears placed so low ; the
clumsy swelling of the lower part of the neck ; the bad union of it with
the breast ; the length and thinness of the barrel compared with the bulk
of the fore parts, notA^-ithstanding the natui-al and graceful position of the
hind legs, show no little want of skill in the statuary.

The more animated head of the left and hinder horse, the inflated nostril,
the opening of the mouth, the form and prominence of the eye, and the
laying of the ears, sufficiently confirm the accounts which we have of the
spirit — sometimes untameable — of the primitive horses. The neck, how-
ever, is too short even for one with these immense forehands ; it springs
badly out of the chest ; the shoulder is very defective ; but the fore-arms,
their expression and their position, are exceedingly good ; the Ion"- fore-
arms and short leg are excellent, and so are the off-fetlock and foot, but
the barrel is deficient, the carcase is lengthy, and the hind-quarters are
weak compared with the fore-arms.

The beautiful execution of the riders cannot escape observation. The
perfect Grecian face, the admii-able expression of the countenance, the
rounding and perfection of every limb, are sufficient proofs that the riders
were portraits, as probably the horses were to a very considerable extent.

These animals remind us of some of the heavy ones of the present day
particularly ; they have the beauties and the defects of many of the modern
Holstein horses ; they are high, but perhaps heavy actioned ; courageous,
Bpii'ited, possibly fierce. They exliibit the germs of many future improve-
ments, and, taken all together, may be examined with considerable pleasure,
remembering that they are horses of nearly 2300 years ago. Art has done
much for the horse since that period, but the countenance and figure of the
human being were at that time perfect. These horsemen have not even
the switch to guide the animal ; but they are holding by the mane mth
the left hand, and are evidently directing the horse by pulling the mane,
or pressing the neck with the right hand a httle higher up.

The breeding of the horse, and his employment for pleasure and in war,
were forbidden to the Israehtes. They were commanded to liougli or
hamstring those that were taken in war. The sheep yielded them their
wool, and the cattle their milk, and both of them their flesh. By the
latter of these animals, the land was tilled and the com trodden out ; Avhile
the rulers and the judges, and even the kings of Israel, are carried by asses.

The horse is occasionally mentioned in the early period of the Israelitish
commonwealth. ISTo definite duty, however, is assigned to him ; and it is
said of the then monarch that ' He shall not multiply horses to himself.'
There were two reasons for this : they were destined to be a peculiar people,
preserving in the narrow confines of their country the knowledge and
worsliip of the true Grod : therefore they were forbidden the means of
wandering to other lands. The natnre of their country likewise forbade
the extensive breeding of the horse. It consisted, in a great measure, of
mountains, and was bounded on the west by the sea, and on three other
sides by deserts. It was not until the time of Solomon, 500 years after the
Israelites had left Egypt, that the horse was domesticated among them ;
and then so rapidly did he increase, that Solomon had l,40u chariots and
12,000 cavalry, and stabling for 40,000 horses. The greater part of these
horses were imported from Egj-pt.

The sacred historian gives the price both of the chariots and the horses.
It is the oldest document of the kind on record. The horse, including
probably the expense of the journey, cost 150 shekels of silver, or rather

S EARLY HISTORY OF THE HORSE.

more than 171. The chariot cost 600 shekels, or little more than 681. Of
the comparative value of money at that period it is impossible to speak ;
but it was probably many times greater than at present.

It is a question yet disputed, whether the use of chariots or the art of
riding was first cultivated. According to Colonel Hamilton Smith, the
northern nations were exclusively riders. At Nineveh, in Asia Minor,
and India, they were both charioteers and riders. In Greece, Palestine,
and Egypt, they were originally charioteers only. The probability, how-
ever, is, that although one might prevail in particular eras and countries,
the other would not long remain unpractised.

Before a sketch of the history of the European horse is attempted, it may
be interesting to collect the accounts given by liistorians of the character
and management of the horse in earlier periods.

Upper Eg}^t and Ethiopia were inhabited by horsemen, of wild and
predacious habits : plundering those who fell into their power, or liiring
themselves to increase the army of any foreign potentate. Many troops
of them attended Xerxes in his expedition into Greece.

In Libya, Numidia, Maui-itania, and the settlements on the northern
coast of Africa, comprising Morocco, Barbary, Tunis, and Tripoli of the
present day, and the northern part of the Sahara, or Great Desert, the
horses were numerous and fleet. -^Han describes them as being somewhat
Blenderly made, and seldom carrying much flesh ; requiring little care and
attendance from their owners : content with the common pasture which
the country afibrded, and on which they were turned, ^vithout farther care
or notice, as soon as their work was done. Their present treatment is not
a great deal better.

They were at first ridden, as they are represented on the fresco of the
Parthenon, without either bridle or saddle ; and the rider had nothing but
a swdtch or stick by which to guide them. This is said to have given
them an ungraceful and awkward appearance ; their necks being straight
and extended, and their noses pointing somewhat upwards. ' It may, in
some degree,' says Berenger, 'be difficult to conceive how a wand or
stick could be sufficient to guide or control a spirited or obstinate horse
in the violence of his course, or the tumult of battle ; but the attention,
docility, and memory of this animal are such, that it is hard to say to what
a degree of obedience he may not be reduced. There is no reason why
these horses should not be brought to understand the intention and obey
the will of their riders with as much certainty and readiness as our cart-
horses in our crowded streets attend to the voice of their driver, by which
they are almost solely governed.' The older writers say that the horse
was touched on the right of the face to make him go forward — on the left,
to direct him to the right — on the muzzle, when he was required to stop :
while the heel was used to urge him forward. The guidance of the horse
by the gentle touch of the fingers is well represented in the engraving
given at page 4.

Passing the Isthmus of Suez, ancient writers say not a word of the horses
of Arabia. These deserts were not then inhabited by this noble animal,
or there was nothing about him woi'thy of record.

Palestine, during the later periods of the Jewish monarchy, contained
numerous horses. Mention has been made of the forty thousand stalls for
horses built by Solomon ; but they were all brought from Egj-^t, and a
very little portion of the Holy Land was ever devoted to the breeding of
horses after the settlement of the Israelites in it

Syria acquired little reputation, on this account, nor did Asia Minor
generally, with the exception of the country around Colophon, between
Smyrna and Ephesus, whose cavalry was so numerous and well trained

EARLY HISTORY OF THE HORSE. 7

that tliey were always in request as mercenaries, and deemed to be invin-
cible. In all long and tedious wars the assistance of the Colophoniac
troops was courted, and the party that obtained supplies from them Avere
so certain of success, that KoXocfxvi'a ndirai, and afterwards among the
Romans, ' Colophonem imponere,' were used proverbially for putting a
conclusion to any affair. Strabo, lib. xiv.

We must now travel to Armenia, on the Avest of Media, before we meet
with anj'iliing to arrest our steps. A beautiful breed of horses was culti-
vated in this district. The chariot of Xerxes was drawn by Ai'menian
horses, being the stateUest and the noblest which his extensive empii-e
could produce.

Some Avi'iters, describing the horse at a later period, mention the great
care that was taken of the dressing and adorning of the mane. Vegetius
gives a long account of this. It was cut into the form of an arch or bow ;
or it was parted in the middle, that the hair might fall doAvn on either side ;
or, more generally, it was left long and floAving on the right side — a custom
wliich has been retained to the present day.

Many old sculptures prove that the horsemen of almost every country
mounted on the right side of the animal. There are a few exceptions to
this. The mane hanging on that side would assist the rider in getting
on the horse. There were not any stirrups in those days. The modern
horseman always mounts on the left side, yet the mane is tui-ned to the
right.

Media produced numerous horses of the same character as those from
Armenia.

Cappadocia stood highest of all the eastern countries for its breed of
horses ; not perhaps so speedy as those from some other districts, but dis-
tinguished for their stately appearance and lofty action. Old Blundeville,
from the inspection of many of the ancient sculptures, says that these were
more heavy-headed than the heroes of the Parthians. Perhaps they were
so ; but no one can dispute the stateliness of theii' figui'e, and their proud
and high and equal step. Although often ridden, they were better cal-
culated for the chariot. This kind of horse seems to have pleased the
ancients ; and their painters and statuaries are fond of exhibiting them
in their most striking attitudes. The horses in the cut at the commence-
ment of this chapter are illustrative of the remark. Oppian says of them,
what is true at the present day of many horses of this character, ' when
young, they are dehcate and weak ; but strength comes with years, and,
contrary to other horses, they are better and raore powerful when advanced
in age.'

The Parthians fought on foot in the army of Xerxes. Either they had
not begun to be celebrated as horsemen, or there were reasons which no
author states for their being dismounted at that time. No very long period,
however, passed before they became some of the most expert riders that
the world could produce, and were reckoned, and justly so, almost in-
vincible. They are described as being exceedingly active and dexterous
in the management of their horses. They were as formidable in flight as
in attack, and would often turn on the back of the animal, and pour on
their pui-suers a cloud of arrows that at once changed the fortune of the day.

Vegetius gives a singular account of the manner of their breaking in
their horses, and rendering them sure-footed when galloping over the most
irregular, and dangerous grounds ; for they were lighter and hardier
horses than those of the Cappadocians or Medes, and better for their
pccuHar pace and manner of fighting. A spot of dry and level ground was
selected, on which various troughs or boxes, filled with chalk or clay,
were placed at irregular distances, and "with much ii'regularity of sui'face

8 EARLY HISTORY OF THE HORSE.

and of Iieiglit. Here the horses were taken for exercise ; and they had'
many a stumble and many a fall as they galloped over this strangely un-
even course ; but they gradually learned to lift their feet higher, and to bend
theii" knees better, and to deal their steps sometimes shorter and sometimes
longer, as the ground required, until they could carry their riders with
ease and safety over the most irregular and dangerous places. Then it
was that the Parthians could fully put into practice their favoui'ite ma-
noeuvi-e, and turn upon and destroy their unsuspecting foes. They could
also travel an alniost incredible distance without food or rest.

To the Scythians, the Medes, and the Parthians, in after times, and in
rapid succession (if, indeed, they were not different names for hordes of
one common origin), succeeded the Osti-aces, the Urals, the Mongols, the
Calmucks, the Nogays, the Visigoths, the Ostrogoths, and the Huns — all
people of the vast plains of Central Asia, which has been well denominated
the nursery of nations. These were all horsemen. Some of their leaders
could bring from two to three hundred thousand horsemen into the field.
The speed of their marches ; their attacks and their retreats ; the hardihood
to which they inured themselves and the animals by which they were
carried ; the incursion, and often settlement, of horde after horde, each as
numerous as that to which it succeeded ; — these are circumstances that
must not be forgotten in our rapid sketch of the horse.

At the end of the eighth century, when the Saracens overran a great
part of Europe, they brought with them a force of 200,000 cavalry, in a
much higher state of discipline than the Goths and Huns of former ages.

Of the horses in the south of Asia and the east of the Indus littlo
mention occurs, except that both chariots and cavalry were summoned
fi'om tlxis distant region to swell the army of Xerxes.

Celebrated as the horses of Persia afterwards became, they were few,
and of an inferior kind, until the reign of Cyrus. That monarch, whose
life was devoted to the ameHoration and happiness of his people, saw how
admii'ably Persia was adapted for the breeding of horses, and how ne-
cessary was their introduction to the maintenance of the independence of
his country. He therefore devoted hiir.self to the encouragement and
improvement of the breed of horses. He granted peculiar privileges to
those who possessed a certain number of these animals ; so that at length
it was deemed ignominious in a Persian to be seen in public, except on
horseback. At first the Persians vied with each other in the beauty of
their horses, and the sf)lendour of their clothing ; and incurred the censure
of the historian Athenpeus that they were more desirous of sitting at their
ease than of approving themselves dexterous and bold horsemen ; but
under such a monarch as Cyrus they were soon inspired with a nobler
ambition, and became the best cavalry of the East. The native Persian
horse was so highly prized, that Alexander considered one of them the
noblest gift he could bestow ; and when the kings of Parthia would
propitiate their divinities by the most costly sacrifice, a Persian horse was
offered on the altar.

Yegetius has preserved a description of the Persian horse, which proves
him to have been a valuable animal, according to the notions of those
times ; but capable of much improvement, according to the standard of a
more modern period. He says that ' they surpassed other horses in the
pride and gracefulness of their paces, which were so soft and easy as to
please and relieve, rather than fatigue the rider, and that the pace was as
safe as it was pleasant ; and that, when they were bred on a large scale,
they constituted a considerable part of their o^vners' revenue.' He adds,
as a commendation, ' the graceful arching of their necks, so that their
chins leaned upon their breasts, while theii' pace was something between

EARLY HISTORY OF THE HORSE. 9

a gallop and an amble.' The horsemen of the present day T^^ould decidedly
object to both of these things, and that which follows would be a still
more serious cause of objection : — ' They were subject to tii^e upon a long
march or journey, and then were of a temper which, unless awed and
subdued by discipline and exercise, inclined them to obstinacy and rebellion;
yet, with all theu* heat and anger, they were not difficult to be pacified.'

Both the soldier and the horse were often covered ^vith armour from
head to foot. They adopted much of the tactics of the Parthians in their
pretended flight. Even when retreating in earnest, they annoyed their
pursuers by the continual discharge of their arrows. Arrian gives a
cui'ious account of their manner of riding. They had no bridles, like the
Greeks ; but they governed their horses by means of a thong or strap, cut
from the raw hide of a bull, and which they bound across their noses. On
the inside of this noseband were little pointed pieces of iron, or brass, or
ivory, moderately sharp. In the mouth was a small piece of iron, in the
form of a small bar, to which the reins were tied, and -ndth wliich the
noseband was connected. When the reins were pulled, the small teeth on
the noseband pinched the horse, and compelled him to obey the will of the
rider. The modern caveson was probably derived from this invention.

It is time to proceed to the early history of the horse in Europe. Many
colonies of Egyptians emigi^ated to Greece. They carried with them the
love of the horse, and as many of these noble animals as their ships would
contain. It would appear that the first colony, about the time of the
birth of Moses, landed in Thessaly, in the north of Greece. Their ap-
pearance, mounted on horseback, according to the old fable, terrified the
native inhabitants, and they fled in all directions, imagining that their
country was attacked by a set of monsters, half horse and half man, and
they called them Centaurs. Such was the origin of the figui-es which
ai'C not unfrequent among the remains of ancient sculpture.

Another and a more natural interpretation offers itself to the mind of
the horseman. The Thessahans were the pride of the Grecian cavalry.
Before the other provinces of Greece were scarcely acquainted with the
name of the horse their subjugation of him. was so complete, that, in the
language of another poet of far later days, but not inferior to any that
Greece ever knew, (Shaksjieare, in his exquisite tragedy of ' Hamlet,')

These gallants
Had Tvitclicraft in 't — they grew unto their seat,
And to such -wondrous doing brought their horse
As thej- had been ineorpsed, and demi-natured
With the brave beast.

Hence the origin of the fable and of all the expressive sculptures. Bu-
cephalus, the favoui'ite war-horse of Alexander, was probably of this breed.
We are told by Plutarch that he would permit no one to mount him but his
master, and he always knelt down to receive him on his back. Alexander
rode him at the battle of the Hydaspes, in which the noble steed received
his death-wound. For once he was disobedient to the commands of his
master : he hastened from the heat of the fight ; he brought Alexander to
a place where he was secure from danger ; he knelt for tim to alight, and
then dropped do'u'n and died.

Sixty years afterwards, another colony of Egyptians landed in the
southern part of 'Greece, and they introduced the knowledge of the horse
in the neighbourhood of Athens. Their leader was called Erichthonius,
or the horse-breaker ; and after his death, like the first Centaur, he found
a place in the Zodiac under the name of ' The Ai-cher.' Erichthonius
likewise occupied a situation among the constellations, and was termed
Auriga^ or the Charioteer.

10 EARLY HISTORY OF THE HORSE,

Tlie Thessalians always maintained their character as the first and tho
choicest of the Grecian cavalry. In point of fact, it vs^as the only part of
the country in which horses could with decided advantage be bred. It
abounded in rich pastures, whereas the rest of Greece was comparatively
dry and barren. Blundeville, who was an excellent classic as well as
horseman, says : — ' The horses of Greece have good legges, great bodyes,
comely heads, and are of a high stature, and very well made forwarde, butt
not backwarde, because they are pyn-huttoclced. Nothwithstanding, they
are verye swift, and of a bolde coui'age. But of all the races in Greece,
both the horses and mares of Thessaly for their bewtie, bignesse, bountie
and courage, of all authors are most celebrated. For which cause Xerxes,
on his coming into Greece, made a running of horses in chariots to be pro-
claymed only in Thessalia, because he woulde have his owne horses to
runne Tvythe the best horses in Greece. Juhus Caesar, also, beying Dicta-
tor of Rome, knowyng the courage of these horses, was the first that
ordeyned them as a spectacle before the people to fyghte wythe wylde
bulls, aud to kyll them.'

From various of the Greek authors we can very satisfactorily trace the
rapid improvement which about this time took place in the character and
management of the horse. It has been stated that the soil and produce of
Greece were not favourable for the breeding of horses, and that it could
be a matter of profit only in Thessaly. They soon, however, became
necessary in almost every part of the country, both for ofience and defence :
therefore, in most of the cities, and particularly in Athens and in Sparta,
in order to induce the inhabitants to keep the requisite number, a
Dew order of citizens was instituted, deemed the second in rank in
the commonwealth, and distinguished by certain honours and privileges.
The equites, or knights in the Roman repubhc, were formed on the same
model.

It is in some of the first Grecian sculptures that we first see the bit in
the horse's mouth, but it is not always that we do see it ; on the contrary
there is frequently neither bridle, saddle, nor stirrup. It however was
frequently necessary to make use of cords or thongs, in order to confine
the horse to the place at which it suited the rider for a while to leave him.
These cords were fastened round the animal's neck, and may be seen in
several of the ancient figures. According to some wiiters, the occasional
struggles of the animal to escape from these trammels, and the strength
which he exerted in order to accomphsh his purpose, first suggested the
idea of harnessing him to certain machines for the purpose of di-a^ving
them ; and it is very evident that soon after this it must have occurred to
the horseman, that if this rope were put over the head, and over the
muzzle or perhaps into the mouth of the animal, he would be more easily
fastened and led from place to place, and more securely guided and managed
whether the man be ofi" or on his back. Hence arose the bridle. It pro-
bably was at first nothing more than a halter or cord by which the horse
was usually confined. An improvement on this was a detached cord or
rope, with prolongations coming up on both sides of the mouth, and
giving the rider much greater power over the animal ; and after that, for
the sake of cleanliness, and to prevent the wear and tear of the rope, and
also giving yet more command over the animal, an iron Ijit was fitted to
the mouth, and rested on the tongue, and the bridle was attached to each
end of it. It was the common snaffle bridle of the present day, the iron
being jointed and flexible, or often composed of a chain. There were,
however, no cross pieces to these bits at the mouth, but simple knobs or
bulbs, to the inside of which the bits were attached.

Bits and bridles of this kind occur frequently in the Athenian sculptures

EARLY HISTORY OF THE HORSE-. H

of tlie time of Pericles, about 430 years before tlio Christian era ; but the
head-gear of the bridle had not been long introduced, the bit being sup-
ported, in some figures, by the buckHng or tying of the bridle about the
nose, a little above the muzzle. These, however, soon disappear, and we
have the present snaffle, with very little alteration except a straight leather
or cord from the head to the noseband, and that not always foiind. The
chain under the chin is occasionally observed, probably for the sake of
keeping the bit steady in the mouth.

In no period of Grecian history, so far as the author is aware, was the
severe and often cruel cui-bed-bit known. This was an invention of after-
times. The only instrument of punishment which was then attached to
the bit was found in the knobs at the corners of the mouth ; they had
sharp or rough points on their inner surface, which by a turn or tAvist of
the bridle might easily be brought to bear painfully on the cheeks and
angles of the mouth. A bit so constructed was termed a lupatum, from
the supposed resemblance of these sharp projections to the teeth of a wolf.
It would seem that this was, among the Romans, almost coeval with the
introduction of the bit, for the poet attributes it to Neptune, the fabulous
parent of the horse.

Neptunus equo, si certa priorum,

Fama patet, primus teneris Isesisse lupatis

Ora, et littoreo domuisse in pulvere fertur.

Neptune, if vre may credit give to fame,

First taught with bits the generous horse to tame.

No mention is made of saddles, such as are used in modern times ; but
by way of ornament, and partly of convenience too, the horses are often
covered Avith beautiful cloths, or Avith skins of wild beasts, secured by a
girth or surcingle. Thus the horse of Parthenopius was covered with the
skin of a lynx, and that of ^neas vnth. a lion's skin. In their religious
or triumphal processions the housings of the horse were particuJarly
magnificent, being frequently adorned with gold and silver and diamonds.
Rich collars were also hung round their necks, and bells adorned their
crests. The trappings of the young knight in the days of chivalry did not
exceed those of the Grecian warrior on days of ceremony.

The stirrup was like^Aase unknoAvn. The adoption of that convenient
assistance in mounting the horse was of singnlarly late date. The first
mention of it occurs in the works of Eustathius, about the 1158th year of
the Christian era ; but it was used in the time of William the Conqueror,
nearly a century before that. Berenger gives the figure of a horse saddled,
bridled, and with stirrups, copied from the Bayeux tapestry, which was
embroidered in the time of the Conqueror by his wife, and describes the
circumstances preceding and attending his descent into England. The
heroes of ancient times trusted chiefly to their own agility in leaping on
their horses' backs, and that whether standing on the right side or the left.

They who fought on horseback with the spear or lance had a projection
on the spear, or sometimes a loop of cord, about two feet from the bottom
of it, which served at once for a firmer grasp of the weapon, and a step on
which the right or the left foot might be placed, according to the side on
which the warrior intended to mount, and from which he could easily vault
on his courser's back. The horse was sometimes taught to assist the rider
in mounting by bending his neck or kneeling down. The magnates always
had their slaves by their horse's side to assist them in mounting and dis-
mounting. Some made use of a short ladder ; and it was the duty of the
local magistracy, both in Rome and Greece, to see that convenient stepping-
stones were placed at short distances along all the roads.

The boot for the defence of the leg from the dangers to which it "u as

12 EARLY HISTORY OF THE HORSE.

exposed was very early adopted, and the lieel of it was, occasionally at
least, armed with a spur.

The horses' feet were unshod, the paved or flinty roads, which are now
BO destructive to the feet, being in a manner unknown. Occasionally,
however, from natural weakness of the foot, or from travelling too far or
too fast over the causeways, lameness then, as now, occurred. In order
to prevent this, the Greeks and the Romans were accustomed to fasten a
sort of sandal or stocking, made of sedges t'w.'isted together like a mat, or
else of leather, and where the owner could afford it, strengthened with
plates of iron, and sometimes adorned with silver and even with gold, as
vvas the case with the horses of Poppsea and Nero.

There was a peculiarity in the Grreek mode of riding, at least with
regard to the cavalry horses, and, sometimes, those used for pleasure. Two
or three of them were tied together by their bridles, and the horseman, at
full speed, leaped from one to another at his pleasure. This might occa-
sionally be useful ; when one horse was tired or wounded, the warrior
might leap upon another ; but he would be so hampered by the manage-
ment of all of them, and the attention which he was compelled to pay to
them all, that it never became the general way of riding or fighting ; nor
svas it practised in any other country. Homer, in his 15th Iliad, alludes
to it as a feat of skill attempted in sport. The following is a translation
of the passage : — ' Just as a skilful horseman riding four chosen horses
along a public road to some great city, where his course is to terminate,
the whole town assembles to behold him, and gaze upon him with wonder
and applause ; while he leaps with ease from the back of one horse to
another, and flies along with them.'

The Greeks must have carried their management of the horse to a veiy
high state of perfection ; and the Grecian horse must have been exceed-
ingly docile, when exhibitions of this kind could take place.

It was, however, to the draught of the chariot that this animal waa
principally devoted in some other countries, and among the Greeks in the
early period of their history. 'No mention is made of a single horseman
on either side, during the ten years' siege of Troy ; but the warriors all
fought on foot or in chariots.

The chariots were simple in their structui-e, open at the back, and partly
on the sides ; and containing the driver in the front, and the warrior
standing on a platform, usually somewhat elevated. These vehicles seem
to have been rarely brought into collision with each other ; but they were
driven rapidly over the field, the warrior hurling his lances on either side,
or alighting when he met with a foe worthy of his attack. These chariots
were not only contrived for service, but were often most splendidly and
expensively ornamented. They were the prize of the conqueror. Some-
times they were drawn by three horses ; but the third was a spare one, in
case either of the others should be tired or wounded. Some had four
horses yoked abreast ; such was the chariot of Hector.

The charioteer, although at the time inferior to, or under the command
of the warrior, was seldom or never a menial. He was often the intimate
friend of the warrior ; thus Nestor, and even Hector, are found acting as
charioteers. "When not the personal friend of the warrior, he was usually
a charioteer by profession ; and drove where he was directed.

Occasional mention is made of the currus falcati, chariots with armed
instruments in the form of scj-thes, projecting from the axles of the wheels,
by means of which whole ranks might be mowTi down at once. They
were confined, however, to the more barbarous nations, and were used
neither by the Greeks nor the Romans. They were advantageous only
on tolerably open or level ground ; and it not unfrequently happened

EARLY HISTORY OF THE HORSE. 13

that, aflViglited by the clamour of the battle, or by wounds, the horses
became ungovernable, and, turning on the ranks of their friends, threw
them into complete disorder. They were on this account laid aside, even
by the barbarians themselves.

In process of time, Avar-chariots of every kind fell into disuse, and the
hio-her classes of warriors were content to tight on horseback, where their
personal strength and courage might be as well displayed, and disciphne
could be better preserved.

Still, almost to the period of the Christian era, and long after that in
many countries, the use of the horse Avas confined to war, to the chase,
and to public pageants. The first employment of the Egyptian colonists,
when they landed in Thessaly, was to rid the forests of the wild cattle,
and other dangerous animals, with which they were then peopled. In the
central and southern parts of Greece, the country was more open and the
wilder animals Avei^e scarcely known ; but in Assyria and Persia, and
every country in which the legitimate prey of the hunter was found, the
horse was employed in its pursuit.

In process of time, in order to decide the comparative value of different
horses, or to gratify the vanity of theii* owners, and also to give more
effect to certain relig-ious rites and public spectacles, hoi'se-races were in-
troduced. The most celebrated of these exhibitions was that at Olympia,
in Peloponnesus, held every fourth year, in honour of Jupiter. The
young men flocked thither from every district of Greece, to contend in
every manly exercise — hurling the javelin, leaping, running, wrestling
and boxing. The candidates were pei'sons of unblemished reputation —
the contest fairly and honourably conducted, and the conqueror, crowned
Avith a laurel, or Avith gold, was received in his native town Avdth accla-
mations of joy. A breach was made in the Avail of the toAvn for one who
had so distinguished himself to pass. He was, for life, entitled to prece-
dency at every public exhibition ; he Avas exempted from all taxes and
inferior civil oflBces ; his name was enrolled in the archives of his country,
and statues Avere erected to his memory. This was the source of the noble
spirit of emulation and the ardent love of country by Avhich the Greek waa
distinguished.

Nearly a century, hoAvever, passed before the attraction of the exhibi-
tion was increased by the labours of the horse. The first colonists could
bring with them only a few of these noble animals. In several of the
Avars in which they were engaged, their deficiency in cavalry was
lamentably apparent. It was not until the 23rd Olympiad that the horse
mingled in the contest.

During the first two Olympiads after this, horsemen alone appeared.
Of these races the accounts are exceedingly imperfect. Each horse was
ridden by his OAvner, who was obliged to undergo preparatory trials for
the space of thirty days. The horses were divided into full and under-
aged ; but no explanation is given by any Avi'iter of the precise meaning of
these terms, nor is anything said of the weight of the riders. We only
know the space to be run over, which someAvhat exceeded four miles.
There was one race called Colne, in which mares alone were permitted to
riiiL, Towards the end of the course the riders were compelled to leap
from their backs, and, keeping the bridle in their hands, to run alongside
of them to the Avinning-post.

In the 25th Olympiad, chariot-races were introduced. The chariots
were arranged abreast of each other at the starting-post ; the places — for
it will appear that these gave some important advantages — having beea
preAQOUsly decided by lot. An altar was erected on one side, upon which
stood a brazen eagle, dedicated to Jupiter, and a dolpliin, sacred to

14 EARLY HISTORY OF THE HORSE.

Neptune. At a signal from the presiding officer, tlie eagle, by some
mechanism, sprang into the air, the dolphin sank under ground ; and away
the horses started. The liippodrome, or course, was about one-third of a
mile in length ; and at the farther end was a pillar, round which the
chariots were to be driven and back again to the starting-place six times,
making rather more than four miles.

The rounding of this pillar was the first test of the skill of the driver
and the docihty of the horses, and many an accident happened there.

This dangerous spot was no sooner passed, than the competitors came
at once upon a strange figure placed to tiy the courage and nerve of the
horses. It was an enormous statue, called Taraxippus, the terrifier of
horses ; and, according to old writers, well worthy of the name. None
of them describe tliis strange deity, but all agree that he used sadly to
frighten the steeds, and often to endanger their Hves, and that of the
drivers.

A little further on was a lofty rock, in the very centre of the course,
leax-ing only a very narrow defile, in the passing through which the skill
of the charioteer was severely tried ; while several men, placed on the rock,
increased the confusion and the terroi' of the liorses, by the continual
brapng of their trumpets.

As niaj' be well supposed, the number of the competitors was much
diminished ere the conclusion of the race. Some ran aga,inst the pillar,
others were frightened out of the coui\se by the horrible statue, and not a
few were wrecked on that fearful rock. Some were destroyed on the spot ;
others, who escaped without serious injury, were derided by the spectators,
on account of their want of skill ; and the fragments with which the course
was covered rendered almost every step perilous. ' The conqueror in
Buch a race,' says Pausanias, 'well deserved the crown whicli he received,
and the honours that were bestowed on him.'

What were the opinions which prevailed at this early period respecting
the proper form — the points of the horse ? Let that master horseman,
Xenophon, declare : — ' The first thing that ought to be looked to is the
foot ; for as a house would be of no use, though all tlie upper parts of it
were beautiful, if the lower parts of it had not a proper foundation, so a
horse would not be of any use in war if he had tender feet, eyen though
he should have all other good qualities ; for his good qualities could not
be made any valuable use of.' This maxim, more than 2,200 years old,
bespeaks at once the horseman.

' Thick hoofs make a horse's feet better than thin ones.' This must be
self-evident, where there was no artificial protection of the foot. The
force with wliich the foot will come in contact -^vith the ground at every
step ^vi]l pi-oduce sufficient expansion of the heel ; but it is only a strong
foot that can long endure the concussion, without being worn away.

' It likewise must not be forgotten to see whether the hoofs are higb or
low; and near the ground, bothi before and behind.' Few things are of
greater importance than this. If the inclination of the foot in front is less
than its usual angle (forty-five degrees), it indicates a contracted foot, and
a moT'bidly hollow sole, and inflammation of the laminfe, and speedy and
incurable lameness. If the inclination is greater, and the angle acuter
than it should be, there is flatness of the sole, and liability to serious
bruise of H, or, perhaps, pumiced feet.

' The pasterns, or bones immediately above the hoofs and below the
fetlocks, ought not to be straight lil^e those of a goat, for this would shake
tl)e rider, and such legs are more subject to inflammation ; nor ought these
bones to be too low, for the fetlock would be chafed and ulcerated if the
borse was ridden over ploughed grounds, or among stones.' If lie had added

EARLY HISTORY OF THE HORSE- 15

fchafc the oblique pastern was sadly liable to sprain, and there ■would often
be injury through the Avhole course of the tlexor tendon, notliing' could
have been added to the force of his observation.

' The bones of the legs ought to be large, since they are supporters of
the body ; not, however, tliick vrith. veins or cellular matter.' He is
speaking of the war-horse and the hunter ; and what can be more correct ?

' If the colt in walking bends his knees freely, you may judge, Avhen he
comes to be ridden, that his legs will be supple ; and suppLe joints are
justly commended, as they make a horse less hable to stumble, and not
tire so soon as when his joints are stiff.'

' The thighs under the shoulders (the fore-arms), when they are lar^^e,
are both powerful and gr?iceful ; and the chest being large, contributes not
only to beauty and strength, but to a horse's being able to continue a long
time in one pace.'

' The neck should proceed from the chest, rising upwards, and it should
be loose about the bend of the head ; the head too, being bony, should have
a small cheek. The eye should be standing out, and not sunk in the
cheek. The nostrils that are wide, are not only better adapted foi breath-
ing than those that are compressed, but hkemse cause the horse to appear
more terrible in battle. The top of the head being large, and the ears
small, makes the head appear more elegant. The point of the shoulder
likewise, being high, renders that part of the body more compact.' The
author was evidently aware of the advantage of this form, but he did not
know the principles on which it was founded.

' The sides, being deep and swelling towards the belly, make a horse in
general more commodious to be seated on, and better able to djo-est his
food. The broader and shorter his loins are, the more readily Av-ill he
throw his fore feet out ; and the belly that appears small, being large, not
only disfigui-es a horse, but makes him weaker and less able to carry his
rider.' How beautifully again he seizes the point, although we of the
present day smile a Httle at his illustration !

' The haunches should be large and full of flesh, that they may corre-
spond vnth the sides and the chest ; and when all these are firm, they make
a horse lighter for the coui'se and fuller of animation.'

Another work of Xenophon, Uepl 'W-rriKiic, — on the management of the
horse, — exhibits equal proof of a knoAvledge of the points and proper treat-
ment of this animal, mixed with the same ignorajice of the principles on
which these things are founded. He was an acute observer, and the facts
made their due impression, but no one had yet taught the anatomy and
physiology of the horse.

The Romans, from the very building of their cities, paid much attention
to the breeding and management of the horse ; but this was more than
700 years after this animal had been imported into Greece, and his value
and importance had begun to be almost universally acknowledged.

Horse and chariot races were early introduced at Rome. The chariot
races fell gradually into disrepute, but the horse races were continued to
the times of the Caesars, and the young men of the equestrian order were
enthusiastically devoted to this exercise. There Avere not, hoAvcver, any
of the difficulties or dangers that attended the Grecian races. They Avere
chiefly trials of speed or of dexterity in the performance of certain circles,
noAv properly confined to our theatrical exliibitions. The rider would
stand upright on his steed, lie along his back, pick up things from the
ground at fiill speed, and leap from horse to horse in the SAviftest galioi^.

A singular circumstance in the management of this animal by the
Roiaans was the superior value which they attributed to the mare. Their
natui'al historians, agriculturists, and poets unite in this opinion. Perhapa

re EARLY HISTORY OF THE HORSE.

tills miglit in part arise from tlie custom of the Romans to castrate all the
horses that were employed in mercantile and agricultural pursuits. The
horse, however, was not degraded by the operation or the labour, but
rather he was made to occupy the situation for which nature designed him ;
and from this time, and gradually over every part of Europe, he has
become one of the most useful of the servants of man.

To the Romans may be attributed the invention of the curb bit. The
Emperor Theodosius is represented in one of the ancient sculptures as
using a bit with a tremendously long lever, and which could inflict
di'eadful punishment if the rider were so inclined.

It may readily be supposed that a knowledge of the horse now became
more perfect and more diffused. Terrentius Varro, who flourished about
the year 70 before Chi'ist, and during the existence of the commonwealth,
has given a description of the horse, which has scarcely been excelled in
modern times. ' We may prognosticate great things of a colt,' says he,
' if, when running in the pastures, he is ambitious to get before his com-
panions, and if, in coming to a river, he strives to be the first to plunge
into it. His head should he small, his hmbs clean and compact, his eyes
bright and sparkling, his nostrils open and large, his ears placed near each
other, his mane strong and full, his chest broad, his shoulders flat and
sloping backward, his barrel round and compact, his loins broad and
strong, his tail full and bushy, his legs straight and even, his knees broad
and well knit, his hoofs hard and tough, and his veins large and swelling
■over all his body.'

Virgil, eighty or ninety years afterwards, gives some interesting accounts
of the horse, and particularly when taken from the pursuits of war and
employed in the peaceful service of agriculture.

A few years after him followed Columella, who, in a work devoted
exclusively to agriculture, treats at length of the management of the horso
and of many of his diseases.

To him succeeded Palladius on agxncultui'e, the management of the vine-
yard, and the apiary, &c. ; and he also describes at considerable length
the treatment and the diseases of the horse.

About the same time, or somewhat before, the Roman emperors being
continually engaged in foreign wars, and in many of these expeditions the
cavalry forming a most efiective division of the army, veterinary sui'geons
were appointed to each of the legions. The horse and his management
and diseases were then for the first time systematically studied. The
works, or extracts from the works, of a few of them are preserved. There
is, however, httle in them that is valuable.

About the middle of the fourth century a volume of a difierent character
on the veterinary art was written by Vegetius, who appears to have been
attached to the army, but in what situation is unknown. His work, with
all its errors, is truly valuable as a collection of the best remarks that had
been written on veterinary matters, fi'om the earliest age to his day and
including extracts from the works of Chii'on and Hippocrates, which
would otherwise have been lost. The history of the symptoms of various
diseases is singularly correct, but the mode of treatment reflects little
credit on the veterinary acquirements of the author or the age in which
he lived.

Almost in his time the irruptions of the Goths commenced, and shortly
after every record of science was swept away in both the eastern and the
westera empires.

I

TIIK DONGOLA OR NUBIAX HORSE. 17

CHAPTER II.

THE FOREIGN BREEDS OF HORSES.

We commence again with tliat coiTntiy connected witli wliicli we have the
earliest history of the horse.

THE EGYPTIAN HORSES.

Notwithstanding the flattering reports of travellers, and the assertion of
Dr. Shaw that the Egyptian horses are preferable to the Barbary ones in
size, beauty, and goodness, the modem horse of this country had little to
recommend him. The despotism under which the inhabitants groaned
altogether discouraged the rearing of a valuable breed, for their possession
was completely at the mercy of their Turkish oppressors, and the choicest
of their animals were often taken from them without the slightest remu-
neration for the wrong. It was therefore a common practice with the
owners of supei^ior or good horses to blemish or to lame them, in order
that they might not be robbed of them by order of the Bey.

Of the state to which the native horses were reduced, and even many
in the corps of the Mamelukes — the body-giiard of the Bey — the follow-
ing evidence from a competent observer will determine. Wilson, in his
'Expedition to Egypt,' tells us — 'Although the horses there seldom pass
out of a foot pace except for a gallop of 100 yards, most of them are foun-
dered, and none, if quickly ti'otted ten miles, would be able, from want of
wind and stamina, to go farther.'

The testimony of Burckhardt is to the same effect : — ' The Egyptian
horse is ugly, of coarse shape, and looking more like a cart-horse than a
racer. Thin legs and knees and short and thick necks are frequent
defects amonof them. The head is sometimes fine, but I never saw wood
legs in an Egyptian horse. They are not able to bear any great fatigue,
but when well fed, their action occasionally is more brilliant than that of
the Arabian. Their impetuosity, however, renders them peculiarly de-
sirable for heavy cavalry, and it is upon this quality alone that their
celebrity has ever been founded.'

Since the accession of Mehemet Ali to the government of Egypt, a
beneficial change has been eifected in the internal management and pros-
perity of the country, and the improvement of the breed of horses has
especially engaged his attention. He has even gone so far as to establish
a veterinary school at Abou-Zabel, and, as should be the case with every
institution of this kind, he has not only identified it with the cavalry
service, but with the agricultural interests of the country. The happy
consequences of this are neither doubtful nor distant.

There is a long but naiTOw tract of desert between the Mle and the
Red Sea, on which some Arabian horses of the choicest breed are reared.

THE DONGOLA OR NUBIAN HORSE.

The kingdom of Dongola, the modern Nubia, lying between Egypt and
Abyssinia, contains a breed of horses diflTerent from any other that either
Arabia or Africa produces. Mr. Bruce speaks of it in the •following
strong terms of approbation : — ' Wliat figure the Nubian breed of horses
would make in point of swiftness is very doubtful, their form being so
entirely different from that of the Arabian ; but if beautiful and sym-
metricai paixs, great size and strength, the most agile, nervous, and elastio

c

18 FOREIGN BREEDS OF HORSES.

movements, great endurance of fatigue, docility of temper, and, beyond
any other domestic animal, seeming attachment to man, can promise any-
thing for a stallion, the Nubian is, above all comparison, the most eligible
in the world. Few of them are less than sixteen hands high.'

Bosman, whose descriptions prove him to be no bad horseman, thus
speaks of them : — ' The Dongola horses are the most perfect in the world,
being beautiful, symmetrical in their parts, nervous and elastic in their
movements, and docile and affectionate in their manners. One of these
horses was sold in 181G, at Grand Cairo, for a sum equivalent to 1,000Z.'
The Dongola horses ai-e usually of a black colour, but there are some
bright bays and sorrels. "VYlien their exercise is over, the usual bridle is
taken away, and a lighter one put upon them ; for the inhabitants tell of
many battles that were lost, from their being attacked when their horses
were unbridled.

The slender yet finely set on neck, the noble crest, the elevated withers,
the beautiful action and bearing of the animal were admirable ; but the
long and slender legs, the Aveakness of the fore-arm, the narroA\Tiess and
want of depth of the chest, and even a deficiency of substance about the
flank and quarters, could not escape observation. Such an animal might
have speed, but his endu^rance must be doubtful, and it is difficult to
suppose that any breed of English horses could be materially improved
by it.

Some of these horses have lately reached England : and one of them
was recently in London, and belonged to an officer of the Life Guards.

THE HORSE OF ETHIOPIA OR ABYSSINIA.

Ludolph, in his history of this country, says that the horses are strong,
nimble, mettlesome, and mostly black. They are used only for war and
in the chase ; they travel no long and fatiguing journeys, and all the
drudgeiy of every kind is performed by the mule.

An Abyssinian who accompanied Ludolph to Europe expressed a great
deal of pity for the horses when he saw them drawing heavy carts, and
loudly exclaimed at the cruelty of putting so noble a creature to such base
and servile employment. He said that he wondered at the patience of
the animals, and was every moment in expectation that they would rebel
against such unheard-of tyranny.

The number of horses in Ethiopia must have considerably decreased,
for Cp'tacus, a former king of that country, entered Egyjit at the head of
100,000 cavalry.

The art of shoeing had not in Ludolph's time (the middle of the seven-
teenth century) reached Abyssinia ; and consequently, when the natives
had to travel over rough and stony ground, they dismounted and got upon
mules, and led their horses in hand, that by ha\-ing no burden to carry,
they might tread the lighter.

Bruce says little of the Ethiopian horses ; but Mr. Salt, an enterprising
traveller, says that the horses are generally strong, well-made, and kept
in good condition ; that their accoutrements are also good, and the men
themselves are excellent horsemen.

THE BARB.

By the term Barbary is understood the northern part of Africa, ba-
tending along the coast, and as far inland as the Great Desert, from the
frontiers of Egypt to the ]\Ieditcrranean. The Arabs that are found iu
this extensive district are mostly the descendants of those who emigrated
or were driven from eastern Arabia. The horses are likewise all of
Arab stock, considerably modified by change of climate, food, and manage-

THE BARB.

19

raent. Mr. Bruce relates, that ' the best African horses are said to be
descended from one of the five on which Mahomet and his four immediate

THE GODOLPHIN AHABIAN.

successors fled from Mecca to Medina, on the night of the Hegira.' This
must be received with very considerable allowance. The inhabitants of
almost the whole of these countries are as cruelly oppressed as the Fellahs
of Egypt, and the consequence of that oppression is the same. The Arabs
will scarcely be induced to cultivate a breed of horses of much value,
when, without scruple or compensation, they may be deprived of every
colt by the first man in power that chooses to take a fancy to it. It is
only among the tribes of the Desert, who are beyond the reach of the
tyrants of their country, that the Barb of superior breed, form, and
power, is to be found.

The common horse of Barbary is a very inferior animal — ^just such a
one as many years of supineness and neglect would produce ; but the
follomng are the characteristic points of a true Barb, and especially from
Morocco, Fez, and the interior of Tripoli, as described by Berenger : —
' The forehand is long, slender, and iJl-furnished ^'ith main, but rising
distinctly and boldly out of their AAathers ; the head is small and lean ;
the ears well-formed and well-placed ; the shoulders light, sloping back-
ward, and flat ; the withers fine and high ; the loins straight and short ;
the flanks and ribs round and full, and with not too much band; the
haunches strong ; the croup, perhaps, a little too long ; the quarters
muscular and well developed ; the legs clean, with the tendons boldly
detached from the bone ; the pastern somewhat too long and oblique ; and
the foot sound and good. They are rather loAver than the Arabian^
seldom exceeding fourteen hands and an inch, and have not his spirit, or
speed, or continuance, although in general form they are probably his
superior.'

The Barb has chiefly contributed to the excellence of the Spanish
horse ; and, when the improvement of the breed of horses began to be
systematically pursued in Great Britain, the Barb was very early in-
troduced. The Godolphin Arabian, as he is called, and who was the

20 FOREIGN BREEDS OF HORSES.

origin of some of our best racing blood, was a Barb ; and otiiera of oar
most celebrated turf-liorses trace tlieir descent from African mares.
Tbey are generally first mounted at two years old. Tliey are never
castrated, for a ' Mussulman would not mutilate or sell the skin of the
beast of tbe Propliet.' The horses alone are used for the saddle, and
the mares are kept for breeding. No Arab ever mounts a stallion ; on
the contrary, in Africa they never ride mares. The reason is plain.
The Arabs are constantly at war with their neighbours, and always
endeavour to take their enemies by surprise in the grey of the evening
or the da-vvn of day. A stallion no sooner smells the stale of the mare in
the enemy's quarters, than he begins to neigh, and that would give the
alarm to the party intended to be surprised. No such thing can ever
happen when they ride mares only. On the contrary, the African tnists
only to superior force. They are in an open plain country, must be dis-
covered at many miles' distance, and all such sui-prises and stratagems are
useless to them. The cavalry exercise to which their horses are exposed
is exceedingly severe. The Moorish method of fighting principally con-
sists in galloping at the very height of their horses' speed for the distance
of a quarter of a mile or more, then suddenly stopping while the rider
throws his spear or discharges his musket. By way of exercise, they will
sometimes continue to do this without a moment's intermission to change
or to breathe their horse. All that is required of the best-taught and
most valuable Barbary horse is thus to gallop and to stop, and to stand
still, all the day if it is necessary, when his rider quits him. As for
trotting, cantering, or ambling, it would be an unpardonable fault were
he ever to be guilty of it. A Barbary horse is generally broken in in a
far severer way, and much earlier than he ought to be, and therefore he
usually becomes unfit for service long before the Arabian. The usual
food for the Barb is barley and chopped straw, and grass while it is to be
found, but of the provision for T\anter food in the form of hay they are
altogether ignorant.

Captain Brown, in his ' Biographical Sketches of Horses,' gives the
following interesting account of a Barb and his rider, at the Cape of Good
Hope : — ' In one of the violent storms which often occur there, a vessel in
the road dragged her anchors, and was forced on the rocks, and beaten to
pieces. The greater part of the crew perished immediately, but some few
were seen from the shore cKnging to different pieces of the wreck. No
boat could venture to their assistance. Meanwhile a planter came from
his farm to see the shijDwreck, and perceiving no other chance of escape
for the survivors, and knowing the spirit of his horse and his excellence
as a swimmer, he determined to make one desperate effort for their
deliverance, and pushed into the midst of the breakers. At first both
disappeared, but they were soon seen on the surface. Nearing the wreck,
he induced two of the poor fellows to quit their hold and to cling to his
boots, and so he brought them safe ashore. He repeated this perilous
expedition seven times, and saved fourteen lives ; but on his return, the
eighth time, his horse being much fatigued, and meeting with a formidable
wave, the rider lost his balance and was overwhelmed in a moment. The
horse swam safely to land, but his gallant rider was seen no more. The
Cape was then a colony of the Dutch. The directors christened one of
their new vessels after him, and ordered a pillar to be erected to his
memory, but the local authorities refiised to the son a trifling place which
his father filled.'

The Barb improves towards the Western coast of Africa, both in his
form and graceful action.

Deep in the Sahara Desert is a noble breed of Barbs, knov.Ti by the

THE CAPE OF GOOD HOPE HOKSE, 2i

name of the 'Wind-sucker or the Desert-horse.' Jackson says of him
that the Desert-horse is to the cormnon Barbary horse what the Desert-
camel is to the usual camel of burden ; but that he can only be induced to
eat barley or wheat — oats are never given to horses in Africa ; but that,
supplied with a little camel's milk, he will travel almost incredible dis-
tances across the Desert. He is principally employed in hunting the
antelope and the ostrich.

There is some Uttle exaggeration, however, about tliis, for when he is
brought towards the coast, and can no longer get his camel's milk, he will
eat the barley and the straw which are given to him, and will thrive and
get fat upon them. If he chances to die, it is from being sufiered to gorge
too much of his new food ; or if he loses a portion of his speed and ^vind,
it is because he has been taken out of his exercise, and permitted to
accumulate flesh and fat too fast.

More in the centre of Africa, in the kingdom of Bournou, is a breed,
which Mr. TuUy, in his almost romantic history of Tripoh, reckons superior
even to those of Arabia or Barbary ; it possesses, according to him, the
best qualities of both those breeds, being as serviceable as that of Arabia,
and as beautiful as that of Barbary.

On the south of the Great Sahara Desert we find again the Arabian or
the Barbary horse in the possession of some of the chiefs of the Foulahs
and the Jalofs ; but the general character of the animal is in those torrid
regions much deteriorated. These horses are small, weak, unsafe, and
untractable. The Foulahs, however, can bring into the field no fewer
than 16,000 cavalry. Some writers have asserted, that in the kingdom of
Benin a much larger number could be collected.

In the country lying between that of the Foulahs and the kingdom of
Benin, there are few horses immediately on the coast, but they are more
numerous in the inland districts. Bosmau, however, says of them that
they are very ill-shaped ; that they carry their heads and necks more pro-
jecting and depressed than even the ass ; that they are slow and obstinate,
and only to be forced on by dint of blows ; and that they are so low, that
a tall man sitting on their backs could touch the ground with his feet.
He adds that at Fida, on the Slave-coast, whence he journeyed inland to
Elmina, he bought five or six of them, each of which cost him somewhat
less than 4'Z., but they did him no manner of service, and he was compelled
to leave them behind. Neither horses, nor any other produce of value, can
be looked for in these unhappy countries, so long as they are desolated by
the abominable slave-trade, under the sanction of the more civilised but
truly unchristian nations of Europe.

THE CAPE OF GOOD HOPE HOESE.

ITothing is certainly known of the western coast of Africa, descending
towards the south : but arriving at the Cape of Good Hope, we find that
the horse, if a native of that countiy, is oidy occasionally seen in its vnld
state. The horses that were introduced by the first colonists, the Dutch,
were mostly procured from BataWa, Java, and South America. At the
very commencement of the colony, many horses were imported from Persia.
These were mingled together, and crossed in every possible way, except
that not one notion of scientific improvement seems to have entered the
head of the Dutch boor. They were a small hardy race, capable of endur-
ing a great deal of fatigue, but in every way sadly neglected ; never di-essed,
and often ill-fed.

When the Cape was ceded to the English, both the colonists and the
government set earnestly to work to improve these undersized animals, and
with very considerable success The British light regiments of dragoons,

2a FOREIGN BREEDS OP HORSES.

in their passage to the East, can now frequently draw considerable supiiUes
of horses from this colony, and some regiments have been entirely mounted
here. This is sufficient proof of the degree of improvement which they
have reached. It is, however, said, by Percival, in his ' Cape of Good
Hope,' that the riding-masters have occasionally much trouble in breaking
in the Cape horses, which are naturally vicious, and especially when put
beyond the pace to which they had been accustomed. They rarely stand
above fourteen hands high ; they are hardy, and when thoroughly broken
in, are capable of enduring great privations and fatigue. They are rarely
shod while they remain in the colony, or if they are, it is only on the fore
feet. Their principal food is carrots, with a small quantity of corn. No
hay is grown near Cape Town, nor are there any pastures on which the
horses can be turned.

The wild horses have long disappeared near to the colony, and we have
no authentic record that any of them were ever taken and attempted to be
domesticated.

The horse is rarely seen in any part of the eastern coast of Africa. It
is not a native of Madagascar, but is again found in Ajan and Adel, on
the southern frontiers of Abyssinia.

THE ARABIAN HORSE.

Although modem Europe owes so much to Arabia for the improvement
in her breed of horses, it may be doubted whether these animals were
found in that country as a matter of merchandise, or indeed existed there
at all in large numbers in very early times. The author of the book of
Job, in describing the wealth of that patriarch, who was a native of
Arabia, and the richest man of his time, makes no mention of horses,
although the writer shows himself very conversant with that animal.
Five hundi-ed years after that, Solomon imported spices, gold, and silver,
fi'om Arabia ; but we are told in Chronicles, all the horses for his own
cavalry and chariots, and those with which he suppHed the Phoenician
monarchs, he procured from Egjrpt.

There is a curious record of the commerce of different countries at the
close of the second century. Among the articles exported from Egypt to
Arabia, and particularly as presents to reigning monarchs, were horses.

In the foui'th century, two hundred Cappadocian horses were sent by
the Roman emperor as the most acceptable present he could offer a power-
ful prince of Arabia.

So late as the seventh century the Arabs had few horses, and those of
little value ; for when Mahomet attacked the Koreish near Mecca, he had
but two horses in his whole army ; and at the close of his murderous
campaign, although he drove off twenty-foui' thousand camels and forty
thousand sheep, and carried away twenty -four thousand ounces of silver,
not one horse appears in the list of plunder.

These cu'cumstances sufficiently prove that, however superior may be
the present breed, it is comparatively lately that the horse was naturalised
in Arabia. Indeed the Arabs do not deny this ; for until within the last
century, when their horses began to be so deservedly valued, they were
content to Hmit their pedigree to one of the five on which Mahomet and
liis four immediate successors fled JErom Mecca to Medina on the night of
the Hegira.

Althouo-h ia the seventh century the Arabs had no horses of value, yet
those which they had derived from their neighbours began then to be pre-
served with so much care, and propagated so uniformly and strictly from
the finest of the breed, that in the thirteenth century the Arabian horse
begfiii to assume a just and unrivalled celebrity.
f^There are now said to be three breeds or varieties of Arabian horses :

THE ARABIAN HORSE.

'2{i

the Atfechi, or inferior breed, on which tlie natives set Httle value, and
which are found wikl on some parts of the deserts ; the Kadischi, htcrally
horses of an unkno^vn race, answering to our half-bred horses — a mixed
breed ; and the Kochlani, horses whose genealogy, according to the modern
exago-erated accounts, has been cultivated during two thousand years.
Many written and attested pedigrees extend, with true Eastern exaggera-
tion, to the stud of Solomon. The Kochlani are principally reared by the
Bedouin Arabs in the remote deserts. A stallion may be procured without
much difficulty, although at a great price. The Arabs imagine that the
female is more concerned than the male in the excellence and value of
the produce, and the genealogies of their horses are always traced through
the dam.

The Arab horse would not be acknowledged by every judge to possess a
perfect form. The head, however (like that which is delineated in the
title-page), is inimitable. The broadness and squareness of the forehead ;
tlie smallness of the ears ; the prominence and brilliancy of the eye ; the
shortness and fineness of the muzzle ; the width of the nostril ; the thin-
ness of the lower jaw, and the beautifully developed course of the veins,
— will always characterise the head of the Arabian horse. The cut in
the title-page is the portrait of the head of a black Arabian presented to
William TV. by the Imaum of Muscat. It is a close and honest likeness.
The muzzle, the nostrils, and the eye, are inimitable. In the sale of the
Hampton Court stud, in 1837, this animal realised 580 guineas ; it was
bought for the King of Wiirtemberg, and was highly prized in Germany.

The body of the Arab may, perhaps, be considered as too light, and his
chest too narrow ; but behind the arms the barrel generally swells out,

ARAB ;'JARE AXD FOAL.

and leaves sufficient room for the play of the lungs. This is well exhi-
bited in the cut of the grey Arabian mare, whose "portrait is here given.

24

FOREIGN BREEDS OP HORSES.

She is far inferior to the black one in the peculiar development of the
head and neck, but in other respects affords a more faithfal specimen of
the true form of the Arabian horse. She is of the purest caste, and was
a present from the same potentate by whom the black Arabian was given.
The foal at her foot was by Acteon. She was sold for 100 guineas only.
Perhaps her colour was against her. Her flea-bitten appearance would
not please every one. The foal, which had more than the usual clumsiness
belonging to the youngster, sold for 58 guineas.

The neck of the Arabian is long and arched, and beautifully joined to
the chest. The black horse in the frontispiece afforded a perfect speci-
men of this. In the formation of the shoulder, next to that of the head,
the Arab is superior to any other breed. The withers are high, and the
shoulder-blade has its proper inclination backwards. It is also thickly
clothed with muscle, but without the slightest appearance of heaviness.

The fineness of his legs and the oblique position of the pasterns might
be supposed by the uninitiated to lessen his apparent strength, but the
leg, although small is deep, and composed of bone of the densest character.
The tendons are sufficiently distinct from the bone, and the starting
muscles of the fore-arm and the thigh indicate that he is fully capable of
accomplishing many of the feats that are recorded of him.

As a faithful specimen of the general form of these horses, with per-
haps a little deficiency in the head and neck, we refer once more to the
following portrait of a bay Arabian — an animal of the purest cast, pre-
sented also by the Imaum of Muscat. It was sold for 410 guineas. The
higher price that was given for the black Arabian proves tliat he was the
general favourite ; but the bay one, although not so striking in his figui'e
was a stronger, a speedier, and a better horse.

BAY AUABIAX.

The Barb alone excels the Arabian in noble and spirited action ; but if
there is a defect about the latter, he is perfect for that which he was
designed. He presents the true combination of speed and bottom :

THE ARABIAN HORSE. «6

strength enough to cany more than a hght weight, and courage that
would cause him to die rather than yield.

Mr. Burckhardt, in a letter to. Professor Sewell, says that ' the tribes
richest in horses are those who dwell, during the spring of the year at
least, in the fertile plains of Mesopotamia ; for, notwithstanding all that is
said of the desert horse, plenty of nutritious food is absolutely requisite
for its reaching its full vigour and growth. The numerous tribes on the
Red Sea, between Akaba and Mecca, and especially those to the south of
Mecca, and as far as Yemen, have very few horses ; but the Curdes and
Bedouins in the east, and especially in Mesopotamia, possess more horses,
and more valuable ones, than all of the Arabian Bedouins ; for the rich-
ness of their pastures easily nourishes the colts, and fills their studs.*
These observations are very impoi-tant, and are evidently founded on truth.
He adds, that ' the number of horses in Arabia is not more than 50,000 ;
a number far inferior to that found in any part of Europe, or Asia, on an
equal extent of ground. '

' Dui'ing the Wahabee government, horses became scarcer every year
among the Arabs. They were sold by their masters to foreigTi purchasers,
who carried them to Yemen, Syria, and Bassora ; which latter place sup-
plies India mth Ai-abian horses, because they were afraid of having them
seized upon by their chiefs — it having become the custom, upon every
fihght pretext of disobedience or crime, to declare the most valuabh-
Bedouin mare forfeit to the pubhc treasury.'

"^ Syria is the best place to purchase true Arabian blood-horses ; and no
district is superior to the Naurau, where the horse may be purchased from
the first hand, and chosen in the very encampments of the Arabs themselves,
who fill these plains in the spring. The horses bought at Bassora for the
Indian markets are pui'chased second-hand from Bedouin dealers. These
procure them from the Montifell Arabs, who are not careful in maintain-
ing a pure breed. Damascus would be the best residence for a person
constantly employed in this trade.

Wliile the number of horses generally is much smaller than had been
supposed, there are comparatively fewer of those of perfect quaHty and
beauty, — perhaps not more than five of six in a whole tribe ; probably not
two hundi'ed in the whole desert. Each of these in the desert itself may
be worth from one hundi'ed and fifty to two hundred pounds ; but very
few, if any, of these have ever found their way to Europe.

There has, however, been much exaggeration Avith regard to these pedi-
grees. Bui'ckhardt says, that in the interior of the desert, the Bedouins
never make use of any, because, among themselves, they know the
genealogy of their horse almost as well as that of their own famihes ; but
if they carry their horses to any distance, as to Bassora, Bagdat, or
Damascus, they take care to have a written pedigree made out, in order to
present it to the purchaser. In that case only would a Bedouin be found
possessed of his horse's pedigree. He would laugh at it in the desert.

The Kochlani are principally reared by the Bedouin Ai'abs in the
remoter deserts. One of them was sold at Acre for the sum of fifteen
thousand piastres.

It is an error into Avhich almost every writer on the history of the horse
has fallen, that the Arabian is bred in the arid deserts, and owes the power
of endurance which he possesses in his adult state to the hardships which
he endured while he was a colt. The real fact is, that the Arabs select
for their breeding-places some of those dehghtfal spots, knowna only in
countries like these, where, though "all may bo dry and barren around,
there is pasture uni'ivalled for its succulence and its nutritious or aromatic
properties. The powers of the young animal are afterwards developed, as

36 FOREIGN BREEDS OF HORSES.

they alone could be, by tbe mingled influence of plentiful and healthy
food, and suflBcient, but not, except in one day of trial, cruel exercise.

The most extraordinary care is taken to preserve the purity of the
breed. Burckhardt states that the favourite mare of Savnd the Wahabee,
which he constantly rode in all his expeditions, and was known in every
part of Arabia, produced a colt of very superior beauty and promise, audit
grew to be the finest stallion of his day. Savud, however, would never
permit him to be used for the purposes of breeding, because his mother was
not of pure blood ; and not knowing what to do with him, as the Bedouins
never ride stallions, he sent him as a present to the scherifF.

The parentage and birth of the foal are carefully recorded by competent
witnesses, whose certificate includes the marks of the colt, and the names
of the sire and dam.

The colt is never allowed to fall on the ground at the period of birth,
but is caught in the arms of those who stand by, and washed and caressed
as though it was an infant. The mare and her foal inhabit the same tent
with the Bedouin and his children. The neck of the mare is often the
pillow of the rider, and more frequently, of the children, who are rolling
about upon her and the foal. No accident ever occurs, and the animal
acquires that friendship and love for man which occasional ill-treatment
will not cause her for a moment to forget.

At the end of a month the foal is weaned, and is fed on camel's milk foi
one hundred days. At the expiration of that period, a little wheat is
allowed ; and by degrees that quantity is increased, the milk continuing to
be the principal food. This mode of feeding continues another hundred
days, when the foal is permitted to graze in the neighbourhood of the tent.
Barley is also given ; and to this some camel's milk is added in the evening,
if the Arab can aftbrd it. By these means the Arab horse becomes as
decidedly characterised for his docility and good temper, as for his speed
and courage. The kindness with which he is treated from the time of his
being foaled, gives him an affection for his master, a wish to please, a
pride in exerting every energy in obedience to his commands, and, conse-
quently, an apparent sagacity which is seldom found in other breeds. In
that delightfal book, Bishop Heber's ' Narrative of a Journey through the
Upper Provinces of India,' the following interesting character is given of
him : — ' My morning rides are very pleasant. My horse is a nice, quiet,
good-tempered little Arab, who is so fearless, that he goes without starting
close to an elephant, and so gentle and docile that he eats bread out of my
hand, and has almost as much attachment and coaxing ways as a dog.
This seems the general character of the Arab horses, to judge from what 1
have seen in this country. It is not the fiery dashing animal I had sup-
posed, but -svith more rationality about him, and more apparent confidence
in his rider than the majority of English horses.'

When the Arab fells from his mare, and is unable to rise, she -will im-
mediately stand still, and neigh until assistance arrives. If he lies do-svn
to sleep, as fatigue sometimes compels him in the midst of the desert, she
stands watchful over him, and neighs and arouses him if either man or
beast approaches. The Arab horses are taught to rest occasionally in a
standing position ; and a great many of them never lie down.

The Arab loves his horse as truly and as much as the horse loves him ;
and no little portion of his time is often spent in talking to him and
caressing him.

An old Arab had a valuable mare that had carried him for fifteen years
in many a rapid weary march, and many a hard-fought battle ; at length,
eighty years old, and unable longer to ride her, he gave her, and a scimitar
that had been his father's, to his eldest son, and told him to appreciate their

THE AKABIAX HORSE. 27

value, and never lie down to rest until lie had rubbed them both as bright
as a mirror. In the first sJcirmish in which the young man was engaged,
he was killed, and the mare fell into the hands of the enemy. When the
news reached the old man, he exclaimed, that ' life was no longer worth
preserving, for he had lost both his sou and his mare, and he grieved for
one as much as the other.' He immediately sickened and soon afterwards
died.

The following anecdote of the attachment of an Arab to his mare haa
often been told : — ' The whole stock of an Ai-ab of the desert consisted of
a mare. The French consul offered to purchase her in order to send her
to his sovereign, Louis XIV. The Arab would have rejected the pro-
posal, but he was miserably poor ; he had scarcely a rag to cover him, and
his wife and his children were starving. The sum offered was great, — it
would provide him and his family with food for life. At length, and reluc-
tantly, he yielded. He brought the mare to the dwelling of the consul, dis-
mounted and stood leaning upon her ; he looked now at the gold, and then
at his favourite. " To whom is it," said he, " I am going to yield thee
up ? To Europeans, who -will tie thee close, — who will beat thee, — who
will render thee miserable. Return with me, my beauty, my jewel, and
rejoice the hearts of my childi-en." As he pronounced the last words, he
sprung upon her back, and was presently out of sight.'

One of our own countrymen, the enterprising traveller, Major Denham,
affords us a pleasing instance of the attachment with which the docility
and sagacity of this animal may inspire the owner. He thus relates the
death of his favourite Arabian, in one of the most desert spots of Central
Africa, His feelings needed no apology : we naturally honour the man
ia whom true sensibility and undaunted courage, exerted for useful pur-
poses, were thus united : —

' There are a few situations in a man's life in which losses of this nature
are felt most keenly ; and this was one of them. It was not grief, but it
was something very nearly approaching to it ; and though I felt ashamed
of the degree of derangement I suffered from it, yet it was several days
before I could get over the loss. Let it, however, be remembered, that
the poor animal had been my support and comfort, — nay, I may say, com-
panion, through many a dreary day and night ; — had endured both hunger
and thirst in my service ; and was so docile, that he would stand still for
hours in the desei-t while I slept between his legs, his body affording me
the only shelter that could be obtained from the powerful influence of a
noon-day sun : he was yet the fleetest of the fleet, and ever foremost in
the chase.'

Man, however, is an inconsistent being. The Arab who thus Kves with
and loves his horses, regarding them as his most valuable treasure, some-
times treats them with a cruelty scarcely to be credited. The severest
treatment which the English race-horse endures is gentleness compared
with the trial of the young Arabian. Probably the filly has never before
been mounted. Her owner springs on her back, and goads her over the
sands and rocks of the desert for fifty or sixty miles without one moment's
respite. She is then forced, steaming and panting, into water deep
enough, for her to swim. If, immediately after this, she will eat as if
nothing had occurred, her character is established, and she is acknowledged
to be a genuine descendant of the Kochlani breed. The Arab does not
think of the cruelty which he thus inflicts ; he only follows an invariable
custom.

"We may not perhaps believe all that is told us of the speed and endurance
of the Arabian. It has been remarked, that there are on the deserts
which this horse traverses no mile-stones to mark the distance, or watches

28 FOREIGN BREEDS OF HORSES.

to calculate tlie time ; and that the Bedouin is naturally given to exagge-
ration, and most of all, Avhen relating the prowess of the animal that he
loves as dearly as his children : yet it cannot be denied that, at the intro-
duction of the Arabian into the European stables, there was no horse
comparable to him. ' The mare in her native deserts, will travel fifty miles
without stopping ; she has been urged to the almost incredible distance of
one hundred and twenty miles, and, occasionally, neither she nor her rider
has tasted food for three whole days.

Our horses would fare badly on the scanty nourishment afforded thi
Arabian. The mare usually has but two meals in twenty-four hours.
During the day she is tied to the door of the tent, ready for the Bedouin
to spring, at a moment's warning, into the saddle ; or she is turned out
before the tent ready saddled, the bridle being merely taken off, and she is
so trained that she immediately gallops up at her master's call. At night
she receives a little water ; and with her scantj^ provender of five or six
pounds of barley or beans, and sometimes a little straw, she lies down
content, if she is accustomed to He down at all, in the midst of her
master's family.

Burckhardt relates a story of the speed and endurance of one of them,
and shows with what feelings an Arab regards his quadruped friend : —
' A troop of Druses on horseback attacked, in the summer of 1815, a party
of Bedouins, and pursued them to their encampment ; the Bedouins were
then assisted by a superior force, and becoming the assailants in their
turn, killed all the Druses excepting one who fled. He was pursued by
some of the best mounted Bedouins, but his mare, although fatigued, could
not be overtaken. Before his pursuers gave up the chase, they called to
him, and begged to be permitted to kiss his excellent mare, promising him
safe conduct for her sake. He might have taken them at theii* word, for
the pledge of an Arab, in such circumstances, might have been rehed on :
he however refused. They immediately left the pursuit, and blessing the
noble beast, cried out to the fugitive, " Go and wash the feet of your mare
and drinlc off the water." This expression is often used by the Bedouins
to show the regard they have for their mares.'

A periodical wiiter in the ' Sportsman,' on what authority is not stated,
but he is right in most of the particulars if not in all of them, says, that
' taking the comparative excellence of the different races, Nejed, between
the desert of Syria and Yemen, and now in the possession of the Wahabis,
is generally reckoned to produce the gi'andest, noblest horses. Sejaz
(extending along the Red Sea, from IMount Sinai to Yemen, and including
in it Medina and Mecca) the handsomest ; Yemen (on the coast of the Red
Sea and the Indian Ocean, and the most fertile part of Arabia) the most
durable ; Syria the richest in colour ; Mesopotamia the most quiet ; Egypt
the swiftest ; Barbaiy the most prolific ; and Persia and Koordistan the
most warHke.'

The introduction of the Arabian into England, and the concern which
he has had in the improvement of the Enghsh horse, will be treated of in
the next chapter.

THE PERSIAN HORSE.

Next in the route which has been pursued along the south of Asia, to-
wards the east, and yielding only to the Ai-abian in beauty and value,
stands the Persian horse. He is of larger growth than the Ai'abian, —
purposely bred so, — and on that account some foreign — stiU east country,
but not pure Arabian blood, being introduced. A larger animal, one more
adapted for modem war, is the result, but with some diminution of speed
and endurance. The Persian is a nobler-looking animal at the first glaice,

THE PERSIAN HORSE. -iy

but lie -will not bear tlie fvccurate examination that only increases our ad-
mii-ation of the other. Berenger thus describes their principal points : —
' They are in general small headed ; they have long and somewhat too
fine foreheads, and they are rather too narrow chested ; their legs are a
little small, but their croups are well fashioned, and their hoofs good and
firm. They are docile, quick, light, bold, fall of spirit, capable of enduring
much fatigue, swift, sure-footed, hardy in constitution, and contented with
almost any provender.' They have, since his time, lost somewhat of the
beauty, elasticity, docility, speed, and almost never-failing endurance.

The Persian Horses constituted in ancient times the best cavalry of the
East. The improved, incomparable Ai-abian breed was not then in
existence.

An entertaining traveller (Sir R.Kerr Porter) gives the following account
of them : — ' The Persian horses seldom exceed fourteen or fourteen and a
half hands high, yet certainly, in the whole, are taller than the Arabs.
Those of the desert and country about Hillah run very small, but are full
of bone and of good speed. General custom feeds and waters them only
at sunrise and sunset, when they are cleaned. Their usual provender is
barley and chopped straw, which, if the animals are picketed, is put into
a nose-bag and hung from their heads ; but if stabled it is thro^^^l into a
small lozenge-shaped hole left in the thickness of the mud- wall for that
purpose, but much higher up than the line of our mangers, and there the
animal eats at his leisure. Hay is a kind of food not knovni here. The
bedding of the horse consists of his dung. After being exposed to the
drying infiuence of the sun during the day, it becomes pulverised, and, in
that state, is nightly spread under him. It is the usual flooring of the
stable and the tent. The united influence of the sun and air deprives it
of all unpleasant odour, and when from use it becomes a second time
offensive, it is again exposed to the sun, and all unpleasant smell once
more taken away. Little of it touches his body, that being covered by his
clothing, a large muvimud from the ears to the tail, and bound firmly
round his body by a very long surcingle. But this apparel is only for
cold weather ; in the warmer season the night-clothes are of a lighter
substance, and during the heat of the day the animal is kept entirely
under shade.

' At night he is tied in the court-yard. The horses' heads are attached
to the place of security by double ropes from their halters, and the heels
of their hinder legs are confined by cords of twisted hair, fastened to iron
rings and pegs driven into the earth. The same custom prevailed in the
time of Xenophon, and for the same reason : to secure them from being
able to attack and maim each other, the whole stud generally consisting
of stallions. Their keepers, however, always sleep on their rugs amongst
them to prevent accident ; and sometimes, notwithstanding all this care,
they manage to break loose, and then the combat ensues. A general
neighing, screaming, kicking, and snorting, soon rouses the grooms, and
the scene for a while is terrible. Indeed no one can conceive the sudden
uproar of such a moment who has not been in Eastern countries to hear
it, and then all who have, must bear me witness that the noise is tremen-
dous. They seize, bite, and kick each other with the most detennined
fury, and frequently cannot be separated before their heads and haunches
stream with blood. Even in skinnishes with the natives, the horses take
part in the fray, tearing each other with their teeth, while their masters
are in similar close quarters on their backs.'

His description of a Persian race does not altogether remind us of
Newmarket or Doncaster.

' My curiosity was fully on the spur to see the racers, which I could

so FOREIGX BREEDS OF HORSES.

not doubt must have been chosen from the best in the nation to exhibit
the perfection of its breed before the sovereign. The rival horses were
divided into three sets, in order to lengthen the amusement. They had
been in training for several weeks, going over the ground very often
during that time ; and when I did see them, I found so much pains liad
been taken to sweat and reduce their weight, that their bones were nearly
cutting the skm. The distance marked for the race was a stretch of a four-
and-twenty miles, and, that his majesty might not have to wait when
he had reached the field, the horses had set foi^ward long before, by three
divisions, from the starting point, (a short interval of time passing between
each set,) so that they might begin to come in a few minutes after the king
had taken his seat. The different divisions arrived in regular order at the
goal, but all so fatigued and exhausted that their former boasted fleetness
hardly exceeded a moderate canter when they passed before the royal
eyes.'

The plains of Persepolis, Media, Ardebil and Derbane, rear annually a
great number of valuable horses, but those bred in Kurdistan are accounted
the best both in beauty and strength.

THE CIRCASSIAN HORSE.

The Circassian horse, although inferior to the Persian, does not often
lind his equal among the predatory hordes with which this part of Asia
abounds. Vast numbers of horses and sheep are reared in the plains of
Cii'cassia, and they and the slaves which are made in the excursions
form the principal articles of the commerce of the natives. Almost every
family of distinction aims at possessing a peculiar breed of horses, excell-
ing, in their estimation, that of any other tribe. Each breed is distin-
guished by its peculiar mark, to forge or to place which on an inferior
breed would be punished with death. The most valuable breed of all ia
in the possession of the reigning family, and its distinguishing mark is a
full horse-shoe. These horses possess considerable strength and speed.

THE EAST INDIAN HORSE.

We will now travel ful'ther eastward, and examine the breeds of horses
in our Indian possessions. They are small, and, although some have
considerable endurance and courage, they wear the general character of
degeneracy from a nobler stock. First in value is the Toorlaj, originally
from a Toorkoman and a Persian, beautiful in his form, graceful in his
action, and docile in his temper. When skilfully managed his carriage
is statelj^ and grand. His spirit rising as his exertions are required, he
exhibits to his beholders an appearance of fury in the performance of his
task, yet preserving to his rider the utmost plajy-fulness and gentleness.
They are usually from fourteen to fifteen hands high, and have the common
defect of the East India horse — smallness and length of bone below the
knees and about the hocks.

Next comes the Iranee, well limbed, and his joints closely knit, and
particularly powerful in the quarters, but with large head, and hanging
ears, and deficiency of spirit.

The gentle and docile Cozalcee is deep in the girth, powerful in the
fore-arm, but with large head and cat-hammed ; hardy, and calculated foT
long journeys and severe service.

The Mojinniss have spirit, beauty, speed, and perseverance.

The Tazsee is slight, hollow-backed, and, for that reason perhaps, de-
ficient in strength. His hind-legs are ill placed, and dragged as it were
behind him, and he is stubborn and irritable ; yet this horse is sought
aft^^r on account of the peculiar easiness of his paces, a matter of no

THE EAST INDIAN HORSE. 3,

small consideration where the heat is so great and the slightest exertion
fatiguing.

A sale of horses near the Company's stud, at Hissar, is thus described
by an excellent judge : — ' Not less than one thousand horses were shown.
They were all above fourteen hands and a half in height, high-crested,
and showy-looking animals. The great defect seemed a want of bone
below the knee, which is general to all the native horses throughout
India ; and also so great a tendency to fulness in the hocks, that, in Eng-
land, it would be thought half of them had blood spavins.'

There are other studs in different parts of the country, in which some
valuable stallions are kept for the purpose of improving the various
Indian breeds. Almost all of them have a greater or lesser portion of
Arabian blood in them, which gives them the appearance of good cavalry
horses, but renders them inferior to the Arabians generally in swiftnes.s
and always in endurance. For this reason the native cavalry are princi-
pally mounted on Arabian horses, which are brought in great numbers,
but of no considerable value, from Ai-abia and Syria.

It may be readily supposed that it was not long before races were
established in the East Indies, and that they were properly patronised by
the government. They were, however, confined almost entirely to the
Arabian horpes, for those of half-blood were manifestly inferior to
them.

]n 1828, Recruit, by Wlialebone, a horse of some celebrity at the time,
was sent out to Calcutta. This was deemed a proper op]iortunity to decide
the question of superiority between the pure Arab and the true English
racing blood, and he was matched against Pyramus, the best Arabian in
Bengal. The distance was two miles, Avith give and take Aveights, fourteen
hands to carry nine stone, and the Arabian to be allowed seven pounds ;
Recruit carried ten stones twelve pounds, and Pyramus only eight stones
three pounds. They started well together, and ran the first part of the
distance neck and neck, but at about half the distance Recruit took the
lead, and the Arabian was beaten easily by several lengths. The distance
was run in three minutes and fifty-seven seconds. Another trial took
place between Champion, a first-rate Arabian, and Constance, a moderately
good thoroughbred English horse. The Arabian won in a canter ; the
question, therefore, is thought by some persons to be yet undecided.

There is an East Indian pony, called the Tattoo, var^ang from ten to
twelve hands in height. This is a serviceable and hardy animal for
carrying baggage or any light weight. Tavernier describes one which he
saw ridden by a young Mognil prince, of seven or eight years of age, and
which was not much larger than a greyhound.

In 1765 one, not more than seven hands, or twenty-eight inches in
height, was sent from India as a present to the queen of George III, It
was taken from the ship to the palace in a hackney-coach. It was of a
dun colour ; and its hair resembled that of a young fa-\\Ti. It was four
years old, well proportioned, had fine ears, a quick eye, Avith a handsome
long tail, and was thoroughly good natured and manageable.

The Mahrattas were two powerful tribes or nations, inhabiting the
central part of Hindoostan, and their territory extending from sea to sea,
across the south of the Deccan. Their wars among themselves, or in union
with the British against Tippoo Saib, and afterwards against their former
protectors and allies, are prominent objects in the modern Iristory of India..
Their troops consisted almost entirely of cavalry, composed of one of the
best varieties of the half-blood Arabian and native horse. The IMahratta,
when not on horseback, may be said to be almost constf.ntly employed in
shampooing his horse. It is properly so called, for he rubs him violently

32 FOREIGN BREEDS OF HORSES.

■wifh Ms -wi'irfts and elbows, as well as Lis liands, and moulds and bends
his limbs in every direction. The Mabrattan way of riding is a singular
and, according to European notions, a very ungraceful one. His knees are
as bigli as bis horse's back ; he holds on with his heels, and chngs with
his hands either to the mane or the peak of the saddle. With such aids,
hia seat is more secure than at first sight it would appear to be. The peak
of the saddle rises in the form of a crane's neck, and is said to have been
borrowed from the Moguls. A crupper and a martingale are almost indis-
pensable accompaniments of the Mahratta horse-furniture. It is a singular
kind of crupper, however, not projecting from the centre of the saddle,
but attached to both sides. The tohsa, or leathern vessel out of which the
horse eats his com, is also attached to the crupper, and this part of the
trappings is generally ornamented with silver knobs, or with silk tassels
or embroidery.

Their horses, Hke most of those in the East, are picketed, not only
during the day, but very frequently in the night. A rope is carried from
the head- stall on each side to a peg driven into the ground. A rope, or
thong, is also tied round the fetlocks behind, and carried backwards twenty
or thirty feet, and fastened to a peg. This pulls the horse back, and keeps
him, when standing, on the stretch, but does not prevent him from lying
down. When they are thus tethered, their eyes are covered, that they
may not be alarmed by any object that passes. They are also clothed, in
order that the beautiful, glossy appearance of their coat may be preserved.

They use the snaffle-bridle, but it is so jagged and pointed that the
animal may be punished to the fall content of any barl^arian that may ride
him. The headstall is usually ornamented, and from the rein a thong
descends by wliich the horse may be occasionally reminded of his duty.
The horseman has neither whip, switch, nor spur, but the horse is con-
trolled, if he is disposed to rebel, by the cruel argument of the bit.

The breast of the Mahi^atta horse is more splendidly ornamented than
any other part. Numerous coins, of different size and value — rupees and
double rupees — are formed into plates more or less highly ornamented, and
which in time of war form a rich booty for the conqueror. The mane, too,
is generally plaited with silk-braids, and silver knobs attached to them,
with a beautiful top-knot between the ears. If the rider has distinguished
himself in war, some curious tails, said to be taken from the wild cow,
dangle on either side.

THE BIRMAN AND CHINESE HORSE.

The Birman horses are small, but spirited and strong. There was one
in 1842 in the menagerie belonging to the Zoological Society of London.
He did not stand more than twelve hands high, but was a beautifal little
fellow, and a picture of strength.

In Sum the horses are few, and inferior to those of the Birman empire.

In Cochin- China, on the eastern coast of the peninsiila, the horses are
etill small, but they are better formed, and more active and strong, than
they are at Siam. In Sumatra and Java the horses have not increased
in size, but in form and usefulness they scarcely yield to any in the south-
west of Asia. In Borneo they are few, and scarcely deserving of notice.
The horses of China are, generally speaking, small, ill -formed, weak, and
without spirit ; indeed they have little occasion for the horse in the greater
part of that immense empire.

THE AUSTRALIAN HORSE.

The new colonies of the British in Australia and its dependencies will
present something more ratisfactory. The greater part of the horses in

lil£ AfSTKALlAN HORSE. 33

New South "Wales, the eastei-n coast of Austraha, were derived from tlie
Cape of Good Hoi^e and from India. Very little judgment was employed
in the selection, and indeed very few horses of good quality could have
been procured from either place. The consequence was, that a wi-iter so
late as 1824 says of them, that ' they are principally of the nag kind, and
bred without much care. They are not very sightly in appearance, being
narrow-chested and sharp-backed, and sadly deficient in the quarters.
They have an incurable habit of shying, and they are not very sure-
footed.' The New South Wales horses are seldom stabled, but are sup-
posed to be healthier, and better able to endure fatigue, when kept in the
open air. This, however, is probably only an excuse for neglect.

The sheep, however, prospering so well, and the cattle rapidly increas-
ing and improving, the colonist began to be a httle ashamed of his horses.
Several of a better kind, cart and blood, were consequently imported from
the mother-counti-y — an Arabian was procured from India — and the
Austrahan horse soon began to be a very different sort of animal. A writer
of a few years' later date says : ' We have few thorough-bred cart-horses,
almost all of them having a spice of blood about them, which makes them
unsteady at di-aught, restive, and given to jibbing when put to a hard pull.'
This was a very erroneous charge, and the writer seems to be aware of it,
for he adds, ' this may arise in a great measure from their being badly
broken in.' It was the faulty management and education of the horse, and
not the portion of pure blood which he had acquired, that produced vices
like these. The writer proceeds : ' We have many fine gig, carriage, and
saddle horses, and even some that have pretensions to rank in the list of
racers.' In fact, races were instituted at Sydney. A turf-club was formed,
and horses of no despicable qualities entered the lists.

An excellent stallion, named Bay Cameron, was imported from England,
and the owner netted by him, for the first season or two, more than 6001.
per annum. Horses generally rose more than fifteen per cent, in value.
Even at Sydney, 2001. and more were given for a hor.se of extraordinary
figure and powers ; and no good saddle, gig, or cart horse could be pur-
chased for less than 40?.

These horses were found to be remarkably hardy, and could undergo
considerable fatigue. The gi'eatest fault was a heaviness of the head, with
a considerable degree of obstinacy and sulkiness — as much, however, the
fruit of education as of natural disposition.

A. still later writer says : ' that the breed is rapidly impro^-ing, and par-
ticularly the draught horses, from the importation of some of the Cleve-
land breed from England.' The true dray-horse, however, was yet to be
found, and could not be procured fi'om any of the native horses, not even
with the assistance of the Cleveland. The mixture of EngHsh blood has
not lessened the endurance of the native breed ; for at the hottest time
of the year, with the thermometer at times as high as ninety- six desrrees
in the shade, the writer says that he has ridden the same animal fifty miles
a day for three successive days. They wiU all go through a vast deal of
work, but they would have more endurance, if they were not broken in
for the saddle and for harness so young. It is no unusual thing to ride
them sixty miles in less than seven hours, and immediately turn them out,
to pick up what scanty herbage they can find. The ntmiber of good
horses was so rapidly increased, that their price had materially diminished,
and scarcely more than Sol. could be got for the best of them.

The traveller adds, that there are some diseases to which the horse is
subject in England, which are as yet unkno-s^Ti in Kew South Wales.
Glanders has never made its appearance there. Greasy heels, the almost
pccuhar disease of Britain, have not been leen there. Strangles, however,

D

'61 FOREIGN BREEDS OP HORSES.

are prevalent, and, the author of the present work learns from another
source, unusually severe.

In Van Diemen's Land the breed of horses, originally derived fi'om
India, is very good. A valuable breed of cart-horses is beginning to bo
formed. The riding-horses are small, but they are hardy. Horses of
every kind are sixty per cent, dearer in Van Diemen's Land than in New
South Wales ; because the colony is smaller, and the number of horses
that are bred is comparatively small. Their treatment is not so good as in
the larger colony. Many of them know not the taste of com, and, when
it is given to them, it is usually in the straw.

THE TAETARIAN HORSE.

Tartary comprehends a vast extent of country, reaching from the
Eastern Ocean, to the European dominions of Russia, through the central
part of Asia and Europe. Eastern Tartary belongs chiefly to China —
the Western has been subjected by Russia, but a small portion of it about
the Caspian Sea claims to be independent. The tribes which inhabit
this immense space are dissimilar in their appearance, manners, and cus-
toms ; but, with a few exceptions, the character of the horse is nearly the
same.

The WILD HORSE is found in various parts of Tartary ; but nowhere
can it be considered as a remnant of an original race that has never
been domesticated. The horses of the Uki^aine, and those of South
America, are equally the descendants of those that had escaped from the
slavery of man. The origin of the horses of Tartary has been clearly
traced to those tho^t were employed in the siege of Azof in 1657. Being
suffered, from want of forage, to penetrate into the desert in order to find
subsistence, they strayed to too great a distance to be pui^sued or recaEed,
and became wild and created a new breed. They are generally of a red
colour, ■w'ith a black stripe along the back. They are divided into numer-
ous hei'ds, at the head of each of which is an old stallion, who has fought
his way to the crown, and whose pre-eminence is acknowledge by the
rest. On the approach of apparent danger, the mares and their foals are
driven into a close body, in fi'ont of which the males are ranged. There
are frequent contests between the different herds. The domesticated
horse, if he falls in their way unprotected by his master, is instantly
attacked and speedily destroy^ ; but at the sight of a human being, and
especially mounted, they all take to flight, and gallop into the recesses of
the desert. The young stallions as they grow up are di'iven from the
herd, and are seen straggling about at a distance, until they are strong
enough to form herds of wild mares for themselves.

The Cossacks are accustomed to hunt the wild hoi'ses, partly to keep up
their own stock, and partly for food. A species of vulture is sometimes
made use of in this afiair. The bird pounces upon the poor animal, and
fastens itself on his head or neck, fluttering his wings, and perplexing, and
half-blinding him, so that he becomes an easy prey to the Tartar. The
young horses are generally tamed without much difficulty ; they are, after
a little while, coupled with a tame horse, and grow gentle and obedient.
The wild horses thus reclaimed are usually found to be stronger and more
serviceable than any which can be bred at home.

In the great deserts of Tartary, the herds of wild horses are much larger.
Many thousands, as on the Pampas of South America, are often collected
together. The Kirghise Tartars either capture them for use, or spear
them for food.

The flesh of the horse is a frequent article of food among the Tartars ;
and although they do not, like the Indians of the Pampas, eat it raw, their

THE TAKTAKIAX HORSE. 85

mode of cookery would not be very inviting to tlie European epicure.
They cut the muscular part into slices, and place them under their saddles,
and after they have galloped thirty or forty miles, the meat becomes tender
and sodden, and fit for their table. At all their feasts, the first and last
and most favourite dish is a horse's head, unless they have a roasted foal,
which is the greatest delicacy that can be procured.

"When water was not at hand, the Scythians used to draw blood from
their horses, and di'ink it ; and the Dukes of Muscovy, for nearly two
hundred and sixty years, presented the Tartar ambassadors with the milk
of mares. Most of the Tartars manufacture a liquor called kouviiss, from
the milk of the mare. It has a very pleasant taste of mingled sweet and
BOUT, and is considerably nutritious. The Tartars say that it is an
excellent medicine, and almost a specific in consumption and some diseases
of debility. It is thus made : — To a certain quantity of fresh mare's milk,
a sixth part of water, and an eighth part of veiy sour milk, or of old
Jioumiss, is added. The vessel is covered with a thick cloth, and set in a
place of moderate warmth. It is thus left at rest twenty-four houi-s, when
the whole of it "wdll have become sour, and a thick substance will have
gathered on the top. The whole is then beaten with a stick in the form
of a chum-staflP, until it becomes blended into one homogeneous mass.
Twenty-four hours after this the beating is repeated, or the liquor is
aoitated in a chum, until the whole is again mingled together. The
process is now complete and the koumiss is formed, but it must be always
well shaken before it is used.

The Tartars have discovered a method of obtaining an ardent spiiit
from this koumiss, which they call rack, or racky, from the name given \a
the spirit manufactured in the East Indies.

Some of the Tartar and Kalmuck women ride fully as well as the men.
When a courtship is taking place between two of the young ones, the answer
of the lady is thus obtained. She is mounted on one of the best horses,
and off she gallops at full speed. Her lover pursues, and if he overtakes
her, she becomes his wife ; but it is seldom or never that a Kalmuck girl
once on horseback is caught, unless she has a partiality for her pursuer.

The domesticated horses belonging to the Tartars that wander over the
immense plains of Central Asia are Kttle removed from a wild state. They
are small and badly made, but capable of supporting the longest and most
rapid journeys on the scantiest fare.

One well-known circumstance will go far to account for their general
hardiness. The Tartars live much on the flesh of horses ; and the animals
that are unable to support the labour of their frequent and rapid emigra-
tions are first destroyed ; the most vigorous are alone preserved.

Berenger gives the following account of the Tartar horses : — ' Although
but of a moderate size, they are strong, nervous, proud, fall of spirit, bold,
and active. They have good feet, but somewhat narrow ; their heads are
well-shaped and lean, but too small ; the forehead long and stiff; and the
legs over long : yet with all these imperfections they are good and service-
able horses, being unconquerable by labour, and endowed with considerable
speed. The Tartars live with them almost in the same manner that the
Arabs do with their horses. When they are sis or eight months old, they
make their children ride them, who exercise them in small excursions,
dressinsr and form in g them by desrees, and bringing them into gentle and
early discipline, and after a while, making them undergo hunger and
thirst, and many other hardships. The men, however, do not ride them
until they are five or six years old, when they exact fi-om them the
severest service, and inure them to almost incredible fatigue, travelling
two or three days almost -without resting, and passing four or five days

D 2

36 FOREIGN BREEDS OP HORSES.

witli no more or better nourisliment tlian a liandfal of grass, and with
nothing to quench their thirst.' This discipline as much exceeds that of
the Arabs in severity and horrible barbarity, as the Arabs excel the
Tartars in civilisation.

The horses of the Nograis Tartars are some of the best of the rovine:
tribes. They are stronger and taller than the others ; and some of them
are trained to draw carriages. It is from them that the Khan of Tartary
derives the principal part of his supplies. It is said that in case of
necessity they could famish a hundred thousand men. Each of the
Nogais commonly has with him four horses ; one is for his own riding ; a
second to mount if the first should be tired ; and the other two to carry
his provisions, his slaves, and his booty.

THE TOOEKOMAN HORSE.

Turkistan is that part of South Tartary north-east of the Caspian sea,
and has been celebrated from veiy early times for producing a pure and
valuable breed of horses. They are called Toorhomans. They are said to
be preferable even to the pure Persians for actual service. They are
large, from fifteen to sixteen hands high, swift, and inexhaustible under
fatigue. Some of them have travelled nine hundred miles in eleven suc-
cessive days. They are, however, somewhat too small in the barrel, too
long on the legs, occasionally ewe-necked, and always having a head out
of proportion large : yet such are the good qualities of the horse, that one
of the pure blood is worth two or three hundred pounds even in that
country.

Captain Eraser, who is evidently a good judge of the horse,thus relates
the impression which they made on him, in his ' Journey to Khorasan': —
' They are deficient in compactness. Their bodies are long in proportion
to their bulk. They are not well-ribbed up. They are long on the legs,
deficient in muscle, falling off below the knee ; narrow-chested ; long-
necked ; head large, uncouth, and seldom well put on. Such was the im-
pression I received from the first sight of them, and it was not for some
time that their superior valuable qualities were apparent to me.'

The Toorkomans trace their breed of horses to Arabian sires ; and, most
anxious that a sufficient proportion of the pure blood shall be retained,
they have frequent recourse to the best Arabians they can procure.

Before a Toorkoman starts on an expedition, he provides himself with a
few hard balls of barley-meal, which are to serve both him and his horse
for subsistence until his return ; but sometimes when, crossing the desert,
he is unusually faint and weary, he opens the jugular vein of his horse,
and drinks a Httle of the blood, by which he is undoubtedly refreshed,
and, he thinks, his horse is relieved. According to Sir John Malcolm, the
Toorkoman will think little of pushing the same horse one hundred miles
a day for some successive days ; and he adds, that a horseman mounted on
a Toorkoman horse brought a packet of letters from Shiraz to Teheran, a
distance of five hundred miles, in six days.

THE TURKISH HORSE.

The Turkish horses are descended principally from the Arab, crossed
by the Persian and other kindred varieties. They possess all the gentle-
ness and tractability of the parent race, but they have lost some of their
vigour and speed. They have contributed materially to the improvement
of the English breed. The Byerley and the Helmsley Turk are names
familiar to every one conversant witli horses, and connected with our best
blood.

The learned and benevolent Busbequius, who was ambassador at Con.

THE WILD HOESE OF SOUTH AMERICA. S7

Btantinople in tlie seventeentli century, gives the following account of tlie
Ttu'kish horses. Our gi-ooms, and their masters too, may learn a lesson of
wisdom and humanity from his words.

' There is no creature so gentle as a Turkish horse, nor more respectful
to his master, or the groom that dresses him. The reason is, because
they treat their horses with great lenity, I myself saw, when I was in
Pontus, passing through a part of Bithynia called Axilos, towards Cap-
padocia, how indulgent the countrymen were to young colts, and how
kindly they used them soon after they were foaled. They would stroke
them, bring them into their hotises, and almost to their tables, and use
them even like children. They hung something like a jewel about their
necks, and a garter which was full of amulets against poison, which they
are most afraid of. The gTOoms that dress them are as indulgent as their
masters ; they frequently sleek them down with their hands, and never
use a cudgel to bang their sides, but in cases of necessity. This makes
their horses great lovers of mankind ; and they are so far from kicking,
wincing, or gi'owing untractable by this gentle usage, that you will hardly
find an ill-tempered horse amongst them.

' But, alas ! our Christian grooms' horses go on at another rate. They
never think them rightly curried till they thunder at them with their
voices, and let their clubs or horse- whips, as it were, dwell on their sides.
This makes some horses even tremble when their keepers come into their
stable ; so that they hate and fear them too. But the Turks love to have
their horses so gentle, that at the word of command they may fall on their
knees, and in this position receive their riders.

' They will take up a staff or club upon the road with theu' teeth, which
their rider has let fall, and hold it up to him agaia ; and when they are
perfect in this lesson, then, as a reward, they have rings of silver hung
on their nostrils as a badge of honour and good discipline. I saw some
horses, when their master was fallen from the saddle, stand stock still
without wagging a foot till he got up again. Another time I saw a
groom standing at a distance in the midst of a whole ring of horses, and
at the word of command they would either go round or stand still. Once
I saw some horses, when their master was at dinner with me in an upper
room, prick up their ears to hear his voice, and when they did so they
neighed for joy.'

THE AMERICAN HORSES.

Before we can advance eastward into Europe, it will be convenient to
dispose of the horses of the American continents. In South America,
although constant warfare is carried on against them, there are innu-
merable herds of wild horses ; and in the back settlements of the south-
western States of North America there is a horse resembling the wild
horse of the Pampas ; but both are evidently the descendants of those who
have escaped from the slavery of man.

THE WILD HORSE OF SOUTH AMERICA.

All travellers who have crossed the plains extending from the shores
of La Plata to Patagonia have spoken of numerous droves of wild horses.
Some affirm that they have seen ten thousand in one troop. They appear
to be under the command of a leader, the strongest and boldest of the
herd, and whom they imphcitly obey. A secret instinct teaches them
that their safety consists in their union, and iq. a principle of subordina-
tion. The Hon, the tiger, and the leopard are their principal enemies.
At some signal, intelligible to them all, they either close into a dense
mass and trample their enemy to death, or placing the mai'es and foals in

38 FOREIGN BEEEDS OF HORSES.

the centre, they form themselves into a circle and welcome him -vvith their
heels. In the attack, their leader is the first to face the danger, and when
prudence demands a retreat, they follow his rapid fliight.

In the thinly inhabited parts of South America it is dangerous to faU
in witli any of these troops. The wild horses approach as near as they
dare ; they call to the loaded horse with the greatest eagerness, and if the
rider is not on the alert, and has not considerable strength of arm and
sharpness of spur, his beast will divest himself of his burden, take to his
heels,' and be gone for ever. Bp^on beautifully describes this in his
Mazeppa : —

A trampling troop : I see them come :
In one vast squadron they advance !
1 strove to cry — my lips were dumb.
The steeds rush on in f)lunging pride,
But where are they the reins who guide ?
A thousand horse and none to ride !
With flowing tail and flying mane,
Wide nostrils — never stretch'd by pain — •
Mouths bloodless to the bit or rein,
And feet that iron never shod,
And flanks unscarrd by spur or rod —
A thousand horse, the ■wild, the free,
Like waves that follow o'er the sea.
On came the troop ....
They stop — they start — they snuff the air,
Gallop a moment here and there,
Approacli, retire, wheel round and round,
Then plunging back vsith sudden bound ;
They snort, they foam, neigh, swerve aside,
And backward to the forest fly.

Captain Head gives the foUo^ring account of a meeting with a troop
of wild horses, where the country is more thickly inhabited. Some poor
captured animals are supposed to be forced along by their riders at their
veiy utmost speed : — ' As they are thus galloping along, urged by the
spur, it is interesting to see the groups of wild horses one passes. The
mares, which are never ridden in South America, seem not to understand
what makes the poor horse carry his head so low and look so weary.
The little innocent colts come running to meet him, and then start away
frightened ; while the old horses, whose white marks on the flanks and
backs beti'ay their acquaintance with the spur and saddle, walk slowly
away for some distance, then breaking into a trot as they seek their safety,
snort and look behind them, first with one eye and then with the other,
turning their noses from right to left, and carrying their long tails high
in the air.'

The same pleasing writer describes the system of horse-management
among the rude inhabitants of the plains of South America. They have
no stables, no fenced pastures. One horse is usually kept tied at the door
of the hut, fed scantily at night on maize ; or at other times several may
be enclosed in the corral, which is a circular space surrounded by rough
posts, di'iven firmly into the ground. The mares are never ridden, or
attempted to be tamed, but wander with their foals wherever they please.

When the Gaucho, the native inhabitant of the plains, wants horses for
himself or for the supply of a traveller, he either goes gith his lasso to
the corral, and selects those possibly who on the preceding day had for
the first time been backed, or he scampers across the plain, and presently
returns with an unwilling, struggling, or subdued captive. When the
services of the animals have been exacted, he either takes them to the
cort^al and feeds them with a small quantity of maize, if ho thinks he

THE WILD HORSE OF SOUTH AiMERlCA. Si*

shall presently need them again, or he once more turns tliem loose on the
plains.

Travellers give some amusing accounts of the manner in wliicli all this
is effected. Miers thus describes the lasso, simple in its construction, but
all-powerful in the hands of the Gaucho : —

'The lasso is a missile weapon used by every native of the United
Pro^nnces and Chili. It is a very strong plaited thong of equal thickness,
hahf an inch in diamater and forty feet long, made of many strips of green
hide plaited like a whipthong, and rendered supple by grease. It has at
one end an iron ring, above an inch and a half in diameter, through
which the thong is passed, and this forms a running-noose. The Gaucho,
or native Peon, is generally mounted on horseback when he uses the lasso.
One end of the thong is aifixed to his saddle girth : the remainder he coils
carefully in his left hand, leaving about twelve feet belonging to the
noose- end in a coil, and a half of which he holds in his right hand. He
then SAvino"s this long noose horizontally round his head, the weight of
the iron ring at the end of the noose assisting in giving to it, by a con-
tinued circular motion, a sufficient force to project it the whole length of
the line.'

When the Gauchos vnsh to have a grand breaking-in, they drive a
whole herd of wild horses into the corral : — ' The corral was quite full
of horses, most of which were young ones about two or three years old.
The capltar (chief Gaucho), mounted on a strong steady horse, rode into
the con-al, and threw his lasso over the neck of a young horse, and dragged
him to the gate. For some time he was very unwilling to lose his com-
rades ; but the moment he was forced out of the corral, his first idea was
to o-allop away : however, a timely jerk of the lasso checked him in the
most effectual way. The peons now ran after him on foot, and threw a
lasso over his fore-legs just above the fetlock, and twitching it, they pulled
his legs from under liim so suddenly, that I really thought the fall he got
had killed him. In an instant a Gaucho was "seated on his head, and ^-ith
his long knife, in a few seconds, cut off the whole of the horse's mane,
while another cut the hair from the end of his tail : this, they told me, was
a mark that the horse had been once mounted. They then put a piece of
liide into his mouth to serve for a bit, and a strong hide halter on his
head. The Gaucho who was to mount arranged his spurs, which were
unusually long and sharp, and while two men held the horse by the ears,
he put on the saddle, which he girthed extremely tight. He then caught
hold of the horse's ear, and in an instant vaulted into the saddle ; upon
which the man who held the horse by the halter threw the end to the
rider, and from that moment no one seemed to take any further notice
of him.

' The horse instantly began to jump in a manner which made it very
difficult for the rider to keep his seat, and quite different from the kick or
plunge of an EngUsh horse : however, the G^ucho's spurs soon set him
going, and off he galloped, doing everything in his power to throw his
rider.

' Another horse was immediately brought from the corral ; and so quick
was the operation, that twelve Gauchos were mounted in a space which I
tliink hardly exceeded an hour. It was wonderful to see the different
manner in which different horses behaved. Some would actually scream
while the Gauchos were girding the saddle upon their backs ; some would
instantly lie down and roll upon it ; while some would stand without
beino- held, their legs stiff and in unnatural positions their necks half
bent towards their tails, and looking vicious and obstinate : and I could
not help thinking that I would not have mounted one of those for any

40 FOREIGN BEEEDS OF HORSES.

reward that could be offered rae, for they were invariably the most diffi-
cult to subdue.

' It was now curious to look around and see the Gauchos on the
horizon in different directions, trying to bring their horses back to the
corral, which is the most difficult part of their work, for the poor creatures
had been so scared there that they were unwilling to return to the place.
It was amusing to see the antics of the horses ; they were jumping and
dancing in different ways, while the right arm of the Gauchos was seen
flogging them. At last they brought the horses back, apparently subdued
and broken ia. The saddles and bridles were taken off, and the young
horses trotted off towards the corral, neighing to one another.'

The manufacture of the Gaucho's boots is somewhat singular : — ' The
boots of the Gauchos are formed of the ham and part of the leg- skin of a
colt taken reeking from the mother, which is said to be saci-ificed for the
sole purpose, just at the time of bearing, when the hair has not begun to
grow. At this stage, the skin strips off easily, and is very white and
beautiful in texture and appearance. The ham forms the calf of the
boot ; the hock easily adapts itself to the heel, and the leg above the
fetlock constitutes the foot ; the whole makins: a neat and elegant half-
boot, with an aperture sufficient for the great toe to project through.'

When the Gaucho wishes to take a wild horse, he mounts one that has
been used to the sport, and gallops over the plain. As soon as he comes
sufficiently near his prey, ' the lasso is thrown round the two hind legs,
and as the Gaucho rides a little on one side, the jerk pulls the entangled
horse's feet laterally, so as to throw him on his side, without endangering
his knees or his face. Before the horse can recover the shock, the rider
dismounts, and snatching his poncho or cloak from his shoulders, wraps it
round the prostrate animal's head. He then forces into his mouth one of
the powerful bridles of the country, straps a saddle on his back, and
bestriding him, removes the poncho ; upon which the astonished horse
springs on his legs, and endeavours by a thousand vain efforts to dis-
encumber himself of his new master, who sits quite composedly on his
back, and, by a discipline which never fails, reduces the horse to such
complete obedience, that he is soon trained to lend his whole speed and
strength to the capture of his companions.'

These animals possess much of the form of the Spanish horse, from
which tney sprang ; they are tamed, as has been seen, with far less diffi-
culty than could be thought possible ; and although theirs is the obedience
of fear, and enforced at first by the whip and spur, there are no horses
who so soon and so perfectly exert their sagacity and their power in the
service of man. They are possessed of no extraordinary speed, but they
are capable of enduring immense fatigue. They are frequently ridden
sixty or seventy miles without drawing bit, and have been urged on by
the cruel spur of the Gaucho more than a hundred miles, and at the rate
of twelve miles in the hour.

Like the Arab horses, they know no intermediate pace between the
walk and the gallop. Although at the end of a day so hard, their sides
are horribly mangled, and they completely exhausted, there is this con-
solation for them, — they are immediately turned loose on the plains, and
it will be their own fault if they are speedily caught again. The mare is
occasionally killed for food, and especially on occasions of unusual festivity.
General San Martin, during the war for independence, gave a feast to the
Indian alhes attached to his army in which mares' flesh, and the blood
mixed with gin, formed the whole of the entertainment.

On such dry and sultry plains the supply of water is often scanty, and
then a species of madness seizes on the horses, and their generous and

THE WILD IIOKSE OF SOUTH AMERICA. 41

docile qualities are no longer recognised. They rush violently into every
pond and lake, savagely mangling and trampling upon one another ; and
the carcases of many thousands of them, destroyed by their fellows, have
occasionally been seen in and around a considei'able pool. That is one
of the means by which the too rapid increase of this quadruped is, by the
ordinance of nature, there prevented. Humboldt says that during the
periodical swellings of the large rivers, immense numbers of wild horses
are dro-\vned, particularly when the river Apiire is swollen, and these
animals are attempting to reach the rising grounds of the Llanos. The
mares may be seen, during the season of high water, swimming about
followed by their colts, and feeding on the tall grass, of which the tops
alone wave above the waters. In this state they are pursued by croco-
diles, and their thighs frequently bear the prints of the teeth of these
carnivorous reptiles. They lead for a time an amphibious life, surrounded
by crocodiles, water-serpents, and marsetees. When the rivers return
again into theix beds, they roam in the savannah, which is then spread
over wdth a fine odoriferous grass, and seem to enjoy the renewed vegeta-
tion of spring.

Numerous herds of wild horses abound in the west of Louisiana, and of
all colours. They are like those on the Pampas, the remains of the
Spanish horses, and are hunted, caught, and sometimes destroyed for food
by the savage inhabitants of the back settlements.

!Mr. Low, in his beautiful delineations of the British quadrupeds, gives
the follo^Wng account of the horses of North America : —

' North America seems as well adapted to the temperament of the horse
as any similar countries in the old continent. The Mexican horses are
derived from, but somewhat deteriorated by, a less careful management.
Mexican horses have likewise escaped into the w-oods and savannahs, and
although they have not multiplied, as in the plains of the Plata, thence
they have descended northward to the Rocky Mountains, and the sources
of the Columbia. The Indians of the countiy have learned to pursue and
capture them, employing them in hunting and transporting their famihea
from place to place — the first great change that has taken place for ages
in the condition of the Red Man of the North American woods. The
highest ambition of the young Indian of these northern tribes, is to
possess a good horse for the chase of the buffalo. The Osages form large
hunting-parties for the chase of horses in the country of the Red Canadian
River, using relays of fresh horses, until they have run down the wild
herds. To steal the horse of an adverse tribe is considered as an exploit
almost as heroic as the killing of an enemy, and the distances that they
will travel and the privations they will undergo in these predatory excur-
sions are scarcely to be believed.'

The Anglo-Americans, the Canadians, and the colonists of the West
India Islands, have all acquired the domesticated horse. The Canadian
is found principally in Canada and the Northern States. He is supposed
to be of French descent, and many of the celebrated trotters are of this
breed. Mention will be made of some of these when the paces of the
horse are described.

These horses are much used for winter travelling in Canada and in the
Northern States. One of thenj. has drawn a light cabriolet over the ice
ninety miles in twelve hours. Their shoes are roughened by the insertion
of two or three steel screws, instead of the common European method.
The curry-comb is never used upon them in the winter, for a thick fur
has grown over them to protect them from the inclemency of the season.
They are animals never refusing the collar, yet they are accustomed to
bad usage. Those of the United States are of every variety, but crossed

42 FOREIGN BREEDS OF HORSES.

by tlie modem English race or tlie Arab. The improvement of the horse,
at this time, occupies much of their attention. Horse-races are estabhshed
in many places, and particularly in the Southern States ; and they have
adopted, to a very considerable degree, the usages of the English turf.
They have different varieties of useful horses for riding, and for their
public and private carriages. Habit, arising from some cause or whim
now not kno-wn, has made them partial to the trotting-horse ; and the
fastest trotting-horses in the world are to be found in the United States.
The breeds of the West India Islands are those of the parent states. The
horses of Cuba are dei'ived from Spain, and retain the distinctive cha-
racters of the parent stock ; and those of the Enghsh colonies have been
improved by continued intercourse with the mother country.

A much-valued correspondent, Mr. Rotch, of Louisville, in the State
of New York, thus addresses the author : — ' From my OAvn personal expe-
rience, I should say that all our stock in America seem to possess a
harder constitution and are much less liable to disease than in England ;
and that animals, but a few generations removed from those actually im-
ported, acquired much stronger constitutions than their ancestors ; .and it
has been a question ^^dth me, and acceded to by the late Rev. H. Berry,
whether importations of some of our pure-bred animals might not some-
times be made into your country with advantage. I am sure that our
hacks and roadsters Avill endure a great deal more fatigue and hardship
than the same description of horse in England. I speak -with confidence
in these matters, because I have been a breeder in both countries.'

Tiiat the greater hardship and labour to which the American horse of
tliis description is exposed would produce a greater develojiment of animal
power, there can be no doubt, and a cross from the best of such a breed
could not fail of being advantageous ; but we must adopt and perpetuate
the cu'cumstances that produced this superior power, or we should not
long retain the advantage of the cross.

In the extensive territory and varied climate of the United States
several breeds of horses are found.

The Gonestoga horse is found in Pennsylvania and the middle States ;
long in the leg and light in the carcass ; sometimes rising seventeen
hands ; used principally for the carriage ; but, when not too high, and with
sufficient substance, useful for hunting and the saddle.

The English horse, with a good deal of blood, prevails in Virginia and
Kentucky, and is found to a greater or less degree in all the States. The
Americans have at different times imported some of the best Enghsh
blood. It has been most diligently and purely preserved in the Southern
States. The celebrated Shark, the best horse of his day, and equalled by
few at any time, was the sire of the best Virginian horses ; and Tally-ho,
a son of Highflyer, peopled the Jerseys.

THE MODERN EUROPEAN HORSES.

The limits of our work compel us to be exceedingly brief in our account
of the breeds of the different countries of Europe. We start from the
south-west of this quarter of the world.

THE SPANISH HOESE.

The Spanish horses for many a centuiy ranked next to those of Barbary
and Arabia. They descended from the Barbs, or rather they were the
Barbs transplanted to a European soil, and somewhat altered, but not
materially injured, by the change. SoUeysel, the parfait mareschal, gives
an eloquent description of them: — 'I have seen many Spanish horses;

THE PORTUGUESE HOESE. 43

they are extremely beautiful, and the most proper of all to be drawn by a
curious pencil or to be mounted by a king, when lie intends to show himself
in his majestic glory to the people.'

The common breed of Spanish horses have nothing extraordinary about
them. The legs and feet are good, but the head is rather large, the fore-
hand heavy, and yet the posterior part of the chest deficient, the crupper
also having too much the appearance of a mule. The horses of Estre-
madura and Granada, and particularly of Andalusia, are most valued.
Berenger, whose judgTiient can be folly depended on, thus enumerates their
excellences and their defects : — ' The neck is long and arched, perhaps
somewhat thick, but clothed with a full and flowing mane ; the head may
be a little too coarse ; the ears long, but well placed; the eyes large, bold,
and full of fire. Their carriage lofty, proud, and noble. The breast
large ; the shouJders sometimes thick ; the belly frequently too full, and
swelling ; and the loin a little too low ; but the ribs round, and the croup
round and full, and the legs well formed and clear of hair, and the sinews
at a distance from the bone — active and ready in their paces — of quick
apprehension ; a memory singularly faithful ; obedient to the utmost
proof; docile and affectionate to man, yet full of spirit and courage.' The
Parfait Mareschal shall take up the story again : — ' There -w-ill not be
found any kind of horses more noble than they, and of their coui-age ! why I
have seen their entrails hanging from them, through the number of wounds
that they have received ; yet they have carried ofi* their rider safe and
sound with the same pride with which they brought him to the field, and
after that they have died, having less life than courage.' It is delightful
to read accounts like these, and we know not which to adndre most, the
noble horse or the man who could so Avell appreciate his excellence.

The modern Spanish horses are fed upon chopped straw and a little
barley. When the French and English cavalry were there, during the
Peninsular war, and were without prejjaration put upon this mode of
living, so difi'erent from that to which they had been accustomed, they
began to be much debilitated, and a considerable mortality broke out
among them ; but, after a while, they who were left regained their strength
and spirits, and the mortality entirely ceased.

THE PORTUGUESE HOESE.

There was a time when the Lusitanian or Portuguese horses were
highly celebrated. The Roman historian Justin compares their swiftness
to that of the winds, and adds, that many of them might be said to be
born of the winds ; while, on the other hand, Berenger, who lived at a
time when the gloiy of the Spanish horse had not quite faded away, says,
that ' the Portugal horses are in no repute, and difier as much from their
neighbours, the Spaniards, as crabs fi-om apples, or sloes from grapes.'
He thiis accounts for it. When Portugal was annexed to Spain, the
latter country was preferred for the estabhshment of the studs for
breeding, and the few districts in Portugal which were suflaciently sup-
plied with herbage and water to fit them for a breeding country were
devoted to the rearing of homed cattle for the shambles and the plough,
and mules and asses for draught. Hence, the natives regarded the horse
as connected more "svith pomp and pleasure than with utility, and drew
the comparatively few horses that they wanted from Spain. The present
government, however, seems disposed to effect a refonn in this, and there
are still a sufficient number of Andalusian horses in Portugal, and Barbs
in Africa, fully to accomplish the purpose.

44 FOREIGN BREEDS OF HORSES.

THE PEENCH HORSE.

According to the survey of 1829, France contained 2,400,000 horses
including those of every description. The number of mares was 1,227,781.
The greater pai-t of these were employed in the breeding of mules, and
perhaps not more than a fourth part were used for keeping up the number
of horses. Besides these, nearly 27,000 horses are annually imported
into France, either on speculation of immediate sale, or for the express
purpose of improving the breed.

Two-thii'ds of the French horses are devoted to purposes of light work,
and possess a certain degree, and that gradually increasing, of Eastern
blood. There is room, however, for a great deal more than the French
horse usually possesses. One-third of the horses are employed in heavy
work ; 70,000 in post work ; and about the same number are registered as
fit for military use, although not more than half of them are on actual
service. The ascertained number of deaths is about one in 12 or 13, or
leaving the average age of the horse at 12. This speaks strongly in
favour of the humanity of the French, or the hardihood of the horses, for
it exceeds the average duration of the life of the horse in England by
more than two years. Calculating the average value of the French horse
at 400 francs, or 161. 13s. 4cZ., there results a sum of 960,000,000 francs,
or 40,000,000 pounds sterling, as the gross value of this species of national
property.

It must be supposed that so extensive a country as France possesses
various breeds of horses. Auverg-ne and Poitou produce good ponies and
galloways ; but the best French horses are bred in Limousia and Nor-
mandy. From the former district come excellent saddle-horses and
hunters, and from the latter a stronger species for the road, the cavalry
service, and the carriage.

M. Hoiiel has recently published an interesting work on the varieties of
the horse in France. He states that in the time of the Romans there were
but two kinds of horses, — the war-horse, and the sumpter or pack-horse.
The carriage, or draught-horse, was comparatively or quite unknown ;
and even men of the highest station suffered themselves to be indolently
drawn by oxen. Great care was taken to preserve or to renew the
strength and speed of the war-horse, and African or Arab blood was
dilio-ently sought. An animal, the type of the English Cleveland breed,
the handsomest and strongest description of the coach-horse, was thus pro-
cured. By degrees, this horse was found too valuable for a hackney, and
too high-trotting for a long journey, and a more smoothly-moving animal
was gradually introduced. StiU the charger did not grow quite out of
fashion, and in Normandy the rearing of this animal became an object of
much attention to the farmer. At first they were bred too slow and pon-
derous, but by degrees a horse was obtained of somewhat Hghter action
and considerable speed without much sacrifice of strength, and they now
constitute a most valuable breed. ' I have not elsewhere,' says M. Hoiiel,
' seen such horses at the collar, under the diligence, or the post-carriage, or
the farm-cart. They are enduring and energetic beyond description. At the
voice of the brutal driver, or at the dreaded sound of his never-ceasiag whip,
they put forth all their streng-th, and they keep their condition when
other horses would die of neglect and hard treatment.' The h'ttle Norman
cart-horse is perhaps the best for farm- work. The Norman horses — and
the same observation applies to all the northern provinces of France — are
veiy o-entle and docile. A kicking or vicious one is almost unknown
there ; but they are, with few exceptions, treated with tyranny and
cruelty from first to last. The reign of terror may to a certain degi-ee be

THE FIlE^X'II HORSE. 45

necessary where there are many perfect horses ; but the principle of
cruelty should not extend, as it too often does, to the treatment of every
kind of horse.

Something must be attributed to both causes. There is more humanity
among the French than the English peasantry ; but, on the other hand,
there are horrible scenes of cruelty to the horse houi"ly taking place in the
streets of Paris, that would not be tolerated for a moment in the British
metropoHs.

The breeding of horses has more decidedly become a branch of agricul-
tural attention and speculation than it used to be ; for it has b'^en proved
to the farmer that, with the proper kind of pasture, and within a fair
distance of a proper market, instead of being one of the most uncertain
and unprofitable modes of using the land, it yields more than an average
return.

The establishment of races in almost every part of France has given a
spirit to the breeding and improvement of the horse which cannot fail of
being exceedingly beneficial throughout the whole of the French empire.
In fact, it may be stated without exaggeration, that the rapid improve-
ment which is taking place is attributable principally to this cause. In
order to effect the desii'ed improvement, the French, and with much judg-
ment, have had recourse to the EngHsh thorough-bred horse far more
than to the native Ajrabian. A great many of the best Enghsh stalhons
Lave been purchased for the French studs, and have been beneficially
employed in improving, and often creating, the hunter, the racer, and
almost all of the better class of horses used for purposes of luxury.

It has been stated that the most valuable native horses are those of
Nonnandy ; perhaps they have been improved by the English hunter, and
occasionally by the English thorough-bred horse ; and, on the other hand,
the English roadster and the Hght draught-horse have derived considerable
advantage from a mixture with the Norman, not only in early times when
WilHam the Conqueror was so eager to improve the horses of his new
subjects by means of those of Norman blood, but at many succeeding
periods.

A certain number of Normandy horses used to be purchased every year
by the French Government for the use of the other departments. This
led occasionally to considerable trickery and evil. None of the Norman
horses were castrated until they were three, or sometimes four years old ;
and then it frequently happened that horses of superior appearance, but
with no pure blood in them, were sold as belonging to the improved breed,
and it was only in their offspring that the cheat could be discovered. The
government now purchases the greater part of the Normandy horses in
their first year, and brings them up in the public studs. They cost more
money, it is true ; but they are better bred, and become finer animals.
There is no deception with regard to these horses, and the amelioration of
the other breeds is secured.

Every country that has occupied itself with the amehoration of its breed
of horses, has deemed it necessary to have a pubHc register of the names
and progeny of those of an acknowleged race. England has had its stud-
book nearly half a century, containing a list of all the horses of pure blood
that have existed in the country. France, in the year 1837, had her first
Btud-book, in which are inscribed the names of 215 stallions, of pure
English blood, imported into France or born there ; 266 Ar-abs, Barbs,
Persian, or Turkish horses; 274 English mares of true blood, and 41
Eastern mares. Their progeny is also traced, so far as it was practicable.
This work will form an epoch in the equestrian annals of that country.

46 FOREIGN BREEDS OF HORSES.

THE SARDINIAN AND CORSICAN HORSES.

Tliey are small, well-made, and capable of enduring much fatigue ; as
for their other qualities (and they are not much changed at the present
day from Avhat they formerly were), Blundeville shall speak of them : —
' The horses that come out of the Isle of Sardygnia and Corsica have short
bodyes and bo verye bolde and courageous, and unquiet in their pace, for
they be so fierce and hote cholericke complexion, and therewith so much
used to running in their countrie as they will stand still on no grounde.
And, therefore, this kynde of horse requireth a discreete and pacicnt ryder,
who must not be over hastie in correcting him for feare of marring him
ailtogether.'

THE ITALIAN HORSE

Was once celebrated for the beauty of his foi-m and his paces ; but, like
everything else in that degraded country, he has sadly degenerated. The
Neapolitan horses were particularly remarkable for their size and majestic
action ; there was, however, a degree of clumsiness about the heads, and
forehand, and general appearance, which the seeming grandeur of their
action would not always conceal, and they were occasionally untractable
and vicious to an alarming degree. They are now much deteriorated, and,
in fact, with but few exceptions, scarcely of any value.

Some of the Italian races are a disgraceful burlesque on those of other
countries. At Rome they have become a necessaiy appendage to the
annual carnival, and there is no other of the pastimes of that gay season
in which the people take an equal deHght. Some of the horse-races re-
semble those in other countries, and are fairly contested ; but much
oftener the Roman course presents nothing but the horse running without
any rider, and not from his own spirit and emulation, but startled by noises
and goaded on by ridiculous and barbarous contrivances.

The horses termed Barberi — ^because the race was at first contested by
Barbs — are brought to the starting-post, their heads and their necks
gaily ornamented : while to a girth which goes round the body of each
are attached several loose straps, having at their ends small balls of lead
thickly set with sharp steel points. At every motion these are brought
in contact with the fl.anks and bellies of the horses, and the more violent
the motion, the more dreadful the incessant torture. On their backs are
placed sheets of thin tin, or stiff paper, which, when agitated, will make a
rustHng, rattling noise.

It is difficult to conceive of the rearing, kicking, pavring, and snorting
which occurs at the starting-place. A rope placed across the street pre-
vents them from getting away, and a stout peasant is employed with each
horse in a struggle of downright strength, and, at the hazard of Hmb and
of life, to restrain him. Occasionally some of them do break away and
pass the rope before the street — the race-course — is cleared, and then
many serioas accidents are sure to happen.

When all is ready for starting, a troop of dragoons gallop through the
street in order to clear the way. A trumpet sounds — the rope drops —
the grooms let go their hold, and the horses start away like arrows from
a bow. The harder they run, the more they are pricked ; the cause of
this they seem scarcely able to comprehend, for they bite and plunge at
each other, and a terrible fight is sometimes commenced. Others, from
mere fright or sulkiness, stand stock-still, and it is by brute force alone
that they can again be induced to move.

A strong canvas screen is passed along the bottom of the street. This
is the goal. It has the appearance of a wall ; tut some of the horses, in

THE AUSTKIAX HOKSE. 47

the excess of tlieir agony and terror, dart full against it, tear tlirougli it>,
or carry it away.

After all, tlie prize is nothing more than an ornamental flag ; but it is
presented W the governor of Rome, and it is supposed to be a pledge of
the speed and value of the horse which "will descend as an heir-loom from
o-eneration to generation among the peasantry, to "whom many of these
hoT'ses belong. The decision of such a race, however, can have little to do
A\-ith the speed or streng-th or value of the horses in any respect. The
Italians, lio"wever, enter into the affair "with all their characteristic eager-
ness of feeling, and are guilty of every kind of extravagance. During the
first six days of the carnival, the horses are fairly classed according to the
ao-o, height, degree of breeding, &c. ; but on the last two days — the
choice days — they run altogether, and some in the manner that I have
described, and thus increase the confusion, the riot, and the danger of the
exliibition.

The Corso is very nearly a mile, and it has occasionally been run in two
minutes and twenty-one seconds : a very quick pace for small horses,
many of them not more than fourteen hands high. Races of a similar
character take place at Florence, of wliich. IMrs. Piozzi gives the following
description : — ' The street is covered "with saw-dust, and made fast at
both ends. ISTear the starting-post are elegant booths, lined "with red
velvet, for tlie coui-t and first nobility. At the other end a piece of tapestry
is hunfj, to prevent the creatures from dashing their braius out when they
reach, the goal. Thousands and tens of thousands of people on foot fill tbe
coui'se, so that it is a gi-eat wonder to me still that numbers are not killed.
The prizes are exhibited to "view in quite the old classical style — a piece
of crimson damask for the winner ; a small silver basin and ewer for the
second ; and so on, lea"ving no performer unrewarded.

' At last come out the horses, "without riders, but with a narrow leathern
strap hung across their bodies, which has a lump of ivory fixed to the end
of it, all set full of sharp spikes like a hedgehog, and this goads them
along while galloping, worse than any spur could do, because the faster
they run the more this old machine keeps jumping up and do"WTi, and
pricking their sides ridiculously enough ; and it makes one laugh to see
that some of them are so tickled by it as not to run at all, but set about
plunging in order to rid themselves of the inconvenience, instead of didving
forward to divert the mob, who leap, and caper, and shout with dehght,
and lash the laggers along "with great indignation indeed, and "with the
most comical gestures.'

Before we quit the neighboui^hood of Italy, we may perhaps notice
another curious mode of horse-racing, practised in Malta. The horses
here are indeed mounted, but they have neither saddle nor bridle. The
riders sit on the bare back, and have nothing to guide or to spur on their
horses, but a small pointed instrument, not unlike a cobbler's awl. These
horses are small barbs, well tempered, or they would resist this mode of
management, and they certainly are not swift. By pricking the horse on
one side or the other of the neck, the rider can guide him a little in the
way he should go, and certainly he may urge him to his fullest speed ; but
still, although it affords a novel and amusing sight to the stranger, the
horse and the spectators are degraded by such an exhibition.

THE AUSTEIAN HORSE.

The follo"wing account is given by the Duke of Ragusa of the impenal
establishment for the breeding of horses at Mesohagyes, near Carlsburg,
in Austria : — ' This is the finest establishment in the Austrian monarchy
for the breeding and improvement of horses. It stands on 40,000 acres of

4S FOREIGN BREEDS OF HORSES.

land of tlie best quality, and is surrounded in its whole extent, which ia
15 leagues, by a broad and deep ditch, and by a broad plantation 60
feet wide. It was formerly designed to supply horses to recruit the
cavalry ; at present its object is to obtain stallions of a good breed, which
are sent to certain depots for the supply of the various provinces. To
produce these, 1,000 brood mares and 48 stallions are kept ; 200 additional
mares, and 600 oxen are employed in cultivating the ground. The plain
is divided into four equal parts, and each of these subdivided into portions,
resembling so many farms. At the age of foui* years the young horses are
all collected in the centre of the establishment. A selection is first made
of the best animals to supply the deficiencies in the establishment, in order
always to keep it on the same footing. A second selection is then made
for the use of the other : none of these, however, are sent away until they
are five years old ; but the horses that are not of suflScient value to be
selected are sold by auction, or sent to the army to remount the cavalry,
as circumstances may require.

' The whole number of horses at present here, including the stallions,
brood-mares, colts, and fillies, is 3,000. The persons employed in the
cultivation of the ground, the care of the animals, and the management of
the establishment generally, are a major-director, 12 subaltern officers, and
1,170 soldiers.

' The Imperial treasury advances to the establishment every year 118,00<i
florins (the half rix-dollar or florin is in value about 2s. Id. Enghsh
money), and is reimbursed by the sale of 150 stallions, which are sent
every year to the provinces at the price of 1,000 florins each, and by the
value of the horses supplied to the cavalry. The other expenses of every
description are paid for by the produce of the estabUshment, which is
required to defray, and does defray all. This is, therefore, an immense
estate — a farm on a colossal scale — with a stud in proportion managed on
account of the sovereign, and which produces a considerable revenue,
independently of the principal object which is attained, the propagation
and multiplication of the best breeds of horses. He can always supply the
wants of his army at a price almost incredibly small. For a horse of the
hght cavalry he pays only 110 florins, for the di'agoons 120, for the
cuirassiers 140, for the train 160, and for the artillery 180. It is a gi'eat
element of power to possess at home such an immense resource against a
time of war, at an expense so far below that which the powers of the west
and south of Europe are compelled to incur.'

So early as 1790, a very superior Arabian, named Turkmainath, was
imported into Germany, and his stock became celebrated, not only in
Hungary, but throughout most of the German provinces. In 1819 the
Archdulvc Maximilian, brother to the emperor, purchased some valuable
racers and hunters in England, and sent them to Austria. Some of them
went to the Imperial establishment of which mention has just been made,
and the others contributed materially to the improvement of the horses
wherever they were distributed. Races have been established in various
parts of the Austrian dominions, and particularly at Buda and at Pest, in
Hungary. Of the good efiect which this will have on the breed of horses,
there can be no dispute, provided the race do not degenerate into a mere
coiitest of superiority of speed, and exhibited in an animal that from his
youth must inevitably be injured or ruined in the struggle.

The gipsies used to be the principal horse-dealers in Hungary, but they
have been getting into comparative disrepute since the establishment of
the noble studs scattered through this district. He who wants a horse,
or to speculate iu horses, may now go to head-quarters and choose for
himself.

THE RUSSIAN HORSE.

'rHE RUSSIAN HOKSf;.

It may be well supposed that this animal will be of a very diflorent
character in various parts of this immense empire. The heavy cavalrv
and the greater part of the horses for pleasure are descended originally
from Cossack blood, but improved by stallions from Poland, Prussia,
Holstein, and England ; and the studs are now found on an immense
scale in various parts of Russia. The hghter cavalry, and the commoner
horses, are, as these have ever been, Cossacks, without any attempted
improvement, and are hardy and better suited to the duties required
from them.

It has been supposed that no horse, except the Ai'ab, could endure
privation like the Cossack, or had combined speed and endurance equal
to him. The Cossack, however, was beaten, and that not by horses of the
first-rate Enghsh blood, in a race which fairly put to the test both quah-
ties. It was a cruel affair ; yet nothing short of such a contest would have
settled the question.

On the 4th of August, 1825, a race of forty-seven miles was nm between
two Cossack and two Enghsh horses. The Enghsh horses were Sharper
and Mina, well known, yet not ranking with the first of their class. The
Cossacks were selected from the best horses of the Don, the Black Sea, and
^he Ural.

On starting, the Cossacks took the lead at a moderate pace ; but before
they had gone half a mile, the stirrup-leather of Sharper broke, and he
ran away with his rider, followed by Mina, and they went more than a
mile, and up a steep hill, before they could be held in.

Half the distance was run in an hour and fourteen minutes. Both the
Enghsh horses were then fresh, and one of the Cossacks. On their return,
Mina fell lame, and was taken away, and Sharper began to show the
effects of the pace at which he had gone in running away, and was much
distressed. The Calmuck was completely knocked up, his rider was dis-
mounted, a mere child was put on his back, and a Cossack on horseback
on either side dragged Mm on by ropes attached to his bridle, while
others at the side suppoi'ted him from falhng. Ultimately Sharper per-
formed the whole distance in two hours and forty-eight minutes — sixteen
miles an hour for three successive hours — and the Cossack horse was
brought in eight minutes after him. At starting, the Enghsh horses
carried full three stone more than the Cossacks ; and during the latter
part of the race a mere child had ridden the Cossack,

The Emperor Nicholas established races in different parts of his vast
empire, for the improvement of the Cossack and other horses. On the
20th of September, 1836, the races at Ouralsk took place. The dis-
tance to be run was 18 worsts, or about 4:^ French leagues — rather more
than 10 miles. Twenty-one horses of the mihtary stud of the Cossacks
of Oural started for the first heat, and which was won in 25 minutes and
19 seconds by a horse belonging to the Cossack Bourtche-Tchourunief.
The second race was disputed by twenty-three horses of the Kergheese
Cossacks, and which was won in 25 minutes and 5 seconds by the horse
of the Cossack Siboka-Isterlaie. On the following day the winners of the
trv\'o first heats strove for the point of honour. The course was now 12
worsts — 3 French leagues, or about 6| miles. It was won in 15 minutes
by the horse of the Cossack Bourtche-Tchourunief. The Russian noble-
men who were present, admiring the speed and stoutness of the horse,
wore anxious to purchase him ; but the Cossack replied that ' All the
gold in the world should not separate him from his friend, liis brother,'
In Southern and Western Russia, and also in Poland, the breeding of

50

FOREIGN BREEDS OF HORSES.

horses and cattle has lately occupied the attention of the great land
proprietors, and has constituted a very considerable part of their annual

[This cut represents a Cossack soldier, accoutred for his journey, and having all that is
necessary for him or for his horse. It gives a faithful but somewhat flattering
representation both of the soldier and his steed.]

income. There is scarcely now a signorial residence to which there is not
attached a vast court, in four large divisions, and surrounded by stables.
In each of the angles of this court is a passage leading to beautiful and
extensive pasture-grounds, divided into equal compartments, and all of
them having convenient sheds, under which the horses may shelter them-
selves from the rain or the sun. From these studs a larger kind of horse
than that of the Cossacks is principally supplied, and more fit for the
regular cavalry troops, and also for pleasure and parade, than common
use. The remounts of the principal houses in Germany are derived hence ;
and from the same source the great fairs in the different states of the
German empire are supplied. The breeding of cattle is also zealously and
profitably pursued. The cow-houses form the greater portion of the other
buildings attached to the mansion. The largest of these is destined for
the milch cows, and another square building serves for a milking house.
These dairies are disposed and fitted up like those in S\\itzerland. In the

THE SWEDISH HORSE. 51

middle is a jet of water. Slabs or tables of marble occupy every side,
and a sligbt inclination of the floor permits the observance of the greatest
possible cleanliness. An upper story serves for the manufacture of diffe-
rent kinds of cheese, which are made in imitation of, and sometimes equal
those which are most esteemed in other parts of Europe.

There is another space or court inclosed with walls, and with httle
buildings closed with iron bars. This is destined to be a menagerie for
bears of the rarest and most beautiful colours, and yielding the choicest
furs. This speculation is a very profitable one. A cub of six months
old, with black hair pointed with silver white, yields a very hght skin and
far, and which will obtain a considerable price, especially if there are
others of the same fineness and variegated coloiir sufficient to make a pe-
hsse. A garment of this kind will sometimes be sold for 6001. or lOOOZ.
The skins of the old bears are employed for carpets, or linings of carriages,
and the most supple of them form the clothing of the coachmen.

The stud of the Russian Countess Orloff Tshesmensky in the province
of "Walonese contains 1320 horses, Arabs, EngHsh, natives and others.
The ground attached to it amounts to nearly 1100 acres ; and the number
of grooms, labourers, and others is more than 4000. The sum realised by
the sale of horses is of considerable annual amount ; and they are dis-
posed of not only on the spot itself, but in the regular markets, both of
St. Petersburgh and Moscow.

THE ICELAND HORSE.
There are numerous troops of horses in this cold and inhospitable coun-
try, descended, according to !Mr. Anderson, from the Norwegian horse,
but, according to !Mr. Horrebow, being of Scottish origin. They are very
small, strong, and swift. There are thousands of them in the mountains
which never enter a stable : but instinct or habit has taught them to
scrape away the snow, or break the ice, in search of their scanty food. A
few are usually kept in the stable ; but when the peasant wants more he
catches as many as he needs, and shoes them himself, and that sometimes
with a sheep's horn.

THE LAPLAND HORSE.
This animal, according to Berenger, is small, but active and willing —
somewhat eager and impatient, but free from vice. He is used only in
the vmiter season, when he is employed in drawing sledges over the snow,
and transporting wood, forage, and other necessaries, which in the summer
are all conveyed in boats. During the summer these horses are turned
into the forests, where they form themselves into distinct troops, and
select certain districts from which they rarely wander. They return of
their own accord when the season begins to change, and the forests no
longer supply them with food.

THE SWEDISH HORSE
Is small, but nimble and willing. He is almost entirely fed on bread,
composed of equal parts of rye and oatmeal. To this is added a consider-
able quantity of salt, and, if he is about to start on a long journey, a little
brandy. 'While changing horses,' writes Sir A. Brooke in his Travels
in Sweden, ' we were not a little entertained at the curious group formed
by the peasants and their steeds breakfasting together ; both cordially
partaking of a large hard rye cake. The horses sometimes belong to
three or even more proprietors ; it is then highly amusing to observe the
frequent altercations between them, each endeavouring to spare his own
horse. Their affection for their horses is so great that I have seen them
shed tears when they have been driven beyond their strength. The

s 2

52 FOREIGN BREEDS OF HORSES.

expedition, however, witli wliicli these little animals proceed is surprising
when we consider the smallness of their size, which hardly exceeds that
of a pony. The road being universally good throughout Sweden, they
frequently do not relax from a gallop from one post-house to another,'

THE FINLAND HORSES
Are yet smaller than the Swedes, and not more than twelve hands high.
They are beautifully formed and very fleet. They, hke the Swedes, are
turned into the forests in the summer, and must be fetched thence when
they are wanted by the traveller. Although apparently wild, they are
under perfect control, and can trot along with ease at the rate of twelve
miles in the hour.

Fish is much used, both in Finland and Lapland, for the winter food of
liorses and cattle.

THE NORWEGIAN HORSE

Is larger than the Swedish or Finland, but is equally hardy and manage-
able, and attached to its owner, and its owner to it. The roads in Norway
are the reverse of what they are in Sweden : they are rough and almost
impassable for carriages, but the sure-footed Norwegian seldom stumbles
upon them. Pontoppidan speaks of their occasional contests with bears
and wolves, and chiefly the latter. These occurrences are now more
matter of story than of actual fact, but they do sometimes occur at the
present day. When the horse perceives any of these animals, and has a
mare or foal with him, he puts them behind him, and then fuiiously attacks
his enemy vnth his fore-legs, which he uses so expertly as generally to
prove the conqueror ; but if he turns round in order to strike with his
hind-legs, the bear closes upon him immediately, and he is lost.

Of the horses of the islands of Feroe, still belonging to the Danish
cro^^•n, Berenger speaks in terms of much praise. He says that ' they are
small of gTowth, but strong, swift, and sure of foot, going over the
roughest places with such certainty that a man may more surely rely
upon them than trust to his o^vn feet. In Suderoe, one of these islands,
they have a Hghter and swifter breed than in any of the rest. On their
backs the inhabitants pursue the sheep, which are wild in this island ; the
pony caiTies the man over places that would be otherwise inaccessible to
him — follows his rider over others — enters into the fall spirit of the chase,
and even knocks down and holds the prey under his feet until the rider
can take possession of it,'

THE HOLSTEIN AND MECKLENBURG HORSES.

Returning to the Continent, and having crossed the Baltic, we meet
with a horse as different from those which have just been described as it
is possible to imagine. The horses of Holstein and Mecklenburg, and
some of the neighbouring districts, are on the largest scale. Their usual
height is sixteen, or seventeen, or eighteen hands. They are heavily
made ; the neck is too thick ; the shoulders are heavy ; the backs are too
long, and the croups are narrow compared with their fore-parts : but
their appearance is so noble and commanding, their action so high and
brilliant, and their strength and spirit are so evident in every motion, that
their faults are pardoned and forgotten, and they are selected for every
occasion of peculiar state and ceremony.

Before, however, we arrive at the native country of these magnificent
horses, we must glance at the attempt of one noble individual to improve
the general breed of horses. In the island of Alsen, separated from the
duchy of Sleswick by a narrow channel, is the noble habitation of tho
Duke of Augustenbourg. His stud is attached to it, and under thb im-

THE PRUSSIAX HORSE. SH

mediate management of the noble owner. It contains tliii-tj mares of
pure blood, and fifteen or sixteen stallions of the same grade ; and all of
them, selected with care from the best thorough-bred studs in England,
Notwithstanding this selection of pure blood, or rather in its pecuKar
selection, it has been the object of the duke to produce a horse that shall
be useful for the purpose of pleasure, commerce, and agriculture. Some
of the stalhons are reserved for his o^vn stud ; but with regard to the
others, such is the spirit with which this noble estabhshment is conducted,
and his desire to improve the race of horses in Sleswick, that he allows
more than 600 mares every year, belonging to the peasants of the isle of
Alsen, to be covered gratuitously. He keeps a register of them, and in
the majority of cases he examines the mares himself, and chooses the horse
which will best suit her form, her beauties, her defects, or the purpose for
which the progeny is intended. It is not therefore surprising that there
should be so many good horses in tliis part of Denmark, and that the im-
provement in Sleswick, and in Holstein, and also in Mecklenburg, should
be so rapid, and so universally acknowledged.

There is another circumstance which should not be forgotten — it is
that by which alone the preservation of a valuable breed can be secured
• — it is that to the neglect of which the deterioration of every breed must
be partly, at least, and, in many cases, chiefly traced. The duke in his
stud, and the peasants in the surroujiding country, preserve the good
breeding mares, and will not part with one that has not some evident or
secret fault about her.

How much have the breeders of Great Britain to answer for in the
deterioration of some of our best breeds from this cause alone !

There is, however, nothing perfect under the sun. This determination
to breed only from horses of pure blood, although care is taken that these
horses shall be the stoutest of their kind, has lessened the size and some-
what altered the peculiar character of the horse in the immediate districts ;
and we must go somewhat more southward for the large and stately
animal of which frequent mention has been made. The practice of the
country is likeAvise to a certain degi'ee unfriendly to the full development
of the Augustenbourg horse. The pastui-age is sufficiently good to develop
the powers of the colt, and few things contribute more to his subsequent
hardihood than his Hving on these pastures, and becoming accustomed to
the vicissitudes of the seasons : yet this may be earned too far. The
Sleswick colt is left out of doors all the year round, and, except when the
snow renders it impossible for him to gi'aze, he is, day and night, exposed
to the cold, and the wind, and the rain. "We are no advocates for a
system of nursing laborious to the owner and injurious to the animal, but
a full development of form and of power can never be acquired amidst
outrageous neglect and privation.

THE PRUSSIAN HORSE.
Prussia has not been backward in the race of improvement — or rather,
with her characteristic policy, she has taken the lead, where her influence
and her power were concerned. The government has established some
extensive and well-regulated studs in various parts of the kingdom ; and
many of the Prussian noblemen have estabhshments of their own. lu
some of the marshy districts, and about the mouth of the Vistula, there is
a breed of large and strong horses suited to agricultural pui-poses. The
etuds produce others for pleasure or for war. In the royal studs particular
attention has been paid to the improvement of the Prussian cavalry-horse.
He has acquired considerably more fire and spirit, and strength and endur-
ance, without any sacrifice either of form or action.

£4 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH HORSE.

THE FLEMISH AND DUTCH HORSE.

The Flemish and Dutch horses are large, and are strongly formed.
We are indebted to them for some of the best blood of our draught-horses,
and we still have frequent recourse to them for keeping up and im-
proving the breed. They will be more particularly described when the
cart-horse is spoken of.

CHAPTER III.

HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH HOR&E.

The earliest record of the horse in Great Britain is contained in the
history given by JuHus Caesar of his invasion of our island. The British
army was accompanied by numerous war-chariots, drawn by horses. Short
scythes were fastened to the ends of the axle-trees, sweeping down every-
thino" before them, and carrying terror and devastation into the ranks of
the enemy. The conqueror gives an animated description of the dexterity
with which these horses were managed.

What kind of horse the Britons then possessed, it would be useless to
inquire ; but, from the cumbrous structure of the car, and the fury with
which it was driven, and the badness of the roads, and the almost non-
existence of those that were passable, it raust have been both active and
powerful in an extraordinary degTce. It is absurd to suppose, as some
naturalists have done, that the ponies of Cornwall and of Devon, or of
Wales, or of Shetland, are types of what the British horse was in early
times. He was then as ever the creature of the country in which he hved.
With short fare and exposed to the rigour of the seasons, he was probably
the little hardy thing which we yet see him ; but in the marshes of the
Nen and the Witham, and on the borders of the Tees and the Clyde, there
would be as much proportionate development of frame and of strength as
we find at the present day.

Ceesar deemed these horses so valuable, that he carried many of them to
Rome ; and they were, for a considerable period afterwards, in great request
in vai'ious parts of the Roman empire.

Horses must at that time have been exceedingly numerous in Britain,
lor we are told that when the British king, Cassivellaunus, dismissed
the main body of his army, he retained four thousand of his war-
chariots for the purpose of harassing the Romans, when they attempted to
forage.

The British horse now received its first cross ; but whether the breed
was thereby improved cannot be ascertained. The Romans having estab-
Hshed themselves in Britain, found it necessary to send over a numerous
body of cavalry, in order efiectually to check the frequent insuiTections of
the natives. The Roman horses would breed with those of the country
and, to a greater or less extent, change their character ; and from this
time, the Enghsh horse would consist of a compound of the native animal
and those from Gaul, Italy, Spain, and every province from which the
Roman cavalry was supplied.

Many centuries afterwards passed by without leaving any record of the
character or value, improvement or deterioration, of the horse. About the
year 630, however, according to Bede, the Enghsh were accustomed to

HISTORY OP THE ENGLISH HORSE. 55

use tlie saddle. He says, tliat ' the bishops and others rode ou horseback,
who until then were wont to go on foot ; and that even then it was only on
urgent occasions that they thus rode. They used mares only, as a mark of
humihty, the mare generally not being so handsome or so much valued as
the horse,'

About 920 years after the first landing of Caesar, we find the various
British kingdoms united, and Alfred on the throne. N'othing that con-
cerned the welfare of his kingdom was neglected by this patriotic monarchy
and some of the chronicles relate the attention which he paid to the breed-
ing and improvement of the horse. An officer was appointed for this
especial purpose, who was entitled the Hors-Than or Horse-Thane, or, as
the historian renders it, Equorum Magister, Master of the Horse. In
every succeeding reign, this officer was always near the royal person,
especially on every state occasion.

Athelstan, the natural son of Alfred, having subdued the rebellious por-
tions of the Heptarchy, was congratulated ou his success by some of the
Continental princes, and received from Hugh Capet of France, who
soHcited his sister in marriage, several German ')-unning horses. Hence
our breed received another cross, and probably an improvement. We are
not, however, certain of the precise breed of these horses, or how far they
resembled the beautifal state horses, whether black or cream-coloured,
which we obtain from Germany at the present day. Athelstan seems to
have placed pecuhar value on these horses or their descendants, or the
result of their intercourse with the native breed ; for he soon afterwards
(a.d. 930) decreed, that no horses shoiild be sent abroad for sale, or on any
account, except as royal presents. This proves his anxiety to preserve
the breed, and likewise renders it probable that that breed was beginning
to be esteemed by our neighbours.

It is not unlikely that, even at this early period, the beautiful eSect of
the EngHsh soil and cHmate, and care in the improvement of the horse,
began to be evident. This will be a subject for pleasing inquiry by and
by : but the experience of every age has proved that there are few
countries in which the native breed has been rendered so ranch moro
valuable by the importation of a foreign stock, and every good quahty of
a foreign race so certainly retained, as in England.

In a document bearing date a.d. 1000, we have an interesting account
of the relative value of the horse. If a horse was destroyed, or neghgently
lost, the compensation to be demanded was thirty shillings ; for a mare or
colt, twenty shillings ; a mule or youjig ass, tn^elve shillings ; an ox, thirty
pence ; a cow, twenty- four pence ; a pig, eight pence ; and, it strangely
follows, a man, one pound. According to the Anglo-Saxon computation,
forty-eight shillings made a pound, equal in silver >to about three pounds
of our present money. Five pence made one shilling : the actual value
of these coins, however, strangely varied in different times and circum-
stances.

In the laws of Howell Dha, Howell the Good, Prince of Wales, enacted
a little before this time, there are some carious particulars respecting the
value and sale of horses. The value of a foal not fourteen days old is fixed
at four pence ; at one year and a day it is estimated at forty-eight pence ;
and at three years, sixty pence. It was then to be tamed with the bridle,
and brought up either as a palfrey or a serving horse, when its value became
one hundred and twenty pence. That of a ivild or unbroken mare was
sixty pence.

Even in those early days, the frauds of dealers were too notorious, and
the following singular regnlations were established. The buyer was allowed
time to ascertain whether the horse was free from three diseases. He had

56 HISrORY OF THE ENGLISH HORSE.

three nights to prove him for the staggers ; three months to prove the
soundness of his lungs ; and one year to ascei-tain whether he was infected
with glanders. For every blemish discovered after the purchase, one-third
of the money was to be returned, except it should be a blemish of the ears
or tail, which it was supposed to be his own fault if the purchaser did not
discover. The seller also warranted that the horse would not tire when
on a journey with others, or refuse his food from hard work, and that he
would carry a load or draw a carriage up or down hill, and not be resty.

The practice of letting horses for hire then existed ; and then, as now,
the services of the poor hack were too brutally exacted. The benevolent
Howell disdains not to legislate for the protection of tliis abused and valuable
servant. ' Whoever shall borrow a horse, and rub the hair so as to gall
the back, shall pay four pence ; if the skin is forced into the flesh, eight
pence ; if the flesh be forced to the bone, sixteen pence.' If a person lamed
a horse, he was to forfeit the value of the animal ; and if he was supposed
to have killed a horse, he was to purge himself by the oaths of twenty-
four compurgators.

Then, as now, it would appear that sorae young men were a Uttle too
fond of unwarrantable mischief, or perhaps there were thieves in the
country, even so soon after Alfred's days, showing also the estimation in
which this portion of the animal was held, and the manner in which the
hair was sufiered to grow, for it was decreed that he who cut ofi" the hair
from a horse's tail was to maintain him until it was grown again, and in
the mean time to furnish the o^vner with another horse. If the tail was
cut off with the hair, the miscreant who inflicted the outrage was mulcted
in the value of the animal, and the horse was deemed unfit for future service.

Athelstan seems to have placed considerable value on some of his horses ;
for he bequeaths, in his will, the horses given him by Thurbrand, and the
white horses presented to him by Lisbrand. These are apparently Saxon
names, but the memoiy of them is now lost.

With William the Conqueror came a marked improvement in the British
horse. To his superiority in cavalry this prince was chiefly indebted for
the victory of Hastings. The favourite charger of William was a Spaniard.
His followers, both the barons and the common soldiers, principally came
from a country in wliicli agriculture had made more rapid progress than
in England. A very considerable portion of the kingdom was divided
among these men ; and it cannot be doubted that, however unjust was the
usurpation of the Norman, England benefited in its husbandry, and par-
ticularly in its horses, by the change of masters. Some of the barons, and
particularly Roger de Boulogne, earl of Shrewsbury, introduced the
Spanish horse on their newly- acquired estates. The historians of these
times, however — principally monks, and knowing nothing about horses —
give us very Httle information on the subject.

The Spanish horse was then highly and deservedly valued for his stately
figure and noble action, and was in much request in the tilts and tourna-
ments that were then in fashion. The Spanish horse was the war-horse
of every one who could afibrd to purchase and properly accoutre so noble
an animal. The courage and the skill of the rider were most perfectly
displayed when united -with the strength and activity, and spirit and
beauty, of the steed.

One circumstance deserves to be remarked, namely, that in none of the
earhest historical records of the Anglo-Saxons or the Welsh is there any
allusion to the use of the horse for the plough. Until a comparatively
recent period, oxen alone were employed in England, as in other countries,
for this purpose ; but about this period — tbe latter part of the tenth
century — some innovation on this point was commencing, and a Welsh

HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH HOESE. 57

law forbade the farmer to plough with horses, mares, or cows, but with
oxen alone. On one of the pieces of the Bayeux tapestry woven in the
time of William the Conqueror (a.d. 1066), there is the figure of a man
driving a horse attached to a harrow. This is the earliest notice that we
have of the use of this animal in field-labour.

Ir. the reign of Henry I. (a.d. 1121), the first Arabian horse, or at least
the first on record, was introduced. Alexander I., king of Scotland,
presented to the church of St. Andrew's an Arabian horse, "wdth costly
furniture, Turkish armour, many valuable trinkets, and a considerable
estate.

There have been some pretensions to the existence of a breed derived
from or improved by this horse, but no certain proof of it can be adduced.

In the reign of Henry II. several foreign horses were imported, but of
what kind is not mentioned. Maddox speaks of ' the increased allowance
that was made for the subsistence of the King's horses that were lately
brought from beyond sea.'

Smithfield is also now first spoken of as a horse-market, a field for
tournaments, and a race-course. Fitzstephen, who lived at that time, gives
the folloAving animated account of the scene : — ' Without one of the gates
of the city is a certain field, plain or smooth, both in name and situation.
Every Fi'iday, except some festival intervene, there is a fine sight of horses
brought to be sold. Many come out of the city to buy or look on — to wit,
earls, barons, knights, and citizens. It is a pleasant thing to behold the
horses there, all gay and sleek, moving up and down, some on the amlle
and some on the trot, which latter pace, although rougher to the rider, is
better suited to men who bear arms. Here also are colts, yet ignorant of
the bridle, who prance and bound, and give early signs of spirit and
courage. Here also are managed or war-horses, of elegant shape, full of
(ire, and giving every proof of a generous and noble temper. Horses also
for the cart, dray, and plough, are to be found here ; mares, big with foal,
and others ■svith their colts wantonly running by theii' sides.

' Every Sunday in Lent, after dinner, a company of young men ride out
into the fields, on horses that are fit for war, and excellent for their speed.
Every one among them is taught to run the rounds v^ith his horse. The
citizens' sons issue out through the gates by troops, furnished with lances
and shields. The younger sort have their pikes not headed with iron; and
they make representation of battle, and exercise a skirmish. To this per-
formance many courtiers resort, when the court is near ; and young
sti-iplings, yet uninitiated in arms, from the families of barons and great
persons to train and practise.

' They begin by dividing themselves into troops. Some labour to out-
strip their leaders, without being able to reach them ; others unhorse their
antagonists, yet are not able to get beyond them. A race is to be run by
this sort of horses, and perhaps by others, which also in their kind are
strong and fleet, a shout is immediately raised, and the common horses are
ordered to withdraw out of the way. Three jockeys, or sometimes only
two, as the match is made, prepare themselves for the contest. The
horses on their part are not vnthout emulation : they tremble and are im-
patient, and are continually in motion. At last, the signal once given, they
start, devour the course, and hurry along -with unremitting SAviftness.
The jockeys, inspired with the thought of applause and the hope of victory,
clap spurs to their wilHng horses, brandish their whips, and cheer them
with their cries.' This animated description reminds us of the more
lengthened races of the present day, and proves the blood of the English
horse, even before the Eastern breed was tried.

Close on this followed the Crusades. The champions of the Cross

68 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH HORSE.

certainly liad it in their power to enrich their native country with some of
the choicest specimens of the Eastern horse, but they were completely
under the influence of superstition and fanaticism, and conunon sense and
usefulness were forgotten.

An old metrical romance, however, records the excellence of two horses
belonging to Richard Coeur de Lion, which he purchased at Cyprus, and
were, therefore, probably of Eastern origin : —

Yn this worlde they hadde no pere,
Dromedary nor destrere,
Stede, Rabyte, ne Cammele,
Goeth none so swifte, without fayle:
For a thousand pownd of golde,
Ke should the one be solde.

The head of the war-steed was ornamented with a crest, and together
with his chest and flanks, was wholly or partially protected. Sometimes
he was clad in complete steel, with the arms of his master engraved or
embossed on his hardings. The bridle of the horse was always as splendid
as the circumstances of the knight allowed, and thus a horse was often
called brigliadore, from briglia d'oro, a bridle of gold. Bells were a very
favourite addition to the equipment of the horse. The old troubadour,
Arnold of Marston, says that ' nothing is so proper to inspire confidence
in a knight and terror in an enemy.'

The price of horses at this period was singularly uncertain. In 1185,
fifteen breeding mares sold for two pounds twelve shillings and sixpence,
They were purchased by the monarch, and distributed among his tenants ;
and in order to get something by the bargain, he charged them the great
sum of four shillings each. Twenty years afterwards, ten capital horses
brought no less than twenty pounds each ; and twelve years later, a pair
of horses were imported from Lombardy, for which the extravagant price
of thirty-eight pounds thirteen shillings and fourpence was given. The
usual price of good handsome horses was ten pounds, and the hire of a cai
or cart with two horses was tenpence a-day.

To King John, hateful as he was in all other respects, we are mtich
indebted for the attention which he paid to agriculture generally, and
particularly to the improvement of the breed of horses. He imported one
hundred chosen stallions of the Flanders breed, and thus mainly contributed
to prepare our noble species of draught-horses, as unrivalled in their way
as the horses of the turf.

John accumulated a very numerous and valuable stud. He was eager
to possess himself of every horse of more than usual power ; and at all
times glady received from the tenants of the crown, horses of a superior
quality instead of money for the renewal of grants, or the payment of for-
feitures belonging to the crown. It was his pride to render his cavalry,
and the horses for the tournament and for pleasure, as perfect as he could.
It was not to be expected that so haughty and overbearing a tyrant would
concern himself much with the inferior kinds ; yet while the superior kinds
ffere rapidly becoming more valuable, the others would, in an indirect
manner, partake of the improvement.

One hundred years afterwards, Edward II. purchased thirty Lombardy
war-horses, and twelve heavy di'aught-horses. Lombardy, Italy, and Spain
were the countries whence the greater part of Europe was then suppHed
with the most valuable cavalry or parade horses. Those for agricultural
purposes were chiefly procured from Flanders.

Edward III. devoted one thousand marks to the purchase of fifty Spanish
horses ; and of such importance did he consider this addition to the English,
or rather, mingled blood then existing, that formal appHcation was made

HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH HORSE. 59

to the kiugs of France and Spain to grant safe conduct to the troop.
When they had safely arrived at the royal stud, it was computed that they
had cost the monarch no less than thirteen pounds six shillings and eight-
pence per horse, equal in value to one hundred and sixty pounds of our
present money.

These horses were bought in order to enable him successfully to prose-
cute a war against Scotland, and to prepare for a splendid tournament
which he was about to ho-ld.

Entire horses were alone used for this mimic contest, and generally so
in the duties and dangers of the field. It was rarely the custom to castrate
the colts ; and the introduction of the female among so many perfect
horses might occasionally be productive of coniusion. The mare was at
this period comparatively despised. It was deemed disgi-acefiil for any
one above the common rank to ride her, and she was employed only in
the most servile offices. This feeling and practice was then prevalent in
every part of the world. When, however, it began to be the custom to
castrate the young horses, the worth and value of the mare was soon
appreciated ; and it is now acknowledged that usually she is not much, if
at all, inferior to the perfect horse in many respects, while she has far
more strength, proportionate courage, and endurance than the gelding.

This monarch had many running-horses. The precise meaning of the
term is not, however, clear. They might be light and speedy animals in
opposition to those destined for the cavalry service, or horses that were
hterally used for the purpose of racing. The average price of these
running-horses was twenty marks, or thirteen pounds six shillings and
eightpence.

Edward was devoted to the sports of the turf and the field, or he began
to see the propriety of crossing our stately and heavy breed with those of
a lighter structure and greater speed. There was, however, one impedi-
ment to this, which was not for a very long period removed. The soldier
was cased in heavy armour, and the knight, with all his accoutrements,
often rode more than twenty-five stones. No little bulk and strength
were required in the animal destined to carry this back-breaking weight.
When the musket was substituted for the cross-bow and battle-axe, and
this iron defence, cumbrous to the wearer and destructive to the horse,
became useless, and was laid aside, the improvement of the British horse
in reahty commenced.

While Edward was thus eager to avail himself of foreign blood, he,
with the too frequent selfishness of the sportsman, would let no neighbour
share in the advantage. The exportation of horses was forbidden under
heavy penalties. One case in which he relaxed from his severity is
recorded. He permitted a German merchant to re-export some Flanders
horses which he had brought on speculation ; but he strictly forbade him
to send them to Scotland. Nay, so jealous were these sister-kingdoms of
each other's prosperity, that so late as the time of Ehzabeth, it was
deemed felony to export horses from England to Scotland.

The English horse was advancing, although slowly, to an equality with,
or even superiority over, those of neighbouring countries. His value
began to be more generally and highly estimated, and his price rapidly
increased — so much so, that the breeders and the dealers, then, as now,
skiifal in imposing on the inexperienced, obtained from many of the young
grandees enormous prices for their cattle. This evil increased to such an
extent, that Richard H. (1386) interfered to regulate and determine the
price. The proclamation which he issued is interesting, not only as
proving the increased value of the horse, but showing what were, four
hundred and seventy years ago, the chief breeding districts, as they still

60 HISTOKY OF THE ENGLISH HORSE.

contimie to be. It was ordered to be published in the counties of Lincoln
and Cambridge, and the East and North Ridings of Yorkshire ; and the
price of the horse was restricted to that which had been determined by
former monarchs. A more enlightened policy has at length banished all
such absurd interferences ■svith agriculture and commerce.

We can now collect but little of the history of the horse until the reign
of Henry VII., at the close of the fifteenth century. He continued to
prohibit the exportation of staUions, but allowed that of mares when more
tlian two years old ; and under the value of six shillings and eightpence.
This regulation was, however, easily evaded ; for if a mare could be found
worth more than six shillings and eightpence, she might be freely exported
on the payment of that sum.

The intention of this was to put an end to the exportation of perfect
horses ; for it is recited in the preamble ' that not only a smaller number
of good horses were left "within the realm for the defence thereof, but also
that great and good plenty of the same were in parts beyond the sea, which
in times past were wont to be within this land, whereby the price of horses
was greatly enhanced,' &c. The exception of the mare, and the small sum
for which she might be exported, shows the unjust contempt in which she
was held. Another act of the same monarch, however unwillingly on his
part, restored her to her proper rank among her kind.

It had been the custom to keep large herds of horses in the pastures and
common fields, and when the harvest was gathered in, the cattle of a great
many owners fed promiscuously together. The consequence of this was
that the progeny presented a strange admixture, and there was often a
great deterioration of the favourite and best breed. On this account
an act was passed prohibiting stalhons from being turned out into any
common pasture. This, at no great distance of time, necessarily led to
the castrating of all but a very few of the best stalhons, and then, on
comparing the powers and work of the mare with that of the gelding,
she soon began to be accounted more valuable — more service was exacted
from her — she was taken more care of, and the general breed of horses
was materially improved.

Polydore Virgil, who flourished in this reign, confirms the statements
already made, that ' the Enghsh horses were seldom accustomed to trot,
but excelled in the softer pace of the amhle.'

Henry VII. was an arbitrary monarch, and seemed to be too fond of
prohibitory acts of parliament ; but so far as the horse was concerned they
were most of them politic, although tjTannical.

Succeeding monarchs acted on the same principle, and by prohibiting
exportation, and encouraging a numerous and good breed of horses, by
public rewards and recompenses, every necessary incitement was afforded
i-apidly to improve the breed.

Henry VIII., a tyi'annical and cruel prince, but fond of show and
splendour, was very anxious to produce a valuable breed of horses ; and
the means which he adopted were perfectly in unison with his arbitrary
disposition, although certainly calculated to efiect his object. He aflSxed
a certain standard, below which no horse should be kept. The lowest
height for the stalKon was fifteen hands, and for the mare thirteen hands.
Those whose local interests were injured loudly complained of this
arbitrary proceeding. The small breed of Cornish horses was in a manner
extinguished. The dwarfish but active and useful inhabitants of the
"Welsh mountains rapidly diminished, the Exmoors and the Dartmoors
Avere compelled to add an inch to their stature, and a more uniformly
Btout and useful breed of horses was produced.

The monarch was determined to effect and to secure his object. At

HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH HORSE. ei

' Micliaelmastide' the neiglibouinng magistrates were ordered to 'drive'
alj forests and commons, and not only destroy such stalhons, but all
' unlikely tits,' whether mares, or geldings, or foals, which they might
deem not calculated to produce a valuable breed.

He next had recoiu'se to a sumptuary law in order more fully to acconi-
pHsh his object ; and, appealing to the pride of those who were concerned,
he had no difficulty in this matter. Every archbishop and duke was
compelled, under certain penalties, to keep seven trotting stallions for the
saddle, each of which was to be foui-teen hands high at the age of three
years.

There were very minute directions with regard to the number of the
fiame kind of horses to be kept by the other ranks of the clergy and nobi-
Hty, and the statute concludes by enacting, that every person having
benefices to the amount of one hundred pounds yearly, and ' every lajnnan,
whose wife shall wear any French hood or bonnet of velvet,' shall keep
one such trotting stalHon for the saddle.

These enactments, tyrannical as they appear to us, were quietly sub-
mitted to in those days, and produced the kind of horse which was then
alone comparatively useful, and whose strength and noble bearing and
good action were tiie foundation of something better in after days.

The civil dissensions were at an end, there was no fear of foreign
invasions — no numerous cavalry were needed — the labours of agriculture
were performed chiefly by oxen, or by the smaller and inferior breeds of
horses — races were not estabhshed — the chase had not begun to be
pui'sued vnth. the ardour and speed of modern days — nothing, in fact, was
now wanted or sought for, but an animal more for occasional exhibition
than for sterling use, or if useful, pi-incipally or solely with reference to
the heavy carriages and bad roads and tedious travelling through the
country. If this is rightly considered, it will be acknowledged that, Avith
all his faults, and with the confession that he was ever more actuated by
the determinations of his own ungovernable passions than the advantage
of his people or of posterity, we still owe him thanks for the preservation
of that breed of horses from wliich in after times sprung those that were
the glory of our country and the envy of every other.

The following extract from a manuscript dated 1512, in the tliird year
of the reign of Henry VIII., and entitled the Regulations and EstabHsh-
ment of the Household of Algernon Percy, the fifth Earl of Northumber-
land, may give the reader a sufficient knowledge of the different kinds of
horses then in use.

'This is the ordre of the chequirroul of the nombre of all the horsys of
my lordis and my ladys that are apoynted to be in the charge of the hous
yerely, as to say, gentil hors [one of the superior breed, in distinction
from the ordinary race — the same term is at present applied to Itahan
horses of the best breeds] ; palfreys [smaller horses of an inferior breed,
— the best of them, distinguished for their gentleness, and pleasant paces,
were set apart for the females of the family : — " The bard that tells of
palfried dames." Others of inferior value were ridden by the domestics
or servants of every kind. Thus Dryden says,

The smiths and armourers on palfreys ride.]

Hobys [strong and active horses of rather small size, and said to have
been originally of Irish extraction. Thus Davies, in his account of Ireland,
says: — "For twenty hohhlers armed — Irish horse-soldiers — so called
because they served on hobbies; they had &d. per diem"] ; naggis, [or
nags, so called from their supposed propensity to neigh, hiegga. They

(12 HISTORY CF THE ENGLISH HORSE.

were small, and not mucli valued, but active liorses : — "Thy nags," says
Prior,

The leanest things alive,
So very hard thou lov'st to drive.]

Cloth-sek hers, [that carried the cloak-bag.] ; male-hors, [or mail, was
equivalent to portmanteau. Thus, in Chaucer, " I have relics and pardona
in my «wiZe."] First, gentil-hors, to stand in my lordis stable, six. Item.
Palfreys of my lady's, to wit, one for my lady, and two for her gentil-
women, and oone for her chamberer. Four hobys and naggis for my
lordis oone saddill, viz. oone for my lorde to ride, oone to lede for my
lorde, and oone to stay at home for my lorde. Item. Chariot hors to stond
in my lorde's stable yerely. Seven great trottynge hors to draw in the
chariott [or car ; was the vehicle in various forms, but far inferior to the
chariot or coach in common use, in which the farniture or moveables were
conveyed, or, perchance, the inferior females of the family. The lord and
the lady usually rode on horseback. They were slow-paced, heavy
horses, perhaps not much unlike the carriage-horses a century ago, which
ploughed all the week, and took the family to church on Sunday. It
must not be forgotten, as marking the character of the vehicle and its
contents, that the chariot-man, or coachman, rode by the side of the
horses, and so conducted them and the carriage], and a nagg for the
chariott-man to ride ; eight. Again, hors for lorde Percy, his lordship's
son and heir. A grete doble trottynge horse [a large and broad-backed
horse, the depression along whose back gives almost the appearance of two
horses joined together. Thus the French speak of le double bidet ; and
Virgil, referring to the horse, says, "At duplex agiturper lumbos spina"]
for my lorde Percy to travel on in winter. Item. A grete doble trottynge
hors, called a curtal, [one with a docked tail. Thus, Ben Jonson : — " Hold
my stirrup, my one lacquey, and look to my curtal the other,"] for his
lordship to ride on out of townes. Another trottynge gambaldynge
[gambald was the old word for gambol, and it means a horse that was
fond of playing and prancing about] hors, for his lordship to ride upon
when he comes into townes. An ambling hors for his lordship to journey
on dayly. A proper amblyng little nagg for his lordship when he goeth
on hunting or hawking. A gret amblynge gelding or trottynge gelding to
carry his male.' — Berenger on Horsemanship.

Sir Thomas Chaloner, who wrote in the early part of the reign of
Elizabeth, and whose praise of the departed monarch may be supposed to
be sincere, speaks in the highest terms of his labour to introduce into his
kingdom every variety of breed, and his selection of the finest animals
which Turkey, or Naples, or Spain, or Flanders could produce. Sir
Thomas was now ambassador at the court of Spain, and had an oppor-
tunity of seeing the valuable horses which that country could produce ; and
he says that ' England could furnish more beautiful and useful breeds than
any which foreign kingdoms could supply.' The fact was, that except for
Dageantry or war, and the slow travelling of those times, there was no
motive to cultivate any new or valuable breed. The most powerful stimu-
lus had not yet been applied.

Berenger, who would be good authority in such a case, provided expe-
rienced and skilful persons to preside in his stables, and to spread by these
means the rules and elements of horsemanship through the nation. He
invited two Italians, pupils of PignatelH the riding master of Naples, and
placed them in his service ; and he likewise had an Italian farrier named
Hannibale, who, Berenger quaintly remarks, ' did not discover any great
mysteries to his English brethren, but yet taught them more than they
knew before.'

HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH HORSE. 63

There is notliing -wortliy of remark in the short reign of Edward YT.,
•jxcept the constituting the stealing of horses a felony without benefit of
slergy.

In the twenty-second year of Elizabeth, the use of coaches was intro-
duced. It has been already remarked that the heads of noble houses
travelled almost from one end of the kingdom to the other on horseback,
unless occasionally they took refuge in the cars that were generally ap-
propriated to their household. Even the Queen rode behind her master of
the horse when she went in state to St. Paul's. The convenience of this
new mode of carriage caused it to be immediately adopted by all who had
the means ; and the horses were so rapidly bought up for this purpose, and
became so exorbitantly dear, that it was agitated in Parliament whether
the use of carriages should not be confined to the higher classes.

This fashion would have produced an injurious effect on the character
of the English horse. It would have too much encouraged the breed of
the heavy and slow horse, to the comparative or almost total neglect of
the lighter framed and speedy one ; but, gunpowder having been invented,
and heavy armour beginning to be disused, or, at this period, having
fallen into almost perfect neglect, a Hghter kind of horse was necessary
in order to give efiect to many of the manoeuvres of the cavalry. Hence
arose the Hght cavalry — light compared with the horsemen of former
days — heavy compared with those of modern times ; and hence, too, arose
the hghter horse, which, except for a few particular purposes, gradually
superseded the old heavy war and draught horse.

An account has abeady been given of the occasional races at Smithfield.
They were mostly accidental trials of strength and speed, and there were
no 1-unnmg-horses, properly speaking — none that were kept for the pur-
pose of displaying their speed, and dedicated to this particular purpose
alone. Regular races, however, were now established in various parts of
England, first at Garterly in Yorkshire, then at Croydon, at Theobald's
on Enfield-chase, and at Stamford. Boucher, in his History of Stamford,
says, that the first valuable public prize was run for at that place in the
time of Charles I. It was a silver-gilt cup and cover, of the value of 8Z.,
provided by the corporation. There was no acknowledged system as now
— no breed of racing- horses ; but hackneys and hunters mingled together,
a«id no description of horse was excluded.

There was at first no course marked out for the race, but the contest
generally consisted in the running of train-scent across the country, and
sometimes the most difficult and dangerous part of the country was selected
for the exhibition. Occasionally our present steeple-chase was adopted
with all its dangers, and more than its present barbarity ; for persons were
appointed cruelly to flog along the jaded and exhausted horse. This
perhaps requires a Kttle explanation. A match was formed called the
' Wild- Goose Chase,' between two horses, and a tolerably sure trial it was
of the speed and hunting properties of the horse. Whichever horse
obtained the lead at twelve score yards from the starting post, the other
was compelled to follow him wherever he went, and to keep within a cer-
tain distance of him, as twice or thrice his length, or else to be ' beaten
up,' whipped up to the mark by the judges who rode to see fair play. If
one horse got before the other twelve score yards, or any certain distance,
according as the match was made, he was accounted to be the winner ;
but if the horse which at the beginning was behind, could get before him
that first led, then the other was bound to follow, and so on, until one got
240 yards, the eighth part of a mile, before the other, or refused some
break-neck leap which the other had taken.

By degrees, however, certain horses were devoted to these exhibitions.

64 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH HORSE.

acd were prepared for the race, as far as the mystery of the training stable
could then be explored, somewhat in the same way as at present. The
weight of the rider, however, was not always adjusted to the age or
performances of the horse ; but no rider could stai't who weighed less than
10 St.

The races of that period were not disgraced by the system of gambling
and fraud which in later times seems to have become almost inseparable
from the amusements of the turf. No heavy stakes were run for, and no
betting system had been estabhshed. The prize was usually a wooden
bell adorned with flowers. This Avas afterwards exchanged for a silver
bell, and ' given to him who should run the best and farthest on horseback,
and especially on Shrove Tuesday.' Hence the common phrase of ' bearing
away the bell.'

Horse-racing became gradually more cultivated ; but it was not until
the last year of the reig-n of James I. that rules were promulgated and
generally subscribed to for their regulation. That prince was fond of
field-sports. He had encouraged, if he did not establish, horse-racing in
Scotland, and he brought with him to England his predilection for it ;
but his races were often matches against time, or trials of speed and
bottom for absurdly and cnielly long distances. Bjs favourite courses
were at Croydon and on Enfield-chase.

Although the Turkish and Barbary horses had been freely used to
produce -with the EngHsh mare the breed that was best suited to this
exercise, little improvement had been effected. James, with great judgment,
determined to try the Arab breed. Probably he had not forgotten the
story of the Arabian that had been presented to one of his Scottish
churches, five centuries before. He purchased from a merchant, named
Markham, a celebrated Arabian horse, for which he gave the extravagant
sum of five hundred pounds. Kings, however, like their subjects, are
often thwarted and governed by their servants, and the Duke of Newcastle
took a dislike to this foreign animal. He wrote a book, and a very good
one, on horsemanship ; but he described this Arabian as a Httle bony horse,
of ordinary shape ; setting him down as almost worthless, because, after
being regiilarly ti-ained, he seemed to be deficient in speed. The opinion
of the duie, probably altogether erroneous, had for nearly a centuiy great
weight ; and the Arabian horse lost its reputation among the English
breeders.

A south-eastern horse was afterwards brought into England, and
purchased by James, of Mr. Place, who afterwards became stud-master or
groom to Oliver Cromwell. This beautiful animal was called the White
Turk ; and his name and that of his keeper will long be remembered.
Shortly after this appeared the Helmsley Turk, introduced by VOhers,
the first duke of Buckingham. He was followed by Fairfax's Morocco
barb. These horses speedily effected a considerable change in the cha-
racter of our breed, so that Lord Harleigh, one of the old school, complained
that the great horse was fast disappearing, and that horses were now bred
light and fine for the sake of speed only.

Charles I., however, ardently pursued this favourite object of English
gentlemen ; and, a little before his rupture with the parhament, established
races in Hyde Park and at Newmarket.

We owe to Charles I. the introduction of the bit into universal use in
the cavalry service, and generally out of it. The invention of the bit has
been traced to as early as the time of the Roman emperors, but for some
inexplicable reason it had not been adopted by the Enghsh. Charles I.,
however, in the third year of his reig-n, issued a proclamation stating that
such horses as are employed in the service, being more easily majiaged

HISTORY OF TILE ENGLISH HORSE. 65

by met. us of the bit than the snaflGle, he strictly charged and commanded
that, except in times of disport — racing and hunting — no person engaged
in the cavahy service should, in riding, use any snaffles, but bits only.

It was feared by some that the love of hunting and racing was making
somewhat too rapid progress ; for there is on record a memorial presented
to Charles, ' touching the state of the kingdom, and the deficiency of good
and stout horses for its defence, on account of the strong addiction which
the nation had to racing and hunting horses, which, for the sake of swift-
ness, were of a lighter and weaker mould.'

The civil wars somewhat suspended the inquiry into this, and also the
impro'^'^ement of the breed ; yet the advantage which was derived by both
parties from a light and active cavalry sufficiently proved the importance
of the change that had been effected. Cromwell, perceiving with his
wonted sagacity how much these pursuits were connected with the
prosperity of the country, had his stud of race-horses.

At the Restoration a new impulse was given to the cultivation of the
horse by the inclination of the court to patronise gaiety and dissipation.
The races at Newmarket, which had been for a while suspended, were
I'estored ; and, as an additional spur to emulation, royal plates were given
at each of the principal courses. Charles II. sent his master of the horse
to the Levant, to purchase brood mares and stalUons. These were prin-
cipally Barbs and Turks.

James II. lived in too unquiet a period to be enabled to bestow much
time on the sports of the turf or the field. He has, however, been repre-
sented as being exceedingly fond of hunting, and showing so decided a
preference for the EngHsh horse as, after his abdication, to have several
of them in his stables in France. Bei-enger speaks of this with much
feeling: — ' He expressed a pecuHar satisfaction in having them, and that
at a time, and in a situation in which it is natui*al to think that they were
rather likely to have given him uneasiness and mortification than to have
afforded him pleasure.'

"WilHam III., and Anne, principally at the instigation of her consort,
George, Prince of Denmark, were zealous patrons of the turf, and the
system of improvement was zealously pursued ; every variety of Eastern
blood Avas occasionally engrafted on our own, and the superiority of the
newly-introduced breed above the best of the original stock began to be
evident.

Some persons imagined that this speed and stoutness might possibly be
fiirther increased ; and ]\Ir. Darley, in the latter part of the reign ot
Queen Anne, had recourse to the discarded and despised Arabian. He
had much prejudice to contend with, and it was some time before the horse
which he selected, and which was afterwards known by the name of the
Darley Arabian, attracted much notice. At length the value of his pro-
duce began to be recognised, and to him we are mainly indebted for a
breed of horses of unequalled beauty, speed, and strength.

The last improvement furnished all that could be desired : nor was this
ti'ue only of the thorough-bred or turf-horse — it was to a very material
degree tlae case with every description of hoi-se. By a judicious admix-
ture and proportion of blood, we have rendered our hunters, our hackneys,
our coach — nay, even our cart-horses, stronger, more active, and more
enduring, than they were before the introduction of the race-horse.

The history of the horse in England is a very interesting one. The
original breed — that of which mention is first made in history — seems to
have been a valuable one. The Conqueror can-ied away many specimens
of it, and they were long held in repute in every country subjugated by
the Romans. The insular situation of Britain, and its comparatively Kttioi

P

r5() THE DIFFERENT BREEDS OF ENGLISH HORSES.

need of tlie war-horse, led under several monarchs to a culpable degree oi
negligence ; and althoagh, perhaps, on the whole the English were not
far behind their Continental neighbours, yet at no period, until within the
last century and a half, has Great Britain been at all distinguished on
this account : but from that time, and especially dui-ing the latter part
of it, the British horse has been sought after in every part of the world.
There is nothing in our climate that can account for this — nothing in our
soil, or this superior excellence would have been acknowledged long ago.
' The grand first cause,' says Mr. Wm. Percivall, in his introductory lecture
at University College, in 1834, ' — that, by the steady prosecution and
scientific management of which tfiis success has been brought about,
appears to me to be breeding ; by which I do not only mean the procura-
tion of original stock of a good description, but the continual progres-
sive cultivation of that stock in the progeny by the greatest care in
rearing and feeding, and by the most careful selection. On these two
circumstances, and particularly on the latter, a gi'eat deal more depends
than on the original characters or attributes of the parents. By these
means we have progressed from good to better, losing sight of no subsidiary
help, until we have attained a perfection in horse-flesh unknown in the
whole world beside.'

The love of the turf, and the anxious desire to possess horses of un-
rivalled excellence, have Avithin the last twenty years spread over the
European continent. Everywhere stud-houses have been built and
periodical races established, and sporting societies formed of persons of
the greatest weight in the community, and, everywhere, zealo;is attempts
have been made to improve the native stock. The coursers of the East
might have been easily procured — a new supply of Arabian blood might
have been obtained from the native country of the Barb : but French,
and Itahans, Germans, Russians, and Flemings, have flocked to the British
Isles. The pure blood of the present Barb and Arabian has been post-
poned, and all have deeply dra^vn from that of the thorough-bred EngUsh
horse. This is a circumstance with regard to which there is no dispute.
It is a matter of history — and it is highly creditable to our sporting men
and breeders. Mr. Percivall has rightly stated the cause, but there are
some circumstances connected with this pre-eminence that may give
occasion for serious reflection, and which -svill be best considered "^s thft
respective breeds of horses pass in review.

CHAPTER IV.

THE DIFFERENT BREEDS OF ENGIflSH HORSES.

THE EACE-HORSE.

There was much dispute with regard to the origin of the tliorourjh-hred
horse. By some he was traced through both sire and dam to Eastern
parentage ; while others believed him to be the native horse, impi'oved and
perfected by judicious crossing with the Barb, the Turk, or the Arabian,
' The Stud-Book,' which is an authority acknowledged by every English
breeder, traces all the old racers to some Eastern origin, or at least until
the pedigree is lost in the uncertainty of an early period of breeding,
If the pedigree of a racer of the present day is required, it is traced
bftck to a certain extent, and ends with a well-known racer ; or if an

THE RACE-IIOKSE.

67

earlier derivation is required, that ends either Avith an Eastern horse or in
obscurity.

It is now admitted that the present EngUsli thorough-bred horse is of

THE COLONEL.

foreign extraction, improved and perfected by the influence of climate and
diligent cultivation. There are some exceptions, as in the cases of Samp-
son and Bay Malton, in each of which, although the best horses of their
day, there was a cross of vulgar blood ; but they are only deviations from a
general rule. In our best racing-stables this is an acknowledged principle ;
and it is not, when properly considered, in the slightest degree derogatory
to the credit of our country. The British climate and British skill made
the thorough-bred horse what he is.

The beautiful tales of Eastern countries and somewhat remote days may
lead us to imagine that the Arabian horse possesses marvellous powers :
but it cannot admit of a doubt that the English-trained horse is more
beautiful and far swifter and stouter than the justly-famed coursers of the
desert. In the burnijig plains of the East and the frozen climate of
Russia, he has invariably beaten every antagonist on his native ground.
It has been already stated that, a few years ago, Recruit, an English
horse of moderate reputation, easily beat Pyramus, the best Ai^abian on
the Bengal side of India.

It must not be objected that the number of Eastern horses imported is
far too small to produce so numerous a progeny. It will be recollected
that the thousands of wild horses on the plains of South America de-
scended from only two stallions and four mares, which the early Spanish
adventurers left behind them.

Whatever may be the truth as to the origin of the race-horse, the

f2

G8

THE DIFFERENT BREEDS OF ENGLISH HORSES.

strictest attention has for the last hundred years been paid to his pedigree.
In the descent of almost every modern racer, not the slightest flaw can be
discovered : or when, -with the splendid exceptions of Sampson and Bay
Malton, one drop of common blood has mingled with the pure stream, it
has been immediately detected in the inferiority of form and deficiency of
stamina, and it has required two or three generations to wipe away the
stain and get rid of its consequences.

The racer is generally distinguished by his beautiful Arabian head :
tapermg and finely-set-on neck ; oblique lengthened shoulders ; well-bent
hinder legs ; ample, muscular quarters ; flat legs, rather short from the
knee do^\^lward, although not always so deep as they should be ; and his
long and elastic pastern. These will be separately considered when the
structure of the horse is treated of.

The Darley Arabian was the parent of our best racing stock. He was
purchased by Mr. Barley's brother at Aleppo, and was bred in the neigh-
boui'ing desert of Palmp-a. His figure contained every point, without
much show, that could be desired in a turf-horse.

The immediate descendants of this invaluable horse were the Devon-
shire or Flying Childers ; the Bleeding or Bartlett's Childers, who was;
never trained ; Ahnanzor, and others.

FLYING CHILDERS.

The two Childers were the means through which the blood and fame of
their sire were ^videly circulated ; and from them descended another Chil-
ders, Blaze, Snap, Sampson, Eclipse, and a host of excellent horses.

The Devonshire or Flying Childers, so called from the name of his
breeder, Mr. Childers, of Carr House, and the sale of him to the Duke of
Devonshire, was the fleetest horse of his day. He was at first trained as a
hunter, but' the superior speed and courage which he discovered caused
him to' be soon transferred to the turf Common report aftirms that he
could run a mile in a minute ; but there is no authentic record of this.
Childers ran over the round course at Newmarket (three miles, six far-
longs and ninety -three yards) in six minutes and forty seconds, and the

THE RACE-IIORSE.

69

Beacon course (four miles, one fai-long, and one liunclred and thirtj-cight
yards) in seven minutes and tliii-ty seconds. In 1772, a mile was run by
Firetail in one minute and four seconds.

In 1755, Bay Malton, the property of the Marquis of Rockingham, ran
the four- mile course at York in seven minutes and forty-three seconds, this
being seven seconds less time than it had ever been accomplished in before.
Some of these old ones could run fost as well as stoutly. Twenty years
afterwards there was a beautiful horse, the son of Eclipse, and inheritino-
a great portion of his speed without his stoutness. He won almost every
mile-race for which he ran, but he never could accomplish a four-mile one.
He broke do^vn, in 1779, running over the Beacon course.

One of the most realhj severe races that ever was run took place at
CarHsle in 1761. There was no less than six heats, and two of them dead
heats. Each of the six was honestly contested by the ^Wnning horse :
therefore he ran in good earnest twenty-four miles : yet there was no
breaking down, nor any account of the slightest injury received.

The following are some additional instances of the mingled speed and
endurance of these horses, and deserve to be placed on record : —

In October, 1741, at the Curragh meeting in Ireland, Mr. "Wilde engaged
to ride one hundred and twenty-seven miles in nine hours. He performed
it in six hours and twenty-one minutes. He employed ten horses, and,
allowing for mounting and dismounting, and a moment for refreshment, he
rode during six hours at the rate of twenty miles an hour.

Mr. Thornhill, in 1745, exceeded this; for he rode from Stilton to

London and back, and again to London, being two hundred and thirteen
miles, in eleven hours and thirty-four minutes. This amounts, after allow-
ing the least possible time for changing horses, to twenty miles an hour
for eleven hours, and on the turnpike-road and uneven gi'ound.

Mr. Shaftoe, in 1762, with ten horses, and five of them ridden twice,

70 THE DIFFERENT BREEDS OF ENGLISH HORSES.

accomplislied fifty miles and a quarter iu one hour and forty-nine minutes.
In 17G3, he won a still more extraordinary match. He engaged to procure
a person' to ride one hundred miles a day for twenty-nine days, having any
number of horses not exceeding twenty-nine from which to make his selec-
tion. He accomphshed it on fourteen horses; but on one day he was
compelled to ride a hundred and sixty miles, on account of the tiring of
bis lirst horse.

j\Ir. Hull's Quibbler, however, afforded the most extraordinary instance
on record, of the stoutness as well as speed of the race-horse. In Decem-
ber, 1786, he ran twenty- three miles round the flat at Newmarket, in fifty-
seven minutes and ten seconds.

Eclipse was got by Marsk, a grandson of Bartlett's Childers, and his
pedigi-ee affords a singular illustration of the descent of our thorough-bred
horses from pure Eastern blood : —

Bartlett's Childers

Button's Black Legs

fDarley Arabian.

\ Betty Leeds {C"^'"" { ^^^"^" {^"^ ^""^

(Li»terTurk. „, „ ^

' Daueliter 1 _ .^ m'Arccy White Turk

(of Hautboy J Hautboy [ R^y^, Mare.

Daughter ) Tjautbov
of Hautboy / uautDoy.

f Huttons Bay Turk. ,. /Ll.t^r Turk.

( Snake

\ Da
'•of I

< IConeyskins

(Daughter of . J

(Daughter of

^ Daughter of

'Regulu

Daughter

"'{

SpUetta

( Hautboy.

C Clumsy . •! Hautboy.

( Daughter of -J Leeds Arabian

iConeyskint | Lister Turk.
Daughter of < !

(Daughter of !. Button's Grey Barb

fGodolpbin Arabian.
i 1 Bald Galloway.

(Daughter of i I Snake I Lister Turk.

(Daughter of ■[ I.

(Old Wilkes, by Hautboy
/Smith's Son of Snake.

[^Mother Western "J Old Montague \ Daughter of Hautboy.

The pedigree of Echpse will likewise afford another curious illustration
of the uncertainty which attends thorough-bred horses. Marsk was sold
at the sale of the Duke of Cumberland's stud for a mere trifle, and was
suffered to run almost wdld on the New Forest. He was afterwards
purchased for one thousand g-uineas, and before his death covered for one
hundred guineas. Squirt, when the property of Sir Harry Harpur, was
ordered to be shot ; and while he was actually being led to the dog-kennel,
he was spared at the intercession of one of Sir Harry's gTOoms. Neither
Bartlett's Childers, nor Snake, were ever trained. On the side of the dam,
Spiletta never started but once and was beaten ; and the Godolphin
Arabian was purchased from a water cart in Paris.

Eclipse was bred by the Duke of Cumberland, and sold at his death to
Mr. Wildman, a sheep salesman, for seventy- five guineas. Colonel O'Kelly
purchased a share of hiin from Wildman. In the spring of the follo\^dng
year, when the reputation of this wonderful animal was at its height,
O'Kelly wished to become sole owner of him, and bought the remaining
share for eleven hundred guineas.

Eclipse was what Avas termed a thick-winded horse, and puffed and
roared so as to be heard at a considerable distance. For this or some other
cause, he was not brought on the turf until he was five years old.

O'Kelly, aware of his horse's powers, had backed him freely on his first
race, in May 1769. This excited curiosity, or, perhaps, roused suspicion,
and some persons attempted to watch one of his trials. Mr. John Law-
rence says, that, ' they were a little too late ; but they found an old woman
who gave them all the information they wanted. On inquiring whether
she had seen a race, she replied she could not tell whether it was a race or

THE RACE-HORSE. 71

not, but tliat slie had just seen a horse, with a white leg, running away at
a monstrous rate, and another horse a great way behind, trying to run
after him ; but she was sure he Avould never catch the white-legged horse
if he ran to the world's end.'

The first heat was easily won, when O'Kelly, observing that the rider
had been pulling at Eclipse during the whole of the race, offered a wager
that he placed the horses in the next heat. This seemed a thing so highly
rtuprobable, that he immediately had bets to a large amount. Being
called on to declare, he replied, ' Eclipse first, and the rest nowhere !' The
event justified his prediction, for all the others were distanced by Eclipse
with the greatest ease, and thus, in the language of the turf, they had
no place.

In the spring of the following year, he beat Mr. Wentworth's Buce-
phalus, who had never before met with his equal. Two days afterwards,
he distanced Mr. Strode's Pensioner, a very good horse ; and in the August
of the same year, he won the great subscription at York. No horse daring
to enter against him, he closed his short career, of seventeen months, by
walking over the Newmarket course for the King's plate, on October the
iSth, 1770. He was never beaten, nor ever paid forfeit, and won for his
owner more than twenty-five thousand pounds.

Eclipse was afterwards employed as a stallion, and produced the extra-
ordinary number of three hundred and thirty-four winners, and these
netted to their owners more than 160,000^. exclusive of plates and cups.
The produce of King Herod, a descendant of Flying Childers, was even
more numerous. He got no less than four hundred and ninety-seven
winners, who gained for their proprietors upwards of two hundred thou-
sand pounds. Highflyer was a son of King Herod.

The profit brought to the owner of Eclipse by his services as a stallion
must have been immense. It is said that ten years after he was with-
drawn from the turf, O'Kelly was asked at what price he would sell him.
At first he peremptorily refused to sell him at any price, but after some
reflection, he said that he would take 25,000Z., with an annuity of 500Z. a
year on his own life, and the annual privilege of sending six mares to
him. The seeming extravagance of the sum excited considerable remark ;
but O'Kelly declared that he had already cleared more than 25,000Z. hy
him, and that he was young enough still to earn double that sum. In
fact, he did live nearly ten years afterwards, covering at 50 guineas a
mare, for some part of the time ; but his feet having been carelessly and
cruelly neglected, he became foundered. His feet rapidly grew worse
and worse until he was a very uncertain foal-getter ; and the value of his
progeny was more than suspected. He died in February 1789, at the
age of twenty-five years. Of the beauty and yet the peculiarity of
his form there has been much dispute. His lowness before was evident
enough, and Avas a matter of objection and reproach among those
who could not see how abundantly this was redeemed by the extent
and obliquity of the shoulder, the broadness of the loins, the ample
and finely-proportioned quarters, and the swelling and the extent' —
the sloping and the power of the muscles of the fore-arm, and of
the thighs.

A little before the death of Eclipse, M. St. Bel, the founder o* the
Veterinary College in St. Pancras, had arrived from France. In teacliing
the French pupils the general conformation of the horse, and the just pro-
portions of his various parts, it had been necessary that reference should
be made to some horse of acknowledged excellence. It occui-red to St. Bel
that this extraordinary and unbeaten horse would be the proper standard
to which the English student might be referred for a similar purpose, and,

72 THE DIFFERENT BREEDS OF ENGLISH HORSES.

with considerable trouble, be formed an accurate scale of tbe proportions
of tbis noble animal. It is as follows : —

PHOPOETIONS OF ECLIPSE.

Although it is perfectly true, as stated by Mr. Blaine, in his ' Outlines of the Vrterinary
Art,' that 'for racing, we require that the greatest possible quantity of bone, and muscle,
and sinew, should be got into the smallest bulk, and that, in addition to great flexibiUty
and some length, the limbs must be strongly united, the chest deep and capacious, and
the hinder extremities furnished with powerful muscles ; for hunting, we must have a
similar yet somewhat bulkier horse, with powerful loins, and more powerful quarters, and
for the hackney, while we undervalue not the strength of the loins and the quarters, we
look more to the elevated withers, and the deep and muscular shoulders, and the straight
and well-formed leg ;' j'et there is a nearer and a truer proportion between llie several
parts of these kindred animals than manj' persons are disposed to allow; and this sketch
of them in Eclipse, will not only be interesting, but useful, to the general horseman.

The length of the head of the horse is supposed to be divided into twenty-two equal
parts, which are the common measure for every part of the body.

Three heads and thirteen parts will give the height of the horse from the foretop to the
ground.

Three heads from the withers to the ground.

Three heads from the rump to the ground.

Three heads and three parts the whole length of the body, from the most prominent
part of the chest to the extremity of the buttocks.

Two heads and twenty parts the height of the body, through the middle of the centre
of gravity.

Two heads and seven parts, the height of the highest part of the chest from the ground.

Two heads and five parts, the height of the perpendicular line which falls from the
articulation of the arm with the shoulder, directly to the hoof.

One head and twenty parts, the height of the perpendicular line which falls from the
top of the fore-leg, dividing equally all its parts to the fetlock.

One head and nineteen parts, the height of the perpendicular line from the elbow to the
ground.

One head and nineteen parts, the distance from the top of the withers to the stifle.
The same measure also gives the distance from the top of the rump to the elbow.

One and a half head, the length of tbe neck from the withers to the top of the head.
The same measure also gives the length of the neck from the top of the head to
its insertion into the chest.

Olc head, the width of the neck at its union with the chest.

Twelve parts of a head, the width of the neck in its narrowest part.

The same measure gives the breadth of the head taken below the eyes.

One head and four parts, the thickness of the body from the middle of the back tc the
middle of the belly.

The same measure gives the breadth of the body.

Also the rump from its summit to the extremity of the buttocks.

Also the distance from the root of the tail to the stifle.

Also the length from the stifle to the hock.

Also the height from the extremity of the hoof to the hock.

Twenty parts of a head, the distance from the extremity of the buttocks to the stifle.

Also the breadth of the rump or croiip.

Ten parts of a head, the breadth of the fore-legs from their anterior part to the elbow.

Ten parts of a head, the breadth of one of the hind-legs taken beneath the fold of th«i
buttocks.

Eight parts of a head, the breadth of the ham taken from the bend.

Also the breadth of the head above the nostrils.

Seven parts of a head, the distance of the eyes from one great angle to the other.

Also the distance between the fore-legs.

Five parts of a head, the thickness of the knees.

Also the breadth of the fore-legs above the knees.

Also the thickness of the hams.

Four parts of a head, the breadtli of the pastern, or fetlock joint.

Also the thickness of the coronet.

Four and a half parts of the head, the breadth of the coronet.

Three parts of a head, the thickness of the legs at their narrowest part.

Also the breadth of the hinder legs or shanks.

Two and three-quarter parts of a head, the thickness of the hind-pasterns.

Also the breadth of the shanks of the fore-legs.

Two and a quarter parts of a head, the tluckness of the fore-pasterns.

Also tno breadth of the hind-pasterns.

OtA and three-quarter parts of a head, the thickness of the fore and hind shanks.

THE HACE-HOESE. 73

^lore than twenty years after the Darley Arabian, and when the value
of the Arabian blood was fully estabhshed, Lord Godolphin possessed a
beautiful but singularly-shaped horse, which he called an Arabian, but
which was really a Barb. His crest, lofty and arched almost to a fault,
will distinguish him from every other horse.

It will like^vise be seen from the cut (p. 19), that he had a sinking
behind his shoulders, almost as peculiar, and a corresponding elevation of
the spine towards the loins. His muzzle was uncommonly fine, his head
beautifully set on, his shoulders capacious, and his quarters well spread
out. He was bought in France, where he was actually employed in
drawing a cart ; and when he was afterwards presented to Lord Godolphin,
he was in that nobleman's stud a considerable time before his value was
discovered. It was not until the birth of Lath, one of the first horses of
that period, that his excellence began to be appreciated. He was then
styled an Arabian, and became, in even a greater degTee than the Darley,
the founder of the modern thorough -bred horses. He died in 1753, at the
age of twenty-nine.

An intimate friendship subsisted between him and a cat, wliich either
sat on his back when he was in the stable, or nestled as closely to him as
she could. At his death, she began to refuse her food, and pined away,
and died. — Mr. Holcroft gives a similar relation of the attachment between
a race-horse and a cat, which the courser would take in his mouth and
place in his manger and upon liis back without hurting her. Chillaby,
called from his gTcat ferocity the Mad Arabian, whom one only of the
grooms dared to approach, and who savagely tore to pieces the image of
a man that was pui^posely placed in his way, had his peculiar attachment
to a lamb, who used to employ himself for many an hour in butting away
the flies from his friend.

Another foreign horse, was the Wellesley Arabian ; the very picture of
a beautiful vnld horse of the desert. His precise country was never
determined. He is evidently neither a perfect Barb, nor a perfect Arabian,
but from some neighbouring province, where both the Barb and Arabian
would expand to a more perfect fulness of form. This horse has been
erroneously selected as the pattern of a superior Arabian, and therefore
we have introduced him : few, however, of his produce were trained who
can add much to his reputation.

At the commencement of the last century, when public races had been
estabhshed in the neighbourhood of almost every large town, and when
many of them were especially patronised by royalty, although there was
sufficient opportunity given for the value of the young stock to be ex-
hibited, or at least gniessed at, the contest principally lay among the adults.
— The kind of contest which was best calculated to try the worth of the
horse, and to promote the actual improvement of the breed, was one of
mingled speed and endurance. They were mostly heats for distances of
three or four miles. Occasionally they were for greater lengths, even ex-
tending to six or eight miles ; and in one case, when the Duke of Queens-
beriy's Dash beat Lord Barrymore's Highlander, twelve miles. This,
however, was cruel and absurd, and never established itself among the
best suj^porters of the turf.

Four miles constituted the average distance, not only for king's plates,
but for simple matches ; and the horses did not sleep on theii' way.
There were occasionally as extraordinary bursts of speed as are now wit-
nessed in our mile and a half races.

Did the horses of those days come to any extraordinary harm ? Did
they ruin themselves by the exertion of one day and appear no more ?
The anonymous writer of a most interesting and valuable work ' A

74 THE DIFFERENT BREEDS OF ENGLISH HORSES.

Comparative view of the English Racer and Saddle Horse during the
Last and Present Centuries ' — mentions a horse called Exotic, that was
on the turf eleven years. 'We do not know,' says our author, 'how
many times he started during this period, but in the course of it he won
eighteen times. In his seventh year on the turf he won a race at Peter-
borough consisting of four heats of four miles each.*

' Four horses were handicapped by Dr. Bellyse at Newcastle-under-
Lyne — Sir John Egerton's Astbury, Mr. Milton's Handel, SirW. Wynne's
Tarragon, and Sir Thomas Stanley's Cedric. The following was the
result : — Of the first three heats there was no winner. Tarragon and
Handel being each time nose and nose, and, although Astbury was stated
to have been third in the first heat, yet he was so nearly on a level with
the others, that there was a difficulty of placing him as such. After the
second heat, the steward requested two other gentlemen to look with him
steadily as they came, to try to decide in favour of one of them, but it
was impossible to do so. In the third dead heat Tarragon and Handel
had struggled with each other until they reeled about as if they were
drunk, and could scarcely caiTy their riders to the scales. Astbury, who
had laid by after the first heat, then came out and won. The annals of
the turf cannot produce another such contest, founded on a thorough
knowledge of the horses, their ages, and their previous running.'

'In 1737, Black Chance, at five years old, won a plate at Durham,
carrying 10 st. With the same weight he won the Ladies' plate at York,
in that year. In 1738, he won the king's plate at Guildford, beating
several horses. He won the plate also at Salisbury, at Winchester, at
Lewes, and at Lincoln — five king's plates in one season, and every race
four miles and contested. The same horse was in the field in 1744, and
he walked over for the annual plate at Faraden.'

What are our racers now ? They are speedier. That it would be folly
to deny.

They are longer, lighter, but still muscular, although shorn of much of
their pride in this respect. They are as beautiful creatures as the eye would
wish to gaze on, but the greater part of them give in before half the race
is run ; and out of a field of fifteen, or even twenty, not more than two or
three of them live, in the exertion of their best energies, far within the
ropes.

And what becomes of them when the struggle is over ? After the
severe racing, as it is now called, of former times, the horse came again to
the starting-post with not a single power impaired ; and year after year
he was ready to meet any and every rival. A single race, however, like
that of the Derby, now occasionally disables the winner from ever running
again ; yet the distance is only a mile and a half. The St. Leger is more
destructive to the winner, although the distance is less than two miles.
The race of the day has been run ; some heavy stakes have been won by
the owner ; the animal by whose exertions they were gained is led away,
and it is sometimes an even chance whether he is ever heard of, or,
perhaps, thought of again. He has answered the purpose for which he
was bred, and he has passed away.

And by what witchery has all this been accomplished ? How came it
that skilful and honourable men should have conspired together to dete-
riorate the character of the racer, and ^vitli him that of the EngHsh horse
generally ? Why, there was no conspiracy in the matter. It was the
natural course of things. The race-horses of the beginning, and even of
the middle, of the last century were fine powerful animals ; they had almost
as much fleetness as could be desired, and they had strength that would
never tire. He who bred for the turf might in his moments of reflection

THE EACE-HORSE. 76

bo pleased by the conviction that, while he was accomplishing his own
purpose, he was breeding an animal valuable to his country. He might
be gratified by this reflection, yet it would not influence the system which
he pursued. He tvould breed to win ; and he would naturally try to add
a little more speed to the acknowledged power. Thence came the Mam-
brino and the Sweet Briar, and others who had lost but little of their com-
pactness of form — who had got rid of a portion of that which an enemy
mightcall coarseness, but none of the capacity of the chest, or the substance
or the power of the muscular system — whose speed was certainly increased,
and whose vigour was not impaired.

It is not in human nature to be satisfied even with perfection ; and
it was tried whether a little more fleetness could not be obtained. It
was so — and, some thought, with a slight impairment of stoutness.
There were those, and they were not altogether Avi-ong, who saw in Shark
and Gimcrack an e-vident increase of speed, and little diminution of
strength.

It was easy to imagine what would now be the result. The grand prin-
ciple was speed. It was taken for granted that stoutness would follow —
or rather, in the selection of the stock, stoutness was a minor consideration.
The result of this Avas a horse with an elongated frame — as beautiful as
his predecessors, or more so, but to the eye of the scientific man displaying
diminished muscles and less prominent sinews, and sharper and less power-
ful withers. The fleetness was all that heart could desire, but the endur-
ance was fearfully diminished. Irresistible proof was soon given of this.
They could not nin the distances that their predecessors did with ease.
Heats became unfashionable — they were esteemed, and with too much
truth, severe and cruel. We might refer to the disgraceful exhibitions of
Chateau Margaux, and Mortgage, and Lamplighter. The necessary con-
sequence was that the ground riru over in the ordinary matches was
lessened a full half.

And was not this sufficient to convince the man of the turf — the breeder
of horses for his oaati use — was not this sufficient to convince him of the
error which he had committed ? Perhaps it was, with regard to those
who would give themselves the trouble to think. But the error had been
committed. The all-important question was, how could it be repaired ?
Were they to breed back again to their former stoutness ? There were
mdividuals stout and speedy, but tlie breed was gone. Beside, the short
race had become fashionable. It was determined in two or three minutes.
There was not the lengthened suspense of seven or eight rotations of the
second-hand of the watch ; and who could resist the omnipotence of
fashion ? some harsh expressions have been used mth regard to the
leading sporting characters of that time ; but what power had they of
resistance ? They had bred for speed. They had obtained it. They had
obtained that kind of race that would be popular, for it was shoi-t. They
had no alternative, except Avith regard to the king's plates. There they
should have made a stand. The interests and honour of the country
should not have been saci-ificed because they had erred. There should
have been something left to encourage the continuance of the old and un-
rivalled blood — something to fall back upon when the fashionable leaders
of the sporting world had discovered their error. This battle, however,
must yet be fought. Additional reasons for it will appear when the pre-
sent state of the hunter and the road-horse are considered.

There is one circumstance connected with these short races which
perhaps has not been sufficiently appreciated. On the old system, the
trueness and the stoutness of the horse would generally insure the prize to
him that best deserved it ; but with the present young horses and short

7<J THE DIFFERENT BREEDS OF ENGLISH HORSES.

couifles, the actual race being sometimes little more than two or three
hundred yards, a great deal depends on the rider. If the cattle are
tolerably fairly matched, all depends upon him. If he has confidence in
the stoutness of his horse, he may distance all his competitors ; or he may
nurse the fleet but weedy thing to almost the last stride, and dart by the
winning post before his rival has been able to gather himself up for the
last effoi-t.

One thing cannot be denied, that the consciousness in the jockeys of
their power, and the account which they will probably be called upon to
render of the manner in which they have used it, has led to far more
cruelty in the management of these races than ever disgraced the records
of former times. Habit had given to the older horses of those days a
principle of emulation and of obedience. When the race in reality began,
the horse understood the meaning of his rider, and it seldom required
any cruel application of the whip or the spur to bring him through if he
could win.

Forrester will afford sufficient illustration of this. He had won many
hardly-contested races ; but on an unfortunate day he was matched against
an extraordinary horse. Elephant, belonging to Sir Jennison Shaftoe.
It was a four-mile heat over the straight course. They passed the flat
— they ascended the hill as far as the distance post--they were nose
to nose. Between this and the chair, Elephant got a little ahead.
Forrester made every possible effort to recover this lost ground, until,
finding all his efforts ineff"ectual, he made one, desperate plunge — he
seized his antagonist by the jaw to hold him back, and could scarcely be
forced to quit his hold. In like manner, a horse belonging to Mr. Quin,
in 1753, finding his adversary gradually passing him, seized him by the
leg ; and both riders were obliged to dismount, in order to separate the
animals.

The youngsters may not have felt all this emulation, nor be disposed
painfully to exert their energies to the veiy utmost; and it may be
necessary — necessary, in order to accomplish the purpose of the owner by
winning the race — that the poor animal should be brutally urged on,
until the powers of nature fail, and he retires from the course a cripple
for life.

This is a necessary part of the system. It is accounted the duty of the
rider — ^it is a duty on the skilful discharge of which a few of them plume
themselves ; but it is that which should not be tolerated, and the system of
which it is a necessary part should undergo a speedy and effectual reforma-
tion. We entirely agTee with the remarks of iSTimrod on this subject.
' There are many jockeys employed by the inferior black-leg species of
sportsmen, and even some of a higher class, who will not be convinced
that a rider has acted honestly, unless his horse is nearly dissected alive ;
but, in the strongest probabiKty, every drop of blood dra^vn is utterly
unnecessary, as it is barbarous and contrary to the very idea of sport, in
which even the horse liimself ought to share. Such an opinion was given
from the heart, as well as from the mature judgment of the late Sir Thomas
Charles Bunbury, within a few months of his decease, after five-and-fifty
years of experience on the most extensive scale. Although the stout and
game horse will ran to the whip, the excess of it must necessarily shorten
Iiis stride, and, in course, detract from his speed. Many a race has been
lost by a foul cut, or a brutal use of the spur — either by damping the
spirit and enfeebling the nerve of the horse, or inducing a sullen disgust
and desperation. An example, much talked of at the time, and through
which a vast sum of money was lost, occurred in the case of a horse of old
Duke William, which was nearly home and winning. He received a fouJ

)

THE K ACE-HORSE. 77

cut with the whip on a tender part, and instantly hung back and lost the
race. With respect to the hot-spirited and washy horses, if they cannot
win -ndthout the aid of the whip, they will seldom win with it.'

\Ye have been enabled to place at the head of our chapter a portrait of
' The Colonel,' taken for this work by Mr. Harvey ; and Mr. Goodwin,
veterinary surgeon to the Queen, has kindly furnished us with a consider-
able part of the following account of him and of Fleur-de-Lis : —

He was a chesnut horse, fifteen hands three inches high, with good sub-
stance, capital legs and feet, and true action, bred by Mr. Petre, in 1825.
He was got by Whisker out of a Delphini mare — her dam. Tipple Cider,
by King Fergus — the grandam was Sylvia, by Young Marsk, out of Ferret,
by a brother to Sylvio-Regulus, &c.

He came out in 1827, when he won the two-years stakes, beating Eatty,
a colt by Trump, and a black colt by Wliisker.

In the same year he carried off the two-years old stakes at Pontefract,
beating Vanish ; and the Champagne stakes at Doncaster, beating a filly
by Blackleg.

In 1828 he ran a dead heat with Cadland for the Derby, beating Zin-
ganee and twelve others, but he lost the second heat. He won, however,
the St. Leger at Doncaster, beating Belinda, Velocipede, and seventeen
others ; and walked over for the 200 sovereigns stakes at the same place.
At the latter end of 1828 he was sold by Jklr. Petre to George IV. for 4,000
guineas. He continued, however, on the turf, and won many races.

In 1829 he was beaten at the York Spring Meeting, by Bessie Bedlam,
in a match for 300 sovereigns each — the St. Leger course. He started, but
was not placed, for the gold cup at Ascot, being beaten by Zinganee and
Mameluke.

In 1830 he won the Craven stakes often sovereigns each, beating Harold,
CUo, and eight others. He ran second for the gold cup at Ascot, being
beaten by Lucetta, but beating Greenmantle and Zinganee. In the same
year he won a sweepstake at Stockbridge ; and ran third for the gold cup
at Goodwood, but was beaten by Fleui'-de-Hs and Zinganee.

In 1831 he won the Craven stakes at Epsom ; and ran a dead heat with
Mouch for the Oatlands at Ascot ; but running the second heat with her,
he broke down — the suspensory hgaments failing in both hind legs. He
did not continue lame ; but the enlargement of the fetlock, and the traces
of the iron, plainly indicated that he could no longer be depended upon as
a racer.

The Colonel was not successful as a stallion ; he was sent to Germany
by the Messrs. Tattersall, where he met with no l^etter success, and was
brought back to this country to finish a career that scarcely left an animal
behind him of the smallest notoriety.

We are also gratified in being enabled to present our readers with a
portrait of that beautiful and almost unrivalled mare, Fleur-de-Lis, by the
same artist.

She was bred by Sir M. W. Ridley, in 1822, and was got by Bourbon,
the son of Sorcerer, out of Lady Rachel, by Stamford — her dam. Young
Rachel, by Volunteer, out of Rachel, sister to Maid of All Work, and by
both the sire and the dam was descended from Highflyer. Bourbon started
tAventy-three times, out of which he was successful seventeen times ; and
carried off two classes of the Newmarket October Oatland stakes, the Claret,
the Craven, and the Trial, besides 4,130 guineas in specie.

She was the finest mare in form and size ever produced in England. She
stood fully sixteen hands, and had extraordinary good legs, and feet that
- never failed. Her speed was good, but her forte was distance. Inde-
pendent of her being so fine a mare in every other respect, her chest was

78

THE DIFFERENT BREEDS OF ENGLISH HOUSES.

one of extraordinary capacity in an animal of such unusual depth in the
girthing place.

She first appeared on the turf at three years old, at Newcastle-upon-Tyne,

FLEUR-DE LIS.

for the twenty-five guineas sweepstakes — one mile — and beat her four
competitors.

On September 8, she won a sweepstake of twenty guineas, and twenty
added — six subscribers — at Pontefract.

On the 20th of the same month, she started for the Great St. Leger,
and would probably have won it had she not been thrown do\\Ti in the
running by Act«on, as she beat Memnon afterwards, and all the best
horses of that description. On the 2ord of September, however, she won
a sweepstake of twenty sovereigns each, with twenty added — nineteen
subscribers.

On May 20, 1826, she was in the sweepstakes of twenty sovereigns each
— two miles — seven subscribers, at the York Spring Meeting. Lottery,
Actaeon, and Catterick were among her opponents. After the first 100
yards. Lottery got in front, closely followed by the others at strong run-
ning. He kept ahead until nearly the distance post, Avhen Fleur-de-Lis
shot ahead, Actaeon and Catterick letting loose at the same time. The
filly, however, kept in front, and won in gallant style by half a length.

On the next day, she Avon the gold cup, opposed again by Actaeon, and
also by the Alderman and six others. The betting was seven to four on
the Alderman, and four to one against the Avinner. The Alderman took
the lead, and made all the running up to the distance-post. They were in a
cluster at the stand, when Acta?on and Fleur-de-Lis came out. A severe
struggle took place, the mare winning by a length.

July 6, she won the gold cup at NewcastltN-upon-Tyne — ten subscribers.
The betting was fifteen to eight in favour of the Avinner.

On the next day she Avon the first heat for the toAvn-plate, and Avalked
over the course for the second heat.

THE RACE-HORSK. 79

On September 19, she won tlie Doncaster stakes of ten sovereigns each,
with twenty added by the corporation — twenty-nine subscribers. She
was opposed by Acta3on, Lottery, Jerry, and others ; but the bets were
five to four on Fleur-de-lis.

On the 21st she won the gold cup, beating Mulatto, Helenus, and
others. The betting was five to four on her.

On the 29th she won the gold cup at Lincoln, walking over the course.

May the 12th, 1827, she won the Constitution stakes at the York
Spring Meeting — fifteen subscribers, at twenty guineas each, among
which were Jerry, Humphrey Clinker, and Sirius ; the betting six to five
against Fleur-de-Lis. During most of the way Fleur-de-Lis was in front,
Jerry second, Humphrey Clinker third, and Siiius fourth. When between
the rails, Jerry looked as if he would win, but suddenly swerving, Fleui'-
de-Lis won easily by two lengths.

On the 27th she ran at Manchester, for a tureen, value 100 guineas,
with twenty-four subscribers of ten sovereigns each : betting, five to four
on her. On making the last turn she slipped, and nearly came on her
side. She, however, recovered ; but, after a severely-contested race, lost
by half a head.

On July the 13th, she won the gold cup, and sweepstakes of ten guineas
each, at Preston ; twenty subscribers. The course was three miles and a
distance. It was doubted whether any horse could be found to compete
-with Fleui--de-Lis ; but at length Mr. Milton's old grey horse Euphi-ates,
and Sir W. Wynn's Signorina, entered the lists. The old horse looked as
well and appeared as gay as ever, and Signorina was ever a well-kno^vn
good mare ; but the odds were three to one on Fleur-de-Lis. After the
usual preparations the competitors wore brought to the post, and away
they went. Euphrates made play, dashing off" at score, and at about half a
mile had got so far ahead, that Fleur-de-Lis, who evidently was waiting
on Signorina, found it necessary to creep rather nearer, lest the old gelding
should steal the race. Euphrates kept the lead, and seemed determined to
to do so as long as he could ; and he was allowed to do this until within
about a distance from home, when both the mares shot ahead, and the
gallant old horse gave it up. The contest now became highly interesting.
Signorina ran well in, and was beaten only by a neck.

She likewise won a Goodwood cup, beating the Colonel and Zinganee,
both out of the same stables with herself, and nearly distancing a field of
others.

This is a continuance of success that is scarcely equalled in the annals
of the turf. The loss of the Manchester cup was solely attributable to
the accident that occurred while she was running. She likewise failed
in the St. Leger ; but there she was thrown down by another horse during
the race. She was never beaten in a fair struggle. Her owner, however,
was perhaps justified in selling her, as he did, for 1,500 guineas, when he
knew that he was consigning her to the royal stud ; for he thus rendered
rt impossible that the laurels that she had won could ever be torn from her.

She possessed the points and form of a racer to a degree of perfection
which has been rarely met ^Nath. It is true that she stood neai-ly sixteen
hands ; but the depth of her chest, her length, her quarters, her pasterns,
marked her as equally framed for motion and for endurance. Her colour
was bay, with black legs and feet, and a small stroke on her forehead.
The slouched ear has been found fault with by some ; others, and perhaps
with more truth, have considered it as an indication of pure blood. It has
been hereditary in some of our stables, as in the Orvnlle family.

She was bought of Sir M. W, Ridley, for George IV., for 1,500 guineas.

Her produce, after having been put into the stud, was eagerly sought

80 THE DIFFERENT BREEDS OF ENGLISH HORSES.

for by foreigners, and sent out of the country. Fieur-de-Lis was in 1842
in the possession of Monsieur Lupin, in France, who bought her at the
Hampton Court sale for the inadequate sum of 550 guineas. Her end
was disgTaceful : she is said to have finished her days in a street cab in
Paris, where some charitable EngHshmen, shocked at seeing her in such a
miserable plight, bought her for a few poimds, and had her shot. She
was the dam of Sovereign, an American stallion of celebrity, who is the
sire of Charleston, now advertised to cover at 20 guineas a mare in this
country as the property of Mr. Tenbrock.

The valuable mare Wings, the dam of Caravan, was sold to the same
person for 600 guineas ; and Young Mouse, the dam of Rat Trap, for 360
guineas.

Since the days of the animals we have been describing, important
alterations have taken place upon the turf; heats have been entirely done
away wiih, except in a few country places, and this alone, it is supposed,
has tended much to diminish the size and strength of the race-horse ; and
there are those who, if they could, would take away the 5000 guineas
granted by act of parliament as Queen's Plates annually, and apply the
money to the purchase of what they deem more likely stalhons. But if
these more likely stallions are to be selected solely for their appearance
and the opinions formed thereon, instead of their merits, as proved by
facts, who is there among us can judge, either of speed or endurance, by
looking to the size of animals, whether it be horse or greyhound ? Take,
for instance, the best horse that has been on the turf for the last forty
years — Bay Middleton, by Sultan out of Cobweb, the property of the
Earl of Jersey. This horse never was beaten : he won the 2000 guineas,
beating Elis, the same year that Ells won the St. Leger ; and then won
the Derby, beating Gladiator, Venison, Slane, and a field of good horses.
Yet, such was the shape of this horse, that the late Mr. ThornhiU, who
was a great breeder and authority in those days, promised, if such a rail
as this horse was, should wva. tlie Derby, he would eat him and his shoes
afterwards. Yet Bay Middleton was not only a long way the best horse
of his year, but he was the best of stallions also ; he was the sire of the
Earl of Eglinton's Flying Dutchman, -winner of both the Derby and
St. Leger, and other races of gi-eat value, who has recently been sold to
the French Government for 4000 guineas, which says but little for the
kind feeling of his owner, who profited so much by his performances, nor
for the patriotic feeling of the turf men of this country, to let such a horse
go out of it.

There are more race-horses now than were kept in former years, and
there always will be, among the 1,400 mares and 400 stalhons which are
kept to supply the breed, sufficient to keep up the superiority of the
EngHsh thoroughbred horse. Racing, like other pastimes, may have its
abuses ; still the race tells us which is the best horse, and the stud con-
firms or contradicts the opinion which has been formed upon shape and
qualifications only.

In former days a flaw in a pedigree was a serious afiair, but now there
are numerous instances where horses vnth (h. b.), half bred, attached to
their pedigrees, are found beating fields of our best-bred horses, and the
definition of thoroughbred is more diSicult than ever to define ; for in-
stance, Hotspur and Marlborough Buck, h. b., running second for the
Derby ; Lady Superior, h. b., second in the Oaks ; Cawrouch, Mrs. Taft,
and Mr. Sykes winning the Ceezarewitch ; Mongrel winning the Nursery
Stakes, and beating large fields of the best thoroughbred horses : so that
there will soon be a necessity for placing these and their numerous
progeny in the stud book

THE HUj^TER. 81

The facility of sending liorses from one part of the kingdom, by railroad,
to another in the present day, has not improved the condition of our race-
ho/^es, and their strength and chances of keeping sound are hazarded more
than ever, and it is nothing uncommon now to find two-year-olds running
fifteen races, more or less, in a year, three-year-olds some twenty or thirty
races, and old horses running an unconscionable number. As an instance
of the number of races a horse may run for, Fisherman, five years old in
1858, ran in tliii"ty-two races, and won twenty-one of the number ; he ran
at York, in 1857, one day, and was beaten by "Warlock for the Queen's
Plate ; and the day after, after having travelled in his own van on a rail-
way all night and day, he beat a field of horses at Abingdon, in Oxford-
shire. Now it is quite impossible for horses to be in condition so many
times in the year ; it tries the streng-th and ruins many young horses
before they arrive at matui'ity, and it is almost impossible to find a sound
old race-horse in the kingdom.

The breed of race-hoi-ses has kept up its superiority in this country to
a surprising extent, considering that in all others the governments spend
large sums towards thoroughbred stock, while in this nothing but indi-
vidual enterprise has sustained it and made it flourish above all others.
There is no doubt, however, but that more might be done by breeding on
a large scale, with experience and judicious management ; and although
it must be admitted that our best horses have descended, as shown by
!Mr. Goodman, in his valuable table of the pedigTee of the thoroughbred
horse, from the Darley Arabian, the Godolphin Arabian, and the Byerly
Turk, it would be a gTeat mistake to think of going back to Arabian or
other blood, to improve that which is in every way so much its superior.

THE HUNTER.

There are few agricultui'ists who have not a little liking for the sports
of the field, and who do not fancy rich music in the cry of the hounds.
To what extent it may be prudent for them to indulge in these sports
circumstances must decide, and they deserve the most serious consider-
ation. Few can, or, if they could, ought to keep a hunter. There are
temptations to expense in the field, and to expense after the chase, which
it may be difficult to withstand. The hunter, however, or the hunting
horse, — i.e. the horse on which a farmer, if he is not a professed sports-
man, may occasionally vrith pleasui-e, and without disgi-ace, foUow the
hounds, — is in value and beauty next to the racer.

Fashion and an improved state of the agricultui-e of the country have
materially increased the speed of the chase. The altered character of the
fox-hounds, and the additional speed which they have lately acquired,
compel the farmer to ride a better horse, or he will not live among his
companions after the fii'st bui-st. Stoutness is still requii-ed, but blood
has become an essential quality.

In strong, thickly-inclosed countries, the half-bred horse may get
tolerably well along ; but for general use the hunter should be at least
three-quarters, or perhaps seven-eighths bred. Wben he can be obtained
"«dth bone enough, a thorouglihred horse will form the best of all hunters ;
especially if he has been taught to carry himself sufiiciently high to be
aware of and to clear his fences.

He should seldom be under fifteen or more than sixteen hands high ;
below this standard he cannot always measui-e the object before him, and
above it he is apt to be leggy and awkward at his work.

The first propei-ty of a good hunter is, that he should be light in hand.
For this pm-pose his head must be small ; his neck thin and especially thin
beneath ; his crest firm and arched, and his jaws "wide. The head will

Q

82

THE DIFFERENT BREEDS OF ENGLISH HORSES.

then be well set on. It will form that angle with the neck which gives a
light and pleasant mouth.

The forehand should be loftier than that of the racer. A turf horse may
be forgiven if his hind quarters rise an inch or even two above his fore
ones. His principal power is wanted from behind, and the very lo\vness
of the forehand may throw more weight in front, and cause the whole
machine to be more easily and speedily moved. A lofty forehand, however,
is indispensable in the hunter ; and a shoulder as extensive as in the racer
and as oblique, and somewhat thicker. The saddle will then be in its
proper place, and will continue so, however long may be the run.

THE HUNTER.

The barrel should be rounder, in order to give greater room for the heart
and lungs to play, and to send more and purer blood to the larger frame
of this horse, especially when the run continues unchecked for a time that
begins to be distressing. A bi'oad chest is always an excellence in a
hunter. In the violent and long-continued exertion of the chase the
respiration is exceedingly quickened, and abundantly more blood is hurried
through the lungs in a given time than when the animal is at rest. There
must be sufficient room for this, or he will not only be distressed, but
possibly destroyed. The majority of the horses that perish in the field
are narrow-chested.

The arm should be as muscular as that of the racer, or even more so,
for both strength and endurance are wanted.

The leg should be deeper than that of the race-horse — broader as we
stand at the side of the horse— and especially beneath the knee. In pro-
portion to the distjince of the tendon from the cannon or shank-bone, and

THE HUNTER. 83

more particularly a little below the knee, is the mechanical advantage
•with Avliich it acts.

The leg should be shorter. Higher action is required than in the racer,
in order that the legs may be clearly and safely lifted over many an
obstacle, and, particularly, that they may be well doubled up in the leap.

The pastern should be shorter, and less slanting, yet retaining consider-
able obliquity. The long pastern is useful, by the yielding resistance
which its elasticity affords to break the concussion with wliich the race-
horse from his immense stride and speed must come on the ground : and
the obKque direction of the different bones beautifully contributes to effect
the same purpose. With this elasticity, however, a considerable degree of
weakness is necessarily connected, and the race-horse occasionally breaks
down in the middle of his course. The hunter, from his different action,
takes not this length of stride, and therefore wants not all this elastic
mechanism. He more needs strength to support his own heavier carcase,
and the greater weight of his rider, and to undergo the fatigue of a long
day. Some obliquity, however, he requii-es, otheryvase the concussion even
of his shorter gallop, and more particularly of his frequently tremendous
leaps, would inevitably lame him.

The foot of the hunter is a most material point. The narrow contracted
foot is the cui'se of much of the racing blood. The work of the racer,
however, is all performed on the turf: but the foot of the hunter is
battered over many a flinty road and stony field, and, if not particularly
good, ^vill soon be disabled and ruined.

The position of the feet in the hunter requires some attention. They
should if possible stand straight. If they turn a little outward, there is
no serious objection ; but if they turn inward, his action cannot be safe,
particularly when he is fatigued or over- weighted.

The body should be short and comiDact, compared AN-ith that of the race-
horse, that he may not in his gallop take too extended a stride. This
would be a serious disadvantage in a long day and "with a heavy rider,
fi'om the stress on the pasterns ; and more serious when going over clayey
poached ground during the winter months. The compact shoit-strided
horse will almost skim the surface, while the feet of the longer-reached
animal will sink deep, and he will wear himself out by efforts to diseno-ao-e
'umseli.

Every sporting man knows how much more enduring is a short-bodied
horse in climbing hills, although perhaps not quite so much in descending
them. This is the secret of suiting the race-horse to his course : and
unfolds the apparent mystery of a horse decidedly superior on a flat and
straight course, being often beaten by a little horse with far shorter stride
on uneven gTOund and with several turnings.

The loins should be broad ; — the quarters long ; — the thighs muscular ;
— the hocks well bent, and well under the horse.

The reader needs not to be told how essential temper and courage are.
A hot irritable brute is a perfect nuisance, and the coward that will
scarcely face the slightest fence exposes his oivner to ridicule.

The principle of preparing both the race-horse and the hunter for their
work is the same, and can have no mystery about it. It consists in getting
rid of all superfluous flesh and fat, by physic and exercise, yet without too
much lowering the animal ; and, particularly in bringing him by dint of
exercise into good ^vind, and accustoming him to the fall trial of his
powers without overstraining or injuring him. Two or three doses of
physic as the season approaches, and these not too strong ; plenty of good
hard meat; and a daily gallop of a couple of miles — at a pace not too
quick — will be nearly all that can be required. Physic must not indeed

o2

84 THE DIFFEREXT BREEDS OF ENGLISH HORSES.

be omitted ; but tlie tliree "^ords, air, exercise, food, contain the grand
secret and art of training.

The old hiinter may be fairly ridden twice, or, if not -witli any very Jiard
days, tliree times in tlie "week ; but, after a thoroughly trying day, and
evident distress, three or fou.r days' rest should be allowed. They who are
merciful to their horses, allow about thirty days' work in the course of the
season, with gentle exercise on each of the intermediate days, and par-
ticularly a sweat on the day before hunting. There is an account, how-
ever, of one horse who followed the fos-hounds seventy-five times in one
season. This feat has never been exceeded.

We recollect to have seen the last Duke of Richmond but one, although
an old man, and when he had the gout in. his hands so severely that ho
was obliged to be lifted on horseback, and both arms being passed through
the reins, were crossed on his breast, galloping down the steepest part of
Bow Hill, in the neighboui^hood of Goodwood, almost as abrupt as the
ridge of an ordinary house, and cheeiing on the hounds with all the ardour
of a youth.

Su" John Malcolm (in his Sketches of Persia) gives an amusing account
of the impression which a fox-hunt in the English style made on an Arab.

' I was entertained by listening to an Arab peasant, who, with animated
gestui'es, was narrating to a group of his countrymen all he had seen of
this noble hunt. "There came the fox," said he, pointing with a crooked
stick to a clump of date-trees, " there he came at a great rate. I hallooed,
but nobody heard me, and I thought he must get away ; but when he got
quite out of sight, up ca,me a large spotted dog, and then another and
another. They all had their noses to the ground, and gave tongue — whow,
whow, whow, so loud, I was frightened. Away went these devils, who
soon found the poor animal. After them galloped the Foringees (a cor-
ruption of Frank, the name given to a European over all Asia), shouting
and trying to make a noise louder than the dogs. No wonder they killed
the fox among them." '

The Treasurer Burleigh, the sage councillor of Queen Elizabeth, could
not enter into the pleasures of the chase. Old Andi'ew Fuller relates a
quaint story of him : —

'When some noblemen had gotten William Cecil, Lord Burleigh, to
ride with them a hunting, and the sport began to be cold, "What call you
this ? " said the treasurer, " Oh ! now the dogs are at fault," was the reply.
" Yea," quoth the treasurer, "take me again in such a fault, and I'll give
you leave to punish me." '

In former times it was the fashion for women to hunt almost as often
and as keenly as the men. Queen Elizabeth was extremely fond of the
chase. Rowland Whyte, in a letter to Sir Robert Sidney, says, ' Her
Majesty is well, and excellently disposed to hunting ; for every second day
she is on horseback, and continues the sport long.'

This custom soon afterwards began to decline, and the jokes and
sarcasms of the -vvntty court of Charles II. contributed to discountenance it.

It is a curious cii'cumstance, that the first work on hunting that pro-
ceeded from the press was from the pen of a female, Juliana Barnes, or
Berners, the sister of Lord Bemers, and prioress of the nunnery of Sope-
well, about the year 1481.

The difference in the pace, and the consequent difference in the breed
of the horse, have effected a considerable alteration in the usage of the
hunter. It is the almost invariable practice for each sportsman to have
two, or sometimes three horses in the field, and after a moderate day's
sport the horse has his thi^ee or four days' rest, and no fewer than five or
six after a severe run. "SYhen a little more speed was introduced into the

THE HUiXTEK. 85

tui'f liorse, the half-bred or tlii'ee-parts-bred horse, -u'hich constituted the
racer of thirty-years ago, soon acquired a portion of the increase of speed,
and in consequence of this began to be inconveniently or annoy ingly close
to the hounds. — A change then took place in the breed of the hound.
This, however, as might be expected, was carried a httle too far, and
they soon began to ran at a rate to -which the far greater proportion of
the half-breds were altogether unequal. The thoroughbred horse then
began to find his way into the field. The prejudice was strong against
him at first. It was said that he could not take his leaps like the old
hunter : but, after a little training, he became equal in this respect to the
very best of his predecessors, and superior to the greater part of them.
This is well treated of by Ninxrod in his work on ' The Chase.'

The horse fully shares in the enthusiasm of his rider. It is beautiful to
watch the old hunter who, after many a winter's hard work, is turned into
the park to enjoy himself for life. His attitude and his countenance when,
perchance, he hears the distant cry of the dogs, are a study. Khe can,
he will break his fence, and, over hedge, and lane, and brook, follow the
chase, and come in first at the death.

A horse that had, a. short time before, been severely fired on three legs,
and was placed in a loose box, with the door, four feet high, closed, and
an aperture over it little more than three feet square, and standing himself
nearly sLxteen hands, and master of fifteen stone, hearing the cheering of
the huntsman, and the cry of the dogs at no great distance, sprang through
the aperture without leaving a single mark on the bottom, the top, or the
sides.

Then, if the horse is thus ready to exert himself for our pleasure — and
pleasure alone is here the object — it is indefensible and brutal to urge him
beyond his own natural ardour so severely as we sometimes do, and even
antU nature is quite exhausted. We do not often hear of a 'hard day,'
without being likewise informed, that one or more horses either died in
the field, or scarcely reached home before they expired. Some riders have
been thoughtless and cruel enough to kill two horses in one day. One of
the severest chases on record was by the king's stag-hounds. There was
an uninterrupted burst of four hoiu'S and twenty minutes. One horse
dropped dead in the field ; another died before he could reach the stable,
and seven more "within the week ensuing.

It is very conceivable, and does occasionally happen, that, entering as
fully as his master into the sports of the day, the horse disdains to yield
to fatigTie, and voluntarily presses on, until, nature being exhausted, he
falls and dies : but much oftener, the poor animal has, intelligibly enough,
hinted his distress ; unwilling to give in, yet painfully and falteringly
holding on, while the merciless rider occasionally, rather than give up
one hour's enjoyment, tortui'es him with whip and spui', until he drops
and dies, — that man is a binite.

Although the hunter may not willingly relinquish the chase, he who
' is merciful to his beast,' wiU soon recogTiise the symptoms of excessive
and dangerous disti'ess. To the di'ooping pace and stag-gering gait, and
heaving flank, and heavy bearing on the hand, will be added a very
peculiar sound. The inexperienced person vrjR fancy it to be the beating
of the heart ; but that has almost ceased to pulsate, and the lungs are
becoming gorged "vvith blood. It is the convulsive motion of the diaphragm,
called into violent action to assist in the now laborious office of breathing.
The noan who proceeds a single step after this, ought to sufler the punish-
ment he is inflicting.

Let the rider instantly dismount. If he has a lancet and skill to use it,
let him subtract five or six quarts of blood ; or, if he has nc lancet, let

»t< THE DIFFEREXT BREEDS OF EXGLISH HORSES.

kirn deeply cut the bars of tlie palate with a knife. The lungs will be thus
relieved, and the horse may be able to craAvl home. Then, or before,
if possible, let some powerful cordial be administered. Cordials are,
generally speaking, the disgrace and bane of the stable ; but here, and
almost here alone, they are truly valuable. They may rouse the exhausted
powers of nature. They may prevent what the medical man would call
the re-action of inflammation, although they are the veriest poison when
inflaromation has commenced.

A favourite hunter fell after a long burst, and lay stretched out, con-
vulsed, and apparently dying. His master procured a bottle of good
sherry from the house of a neighbouring friend, and poured it down the
animal's throat. The j^atient immediately began to revive : soon after-
wards, he got up, walked home, and gradually recovered. The sportsman
may not always be able to get this, but he may obtain a cordial-ball from
the nearest veterinary surgeon ; or, such aid not being at hand, he may
beg a little ginger from some good housewife, and mix it with warm ale ;
or he may give the ale alone, or even strengthened with a little ardent
spirit. When he gets home, or if he stops at the first stable he finds, let
the horse be put into the coolest i)lace, and then well clothed, and diligently
rubbed about the legs and belly. The practice of putting the animal, thus
distressed, into ' a comfortable warm stable,' and excluding every breath
of ail', has destroyed many valuable horses.

We are now describing the very earliest treatment to be adopted, and
before it may be possible to call in an experienced practitioner. This
stimulating plan would be fatal twelve hours afterwards. It will, how-
ever, be the -sArisest course to commit the animal, the first moment it is
practicable, to the care of the veterinary surgeon, if such a one resides in
the neighbourhood, and in whom confidence can be placed.

The labours and pleasui'es of the hunting season being passed, the farmer
makes little or no difference in the management of his untrained horse ;
but the wealthier sportsman is somewhat at a loss what to do with his. It
used to be thought, that when the animal had so long contributed, some-
times voluntarily, and sometimes with a little compulsion, to the enjoyment
of his ovmer, he ought for a few months to be permitted to seek his own
amusement, hx his o^ti way ; and he was turned out for a summer's run
at grass. Fashion, which governs everything, and now and then most
cruelly and absurdly, has exercised her tyranny in the case of the hunter.
His field, where he could wander and gambol as he liked, is changed to a
loose box ; and the liberty in which he so evidently exulted, to an hour's
walking exercise daily. He is allowed vetches, or grass occasionally ; but
from his box he stirs not, except for his dull morning's round, until he is
taken into training for the next winter's business.

In this, however, as in most other things, there is a medium. There are
few horses who have not materially sufi'ered in their legs and feet, before
the close of the huntiug season. There is nothing so refreshing to their
feet as the damp coolness of the gi'ass into which they are turned in April
or May ; and nothing so calculated to remove every enlargement and
sprain, as the gentle exercise which the animal voluntarily takes while his
legs are exposed to the cooling process of evaporation that is taking place
from the herbage on which he treads. The experience of ages has shown
that it is superior to all the embrocations and bandages of the most skilful
veterinarian. It is the renovating process of nature, where the art of man
fails ; let him therefore have his paddock as well as his loose box.

The spring grass is the best physic that can possibly be administered to
the horse. To a degree, which no artificial aperient or diuretic can reach,
it carries off every humour that may be lurking about the animal. It fines

THE HACKNEY. 87

^io■'.\^l the roundness of the legs ; and, except there is some bony ewarge-
ment, restores them almost to their original form and strength. "Wlien,
however, the summer has thoroughly set in, the gi-ass ceases to be succulent,
aperient, or medicinal. The ground is no longer cool and moist, at least
during the day ; and a host of tormentors, in the shape of flies, are, from
sunrise to sunset, persecuting the poor animal. Running and stamping to
rid himself of his plagues, his feet are battered by the hard ground, and he
newly, and perhaps more severely, injures his legs. Kept in a constant
state of ii-ritation and fever, he rapidly loses his condition, and sometimes
comes up in August little better than a skeleton.

Let the horse be turned out as soon as possible after the hunting season
is over. Let him have the whole of May, and the greater part, or possibly
the whole of June ; but when the grass fails, and the ground gets hard,
and the flies torment, let him be taken up. All the benefits of tuiTdng
out, and that which a loose box and artificial physic can never give, will
have been obtained, Avithout the inconvenience and injury that attend ar
injudiciously protracted run at grass, and which, arguing against the
use of a thing fi'om the abuse of it, have been improperly urged against
turning out at all.

The Steeple Chase is a relic of ancient foolhardiness and craelty. It
was the form under which the horse race, at its first establishment, was
frequently decided. It is a race across the country, of two, or four, or
even a greater number of miles, and it is generally contrived that there
shall be some deep lane, or wide brook, and many a stiS" and dangerous
fence between. It is ridden at the imminent hazard of the life of the
sportsman ; and it like^vise endangers the life or enjojonent of the horse.
Many serious accidents have happened both to the horse and his rider,
and the practice must ere long get into disuse ; for, while it can have
no possible recommendation but its foolhardiness, it has on many occa-
sions been disgraced by barefaced dishonesty. It has all the severest
punishment of the severest chase, without any of the pleasure and ex-
citement which enables this noble animal so unflinchingly to struggle
through it.

THE HACKNEY.

The perfect Hackney is more difiicult to find than even the hunter or
the courser. There are several faults that may be overlooked in the hunter,
but which the road-horse must not have. The former may start ; may be
awkward in his walk, or even his trot ; he may have thrushes or corns ;
but if he can go a good slapping pace, and has wind and bottom, we can put
up with him and prize liini : but the hackney, if he is worth having, must
have good fore-legs, and good hinder ones too ; he must be sound on his
feet ; even-tempered ; no starter ; quiet, in Avhatever situation he may be
placed ; not heavy in hand ; and never disposed to fall on his knees.

If there is one thing more than any other, in which the possessor, and,
in his own estimation at least, the tolerable judge of the horse, is in error,
it is the action of the road-horse : ' Let him lift his legs well,' it is said,
' and he will never come down.'

In projoortion, however, as he lifts his legs well, vnW be the force with
which he puts them do'wn again ; the jar and concussion to the rider ; and
the battering and wear and tear of the feet. A horse with too great
' knee action ' will not always be speedy ; he vnH rarely be pleasant to
ride, and he will not, in the long-run, be safer than others. The careless
daisy-cutter, however pleasant on the turf, should indeed be avoided ; but
it is a rule, not often understood, and sometimes disputed, but which
experience will fully confirm — that the safety of the horse dejDcnds a great

88 THE DIFFERENT BREEDS OF ENGLISH HORSES.

deal more on the manner in wliicli lie puts his feet down, than on that in
which he lifts them up : — more on the foot being placed at once flat on the
ground, or perhaps the heel coming first in contact with it, than on the
highest and most splendid action.

When the toe first touches the ground, it may be readily supposed that
the horse "vvill occasionally be in danger. An unexpected obstacle ^vi\\
throw the centre of gravity forward. If the toe digs into the ground
before the foot is firmly placed, a little thing will cause a trip and a fall

For pleasant riding and for safety also, a hackney should not carry his
legs too high. His going a little too near to the ground is not always to
be considered as an insuperable objection. The question is, does he dig
his toe into the ground ?

He should be mounted and put to the test. Let his feet be taken up
and examined. If the shoe, after having been on a week, or a fortnight,
is not unnecessarily worn at the toe, and he is felt to put his foot flat on
the ground, he may be bought without scruple, although he may not have
the lofty action which some have erroneously thought so important.

Every horse, however, is liable to fall ; and hence comes the golden rule
of riding, ^ Never trust to your horse,' but always feel bis mouth Hghtly.
He does wrong who coustantly pulls might and main ; he will soon spoil
the animal's mouth. He does worse who carelessly throws the reins on
the neck of the horse. Always feel the mouth lightly, with a simultaneous
gentle pressure of both legs. By these means the rider will insure a regu-
larity of pace, and command the safety and speed of his horse. If he
depends entirely upon the feeling of the hand, the mouth may become too
sensitive, and refuse to have the proper bearing upon the bit. The action
of the horse may also be uncollected, so that the hind feet may strike
against or overreach the fore feet. Again, if the horseman neglects the
elasticity and fine feeling of the hand, and makes too much use of his legs
alone, a callous mouth and boring upon the bit will most lilvcly result from
the practice. By this uniformity of feeling, the horse may thus have
occasional and immediate assistance before he is too much ofi" the centre
of gravity, and when a little check will save him. By this constant
gentle feeling he Avill like%vise be induced to cany his head well, than
wliich few things are more conducive to the easy, beautiful, and safe going
of the horse. There is one unei'ring criterion by which a good hack may
be known : if he can walk well he can do no other pace ill.

The road-horse may, and should, like the hunter, possess difi'erent de-
grees of breeding, according to the nature of the country, and the work
required of him. When approaching to thoroughbred, he may be a splen-
did animal, but he will be scarcely fitted for his duty. His legs will be
too slender ; his feet too small ; his stride too long ; and he will rarely be
able to trot. Three parts of blood, or even half, for the horse of all- work,
will make a good and useful animal.

The hackney should be a hunter in miniature, with these exceptions.
His height should rarely exceed fifteen bands and an inch. He will bo
sufficiently strong and more pleasant for general work below that standard.
Some will imagine, and perhaps with justice, that the portrait which we
give of the road-horse represents him as somewhat too tall. He certainly
should be of a more compact form than the hunter, and have more bulk
according to his height ; for he has not merely to stand an occasional and
perhaps severe burst in the field, but a great deal of every-day work.

It is of essential consequence that the bones beneath the knee should be
deep and flat, and the tendon not tied in.

The pastern should be short, and although oblique or slanting, yet far
less so than that of the race-horse or the hunter. There should be obliquity

THE HACKNEY.

89

enouo-h to give pleasant action, but not to render tlie liorso incapable of
the wear and tear of constant, and, sometimes, hard work.

The foot is a matter of the greatest consequence in a hackney. It should
be of a size corresponding with the bulk of the animal, neither too hollow
nor too flat ; open at the heels ; and free from corns and thrushes.

The fore-legs should be perfectly straight. There needs not a moment's
consideration with the public to be convinced that a horse with his knees
bent, vnW, from a slight cause, and especially if he is over-weighted, come
down. The fact however is, that a horse with bent fore-legs has rarely
broken knees.

The back should be straight and short, yet sufficiently long to leave
comfortable room for the saddle between the shoulders and the haunch
without pressing on either. Some persons prefer a hollow-backed horse.
He is generally an easy one to go. He will canter well with a lady ; he
may not carry so heavy a weight, nor stand such very hard work, but it
is a great luxury to ride him.

THE HACKNEY.

The road-horse should be high in the forehand ; round in the barrel ;.
and deep in the chest : the saddle will not then press too forward, but the
girths will remain firmly fixed in their proper place.

A hackney is far more valuable for the pleasantness of his paces, and
his safety, good temper, and endurance, than for his speed. We rarely
want to go more than eight or ten miles in an hour ; and, on a journey,
not more than six or seven. The fast horses, and especially the fast trot-
ters, are not often easy in their paces, and although they may perform
very extraordinary feats, are disabled and worthless when the slower horse-
is in his prime.

The above is the portrait of one that belonged to an old friend of the
author. He was no beauty, and yet he was full of good points. He was-
never out of temper — he never stumbled — he never showed that he was
tired — most certainly was never off" his feed — but, being a strange fellow
to eat, he one day, although the groom had a thousand times beeni

yo THE DIFFERENT BREEDS OF EXGLISII HORSES.

cautioned, gorged liimself, and was immediately taken out hj his owner,
ignorant of tliis, in order to be ridden somewhat far and fast. At about
the middle of the intended journey he almost stopped ; — he would after
tliis have gone on at his usual pace, but it was evident that something
unusual was the matter with him, and his master stopped at the first
convenient place. The stomach was ruptured, and, two days afterward,
he died.

Most of our readers probably are horsemen. Their memories will supply
i,hem with many instances of intelligence and fidelity in the horse, and
particularly in the hackney — the every-day companion of man. A friend
rode his horse thirty miles from home into a country that was perfectly
new to him. The road was difficult to find, but by dint of inquiry he at
length reached the place he sought. Two years passed away, and he
again had occasion to take tlie same journey. No one rode this horse but
himself, and he was perfectly assured that the animal had not, since his
first excursion, been in that du^ection. Three or four miles before he
reached his journey's end he was benighted. He had to traverse moor
and common, and he could scarcely see his horse's head. The rain began
to pelt. ' Well,' thought he, ' here I am, apparently far from any house,
and I know not nor can I see an inch of my road. I have heard much of
the memory of the horse, — it is my only hope now, — so there,' thro^Wng
the reins on liis horse's neck, 'go on.' In half an hour he was safe at his
friend's gate.

The following anecdote, given on the authority of Professor Kniger of
Halle, proves both the sagacity and fidelity of the horse : — A friend of his,
riding home through a wood in a dark night, struck his head against the
branch of a tree and fell from his horse stunned. The steed immediately
returned to the house that they had lately left, and which was now closed,
and the family in bed, and he pawed at the door until some one rose and
opened it. He turned about, and the man, wondering at the affair, fol-
lowed him. The faithful and intelligent animal led him to the place
where his master lay senseless.

A few instances are selected of the speed and endurance of the hackney.

On May 13, 1793, a hackney named Sloven, tvalked twenty-two miles in
three hours and fifty-two minutes. In November, 1791, she had beaten the
then celebrated pedestrian, James Cotterel, by walking twenty miles in
three hours and forty-one minutes. It had been previously imagined that
no horse could, in fair walking, contend with a man who had accustomed
himself to this kind of exercise.

As for the trotting performances of the hackney, they are so numerous,
and yet apparently so extraordinary, that some difficulty attends the
selection.

In 1822, there was a match of nine miles between Mr. Bernard's mare
and Captain Colston's horse, near Gerrard's Cross, for 500 guineas. It
was won easily by the mare, Avho performed the distance in twenty-seven
minutes and forty-six seconds. The horse went the same distance in
twenty-seven minutes, forty-nine seconds — which is nearly at the rate of
nineteen and a half miles an hoiir.

This, however, had been equalled or excelled some years before. Sir
Edward Astley's Phenomenon mare, when twelve years old, trotted
seventeen miles in fifty-six minutes. There being some difi'erence about
the fairness of the trotting, she performed the same distance a month after-
wards in less than fifty-three minutes, which was rather more than nine-
teen miles an hour. Her owner then ofiered to trot her nineteen and a hair
miles an hour; but, it being proved that in the last match she did one
four railca in eleven minutes, or at the rate of more than twenty-one and

THE HACKNEY. 91

a half miles au liour, the betting men would have nothing more to do
with her.

After this, "with shame be it spoken, she lived a life of drudgery and
starvation, and, occasionally, of cruel exertion, until, at twenty-three
years old, she became so changed as to be offered for sale at 71. Even in
that state she trotted nine miles in twenty-eight minutes and a half —
being, as nearly as possible, nineteen miles an hour. Within six months
afterwards, it is said that she won four extraordinary matches in one day,
the particulars of which are not recorded. In her twenty- sixth year she
became the property of the late Sir R. C. Daniel, by whom she was well
fed, and had no disgraceful tasks imposed upon her ; and in a few months
she looked as fresh and clean upon her legs as in her best days. So far
as speed was concerned, there was nothing in the annals of trotting com-
parable to her performances.

Of stoutness, whether confined to this pace, or the accomplishment of
great distances with little or no rest, there are too many instances ; and
the greater number of them were accompanied by circumstances of dis-
gracefal barbarity.

]\Ir. Osbaldestone had a celebrated American trotting-horse, called Tom
Thumb. He matched him to trot 100 miles in ten hours and a half. It
seemed to be an amazing distance, and impossible to be accomplished : but
the horse had done wonders as a trotter ; he was in the liighest condition ;
the vehicle did not weigh more than 100 lbs., nor the driver more than
10 st. 3 lbs. He accomplished liis task in ten hours and seven minutes ; his
stoppages to bait, &c., occupied thirty-seven minutes — so that, in fact, the
100 miles were done in nine hours and a half. He was not at any time
distressed ; and was so fresh at the end of the ninetieth mile, that his owner
offered to take sis to four that he did fourteen miles in the next hour.

An English-bred mare was afterwards matched to accompHsh the same
task. She was one of those animals rare to be met with, that could do
almost anything as a hack, a hunter, or in harness. On one occasion,
after having, in following the hounds, and travelling to and from cover,
gone through at least sixty miles of country, she fairly ran away with her
rider over several ploughed fields. She accomplished the match in ten
hours and fourteen minutes — or, deducting thii-teen minutes for stop-
pages, in ten hours and a minute's actual work ; and thus gained the
victory. She was a httle tired, and, being turned into a loose box, lost
no time in taking her rest. On the following day she was as full of life
and spirit as ever. These are matches which it is pleasant to record —
and particularly the latter ; for the owner had given positive orders to the
driver to stop at once, on her showing decided symptoms of distress, as he
valued her more than anytliing he could gain by her enduring actual
suffering.

Others, however, are cf a different character, and excite indignation
and disgust. Rattler, an American horse, was, in 1829, matched to trot
ten miles with a Welsh mare, giving her a minute's start. He completed
the distance in thirtv minutes and forty seconds — being: at the rate of
rather more than nineteen miles an hour — and beating the mare by sixty
yards. All this is fair ; but when the same horse was, some time afterward,
matched to trot thirty-four miles against another, and is distressed, and
dies in the following night — when two hackneys are matched against each
other, from London to York, 196 miles, and one of them runs 182 of these
miles and dies, and the other accomplishes the dreadful feat in fort\' hours
and thirty-five minutes, being kept for more than half the distance under the
influence of wine — when two brutes in human shape match their horses,
the one a tall and bony animal, and the other a mere pony, against each

92 THE DIFFERENT BREEDS OF ENGLISH HORSES.

other for a distance of sixty-two miles, and both are run to a complete
standstill, the one at thirty and the other at eighty yards from the
winning point, and, both bemg still urged on, they drop down and die —
when we peruse records like these, we envy not the feelings of the owners,
if indeed they are not debased below all feeling. We should not have
felt satisfied in riding an animal, that had done much and good service,
seventy miles when he was thirty-six years old ; nor can we sufficiently
reprobate the man, who, in 1827, could ride a small gelding from Dublin
to Xenagh, ninety-five miles, in company mth the Limerick coach ; or
that gi'eater delinquent who started ■v\'ith the Exeter mail, on a galloway,
under fourteen hands high, and reached that city a quarter of an hour
before the mail, being 172 miles, and performed at the rate of rather more
than seven miles an hour. The author saw this pony, a few months
afterwards, strained, ringboned, and foundered — a lamentable picture of the
ingratitude of some human brutes towards a willing and faithful servant.

THE farmer's horse.

The Farmer's Horse is an animal of all work -. to be ridden occasionally
to market or for pleasure, but to be principally employed for di-aught.
He should be higher than the road-horse, about fifteen hands and two
inches may be taken as the best standard. A horse with a shoulder
thicker, loAver, and less slanting than would be chosen in a hackney, will
better suit the collar ; and collar work will be chiefly required of him. A
stout compact animal should be selected, yet not a heavy cloddy one.
Some blood -will be desirable ; but the half-bred horse will generally best
suit the farmer's purpose. He should have weight enough to throw into
the collar, and sufficient activity to get over the ground.

Farmers are now beginning to be aware of the superiority of the moder-
ately-sized, strong, active horse, over the bulkier and slower animal of
former days. It is not only in harvest, and when a frosty morning must
be seized to cart manure, that this is perceived, but in the every-da}- work
of the farm the saving of time, and the saving of provender too, "s^dll be
very considerable in the course of a year.

It has often been said, that a horse used much for draught, is neither
pleasant nor safe for the saddle. The little farmer does not want a showy,
complete hackney. He should be content if he is tolerably well carried ;
and — if he has taken a little care in the choice of his horse — if he has
selected one with sound feet, shoulders not too thick, and legs not too much
under hiTn ; and if he keeps him in good condition, and does not scandal-
ously overweight him, the five days' carting or harrow- work will not, to
any material degTce, unfit him for the saddle ; especially if the rider bears
in mind what we have termed the golden rule of horsemanship, always a
little to feel the mouth of the animal he is upon.

A farmer, and more particularly a small farmer, will prefer a mare to a
gelding, both for riding or dri^-ing. She vn\\ not cost him so much at
first ; and he will get a great deal more work out of her. There can be
no doubt that, taking bulk for bulk, a mare is stronger and more lasting
than a gelding ; and in addition to this, the farmer has her to breed from.
This, and the profit which is attached to it, is Avell known in the breeding
counties ; but why the breeding of horses for sale should be almost ex-
clusively confined to a few northern districts, it is not easy to explain.
Wherever there are good horses, with convenience for rearing the colts,
the farmer may start as a breeder with a fair chance of success.

K he has a few useful cart mares, and crosses them with a well-knit
half-bred horse, he will certainly have colts useful for every purpose of
agriculture, and some of them sufficiently light for the van, post-chaise,

THE FARilERS IIOESE. 93

or coacli. If h.e lias a superior mare, one of the old Cleveland breed, and
puts lier to a bony, tbree-fourtlis-bred liorse, or, if lie can find one stout
and compact enough, a seven-eigliths or a thoroughbred one, he will have
a fair chance to rear a colt that will amply repay him as a hunter or
caiTiage-horse.

The mare needs not to be idle -while she is breeding. She may be
worked moderately almost to the period of her foaling, and with benefit
rather than otherwise ; nor is there occasion that much of her time should
be lost, even while she is suckling. K she is put to horse ia June, the
foaling time will fall, and the loss of laboui- will occui-, in the most leisure
time of the year.

There are"^ two rocks on which the farmer often strikes — ^he pays little
attention to the kind of mare, and less to the proper nourishment of the
foal. It may be laid down as a maxim in breeding, however general may
be the prejudice against it, that the value of the foal depends as much on
the dam as on the sire. The Arabs go farther than this, for no price will
buy from them a likely mare of the highest blood ; and they trace back
the pedigi-ee of theu' horses, not through the sire, but the dam. The
Greek sporting men held the same opioion, long before the Arab horse
was kno-svn. ' What chance of winning have I ? ' inquired a youth whose
horse was about to start on the Olympic course. 'Ask the dam of your
horse,' was the reply, founded on experience. Bishop Hall, who wi'ote in
the time of James I., intimates that such was the opinion of horsemen at
that period. He asks in one of his satu-es (Lib. iv.),

dost thou prize

Thy brute beasts' Trorth by their dams' qualities ?
Say'st thou this colt shall prove a swift-paced steed,
Onely because a Jennet did him breed ?
Or say'st thou this same horse shall win the prize,
Because his dam was swiftest Tranchefice ?

The farmer, however, too frequently thinks that any mare will do to
breed from. If he can find a great prancing stallion, with a high sounding
name, and loaded with fat, he reckons on having a valuable colt; and
should he fail he attributes the fault to the horse, and not to his own want
of judgment. Far more depends on the mare than is dreamed of in his
philosophy.

If he has an undersized, or a blemished, or unsound mare, let him con-
tinue to use her on his farm. She probably did not cost him much, and
she will beat any gelding ; but let him not think of breeding from her, A
sound mare, with some blood in her, and with most of the good points, will
alone answer his purpose. She may bear about her the marks of honest
work (the fewer of these, however, the better), but she must not have any
disease. There is scarcely a malady to wliich the horse is subject that is not
hereditary. Contracted feet, curb, spavin, roaring, thick wind, blindness,
notoriously descend from the sire or dam to the foal. ]\Ir. Roberts, in
' The Veterinarian,^ says : — ' Last summer I was asked my opinion of a
horse. I approved of his formation with the exception of the hocks, where
there happened to be two curbs. I was then told his sister was in the
same stable : she also had two curbs. KJiowing the sire to be free from
these defects, I enquired about the dam : she likewise had two confirmed
curbs. She was at this time ninning vrith a foal of hers, two years old,
by another horse, and he also had two curbs.'

The foal should be well taken care of for the first two years. It is bad
policy to stint or half-starve the growing colt.

The colt, whether intended for a hunter or carriage-horse, may be

94 HIE DIFFERENT BREEDS OF ENGLISH HORSES.

early liandlccl, but sKould not be broken in until three years old ; and
tben, the very best breaking-in for the carriage-horse is to make him earn
a little of his li\'ing. Let him be put to harrow or light plough. Going
over the rough ground will teach him to lift his feet well, and give him
that high and showy action, excusable in a carriage-horse, but not ia any
other. In the succeeding wdnter he will be perfectly ready for the town
or countiy market.

THE CAVALEY HOESE.

This is the proper place to speak of the Cavalry Horse. That noble
animal whose varieties we are describing, and who is so admirably adaptec
to contribute to our pleasure and our use, was, iu the earliest period of
which we have any account of him, devoted to the destructive purposes of
war ; and the cavalry is, at the present day, an indispensable and a most
effective branch of the service.

The cavalry horses contain a different proportion of blood, according to
the natui'e of the service required, or the caprice of the commanding
ofl&cer. Those of the household troops are from half to three-fourths
bred. Some of the Hghter regiments have more blood in them. Oiir
cavalry horses were formerly large and heavy. To their* imposing size
was added action as imposing. The horse was trained to a peculiar, and
grand, yet beautiful method of going ; but he was often found deficient in
real service, for this very action diminished his speed, and added to his
labour and fatigue.

A considerable change has taken place in the character of our troop
horses. This necessarily followed from the change that has occurred in
the thoroughbred horse. K he has lost much of his muscular form and
actual power of endurance, a similar alteration will take place in the off-
spring ; Hghtness and activity will succeed to bulk and sti'ength, and for
skirmishing and sudden attack the change will be an improvement. But
if the horse be improved, there still requires to be a great change effected
in the bulk of the accoutrements which is carried by the Light Dragoon.
When the men are of equal weights, the accoutrements of the Light
Horseman are, when on active service, quite as ponderous as those of the
Heavy Dragoon. Hence the want of judgTuent shown in those command-
ing officers of Hussars who continue to mount their regiments with
thoroughbred horses of Httle power, to carry weights of 15, 16, or 17
stones. It was proved that in the engagements previous to and at the
battle of Waterloo, our heavy household troops alone were able to reptdse
the formidable charge of the French gnard.

There are few things that more iuiperiously demand the attention of
government. If from the habit of running short distances, and at the
very early ages of one and two years, with Kght weights, there is a dete-
rioration in the strength and stoutness of our thoroughbred horses, they
wiU become every year less and less fitted for getting stock sufficiently
hardy and powerful to do credit to the coui-age and discipline of our
cavalry.

The following anecdote of the memory and discipKne of the troop-horse
is related on good authority. The Tyrolese, in one of their insurrections
in 1809, took fifteen Bavarian horses, and mounted them with so many of
their own men ; but in a skirmish with a squadron of the same regiment,
no sooner did these horses hear the triinipet and recognise the uniform of
their old masters, than they set off at full gallop, and carried their riders,
in spite of all their efforts, into the Bavarian ranks, where they were made
prisoners.

The wounds of a soldier are honourable. The old war-horse can some-

THE COACII-IIORSE.

95

times exhibit his share of scars. One of them, twenty-seven years old,
lately died at Stangleton Lodge, near Bedford, that had belonged to one
of the regiments of lancers, and was in the battle of "Waterloo, and the
engagements of the two days that preceded it. No fewer than eight mus-
ket-balls were discovered in him after his death, and the scars of several
Avounds by the sabre and the lance.

A horse died at Snowhill, near Gainsford, in 1753, that had been in
General Carpenter's regiment at the battle of ShirreflT-Muir, in 1715, being
at that time seven years old. He was wounded by a bullet in his neck in
that eno-ao'ement, and this bullet was extracted after his death.

THE COACH-HORSE.

This animal in external appearance is as different from what he was
fifty years ago as it is possible to conceive. The clumsy-barrelled, cloddy-
shouldered, round-legged, black family horse — neither a coach nor a dray-
horse, but something between both — as fat as an ox — but, Avith all his
pride and prancing Avlien he first starts, not equal to more than six miles
an hour, and knocking-up Avith one hard day's work, is no more seen

THE COACH- HORSE.

He indeed was quite in keeping with the vehicle he had to draAv in olden
times. Wheel carriages, bearing any resemblance to chariots, first came
into use in the reign of Richard 11., about the year 1388 ; they Avere called
ivhirlicotes, and Avere little better than litters or cotes (cots) placed on
wheels. We are told by Master John StoAve, that ' Richard II. being
threatened by the rebels of Kent, rode from the ToAver of London to the
Miles End, and Avith liim his mother, because she Avas sick and Aveak, in a
whirlicote ; ' and this is described as an ugly vehicle of four boards put
together in a clumsy manner.

Coaches Avere not used until the time of Elizabeth, Avhen Ave Avere told
(Stowe's Survey of London and Westminster, book i.) ' divers great ladies

«8 THE DIFFERENT BREEDS OF ENGLISH HORSES.

made tliom coaclies, and rode in them up and doA\Ti tlae countries, to tli9
great admiration of all the beholders.' The fashion soon spread ; and he
adds, what is often too true in the present day, ' the world mns on wheels
with many Avhose parents were glad to go on foot.'

These coaches were heavy and unmeldy, and probably bore some rough
resemblance to the state-coaches now used occasionally in court pro-
cessions.

Now we have, instead of him, an animal tall, deep-chested, rising in the
withers, slanting in the shoulders, flat in the legs, with far more strength,
and A^n.th treble the speed.

There is a great deal of deception, however, even in the best of these
improved coach-horses. They prance it nobly through the streets, and they
have more work in them than the old, clumsy, sluggish breed ; but they
have not the endui'ance that could be "ndshed, and a pair of poor post-
horses would, at the end of the second day, beat them hollow.

The knee-action and high lifting of the feet in the carriage-horse is
deemed an excellence, because it adds to the gi^andeur of his appearance ;
but, as has already been stated, it is necessarily accompanied by much
wear and tear of the legs and feet, and this is very soon apparent.

The principal points in the coach-horse are, substance well-placed, a
deep and Avell-proportioned body, bone under the knee, and sound, open,
tough feet.

The Cleveland Bay is the origin of the better kind of coach-horse, and
is coniined principally to Yorkshire and Durham, with, perhaps, Lincoln-
shii-e on one side, and Northumberland on the other, but difficult to find
pure in either county. The Cleveland mare is crossed by a three-fourth
or thoroughbred horse, of sufficient substance and height, and the produce
is the coach-horse most in repute, with his arched crest and high action
From the thoroughbred of sufficient height, but not of so much substance,
we obtain the four-in-hand and superior curricle horse.

Professor Low, in his superb work ' Illustrations of the Breeds of the
Domestic Animals of the British Islands,' which should adorn the library
of every sportsman and agriculturist, gives the following account of the
Cleveland Bay : —

' It is the progi-essive mixture of the blood of horses of higher breeding
with those of the common race, that has produced the variety of coach-
horse usually termed the Cleveland Bay ; so called from its colour and the
fertile district of that name in the North Riding of Toi-kshire, on the
banks of the Tees. About the middle of the last century this district
became kno\^^l for the breeding of a superior class of powerful horses,
which, vnth. the gradual disuse of the heavy old coach-horse, became in
request for coaches, chariots, and similar carriages. The breed, however,
is not confined to Cleveland, but is cultivated thi-ough all the great breed-
ing district of this part of England. It has been formed by the progressive
mixture of the blood of the race-horse with the original breeds of the
country. To rear this class of horses, the same principles of breeding
should be applied as to the rearing of the race-horse himself. A class of
mares, as well as stallions, should also be used having the properties sought
for. The district of Cleveland owes its superiority in the production of
this beautiful race of horses to the possession of a definite breed, formed
not by accidental mixture, but by continued cultivation.'

' Althouo-h the Cleveland Bay appears to unite the blood of the finer
with that of the larger horses of the country, to combine action with
strength, yet many have sought a farther infusion of blood nearer to the
raoe-horse. They are accordingly crossed by hunters or thoroughbred
horses and thus another variety of coach-horse is produced, of lighter

THE COACn-nORSE. 97

form and liiglier breeding ; and many of tlie superior Cleveland cm-ricle
and four-in-hand horses are now nearly thoroughbred. The bay colour
is in the most general estimation, but the grey are not unfrequently used.'

From less height and more substance vre have the hunter and better
sort of hackney ; and, from the half-bred, we derive the machineer, the
poster, and the common carriage-horse : indeed, Cleveland, and the vale
of Pickering in the East Riding of Yorkshire, may be considered as the
most decided breeding countries in England for coach-horses, hunters, and
hackneys. The coach-horse is nothing more than a tall, strong, over-sized
hunter.

Whether we are carrjang supposed improvement too far, and sacrificing
strength and usefulness to speed, is a question not difficult to resolve.
The rage for rapid travelhng was introduced by the improvement in the
speed of the racer, and for a while it became the bane of the postmaster,
the destruction of the horse, and a disgTace to the English character.

The stages were then twelve, sixteen, or even twenty miles ; the horses
stout and true, but formed for, and habituated to, a much slower pace ;
and the increase of two, and even four, miles an hour, rendered eveiy
stage a scene of continuous barbarity, and speedily thinned the stables of
the post and stage master. The post-horse has not to the present moment
altogether escaped from the system of barbarity to which he was subjected.
He is not expressly bred for his work — that work is irregular — the pace
is irreg-ular — the feeding and the time of rest uncertain — and the horse
himself, destined to be the victim of all these means of annoyance and
sufiering and impairment of natui^al power, is not always or often either
speedy or stout. The coachmaster, on a large scale, has, however, learned,
and, generally speaking, follows up, a system at once conducing to his own
profit, and the health and comfort and prolonged laboui* of his horse. He
buys a good horse, says Nimrod, ' one that has,' in the language of the
highest authority in these matters, ' action, sound feet and legs, power and
breeding equal to the nature and length of the gi'ound he will have to
work upon, and good wind, without which no other qualification will long
avail in fast work.' He feeds him well — he works him but Httle more
than two or three hours out of the four-and-twenty — he rests him one
day out of every five — he has everything comfortable about him in his
stable — and by these means, that which was once a life of torture is one
of comparative enjoyment. This is now the case in large and well-con-
ducted concerns, and where the eye of the master or the confidential
manager overlooks and directs all.

In other estabhshments, and in too many of them, there is yet much
animal sufiering. The public has to a very considerable extent the power
to distinguish between the two, and to uphold the cause of humanity.

Reference has been made to the dreadful operations which the new
system of horse management has introduced. The cautery lesions are
more numerous and severe than they used to be, in too many of our estab-
lishments. The injuries of the feet and legs are severe in proportion to
the increased pace and labour ; for where the animal machine is urged
beyond its power, and the torture continues until the limb or the whole
constitution utterly fails, the lesions must be deep, and the torture must
be severe, by means of which the poor slave is rendered capable of return-
ing to renewed exertion.

There is no truth so easily proved, or so painfully felt by the postmaster,
at least in his pocket, as that it is the pace that hills. A horse at a dead
pull, or at the beginning of his exertion, is enabled, by the force of his
muscles, to throw a certain weight into the collar. K he walks four miles
in the hour, some part of that muscular energy must be expended in the

H

98 THE DIFFERENT BREEDS OF ENGLISH HORSES.

act of walking ; and, consequently, the power of drawing must be propor-
tionably diminished. If he trots ten miles in the hour, more animal power
is expended in the trot, and less remains for the draught ; but the draught
.:;ontinues the same, and, to enable him to accomplish his work, he must
tax his energies to a serious degree ; and this taxing, this exhaustion, this
sufferino-, must be increased to a most merciless extent in the poor beast
that, with all his powers requu-ed to draw the load behind him, has to
carry the extra weight of the post-boy. Skilful breeding, and high health,
and stimulating food, and a very limited time of work, can alone enable
him to endure the labour long, on the supposition that the system which
has just been described is resorted to. But the coach proprietor is not
always sufficiently enlightened, or good-hearted, to see on which side his
interest lies ; and then the work is accomplished by the overstrained ex-
.ertion — the injury — the torture — the destruction of the team. That
which is true of the coach-horse is equally so of every other. Let the
reader apply it to his own animal, and act as humanity and interest dictate.
Many a horse used on the public roads is unable to throw all his natural
power or weight into the collar. He is tender-footed — lame ; but he is
bouo-ht at little price, and he is worked on the brutal and abominable
principle, that he maybe ^ tohipped sound.' And so, apparently, he is.
At fii'st he sadly halts ; but urged by the torture of the lash, he acquires
a pecuhar habit of going. The faulty limb appears to keep pace with the
others, but no stress or labour is thro^vn upon it, and he gradually con-
ti-ives to make the sound limbs perform among them all the duties of the
unsound one ; and thus he is barbarously ' whipped sound,' and cruelty is
undeservedly rewarded.

After all, however, what has been done ? Three legs are made to do
that which was almost too hard a task for four. Then they must be most
injuriously strained, and soon worn out, and the general power of the
animal must be rapidly exhausted, and, at no great distance of time
disease and death release him from his merciless persecutors. Fortunately,
for the sake of humanity, this cruel and painful era has passed away, and
even could the incalculable advantages of the rail to mankind alone be
overlooked or undervalued, its introduction and use must be haded with
delifht as superseding the suffering and torture inevitably accompanying
the later years of posting, stage coaching, and the conveying of the mails.
It is said, that between Glasgow and Edinburgh, a carrier in a single-
horse cart, weighing about seven hundredweight, vnM take a load of a ton,
and at the rate of twenty-two miles in a day. The Normandy carriers
travel with a team of four horses, and from fourteen to twenty-two miles
in a day, Tvath a load of ninety hundred weight.

An unparalleled instance of the power of a horse when assisted by art,
was shown near Croydon. The Surrey iron railway being completed, a
wa£:er was laid between two gentlemen, that a moderate- sized horse
could draw thirty-six tons sis miles along the road — that he should
draw the weight from a dead pull, as Avell as turn it round the occasional
A\andino-s of the road. A numerous party of gentlemen assembled near
l^Ierstham to see this extraordinary triumph of art. Twelve waggons
laden with stones, each waggon weighing above three tons, were chained
together, and a horse, taken promiscuously fiom the timber carts of Mr.
Harwood, was yoked to the train. He started from the Fox public-house,
near Merstham, and drew the immense chain of waggons, with apparent
ease, almost to the turnpike at Croydon, a distance of six miles, in one
hour and forty-one minutes, which is nearly at the rate of four miles an
hour. In the course of the journey he was stopped four times, to show
tliat it was not by any advantage of descent that this power was acquired ;

HEAVY DRAUGHT HORSES.

99

and after eacli stoppage lie again drew off the cliain of waggons with per-
fect ease. Mr. Banks, who had wagered on the power of the horse, then
desired that four other loaded waggons should be added to the cavalcade,
with which the same horse again started and with undiminished pace.
Still further to show the effect of the railway in facilitating motion, he
directed the attending workmen, to the number of fifty, to mount on the
waggons, and the horse proceeded Avithout the least distress ; and, in
truth, there appeared to be scarcely any limitation to the power of his
draught. After the trial the waggons were taken to the weighing machine,
and it appeared that the whole weight was as follows : —

Twelve waggons first linkod together .
Four ditto afterwards attached . ,

Supposed weight of fifty labourers

TON. CWT. QR,

38 4 2

13 2 0

4 0 0

55 6 2

HEAVY DRAUGHT HOESES.

The Cleveland horses have been known to carr)/ more than seven hun-
dred pounds sixty miles in twenty-four hours, and to perform this journey
four times in a week ; and mill-horses have carried nine hundred and ten
pounds two or three miles.

THE SUFFOLK PUNCH.

Horses for slower draught, and sometimes even for the carriage, are
produced from the Suffolk Punch, so called on account of his round
punchy form. He is descended from the Norman stallion and the Suffolk
cart mare. The true Suffolk, like the Cleveland, is now nearly extinct. It
stood from fifteen to sixteen hands high, of a sorrel colour ; was large
headed ; low shouldered, and thick on the withers ; deep and round
chested ; long backed ; high in the croup ; large and strong in the
quarters ; full in the flanks ; round in the legs ; and shoi-t in the pasterns.

h2

100 THE DIFFERENT BREEDS OF ENGLISH HORSES.

It "was tlie very liorse to tlirow his whole weight into the collar, with
sufficient activity to do it effectually and hardihood to stand a long day's
work.

The present breed possesses raany of the peculiarities and good quahties
of its ancestors. It is more or less inclined to a sorrel colour ; it is a taller
horse ; higher and finer in the shoulders ; and is a cross with the York-
shire half or three-fourths bred.

The excellence, and a rare one, of the old Suffolk — the new breed has
not quite lost it^consisted in nimbleness of action, and the honesty and
continuance with which he would exert himself at a dead pull. ^lany a
good di'aught horse knows well what he can effect ; and, after he has
attempted it and failed, no torture of the whip will induce him to strain his
powers beyond their natural extent. The Suffolk, however, would tug at a
dead pull until he dropped. It was beautifal to see a team of true Suffolks,
at a sigTial from the driver, and without the whip, down on their knees
in a moment, and drag everything before them. Brutal wagers were
frequently laid as to their power in this respect, and many a good team
was injured and ruined. The immense power of the Suffolk is accounted
for by the low position of the shoulder, which enables him to throw so
much of his weight into the collar.

Although the Punch is not what he was, and the Suffolk and Norfolk
fanner can no longer boast of ploughing more land in a day than any one
else, this is undoubtedly a valuable breed.

The Duke of Richmond obtained many excellent carriage horses, with
strength, activity, and figure, by crossing the Suffolk with one of his best
hunters.

The Suffolk breed is in great request in the neighbouring counties of
Norfolk and Essex. Mr. "Wakefield, of Barnham in Essex, had a stallion
for which he was offered four hundred guineas.

The Clydesdale is a good kind of draught horse, and particularly for
farming business and in a hilly country. It derives its name from the
district on the Clyde, in Scotland, where it is principally bred. The
Clydesdale horse owes its origin to one of the Dukes of Hamilton, who
crossed some of the best Lanark mares with stallions that he had brought
from Flanders. The Clydesdale is larger than the Suffolk, and has a
better head, a longer neck, a lighter carcase, and deeper legs ; he is
strong, hardy, pulling true, and rarely restive. The southern parts of
Scotland are principally supplied from this district ; and many Clydesdales,
not only for agricultural purposes, but for the coach and the saddle, find
their way to the central, and even southern counties of England. Dealers
from almost every part of the United Kingdom attend the markets of
Glasgow and Rutliergien.

]Mr. Low says that ' the Clydesdale horse as it is now bred is usually
sixteen hands high. The prevailing colour is black, but the brown or bay
is common, and is continually gaining upon the other, and the grey is not
unfrequently produced. They are longer in the body than the EngKsh
black horse, and less weighty, compact and muscular, but they step out
more freely, and have a more useful action for ordinary labour. They
draw steadily, and are usually free from vice. The long stride, cha-
racteristic of the breed, is partly the result of confoinnation, and partly of
habit and training ; but, however produced, it adds greatly to the usefal-
ness of the horse, both on the road and in the fields. No such loads are
known to be dra^vvn, at the same pace, by any horses in the kingdom, as-
in the single-horse carts of cai-riers and others in the west of Scotland.'

In the opinion of this gentleman, ' the Clydesdale horses, although
inferior in weight and physical strength to the black horse, and in figure-

THE HEAVY DRAUGHT HORSE. 101

and sHowy action to the better class of tlie dratiglit horses of Northumber-
land and Durham, yet possess properties which render them exceedingly
valuable for all ordinary uses. On the road they perform tasks that can
scarcely be sui-passed, and in the fields they are found steady, docile, and
safe.'

The Heavy Black Horse is the last variety it may be necessary to
notice. It is bred chiefly in the midland counties from Lincolnshu'e to
Staffordshire. Many are bought up by the Surrey and Berkshire farmers
at two years old, — and, being worked moderately until they are four,
earning their keep all the while, they are sent to the London market, and
sold at a profit of ten or twelve per cent.

It would not answer the hreeder's purpose to keep them until they are
fit for town work. He has plenty of fillies and mares on his farm for
every pui'pose that he can require : he therefore sells them to a person
nearer the metropolis, by whom they are gradually trained and prepared.
The traveller has probably wondered to see four of these enormous ani-
mals in a line before a plough, on no very heavy soil, and where two
lighter horses would have been quite sufiicient. The farmer is training
them for theii" future destiny, and he does right in not requiring the ex-
ertion of all their strength, for their bones are not yet perfectly formed,
nor their joints knit ; and were he to urge them too severely, he would
probably injure and deform them. By the gentle and constant exercise of
the plough, he is preparing them for that continued and eq^iahle pull at
the collar, which is afterwards so necessary. These horses are adapted
more for parade and show, and to gratify the desire which one bre\7er has
to outvie his neighbour, than for any peculiar utiHty. They are certainly
noble-looking animals, with theii' round fat carcases, and their sleek coats,
and the evident pride which they take in themselves ; but they eat a great
deal of hay and corn, and, at hard and long-continued work, they would
be completely beaten by a team of active muscular horses an inch and a
half lower.

The only plea which can be urged in theii' favour, beside their noble
appearance, is, that as shaft-horses, over the badly-paved streets of the
metropolis, and with the immense loads they often have behind them,
great bulk and weight are necessary to stand the unavoidable battering and
shaking. "Weight must be opposed to weight, or the horse would some-
times be quite thi'own off his legs. A large heavy horse must be in the
shafts, and then little ones before him would not look well.

Certainly no one has walked the streets of London T^'ithout pitying the
poor thill-horse, jolted from side to side, and exposed to many a bruise,
unless, with admirable cleverness, he accommodates himself to every
motion ; biit, at the same time, it must be evident, that bulk and fat do
not always constitute strength, and that a compact muscular horse,
approaching to sixteen hands high, would acquit himself far better in
such a situation. The dray-horse, in the mere act of ascending from the
wharf, may display a powerful effort, but he afterwards makes Httle
exertion, much of his force being expended in transporting his own over-
grown carcase.

This horse (see engTa-\-ing in next page) was selected from the noble
stock of dray-horses belonging to Messrs. Barclay, Perkins, and Co.,
London, by the author's fiiend, Mr. E. Braby. While he is a fine specimen
of this breed, he affords a singular illustration of the mode of breeding
often practised with respect to these horses and the education which they
undergo. He was bred in Leicestershit^e, — his grand-sire was a Flanders-
bred horse, and his grand-dam a "Wiltshire mare, — his sire was a "Wiltshire
horse, and his dam a Berkshire mare. At two and a half years old he

102

THE DIFFERENT BREEDS OF ENGLISH HORSES.

was sold to a fainiier and dealer in Berkshire, on whose grounds he was
worked until he was four and a half years old. He was then sold at
Abingdon fair to the dealer from whom Messrs. Barclay purchased him.

These heavy horses, however, are bred in the highest perfection, as to
size, in the fens of Lincolnshire, and few of them are less than seventeen
hands high at two and a half years old. Neither the soil, nor the produce
of the soil, is better than in other counties ; on the contrary, much of the
lower part of Lincolnshire is a cold, hungry clay. The true explanation
of the matter is, that there are certain situations better suited than others
to different kinds of farming, and the breeding of different animals ; and,
that not altogether depending on richness of soil or pasture. The principal
art of the farmer is, to find out what Avill best suit his soil, and make the
produce of it most valuable.

The Lincolnshire colts are also sold to the Wiltshire and Bei'kshire
dealers, as are those that are bred in Warwickshire and Berkshire, at two
years, or sometimes only one year old, and worked until the age of four or
five years.

A dray-horse should have a broad breast, and thick and upright shoulders,
(the more upright the collar stands on him the better,) a low forehand,
deep and round barrel, loins broad and high, ample quarters, thick fore-
arms and thighs, short legs, round hoofs broad at the heels, and soles not
too flat. The great fault of the large dray-horse is his slowness. This is
so much in the breed, that even the discipline of the ploughman, who
would be better pleased to get through an additional rood in the day, cannot
permanently quicken him. Surely the breeder might obviate this. Let
a dray-mare be selected, as perfect as can be obtained. Let her be put to
the strongest, largest, most compact, thorough-bred horse. If the produce
is a filly, let her be covered by a superior dray-horse, and the result of
this cross, if a colt, will be precisely the animal required to breed from.

The largest of this heavy breed of black hoi'ses are used as dnnj-lwrses.

GALLOWAYS AND TOXIES. 103

The next in size are sold as n-arigon-horses ; and a smaller vai'iety, and with
more blood, constitutes a considei\able part of our cavalry, and is likeA\ise
devoted to undertakers' "vvork.

All our heavy di-auglit horses, and some even of the lighter kind, have
been lately much crossed by the Flanders breed, and with evident improve-
ment. Little has been lost in depth and bulk of carcase ; but the forehand
has been raised, the legs have been flattened and deepened, and very much
has been gained in actiA-ity. The slow heavy black, with his two miles
and a half an hour, has been changed into a lighter, but yet exceedingly
powerfal horse, that will step four miles in the same time, with perfect
ease, and has considerably more endurance.

This is the veiy system, as already described, which has been adopted,
and with so much success, in the blood horse, and has made the English
racer and hunter, and the English horse generally, what they are. As the
racer is principally or purely of Eastern origin, so has the English draught
horse sprung chiefly from Flemish blood, and to that blood the ao-ricul-
turist has recourse for the perfection of the breed. For the dray, the spirit
waggon, and not too heavy loads, and for road work generally, a cross with
the Flanders will be advantageous ; but if the enormous hea\'y horse must
be used in the coal-Avaggon, or the dray, we must leave our midland black,
with all his unwieldy bulk untouched.

As an ordinary beast of lighter draught, and particularly in the neio-h-
bourhood of London, the worn-out hackney, and the refuse of the coach,
and even of the hackney-coach, is used. In the hay-markets of "White-
chapel and Camden Town are continually seen wretched teams that would
disgrace the poorest district of the poorest country. They who are unac-
quainted with this part of the country, would scarcely think it possible,
that on the forests and commons within a few miles of London, as many
ragged, wild, mongrel horses are to be found as in any district of the
United Kingdom, and a good horse is scarcely by any chance bred there.

GALLOWAYS AND PONIES.

A horse between thirteen and fourteen hands in height is called a
Gallowat, from a beautiful breed of little horses once found in the south
of Scotland, on the shore of the Solway Firth, but now sadly degenerated,
and almost lost, through the attempts of the farmer to obtain a larger
kind, and better adapted for the purposes of agriculture. There is a
tradition in that country, that the breed is of Spanish extraction, some
horses having escaped from one of the vessels of the Grand Armada,,
that was wrecked on the neighbouring coast. This district, however, so
early as the time of Edward I., supplied that monarch with a great niimber
of horses.

The pare galloway was said to be nearly fourteen hands high, and
sometimes more ; of a bright bay, or brown, with black legs, small head
and neck, and peculiarly deep and clean legs. Its qualities were speed,
stoutness, and sure-footedness over a very rugged and mountainous country.

Some remains of the old galloways are still to be met with in the Isle
of Mull ; but they are altogether neglected, and fast degenerating from
admixture with inferior breeds.

Dr. Anderson thus describes the galloway : — ' There was once a breed
of small elegant horses in Scotland, similar to those of Iceland and
Sweden, and which were kno-mi by the name of galloways ; the best of
which sometimes reached the height of fourteen hands and a half. One
of this description I possessed, it having been bought for my use when a
boy. In point of elegance of shape it was a perfect picture ; and in

104 THE DIFFERENT BREEDS OF ENGLISH HORSES.

disposition was gentle and compliant. It moved almost witli a wisli, and
never tii-ed. I rode tMs little creature for twentj-five years, and twice in
that time I rode a hundi^ed and fifty miles at a stretcli, without stopping,
except to bait, and that not for above an hour at a time. It came in at
the last stage with as much ease and alacrity as it travelled the first, 1
could have undertaken to have performed on this beast, when it was in
its prime, sixty miles a day for a twelvemonth running, without any extra-
ordinary exertion.'

In 1754, Mr. Corker's galloway went one hundred miles a day, for three
successive days, over the Newmarket Course, and without the slightest
distress.

A galloway, belonging to ^Ir. Sinclair, of Kirby- Lonsdale, performed at
Carlisle the extraordinary feat of a thousand miles in a thousand hours.

Many of the galloways now in use are procui-ed either from Wales or
the New Forest ; but they have materially diminished in number.

Old ]\Iarsk, before his value was known, contributed to the improvement
of the Hampshire breed ; and the "Welsh ponies are said to be indebted to
the celebrated Merlin for much of theii- form and quaUties.

The modern Keic-foresters, notwithstanding their Marsk blood, are
generally ill-made, large-headed, short-necked, and ragged-hipped ; but
hardy, safe, and useful, with much of their ancient spirit and speed, and
all their old paces. The catching of these ponies is as gi^eat a trial of skill
as the hunting of the wild horse on the Pampas of South America, and a
greater one of patience.

The Welsh pony is one of the most beautiful little animals that can be
imagined. He has a small head, high withers, deep yet round barrel,
short joints, flat legs, and good round feet. He will live on any fare, and
will never tire.

Pony-hunting used to be one of the favourite amusements of the "Welsh
farmers and jDeasantry, a century and a half ago, and it has not, even now,
fallen altogether into disuse. The following story of one of these expedi-
tions, narrated in the Cambrian Quarterly Magazine, is founded on fact : —

' A farmer, named Hugo Garonwy, Hved in the neighbourhood of
Llweyn Georie. Although he handled the small tilt plough, and other
faiToing tools in their due season, yet the catching of the merlyn, the fox,
and the hare, were more congenial pursuits ; and the tumbles and thumps
which he received, and from which no pony-hunter was exempt, served
but to attach him to the sport. Rugged, however, as the ^Merioneddshire
coast and its envii'ons were, and abounding with precipices and morasses,
worse mishaps were sometimes experienced — and so it happened with
Garonwy.

' He set out one morning with his lasso coiled round his waist, and
attended by two hardy dejDendents and their gi-eyhounds. The lasso was
then familiar to the "Welshman, and as adroitly managed by him as by
any guaco on the plains of South America. As the himters cHmbed the
mountain's brow, the distant herd of ponies took alarm — sometimes gal-
loping onwards, and then suddenly halting and wheeling round, snorting,
as if in defiance of the intmders, and furiously pawing the ground.
Garonwy, with the assistance of his servants and the gTeyhounds, con-
trived to coop them up in a corner of the hills, where perpendicular rocks
prevented their escape.

' Already had he captured three of the most beautiful little fellows in
the world, which he expected to sell for 4Z. or 5?. each at the next Bala
fair — to him a considerable simi, and amounting to a fourth of the annual
rent which he paid for his sheep-walk. There remained, however, one
most untameable creature, whose crested mane, and flowing tail, and wild

GALLOWAYS AXD TOXIES. 105

eye, and distended nostril, sliowed that lie •\vas a perfect Buceplialus of the
lulls ; nor, indeed, -was it safe to attack him in the ordinary Tvay. Many
of the thi'ee-year-olds had been knoT\'n to break the legs of their pursuers,
and some had been dismounted and trampled to death.

' Garonwy was determined to give the noble fellow a chase over the
hills, and so overcome him by fatigaie before the lasso was flung. The
dogs were unsKpped, and oS" they went, swift as the -winds, Garonwy fol-
lowing, and the two assistants posted on a neighbouring eminence. Vain
was the effort to tire the merlyn. Hugo, naturally impatient, and "without
waiting to ascertain that the coils were all clear, flung the lasso over the
head of the wild horse. The extremity of the cord was twisted round
his own body, and tightening as the animal struggled, the compression
became unsupportable, and, at length, in spite of every effort to disengage
himself, Garonwy was di-agged from his horse.

' The affi'ighted merlyn finding himself manacled by the rope, darted
off" with all the speed of which he was capable, dragging poor Garonwy
over the rocky ground and stunted brushwood. This occurred at some
distance fi'om the men. They called in their dogs that the speed of the
merlyn might not be increased, but, ere they could arrive at the spot
at which the accident happened, the horse and the man had vanished.
Whether the sufferings of the hunter were protracted, or he was dashed
against some friendly rock at the commencement of this horrible race, was
never known ; but the wild animal, frenzied and bhnded by terror, rushed
over a beetling cliff, at a considerable distance, overhanging the sea-shore,
and the hunter and the horse were found at the bottom, a mis-shapen
semblance of what they had been when living.'

A great many ponies of little value used to be reared on the Wildmoor
fens, in the neighbourhood of Boston, in Lincolnshire. They seldom
reached thirteen hands ; the head was large, and the forehand low, the
back straight, the leg flat and good ; biit the foot, even for a Lincolnshire
pony, unnaturally large. They were applied to very inferior purposes
even on the fens, and were unequal to hard and flinty and hilly roads.
The breed became generally neglected, and, at no very distant time, will
be probably extinct.

The Exraoor j^onies, although generally ugly enough, are hardy and
usefal. A well-known sportsman says, that he rode one of them half-a-
dozen miles, and never felt such power and action in so small a compass
before. To show his accomplishments, he was turned over a gate at least
eight inches higher than his back ; and his owner, who rides fourteen
stone, travelled on him from Bristol to South Molton, eighty-six miles,
beating the coach which runs the same road.

The horses which were once used in Devonshire, and particularly in the
western and southern districts, under the denomination of Pack-hoeses,
are a larger variety of the Exmoor or Dartmoor breed. The saddle-horses
of Devonshire are mostly procured fi^om the more eastern counties.

There are still some farms in the secluded disti'icts in that beautiful part
of the kingdom on which there is not a pair of wheels. Hay, corn, straw,
fuel, stones, dung, lime, are carried on horseback ; and in harvest, sledges
drawn by oxen and horses are employed. This was probably, in early times,
the mode of conveyance throughout the kingdom ; but it is now rapidly
getting into disuse even in Devonshire.

There is on Dartmoor a race of ponies much in request in that vicinity,
being sure-footed and hardy, and admirably calculated to scramble over
the rough roads and dreary wilds of that mountainous district. The
Dartmoor pony is larger than the Exmoor, and, if possible, uglier. Ho
exists there almost in a state of nature. The late Captain Colgrave,

106

TIIK DIFFERENT BREEDS OF EXGLISII TIOESES.

governor of the prison, had a great desire to possess one of them of some-
what superior figaire to its fellows ; and ha^-ing several men to assist
him, they separated it from the herd. They drove it on some rocks by the
side of a tor (an abrupt pointed hill). A man followed on horseback,
while the captain stood below watching the chase. The little animal
being driven into a corner, leaped completely over the man and' horse, and
escaped.

The Highland iwny is far inferior to the galloway. The head is large ;
he is low before, long in the back, short in the legs, upright in the
pasterns, rather slow in his paces, and not pleasant to ride, except in the
canter. His habits make him hardy ; for he is rarely housed in the
summer or the winter. The Rev. ]\Ir. Hall, in his ' Travels in Scotland,'
says, ' that when these animals come to any bogg}" piece of ground, they
first put their nose to it, and then pat on it in a peculiar way with one of
their fore-feet ; and from the sound and feel of the ground, they know
whether it "w-ill bear them. They do the same with ice, and deteiinine in
a minute whether they will proceed.'

The Shetland pony, called in Scotland slieltie, an inhabitant of the
extremest northern Scottish isles, is a very diminutive animal — sometimes
not more than seven hands and a half in height, and rarely exceeding nine
and a half.

THE SHETLAND PONT.

He is often exceedingly beautiful, with a small head, good-tempered
countenance, a short neck, fine towards the throttle, shoulders low and
thick, — in so little a creature far from beinq- a blemish, — back short,
quarters expanded and powerful, legs flat and fine, and pretty round feet.
These ponies possess immense strength for their size ; will fatten upon
almost anything ; and are perfectly docile. One of them, nine hands (or
three feet) in height, carried a man of twelve stone forty miles in one day.

A friend of the author was, not long ago, presented with one of these
elegant little animals. He was several miles from home, and puzzled how

THE IRISH IIOHSK. 107

to couvey his newlj-acquired property. The Shetlander was scarcely
more than seven hands high, and as docile as he was bcautifnh ' Can we
not carry him in your chaise ? ' said his friend. The strange experiment
was tried. The sheltie was placed in the bottom of the gig, and covered
ap as well as could be managed with the apron ; a few bits of bread kept
him quiet ; and thus he was safely conveyed away, and exhibited the
curious spectacle of a horse riding in a gig.

In the southern parts of the kingdom the Shetlanders have a very
pleasing appearance harnessed to a light garden-chair, or carrying an
almost baby-rider. There are several of them now running in Windsoi
Park.

THE IKISH HORSE.

In some of the rich grazing counties, as Meath and Roscommon, a large,
long blood-horse is reared, of considerable value. He seldom has the
elegance of the English horse ; he is larger-headed, more legrfTY, rasrscd-
hipped, angular, jet with great power in the quarters, much depth
beneath the knee, stout and hardy, full of fire and courage, and an ex-
cellent leaper. It is not, however, the leaping of the English horse,
striding as it were over a low fence, and stretched at his full length over
a higher one : it is the proper jumj] of the deer, beautiful to look at, diffi-
cult to sit, and, both in height and extent, unequalled by the English
horse.

In the last forty years, immense improvements have been made in
Ireland in all kinds of agricultural stock. The Irish hunter is now one
of the most valuable of his class, with abundance of bone and breeding.
Ireland is the nursery for re-mounting our cavalry, and should a regiment
leave the coantry wdth inferior horses, it only proves the great want of
judgment in the officer who has had the selection of them.

There ai-e very few horses in the agricultural districts of Ireland ex-
clusively devoted to draught. The minute di\'ision of the farms rendera
it impossible for them to be kept. The occupier even of a good Irish
farm wants a horse that shall carry him to market, and draw his small
car, and pei-form every kind of drudgery — a horse of all-work ; therefore
the thorough draught-horse, whether Leicester or Suffolk, is rarely found.

If we look to the commerce of Ireland, there are few stage- waggons, or
drays with large cattle belonging to them, but almost everything is done
by one-horse carts. In the north of Ireland some stout horses are em-
ployed in the carriage of Hnen ; but the majority of the garrons used in
agriculture or commercial pursuits are miserable and half-starved animals.
In the north it is somewhat better. There is a native breed in Ulster,,
hardy, and sare-footed, but with little pretension to beauty or speed.

CHAPTER V.

BREEDING AND BREAKING IN.

A VOLUME of itself would be required to do justice to a subject possessing
so many features of interest and importance as the eii'ects of breeding
on our different classes of the horse. Oui' observations, therefore, on it
will necessarily be brief and of a general nature. That breeding has a

108 BREEUIXG.

considerable influence on the value of oui' different class of horses "n-ill be
readily admitted, and the great attention which has been given to this
subject by breeders during the last twenty years, has been rewarded with
the most siiccessful results. However much may have been said or written
of late respecting the deterioration, of our breed of horses, we are inclined
tto believe that this country never possessed such numbers of valuable
animals in every class, as at the present. The general axiom laid do^vn
is that ' like ^vill produce like,' and that the progeny will inherit the
general or mingled qiiahties of the parents. This fact should not only be
taken into consideration with regard to the general conformation, temper,
&c., of the animal, but also in regard to the transmission of disease. That
disease is transmissible from the parents to the offspring, there cannot be
n doubt; and such is the hereditary nature of certain diseases, that, although
they may not show themselves in the immediate progeny, they frequently
do so in the nest and even more distant generation. There is abundant
proof that blindness, roaring, broken ^vind, sidebones, spavins, ringbones,
laminitis and na\dcular disease, have been bequeathed to their offspring
both, by sire and dam. Nor is this all, for although the freedom from
■disease of some particular organ on the part of one of the parents may
counteract, and to a certain extent obliterate a palpable defect in that
■oro-an in the other, there will still remain a peculiar weakness, or ten-
dency in the part, which requires but some slight exciting cause to bring
about its full development. To illustrate this, we will suppose a mare
perfectly sound in her wind is sent to a horse afiiicted with roaring :
although the produce may be fi-ee from roaring, and may continue so for
some time without giving any evidence of the disease, nevertheless, how
often does it happen that an attack of influenza is succeeded by the animal
becomino- a confirmed roarer ? Again, send a mare with curbs on her
hocks, to a horse with perfectly sound ones, and what is frequently the
result on the produce ? The young animal may not possess the gTcat de-
fects observable in the dam — in short, may not bave curbs at all ; he will,
nevertheless, in all probability have weak and badly-shaped hocks, what
are commonly called curby hocks, wbich will require but slight stress
upon the part to develop the disease inherited from the dam. Hence the
■necessitv of a thorough knowledge of both sire and dam. One of the first
principles we would therefore impress upon the breeders of all animals,
and the horse in particular, is that botla parents should be free from dis-
ease. This has been too much lost sight of, especially in country districts,
where stud-horses are kept for getting hunters, many of which are nothing
better than cast-offs from the racing stable, in consequence of some disease
(not unfrequently of the respiratory organs), which makes them valueless
for the purposes for which they have been reared. The result in the
•course of a few years vrill be manifest in the young produce exhibiting in
a greater or less degree the infirmities of the sire. There cannot be a
•doubt that the employment of such animals for breeding purposes is cal-
culated to produce the greatest evil amongst all classes of horses ; and the
best course that could be adopted would be to consign them to an opera-
'tion, which, while it would allow of their being made useful for some
purposes, would prevent the spread of their deleterious influence. Pecu-
liarity of form and constitution will also be inherited. This is a most
important but neglected consideration, for however desirable or even per-
fect may have been the conformation of the sire, every good point may
be neutralised, or lost, by the defective structure of the mare. The essen-
tial points should be good in both parents, or some minor defect in either,
he met and got rid of by excellence in that particular point in the other.
The unskilful or careless breeder too often so badly paii's the animals, that

BREEDI^'G. log-

the good jioints of eacli are almost lost, the defects of botli increased, and
the produce far inferior to both sire and dam.

That the constitution and endurance of the horse are inherited, no
sporting man ever doubted. The quahties of the sire or the dam descend
from generation to generation, and the excellences or defects of certain
horses are often traced, and justly so, to some pecuharity in a far-distant
ancestor.

It may, perhaps, be justly affirmed, that there is more difficulty in se-
lecting a good mare to breed from than a good horse, because she should
possess somewhat opposite qualities. Her carcase should be long, in
order to give room for the growth of the foetus ; and yet with this there
should be compactness of form and shortness of leg. What can they
expect whose practice it is to purchase worn-out, spavined, foundered
mares, about whom they fancy there have been some good points, and
send them far in the country to breed from, and, with all theii" variety
of shape, to be covered by the same horse ? In a lottery Hke this there
may be now and then a prize, but there must be many blanks. If horse-
breeders, possessed of good judgTuent, would pay the same attention to
breed and shape as ]\Ir. Bakewell did with his sheep, they would pro-
bably attain their "ndshes in an equal degree, and greatly to theii' advantage,
whether for racing or hunting, for the collar, or the road.

As to the shape of the stallion, little satisfactory can be said. It must
depend on that of the mare, and the kind of horse wished to be bred ; but
if there is one point absolutely essential, it is ' compactness ' — as much
goodness and strength as possible condensed into a Httle space.

On the subject of hreeding in and in, that is, persevering in the same
breed, and selecting the best on either side, much has been said. The
system of crossing requires more judgment and experience than breeders
usually possess. The bad quahties of the cross are too soon engrafted on
the original stock, and, once engrafted there, are not, for many generations,
eradicated. The good quahties of both are occasionally neutralised to a
most mortif}ing degTce. On the other hand, it is the fact, however some
may deny it, that strict confinement to one breed, however valuable or
perfect, produces gTadiial deterioration. Crossing should be attempted, but
with gTeat caution. The valuable points of the old h'eed should be re-
tained, but varied or improved by the introduction of some new and
valuable quahty, with reference to beauty, strength, or speed. This is the
secret of the turf. The pure south-eastern blood is never left, but the
stock is often changed with manifest advantage.

Considerable discussion has recently taken place with regard to the
influence of weight and the distance required to be run, upon the breed
of our race-horses. It has been said that the present system of placing
hght weights on animals, and allo'U'ing them to run but short distances,
has already much diminished the capabilities and endurance of our race-
horses. The follo'vving, amongst other remarks upon the subject, con-
tained in a letter to the Times newspaper, June 29th, 1864, by one so
thoroughly acquainted with it as Admii-al Rous, will sufficiently indicate
our views on the point. He says, ' There can be but one opinion among
all persons who are interested in the turf, that the grand object in breed-
ing is to combine good size, great strength, and power of endiu-ance with
superior speed. This has never been lost sight of. Our motto is " Fortes
creantur fortibus et bonis." We have succeeded in establishing a breed
•with one-fifth more speed and strength than the original stock — an in-
creased average stature from fourteen hands to fifteen and a half — in
thirteen generations, from the first imported stalUons, Darley Arabian,
Bryerley Turk, without a drop of mixed blood, and we have a firm convic-

no

BREEDING.

tion, with ready proof, tliat no horses in the world can he compared (o
them. On the authority of Abd-el-Kader and my Indian friends, the race
of Zad-el-Rakeb, the gift of Solomon to the tribe of Azed, has not de-
generated since 1720, when the calibre of the English race-horse was
probably on a par with the Barbs which now adorn the Gibraltar meeting.
Admit this fact, and it is patent to every racing man that the best ol
these "divine horses" which, according to Eastern history, descended as a
heavenly gift from Adam to Ishmael, Ishmael to Solomon, from Solomon
to Mahomet, and from Mahomet to our own times, cannot compete with
the Ajiglo- Arabian at a difference of five stone ; a thoroughbred butcher's
hack Avill beat the Flower of the Desert any distance under 100 miles.
If there is a depreciation, why ascribe it to the abolition of heavy weights,
or to the substitution of shorter courses ? The natural solution would be
that it is owing to the sale of our most valuable stock to every country in
Europe, to China, to Australia, New Zealand. But we have <;nough left
to challenge all the world. In 1843, the total amount of stakes, plates,
and matches, was 199,000Z. ; in 18G3, it was above 250,000Z., Avithout in-
cluding the royal plates. The deterioration of horses is a pure fiction.
Stockwell, King Tom, Young Melbourne (Nabob, sold to France), and
many other stallions are framed to gallop under twenty stone ; the first
charges 100/., King Tom 75Z., next season for the chance of a foal. You
may see in Lord Glasgow's and Baron Rothschild's stables, twenty horses
up to eighteen stone ; sixty years ago you could not have found five
thoroughbred horses of this description in the United Kingdom. Fine
yearling colts fetch at auction from 450 to 800 guineas, if they appear
likely to stay a distance and to carry heavy weights. That ought to be a
sufficient answer to those persons who imagine that light weights and
short coiirses are detrimental to the breed, and encourage " leggy weeds."
The following table of the length of the different courses at Newmarket
will give some general idea of the distance usually required to be run

NEWMARKET.

The Beacon Course ....

Round Course .....

Summer Course (last 2 miles of R. C.)

Last three miles of B. C .

Ditch in (from the running-gap to the end of B. C.)

The last mile and a distance of B. C.

Ancaster Mile (last mile straight)

Criterion, Rutland, and Granby Courses (from the turn of the

Lands in) .... .

Audley End Course (from the starting-post of the. T. Y. C. to

end of B.C.)

Across the Fhit .....

Rowley Mile (last mile of A. F.) .

Ditch Mile (first mile of A. F.) .

Abingdon Mile (on the Flat)

First half of Ab. M. . . . .

Last half of Ab. M. . . . .

Two middle miles of B. C.

Last mile and a half of T. M. M.

Two Year Old Course (on the Flat)

New Two Year Old Course (on the B. M.)

Last half mile of New T. Y. C. .

Yearling Course (on the Flat)

Yearling Course (from starting-post of last half Ab. 31. to

\nnning-post of D. M.)
Bunbury Mile (a straight mile, finishing at the end of R. C.)
Chesterfield Course (last half of B. M.) .
Bretby Stakes Course (last six fur. of R. M.''

fur. yds.

173

139
0

74

0 119
0 240
0 18

0 5 182

5G

73

17

210

212

215

217

158

29

140

136

C

.52

2 138
7 196

3 212
6 0

0

2

58

1

0

240

1

4

2

0

5

C

0

1

143i

0

3

53

BREEDING. Ill

mi. fr. yd*.

Otisarewitch Course (from the starting post of T. M. M. to the
end of the Flat) .....

Cambridgeshire Course (last mile and a distance, straight)

Suffolk Stakes Course (last mile and a half R. C.)

Bedford Stakes Course (last 5 fur. of A. F.)

From Starting-Post of last half of Ab. M. to T. Y. C. winning-
post .......

From Old Betting-Post on Criterion Course to the end of B. C.

Irom the above it vnll he seen that great variety of distances is adopted
ranging from 1 furlong l-io yards to 4 niiles 1 furlong 173 yards, well cal-
culated to test tlie general speed and endurance of every class of race-horse.

A mare is capable of breeding at two years old, but should not be
allowed to do so before three or four years old. Some have injudi-
ciously commenced at two years old, before her form and strength are
sufficiently developed, and with the development of which this early
breeding will materially interfere. If a mare does little more than farm-
work, she may continue to be bred from until she is nearly twenty ; but if
she has been hardly worked and bears the marks of it, let her have been
what she may in her youth, she will deceive the expectation of the breeder
in her old age. The mare usually comes into heat in the early part of
the spring. She is said to go with foal eleven months, but there is some-
times a strange irregularity about this. Some have been kno-\\Ti to foal
five weeks earher, while the time of others has been extended six weeks
beyond the eleven months. We may, however, take eleven months as the
average time.

From the time of covering, to within a few days of the expected period
of foaling, the cart-mare may be kept at moderate labour, not only with-
out injury, but -with decided advantage. It will then be prudent to release
her from work, and keep her near home, and under the frequent inspection
of some careful person.

"When nearly half the time of pregnancy has elapsed, the mare should
have a little better food. She should be allowed one or two feeds of com
in the day. This is about the period when they are accustomed to sHnk
their foals, or when abortion occurs : the eye of the o-svner should, there-
fore, be frequently upon them. Good feeding and moderate exercise will
be the best preventives of this mishap. The mare that has once aborted
is liable to a repetition of the accident, and therefore should never be
Bufiiered to be ^yiih. other mares between the fourth and fifth months ; for
such is the power of imagination or of sympathy in the mare, that if one
sufiers abortion, others in the same pastui^e ^^•ill too often share the same
fate. Farmers wash, and paint, and tar their stables, to prevent some
supposed infection ; — the infection lies in the imagination.

The thorough-bred mare — the stock being intended for sporting pui"-
poses — should be kept quiet and apart from other horses, after the first
four or five months. When the period of parturition is di-a-wing near,
she should be watched, and shut up during the night in a safe yard or
loose box.

If the mare, whether of the pure or common breed, be thus taken care
of and be in good health wliile in foal, little danger will attend the act of
parturition. K there is false presentation of the foetus, or difficulty in
producing it, it will be better to have recourse to a well-informed prac-
titioner, than to injure the mother by the violent and injurious attempts
that are often made to reheve her.

The parturition being over, the mare should be turned into some well-
sheltered pasture, with a hovel or shed to run into when she pleases ; and
as, supposing that she has foaled in April, the grass is scanty, she should

112 BREEDING.

have a couple of feeds of corn cTailj. By the present rules of the jockey-
club the age of turf horses is reckoned from the 1st of January, but this
has not by any common consent extended to the half-breds.

The 1st of May being nearest the general time of foaling, the age of
all but thorough-bred stock is usually dated from that period. The breedei
may depend upon it that nothing is gained by starving the mother and
stinting the foal at this time. It is the most important period of the hfe
of the horse ; and if from false economy his growth is arrested, his puny
form and want of endurance will ever after testify the error that has been
committed. The corn should be gi^-en in a trough on the ground, that
the foal may partake of it -svdth the mother. When gi'ass is plentiful, the
quantity of com may be diminished. The mare vnll usually be found at heat
from the eighth to the tenth day after foaling, which is the best time for
her to be put to the horse again, and if this period be allowed to pasa
without her taking the horse, three weeks will generally be found to elapse
before she will be again found to be at heat, and every precaution should
be adopted by again bringing her to the horse, at the expfration of another
three weeks, to ensure her being in foal. If used for agricultural pur-
poses, she may now be again put to work. The foal is at first shut in the
stable during the hours of work ; but as soon as it acquires sufficient
strength to toddle after the mare, and especially when she is at slow work,
it ^vili be better for the foal and the dam that they should be together.
The work will contribute to the health of the mother ; the foal will more
frequently di-aw the milk, and thrive better ; and will be hardy and
tractable, and gradually famiHarised with the objects among which it is
afterwards to Hve. While the mother, however, is thus worked, she and
the foal should be well fed ; and two feeds of com, at least, should be
added to the gTcen food which they get when turned out after theii' work,
and at night.

In five or six months, according to the gi'owth of the foal, it may be
weaned. It should then be housed for three weeks or a month, or turned
into some distant rick-yard. There can be no better place for the foal
than the latter, as affording, and that wdthout trouble, both food and
Bhelter. The mother should be put to harder work, and have drier meat.
One or two urine-balls, or a physic-ball, will be useful if the milk should
be troublesome, or she should pine after her foal.

There is no principle of greater importance than the liberal feeding of
the foal during the whole of his growth, and at this time in particular.
Bruised oats and bran should form a considerable part of his daily pro-
vender, and if the advantage of a dairy is available, a liberal supply of
new milk will accelerate his development to a most extraordinary extent.
The farmer may be assured that the money is well laid out which is ex-
pended on the hberal nouiishnient of the growing colt ; yet while he is
well fed, he should not be rendered deKcate by excess of care.

A racing colt is often stabled ; but one that is destined to be a hunter,
a hackney, or an agricultural horse, should have a square rick, ujider the
leeward side of which he may shelter himself; or a hovel, into which he
may run at night, and out of the rain. Too often, however, the foal after
weaning is left to struggle on as he can, and becomes poor and dispirited.
He is seen shrinking under a hedge, his head hanging down, cold and almost
shivering, and when made to move, listlessly drags his limbs along, evi-
dently weak and generally in pain, a sad specimen of poverty and misery ;
such treatment generally results either in the death of the animal during
the winter or follo"\ving spring, or lays the foundation for a variety of de-
bihtating diseases which may more or less affect the animal for life. The
process of breaking- in should commence from the very period of weaning.

I

EREAJCLXG Df. 113

Tlie foal slioukl bo daily handled, accustomed to tlie lialter, led about, and
even tied up. The tractability, good temper, and value of the horse de-
pend a great deal more upon this than breeders are aware ; this should be
done as much as possible by the man by whom they are fed, and whose
management of them should be always kind and gentle. There is no fault
for which a breeder should so invariably discharge his servant as cracltv,
or even harshness, towards the rising stock ; for the principle on which
their after usefulness is founded is attachment to, and confidence in man,
and obedience, impHcit obedience, resulting principally from these. With
the horse used for agricultural purposes, after the second winter, the work
of breaking-in may commence in good earnest. He may first be bitted,
and a bit carefully selected that will not hurt his mouth, and much smaller
than those ini conmion use ; vdth this he may be suffered to amuse himself,
and to play, and to champ for an hour, on a few successive days. Ha\'ino-
become a Httle tractable, portions of the harness may be put upon him,
and, last of all, the blind wdnlvers ; and a few days after he may go into
the team. It would be better if there could be one before and one behind
him, beside the shaft horse. Let there be first the mere empty waggon.
Let nothing be done to him except that he may have an occasional pat or
kind word. The other horses will keep him moving and in his place :
and no great time will pass, sometimes not even the first day, before he
will begin to pull ■with the rest ; then the load may be gTadually increased.
The agricultural horse is wanted to ride as well as to di-aw. Let this
first lesson be given when he is in the team. Let his feeder, if possible,
be first put upon him : he vrUl be too much hampered by his harness, and
by the other horses, to make much resistance ; and, in the majority o£
cases, will quietly and at once submit. We need not repeat that no whip
or spur should be used in giving the first lessons in riding. When he be-
gins a little to understand his business, backing, the most difficult part of
his work, may be taught him ; first, to back well M^iihout anything behind
him, then wdth a Hght cart, and afterwards with some serious load ; and
taking the greatest care not to hurt his mouth. If the first lesson causes
much soreness of the gums, the colt ^vill not readily submit to a second.
If he has been rendered tractable before by kind usage, time and patience
will do all that can be washed here. Some carters are in the habit of blind-
ing the colt when teaching him to back; it may be necessary with the restive
and obstinate one, and should be used only as a last resort. The colt
having been thus partially broken-in, the necessity of implicit obedience
may be taught him, and that not by severity, but by firmness and steadi-
aess ; the voice ■«'ill go a great way, but the whip or the spur is sometimes
indispensable — not so cruelly applied as to excite the animal to resistance,
but to convince him that we have the power to enforce submission. Few,
we would almost say, no horses, are naturally vicious. It is ciniel usage
which has first provoked resistance ; that resistance has been followed by
greater severity, and the stubbornness of the animal has increased ; open
warfare has ensued, in which the man seldom gained an advantage, and
the horse was frequently rendered unserviceable. Correction may or must
be used to enforce implicit obedience after the education has proceeded to
a certain extent, but the early lessons should be mculcated w4th kindness
alone. Young colts are sometimes very perverse ; many days will occa-
sionally pass before they will permit the bridle to be put on, or the sad'dle to
be worn ; one act of harshness will doiible or treble this time. Patience
and kindness wdll, after a while, prevail. On some morning, of better
humour than usual, the bridle will be put on, and the saddle will be worn ;
and this compliance being followed by kindness and soothing on the part
of the breaker, and no inconvenience or pain being suffered by the animal, all

I

114 BKEAKIXG IN

resistance will be at an end. The same principles will apply to the break-
ing-in of the horse for the road or the chase. The handling and some
portion of instruction should commence from the time of weaning. The
fature tractability of the horse vnW much depend on this. At two years
and a half, or three years, the regular process of breaking-in should come
on. If it be delayed until the animal is four years old, his strength and
obstinacy will be more difficult to overcome. We cannot much improve
on the plan usually pui-sued by the breaker, except that there should be
much more kindness and patience, and far less harshness and cruelty, than
these persons are accustomed to exhibit, and a great deal more attention
to the form and natural action of the horse. A headstall is put on the
colt, and a cavesson (or apparatus to confine and pinch the nose) aflixed
to it, with long reins. He is first accustomed to the rein, then led round
a ring on soft ground, and at length mounted and taught his paces. Next
to preserving the temper and docility of the horse, there is nothing of so
much importance as to teach him every pace, and every part of his duty,
distinctly and thoroughly. Each must constitute a separate and some-
times long-continued lesson, and that taught by a man who will never
suffer his passion to get the better of his discretion.

After the cavesson has been attached to the headstall, and the long rein
put on, the first lesson is, to be quietly led about by the breaker, a steady
boy following behind, by occasional threatening with the whip, but never
by an actual blow, to keep the colt up. When the animal follows readily
and quietly, he may be taken to the ring, and walked round, right and left,
in a very small circle. Care should be taken to teach him this pace tho-
roughly, never suffering him to break into a trot. The boy with his whip
may here again be necessary, but not a single blow should actually fall.

IBecoming tolerably perfect in the walk, he should be quickened to a
trot, and kept steadily at it ; the whip of the boy, if needful, urging him
on, and the cavesson restraining him. These lessons should be short.
The pace should be kept perfect and distinct in each ; and docihty and
improvement rewarded with frequent caresses, and handfuls of corn. The
length of the rein may now be gradually increased, and the pace quickened,
and the time extended, until the animal becomes tractable in this his first
lessons, towards the conclusion of which, crupper-straps, or something
similar, may be attached to the clothing. These, playing about the sides
and flanks, accustom him to the flapping of the coat of the rider. The
annoyance which they occasion will pass over in a day or two ; for when
the animal finds that no harm comes to him on account of these straps, he
will cease to regard them.

Next comes the bitting. The bit should be large and smooth, and the reins
should be buckled to a ring on either side of the ^oad. There are many curious
and expensive machines for this purpose, but the simple rein will be quite
sufficient. The reins should at first be slack, and very gradually tightened.
This will prepare for the more perfect manner in which the head will be
afterwards got into its proper position, when the colt is accustomed to the
saddle. Occasionally the breaker should stand in front of the colt, and
take hold of each side rein near to the mouth, and press upon it, and
thus begin to teach him to stop and to back at the pressure of the rein,
rewarding every act of docility, and not being too eager to punish occasional
carelessness or waywardness.

The colt may now be taken into the road or street to be gradually accus-
tomed to the objects among which his services will be required. Here,
from fear or playfulness, a considerable degree of starting and shying may
be exhibited. As little notice as possible should be taken of it. The
same or a similar object should be soon passed again, but at a greater dis-

BREAKING IN. 115

tance. If the colt still sliies, let the distance be farther increased, until he
takes no notice of the object ; then he may be gradually brought nearer to it,
and this "vvill be usually effected without the shghtest difficiilty ; whei'eas,
had there been an attempt to force the animal close to it in the first instance,
the remembrance of the contest would have been associated with the
object, and the habit of shying would have been established.

Hitherto, with a cool and patient breaker, the whip may have been
shewn, but will scarcely have been used; the colt must now, however, be
accustomed to this necessary instrument of authority. Let the breaker
walk by the side of the animal, and throw his right arm over his back,
holding the reins in his left ; and occasionally quicken his pace, and, at the
moment of doing this, tap the horse with the whip in his right hand, and
at first very gently. The tap of the whip and the quickening of the pace
will soon become associated together in the mind of the animal. If neces-
sary, the taps may gradually fall a little heavier, and the feeling of pain be the
monitor of the necessity of increased exertion. The lessons of reining in
and stopping, and backing on the pressure of the bit may continue to be
practised at the same time. He may now be taught to bear the saddle.
Some little caution will be necessary at the first putting of it on. The breaker
should stand at the head of the colt, patting him, and engaging his atten-
tion, while one assistant, on the off-side, slowly tightens the girths. If he
submits quietly to this, as he generally will when the previous process of
breaking-in has been properly conducted, the ceremony of mounting may
be attempted on the following or on the third day. The breaker will need,
two assistants to accompHsh this operation. He will remain at the head
of the colt, patting and making much of him. The rider will put his foot
in+o the stirrup, and bear a little weight upon it, while the man on the
off-side presses equally on the other stirrup-leather, and according to the
docility of the animal he will gradually increase the weight, until he
balances himself on the stirrup. If the colt be uneasy or fearful, he
should be spoken kindly to and patted, or a mouthful of com be given
liim ; but if he offers serious resistance, the lessons must terminate for that
day ; he may probably be in better humour on the morrow. When the
rider has balanced himself for a minute or two, he may gently throw his
leg over, and quietly seat himself in the saddle. The breaker will then
lead the animal round the ring, the rider sitting perfectly still. After a
few minutes he wiU take the reins, and handle them as gently as possible,
and guide the horse by the pressure of them ; patting him frequently, and
especially when he thinks of dismounting — and after having dismounted,
offering him a Httle corn or green meat. The use of the rein in checking
him, and of the pressure of the leg and the touch of the heel in quickening
his pace, will soon be taught, and the education will be nearly completed.
The horse having thus far submitted himself to the breaker, these pattings
and rewards must be gradually diminished, and impHcit obedience mildly
but firmly enforced. Severity will not often be necessary : in the gTcat
majority of cases it will be altogether uncalled for ; but should the animal,
in a moment of waywardness, dispute the command of the breaker, he
must at once be taught that he is the slave of man, and that we have the
power, by other means than that of kindness, to bend him to oui- will.
The education of the horse is that of the child. Pleasure is as much as
possible associated with the early lessons ; but firmness, or if need bo
coercion, must confirm the habit of obedience. Tp-anny and cnielty will,
more speedily in the horse than even in the child, provoke the wish to
disobey, and on every practicable occasion, the resistance to command.
The restive and vicious horse is, in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred,
made so by ill-usage, and not by nature. None but those who wiU take

ilG BREAKIXG IX.

the trouble to try tlie experiment, are aware how absolute a command
the due admixture of firmness and kindness will soon give us over any
horse.

A somewhat new system of breaking-in horses was introduced into this
country by Mr. Rarey, of Ohio, in 1858, which at the time attracted
considerable attention, and was thought would supersede the old system
of hoi'se-breaking. But the complications and other difficulties attendant
upon its being fully carried out have prevented its general adoption, and
the above system is that now generally employed. The following is a
description of jMr. Rarey's method.

Mr. Rarey commences his acquaintance with the colt when at pasture ;
and by the gentlest means, and almost without gesticulation, he will entice
or urge the colt to enter into the precincts of a bam, stable, or outhouse
in the immediate neighbourhood. The colt is very quietly surrounded, or
an old horse is first led in. Wlien the colt has entered he is left alone
vfith the operator, every one and every thing having life being excluded,
BO that the attention of the colt may be entirely absorbed in the person of
the man who has to train and subdue him. After a short pause, the man
advances very slowly, holding out either hand and speaking to the colt
with the gentlest tone of voice. Eventually the colt vrill also approach,
smell the hand, when occasion must be taken to stroke the nose, then the
front of the face, cheeks, and neck. So soon as the colt remains perfectly
passive and content with this treatment, then a leathern halter is very
gently passed up and on to his head. Rope halters, from their coarseness,
are highly objectionable, and should only be employed upon emergency.
When the halter is secured, a plain smooth snaffle bridle with a moderate
sized snaffle bit is passed into the mouth and fitted to the head. Should
the colt resist the introduction of the snaffle, then the left hand having
the iron bit in it is placed immediately behind the lower lip, and the
finger and thumb feeling the bars of the mouth within the lips, instantly
induces the colt to move the tongue and open the mouth. At that moment
the snaffle is inserted within the front teeth, and is drawn well into the
mouth by the headstall in the right hand. This must be effected without
hurry or in any manner to disturb the feelings of the animal. When the
bridle is secured with the reins in the left hand, the person proceeds with
his training by handhng, with the utmost gentleness, the neck, shouldei-,
and near fore-leg. This operation may require some time to effect by
continued and oft-repeated pattings and coaxings, since the nervousness or
perverseness of some leads them to strike with the near hind-foot, and
follow ^Yith. rapidity the hand of the operator. When the colt permits the
handling of the leg and fetlock, the front of the shank is taken in the palm
of the hand, and the foot raised from the ground. Sometimes a pressure
of tlie back sinew with the finger and thumb will conduce to lift the leg,
at others, turning the colt's head and neck well to the left "vvill assist the
movement. When the foot has been once stirred, the operation must be
repeated until the colt will allow the foot to be bent near to the elbow
joint, and to be retained for a time in that position. The gentle feeling
of the hand then proceeds along the body near the hind quarter and leg.
The hind-leg should be lifted in the quietest manner and raised as high as
possible. The tail is then well handled, and the off-side of the colt finishes
the process of handling or gentling. Should the colt evince any uneven-
ness of temper, the speedier method of ti-aining conaists in stnijtping up
both of the fore-legs, and bringing the colt to the ground upon his
knees.

"VVTien this process is determined upon, the stable, loose box, or bam
should be covered with straw or litter to the depth of a foot ; and if the

BREAKING IN,

117

foundation be of stone or brick, the knees of the colt must be protected by
knee-caps.

The strap for the near fore-leg must be about three feet in length, and
an inch in breadth. It has a buckle at the end ■n'ith a metal D or a loop
on the inside, about two
inches from the buckle.
The strap is perforated
with holes from the point
to the half of its length.
The point of the strap is
passed between the arms
close to the chest, and ran
through the D. The sti-ap is then allowed to slide down the near fore-leg
and clip the pastern, the operator standing upright, and holding on by
the point of the strap. Strain is then made on the pastern to lift the foot,
and a movement to the left will effectuaDy do so. When the colt remains
quiescent with the foot well up, the point of the strap is carried over tho
arm or radius through the buckle ; and the limb is thus fastened np
and bent together. The colt is then incited to move about on three legs,
either by bending him round by aid of the bridle to the near or to the off-
side, or by reining him backwards — the latter process is objectionable, as
in the convulsive spring, he niay rear and fall backwards. Wlien the
animal is in a great measure reconciled to his crippled state, the handling
of the body and hind-legs must be again proceeded with. Except in very
vicious dispositions, the confinement of the near fore-leg will be a sufficient
means to enable the most nervous operator to carry through the process
of handling the colt. Some horses will attempt to kick when upon three
legs, and the zebra will kick and bite in any position, even when lying
upon his back ; but such instances of \'ice in general are rare. As soon
as the colt will permit his body to be handled, let a surcingle or roller be
fastened round it.

Should the colt not remain quiet with the bending up of the near fore-
leg alone, then proceed with strapping up the off fore-leg also. The strap
for this pui'pose must be about six feet in length, an inch or an inch and a
quarter in width, and of the
thickness of strong rein or
light stii'rup leather. It has
a loop of three inches, or a
metal D at one end. The
loop or D is passed round
the pastern of the off fore-
leg, the point of the strap
taken thi'ough it, and the
strap draTNTi tight to the
])astei'n. The point of the strap is then carried within the surcingle or
roller and held tightly in tho right hand. When the operator is desirous to
raise the off fore-leg, he incKnes the head of the colt by the aid of the
bridle to the right or left hand ; and the instant the foot is removed, it
is dra\\Ti up to the surcingle with force, and retained in that position,
if possible. Generally speaking, a succession of violent plunges will
succeed the fall, during the whole of which the person must retain
his hold upon the leg, and by placing his shoulder to the near fore-
hand of the horse with a strong bearing upon the off rein to bend the
head and neck outwards, so that the animal cannot collect with advan-
tage his muscular force, he soon compels the colt to yield up the con-
test. This part of the process must, on no account, be hurried over or

118

EREAKIXG IX.

anticipated. The plunges may continue for five, ten, or fifteen minutes,
seldom longer. But the colt must be allowed his own time to lie down

and succumb. Eventually he falls to either side, generally on the near
side. When down, extend the head and neck to the full extent hori-

zontally. Handle the head, neck, body, limbs, and tail in succession until
the colt remains completely passive under the treatment, taking several
opportunities to sit down upon the forehand, the body, and the hind

EREAKIXG IX.

119

quarters. At this period, the saddle without girths or stirru^^s may be
temporarily placed upon the body, or the harness may be laid upon
the hind quarters. The hobble and strap represented as attached to the
hind-leg of the zebra are only used when an animal is a violent, savage,
and confirmed kicker, and in siibduing horses that will not allow their
feet to be touched or shod. When you have to deal with a horse as
savage and wicked as ' Cruizer,' or the zebra, a horse that can kick from
one leg as fiercely as othei's can from tAvo ; in that case, to .subdue and
compel him to lie down, have a
leather surcingle Avith a ring
fastened on the belly part, buckle
the hobbles on the hind-legs, and
pass the ropes through the ring :
when the horse is thrown down
by the strapping up of the fore-
legs, the hind-legs must be draAvii
close up to the ring in the sur-
cingle.

If the horse has any pro-
pensity to indulge in the Aace of
biting, the head must be drawn,
up forcibly to the operator, as he
sits upon the forehand, and taking
the front and back part of the
mouth in both hands, the jaAvs
are opened and shut Avith fre-
quency so that the teeth are made
to clash against each other very
palpably. But for conquering a
vicious, biting horse, there is
nothing equal to the large Avooden
gag-bit Avhich Mr. Rarey first
exhibited in public on the zebra.
A muzzle only prevents a horse
from biting, a gag properly used,
cures : for, Avhen he finds he
cannot bite, he by degrees aban-
dons this most dangerous Adce,
Colts inclined to crib-bite, should
be dressed Avith one on. This

will prove to the horse his utter impotency, and may be considered by fre-
quent repetition to be the most perfect specific for a A-ice otherAA-ise and
hitherto deemed to be incurable. When the colt is perfectly quiet, the
fore-legs are freed from the straps Avhich are then draAvn out to their
full extent, and the surcingle removed from the body.

Thus the horse lies in the horizontal position thoroughly subdued, and
for the moment may be said to be quite tamed. He has noAv to be raised
by gentle means, and Avithout disturbing the equanimity of his feelings by
the use of stick or Avhip.

Take hold of the mane AAdth both hands, and raise the head and neck to
the upright position. In the course of this movement the colt aaqU double
up the fore-legs, and remain in the natural position of lying at ease. The
fore-legs are then draAvn out straight to the front, as the first natural
movement to rise, and by inciting the colt by means of the bridle and the
voice, he Avill instantly rise to his feet. If the saddle has not been remoA'cd
at the same time Avith the straps, it must noAV be girthed, and the stirrups

120 BREAKING IX.

added also. But should it have been removed, it must now be offered to
the attention of the horse, who as soon as he has smelt at and touched it
with his nose, vsdll immediately permit it to be quietly put upon his back.
The saddle must te placed a full hand's breadth from the shoulder blade,
and the girths fastened without tightness or causing disturbance. The
trainer then attempts to mount by putting the ball of the left foot in the
stirrup, pressing the knee well against the saddle to prevent the point of
the toe from irritating the side of the colt ; taking hold of the ofl-side of
the pommel with the right hand, or the cantle of the saddle as most con-
venient, a lock of the mane in the left hand, and springing very gently
and effectually into the seat.

If the horse will not remain completely at rest during the above opera-
tion, strap up the near fore-leg, and proceed to mount him as he stands
upon three legs, or begin the whole process of thro^ving down, handling,
and taming throughout afresh. Every colt should be thrown and tamed
two, three, four or five times in succession, and "s\"ithout intermission,
according to the nature of its disposition, before the trainer commences
upon any system of movements subsequent to the act of mounting, because
hy such processes the horse "\\'ill become thoroughly familiai-ised, and
obedient to the sound of the human voice, and tractable to every part of
teaching that may follow. Moreover, by repeating the operations con-
secutively, the mind of the animal will become impressed with the sense
of that which will be required from hun, and by anticipation and a con-
viction of the uselessness of resistance, readily yield to the directions of
the trainer. Thus every fall wiU be attended by fewer and lesser struggles,
and eventually, or in the course of two or thi-ee days' close schooling, the
most refractory colt vrill kneel and lie down at the word of command.

But the operation of throwing dowTi, though exceedingly simple in
itself, requii^es a certain amount of dexterity, fearlessness, and physical
energy only possessed by a very limited number of individuals. The ex-
ertion necessary to tire the animal ■udll, in wann weather, and in a very
confined atmosphere, also exhaust the energies of a strong man. Therefore,
in order to render the process more simple and attainable by the most
timid practitioner, a self-acting or spring buckle has been invented, which
has the power of retaining the off fore-leg in its bent up position without
further assistance or interference on the part of the employer. The
buckle is attached to the end of the strap, Avhich in this case is an inch
and a quarter vnde, seven feet six inches long, and perforated with holes
throughout. Another spring buckle of smaller size is fixed on the inside
of the strap, at three inches' distance from the larger one. The strap is
fastened round the pastern of the off fore-leg by di'aAving the strap round
it and through the smaller buckle. The point of the strap is then taken
within the surcingle, and drawn through the larger buckle, and the instant
the foot is raised from the ground, it is rapidly di'awn up to the surcino-le,
and fixed in position by the power of the spring. The surplus end of the
strap is then hitched within the surcingle, and the operator looks quietly
on dui'ing the struggles of the horse, or leisurely g-uides his head to the
near or off-side, as the fancy may direct. Thus, the whole of the physical
power requisite to carry through the operation to a successful issue, vnll be
just so much as "will enable the practitioner to pull ujo the off fore-leg, and
to raise the head and neck from the horizontal position when on the ground.
If a large metal D be placed upon the surcingle, and the end of the strap
be passed within the roller of it, tlion a stable boy may be enabled to raise
the fore-leg with facility, since with one hand an adult can raise to the
surcingle without great effort a 56 lb. weight, and the power of the sprint
buckle will retain it at any given height. The strap is released by draw-

BREAKING rX.

121

..ug it to eltlior side of the interior of the buckle. So soon as the ton^e
of the buckle is withdi'awn from the hole, and presses upon the solid
leather, the strap is made to shde away ^\-ith the utmost ease.

Spring buckles can be readily made by any whitesmith, gninsmith, or
even blacksmith, who professes to be an ingenious mechanic. The open-
ing of the frame must be the exact width of the strap ; one inch and a
quarter. The depth of the buckle from the roller to the cross bar, upon
wliich are fastened the tongue and the strap, about one inch and three
quarters, having bent cheeks to admit the points of the finger and thumb,
and the distance from the base to the cross bar is entii-ely optional, say
half an inch. The spring must be sprung from the under side of the
base, because experience has proved that if it be fastened to the upper
Bide, it cannot be made to resist eifectually the violent concussions in the
plunging of the horse. The point of the spring must chp with exactness
the tongue, and be made to reach within half an inch from its point. The
spring itself must be strong, and of the finest temper, other^wise it will be
thrown out of gear in a very short time. It is made to screw on to the
base, so that it can be readily removed to be repaired or exchanged. The
strength of the frame may be about a quarter of an inch, or even less in
thickness. The smaller buckle must just admit the strap to be shunted
to either side when requii-ed to be released.

By these means, we mil conclude the operator to be quietly and securely
fixed in the saddle. He is now placed upon a timid creature, that has felt
neither whip nor spur', and in whose mouth the mucous membrane is as
fine in the fibre, and as sensitive to the touch, as is the interior covering
of his own organisation. Moreover, he now has attained a moral sway
over the animal, hitherto unknown to the horse himself, and perfectly
unappreciated by the man also. Therefore the rider must feel his own
way with gentleness, and not destroy that fine feeling, which is thus
certain to result, by the exhibition of brute force, guided by the spirit of
way^vard tyi-anny.

In attempting to urge the colt into motion, the readiest method is to
bend the head and neck to either side, and thus induce him to move in a
cu'cuitous coui'se. So soon as he does so Avith facihty, the process of
moving in any direction wQl be rendered extremely simple. The walk
must be the only pace of exercise for the colt, until his bones, sinews, and
constitution are thoroughly accustomed to the weight of the rider, and
the periods of time requii'ed for exertion. The quiet pressure of the legs,
simultaneous with gentle feelings on the mouth, must gradually tend to
collect the colt in his walk, and assist to perfect his method of can-iage
and correct regularity of pace. There are very few of the present race of
horse-breakers who practically know the difference between the amble
and the true walk, and if bad habits are taught in the first instance, the
shulHing gait may continue through life.

Should the colt be required exclusively and immediately for the purposes

122 THE GEXEKAL MANAGEMENT

of harness, tlien the different parts of the harness must be quietly pre-
sented to its notice and sense of smell, before they are applied to the body
of the animal. If it be inclined to be restive, then the near fore-leg must
be immediately strapped up, or the colt must be thrown do-nTi, tamed, and
partially harnessed in the horizontal position. If upon rising, there still
continues a disposition to kick, the near fore-leg must be again strapped
up, and the colt fastened up in the break upon three legs only. The colt
is then moved to the right or left, to induce him to bear well upon the
collar, and thus take a circular direction. When he has gone quietly for
some distance upon three legs, the near fore-leg may be released from its
confinement. In a very inveterate kicker, it will be fully necessary to re-
tain a purchase upon the pastern of the near fore-leg by a strap which
shall be made to pass from the pastern through the rings of the hamesb
into the hand of the driver, so that upon the first intimation of restiveness,
the leg may be instantly drawn up and retained in position for a consider-
able time. If the colt be intended for slow and heavy draught, the very
best education it can receive will be to be placed as the centre of a team
of three, so that it cannot recede or progress without the concurrence of
the remaining two.

CHAPTER V].

THE GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF THE HORSE.

This is a most important part of our subject, and deserving the careful
attention of all parties interested in the health and condition of the horse.
We will arrange the most important poiuts of general management under
the following heads : —

AIR.

There cannot be a doubt that the proper ventilation of our stables has
very great influence in determining the health and vigour of the animals
confined in them. But although attention has of late years been directed
to this subject, and considerable improvements carried out in the manage-
ment of some of our best stables, as a general rule the ventilation of the
majority of stables, and especially those iu which agricultui-al horses are
confined, will be found very deficient, and in many instances utterly
devoid of any special arrangement by which this very important process
can be carried on.

Mr. Clarke, of Edinburgh, was the first who advocated the use of well-
ventilated stables. After him Professor Coleman estabhshed them in the
quarters of the cavalry troops, and there cannot be a doubt that he saved
the Government many thousand pounds every year. His system of venti-
lation, however, like many other salutary innovations, was at first strongly
resisted. Much evil was predicted ; but after a time, diseases that used to
dismount whole troops almost entii^ely disappeared from the army.

It should always be borne in mind that the breathing of pure air is
necessary to the existence and the health of man and beast, and in pro-
portion to the purity of the aii' in which an animal is kept, vn\l be found
the greater or less vigour and health with which all the functions of the
body will be performed. There are two chief sources from which the
impurities of the stable are derived, viz. : the changes produced in the air
by the process of respiration, and the gaseous matters which are formed
by the decomposition of escrementitious and other matters from the want

OF THE HORSE. 123

of proper drainage or neglect. To make the subject clearly understood,
we ^vill briefly describe the composition of the atmosphere and the changes
which are brought about in it, by the function of respiration. The air
which surrounds us, in its ordinary state, consists of two principal gases
named oxygen and nitrogen, in the proportions of about a tifth by bulk of
the former to nearly four-fifths of the latter ; besides these there are also
very small quantities of carbonic acid and some watery vapour. Either
oxygen or nitrogen gas, in a separate state, or combined in any other pro-
portions, would prove destnictive or otherA\4se injurious to life, but by a
beautifal arrangement, they are blended together in such proportions that
the destructive properties of each are neutraHsed and made one of the
chief means by which the life of men and animals is sustained.^ The func-
tion of respiration consists of two distinct parts, viz. inspiration and
expiration. At each inspiration made by the animal a considerable
quantity of air passes into the lungs, and having penetrated to the remotest
parts of the bronchial tubes, enters what are called the air-cells. Around
these cells ramify gTeat numbers of very minute blood-vessels called
capillaries, containing the blood which has been rendered impure in its
passage through the system of the animal. A peculiar change here takes
place between the air and the blood. The oxygen of the air combines
\Yith. the blood, and uniting wth the carbon contained in it, and which
renders it impure, forms carbonic acid, thus rendering it again fit to pass
on and supply the wants of the system, while the carbonic acid and nitrogen
(both in their present state destructive poisons) are expelled from the lungs
by the process of expiration into the surrounding atmosphere. From the
above it will be seen that an abundant supply of pure air is necessary for
the maintenance of the health and Hfe of the animal. The effect of several
horses being shut up in the same stable is completely to empoison the aii-; and
yet, even in the present day, there are too many who carefully close every
aperture by which a breath of fresh aii- can by possibihty gain admission.
In effecting this, even the key-hole and the threshold are not forgotten.
What, of necessity, must be the consequence of this? The breathing of
every animal contaminates the air, and when in the course of the night,
with every aperture stopped, it passes again and again through the lungs,
the blood cannot undergo its proper and healthy change, digestion ^411
not be so perfectly performed, the brain and nervous system will suffer,
and all the functions of life be more or less injured, and one need not feel
surprised at finding sore throat, inflamed lungs, diseased eyes, grease,
mange, and glanders, at times making their appearance in such stables.
One other chief source of impurity to the air in stables,_ is the presence of
certain deleterious gases resulting from the decomposition of the urine
and dung of the animal, and also of other vegetable substances, caused
either by°defective drainage or neglect. The piincipal gases evolved are
the compounds of sulphur and carbon with hydi-ogen and ammonia, all
more or less injurious to health. \Vhen a person first enters an ill-man-
aged stable, and especially early in the morning, he is annoyed, not only by
the heat of the confined air, but by a pungent smell, resembling hartshorn.
It has been ascertained by chemical experiments that the urine of the
horse contains in it exceedingly large quantities of compounds easily con-
verted by decomposition into ammonia ; and not only so, but that influ-
enced by the heat of a crowded stable, and possibly by other decompositions
that are going forward at the same time, this ammoniacal vapour begins
to be rapidly given out almost immediately after the urine is voided.
When disease begins to appear among the inhabitants of these ill-venti-
lated places, is it wonderful that it should rapidly spread among them, and
that the plague-spot should be, as it were, placed on the door of such a

VIA TEXTILATIOX.

stable ? When influenza appears in spring or in autumn, it is, in very
many cases, to be traced to such a pest-house. It is peculiarly fatal there.
The horses belonging to a small establishment, and rationally treated, have
it comparatively seldom, or have it lightly ; but among the inmates of a
crowded stable it is sure to display itself, and there it is most fatal. The
experience of every veterinary surgeon, and of every large proprietor of
horses, vnll corroborate this statement. Agriculturists should bring to
their stables the common sense which directs them in the usual concerns
of life, and should begin, when their pleasures and their property are so
much at stake, to assume that authority, and to enforce that obedience, to
the lack of which is to be attributed the greater part of bad stable-manage-
ment and horse-disease. Of nothing are we more certain than that the
majority of the maladies of the horse, and those of the worst and most fatal
character, are directly or indirectly to be attributed to a deficient supply of
au", cniel exaction of work, and insufficient or bad fare. Each of these
evils is to be di'eaded — each is, in a manner, watching for its prey ; and
when they are coml)ined, more than half of the inmates of the stable are
often swept away.

The temperatui^e of the stable is also another important consideration.
This should seldom exceed 70° in the summer, or fall below 40° or 50° in
the winter. It may be readily ascertained by a thermometer, which no
establishment where large nunabers of horses are kept should be without.
A hot stable has, in the mind of the groom, been long connected with a
glossy coat. The latter, it is thought, cannot be obtained without the
former.

To this we should reply that, in winter, a thin, glossy coat is not desir-
able. Nature gives to every animal a warmer clothing when the cold
weather approaches. The horse — the agricultural horse especially —
acquires a thicker and a lengthened coat, in order to defend him from the
surrounding cold. Man puts on an additional and a warmer covering, and
his comfort is increased and his health preserved by it. He who knows
anything of the fanner's horse, or cares about his enjoyment, will not
object to a coat a Httle longer and a Kttle roughened when the wmtry Avind
blows bleak. The coat, however, needs not to be so long as to be
unsightly ; and warm clothing, even in a cool stable, will, with plenty of
honest grooming, keep the hair sufficiently smooth and glossy to satisfy the
most fastidious. The over-heated air of a close stable saves much of this
grooming, and therefore the idle attendant unscrupulously sacrifices the
health and safety of the horse.

Let this be considered in another point of view. The horse stands
twenty or two-and-twenty hours in this unnatural vapour bath, and then
he is suddenly stripped of all his clothing, he is led into the open air, and
there he is kept a couple of hours or more in a temperatui-e fifteen or
twenty degrees below that of the stable. Putting the inhumanity of this
out of the question, must not the animal, thus unnaturally and absurdly
treated, be subjected to rheumatism, catarrh, and various other complaints ?

It is not so generally known as it ought to be, that the return to a hot
stable is quite as dangerous as the change from a heated atmosphere to a
cold and biting air. Many a horse that has travelled v^ithout harm over a
bleak country, has been suddenly seized with inflammation and fever when
he has, immediately at the end of his journey, been surrounded with heated
and foul air. It is the sudden change of temperature, whether from heat
to cold, or from cold to heat, that does the miscliief, and yearly destroys
thousands of horses.

The stable should be large in proportion to the number of horses wliich
it is destined to contain. It usually consists of loose boxes, each to hold

LITTEK. 125

one liorse, or divided into stalls in wliicli a number of horses can be kepk
secured by the head. Boxes are preferable to stalls, inasmuch as they
allow considerable space for the animal to move in and exercise himself,
and also enable him to He down and rest after a hard day's work, with
less chance of being disturbed. Boxes are also essentially necessary for
sick horses, and especially when suffering fi-om any contagious disease.
Each bos should be about fifteen feet in length by ten in width, with the
side walls from nine to twelve feet high, and Avhere space will admit, the
opening above should extend to the roof. A stable for six horses divided into
stalls should not be less than forty feet in length, and fifteen or sixteen
feet wide. K there be no loft above, the inside of the roof should always
be plastered, to prevent direct currents of air, and occasional droppings
fi'om broken tiles ; and the heated and foul air should escape, and cool and
pure air be admitted by elevation of the central tiles, or other opening in
the roof suflaciently protected to prevent the beating in of the rain ; or by
gratings placed high up in the walls. These latter apertures should be
as far above the horses as they can conveniently be placed, by which
means all injurious draught vnll be prevented.

If there is a loft above the stable, the ceiling should be plastered, in
order to prevent the foul air from penetrating to the hay above, and in-
jui-ing both its taste and its wholesomeness ; and no openings should be
allowed above the racks, through which the hay may be thrown into them ;
for they will permit the foul aii* to ascend to the provender, and also in thee
act of filling the rack, and while the horse is eagerly gazing upward for
his food, a grass seed may faU into the eye, and produce considerable
inflammation. At other times, when the careless groom has left open th&
trap-door, a stream of cold air beats down on the head of the horse.

The stable with a loft over it should never be less than twelve feet high,
and proper ventilation should be secured, either by tubes carried through
the loft to the roof, or by gratings close to the ceiling. These gratings or
openings should be enlarged or contracted by means of a covering or
shutter, so that during spring, summer, and autumn the stable may possess
nearly the same temperature with the open air, and in winter a tempera-
ture of not more than ten or fifteen degrees above that of the external
atmosphere,

LITTER.

Having spoken of the vapour of ammonia, which is so rapidly and so
plentifully given out from the urine of a horse in a heated stable, we next
take into consideration the subject of litter. The first caution is frequently
to remove it. The early evolution of gas shows the rapid putrefaction of
the mine ; and the consequence of which will be the rapid putrefaction
of the htter that has been moistened by it. Everything hastening to de-
composition should be carefully removed where Hfe and health are to be
presei-ved. The litter that has been much wetted or at all softened by the
urine, and is beginning to decay, should be swept away every morning ;
the greater part of the remainder may then be piled under the manger, a
little being left on the hard pavement during the day. The soiled and
macerated, portion of that which was left should be removed at night. In
the better kind of stables, however, the stall should be completely emptied
every morning.

No heap of fermenting dung should be suffered to remain during tho
day in the corner or in any part of the stable. With regard to this tho
directions of the master should be peremptory.

The stable should be so contrived that the urine shall quickly run off,
and the offensive and injurious vapour from the decomposing fluid and the

126 LIGHT.

litter will thus be materially lessened : if, however, tlie urine is carried
away by means of a gutter running along tlie stable, the floor of the stalls
must slant towards that gutter, and the declivity must not be so great as
to strain the back sinews, and become an occasional, although unsuspected,
cause of lameness. Mr. R. Lawrence well observes, that, ' if the reader
will stand for a few minutes with his toes higher than his heels, the pain
he will feel in the calves of his legs will soon convince him of the truth
of this remark. Hence, when a horse is not eating, he always endeavours
to find his level, either by standing across the stall or else as far back as
hirf halter will permit, so that his hind-legs may meet the ascent of the
other side of the channel.'

This inclination of the stall is also at times the cause of contraction
of the heels of the foot, by throwing too great a proportion of the weight
upon the toe, and removing that pressure on the heels which tends most
to keep them open. Care, therefore, must be taken that the slanting of the
floor of the stalls shall be no more than is sufiicient to drain ofl" the urine
with tolerable rapidity. Stalls of this kind certainly do best for mares ; but
for horses we much prefer those with a grating in the centre, and a slight
Inclination of the floor on every side towards the middle. A short branch
may communicate with a larger drain, by means of which the urine may be
carried ofl" to a reservoir outside the stable. Traps are now contrived, and
may be procured at little expense, by means of which neither any ofiensive
Bmell nor current of air can pass through the grating.

The farmer should not lose any of the urine. It is from the dung of the
horse that he derives a principal and the most valuable part of his manure.
It is that which earliest takes on the process of putrefaction, and forms
one of the strongest and most durable dressings. That which is most of
all concerned with the rapidity and the perfection of the decomposition is
the urine.

Humanity and interest, as well as the appearance of the stable, should
induce the proprietor of the horse to place a moderate quantity of litter
under him during the day. The farmer who wants to convert every
otherwise useless substance into manure, will have additional reason for
adopting this practice : especially as he does not confine himself to that
to which in towns and in gentlemen's stables custom seems to have limited
the bed of the horse, viz. wheat and oat straw, and sometimes, during
the summer months, tan or sawdust. Pea and bean hauhn, and heath,
occupy in the stable of the farmer, during a part of the year, the place of
wheaten and oaten straw. It should, however, be remembered that these
substances are disposed more easily to fei-ment and putrefy than straw,
and therefore should be more carefally examined and oftener removed. It
is the faulty custom of some farmers to let the bed accumulate until it
reaches almost to the horse's belly, and the bottom of it is a mass of dimg.
K there were not often many a hole and cranny through which the wind
can enter and disperse the foul air, the health of the animal would mate-
rially suffer.

LIGHT.

This neglected branch of stable management is of far more consequence
than is generally imagined ; and it is particularly neglected by those for
whom these treatises are principally designed. The farmer's stable is
frequently destitute of any glazed window, and has only a shutter, which
is raised in warm weather, and closed when the weather becomes cold.
When the horse is in the stable only during a few hours in the day, this
is not of so much consequence, nor of so much, probably, with regard to
horses of slow work ; but to carriage horses and hackneys, so far, at least,

LIGHT. ItiT

lis tlie eyes are concerned, a dark stable is little less injurious tlhan a foul
and heated one. Comfort, cleanliness, and health, are all connected with
this question ; and why stables are not as well lighted as any of the rooms
in dweUing-houser, it is not easy to say — the idea of too much Ught
being in any way injurious is ridiculous ; horses, as well as men, in a
state of nature, live in clear open daylight ; and there is no reason why,
in a state of domesticity, one should not do so as well as the other. A
great proportion of stables are dark, foul, and unhealthy ; the two latter
states often depending, to a considerable extent, on the former ; for, was
sufficient Hght admitted, the causes of the latter would be more evident
and their accumulation would be prevented ; but, as it is, both in town
and the country, darkness covers a multitude of sins, even, in many
respects, in otherwise weU-ordered establishments. In order to illustrate
this, reference may be made to the unpleasant feeling, and the utter
imposslbihty of seeing distinctly, when a man suddenly emerges from a
dark place into the ftdl blaze of day. The sensation of mingled pain and
giddiness is not soon forgotten ; and some minutes pass before the eye can
accommodate itself to the increased light. If this were to happen every
day, or several times in the day, the sight would be irreparably injured,
or possibly blindness would ensue. Can we wonder, then, that the horse,
taken from a dark stable into a glare of hght, feeling, probably, as we
should do under similar circumstances, and unable for a considerable
time to see anything around him distinctly, should become a starter, or
that the frequently rejDeated violent effect of sudden Hght should induce
inflammation of the eye so intense as to terminate in blindness ? There
is, indeed, no doubt that horses kept in dark stables are frequently
notorious starters, and that abominable habit has been properly traced to
this cause.

Farmers know, and should profit by the knowledge, that the darkness
of the stable is not unfrequently a cover for great uncleanliness. A glazed
window, with leaden divisions between the small panes, would not cost
much, and would admit a degree of hght somewhat more approaching to
that of day, and at the same time would render the concealment of gross
inattention and want of cleanliness impossible.

K plenty of light is admitted, the walls of the stable, and especially that
portion of them which is before the horse's head, must not be of too
glaring a colour. The constant reflection from a white wall, and especially
if the sun shines into the stable, mil be as injurious to the eye as the
sudden changes from darkness to Hght. The perpetual sHght excess
of stimulus will do as much mischief as the occasional but more violent
one when the animal is taken from a kind of tmlight to the blaze of day.
The colour of the stable, therefore, should depend on the quantity of Hght.
"Where much can be admitted, the walls should be of a grey hue. Where
darkness would otherwise prevail, frequent whitewashing may in some
degree dissipate the gloom.

For another reason, it will be evident that the stable should not possess
too glaring a Hght : it is the resting-place of the horse. In the quietness
of a dimly-Hghted stable he obtains repose, and accumulates flesh and fat.
Dealers are perfectly aware of this. They have their darkened stables, in
which the young horse, Avith Httle or no exercise, and fed upon mashes
and ground com, is made up for sale. The round and plump appearance,
however, which may delude the unwary, soon vanishes Avith altered treat-
ment, and the animal is found to be unfit for hard work, and predisposed
to many an inflammatory disease. The circumstances, then, under which
a stable somewhat darkened may be allowed, will be easily determined by
the owner of the horse ; but, as a general rule, dark stables are unfi'iendly

128 GROOMING.

to cleanliness, and the frequent cause of the vice of starting, and of the
most serious diseases of the eye.

GROOMING,

Of this much need not be said to the agriculturist, since custom, and
apparently without ill effect, has allotted so little of the comb and brush to
the farmer's horse. The animal that is worked all day, and turned out at
nio-ht, requires little more to be done to him than to have the dirt brushed
off his limbs. Regular grooming, by rendering his skin more sensible to
the alteration of temperature, and the inclemency of the weather, would
be prejudicial. The horse that is altogether turned out needs no grooming.
The dandi'itf or scujt'f which accumulates at the roots of the hair, is a pro-
vision of nature to defend him from the wind and the cold.

It is to the stabled horse, highly fed, and little or irregularly worked,
that grooming is of so much consequence. Good rubbing with the brush
or the currycomb opens the pores of the skin, circulates the blood to tho
extremities of the body, produces free and healthy perspiration, and stands
in the room of exercise. No horse will carry a fine coat without either
unnatural heat or dressing. They both effect the same purpose ; they both
increase the insensible perspiration : but the first does it at the expense
of health and strength, while the second, at the same time that it produces
a glow on the skin, and a determination of blood to it, rouses all the
enero-ies of the frame. Tt would be well for the proprietor of the horse
if he were to insist — and to see that his orders are really obeyed — that
the fine coat in which he and his groom so much delight, is produced
by honest rubbing, and not by a heated stable and thick clothing, and
most of all, not by stimulating or injurious spices. The horse should bo
regularly dressed every day, in addition to the grooming that is necessary
after work.

There is no necessity, however, for half the punishment which many a
groom inflicts upon the horse in the act of dressing ; and particularly on one
whose skin is thin and sensitive. The curry-comb should at all times be
lio-htly applied. With many horses its use may be almost dispensed vdth ;
and even the brush needs not to be so hard, nor the points of the bristles
so irreoTilar as they often are. A soft brush, with a Httle more weight of
the hand, will be equally effectual, and a great deal more pleasant to the
horse. A hair-cloth, while it will seldom irritate and tease, will be almost
sufficient ^vith horses that have a thin skin, and that have not been neg-
lected ; the hay whisp and the linen rubber are the means by which the
coat is kept in the most perfect order, and they cannot too generally be
had recourse to, for their effect on the skin is most soothing, and to no
part of his dressing does the horse, particularly the well-bred one, so will-
ingly submit himself as to this. After all, it is no slight task to dress a
horse as it ought to be done. It occupies no httle time, and demands
considerable patience, as well as dexterity. It will be readily ascertained
whether a horse has been well dressed by rubbing him with one of the
fingers. A greasy stain will detect the idleness of the groom. When,
however, the horse is changing his coat, both the curry-comb and the
brush should be used as lightly as possible.

Whoever would be convinced of the benefit of friction to the horse's
skin, and to the horse generally, needs only to observe the effects pro-
duced by well hand-rubbing the legs of a tired horse. While every
enlargement subsides, and the painfal stiffness disappears, and the legs
attain their natural warmth, and become fine, the animal is evidently and
rapidly reviving ; he attacks his food with appetite, and then quietly lies
down to rest.

KXEfitlSE. 129

EXERCISE.

Got observations on this important branch of stable-management must
have only a slight reference to the agricultural horse. His work is usually
regular and not exhausting. He is neither predisposed to disease by idle-
ness, nor worn ont by excessive exertion. He, like his master, has enough
to do to keep him in health, and not enough to distress or injure him : on
the contrary, the regularity of his work prolongs life to an extent rarely
witnessed in the stable of the gentleman. Our remarks on exercise, then,
must have a general bearing, or have principal reference to those persons
who are in the middle stations of life, and who contrive to keep a horse
for business or pleasure, but cannot afford to maintain a servant for the
express purpose of looking after it. The first rule we would lay down is,
that every horse should have daily exercise. The animal that, with the
usual stable feeding, stands idle for three or four days, as is the case in
many estabHshments, must suffer. He is predisposed to fever, or to
grease, or, most of all, to diseases of the foot ; and if, after three or four
days of inactivity, he is ridden far and fast, he is Hable to have inflamma-
tion of the lungs or of the feet.

A gentleman or tradesman's horse suffers a great deal more from idle-
ness than he does from work. A stable-fed horse should have two hours'
exercise every day, if he is to be kept free from disease. Nothing of ex-
traordinary or even of ordinary labour can be effected on the road or in
the field without sufficient and regular exercise. It is this alone which
can give energy to the system, or develop the powers of any animal.

How then is this exercise to be given ? As much as possible by, or
under the superintendence of, the owner. The exercise given by the
groom is rarely to be depended upon. It is inefficient or it is extreme.
It is in many cases both irregular and injurious. It is dependent upon
the caprice of him who is performing a task, and who will render that
task subservient to his own pleasure or purpose.

In training the hunter and the race-horse, regular exercise is the most
important of all considerations, however it may be forgotten in the usual
management of the stable. The exercised horse will discharge his task,
and sometimes a severe one, with ease and pleasure ; while the idle and
neglected one will be fatigued ere half his labour is accomphshed, and, if
he is pushed a Httle too far, dangerous inflammation will ensue. How
often, nevertheless, does it happen, that the horse which has stood inactive
in the stable three or four days, is ridden or driven thirty or forty miles
in the course of a single day ! This rest is often purposely given to pre-
pare for extra-exertion ; — to lay in a stock of strength for the performance
of the task required of him : and then the owner is surprised, and dissa-
tisfied if the animal is fairly knocked up, or possibly becomes seriously ill.
Nothing is so corumon and so preposterous, as for a person to buy a horse
from a dealer's stable, where he has been idly fattening for sale for many
a day, and immediately to give him a long run after the hounds, and then
to complain bitterly, and think that he has been imposed upon, if the animal
is exhausted before the end of the chase, or is compelled to be led home
suffering from violent inflammation. Regular and gradually increasing
exercise would have made the same horse appear a treasure to his owner.

Exercise should be somewhat proportioned to the age of the horse. A
young horse requires more than an old one. Nature has given to young
animals of every kind a disposition to activity ; but the exercise must not
be violent. A great deal depends upon the manner in which it is given.
To preserve the temper, and to promote health, it should be moderate, at

K

130 FOOD.

least at the beginning and the termination. The rapid trot, or even the
gallop, may bo resorted to in the middle of the exercise, but the horse
should be brought in cool. If the owner would seldom intrust his horse
to boys, and would insist on the exercise being taken mthin sight, or in
the neighbourhood of his residence, many an accident and irreparable in-
jury would be avoided. It should be the owner's pleasure, and it is his
interest, personally to attend to all these things. He manages every othei
part of his concerns, and he may depend on it that he sufl'ers when he
neglects, or is in a manner excluded from, his stables.

FOOD.

The system of manger-feeding is becoming general among farmers.
There are few horses that do not habitually waste a portion of their hay ;
and by some the greater part is pulled dovra and trampled under foot, in
order first to cull the sweetest and best locks, and which could not be done
while the hay was inclosed in the rack. A good feeder will afterwards
pick up much of that which was thrown down ; but some of it must be
soiled and rendered disgusting, and, in many cases, one-third of this divi-
sion of their food is wasted. Some of the oats and beans are imperfectly
chewed by all horses, and scarcely at all by hungry and greedy ones. The
appearance of the dung will sufficiently evince this.

The observation of this induced the adoption of mangei'-feeding, or of
mixing a portion of chaff with the corn. By this means the animal is com-
pelled to chew his food ; he cannot, to any great degree, waste the straw or
hay ; the chaff is too hard and too sharp to be swallowed without con-
siderable mastication, and, while he is forced to grind that down, the oats
and beans are ground with it, and yield more nourishment ; the stomach
is more slowly filled, and therefore acts better on its contents, and is not
so likely to be overloaded ; and the increased quantity of saHva thro^vn
out in the lengthened mastication of the food, softens it, and makes it
more fit for digestion.

As Professor Stewart very properly remarks, ' Many horses swallow
their corn in great haste, and when much is eaten, that habit is exceedingly
dangerous. The stomach is filled— it is overloaded before it has time to
make preparation for acting on its contents — the food ferments, and pain-
ful or dangerous cohc ensues. By adding chafi" to his com, the horse must
take more time to eat it, and time is given for the commencement of di-
gestion, before fermentation can occur. In this way chaff is very useful,
especially after long fasts.'

If, when considerable provender was wasted, the horse maintained his
condition, and was able to do his work, it was evident that much might be
saved to the farmer, when he adopted a system by which the horse ate all
that was set before him ; and by degrees it was found out, that even food
somewhat less nutritious, but a great deal cheaper, and which the horse
either would not eat, or would not properly griud do'wn in its natural state,
might be added, while the animal would be in quite as good phght, and
always ready for work.

Chaff may be composed of equal quantities of clover or meadow hay,
and wheaten, oaten, or barley straw, cut into pieces of a quarter or half an
inch in length, and mingled well together ; the allowance of oats or beans
is afterwards added, and mixed with the chaff. Many farmers very pro-
perly bruise the oats or beans. The whole oat is apt to sHp out of the chaff
and be lost ; but when it is bruised, and especially if the chaff is a httle
wetted, it vnll not readily separate ; or, should a portion of it escape the
grinders, it will be partly prepared for digestion by th(. act of bruising.
The prejudice against bruising the oats is, so far as the farmer's horse,

FOOD. i;jl

and the waggon horse, and every horse of slow draught, are concerned,
altogether unfounded. The quantity of straw in the chafi' will always
counteract any supposed purgative quality in the bruised oats. Horses ot
quicker draught, except they are naturally disposed to scour, will thrive
better with bruised than with whole oats ; for a greater quantity of nutri-
ment will be extracted from the food, and it will always be easy to apportion
the quantity of straw or beans to the effect of the mixture on the bowels
of the horse. The principal alteration that should be made in the horse
of harder and more rapid work, such as the post-horse, is to inci-ease the
quantity of hay, and diminish that of straw. Two trusses of hay may be
cut with one of straw.

Some gentlemen, in defiance of the prejudice and opposition of the
coachman or the groom, have introduced this mode of feeding into the
Btables of their carriage horses and hackneys, and with manifest advantage.
There has been no loss of condition or power, and considerable saving of
provender. This system is not, however, calculated for the hunter or the
race-horse. Their food must lie in smaller bulk, in order that the action
of the lungs may not bo impeded by the distension of the stomach ; yet
many hunters have gone well over the field who have been manger-fed,
the proportion of corn, however, being materially increased.

For the agricultural and cart horse, eight pounds of oats and two of beans
should be added to every twenty pounds of chaff. Thirty-four or thirty-
six pounds of the mixture "will be sufficient for any moderate-sized horse,
with fair, or even hard work. The di'ay and waggon horse may require
forty pounds. Hay in the rack at night is, in this case, supposed to be
omitted altogether. The rack, however, may remain, as occasionally useful
for the sick horse, or to contain tares or other green meat.

Horses are very fond of this provender. The majority of them, aftei-
having been accustomed to it, will leave the best oats given to them alone,
for the sake of the mingled chaff and corn. We would, however, caution
the farmer not to set apart damaged hay for the manufacture of the chaff.
The horse may be thus induced to eat that which he would otherwise
refuse ; but if the nourishing property of the hay has been impaired, or it
has acquired an injurious principle, the animal w^l either lose condition,
or become diseased. Much more injury is done by eating damaged hay
or musty oats than is generally imagined. There will be suflB.cient saving
in the diminished cost of the provender by the introduction of the straw,
and the improved condition of the horse, without poisoning him with the
refuse of the farm. For old horses, and for those with defective teeth,
chafi" is pecuHarly useful, and for them the grain should be broken down
as well as the fodder.

While the mixture of chaff with the corn prevents it fi'om being too rapidly
devoured and a portion of it swallowed whole, and therefore the stomach
is not too loaded -svith that on wliicli, as containing the most nutriment, its
chief digestive power should be exei-ted, yet, on the whole, a great deal of
time is gained by this mode of feeding, and more is left for rest. When a
horse comes in wearied at the close of the day, it occupies, after he has
eaten his corn, two or three hours to clear his rack. On the system of
manger- feeding, the chaff being already cut into small pieces, and the
beans and oats bruised, he is able fully to satisfy his appetite in an hour
and a half. Two additional hours are therefore devoted to rest. This is
a circumstance deserving of much consideration even in the farmer's
stable, and of immense consequence to the postmaster, and the owner of
every hard- worked horse.

Manger food will be the usual support of the farmer's horse diTring the
winter, and while at constant or occasional hard work ; but fiom the

k2

132 FOOD.

middle of AjDril to the end of July, he may be fed with this mixture in
the day and turned out at night, or he may remain out durino; every rest-
day. A team in constant employ should not, however, be sulfered to be
out at night after the end of August.

The farmer should take care that the pasture is thick and good ; and that
the distance from the yard is not too great, or the fields too large, otherwise
a very considerable portion of time will be occupied in catching the horses
in the morning. He "s\ill likewise have to take into consideration the sale
he would have for his hay, and the necessity for sweet and untrodden pas-
tui^e for his cattle. On the whole, however, turning out in this way, when
cu'cumstances will admit of it, will be found to be more beneficial for the
horse, and cheaper than soiling in the yard.

The horse of the inferior farmer is sometimes fed on hay or grass alone,
and the animal, although he rarely gets a feed of corn, maintains himself
in tolerable condition, and does the work that is required of him : but hay
and grass alone, however good in quality, or in whatever quantity allowed,
will not support a horse under hard work. Other substances containing
a larger proportion of nutriment in a smaller compass, have been added.
They shall be briefly enumerated, and an estimate formed of their com-
parative value.

In almost every part of Great Britain, Oats have been selected as that
portion of the food which is to afford the principal nourishment. They
contain seven hundred and forty-three parts out of a thousand of nutritive
matter. They should be about or somewhat less than a year old, heavy,
dry, and sweet, plump, bright in colour, and free from unpleasant taste or
smell. New oats will weigh ten or fifteen per cent, more than old ones ;
but the difference consists principally in watery matter, which is gradually
evaporated. New oats are not so readily ground down by the teeth as
old ones. They form a more glutinous mass, difficult to digest, and, when
eaten in considerable quantities, are apt to occasion cohc and even stag-
gers. If they are to be used before they are from three to five months
old, they would be materially improved by a little kiln-drying. There is
no fear for the horses from simple di'jong, if the com was good when it
was put in the kiln. The old oat forms, when chewed, a smooth and
uniform mass, which readily dissolves in the stomach, and yields the
iTOurishment which it contains. Perhaps some chemical change may have
been slowly effected in the old oat, disposing it to be more readily assimi-
lated. The musty smell of wetted or damaged corn is produced by
fungus which grows upon the seed, and the deep red (foxy) colour which
some oats possess, is produced by excessive fermentation in the rick, and
in both these conditions they will have an injurious effect on the urinary
organs, and often on the intestines, producing profuse staling, inflammation
of the kidneys, cohc, and inflammation of the bowels.

This musty smeU is removed by kiln-drying the oat ; but care is here
requisite that too great a degree of heat is not employed. It should be
sufficient to destroy the fungus without injuring the life of the seed.
jMany persons, but without just cause, have considerable fear of the kiln-
Ijurnt oat. It is said to produce inflammation of the bladder, and of the
eyes, and mangy affections of the skin. The fact is, that many of the kiln-
di-ied oats that are g-iven to horses were damaged before they were dried,
and thus became unhealthy. A considerable improvement would be ef-
fected, by cutting the unthreshed oat-straw into chaff, and the expense of
threshing would be saved. Oat-straw is better than that of barley, but
does not contain so much nutriment as that of wheat.

Wlien the horse is fed on hay and oats, the quantity of the oats must vary
with his size and the work to be performed. In ^viuter, four feeds, or from

FOOD. lya

ien to fourteen pounds of oats in the day, Avill be a fair allowance for a
horse of fifteen hands one or two inches high, and that has moderate
work. In summer, half the quantity, with green food, will bo sufficient.
Those who work on the faiTQ have from ten to foui-teen pounds, and the
hunter from twelve to sixteen. There are no efficient and safe substitutes
for good oats ; but, on the contrary, we are much inclined to believe that
they possess an invigorating property which is not found in other food.

Oatmeal, in the form of gruel, constitutes one of the most important
articles of diet for the sick horse — not, indeed, forced upon him, but a
pail containing it being slung in his box, and of which he will soon begin
to di'ink when water is denied. Few grooms make good gTuel ; it is
either not boiled long enough, or a sufficient quantity of oatmeal has not
been used. The proportions should be, a pound of meal thrown iuto a
gallon of water, and kept constantly stirred until it boils, and five minutes
afterwards.

White- water, made by stirring a pint of oatmeal in a pail of water, the
chill being taken from it, is an excellent beverage for the thii'sty and tired
horse.

Barley is a common food of the horse on various parts of the Continent,
and, until the introduction of the oat, seems to have constituted almost his
only food. It is more nutritious than oats, containing nine hundi'ed and
twenty parts of nutritive matter in every thousand. There seems, how-
ever, to be something necessaiy besides a great proportion of nutritive
matter, in order to render any substance wholesome, strengthening, or
fattening ; therefore it is that, in many horses that are hardly worked,
and, indeed, in horses generally, barley does not agree with them so well
as oats. They are occasionally subject to inflammatory complaints, and
particularly to surfeit and mange.

When barley is given, the quantity should not exceed a peck daily. It
should always be braised, and the chaS" should consist of equal quantities
of hay and barley-straw, and not cut too short. If the farmer has a
quantity of spotted or unsaleable barley that he wishes thus to get rid of,
he must very gradually accustom his horses to it, or he -will probably pro-
duce serious illness among them. For horses that are recovering from
illness, barley, in the form of malt, is often seiwiceable, as tempting the
appetite and recruiting the strength. It is best given in mashes — water,
considerably below the boiling heat, being poured upon it, and the vessel
or pail kept covered for half an hour.

Grains fresh from the mash-tub, either alone, or mixed with oats or
chaff", or both, may be occasionally given to horses of slow draught ; they
would, however, afford very insufficient nourishment for horses of quicker
or harder work.

Wheat is, in Great Britain, more rarely given than barley. It contains
oine hundred and fifty-five parts of nutritive matter. When farmers have
a damaged or unmarketable sample of wheat, they sometimes give it to
their horses, and, being at first used in small quantities, they become ac-
customed to it, and thrive and work well ; it must, however, always be
braised and given in chaffi Wheat contains a greater portion of gluten,
or sticky adhesive matter, than any other kind of gi^ain. It is difficult of
digestion, and apt to cake and form obstructions iu the bowels. This will
oftener be the case if the horse is suffered to di'ink much water soon after
feeding upon wheat.

Inflammation of the bowels and feet, coHc, and death, are occasionally
the consequence of eating any great quantity of wheat. A horse that is
fed on wheat should have very Uttle hay. The proportion should not be
more than one trass of hay to two of straw. Wheaten flour, boiled in

j:54 FOOD

water to tLe thickness of starcli, is given with good oS'ect in over-purging,
and especially if combined with chalk and opium.

Bran, or the ground husk of the wheat, used to be frequently given to
sick horses on account of the supposed advantage derived from its relaxing
the bowels. There is no doubt that it does operate gently on the intestinal
canal, and assists in quickening the passage of its contents, when it is oc-
casionally given ; but it must not be a constant, or even frequent food.
Mr. Ernes attended three mills at which many horses were kept, and there
were always two or three cases of indigestion from the accumulation of
bran or pollard in the large intestines. Bran may, however, be useful as
an occasional aperient in the form of a mash, but never should become a
regular article of food.

Beans. — These form a striking illustration of the principle, that the
nourishing or strengthening effects of the different articles of food depend
more on some peculiar property which they possess, or some combination
which they form, than on the actual quantity of nutritive matter. Beans
contain but five hundred and sevent}' parts of nutritive matter, yet they
add materially to the vigour of the horse. There are many horses that
will not stand hard work without beans being mingled with their food, and
these not horses whose tendency to purge it may be necessary to restrain
by the astringency of the bean. There is no traveller who is not aware of
the difference in the spirit and continuance of his horse whether he allows
or denies him beans on his journey. They afford not merely a temporary
stimulus, but they may be daily used without losing their power, or pro-
ducing exhaustion. They are indispensable to the hard-worked coach
horse. Washy horses could never get through their work without them ;
and old horses would often sink under the task imposed upon them. They
should not be given to the horses whole or split, but crushed. This will
make a material difference in the quantity of nutriment that will be ex-
tracted. They are sometimes given to turf horses, but only as an occa-
sional stimulant. Two pounds of beans may, with advantage, be mixed
with the chaff of the agricultural horse, during the winter. In summer
the quantity of beans should be lessened, or they should be altogether dis-
continued. Beans are generally given whole. This is very absurd ; for
the young horse, whose teeth are strong, seldom requires them ; while the
old horse, to whom they are in a manner necessary, is scarcely able to
masticate them, swallows many of them whole which he is unable to break,
and drops much corn from his mouth in the ineffectual attempt to crush
them. Beans should not be merely split, but crushed ; they will even then
give sufficient employment to the grinders of the animal. Some post-
masters use chaff with beans instead of oats. With hardly- worked horses
they may possibly be allowed ; but, in general cases, beans, without oats,
would be too binding and stimulating, and would produce costiveness, and
probably megrims or staggers.

Beans should be at least a twelvemonth old before they are given to the
horse, and should be plump, and carefully preserved from damp and
mouldiness, which at least disgust the horse if they do no other harm,
and harbour an insect that destroys the inner part of the bean.

The straw of the bean is nutritive and wholesome, and is usually given
to the horses. Its nutritive properties are supposed to be little inferior to
those of oats.

Peas are occasionally given. They appear to be in a slight degree more
nourishing than beans, and not so heating. They contain five hundred
and seventy-four parts of nutritive matter. For horses of slow work they
may be used ; but the quantity of chaff should be increased, and a few
oats added. They have not been found to answer with horses of quick

FOOD. 135

dranglit. It is essential that tliey sliould be cruslied ; otherwise, on ac-
count of their globular form, they are apt to escajie from the teeth, and
many are swallowed whole. Exposed to warmth and moisture in the
stomach, they swell considerably, and may painfully and injuriously dis-
tend it. The peas that are given to horses should be sound, and at least
a twelvemonth old.

In some northern countries pea-meal is frequently used, not only as an
Excellent food for the horse, but as a remedy for diabetes.

Linseed is sometimes given to sick horses — raw, ground, and boiled.
It is supposed to be useful in cases of catarrh. Mr. Black, veterinary
surgeon of the 14th Dragoons, says, that sugar was tried as an article of
food during the Peninsular "War. Ten horses were selected, each of which
got 8 lbs. a day at four rations. They took it very readily, and their coats
became fine, smooth, and glossy. They got no corn, and only 7 lbs. of
hay, instead of the ordinary allowance, which is 12 lbs. The sugar seemed
to supply the place of the corn so well, that it would have been probably
given abroad ; but peace came, and the circumstances that rendered the
use of sugar for corn desirable ceased, and the horses returned to their
usual diet. That the sugar might not be appropriated to other purposes
it was slightly scented with assafoetida, which did not produce any ap-
parent efiect upon them.

Herbage, green and dry, constitutes a principal part of the food of the
horse. There are few things vrith regard to which the farmer is so care-
less as the mixture of grasses on both his upland and meadow pasture.
Hence we find, in the same field, the ray -grass, coming to perfection only
in a loamy soil, not fit to cut until the middle or latter part of July, and
yielding little aftermath ; the meadow fox-tail, best cultivated in a clayey
soil, fit for the scythe in the beginning of June, and yielding a plentiful
aftermath ; the glaucous fescue-gTass, ready at the middle of June, and
rapidly deteriorating in value as its seeds ripen ; and the fertile meadow-
grass, increasing in value until the end of July. These are circumstances
the importance of which will, at no distant period, be recognised. In the
meantime, Sinclair's account of the different grasses, or the condensation
of the most important part of his work in Sii' Humphry Davy's Agricul-
tural Chemistry, or Low's Elements of Practical Agriculture, are well
deserving of the dihgent perusal of the farmer.

Hay is most in perfection when it is about a twelvemonth old. The
horse perhaps would prefer it earlier, but it is neither so wholesome nor
so nutritive, and often has a purgative quality. Wh.en it is about a year
old, it retains, or should retain, somewhat of its gTeen colour, its agreeable
smell, and its pleasant taste. It has undergone the slow process of fer-
mentation, by which the sugar which it contains is developed, and its
nutritive quality is fully exercised. Old hay becomes dry and tasteless,
and innutritive and unwholesome. After the gi-ass is cut, and the hay
stacked, a slight degree of fermentation takes place in it. This is neces-
sary for the development of the saccharine principle ; but occasionally it
proceeds too far and the hay becomes Tnowburnt, in which state it is injuri-
ous, or even poisonous. The horse soon shows the efiect which it has upon
him. He has diabetes to a considerable degree — he becomes hidebound —
his strength is wasted — his thirst is excessive, and he is almost worthless.

Where the system of manger-feeding is not adopted, or where hay is still
allowed at night, and chaflT and corn in the day, there is no error into
which the farmer is so apt to fall as to give an undue quantity of hay, and
that generally of the worst kind. If the manger-system is good, there can
be no necessity for hay, or only for a small quantity of it ; but if the rack
is overloaded, the greedy horse will be eating all night, instead of taking

136 FOOD.

his rest — when tlie time for the morning feed arrives, his stomach will be
already filled, and he will be less capable of work from the want of sleep,
and from the long-continued distension of the stomach rendering it impos-
fcible for the food to be properly digested.

Of the value of Tares, as forming a portion of the late spring and sum-
mer food of the stabled and agricultural horse, there can be no doubt.
They are cut after the pods are formed, but a considerable time before the
seeds are ripe. They supply a larger quantity of food for a limited time
than almost any other forage-crop. The Vicia sativa is the most profitable
variety of the tare. It is very nutritive, and acts as a gentle aperient.
When surfeit-lumps appear on the skm, and the horse begins to rub him-
self against the divisions of the stall, and the legs swell, and the heels
threaten to crack, a few tares, cat up Avith the chaff, or given instead of a
portion of the hay, will afibrd considerable relief. Ten or twelve pounds
may be allowed daily, and half that weight of hay subtracted. It is an
erroneous notion, that, given in moderate quantities, they either roughen
the coat or lessen the capability for hard work.

Rye Grass affords a valuable article of food, but is inferior to the tare.
It is not so nutritive. It is apt to scour and, occasionally, and late in the
spring, it has appeared to be injurious to the horse.

Clover, for soiling the horse, is inferior to the tare and the rye grass,
but nevertheless is useful when they cannot be obtained. Clover hay is,
perhaps, preferable to meadow hay for chaff. It will sometimes tempt the
sick horse, and may be given with advantage to those of slow and heavy
work ; but custom seems properly to have forbidden it to the hunter and
the hackney.

LuCERN, where it can be obtained, is preferable even to tares, and Sain-
foin is superior to lucem. Although they contain but a small quantity
of nutritive matter, it is easily digested, and perfectly assimilated. They
speedily put both muscle and fat on the horse that is worn down by labour,
and they are almost a specific for hide-bound. Some fanners have thought
so highly of lucem as to substitute it for oats. This may be allowable for
the agricultural horse of slow and not severe work, but he from whom
speedier action is sometimes requii-ed, and the horse of all work, must have
a proportion of hard meat within him.

The Swedish Turnip is an article of food the value of which has not
been sufficiently appreciated, and particularly for agTicultural horses. Al-
though it is far from containing the quantity of nutritive mai-ter which
has been supposed, that which it has seems to be capable of easy and com-
plete digestion. It should be sliced with chopped straw, and vdthout hay.
It quickly fattens the horse, and produces a smooth glossy coat and a loose
skin. It will be good practice to give it once in the day, and that at night
when the work is done.

Carrots. — The virtues of this root are not sufficiently known, whether
as contributing to the strength and endurance of the sound horse, or the
rapid recovery of the sick one. To the healthy horse they should be given
sliced in his chaff. Half a bushel A\'ill be a large daily allowance. There
is little provender of which the horse is fonder. The following account
of the value of the carrot is not exaggerated by Stewart in his Stable
Economy. ' This root is held in much esteem. There is none better, nor
perhaps so good. When first given it is shghtly diuretic and laxative ;
but as the horse becomes accustomed to it these effects cease to be pro-
duced. They also improve the state of the skin. They form a good sub-
stitute for grass, and an excellent alterative for horses out of condition.
To sick and idle horses they render corn unnecessary. They are beneficial
in all chronic diseases connected with breathing, and have a marked

FOOD. 137

jiilueuce upon clrronic cougli and broken Aviucl. They are serviceable in
diseases of the skin, and in combination Avith oats they restore a work
horse much sooner than oats alone.'

Potatoes have been given, and with advantage, in their raw state, sliced
«vith the chaff; but, where it has been convenient to boil or steam them,
the benefit has been far more evident. Purging has then rarely ensued.
Some have given boiled potatoes alone, and horses, instead of rejecting
them, have soon preferred them even to the oat ; but it is better to mix.
them with the usual manger feed, in the proportion of one poiind of potatoes,
to two and a half pounds of the other ingi-edients. The use of the potatoe
must depend on its cheapness, and the facility for boiling it. Half a dozen
horses would soon repay the expense of a steaming boiler in the saving of
provender, without taking into the account their improved condition and
capability for work. Professor Low says that 15 lbs. of potatoes yield as
much nourishment as four pounds and a half of oats. Von Thayer asserts
that three bushels are equal to 112 lbs. of hay; and Curwen, who tried
l^otatoes extensively in the feeding of horses, says that an acre goes as far
as four acres of hay. A horse fed on potatoes should have his quantity of
water materially curtailed.

Furze has sometimes been given during the winter months. There is
considerable trouble attending the preparation of it, although its plen-
tifiilness and little value for other purposes would, on a large farm, well
repay that trouble. The furze is cut do-\vn at about three or four years'
growth ; the green branches of that and the preceding year are bruised in
a mill, and then given to the horses in the state in which they come from
the mill, or cut up with the chaff. Horses are very fond of it. If twenty
pounds of the farze are given, five pounds of straw, the beans, and three
pounds of the oats, may be withdrawn.

It may not be uninteresting to conclude this catalogue of the different
articles of horse-food with a list of the quantities of nutritive matter con-
tained in each of them ; for although these quantities cannot be considered-
as expressing the actual value of each, because other circumstances besides
the simple quantity of nutriment seem to influence their effect in support-
ing the streng-th and condition of the horse, yet many a useful hiut may
be derived when the farmer looks over the produce of his soil, and inquires
what other grasses or vegetables might suit his land. The list is partly
taken from Su' Humphry Davy's Agi-icultural Chemistry : — 1,000 pai-ts of
wheat contain 955 parts of nutritive matter ; barley, 920 ; oats, 743 ; peas,
574 ; beans, 570 ; potatoes, 230 ; red beet, 148 ; parsnips, 99 ; carrots, 98.
Of the grasses, 1,000 parts of the meadow cat's-taU contain, at the time of
seeding, 98 parts of nutritive matter ; narrow-leaved meadow grass in
seed, and sweet-scented soft grass in flower, 95 ; narrow-leaved and flat-
stalked meadow grass ia flower, fertile meadow grass in seed, and tall
fescue in flower, 93 ; fertile meadow grass, meadow fescue, reed-Hke fescue,
and creeping soft grass in flower, 78 ; sweet-scented soft grass in flower,
and the aftermath, 11 ; fiorin, cut in the winter, 1^ ; tall fescue, in the
aftermath, and meadow soft gi'ass ia flower, 74 ; cabbage, 73 ; crested
dog's-tail and brome when flowering, 71 ; yellow oat, in flower, ^^ \
Swedish turnips, 64 ; nan-ow-leaved meadow grass, creeping beet, round-
headed cocksfoot, and spiked fescue, 59 ; roughish and fertile meadow
grass, flowering, 56 ; fiorin, in summer, 54 ; common turnips, 42 ; sain-
foin, and broad-leaved and long-rooted clover, 39 ; white clover, 32 ; and
lucem, 23.

The times of feeding should be as equally divided as convenience "vvill
permit ; and when it is likely that the horse will be kept longer than usual
from home, the nose-bag should invariably be taken. The small stomach

138 i'^OOD.

of the liorse is emptied in a few hours ; and if lie is sviffered to remain
hungry much beyond his accustomed time, lie will afterwards devour his
food so voraciously as to distend the stomach and endanger an attack of
staggers. When this disease appears in the farmer's stable, he may
attribute it to various causes ; the tnie one, in the majority of instances,
is irregularity in feeding. When extra work is required from the animal,
the system of management is often injudicious, for a double feed is put
before him, and as soon as he has swallowed it he is started. It would be
far better to give him a double feed on the previous evening, which would
be digested before he is wanted, and then he might set out in the morn-
ing after a very small portion of corn has been given to him, or perhaps
only a httle hay. One of the most successful methods of enabling a horse
to get well through a long journey is to give him only a little at a time
while on the road, and at night to indulge him with a double feed of com
and a full allowance of beans.

Water. — This is a part of stable management little regarded by the
farmer. He lets his horses loose morning and night, and they go to the
nearest pond or brook and drink their fill, and no harm results, for they
obtain that kind of water which nature designed them to have, in a
manner prepared for them by some unknown influence of the atmosphere,
as well as by the deposition of many saline admixtures. The difierence
between liard and soft water is kno^mi to everyone. In hard water soap
will curdle, vegetables will not boil soft, and the saccharine matter of the
malt cannot be fully obtained in the process of brewing. There is nothing
in which the diff"erent effect of hard and soft water is so evident as in the
stomach and digestive organs of the horse. Hard water, drawn fresh
from the well, Avill assuredly make the coat of a horse unaccustomed to it
stare, and it will not unfrequently gripe and otherwise injure him. In-
stinct or experience has made even the horse himself conscious of this,
for he vriM never drink hard water if he has access to soft, and he will
leave the most transparent and pure water of the well for a river, although
the stream may be tui-bid, and even for the muddiest pool.

Some trainers have so much fear of hard or strange water, that they
carry with them to the different courses the water that the animal has
been accustomed to di-iuk, and that wliich they know agrees with it.

He is injured, however, not so much by the hardness of the well- water
as by its coldness — particularly by its coldness in summer, and when it is
many degTees below the temperature of the atmosphere. The water in
the brook and the pond being warmed by long exposui^e to the air, as well
as having become soft, the horse diinks freely of it vnthout danger.

If the horse were watered three times a day, and especially in summer,
he would often be saved from the sad torture of thirst, and from many a
disease. Whoever has observed the eagerness with which the over- worked
horse, hot and tired, plunges his muzzle into the pail, and the difiiculty of
stopping him until he has drained the last drop, may form some idea of
what he had preWously suffered, and will not wonder at the violent
spasms, and inflammation, and sudden death, that often result.

There is a prejudice in the minds of many persons against the horse
being fairly supplied with water. They think that it injures his wind,
and disables him for quick and hard work. If he is galloped, as he too
often is, immediately after drinking, his wind may be irreparably injured ;
but if he were oftener suffered to satiate his thirst at the intervals of rest,
be would be happier and better. It is a fact unsuspected by those who
have not carefully observed the horse, that if he has frequent access to
■water he will not drink so much in the course of the day, as another -n-ill
do, who, to cool his parched mouth, swallows as fast as he can, and knows
not when to stop.

THE ZOOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF THE HORSE. 13i.

Ou a iourney a horse should be liberally supplied with water When he

te%toed.'^ trJln tke no bL >f this is repeated ttee o,- four t.mes
^^ a ludfciout S^ttSb t,.vellcrs, that ,vhen a horse begins to refuse

Return Son afte; he has partien of the refreshing draught.

CHAPTER VII.

TUE ZOOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF THE HOUSE.

:itu?a^sTs%?rd rcerS^p^culiarities of form ^bicb sbould oba-
J^oteAeceS classes, and otLr lesser peculiarities agam subdmdmg

^^^."SdiTision of animals is into ^eriehmted and invertelmted.

^ / , °,,jTJmals are tbose wbicb bave a mnmm, or bony cavity
Yerkhmted ""^"^f'" ''J' "°"^„,i„„ „f bones called tbe spw, and the

a Trolon-ation of the brain, denominated tbe spmal viarrcw.
ktrtC^L^t thlSn^rX^^^^^^ be has a

^^bLSei:=^^^^^

1 J ..P ^u Vinrl^ birds fishes, and many reptiles. VVe natuiauy
quadrupeds "f J^l 1;'^° V™^ ^'^^ ' ,i„pie line ol distinction is soon
look 'f7»>^'=!,r^JX'sr«rtebrated aliimals have mammm or t«ats,
presented CevU^ot *-^^^^''^^^"'' Tbe human female has two,

Tj^t'XXcZ^^X bLb ten or twelve, and tbe sow more

^'^Thirchi of vertebrated animals having mamma> or teats is called
J»w a' fand the horse belongs to tbe division vMmta, and tlie class

"' Tb"' "iass mammalia is still exceedingly large, and we must again sub-

1 ic Class m |-L;braiT of Enteitoining Knowledge, vol. 1. p. lo)

Jirt HHs class of ;uadli^peds,'or mammiferons quadrupeds, admits of a

■"^f °?h':^° whcs?ex?;emities are divided into fingers or toes sdenti-

s::Si:rrh!s.5:-n:ifi^-^e:rdX^^^^^^^^^^^

cond ribe are eVWed --^ly *» -PP^' .Tw7oI5 '--lic i the body

isL^;p:?£rS:iu"trhrcaTnr^^^^

''tu?\l::c is'a^r ^rSy'-^ftoofed animals. Tbe eiepbant, the

140

THE SKELETON OF THE HORSE.

rhinoceros, the hippopotamus, the swine, the horse, the sheep, the deer,,
and many others, are ungulated or hoofed ; they admit, however, of an
easy division. Some of them masticate, or chew their food, and it is im-
mediately received into the stomach and digested ; but in others the food,
previous to digestion, undergoes a very singular process. It is returned
to the mouth to be remasticated, or chewed again. These are called
ruminantia, or ruminants, from the food being returned from one of the
stomachs (for they have four), called the rumeit, or paunch, for the purpose
of remastication.

The ungulata that do not ruminate are, somewhat improperly, called
pachjdermata, from the thickness of their skins. The horse does not
ruminate, and therefore belongs to the order jjachijdennata.

The pachydermata who have only one toe belong to the family solipeda

sinqle-footed. Therefore the horse ranks under the division vertebrata —

the class mammalia — the tribe ungulata — the order pachydermata — and
the family solipeda.

The solipeda consist of several sjjecies, as the horse, the ass, the mule,
and the quagga.

First stands the Equus Caballus, or Common Horse.

Animals are likewise distinguished according to the number, descripv
tion, and situation of their teeth. The horse has six incisors or cutting
teeth in the front of each jaw ; and one canine tooth or tush.

On each side, above and below — at some distance from the incisors,
and behind the canines, and with some intervening space — are six molar
teeth, or grinders ; and these molar teeth have flat cro-niis, with ridges of
enamel, and that enamel penetrating into the substance of the tooth.

The whole is thus represented by natural historians : —
6 . 1—1 , G—^

Horse, — Incisors -^, canmes ,

-r ^°^^"6-G-

Total, fortj^ teeth.

rnr; skei.etox of the hoesi?.
A TheHcail.
a The posterior maxillary or under jaw.

THE MUSCLES OF THE IIOKSE. 141

0 The superior maxillary or upper jaw. A little lower do^^^l than the letter is a foramen,

tlirough which pass the nerves and blood-vossels which chiefly supply the lower

part of the face.

c The orbit, or cavity containing the eye.

d The nasal bones, or bones of the nose.

e The suture dividing the parietal bones below from the occipital bones above.

/ The inferior maxillary bone, containing the upper incisor teeth.

B The Seven Cervical Vertebrae, or bones of the neck.

C The Eighteen Dorsal Vertebrae, or bones of the back.

D The Six Lumbar Vertebrae, or bones of the loins.

E The Five Sacral Vertebrse, or bones of the haunch.

F The Caudal Vertebrse, or bones of the tail, generally about fifteen.

G The Scapula, or shoulder-blade.

H The Sternimi, or forepart of the chest.

1 The Costse or ribs, eight articulating with the sternum, and called the true ribs, and

ten united together by cartilage, called tlie/alae ribs.
J The Humerus, or upper bone of the arm.
Iv The Eadius, or bone of the /ore-arm.

L The Ulna, or elbow. The point of the elbow is called the Olecranon.
M The Carpus or knee, consisting of seven bones.
K The metacarpal bones. The larger metacarpal or cannon or shank in front, and the

smaller metacarpal or splint bone beliind.
g The pastern, consisting of the Os Suifraginis, or the upper and larger pastern bone,

with the sesamoid bones behind, articulating with the cannon and gi-eater

pastern ; /;, the Os Coronas, or lesser pastern ; i, the Os Pedis or cofBn bone,

and the Os Navicular, or na^-icular, or shuttle-bone, not seen, and articulating

with the smaller pastern and coffin bones.
g h i The corresponding bones of the hind-feet.

0 The Haunch, consisting of three portions, the Ilium, the Ischium, and the Pubis.
P The Femur or thigh.
Q The stifle joint -n-ith the Patella.

R The Tibia or proper log-bone — behind is a small bone called the fibula.
S The Tarsus or hock, composed of six bones. The prominent part is the Os Calcis, or

point of the hock.
T The Metatarsals of the hind leg.

THE MUSCLES OF THE HORSE.

Having finished the description of the skeleton, it may now be desira-
ble to give the more important of the muscles by which they are acted
on ; this description, however, must be a very general one, and will be
limited to the first layer of muscles, or those found immediately under the
skin, on which, however, the shape and power of the animal, to a very
considerable degree, depends ; one plate will be sufiicient to delineate
these, and its description -svill include all that is necessary for the general
reader to be acquainted with.

1. Levator Angliosis, is a portion of the paniculus carnosus converging
towards the angle of the mouth, which it retracts or draws back. 2.
Betrador Lahii Suiierioris, arises from the superior jDortion of the maxil-
lary bone, and is inserted into the upper part of the angle of the mouth,
which it draws on one side. 3. Levator Lalii Superioris alceque Nasi,
arises from the junction of the lachrymal, nasal, and superior maxillary
bones, and divides into two parts, one insex'ted in the lateral part of the
nostril, and the other into the upper and lateral part of the Hp ; its action
is to raise the hp and dilate the nostril.

4. Z)jgomatlcus, arises from the zygomatic ridge, and is also inserted
into the angle of the mouth, which it retracts. 5. Caninus is a penniform
muscle ; the superior portion arises from the superior maxillary bone, a
little above the upper canine tooth ; the lower from the posterior maxil-
lary, just below the lower canine tooth ; the two meet each other in the
space between the upper and lower jaw ; its use is to compress the cheeks.
6. Buccinator arises from ttie superior and inferior maxillary bones, from
just above and below the edges of the alveolar sockets, a little posterior to

142

THE MUSCLES OF THE HORSE.

the last molar tootli — is inserted in the comer of the mouth, and assists
the tongue in moAang about the pellet of food in the act of mastication.
7. Retractor Lahii Inferioris arises from the lower jaw, as far back as

the last molar tooth, where it becomes blended "o-ith the orbicularis oris,
and is inserted into the inferior part of the lower lip, which it retracts.
8. 8. Pannicidus Carnosus, a portion of a thin muscle spread over the head,
neck, and bodj, to corrugate the skin when irritated, as a compensation
for the want of hands. 9. Orhicidaris PaJpehram, surrounds the surface
of the eyelids. 10. Temporalis arises from the occiput, frontal, parietal,
squamous, temporal, and sphenoid, bones, and is inserted in the caracoid
process of the lower jaw ; its office is to close the mouth. 11. Orhicidaris
Oris surrounds the mouth, is more developed in the upper than in the
lower lip ; its action is to close the lips.

12. 12. 12. Levator Humeri, arises from the mastoid process of the
petrous temporal bone, the wing of the atlas, from the second, third, and
fourth cervical vertebife, and from the lower portion of the hgamentum.
nuchas ; it is inserted into the anterior and inferior part of the humeras,
and its action, when the head is fixed, is to advance the foreleg, or when
the legs are fixed, one muscle will pull the head on one side, or both will
curve the head downwards. 13. The SjyJenius arises from the mastoid
process of the petrous temporal bone, the spines of the second, third, and
fourth dorsal vertebree, and is inserted into the five first cervical A-ertebrse
and vnng of the atlas ; it curves the head on one side or, both acting, raise
it. 14. The Parotid Gland, which secretes the most considerable portion
of the saliva.

A. Trapezius arises fi'om the second to the eleventh dorsal, and from
the Hgamentum nuchse, as far forward as the third cervical vertebrte ; it is
inserted into the spine of the scapula, and its action is to draw the shoulder
upwards and backwards.

TlIK MUSCLES OF THE IIOKSE. 143

B. Latissimus Borsi arises from the fascia of the loins, and the superior
spinal ligament ; it is inserted into the inner side of the humerus ; it aids
in retracting the arm and bracing the muscles of the back.

C. Postea Spinatus is attached to the whole surface of the posterior fossa
of the scapula ; it is inserted into the humenis a little behind the outer
tubercle, and also to the upper part of the ridge, on the upper and outor
part of this bone. It flexes the arm on the shoulder.

D. Antea Sjnnatus is attached superiorly to the surface of the anterior
fossa, and two- thirds of the anterior cosfa of the scapula, inferiorly to the
greater and lesser tubercle of the humerus. It straightens the humerus
on the scapula and throws the shoulder outwards.

E. Teres Externus arises from a tubercle on the posterior angle of the
scapula, and is inserted into the upper and outer surface of the humerus ;
it aids in flexing the shoulder on the arm.

F. Scapido Ulnaris arises from the upper part of the superior and pos-
terior angle of the scapula, inserted into the inner and upper part of the
ulna, which it flexes on the scapula, and draws the elbow inwards.

Gr and H. Caput Magnum and Medium of the triceps extensor hrachii,
arises from the posterior margin of the scapula, from a ridge on its neck ;
from the outer side, and from the body of the humerus, and is inserted into
the olecranon or point of the elbow. It is of great use in draught, in
pushing the body against the collar, or in forcing the forelegs under the
body.

I. Pectoralis Magnus arises from the fascia of the external oblique
muscles, the ensiform cartilage and from the three last bones of the
sternum, and is inserted into the inferior part of the inner tubercle of the
humerus ; it aids the muscles of the haunch in the propulsion of the
trunk, and assists in respiration.

K K K. Serratus Magnus arises from the four last cervical vertebrte,
from the whole length of the first four ribs, and from portions of the four
next; it is inserted into the concavity of the scapula. It moves the
shoulders in progression, and when at rest enlarges the chest and assists
in laboured respiration.

L L. Obliquus Externus Abdominis arises by fleshy digitations from the
fourteen posterior ribs, from two-thirds of the crest of the ilium, and its
anterior spinous process ; it passes over the lateral and inferior portions of
the belly to meet its fellow from the opposite side, and form the Knea alba,
posteriorly, into the symphysis pubis ; it assists in expelling the feeces and
urine.

M. Gluteus Maximus arises from the crista and the dorsum of the ilium,
and from the sacro-sciatic ligament ; it is inserted into the great trochanter
and also along the body of the femur, as far as the small external ti-o-
chanter ; its use when the hindlegs are fixed, is in raising the anterior
part of the body ; when in action, it abducts and retracts the femur, and
is actively engaged in kicking,

N. Gluteus Externus arises from the spines of the ilium and sacrum and
is inserted into the small trochanter of the femur and the fascia of the
thigh ; it advances the femur.

0 0 0. Triceps Abductor Femoris arises from the spines and transverse
processes of the sacrum — from the sacro-sciatic ligament, from the great
trochanter of the femur and the tuberosity of the ischium ; it is inserted
into the outer side of the patella and the superior portion of the tibia ; its
action is to steady the body, and to raise it when the feet are firmly fixed,
as in leaping ; it is a most important organ of progression, and is not
inactive in kicking.

P. Biceps Rotator Tibialis ai-ises from the last sacral and two uvA

144 THE SENSORIAL FUXCTION.

coccygeal bones, tlie posterior part of tlie tuberosity of the ischium. ; in-
serted into tlie inner, upper, and anterior part of the tibia : rotates and
abducts the thigh,

Q. Tensor Vagina arises from the anterior spine of the iHum, and is
inserted into the trochanter minor externus of the femur, the fascia of the
baunch and the patella ; it advances the leg and tightens the fascia of the
caunch.

CHAPTER VIII.

THE SENSORIAL FUNCTION.

Beautiful as is the horse, and identified so much with our pleasure and
our profit, he has been the object of almost universal regard ; and there
are few persons who do not pretend to be somewhat competent judges of
his form, qualities, and worth. From the nobleman with his numerous
and valuable stud, to the meanest helper in the stable, there is scarcely a
man who would not be offended if he were thought altogether ignorant of
horse-flesh. There is no subject on which he is so positive ; there is no
subject on which, generally speaking, he is so deficient ; and there are few-
horses, on some points of which these pretended and self-sufficient judges
would not give a totally opposite opinion.

The truth is, that this supposed knowledge is rarely founded on prin-
ciple— or is the result of the slightest acquaintance with the actual struc-
ture of the animal, the form and connection of parts on which strength, or
fleetness, or stoutness must necessarily depend.

In speaking of the structure of this animal, and the points which guide
the opinion of real judges of him, we shall, as briefly and as simply as we
are able, explain those fondamental principles on which his usefulness
and beauty must depend. "We require one kind of horse for slow and
heavy draught, and another for lighter and quicker work ; one as a plea-
sant and safe roadster — another, with more speed and equal continuance,
as a hujiter — and another still is wanted for the race-course. What is
the peculiarity of structui-e — what are the particular points that will fit
each for his proper business, and, to a certain degree, unfit him for every,
thino- else ? The farmer will require a horse of all-wo7-h, that can carry
him to market and take him round his farm — on which he can occasion-
ally ride for pleasure, and which he must sometimes degrade to the dung-
cart or the harrow. What combination of powers will enable the animal
to discharge most of these duties well, and all of them to a certain extent
profitably ?

Much time spent among horses, an acquired love of them, and a httle,
sometimes possibly too dearly-bought, experience, may give the agricul-
turist some insight into these matters. We will try whether we cannot
assist him in this affair — whether we cannot explain to him the reason
why certain points must be good, and why a horse without them must of
necessity be good for nothing. Perhaps some useful rules may thus be
more deeply impressed upon his memory, or some common but dangerous
prejudices may be discarded, and considerable degree of error, disappoint-
ment, and expense avoided.

K Ave treat of this at considerable length, let it' be remembered that the
horse is our noblest servant, and that, in describing the structure and
economy of his frame, we are in a gTcat mcasui'e desci-ibing that of other
domestic quadrupeds, and shall hereafter have to speak only of points of

THE SENSORIAL FUNCTION.

Mrj

dLffereuce required by tlie different services and uses for wliicli they were
destined. Aaid further, let it be remembered, that it is only by being well
acquainted ■with the structure and anatomy of the horse that we can
appreciate his shape and uses, or understand the different diseases to
which he is hable. It is from the want of this that much of the mass of
ignorance and prejudice which exists as to the diseases to which he is
subject is to be referred.

We begin -wdth the head, containing the brain and the most important
organs of sense.

The following cut represents the head of the horse divided into the
numerous bones of which it is composed, and the boundaries of each bone
clearly marked by the sutiu-es which connect it with those around.

The upper and broadest part is the cranium or skull in which the brain
is contained and by which it is protected. It is composed of twelve
bones, four pairs and four single ones : the four pairs are the two frontal,
two parietal, two sqixamous temporal, and two petrous temporal ; the
single are, the occij^ital bone, the sphenoid, the ethmoid, and the os triqua-
trum ; of these, the ones sketched in the plate are : —

a a The frontal bones, or bones of the forehead.

0 b The supra-orbital foramina, or holes above the orbit,

through which the nerves and blood-vessels supplying

the forehead pass out. The small hole beneath receives

the vessels -which dip into and supply the bone.
c c The parietal bones, or walls of the skull.
d d The temporal bones, or bones of the temples.
e e The zygomatic, or yoke-shaped arch.
// The temporal fossa, or pit above the eye.
g The occipital bone, or bone of the hinder part of the head.
h h The orbits containing and defending the eye.
i i The lachrymal bones belonging to the conveyance of the

tears from the eyes.
j j The nasal bones, or bones of the nose.
k k The malar, or cheek-bones.
1 1 The superior maxillary, or that portion of the upper jaw

containing the molar teeth or grinders.
m m The infra-orbital foramen — a hole below the orbit, through

which pass branches of nerves and blood-vessels to

supply the lower part of the face.
n n The inferior maxillary, the lower part of the upper jaw-
bone— a separate bone in quadrupeds, containing the

incisor or cutting teeth, and the upper tushes at the

point of union between the superior and inferior max-

illaries.
0 The upper incisor or cutting teeth.
p j> The openings into the nose, with the bonea forming the

palate.

There is an evident intention in this division af the head into so many
bones. When the foetus — the unborn foal — first begins to have life, that
which afterwards becomes bone, is a mere jelly-like substance. This is
gradually changed into a harder material — cartilage ; and, before the
birth of the animal, much of the cartilage is taken aAvay by vessels called
absorbents, and bone deposited in its stead. In flat bones, like those of
the head, this deposit takes place in the centre, and rays or radiations of
bone extend thence in every direction. Then, by having so many bones,
there are so many centres of radiation ; and, consequently, the formation
of bone is carried on so much the more rapidly, and perfected at the time
when the necessities of the animal require it. At the period of birth,
however, this process is not completed, but the edges of the bones remain
somewhat soft and pHant, and ijierefore, in parttuition, they yield a. httle

UG THE SENSORIAL FUNCTION.

and overlap each other, and thus, by rendering the birth more easy, thoy
save the mother much pain, and contribute to the safety of" the foal.

The first of these bones, or the first pair of them, occupying the broad
expanse of the forehead, are called the frontal hones, a a. They are
united together by a most curious and intricate dove-tailing, to defend
the brain which lies beneath the upper part of them. Lower down, and
where the cavity of the nose is to be defended, their union is sufiicient,
but far less complicated. Thus, at first starting, there is an evident proof
of desi"Ti, an illustration of that adaptation to cii'cumstances which will
ar^ain and again present itself in the most interesting points of view.
Peculiar strength of union is given where a most important organ is to be
defended — ^the suture is there intricate and laboured. Where less im-
portant parts are covered, it is of a far simpler character. The inner
plate of the frontal bone covers a considerable portion of the anterior part
of the brain, and it is studded with depressions corresponding with
irregularities on the surface of the brain.

Few thino-s more clearly indicate the breed or blood of the horse than
the form of the frontal bones. Who has not remarked the broad angular
forehead of the blood horse, giving him a beautiful expression of intel-
ligence and fire, and the face gradually tapering from the forehead to the
muzzle, contrasted with the large face of the cart or di^ay horse, and the
forehead scarcely wider than the face ?

At/, between the frontal bones, is the pit or cavity above the eye, and
by the depth of which we form some idea of the age of the horse. There
is placed at the back of the eye a considerable quantity of fatty substance,
on which it may revolve easily and without friction. In aged horses, and
in diseases attended with general loss of condition, much of this dis-
appears ; the eye becomes sunken, and the pit above it deepens. It is said
that some of the lower class of horse-dealers puncture the skin, and, with
a tobacco pipe or small tube blow into the orifice, until the depression is
almost filled up. This, -with the aid of a bishopped tooth, may give a false
appearance of youth, that will remain during some hours, and may deceive
the unwary, but the trickery may easily be detected by pressing on the part.

These bones, however, are not sohd, but a considerable portion of them
is composed of two plates receding from each other, and leaving numerous
and laro-e vacuities or cells. These vacuities are called the frontal
sinuses.

The sinus on the different sides of the forehead do not communicate
with each other, but with other sinuses in the ethmoid, and sphenoid, and
upper jaw-bones, and also with the cavities of the nose on their respective
sides. These sinuses afford a somewhat increased protection to the brain
beneath ; and by the continuous and slightly projecting line which they
form, afford lightness, while they give beauty to the forehead ; but their
principal use probably is, like the Avindings of the French horn, to increase
the clearness and loudness of the neighing. It will be remarked that they
are very irregular in depth, which at one place is an inch or more.

Immediately above the frontal, and extending from the frontal to the
poll, are the j^cn'ietal bones, c c. They are two, united together by a suture
when the animal is young, but that suture soon becoming obliterated.
They have the occipital, g, (p. 145) above, the frontals, a a, below, and the
iemporals, d d, on either side. They are of a closer and harder texture
than the frontals, because they are more exposed to injury, and more con-
cerned in defending the brain.

A very small portion only of the parietals is naked, and that is com-
posed of bone even harder than the other part, and with an additional
layer of bone rising in the form of a crest or ridge externally. Every

THE SEXSOKIAL FUXCTIOX, 147

utlier part of these bones is covered hj a thick mass of muscle, the iein-
poral muscle, which is principally concerned in chewing the food, but
Avhich lilvewise, by its yielding resistance, speedily and effectually breaks
the force of the most violent blow. A woolpack hung over the wall of a
fortress, when the enemy is battering to effect a breach, renders the
hea%-iest artillery almost harmless. So the yielding resistance of the tem^
foral muscles affords a sui-e defence to the brain, however sudden or violent
may be the blow which falls on the parietal. These benevolent provisions
will not be disregarded by the reflecting mind.

On the side of the head, and under the parietals (cZ d, p. 145) are the
temporal hones, one on each side, //. These again are divided into two
parts, or consist of two distinct bones ; the petrous portion, so called from
its g-reat or stojuj hardness, and containing the wonderful mechanism of
the ear, and the scpiavious portion from the appearance of its union witli
the parietal, overlapping it like a great scale.

From the latter there projects a portion of bone, e, which unites T\-ith
the frontal, and forms a strong arch — the zygomatic — distinctly to be
felt at the side of the head immediately above the eye. This arch is
designed to protect the upper part of the lower jaw, the motion of which
may very plainly be seen beneath it when the horse is feeding. It is very
strong, and it ought to be, for if it were depressed or forced inward, the
horse would starve. There is one species of violence which causes this
arch to requii'e no common strength ; and that is, the brutal manner in
which the collar is often forced over the head.

At the base of the arch is an important cavity not visible in the cut,
receiving into it, and forming a joint with, the head of the lower jaw — it
Avill be presently described.

Having reached the base of the temporal bone, it is found united to the
parietal, not by a simple sutoi'e, as the lower part of the frontals, or the
bones of the nose (see fig. a and j, p. 145), nor by a dove-tailed suture, as
the upper part of the frontals (see the same cut), but it is spread over the
parietal in the form of a large scale, and hence, as before observed, called
the sqiiamous portion of the temporal bone. In fact, there are two plates
of bone instead of one. "Was there design in this ? Yes, evidently so.
In the first place, to increase the strength of the base of the zygomatic
arch. This extensive union between the temporal and parietal bones
resembles the buttress or mass of masonry attached to the base of every
arch, Lu order to counteract its lateral pressure. The concussion, KkeA^-ise,
which might be communicated by a blow on the tojD of the arch, is thus
spread over a large fiui'face, and consequently weakened and rendered
compai-atively harmless ; and that surface is composed of the union of tws
bones of dissimilar construction. The hard stonij structure of the parietal
is very different from the tougher material of the temporal ; and thus as
a finger acts on a sounding glass, the ^-ibration communicated to the tem-
poral is at once stopped, and the brain receives no injury.

There is another proof of admirable design. "\Yhere is this squamous
portion of the temporal bone situated ? On the side of the head. And
what is the fig-ure of the cranium or skull, and principally that part of it
which contains the cerebrum or brain ? It is an elliptical or oval arch.
If pressure is made on the crown of that arch — if a blow is received on
the siature between the parietals sufficient to cause the elastic materials ol
which the skull is composed to yield — the seat of danger and injury is at
the side. K a man receives a violent blow on the crown or back part of
the head, the fracture, if there is any, is generally about the temple, and
the extravasation of blood is oftenest f-^und there. The following figare
wiU explain this : —

l2

148 THE SENSORIAL FUNCTIOX.

Let the line ABC represent an elliptical arcli, composed of elastic mate
rials. Some force sliaU be applied at B sufficient to cause it to yield. We

cannot compress it into smaller compass ;
but just in proportion as it yields at B will
it spur or bulge out at D, and give "way
sometimes as represented at E. In a dome
the "Weight of the materials constantly act-
ing may be considered as representing the
force applied at B ; and so gi-eat is the la-
teral pressure, or tendency to bulge out
(vide D and '£.), that it is necessary either
to dove-tail the materials into one another,
or to pass strong iron chains round them. For want of sufficient attention
to this, ' the dome of St. Sophia, in Constantinople, built in the time ot
the Emperor Justinian, fell three times dui-ing its erection ; and the dome
of the cathedi-al of Florence stood unfinished a hundred and twenty years,
for want of an architect.'

Nature, in the constraction of the horse's head, has taken away the
pressure, or removed the probability of injury, by giving an additional
layer of bone, or a mass of muscle, where alone there was danger, and has
dosre-tailed all the materials. Farther than this, in order to make
assurance doubly sure, she has placed this effijctual girder at the base, in
the overlapping of the squamous portion of the temporal bone.

Above the parietals, and separated from them by a suture (fig. g, p. 145),
is the occipital bone. Superiorly it covers and protects the smaller por-
tion of the brain, the cerebellum ; and as it there constitutes the
summit or crest of the head, and is particularly exposed to danger, and
not protected by muscles, it is interesting to see what tliickness it
assumes. The head of the horse does not, like that of the human being,
ride upright on the neck, "with all its weight supported on the spinal
column, the only office of the muscles of the neck being to move the
head forward, or baclcward, or horizontally on its pivot ; but it hangs in a
slanting position from the extremity of the neck, and the neck itself pro-
jects a considerable distance fi-om the chest, and thus the whole weight of
the head and neck are suspended from the chest, and requii'e very great
power in order to support them. In addition to the simple weight of the
head and neck, the latter projecting from the chest, and the head hanging
from the extremity of the neck, act "with enormous mechanical force,
and increase more than a hundredfold the power necessary to support
them.

The head and neck of the horse, and particularly of some horses of a
coarse breed, are of no little bulk and weight. It "will hereafter be sho^vn
nx what breeds and for what purposes a hght or heavy head and neck are
advantageous ; but it may be safely affirmed that, projecting so far from
the chest, and being conseqiiently at so great a distance from thefalcrum.
or support, the lightest head "wiU act or bear upon the joint between the
last bone of the neck and the first rib "with a force equal to many thousand
pounds.

How is this weight to be supported ? Is muscular power equal to the
task ? The muscles of the animal frame can act for a certain time "with
extraordinary force ; but as the exertion of this power is attended with
the consumption of "vital energy, the period soon arrives when their action
is remitted or altogether suspended. A provision, however, is made for
the purpose, simple and complete.

Prom the back of the occipital bone, and immediately below the crest,
proceeds a round cord of considerable bulk, and composed of a ligamentous

THE SEXSOEIAL FUNCTION. 14^

substance, which reaches down and is securely attached to the spines of
the vertebrae, or bones of the back ; and by this ligament — the liga-
mentimi colli, ligament of the neck, commonly called the ])aclauax — the
head is supported.

There are, however, some admirable contrivances connected with the
arrangements of the llgavientum colli. As it proceeds from the head, it is in
the form of a round cord. It is connected with the atlas, or first bone of the
neck, and then, attaching itself stix)ngly to the second bone, principally
supports the head by its union with this bone. The mechanical disadvan-
tage is increased ; but the head is turned more freely on the first and second
bones. The principal stress is on the clentata, or second bone, so much so,
that, in poll-evil, this ligament may be divided "vvithout serious inconve-
nience to the horse. It then suddenly sinks deeper, and communicates
A\ath all the other vertebrae. Each of these commujiications becomes a
separate point of support, and as they approach nearer to the base, the
mechanical disadvantage, or the force mth which the weight of the head
and neck presses and acts, is materially lessened.

The head, then, while the animal is in a state of rest, is supported by
this Hgament, AAdthout any aid from muscular energy.

There is, however, something yet wanting. The head must not be
always elevated. The animal has his food to seek. In a state of nature
this food lies principally on the ground, and the head must be lowered to
enable the horse to get at it. How is this effected ? This ligament, as
it has been called, because it resembles in appearance the other Hgaments
of the body, possesses a property which they have not, and which they
must not have, or they would be useless. No well-knit joint could exist
if it had this property. It is elastic. It will yield to a force impressed
upon it, and A\'ill resume its natural dimensions when that force is removed.
It sustains perfectly the weight of the head. That portion of tenacity or
strength is given to it which \\il\ not give way to the simple weight of the
head, but which ^'ill yield to a very httle additional weight. Its resisting
power is so admii'ably adjusted to that which it has to sustain, that when
certain muscles, whose action is to depress or lower the head, begin to act,
and add their power to the previous weight it had to bear, the ligament
stretches, and when the horse is brousing, it is fall two inches longer than
when the head is erect.

When the animal has satisfied himself, these depressing muscles cease
to act, and other muscles which are designed to assist in raising the head,
begin to exert themselves ; and by their aid — but more by the inherent
elasticity of the ligaments— the head is once more elevated, and remains
so vsdthout the slightest exertion of muscular power. This is one of the
many applications of the principle of elasticity which will be discovered
and admired in the constraction of the animal frame.

The ligament of the neck is inserted into the centre of the back part of
the occipital bone, and immediately below the vertex or crest of the bone ;
and therefore the bone is so thick at this part.

!Many large and powerful muscles are necessary to turn the head in
various directions, as well as to assist in raising it when depressed. The
occipital bone presents a spine mnning dowm the centi-e, and a large
roughened surface for the attachment of muscles.

Lower do-^vn, and still at the back of the occipital bone, are two rounded
protuberances, by which the head is connected with the atlas, or upper or
first vertebra, or bone of the neck ; and these are called the co7idyloid
processes of the occipital bone. All the perpendicular motions of the
head are performed by this joint.

Between them is a large hole, the foramen magnum, or great apertui'e.

150 THE SEXSOKIAL FUNCTION.

thi'ougli wliicli tlie contiBuation of the brain, termed tlie spinal cord or
marrow, passes out of the skull.

As an additional contrivance to support the enormous weight of the
head, are two other projections of the occipital bone, pecuhar to animals
whose heads are set ou in a slanting direction, and to which powerful
muscles are inserted. They are called the coracoid, beak-like, processes?
or prolongations of the occipital bone.

Running forward, and forming outwardly a part of the base, and in-
wardly a portion of the floor of the skull, is what, from its wedge-liko
shajDe, is called the basilar process of the occipital bone. - It is thick,
strong, and soUd, and placed at the bottom of the skull, not only to be a
proper foundation for, and to give additional strength to the arch on either
side, but speedily to stop all vibration and concussion.

At the base of the skull, and anteiior to or below the occipital, lies the
sjjhenoid, wedge-like bone. This bone branches out into four irregular
bodies or plates, two of which are called the wings, and two running to
the palate, the legs. There is nothing important belonging to them, so far
as this work is concerned. Internally the sphenoid forms a portion of tho
cavity of the skull.

Of the ethmoid — sieve-like — bone, little can be seen outwardly. A
small portion is found in the back part of the orbit and in the cavity of the
cranium : but the most important part of it is that which is composed of
a gTeat number of thin convoluted plates, forming numerous cavities or
cells lined with the mucous membrane of the nose, and entering into its
cavity. The upper portion is called the cribriform or sieve-shape plate,
from its being perforated by a multitude of Httle holes, through which the
nerve connected with smelling passes and spreads over the nose.

Altogether these bones foi^m a cavity of an irregnilar oval shape, but tho
tentorium stretching across it, gives it the appearance of being divided
into two.

The cavity of the skull may be said to be arched all round. The
builder knows the strength which is connected -with the form of an arch.
If properly constructed, it is equal to a soKd mass of masonry. The arch
of the horse's skull has not much weight to support, but it is exposed to
many injuries from the brutahty of those by whom he should be protected,
and from accidental causes.

The roof of the skull is composed of two plates of bone : the outer one
hard and tough, and the different parts dove-tailed together, so as not to
be easily fractui'ed ; the inner plate being elastic. By the union of these
two substances of different construction, the vibration is lessened or
destroyed, so far as safety requires.

On raising any part of the skull of the horse, the dense and strong
membrane which is at once the lining of the cranium and the coveiing of
the brain — the dura mater — presents itself. Between this membrane,
common to the cranium and the brain, and the proper investing tunic of
that organ, is found that delicate gossamers' web appropriately called the
arachnoid — the spider's membrane — and which is seen in other animals,
desioned either to secrete the fluid which is interposed, for the purpose of
obviating injurious concussion, or, perhaps, to prevent the brain fi'om.
readily sympathisii:g "with any inflammatory action produced by injury of
the skull.

Beneath is the proper investing membrane of the brain — the pia mater
—it is indeed the vascular membrane of the brain, being that through
the medium of which the arteries convey the blood to the brain — which
not only covers the external surface of the brain, but peneti^ates into every
depression, and clothes every ii-regularity and part and portion of the brain.

THE SENSORIAL FU.NXTIOX. 151

We now arrive at tlie brain itself. The brain of the horse corresponds
with the cavity in which it is placed. It is a flattened oval. It is diWded
into two parts, one much larger than the other — the cerebrum or brain,
and the cerebellum or httle brain. In the human being the cerebrum ia
above the cerebellum, in the quadi'uped it is below ; and yet in both they
retain the same relative situation. The cerebellum is nearer to the fora-
men through which the brain passes out of the skull, than the cerebrum,
but portions from each unite to form the medulla oblongata, which passing
out of the cavity of the cranium into the spinal canal, becomes the spinal
cord. In the human head this foramen is at the base of the skull ; but in tha
quadi'uped, in whom the head is placed slanting, it is necessarily elevated.

He who for the first time examines the brain of the horse will be struck
with its comparative diminutive size. The human being is not, generally
speaking, more than one-sixth of the size and Aveight of the horse ; yet
the brain of the biped is twice as large and as heavy as that of the quad-
ruped. K it had been the brain of the ox that had been here exposed,
it would have been but two-thirds of that of the horse. If the dog had been
the subject, it would have been very considerably larger, comparing the
general bulk of each animal. This is singular. The human brain largest
in comparative bulk ; then the brain of the dog, the horse, the ox, TIlus
would they he classed in the scale of intelligence.

K the brain is more closely examined, it ^vill be obseiwed that there
is not that roundness and broadness found in the human being ; it is
comparatively level and flat. There is, however, sufiicient irregularity ot
surface — there are projections and depressions to remind us that the
phrenological development of the brain of the horse should not be lost
sight of — his pride and love of approbation, his acute remembrance of
persons and places, his perception of music and time are extraordinary.
After the dog, there is no animal endowed with more intelligence than the
horse. "Were the brain of the beaver, of the hare, or the rabbit, or of almost
any bu-d, substituted for it, there would be no convolutions or irregularities
at all.

The irregularities on the surface of the brain are not so bold and so deep
in the ox as in the horse, nor in the horse as in the dog. We do not know
enough, as yet, of the functions of the particular portions of the brain to
associate those convolutions, accurately, with any particular powers of
mind, or good or bad propensities ; though, doubtless, such knowledge will
ultimately be obtained. It would occupy two much space fully to enter
into these questions ; but there are some diseases to which the horse is
subject, for which a very useful operation — the division of some of the
nerves — is had recourse to, the effect of which operation could not be
understood without a previous sHght account of this important organ.

When the brain is cut, it is found to be composed of tAvo substances
very unlike in appearance ; one, principally on the outside, gi'ey, or ash-
coloured, and therefore called the cortical (barh-lil-e) from its situation,
and cineritio^is (aslien) from its colour ; and the other Ijing deeper in the
brain, and from its pulpy nature called fho medullary substance. Although
placed in apposition with each other, and seemingly mingling, they never
run into the same mass, or change by degrees into one another, but are
essentially distinct in construction as well as in function. "We are told by
Mr. Solly, in his most valuable work on the brain, that the cineritious or
dark portion of the brain is the source of mental power — that is, it is the
portion of the brain by means of wliich the mind or instinct developes itself;
that it is collected in masses of variable form and shape, both AATithin and
without the brain, called ganglia, and that these ganglia are the immediate
means of mental demonstration, while the medullary or white portion

152 THE SENSORIAL FUNCTION.

of the brain, has the secondary ofUce of being the conductor of tliat
demonstration to every part of the body, it is not developed in the form
of irregular masses or ganglia, but is moulded into the more symmetrical
form of nerves.

The medullary portion is connected with the nervous system. The
nerves are prolongations of it, and are concerned in the discharge of all
the offices of life. They give motion and energy to the limbs, the heart,
the lungs, the stomach, and every part connected ^Yit}l Hfe. They are the
medium through which sensation is conveyed ; and they supply the mind
with materials to think and work upon.

The cinerltious part has a different appearance, and is differently con-
stituted. Some have supposed, and with much appearance of truth, that
it is the residence of the mind — receiving the impressions that are con
veyed to the brain by the sensitive nerves, and directing the operation and
action of those which give motion to the limbs. In accordance with this,
it happens that, where superior inteUigence is found, the cineritious por-
tion prevails, and where little beside brute strength and animal appetite
exists, the medullary portion is enlarged. There is, comparing bulk with
bulk, lees of the medullary substance in the horse than in the ox, and in
the dog than in the horse. The additional bulk of brain is composed of
cineritious matter ; and how different is the character of these animals ? —
the sluggish, stupid ox, and the intelligent horse ; the silly sheep, and tho
intellectual companionable dog !

In a work Hke this, it would be somewhat out of place to enter deeply
into any metaphysical speculation ; but the connexion between the cineri-
tious part of the brain and the intellectual principle, and that between the
medullary portion and the mere animal principle, do seem highly probable.
The latter is the medium through which the impression is conveyed, or
the motion is effected ; the former is the substance to which that impres-
sion is referred — where it is received, registered, and compared, and by
which the operation of the motor nerves is influenced and governed.

The cortical substance is small in the quadruped ; for in their wild state
brutes have no concern and no idea beyond their food and reproduction ;
and in their domesticated state they are destined to be the servants of man.
The acuteness of their senses, and the preponderance of animal power,
qualify them for these purposes ; but were proportionate intellectual capa-
city added to this — were they made conscious of their strength, they would
burst their bonds, and man would, in his turn, be the victim and the slave.
The cortical part is found in each in the proportion in which it Avould
seem to be needed for our purpose, in order that intelligence should be
added to animal power. Almost every mental faculty, and almost every
virtue, too, may be traced in the brute. The difference is in degree, and
not in kind. The one being improved by circumstances and the other
contaminated, the quadruped is decidedly the superior.

From the medullary substance — as already stated — proceed certain
cords or prolongations, termed nerves, by which the animal is enabled to
receive impressions from surrounding objects, and to connect himself with
them ; and also to possess many pleasurable or painful sensations. One of
them is spread over the membrane of the nose, and gives the sense of
smell ; another expands on the back of the eye, and the faculty of sight
is gained ; and a third goes to the internal structure of the ear, and the
animal is conscious of sound. Other nerves, proceeding to different parts,
give the faculty of motion, while equally important ones bestow the power
of feeling.

One division of nerves springing from a prolongation of the brain,
wanders to different parts of the fram 3, for important purposes connected

THE SENSORIAL FUXCTIOX.

153

with respiration or breathing. The act of breathing is essential to hfo,
and were it to cease, the animal would die. These are nerves of iiivoluu-
tarij motion ; so
that, whether he
is awake or asleep,
conscious of it or
not, the lungs
heave and life is
supported. Lastly,
extending from
the medulla ob-
longata is the
spinal cord — a
further prolonga-
tion of the brain,

running through a cavity in the bones of the neck, back, and loins, and
extending to the sacral canal— from which other nerves are given off at
certain intervals. This cut delineates a pair of them. The portion of
spinal cord represented, is supposed to be placed with its inner or lower
surface towards us. The spinal cord, a, is composed of six distinct
divisions or rods, running through its whole length — three on either side.
The two upper divisions proceed from those tracks of the brain devoted to
sensation. Numerous distinct fibres spring abruptly from the column, and
which collect together, and, developing a little ganglion or enlargement,
d — an enlargement of a nervous cord is called a ganglion-^become a nerve
of sensation. From the lower or inner side — a prolongation of the track
devoted to motion — proceed other fibres, which also collect gradually
together, and form a nervous cord, c, giving the poAver of motion. Beyond
the ganglion the two unite, and form a perfect spinal nerve, &, possessing
the power both of sensation and motion ; and the fibres of the two columns
proceed to their destination, enveloped in the same sheath, and apparently
one nerve. Each portion, however, continues to be wrapped in its own
membrane. They are united, yet distinct ; they constitute one nerve, yet
neither their substance nor their office is confounded. Our cut, closely
examined, will give at h some idea of the manner in which these distinct
fibres are continued ; — each covered by its own membrane but all enveloped
in a common envelope. The difference of action in the sentient and motive
portions of the nerves must not be lost sight of ; in the sentient, the im-
pression commences in the minute ramifications of the nerve, and is carried
on through the trunk to the sensorium : while, on the contrary, in the
motor, the volition originates in the brain itself, and is communicated to
the muscles ; the impression in the sentient nerves traversing from the
tissues to the brain, and m the motor from the brain to the tissues.

All these nerves are organs of sensation and motion alone ; but there
are others whose origin seems to be outside of and below the brain. These
are the si/mpathefic, so called from their union and sympathy with all the
others, and identified with life itself. They arise from a small enlargement,
called the anterior cervical ganglia, in the upper part of the neck, and are
more or less distributed over every part of the body. They go to the heart,
and its beats ; and to the stomach, and it digests. They form a network
round each blood-vessel, and the current flows on. They surround the
very minutest vessels, and the frame is nourished and built up. They are
destitute of sensation, and they are perfectly beyond the control of the will.

The reader, we trust, will now comprehend this wonderful yet simple
machinery, and be able, by-and-by, to refer to it the explanation of several
diseases, and particularly of the operation to which we have referred.

154 Ttffi SEXSOllIAL FUXXTIOX.

They who know anything of the horse pay much attention to the size,
setting' on, and motion of the ear. Ears rather small than large — ^jilaced
not too far apart — erect and quick in motion, indicate both breeding and
spirit ; and if a horse is frequently in the habit of carrying one ear forward
and the other backward, and especially if he does so on a journey, he \viU
generally possess both spii'it and continuance. The stretching of the ears
in contrary directions shows that he is attentive to everything that is
taking place around him, and, while he is doing this, he cannot be much
fatigued, or likely soon to become so. It has been remarked that few
horses sleep without pointing one ear forward and the other backward, in
order that they may receive notice of the approach of objects in every
direction. ' When horses or mules,' says Dr. Ai'nott, in his ' Elements of
Physic,' ' march in company at night, those in front du'ect their ears for-
wards ; those in the rear direct them backwards ; and those in the centre
turn them laterally or across ; the whole troop seeming thus to be actuated
by one feeling, which watches the general safety.'

The ear of the horse is one of the most beautiful parts about him, and
by few things is the temper more surely indicated than by its motion.
The ear is more intelligible even than the eye ; and a person accustomed
to the horse, and an observer of him, can tell by the expressive motion of
that organ almost all that he thinks or means. It is a common saying,
that when a horse lays his ears fiat back upon his neck, and keeps them
so, he most assuredly is meditating mischief, and the stander by should
beware of his heels or his teeth. In play, the ears will be laid back, but
not so decidedly or so long. A quick change in their position, and more
particularly the expression of the eye at the time, will distinguish between
playfulness and vice.

The external ear is formed by a cartilage of an oval or cone- like shape,
flexible, yet firm, and terminating in a point. It has, directed towards the
side, yet somewhat pointing forward, a large opening extending from the
top to the bottom. The intention of this is to collect the sound, and
convey it to the interior part of the ear.

The hearing of the horse is remarkably acute. A thousand vibrations
of the air, too slight to make any impression on the human ear, are readily
]ierceived by him. It is weU known to every hunting man, that the cry
of the hounds will be recognised by the horse, and his ears will be erect,
and he ^vill be all spirit and impatience a considerable time before the
rider is conscious of the least sound.

This custom of cutting the ears of the horse originated, to its shame, in
Great Britain, and for many years was a practice not only cruel to the
animal, but depriving him also of much of his beauty ; and was so obsti-
nately pursued, that at length the deformity became in some hereditary,
and a breed of horses born without ears was produced. Fortunately for
this too-often abused animal, cropping is not now the fashion. Some
thoughtless or unfeeling young men endeavoured, a Httle while ago, again
to introduce it, but the voice of reason and humanity prevailed.

This cartilage, the conch or shell, is attached to the head by ligaments,
and sustained by muscles, on which its action depends. It rests upon
another cartilage, round without and irregular within, called the annular,
ring-like, cartilage, and conducting to the interior of the ear ; and it is
likewise supported and moved by a third small cartilage, placed at the
fore part of the base of the conch, and into which several muscles are
inserted.

The ear is covered by skin thinner than in most other parts of the body,
and altogether destitute of fat, in order that it may not be too bulky and
heavy, and may be more easily moved. Under the skin lining the inside

THE SEXSOKIAL FUXCTIOX. 156

of the cartilage are numerous glands that secrete or throw out a scaly
white greasy matter, which may be rubbed off by the finger, and ia
destined to supple this part of the ear, and to keep it soft and smooth.
Below this ai'e other glands, which pour out a peculiar, sticky, bitter fluid
— the wax — probably displeasing to insects, and therefore deten-ing them
from crawling down the ear and annoying the animal, or by its stickiness
arresting their progress.

The internal part of the conch is covered -with long harr, which stands
across the passage in eveiy direction. This likewise is to protect the ear
from insects, that can with difficulty penetrate thi-ough this thick defence.
The cold au* is likewise prevented from reaching the interior of the ear,
and the sound is moderated, not arrested — penetrating readily but not
violently — and not striking injui'iously on the membrane covering the
drum, of the ear. Can these purposes be accomplished when it is the
custom of so many carters and gi'ooms to cut out the hair of the ear so
closely and industriously as they do ? The groom who singes it to the
root ■s\dth a candle must either be very ig-norant or very bmtal. It can
scarcely be accomphshed "udthout singeing the ear as "well as the hair.
Many a troublesome sore is occasioned by this ; and many a horse that
was perfectly quiet before rendered difficult to handle or to halter, and
even disposed to be other^wise vicious, from a recollection of the pain
■wliich he suffered during the absurd and barbarous operation.

The sound collected by the outer ear passes thi'ough the lower or
annular, ring-shaped cartilage, and through irregTilarities which, while
they break and modify it, convey it on to another canal, partly cartilagi-
nous and partly bony, conducting immediately to the internal mechanism
of the ear. This canal or passage is called the external auditory passage,
and at the base of it is placed, stretching across it, and closing it, a thick
and elastic membrane, memhrana tymioani, called the membrane of the
drum. This membrane is supphed ■\\"ith numerous fibres, from the fifth
pair, or sensitive nerve of the head, for it is necessary that it should pos-
sess extreme sensibility.

Between this membrane and a smaller one almost opposite, leading to
the still interior part of the ear, and on which the nerve of hearing is ex-
panded, are four little bones, united to these membranes and to each other.
Their office is to convey, more perfectly than it could be done through the
mere air of the cavity, the vibrations that have reached the membrana
tympani.

These bones are conjiected together, and are covered by a cartilaoinous
substance, elastic in the greatest degree, by means of which the force
of the vibration is much increased.

It is conveyed to a strangely ii'regular cavity, filled with an aqueous
fluid, and the substance or pulp of the portio mollis or soft portion of the
seventh pair of nerves, the auditory nerve, expands on the membrane that
lines the walls of this cavity.

Sound is propagated far more intensely through water than through
air, and therefore it is that an aqueous fluid occupies those chambei's
of the ear on the walls on Avhich the auditory nen'e is expanded. By
this contrivance, and by others, which we have not space now to nar-
rate, the sense of hearing is fully equal to every possible want of tho
animal.

The Eye is a most important organ, and comes next under considera-
tion, as enclosed in the bones of the skull. The eye of the horse should be
large, somewhat but not too prominent, and the eyehd fine and thin. If
the eye is sunk in the head, and apjJarently little — for there is actually a
very trifling difference in the size of the eye in animals of the same species

itjG THE SENSOKIAL FU^X'TION.

and bulk, and that seeming difference arises from the larger or smallei
opening between the lids — and the hd is thick, and especially if there is
any puckering towards the inner corner of the Hds, that eye either is
diseased, or has lately been subject to disease ; and, particularly, if one
eye is smaller than the other, it has at no gi'eat distance of time becm
inflamed.

The eye of the horse enables us with tolerable accuracy to guess at his
temper. If much of the white is seen, the buyer should pause ere he com-
pletes his bargain ; because, although it may, yet very rarely, happen that
the cornea or transparent part is unnaturally small, and therefore an un-
usual portion of the white of the eye is seen, experience has shown that
this display of white is dangerous. The mischievous horse is slyly on the
look out for opportunities to do mischief, and the frequent backward direc-
tion of the eye, when the white is most perceptible, is only to give surer
effect to the blow which he is about to aim.

A cursory description of the eye, and the uses of its different parts,
must be given.

The eyes are placed at the side of the head, but the direction of the
conoid cavity wliich they occupy, and of the sheath by which they are
surrounded Tvdthin the orbit, gives them a prevailing direction forwards,
BO that the animal has a very extended field of vision. We must not
assert that the eye of the horse commands a whole sphere of vision ; but
it cannot be denied that his eyes are placed more forward than those of
cattle, sheep, or swine. He requires an extensive field of vision to warn
him of the approach of his enemies in his wild state, and a direction of
the orbits considerably forward, in order to enable him to pursue with
safety the headlong course to which we sometimes urge him.

The eyeball is placed in the anterior and most capacious part of the
orbit, nearer to the frontal than the temporal side, wdth a degree of promi-
nence varying with different individuals and the will of the animal. It
is protected by a bony socket beneath and on the inside, but is partially
exposed on the roof and on the outside. It is, however, covered and
secured by thick and powerful muscles — by a mass of adipose matter
which is distributed to various -parts of the orbit, upon which the eye may
be readily moved without friction, and by a sheath of considerable density
and firmness, and especially where it is most needed, on the external and
superior portions.

The adipose matter exists in a considerable quantity in the orbit of the
eye of the horse, and enables that organ readily to revolve by the slightest
contraction of the muscles. By the absorption of this fatty matter in
sickness or old age, the eye is not only to a certain degree sunk in the
orbit, but the roof of the orbit posterior to the frontal bone, being deprived
of its support, is considerably depressed.

In front the eye is covered and protected by the lids, which, closing
rapidly, secure it from many an injury that threatens — diffuse over it
that moisture which is necessary to preserve its transparency — in the
momentary act of closing give a certain and sufficient respite to a delicate
organ, which would otherwise be fatigued and worn out by the constant
glare of day — defend it when the eye labours under inflammation from
the stimulus of light — and, gradually drooping, permit the animal to enjoy
that repose which nature requires.

Extending round both lids, and, it may be almost said, ha\'ing neither
origin nor insertion, is a muscle called the orhicularis palpebrarum, or
circular muscle. Its office is to close the Hds in the act of winking or
otherwise, but only while the animal is awake. When he sleeps this is
effected by another and very ingenious mechanism. The natural state of

THE SENSORIAL FUXCTIOX. J 57

the eyelids is that of being closed, and they are kept open by the energy
of the muscles Avliose office it is to raise the upper lid. As sleep steals upon
the animal, these muscles cease to act, and the lids close by the inherent
elasticity of the membrane of ^vhicb tbey are composed.

The skin of the lid is, like that of the ear, exceedingly fine, in order to
prevent unnecessary weight and pressxu-e on such a part, and to give more
easy and extensive motion. The Kds close accurately when dra^vn over
the eye, and this is effected by a little strip of cartilage at the edge of
each of them, which may be easily felt vriih the finger, and preserves
them in a hooplike form, and adapts them closely to the eye and to each
other. The lower cai-tilage, however, does not present, towards the inner
corner of the eye, the whole of its flat surface to the upper, but it evidently
<5lopes inward, and only tlie outer edge of the under hd touches the upper.
By this means a little gutter is formed, through which the superfluous
moisture of the eye flows to the inner corner, where there is a canal to
convey it away. By this contrivance it neither accumulates in the eye
nor unpleasantly runs down the cheek.

Along the edges of the hds are placed numerous httle hollows, which
can be plainly distinguished even in the living horse by shghtly turning
doAvn the hd. These are the openings from the meibomian or ciliary
glands containing a thick and unctuous fluid, by means of which the
eyes are more accurately closed, and the edges of the Hds defended from
the acrimony of the tears.

The horse has no eyebrows, and the eijelashes are very pecuharly ar-
ranged. The rows of hair are longest and most numerous on the upper
lid, and especially towards the outer or temporal comer, because the hght
comes from above ; and, as the animal stands, particularly when he is
grazing, and from the lateral situation of his eyes, the gi-eater portion of
the hght, and the attacks of insects, and the rolling down of moisture,
would chiefly be fi-om the outside or temples. Towards the inner comer
of the upper hd there is httle or no eyelash, because there is no probable
danger or nuisance in that direction. Only a small quantity of hght can
enter from below, and therefore the lashes are thin and short ; but as, in
the act of grazing, insects may more readily climb up and be troublesome
to the eye, towards the inner angle, there the pi-incipal or only hair is
found on the lower hd. These apparently trifling circumstances will not
be overlooked by the careful observer.

They who are unacquainted with the absurdities of stable management,
or who have not carefully examined the abuses that may exist in their own
estabhshments, can scarcely beheve the foohsh and cruel practices of some
carters and grooms. When the gTOom is anxious that his horse should be
as trim and neat all over as art can make him, the very eyelashes are
generally sacrificed. What has the poor animal sufiered, when, travelling
in the noon of day, the fall blaze of the sun has fallen upon his eyes ; and
how many accidents have probably happened from his being dazzled by
the hght, which have been attributed to other causes !

K the horse has no eyebrow, there are several hairs or bristles scattered
on the upper eyehd, and there is a projecting fold of the lid which dis-
charges nearly the same office. It is more conspicuous in old horses than
in young ones. Some horsemen do not like to see it, and associate the idea
of it with weakness or disease of the eye. This is perfectly erroneous. _ It
is a proArision of nature to accomplish a certain pm-pose, and has nothing
to do either with health or disease.

On the lower hd is a useful provision to warn the horse of the near
approach of any object that might incommode or injure him, in the form
of long projecting hairs or bristles, which are plenteously iinbued with

l';8 ^ THE SEXSORIAL FUNCTION

nervous influence, so that the slightest touch sliould put the animal on his
guard. We would request our readers to touch very slightly the extremity
of one of these hairs. They will be surprised to observe the sudden con-
vulsive twitching of the lid, rendering the attack of the insect absolutely
impossible. The grooms, however, who cut away the eylashes, do not
spare these useful feelers.

The eye is exposed to the action of the atmospheric air, and the process
of evaporation, destructive of its transparency, is continually goin"- on.
The eye of the horse, or the visible part of the eye, is, lilce-wdse, more
prominent and larger than in the human being, and the- animal is often
subject to extreme annoyance from dust and insects, while he has no
hands or other guard to defend himself from the torture which they occa-
sion. Wliat is the provision of nature against this ? Under, and a little
within, the outer comer of the upper lid, is an irregular body, the lachry-
mal gland, comparatively larger than in the human being, secreting au
aqueous fluid, which, slowly issuing from the gland, or occasionally pressed
out of it in the act of winking, flows over the eye, supphes it -with moisture,
and cleanses it from all impurities. Human ingenuity could not have se-
lected a situation from which the fluid could be conveyed over the eye
uith more advantage for this purpose.

\VTien this fluid is secreted in an undue quantity and flows over the eye,
lb is called tears. An increased flow of tears is produced by anything that
ii'ritates the eye, and, therefore, a constant accompaniment and symptom
of inflammation. A horse with any degree of weeping should be regarded
Avith much suspicion. In the human being an unusual secretion of tears
is often caused by bodily pain, and emotions of the mind ; and so it is
occasionally in the horse. We have seen it repeatedly under acute pain
or brutal usage. John Lawi'ence, speaking of the cruelty exercised by
some dealers in what they call ' firing ' a horse before he is led out for
sale, in order to rouse every spark of mettle, says, ' more than fifty years
have passed away, and I have before my eyes a poor mare stone bhnd,
exquisitely shaped, and showing all the marks of high blood, whom I saw
unmercifully cut -watli the whip a quarter of an hour before the sale, to
bring her to the use of her stiffened limbs, wlcile the tears were tricldinn
doivn her clieeJcs.'

Having passed over the eye, the fluid is conveyed by the little canal to
which we have alluded, formed by the sloping of the under hd, towards
the corner of the eye ; and there are two httle orifices that conduct it to
a small reservoir %vithin, and at the upper part of the lachrymal bone
(fig i, p. 145). A httle protuberance of a black or pied colour, called the
caruncle, placed in the very corner of the eye, and to be seen vnthout
opening the lids, is situated between these orifices, and guides the fluid
into them. From this reservoir the tears are conveyed by a long canal,
the lachrymal duct, partly bony, and partly membranous, to the lower part
of the nose. A little -wilihin the nostril, and on the division between the
nostrils, is seen the lower opening of this canal ; the situation of which
should be carefully observed, and its real iise borne in mind, for not only
horsemen, but even some careless veterinary sirrgeons, have mistaken it
for a glanderous ulcer, and have condemned a useful and valuable animal.
It is found just before the skin of the muzzle terminates, and the more
dehcate membrane of the nostril commences. The opening of the canal is
placed thus low because the membrane of the nose is exceedingly dehcate,
and would be irritated and made sore by the frequent or constant running
doMTi of the tears.

TJierc is, however, something yet wanting. We have a provision for
siupplj-ing the eye with reauisite moisture and forwasliing from ofl" the

THE SE.NSOKIAL FUNCTION. l/)9

transparent part of it insects or dust that may annoy the animal. W^(:at
becomes of these impurities when thus washed off ? Ai'e they carried by
the tears to the comer of the eye, and so pass down this duct, and irritate
and obstruct it ; or do they accumulate at the inner angle of the eye ?
Q'"hcre is a beautiful contrivance for disposing of them as f\xst as they accu-
mulate Concealed "within the inner corner of the eye, or just at the
margin of it, black or pied, is visible a triangular- shaped cartilage, the haw,
svith its broad part forwards. It is concave within, exactly to suit the
globe of the eye ; it is convex ■without, accurately to adapt itself to the
membrane lining the lid ; and the base of it is reduced to a thin or almost
sharp edge. At the ^vill of the animal this is suddenly protruded from
its liiding-place. It passes rapidly over the eye, and shovels up every
nuisance mixed Avith the tears, and then being speedily drawn back, the
dust or insect is wiped away as the cartilage again passes under the comer
of the eye.

How is this managed ? The cartilage has no muscle attached to it ;
and the limbs and the different parts of the body, when put into motion
by the influence of the will, are moved invariably by muscles. The
mechanism, however, is simple and effectual. There is a considerable
mass of fatty matter at the back of the eye, in order that this organ may
be easily moved ; and this fat is particularly accumulated about the inner
corner of the eye, and beneath, and at the point of this cartilage. The
eye of the horse has likewise very strong muscles attached to it, and one,
pecuHar to quadrupeds, of extraordinary power, by whose aid, if the animal
has not hands to ward off a danger that threatens, he is at least enabled to
draw the eye back almost out of the reach of that danger.

Dust, or gravel, or insects, may have entered the eye, and annoy the
horse. This muscle suddenly acts : the eye is forcibly di-a^vn back, and
presses upon the fatty matter. That may be displaced, but cannot be
reduced into less compass. It is forced violently towards the inner comer
of the eye, and it drives before it the haw ; and the haw, having likeAvise
some fat about its point, and being placed between the eye and an exceed-
ingly smooth and polished bone, and being pressed upon by the eye as it
is violently di'aAvn back, shoots out with the rapidity of lightning, and,
guided by the eyelids, projects over the eye, and thus carries off the
offending matter.

In what way shall we draw the haw back again without muscular
action ? Another principle is called into play, of which mention has
ah'eady been made, and of which we shall have much to say — elasticity.
It is that principle by which a body yields to a certain force impressed
upon it, and returns to its former state as soon as that force is removed.
It is that by which the Hgament of the neck (p. 153), while it supports
the head, enables the horse to graze — by which the heart expands after
closing on and propelhng forward the blood In its ventricles and the
artery contracts on the blood that has distended it, and many of the most
important functions of life are influenced or governed. This muscle ceases
to act, and the eye resumes its natural situation in the orbit. There is
room for the fatty matter to ret;uTi to its place, and it immediately returns
by the elasticity of the' membrane by which it is covered, and draws after
it this cartilage with which it is connected, and whose return is as rapid as
was the projection.

The old farriers strangely misunderstood the nature and design of the
haw, and many at the present day do not seem to be much better informed.
"Wlien, from sympathy with other parts of the eye labouring under in-
fiarOi:.iuation, and becoming itself inflamed and increased in bulk, and the
neighboring iiarts likewise thickened, it is either forced out of its place,

IGO

THE SEXSORIAL FUXCTIOX.

or voluntarily protruded to defend the eye from the action of light, and
cannot return, they mistake it for some injurious excrescence or tumour,
and proceed to cut it out. The ' Imiv in the eye ' is a disease "well known
to the majority of grooms, and this sad remedy for it is deemed the only
cure. It is a barbarous practice, and if they were compelled to walk half
a dozen miles in a thick dust, without being permitted to wipe or to cleanse
the eye, they would feel the torture to which they doom this noble animal.
A little patience having been exercised, and a few cooling applications
made to the eye while the inflammation lasted, and afterwards some mild
astringent ones, and other proper means being employed, the tumour
would have disappeared, the haw would have returned to its place, and
the animal would have discharged the duties required of him without
inconvenience to himself, instead of the agony to which an unguarded and
unprotected eye must now expose him.

The loss of blood occasioned by the excision of the haw may frequently
relieve the inflammation of the eye ; and the evident amendment which
follows induces these wise men to believe that they have performed an
excellent operation ; but the same loss of blood by scarification of the over-
loaded vessels of the conjunctiva, would be equally beneficial, and the animal
would not be deprived of an instrument of admirable use to him.

The eye is of a globular figure, yet not a perfect globe. It is rather
composed of parts of two globes ; the half of one of them smaller and
transparent in front, and of the other larger, and the coat of it opaque,
behind. We shall most conveniently begin with the coats of the eye.

A B a supposed object viewed by the animal, and an inverted image of which, a, h, is

thrown on the retina at the back of the eye.
The rays proceeding from the extremities of the object to the eye.
The points where the rays, having passed the cornea and lens, converge by the

refractive power of the lens.
The cornea, or horny and transparent part of the eye, covered by the conjunctiva,

uniting different parts together.
The crystalline (crystal or glassy) lens, behind the pupil, and in front of the vitreous

humour.
Muscles of the eye.
The optic nerve, or nerve of sight.
The sclerotica (hard firm coat) covering the whole of the eye except the portion

occupied by the cornea, and being a seeming prolongation of the covering of the

optic nerve.
The choroides (receptacle or covering), or choroid coat, covered with a black secretion

or paint.
The iris or rainbow-coloured circular membrane under the cornea, in front of the

eye, and on which the colour of the eye depends. The duplicature behind is the

uvea, from being coloured like a grape. The opening in the centre is the pupil.
The ciliary (hair-like) processes.
The retina, or net-like expansion of the optic nerve, spread over the whole of the

choroides as far as tlie kns.
The vitreous (glass-like) humour filling the whole of the cavity of the eye behind

the leHS.
The aqueous (water-like) humour filling the space between the cornea and the lens.

d e
c c

f

9
hh

TV

THE SENSORIAL FUNCTION. 161

The corrjundivaf f, is that membrane which lines the lids, and covers
the fore part of the eye. It spreads over all that we can see or feel of the
eye, even its transparent part, and is then reflected over the internal
surface of the lid. It is itself transparent, and transmits the colour of the
parts beneath. It is very susceptible of inflammation, during "which the
lining of the Hds will become intensely red, and the white of the eye will
be first streaked with red vessels, and then covered with a complete mesh
of them, and the cornea will become cloudy and opaque. It is the seat of
various diseases, and, particularly, it first announces that sad inflammation
of the horse's eye, which bids defiance to the veterinary sui'geon's skill
and almost invariably terminates in bHndness.

The examination of the conjunctiva, by turning down the hd, will en-
able us to form an accui'ate judgment of the degree of inflammation which
exists in the eye.

Covering the back part of the eye, and indeed four-fifths of the globe
of it, is the sclerotica, Ic. It is an exceedingly strong membrane, composed
of fibres interweaving with each other, and almost defying the possibiHty
of separation. An organ so delicate and so important as the eye, requires
secure protection.

It is to a certain extent comparatively inelastic. It is necessary that it
should be so, when it is considered that the eye is surrounded by several
very powerful muscle?, which must temporarily, and even for the purposes
of vision, alter its form. The slight elasticity of the sclerotica is usefiiUy
developed in causing the globe of the eye to resume its former and natural
shape, as soon as the action of the muscle ceases.

The sclerotica has very few blood vessels — is scarcely sensible — and its
diseases, except when it participates in general disturbance or disorganisa-
tion, are rarely brought under our notice.

The cornea is, or we should wish it to be, the only visible part of the
horse's eye, for the exhibition of much white around it is a frequent
symptom of wickedness. The cornea fills up the vacuity which is left by
the sclerotica in the fore part of the eye, and, although closely united
to the sclerotica, may be separated from it, and will drop out like a watch-
glass. It is not round, but wider from side to side than from the top to
the bottom ; and the curve rather broader towards the inner than the
outer comer of the eye, so that the near eye may be known from the off"
one after it is taken from the head.

The convexity or projection of the cornea is a point of considerable
importance. The prominence of the eye certaiuly adds much to the
beauty of the animal, but we shall see presently, when we consider the eye
as the organ of sight, that by being too prominent, the rays of hght may
be rendered too convergent, and the vision indistinct ; or, if the cornea is
small and flat, the rays may not be convergent enough, and perfect vision
destroyed. In either case the horse may unpleasantly start, or suddenly
and dangerously turn round. An eye neither too prominent nor too flat
will be nearest to perfection.

It should be perfectly transparent. Any cloudiness or opacity is the
consequence of disease. It is an exceedingly firm and dense membrane,
and can scarcely be pierced by the sharpest instrument. The cornea is
composed of many different plates, laid over one another ; and between
each, at least in a state of health, is a fluid that is the cause of its trans-
parency, and the evaporation of which, after death, produces the leaden
or glazed appearance of the eye. When it appears to be opaque, it is not
often, and never at first, that the cornea has undergone any change.

Within the sclerotica, and connected vsdth it by innumerable minute
fibres and vessels, is the choroid coat, I. It is a very deHcate membrane,

M

162 THE SENSORIAL FUNCTION.

and extends over nearly the whole of the internal part of the eye, froni
the optic nerve to the cornea. It secretes a dark-coloured suhstance or
paint, by which it is covered ; the intention of which, like the inside of
our telescopes and microscopes, is probably to absorb any wandering rays
of light which might dazzle and confuse. The black paint, pigmenium
nigrum, seems perfectly to discharge this function in the human eye. It
is placed immediately outside the retina or expansion of the optic nerve.
The rays of hght fall on the retina, and penetrating its deHcate substance,
are immediately absorbed or destroyed by the black covering of the cho-
roides underneath. For the perfection of many of his best pleasures, and
particularly of his intellectual powers, man wants the vivid impression
which will be caused by the admission of the rays of Hght into a pex'fectly
dark chamber ; and when the Hght of the sun begins to fail, his superior
intelhgence has enabled him to discover various methods of substituting
an artificial day, after the natural one has closed. Other animals, without
this power of kindling another, although inferior hght, have far more to
do with the night than we have. Many of them sleep through the glare
of day, and are awake and busy during the period of darkness. The ox
occupies some hours of the night in grazing ; the sheep does so when not
folded in his pen ; and the horse, worked during the day for our conve-
nience and profit, has often Httle more than the period of night allotted to
Viim for nourishment and repose. It is necessary then that, by some
pecuHar and adequate contrivance, these hours of comparative or total
darkness to us should be partially yet sufficiently illuminated for them ;
and therefore, in the horse, the dark-brown or black coat of the choroides
does not extend over the whole of the internal part of the eye, or rather
it is not found on any part on which the rays proceeding from the objects
could faU. It does not occupy the smallest portion of what may be called
the field of vision ; but, in its place, a bright variegated green is spread,
called the tapektm lucidum, and more over the upper part than the lower,
because the animal's food, and the objects which it is of consequence for
him to notice, are usually below the level of his head — thus, by suffering
the impression to remain longer on the retina, or by some portion of hght
reflected from this variegated bed on which the retina reposes, or in some
other inexphcable but efficient way, enabhng the animal, even in compa-
rative darkness, to possess a power of vision equal to his wants.

The reader may see in the dusk, or even when duskiness is fast yielding
to utter darkness, the beautiful sea-green reflection from the eye of the
horse. It is that lucid variegated carpet of which we are now speaking.

Who is unaware that in the fading ghmmering of the evening, and even
in the darker shades of night, his horse can see surrounding objects much
better than his rider : and who, resigning himself to the guidance of that
sagacious and faithful animal, has not been carried in safety to his jour-
ney's end, when he would otherwise have been utterly bewildered ?

K the reader has not examined this beautifal pigment in the eye of the
horse, he should take the earhest opportunity of doing so. He will have
a beautiful illustration of the care which that Being who gave all things
life has taken that each shall be fitted for his situation. The horse has not
the intelligence of man, and may not want for any purpose of pleasure or
improvement the vivid picture of surrounding objects which the retina of
the human being presents. A thousand minute but exquisite beauties
would be lost upon him. K, therefore, his sense of vision may not be
so strong during the day, it is made up to him by the increased power of
vision in the night.

Perfectly white and cream-coloured horses have a pecuHar appearance
of the eyes. The pupil is red instead of black. There is no black paint or

THE SENSORIAL FUNCTION. 163

brilliant carpet. It is the choroid coat itself wLich we see in them, and
not its covering ; and the red appearance is caused by the numerous blood-
vessels which are found on every part of that coat.

"Wlien we have to treat of other domestic animals, we shall see how this
carpet is varied in colour to suit the situation and necessity of each. In the
ox it is of a dark green. He has not many enemies to fear, or much
difficulty in searching for noui'ishment, and the colour of the eye is adapted
to his food. In the cat and all his varieties it is yellow. We have heard
of the eyes of the lion appearing like two flaming torches in the night.
There are few of our readers who have not seen the same singular glare
from the eyes of the domestic cat. In the wolf, and likewise in the dog,
who, in his wild state, prowls chiefly at night, it is gi'ey. In the poor
unjustly-persecuted badger, who scarcely dares to crawl forth at night,
although sheltered by the thickest darkness, it is white ; and the ferret,
who is destined to hunt his prey through all its winding retreats, and
in what would be to us absolute darkness, has no paint on the choroides.

Tracing the choroides towards the fore part of the eye, we perceive that
it is reflected from the side to the edge of the lens, n, and has the appear-
ance of several plaits or folds. They are actually foldings of the membrane.
It is not diminished in size,. but it has less space to cover, and there must
be duphcatures or plaits. They are usefully employed in the place in
which we find them. They prevent the passage of any rays of Hght on the
outside of the lens, and which, proceeding forAvard in various directions,
and uncondensed by the power of the lens, would render vision confused
or imperfect. These folds of the choroides are called the ciliary processes.

Occupying the fore part of the eye, is the aqueous humour, q, so termed
fix)m its resemblance to pure water. It is that by which the comea is pre-
served in its protuberant and rounded form. It extends to the crystalline
lens, g, and therefore a portion of it, although a very small one, is behind
the iris. Floating in this fluid is a membrane, with an oblong aperture,
called the Iris (m, p. 160). It is that which gives colour to the eye. The
human eye is said to be black, or hazel, or blue, according to the colour of
this membrane or curiain ; and it is denominated the iris, or rainbow,
from its beautiful, intermingling hues. The colour varies Httle in the
horse, except that it always bears some analogy to that of the skin. We
rarely see it lighter than a hazel, or darker than a brown. Horses per-
fectly white, or cream-coloured, have the iris white and the pupil red.
When horses of other colours, and that are usually pied, have a white iris
and a black pupil, they are said to be wall-eyed. Vulgar opinion has
decided that a wall-eyed horse is never subject to blindness, but this is
altogether erroneous. There is no difference of structure that can produce
this exemption ; but the wall-eyed horse, from this singular and unpleasant
appearance, and his frequent want of breeding, may not be so much used
and exposed to many of the usual causes of inflammation.

The aperture in the iris is termed the pupil, and through it Hght passes
to the inner chamber of the eye. The pupil is oblong, and variable in size.
It differs with the intensity or degree of Hght that faUs upon the eye. In
a dark stable the pupil is expanded to admit a great proportion of the
Hght that falls upon the cornea ; but when the horse is brought towards
the door of the stable and more Hght is thi'own upon the eye, the pupil
contracts in order to keep out that extra quantity which would be painful
to the animal, and injurious to vision. When opposed directly to the sun,
the aperture will almost close.

Tins alteration of form in the pupil is effected by the muscular fibres
that enter into the composition of the iris. There are two orders of these
fibres, the circular and the straight or radiating. When the cii-cular fibres

M 2

164 THE SENSORIAL FUNCTION.

act, the pupillary opening is closely contracted, having the appearance of
a single line ; when, on the contrary, the radiating fibres are brought
into action, the pupil is dilated to its greatest extent. A strong Ught
induces the action of the former, to lessen its effect, and a dim light the
latter, to admit the greatest possible quantity of it. The hght, however,
does not act on the iris itself, but on the optic nerve, and it is from a
reflected action from the braia that the muscular power of the iris is
influenced. The motions of the iris are not at all under the control of the
wll, nor is the animal sensible of them. They are produced by sympathy
with the state of the retina. When, however, a deficient portion of light
reaches the retina, and vision is indistinct, we are conscious of an apparent
effort to bring the object more clearly into view, and the fibres then con-
tract, and the aperture enlarges, and more light is admitted.

This dilatation or contraction of the pupil gives a useful method of
ascertaining the existence of bHndness in one eye or in both. The
cornea and crystalline lens remain perfectly transparent, but the retina is
palsied, and is not affected by light ; and many persons have been deceived
when bUndness of this description has been confined to one eye. A horse
blind in both eyes vrill usually have his ears in constant and rapid motion,
directing them in quick succession to every quarter. He will likewise
hang back in his halter in a peculiar way, and will lift his feet high as if
he were stepping over some obstacle, when there is actually nothing to
obstmct his passage, and there will be an evident uncertainty in the put-
ting doAvn of his feet. In blindness of one eye little or nothing of this
characteristic gait and manner can be perceived. Although a one-eyed
horse may not be absolutely condemned for the common business of the
carriage or the road, he is generally deterioriated as a hunter, for he can-
not measure his distances, and will run into his leaps. Many a sportsman,
puzzled and angry at the sudden blundering of his horse, or injured by one
or more stunning falls, has found a very natural although unexpected
explanation of it in the blindness of one eye, and that perhaps produced
thi'ough his own fault, by over riding his willing and excellent servant and
causing a determination of blood to the eye, which proved fatal to the
delicate texture of the retina. Even for the carriage or the road he ia
considerably deteriorated, for his field of observation must be materially
lessened.

Let the size of both pupils be carefully noticed before the horse is re-
moved from the stable, and, as he is led to the door, observe whether they
both contract, and equally so, with the increase of light, K the horse
should be first seen in the open air, let it be observed whether the pupils
are precisely of the same size ; and let the hand be placed over each eye
alternately and held there for a little while, and let it be observed whether
the pupil dilates with the abstraction of hght, and equally in each eye.

Hanging from the upper edge of the pupil of the horse, are two or three
round black substances, as large as millet seeds, called the corpora nigra.
When the horse is suddenly brought into an intense Hght, and the pupil is
closed, they present a singular appearance, as they are pressed out from
between the edges of the iris. An equal number, but much smaller, are
attached to the edge of the lower portion of the iris. Their general use is
probably to intercept rays of light which would be troublesome or injuri-
one, and their principal function is accompHshed during the act of grazing.
They are larger on the upper edge of the iris, and are placed on the outer
side of the pupH, evidently to discharge the same function which we have
attributed to the eyelashes, viz., to obstruct the hght in those directions
in which it would come with greatest force, both from above and even from

THE SENSORIAL FUNCTION. 165

below, while, at the same time, the field of view is perfectly open, so far as
it regards the pasture on which the horse is grazing.

In our cut m gives a duplicature of the iris, or the back surface of it.
This is called the uvea, and it is covered with a thick coat of black mucus,
to arrest the rajs of Hght, and to prevent them from entering the eye in
any other way than through the pupil. The colour of the ii'is is, in some
unknown way, connected with tins black paint behind. Wall-eyed horses,
whose iris is white, have no uvea.

We now arrive at a body on which all the important uses of the eyo
mainly depend, the crystalline lens, g, p. 160, so called from its resemblance
to a piece of crystal, or transparent glass. It is of a yielding jelly-like con-
sistence, thicker and firmer towards the centre, and convex on each side,
but more convex on the posterior than the anterior side. It is enclosed in
a delicate transparent bag or capsule, and is placed between the aqueouo
and the vitreous humours, and received into a hollow in the vitreous
humour, with which it exactly corresponds. It has, from its density and
its double convexity, the chief concern in converging the rays of lighl
which pass into the pupil.

Behind the lens, and occupying four-fifths of the cavity of the eye, is the
vitreous humour (glassy, or resembling glass). It seems, when first taken
from the eye, to be of the consistence of a jelly, and of beautiful trans-
parency ; but if it is punctured a fluid escapes from it as limpid and as thin
as water, and when this has been suffered completely to ooze out, a tissue of
thin transparent membraneous bags or cells remains. The vitreous humour
consists of a watery fluid contained in these cells ; but the fluid and the
cells form a body of considerably greater density than the aqueous fluid
in the front of the eye.

Last of all, between the vitreous humour and the choroid coat, is the
retina, o, p. 160, or net-hke membrane. It is an expansion of the substance,
/, of the optic nerve. When that nerve has reached the back of the eve, and
penetrated through the sclerotic and choroid coats, it first enlarges into a
Httle white prominence, from which radiations or expansions of nervous
matter proceed, which spread over the whole of the choroid coat, and form
the third investment of the eye. The membrane by which this nervous
pulp is supported, is so exceedingly thin and dehcate, that it will tear with
the shghtest touch, and break even with its own weight. The membrane
and the pulp are perfectly transparent in the li-ving animal. The pupil
appears to be black, because in the daytime it imperfectly reflects the
colour of the choroid coat beneath. In the dusk it is greenish, because, the
glare of day being removed, the actual green of the paint appears.

On this expansion of nervous pulp, the rays of light from surroundincr
objects, condensed by the lens and the humours, fall, and producing u
certain image corresponding with these objects, the animal is conscious of
their existence and presence.

It may, however, so happen that from the too great or too little con-
vexity of the eye or a portion of it, the place of most distinct vision may
not be immediately on the retina, but a Httle before or behind it. In pro-
portion as tliis is the case, the sight will be indistinct and imperfect ; nor
shall we be able to offer any remedy for this defect of sight. There is a
shying, often the result of cowardice or playfulness, or want of work, but
at other times proving, beyond contradiction, a defect of sight even more
dangerous than bKndness. A blind horse will resign himself to the guid.
ance of his rider or driver ; but against the misconception and starting of
a shying horse there is no defence. That horses grow shy as they grow
old no one accustomed to them will deny ; and no intelligent person will
be slow in attributing it to the right cause — a decay in the organ of vision,

166

THE SENSORIAL FUNCTIOX.

— a loss of convexity in the eye, lessening the convergency of the rays,
and throwing the perfect image beyond, and not on the retina. There is a
striking difference in the convexity of the cornea in the colt and the old
horse ; and both of them, probably, may shy from opposite causes — the
one fi'oni a cornea too prominent, and the other from one too flat. In the
usual examination of the horse previously to purchase, sufficient attention
Is not always paid to the convexity of the cornea.

The remedy for shying will be considered when we speak of the vices of
horses.

There is a provision yet wanting. The horse has a very extended field
of view, but many persons are not perhaps aware how little of it he can
command at a time. There is not one of our readers who can make out a
single line of our treatise without changing the direction of the eye. It is
curious to follow the motion of the eyes of a rapid reader. Nature has
given no less than seven muscles to the horse, in order to turn this little
but important organ ; and that they may act with sufficient power and
quickness, no fewer than six nerves are directed to the muscles of the eye
generally, or to particular ones — while the eye rests on a mass of fat, that
it may be turned with Httle exertion of power, and without friction.

MUSCLES OF THE EYE.

There are four straight muscles, three of which, d, e, and /, are repre-
sented in our cut, rising from the back of the orbit, and inserted into the

ball of the eye, opposite to and
at equal distances from each
other. One, d, runs to the upper
part of the eye, just behind the
transparent and visible portion
of it, and its office is clearly to
raise the eye. When it contracts,
the eye must be drawn upward.
Another, /, is inserted exactly
opposite, at the bottom of the
eye ; and its office is as clearly
to depress the eye, or enable the
animal to look downwards. A thii-d, e, is inserted at the outer comer, and
by means of it the eye is turned outward, and from the situation of the
eye of the horse, considerably backward ; and the foui'th is inserted at the
inner comer, turning the eye inward. They can thus rotate or turn the
eye in any direction the animal vrishes, and by the action of one, or the
combined power of any two of them, the eye can be immediately and
accurately directed to every point.

These muscles, however, have another duty to discharge. They sup-
port the eye in its place. In the usual position of the head of the horse,
they must be to a certain degree employed for this pui'pose ; but when he
is grazing or feeding, the principal weight of the eye rests upon them.
Another muscle is therefore added, peculiar to quadrupeds, called the
retractor (drawer-baclc) , or the suspensorius {suspensory) muscle, g. It
arises from the edge of the foramen through which the optic nerve enters
the orbit — suiTOunds the nerve as it proceeds forward, and then, partially
dividing into four portions, is attached to the back part of the eye. Its
office is evidently to support the eye generally, or, when suddenly called
into powerful action, and assisted by the straight muscles, it draws the eye
back out of the reach of threatening danger, and in the act of drawing it
back causes the haw to protrude, as an additional defence.

INJUKIES AXD DISEASES OF THE SKULL, ETC. 167

The power of tliis muscle is veiy great. It renders some operations on
the eye almost impossible. It is an admirable substitute for the want of
hands, to defend the eye from many things that would injm-e it ; and,
being partially separated into foui* divisions, it assists the straight muscles
in turning the eye.

These muscles discharge another and a most important office. K we
examine near and distant objects through a telescope, we must alter the
focus ; i. e. we must increase or diminish the length of the tube. We must
shorten it a httle when we examine distant objects, because the rays, coming
to us from them in a less divergent direction, are sooner brought to a point
by the power of the lens. Thus the straight and retractor muscles draw-
ing back the eye, and forcing it iipon the substance behind, and in a slight
degree flattening it, bring the lens nearer to the retiua, and adapt the eye
to the observation of distant objects.

Still, however, being constantly employed in supporting the weight of
the eye, these muscles may not be able to turn it so rapidly and so exten-
sively as the wishes or wants of the animal requii-e ; therefore two others
are superadded which are used solely in turning the eye. They are called
oblique muscles, because their coui'se is obliquely across the eye. The
upper one is most curiously constructed, a, h. It comes from the back
part of the orbit, and takes a direction upwards and towards the inner side,
and there, just under the ridge of the orbit, it passes through a perfect
mechanical pulley, and turning round, proceeds across the eye, under the
tendon of the upper straight muscle, and is inserted rather beyond the
middle of the eye, towards the outer side. Thus the globe of the eye is
evidently dii-ected downwards and outwards. Something more, however,
is accomjilished by this singular mechanism. The eye is naturally deep in
its orbit, that it may be more perfectly defended ; but it may be necessary
occasionally to bring it forward, and enlarge the field of vision. The eye
is actually protruded under the influence of fear, l^ot only are the Hds
opened more widely, but the eye is brought more forward. How is this
accomphshed ? There are no muscles anterior to or before the eye — there
is no place for their insertion. The object is readily effected by this sin-
gular pulley, c. By the power of this muscle, — the trocJileans, or pulley-
muscle — and the straight muscles at the same time not opposing it, or only
regulating the direction of the eye, it is really brought somewhat forward.
The lower obhque muscle rises just within the lachrymal bone {i, p. 166),
and, proceeding across the eye, is fixed into the part of the sclerotica op-
posite to the other obhque muscle, and it turns the eye in a contraiy
direction, assisting, however, the upper obhque in bi inging the eye forward
from its socket.

CHAPTER IX

INJUEIES AND DISEASES OF THE SKULL — THE BRAIN — THE
EARS — AND THE EYES.

We have now arrived at a convenient resting-place in our somewhat dry
but necessary description of the structure of the horse, and we willingly
turn to more practical matter. We will consider the injuries and diseases
of the parts we have surveyed. In entering, however, on this division of
our work Ave would premise, that it is impossible for us to give the farmer
finch an account of the nature and treatment of the diseases of horses
as will enable him with safety to practise for himself, except in the com-

]f58 TRESSURE ON THE BRAIN.

monest cases. Tlie causes of most diseases are so obscure, their symptoms
RO variable, and their connection with other maladies so complicated and
mysterious, that a life devoted to professional study will alone qualify a man
to become a judicious and successful practitioner on the diseases of the horse
and other domestic animals. Our object vnW be to communicate sufficient
instruction to the farmer to enable him to act with promptness and judg-
ment when he cannot obtain professional assistance, to qualify him to form
a satisfactory opinion of the skill of the veterinary surgeon whom he
may employ, and, more especially, to direst him of those strange and
absurd prejudices which in a variety of cases not only produce and prolong
disease, but bring it to a fatal termination.

CONCUSSION OP THE BRAIN.

This consists of a sudden interruption of the functions of the brain,
caused by some mechanical injury to the head, such as a fall or violeni
blow, not necessarily accompanied by structural injury to the brain itself.
It is frequently produced by the horse rearing and falling backwards,
bringing the head with great violence to the ground, or by the animal
running away and the head coming in contact with a wall or some hard
substance. After the injury, the animal generally lies motionless and in-
sensible, and may continue so from a few minutes to half an hour. When
in this state, he should be allowed to remain for a time without being dis-
turbed, and, in most cases, sensibility will quickly return. The animal
having risen, should be removed into a well ventilated but somewhat dark
stable. He should be kept for a few days perfectly quiet; a dose of pur-
gative medicine should be given, and his diet consist of soft foods, such as
bran-mash — when, if no other symptoms show themselves, he may be
considered convalescent. The most serious results which sometimes follow
this injury of the brain, are fracture of the bones of the skull, or rupture
of some large vessel connected with the brain.

PRESSURE ON THE BRAIN.

Hydatids are often found within the cranial cavity, and lying upon or
imbedded in the brain of oxen and sheep. Their existence is usually fatal
to the animal. There is no well-authenticated account of the existence
of an hydatid in the cranial cavity of the horse ; but cysts, containing
a serous or viscid fluid, are occasionally observed. The following is the
history of one : — A horse exhibited symptoms of vertigo, or staggers,
which disappeared after copious bleeding and purgatives. About twelve
months afterwards the same complaint was evident. He carried his head
low and inclined to the right side. He staggered as he walked, and the
motion of his limbs was marked by a pecuhar action, confined to the fore
extremities. He moved by a succession of spasmodic boundings. He
was completely deaf ; and rapidly lost flesh, although he ate and drank
voraciously. He remained in this state, to the shame of the owner and
the practitioner, several months, and then he had a fresh attack of vertigo,
and died suddenly. On examination of the brain, its membranes were
found to be completely reddened ; and between the two lobes of the brain
was a ronnd cyst as large as a pullet's egg. The pressure of this was the
manifest cause of the mischief.

This may also be produced by some fluid thrown out between the mem-
branes, or occupying and distending the ventricles of the brain. In the
full-grown horse it rarely occurs ; but it is well known to breeders as an
occasional disease of the foal, under the name of ' water in the head * —
hydrocephalus. The head is either much enlarged, or strangely deformed,

STOMACH STAGGEKS. 169

or both ; and tiie animal dies, either in the birth, or a few days after it.
A much more common cause of pressure on the brain arises from fracture,
with depression of the bone; when an accident occui's either from a fall or
a blow, and it is followed by an immediate state of stupor or insensibiHty,
this will be found to be the case, and a careful examination of the cranium
will at once detect it ; or very nearly as rapid a state of stupor may
supervene when, from the accident, a blood-vessel is ruptured, and effusion
of blood on the surface of the brain follows,

STAGGERS.

Under this head three varieties are famiHarly known : viz.. Stomach
Staggers, Sleepy Staggers, and Mad Staggers. They all more or less
resemble each other, differing only m their degree of violence, and the
causes in operation to produce them.

STOMACH STAGGERS,
As the name indicates, is generally produced by some derangement of
the digestive organs, consequent upon some mismanagement either in the
feeding of the animal or in the nature of the food upon which he has been
fed. When the horse has been kept for some hours without eating, and has
been worked hard, and become thoroughly hungry, he feeds ravenously on
every kind of food he can get at, swallowing it faster than his small stomach
can digest it, and no water being given to soften and hasten its passage,
the stomach becomes crammed, and having been previously exhausted by
long fasting, is unable to contract upon its contents. The food soon begins
to ferment and to swell, causing great di?tension ; the brain sympathisea
■with this overloaded organ, and staggers are produced. We can easily
imagine this, when we remember the sad head-aches occasionally arising
fixim an overfilled and disordered stomach.

This disease is found more frequently in the stable of the postmaster and
the farmer than anywhere else. Thirty years ago it was the very pest of
these stables, and the loss sustained by some persons was enormous ; but,
as veterinary science progressed, the nature and the causes of the disease
were better understood, and there is not now one case of staggers where
twenty used to occur.

The system of horse management is now essentially changed. Shorter
stages, a division of the labour of the day, and a sufficient interval- for rest,
and for feeding, have, comparatively spcaldng, banished stomach staggers
from the stables of the postmaster. The division of the morning and
afternoon labour of the farmer's horse, with the introduction of that
eimple but invaluable contrivance, the nose-Lag, ha\-ing rendered this dis-
ease comparatively rare in the establishment of the agriculturist. To the
late Professor Coleman we are indebted for some of these most important
improvements.

Old horses are more subject to staggers than young ones, for the stomach
has become weak by the repetition of the abuses just described. It has
not power to digest and expel the food, and thus becomes a source of
general, and particularly of cerebral, disturbance.

Horses at grass are occasionally attacked by this disease ; but they ace
generally poor, hard- worked, half-starved animals, turned on richer pasture
than their impaired digestive organs are equal to. Perhaps the weather is
hot, and the sympathy of the brain with the undue labour of the stomach
is more easily excited, and a determination of blood to the brain more
readily effected.

Mr. Percivall gives a very satisfactory illustration of the production of
staggers in this way. He says that ' when his father first entered the

170 SLEEPY STAGGERS.

service of the Ordnance, it was the custom to turn horses which had
become low in condition, but were still well upon their legs, into the
marshes, in order to recruit their strength. Dui'ing the months of July,
August, and September, notliing was more common than an attack of
3taggers among these horses, and which was naturally attributed to the
luxutiant pastxire they were turned into, combined wdth the dependent
posture of the head, and the sultry heat to which they were exposed.'

When tlie horse is attacked with stomach staggers, he generally appears
dull and sleepy, standing with his head hanging down, and supported by
the manger, or pushed forward against the wall, breathing heavily, -with a
slow, oppressed pulse, bowels constipated and abdomen frequently dis-
tended. He sleeps or seems to do so, as he stands, being partly uncon-
scious of su7'rounding objects. When aroused he vsdll look vacantly around,
perhaps seize a lock of hay, and doze again with it in his mouth. He may
continue in this state for several days, and vd.ll either begin slowly to
recover, or the symptoms will take a more violent foi*m and terminate
either iu apoplexy or phrenitis. In regard to the treatment, it will be
necessary for the owner or the veterinary attendant to institute very care-
ful inquiry, or he "svill not detect the real causes of the disease. Does it
arise from improper management, to which the horse has been in a manner
habituated ? Had he been subjected to long labour and fasting, and had
then the opportunity of gorging to excess ? Did it proceed from accidental
repletion — from the animal having got loose in the night, and found out
the com or the chaff bin, and filled himself almost to bursting ? There
is nothing in the appearance of the animal which will lead to a discovery
^f the cause — no yellowness or twitchings of the skin, no local swellings,
as some have described ; but the practitioner or the owner must get at the
truth of the matter as well as he can, and then proceed accordingly.

Our first object, then, should be to remove if possible the causes in
operation producing this disease, and with this view large doses of
oleaginous purgatives should be administered, and repeated eveiy six
houi's, and duiTng the interval a stimulant, such as the aromatic spii-it of
ammonia, given in large quantities of water ; clysters also of soap and warm
water should be frequently administered, and all food removed from the
animal. Should this treatment have the desired effect and the horse
begin to exhibit signs of retuiTiing consciousness, he should be kept quiet
for a time, care being taken to keep the bowels freely open, and nothing
but soft and easily digestible food allowed him. K any staggeiing remains,
a bhster should be apphed at the back of his head. When sufficiently
recovered he may be turned out vsdth advantage on rather bare pasture.
One cii'cumstance, however, should never be forgotten, that the horse who
has once been attacked witix staggers is liable to a return of the complaint
from causes that would not otherwise affect him. Let no farmer delude
himself with the idea that stomach staggers is contagious. If his horses
have occasionally shght fits of staggers, or if the disease carries off several
of them, he may be sure there is something wrong in his management.
One horse may get at the corn-bin and cram himself to bursting, but if
several are attacked, it is time for the owner to look about him.

SLEEPY STAGGERS.

Although this disease much resembles stomach staggers in its general
characters, it cannot be ti'aced to the same cause, viz., derangement of the
digestive organs, but is, generally considered to be a primaiy disease of
the brain. The symptoms are much the same as in stomach staggers, the
animal appearing dull and sleepy, pushing his head forward in a pecuHar
manner against the wall or manger, not however with so much force as in

APOPLEXY. 171

that disease. "WTien aroused bj some suddeu noise, lie starts up in a state
of alarm, appearing Mglitened, looks up, and perhaps recognises those near
him, and then relapses into his foi-mer state of stupor. The -pcdse is slow
and oppressed, Tvith the respiration laboured. The stomach frequently
contains but Httle food, and no distension of the abdomen is present. By
way of treatment a full dose of aloes, in combination with calomel, should
be given, and a bHster at once appUed to the upper and back part of the
head. The animal in the meantime should be kept perfectly quiet, and
allowed nothing but soft food, such as bran-mash, &c. to eat. Should the
symptoms not pass off in a few days, an attack of phrenitis will generally
follow.

APOPLEXY.

Although apoplexy is a disease somewhat rare in the horse compared
with man, it much resembles it in its generally fatal* termination. It de-
pends upon some undue pressure on the substance of the brain, and may
result fi'om several causes, such as tumours pressing on the brain, fracture
and depression of bone, or rupture of some blood-vessel, and extravasation
of blood, either the result of injury, such as concussion, or as a termination
of a congested state of the vessels of the brain. Apoplexy as resulting
fi'om the last-named cause is the form in which we most commonly meet
with the disease in the horse, being generally a termination of stomach
staggers. The symptoms will depend upon the cause in operation. When
apoplexy is produced by fractui'e and depression of bone or the sudden
rupture of some blood-vessel, the result of violence, the symptoms wiU
immediately follow the injuiy, but when it is produced by the giving way
of the previously congested blood-vessels, we have usually some premoni-
tory symptoms. These will be found described under stomach staggers,
and may continue for some days, when they suddenly assume a more
serious character.

The animal, which has hitherto been only in a partly unconscious state,
will now be found perfectly insensible ; the eye opens, but it has an un-
meaning glare ; the hand is moved before him, but the eye closes not ;
he is spoken to, but he hears not.

He now begins to foam at the mouth. His breathing is laborious and
loud. It is performed by the influence of the organic nerves, and those of
animal life no longer lend their aid. The pulse is slow and oppressed —
the muzzle is cold, and the discharge of the fceces involuntary. He grinds
his teeth — twitchings steal over his face and attack his limbs — they some-
times proceed to convulsions, and dreadful ones too, in which the horse
beats himself about in a terrible manner ; but there is rarely disposition to
do mischief In the greater number of cases these convulsions last not long.
The last act of voluntary motion which he wiU attempt is usually to drink :
but he has httle power over the muscles of deglutition, and the fluid re-
turns through the nostrils. All the powers of life are oppressed, and death
speedily closes the scene.

Little can be hoped from the treatment of apoplexy, as in most cases all
our efforts will fail in affording rehef. K there be time for medical treat-
ment, our first effort should be to prevent inflammation, and procure
absoi-ption of the extravasated blood. Copious bleeding, therefore, from
the jugular vein, to the extent of seven or eight quarts, should be at once
had resort to, and a full dose of purgative medicine, from eight to ten
drachms of aloes, administered ; clysters also of warm water and soap,
should be frequently thrown up the rectum. The animal shotdd be allowed
plenty of cool air, and be kept perfectly quiet. Should the more active
symptoms abate, which there is too much fear will rarely be the case, care

172 PIIREXITIS.

should be taken to keep the bowels freelj relaxed, and a blister may now
be applied to the back of the head, or a seton inserted. For some time the
horse should be kept on a restricted diet ; mashes should be given ; green
meat in no great quantity ; a moderate allowance of hay, and very httle
corn until sufficiently recovered, when he may be allowed a more gene-
rous diet.

PHRENITIS INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN MAD STAGGERS.

Inflammation of the brain or its membranes, or both, sometimes occurs
and of the membranes oftenest when both are not involved. It may bo
produced by several causes, such as from a tumour pressing on the brain,
or fracture and depression of bone, inflammation supervening after the
comatose stage has passed oS". It may also be produced by metastasis,
but we most commonly meet with phrenitis in the horse, as a termination
of either stomach or sleepy staggers, most frequently the latter. Whatever
be the origin of phrenitis, its early symptoms are scarcely difierent from
those of stomach or sleepy staggers. The horse is drowsy, stupid ; his eye
closes ; he sleeps while he is in the act of eating, and dozes until he falls.
The pulse is slow and creeping, and the breathing oppressed and laborious.
The symptoms may difier a Httle in intensity and continuance, but not
much in kind.

The phrenitic horse, however, is not so perfectly comatose as another
that labours under apoplexy. The eye will respond a Httle to the action
of Hght, and the animal is somewhat more manageable, or at least more
susceptible, for he will shrink when he is struck, while the other frequently
cares not for the whip.

If remedial measures have not become efiectual in the early stage, the
scene all at once changes, and the most violent reaction succeeds. The
eye brightens — strangely so ; the membrane of the eye becomes suddenly
reddened, and forms a frightful contrast with the transparency of the
cornea ; the pupil is dilated to the utmost : the nostril, before scarcely
moving, expands, and quivers, and labours ; the respiration becomes short
and quick ; the pulse hard and frequent ; the ears are erect, or bent for-
ward to catch the sHghtest sound ; and the horse becoming more irritable
every instant, trembles at the sHghtest motion. The irritability of the
patient increases — it may be said to change to ferocity — ^but the animal
has no aim or object in what he does. He dashes himself violently about,
plunges in every direction, rears on his hind legs, whirls round and round,
and then falls backward with dreadfal force. He Hes for a while ex-
hausted— there is a remission of the symptoms, but perhaps only for a
minute or two, or possibly for a quarter of an hour,

Now is the surgeon's time, and his courage and adroitness will be put
to the test. He must open, if he can, one or both jugulars : but let bim
be on his guard, for the paroxysm will return with its former violence and
without the slightest warning. This is a case, and the only case, in which
a Hgature should be placed round the neck previously to the vein being
opened ; for this being done, however soon the paroxysm of violence may
return, a full abstraction of blood may confidently be reHed on.

The second attack is more dreadful than the first. Again the animal
whirls round and round, and plunges and falls. He seizes his clothing
and rends it in pieces ; perhaps, destitute of feeling and of consciousness,
he bites and tears himself. He darts furiously at everything within his
reach ; but no mind, no design, seems to mingle with or govern bis fury.

Another and another remission and a return of the exacerbation iollow,
and then, wearied out, he becomes qui^t ; but it is not the quietness of
rotriming reason — it is mere stupor. This continues for an uncertain

FHRENITIS. 173

period, and then lie begins to struggle again ; but he is no-w probably
unable to rise. He pants — he foams — at length, completely exhausted, he
dies.

There are but two diseases "vvith which pkrenitis can be confounded,
and they are colic and rabies. In cohc, the horse rises and falls ; he
rolls about and kicks at his belly ; but his struggles are tame compared
with those of the phreuitic horse. There is no involuntary spasm of any
of the limbs ; the animal is perfectly sensible, and, looking piteously at his
flanks, seems designedly to indicate the seat of pain. The beautiful yet
fearfully excited countenance of the one, and the piteous, anxious gaze of
the other, are sufficiently distinct ; and if it can be got at, the rapid bound-
ing pulse of the one, and that of the other scarcely losing its natural
character in the early stage, cannot be mistaken.

In rabies, when it does assume the ferocious form, there is even more
violence than in phrenitis ; but there is method, and treachery too, in that
violence. There is the desire of mischief for its own sake, and there is
frequently the artful stratagem to allure the victim within the reach of de-
struction. There is not a motion of which the rabid horse is not conscious
nor a person whom he does not recognise ; but he labours under one all-
absoi'bing feeling — the intense longing to devastate and destroy.

The post-mortem appearances are altogether uncertain. There is usually
very great injection and inflammation of the membranes of the brain, and
even of portions of the substance of the brain ; but in other cases there is
scarcely any trace of inflammation, or even of increased vascularity.

The treatment of phrenitis has been very shortly hinted at. The first —
the indispensable proceeding — is to bleed ; to abstract as much blood as
can be obtained ; to let the animal bleed on after he is down ; and indeed
not to pin up the vein of the phrenitic horse at all. The patient will never
be lost by this decisive proceeding, but the inflammation may be subdued,
and here the first blow is the whole of the battle. The physic should be
that which is most readily given and will most speedily act. The farina
of the croton will, perhaps, have the preference. Half a drachm or two
scruples of it may be fearlessly administered. The intense inflammation of
the brain gives sufficient assurance that no dangerous inflammation will
be easily set up in the intestinal canal. This medicine can be formed into
a very Little ball or drink, and in some momentary remission of the symp-
toms, administered by means of the probang, or a stick, or the horn.
Sometimes the phrenitic horse, when he will take nothing else, and is
unconscious of everything else, ^svill drink with avidity gruel or water.
Repeated dcses of purgative medicine may perhaps be thus given, and
they must be continued until the bowels respond. The bleedino- and
physic having been energetically had recourse to, these must be followed
up by the uninterrupted application of cold in any and every form ; — ice
if it can be procui-ed, the coldest water dashed fi^eely against the head, or
poui-ed on it from a considerable height, and for a considerable leno-th of
time, is the only adjunct that ofiers a chance of relief; — continue it unre-
mittingly for hours ; — blisters are not only useless but absolutely injiu-ious,
and in this active, rapid, and fatal disease should never be had recoui^se to.
The bowels having been well opened, emetic tartar, with calomel or nitre
should be given. The animal should be kept as quiet as possible in a
somewhat dark but well-ventilated stable.

While the disease continues, no attempt must be made to induce the
horse to feed ; and even when appetite returns with the abatement of
inflammation, great caution must be exercised both with regard to the
quantity :«nd quality of the food.

174 MEGRIMS.

MEGEIMS.

There are but few diseases in tiie horse, respecting the nature of which
so many different views have been entertained, and of which, nevertheless,
even at the present day, so little is understood, as megrims. Bj some it
has been considered as a mild form of apoplexy, depending upon an undue
supply of blood to the brain, and by others upon just the opposite state,
viz. some obstruction to the natural supply of blood to that organ. Mr.
Percivall treats of it as a species of vertigo, but probably the more generui
opinion at the present time inclines to the behef that it is a disease analo-
gous to that termed epilepsy in the human subject. It is occasionally
met with in all classes of horses and under a variety of circumstances,
when both at rest and at work, but much more frequently amongst horses
that are used for harness purposes, especially when used for that purpose,
on the bright, sunny days of spring and summer.

It comparatively rarely happens when the horse is ridden ; but should
he be driven, and perhaps rather quickly, he may perform a part of his
journey with his usual cheerfalness and ease ; he will then suddenly stop,
shake liis head, and exhibit evident giddiness and half-unconsciousness.
In a minute or two this will pass over, and he will go on again as if
nothing had happened.

Occasionally, however, the attack will be of a more serious nature.
He will fall without the shghtest warning, or suddenly run round once or
twice, and then fall. He wiU either he in a state of complete insensibility,
or struggle with the utmost violence. In five or ten minutes he ^vill begin
gradually to come to himself; he will get up and proceed on his journey,
yet somewhat dull, and evidently affected and exhausted by what had
happened, although not seriously or permanently ill.

This is a very dangerous disease — dangerous to the horse, which will
occasionally die on the spot, and particularly dangerous to those who di'ive
him, for there will be no warning or opportunity to escape. When the
horse is attacked with megrims, the first object of the driver should be
to control the violence of the animal as much as possible ; he should loosen
the curb-rein, ease the collar, and, if at hand, dash some cold water over
the animal's head, and pursue Ms journey as slowly as circumstances will
permit. When the horse gets home a dose of purgative medicine should
be given to him, and be kept on bran-mash for three or four days, great
attention being afterwards paid to the state of the digestive organs. Is
all this necessary because a horse has happened to have a fit of the me-
grims ? Yes, and more too, in the mind of the prudent man ; for it is
seldom that the horse has the megrims without the predisposition to a
second attack remaining. The testimony of experience is uniform in re-
gard to this, and he would not do justice to himself or his family who
trusted himself behind a horse that had a second attack of megrims. The
numbers of horses that in London are constantly being sold and resold on
account of this malady, is perfectly astonishing. There are a set of men
about town, known by the name of 'touters,' who either personally, or
through the medium of the common sale yards, dispose of an animal with
this affection at prices varying from 15Z. to 30Z. In a short time the
unfortunate purchaser discovers his mistake, and is too happy to get rid
of him for a few pounds, to be resold to a fresh victim. So notoriously
is this the case, that some horses are so well known to be subject to these
attacks, that a roar of laughter announces their arrival in the yard.

RABIES, OR lyiADNESS. I7fr

RABIES, OR MADNESS.
Tliis is anotlier and fearful disease of tlie nervous system. It results
from the bite of a rabid animal, and most commonly of tlie companion
and friend of the horse, the coach-dog. The account now given of this
malady is extracted from lectures which the author of the present work
delivered to his class. There is occasional warning of the approach of this
disease in the horse, or rather of the e>dstence of some unusual malady,
the real nature of which is probably mistaken. A mare, belonging to ]\Ir.
Karslake, had, ten days before the recognition of the disease, been droop-
ing, refusing her food, heaving at the flanks, and pa^wing occasionally.
It was plain enough that she was indisposed, but at length the furious fit
came upon her, and she destroyed almost everything in the stable in the
course of an hour. The late Mr. Moneyment had a two-years-old colt
brought to his establishment. It was taken ill in the afternoon of the
preceding day, when it first attracted attention by refusing its food, and
throAving itself down and getting up again immediately. From such a
description, Mr. Moneyment concluded that it was a case of cholic ; but,
when he went into the yard, and saw the pony, and observed his wild and
anxious countenance, and his excessive nervous sensibility, he was con-
vinced that something uncommon was amiss with him, although he did
not at first suspect the real nature of the case.

The eai-ly symptoms of rabies in the horse have not been carefully
observed or well recorded ; but, in the majority of cases, so far as our
records go, there will not often be premonitory symptoms sufficiently
decisive to be noticed by the groom.

The horse goes out to his usual work, and, for a certain time and dis-
tance, performs it as well as he had been accustomed to do : then he stops
all at once — trembles, heaves, paws, staggers, and falls. Almost im-
mediately he rises, drags his load a Httle foi-ther, and again stops, looks
about him, backs, staggers, and falls once more. This is not a fit of me-
grims— it is not a sudden determination of blood to the brain, for the horse
is not for a single moment insensible. The sooner he is led home the better
for the progress of the disease is as rapid as the first attack is sudden
and, possibly, he will fall twice or thrice before he reaches his stable.

In the great majority of cases — or, rather, with very few exceptions —
a state of excitation ensues, which is not exceeded by that of the dog
under the most fearful form of the malady; but there are intervals when,
if he had been naturally good-tempered and had been attached to his ridei
or his groom, he will recognise his former friend and seek his caresses,
and bend on him one of those piteous, searching looks, which, once
observed, will never be forgotten : but there is danger about this. Pre-
sently succeeds another paroxysm, without warning and without control ;
and there is no safety for him who had previously the most complete
mastery over the animal.

I was once attending a rabid horse. The owner would not have him
destroyed, under the vain hope that I had mistaken a case of phi-enitis for
one of rabies, and that the disease might yield to the profuse abstraction
of blood that I had been prevailed on to effect, and the purgative influence
of the farina of the croton-nut, with which he had been abundantly sup-
plied in an early stage of the malady. I insisted on his being slung, so
that we were protected from injury fi-om his kicking or plunging. He
would bend his gaze upon me as if he would* search me through and
through, and would prevail on me, if I could, to reheve him fi'om some
dreadful evil by which he was threatened. He would then press his head
against my bosom, and keep it there a minute or more. All at once,

176 BABIES, OR MADXESS.

however, the paroxysm ivould return. He did not attempt U) bite me ;
but, had it not been for the sling, he would have plunged foriously about,
and I might have found it difficult to escape.

I had previously attended another horse, which the owner refased to
have destroyed, and to which attendance I only consented on condition of
the animal being slung. He had been bitten in the near hind leg. When
I approached him on that side he did not attempt to bite, and he could
not otherwise injure me ; but he was agitated and trembled, and struggled
as well as he could ; and if I merely touched him with my finger, the pul-
sations were quickened full ten beats in a minute. ^Yhen, however, I
went round to the off-side, he permitted me to pat him, and I had to
encounter his imploring gaze, and his head was pressed against me — and
then presently would come the paroxysm ; but it came on aLmost before I
could touch him, when I approached him on the other side.

These mild cases, however, are exceptions to a general rule. They are
few and far between. The horse is the servant, and not the friend of
man ; and if his companion, yet an oppressed one. In proportion to his
bulk, he has far less of that portion of the brain with which intelligence
is connected — less attachment — less gratitude. He is, nevertheless, a
noble animal. I am not speaking disparagingly of him ; but I am com-
paring him with — next to man — the most intellectual of all quadrupeds.
There is neither the motive for, nor the capability of, that attachment
which the dog feels for his master, and, therefore, under the influence of
this disease, he abandons himself to all its dreadful excitement.

The mare of Mr. Karslake, when the disease was fully developed, forgot
her former drooping, dispirited state : her respiration was accelerated —
her mouth was covered with foam — a violent perspiration covered every
part of her, and her screams would cow the stoutest heart. She presently
demohshed all the wood- work of the stable, and then she employed herself
in beating to pieces the fragments, no human being daring to expose him-
self to her fury.

The symptoms of the malady of Mr. Moneyment's pony rapidly increased
— he bit everything within his reach, even difierent parts of his own
body — he breathed laboriously — his tail erect — screaming dreadfnlly at
short intervals, striking the ground with his fore-feet, and' perspii-ing most
profusely. At length he broke the top of his manger, and rashed out of
the stall with it hanging to his halter. He made immediately towards
the medical attendant, and the spectators who were standing by. They
fortunately succeeded in getting out of his way, and he turned into the
next stall, and dropped and died.

A young veterinary friend of mine very incautiously and fool-hardily
attempted to ball a rabid horse. The animal had previously shown him-
self to be dangerous, and had shghtly bitten a person who gave him a ball
on the preceding evening : he now seized the young student's hand, and
lifted him from the ground, and shook him, as a terrier would shake a rat.
It was with the greatest difficulty, and not until the grooms had attacked
the ferocious animal with their pitchforks, that they could compel him to
relinquish his hold ; and, even then, not before he had bitten his victim to
the bone, and nearly torn away the whole of the flesh from the upper and
lower surfaces of the hand. In the Museum of the Veterinary School, at
Alfort, is the lower jaw of a rabid horse, which was fractured in the vio-
lent efforts of the animal to do mischief.

There is also in the horse, whose attachment to his owner is often com-
paratively small, a degree of treachery which we rarely meet with in the
nobler and more intellectual dog. A horse that had shown symptoms of
great ferocity was standing in the comer of his box, with a heaving flank,

RABIES, OR MADXESS. 177

and every muscle quivering from the degree of excitement under which
he laboured. A groom, presuming on the former obedience of the animal,
ventured in, and endeavoured to put a headstall upon him. Neither the
master nor myself could persuade him to forbear. I was sure of mischief,
for I had observed the ear lying flat upon the neck, and I could see the
backward glance of the eye ; I therefore armed myself with a heavy
twitch stick that was at hand, and chmbed into the manger of the next
box. The man had not advanced two steps into the box before I could
eee the shifting position of the fore feet, and the preparation to spring
upon his victim ; and he would have sprung upon him, but my weapon
fell with all the force T could urge upon Ms head, and he dropped. The
man escaped, but the brute was up again in an instant, and we trembled
lest the partition of the box should yield to his violence, and he would
reaKse the graphic description of Mr. Blaine, when he speaks of the rabid
horse as ' levelling everything before him, himself sweating, and snorting,
and foaming amidst the ruins.'

I have had occasion more than once to witness the evident pain of the
bitten part, and the manner in which the horse in the intervals of his
paroxysms employs himself in licking and gnawing the cicatrix. One
animal had been bitten in the chest, and he, not in the intervals between
the exacerbations, but when the paroxysm was most violent, would bite
and tear himself until his breast was shockingly mangled, and the blood
flowed from it in a stream.

The most interesting and satisfactoiy s}-niptom is the evident dread of
water which exists in the decided majority of cases, and the impossibihty
of swallowing any considerable quantity. Professor Dupuy gives an
account of this circumstance : — ' A rabid horse was confined in one of
the sick-boxes. His food was given to him through an opening over the
door, and a bucket was suspended from the door, and supphed "vvith water
by means of a copper tube. As soon as he heard the water falling into
the pail, he fell into violent convulsions, seized the tube, and crushed it to
pieces. When the water in his bucket was agitated, the convulsions were
renewed. He would occasionally approach the bucket as if he wished to
drink, and then, after agitating the water for an instant, he would fall on
his htter, uttering a hoarse cry ; but he would rise again almost imme-
diately. These symptoms were dreadfully increased if water was thrown
upon his head. He would then endeavour to seize it as it fell, and bite
with fury at everything within his reach, his whole frame being dreadfully
convulsed.'

As the disease progresses, not only is the animal rapidly debUitated, but
there is the peculiar staggering gait which is obseiwable in the dog —
referable to evident loss of power in the muscles of the lumbar I'egion. I
once saw a mare sitting on her haunches, and unable to rise ; yet using
her fore feet with the utmost fary, and suflering no one to come within
her reach. She, too, would sometimes plunge her muzzle into the ofiered
pail ; and immediately withdraw it in evident teiTor, while every limb
trembled. At other times the lowering of the pail would affright her, and
she would fall on her side and struggle furiously. Although this symp-
tom is not often observed in the dog, it is a satisfactory identification of
the disease, when it is so frequently seen in the horse, and so invariably
in the human being.

The earhest, and perhaps the most decisive, symptom of the near approach
of rabies in the horse, is a spasmodic movement of the upper lip, particu-
larly of the angles of the hp. Close following on this, or contemporaneous
with it, are the depressed and anxious countenance, and inquiring gaze,
suddenly however hghted up and becoming fierce and menacing, from

N

178 TETANUS, OR LOCKED lAW.

=;ome unknown cause, or at the approach of a stranger. From time to
time different parts of the frame — the eyes — the jaws — particular Hmbs
— will be convulsed. The eye will occasionally wander after some imagi-
nary object, and the horse will snap again and again at that which has
no real existence. Then will come the irrepressible desire to bite the
attendants or the animals within its reach. To this will succeed the de-
mohtion of the rack, the manger, and the whole furniture of the stable,
accompanied by the peculiar dread of water which has been already
described.

Towards the close of the disease there is generally paralysis, usually
confined to the loins and the hinder extremities, or involving those organs
which derive their nervous influence from this portion of the spinal cord ;
— hence the distressing tenesmus which is occasionally seen.

The disease rarely extends beyond the third day.

After death, there is uniformly found inflammation at the back part of
the mouth, and at the top of the windpipe, and likewise in the stomach,
and on the membrane covering the lungs, and where the spinal marrow
irst issues from the brain.

When the disease can be clearly connected with a previous bite, the
sooner the animal is destroyed the better, /or there is no cure. If the
symptoms bear considerable resemblance to rabies, although no bite is
suspected, the horse should at least be slung, and the medicine, if any
is administered, given in the form of a drink, and ■nath the hand well
protected ; for if it should be scratched in balling the horse, or the skin
should have been previously broken, the saliva of the animal is capable of
commurdcating the disease. Several farriers have lost their Hves from
being bitten or scratched in the act of administering medicine to a rabid
horse.

It is always dangerous to encourage any dogs about the stable, and
especially if they become fond of the horses, and are in the habit of jump-
ing up and h' eking them. The comers of the mouth of the horse are often
sore from the pressure of the bit ; and when a coach-dog in a gentleman's
stable — and it is likely to happen in every stable, and with every dog —
becomes rabid and dies, the horse too frequently follows him at no great
distance of time.

K a horse is bitten by a dog under suspicious circumstances, he should
be carefully examined, and every wound, and even the slightest scratch,
Tvell burned with the lunar caustic (nitrate of silver). The scab should
be removed and the operation repeated on the third day. The hot iron
does not answer so well, and other caustics are not so manageable. In
the spring of 1827, four horses were bitten, near Hyde Park, by a mad
dog. To one of them the lunar caustic was twice severely apphed — he
Hved. The red-hot iron was unspai-ingly used on the others, and they
died. The caustic must reach eveiy part of the wound. At the expiration
of the fourth month, the horse may be considered to be safe.

TETANUS, OR LOCKED JAW.

Tetanus is one of the most dreadful and fatal diseases to which the horse
is subject. It is called locked jaw, because the muscles of the jaw are
earUest affected, and the mouth is obstinately and immoveably closed. It
is a permanent spasm of all the voluntary muscles, and particularly of those
of the neck, the spine, and the head. It is sometimes slow and treacherous
in its attack. The horse, for a day or two, does not appear to be quite
well ; he does not feed as usual ; he partly chews his food, and drops it ;
and he gulps his water. The owner at length finds that the motion of the
jaws is considerably hmited, and some saliva is drivelling from the mouth.

TETAXUS, OR LOCKED JAW.

179

If lie tries he can only open the mouth a very Httle way or the jaws are
perfectly and rigidly closed ; and thus the only period at which the disease
could have been successfully combated is lost. A cut of a horse labouring
under this disease is here given, which the reader will do well to examine
carefully.

The first thing that strikes the observer is a protrusion of the muzzle,
and stiifness of the
neck; and, on pass-
ing the hand do^vn
it, the muscles will
be found singular-
ly prominent, dis-
tinct, hard, knotty,
and unyielding. — -
There is difficul-
ty in bringing the
head round, and
still greater diffi-
culty in bending it.
The eye is drawn
deep within the
socket on the
shghtest excite-
ment, and, in consequence of this, the fatty matter behind the eye is pressed
forward ; the haw is protruded, and there is an appearance of strabismus,
or squinting, in an outward direction.

The ears are erect, pointed forward, and immoveable ; if the horse is
spoken to, or threatened to be struck, they change not their position.
Considering the beautiful play of the ear in the horse when in health, and
the kind of conversation which he maintains by the motion of it, there is not
a more characteristic s^inptom of tetanus than this immobility of the ear.
The nostril is expanded to the utmost, and there is little or no play of it,
as in hurried or even natural breathing. The respiration is usually acce-
lerated, yet not ahvays so ; but it is uniformly laborious. The pulse gives
little indication of the severity of the disease. It is sometimes scarcely
affected. It will be rapidly accelerated when any one approaches the
animal and offers to touch him, but it presently quiets down again almost
to its natural standard. After a while, however, the heart begins to
sympathise with the general excitation of the system, and the pulse in-
creases in frequency and force until the animal becomes debilitated, when
it beats yet quicker and quicker, but diminishes in power, and gradually
flutters and dies away.

The countenance is eager, anxious, haggard, and tells plainly enough
what the animal suffers.

The stiffness gradually extends to the back. If the horse is in a narrow
stall, it is impossible to turn him ; and, even with room and scope enough,,
he turns altogether like a deal-board.

The extremities begin to participate in the spasm — the hinder ones
generally first, but never to the extent to which it exists in the neck and
back. The horse stands ^ith his hind legs straddling apart in a sing-ular
way. The whole of the limb moves, or rather is dragged on together, and
anxious care is taken that no joint shall be flexed more than can possibly
be helped. The fore limbs have a singular appearance ; they are as stiff
as they can possibly be, but stretched forward and straddling. They have
not iinaptly been compared to the legs of a form.

The abdominal muscles gradually become involved. They seem to

n2

/80 TETANUS, OR LOCKED JAW.

contract "with, all tlie power tliey possess, and tliere is a degree of ' hido-
bound ' appearance and i-igidity, and of tucking up of the belly, which ia
seen under no other complaint. The tail becomes in constant motion
from the alternate and violent action of the muscles that elevate and
depress it.

Constipation, and to an almost insurmottntable degree, now appears.
The abdominal muscles are so powerfully contracted, that no portion of the
contents of the abdomen can pass on and be discharged.

By degrees the spasm extends and becomes everywhere more violent
The motion of the whole frame is lost, and the horse stands fixed in the un-
natural posture which he has assumed. The countenance becomes wilder
and more haggard — its expression can never be effaced from the memory
of him who cares about the feehngs of a brute ; the tail is now permanently
raised, and, if depressed for a moment by the hand, instantly resumes its
elevation. The violent cramp of a single muscle or set of muscles makes
the stoutest heart quail, and di-aws forth the most pitious cries — what,
then, must it be for this torture to peiwade the whole frame, and to con-
tinue, vsdth little respite, from day to day, and from week to week. When
his attendant approaches and touches him, he scarcely moves ; but the
despairing gaze, and the sudden acceleration of the pulse, indicate what he
feels and fears.

Tetanus, then, is evidently an affection of the nerves. A small fibre of
some nerve has been injured, and the effect of that injury has spread to the
origin of the neiwe — the brain then becomes affected — and universal
diseased action follows. Tetanus is a spasm of the whole frame — not
merely of one set of muscles, but of their antagonists also. The fixidity ot
the animal is the effect of opposed and violent muscular contraction. It
belongs to the lower column of nerves only. The sensibiHty is unimpaired
— perhaps it is heightened. The horse would eat if he could ; he tries to
suck up some moisture from his mash ; and the avidity with which he lends
himself to assist in the administering of a Httle gruel, shows that the feel-
ings of hunger and thirst remain unimpaired.

The disease may terminate fatally in forty-eight hours, but as a rule
death takes place from the third to the sixth day ; if the horse should
survive till the seventh or eighth day, a favourable termination may be
expected, although in some cases they will die a month after the attack.
If from strength of constitution or medical treatment, he should recover,
the first favourable symptom is a sHght and short remission of the spasm ;
the time of the remission gradually lengthening, and the jaws a Httle re-
laxing ; but the progress of cui^e is exceedingly slow, and the horse is left
very weak.

On post-mortem examination the muscular fibre will exhibit sufiicient
proof of the labour which has been exacted from it. The muscles will
appear as if they had been macerated — their texture will be softened, and
they will be torn with the greatest ease. The lungs will, in the majority
of cases, be highly inflamed, for they have been labouring long and painfully
to furnish arterial blood in sufiicient quantity to support this great expendi-
ture of animal power. The stomach will contain patches of inflammation,
but the intestines, in most cases, will not exhibit much departure from the
hue of health. The examination of the brain will be altogether unsatis-
factory. There may be slight injection of some of the membranes, but,
in the majority of cases, there will not be any morbid change worthy of
record.

Tetanus is usually the result of the injury of some nei-vous fibre, and
the effect of that lesion propagated to the brain. It occurs at all ages,
from tie foal a fortnight old, and amongst all classes of the horse ; but

TETANUS, OK LOCKED JAW. 181

iugh-bred, iiTitablo animals are tte most liable to it. It may result from
almost every variety of wound, no matter what its situation. It would
appear, however, that wounds in some parts have a much greater tendency
to produce this disease than in others. The foot is a very frequent source
or focus of tetanic injury. The horse becomes lame — the injui-y may have
been carefully treated, carelessly treated, or not treated at all — the lameness,
however, disappears, but the wound has not healed. There is an un-
healthiness about it, and at the expiration of eight or ten days, tetanus
appears. Some nervous fibre has been irritated or inflamed by the acci-
dent, slight as it was.

Docking, nicking, overreach, suppurating corns, castration and injuries,
especially about the orbit, are freqacnt causes of tetanus. In all these
cases the attack is termed Traumatic Tetanus as arising from, or depend •
ing on, some injury received, but unquestionably it may be set up without
any external injuiy whatever. The records of veterinary proceedings
contain accounts of tetanus following labour, brutally exacted beyond the
animal's natural strength, in the draught of heavy loads. Horses that
have been matched against time have too frequently died of tetanus a
little while afterwards. Sudden exposiire to cold after being heated by
exercise has produced this dreadful state of nei-vous action, and especially
if the horse has stood in a partial draught, or cold water has been dripping
on the loins. These cases are called Idiopathic Tetanus, that is, arising,
Hke any other severe malady, from some pecuHar susceptibility to derange-
ment of the constitution itself.

Traumatic Tetanus is much the most dangerous kind, and will generally
prove fatal ; on the other hand, from Idiopathic Tetanus the animal not
unfrequently recovers. Other tenns are also appKed to distinguish when
certain pai-ts only are afiected. "WTien the spasm is confined to the muscles
of the jaws it is named Trismus ; when the muscles of the neck and back
axe chiefly afiected, it is called Opisthotonos ; the reverse of this, when
the inferior muscles are afiected, is Emprosthotonos ; when the body is
drawn to one side, that of Pleurosthotonos. Although these different states
may exist in the human subject, we shall rarely meet with them in the
horse, and then only in the form of Trismus or Opisthotonos.

The treatment of tetanus is simple, and would be oftener successfal if
carried to its full extent. The indication of cuj-e is plaiu enough — the
system must be tranquillised.

Eight or ten drachms of aloes, with 5i. to Sij- calomel, should be ad-
ministered. K the remission of the spasm is sHght, there is another pur-
gative— not so certain in its action, but more powerful when it does act —
the farina of the croton nut. There is little or no danger of exciting
inflammation of the mucous membrane of the intestines by this prompt
and energetic administration of purgative medicine, for there is too much
determination of vital power towards the nervous system — too much
irritation there — to leave cause for di^eading the possibiHty of n;etastasis
elsewhere. It would be desirable if a certain degree of inflammation could
be excited, because to that extent the ii-ritation of the nervous system
might be allayed. There is another reason, and a very powerful one — ■
time is rapidly passing. The tetanic action may extend to the intestines,
an.d the co-operation of the abdominal muscles in keeping up the peristaltic
motion of the bowels, and expelling theii' contents, may be lost. We have,
indeed, more faith in the effect of physic, as a remedy for this di-eadful
disease, than any other ; if active purgation can be set up — and a chance
of recovery is left — that purgation "srill insui-e it. Use the balHng probang,
a cone, a stick, anything, to introduce a full dose of physic into his throat ;
if not into his throat, leave it on the tongue ; /f that is impossible, insert

182 TETANUS, OR LOCKED JAW.

it between tlie lips and the grinders — this may always be done — and to a
certainty a greater portion of it will gradually be swallowed. This should
be followed by the administration of SU- of powdered opium frequently
repeated. Opium is not only a valuable drug, but it is that on which
alone dependence can be placed in this disease. Clysters may also be
employed to assist in promoting the action of the bowels. Bleeding,
bhstering, friction to the back, and the apphcation of cold water are
calculated to do no good, and suchlike remedies should not be had resort
to. The one great object in the treatment of tetanus should be to keep
the animal as quiet as possible, and free from those attentions assuming
the shape of remedial measures which are too apt to increase the already
excited state of the nervous system. The horse should be placed in a warm,
somewhat dark, but well- ventilated stable, selected as free as possible from
all external noises. Both the floor of the stable and also for some distance
outside should be covered with short litter. The stable should be locked,
and no one allowed to see the animal but the attendant or professional
man, and when this is rendered necessary for the administration of food
or medicine, great caution should be used in preventing any sudden noise
or movement which may disturb the animal.

One thing should not be forgotten, namely, that a horse with locked jaw
is as hungry as when in health, and every possible contrivance should be
adopted to furnish him with that nutriment which will support him under
his torture, and possibly enable him to weather the storm. If a pail of
good gruel is placed within his reach, how will he nuzzle in it, and contrive
to drink some of it too ! If a thoroughly wet mash is placed before him in
a pail, he will bury his nose in it, and manage to extract no small portion
of nutriment. By means of a small horn, or a bottle with a very narrow
neck, it will often be possible to give him a small quantity of gruel ; but
the flexible pipe that accompanies Read's patent pump will render this of
easier accomphshment, for the nutriment may be administered without
elevating the head of the horse, or inflicting on him. the extreme torture
which used to accompany the act of drenching. If the jaw is ever so
closely clenched, the pipe may be introduced between the tushes and the
grinders, and carried tolerably far back into the mouth, and any quantity
of gruel or medicine introduced into the stomach. Nor is this the only
way in which this valuable instrument may be made available in this
fearfal disease ; for with an enema pipe attached to the end of the tube,
considerable quantities of good beef tea, strong infusions of oats or malt,
combined with thick well-boiled gruel, may be injected into the intestines,
and the animal's strength supported to a considerable extent.

It will also be good practice to let a small portion of food be in the
manger. The horse will not at first be able to take up the sHghtest
quantity, but he will attempt to do so. Small portions may be placed
between his grinders, and they will presently drop from his mouth scarcely
or at all masticated : but some good will be done — there is the attempt to
put the muscles of the jaw to their proper use. On the following day he
will succeed a Httle better, and make some trifling advance towards breaking
the chain of spasmodic action. Experience wiU teach the careful groom
the value of these -aninutias of practice ; and the successful termination of
many a case m.ay be traced to the careful nursing of the patient.

"When the horse is getting decidedly better, and the weather will permit,
there can be no better practice than to turn liim out for a few hours in the
middle of the day. His toddling about will regain to him the use of his
limbs ; the attempt to stoop in order to gi-aze will diminish the spasm in
his neck ; the act of grazing will relax the muscles of the jaws ; and lie
can have no better food than the fresh grass.

CRAiMP. — STRINGHALT. 183

CRAMP.

This is a sudden, involuntary, and painful contraction of a particular
muscle or set of muscles. It difiers froiu tetanus in its shorter duration, and
in its occasionally attacking the muscles of organic life. It may be termed a
species of transitory tetanus, affecting mostly the hind extremities. It is
generally observed v?hen the horse is first brought out of the stable, and
especially if he has been hardly worked. One of the legs appears stiff,
inflexible, and is, to a shght degree, dragged after the animal. After he
has proceeded a few steps, the stiffness nearly or quite disappears, or only
a slight degree of lameness remains during the greater part of the day.

Cramp may be brought on by exposure either to a high or low tempera-
ture.

If a certain degree of lameness remains, the attendant on the horsn
should endeavour to find out the muscle chiefly affected, which he may
easily do by a feeling of hardness, or an expression of pain, when he presses
on the part affected. Friction with the hand wall very frequently be all
that is necessary to remove cramp, but should this not be effectual, hot
fomentations to the part, and the administration of laxative medicines, must
be had resort to.

STRINGHALT.

This is a sudden and spasmodic action of some of the muscles of the thigh,
observable when the horse is first led from the stable. One or both legs
are caught up at every step with great rapidity and violence, so that the
fetlock sometimes touches the belly. In the great majority of cases it
does not disappear after exercise, but the horse continues to be afihcted
with this peculiar gait. In a few cases, however, after the horse has been
out a httle while, it partially goes off, and the normal action of the limb,
to a certain extent, returns.

Stringhalt is not a perfectly involuntary action of a certain muscle, or a
certain set of muscles. The limb is flexed at the command of the will,
but it acts to a greater extent and with more violence than the will had
prompted. There is an accumulation of excitability in the muscle, and
the impulse which should have called it into natural and moderate action
causes it to take on a spasmodic one.

But although the peculiar action constituting stringhalt is developed
through the muscles, it must not be taken for granted that the cause
of the affection lies in the muscles themselves, but rather in the tissues
through which the muscular action is exerted, namely, the nerves ; and,
as a general rule, it may be stated that disease of the nerves themselves,
more particularly of the great Ischiatic nerve, or of the canal through
which they pass from the spinal cord, will be found to exist. Either the
nerve at its origin is softened and discoloured, or its egress from the ver-
tebral canal is through a roughened and irritating foramen instead of a
smooth and pohshed one.

Many ingenious but contradictory theories have been advanced in order
to account for this peculiarity of gait. What muscles are concerned ?
Clearly those by which the thigh is brought under the belly, and the
hock is flexed, and the pasterns are first flexed and then extended. But
by which of them is the effect principally produced ? What muscle, or,
more properly, what nerve is concerned ? Instead of entering into any
useless controversy on this point, a case shall be related, and one of the
most interesting there is on record : the author was personally cognisant
of every particular.

Guildford, first called Roundhead, and then Landlord, was foaled in

184 STKINGHALT.

182G. He was got by Hampden out of a Sir Harry Dimsdale mare. In
1828, and being two years old, and the property of the Duke of Richmond,,
he won a 601. plate at Goodwood. In 1829, and belonging to Lord W.
Lennox, he won 55 guineas at Hampton. Being then transferred to Mr.
Coleman, he won 50 guineas at Guildford ; and in the same year, having
been jiurchased by Mr. Pearce, he won 60 guineas at Basingstoke.

Tn the course of this year stringhalt began to appear in a slight degree,
and it evidently, although slowly, increased. There soon began to be a
httle difficulty in getting him otf ; but when he had once started, neither
his speed nor his stoutness appeared to be in the shghtest degree im-
paired. He continued on the turf until 1836, and won for his different
owners seventeen races, the produce of which, exclusive of bets, amounted
to 1,435Z.

The difficulty and loss of advantage in starting had now increased to a
degree which rendered it prudent to withdraw him from the turf, and he
came into the possession of Dockeray, who used him for the purpose of
leading the young horses that he had under training. This is well kno"\vn
to be hard work, and his rider was a man of some weight. In addition to
this, he was generally hunted twice in the week. His first starting into
a gallop had something singular about it. It was a horrible kind of con.
vulsive action, and so violent, that he frequently knocked off his shoes oo
the very day that they were put on ; but when he got a Uttle warmed,
all this disappeared. He galloped beautifully, and was a very sure fencer.
The sport, however, being over, and he returning to a slow pace, the
stringhalt was as bad as ever.

At length the old horse became artful, and it was with great difficulty
that he could be made to lead. Sometimes he refused it altogether, lu
consequence of this, he was sent to St. Martin's Lane to be sold. The
highest bidding for him was 31. 14s., and the hero of the turf and the field
was doomed to the omnibus. There he was cruelly used, and this spasmodic
convulsion of his hind legs sadly aggravated his torture. The skin was
presently rubbed from his shoulders, his hips and haunches were bruised
in every part, and his stifles were continually and painfully coming in
contact with the pole.

In this situation he was seen by the veterinary surgeon to ' The Society
for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals.' There is a fund at the disposal
of that society for the purchase of worn-out horses, who are immediately
released from their misery by the pole-axe of the knacker. The horse
was bought for this purpose, another and laudable motive influencing the
purchase — the vdsh to ascertain what light the dissection of an animal
that had had stringhalt to such an aggravated extent, and for aO long a
period, would cast on the nature of this disease.

The author of this work saw him a little while before he was slaughtered.
He was still a noble-looking animal, and seemed to possess all his formez
strength and spirit unimpaired ; but he was sadly scarred all over, in con-
sequence of his being put to a kind of work for which his spasmodic
complaint so entirely incapacitated him. So aggravated a case of stiing-
halt had rarely been seen. Both hind legs were affected, and both in an
equal degree ; and the belly was forcibly struck by the pastern joints every
time the hind feet were lifted. The belly and the pastern joint were both
denuded of haii' in consequence of this constant battering.

He was destroyed by the injection of prussic acid into the jugular vein,
and the dissection of him was conducted by Professor Spooner, of the
Royal Veterinary College.

On taking ofl' the skin, all the muscles presented their perfect healthy
character. There was not the ahe^htest enlarcrement or discoloration of

STRINGHALT. 183

the fascia3. The muscles of both extremities were dissected from their
origins to their tendinous terminations, and their fibrous structure care-
fully examined. They were all beautifully developed, presenting no
inequaUty or irregularity of structure, nor aught that would warrant the
suspicion that any one of them possessed an undue power or influence
beyond the others. The only abnormal circumstance about them was
that they were of a rather darker yellow in colour than is usually found.
This referred to them generally, and not to any particular muscle or sets
of muscles.

The lumbar, crural, and sciatic nerves were examined from the spot at
which they emerge from the spinal cord to their ultimate disti-ibutions.
The ciTiral and lumbar nerves were perfectly healthy. The sciatic nerve,
at the aperture thi'ough which it escapes from the spine, was darker in
colour than is usual, being of a yellowish-brown hue. Its texture was
softened, and its fibrillar somewhat loosely connected together. The nerve
was of its U5ual size ; but, on tracing it in its course through the muscles
of the haunch, several spots of ecchymosis presented themselves, and were
more particularly marked on that part of the nerve which is connected
Avith the sacrosciatic ligament. As the nerve approached the hock, it
assumed its natural colour and tone ; and the fibres given off from it to
the muscles situated inferior to the stifle-joint were of a perfectly healthy
character.

On dissecting out a portion of the nerve where it appeared to be in a
diseased state, it was found that this ecchymosis was confined to the mem-
branous investitui-e of the nerve, and that its substance, when pressed from
its sheath, presented a perfectly natural character.

The cavity of the cranium, and the whole extent of the spinal canal,
were next laid open. The brain and spinal marrow were depi'ived of their
membranous coverings, and both the thecoe and their contents dihgently
examined. There was no lesion in any part of them, not even at the
lumbar region.

The articulations of every joint of the hind extremities then underwent
inspection, and no disease could be detected in either of them.

Professor Spooner was of opinion that this pecuHar afiection was not
referable to any diseased state of the brain or spinal cord, nor to any local
afiection of the muscles of the limbs, but simply to a morbid afiection
of the sciatic nerve. He had not dissected a single case of stringhalt in
which he had not found disease of this nerve, which mainly contributes
to supply the hind extremities vsith sensation and the power of voluntary
motion.

As a proof that stringhalt may come on suddenly the following is a case
in point. A race-horse called 'Warwick' fell out of a horse-box, when
travelling at the rate of twenty miles per hour by rail between Holywell
and Flint, and when he got up he was afiected with stringhalt ; he won
many races afterwards. The cause of the accident was this: the horse-
box was standing against a wall, and, while loading, the porters forgot to
fasten the door next the wall. Shortly after the train was in motion, the
flap or door of the box fell do'SATi, letting the horse's hind parts out ; being
tied up with a small race-horse head- collar, fortunately it broke, and the
animal fell out on the rails. Being a cold morning he was Avrapt up in
extra rugs, which so enveloped him as to prevent the rails cutting him.
The train was stopped, and the horse was found lying quite unnerved :
the instant he was spoken to he got up, and the stable-boy led him away
home. The only injury he received was stringhalt in both legs, and he
had never shown the least symptoms of it before : he was five veai's old
at the time of the accident.

186 PAKALYSIS, OR PALSY.

Now coraes a very important question. What connection is there be-
tween stringhalt and the supposed value or deterioration of the horse ?
Some experienced practitioners have maintained that it is a pledge of more
than usual muscular power. It is a common saying that ' there never was
a horse with stringhalt that was incapable of doing the work required
of him.' Most certainly we continually meet with horses having stringhalt
that pleasantly discharge all ordinary, and even extraordinary, serWce ;
and although stringhalt is excess or irregular distribution of nervous
power, it at least shows the existence of that power, and the capabiHty in
the muscular system of being acted upon by it. Irregular distributions of
vital energy are not, however, things to be desired. They argue disease
and derangement of the system, and a predisposition to greater derange-
ment. They materially interfere with the speed of the horse. This was
decidedly the case with regard to the poor fellow whose history has been
related.

Stringhalt is decided unsoundness. It is an irregular supply of the
nervous influence, or a diseased state of the nervous or muscular system,
or both. It prevents us from suddenly and at once calling upon the horse
for the fall exercise of his speed and power, and therefore it is unsound-
ness ; but, generally speaking, it so little interferes with the services of
the animal, that, although an unsoundness, it would not weigh a great deal
against other manifest valuable quahties.

PARALYSIS, OR PALSY.

The stream of nervous influence is sometimes stopped, and thence
results palsy. In the hujnan being general palsy sometimes occurs.
The whole body — every organ of motion and of sense — is paralysed. The
records of our practice, however, do not afford us a single instance of this ;
but of partial paralysis there are several cases, and most untractable ones
they were. The cause of them may be altogether unknowTi. In the
human being there is yet another distinction. Hemiplegia and Paraplegia.
In the former the aflfection is confined to one side of the patient ; in the
latter the posterior extremity on both sides is affected. Few cases of
hemiplegia occur in the horse, and they are more manageable than those
of paraplegia ; but if the affection is not removed, they usually degenerate
into paraplegia before the death of the animal. It would appear singular
that this should be the most common form of palsy in the human being,
and so rarely seen in the quadruped. There are some considerations,
however, that will partly account for this. Palsy in the horse usually
proceeds from injury of the spinal cord ; and that cord is more developed
and far larger than in the human being. It is more exposed to injury, and
to injury that will affect not one side only, but the whole of the cord.

Palsy in the horse, although sometimes attacking the fore extremities,
is far more frequently met >vith in the hind ones. The reason of this is
plain. The fore limbs are attached to the trunk by a dense mass of highly
elastic substance. This was placed between the shoulder-blade and the
ribs for the purpose of preventing that concussion, which would be an-
noying and even dangerous to the horse or liis rider. Except in conse-
quence of a fall, there is scarcely the possibility of any serious injury to
the anteiior portion of the spine. The case is very different with regard
to the hind limbs and their attachment to the trunk ; they are necessarily
liable to many a shock and sprain injurious to the spine and its contents.
The loins and the back oftenest exhibit the lesions of palsy, because there
are some of the most violent muscular efforts, and there is the greatest
movement and the least support. It may, consequently, be ^jaken as an

PARALYSIS, OR TALSY. 187

axiom to guide the judgment of the practitioner, that palsy in the horpe
almost invariably proceeds from disease or injury of the spine.

We most frequently meet Tvith complete paraplegia in the horse, as the
result of some injury to the spine. It sometimes ensues when the animal
has been cast for the performance of some operation : he stniggles vio-
lently at first, but after a time ceases. The operation being concluded the
hobbles are removed, and attempts are made to cause the animal to arise ;
but these are fruitless, and to the great annoyance of the operator, his
hind extremities are found to be totally paralysed. It is also met vdih. ir.
the hunting-field, as a consequence of the animal di^opping the hind ex-
tremities into a fence, or when galloping across a field, suddenly placing
the hind legs into a drain or hidden trench ; when this happens the animal
generally drags his hind extremities a short distance and falls ; he vnU
then make frequent efforts to get up again, but will only succeed in raising
his fore extremities ; the hind ones are paralysed : in short, his ' back is
broken.' It may also be produced by getting cast in the stable, and
sHpping up, &c. In most of these cases the posterior dorsal or lumbar
vertebrae will be found to be either displaced or fractured, and the symptoma
will appear immediately after the injury. Other causes of paralysis are— ■
exposure to cold and moistoi-e, and disease afiectiug the spinal cord itseU,
or its membranes. When this is the case, we sometimes get premonitory
symptoms. The first symptoms generally noticed will be a peculiar
reeling unsteadiness in the animal's walk, Avhich wiU be increased when
he is made to trot, the hind legs being to a certain extent dragged after
him. This may continue for an uncertain length of time, but in most
cases, the animal wiU get gradually worse in a few days, until he falls
and is unable to rise again. Paralysis may also be confined to certaiu parts
only, such as the face, ear, and lips ; another frequent instance of this
will be found in paralysis of the muscles on one side of the larynx, pro-
ducing roaring.

The treatment of paralysis will not generally prove veiy successful.
If it results from a ^-iolent injury, and we have reason to beHeve from the
circumstances connected with it, and the total loss of both motive and
sentient power in the hind extremities, that some fracture or dislocation
of the vertebra has taken place, the animal should be at once destroyed.
If we have premonitory symptoms sufiicient to indicate the approach of an
attack of paralysis, a strong dose of purgative medicine should be at once
administered, and this should be assisted by frequent injections of warm
water. The loins should be covered with a mustard poultice, frequently
renewed. The patient should be placed in a weU-ventilated stable, kept
warmly clothed, and his food consist for the first few days of nothing but
bran-mash. J£ the horse be down, the better plan to adopt will be to
make him as comfortable as possible, taking care to turn him on the other
side occasionally, so that the muscles may not become cramped. This
will be better than placing him in slings. If favourable symptoms appear,
and the animal begins to regain the use of his limbs, he must not be in the
sHghtest degree neglected, nor medical treatment suspended. There are
few diseases in which the animal is more hable to a relapse, or where a
relapse would be so fatal. The bowels should be kept relaxed, counter-
irritation continued over the loins, and great attention paid to the animal's
diet. Strychnine, and many other medicines, have been strongly recom-
mended in attacks of paralysis, but they are doubtful and powerfully
dangerous remedies. If the disease assumes a somewhat chronic form,
an extensive and stimulating charge over the loins should be appHed. Il
will accomplish three purposes — there ^^all be the principle of counter-
irritation, a defence against the cold, and a useful support of the limbs.

188 DISEASES OF THE EYE.

Wlien paralysis is confined to certain parts alone, sucli as the ear, lips,
and larynx, any apparent cause sliould be at once removed, and then
treated by counter-ii-ritants, such as bUsters and setons.

DISEASES OF THE EYE.

The diseases of the eye constitute a very important, but a most unsatis-
factory division of our work, for the maladies of this organ, although few
in number, are fi^equent in their appearance. They are sadly obotinate,
and often baffle all skill.

Occasionally a wound is inflicted by a passionate or careless servant.
The eye itself is rarely injured. It is placed on a mass of fat, and it turns
most readily, and the prong of the fork glances ofi"; but the substanco
round the eye may be deeply wounded, and very considerable inflammation
may ensue. This should be abated by poultices, and bleeding, and physic ;
but no probe should be used under the foolish idea of ascertaining the depth
of the wound in the Hd, supposing that there should be one, for, from the
constant motion of the eye, it is almost impossible to pass the probe into
the original wound, and the efibrt to accomphsh it would give a great deal
of pain, and increase the inflammation.

The eyehds are subject to occasional inflammation from blows or other
injuries. Fomentation with warm water will be serviceable here.

The horse has occasionally a scaly eruption on the edges of the eyehds,
attended with great itching, in the efibrt to aUay which, by rubbing the
part, the eye may be blemished. The nitrated ointment of mercury, mixed
with an equal quantity of lard, may be shghtly rubbed on the edges of the
Hds with considerable good efiect.

The eyelids Avill sometimes become oedematous. Horses that are fed in
low and humid pastm-es are subject to this. It is also the consequence of
inflammation badly treated. The eyehds ai-e composed of a lax structoi^e,
and the tissue is somewhat deficient in vitahty — hence this disposition to
enfiltration. Sometimes the collection of fluid accumulates so rapidly, and
BO extensively, that the eyes are closed. They should be well bathed with
warm water mingled with an aromatic tincture. The cellular substance
of the hds will thus be disposed to contract on their contents and cause
their absorption.

Old carriage-horses are subject to this oedema ; and it frequently accom.
panics both chronic and common ophthalmia.

Weakness and dropping of the upper Hd is caused by diminution or loss
of power in its muscles. Dry frictions and astiingcnt lotions vrili fre-
quently restore the tone of the parts.

The eyehds are subject to occasional injury from their situation and
office. In small incised wounds of them great care should be taken that
the divided edges unite by the first intention. This wn.ll hasten the cure
and prevent deformity. If any of the muscles are divided, it is usually
the ciliary or orbicularis palpebrarum. This lesion must be healed, if
possible, by the first intention, and either by means of adhesive plaster or
the suture. The suture is probably the preferable agent.

If the accident has occurred many hours before being noticed, and a
portion of the upper hd hangs over the eye, it should on no account be
removed without attempts being made to cause it to unite by taking a
sharp scalpel, and removing a small portion from the lacerated edges and
afterwards bringing them together with metaUic sutures. Great care
should be afterwards taken to secure the animal's head in such a position
that he cannot rub the wound against the manger or wall of the stable.

Suppurating wounds in the eyehds may be the consequence of the ne-

SIMPLE OPHTHALMIA. 18&

ccssary absiractioii of a considerable surface of the skin in the removal of
warts or tumours. The principal thing to be attended to is the frequent
removal of the pus by means of tow or cotton wool. The rest may
generally be left to nature.

Inversion of the hd is of very rare occurrence in the horse.

Warts are sometimes attached to the edges of the Hds, and are a source
of great irritation. When rubbed they bleed, and the common opinion is
true — that they are propagated by the blood. They should be taken off
with a sharp pair of scissors, and their roots touched with the lunar caustic.

The membrane which covers the haw is subject to inflammation. lu
is, indeed, a continuation of the conjunctiva, the inflammation of which
constitutes ophthalmia. An account of this inflammation will be bettet
postponed until the nature and treatment of ophthalmia comes unde?
particular notice.

The Haw, or Memhrana Nictifans, is subject to inflammation pecuhai
to itself, arising from the introduction of foreign bodies, or from blows or
other accidents. The entire substance of the haw becomes inflamed. It
swells and protrudes from the inner angle of the eye. The heat and red-
ness gradually disappear, but the membrane often continues to protrude.
The inflammation of this organ assumes a chronic character in a very
short time, on account of the structure of the parts, which are in general
little susceptible of reaction.

The ordinary causes of this disease in the horse are repeated and
periodical attacks of ophthalmia, and blows on the part. Young and old
horses are most subject to it.

Emolhent apphcations, bleeding, and restricted diet will be proper at
the commencement of the disease, and, the inflammation being abated,
sHght astringents will bo useful in preventing the engorgement of the
part. Rose-water with subacetate of lead will form a proper collyrium.
If the protruding body does not diminish after proper means have been
tried, and for a suflQ.cient period, it must be removed ^vith a curved pair of
scissors. No danger wiU attend this operation if it is performed in time.

Ulceration and caries of the cartilage will sometimes be accompanied by
ulceration of the conjunctiva. This will frequently prove a very serious
affair.

The Caruncula Lachrymalis, or Tubercle, by means of which the tears
are directed into the canal through which they are to escape from the
nostril, is sometimes enlarged in consequence of inflammation, and the
Puncta LachrymaHa, or conduits into which the tears pass from the eye,
are partially or completely closed. The apphcation of warm and emol-
hent lotions will generally remove the collected mucus or the inflammation
of the parts ; but if the passage of a stylet or other more complicated
means are required, the assistance of a veterinary surgeon should be
immediately obtained. The lachrymal sac into which the tears pass from
the puncta has occasionally participated in the inflammation, and been
distended and ruptured by the tears and mucus. This lesion is termed
Fistula Lachrymalis. It has occasionally existed in colts, and will require
immediate and peculiar treatment.

SIMPLE OPHTHALMIA, OR COMMON INFLAMMATION OF THE EYE.

The indications of common inflammation of the eye are so clear, that
it never ought to be confounded with specific, for in it the external
coverings of the eye alone are implicated ; we have engorgement of the
conjunctival membrane, accompanied with a marked circumscribed opacity
of the transparent cornea, and that is all ; there is no effusion in the
anterior chamber, giving that discoloured muddy appearance so charac-

lyo SPECIFIC OrilTHAUIIA

teristic in specific ophthalmia ; the iris remains clear and bright, and tnt
lens is unaffected.

This common inflammation is generally sudden in its attack. It is
occasionally connected with an attack of catarrh or cold; but it is as often
unaccompanied by this, and depends on external irritation, as a blow, or
the presence of a bit of hay-seed or oat-husk within the lid, and towards
the outer comer where the haw cannot reach it : therefore the lids should
always be carefully examined as to this possible source of the complaint.
The lids will be found swollen, and the eyes partially closed, with more or
less weeping, the inner surface of the eyelids red and tumid, and the cornea
will either appear bright or cloudy, according to the extent of the injury.
It not unfrequently happens when the injury has resulted from the lash
of a whip, or a thorn, that the conjunctival membrane becomes lacerated ;
and sometimes the injury extends to the cornea.

Our first object by way of treatment should be to ascertain the cause of
the mischief hj carefally examining the eye and the removal of any of-
fending object. The animal should be placed in a cool but somewhat dark
box, the eye should be bathed with warm water, laxative medicine given,
and the animal kept on soft diet. If the inflammation be very acute, blood
may be taken from the facial vein. In a few days the inflammation will
generally subside, and then a weak solution of sulphate of zinc may be
applied. When the acute inflammation has passed away, the cornea is
sometimes left very tense and cloudy : we may now apply stimulants to its
surface in the form of solution nitrate of silver (gr, viii to ^j aqua distillata),
at first injected for twenty-four hours, and then ceasing for two or three
days, and again employing it if necessary. When we get granulations on
the cornea as the result of lesions, nitrate of silver must be applied in
its pure state.

SPECIFIC OPHTHALMIA, OR MOON-BLINDNESS.

In this we have a far more formidable and destructive disease than the
one just described ; it is, indeed, one of the opprobia of veterinary science,
utterly bafiling all its resources and running its course erratically, indeed,
but most surely and destructively. The aqueous humour often loses
its transparency — even the iris changes its colour, and the pupil is exceed-
ingly contracted. Indeed the term Iritis, or inflammation of the iris, will
convey a much more intelhgible idea of the disease than any other, for it
is this, with the other internal tissues of the eye, that especially suffer from
its devastations. The external parts of the eye are comparatively but
little impKcated, and suffer only in a comparative degree ; but see its effects
on the iris, which gives the colouring and beauty to the eye, — its brilHancy
is lost, its texture is broken down, it is a dark, discoloured curtain ; look at
the symmetrical pupil with its fall rounded edge, — it is lacerated and torn,
jagged and disfigured, as if mechanical destruction had torn it ; then its
centre ornament, the beautiful lens, transparent as a crystal, clear as a
diamond, is become disorganised, crushed, discoloured, a shapeless opaque
lump, instead of the bright transparent conductor, — the light of heaven
can no longer permeate it, and total blindness is the result.

The veterinary surgeon has now an obstinate disease to combat, and one
that will generally maintain its ground in spite of all his efforts. For three,
or four, or five weeks, the inflammation will remain undiminished ; or if it
appears to yield on one day, it will i-eturn in redoubled violence on the
next. At length, and often unconnected with any of the means that have
been used, the eye begins to bear the light, the redness of the membrane
of the lid disappears, the cornea clears up, and the only vestige of disease
which remains is a slight thickening of the lids, and apparent uneasiness
when exposed to a very strong light.

SPECIFIC OPHTHALMIA. 191

If the owner imagines that he has got rid of the disease, he mil be
sadly disappointed, for, in the course of three weeks or a month, either
the same eye undergoes a second and similar attack, or the other one
becomes affected. All again seems to pass over, except that the eye is not
so perfectly restored, and a shght, deeply-seated cloudiness begins to
appear ; and after repeated attacks, and alternations of disease from eye
to eye, the affair terminates in opacity of the lens or its capsule, attended
■with perfect blindness either of one eye or both. This affection was
formerly known by the name of moon-bUndness, from its periodical return,
and some supposed influence of the moon. That body, however, has not,
and cannot have anything to do with it.

What is the practitioner doing all this while ? He is an anxious and
busy, but almost powerless spectator. He foments the eyes with warm
water, or appHes cold lotions ; he bleeds, not from the temporal artery,
for that does not supply the orbit of the eye, but from the facial vein,
or he scarifies the lining of the lid, or subtracts a considerable quantity
of blood from the jugular vein. The scarifying of the conjunctiva, which
may be easily accomplished without a twitch, by exposing the inside of the
lids, and drawing a keen lancet slightly over them, is the most effectual of
all ways to abate inflammation, for we are then immediately unloading
the distended vessels. He places liis setons in the cheek, or his rowels
under the jaw ; and he keeps the animal low, and gives physic or fever
medicine. The disease, however, ebbs and flows, retreats and attacks,
until it reaches its natural termination, blindness of one or both eyes.

Cart-horses are the most subject to this disease, and the period at which
it generally appears is from the age of three to five years. He has then
completed his growth. He is full of blood, and liable to inflammatory
complaints, and the eye is the organ attacked from a peculiar predisposi-
tion in it to inflammation, the nature and cause of which cannot always
be explained. Every affection of the eye appearing about this age must
be regarded with much suspicion.

As this malady so frequently destroys the sight, and there are certaia
periods when the inflammation has seemingly subsided and the inex-
perienced person would be deceived into the belief that all danger is at an
end, the eye should be most carefully observed at the time of purchase,
and the examiner should be folly aware of all the minute indications of
previous or approaching disease.

There is nothing which deserves so much attention from the purchaser
of a horse, as the perfect transparency of the cornea over the whole of its
surface. The eye should be examined for this purpose, both in front, and
with the face of the examiner close to the cheek of the horse, under and
behind the eye. The latter method of looking through the cornea is the
most satisfactory, so far as the transparency of that part of the eye is con-
cerned. During this examination, the horse should not be in the open air,
but in the stable, standing in the door-way and a little within the door. If
there be thickening of the lids, or puckering towards the inner corner of the
eye; a difference in the apparent size of the eyes; a cloudiness, although per-
haps scarcely perceptible, of the surface of the cornea or more deeply seated,
or a hazy circle round its edge ; a gloominess of eye generally, and dullness
of the iris ; with the surface of the corpora nigra ragged and hanging
down, or a minute, faint, dusky spot in the centre, with or without minute
fibres or lines diverging from it, we may feel assured that inflammation
has occurred at no very distant period, and there -will be every probability
of its return. There is one little caution to be added. The cornea in its
natural state is not only a beautiful transparent body, but it reflects, even
in proportion to its transparency, many of the rays which fall upon it, and

»«>2 SPECIFIC OPHTHALMIA.

if there be a wliite object immediately before the eye, as a very h'ght
waistcoat, or much display of a white neckcloth, the reflection may puzzle
an experienced observer, and has raisled the careless one. The coat should
be buttoned up, and the wliite cravat carefully concealed. The cause of
this inflammation is undoubtedly a strong predisposition to it in the eye
of the horse, but assisted by over exertion and the heated and empoisoned
air of many stables. The heated air has much to do with the production
of the disease ; the empoisoned air a great deal more ; for every one must
have observed, on entering a close stable early in the morning, strong
fames of ammonia, which were painful to his eyes, and caused the tears to
flow. Wliat must be the constant action of this on the eyes of the horse?
The dung of the horse, and the litter of the stables, when becoming putrid,
emit fumes of volatile alkali or ammonia. Often, very soon after the
evacuations are voided, they begin to yield an immense quantity of this
pungent gas. If we are scarcely able to bear this when we stand in the
stable for only a few minutes, we need not wonder at the prevalence of in-
flanunation in the eye of the stabled horse, nor at the difficulty of abating
inflammation while this organ continues to be exposed to such painful
excitement. Stables are now much better ventilated than they used to be,
and ophthalmia is far from being so prevalent as it was fifty years ago.
This disease generally commences during the night, and is usually de-
tected in the morning, as soon as the horse is turned in his stable to have
his head and neck dressed. In many cases one eye only suffers, the attack
lasting ten days or a fortnight, then subsiding, and returning periodically
every three weeks or a month. When this is the case, the other eye en-
tirely escapes, receiving additional value from its comparison with its un-
fortunate fellow. But unfortunately this too often is not the case ; but on
the subsidation of the attack in one eye, the mischief is brewing in the
other ; it has to go through the same devastating process, and the result
to both is derangement, worse almost in its effects than complete dis-
organisation.

The propagation of various diseases, and this more than any other, from
the sire to his progeny, has not been sufiiciently considered by breeders.
Let a stalHon that is blind, or whose sight is defective, possess every other
point and quality that can be wished, yet he is worse than useless ; for a
very considerable proportion of his offspring will most assuredly inherit
weak eyes or become totally blind. There is no fact better estabhshed
than this, there is no more positive proof of the existence of hereditary
disease than this : in many instances the entire progeny of the blind sire
or dam have been implicated in the destructive disease.

The most frequent consequences of tliis disease are cloudiness of the eye,
and cataract. The cloudiness is singular in its nature. It will change in
twenty- four hours from the thinnest film to the thickest opacity, and, as
suddenly, the eye will nearly regain its perfect transparency, but only to
lose it, and as rapidly, a second time.

The most barbarous methods have been resorted to for the purpose of
removing tliis cloudiness. Chalk, and salt, and sugar, and even pounded
glass have been introduced into the eye mechanically to rub off the film.
It was forgotten that the cloudiness was the effect of inflammation ; that
means so harsh and cruel were very Hkely to recall that inflammation ;
that these rough and sharp substances must of necessity inflict excm-
ciating pain ; and that, after all, it generally was not a film on the surface
of the cornea, but a dimness pervading its substance, and even sinking
deep within it, and therefore not capable of being removed. Where the
cloudiness can be removed, it will be best effected by first abating inflam-
mation, and then exciting the absorbents to take up the grey deposit, by

SPECIFIC OPIITHALAIIA. I9S

wasliing the eye Avith a very weak solution of nitrate of silver or sulpliato
of zinc.

Opacity of tlie lens is another consequence of specific inflammation. A
wliite speck appears on the centre of the lens, which gradually spreads
over it, and completely covers it. It is generally so white and pearly as
not to be mistaken ; at other times it is more hazy, deceiving the inex-
perienced, and occasioning doubt in the mind of the professional man. We
have seen many instances in which the sight has been considerably affected,
or almost lost, and yet the horse has been pronounced sound by very fair
judges. The eye must be exposed to the light, and yet under the kind of
shelter which has been already described, in order to discover the defect.
The pupil of the horse is seldom black, like that of the human being, and
its grepsh hue conceals the recent or thin film that may be spreading
over the lens.

Confirmed cataract in the eye of the horse admits of no remedy, for two
obvious reasons : the retractor muscle draws the eye back so powerfully
and so deeply into the socket, that it would be difficult to perform any
operation ; and should an operation be performed, and the opaque lens
removed, the sight would be so imperfect, from the rays of hght not being
sufficiently converged, that the horse would be worse to us than a blind
one. The man who has undergone the operation of couching may put a
new lens before his eye, in the form of a convex spectacle ; but we cannot
adapt spectacles to the eye of the horse, or fix them there.

Since the publication of the first edition of ' The Horse,' some commu-
nications have been made in the seventh volume of the ' Veterinarian'
with regard to the occasional appearance and disappearance of cataract
■svithout any connection with the common moon-blindness. It is there
stated, that cataracts might be formed in a fortnight or three weeks ; that
many instances had been known in which they had been completed in less
time, and without any previous apparent disease of the eyes ; and that
they had been detected on examination, when the owners had not the
sHghtest suspicion of disease in the eye. These cataracts, however, were
very minute, and occasionally were found after a time to have disappeared.
They differ entirely from the cataracts produced by the repeated attacks
of specific ophthalmia, in being small and temporary, and in the other tissues
of the eye remaining intact.

That excellent veterinarian, Mr. Percivall, had a case of this description,
A gentleman brought a horse one morning to the hospital, in consequence
of its having fallen in his way to toA\Ti, and grazed his eyebrow. On
examining him carefully, the cornea was partially nebulous, and a cataract
was plainly visible. Neither of these defects was sufficient to attract the
notice of any unprofessional observer, and both were unconnected with the
sHght bruise produced by the fall. The owner was told that the corneal
opacity might possibly be removed ; but as for the cataract he might
regard this as beyond the reach of medicine. He returned with his horse
on the fifth day, saying that the physic had operated well, and that he
thought the eye was as clear as ever. Mr. Percivall examined the eye,
and could discover no rehc either of the corneal opacity or of the cataract.

The opinion respecting cataract is therefore essentially modified. It
may not of necessity be the result of previous inflammation, although in
the great majority of cases it is so, nor does it always lead to blinckiess.
Still it is a serious thing at all times, and, although existing in the
minutest degree, it is unsoundness, and very materially lessens the value
of the horse.

'Were I asked,' says Mr. Percivall, 'how the practitioner could best
distinguish a cataract of the above description from that which is of ordi-

0

194 GUTTA SERBXA. — GLAUCOMA.

nary occurrence, and known by us all to constitute the common termina-
tion of periodical oplitlialmia, I sliould say that the unusually lucid and
healthy aspect which every other part of the eye presents is our best
diagnostic sign ; the sHghtest indication, however, or the shghtest suspicion
of prior or present inflammation, being a reason for coming to a different
conclusion. As to the period of time a cataract of this species, supposing
it to be membranous, would requu-e for its formation, I should apprehend
that its production might be, as its disappearance often would seem to be,
the work of a very short interval, perhaps not more than five or six days.'
As to the cause and treatment of it, we are at present completely in the
dark. If it does not soon disappear, the hydriodate of potash administered
internally might offer the best prospect of success.

AMAUROSIS, OR GUTTA SERENA.

Another species of blindness, and of which mention was made when de-
scribing the retina, is Gutta Serena, commonly called glass eye. The pupil
is more than usually dilated: it is immovable, bright, and glassy, and the
animal is totally blind. This is palsy of the optic nerve, or its ex-
pansion, the retina. It may be produced by several causes, such as
from a blow on the head, internal hcemorrhage, pressure, the result of
tumours, or effusion upon that particular part of the brain from whence
the optic nerves ai-ise, from some disease of the retina itself, or as the re-
sult of debihtating diseases. The treatment of Gutta Serena is quite as
difficult as that of cataract. We have heard of successful cases, but we
never saAv one ; nor should we be disposed to incur much expense in endea-
vourino- to accomplish impossibihties. If it proceed from injuries such as
blows, &c., warm fomentations should be employed and setons insei'ted,
laxative medicines being given ; if from debihty we should allow nutritious
food, and give vegetable and mineral tonics. If we succeed it must be by
constitutional treatment. As to local treatment, the seat of disease is out
of our reach.

GLAUCOMA.

This is a disease occasionally met -v^ith as a termination of ophthalmia,
and known by the name of green cataract ; but it is much more frequently
met with as a result of age in very old horses. On examination the pupil
wLU be found dilated, and the interior of the eye presenting a peculiar
sea-green appearance, the animal being blind. It is a diseased condition
of the vitreous humour, and admits of no reHef.

DISEASES OF THE EAR.

Wounds of the ear are usually the consequence of careless or bruta]
treatment. The twitch may be appHed to it, when absolute necessity re-
quires this degree of coercion ; but troublesome ulcers and bruises have
been the consequence of the abuse of this species of punishment, and more
especially has the farrier done irreparable mischief when he has binitally
made use of his plyers.

These bruises or wounds will generally — fortunately for the animal, and
fortunately, perhaps, for the brute that inflicted the injury — speedily heal ;
but occasionally sinuses and abscesses will result that bid defiance to the
most skilful treatment. A simple laceration of the cartilage is easily
remedied. The divided edges arc brought into apposition, and the head is
tied up closely for a few days, and all is well ; but, occasionally, ulceration
of the inteo-ument and cellular substance, and caries of the cartilage, will
take place — deep sinuses will be formed, and the wound will bid defiance

DISEASES OP THE EAR — DEAFXESS. 105

TO the most skilful treatment. The writer of this work had once a case of
this kind under his care more than two mouths, and he was at length com-
pelled to cut off tho ear, the other ear following it, for the sake of uni-
formity of appearance. Tho lunar caustic, or the muriate of antimony, or
the heated iron, must be early employed, or the laboui" of the practitioner
will be in vain.

It has been the misfortune of the same person to witness two cases in
■which the auditory passage was closed and the faculty of hearing de-
Btroyed, by blows on the ear violently inflicted. No punishment can be
too severe for these brutes in human shape. Whenever there is consider-
able swelling about the root of the ear, and the fl.uctuation of a fluid within
can be detected, it should be immediately opened with a lancet, and the
purulent fluid liberated.

The abscess usually begins to form about the middle of the conch, or
rather nearer the base than the point. The incision should be of con-
siderable length, or the opening will close again in four-and- twenty hours.
The purulent matter having been evacuated, the incision should not be per-
mitted to close until the edges of the ulcer have adhered to each other,
and the abscess is obliterated.

The size and the carriage of the ear do not always please. The ears may
be larger and more dependent than fashion requires them to be, and this is
remedied by an operation. On either side of the projection of the occipital
bone, and in a straight line forward and backward, a fold of the skin is
pinched up and cut away. The divided edges on either side are then
brought together, and confined by two or three stitches — they presently
unite, and the owner has a better-looking horse, and soon forgets or cares
not about the punishment which he has inflicted on him.

The ears of other horses may be supposed to be too close to each other.
This fault is corrected by another piece of cruelty. Similar shps of skin
are cut away on the outside of the base of the ear, and in the same direc-
tion. The edges of the wound are then brought together, confined by
sutures, and the ears are drawn further apart from each other, and have
different directions given to them. A very sHght examination of either of
the horses will readily detect the imposition.

DEAPNESS.

Of the occasional existence of this in the horse, there is no doubt. The
beautiful play of the ears has ceased, and the horse hears not the voice of
his master, or the sound of the whip. Much of the apparent stupidity of
a few horses is attributable to their imperfect hearing. It occasionally
appears to follow the decline of various diseases, and especially of those
that affect the head and the respiratory passages. It has been the conse-
quence of brutal treatment closing the conduit of the ear, or ruptui-ino- the
tympanum ; and it is certainly, as in other domesticated animals, the ac-
companiment of old age.

In the present state of veterinary knowledge it is an incurable complaint;
the only thing that can be done is not to punish the poor slave for his
apparent stupidity, produced perhaps by over-exertion in our service, or, at
least, the natural attendant of the close of a Hfe devoted to us.

OSL

196 THE ANATOMY

CHAPTER X.

THE ANATOMY AND DISEASES OF THE NOSE AND MOUTH.

We now proceed to a description of the face, or lower part of the liead of
tlie Horse. The nasal bones, or bones of the nose (J j, p. 145), are con-
nected with the frontal bones above, and with the lachrymal, i i, and
the bones of the upper jaw, I I, on either side. They are united together
by a plain suture, which is a continuation of the frontal, and they ter-
minate in a point at the nostril (p, p. 145). They are rounded and arched
above, because they are exposed to occasional violence and injury, which
the arch-form will enable them best to resist ; and at the base of the arch,
where the main strength should be, they are overlapped by the upper jaw-
bone, as the temporal bone overlaps the base of the parietal. These bones
form a principal part of the face ; and the length or shortness, and the
character of the face, depend upon them. Sometimes there is an appear-
ance of two Kttle arches, with a depression between them along the
sutures. This is often found in the blood-horse, with his comparatively
broad head and face. The single elevated arch is found in the long and
narrow face of the heavy draught-horse.

The nasal bones pursue their course down the face, in some horses in a
straight line — in others, there is a slight prominence towards the upper
part, while in a considerable number, a depression is observed a little
lower down. Some persons have imagined that this deviation in the line
of the face affords an indication of the temper of the animal, and there
may be a httle truth in this. The horse with a straight profile may be
good or bad tempered, but not often either to any great excess. The one
with the prominent Roman nose will generally be an easy, good-tempered
kind of beast — hardy — ready enough to feed, not always, perhaps, so
ready to work, but may be made to do his duty without any cruel urging,
and havino- no extraordinary pretension to speed or blood. On the other
hand, a depression across the centre of the nose generally indicates some
breeding, especially if the head is small, but occasionally accompanied by
a vicious, uncontrollable disposition.

There is another way, however, in which the nasal bones do more
certainly indicate the breed, viz., by their comparative length or shortness.
There is no surer criterion of a well-bred horse, than a broad angular
forehead, prominent features, and a short face ; nor of a horse with little
breeding, than a narrow forehead, small features, and lengthened nose.
The comparative development of the head and face indicates, Avith little
error, the preponderance of the animal or intellectual principle.

These bones form the roof of an important cavity — the nasal cavity, as
shown in the cut (a, a, p. 197). The sides are constituted above by the
nasal bones, and, lower down, by the upper jawbones (superior onaxillaries),
while plates from these latter bones project and compose the palate, which
is both the floor of the nose and the roof of the mouth (b,h). Above is
a bone called the palathie (c), although it contributes very Httle to the
fonnation of the palate. It is the termination of the palate, or the border
of the opening where the cavities of the mouth and nose meet. The
frontal sinuses and large vacuities in the upper jaw-bone, and in the
sethmoid and sphenoid bones, communicate with and enlarge the cavity
of the nose.

OF THE NOSE AND MOUTH.

197

This cavity is divided into two pai-ts by a cartilage called the Septum
{(], d). It is of considerable thickness and strength, and divides the

cavity of the nose into two equal parts. It is placed in the centre for the
purpose of strength, and it is formed of cartilage, in order that, by its
gradually yielding resistance, it may neutralise almost any force that may
be applied to it.

Wlien we open the nostril, we see the membrane by which the cartilage,
and the whole of the cavity of the nose, is lined, and by the colour of which,
much more than by that of the lining of the eyelids, we judge of the degi-ee
of fever, and particularly of inflammation of the lungs, or any of the air-
passages. The above cut shows the ramifications of the blood-vessels,
both arterial and venous, on the membrane of the nose. It beautifully
accounts for the accurate connection which we trace between the colour
of the nasal membrane, and various diseases or states of the circulation.
By the sore places or ulcerations discovered on this membrane, we
likewise determine respecting the existence of glanders ; and the inter-
position of the septum is a wise and benevolent provision to hinder the
spread of the mischief, by cutting off all communication with the neigh-
bouring parts, and also to preserve one nostril pervious, when the other is
diseased or obstructed. The nasal cavity is, on either side, occupied by
two bones, which, from their being rolled up somewhat in the form of a
turban, are called the turhinafcd or Uirhan-slmped bones. They are as
thin as gauze, and perfoi-ated like gauze, with a thousand holes. Between
them are left sufficient passages for the air.

If they were unrolled, they would present a very considerable surface ;
and on every part of them is spread the substance or pulp of the olfactory
or first pair of nerves. These bones, lined with delicate membranes and
covered by the olfactory nerves, are the seat of smell ; and they are thus
expanded, because the sense of smell in the horse must, to a very consider-
able degree, supply the place of the sense of touch and the lessons of ex-
perience in the human being. By this alone he is enabled to select, amongst
the nutritive and poisonous herbage of the meadow, that which would
support and not destroy him. The troops of wild horses are said to smell
the approach of an enemy at a very considerable distance. In his domestic
state, the horse does not examine the different food which is placed before
him with his eye, but with his nose ; and if the smell displeases him no
coaxing will induce him to eat. He examines a stranger by the smell, and,
by very intelligible signs, expresses the opinion which he forms of him by
this inquisition. The horse will eviden tally recognise his favourite groom
when he has nothing else to indicate his approach but the sense of smell.
These cavities are likewise organs of voice. The sound reverberates

198 THE MUSCLES, NERVES, AND BLOOD-VESSELS.

through them, and increases in loudness, as through the windings of a
French horn.

The extension of the nostril at the lower part of these cavities is an
important part of the face, and intimately connected with breeding, courage,
and speed. The horse can breathe only through the nose. All the air
which goes to and returns from the lungs must pass through the nostrils.
In the common act of breathing, these are sufficiently large ; but when the
animal is put on his speed, and the respiration is quickened, these passages
must dilate, or he will be much distressed. The expanded nostril is a
striking feature in the blood-horse, especially when he has been excited and
not over-blown. The sporting man will not forget the sudden effect which
is given to the countenance of the hunter, when his ears become erect, and
his nostrils dilate as he first listens to the cry of the hounds, and snorts,
and scents them afar off. The painful and spasmed stretching of this part,
in the poor over-driven post-horse, will show how necessaiy it is that the
passage to the lungs should be free and open. The nostrils should not only
be large, but the membranous substance which covers the entrance into the
nose should be thin and elastic, that it may more readily yield when the
necessity of the animal requires a greater supply of air, and afterwards
return to its natui'al dimensions. Therefore, nature, which adapts the
animal to his situation and use, has given to the cart-horse, that is seldom
blown, a confined nostril, and surrounded by much cellular substance,
and a thick skin ; and to the horse of more breeding, whose use consists
in his speed and his continuance, a wider nostril, and one much more
flexible.

The inhabitants of some countries were accustomed to slit the nostrils
of their horses that they might be less distressed in the severe and long-
continued exertion of their speed. The Icelanders do so to the present
day. There is no necessity for this, for nature has made ample provision
for all the ordinaiy and even extraordinary exertion we can require from
the horse.

Some very powerful muscles proceed from different parts of the face to
the neighbourhood of the nostrils, in order to draw them back and dilate
them. Four of these are given in the next cut, which is introduced to com-
plete our present subject, and which will be often referred to in the course
of our work ; I, m, o, and 2^, are muscles employed for this purpose.

There are also four distinct cartilages, attached to the nostrils, which,
by their elasticity, bring back the nostrils to their former dimensions, as
soon as the muscles cease to act. The bones of the nose (p, p. 145) are
also sharpened off to a point, to give wider range for the action of the
muscles ; while the cartilages are so contrived, as not only to discharge
the office we have mentioned, but to protect this projection of bone from
injury.

There are two circumstances, which, more than any others, will enable
not only the veterinary surgeon, but the owner of a horse also, accurately to
judge of the character and degree of many diseases, and to which very few
persons pay sufficient attention ; these are the pulse, of which we shall pre-
sently speak, and the colour of the membrane of the nose. It is the custom
of most veterinary surgeons and horse-men to lift the upper eyelid, and to
form their opinion by the colour which its lining presents, K it is very red,
there is considerable fever; if it is of a pale pinkish hue, there is little
danger. The nose, however, is more easily got at ; — the surface presented
to tlie view is more extensive ; — its sympathy with almost all the important
organs is greater ; — and the changes produced by disease are more striking
and more conclusive. Let the reader first make himself well acquainted
■nath the uniform pale pink appearance of that portion of the membrane

OF THE HEAD AND UPrER TART OF THE NECK.

199

which covers the lo.ver part of the cartilaginous partition l^^^ween the

rprl sho\vino- the half snbdnecl, but Still exisung lev t-i +^ -UooUViTr

L hou^rsomewhat redder than natural, P-^-ting a i^turn to heaH^^^^

the suspicion oi iuikuij, Tinoao with all their shades of difference,

stagnation of the vital current. These, ^^^^^^^^ J^Yt everv one who has
^vilT be guides to his opinion and treatment, which every one wno nas
studied them will highly appreciate.

THE MUSCLES, KEKVES, ANB BLOOD-VESSELS OF THE HEAD AND UPPEK PART

OF THE NECK.

rt The upper part of the ligament of the neck. _ +,,hprele of the occiput,

;; The levator hmeri (elexator of the shoulder), arising ^^^^^^^^^^^ tj,e TraBsvLe

arm to dmw forward the shoulder and arm; or turn the head and neck, and,
when the two levators act, to depress the head. , , . , r„f l,•^..«^• to the

. Tl,, SS.t»r,7/»ri< from the stTloid (pmcil-sl,ap«l) or cor»coid (l,™k.sl,apea\process

assist in closine the mouth and chewing the food „•„„ +^« lul,

A The oTi«n.s palU-n.n (circular), --oundnig t We ^-^ f^.^^^Xt^'^^ ,,
i The zygomaticus, from the zygomatic arch and massetei to tne corner oi

draw back the angle of the mouth.

200 NASAL POLYPUS.

i The buccinator (trumpeter), from the inside of the mouth and cheeks, to the angle ol
the mouth, to draw it back.

' The nasalis longus labii superioris (belonging to the nose and upper lip), from a depres-
sion at the junction of the superior maxillary, lachrymal, and malar bones to the
upper lip : to raise the lip and dilate the nostrils.

m n Levator labii superioris alceque nasi, from the junction of the lachrymal, nasal, and
superior maxillary bones, to the upper lip and false nostril : to raise the lip and
dilate the nostril.

0 Eetractor labii inferioris (puller back of the under lip), to the sides of the inferior maxilla
and under lip : to draw it back.

p Orbicularis oris (circular muscle of the mouth), surrounding the mouth : to close the
lips.

q The upper portion of the parotid gland (gland near the ear) reversed, to show the blood-
vessels and nerves beneath it.

r The parotid duct piercing the cheek, to discharge the saliva into the mouth.

s The maxillary gland (gland of the lower jaw) -vrith its duct.

t The jugular (neck) vein, after the two branches have united.

u At this letter, the submaxillary artery, a branch of the jugular, and the parotid duct
piiss under and within the angle of the lower jaw ; they come out again at w, and
chmb up the cheek.

V The temporal vein and artery, passing under the zygomatic arch.

X y The motor nerves of the face, emerging from under the parotid gland.

z Branches of both nerves, with small blood-vessels.

NASAL POLYPUS.

By a polypus is meant an excrescence or tumour, varying in size,
structure, and consistence, and attached by a pedicle to a mucous surface.
The true polypus is attached to mucous membranes, and is usually found
in the nostrils, the pharynx, the uterus, or the vagina. Tumours have
been seen hanging loose in the veins and ventricles of the heart ; and in
the larger blood-vessels there have been accumulations of the fibrine of the
blood, with peduncular attachments.

The nasal polypus usually adheres to some portion of the superior turbi-
nated bone, or it has come from some of the sinuses connected, with that
cavity. It escaped, while small, through the valvular opening under the
superior turbinated bone into the cavity of the nose, and. there attained
its fall growth.

No better account, however, can be given of the cause of their appear-
ance than that of tumours in other parts of the body. They evidently
have a constitutional origin : they are frequently hereditary, and the
animal in which they have once appeared is subject to a return of them.

By some means, probably the increasing weight of the tumour, and being
La a dependent situation, the polypus is gradually detached from its base,
and forces with it the soft and easily distensible membrane of the nose.
As it contiaues to descend, this portion of membrane is farther elongated,
and forms the pedicle or root of the tumour ; — if that may be termed a
root which is a mere duplicate of its investing membrane.

The polypus, when it hangs free in the nasal cavity, is usually of a pyri-
form or pear- like shape ; and it varies in weight, from a few drachms to
three or four pounds.

How is the surgeon to proceed ? Can he lay hold of the polypus by
the finger, or the forceps, or (for these tumours do not possess much sensi-
bility) the tenaculum ? To ascertain this, he will cast the horse, and fix
the head in a position to take the greatest advantage of the light. If he
cannot fairly get at the tumour by any of these means, he will let it alone.
It will continue to grow — the membrane constituting the pedicle will
be lengthened — and the polypus will at length descend, and be easily
got at. Time and patience will effect wonders in this and many similar
cases.

NASAL GLEET. 201

Supposing it to have grown, and the surgeon is endeavouring to extract
it, he must not use any great force. It must not be torn out by the root ;
the tumour must be gently brought down, and a ligature passed I'ound the
pedicle, as high up as it can conveniently be placed. If the polypus can
then be returned to the nose, the animal will suffer very Uttle incon-
venience ; and in a few days it will slough off, and the pedicle will contract,
and gradually disappear.

If the polypus is so large that it cannot be well returned after it has
been brought down, we must, notwithstanding, use the ligature, passing it
round the pedicle sufficiently tightly to cut off the supply of blood to the
tumour. We may then immediately excise it. Except the pedicle is ex-
ceedingly thick, there will be little or no haemorrhage. Should some
bleeding occur, it will probably soon stop, or may be stopped by the
cautery, which should, however, be avoided if possible, for our object is
to produce as httle irritation as may be in the membrane, and the actual
cautery will be applied with considerable difficulty in the cavity of the nose.

In very bad cases, when the tumour cannot be drawm out of the nose, it
may be necessary to slit up the ala or side of the nostril. It will be better,
however, not to cut through the false nostril, for that consists of a duphca-
tore of such thin integument, that the stitches can hardly be retained in it,
when the horse will be continually snorting at the least inconvenience. It
will also be difficult to bring the edges of this thin membrane accurately
together again, or, if this be effected, there is scarcely life enough in it for
the parts readily to unite. The false nostril should be avoided, and the
incision made along the lateral edge of the nasal bone, beginning at its apex
or point. The flap will then conveniently turn down, so as to expose the
cavity beneath ; and there will be sufficient muscular substance to secure
an almost certain union by the first intention. The nostril being opened,
the pedicle will probably be displayed, and a ligature may be passed round
it, as already recommended ; or if it is not actually in sight, it may
probably gradually be brought within reach.

NASAL GLEET, OR DISCHARGE FROM THE NOSE.

There is a constant secretion of fluid to lubricate and moisten the mem-
brane that lines the cavity of the nose, and which, under catarrh or cold,
is increased in quantity, and altered in appearance and consistence. This
will properly belong to the account of catarrh or cold ; but that which is
immediately under consideration is a continued and oftentimes profuse
discharge of thickened mucus, when every symptom of catarrh and fever
has passed away. If the horse is at grass, the discharge is almost as green
as the food on which he Kves ; — or if he is stabled, it is white, or straw-
coloured, or brown, or even bloody, and sometimes purulent. It is either
constantly running, or snorted out in masses many times a day ; teasing
the horse, and becoming a perfect nuisance in the stable, and to the rider.
This has been known to continue several months, and eventually to destroy
the horse.

The discharge is sometimes confined to one nostril, and there may exist
considerable tumefaction of the submaxillary glands, which has caused
this disease to be mistaken for glanders. Should any doubt exist, no time
should be lost in obtaining the opinion of a veterinary surgeon respecting
its nature.

If the discharge is not offensive to the smell, nor mixed vdth purulent
matter, it is probably merely an increased and somewhat vitiated secretion
from the cavities of the nose ; and all fever having disappeared, will fre-
quently yield to small doses of blue vitriol, given twice in the day. If

302 OZEKA.

the discliarge is considerable and mingled witli pns, we may conclude, that
the disease has extended to the sinuses of the head, and that abscesses have
formed, most hkelj, in the frontal sinus. The discharge being very
offensive, will indicate that the disease has extended to the bones and
cartilage. The treatment should consist of the internal administration of
sulphate of copper, either mingled with the animal's corn, or in combina-
tion with ginger and gentian, continued for a considerable time, for this is
ft disease wliich will not very quickly yield to treatment. The animal
should be kept on the most nutritious diet, great attention being paid to
cleanliness. If the discharge does not yield to this treatment, the next
course to adopt vnU be to open the sinuses of the head with the trephine
(the method of doing this will be described under ' Operations'), and after
having well syringed the parts with warm water, inject some astringent
solution, such as the sulphate of zinc or copper. The injection should be
at first weak, but gradually increased in strength. If the discharge con-
tinue for a length of time, without yielding to treatment, there is danger
of its terminating in glanders.

OZENA.

Ozena is ulceration of the membrane of the nose not always or often
visible, but recognised by the discharge of muco-purulent matter, of a
peculiar foetor, from which the disease derives its name. It resembles
s^landers in being confined in most instances to one nostril, and the sub-
maxillary gland on the same side being enlarged ; but differs from it, in
the gland not being adherent, and the discharge, from its earliest stage,
being purulent and stinking.

There is sometimes a foetid discharge from the nostril in consequence of
mflammation of the lungs, or produced by some of the sequelae of pneu-
monia ; distinguished, however, from ozena by its usually flowing irregu-
larly, being coughed up in great quantities, more decidedly purulent, and
the gland or glands seldom affected. The discharge from ozena is con-
stant, muco-purulent, and attended by enlargement of the glands. It is
of immense consequence that we should be enabled to distinguish the one
from the other ; for while ozena may, sometimes at least, be manageable,
the other is too frequently the precursor of death.

The cause of ozena cannot always be discovered. Chronic inflammation
of the membrane may assume another and malignant character. In severe
catarrh the membrane may become abraded, and the abrasions may de-
generate into foul and foetid ulcers. It is not an unfrequent consequence
of epidemic catarrh. It has been produced by caustic appHcations to the
lining membrane of the nose. It has followed hEemorrhage, spontaneous,
or the consequence of injury.

In some cases, and those as obstinate as any, it cannot perhaps be traced
to any probable cause, and the health of the animal has not appeared to
be in the slightest degree affected.

The membrane of the nose is highly sensitive and ii'ritable, and an ulcer,
in whatever way formed on it, does not readily heal. It often runs on to
gangrene, and destroys not only the membrane, but the bone beneath and
evijn the cartilaginous septum. This is rarely the case in glanders ; and
the ravages of the chancrous ulcers are usually confined to the membrane.
The ulceration proceeds to a certain point — its progress is then arrested,
usually by nature alone — the discharge gradually lessens — it loses its
offensive character, and at length ceases.

Local applications are seldom available in the treatment of this disease ;
for we know not the situation of the ulcer, and if we did, we probably

GLANDERS. 208

could not get at it. Some have recommended setons. "Wliere are they
to be applied ? K the seat of ulceration is unknown, the seton may only
give useless pain. Several po.<;f-w?o?'/e?H examinations have shown that
the frontal sinuses are a frequent seat of the disease. Tet what injection
could we use ? An emollient one would be thrown away. A stimulating
injection might convert ozena into glanders. Other examinations ha^e
shown that the superior portion of the central meatus was diseased. What
instrument can be contrived to reach that ? Internal medicines are almost
thrown away in this complaint : yet something, perhaps, may be done
under the form of a local application. The discarded nose-bag (under-
valued at least by too many practitioners) will afford the means of em-
ploying an emollient fomentation. The steam from a bran-mash, scalding
hot, will probably reach every part of the nasal cavity, and so afford
some chance of being beneficially applied to the ulcer. It will, at least,
thoroughly cleanse the part. By means of the Tvose-bag and the warm
mash, the chloride of lime may be introduced into the cavity, not only
combining with the extricated gases, and removing the foetor, but arresting
the tendency to decomposition.

Then there is a digestive — a gentle stimulus to abraded and ulcerated
surfaces, rousing them to healthy action, and without too much irritating
them — turpentine. This may be applied in the form of vapour, and in
the best of all ways, by using the best yellow deal shavings instead of
bran. This digestive may be brought into contact with every part of the
Schneiderian membrane, and has been serviceable.

There is another resource, and one that bids fairer to be successful than
any other with which we are acquainted — the spring grass. It is the
finest alterative, depurative, and restorative in our whole materia medica ;
and if it is accessible in the form of a salt marsh, there is no better chance
of doing good.

GLANDERS.

The most formidable of all the diseases to which the horse is subject is
Glanders. It has been recognised from the time of Hippocrates of Cos ;
and few modern veterinary wi-iters have given a more accurate or com-
plete account of its symptoms than is to be found in the works of the
father of medicine. Three-and-twenty hundred years have rolled on since
then, and veterinaiy practitioners are not yet agreed as to the tissue
primarily affected, nor the actual nature of the disease : we only know
that it is at the present day, what it was then, a loathsome and an incu-
rable malady.

TVe shall therefore, in treating of this disease, pursue our course sloTdy
and cautiously.

The earhest symptom of Glanders is an increased discharge from the
nostril, small in quantity, constantly flo^ving, of an aqueous character and
a little mucus mingling with it.

Connected with this is an error too general, and highly mischievous, with
regard to the character of this discharge in the earhest stage of the disease,
when, if ever, a cure might be effected, and when, too, the mischief from
contagion is most frequently produced. The discharge of glanders is not
sticky when it may be first recognised. It is an aqueous or mucous, but
small and constant discharge, and is thus distinguished from catarrh, or
nasal gleet, or any other defluxion from the nostril. It should be im-
pressed on the mind of every horseman that this small and constant
defluxion, overlooked by the groom and by the owner, and too often by
the veterinary surgeon, is a most suspicious cii'cumstance.

Mr. James Turner deserves much credit for having first or chiefly

904 GLANDERS.

directed the attention of horsemen to this important but disregarded
symptom. If a horse is in the highest condition, yet has this small
aqueous constant discharge, and especially from one nostril, no time should
be lost in separating him from his companions. No harm will be done by
this, although the defluxion should not ultimately betray lurking mischief
of a worse character.

Mr. Turner relates a case very much in point. A farmer asked his
opinion respecting a mare in excellent condition, with a sleek coat, and in
fall work. He had had her seven or eight months, and during the whole
of that time there had been a discharge from the right nostril, but in so
slight a degree as scarcely to be deemed worthy of notice. He now
wanted to sell her, but, like an honest man, he wished to know whether
he might warrant her. Mr. Turner very properly gave it as his opinion,
that the discharge having existed for so long a time, he would not be
justified in sending her into the market. A farrier, however, whose ideas
of glanders had always been connected with a sticky discharge and au
adherent gland, bought her, and led her away.

Three months passed on, when Mr. Turner examining the post-horses
of a neighbouring inn, discovered that two of them were glandered, and
two more farcied, while, standing next to the first that was attacked, and
his partner in work, was his old acquaintance the farmer's mare, with the
same discharge from her nostril, and who had, beyond question, been the
cause of all the mischief.

The peculiar viscidity and gluiness which is generally supposed to
distinguish the discharge of glanders from all other mucous and prevalent
secretions belongs to the second stage of the disease, and, for many months
before this, glanders may have existed in an insidious and highly contagious
form. It must be acknowledged, however, that, in the majority of cases,
some degree of stickiness does characterise the discharge of glanders from
a very early period.

It is a singular circumstance, for which no satisfactory account has yet
been given, that when one nostril alone is attacked, it is, in a great majority
of cases, the near, or left. M. Dupuy, the director of the veterinary school
at Toulouse, gives a very singtdar account of this. He says that, out of
eighty cases of glanders that came under his notice, only one was affected
in the right nostril. The difference in the affected nostril does not exist
to so great an extent in Great Britain ; but in two horses out of three, or
three out of four, the discharge is from the left nostril alone. We might
account for the left leg failing oftener than the right, for we mount and
dismount on the left side ; the horse generally leads with it, and there is
more wear and tear of that limb : but we cannot satisfactorily account for
this usual affection of the left nostril. It is true that the reins are held in
the left hand, and there may be a httle more bearing and pressure on the
left side of the mouth ; but this appHes only to saddle-horses, and even
with them does not sufficiently explain the result.

This discharge, in cases of contagion, may continue, and in so slight a
degree as to be scarcely perceptible, for many months, or even two or three
years, unattended by any other disease, even ulceration of the nostril, and
yet the horse being decidedly glandered from the beginning and capable
of propagating the malady. In process of time, however, pus mingles with
the discharge, and then another and a characteristic symptom appears.
Some of this is absorbed, and the neighbouring glands become affected.
If there is a discharge from both nostrils, the glands within the xmder jaw
will be on both sides enlarged. If the discharge is from one nostril only,
the swelled gland will be found on that side alone. Glanders, however, will
frequently exist at an early age without these swelled glands, and some

GLANDERS 206

Other diseases, as catarrh, will produce them. Then we must look out for
some peculiarity about these glands, and we shall readily find it. The
swelling may be at first somewhat lai"ge and diffused, but the sui-rounding
L-nlargement soon goes off, and one or two small distinct glands remain ;
and they are not in the centre of the channel, but adhere closely to the jaw
on the affected side.

The membrane of the nose should now be examined, and will materially
guide our opinion. It will either be of a dark purplish hue, or almost of a
leaden colour, or of any shade between the two ; or if there is some of the
reaness of inflammation, it will have a pui'ple tinge : but there "will never
be the faint pink blush of health, or the intense and vi\"id red of usual
inflammation. Spots of ulceration will probably appear on the membrane
covering the cartilage of the nose — not mere sore places, or streaks of
abrasion, and quite superficial, but small ulcers, usually approaching to a
circular form, deep, and with the edges abrupt and prominent. When
these appearances are observed, there can be no doubt about the matter.
Care should be taken, however, to ascertain that these ulcers do actually
exist, for spots of mucus adhering to the membrane have been more than
once taken for them. The finger should, if possible, be passed over the
supposed ulcer, in order to determine whether it can be wiped away ; and
it should be recollected, as was hinted when describing the duct that
conveys the tears to the nose, that the orifice of that duct, just within the
nostril, and on the inner side of it, has been mistaken for a chancrous
ulcer. This orifice is on the continuation of the common skin of the muzzle
which runs a Httle way up the nostril, while the ulcer of glanders is on the
proper membrane of the nose above. The Hue of separation between the
two is evident on the slightest inspection.

When ulcers begin to appear on the membrane of the nose, the con-
stitution of the horse is soon evidently affected. The patient loses flesh —
his belly is tucked up — his coat unthrifty, and readily coming off — the
appetite is impaired — the strength fails — cough, more or less urgent, may
be heard — the discharge from the nose will increase in quantity ; it will be
discoloured, bloody, offensive to the smell — the ulcers in the nose "ndll
become larger and more numerous, and the air-passages being obstructed,
a grating, choking noise will be heard at every act of breathing. There
is now a peculiar tenderness about the forehead. The membrane lining
the frontal sinuses is inflamed and ulcerated, and the integument of the
forehead becomes thickened and somewhat swelled. Farcy is now super-
added to glanders, and more of the absorbents are involved.

At or before this time little tumoui-s appear about the muscles, and
face, and neck, following the course of the veins and the absorbents, for
they run side by side ; and these tumours soon ulcerate. Tumours or
buds, still pursuing the path of the absorbents, soon appear on the inside
of the thighs. They are connected together by a corded substance. This
is the inflamed and enlarged lymphatic ; and ulceration quickly follows
the appearance of these buds. The deeper-seated absorbents are next
affected ; and one or both of the hind-legs swell to a great size, and
become stiff, and hot, and tender. The loss of flesh and strength is more
marked everj^ day. The membrane of the nose becomes of a dirty li\-id
colour. The membrane of the mouth is strangely pallid. The eye is
infiltrated with a yellow fluid ; and the discharge from the nose becomes
more profuse, and insufferably offensive. The animal presents one mass
of putrefaction, and at last dies exhausted.

The enlargement of the submaxillary glands, as connected with this
disease, may, perhaps, require a little farther consideration. A portion
of the fluid secreted by the membrane of the nose, and altered in chai-acter

206 GLANDERS.

bj the peculiar mflammation there existing, is absorbed ; and as it is con-
veyed along the lymphatics, in order to arrive at the place of its destina-
tion, it inflames them, and causes them to enlarge and suppurate. There
is, however, a peculiarity accompanying the inflammation which they take
from the absorption of the virus of glanders. They are rarely large,
except at first, or hot, or tender ; but they are characterised by a singular
hardness, a proximity to the jaw-bone, and, frequeutl}'', actual adhesion to
it. The adhesion is produced by the inflammatory action going forward
in the gland, and the effusion of coagulable lymph. This hardness and
adhesion accompanying discharge from the nostril, and being on the same
side with the nostril whence the discharge proceeds, afford proof not to be
controverted that the horse is glandered. Notwithstanding this, however,
there are cases in which the glands are neither adherent nor much en-
larged, and yet there is constant discharge from one or both nostrils. The
veterinary surgeon would have Uttle hesitation in pronouncing them to be
cases of glanders. He vdll trust to the adhesion of the gland, but he will
not be misled by its looseness, nor even by its absence altogether.

Glanders has often been confounded with strangles, and by those who
ought to have known better. Strangles are pecuhar to young horses. The
early stage resembles common cold, with some degree of fever and sore
throat — generally vrith distressing cough, or at least fi-equent wheezing ;
and when the enlargement appears beneath the jaw, it is not a single small
gland, but a swelling of the whole of the substance between the jaws,
grovsdng harder towards the centre, and, after a while, appearing to
contain a fluid, and breaking. In strangles the membrane of the nose will
be intensely red, and the discharge from the nose profuse and purulent, or
mixed vsdth matter almost from the first. When the tumour has burst, the
fever will abate, and the horse wall speedily get well.

Should the discharge from the nose continue, as it sometimes does, for
a considerable time after the horse has recovered fi'oni strangles, there is
no cause for fear. Simple strangles need never degenerate into glanders.
Good keep, and small doses of tonic medicine, will gradually perfect the
cure.

Glanders has been confounded with catarrh or cold ; but the distinc-
tion between them is plain enough. Fever, and loss of appetite and sore
throat, accompanying cold — the quidding of the food and gulping of the
water are sufficient indications of the latter of these ; the discharge from
the nose is profuse, and perhaps purulent ; the glands under the jaw, if
swelled, are moveable, there is a thickening around them, and they are
tender and hot. With proper treatment the fever abates ; the cough dis-
appears ; the swellings under the throat subside ; and the discharge from
the nose gradually ceases, or, if it remains, it is usually very different
from that which characterises glanders. In glanders there is seldom cough
of any consequence, and generally no cough at aU.

A running from the nose, small in quantity, and, from the smallness of
its quantity, drying about the edges of the nostril, and presenting some
appearance of stickiness, wiU, in a few cases, remain after severe catarrh,
and especially after the influenza of spring ; and these have gradually
assumed the character of glanders, and more particularly when they have
been accompanied by enlarged glands and ulceration in the nose. Here
the aid of a judicious veterinary surgeon is indispensable ; and he will
sometimes experience considerable difficulty in deciding the case. One
circumstance will principally guide him. No disease will run on to
glanders which has not, to a considerable and palpable degree, impaired
and broken down the constitution ; and every disease that does this will
run on to glanders. He will look then to the general state and condition

GLANDERS. 20?

of the horse, as well as to the situation of the glands, the nature of tho
discharge, and the character of the ulceration,

K, after all, he is in doubt, an experiment may be resorted to, which
wears indeed the appearance of cruelty, and which only the safety of a
valuable animal, or of a whole team, can justify. He will inoculate an ass,
or a horse ah-eady condenmed to the hounds, with the matter discharged
from the nose. If the horse is glandered, the symptoms of glanders or
farcy will appear in the inoculated animal in the course of a few days.

The post-mortevi examination of the horse will remove every doubt as
to the character of the disease. The nostril is generally more or less
blanched, ^\dth spots or lines of inflammation of considerable intensity.
Ulceration is almost invariably found, and of a chancrous character, on
the septum, and also on the aethmoid and tui-binated bones. The idcers
evidently follow the course of the absorbents, sometimes almost confined
to the track of the main vessel, or, if scattered over the membrane gene-
rally, thickest over the path of the lymphatic. The cethmoid and turbinated
bones are often filled Avith pus, and sometimes eaten through and carious ;
but, in the majority of cases, the ulceration is confined to the external
membrane, although there may be pus within. In aggravated cases the
disease extends thi'ough all the cells of the face and head.

The path of the disease down the larynx and ^vindpipe is easily traced,
and the ulcers follow one liae — that of the absorbents. In aggravated
cases, this can generally be traced on to the lungs. It produces iuflam-
mation in these organs, characterised in some cases by congestion ; but in
other cases, the congestion has gone on to hepatisation, in which the
cellular textui-e of the lungs is obliterated. Most frequently, when the
lungs are affected at all, tubercles are found — miliary tubercles — minute
granulated spots on the surface, or in the substance of the lungs, and not
accompanied by much inflammation. In a few cases there are larger
tubercles, which soften and burst, and terminate in cavities of varying
size ; they are then called vomicge.

In some cases, and showing that glanders is not essentially or neces-
sarily a disease of the lungs, there is no morbid afiection whatever in
those organs.

The history thus given of the symptoms of glanders Avill clearly point
out its nature. It is an affection of the membrane of the nose. Some say,
and at theii' head is Professor Dupuy, that it is the production of tubercles,
or minute tumoui's in the upper cells of the nose, which may long exist
undetected, except by a scarcely perceptible running from the nostril,
caused by the irritation which they occasion. These tubercles gradually
become more numerous ; they cluster together, suppurate and break, and
small ulcerations are formed. The ulcers discharge a poisonous matter,
which is absorbed and taken up by the neighboui-iug glands, and this, with
greater or less rapidity, vitiates the constitution of the animal, and is
capable of communicating the disease to others. Some content themselves
with saying that it is an inflammation of the membrane of the nose, which
may assume an acute or chronic form, or in a very short time, or ex-
ceedingly slowly, run on to ulceration.

It is inflammation, whether specific or common, of the lining membrane
of the nose — possibly for months, and even for years, confined to that
membrane, and even to a portion of it — the health and the usefulness of
the animal not being in the slightest degree impaired. Then, from some
unknown cause, not a new but an intenser action is set up, the inflamma-
tion more speedily runs its coui'se and the membrane becomes ulcerated.
The inflammation spreads on either side down the septum, and the idcera-
tion at length assumes that peculiar chancrous form which characteriseh

V:08 GLANDERS.

mti animation of the absorbents. Even then, when the discharge becomes
glney, and sometimes after chancres have appeared, the horse is apparently
well. There are hundreds of glandered horses about the country vAih not
a sick one among them. For months or years this disease may do no
injury to the general health. The inflammation is purely local, and is only
recognised by the invariable accompaniment of inflammation and in-
creased secretion. Its neighbours fall around, but the disease afiects not
the animal whence it came. At length a constitutional inflammation ap-
pears ; farcy is established in its most horrible form, and death speedily
closes the scene.

What, then, is the cause of this insidious dreadful disease ? Although
we may be in a manner powerless as to the removal of the malady, yet if
we can trace its cause and manner of action, we may at least be able to
do something in the way of prevention. Much has been accomphshed in
this way. Glanders does not commit one-tenth part of the ravages which
it did thirty or forty years ago, and, generally speaking, it is now only
found as a frequent and prevalent disease where neglect, and filth, and
want of ventilation exist.

Glanders may be either bred in the horse, or communicated by con-
tagion. What we have farther to remark on this malady will be arranged
under these two heads.

Improper stable management we beheve to be a far more frequent cause
of glanders than contagion. The air which is necessary to respiration is
changed and empoisoned in its passage through the lungs, and a fresh
supply is necessary for the support of life. That supply may be sufficient
barely to support life, but not to prevent the vitiated air from again and
again passing to the lungs, and producing irritation and disease. The
membrane of the nose, possessed of extreme sensibility for the purposes of
smell, is easily irritated by this poison, and close and ill-ventilated stables
oftenest witness the ravages of glanders. Professor Coleman relates a case
which proves to demonstration the rapid and fatal agency of this cause.
' In the expedition to Quiberon, the horses had not been long on board
the transports before it became necessary to shut down the hatchways for
a few hours ; the consequence of this was, that some of them were suf-
focated, and that all the rest were disembarked either glandered or
farcied.'

In a close stable, the air is not only poisoned by being repeatedly breathed,
but there are other and more powerful sources of mischief. The dung and
the urine are suffered to remain fermenting, and giving out injurious
gases. In many dark and ill-managed stables, a portion of the dung may
be swept away, but the urine lies for days at the bottom of the bed, the
disgusting and putrefjong nature of which is ill-concealed by a little fresh
straw which the lazy horsekeeper scatters over the top.

The stables of the gentleman are generally kept hot enough, and far too
hot, although, in many of them, a more rational mode of treatment is
beginning to be adopted ; but they are lofty and roomy, and the horses
are not too much crowded together, and a most scrupulous regard is paid
to cleanliness. Glanders seldom prevails there. The stables of the farmer
are ill-managed and filthy enough, and the ordure and urine sometimes
remain from week to week, until the horse lies on a perfect dunghill.
Glanders seldom prevails there ; for the same carelessness which permits
the filth to accumulate leaves many a cranny for the \^'ind to enter and
sweep away the deleterious fumes from this badly-roofed and unceiled
place.

The stables of the horse-dealer are hot enough ; but a principle of strict
cieanliness is enforced, for there must be nothing t^ offend the eye or the

GLAJS'DEKS. 209

nose of tile customer, and tliere glanders is seldom found ; but if the stables
of many of our post and omnibus horses, and of those employed on oux
canals, are examined, almost too low for a tall horse to stand upright m
them, — too dark for the accumulation of filth to be perceived, — too far
from the eye of the master, — ill-drained and ill-paved, — and governed by
a false principle of economy, which begnidges the labour of the man, and
the cleanliness and comfort of the animal ; these -will be the very hotbeds
of the disease, and in many of these establishments it is an almost constant
resident.

Glanders may be produced by anything that injui^es, or for a length of
time acts upon and weakens, the vital energy of this membrane. It has
been known to follow a fracture of the bones of the nose. It has been the
consequence of violent catarrh, and particulai'ly the long-continued dis-
charge from the nosti'ils, of which we have spoken. It has been produced
by the injection of stimulating and acrid substances up the nostril.
Everything that weakens the constitution generally will lead to glanders.
It is not only from bad stable management, but from the hardships wliich
they endure, and the exhausted state of their constitution, that post and
machine horses are so subject to glanders ; and there is scarcely an in-
flammatory disease to which the horse is subject that is not occasionally
wound up and terminated by the appearance of glanders.

Among the causes of glanders is want of regular exercise. The con-
nection, although not evident at first glance, is too certain. When a horse
has been worked with peculiar severity, and is become out of spirits,
and falls away in flesh, and refuses to eat, a Kttle rest and a few mashes
would make all right again ; but the gTOom plies him with cordials, and
adds fuel to fire, and aggravates the state of fever that has commenced.
What is the necessary consequence of this ? The weakest goes to the
wall, and either the lungs or the feet, or this membrane — that of the nose
— the weakest of all, exposed day after day to the stimulating, debilitating
influences that have been described, becomes the principal seat of inflam-
mation that terminates in glanders.

It is in this way that glanders has so frequently been knovm to follow
a hard day's chase. The seeds of the disease may have previously existed,
but its progress vsdll be hastened by the general and febrile action excited
— the absurd measures which are adopted not being calculated to subdue
the fever, but to increase the stimulus.

Every exciting cause of disease exerts its chief and its worst influence
on this membrane. At the close of a severe campaign the horses are more
than decimated by this pest. At the tennination of the Peninstilar war
the ravages of this disease were dreadful. Every disease will predispose
the membrane of the nose to take on the inflammation of glanders, and
with many, as strangles, catarrh, bronchitis, and pneumonia, there is a
continuity of membrane, an association of fonction, and a thousand
sympathies.

There is not a disease which may not lay the foundation for glanders.
Weeks, and months, and years may intervene between the predisposing
cause and the actual evil ; but at leng-th the whole frame niay become
excited or debilitated in many a way, and then this debilitated portion of
it is the first to yield to the attack. Atmospheric influence has somewhat
to do with the prevalence of glanders. It is not so frequent in the summer
as in the -onnter, partly attributable, perhaps, to the different state of the
stable in the summer months, neither the air so close or so foul, nor the
alternations of temperature so great.

There are some remaikable cases of the connection of moistiu'e, or moist
exhalations, that desei-ve record. When new stabling was built for the

p

210 GLA:!fDERS.

troops at Hythe, and inhabited before the walls were perfectly dry, iniuiy
of the horses that had been removed from an open, dry, and healthy
situation, became affected with glanders ; but, some time having passed
over, the horses in these stables were as healthy as the others, and glan-
ders ceased to appear. An innkeeper at Wakefield built some extensive
stabling for his horses, and inhabiting them too soon, lost a great pro-
portion of his cattle from glanders. There are not now more healthy
stables in the place. The immense range of stables under the Adelphi,
m the Strand, where light never enters, and the supply of fresh air is not too
abundant, were for a long time notoriously unhealthy, and many valuable
horses we^e destroyed by glanders ; but now they are filled with the
finest waggon and di'ay-horses that the metropolis or the country con-
tains, and they are fully as healthy as in the majority of stables above-
ground.

There is one more cause to be sHghtly mentioned — hereditary predispo-
Bition. This has not been sufliciently estimated, with regard to the ques-
tion now under consideration, as well as with respect to everything
connected with the breeding of the horse. There is scarcely a disease
that does not run in the stock. There is that in the structure of various
parts, or their disposition to be afiected by certain influences, which per-
petuates in the offspring the diseases of the sire ; and thus contraction,
ophthaLmia, roaring, are decidedly hereditary, and so is glanders. M.
Dupuy relates some decisive cases. A mare, on dissection, exhibited
every appearance of glanders ; her filly, who resembled her in form and in
her vicious propensities, died glandered at six years old. A second and
a third mare and their foals presented the same fatal proof that glanders
Ls hereditary.

Glanders is highly contagious. The farmer cannot be to deeply im-
pressed with the certainty of this. Considering the degree to which this
disease, even at the present day, often prevails, the legislature would be
justified in interfering by some severe enactments, as it has done in the
case of the small-pox in the human subject.

The early and marked symptom of glanders is a discharge from the
nostrils of a peculiar character ; and if that, even before it becomes puru-
lent, is rubbed on a wound, or on a mucous surface, as the nostrils, it will
produce a similar disease. If the division between two horses were suffi-
ciently high to prevent all smelling and snorting at each other and contact
of every kind, and they drank not out of the same pail, a sound horso
might Hve for years, uninfected, by the side of a glandered one. The
matter of glanders has been mixed up into a ball, and given to a healthy
horse, without efiect. Some horses have eaten the hay left by those that
were glandered, and no bad consequence has followed ; but others have
been speedily infected. The glanderous matter must come in contact with
a wound, or fall on some membrane, thin and delicate like that of the nose,
and through which it may be absorbed. It is easy, then, accustomed as
horses are to be crowded together, and to recognise each other by the
smeU — eating out of the same manger, and drinking from the same pail —
to imagine that the disease may be very readily communicated. One horse
has passed another when he was in the act of snorting, and has become
glandered. Some fillies have received the contagion from the matter
blown by the wind across a lane, when a glandered horse, in the opposite
field, has claimed acquaintance by neighing or snorting. It is almost im-
possible for a glandered horse to remain long in a stable with others
without irreparable mischief.

K some persons underrate the danger, it is because the disease may
remain unrecognised in the infected horse for some months, or even years.

GLANDERS. 211

and therefore, when it appears, it is attributed to other causes or to after
inoculation. No glandered horse should be employed on any farm, nor
should a glandered horse be permitted to work on any road, or even to
pasture on any field. Mischief may be so easily and extensively effected,
that the public interest demands that every infected animal should be
summarily destroyed, or given over for experiment to a veterinary surgeon.
or recognised veterinary establishment.

There are a few instances of the spontaneous cure of chronic glanders.
The discharge has existed for a considerable time. At length it has
gradually diminished, and has ceased ; and this has occurred under every
kind of treatment, and without any medical treatment : but in the majority
of these supposed cases, the matter was only pent up for a while, and then,
bursting from its confinement, it flowed again in double quantity : or, if
glanders has not reappeared, the horse, in eighteen or twenty-four
months, has become farcied, or consumptive, and died. These supposed
cures are few and far between, and are to be regarded with much suspicion.

As for medicine, there is scarcely a drug to which a fair trial has not
been given, and many of them have had a temporary reputation ; but they
have passed away, one after the other, and are no longer heard of. The
blue vitriol and the Spanish-fly have held out longest ; and in a few casesj
either nature or these medicines have done wonders, but in the majority
of instances they have palpably failed. The diniodide of copper has lately
acquired some reputation. It has been of gi'eat service in cases of farcy,
but is not to be depended upon in glanders.

"Wliere the life of a valuable animal is at stake, and the owner adopts
every precaution to prevent infection, he may subject the horse to medical
treatment ; but every humane man will indignantly object to the slitting
of the nostril, and the scraping of the cartilage, and searing of the gland,
and firing of the frontal and nasal bones, and to those injections of mustard
and capsicum, corrosive sublimate and vitriol, by which the horse has been
tortured, and the practitioner disgraced. At the veterinary school, and by
veterinary surgeons, it will be most desirable that every experiment should
be tried to discover a remedy for this pest ; but, in ordinary instances, he
is not faithful to his own interest or that of his neighbours who does not
remove the possibility of danger in the most summary way.

If, however, remedial measures are resorted to, a pure atmosphere is
that which should first be tried. Glanders is the peculiar disease of the
stabled horse, and the preparation for, or the foundation of, a cure must
consist in the perfect removal of every exciting cause of the malady. The
horse must breathe a cool and pure atmosphere, and he must be turned
out, or placed in a situation equivalent to it.

A salt marsh is, above all others, the situation for this experiment ; but
there is much caution required. No sound horse must be in the same
pasture, or a neighbouring one. The palings or the gates may receive a
portion of the matter, which may harden upon them, and, many a month
afterwards, be a source of mischief — nay, the virus may cling about the
very herbage and empoison it. Cattle and sheep should not be tmsted
with a glandered horse, for the experiments are not sufficiently numerous
or decided as to the exemption of these animals from the contagion of
glanders.

Sujiposing that glanders has made its appearance in the stables of a
farmer, is there any danger after he has removed or destroyed the infected
horse ? — Certainly there is, but not to the extent that is commonly
supposed. There is no necessity for pulling down the racks and man-
gers, or even the stable itself, as some have done. The poison resides
not in the breath of the animal, but in the nasal discharge, and that can

p2

212 FARCY.

only rcAoh coi'tam parts of the stable. If the mangers, and racks, and
bales, and partitions, are first well scraped, and scoured -with soap and
water, and then thorouglilj washed with a solution of the chloride of lime
(one pint of the chloride to a pailful of water), and the walls are lime-
washed, and the head-gear burned, and the clothing baked or washed, and
the pails newly painted, and the iron- work exposed to a red heat, all
danger will cease.

Little that is satisfactory can be said of the 'prevention of glanders.

The first and most efiectual mode of prevention will be to keep the
stables cool and well ventilated, for the hot and poisoned air of low and
confined stables is one of the most prevalent causes of glanders.

N'ext to ventilation comes good and efficient drainage. The urine
should never be allowed to lie on the surface, but have ready means of
escape through ample aud well-arranged drains ; for the foul air from the
fermenting litter, and urine, and dung, must not only be highly injurious
to health generally, but irritate and predispose to inflammation that deli-
cate membrane which is the primary seat of the disease. If to this be
added regular exercise, and occasional green meat dui^ing the summer, and
carrots in the winter, we shall have stated all that can be done in the way
of prevention.

Glanders in the human being. — It cannot be too often repeated, that a
glandered horse can rarely remain among sound ones without serious
mischief ensuing ; and, worse than all, the man who attends on that horse
is in danger. The cases are now becoming far too numerous in which
the groom or the veterinary surgeon attending on glandered horses becomes
infected, and in the majority of cases dies. It is, however, somewhat
more manageable in the human being than in the quadruped. Some cases
of recovery from farcy and glanders stand on record with regard to the
human being, but they are few and far between.

FARCY.

Farcy is intimately connected with glanders ; they will run into each
other, or their symptoms will mingle together, and before either arrives
at its fatal termination the other will generally appear. An animal
inoculated with the matter of farcy will often be afflicted with glanders,
while the matter of glanders will frequently produce farcy. They are
different types of the same disease. There is, however, a very material
difference in their symptoms and progress, and this most important one
of all, that while glanders is incurable, farcy, in its early stage and mild
form, may be successfally treated.

While the capillary vessels of the arteries are everywhere employed in
building up the frame, the absorbents are no less diligently at work ia
selecting and carrying away every useless or worn-out portion or part
of it. There is no surface — there is no assig-nable spot on which thou-
sands of these little mouths do not open. In the discharge of their duty,
they not only remove that which is become useless, and often that which
is healthy, but that which is poisonous and destructive. They open upon
the surface of every glanderous chancre. They absorb a portion of the
virus which is secreted by the ulcer, and as it passes along these little
tubes, they suSer from its acrimonious quahty ; hence the corded veins, ae
they are called by the farrier, or, more properly, the thickened and in-
flamed absorbents following the course of the veins.

At certain distances in the course of the absorbents are loose duplica-
tures of the lining membrane, forming valves, which are pressed against
the side of the vessel and permit the fluid to pass in a direction towards
the chest, but bel]y out and impede or arrest its progress from the chest.

FARCY. 218

The virus at these places, and the additional inflammation there excited,
is to a greater or less degree evident to the eye and to the feeling. They
are usually first observed about the Hps, the nose, the neck, the axillary
spaces of the chest, and the thighs. They are very hard — even of a
scirrhous hardness, more or less tender, and with perceptible heat about
them.

The poisonous matter being thus confined and pressing on the part, sup-
pui'ation and ulceration ensue. The ulcers have the same characters as
the glanderous ones on the membrane of the nose. They are rounded,
with an elevated edge and a pale surface. They are true chancres, and
they discharge a virus as infectious and as dangerous as the matter of
glanders. While they remain in their hard prominent state, they are
called huttons or farcy hids ; and they are connected together by the in-
flamed and corded absorbents.

In some cases the horse >vill droop for many a day before the appear-
ance of the corded veins or buds — ^his appetite will be impaired — his coat
will stare — ^he will lose flesh. The poison is evidently at work, but has
not gained sufficient power to cause the absorbents to enlarge. In a few
cases these buds do not ulcerate, but become hard and difficult to disperse.
The progress of the disease is then suspended, and possibly for some
months tlie horse will appear to be restored to health ; but he bears the
seeds of the malady about him, and in due time the farcy assumes its
virulent form, and hurries him off". These buds have sometimes been
confounded with the little tumours or lumps termed surfeit. They are
generally higher than these tumours, and not so broad. They have a
more knotty chai-acter, and are principally found on the inside of the
limbs, instead of the outside.

'Fe\\' things are more unhke, or more perplexing, than the different
forms which farcy assumes at different times. One of the legs, and par-
ticularly one of the hinder legs, will suddenly swell to an enormous size.
At night the horse will ap})ear to be perfectly well, and in the morning
one leg will be three times the size of the other, with considerable fever
and scarcely the power of moving the limb.

At other times the head will be subject to this enlargement, the muzzla
particularly will swell, and an offensive discharge will proceed from the
nose. Sometimes the horse will gradually lose flesh and strength; he
will be hide-bound ; mangy eruptions will appear in different parts ; the
legs will swell ; cracks will be seen at the heels, and an inexperienced
person may conceive it to be a mere want of condition, combined with
^ease.

By degrees the affection becomes general. The vims has reached the
termination of the absorbents, and mingles with the general circulating
fluid, and is conveyed with the blood to every part of the frame. There
are no longer any valves to impede its progress, and consequently no knots
or huds, but the myiiads of capillary absorbents that penetrate every part
become inflamed, and thickened, and enlarged, and cease to discharge their
function. Hence arises enlargement of the substance of various parts,
swelhngs of the legs, and chest, and head — sudden, painiul, enormous, and
distinguished by a heat and tenderness, which do not accompany other
enlargements.

It is a question considered somewhat difficult to answer, whether farcy
can exist without previous glanders. Certainly it can ; there are nume-
rous instances of cases of farcy running their course pui'ely as such, and
ultimately arriving at a complete recovery, without a single sjTnptom of
glanders intervening. Farcy is a curable form of the disease, glanders
the incurable ; and this most important distinction between them at once

2J.i FARCY.

proves, that although they may be, and most probably are, t^^pes of one
and the same disease, they are not identical with each other. There is
the long-continued insidious progress of glanders — the time which may
elapse, and often does, before the o^\Tier is aware or the veterinary surgeon
sure of it — the possibiHty that minute ulceration may have for a long
while existed in some of the recesses of the nose — or that the shght dis-
charge, undreaded and unrecognised, yet vitiated, poisoned, and capable
of communicating the disease, may have been long travelling through the
frame, and affecting the absorbents, and preparing for the sudden display
of farcy.

One thing, however, is undeniable, that farcy does not long and ex-
tensively prevail without being accompanied by glanders, and that it
never destroys the animal without plainly associating itself with glanders.
They are, in fact, types of the same disease.

Glanders is inflammation of the membrane of the nose, producing an
altered and poisonous secretion, and when sufficient of this vitiated secre-
tion has been taken up to produce inflammation and ulceration of the
absorbents, farcy is established. Its progress is occasionally very ca-
pricious, continuing in a few cases for months and years, the vigour of
the horse remaining unimpaired ; and at other times, running on to its
fatal termination with a rapidity perfectly astonishing.

Farcy has been confounded with other diseases ; but he must be careless
or ignorant who mistook sprain for it. The inflammation is too circum-
scribed and too plainly connected with the joint or the tendon.

It may be readily distinguished from grease or swelled legs. In grease
there is usually some crack or scurfiness, a peculiar tenseness and redness
and glossiness of the skin, some ichorous discharge, and a singular spas-
modic catching up of the leg.

In farcy the engorgement is even more sudden than that of grease.
The horse is well to-day, and to-morrow he is gorged from the fetlock to
the haunch, and although there is not the same redness or glossiness,
there is great tenderness, a burning heat in the limb, and much general
fever. It is simultaneous inflammation of all the absorbents of the limb.

Surfeit can scarcely be confounded with farcy or glanders. It is a
pustular eruption — surfeit bumps, as they are called, and terminating in
desquamation, not in ulceration, although numerous, yet iiTegularly placed,
and never following the course of the absorbents, but scattered over the skn.

Local dropsy of the cellular membrane, and particularly that enlargement
beneath the thorax which has the strange appellation of water-farcy, have
none of the characters of real farcy. It is general debihty to a greater or
less degree, and not inflammation of the absorbents. If properly treated,
it soon disappears, except that, occasionally, at the close of some serious
disease, it indicates a breaking up of the constitution.

Farcy, like glanders, springs from contagion and from bad stable manage-
ment. It is produced by all the causes which give rise to glanders, with
this difierence, that it is more frequently generated, and sometimes strangely
prevalent in particular districts. It will attack, at the same time, several
horses in the same ill-conducted stable, and others in the neighourhood
who have been exposed to the same predisposing causes. Some have
denied that it is a contagious disease. They must have had Httle experi-
ence. It is true that the matter of farcy must come in contact with a
wound or sore, in order to communicate the disease ; but accustomed as
horses are to nibble and play with each other, and sore as the comers of the
mouth are frequently rendered by the bit, it is easy to imagine that this
may be easily efi'ected ; and experience tells us, that a horse having farcy
ulcers caimot be suffered to remain with others without extreme risk.

THE LIPS. 216

Tlie treatment of farcy differs witli tlie form that it assumes. As a
general rule, and especially when the buttons or buds are begiuning to
appear, a mild dose of physic should first be administered. The buds
should then be carefally examined, and if any of them have broken,
the budding-iron, at a dull red heat, should be apphed. If pus should be
felt in them, show-ing that they are disposed to break, they should be pene-
trated with the iron. These wounds should be daily inspected, and if, when
the slough of the cautery comes off, they look pale, and foul, and spongy,
and discharge a thin matter, they should be frequently washed witli a
strong lotion of corrosive sublimate, dissolved in rectified spirit. When
the wounds begin to look red, and the bottom of them is even and firm,
and they discharge a thick white or yellow matter, the Friar's balsam will
usually dispose them to heal.

As, however, the constitution is now tainted, local applications will not
be sufiicient, and the disease must be attacked by internal medicine as soon
as the physic has ceased to operate.

Cotrosive sublimate used to be a favourite medicine, combined with
tonics, and repeated morning and night until the ulcers disappeared, unless
the mouth became sore or the horse was violently purged, when the sulphate
of copper was substituted for the corrosive sublimate. During this treat-
ment the animal was placed, if possible, in a large box, with a free circu-
lation of air ; and green meat or carrots, and particularly the latter, were
given, with a full allowance of corn. If he could be turned out in the day,
it was deemed highly advantageous. It is related by JSIr. Blaine, that a
horse, so reduced as not to be able to stand, was drawn into a field of tares,
and suffered to take his chance. The consequence was that, when he had
eaten all within his reach, he contrived to move about and search for more,
and eventually recovered. Many horses recover under the use ef the
sublimate, but the great majority of them die.

;Mr. Vines introduced a more effective medicine — cantharides, in combi-
nation likewise with the vegetable bitters — as a cure for farcy and
glanders. It cannot be denied, that many animals labouring under the
former, and a few under the latter, were to all appearance radically cui-ed.
The medicine was suspended for awhile if aflection of the kidneys super-
vened.

A still more effectual medicine has been introduced by Professor Morton,
namely, the diniodide of copper, and it has been found of essential service
in farcy and in diseases simulating glanders. He says that its action is
that of a stimulant to the absorbent vessels, and a tonic. The gentian
root is usually combined with it. Cantharides, in small quantities, may be
advantageously added. An indication of its influence is a soreness of the
diseased parts arising from the absorbent vessels being roused into in-
creased action : the agent should then be for a time withheld.

Water-Farcy, confounded by name with the common farcy, and by
which much confusion has been caused, and a great deal of mischief done,
is a dropsical affection of the skin, either of the chest or of the limbs, and
belongs to another part of the subject.

THE LIPS.
The lips of the horse are far more important organs than many suppose.
They are the hands of the animal ; and if any one will take the trouble to
observe the manner in which he gathers up his corn with them, and col-
lects together the grass before he divides it ^vith his nippers, he will be
satisfied that the horse would be no more able to convey the food to his
mouth without them, than the human being could without his hands.
Tliis has even been put to the test of experiment. The nerves which

■216 THE LIPS.

supply tlie lips were dirided in a poor ass, to illustrate some point of physio-
logv. The sensibility of tlie lips was lost, and he knew not when he
touched his food with them. The motion of the lips was lost, and he coidd
not get the oats between his teeth, although the manger was full of them:
at length, driven by hunger, he contrived to lick up a few of them with his
tongue ; but when they were on his tongue, the greater part of them were
rubbed off before he could get them into his mouth.

It is on account of this use of the lips, that they may be brought into
contact with the food without inconvenience or injury to other parts of
the face, that the heads of most quadrupeds are so lengthened. Several
muscles go to the Hps from different parts of the jaw and face. Some of
them are shown in the cut, p. 199. The orbicularis or circular muscle, p,
employed in pushing out the lips and closing them, and enabling the horse
to seize and hold his food, is particularly evident ; and in the explanation
of the cut, the action of other muscles, i, Zr, m, and o, was described. The
nerves likewise, ?/, taking their course along the cheek, and pinncipally
supplying the lips -n-ith the power of motion, and those, z, proceeding from
the foramen, or hole in the upper jaw, deserve attention.

The lips are composed of a muscular substance for the sake of strength,
and a multitude of small glands, which secrete a fluid that covers the in-
side of the lips and the gums, in order to prevent friction, and likewise
furnish a portion of the moisture so necessary for the proper chewing of
the food. The skin covering the lips is exceedingly thin, in order that
their peculiar sensibility may be preserved, and for the same purpose they
are scantily covered with hair, and that hair is fine and short. Long
bail's or feelers, termed the beard, are superadded with the same intention.
The horse is guided and governed principally by the mouth, and therefore
the Hps are endowed Avith very great sensibility, so that the animal feels
the slightest motion of the hand of the rider or driver, and seems to
anticipate his very thoughts. The fineness or goodness of tlie moidh con-
sists in its exquisite feeling, and that depends on the thinness of this
membrane.

The Kps of the horse should be thin, if the beauty of the head is regarded;
yet. although thin, they should evidently possess power, and be strongly
and regularly closed. A firm, compressed mouth gives a favoui-able and
no deceptive idea of the muscular power of the animal. Lips apart from
each other and hanging down, indicate weakness or old age, or dulness
and sluggishness.

The depth of the mouth, or the distance from the fore-part to the angle
of the lips, should be considerable. A short protuberant mouth would be
a bad finish to the tapering face of the blood-horse. More room is like-
wise given for the opening of the nostril, which has been sho^vn to be an
important consideration. The bridle will not be carried well, and the
horse will hang heavy on hand, if there is not considerable depth of mouth.

The comers or angles of the lips are fr-equently made sore or wounded
by the smallness, or shortness, or peculiar twisting of the snaffle, and the
unnecessary and cruel tightness of the bearing rein. This rein was in-
troduced as giving the horse a grander appearance in harness, and placing
the head in that position in which the bit most effectually presses upon the
jaw. It is an useful adjunct to di-iving safely, for, deprived of this con-
trol, many horses would hang their heads low, and be disposed every
moment to stumble, and would defy all pulling, if they tried to run away.
There is, and can be no necessity, however, for using a bearing-rein so
tight as to cramp the muscles of the head, or to injure and excoriate the
angles of the lips.

The following is the opinion of Nimrod, and to a more competent judge

BOXES OF THE MOUTH. 217

we cvnild not appeal : — ' As to tlie universal disuse of tlie bearing-rein
witli English horses, it can never ial-o place. The charge against it of
cruelty at once falls to the ground, because to make a team -work together
in fast -work, every horse's head must be as much restrained by the
coupling-reia as it would be and is by the bearing-rein. Its excellence
consists in keeping horses' mouths fresh — in enabling a coachman to in-
dulge a horse with liberty of rein, Ts4thout letting him be all abroad, ■which
he "would be ■with his head quite loose, and of additional safety to the
coach-horse, as proved by the fact of either that or the crupper always
giving "way "when he falls do"wn. There are, however, teams in "which it
may be dispensed "with, and the horses have an advantage in their -working
•against hills. As to the comparison of the road coach-horses on the Con-
tment and our o"wn, let any one examine the knees of the French diligence
and post-horses, which are allowed perfect hberty of head, and he wUl
be con"rinced that the use of the bearing-rein does not keep them on their
legs.' The teams in which it may be dispensed with are those in which
the horses naturally carry then" heads well ; that is, much in the same
position in which the bearing-rein would place them.

The mouth is injured much oftener than the careless o"wner suspects by
the pressure of a sharp bit. Not only are the bars wounded and deeply
ulcerated, but the lower jaw, between the tush and the grinders, is some-
times worn even to the bone, and the bone itself affected, and portions of it
exfoHate away. It may be necessary to have a shar]3 bit for the headstrong
and obstinate beast ; yet if that bit is severely and unjustifiably called into
exercise, the animal may rear, and endanger himself and his rider. There
can, however, be no occasion for a thousandth pai-t of the torment which
the trappings of the mouth often inflict on a willing and docile servant
ajid which either render the mouth hard, and destroy all the pleasure of
riding, or cause the horse to become fi'etfal or vicious.

Small ulcers are sometimes found in various parts of the mouth, said to
foe produced by rusty bits, but oftener arising from contusions inflicted by
the bit, or from inflammation of the mouth. If the curb-bit is in fault, a
snaffle or Pelham-bit should be used. K there is inflammation of the
mouth, a little cooling medicine may be administered ; and to the ulcers
themselves, tincture of myi'rh, diluted with water, or alum dissolved in
water, may be applied "with advantage,

THE BONES OP THE MOUTH.

The bones constituting and gi-ring form to the mouth are the superior
maxillary or upper jaw (&, p. 140, and ?, p. 145), containing the uppei
gi'inders and tushes ; the anterior maxillary, or lower part of the uppei
jaw ( /', p. 140, H, p. 145), containing the upper-nippers or cutting-teeth ;
the palatine bone (c, p. 197) and the posterior maxillary or under jaw (a,
p. 140), containing all the under teeth.

The superior maxillary is, with the exception of the lower jaw, the
largest bone in the face. It unites above with the lachrymal bone, and
more on the side, "with the malar or cheek bone, and a portion of it, con-
tinued upward, and underneath, enters into the orbit. Above, and on the
front of the face, it unites "with the bones of the nose, and below, "with
the inferior maxillary. That which most deserves notice in it externally
is the ridge or spine, continued from the base of the zygomatic arch, and
across the malar bone. It and the surface beneath serve to give attach-
ment to the masseter muscle, concerned, almost as much as the temporal
one, in the act of chewing. On the anterior surface is a foramen or hole,
through which a branch of the fifth pair of nerves proceeds to give sensi-
bihty to the lower part of the face. As it ap^Droaches tlie teeth, this bone

218

THE TALATE.

separates into two plates, and these are divided by long partitions, which
contain and firmly hold the upper grinders. The lower plate then projects
inwards, and forms the pinncipal portion of the roof of the mouth, and
the floor of the cavity of the nose. The corresponding bone on the other
side meets its fellow in the centre of the palate. The upper jaw-bone
contains in its large cavities besides those for the teeth, and these open into
and enlarge the cavity of the nose. They are connected with the voice,
but not with the smell, for the expansion of the olfactory or smelling
nerve has never been traced beyond the bones and membranes of the proper
caAaty of the nose. The maxillary sinuses are generally filled with matter
in bad cases of glanders.

Below these are the anterior maxillary bones, containing the upper
cutting teeth, with the tushes belonging both to the upper and anterior
bones. These are the bones to which the upper lip is attached. The
superior and anterior maxillary bones ai'e separated in animals with long
faces, like the horse, that, by overlapping each other, strength might be
gained.

The palatine bone forms but a very small portion of the palate. It
surrounds the edge of the communication between the cavity of the nose
and the back parts of the mouth.

THE PALATE.

Adhering to a portion of the three bones just described, and consti-
tuting the lining of the roof of the mouth, is the palate, composed of an
elastic and dense substance divided into sevei'al ridges called Bars. The
followinof cut crives a view of them.

It will also point out the bleeding place, if it should occasionally be
deemed advisable to abstract blood from the mouth ; or if the horse should

be attacked Avith megrims on a journey, and the
driver, having no lancet, should be compelled
to make use of his knife, the incision should be
made between the central and second nippers
on either side, about an inch within the mouth,
and cutting through the second bar. A stream
of blood will be thus obtained, which will
usually cease to flow when two or three quarts
have escaped, or may generally be arrested
by the application of a sponge filled with cold
water.

This, hoAvever, is a make-shift sort of bleed-
ing that may be allowable on a journey, and
possibly in some cases of lampas, but which is
decidedly objectionable as the usual mode of
abstracting blood. The quantity withdraAvn
cannot be measured, the degree of inflamma-
tion cannot be ascertained by the manner in
which it coagulates, and there may be difii-
culty to the operator, and annoyance and pain
to the horse, in stopping the bleeding.

This cut likewise depicts the appearance of
the roof of the mouth if the bars were dis-
sected off", and of the numerous vessels, arterial
and venous, which ramify over it.
At the back of the palate, and attached to the crescent-shaped border of
the palatine bone, is a dense membranous curtain. Its superior and back
surface is a continuation of the lining membrane of the nose, and its anterior

LAMPA3. 21.<)

ur iuierior one that of the palate. It is called the velum 'palati, or veil of
the palate. It extends as far back as the larjTix, and lies upon the dorsum
of the epiglottis, and is a perfect veil or curtain interposed between the
cavities of the nose and mouth, cutting off all communication between them.
Tied by its attachment to the palatine bone, it will open but a Httle way,
and that only in one direction. It will permit a pellet of food to pass into
the oesophagus ; but it will close when any pressure is made upon it from
behind. Two singular facts necessarily follow from this; the horse breathes
through the nostrils alone, and these are capacious and easily expansible to
a degree seen in no other animal, and fully commensurate to the wants of
the animal.

It is also evident that, in the act of vomiting, the contents of the stomach
must be returned through the nostril, and not tlirough the m«uth. On
this account partly it is that the horse can Avith great difiiculty be excited
to vomit. There is a structure at the entrance to the stomach which, ex-
cept under very peculiar circumstances, prevents its return to the throat,
and consequently to the mouth.

LAMPAS.

The bars occasionally swell, and rise to a level with, and even beyond
the edge of, the teeth. They are very sore, and the horse feeds badly on
account of the pain he suffers from the pressure of the food on them.
This is called the Lampas. It may arise from inflammation of the gums,
propagated to the bars, when the horse is shedding his teeth — and young
horses are more subject to it than others — or from some shght febiile
tendency in the constitution generally, as when a young horse has lately
been taken up from grass, and has been over-fed, or not sufficiently ex-
ercised. At times it appears in aged horses, the process of growth in the
teeth of the horse continuing during the whole Hfe of the animal.

In the majority of cases the swelling will soon subside without medical
treatment ; or a few mashes, and gentle alteratives, will reUeve the
animal. A few slight incisions across the bars with a lancet or penknife
will relieve the inflammation, and cause the swelling to subside ; indeed,
this scarification of the bars in lampas will seldom do harm, although it is
far from being so necessary as is supposed.

The bratal custom of the farrier, who sears and bums down tho bars
with a red-hot iron, is most objectionable. It is torturing the horse to no
purpose, and calculated to do serious injury to the parts. It may be pru-
dent in case of lampas to examine the giinders, and more particularly the
tushes, in order to ascertain whether either of them is making its way
through the gum. If it is so, two incisions across each other should be
made, on the tooth, and the horse will experience immediate relief.

THE LOWER JAW.

The posterior or lower jaw may be considered as forming the floor of
the mouth. The body or lower part of it contains the under cutting
teeth and the tushes, and at the sides are two flat pieces of bone containing
the grinders. On the inside is a foramen or hole through which blood-
vessels and nerves enter to supply the teeth, and some of which escape
again at another orifice on the outside, and near the nippers. The branches
are broader and thinner, rounded at the angle of the jaw, and terminating
in two processes. One, the coracoid, from its sharpness or supposed re-
semblance to a beak, passes under the zygomatic arch (see p. liO) ; and
the temporal muscle, arising from the whole surface of the parietal bone, is
inserted into it, and wrapped round it ; and by its action, principally, the
iaw is moved, and the food is ground. The other, the condyloid, or

■220

THE LOWER JAW.

rounded process, is received into the glenoid (shallow) cavity of ihe
temporal bone, at the base of the zygomatic arch, and forms the joint on
which the lower jaw moves. This joint is easily seen in the cut at p. 140 ;
and being placed so near to the insertion of the muscle, or the centre of
motion, the temporal muscle must act "vvith very considerable mechanical
disadvantage, and, consequently, must possess immense power.

The joint is admirably contrived for the purpose which the animal re-
quires. It TV-ill admit freely and perfectly of the simple motion of a hinge,
and that is the action of the jaw in nipping the herbage and seizing the
corn. But the grass, and more particularly the com, must be crushed and
'bruised before it is fit for digestion. Smiple champing, which is the
motion of the human lower jaw, and that of most beasts of prey, would
very imperfectly break dowTi the corn. It must be put into a mill ; it must
be actually ground.

It is put into the mill, and as perfect a one as imagination can conceive.

The following cuts represent the glenoid cavity, in a carnivorous or
flesh-eating, and herbivorous or grass-eating, animal, viz. the tiger and
the horse ; the one I'equiring a simple hinge-like motion of the lower jaw
to tear and crush the food ; the other, a lateral or grinding motion to bring
it into a pulpy form. We first examine this cavity in the tiger repre-
sented at B. At the root of the zygomatic process D, is a hollow with a ridge
along the greater part of the upper and inner side of it, standing to a
^considerable height, and curling over the ca%-ity. At the lower and op-

posite edge of the cavity, but on the outside, is a similar ridge, E, likewise
rising abruptly and curling over. At C is another and more perfect view
of this cavity in a different direction. The head of the lower jaw is re-
•ceived into this hollow, and presses against these ridges, and is partially
surrounded by them, and forms with them a very strong joint where dis-
location is scarcely possible, and the hinge-like or cranching motion is
admitted to its fullest extent ; permitting the animal violently to seize his
prey, to hold it firmly, and to crush it to pieces ; but from the extent and
•curling form of the ridges, forbidding, except to a very slight degree, all
lateral and grinding motion, and this because the animal does not want it.
As before mentioned, the food of the horse must be ground. Simple
bruising and champing would not sufiiciently comminute it for the
purposes of digestion. We then observe the different construction of
the parts to effect this. A, gives the glenoid cavity of the horse. First,
there is the upper ridge assuming a rounded form, F, and therefore
called the mastoid process ; sufficiently strong to support the pressure
and action of the lower jaw when cropping the food or seizing an enemy,
but not encircling the head of that bone, and reaching only a little way
along the side of the cavity-, where it terminates, ha\nng its edges
rounded off so as to admit, and to be evidently destined for, a circular

THE PROCESS OF TEETHING. 221

motion about it. At the otlier and loAver edge of tlie cavity, and on the
ontside, G is placed — not a ciirhng ridge as in the tiger, but a mere
tubercle : and for what reason ? eyidently to limit this lateral or circular
motion — to permit it as far as the necessities of the animal require it, and
then to arrest it. How is this done ? Not suddenly or abruptly ; but the
tubercle, of which we have already spoken as strengthening this portion
of the zygomatic arch, now discharging another office, has a smooth and'
gradual ascent to it, up which the lower jaw may chmb to a certain extent,
and then, by degrees, be stopped. "We speak not now of the moveable
cartilage which is placed in this cavity, and between the bones, to render
the motion easier and freer. It is found in this joint in every quadruped ;
and it is found wherever motions are rapid and of long continuance.

So great is the conformity between the structure of the animal and his
destination, that a tolerable student in comparative anatomy, by a mere in-
spection of the glenoid cavity, would at once determine whether the animal
to which it belonged was carnivorous, and wanted no lateral motion of the
jaw ; or omnivorous, Kving occasionally on all kinds of food, and requiring
lome degree of grinding motion ; or herbivorous, and needing the constant
ase of this admirably- constructed mill.

At g, p. 199, is represented the masseter muscle, an exceedingly strcng^
one, constituting the cheek of the horse — arising from the superior maxillary
tinder the ridge continued from the zygomatic arch, and inserted into the
lower jaw, and particularly round the rough border at the angle of the jaw.
This acts with the temporal muscle in closing the jaw, and in giving the
direct cutting or champing motion to it.

Within the lower jaw, on either side, and occupying the whole of the
hollowed portion of them, and opposite to the masseters, are the pterygoid
muscles, going fi'om the jaws to bones more in the centre of the channel,
likewise closing the mouth, and also, by their alternate action, giving that
grinding motion which has been described.

The space between the branches of the lower jaw, called the c?Mnnel, is
of considerable consequence. It can scarcely be too wide ; for if it is too
narrow, the horse will never be able to bend his head freely and gracefully ;
he will be always pulling or boring upon the hand, nor can he possibly be
well reined in.

The jaws contain the teeth, which are the millstones employed in com-
minuting the food. The mouth of the horse at five years old contains forty
teeth, viz, six nippers or cutting teeth in front, above and below, a tush on
each side, and six molars, or grinding teeth, on each side, above and below.
They are contained in cavities in the upper and lower jaws, surroiinded by
bony partitions, to which they are accurately fitted,
and by which they are firmly supported. For a little
way above these bony cavities, they are surrounded
by a firm substance called the gum, so dense, and
adhering so closely to the teeth and the jaws, as
not to be separated -without very great difficulty —
singularly compact, that it may not be wounded by
the hard or sharp particles of the food, and almost
devoid of feeling, for the same purpose.

Seven or eight months before the foal is bom,
the germs or beginnings of the teeth are visible in
the cavities of the jaws. The tooth grows, and '--
presses to the surface of the giim, and forces its way through it ; and, at
the time of birth, the first and second grinders have appeared, large com-
pared with the size of the jaw, and seemingly filling it. In the course of
seven or eight days the two central nippers are seen as here represented.

222

THE PROCESS OF TEETHING.

They likewise appear to be large, and to fill the front of the mouth ;
although they will afterwards be found to be small, compared with the
permanent teeth that follow. In the course of the first month the third
grinder appears above and below, and, not long after, and generally be-
fore six weeks have expired, another incisor above and below will be
seen on each side of the two first, which have now considerably grown,
but not attained their perfect height. This cut will represent the appear-
xnce of the mouth at that time.

At two months, the central nippers will have reached their natural
level, and between the second and third month the second pair will have
overtaken them. They will then begin to wear
away a little, and the outer edge, which was at first
somewhat raised and sharp, is brought to a level
with the inner one, and so the mouth continues
until some time between the sixth and ninth month,
when another nipper begins to appear on each side
of the two first, making six above and below,
and completing the colt's mouth ; after which,
the only observable difference, until between the
second and third year, is in the wear of these
teeth.

The term nipper is familiar to the horseman and
the farrier, and much better expresses the action of these teeth than the
word incisor or cutter, which is adojited by anatomists. Whoever has
observed a horse in the act of browsing, and the twitch of the head which
accompanies the separation of each portion of grass, will perceive that it
is nipped or torn rather than cut ofi".

These teeth are covered with a polished and exceedingly hard sub-
stance, called the enamel. It spreads over that portion of the teeth
which appears above the gum, and not only so, but as they are to be so
much employed in nipping the grass, and gathering up the animal's food,
and in such employment even this hard substance must be gradually worn
away, a portion of it, as it passes over the upper surface of the teeth, is
bent inward, and sunk into the body of the teeth, and forms a little pit in
them. The inside and bottom of this pit being blackened by the food,
constitutes the marh of the teeth, by the gTadual disappearance of which,
in consequence of the wearing down of the edge, we are enabled, for
several years, to judge of the age of the animal.

The colt's nipping teeth are rounded in front, somewhat hollow towards
the mouth, and present at first a cutting surface, with the outer edge
rising in a slanting direction above the inner edge. This, however, soon
begins to wear down until both surfaces are level, and the mavTi, which
was originally long and narrow, becomes shorter,
and wider, and fainter. At six months the four
nippers are beginning to wear to a level. The an-
nexed cut wiU convey some idea of the appear-
ance of the teeth at twelve months. The four
middle teeth are almost level, and the comer ones
becoming so. The mark in the two middle teeth is
wide and faint ; in the two next teeth it is darker,
and longer, and narrower ; and in the comer teeth
it is the darkest, and longest, and narrowest.

The back teeth, or grinders, will not guldens
far in ascertaining the age of the animal, for we can-
not easily inspect them ; bat there are some interesting particulars connected
wiiJi them. The foal is bcrn with two grinders in each jaw, above and below;

THE PROCESS OF TEETHING.

223

or they appear wathin tliree or four days after the birth. Before the ex-
piration of a month they are succeeded by a third, more backward. The
crowns of the grinders are entirely covered by enamel on the top and sides,
but attrition soon wears it away from the top, and there remains a com-
pound surface of alternate layers of crusta petrosa, enamel and ivory,
Avhich are emploj-ed in grinding down the hardest portions of the food.
Natui'e has therefore made an additional provision for their strength and
endurance.

This cut represents a grinder sawed across. It seems to be a most
irregular and intricate structure ; but the explanation is not difficult.
The tooth is formed and prepared in cavities
within the jaw-bones. A delicate membranous
bag, containing a jelly-like substance, is found, in
the unborn animal, in a little cell within the jaw-
bone. It assumes, by degrees, the form of the
tooth that is to appear, and then the jelly within
the membrane begins to change to bony matter,
and a hard and beautiful crystallisation is formed
on the membrane -without, and so we have the cutting iooih covered by
its enamel. In the formation, however, of each of these grinders of the
horse, there are originally five membranous bags in the upper jaw, and
four in the lower, filled with jelly. This by degrees gives place to bony
matter, which is thrown ou.t by little vessels penetrating into it, and is
represented Ijy the darker poi-tions of the cut with central black spots.
The crystallisation of enamel can be traced round each, and there would
be five distinct bones or teeth. A third substance, however, is now
secreted (which is represented by the white spaces), and is a powerful
cement, uniting all these distinct bones into one body, and makino- one
tooth of the five. This being done, another coat of enamel spreads over
the sides, but not the top, and the tooth is completed. By no other con-
trivance could we have the grinding tooth capable, "without injury and
without wearing, to rub down the hay, and oats, and beans, which consti-
tute the stable-food of horses.

The grinders in the lower jaw, haA'ing originally but four of these bao-s
or shells, are smaller, and narrower, and more regular than the upper
ones. They are not placed horizontally in either jaw ; but in the lower
the higher side is within, and shehnng gradually outward ; in the upper
jaw the higher side is without, and shelving inward, and thus the grindino-
motion is most advantageously performed. There is also an evident dif-
ference in the appearance and structure of
each of the grinders, so that a careful ob-
server could tell to which jaw ever}" one
belonged, and what situation it occupied.

At the completion of the first year, a
fourth grinder usually comes up, and the
yearling has then, or soon afterwards, six
nippers and four grinders above and below
in each jaw, which, with the alteration
in the appearance of the nippers that we
ha,ve just described, will enable us to cal-
culate nearly the age of the foal, subject to
some variations arising from the period of
weaning and the nature of the food.

At the age of one year and a half, the mark in the central nippers will
be much shorter and fainter ; that in the tAvo other pairs will have
undergone an evident change, and all the nippers will be flat.

224 THE PROCESS OF TEETIIIXG.

At two years tHs mil be more manifest. The ac company in o- cut

deserves attention, as giving an accurate
representation of the nippers in tlie lower
jaw of the two-years-old colt.

About this period a fifth grinder will
appear, and now, likewise, will com-
mence another j^rocess. The first teeth
are adapted to the size and wants of the
young animal. They are sufficiently
large to occupy and fill the colt's jaws ;
but when these bones have expanded
with the increasing growiih of the animal,
the teeth are separated too far from each
other to be useful, and another aiid larger
set is required. E\T.dent provision is
made for them, even before the colt is
foaled. In cavities in the jaw, beneath
the first and temporary teeth, are to be
seen the rudiments of a second and permanent set. These gTadually
increase, some with greater rapidity than others, and, pressing upon the
roots or fangs of the first teeth, do not, as would be imagined, force out
the former ones, but the portion pressed upon gTadually disappears. It is
absorbed — taken up, and carried away, by numerous minute vessels, whose
office it is to get rid of the worn-out or useless part of the system. Tliis-
absorption continues to proceed as the second teeth grow and press
upwards, until the whole of the fang is gone, and the crown of the tooth,
or that part of it which was above the gum, having no longer firm hold,
drops out, and the second teeth appear, larger and stronger and pei'manent.
In a few instances, however, the second teeth do not rise immediately under
the temporary or milk teeth, but somewhat by their side ; and then, instead
of this gradual process of absorption and disappearance from the point of
the root upwards, the root being compressed sideways, diminishes through-
out its whole bulk. The crown of the tooth diminishes with the root, and
the whole is pushed out of its place, to the fore part of the first gi-inder, and
remains for a considerable time under the name of a u-olfs tooth, caus-
ing swelling and soreness of the gums, and frequently wounding the
cheeks. They would be gradually quite absorbed, but the process might be
slow and the annoyance would be great, and, therefore, they are extracted.

The change of the teeth commences in those which earhest appeared,
and, therefore, the front or first grinder gives way at the age of two years,
and is succeeded by a larger and permanent tooth.

During the period between the falling out of the central milk nippers,
and the coming up of the permanent ones, the colt, having a bi'oken
mouth, may find some difficulty in grazing. If he should fall away con-
siderably in condition, he should be fed with mashes and corn, or cut meat.
The next cut will represent a three -years -old mouth. The central teeth
are larger than the others, with two gTooves in the outer convex surface,
and the mark is long, narrow, deep and black. Not having yet attained
their full growth, they are rather lower than the others. The mark in
the two next nippers is nearly worn out, and it is wearing away in the
comer nippers. Is it possible to give this mouth to an early two-years-old?
The age of all horses used to be reckoned from May, but some are foaled
even so early as Janiiary, and being actually four months over the two
years, if they have been well nursed and fed, and are strong and large,
they may, with the inexperienced, have an additional year put upon them.
The central nippers are punched or drawn out, and the others appear three
or four months earlier than they otheiwise would. In the natural process

THE PEOCESS OF TEETHIIsG.

225

they could only rise by long pressing upon, and causing the absorption of
the first set. But opposition from the first set being removed, it is easy to
imagine that their progress will be more rapid. Three or four months
Avill be gained in the appearance of the teeth, and these three or four
months may enable the breeder to term hiua a late colt of a preceding year.
To him, however, who is accustomed to horses, the general form of the
animal — the little development of the fore-hand — the continuance of the
mark on the nest pair of nippers — its more evident existence in the
corner ones, some enlargement or iii'egularity about the gTims from the
violence used in forcing out the teeth — the small gi'owth of the first and
fifth grinders and the non-appearance of the sixth grinder, which, if it is
not tkrough the gum at three years old, is swelKng under it, and preparing
to get throuo-h — any or all of these circumstances, carefully attended to,
■R-ill be a sufficient security against deception.

A horse at three years old ought to have the central permanent nippert.
growing — the other two pairs wasting — six g-rinders in each jaw, above
and below — the first and fifth level ^Wth
the others and the sixth protruding. The
sharp edge of the new incisors, although
it coidd not be well expressed in the cut,
will be very evident when compared with
the neighboui'ing teeth.

As the permanent nippers wear, and
continue to grow, a narrower portion of
the cone- shaped tooth is exposed to the
atti'ition, and they look as if they had been
compressed, but it is not so. The mark,
of course, gradually disappears as the pit
is worn away.

At thi'ee years and a half, or between
that and foui', the next pan* of nippers
T\-ill be changed, and the mouth at that time cannot be mistaken. The
central nippers -n-ill have attained nearly their full gTO-\%-th. A vacuity
vrill be left where the second stood, or they will begin to peep above the
gum, and the corner ones will be diminished in breadth, worn down, and
the mark becoming small and faint. At this period, likewise, the second
pair of grinders "\^-ill be shed. Pi*eviously to this may be the attempt of the
dealer to give to his three-years-old an additional year, but the fraud will be
detected by an examination similar to that which has been already described.

At four years, the central nippers \dl\ be fully developed ; the sharp
edge somewhat worn ofi", and the mark
shorter, wider and fainter. The next
pair will be up, but they ^vill be small,
with the mark deep, and extending
quite across them. The comer nippers
will be larger than the inside ones, yet
smaller than they were, and flat, and the
mark nearly effaced. The sixth gi-inder
will have risen to a level with the others,
and the tushes will begin to aj^pear.

Now, more than any other time, will
the dealer be anxious to put an additional
year upon the animal, for the difference
between a four-years-old colt and a five-
years -old-horse, in strength, utility and value, is very great ; but, the want
of wear in the other nippers — the small size of the corner ones — the little

Q

226

THE PKOCESS OF TEETHING.

growth of the tush — the smaUness of the second grinder — the low fore-
hand— the legginess of the colt, and the thickness and little depth of the
mouth, Avill, to the man of common experience among horses, at once
detect the cheat.

The tushes (see below a, «) are four in number, two in each jaw,
situated between the nippers and the grinders — much nearer to the former
than the latter, and nearer in the lower jaw than in the uppor, but this
distance increasing in both jaws with the age of the animal. In shape it
somewhat resembles a cone ; it protrudes about an inch from the gum,
and has its extremity sharp-pointed and curved. At the age now under
consideration, the tushes are almost peculiar to the horse, and castration
does not appear to prevent or retard their development. All mares, how-
ever, have the germs of them iri the chambers of the jaw, and they appear
externally in the majority of old mares. Their use is not evident. Per-
haps, in the wild state of the animal, they are weapons of offence, and
he is enabled by them more firmly to seize, and more deeply wound his
enemy.

The breeder often attempts to hasten the appearance of the tush, and he
cuts deeply through the gum to remove the opposition which that would
afford. To a little extent he succeeds. He may possibly gain a few weeks,
but not more. After all, there is much uncertainty as to the appearance
of the tush, and it may vary from the fourth year to fom' years and six
months. It belongs, in the upper jaw, both to the inferior and superior
maxillary bones ; for, Avhile its fang is deeply imbedded in the inferior
maxillary, the tooth penetrates the process of the superior maxillary at
the union of those bones.

At four years and a half, or between that and five, the last important
change takes place in the mouth of the horse. The corner nippers are
shed, and the permanent ones begin to appear. The central nippers are
considerably worn, and the next pair are commencing to show marks of
usage. The tush has now jDrotruded, and is generally a fall half-inch in
height ; externally it has a rounded prominence, with a groove on either
side, and it is evidently hollowed within. The reader needs not to be told
that after the rising of the corner nipper the animal changes its name —
the colt becomes a horse, and the filly a mare.

At five years the horse's mouth is almost perfect. The corner nippers
are quite up, with the long deep mai-k irregular on the inside ; and the
other nippers bearing e^^dent tokens of increasing wearing. The tush is
much gTo^vn — the grooves have almost or quite disappeared, and the outer

surface is regularly convex. It is still
as concave within, and "svith the edge
nearly as sharp, as it was six: months
before. The sixth molar is quite up,
and the third molar is wanting. This
last circumstance, if the general appear-
ance of the animal, and particularly his
forehead and the wearing of the centre
nippers, and the growth and shape of
the tushes, are likewise carefully
attended to, will prevent deception, if
a late four-years-old is attempted to be
substituted for a five. The nippers may
be brought up a few months before their
time, and the tushes a few weeks, but the gi-inder is with difficulty dis-
placed. The three last grinders and the tu,shes are never shed.

At sLx years the marli on the central nippers is worn out. There will

THE PROCESS OF TEETHING.

227

still be a difference of colour in the centre of the tooth. The cement fill-
ing the hole, made by the dipping in of the enamel, will present a
broAvner hue than the other part of
the tooth, and it will be evidently
surrounded by an edge of enamel,
and there A^all even remain a little
depression in the centre, and also a
depression round the case of ena-
mel : but the deep hole in the cen-
tre of the teeth, with the black-
ened surface which it presents, and
the elevated edge of emamel, will
have disappeared. Persons not
much accustomed to horses have
been puzzled here. They ex-
pected to find a plain surface of
a uniform colour, and knew not
what conclusion to draw when
there was both discolouration and
irregularity.

In the next incisors the mark is shorter, broader, and fainter; and in the
corner teeth the edges of the ena-
mel are more regular, and the
surface is e%4dently worn. The
tush has attained its full growth,
being nearly or quite an inch in
length ; convex outward, concave
"Nvithin ; tending to a point, and
the extremity somewhat curved.
The third grinder is fairly up ;
and all the grinders are level.

At six years old the profile of
the mouth exhibits the teeth in
a firm and upright position,
which is gi-adually lost as the
animal increases in age.

The horse may now be said to have a perfect mouth. All the teeth
are produced, fully grown, and have hitherto sustained no material inju-ry.
During these important changes of
the teeth the animal has suffered
less than could be supposed possible.
In children, the period of teething is
fraught Avith danger. Dogs are sub-
ject to convulsions, and hundreds
of them die fi'om the irritation caused
by the cutting or shedding of their
teeth ; but the horse appears to feel
little inconvenience. The g-ums and
palate are occasionally somewhat hot
and swollen ; but the slightest scarifi-
cation will remove this. The teeth of
the horse are more necessary to him
than those of the other animals are to
them. The child may be fed, and the dog
will bolt his food ; but that of the horse
must be well ground down, or the nutriment cannot be extracted from it.

2i8

THE PROCESS OF TEETIIIXG.

At seven years, the mark, in tlie way in which we have described it, is
worn out in the four central nippers, and fast wearing away in the
comer teeth ; the tush also is beginning to be altered. It is rounded at
the point ; rounded at the edges ; still round without ; and beginning
to get round inside.

At eight years old, the tush is rounder in every way ; the mark is gone
from all the bottom nippers, and it may almost be said to be out of the

mouth. There is nothing remain-
ing in the bottom nippers that can
afterwards clearly show the age
of the horse, or justify the most
experienced examiner in giving
a positive opinion.

Dishonest dealers have re-
sorted to a method of prolonging
the mark in the lower nippers. It
is called hislioping. With an en-
graver's tool a hole is dug in the
now almost plain surface of the
corner teeth, and in shape and
depth resembling the mark in a
seven-years- old horse. The hole
is then burned with a heated iron,
and a permanent black stain is
left ; but the irregular appear-
ance of the cavity, the dif-
fusion of the black stain, and the general appearance of the mouth, can
never deceive a carefal examiner.

Horsemen, after the animal is eight years old, are accustomed to look
to the nippers in the upper jaw, and some conclusion has been drawn from
the appearances which they present. It cannot be doubted that the mark
remains in them some years after it has been obliterated from the nippers
in the lower jaw^ ; because the hard siibstance, a kind of cement by which
the pit or funnel in the centre of the tooth is occupied, does not reach so
high, and there is a greater depth of tooth to be worn away in order to
come at it. To this it may be added, that the upper nippers are not so
much exposed to friction and wear as the under. The lower jaw alone is
moved, and pressed forcibly upon the food : the upper jaw is without
motion, and has only to resist that presstire.

There are various opinions as to the intervals between the disappearance
of the marks from the different cutting-teeth in the upper jaw. Some
have averaged it at two years, and others at one. The author is inclined
to adopt the latter opinion, and then the age will be thus detennined : at
nine years the mark will be worn out from the middle nippers, from the
next pair at ten, and from all the upper nippers at eleven. During these
periods the tush is likewise undergoing a manifest change ; it is blunter,
shoi'ter, and rounder. In what degree this takes place in the different
periods, long and most favourable opportunities for observation can alone
enable the horseman to decide.

The tushes are exposed to but little wear and tear. The friction against
them must be slight, proceeding only from the passage of the food over
them, and from the motion of the tongue, or from the bit ; and their
alteration of form, although generally as we have described it, is fre-
quently uncertain. The tush ^rill sometimes be blunt at eight ; at other
times it will remain pointed at eighteen. The upper tush, although the
latest in appearing, is soonest worn away.

TPIE PROCESS OF TEETHIXG.

229

Are there any circumstances to guide our judgment after this ? There
are those which will prepare us to gixess at the age of the horse, or to
approach within a few years of it, until he becomes very old ; but there
are none which will enable us accurately to determine the question, and
the indications of age must now be taken from the shape of the upper
surface of the nippers. At eight, they are all oval, the length of the oval
running across from tooth to tooth ; but as the horse gets older, the teeth
diminish in size, and this commencing in their width, and not in their
thickness. They become a little apart from each other, and their siirfaces
are rounded. At nine, the centre nippers are evidently so ; at ten, the
others begin to have the oval shortened ; at eleven, the second pair of
nippers are quite rounded ; and at thirteen, the corner ones have that
appearance. At fourteen, the faces of the central nippers become some-
Avhat triangular. At seventeen, they are all so. At nineteen, the angles
begin to wear off, and the central teeth are again oval, but in a reversed
direction, viz. from outward, inward ; and at twenty-one they all wear
this form. This is the opinion of some Continental veterinary surgeons,
and Mr. Percivall first presented them to us in an English dress.

It would be folly to expect
perfect accuracy at this advanced
age of the horse, when we are
bound to confess that the rules
which we have laid down for
determining this matter at an
earlier period, although they are
recogTiised by horsemen generally,
and referred to in courts of justice,
will not guide us in. every case.
Stabled horses have the mark
sooner worn out than those that
are at grass ; and a crib-biter
may deceive the best judge by
one or two years. At nine or ten the bars of the mouth become less pro-
minent, and their regular diminution A^^ll designate increasing age. At
eleven or twelve the lower nippers change their original upright direction,
and project forward or horizontally, and become of a yellow colour. They
are yellow, because the teeth must grow in order to answer to their wear
and tear ; but the enamel which covered their surface when they were
first produced cannot be repaired, and that which wears this yellow colour
in old age is the part Avhich in yoiitli was in the socket, and therefore des-
titxTte of enamel. The gums have receded and wasted away, and the
tushes are worn to stumps, and project directly outward.

In connection with the age of the horse should be mentioned the valu-
able information, for which we are indebted to Professor Simonds, of the
Royal Veterinary College, on the age of other domesticated animals — in
two lectures delivered before the Royal Agricultural Society of England,
and which were published at the request of that body ; he very clearly
elucidated the development of the teeth as indicative of the age of the ox,
the sheep, and the pig. The result of his investigations, most systemati-
cally pursued, would appear to be, that the ox has his teeth fully developed
at from three years to three years and nine months old, the sheep at from
three years to three years and a half, and the pig at one year and a half.

230 DISEASES OF THE TEETH.

DISEASES OP THE TEETH.

Of the diseases of the teeth in the horse we know little. Carious or
hollow teeth are occasionally, but not often seen ; but the edges of the
grinders, from the -wearing off of the enamel or the irregular growtli of
the teeth, become rough, and wound the inside of the cheek ; it is then
necessary to adopt a summary but effectual method of cure, namely, to
rasp them smooth ; the outside edges of the gi-inders in the upper jaw
alone require the application of the tooth rasp, and if the finger is carefully
introduced inside the cheek, before and after its use, the result will be un-
mistakeable. Many bad ulcers have been pi'oduced in the mouth by the
neglect of this.

The teeth sometimes grow iiTegularly in length, and this is particularly
the case with the gi'inder<», from not being in exact opposition to each other
when the mouth is shut. The growth of the teeth still going on, and there
beincr no mechanical opposition to it, one of the back teeth, or a portion of
one of them, shoots up considerably above the others. Sometimes it
penetrates the bars above, and causes soreness and ulceration ; at other
times it interferes partially, or altogether, with the grinding motion of the
jaws, and the animal pines away without the cause being suspected.
Here tbe saw should be used, and the projecting portion reduced to a level
■\vitb the other teeth. The horse that has once been subjected to this
operation should afterwards be frequently examined, and especially if he
loses condition : and, indeed, every horse that gets thin or out of condition,
without fever, cr other apparent cause, should have his teeth and mouth
carefully examined, and especially if, without any indication of sore throat,
lie quids — partly chewing and then dropping — his food, or if he holds his
head somewhat on one side, while he eats, in order to get the food between
the outer edges of the teeth. A horse that has once had very irregular
teeth is materially lessened in value, for, although they maybe sawn down
as carefully as possible, they will project again at no great distance of
time. Such a horse is to all intents and purposes unsound. In order to
be fit for service, he should be in possession of his full natui^al powers, and
these powers cannot be sustained without perfect nuti-ition, and nutrition
would be rendered sadly imperfect by any defect in the operation of masti-
cation. Not only do some disease.? of the teeth render the act of mastication
difficult and troublesome, but, from the food acquiring a foetid odour during
its detention in the mouth, the horse acquires a distaste for aliment
altogether.

The continuance of a carious tooth often produces disease of the neigh-
bouring ones, and of the jaw itself It should therefore be removed, as
soon as its real state is eWdent. Dreadful cases of fungus hagmatodes have
arisen from the irritation caused by a carious tooth.

The mode of extracting the teeth requires much reformation, and con-
siderable improvements have been made in dental instruments by Mr.
Go-\ving of Camden Town, by which the extraction or division of a tooth
is considerably facilitated. The hammer and the punch should never be
had recourse to. The keyed instrument of the human subject, but on a
larger scale, is the only one that should be permitted.

This is the proper place to speak more at length of the effect of dentition
on the system generally. Horsemen in general think too lightly of it, and
thev scarcely dream of the animal suffering to any considerable degree, or
absolute illness being produced ; yet he who has to do ■^^^th young horses
will occasionally discover a considerable degree of febrile affection, which
he can refer to this cause alone. Fever, cough, catai'i-hal affections generally,

DISEASES OF THE TONGUE. 231

dLsease of the eyes, cutaneous affections, diarrhoea, dysentery, loss ot
appetite, and general derangement, will frequently be traced, by the carefu.
observer, to irritation from teething.

It is a rule scarcely admitting of the slightest deviation, that, when young
horses are labouring under any febrile affection, the mouth should be
examined, and if the tushes are prominent and pushing against the gums,
a crucial incision should be made across them. ' In this way,' says ]\Ir.
Percivall, ' I have seen catarrhal and bronchial inflammations abated,
coughs relieved, lymphatic and other glandular tumours about the head
reduced, cutaneous eruptions got rid of, deranged bowels restored to order,
appetite returned, and lost condition repaired.'

THE TONGUE.
The tongue is the organ of taste. It i? also employed in disposing the
food for being ground between the teeth, and afterwards^ collecting it
together, and°convepng it to the back part of tiie mouth, in order to be
swallowed. It is likewise the main instrument in deglutition, and the
canal through which the water passes in the act of drinking. The root of
it is firmly fixed at the bottom of the mouth by a variety of muscles; some
of these muscles originate from the os liyoides or bone of the tongue, which
constitutes its base, and is connected with the temporal bone, the larynx,
and the pharynx ; the fore part is loose in the mouth. It is covered^ by a
continuation of the membrane that lines the mouth, and which, doubling
beneath, and confining the motions of the tongue, is called its frcenum, or
bridle. On the back of the tongue, this membrane is thickened and rough-
ened, and is covered with numerous conical papillce, or httle eminences,
on which the fibres of the gustatory branch of the fifth pair, and the
Glossa Pharyngeal nerves expand, communicating the sense of taste. The
various motions of the tongue are accomphshed by means of the ninth pair
of nerves. The substance of the tongue is composed of muscular fibres,
with much fatty matter interposed between them, and which gives to this
organ its peculiar softness.

DISEASES OP THE TONGUE.

The tongue is sometimes exposed to injury from carelessness or violence
iu the act'of drenching or administering a ball, it being pressed against
and cut by the edges of the grinders. A little diluted tincture of mjTrh,
or alum dissolved in water, or even nature unassisted, will speedily heal
the wound. The horse -w^ll sometimes bite his tong-ue, most frequently in
his sleep. If the injury is trifling, it requires little care ; but,_ in some
instances, a portion of the tongue has been deeply lacerated or bitten off.
The assistance of a veterinary practitioner is here required.^

There are some interesting accounts of the results of this lesion, Mr,
Dickens of Kimbolton relates a case, in the sixth volume of the 'Veterina-
rian,' in which he found a portion of the tongue of a mare, extending as
far as the frtenum beneath, lying in the manger in a strangely lacerated
condition, and fast approaching to decomposition. He had lier cast, and,
excising all the unhealthy portions, he dressed the wound with chloride ot
soda and tincture of myrrh. In less than a week the laceration was nearly
healed, and, soon afterwards, she could eat with very little difiiculty, and
keep herself in good condition. The injury was proved to have been
inflicted by a brutal horsebreaker, in revenge for some sHght affront.

A curious case is recorded in the Memoirs of the Society of Calvados,
A horse was diSicult to groom. The soldier who had the care of him, in
order the better to manage him, fixed in his mouth and on his tongue a
strong chain of iron, deeply serrated, while another man gave to this chain

232 THE SALIVARY GLANDS.

a terrible jerk whenever tlie horse was disposed to be rebellious. Tlie
animal, under such torture, became unmanageable, and the man "svho held
the chain sawing away with all his strength, the tongue was completely
cut off at the point which separates its base from the free portion of it.
The wound healed favourably, and he was Boon able to manage a mash.
After that some hay was given to him in small quantities. He took it and
formed it into a kind of pellet with his lips, and then, pressing it against
the bottom of his manger, he gradually forced it sufficiently back into the
mouth to be enabled to seize it with his grinders.

Another horse came to an untimely end in a singular way. He had
scarcely eaten anything for three weeks. He seemed to be unable to
swallow. The channel beneath the lower jaw had much enlargement
about it. There was not any known cause for this, nor any account of
violence done to the tongue. At length a tumour appeared under the jaw.
Mr. Toung of Muirhead punctured it, and a considerable quantity of
purulent matter escaped. The horse could drink his gruel after this, but
not take any solid food. A week afterwards he was found dead. Upon
separating the head from the trunk, and cutting transversely upon the
tongue, nearly opposite to the second grinder, a needle was found lying
longitudinally, and which had penetrated from the side to the inferior
portion of the tongue. It was an inch and a quarter in length, and the
neighbouring substance was in a state of gangrene.

Vesicles will sometimes appear along the under side of the tongue, which
will increase to a considerable size. The tongue itself will be much enlarged,
the animal will be unable to swallow, and a great quantity of ropy saliva
will drivel from the mouth. This disease often exists without the nature
of it being suspected. If the mouth is opened, one large bladder, or a
succession of bladders, of a pui'ple hue, will be seen extending along the
whole of the under side of the tongue. K they are lanced freely and
deeply, from end to end, the swelling wiU. very rapidly abate, and any
little fever that remains may be subdued by cooling medicine. A mild
solution of alum, applied by means of a small piece of sponge frequently
during the day, will accelerate the cure. The cause of this disease is not
clearly known.

THE SALIVAE.Y GLANDS.

In order that the food may be properly comminuted preparacory to
digestion, it is necessary that it should be previously moistened. The food
of the stabled horse, however, is dry, and his meal is generally concluded
without any fluid being offered to him. Natui'e has made a provision for
this. She has placed in the neighbourhood of the mouth various glands
to secrete, and that plentifully, a limpid fluid, somewhat saline to the taste.
This fluid is conveyed from the glands into the mouth, by various ducts,
in the act of chewing, and, being mixed with the food, renders it more
easily ground, more easily passed afterwards into the stomach, and better
fitted for digestion.

The principal of these is the parotid gland (see cut, p. 199). It is placed
in the hollow which extends from the root of the ear to the angle of the
lower jaw. The portion of it, q, is represented as turned up, to show the
situation of the blood-vessels underneath. In almost every case of cold
connected with sore throat, an enlargement of the parotid gland is evident
to the feeling, and even to the eye. It is composed of numerous smalt
glands connected together, and a minute tube proceeding from each, ta
carry away the secreted fluid. Tliese tubes unite in one common duct.
At the letter u, the parotid duct is seen to pass under the angle of the
'ower jaw, together with the submaxillary artery, and a branch of th*

THE SALIVARY GLAXDS. 233

jugular vein, and they come out again at iv. At o; the duct is seen
separated from the other vessels, climbing up the cheek, and piercing it
to discharge its contents into the mouth, opposite to the second grinder.
The quantity of fluid thus poured into the mouth from each of the parotid
glands anaounts to a pint and a half in an hour, during the action of
mastication ; and, sometimes, when the duct has been accidentally opened,
it has spirted out to the distance of several feet.

The parotid gland sjTtipathises with every inflammatory affection of the
upper part of the throat, and therefore it is found swollen, hot, and tender,
in almost every catarrh or cold. The catarrh is to be treated in the usual
way ; while a stimulating appHcation, almost amounting to a blister, well
rubbed over the gland, will best subdue the inflammation of that body.

In bad strangles, and, sometimes, in violent cold, this gland will be
much enlarged and ulcerated, or an obstruction will take place in some
part of the duct, and the accumulating fluid will burst the vessel, and a
fistulous ulcer be formed that will be very difficult to heal. Similar
results may be produced by its being wounded by a lancet in opening an
abscess, and it occasionally occurs from accidental wounds. The applica-
tion of collodium, accompanied with the adhesive plaister, should be
promptly had recoui'se to, as if the wound assumes a fistulous character
the cure is tedious and difficult. A veterinaiy surgeon alone will be com-
petent to the treatment of either case ; and the principle by which he
will be guided will be to heal the abscess in the gland as speedily as he
can, and, probably, by the application of the heated iron ; or, if the ulcer
is in the duct, either to restore the passage through the duct, or to form
a new one.

A second source of the saHva is from the submaxillary glands, or the
glands under the jaw. One of them is represented at s, p. 199. The
submaxillary glands occupy the space underneath and between the sides
of the lower jaw, and consist of numerous small bodies, each with its proper
duct, uniting together, and fonning on each side a common duct or vessel
that pierces through the muscles at the root of the tongue, and opens in
httle projections, or heads, upon the frcenum, or bridle of the tongue,
about an inch and a half from the front teeth. When the horse has
catan'h or cold, these glands, like the parotid gland, enlarge. This is often
to be observed after strangles, and several distinct kernels are to be felt
under the jaw. It has ah-eady been stated that they may be disting-uished
from the swellings that accompany or indicate glanders, by their being
larger, generally not so distinct, more in the centre of the channel, or
3pace between the jaws, and never adhering to the jaw-bones. The
farriers call them vives, and often adopt cruel and absurd methods to
disperse them, — as burning them with a lighted candle, or hot iron, or
even cutting them out. They vnll, in the majority of instances, gradually
disperse in proportion as the disease which produced them subsides ; or
they will yield to slightly stimulating embrocations ; or, if they are obsti-
nate in their continuance, they are of no further consequence, than as
indicating: that the horse has laboured under severe cold or stranoies.

During catarrh, or inflammation of the mouth, the httle projections
marking the opening of these ducts on either side of the bridle of the
tongue are apt to enlarge, and the mouth under the tongue is a little red
and hot and tender. The farriers call these swellings barbs or paps ;
and as soon as they discover them, mistaking the effect of disease for the
cause of it, they set to work to cut them close off". The bleeding that
follows this operation somewhat abates the local inflammation, and
affords temporary relief; but the wounds will not speedily heal. The
saliva continues to flow from the orifice of the duct, and, running into the-

'lU STKANGLES.

iiTegiilarities of tLo wouBd, causes it to spread and deepen. Even when it
heals, the mouth of the duct being frequently closed, and the saliva con-
tinuing to be secreted by the submaxillary gland, it accumulates in the
dact, until that vessel bursts, and abscesses are formed which eat deeply
ander the root of the tongue and long torment the poor animal. Wben,
aftei' a great deal of trouble, they are closed, they are apt to break out
again for months and years afterwards.

All that is necessary with regard to these paps or barbs is to abate
the inflammation or cold that caused them to appear, and they will very
soon and perfectly subside. He who talks of cutting them out is not fit
to be trusted with a horse.

A third source of saliva is from glands under the tongue — the suh-
lingual glands, which open by many little orifices, under the tongue
resembling little folds of the skin of the mouth, hanging from the lower
surface of this organ, or found on the bottom of the mouth. These like-
wise sometimes enlarge during catarrh or inflammation of the mouth, and
are called gigs, and hladders, and flaps in the inouth. They have the
appearance of small pimples, and the farrier is too apt to cut them away,
or bum them ofi". The better way is to let them alone — for in a few
days they vrill generally disappear. Should any ulceration remain, a little
tincture of myrrh, or a solution of alum, will readily heal them.

Beside these three principal sources of saliva, there are small glands
to be found on every part of the mouth, cheeks, and lips, which pour out
a considerable quantity of fluid, to assist in moistening and preparing the
food.

STRANGLES.

This is a disease principally incident to young horses — usually ap-
pearing between the second and fourth year, and oftener in the spring
than in any othe^' part of the year. It is preceded by cough, and can
at first scarcely be distinguished from common cough, except that there is
more discharge from the nostril, of a yellowish, colour, mixed with pus,
and generally without smell. There is likewise a considerable discharge
of ropy fluid from the mouth, and greater swelling than usual under the
throat. This swelling increases with uncertain rapidity, accompanied by
some fever, and disinclination to eat, partly arising from the fever, but
more from the pain which the animal feels in the act of mastication. There
is considerable thirst, but after a gulp or two the horse ceases to drink, yet
is evidently desirous of continuing his draught. In the attempt to swallow,
and sometimes when not drinking, a convulsive cough comes on, which
almost threatens to suffocate the animal — and thence, probably, the name
of the disease.

The tumour is under the jaw, and about the centre of the channel. It
soon fills the whole of the space, and is evidently one uniform body, and
may thus be distinguished from glanders, or the enlarged glands of catarrh.
In a few days it becomes more prominent and soft, and evidently contains
a fluid. This rapidly increases ; the tumour bursts, and a great quantity
of pus is discharged. As soon as the tumour has broken, the cough sub-
sides, and the horse speedily mends, although some degree of weakness
may hang about him for a considerable time. Few horses, possibly none,
escape its attack ; but, the disease having passed over, the animal is free
from it for the remainder of his life. Catarrh may precede, or may pre-
dispose to, the attack, and, undoubtedly, the state of the atmosphere has
much to do with it, for both its prevalence and its severity are connected
with certain seasons of the year and changes of the weather.

Messrs. Percivall and Castley have come the nearest to a satisfactory

STRANGLES. 28.5

new of the nature of strangle;,. Mr. Castley in ' Tlio Yetermarian ' says
that ' the period of strangles is often a much more trying and critical tune
for youno- horses than most people seem to be aware of; that when colts
eet well over this complaint, they generally begin to thrive and improve
hi a remarkable manner, or there is sometimes as great a change for the
worse : in fact, it seems to effect some decided constitutional change in

the animal.' , ,

Mr Percivall adds, 'The explanation of the case appears to me to be,
that the animal is suffering more or less from what I would call strangle
fever— 0. fever the disposition and tendency of which is to produce local
iumoui' and abscess, and most commonly in that situation underneath the
iaws in which it has obtained the name of strangles.' _

'' Professor Dick, of Edinburgh, adds that which is conclusive on the sub-
iect that ' althouo-h the disease commonly terminates by an abscess under
the 'jaw, yet it may, and occasionally does, give rise to coUections of matter
on other parts of the surface.' _ _ ^i , ^ i •

To this conclusion then we are Avarranted m coming,— that sti-angles is
a specific affection to which horses are naturally subject at some period ot
their Hves and the natural cure of which seems to be a suppurative pro-
cess From some cause, of the nature of which we are ignorant, this
suppurative process usually takes place in the space between the branches
of the maxillary bone, and occurring there it appears m the mildest iorm,
and little danger attends. When the disease is ushered m by considerable
febrile disturbance, and the suppuration takes place elsewhere, the horse
too frequently sinks under the attack. r xi t

The treatment of strangles is very simple. As the essence of the dis-
ease consists in the formation and suppui-ation of the specific tumour, the
principal or almost the sole attention of the practitioner should be directed
to the hastening of these processes: therefore, as soon as the tuinour of
strano-les is decidedly apparent, the part should be actively bhstered. Old
practftioners used to recommend poultices, which, from the thickness of
the horse's sk-ln, must have very little effect, even if they could be confined
on the part ; and from the difficulty and almost impossibility of this, and
their getting cold and hard, they necessarily weakened the energies of
nature! and delayed the ripening of the tumour. Fomentations are little
more effectual. A blister ^^-ill not only secui-e the completion of the pro-
cess, but hasten it by many days, and save the patient muchpam and ex-
haustion It ^dll produce another good effect— it will, previously to the
opening of the tumour, abate the internal inflammation and soreness of the
throat,°and thus lessen the cough and wheezing.

As soon as the swelling is soft on its surface, and evidently contains
matter, it should be freely and deeply lanced. It is a bad, although fre-
ouent practice, to suffer the tumour to burst naturally, for a ragged ulcer
is formed very slow to heal, and difficult of treatment. If the mcision is
de«p and' large enough, no second collection of matter will be formed .
fjxd that which is akeady there may be suffered to run out slowly all
pressure Avith the fingers being avoided. The part should be kept clean,
and a Httle Friar's balsam daily injected into the wound.

The remainder of the treatment ^vill depend on the symptoms If there
is much fever, and evident affection of the chest, which should carefuUy
be distinoTiished from the oppression and choking occasioned by the pres-
sure of the tumour, it will be proper to give cooling medicines, as nitre,
emetic tartar, and perhaps digitalis, as the case requu^es. The_ appeti e,
or, rather, the ability to eat, will generally return with the opening of the
abscess. Bran-mashes, fresh-cut grass or tares, should be liberally sup-
phed which will not only afford sufficient noui-ishment to recruit tho

236 THE ANATOMY A^'D DISEASES OF THE XECK.

Btrength of the animal, but keep the bowels gently open. In cases of
debihtj, a small quantity of tonic medicine, as chamomile, gentian, or
ginger may be administered. It must however be borne in mind, that in
a great majority of cases, little or no treatment is required, and in very
many instances, the disease in colts has mn its course altogether unnoticed.
On the other hand, it occasionally is productive of great suffeiing, and this
is more especially the case where the abscess bursts internally, when, to
use the graphic account of Mr, Percivall in the sixth volunae of ' The
Veterinarian,' 'while purulent matter is issuing in profusion from his
swollen nostrils, and slaver foams out from between his tumified lips, it is
distressing to hear the noise that he makes in painful and laboured efforts
to breathe. There is imminent danger of suffocation in such a case as
this ; and even although some relief, so far as the breathing is concerned,
may be obtained from the operation of tracheotomy, yet, from the pain and
iiTitation he is suffering, added to the impossibility of getting aliment into
his stomach, he must speedily sink to rise no more.' — Veterinarian, vol. vi.
p. 611.

CHAPTER XL

THE ANATOMY AND DISEASES OF THE NECK AND
NEIGHBOURING PARTS.

The neck of the horse, and of every animal belonging to the class mam-
malia, except one species, is composed of seven bones called vertehrce,
moveable or turning upon each other (see cut, p. 140). They are con-
nected together by strong ligaments, and form so many distinct joints, in
order to give sufficiently extensive motion to this important part of the
body. The bone nearest to the skull is called the atlas, because, in the human
being, it supports the head. In the horse the head is suspended fi-om it.
It is a mere ring-shaped bone, with broad projections sideways ; tut with-
out the sharp and irregular processes which are found on all the others.

The second bone of the neck is the dentata, having a process like a tooth,
by which it forms a joint with the first bone. In the formation of that
joint, a portion of the spinal marrow, which mns through a canal in the
centre of all these bones, is exposed or covered only by ligament ; and by
the di^asion of the marrow at this spot an animal is instantly destroyed.
The operation is called pithing, from the name {the pith) given by butchers
to the spinal marrow.

The other neck or rack bones, as they are denominated by the farrier
(B, p. 140), are of a strangely irreg-ular shape, yet bearing considerable
resemblance to each other. They consist of a central bone, perforated for the
passage of the spinal marrow with a ridge on the top for the attachment of
the ligament of the neck, and four irregular plates or processes from the
sides, for the attachment of muscles ; at the base of one of which, on either
side, with the exception of the seventh, are holes for the passage of the
vertebral arteries. At the upper end of each is a round head or ball,
and at the lower end a cavity or cup, and the head of the one being
received into the cup of the other, they air united together, forming so
many joints. They are likewise united by ligaments from these processes,
as well as the proper ligaments of the joints, and so securely, that no dis-
location can take place between any of them, except the first and second,
the consequence of which would be tlie immediate deo,th of the animal.

The last, or seventh bone, has the elevation on the back or top c>^ it

THE MUSCLES AXD TROPER FORM OF THE NECK.

23/

continued into a lonpf and sharp prolongation (a spinous process'), and is
the beginning of that ridge of bones denominated the tvitliers (see cuts,
pp. 140 and below) ; and as it is the base of the column of neck bones, and
there must be a great pressure on it from the weight of the head and neck,
it is curiously contrived to rest upon and unite with the two first ribs.

THE MUSCLES AND PEOPER POEM OF THE NECK.

The bones of the neck serve as the framework to which numerous
muscles concerned in the motions of the head and neck are attached. The
weight of the head and neck is supported by the ligament without muscular
aid, and without fatigue to the animal ; but in order to raise the head
higher, or to lower it or turn it in every direction, a comphcated system
of muscles is necessary. Those whose office it is to raise the head are most
niinierous and powerful, and are placed on the upper and side part of the
neck. The cut in p. 199 contains a few of them.

c marks a tendon common to two of the most important of them, the
splenius or sj^Hnt-like muscle, and the
complexu? ruajor, or larger comph-
cated muscle. The spJenius arises
from the processes of all the bones of
the neck with the exception of the last
three, and posteriorly from the sides
of the anterior dorsal vertebraB with
tendons running from the upper part
of it to the first bone of the neck,
and to a process of the temporal bone
of the head. Its action is sufficiently
evident, namely, very powerfully to
elevate tlie head and neck. The
principal beauty of the neck depends
on this muscle. It was admirably
developed in the horse of whose neck
the annexed cut gives an accurate
•delineation.

If the curve were quite regular from the poll to the withers, we
should call it a perfect neck. It is rather a long neck, and we do not
like it the less for that. In the carriage-horse, a neck that is not half
concealed by the collar is indispensable, so far as appearance goes ; and it
is only the horse with a neck of tolerable length that can bear to be reined
up, so as to give this part the arched and beautiful appearance which
fashion demands. It is no detriment to the riding-horse, and there are few
horses of extraordinary speed that have not the neck rather long. The
race-horse at the top of his s^^eed not only extends it as far as he can, that
the air j^assages may be as straight as he can make them, and that he may
therefore be able to breathe more freely, but the weight of the head and
neck, and the effect increasing -^ith their distance from the trunk, add
materially to the rapidity of the animal's motion. It has been said, that a
horse with a long neck will bear heavy on the hand ; neither the length of
the neck nor even th3 bulk of the head has any influence in causing this.
They are both counterbalanced by the power of the ligament of the neck.
The setting on of the head is most of all connected "wath hea^-y bearing on
the hand, and a short-necked horse will bear heavily, because, from the
tliickness of the lower part of the neck, consequent on its shortness, the
head cannot be rightly placed, nor, generally, the shoulder.

Connected with the splenitis muscle, and partly produced by it, are the
thickness and muscularity of the neck, as it springs from the shoulders, in

i38 THE MUSCLES AND TROrER FORM OF THE XECK.

tliis cut ; tlie height at wliicli it comes out from tliem forming nearly a li!ie
with the withers ; and the manner in which it tapers as it approaches the
head. The neck of a well-formed horse, however fine at the top, should be
muscular at the bottom, or the horse will generally be weak and worthless.
Necks devoid of this muscularity are called loose necks by horsemen, and
are always considered a very serious objection to the animal. If the neck
is thin and lean at the upper part, and is other-^vise well shaped, the horse
will usually carry himself Avell, and the head will be properly curved for
beauty of appearance and ease of riding. When an instance to the contrary
occurs, it is to be traced to very improper management, or to the space
between the jaws being unnaturally small.

The splenitis muscle, although a main agent in raising the head and neck,
may be too large, or covered with too much cellular substance or fat, thua
giving an appearance of heaviness or even clumsiness to the jeck. This
peculiarity of form constitutes the distinction between the perfect horse
and the mare, and also the gelding, unless castrated at a very late period.

This tendon belongs also to another muscle, which makes up the principal
bulk of the lower part of the neck, and is called the complexus major, or
larger complicated muscle. It arises partly as low as the transverse
processes of the four or five first bones of the back, and from all the bones
of the neck, except the first ; and the fibres from these various sources
uniting together, fonn a very large and powerful muscle, the largest and
strono-est in the neck. As it approaches the head, it lessens in bulk, and
terminates partly -nnith the splenius, in this tendon, but is principally
inserted into the back part of the occipital bone, by the side of the ligament
of the neck. Its ofiice is to raise the neck and elevate the head ; and
beino- inserted into such a part of the occiput, it will more particularly
protrude the nose, while it raises the head. Its action, however, may be
too powerful ; it may be habitually so, and then it may produce deformity.
The back of the head being pulled back, and the muzzle protruded, the
horse cannot by possibility carry his head well. He will become what is
technically called a star-gazer ; — heavy in hand, boring upon the bit, and
unsafe. To remedy this, recourse is had, and in the majoi'ity of cases
without avail, to the martingale, against which the horse is continually
fio-hting, and which is often a complete annoyance to the rider. Such a
horse is almost useless for harness.

Inseparable from this is another sad defect, so far as the beauty of the
horse is concerned; — he becomes eice-neclced ; i.e. he has a neck like a
ewe — not arched above, and straight below, until near to the head, but
hollowed above and projecting beloAv ; and the neck rising low out of the
chest, even lower sometimes than the points of the shoulders. There can
scarcely be anything more unsightly in a horse. His head can never be
got fairly down, and the bearing reigTi of harness must be to him a source
of constant torture. In regarding, however, the length and the form of
the neck, reference must be had to the pui-pose for which the horse is
intended. In a hackney few things can be more abominable than a neck
so disproportionable, so long that the hand of the rider gets tired in
managing the head of the horse. In the race-horse this lengthening of the
neck is a decided advantage.

AmontT the muscles employed in raisuig the head, are the complextis
minores (smaller complicated), and the recti (straight), and the oblique
muscles of the upper part of the neck, and belonging principally to the
two first bones of the neck.

Amon"- the muscles employed in lowering the head, some of which are
given in the same cut, is the sterno-maxillaris, d, belonging to the breast-
bone and the lower jaw. It can likewise be traced, although not quite.

THE BLOOD-VESSELS OF THE NECK. 2a9

distinctly, in the cnt, page 237. It lies immediately under tlie skin, pro-
jecting from, or constituting, the front of the breast bone (H, p. 140), and
proceeds up the neck, of no great bulk or strength. At about three-fom-ths
of its length upward, it changes to a flat tendon, which insinuates itself
between the parotid and submaxillary glands, in order to be inserted into
the angle of the lower jaw. It is used in bending the head towards the
chest.

Another muscle, the termination of which is seen, is the levator Jnimeri,
raiser of the shoulder (b, p. 199). This is a much larger muscle than the
last, because it has more duty to perfonn. It rises from the back of the
head and four first bones of the neck and the ligament of the neck, and is
carried down to the shoulder, mixing itself partly •v\^th some of the muscles
of the shoulder, and finally continued doAvn to and terminating on the
humerus (J, p. 140). Its office is double. If the horse is in action, and
the head and neck are fixed points, the contraction of this muscle will
draw forward the shoulder and ann ; if the horse is standing, and the
shoulder and arm are fixed points, this muscle will depress the head and
neck.

The muscles of the neck are all in pairs. One of them is found on eacli
side of the neck, and the ofiice which has been attributed to them can only
be accomplished when both act together ; but supposing that one alone of
the elevating muscles should act, the head would be raised, but it would
Rt the same time be turned towards that side. If one only of the depressor
muscles were to act, the head would be bent downwards, but it woiild like-
wise be turned towards that side. Then it will be easily seen that by this
simple method of having the muscles in paLrs, provision is made for every
kind of motion, upwards, do^ATiwards, or on either side, for Avhich the
animal can possiblj" have occasion. Little more of a practical natui-e could
be said of the muscles of th^i) neck, although they are proper and interest-
ing studies for the anatomist.

This is the proper place to speak of the mane, that long hair which covers
the crest of the neck, and adds so much to the beauty of the animal.
This, however, is not its only praise. In a wild state the horse has many
battles to fight, and his neck deprived of the mane would be a vulnerable
part. The hair of the mane, the tail, and the legs, is not shed in the same
manner as that on the body. It does not fall so regularly nor so often ;
for if all were shed at once, the parts would be left for a long time defence-
less.

The mane is generally dressed so as to lie on the right side — some per-
sons divide it equally on both sides. For ponies it used to be cut off near
the roots ; only a few stumps being left to stand perpendicularly. This
was termed the hog-mane. The groom sometimes bestows a great deal of
pains in getting the mane of his horse into good and fashionable order.
It is wetted, plaited, and loaded with lead ; and every hair that is a little
too long is pulled out. The mane and tail of the heavy draught-horse
are seldom thin, but on the well-bred horse the thin and well-arranged
mane is ornamental.

THE BLOOD-VESSELS OF THE NECK.

Running down the under part of the neck are the principal blood-vessels
going to and returning from the head, with windpipe and gullet. The
external arteries are the carotid, of which there are two. They ascend the
neck on either side, close to the Avindpipe, until they have reached the
middle of the neck, Avhere they somewhat diverge, and he more deeply.
They are covered by the sterno-maxillaris muscle, which has been just
described, and are separated from the jugulars by n. small portion of

'«J40 POLL-EVIL.

muscular substance. Having readied the larjnx, tliey divide into three
branches, the external, the internal, and the ramus anastomaticus ; the
first goes to every part of the face, the second to the brain, and the third
to join the vertebral artery.

The vertebral arteries run through canals in the bones of the neck, with
the exception of the seventh, supplying the neighbouring parts as they
advance, and at length form the junction before stated with the third
branch of the carotid, and i-ainify on and supply the brain.

Few cases can haj^pen in which it would be either necessary or justifiable
to bleed from an arteiy. Even in mad-staggers the bleeding is more
practicable, safer, and more effectual, from the jugular vein than from the
temporal or any other artery. If an artery is opened in the direction in
which it runs, there is sometimes very great difficulty in stopping the
bleeding ; it has even been necessary to tie the vessel in order to accompHsh
this purpose. If the artery is cut across, its coats are so elastic that the
two ends are often immediately drawn apart under the flesh at each side,
and are thereby closed ; and after the first gush of blood no more can be
obtained.

THE VEINS OE THE NECK.

The external veins which return the blood from the head to the heart
are the jug-ulars. The horse has but one on either side. The human
being and the ox have two. The jugular takes its rise from the base of
the skull ; it then descends, receiving other branches in its way towards
the angle of the jaw and behind the parotid gland ; and emerging thence,
and being united to a large branch from the face, it takes its coui^se down
the neck. Veterinary surgeons and horsemen have agreed to adopt the
jugular, a httle way below the union of these two branches, as the usual
place for bleeding ; and a very convenient one it is, for it is easily got at,
and the vessel is large. The manner of bleeding, and the states of con-
stitution and disease in which it is proper, will be hereafter spoken of.

POLL-EVIL.

From the horse rubbing and sometimes striking his poll against the
lower edge of the manger, or hanging back in the stall and bruising the
part with the halter, — or from the frequent and painfiil stretching of the
ligaments and muscles by unnecessary tight reining, and, occasionally,
from a violent blow on the poll, carelessly or wantonly inflicted, inflamma-
tion ensues, and a swelling appears, hot, tender, and painfal. It used to
be a disease of frequent occurrence, but it is now, from better treatment
of the animal, of comparatively rare occurrence.

It has just been stated that the ligament of the neck passes over the
atlas, or first bone, without being attached to it, and the seat of inflamma-
tion is between the ligament and the bone beneath ; and being thus deeply
situated, it is serious in its nature and difiicult of treatment.

Another cause, especially amongst cart-horses, is the injury inflicted to
the poll by forcing a small collar over the animal's head. To these also
may be added hereditary predisposition. Many instances are on record
of the stock from parents suffering from poll-evil becoming affected
with the same disease.

The first thing to be attempted is to abate the inflammation by bleeding,
physic, and the application of cold lotions to the part. In a very early
period of the case, a blister might have considerable effect. Strong purga-
tives should also be employed. By these means the tumour will sometimes
•be dispersed. This system, however, must not be pursued too far. K the
•Bw«>^Ung increases, and the heat and tenderness Likewise increase, matter

INFLAMMATION OF THE VEIN '241

will form in the tumour ; and then our object should be to hasten its for-
mation by warm fomentations, poultices, or stimulating embrocations.
As soon as the matter is formed, Avhich may be kno'vvn by the softness of
the tumour, and before it has time to spread around and extend into the
neighbouring parts, it should be evacuated. Now comes the whole art of
treating poll-evil ; the ojfeniyig into the tumour must le so contrived that all
the matter shall run out, and continue afterwards to run out as quickly as
it is formed, and not collect at the bottom of the ulcer, irritating and
corroding it. This can be effected by a seton alone. The needle should
enter at the top of the tumour, penetrate through its bottom, and be
brought out at the side of the neck, a little beloAv the abscess. Without
anything more than this, except frequent fomentation Avith warm water,
in order to keep the part clean, and to obAnate inflammation, poll-evil in
its early stage will frequently be cured.

K the ulcer has deepened and spread, and threatens to eat into the liga-
ments of the joints of the neck, it may be necessary to stimulate its surface,
and perhaps painfully so, in order to bring it to a healthy state, and dis-
pose it to fill up. In extreme cases, some highly stimulating application
may be employed, but not the scalding mixture of the farriers of the olden
time. All measures, however, will be inefiectual, unless the pus or matter
is, by the use of setons, or by a free and extensive incision, perfectly
evacuated. The apphcation of these setons or the making the incision will
require the skill and anatomical knowledge of the veterinary surgeon. In
desperate cases, the wound may not be fairly exposed to the action of the
caustic without the division of the hgament of the neck. This may bo
effected with perfect safety ; for although the Hgament is carried on to the
occipital bone, and some strength is gained by this prolongation of it, the
naain stress is on the second bone, and the head will continue to be sup-
ported. The divided ligament, also, will soon unite again, and its former
usefulness will be restored when the wound is healed.

INFLAMMATION OP THE VEIN.

It is usual and proper, after bleeding, to bring the edges of the wound
carefully together, and to hold them in contact by inserting a pin through
the skin, T\T.th a little tow twisted round it. In ninety-nine cases out of a
hundred the wound quickly heals, and gives no trouble ; but in a few
instances, from using a blunt instrument, or a dirty or rusty one ; or
striking too hard and bruising the vein ; or, in the act of pinning up,
pulling the skin too far from the neck and suffering some blood to insinuate
itself into the cellular texture ; or neglecting to tie the horse up for a
H^-tle whUe, and thus enabling him to rub the bleeding place against the
manger and tear out the pin ; or from the animal being worked imme-
diately afterwards ; or the reins of the bridle rubbing against it ; or several
blows having been clumsily given, and a large and ragged wound made ; or
from some disposition to inflammation about the horse (for the bleeder is
not always in fault), the wound does not heal, or, if it closes for a little
while, it re-opens. A slight bleeding appears — some tumefaction com-
mences— the edges of the orifice separate, and become swollen and red —
a discharge of sanious bloody fluid proceeds from the wound, followed,
perhaps, in a few days, by purulent matter. The neck swells, and is hot
and tender both above and below the incision. The lips of the wound
become everted — the swelling increases, particularly above the wound,
where the vein is most hard and cordy — the horse begins to loathe his
food, and little abscesses form round the orifice. The cordiuess of the vein
rapidly increases. Not only the vein itself has become obstructed and its

K

5142 I^'FLu\MMATION OF THE VEIX.

coats thickened, but the cellular tissue inflamed and hardened, and is an
additional soui'ce of in'itation and torture.

Human surgeons say that inflammation of a vein spreads totvards the
heart. In the horse, and we will venture to say in every animal, it
spreads in the direction in which the coagulation is formed, and that in the
jugular must be upward, although from the heart. In the veins of tho
arm and leg it will likewise spread upward, and then towards the heart,
because the coagulation takes place in that direction.

The two grand questions here are, the cause and the cure. The first
would seem to admit of an easy reply. A long list of circumstances has
been just given which would seem to refer the matter entirely to the
operator ; yet, on the other hand, experience tells us that he has little to
do with these morbid effects of bleeding. Mr. Percivall states, that Mr.
Cherry tried several times to produce inflammation by the use of rusty
lancets, and escharotics of various kinds, and ligatures, and frequent sepa-
ration and friction of the granulating edges, but in vain. Professor
Spooner tried to produce the disease, but could not.

On the other hand, it is well known, that while inflammation rarely or
never follows the operation of bleeding by some practitioners, others are
continually getting into scrapes about it. The writer of this work had
three house-pupils, two of whom he used to trust to bleed his patients,
and no unto^^'ard cu'cumstance ever occurred ; but as surely as he sent
the third, he had an inflamed vein to take care of.

There is something yet undivulged in the process of healing the vein,
or in the cii'cumstances by which that healing is prevented. The most
powerful causes probably are, that the lips of the wound have not been
brought into immediate apposition, or that a portion of the hair — a single
hair is sufiicient — has insin^^ated itself. The horse has not, perhaps, had
his head tied up to the rack after bleeding, which should always be done
for at least an hour, during which time the extravasated blood Avill become
firmly coagulated, and the flow of blood to the heart will establish its
uninterrupted course. It is also probable that atmospheric agency may
be concerned in the affair, or a diseased condition of the horse, and par-
ticularly a susceptibility of taking an inflammatory action, although the
exciting cause may be exceedingly slight.

Of the means of cure it is difficult to speak confidently. The wound
fihould be carefully examined — the divided edges brought into exact
apposition, and any hair interposed between them removed — the pin with-
drawn— the part carefully and long sponged with cold water, repeated at
short intervals day and night — the head should be kept steadied by being
tied short to the rack, and cold slop diet alone allowed ; the effect of the
cold water will be aided by the addition of spirits of wine, which will
increase the evaporation, and the application of ice itself, if obtainable,
is very desirable. In six-and-thirty hours, should not the appearance of
the wound have improved, should not the very circumscribed swelling
around it have subsided, apply a bhster, the size of a crown, immediately
over the wound; the prompt use of this remedy will in very many instances
cut short the disease.

If two or three days have passed and the discharge still remains, the
apph'cation of the budding iron — not too large or too hot — may produce
engorgement of the neighbouring parts, and union of the lips of the wound.
This should be daily, or every second day, repeated, according to circum-
stances. The blister may be repeated over the orifice, and should not the
Lips of the incision be united, a solution of the sulphate of zinc or sulphate
of copper may be injected twice a day : this is the mode of treatment the
veterinary surgeon consulted would most probably adopt. ' Sometimes,'

THE CHEST. 243

says Mr. Cartwriglit, in tlie fourtli volume of tlie abstracts of tlie Veterinary
Medical Association, ' when the vein is in an ulcerative state I have laid
it open, and applied canstic dressing, and it has healed up. I have lately
had a case in which five or six abscesses had formed above the original
wound, and the two superior ones burst through the parotid gland, tho
extent of the ulceration being evident in the quantity of saliva that flowed
through each orifice.'

But another very serious result of an inflamed vein is one but rarely
noticed, and to wldch too little attention has been paid, but which when
it does occur is of a sufficiently alarming character ; this is secondary
haemorrhage — the ulcerative process has extended to the vein itself, and a
most profuse bleeding ensues. Pressure by any means, with considerable
elevation of the head, is the only immediate check, until the arrival of the
veterinary surgeon, when the application of a ligature round the vein ahove
the orifice constitutes the permanent cure. In four cases, in our country
practice, this operation perfectly succeeded.

The owner of the horse will find it his interest to apply to a veterinary
practitioner as soon as a case of inflamed vein occurs.

Should the vein be destroyed, the horse will not be irreparably injured,
and perhaps, at no great distance of time, scarcely injured at all ; for nature
is ingenious in making provision to carry on the circulation of the blood.
All the vessels conveying the blood from the heart to the different parts of
the frame, or bringing it back again to the heart, communicate "mth each
other by so many channels, and in such various ways, that it is impossible
by the closure or loss of any one of them long materially to impede the
flow of the vital current. If the jugular is destroyed, the blood will cii^culate
through other vessels almost as freely as before ; but the horse could not
be considered as sound, for he might not be equal to the whole of the work
required of him.

CHAPTER XII.

THE CHEST.

The chest, in the horizontal position in which it is placed in the cut, is
of a somewhat oval figure, with its extremities truncated. The spine is its-
roof; the sternum, or breast, its floor; the ribs, its sides; the trachea,
oesophagus, and great blood-vessels passing through its anterior extremity
and the diaphragm, being its posterior. It is contracted in front, broad and
deep towards the central boundary, and again contracted posteriorly. It
encloses the heart and the lungs, the origin of the arterial, and the
termination of the venous trunks and the collected vessels of the absorbents.
The windpipe penetrates into it, and the oesophagus traverses its whole
extent.

A cavity whose contents are thus important should be securely defended.
The roof is not composed of one unyielding prolongation of bone, which
might possibly have been strong enough, yet would have subjected it to a
thousand rude and dangerous shocks ; but there is a curiously- contrived
series of bones, knit together by strong ligaments and dense fibro-
cartilaginous substance, forming so many joints, each possessed but of httle
individual motion, but the whole united and constituting a column of such
exquisitely-contrived flexibility and strength, that all concussion is avoided,
and no external violence or weight can injure that which it protects. It ig
supported chiefly by the anterior extremities, and beautiful are the

b2

244 THE CHEST.

contrivances adopted to prevent injurious connection. There is no inflexible
bony union between the shoulders and the chest ; but while the spine is
formed to neutralise much of the concussion that might be received- — while
the elastic connections between the vertebrae of the back, alternately
afibrding a yielding resistance to the shock, and regaining their natural
situation when the external force is removed, go far, by this playful motion,
to render harmless the rudest motion — there is a provision made by the
attachment of the shoulder-blade to the chest calculated to prevent the
possibility of any rude concussion reaching the thorax. ' Had,' says Mr.

fMss^^

« The first rib.

b The cartilages of the ten hindermost, ov false ribs, connected together, and uniting with

that of the eighth or last true rib.
c The breast-bone.
d The top, or point, of the withers, which are formed by the lengthened spinous, or upright

processes of the ten or eleven first bones of the back. The bones of the back are

eighteen in number.
e The ribs, usually eighteen on each side ; the eight first united to the breast-bone by

cartilage ; the cartilages of the remaining ten united to each other as at h
f That portion of the spine where the loins commence, and composed of five bones.
g The bones forming the hip, or haunch, and into the cavity at the bottom of which the

head of the thigh-bone is received.
h The portion of the spine belonging to the haunch, and consisting of five pieces called

the sacrum.
i The bones of the tail, usually thirteen in number.

Percivall in the fifteenth volume of ' The Veterinarian,' ' the entire rib
been one solid piece of bone, a violent blow might have broken it to
pieces. On the other hand, had the ribs been composed from end to end
of cartilage only, the form of the arch could not have been sustained, but,
sooner or later it must have bent inward, and so have encroached upon
the cavity of the chest as to have compressed the organs of respiration and
circulation to that degree that could not but have ended in suffocation and
death of the animal. It was only the judicious and well-arranged
combination of bone and gristle in the construction of the chest that could
answer the ends an all- wise Providence had in view.'

At the shoulder is a muscle of immense strength, with tendinous
composition, the serratus magims, spreading over one-third of the internal
surface of the shoulder-blade and extending to the four last cervical
vertebrae and a portion of the chest. A spring of easier play could not
have been attached to the carriage of any invalid. It is a carriage hung
by springs between the scapula?, and a delightful one it is for easy
travelling ; while there is combined vnth it, and the union is not a little
difficult, strength enough to resist the jolting of the roughest road and the
most rapid pace.

Laterally there is sufficient defence against all common injury by the
expansion of the shoulder over the chest from between the first and second

THE CHEST. 246

tx) the seventh rib ; and behind and below that there is the bony structure
of the ribs, of no little strength ; and their arched form, although a
flattened arch ; and the yielding motion at the base of each rib, resulting
from its jointed connection with the spine above and its cartilaginous union
with the sternum below.

A still more important consideration with regard to the parietes of the
thorax is the manner in which they can adapt themselves to the changing
bulk of the contents of the cavity. The capacity of the chest is little
affected by the external contraction and dilatation of the heart, for when
its ventricles are collapsed its auricles are distended, and when its auricles
are compressed its ventricles expand ; but with regard to the lungs it is a
very different affair. In their state of collapse and expansion they vary in
comparative bulk, one- sixth part or more, and, in either state, it is necessary
for the proper discharge of the function of respiration that the parietes of
the chest should be in contact with them.

The ribs are eighteen in number on either side. Eight of them are
perfect, and commonly called the true, or, more properly, sternal ribs,
extending from the spine to the sternum. The remaining ten are posterior
and shorter, and are only indirectly connected with the sternum.

The ribs are united to the corresponding vertebrae or bones of the spine,
so as to form perfect joints — or rather, each rib forms two joints. The
head of the rib is received between the vertebrae or bones of the spine,
oefore and behind, so that it shall always present two articulating surfaces,
one opposed to the verterbra immediately before, and the other to that
immediately behind, and each forming a distinct joint, with a perfect
capsular ligament, and admitting of a rotatory motion. The tubercle o^
the rib seems to be received into the cartilaginous ligamentous substance
between the vertebree, and is articulated to the transverse process of the
posterior vertebrae connected with the head. Nothing could be more
admirably devised for motion, so far as it is required, and for strength of
union, that can scarcely be broken.

Before the ribs reach the sternum, they terminate in a cartilaginous
prolongation, or the lower part of the rib may be said to be cartilaginous ;
and where it unites with the sternum there is a third joint, with a perfect
and complete capsular ligament.

The cartilage of the posterior ribs are also united to the bony portion.
They are not, however, prolonged so far as the sternum ; but the extremity
of one lies upon the body of that which is immediately before it, bound down
upon it by a cellular substance approaching to the nature of ligament, jei
each having some separate motion, and all of them connected indirectly with
the sternum by means of the last sternal rib. It is an admirable contrivance
to preserve the requisite motion which must attend every act of breathing,
every extension and contraction of the chest, vnih a degree of strength
which scarcely any accident can break through.

The Sternum, or breast-bone, is more complicated than it at first appears
to be. It constitutes the floor of the chest, and is a long flat spongy bone,
fixed between the ribs on either side, articulating with their cartilages, and
serving as a point of support to them. It is composed of from seven to
nine pieces, united together by cartilage ; and whatever changes may take
place in other parts of the frame, this cartOage is not converted to bone
even in extreme old age, although there may, possibly, be some spots of
ossific matter found in it.

The point of the breast-bone may be occasionally injured by blows or by
the pressure of the collar. It has been, by brutal violence, completely
broken off from the sternum ; but offcener, and that from some cruel usage.

246 THE CHEST.

a kind of tumour has been formed on the point of it, which has occasionally
ulcerated, and proved very difficult to heal.

The front of the chest is a very important consideration in the structure
of the horse. It should be prominent and broad, and fall, and the sides of
it well occupied. When the breast is narrow, the chest has generally the
same appearance ; the animal is flat-sided, the proper cavity of the chest
is less, and the stamina of the horse are materially diminished, although,
perhaps, his speed for short distances may not be alFected. When the
chest is narrow and the fore legs are too close together, in addition to the
want of bottom they will interfere with each other, and there will be
wounds on the fetlocks and bruises below the knee,

A chest too broad is not desirable, but a fleshy and a prominent one ;
yet even this, perhaps, may require some explanation. When the fore legs
appear to recede and to shelter themselves under the body, there is a
faulty position of the fore limbs, a bend or standing over, an unnatural
lengthmess about the fore parts of the breast, sadly disadvantageous in
progression.

There is also a posterior appendix to the sternum, which is also
cartilaginous. It is called the ensiform cartilage, although it bears little
resemblance to a sword. It is flat and flexible, yet strong, and serves as
the commencement of the floor or support of the abdomen. It also gives
insertion to some of the abdominal muscles, and more conveniently than it
could have been obtained from the body of the sternum.

The intercostal Muscles. — The borders of the ribs are anteriorly concave,
thin and sharp — posteriorly rounded, and presenting underneath a longi-
tudinal depression or channel, in which run both blood-vessels and nerves.
The space between them is occupied by muscular substance firmly attached
to the borders of the ribs. These muscles are singularly distributed ; their
fibres cross each other in the form of an X. There is a manifest advantage
in this. If the fibres ran straight across from rib to rib, they might act
powerfully, but their actions would be exceedingly limited. A short
muscle can contract but a little way, and only a slight change of form or
dimension can be produced. By running diagonally from rib to rib, these
muscles are double the length they could otherwise have been. It is a
general rule with regard to muscular action, that the power of the muscle
depends on its bulk, and the extent of its action on its length.

The ribs, while they protect the important viscera of the thorax from
injury, are powerful agents, when acted on by the respiratory muscles, in
extending and contracting the chest in the alternate inspiration and
expiration of air. In what proportion they discharge the labour of
respiration is a disputed question, and into the consideration of which we
cannot enter until something is kno^m of the grand respiratory muscle, the
diaphragm. Thus far, however, may be said, that they are inactive in.
natural respiration, or they certainly act only a secondary part ; but in
hurried respii-ation, and when the demand for arteriaHsed blood is increased
by violent exertion, they are valuable and powerful auxiharies.

This leads to a very important consideration, the most advantageous
form of the chest for the proper discharge of the natural or extraordinary
functions of the thoracic "\dscera. The contents of the chest are the lungs
and the heart : the first, to render the blood nutrient and stimulating,
and to give or restore to it that vitaHty which will enable it to support
every part of the frame in the discharge of its function, and devoid of
which the comphcated and beautiful macliine is inert and dead ; and the
second, to convey this purified arteriaHsed blood to every part of the frame.

In order to produce and to convey to the various parts a sufficient
quantity of blood, these organs must be large. If it amounts not to

THE CHEST. 247

h^'perti'opliy, the larger the lieart and the larger the lungs, the more rapid
the process of nutrition, and the more perfect the discharge of every
animal function.

Then it might be imagined that, as a circle is a figure which contains
more than any other of equal girth and admeasurement, a circular form of
the chest woidd be most advantageous. Not exactly so ; for the contents
of the chest are alternately expanding and contracting. The circular
chest could not expand, but every change of form would be a diminution
of capacity.

That form of chest which approaches nearest to a circle, while it admits
of sufficient expansion and contraction, is the best — certainly for some
animals, and for all under peculiar circumstances, and with reference to
the discharge of certain functions. This was the grand principle on which
Mr. Bakewell proceeded, and on which all our improvements in the breed-
ing of cattle were founded.

The principle holds good with regard to some breeds of horses. "We
value the hea^'y draught horse not only on account of his simple muscular
power, but the weight which, by means of that power, he is able to throw
into the collar. A light horse may be preferable for light draught, but we
m.ust oppose weight to weight when our loads are heavy. In the dray-
horse we prize the circular chest, not only that he may be proportionally
hea"vier before — to him. no disadvantage — but that, by means of the in-
creased capacity of his chest, he may obtain the bulk and size which best
fit him for our service. But he would not do for speed, he would not
do for ordinary quick exertion, and if he were pushed far beyond his pace,
he would become broken-"s\dnded or have inflamed lungs.

Some of our saddle-horses and cobs have barrels round enough, and we
value them on account of it, for they are always in condition and they
i-arely tire. But when we look at them more carefully, there is just that
departure from the circular form of which mention has been made — that
happy medium between the circle and the ellipse which retains the C6k-
pacity of the one and the expansibility of the other. Such a horse is
invaluable for common purposes, but he is seldom a horse of speed. If he
is permitted to go his own pace, and that not a slow one, he will work ou
for ever ; but if Jie is too much hurried he is soon distressed.

The Broad Beep Chest. — Then for the usual purposes of the road, and
more particularly for rapid progression, search is made for that form of
the chest which shall unite, and to as great a degree as possible, con-
siderable capacity in a quiescent state, and the power of increasing that
■capacity when the animal requires it. There must be the broad chest for
the production of muscles and sinews, and the deep chest, to give the capacity
or power of furnishing arterial blood equal to the most rapid exhaustion of
vitality.

This form of the chest is consistent -udth lightness, or at least with all
the lightness that can be rationally required. The broad-chested horse, or
he that, with moderate depth at the girth, swells and barrels out imme-
diately behind the elbow, may have as light a forehead and as elevated a
wither as the horse with the narrowest chest ; but the animal with the
barrel approaching to near to rotundity is invariably heavy about the
shoulders and low in the mthers. It is to the mixture of the Arabian
blood that we principally owe this peculiar and advantageous formation of
^he chest of the horse. The Arab is light ; some would say too much so
before ; but immediately behind the arms the barrel almost invariably
swells out, and leaves plenty of room, and where it is most wanted for the
play of the lungs, and at the same time where the weight does not press so
exclusively on the fore legs, and expose the feet to concussion and injury.

24s THE CHEST.

Many horses "\\ntli narrow chests, and a great deal of daylight undei
them, have plenty of spirit and willingness for work. They show themselves
oif well, and exhibit the address and gratify the vanity of their riders on
the parade or in the park, but they have not the appetite nor the endurance
that will carry them through three successive days' hard work.

Five out of six of the animals that perish from inflamed lungs are nar-
row-chested, and it might be safely affirmed that the far greater part O'f
those who are lost in the field after a hard day's run, have been horses
whose training has been neglected, or who have no room for the lungs to
expand. The most important of all points in the conformation of the
horse is here elucidated. An elevated wither, or oblique shoulder, or
powerful quarters, are great advantages ; but that which is most of all
connected with the general health of the animal, and with combined
fleetness or bottom, is a deep, and broad, and swelling chest, with sufficient
lengthening of the sternum, or breast-bone, beneath.

If a chest that cannot expand with the increasing expansion and labour
of the lungs is so serious a detriment to the horse, everything that in-
terferes with the action of the intercostal muscles is carefully to be avoided.
Tight girthing ranks among these, and foremost among them. The close-
ness with which the roller is buckled on in the stable must be a serious
inconvenience to the horse ; and the partially depriving these muscles of
their power of action, for so many hours in every day, must indispose
them for labour when quicker and fuller respiration is required. At all
events, a tight girth, though an almost necessary nuisance, is a very con-
siderable one, when all the exertion of which he is capable is required
from the horse. Who has not perceived the address vnth which, by
bellying out the chest, the old horse renders every attempt to girth him
tight comparatively useless ; and when a horse is blown, what immediate
relief has ungirthing him afforded, by permitting the intercostals to act
with greater power ?

A Tjoint of consequence regarding the capacity of the chest is the length
or shortness of the carcase; or the extent of the ribs from the elbow
backward. Some horses are what is called ribbed liotne ; there is but
little space (see cuts pp. 140 and 244) between the last rib and the hip-
bone. In others the distance is considerably greater, and is plainly
evident by the falling in of the flank. The question then is, what service
is required from the horse ? If he has to carry a heavy weight, and has
much work to do, he should be ribbed home — the last rib and the hip-
bone should not be far from each other. There is more capacity of chest
and of belly, there is less distance between the points of support, and
greater strength and endurance. A hackney (and we would almost say a
hunter) can scarcely be too well ribbed home.

If speed, however, is required, there must be room for the full action of
the hinder limbs; and this can only exist where there is sufficient space
between the last rib and the hip-bone. The owner of the horse must make
up his mind as to what he wants from him, and be satisfied if he obtains
that ; for, let him be assured that he cannot have everythiag, for this
would require those differences of conformation that cannot possibly exist
in the same animal.

The thorax, or chest, is formed by the spine/, above (p. 244) ; the ribs
e, on either side ; and the stomum, or breast-bone, c, beneath.

THE SPINE AND BACK L'CP

THE SPINE AND BACK.

Tlie spine, or back, consists of a chain of bones from tlie poll to tli^
extremity of the tail. It is made up of twenty-three bones from the neck
to the haunch ; eighteen, called dorsal vertehrce, composing the back ; and
five, lumbar vertehrce, occupying the loins. On this part of the animal the
weight or burden is laid, and there are two things to be principally con-
sidered, easiness of carriage and strength. If the back were composed of
unyielding materials — if it resembled a bar of wood or iron, such^urring
and jolting, in the rapid motion of the animal, could not possibl} be endured.
In order to avoid this, as well as to assist in turning, the back is divided
into numerous bones ; and between each pair of bones there is interposed
a cartilaginous substance, most highly elastic, that will yield and give way
to every jar, not so much as to occasion insecurity between the bones, or
to permit considerable motion between any one pair, but forming altoo-ether
an aggregate mass of such perfect elasticity that the rider sits almost
undisturbed, however high may be the action or however rapid the pace.

Strength is as important as ease ; therefore the bones are united
together with peculiar firmness. The round head of one is exactly fitted
to the cup or cavity of that immediately before it ; and between them i=
placed the elastic ligamentous substance which has been just described,
so strong, that in endeavouring to separate the bones of the back they
will break before this substance will give way. In addition to this there
are ligaments running along the broad under-surface of these bones —
ligaments between each of the transverse processes, or side projections of
the bones — ligaments between the spinoiis processes or upright projections,.
and also a continuation of the strong ligament of the neck running alono-
the whole course of the back and loins, lengthening and contracting, as in
the neck, with the motions of the animal, and forming a powerful bond of
union between the bones.

By these means the hunter will carry a heavy man without fatione or
strain through a long chase ; and those shocks and jars are avoided which
would be annoying to the rider and injurious and speedily fatal to the
horse.

These provisions, however, although adequate to common or even severe
exertion, will not protect the animal from the consequences of brutal usao-e •
and, therefore, if the horse is much overweighted, or violently exercised
or too suddenly pulled upon his haunches, these ligaments are strained.
Inflammation follows. The ligaments become changed to bone, and the
joints of the back lose their springiness and ease of motion ; or rather in
point of fact, they cease to exist. On account of the too hard service re-
quired from them, and especially before they had gained their full sti^eno-th
there are few old horses who have not some of the bones of the back or
loins anchylosed — united together by bony matter and not by ligament.
When this exists to any considerable extent the horse is not pleasant tO'
ride ; he turns with di£B.culty in his stall, he is un-\villing to lie down, and
when down to rise again, and he has a singular straddhng action. Such
horses are said to be broken-hacked or chinked in the back.

The length of the back is an important consideration. A long- backed horse
will be easy in his paces, because the increased distance between the fore
and hind legs, which are the supports of the spine, will afibrd greater room
for the play of the joints of the back. A long spring has much more play
than a short one, and will better obviate concussion. A long-backed horse
is likewise formed for speed, for there is room to bring his hinder leo-s
more under him in the act of galloping, and thus more powerfully propel

25C THE LOINS. — THE WITHERS.

or drive forward tlie body ; but, on the other hand, a long-backed horse
will be comparatively weak in the back, and easily overweighted. A long
spring may be easily bent or broken. The weight of the rider, likewise,
placed farther from the extremities, will act with mechanical disadvantage
upon them, and be more likely to strain them. A short-backed horse may
be a good hackney, and able to carry the heaviest weight, and possess
more endurance ; but his paces will not be so easy, nor his speed so great,
and he may be apt to overreach.

The comparative advantage of a long or short carcase depends entirely
on the use for which the horse is intended. For general purposes the
horse with a short carcase is very properly preferred. He will possess
health and strength ; for horses of this make are proverbially hardy. He
will have sufficient easiness of action not to fatigue the rider, and speed
for every ordinary purpose. Length of back will always be desirable when
there is more than usual substance generally, and particulaj-ly when the
loins are wide and the muscles of the loins large and swelling. The two
requisites, strength and speed, will then probably be united.

The back should be depressed a little immediately behind the withers ;
and then continue in an almost straight line to the loins. This is the form
most consistent with beauty and strength. Some horses have a very con-
siderable hollow behind the withers. They are said to be saddle-backed.
It seems as if a depression were purposely made for the saddle. Such
horses are evidently easy goers, for tliis curve inward must necessarily
increase the play of the joints of the back ; but in the same proportion
they are weak and liable to sprain. To the general appearance of the
horse, this defect is not in any great degree injui-ious ; for the hollow of
the back is uniformly accompanied by a beautifully arched crest.

A few horses have the curve outward. They are said to be roach-hacked,
from the supposed resemblance to the arched back of the roach. This is a
very serious defect ; altogether incompatible \ni\\ beauty, and materially
diminishing the usefulness of the animal. It is almost impossible to pre-
vent the saddle from being thrown on the shoulders, or the back from being
galled ; the elasticity of the spine is destroyed ; the rump is badly set
on ; the hinder legs are too much under the animal ; he is continually
overreaching, and his head is carried awkwardly low,

THE LOINS.

The loins are attentively examined by every good horseman. They can
scarcely be too broad and muscular. The strength of the back, and, espe-
cially, the strength of the hinder extremities, will depend materially on
this. The breadth of the loins is regulated by the length of the transverse
or side processes of that part. The bodies of the bones of the loins are
likewise larger than those of the back ; and a more dove-tailed kind of
union subsists between these bones than between those of the back. Every
provision is made for strength here. The union of the back and loins
should be carefully observed, for there is sometimes a depression between
them. A kind of line is drawn across, which shows imperfection in the
construction of the sjjine, and is regarded as an indication of weakness,

THE WITHERS,
The spinous or upright processes of the dorsal vertebraj, or bones of the
back, above the upper part of the shoulder, are as remarkable for their
length as are the transverse or side processes of the bones of the loins.
They are flattened and terminated by rough blunted extremities. The
elevated ridge which they form is called the withers. It will be seen in
the cuts (pp. 140 and 244), that the spine of the first bone of the back has

MUSCLES OF THE BREAST. 23 1

but little elevation and is sharp and upright. The second is longer and
inclined backward ; the third and fourth increase in length, and the fifth
is the hmgest ; they then gradually shorten until the twelfth or thirteenth,
which becomes level with the bones of the loins.

High withers have been always, in the mind of the judge of the horse,
associated with good action, and generally with speed. The reason is
plain enough : they afford larger surface for the attachment of the mus
cles of the back ; and in proportion to the elevation of the withers, theso
muscles act with greater advantage. The rising of the foreparts of the
horse, even in the trot, and more especially in the gallop, depends not
merely on the action of the muscles of the legs and shoulders, but on those
of the loins, inserted into the spinous processes of these bones of the back,
and acting with greater power in proportion as these processes, consti-
tuting the withers, are lengthened. The arm of the lever to which the
power is apphed will be longer ; and in proportion to the length of this
arm will be the ease and the height to which a weight is raised. There-
fore good and high action will depend much on elevated withers.

It is not difficult to understand how speed will likewise be promoted by
the same conformation. The power of the horse is in his hinder-quarters.
In them lies the mainspring of the frame, and the fore-quarters are chiefly
elevated and thrown forward to receive the weight forced on them by the
action of the hinder-quarters. In proportion, however, as the fore-quarters
are elevated, will they be thrown farther forward, or, in other words, will
the stride of the horse be lengthened. Yet many racers have the forehand
low. The unrivalled Eclipse (see p. 69) was a remarkable instance of this ;
but the ample and finely- proportioned quarters, and the muscularity of the
thigh and fore-arm, rendered the aid to be derived from the withers per-
fectly unnecessary. The heavy draught-horse does not require elevated
withers. His utility depends on the power of depressing his fore- quarters,
and throwing their weight fully into the collar ; but for common work in
the hackney, in the farmer's horse, and in the hunter, well-formed withers
will be an essential advantage, as contributing to good and safe action, and
likewise to speed.

MUSCLES OP THE BREAST.

There are some important muscles attached to the breast connected with
that expansion of the chest which every horse should possess. In the cut,
page 237, are seen a very important pair of muscles, the pedorales trans-
versi, or pectoral muscles, forming two prominences in the front of the
chest, and extending backward between the legs. They come from the
fore and upper part of the breast-bone ; pass across the inward part of the
arm, and reach from the elbow almost down to the knee. They confine
the arm to the side in the rapid motion of the horse, and prevent him from
being, what horsemen would call, and what is seen in a horse pushed
beyond his natural power, 'all abroad.' Other muscles, pec^oraZes magni
et parvi, the great and little pectorals, rather above but behind these, go
from the breast-bone to the arm, in order to draw back the point of the
shoulder, and bring it upright. Another and smaller muscle goes from the
breast-bone to the shoulder, to assist in the same office. A horse, there-
fore, thin and narrow in the breast, must be deficient in. important muscular
power.

Between the legs and along the breast-bone ia the proper place in which
to insert rowels, in cases of inflamed lungs.

"■^2 MUSCLES OP THE BACK. FISTULOUS WITHERS.

MUSCLES OF THE BACK.

Tlie most important muscles which belong to this part of the frame ai*e
principally those which extend from the continuation of the ligament of
the neck, along the Avhole of the back and loins ; and Hkewise from the
last cervical bone ; — the superficialis and transversalis costarum, or super-
ficial and transverse muscles of the ribs, going from this ligament to the
upper part of the ■^ibs to elevate them, and to assist in the expansion of
the chest ; also the large mass of muscle, the longissvmv^ dorsi, or longest
muscle of the back, from the spinous and transverse processes of the ver-
tebriB to the ribs, and by which all the motions of the spine, and back, and
loins, to which allusion has been made, are principally produced ; by wliich
the fore-quarters are raised upon the hind ones, or the hind upon the fore
ones, according as either of them is the fixed point. This is the principal
agent in rearing and kicking.

The last muscle to be noticed is the spinalis dorsi, the spinal muscle of
the back, from the spinous processes of some of the last bones of the back
to those of the fore-part ; thick and strong about the withers, and broadly
attached to them ; and more powerfully attached, and more strongly acting,
in proportion to the elevation of the withers ; and proceeding on to the
three lowest bones of the neck, and therefore mainly concerned, as already
described, in elevating the fore- quarters, and producing high and safe
action, and contributing to speed.

FISTULOUS "WITHERS.

When the saddle has been sufiered to press long upon the withers, a
tumour will be formed, hot and exceedingly tender. It may sometimes be
dispersed by the cooling applications recommended in the treatment of
poll-evil ; but if, in despite of these, the swelling should remain stationary,
and especially if it should become larger and more tender, warm fomen-
tations and poultices, and stimulating embrocations, should be diligently
applied, in order to hasten the formation of pus. As soon as that can be
fairly detected, a seton should be passed from the top to the bottom of the
tumour, so that the whole of the matter may be evacuated, and continued
to be discharged as it is afterwards formed ; or the knife may be freely
used, in order to get at the bottom of every sinus. The knife has suc-
ceeded many a time when the seton has failed. The after treatment must
be precisely that which was recommended for a similar disease in the poll.

In neglected fistulous withers the ulcer may be larger and deeper, and
more destructive than in poll-evil. It may burrow beneath the shoulder-
blade, and the pus appear at the point of the shoulder or the elbow ; or
the bones of the withers may become carious.

Very great improvement has taken place in the construction of saddleb
for common use and in the cavalry service. Certain rules have now been
laid down from which the saddler should never deviate, and attending to
which the animal is saved from much sufiering, and the mechanic from
deserved disgrace.

The first rule in the fitting of a saddle is, that it should bear upon the
back, and not on the spine or the withers, for these are parts that will not
(indure pressure.

Next in universal application is the understanding that the saddle should
have everywhere an equal bearing, neither tilting forward upon the points
nor backward upon the seat.

"When the saddle is on, and the girths fastened, there should remain space
Bufficient between the withers and the pommel for the introduction of the
hand underneath the latter.

SITFASTS, AND SADDLE GALLS. 2'i3

The points of the tree should clip or embrace the sides without pinching
them, or so standing outward that the pressure is all downwards, and upon
one place, instead of being in a direction inwards as well as do^vnwards, so
as to be distributed uniformly over every part of the point that touches the
side. Horses that have low and thick withers are most likely to have them
injured, in consequence of the continual riding forward of the saddle, and
its consequent pressure upon them. Fleshy and fat shoulders and sides are
also subject to become hurt by the points of the trees either pinching them
from being too narrow in the arch, or from the bearing being directly
downward upon them.

Injury occasionally results from the intemiption which a too forward
saddle presents to the working or motion of the shoulder, and the conse-
quent friction the soft parts sustain between the shoulder-blade inwardly
and the points of the saddle-tree outwardly.

SITFASTS, AND SADDLE GALLS.

On other parts of the back tumours and very troublesome ulcers may be
produced by the same cause. Those resulting from the pressure of the
saddle are called saddle galls, and, when they ulcerate, they frequently
become sitfasts. Saddle galls are small circular bruises, or extravasations
of blood, where there has been an undue pressui-e of the saddle or harness.
If a horse is subject to these tumours, the saddle should remain on him
two or three hours after he has returned to the stable. It is only for a
certain time, however, that this will perfectly succeed, for by the frequent
application of the pressure the skin and the cellular substance are bruised
or otherwise injured, and a permanent sore or tumoui-, of a very annoying
description, takes place. The centre of the sore gradually loses its vitality.
A separation takes place from the surrounding integument, and there is a
circular piece of dried and hard skin remaining in the centre ; by removing
this with the knife, more is done in a few minutes than days will effect in
the old routine of poulticing and blistering ; and the wound wiU readily
heal by the use of turpentine dressings, more or less stimulating, according
to circumstances.

With regard, however, to all these tumours and excoriations, the humane
man "vvill have the saddle eased and padded as soon as it begins to be of the
least inconvenience to the horse.

DROPSY OP THE SKIN OP THE CHEST.

Dropsical swellings often appear between the fore legs and on the chest.
They are eflfusions of fluid underneath the skin. They accompany various
diseases, particularly when the animal is Aveakened by them, and sometimes
appear when there is no other disease than the debility, which, in the spring
and faU of the year, accompanies the changing of the coat. The treatment
will vary with the cause of the affection or the accompanying disease. Small
punctures mth the lancet vnW seldom do harm ; friction of the part, if it
can be borne, will be serviceable ; mild exercise should be used; diuretics
given, mixed with some cordial, as carrots, malt mashes, and occasionally
a very mild dose of physic, and that followed by tonics and cordials, with
diuretics. The vegetable tonics, as gentian and columbo with ginger, will
be most effectaal.

254 A.YATOMT AND DISEASE OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS.

* CHAPTER XIII.

THE ANATOMY AND DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS.

Having in tlie previous chapter given a brief outline of tlie external
formation of the chest, and surrounding parts, we now proceed to a de-
scription of its contents, and the organs directly connected with the func-
tions of respiration.

THE DIAPHRAGM.

Bounding the thorax posteriorly — the base of the cone in the human
subject — the interposed curtain between the thorax and the abdomen in
the horse, is the diaphragm. It is an irregular muscular expansion, pro-
ceeding from the inferior surface of the lumbar vertebrjB posteriorly and
superiorly, adhering to the ribs and cartilages on either side, and extending
obhquely forward and downward to the sternum ; or, rather it is a flattened
muscle arising from all these points, with its fibres all converging towards
the centre, and terminating there in an expansion of tendinous substance.
It is Hned anteriorly by the pleura or investing membrane of the thoracic
cavity, and posteriorly by the peritoneum or investing membrane of the
abdominal cavity.

Anatomy of the Diaphragm. — In the short account which it is proposed
to give of the structure of the diaphragm, the description of Mr. Per-
civall will be closely followed. ' The diaphragm may be divided into the
main circular muscle, with its central tendinous expansion forming the
lower part, and two appendices^ or crura, as they are called, from their
peculiar shape, constituting its superior portion. The fleshy origin of the
grand muscle may be traced laterally and inferiorly, commencing from the
cartilage of the eighth rib anteriorly, and closely following the imion of
the posterior ribs with their cartilages ; excepting, however, the two last.
The attachment is peculiarly strong; it digitates with the transverse muscle
of the abdomen, and encircles the whole of the lateral and inferior part of
the chest, as far as the sternum, where it is connected with the ensi-
form cartilgae. Immediately under the loins are the appendices of the
diaphragm, commencing on the right side, from the inferior surfaces of
the five lumbar vertebrse, by strong tendons, which soon become muscular,
and form a kind of pillar ; and on the left, proceeding from the two first
lumbar vertebrae only, and from the sides rather than the bodies of these
vertebrae, and these also unite and form a shorter pillar, or leg. The left
crus, or appendix, is shorter than the right, that it may be more out of the
way of pressure from the left curvature of the stomach, which, with the spleen,
lies underneath. Opposite to the seventeenth dorsal vertebrae these two
pillars unite and form a thick mass of muscles, detached from the vertebrae,
and leaving a kind of pouch between them and the vertebrae. They not only
unite, but they decussate; their fibres mingle and again separate from each
other, and then proceed onward to the central tendinous expansion towards
which the fibres from the circular muscle, and the appendices, all converge.'

This muscle, so important in its office, is plentifolly supplied with blood-
ressels. As the posterior aorta passes beneath the crura of the diaphragm,
it gives out sometimes a single vessel which soon bifurcates ; sometimes
two branches, which speedily plunge into the appendices or crura, while
numerous small vessels, escaping from them, spread over the central tendi-
nous expansion. As the larger muscle of the diaphragm springs from the
Hides and the base of the chest, it receives many ramifications from the

THE DIAPHRAGM. 256

intornal pectoral, derived from the anterior aorta ; but more from the pos-
terior intercostals -wliicli spring fi-om the posterior aorta.

The veins of the diapliragm belong exclusively to the posterior vena
cava. There are usually three on either side ; but they may be best referred
to two chief trunks which come from the circumference of the diaphragm,
converge towards the centre, and run into the posterior cava as it passes
through the tendinous expansion.

The functional nerve of the diaphragm, or that from which it derives its
principal action, and which constitutes it a muscle of respiration, is the
phrenic or diaphragmatic. Although it does not proceed from that portion
of the medulla oblongata which gives rise to the glosso-pharyngeus and the
par vagum, yet there is sufficient to induce us to suspect that it arises from,
and should be referred to, the lateral column between the superior and in-
ferior, the sensitive and motor nerves, and which may be evidently traced
from the pons varolii to the very termination of the spinal chord.

The diaphragm is the main agent in the work of respiration. The other
muscles are mere auxiliaries, little needed in ordinary breatliing, but afford-
ing the most important assistance, when the breathing is more than usually
hurried. The mechanism of respiration may be thus explained : — Let it
be supposed that the lungs are in a quiescent state. The act of expiration
has been performed, and all is still. From some cause enveloped in mys-
tery— connected with the will, but independent of it — some stimulus of an
unexplained and unknown kind — the phrenic nerve acts on the diaphragm,
and that muscle contracts ; and, by contracting, its convexity into the chest
is diminished, and the cavity of the chest is enlarged. At the same time,
and by some consentaneous influence, the intercostal muscles act ; with no
great force, indeed, in undisturbed breathing ; but, in proportion as they
act, the ribs rotate on their axes, their edges are thrown outward, and thus
a twofold effect ensues ; the posterior margin of the chest is expanded, the
cavity is plainly enlarged, and also, by the partial rotation of every rib, the
cavity is still more increased.

By some other consentaneous influence, the spinal accessory nerve like-
wise exerts its power, and the sterno-maxillaris muscle is stimulated by
the anterior division of it, and the motion of the head and neck corresponds
with and assists that of the chest ; while the posterior division of the ac-
cessory nerve, by its anastomoses with the motor nerves of the levator
humeri and the splenius, and many other of the muscles of the neck and
the shoulder, and by its direct influence on the rhomboideus, associates
almost every muscle of the neck, the shoulder, and the chest, in the expan-
sion of the thorax. These latter are muscles which, in undisturbed respi-
ration, the animal scarcely needs ; biit which are necessary to him when
the respiration is much disturbed, and to obtain the aid of which he will,
under pneumonia, obstinately stand until he falls exhausted or to die.

The cavity of the chest is now enlarged. But this is a closed cavity, and
between its contents and the parietes of the chest a vacuum would be
formed; or rather an inequality of atmospheric pressure is produced from
the moment the chest begins to dilate. As the diaphragm recedes, there
is nothing to counterbalance the pressure of the atmospheric air com-
municating with the lungs through the medium of the nostrils, and it
is forced into the respiratory tubes already described, and the lungs are
expanded and still kept in contact with the receding walls of the chest.
There is no sucking, no inhalent power in the act of inspiration ; it is the
simple enlargement of the chest from the entrance and pressure of the air.

From some cause, as inexplicable as that which produced the expansion
of the chest, the respiratory nerves cease to act ; and the diaphragm, by
the inherent elasticity of its tendinous expansion and muscular fibres, re-

2S6 THE MEMBRANE OF THE NOSE.

turns to its natural form, once more projecting its convexity into the thorax.
The abdominal muscles, also, -which had been put on the stretch by the
forcing of the viscera into the posterior part of the abdomen, by means of
the straightening of the diaphragm, contract and accelerate the return of
that muscle to its quiescent figui-e ; and the ribs, all armed with elastic
cartilages, regain their former situation and figure. The muscles of the
shoulder and the chest relax, a portion of the lungs are pressed on every
side, and the air with which they were distended is again forced out. There
is only one set of muscles actively employed in expii-ation, namely, the ab-
dominal ; the elasticity of the parts displaced in inspiration being almost
sufficient to accomplish the purpose.

The lungs, however, are not altogether passive. The bronchial tubes,
so far as they can be traced, are lined with cartilage, divided and subdi-
vided for the purpose of folding up when the lungs are compressed, but
elastic enough to afford a yielding resistance against both unusual expan-
sion and contraction. In their usual state the air-tubes are distended
beyond their natural calibre ; for if the parietes of the thorax are per-
forated, and the pressure of the atmosphere rendered equal within and
without them, the lungs immediately collapse.

THE MEMBRANE OP THE NOSE.

The mucous membrane of the nose is distinguished from other mucous
surfaces, not only by its thickness, but its vascularity. The blood-vessels
are likewise superficial ; they are not covered even by integument, but
merely by a mucous coat. They are deeper seated, indeed, than in the
human being, and they are more protected from injury ; and therefore there
is far less hcemorrhage from the nostril of the horse than from that of the
human being, whether spontaneous or accidental. Lying immediately
under the mucous coat, these vessels give a peculiar, and, to the horseman,
a most important tinge to the membrane, and particularly observable on
the septum. They present him with a faithful indication of the state of
the circulation, and especially in the membranes of the other respiratory
passages with which this is continuous.

The horseman and the veterinary surgeon do not possess many of the
auxiharies of the human practitioner. Their patients are dumb ; they
can neither tell the seat nor the degree of pain ; and the blunders of the
practitioner are frequently buried with the patient. Well, he must use
greater dihgence in availing himself of the advantages he does possess ;
and he has some, and very important ones too. The varying hue of the
Schneiderian membrane is the most important of all ; and, with regard to
the most frequent and fatal diseases of the horse — those of the respiratory
passages — it gives almost all the information with regard to the state of
the cii-culation in those parts that can possibly be required. Veterinarians
too generally overlook this. It has not yet been sufficiently taught in our
■schools, or inculcated in our best works on the pathology of the horse.

It is the custom with almost every horseman who takes any pains to
Ascertain the state of his patient to turn down the lower eye-lid, and to
form his opinion of the degree of general inflammatiim by the colour
which the Hning membrane of the lid presents. If it is very red, he con-
cludes that there is considerable fever ; if it is of a pale pinkish hue, there
is comparatively little danger. This is a very important examination, and
the conclusion which he draws from it is generally true; but on the sep-
tum of the nose he has a membrane more immediately continuous witli
those of the respiratory organs, more easily got at, presenting a larger
surface, the ramifications of the blood-vessels better seen, and what is
truly important, indicating not only the general aflection of the membranes,
but of those with which he is most of all concenied.

THE LARYNX. 267

We would, then, say to every horaeman and practitioner, study the
cliaracter of that portion of the membrane -which covers the lower part
of the membrane of the nose — that which you can most readily bring into
view. Day after day, and under all the varying circumstances of health
and disease, study it until you are enabled to recognise, and you soon will,
and that with a degree of exactitude you would have scarcely thought
possible, the pale pink hue when the horse is in health — the increasing
blush of red, and the general and uniform painting of the membrane,
betokening some excitement of the system — the streaked appearance when
inflammation is threatening or commencing — the intensely florid red of
inflammation becoming acute — the starting of the vessels from their
gossamer coat, and their seeming to run bare over the membrane, when
the inflammation is at the highest — the pale ground with patches of vivid
red, showing the half-subdued but still existing fever — the uniform colour,
but somewhat redder tlian natui-al, indicating a return to a healthy state of
the circulation — the paleness approaching to white, accompanying a state
of debihty, and yet some radiations of crimson, showing that there is still
considerable irritabihty, and that mischief may be in the Avind — the pale
livid colour, warning you that the disease is assuming a typhoid character
— the darker livid, announcing that the t}^hus is established, and that
the vital current is stagnating — and the browner, dirty painting, inter-
minorling with and subduing the Hvidness, and indicating that the game
is up. These appearances will be guides to our opinion and treatment,,
which we can never too highly appreciate.

THE LARYNX

Is placed on the top of the windpipe, immediately below and in contact'
with the pharynx, and is the inner guard of the lungs if any injurious
substance should penetrate so far : it is the main protection against the
passage of food into the respiratory tubes, and it is at the same time the
instrument of voice. In this last character it loses much of its importance
in the quadruped, but still in the dumb animal it is a beautifal piece of
mechanism.

The Epiglottis is a heart-shaped cartilage, placed at the superior
opening into the laryn:s, with its back opposed to the pharynx, so that
when a pellet of food passes from the pharynx in its.way to the oesophagus,
it presses down the epiglottis, and by this means, as already described,
closes the aperture of the larynx, and prevents any portion of the food
from entering it. The food having passed over the epiglottis, it, from its •
own elasticity, and that of the membrane at its base, and more par-
ticularly the power of the hyo-epiglotideus muscle, rises again and resumes-
its former situation.

The Thtroid Cartilage occupies almost the whole of the external part
of the larynx, both anteriorly and laterally. It envelopes and protect*
all the rest ; a point of considerable importance, considering the injury
to wliich the larynx is exposed, by our system of curbing and tight-rein-
ing. It also forms a point of attachment for the insertion of the greater
part of the delicate muscles by which the other cartilages are moved. The
other cai-tilages are the cricoid and two arytenoid. The cricoid, or ring-
like cartilage, is placed at the base of the thyroid, connecting it with
the trachea or windpipe : the two arytenoid, or ewer-shaped cartilages,
form the upper and back part of the larynx, as the thjToid does the
upper front and lateral portion. It is principally supplied with nerves by
the larjTigeal branches of the par vagum and the recurrent nerves ; and
there are also frequent anastomoses with the motor nerves of the spinal cord.

The beautifal mechanism of the larynx is governed or worked by a

S

258 THE TRACKEA, OR WINDPIPE.

somewliat complicated system, of muscles, for a description of wliich the
reader is referred to the 5th vol. of ' The Veterinariau,' p. 447. The
entire process of respii-ation is partly under the control of the will, and
the muscles of the larynx concerned in one stage of it are likewise so, but
they also act independently of the will, for during sleep and unconsciousness
the machine continues to work.

The origin of the artery which supplies these parts with blood is some-
times derived from the main trunk of the carotid, but oftener it is a
branch of the thyroideal artery.

The lining membrane is a continuation of that of the pharynx above
and the trachea below. It is covered with innumerable follicular glands,
from whose mouths there oozes a mucous fluid that moistens and lubricates
its surface. It is possessed of very great sensibility, which is derived from
the superior laryngeal nerve, and its function requires it. It is, as has
been already stated, the inner guard of the lungs, and the larynx must
undergo a multitude of changes of form in order to adapt itself to certain
chano-es in the act of respiration, and in order to produce the voice. The
voice of the horse is, however, extremely limited, compared with that of
the human being ; the same sensibility, therefore, is not required, and
exposed as our quadruped slaves are to absurd and barbarous usage, too
great sensibility of any part, and particularly of this, would be a curse
to the animal.

THE TKACHEA, OR WINDPIPE.

The course of the inspired air from the larynx to the lungs is now to be
traced, and it will be found to be conveyed through a singularly con-
structed tube, passing along the anterior portion of the neck, and reaching
from the lower edge of the cricoid cartilage to the lungs. In the com-
mencement of its course it is somewhat superficially placed, but as it
descends towards the thorax it becomes gradually deeper, and more con-
cealed. In order to discharge its functions as an air-tube, it is essential
that it should always be pervious, or, at least, that any obstruction to the
process of respiration should be but momentary. Attached to a part
endowed with such extensi^^e motion as the neck, it is also necessary that
it should be flexible. It is composed of cartilage, an exceedingly elastic
substance, and at the 'same time possessing a certain degree of flexibihty.

The windpipe is composed of cartilage, but not of one entire piece, for
that would necessarily be either too thick and firm to be flexible, or if
it were sufficiently flexible to accommodate itself to the action of the neck,
it would be too weak to resist even common pressure or injury, and the
passage through it would often be inconveniently or dangerously ob-
structed. Besides, it is necessary that this tube should occasionally admit
of elongation to a considerable degree. When the neck is extended in
the act of grazing or otherwise, the trachea must be leng-thened.

The structure of the cartilage of the ^vindpipe is admirably adapted to
efiect every purpose. It is divided into rings, fifty or fifty-two in number,
each possessing sufficient thickness and strength to resist ordinary pressure,
and each constituting a junction with the one above and below, and thus
admitting of all the flexibihty that could be required. These rings are
connected together by an interposed fibro- ligamentous substance, exten-
sible, elastic, and yet so strong that it is scarcely possible to rupture it ;
and the fibres of that ligament not running vertically from one to another,
and therefore admitting of little more motion than the rotation of the head,
but composed of two layers ruiming obliquely, and in contrary directions,
60 as to adapt themselves to every variety of motion.

These rings are tliickest in front, and project cii-cularly, opposing an

THE TRACHEA, OR WINDPIPE. 259

arcUike form. There, too, the ligament is ^videst, in order to admit of
the greatest motion in the direction in which it is most needed, when the
head is elevated or depressed. Laterally these rings are thinner, because
they are, to a great degi'ee, protected by the surrounding parts ; and,
posteriorly, they overlap each other, and the overlapping portions are con-
nected together by a strong hgamentous substance. This, while it does
not impede the motion of the tube, gives firmness and stability to it.

Within the trachea is another very curious structure. At the points at
which, posteriorly, the rings begin to bend inwardly, a muscle is found
stretching across the -windpipe, dividing the canal into two unequal por-
tions— the anterior one constituting the proper air-passage, and the
posterior one occupied by cellular texture. It is to give additional strength
to parts. It is the tie which prevents the arch from spurring out. In the
natural state of the windpipe this muscle is, probably, quiescent ; but
when any considerable pressure is made on the crown of the arch at the
upper part by tight-reining, or at the lower end by an ill-made collar, or
anywhere by brutal or accidental violence, this muscle contracts, every
serious expansion or depression of the arch is prevented, and the part is
preserved from serious injury.

It may also be readily imagined that, when in violent exertion, every
part of the respiratory canal is on the stretch, this band may preserve the
windpipe from injury or laceration. There are many beautiful points in
the physiology of the horse which deserve much greater attention than
has hitherto been paid to them.

The windpipe should project from the neck. It should almost seem as
if it were detached from the neck, for two important reasons : first, that
it may easily enter between the channels of the jaw, so that the horse may
be reined up without suffering inconvenience ; and next, that being more
loosely attached to the neck, it may more readily adapt itself to the changes
required than if it were enveloped by fat, or muscle to a certain degree
unyielding : therefore, in every well-formed neck — and it wiU be seen in
the cut (p. 237) — it is indispensable that the windpipe should be prominent
and loose on the neck. This is not required in the heavy cart-horse, and
we do not often find it, because he is not so much exposed to those cir-
cumstances that will hurry respiration, and require an enlargement in
the size of the principal air- tube.

When the trachea arrives at the thorax, it suddenly alters its form, in
order to adapt itself to the narrow triang-ular aperture through which it
has to pass. It preserves the same cartilaginous structure ; for if it has
not the pressure of the external muscles, or of accidental violence, to resist,
it is exposed to the pressure of the lungs, when they are inflating, and it
shares in the pressure of the diaphragm, and of the intercostal muscles, in
the act of expiration. Having entered the chest, it passes a little to the
right, leaving the oesophagus, or gullet, on the left ; it separates from the
dorsal vertebra ; it passes through the dupHcature of the mediastinum to
the base of the heart, and it divides beneath the posterior aorta. Its divi-
sions are called the bronchial tubes, and have much to do with the well-
being of the horse.

Its rings remain as perfect as before, but a new portion of cartilage
begins to present itself : it may be traced as high as the tenth ring from
the bottom ; it spreads over the union between the posterior terminations
of the rings ; it holds them in closer and firmer connection with each other ;
it discharges the duty of the transverse muscle, which begins here to dis-
appear, and the support of the cervical and dorsal vertebrae ; it prevents
the separation of the rings when the trachea is distended ; it spreads down
upon, and defends the commencement of the bronchial tubes. Some other

8 2

2«» THE BRONCHIAL TUBES.— THE LUNGS.

Bmall plates of cartilage reach a considerable way down the divisions o{
the bronchi, and the last ring has a central triangular projection, which
covers and defends the bifurcation of the trachea.

THE BRONCHIAL TUBES.

The windpipe has been traced through its course down the neck into
the chest. It is there continued through the mediastinum to the base o-f
the heart, and then divided into two tubes corresponding with the two
divisions of the lungs — the Bronchial Tubes — the right of which is rathev
the largest. These trunks enter deeply into the substance of the lungs.
They presently subdivide, and the subdivision is continued in eveiy direc-
tion, until branches from the trachea penetrate every assignable portion
and part of the lungs. They are still air-passages, carrying on this fluid
to its destination, for the accomplishment of a vital purpose.

They also continue exposed to pressure ; but it is pressure of a new
kind, a pressure alternately supplied and removed. The lungs in which
they are embedded alternately contract and expand ; and these tubes must
contract and expand likewise. Embedded in the lungs, the cartilaginous
ring of the bronchi remains, but it is divided into five or six segments con-
nected with each other. The lungs being compressed, the segments over-
lap each other, and fold up and occupy little space ; but the principle of
elasticity is still at work ; and as the pressure is removed, they start again,
and resume their previous form and calibre. It is a beautiful contrivance,
and exquisitely adapted to the situation in which these tubes are placed,
and the functions they have to discharge,

THE LUNGS.

The lungs are the seat of a peculiar circulation. They convey through
their comparatively small bulk the blood, and other fluids scarcely trans-
formed into blood, or soon separated from it, which traverse the whole
of the frame. They consist of countless ramifications of air-tubes and
blood-vessels connected together by intervening cellular substance.

They form two distinct bodies, the right somewhat larger than the left,
and are divided from each other by the duplicature of the pleura, which
has been already described — the mediastinum. Bach lung has the same
structure, and properties, and uses. Each of them is subdivided, the right
lobe consisting of three lobes, and the left of two. The intention of these
divisions is probably to adapt the substance of the lungs to the form of the
cavity in which they are placed, and to enable them more perfectly to
occupy and fill the chest.

If one of these lobes is cut into, it is found to consist of innumerable
irregularly formed compartments, to which anatomists have given the
name of lohiles, or little lobes. They are distinct from each other, and
impervious. On close examination, they can be subdivided almost without
end. There is no communication between them, or if pei-chance such
communication exists, it constitutes the disease knovra hj the name of
hrohen wind.

On the delicate membrane of which these cells are composed, innumer-
able minute blood-vessels ramify. They proceed from the heart, through
the medium of the pulmonary artery — they follow all the subdivisions of
the bronchial tubes — they ramify upon the membrane of these multitu-
dinous lobules, and at length return to the heart, tlvrough the medium of
the pulmonary veins, the blood, the character of which has been essentially
changed. The ofiice of the lungs may be very shortly stated. The blood
passing through tlie capillaries of the body and contributing to the
nourishment of the frame, and furnishing all the secretions, becomes, as

niE PLEURA. abl

we have described, changed. It is no longer able to support life : it ia
possessed of a poisonous principle, and that principle is a superabundance
of a substance called carbon, which must be got rid of, before the blood
can again be usefully employed. There is an ingredient in the atmospheric
air called oxygen, which has a strong attraction for this carbon, and Avhich
will unite v/ith it wherever it iinds it. The chest enlarges by the action
of the diaphragm, and the intercostal and other muscles, as we have
narrated, and the lungs expanding with the chest, in order to fill up the
vacuum which would otherwise exist between them and the sides of the
chest, these cells enlarge, and a kind of vacuum is formed in each of them,
and the air rushes down and fills them, and being divided from the venous
and poisoned blood by these membranes alone, it is enabled to act upon
the blood, the oxygen combines with the carbon to form carbonic acid,
and thus pui-ifies it, and renders it arterial blood, and fit for the purposes*
of life. This being accomplished, the chest contracts, the lungs are
pressed into smaller compass, and a portion of the air impregnated with
carbonic acid, and rendered poisonous in its turn, is pressed out. Presently
the chest expands again, and the lungs expand with it, and fresh, pm-e air
is admitted, which is shortly pressed out again, empoisoned by the carbon
of the blood : and these alternate expansions and contractions constitute
the act of breathing.

THE PLEUEA.

The walls of the chest are lined, and the lungs are covered, by a smooth
glistening membrane, the pleura. It is a seroi.is membrane, so called from
the nature of its exhalation, in distinction from the mucous secretion yielded
by the membrane of the air-passages. The serous membrane generally
invests the most important organs, and always those that are essentially
connected with Hfe, and lines all the enclosed cavities of the body ; while the
mucous membrane lines the interior of those cavities which have external
openings. The pleura is the investing membrane of the lungs, and a mucous
membrane the lining one of the bronchial tubes.

Among the circumstances principally to be noticed, with regard to the
pleura, is the poKsh of its internal surface. The glistening appearance of the
lungs, and of the inside of the chest, is to be attributed to the membrane by
which they are covered, and by means of which the motion of the various
organs is freer and less dangerous. Although the lungs, and the bony walls
which contain them, are in constant approximation with each other, both in
expiration and inspiration, yet in the frequently hurried and violent motion
of the animal, and, in fact, in every act of expiration and inspiration, of
dilatation and contraction, much and injui-ious friction would ensue if the
surfaces did not gHde freely over each other by means of the pecuHar
polish of this membrane.

Every serous membrane has innumerable exhalent vessels upon its
sxtrface, from which a certain quantity of fluid is poui'ed out. In Hfe and
during health it exists in the chest only as a kind of dew, just sufficient
to lubricate the surfaces. When the chest is opened soon after death, we
recognise it in the steam that arises, and in the few drops of fluid, which,
being condensed, are found at the lowest part of the chest.

The quantity, however, which is exhaled from all the serous membranes
must be very great. It is perhaps equal or superior to that which is
yielded by the vessels on the surface of the body. K very Httle is found
in ordinary cases, it is because the absorbents are as numerous and as
active as the exhalents, and, during health, that which is poured out by
the one is taken up by the other ; but in circumstances of disease, either
when the exhalents are stimulated to undue action, or the power of the

•262 THE PLEURA.

absorbents is diminished, the fluid rapidly and greatly accunmlates. T'hns
we have hydrothorax or dropsy of the chest, as one of the consequences of
inflammation of the chest ; and the same disturbed balance of action will
produce similar effusion in other cavities.

The adaptation of membrane generally is nowhere more strikingly dis-
played than in the serous membranes, and particularly in that under con-
sideration. How different the bulk of the lungs before the act of inspira-
tion has commenced, and after it has been completed, and especially in the
laborious respiration of disease or rapid exertion ! In either state of the
lungs the pleiira is perfectly fitted to that which it envelopes.

The pleura, like other serous membranes, is possessed of very little
sensibility. Few nerves from the sensitive column of the spinal cord
reach it. Acute feeling would render these membranes generally, and
this membrane in particular, unfit for the function they have to discharge.
It has too much motion, even during sleep ; and far too forcible friction
with the parietes of the thorax in morbid or hurried respiration, to render
it convenient or useful for it to possess much sensation. Some of those
anatomists, whose experiments on the living animal do no credit to their
humanity, have given most singular proof of the insensibility, not only
of these serous membranes, but of the organs which they invest. Bichat
frequently examined the spleen of dogs. He detached it from some of its
adhesions, and left it protruding from the wound in the abdomen, in order
' to study the phenomena ; ' and he saw ' them tearing off that organ, and
eating it, and thus feeding upon their own substance.' In some experi-
ments, in which part of their intestines were left out, he observed them,
as soon as they had the opportunity, tear to pieces their own viscera with-
out any visible pain.

Although it may be advantageous that these important organs shall be
thus devoid of sensibility when in health, in order that we may be
unconscious of their action and motion, and that they may be rendered
perfectly independent of the will, yet it is equally needful that, by the
feeling of pain, we should be warned of the existence of any dangerous
disease : and thence it happens that this membrane, and also the organ
which it invests, acquire under inflammation the highest degree of sensi-
bility. The countenance of the horse labouring under pleurisy or pneu-
monia will suflBciently indicate a state of suffering ; and the spasmed bend
of his neck, and his long and anxious and intense gaze upon his side, tell
us that that suffering is extreme.

Nature, however, is wise and benevolent even here. It is not of every
morbid affection, or morbid change, that the animal is conscious. If a
mucous membrane is diseased, he is rendered painfully aware of that, for
neither respiration nor digestion could be perfectly carried on while there
was any considerable lesion of it ; but, on the other hand, we find tubercles
in the parenchyma of the lungs, or induration or hepatisation of their
substance, or extensive adhesions, of which there were few or no indica-
tions during life.

The pleura adheres intimately to the ribs and to the substance of the
lungs, yet it is a very singular connection. It is not a continuance of the
same organisation ; it is not an interchange of vessels. The organ and its
membrane, although so closely connected for a particular purpose, yet in
\ery many cases, and where it would least of all be suspected, have little
or no sympathy with each other. Inflammation of the lungs will some-
times exist, and will run on to disorganisation, while the pleura will be
very little afi'ected : and, much oftener, the pleura will be the seat of
inflammation and will be attended by increased exhalation to such an
extent as to suffocate the animal, and yet the lungs will exhibit little other

SPASM OF THE DIAPHRAGM. 'J63

morbid appearance than that of mere compression. The disease of a
mucous membrane spreads to other parts — that of a serous one is generally
isolated. It was to limit the progress of disease that this difference of
structure between the organ and its membrane was contrived.

The investing membrane of the lungs and that of the heart are in con-
tinual contact with each other, but thej are as distinct and unconnected,
as if they were placed in different parts of the frame. Is there no meaning
in this ?

It is to preserve the perfect independence of organs equally important,
yet altogether different in structure and function — to oppose an insuperable
barrier to hurtful sympathy between them, and especially to cut off the
communication of disease.

Perhaps a little light begins to be thrown on a circumstance of which
we have occasional painfal experience. AYhile we may administer physic,
or mild aperients at least, in pleurisy, not only with little danger, but with
manifest advantage, we may just as well give a dose of poison as a physic-
ball to a horse labouring under pneumonia. The pleura is connected with
the lungs, and with the lungs alone, and the organisation is so different,
that there is very Httle sympathy between them. A physic-ball may,,
therefore, act as a counter-irritant, or as giving a new determination to the
vital current, Tvdthout the propagation of sympathetic irritation ; but the
lungs or the bronchial tubes that ramify through them are continuous with
the mucous membranes of the digestive as well as all the respiratory
passages ; and on account of the continuity and similarity of organisation,
there is much sympathy between them. If there is irritation excited at
the same time in two different portions of the same membrane, it is pro-
bable that, instead of being shared between them, the one will be trans-
ferred to the other — will increase or double the other, and act with fear-
ful and fatal violence.

SPASM OP THE DIAPHRAGM.

The diaphragm is subject to injury and disease of a serious and varied
character. Whatever may be the original seat of thoracic or abdominal
ailment, the diaphragm soon becomes ii-ritable and inflamed. This accounts
for the breathing of the horse being so much affected under every inflam-
mation or excitement of the chest or belly. The irritability of this muscle
is often evinced by a singular spasmodic action of a portion, or the wholo
of it.

Mr. Castley, in 'The Veterinarian' for 1831, thus describes a case of
it : — ' A horse had been very much distressed in a run of nearly tliirteen
miles, without a check, and his rider stopped on the road towards home,
to rest him a little. With difficulty he was brought to the stable. Mr.
Castley was sent for, and he says, — " When I first saw the animal, his
breathing and attitude indicated the greatest distress. The prominent
symptom, however, was a convulsive motion, or jerking of the whole body,
audible at several yards' distance, and evidently proceeding from his
inside ; the beats appeared to be about forty in a minute. On placing my
hand over the heart, the action of that organ could be felt, but very in-
distinctly ; the beating evidently came from behind the heart, and was
most plainly to be felt in the direction of the diaphragm. Again placing
my hand on the abdominal muscles, the jerks appeared to come from
before backwards ; the impression on my mind, therefore, Avas, that this
was a spasmodic affection of the diaphragm, brought on by violent dis-
tress in running." '

^Iv. Castley's account is inserted thus at length, because it was fhe
first of the kind on record, Avith the exception of an opinion of Mv.

264 RUPTURE OF THE DIAPHRAGM.

Apperley, in his work 'Nimrod on the Condition of Hunters,' which came
very near to the truth. ' When a horse is very much exhausted after a long
run with hounds, a noise will sometimes be heard to proceed from his
inside, which is often erroneously supposed to be the beating of his heart,
whereas it proceeds from the excessive motion of the abdominal muscles '

Mr, Castley shall pursue his case (it will be a most useful guide to the
treatment of these cases) : ' Finding that there was Httle pulsation to bo
felt at the submaxillary artery, and judging from that circumstance that
any attempt to bleed at that time would be worse than useless, I ordered
stimulants to be given. "We first administered three ounces of spirit of
nitric ether, in a bottle of warm water ; but this producing no good efiiect,
we shortly afterwards gave two drachms of the sub-carbonate of ammonia
in a ball, allowing the patient, at the same time, plenty of white water to
drink. About a quarter of an hour after this, he broke out into a profuse
perspiration, which continued two hours, or more. The breathing became
more tranquil, but the convulsive motion of the diaphragm still continued
without any abatement. After the sweating had ceased, the pulse became
more perceptible, and the action of the heart more distinct, and I considered
this to be the proper time to bleed. When about ten pounds had been ex-
tracted, I thought that the beating and the breathing seemed to increase ;
the bleeding was stopped, and the patient Httered up for the night. In the
morning, the affection of the diaphragm was much moderated, and about
eleven o'clock it ceased, after continuing eighteen or nineteen hours, A
Kttle tonic medicine was afterwards administered, and the horse soon re-
covered his usual appetite and spirits.'

Later surgeons administer, and with good effect, opium in small doses,
together with ammonia, or nitric ether, and have recourse to bleeding as
soon as any reaction is perceived.

Over- fatigue, of aLmost every kind, has produced spasm of the diaphragm,
and so has over- distension of the stomach with grass.

RUPTURE OP THE DIAPHRAGM.

This is an accident, or the consequence of disease, very lately brought
under the cognisance of the veterinary surgeon. The first communication
of its occurrence was from Mr. King, a friend of Mi-. Percivall, in ' The
Veterinarian,' 1828. It occurred in a mare that had been ridden sharply
for half a dozen miles when she was full of grass. She soon afterwards
exhibited symptoms of broken-wind, and, at length, died suddenly, while
standing in the stable. The diaphragm was lacerated on the left side,
through its whole extent, throwing the two cavities into one.

Since that period, from the increasing and very proper habit of examining
every dead horse, cases of this accident have rapidly multiplied. Mr.
Percivall states, in his ' Hippopathology,' that it may follow any act of
extraordinary exertion, and efforts of every kind, particularly on a full
stomach, or when the bowels are distended with green or other food Likely
to generate gas. Considerable caution, however, should be exercised when
much gaseous fluid is present, for the bowels may be distended, and forced
against the diaphragm to such a degree as to threaten to burst.

An interesting case of rupture of the diaphragm was related by Professor
Spooner at one of the meetings of the Veterinary Medical Association, A
horse having been saddled and bridled for riding, was turned in his stall
and fastened by the bit-straps. Something frightened him — he reared,
broke the bit-strap, and fell backward. On the following morning he was
evidently in great pain, kicking, heaving, and occasionally lying down.
Mr. S. was sent for +o examine him, but was not told of the event of the
preceding day. He considered it to be a case of enteritis, and treated it

CATARRH, OR COLD 265

accordingly. He bled him largely, and, in the course of the day, the horse
appeared to be decidedly better, every symptom of pain having vanished.
The horse was more lively — he ate with appetite, but his bowels remained
constipated.

On the following day there was a fearful change. The animal was
suffering sadly — the breathing was laborious, and the membrane of the
nose intensely red, as if it were more a case of inflammation of the lungs
than of the bowels. The bowels were stdl constipated. The patient was
bled and physicked again, but without avail. He died, and there was
found rupture of the diaphragm, protrusion of intestine into the thoracic
cavity, and extensive pleural and peritoneal inflammation.

In rupture of the diaphragm the horse occasionally sits on his haunches
like a dog, but this is far from being an infallible symptom of the disease.
It accompanies introsusception, as well as rupl-ure of the diaphragm. The
weight of the intestines may possibly cause any protruded part of them to
descend again into the abdomen.

CATARRH, OR COLD.

Catarrh, or cold, is attended by a slight defluxion from the nose — now
and then, a slighter weeping from the eyes, and some increased labour of
breathing, on account of the uneasiness which the animal experiences from
the passage of the air over the naturally sensitive and now more than
usually irritable surface, and from the air-passage being diminished by a
thickening of the membrane. When this is a simply local inflammation,
attended by no loss of appetite or increased animal temperature, it may
speedily pass over.

In many cases, however, the inflammation of a membrane naturally so
sensitive, and rendered so morbidly irritable by our absurd treatment,
rapidly spreads, and involves the fauces, the lymphatic and some of the
salivary glands, the throat, the parotid gland, and the membrane of the
larynx. "We have then increased discharge from the nose, greater redness
of the membrane of the nose, more defluxion from the eyes, and loss of
appetite from a degree of fever associating itself with the local affection,
and there also being a greater or less degree of pain in the act of swallow-
ing, and which if the animal feels he will never eat. Cough now appeal's
more or less frequent or painful ; but with no great acceleration of the
pulse, or heaving of the flanks.

Catarrh may arise from a thousand causes. Membranes subjected to so
many sources of irritation soon become irritable. Exposure to cold or
rain, change of stable, change of weather, change of the sKghtest portion
of clothing, neglect of grooming, and a variety of circumstances appa-
rently trifling, and which they who are unaccustomed to horses would
think could not possibly produce any injurious effect, are the causes of
catarrh. In the spring of the year, and while moulting, a great many
young horses have cough ; and in the dealers' stables, where the process
of making up the horse for sale is carrying on, there is scarcely one of
them that escapes this disease.

In the majority of cases, a few warm mashes, warm clothing, and a
cool stable, and a fever ball or two, will set all right. Indeed, all would
soon be right without any medicine ; and much more speedily and per-
fectly than if the cordials, of which grooms and farriers are so fond, had
been given. Nineteen horses out of twenty with common catarrh will do
well ; but in the twentieth case, a neglected cough may be the precursor
of bronchitis, and pneumonia. These chest affections often insidiously
creep on, and inflammation is frequently established before any one be-
longing to the horse is aware of its existence. Purgative medicines

266 INFLAMMATION OF THE LARYNJ.

should never be given in catan^li. It can scarcely be known what sym-
patliy may exist between the portion of membrane already affected, and
the mucous membranes generally. In severe thoracic affection, or in that
which may soon become so, a dose of physic would be Httle better than a
dose of poison. If, however, careful investigation renders it evident that
there is no affection of the lungs, and that tie disease has not proceeded
beyond the fauces, small doses of aloes may with advantage be united with
other medicines in order to evacuate the intestinal canal, and reduce the
fgecal discharge to a pultaceous form.

If catarrh is accompanied by sore throat ; if the parotids should enlarge
and become tender — there are no tonsils, amygdalce, in the horse — or if
the submaxillary glands should be inflamed, and the animal should quid
his food and gulp his water, this will be an additional reason for carO;
and also for warm clothing and a comfortable stable. A hot stable is not
meant by the tenn comfortable, in wliich the foul air is breathed over and
over again, but a temperature some degrees above that of the external air,
and where that determination to the skin and increased action of the
exhalent vessels, which in these cases are so desirable, may take place.
Every stable, both for horses in sickness and in health, should have in it a
thermometer.

Some stimulating liniment may be applied over the inflamed gland,
strong enough to produce considerable irritation on the skin, but not to
blister, or to destroy the hair. An embrocation sufiiciently powerful,
and yet that never destroys the hair, consists of equal parts of harts-
horn, oil of turpentine, and camphorated spirit, with a small quantity of
laudanum.

INFLAMMATION OP THE LARYNX.

Strictly speaking, this refers to inflammation confined to the larynx, but
either catarrh or bronchitis, or both, frequently accompany the complaint.

Its approach is often insidious, scarcely to be distinguished from catarrh
except by being attended with more soreness of throat, and less enlarge-
ment of the parotid glands. There are also more decided and violent
paroxysms of coughing than in common catarrh, attended by a gurgling
noise, which may be heard at a little distance from the horse, and which,
by auscultation, is decidedly referable to the larynx. The breathing is
shorter and quicker, and evidently more painful than in catarrh ; the
membrane of the nose is redder ; it is of a deep modena colour ; and the
horse shrinks and exhibits great pain when the larynx is pressed upon.
The paroxysms of coughing become more frequent and violent, and the
animal appears at times almost suffocated.

As the soreness of the throat proceeds, the head of the animal is pro-
jected, and the neck has a peculiar stiffness. There is also much difficulty
of swallowing. Considerable swelling of the larynx and the pharynx
ensues, and also of the parotid, subling-ual, and submaxillary glands. As
the inflammation increases, the cough becomes hoarse and feeble, and in
some cases altogether suspended. At the commencement there is usually
little or no nasal defluxion, but the secretion soon appears, either pure or
mixed with an unusual quantity of saliva.

Auscultation is a very important aid in the discovery of the nature and
serious or trifling character of this disease. It cannot be too often re-
peated that it is one of the most valuable means which we possess of
detecting the seat, intensity and results, of the maladies of the respiratory
passages. No instrument is required ; the naked ear can be applied evenly
and flatly, and with a very slight pressure, on any part that it is of
importance to examine. The healthy sound, when the ear is applied to

INFLAMAtATION OF THE TRACHEA. 267

tlie "windpipe, is tliat of a body of air passing ■uninterruptedly tlirougli »
smootli tube of somewhat considerable calibre : it very much resembles
the sound of a pair of forge bellows, when not too violently worked.

He who is desirous of ascertaining whether there is any disease in the
larynx of a horse, should apply his ear to the lower part of the windpipe.
If he finds that the air passes in and out without interruption, there is no
disease of any consequence either in the windpipe or the chest ; for it
would immediately be detected by the loudness or the interruption of the
murmur. Then let him gradually proceed up the neck with his ear still
upon the windpipe. Perhaps he soon begins to recognise a little gurgling,
grating sound. As he continues to ascend, that sound is more decisive,
mingled with an occasional wheezing, whistKng noise. He can have no
surer proof that here is the impediment to the passage of the air, proceed-
ing from the thickening of the membrane and diminution of the passage, or
increased secretion of mucus, which bubbles and rattles as the breath
passes. By the degi-ee of the rattling or whistling, the owner will judge
which cause of obstruction preponderates — in fact, he "ndll have discovered
the seat and the state of the disease, and the sooner he has recourse to
professional advice the better.

Chronic lainingitis is of more frequent occurrence than acute. Many of
the coughs that are most troublesome are to be traced to this source.

In violent cases laryngitis terminates in suffocation ; in others, in thick
wind or in roaring. Occasionally it is necessary to have recourse to the
operation of tracheotomy.

In acute laryngitis the treatment to be pursued is sufficiently plain.
Blood must be abstracted, and that from the jugular vein, for there will
then be the combined advantage of general and local bleeding. The blood
must be somewhat copiously withdrawn, depending on the degree of in-
flammation— the practitioner never for a moment forgetting that he has to
do with inflammation of a mucous membrane, and that what he does
he must do quickly. He will have lost the opportunity of struggling
successfully with the disease when it has altered its character and debility
has succeeded. The cases must be few and far between when the surgeon
makes up his mind to any determinate quantity of blood, and leives his
assistant or his groom to abstract it ; he must himself bleed, and tmtil the
pulse flutters or the constitution is evidently afiected.

!N"ext must be given the fever medicine already recommended : the nitre,
and emetic tartar, with aloes. Aloes may here be safely given, because
the chest is not yet implicated. To this must be added, and immediately,
a blister, and a sharp one. The surgeon is sure of the part, and he can
bring his counter-irritant almost into contact with it.

Inflammation of the larynx, if not speedily subdued, produces sad disor-
ganisation in this curiously formed and important machine. Lymph is
effused, morbidly adhesive, and speedily organised — the membrane becomes
thickened, considerably, permanently so — the submucous cellular tissue
becomes oedematous ; the inflammation spreads from the membrane of the
larynx to the cartilages, and difficulty of breathing, and at length confirmed
roaring, ensue.

INFLAMMATION OP THE TRACHEA.

Inflammation of the membrane of the larynx, and especially when it has
run on to ulceration, may rapidly spread, and involve the greater part or
the whole of the lining membrane of the trachea. Auscultation will dis-
cover when this is taking place. If the disease is extending down the
trachea, it must be followed. A blister miist reach as low as the rattling
sound can be detected, and somewhat beyond this, and the fever medicines
must be administered in somewhat increased doses.

«6« ROARING.

Geuerally speaking, however, although ihe inflammation is now ap-
proaching the chest, its extension into the trachea is not an unfavourable
symptom. It is spread over a more extended surface, and is not so intense
or untractable. It is involving a part of the frame less compHcated, and
where less mischief can be efiected. True, if the case is neglected, it must
terminate fatally ; but it is coming more within reach, and more under
command, and, the proper means being adopted, the change is rather a
favourable one.

The disorganisations produced in the trachea are similar to some which
have been described in the larynx. The same formation of organised
bands of coagulated lymph, the same thickening of membrane, dimination
of calibre, and foundation for roaring.

ROARING.

The present wiU be the proper place to speak of that singular impair-
ment of the respiratory function recognised by this name. It is an unna-
tural, loud grunting sound made by the animal in the act of breathing
when in quick action or on any sudden exertion. On carefully listening
to the sound, it will appear that the roaring is produced in the act of in-
spiration and not in that of expiration. If the horse is briskly trotted on
a level surface, and more particularly if he is trotted up hill, or if he is
suddenly threatened with a stick, this peculiar sound will be heard and
cannot be mistaken. When dishonest dealers are showing a horse that
roars, but not to any great degree, they trot away gently, and as soon as
they are too far for the sound to be heard, show off the best paces of the
animal : on returning, they gradually slacken their speed when they come
within a suspicious distance. This is sometimes technically called ' the
dealers' long trot.'

Roaring is exceedingly unpleasant to the rider, and it is manifest un-
soundness. It is the sudden and violent rushing of the air through a tube
of diminished cahbre ; and if the impediment, whatever it is, renders it so
-difficult for the air to pass in somewhat increased action, sufficient cannot
be admitted to give an adequate supply of arteriahsed blood in extra-
ordinary or long-continued exertion. Therefore, as impairing the function
of respiration, although, sometimes, only on extraordinary occasions, it is
unsoundness. In as many cases as otherwise, it is a very serious cause ol
unsoundness. The roarer, when hardly pressed, is often blo^vn even to the
hazard of suffocation, and there are cases on record of his suddenly drop-
ping and dying when urged to the top of his speed.

It must not, however, be taken for granted that the roarer is always
worthless. There are few hunts in which there is not one of these horses,
who acquits himself very fairly in the field ; and it has occasionally so
happened that the roarer has been the very crack horse of the hunt : yet
he must be ridden with judgment, and spared a little when going up-hill.
There is a village in the West Riding of Yorkshire, through which a band
of smugglers used frequently to pass in the dead of night: the horse of the
leader, and the best horse of the troop, and on which his owner would bid
defiance to all pursuit, was so rank a roarer that he could be heard at a
considerable distance. The clattering of aU the rest scarcely made so
much noise as the roaring of the captain's horse. When this became a
little too bad, and he did not fear immediate pursuit, the smuggler used to
halt the troop at some convenient hayrick, on the roadside, and, having
suffered the animal tc distend his stomach with this dry food, as he was
always ready enough to do, he would remount and gallop on, and, for a
while, the roaring was scarcely heard. It is somewhat difficult to account
for this. Perhaps the loaded stomach now pressing against the diaphragm,

ROARING. 265

that muscle had harder work to displace this viscus in the act of enlarging
the chest and producing the act of inspiration, and accomplished it more
slowly, and therefore, the air passing more slowly by, the roaring was
diminished. We do not dare to calculate what must have been the in-
creased labour of the diaphragm in moving the loaded stomach, nor how
much sooner the horse must have been exhausted. This did not enter
into the owner's reckoning, and probably the application of whip and spur
would deprive him of the means of forming a proper calculation of it.

Roaring proceeds from obstruction in some portion of the respiratory
canal, andoftenest in the larynx, where there is the least room to spare — that
cartilaginous box being occupied by the mechanism of the voice : next in
frequency it is in the trachea, but, in fact, obstruction anywhere will
produce it. Mr. Blaine, quoting from a French journalist, says, that a
piece of riband lodged within one of the nasal fossa? produced roaring,
and that even the displacement of a molar tooth has been the supjiosed
cause of it. Polypi in the nostrils have been accompanied by it. Mr.
Sewell found, as an evident cause of roaring, an exostosis between the twc
first ribs, and pressing upon the trachea ; and Mr. Percivall goes farther,
and says that his father repeatedly blistered and fired a horse for bad
roaring, and even performed the operation of tracheotomy, and at length
the roaring being so loud when the horse was led out of the stable, that it
was painful to hear it — the poor animal was destroyed. No thickening
of the membrane was found, no disease of the larynx or trachea ; but the
lungs were hepatised throughout the greater part of theii' substance, and
many of the smaller divisions of the bronchi were so compressed, that they
were hardly pervious.

Bands of Coagidated Lj/mpJi. — A frequent cause of roaring is bands of
coagulated lymph, morbidly viscid and tenacious, adhering firmly on one
side, and by some act of cougliing brought into contact vdib. and adhering
to the other side, and becoming gradually organised. At other times
there have been rings of coagulated lymph adhering to the lining of the
trachea, but not organised. In either case they form a mechanical ob-
struction, aiLd will account for the roaring noise produced by the air
rushing vimently through the diminished calibre, in hurried respiration.
Thickening of the membrane is a more frequent cause of roaring than the
transverse bands of coagulated lymph. In many morbid specimens it ia
double or treble its natural thickness, and covered with manifold ulcer-
ations. This is particularly annoying in the upper part, of the windpipe,
where the passages in their natural state are narrow. Thus it is that
roaring is the occasional consequence of strangles and catarrh, and other
affections of the superior passages.

There is scarcely a horse of five or six years old who has not a portion
of the thyroid cartilage ossified. In some cases the greater part of the
cartilages are becoming bony, or sujBGciently so to weaken or destroy their
elastic power, and consequently to render it impossible for them to be
freely and fully acted upon by the dehcate muscles of the larynx.

Chronic cough occasionally terminates in roaring. Some have imagined
that the dealers' habit of coughing the horse, i.e. pressing upon the larynx
to make him cough, in order that they may judge of the state of his wind
by the sound that is emitted, has produced inflammation about the larynx,
which has terminated in roaring, or assisted in producing it. That pain
is given to the animal by the rough and violent way in which the object is
sometimes attempted to be accomplished, is evident enough, and this must,
in process of time, lead to mischief; but sufficient inflammation and sub-
sequent ossification of the cartilages would scarcely be produced, to be a
cause of roaring.

i70 ROARING.

There can be no doubt of the fact, that the majority of roarers are
draught-horses, and horses of quick draught. They are not only subject
to the usual predisposing causes of this obstruction, but there is something
superadded, — resulting from their habits or mode of work, — not indeed
necessarily resulting, but that which the folly as Avell as cruelty of man has
introduced — the system of tight-reining. To a certain extent, the curb-rein
is necessary. Without it there would be scarcely any command over a Avilfal
horse, and it would need a strong arm occasionally to guide even the most
wilHng. Without the curb -rein the horse would carry himself low ; he
would go carelessly along ; he would become a stumbler ; and if he were
disposed at any time to run away, the strongest arm would have little
power to stop him : but there is no necessity for the tight rein, and for
the long and previous discipline to which the carriage-horse is subjected.
There is no necessity that the lower jaw, whether the channel is wide or
narrow, should be so forced on the neck, or that the larynx and the portion
<of the windpipe immediately beneath it should be flattened, and bent, and
twisted, and the respiratory j^assage not only obstructed, but in a manner
closed. The mischief is usually done when the horse is young. It is
effected in some measure by the impatience of the animal, unused to con-
trol, and sufl'ering pain. In the violent tossing of his head he ii-ritates the
larynx, and produces inflammation. The head of the riding-horse is
gradually brought to its proper place by the hands of the breaker, who
skilfully increases or relaxes the pressure, and humours and plays with
the mouth ; but the poor carriage-horse is confined by a rein that never
slackens, and his nose is bent in at the expense of the larynx and windpipe.
The injury is materially increased if the head is not naturally well set-on,
or the neck is thick or the jaws narrow.

Connected with this is the common notion that crib-biting is a cause of
roaring. That is altogether erroneous. There is no possible connection
between the complaints : but one of the methods that used to be resorted
to in order to cure crib-biting might be a cause of roaring, namely, the
strap so tightly buckled round the upper part of the neck as to compress,
and distort, and paralyse the larynx.

The question, however, as to the ordinary and common cause of
roaring remained for years an open one, but the answer has at length
been satisfactorily received, — the cause of roaring in the great majority
of cases, is a paralysis or atrophy of the muscles on the left side of the
larynx, affording, in contrast with the healthy muscles on the right side,
one of the most striking examples of pathological anatomy that can
possibly be conceived. But what is the cause of this atrophy or wast-
ing of the muscles, and why are the njuscles thus afiected ahvays those
of the left side ? The cause is paralysis of the left recurrent nerve, the
motor nerve by which they are stimulated to action, and this stimulus lost,
they, like the muscles in any other part of the body in a paralysed person,
lose their fullness, theii' colour, and their function, and become impotent
and flaccid. But still, why does this occur always on the left side ? The
reason would appear to be this — nerves in gensral when distributed in
pairs, and nearly all nerves are so, take the same course on either side
of the body ; the recurrent nerves, however, which are the motive nerves
of the muscles of the larynx, are an exception to this rule, the left one has
a longer and more complicated route than the right : the consequence has
been found to be, that it is more liable to morbid change, disease, and
wasting than its fellow, and the muscles it ought to supply with nervous
energy perish away from the want of it, and cease to perform their share
in regulating the action of the larynx ; its opening in consequence becomes
distorted, and roaring is the result. The foreshadowing of this was fii'st

KOAKING. 271

noticed by the late John Field, who, in the course of some experiments,
having divided the left recurrent nerve, the horse immediately became a
roarer, and continued so to the day of his death.

It has requu'ed the experience of years, however, to prove that this,
>vhich might have been considered a merely curious coincidence, is abso-
lutely an universally-recognised cause of this disease — the other causes
already enumerated may occasionally produce the same result, but in the
present day they Avill be received as mere exceptions to a very general rule.

Facts have established the hereditary predisposition to roaring, beyond
the possibiHty of doubt.

In France it is notorious that three-fourths of the horses from Cottentin
are roarers and some of them are roarers at six months old ; but about
La Hague and Le Bocase, not a roarer is kno"\vn. There is certainly a
considerable difference in the soil of the two districts ; the first is low and
marshy, the latter elevated and dry : but tradition traces it to the intro-
duction of some foreign horses into Cottentin, who bequeathed this
infirmity to their progeny.

In our own country, there is as decisive a proof. There was a valuable
stalHon in Norfolk, belonging to Major Wilson, of Didlington. He was
a great favourite, and seemed to be getting some excellent stock ; but he
was a roarer, and some of the breeders took alarm at this .They had occa-
sionally too painful experience of the communication of the defects of the
parent to his progeny ; and they feared that roaring might possibly be
among these hereditary c-vtlIs. Sir Charles Bunbury was requested to
obtain Mr. Cline's opinion on the subject, Mr. Cline was a deservedly
eminent human surgeon : he had exerted himself in the establishment of
the Veterinary College : he was an examiner of veterinary pupils, and
therefore it was supposed that he must be competent to give an opinion.
He gave one, and at considerable length : — ' The disorder in the horse,'
said he, ' which constitutes a roarer, is caused by a membranous projec-
tion in a part of the windpipe, and is the consequence of that part having
been inflamed from a cold, and injudiciously treated. A roarer, therefore,
is not a diseased horse, for his lungs and every other part may be perfectly
sound. The existence of roaring in a stalHon cannot be of any conse-
quence. It cannot be propagated any more than a broken bone, or any
other accident.'- — A fair specimen of the horse-knowledge of one of the
best of the medical examiners of veterinary pupils.

Sir Charles returned full of glee ; the good people of Norfolk and
Suffolk were satisfied ; Major Wilson's horse was in high request : but in a
few years a great part of the two counties was overrun with roarers, and
many a breeder half ruined. Roaring is not, however, necessarily heredi-
tary. Mr. Goodwin, whose name is great authority, states that Taurus, a
celebrated racer that had become a roarer, had covered several mares, and
their produce all turned out well, and had won several races. In no instance
did his progeny exhibit this defect, notwithstanding that his own family
were notorious for being roarers. EcHpse also is said to have been a roarer.

What then is to be done with these animals ? Abandon them to their
fate ? No, not so ; but there is no necessity rashly to undertake a hopeless
affair. AU possible knowledge must be obtained of the origin of the
disease. Did it follow strangles, catarrh, bronchitis, or any affection of
the respiratory passages ? Is it of long standing ? Is it now accom-
panied by cough or any symptoms of local or general irritation ? Can any
disorganisation of these parts be detected ? Any distortion of the larynx ?
Did it follow breaking-in to harness ? The answer to these questions will
materially guide any fatare proceedings.

If there is plaiu distortion of the larynx or trachea, or the disease

272 INFLUENZA.

can be associated, in point of time, ■writh breaking-in to harness, or the
coachman or proprietor has been accustomed to rein the animal jd
too tightly or too cruelly, or the sire was a roarer, it is almost useless
to have anything to do with the case. But if it is of rather recent
date, and following closely on some disease with which it can be clearly
connected, careful examination of the patient may be commenced. Is there
cough ? Can any heat or tenderness be detected about the larynx oi'
trachea ? Is there in every part the same uniform rushing noise ; or, on
some particular spot, can a more violent breathing, a wheezing oi
whistling, or a rattling and guggling, be detected ? Is that wheezing or
ratthng either confined to one spot, or less sonorous as the ear recedes from
that spot above or below ; or is it diffused over a considerable portion of
the trachea ?

In these cases it would be fair to purge, and most certainly to blister.
The ear will guide to the part to which the blister should be applied. The
physic having set, a course of fever medicine should be commenced. It
should be considered as a case of chronic inflammation, and to be subdued
by a continuance of moderate depletory measures. A second dose of physic
should be given, and, most certainly, the blister should be repeated, or
kept discharging by means of some stimulating unguent.

Of late years the actual cautery has been employed, and firing horses'
throats for roaring is at the present time a very fashionable remedy with
some practitioners, but it possesses no particular curative power, further
than being a more powerful counter-irritant than the common blister
ointment, but has the disadvantage of causing a permanent blemish. The
degree of success which attends these measures would determine the
farther pursuit of them. No one would eagerly undertake a case of roar-
ing ; but, having undertaken it, he should give the measures that he
adopts a fair trial, remembering that, in every chronic case like this, the
only hope of success depends on perseverance.

The terms wheezing and whistling are simply varieties of roaring, and
express the noise made in the act of respiration. Wheezing is a sound not
unlike that of an asthmatic person when hurried, and sometimes arises
from impediments in the air-passages of the lungs. It can be heard at all
times, even when the horse is at rest in the stable. The whistler utters a
shriller sound than the wheezer, but only when in exercise, and that of
some continuance. A sudden motion will not always produce it. A sharp
gallop up-hill will generally detect the whistler, although in some instances,
when slight, it will be heard more distinctly in slow paces. It usually
proceeds from the same causes as roaring and frequently terminates in
that disease. Both these states constitute unsoundness.

When the obstruction seems to be principally in the nose, the horse
loudly puffs and blows, and the false nostrils are dilated to the utmost,
while the flanks are comparatively quiet. This animal is said to be a
High-blower. With all his apparent distress, he often possesses great
speed and endurance. The sound is unpleasant, but the lungs may be
perfectly sound.

INFLUENZA, OR EPIDEMIC CATARRH.

Various names are given to this disease — influenza, distemper, catarrhal
fever, and epidemic catarrh — its usual history is as follows.

Ii? the spring of the year — a cold wet spring — and that succeeding to
a mild winter, and es])ecially among young horses, and those in high
condition, or made up for sale, or that have been kept in hot stables, or
exposed to the usual causes of inflammation, this disease principally prevails.
Those that are in moderate work, and that are correspondingly fed,

INFLUENZ^ 273

occasionally escape, or, even when it appears in most of the stables of any
particular district, horses in barracks, regularly worked and moderately fed,
although far from being entirely exempt, are comparatively less frequently
affected.

If it has been observed from the beginning, it will be found that the
attack is sudden, frequently ushered in by shivering, and that quickly
succeeded by acceleration of pulse, heat of mouth, staring coat, diminution
of appetite, painful but not hard cough, redness of the membrane of the
nose, swollen and weeping eye, dejected countenance — these are the
symptoms of catarrh. The leading characteristics are the typhoid or
debilitating character of the disease and the accompanying sore thi'oat — and
the ease and certainty with which this sore throat is detected is remark-
able, for almost the sUghtest pressure of the finger and thumb on the larynx
or upper part of the Avindpipe, of which the animal would not take the
shghtest notice when in health, will at once induce short, sore, and abnipt, or
a restrained, but evidently painful, attempt to cough : intense thirst is the
invariable accompaniment of this attack, and the struggles made to relieve
it are unpleasant to vdtness, the water returning by the nostril as fast as
it is taken into the mouth, the act of swallowing being too painful an effort
for the animal to persist in. This is the form under which the disease is
usually now seen.

It clearly is not inflammation of the lungs ; for there is no coldness of
the extremities, no looking at the flanks, no stiS" immovable position, no
obstinate standing up. It is not simple catarrh ; for as early as the second
day there is evident debility. The horse staggers as he walks.

It is inflammation of the respiratory passages generally. It commences
in the membrane of the nose, but it gradually involves the whole of the
respiratory apparatus. Before the disease has been estabhshed four-and-
twenty hours, there is sore throat. The horse quids his hay, and gulps
his water. There is no great enlargement of the glands ; the parotids are
a little tumefied, the submaxillary somewhat more so, but not at all
equivalent to the degree of soreness. That soreness is excessive, and day
after day the horse will obstinately refuse to eat. Discharge from the
nose soon follows in considerable quantity: thick, very early pumlent, and
sometimes foetid. The breathing is rather accelerated and laborious at the
beginning, but does not always increase with the progi'ess of the disease
— nay, sometimes, a deceitful calm succeeds, and the pulse, quickened and
full at first, soon loses its firmness, and although it usually maintains it3
unnatural quickness, yet it occasionally deviates from this, and subsides to
little more than its natural standard. The extremities continue to be
comfortably warm, or at least the temperature is variable, and there is not
in the manner of the animal, or in any one symptom, a decided reference
to any particular part or spot as the chief seat of disease.

Thus the malady proceeds for an uncertain period : occasionally for
several days — in not a few instances through the whole of its course, and
the animal dies exhausted by extensive or general irritation : but in other
cases the ioflammation assumes a local determination, and we have bron-
chitis or pneumonia, but of no very acute character, yet difficult to treat,
from the general debility with which it is connected. Sometimes there
are considerable swelHngs in various parts, as the chest, the belly, the
extremities, and particularly the head. And when epidemic catarrh first
made its appearance in this country, in 1820-21, the leading symptom was
engorgement or swelling of the extremities, accompanied by great debihty
— the two fore-legs, the two hind-legs, or aU four, would in the course of
anight be distended to three or four times their natural size — or the head
would receive the first shock, swelling out of all shape, the nostrila

T

274 LVFLUENZA.

thickened and nearly closed, the eyes supercharged with fluid, and the
eyelids puffed out and completely closed — the sore throat always more
or less present, but only as a secondary symptom ; and in this distressing
form we occasionally meet with it still.

The most decided character in this disease is debility, Not the stiff,
unwilling motion of the horse with pneumonia, and which has been
mistaken for debility — every muscle being needed for the purposes of
respiration, and therefore imperfectly used in locomotion — but actual loss
of power of the muscular system generally. The horse staggers from the
second day. He threatens to fall if he is moved. He is sometimes down,
permanently down, on the third or fourth day. The emaciation is also
occasionally rapid and extreme.

At length the medical treatment which has been employed succeeds, or
nature begins to rally. The cough somewhat subsides ; the pulse assumes
a more natural standard; the countenance acquires a Httle more animation;
the horse will eat a small quantity of some choice thing ; and health and
strength slowly, very slowly indeed, return : but at other times, when
there has been no decided change during the progress of the disease, a
strange exacerbation of symptoms accompanies the closing scene. The
extremities become deathly cold; the flanks heave; the countenance betrays
greater distress ; the membrane of the nose is of an intense red ; and
inflammation of the substance of the lungs, and congestion and death,
speedily follow.

At other times the redness of the nostril suddenly disappears : it becomes
purple, livid, dirty brown, and the discharge is bloody and foetid, the
breath and all the excretions becoming foetid too. The mild character of
the disease gives way to malignant typhus : swellings, and purulent ulcers,
spread over different parts of the frame, and the animal is soon destroyed.

Post-mortevi Examination. — Examination after death sufficiently displays
the real character of the disease, — inflammation first of the respiratory
passages, and, in fatal or aggravated cases, of the mucous membranes
generally. From the pharynx to the termination of the small intestines,
and often including even the larger ones, there will not be a part free
from inflammation ; the upper part of the trachea will be filled with
adhesive spume, and the lining membrane thickened, injected, or ulcerated;
the lining tunic of the bronchi will exhibit unequivocal marks of inflam-
mation ; the substance of the lungs will be engorged, and often inflamed ;
the heart will partake of the same affection ; its external coat will be red,
or purple, or black, and its internal one will exhibit spots of ecchymosis ;
the pericardium will be thickened, and the pericardiac and pleuritic
bags will contain an undue quantity of serous, or bloody-serous, or
semi-purulent fluid.

The oesophagus wUl be inflamed, sometimes ulcerated — the stomach
frequently so ; the small intestines will vmiformly present patches of
inflammation or ulceration. The liver will be inflamed — the spleen
enlarged — no part, indeed, will have escaped ; and if the malady has
assumed a typhoid form in its latter stages, the universality and malig-
nancy of the ulceration will be excessive.

This disease is clearly attributable to atmospheric influence, but of the
precise nature of this influence we are altogether ignorant. It is some
foreio-n injurious principle which mingles with and contaminates the air,
but whence this poison is derived, or how it is diffused, we know not. It is
engendered, or it is most prevalent, in cold ungenial weather ; or this
weather may dispose the patient for catarrh, or prepare the tissues to be
affected by causes which would otherwise be harmless, or which may at
all times exis-t.

INFLUENZA. 275

It is most frequent in the spring of the year, but it occasionally rages in
autumn and in ■winter. It is epidemic ; it spreads over large districts.
It sometimes pervades the whole country. Scarcely a stable escapes. Its
appearance is sudden, its progress rapid. Mr. Wilkinson had thirty-six
new cases in one day. It is said that a celebrated practitioner in London
had nearly double that number in less than twenty-four hours.

At other times it is endemic. It pervades one town ; one little tract oi
country. It is confined to spots exceedingly circumscribed. It is dependent
on atmospheric agency, but this requires some injurious adjuvant, and the
principle of contagion may probably be called into play. It has been rifo
enough in the lower parts of the metropoHs, while in the upper and
north-western districts scarcely a case has occurred. It has occasionally
been confined to a locaHty not extending half-a-mile in any direction. In
one of the cavalry barracks the majority of the horses on one side of the
yard were attacked by epidemic catarrh, while there was not a sick horse
on the other side. These prevalences of disease, with these exceptions,
are altogether unaccountable. The stables, and the system of stable
manao-ement, have been most carefully inquired into in the infected and
the healthy districts, and no satisfactory difference could be ascertained.
One fact, however, has been established, and a very important one it is to
the horse proprietor as weU as the practitioner. The probability of the
disease seems to be in proportion to the number of horses inhabiting the
stable. Two or three horses shut up in a comparatively close stable may
escape. Out of thirty horses, disti-ibuted through ten or fifteen small
stables, not one may be affected ; but in a stable containing ten or twelve
horses the disease will assuredly appear, although it may be proportionally
laro-er and well ventilated. It is on this account that postmasters and
horse-dealers dread its appearance. In a sickly season their stables are
never free from it ; and if, perchance, it does enter one of their largest
Btables, almost every horse will be affected. Therefore also it is that
grooms have so much di-ead of a distempered stable, and that the odds are
BO seriously affected if distemper has broken out in a racing establishment.

Does this lead to the conclusion that epidemic catarrh is contagious ?
Not necessarily, but it excites strong suspicion of its being so, and there are
60 many facts of the disease extending to nearly every animal in the stable,
ihat it has been considered both infectious and contagious. There are
many well-informed grooms, and extensive ovmers of horses, and living
much among them, and even veterinary surgeons of considerable prac-
tice, who have considerable doubt about the matter — they lose sight,
however, of the fact, that there is in reahty no occasion to fly to either
infection or contagion to explain this. In a stable of twenty horses the
Dame cause that affects one may, and sometimes does, affect the other
nineteen, or any intei-mediate number ; knowing this to be the cause, why
look for adventitious causes when the same malaria, or whatever else
you may please to call it, may equally prostrate one, one score, or one
lindred ?

With regard to the treatment of epidemic catarrh there should not be
any considerable difiiculty. It is a disease of the mucous membrane, and
thus connected with much debihty ; but it is also a disease of a febrile cha-
racter, and the inflammation is occasionally considerable. The veterinary
surgeon, therefore, must judge for himself. Is the disease in its earhest
stage marked by inflammatory action ? Is there much redness of the nasal
membrane ? much acceleration of the pulse ? some heaving of the flank ?
and, if so, must not blood be abstracted ? No, a thousand times no !
Every drop lost may afterwards be wanted. !May be ? — nay, most surely
will be wanted, and alas ! wanted in vain. The disease is a typhoid fever,

•276 INFLUENZA.

and debilitates wliile it excites. The seat of the disease is a mucous
membrane, and nature's cure for a disease of a mucous membrane is to
increase its secretion, and thus thi^ow off the morbific cause. Will bleeding
assist tlie debihty, or enable the membrane to increase its functional
discharge ? It will, so far from it, prostrate the powers of nature and
disable her from having recourse to those health-restoring measures on
which hfe itself may depend.

The treatment of catarrh should consist of giving a fever draught con-
taining an ounce of spu-its of nitric ether, with six or eight ounces of hquor
ammonias acetatis, in a pint of water, twice a day. It has been objected
that no medicine whatever should be given while the throat is so inflamed
and sore ; but so far from this being an objection, it is the very reason why
a draught should be administered ; for, however smaU a quantity may be
swallowed, it acts as a gargle to the throat, and soon modifies the diseased
action of the mucous membrane. Counter- irritation to the throat is most
important ; for as sure as the outer skin becomes sore the internal surface
of the thi'oat becomes less so. The best application is the infasion or
tincture of Spanish flies diluted with a little soap liniment and spirit of
turpentine. This should be well rubbed in, enough having been appHed
to well moisten the skin, till the horse shakes his head at you as the indi-
cation of feeling it ; and may be repeated night and morning till the thick
scurf is thrown out on the skin. Should this fail in giving relief in forty-
eight hours, the throat should be bHstered ; and if the cough continues
troublesome, the insertion of a seton for a fortnight or three weeks will
generally remove it. Can fomentations be applied to relieve the inflamed
and turgid membrane of the mouth, nostrils, and fauces ? Yes, and to the
very parts, by steaming the head. For this purpose a pail or nose-bag
should be half filled with hay, boiling water poured on it, and the horse's
head kept steadily over it as long as the steam ascends, turning the hay
occasionally. The hay is a much better medium for applying the steam
than bran, and is not so Ukely to clog the nostrils.

The appetite is seldom altogether lost, although the horse may refase to
eat the two or three first days ; this, however, is more from inabihty than
from disinclination ; and, generally, on the third day tonics may be had
recourse to. The best of these is the sulphate of iron, which may be
given in 5ij- doses, dissolved in a pint of water twice a day, or it may be
alternated with the tincture or inftision of gentian or columbo.

From the first hour a pail of chilled water should be placed within his
reach ; and if this is refused do not hesitate after a short time to give
him cold — anything to reHeve the intolerable thii'st. He will be paddhng
in it with his lips and tongue hours during the day, even if he cannot
drink. A little mash of scalded oats and bran in one corner of the manger,
a few dry oats and bran in another, a little damp hay or green meat
thrown on the litter, to induce him to hold his head low, so that the
increased secretion may the more readily escape. The green meat should
be offered early, — grass, tares, lucerne, and carrots, — varying the material
so as to tempt his fastidious palate. A stricter attention must be paid to
diet than the veterinarian usually enforces, or the groom dreams of.

The practitioner will often and anxiously have recourse to auscultation.
He will listen for the mucous rattle, creeping down the windpipe, and
entering the bronchial passages. If he cannot detect it below the larynx,
he will apply a strong blister, reaching from ear to ear, and extending to
the second or third ring of the trachea. If he can trace the rattle
in the windpipe, he must follow it, — he must blister as far as the disease
has spread. This Avill often have an excellent efiect, not only as a counter-
irritant, but as rousing the languid powers of the constitution.

INFLUENZA. 277

A liood is a useful article of clothing in these cases. It increases the
perspiration from the surface covering the inflamed part — a circumstance
ahvays of considerable moment, and the legs should be ■vvarmlj bandaged
up to the hocks and the knees.

An equable warmth should be preserved, if possible, over the whole body.
The hand-rubber should be gently used every day, and harder and more
eflfectual rubbing applied to the legs. The patieirt should, if possible, be
placed in a loose box, in which he may move about, and take a little exer-
cise, and out of Avhich he should rarely, if at all, be taken. The exercise
of which the groom is so fond in these cases, and which must in the most
peremptory terms be forbidden, has desti-oyed thousands of horses. The
air should be fresh and uncontaminated, but never chilly ; for the object
is to increase and not to repress cutaneous perspiration ; to produce, il
possible, a determination of blood to the skin, and not to drive it to the
part already too much overloaded. In order to accomplish this, the cloth-
ing should be rather warmer than usual.

The case may proceed somewhat slowly, and not quite satisfactory to
the practitioner or his employer. There is not much fever — there is little
or no local inflammation ; but there is great emaciation and debility, and
total loss of appetite.

The feeding should now be sedulously attended to. As before stated,
almost every kind of green meat that can be obtained should be given,
particularly carrots nicely scraped and sliced. The food should be changed
as often as the capricious appetite prompts ; and occasionally, if necessary,
the patient should be given gruel as thick as it will run from the horn, but
the gradual return of health should be well assiu'ed, before a ftdl allow-
ance of com is given.

In a communication received from the late Mr. Percivall, the follow-
ing account of a new and destructive epidemic amongst horses in 1833-4
is given: —

' From the close of the past year and the beginning of the present, up
to the time I am writing, the influenza among horses has continued to
prevail in the metropohs and difierent parts of the country with more or
less fataHty. In London it has assumed the form of laryngitis, associated
in some instances with bronchitis; in others — in all I believe where it has
proved fatal— with pleurisy. The parenchymatous structure of the lungs
has not partaken of the disease, or but consecutively and slightly. The
earhest and most characteristic symptom has been sore throat ; causing
troublesome dry short cough, but rarely occasioning any difiiculty of deglu-
tition, and, in no instance that I have seen, severe or extensive enough to
produce anything like disgorgement or return of the masticated matters
through the nose, and yet the sHghtest pressure on the larynx has excited
an act of coughing. But seldom has any glandular enlargement appeared.
The symptom secondarily remarkable after the sore throat and cough has
been a dispiritedness and dullness, for which most epidemics of the kind
are remarkable. The animal, at the time of sickening, has hung his head
under the manger, with his eyes half shut, and his lower lip pendent,
without evincing any alarm or even much notice, though a person entered
his abode or approached him ; and if in a box, his head is often found
during his illness turned towards the door or window. Fever, without any
disturbance of the respiration, has always been present ; the pulse has
been accelerated, though rather small and weak in its beat than defective
of strength ; the mouth has been hot, sometimes burning hot, after-
wards moist, and perhaps saponaceous ; the skin and extremities in general
have been warm. Now and then the prostration and appearance of debility
have been such, and so rapid in their manifestations, that shortly after

'278 INFLUENZA.

being attacked, a horse has staggeringly walked twenty yards only —
the distance from his stable into the infirmary-box. The appetite, though
impaired much, has seldom been altogether lost. Generally, if a Uttle
fresh hay has been offered, it has been taken and eaten ; but to mashes
there has been commonly great aversion. During the long continuanco
of the wind in the east, the sore throat and cough have been unattended
by any flux from the nose ; but since the wind has shifted within this last
fortnight or three weeks, discharges from the nostrils have appeared, pro-
fuse even in quantity, and purulent in their nature ; in fact, the disease has
assumed a more catarrhal character — ergo, I might add, a more favourable
one.

' The disorder has exhibited every phase and degree of intensity, from
the shghtest percmvable dullness, which has passed ofiT with simply a
change in the diet, to an insidious, unyielding, unsubduable pleurisy,
endino- in hydi'othorax, in spite of everything that could be done, and
most timely done. So long as the disease has confined itself to the throat,
and that there has been along with that only dejection, prostration, and
fever, there has existed no cause for alarm ; bat when such symptoms have,
after some days' continuance, not abated, and have, on the contrary, rather
increased, and others have arisen which but too well have authorised sus.
picion that "mischief was brewing in the chest," then there became the
strono-est reasons for alarm for the safety of the patient. What is now to
be done ? The practitioner durst not bleed a second time, at least not
o-enerally, for the patient's strength would not endure it, although he is
sure a pleurisy is consuming his patient. He possesses no efiectual means
for topical blood-letting. Neither blisters nor rowels, nor plugs nor setons,
will take any effect. Cathartic medicine he must not administer ; nau-
seants are uncertain and doubtful in their efficacy ; sedatives, tonics, and
stimulants, and narcotics, appear counter- indicated, inflammation existing,
and when tried under such circumstances, have, I believe, never failed to
do harm.

' Dissatisfied with one and all of these remedies in the late influenza —
thouo-h the losses I have experienced have, after aU, not been so very com-
paratively great, being no more, since the beginning of the year, than three
out of nearly forty cases — I repeat, having, as I thought, reason to be
dissatisfied for losing even these three cases, considering that they came
under my care at the earliest period of indisposition, I determined, in any
similar cases that might occur, to have recourse to that medicine which,
in all membranous inflammations in particular, is the physician's sheet-
anchor, and which I had exhibited, and still continue to do, myself, in
other disorders, though I had never given it a fair trial in epidemics
having that tendency which I have described the present one uniformly to
have indicated, viz. the destruction of life by an inflammation attacking
membranous parts, of a nature over which, being forbidden to bleed, we
appeared to possess Httle or no power. Could we have dra-\vn blood from
the sides or breast, by cupping or by leeches, in any tolerable quantity, we
mio-ht have had some control over the internal disease ; but ban-ed from
this and without any remedy save a counter-irritant, which we could not
make act, or an internal medicine, whose action became extremely dubious,
if not positively hurtful, what was to be done ? I repeat, I made up my
mind to experiment with the surgeon's remedy in the same disease, namely,
mercury ; and that I have had reason to feel gratified at the result wiU, I
think, appear from the following cases : —

* Case I. — April 8. Every symptom of the prevailing epidemic : and
considerably aggravated on the 10th,when the horse laboured under much
prostration of strength, and staggered considerably in his gait. The

THE MALIGNANT EPIDEMIC. 2*9

following ball was tlien ordered to be given him t^vice a day : ^o Hydrarg.
chlorid, 3i, farin. avenf© ^ss. terebinth, vulg. q. s. ut fiat bol. One to be
given morning and night. He soon began to improve ; and was returned
to the stable on the 26th, convalescent. A second patient of the same
character was cured in eighteen days, and a third in nineteen days.' The
author of this work had the pleasure of witnessing these cases.

Mr. Percivall adds, ' Lest it should be said, after the perusal of these
three cases, that they do not appear to have been of a dangerous character,
or to have required anything out of the ordinary line of treatment, I beg
to observe, that at the periods at which I submitted them to the action of
mercury, they so much resembled three others that had preceded them,
and the disease had proved fatal, that, under a continuance of treatment
of any ordinary kind, I certainly should have entertained fears for their
safety.

' It must be remembered that they were cases in which blood-letting,
except at the commencement, was altogether forbidden ; and that at the
critical period when mercury was introduced they had taken an un-
favourable turn, and that nothing in the shape of remedy appeared
available save internal medicine and counter-irritation, and that the latter
had not and did not show results betokening the welfare of the patients.
Under these circumstances the mercury was exhibited. That it entered the
system, and must have had more or less influence on the disease, appears
evident from its eflfect on the gums. That it proved the means of cure, I
cannot, from so few cases, take upon myself to assert ; but I would recom-
mend it in similar cases to the notice of practitioners.'

THE MALIGNANT EPIDEMIC.

Continental veterinarians describe a malignant variety or termination of
this disease, and the imperfect history of veterinary medicine in Britain
is not without its records of it. So lately as the year 1815, an epidemic
of a mahgnant character reigned among horses. Three out of five who
were attacked died. It reappeared in 1823, but was not so fatal. It was
said that the horses that died were ultimately farcied : the truth was, that
swellings and ulcerations, with fostid discharge, appeared in various parts,
or almost all over them — the natural swellings of the complaint which
has just been considered, but aggravated and malignant. Our recollection
of the classic lore of our early years will famish us with instances of the
same pest in distant times and countries. We have not forgotten the vivid
description of Apollo darting his fiery arrows among the Greeks, and
involving in one common destruction the human being, the mule, the
horse, the ox, and the dog. Lucretius, when describing the plague at
Athens, speaks of a malignant epidemic affecting almost every animal —

Nor longer birds at noon, nor beasts at night
Their native woods deserted ; with the pest
Remote they languished, and full frequent died:
But chief the dog his generous strength resigned.

In 1714, a malignant epidemic was imported from the Continent, and in
the course of a few months destroyed 70,000 horses and cattle. It con-
tinued to visit other countries, with but short intervals, for fifty years
afterwards. Out of evil, however, came good. The continental agricul-
turists became alarmed by this destruction of their property. The different
governments participated in the terror, and veterinary schools were
estabhshed, in which the anatomy and diseases of these animals might be
studied, and the cause and treatment of these periodical pests discovered.
From the time that this branch of medical science began to receive the

280 THE MALIGNANT EPIDEMIC.

attention it deserved, these epidemics, if they have not quite ceased, har<5
changed their character, and have become comparatively mild and manage-
able. As, however, they yet occur, and are far too fatal, we must endeavour
to collect the symptoms, and point out the treatment of them.

The malignant epidemic was almost nniformly ushered in by inflamma-
tion of the mucous membrane of the respiratory passages, but soon involving
other portions, and then ensued a diarrhoea, which no art could arrest.
The fever, acute at first, rapidly passed over, and was succeeded by great
prostration of strength. The inflammation then spread to the cellular
texture, and there was a peculiar disposition to the formation of phleg-
monous tumours : sometimes there were pustular eruptions, but, oftener,
deep-seated tumours rapidly proceeding to suppuration. Connected with
this was a strong tendency to decomposition, and unless the animal was
reheved by some critical flux or evacuation, malignant typhus was estab-
lished, and the horse speedily sunk.

The most satisfactory account of one of these epidemics is given us by
Professor Brugnone, of Turin. It commenced with loss of appetite,
staring coat, a wild and wandering look, and a staggering from the very
commencement. The horse would continually lie down and get up again,
as if tormented by colic, and he gazed alternately at both flanks. In the
moments of comparative ease, there were universal twitchings of the skin,
and spasms of the limbs. The temperature of the ears and feet was
variable. If there happened to be about the animal any old wound or
scar from setoning or firing, it opened afi'esh and discharged a quantity of
thick and black blood. Very shortly afterwards the flanks, which were
quiet before, began to heave, the nostrils were dilated, the head extended
for breath. The horse had by this time become so weak that, if he lay or
fell down, he could rise no more ; or if he was up, he would stand trem-
bling, staggering, and threatening to fall every moment. The mouth was
dry, the tongue white, and the breath foetid ; a discharge of yellow or
bloody foetid matter proceeded from the nose, and foetid blood from the
anus. The duration of the disease did not usually exceed twelve or
twenty-four hours ; or if the animal lingered on, swellings of the head
and throat, and sheath, and scrotum, followed, and he died exhausted or
in convulsions.

Black spots of extravasation were found in the cellular membrane, in
the tissue of all the membranes, and on the stomach. The mesenteric and
lymphatic glands were engorged, black, and gangrenous. The membrane
of the nose and the pharynx was highly injected, the lungs were filled
with black and frothy blood, or with black and livid spots. The brain and
its meninges were unaltered.

It commenced in March 1783. The barracks then contained one
hundred and sixteen horses ; all but thirteen were attacked, and seventy-
eight of them died. The horses of both officers and men were subject to
the attack of it ; and three horses from the town died, two of which had
drawn the carts that conveyed the carcases away, and the other stood
under a window, from which the dung of an infected stable had been
thrown out. The disease would probably have spread, but the most sum-
mary measures for arresting its progress were adopted ; every horse in
the town was killed that had the slightest communication with those in
the barracks. One horse was inoculated with the pus discharged from
the ulcer of an infected horse, and he died. A portion of his thymus
gland was introduced under the skin of another horse, and he also died.

Caiise. — The disease was supposed to be connected with the food of the
horses. All the oats had been consumed, and the lolium temulenturri, or
awned darnel, had been given instead. It is said that the darnel is occa-

THE MALIGNANT EPIDEMIC. Ziil

Bionally used by brewers to give an intoxicating quality to tlieir malt
liquor. For fifteen days no alteration of health was perceived, and then,
m less than eighteen hours, nearly forty perished. The stables were not
crowded, and there was no improper treatment. A man disinterred some
of the horses to get at the fat ; swellings rapidly appeared in his throat,
and he died in two days. A portion of their flesh was given to two piga
and some dogs, and they died.

]\I. Brugnone found that bleeding only accelerated the death of the
patient. He afterwards tried, and ineffectually, acids, cordials, purgatives,
vesicatories, and the actual cautery ; and he frankly attributes to the
power of natui'e the recovery of the few who survived.

Gilbert's Account of the Epidemic of 1795. — M. Gilbert describes a
malignant epidemic which appeared in Paris in 1795, characterised by
dullness, loss of appetite, weakness, pulse at first rapid and full, and
afterwards continuing rapid, but gradually becoming small, weak, and
intermittent. The bowels at first constipated, and then violent purging
succeeding. The weakness rapidly increasing, accompanied by foetid
breath, and foetid evacuations. Tumours soon appeared about the limbs,
under the chest, and in the head, the neck, and loins. If they suppurated
and burst, the animal usually did well ; but otherwise he inevitably
perished. The formation of these tumours was critical. If they rapidly
advanced, it was considered as a favourable symptom ; but if they con-
tinued obscure, a fatal termination was prognosticated.

Bleeding, even in an early stage, seemed here also to be injurious, and
increased the debility. Physic was given, and mild and nutritious food,
gruel, and cordials. Deep incisions were made into the tumours, and the
cautery appHed. Stimulating frictions were also used, but all were oi
little avail.

These cases have been narrated at considerable length, in order to give
some idea of the nature of this disease, and because, with the exception of
a short but veiy excellent account of the malignant epidemic in the last
edition of Mr. Blane's 'Veterinary Outlines,' there will not be found any
satisfactory history of it in the writings of our English veterinarians. It
is evidently a disease of the mucous membranes, both the respiratory and
digestive. It is accompanied by early and great debility, loss of all vital
power, vitiation of every secretion, effusions and tumours everywhere, and
it runs its course with fearfal rapidity. K it was seen at its outset, the
practitioner would probably bleed ; but if a few hours only had elapsed^
he would find, with Messrs. Brugnone and Gilbert, that venesection would
only hasten the catastrophe. Stimulants should be administered mingled
with opium, and the spirit of nitric ether in doses of three or four ounces,
with an ounce of laudanum. The quantity of opium should be regulated
by the spasms and the diarrhoea. These medicines should be repeated in
a few hours, combined, perhaps, with ginger and gentian.

A pint of stout or hitter ale, or better still, when within reach, of good old
port wine, given three or four times a day, has saved many an animal which
otherwise would have sunk prostrated under the virulence of the disease.

K these fail, there is little else to be done. Deep incisions into the
tumours, or bhsters over them, might be proper measures ; but the prin-
cipal attention should be directed to the arresting of the contagion. The
diseased should be immediately removed from the healthy. All ofiensivo
matter should be carefully cleared away, and no small portion of chloride
of lime used in washing the animal, and particularly his ulcers. It might
with great propriety be administered internally, while the stable, and
everything that belonged to the patient, should undergo a careful ablution
with the same powerful disinfectant.

282 BRONCHITIS.

BEONCHITIS.

TMs may be produced by several causes, such as sudden changes of
temperature from hot to cold, and vice versa. Excitement as a result of
over-exertion will sometimes cause it, but it is not generally a primary
disease. That inflammation of the superior respiratory passages, con-
Btituting catarrh, gradually creeps downwards and involves the larynx
and the trachea, and at length, possibly, the farthest and the minutest
ramifications of the air-tubes. When it is found to be thus advancing its
progress should be carefully watched by the assistance of auscultation.
The distant murmur of the healthy lung cannot be mistaken, nor the cre-
pitating sound of pneumonia; and in bronchitis the blood may be heard
filtering or breaking through the divisions of the lobuli, and accounting
for that congestion or fiUing of the cells with mucus and blood, which is
found after intense inflammation. Inflammation precedes this increased
discharge of mucus. Even that may be detected. The inflamed mem-
brane is thickened and tense. It assumes an almost cartilaginous struc-
ture, and the murmur is not only louder, but has a kind of snoring sound.
Some have imagined that a sound like a metallic ring is mingled with it ;
but this is never very distinct.

The interrupted whizzing sound has often and clearly indicated a case
of bronchitis, and there are many corroborative symptoms which should be
regarded. The variable temperature of the extremities wiU be an important
guide — not intensely cold as in pneumonia, nor of increased temperature as
often in catarrh, but with a tendency to coldness, yet this varying much.
The pulse will assist the diagnosis. It will be quick, but feeble, from 70
to 80 per minute, — more rapid than in catarrh, much more so than in the
early stage of pneumonia ; not so hard as in pleurisy, more so than in
catarrh, and not oppressed as in pneumonia. The respiration should next
be examined, abundantly more rapid than in catarrh, pneumonia, or
pleurisy ; geaerally as rapid and often more so than the pulse, and accom-
panied by a wheezing sound, heard at some distance. Mr. Percivall
relates a case in which the respiration was more than one hundred in a
minute. ^Ir. C. Percivall describes an interesting case in which the re-
spiration was quick in the extreme ; and he remarks, that he does ' not
remember to have seen a horse with his respiration so disturbed.'

In addition to these clearly characteristic symptoms, will be observed a
haggard countenance, to which the anxious look of the horse labouring
under inflammation of the lungs cannot for a moment be compared ; also
an evident dread of sufibcation, expressed, not by inabihty to move, as in
pneumonia, but frequently an obstinate refusal to do so ; cough painful in
the extreme ; breath hot, yet no marked pain in the part, and no looking
at the side or flanks.

As the disease proceeds there will be a short, frequent, pectoral cough,
with considerable discharge from the nostrils, much more than in catarrh,
because greater extent of membrane is affected. It will be muco-purulent
at first, but vsdll soon become amber-coloured or green, or greyish green ;
and that not from any portion of the food being returned, but from the
peculiar hue of the secretion from ulcers in the bronchial passages. Small
organised portions wiU mingle with the discharge, — shreds of mucus con-
densed and hardened, and forced from the inside of the tube. K the
disease proceeds, the discharge becomes bloody, and then, and sometimes
earlier, it is foetid.

The termination of this disease, if unchecked, is frequently pneu-
monia. Although we cannot trace the air-tubes to their termination,
the inflammation wiU penetrate into the lobuli, and afl'ect the

PNEUMONIA. — INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS. 283

membranes of the air-cells or divisions which they contain. There is
metastasis of inflammation oftener here than in pure pneumonia, and the
disease is sometimes transferred to the feet. If, however, there is neither
pneumonia nor metastasis of inflammation, and the disease pursues its
course, the animal dies from suffocation. If the air-passages are clogged,
there can be no supply of arteriahsed blood. If the inflammation be sub-
dued, resolution may take place : but it far more frequently assumes a
chronic form, giving rise to an imperfect state of breathing known as
' thick wind.'

Like every other inflammation of the respiratory passages, bronchitis is
at times epidemic. There is a disposition to inflammation in the respira-
tory apparatus generally, but it depends on some unknown atmospheric
influence whether this shall take on the form of catarrh, bronchitis, or
pneumonia. It is not, however, contagious.

This is a disease of the mucous, — and an extended mucous, — surface; and
while our measures must be prompt, there is a tendency to debility which
we should never forget : therefore bleeding should not be had recourse to.

The medical attendant should be also cautious in the administration of
purgatives, for the reasons that have again and again been stated : but if
the bowels are evidently constipated, half a pint of oil may be given, and
its speedy action promoted by injections, so that a small quantity may
suffice. Sedatives should be employed, as 3i. to 5ij- of extract of bella-
donna, in combination with spiadts of nitric ether and liquor ammonise
acetatis. The animal should be placed in a warm, but well-ventilated
stable, and the extremities kept warm by friction and flannel bandages.

A bhster is always indicated in bronchitis. It can never do harm, and
it not unfrequently aflbrds decided relief. It should extend over the
brisket and sides, and up the trachea to the larynx. The food, if the
horse is disposed to eat, should be mashes. No corn should be offered,
nor should the horse be coaxed to eat.

PNEUMONIA. INFLAMMATION OP THE LUNGS,

The ultimate structure of the lungs has never till lately been satisfac-
torily demonstrated. They appear, however, to be composed of minute
cells or pouches, into which the air is conducted, and over the dehcate
membrane constituting the divisions of which myriads of minute blood-
vessels are ramifying. The blood is not merely permeating them, but it is
undergoing a vital change in them ; there is a constant decomposition of
the air, or of the blood, or of both ; and, during the excitement of exercise,
that decomposition proceeds with fearful rapidity. Then it can readily be
conceived that a membrane so deKcate as this mast be, in order that its
interposition should be no hindrance to the arterialisation of the blood — so
fragile also, and so loaded vrith blood-vessels — will be exceedingly subject
to inflammation, and that of a most dangerous character.

Inflammation of the substance of the lungs is the not unfrequent conse-
quence of all the diseases of the respiratory passages that have been
treated on. Catarrh, influenza, bronchitis, if neglected or badly managed,
or sometimes in spite of the most skilful treatment, vrill spread along the
mucous membrane, and at length involve the termination of the air-
passages. At other times, there is pure pneumonia. The cellular texture
is the primary seat of inflammation. It is often so in the over-worked
horse. After a long and hard day's hunt, it is very common for horses to
be attacked by pure pneumonia. A prodigiously increased quantity of
blood is hurried through these small vessels, for the vast expenditui'e of
arterial blood in rapid progress must be provided for. These minutest of
the capillaries are distended and irritated, their contractile power is

284 PNEUMONIA. INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS.

destroyed, inflammation is produced, mechanical injury is effected, the
vessels ai-e ruptured, blood is poured into the interstitial texture, and
congestion and intense inflammation, with all their train of fatal conse-
quences, ensue.

The following are the most frequent causes of pneumonia. A sudden
transition from heat to cold ; a change from a warm stable to a cold one ;
a neglect of the usual clothing ; a neglect even of some little comforts ;
riding far and fast against a cold wind, especially in snowy weather ;
loitering about when unusual perspiration has been excited; waitin<y
tediously by the side of a covert on a chiUy blo^ving momino-.

It has, but not frequently, happened that when horses have been turned
-mt too early to grass, or without gradual preparation, pneumonia has
supervened. Few are, under any management, so subject to pneumonia
as those who, in poor condition and without preparation, are turned into a
salt-marsh.

On the other hand, a sudden and considerable change from cold to heat
wiU very probably be followed by inflammation of the lungs. Many horses
perish in the dealers' stables from this cause. The circulation is consider-
ably quickened ; more blood, and that with more than natural rapidity, is
driven through the lungs, previously disposed to take on inflammatory
action. The sudden removal from a heated stable to the cold air has also
much to do with the production of disease.

Whether it is the consequence of previous disease of the respiratory-
passages, or that inflammation first appears in the cellular texture of the
lungs, pneumonia is usually ushered in by a shivering fit. The horse is
cold all over ; this, however, soon passes ofi", and we have general warmth,
or heat of the skin above the usual temperature, but accompanied by cold-
ness of the extremities — intense deadly coldness. This is a very diagnos-
tic symptom. It vsdll seldom deceive. It is an early symptom. It is
found when there is little or no constitutional disturbance ; when the pulse
is scarcely affected, and the flanks heave but little, but the horse is merely
supposed to be duU and off his food. It is that by which the progress of
the disease may be unhesitatingly marked, when many scarcely suspect its
existence.

The pulse is always, even at first, much increased in rapidity, but is
rarely or never hard ; it is obscure, oppressed; it rises at onee from thirty-
two or three to fifty ; with increased danger it is found at seventy or
eighty ; and in fatal cases from one hundred to one hundred and twenty.
The heart is labouring to accomphsh its object ; the circulation through
the lungs is impeded ; the vessels are engorged — they are often ruptured ;
blood is extravasated into the air-cells ; it accumulates in the right side
of the heart and in the larger vessels ; and in the venous circulation gene-
rally there is a mechanical obstruction which the heart has not the power
to overcome. Hence the obscure, oppressed pulse ; the ineffectual attempt
to urge on the blood ; and hence, too, the remarkable result of bleeding in
inflammation of the lungs, for the pulse becomes rounder, fuller, quicker.
\Yhen blood is abstracted, a portion of the opposing force is removed, and
the heart being enabled to accomplish its object, the pulse is developed.

It is only, however, in the early insidious stage that the flanks are
occasionally quiet. If the compressibility of the lungs is diminished by
the thickening of the membrane, or the engorgement of the vessels, or the
filling of the cells, it will be harder work to force the air out ; there must
be a stronger effort, and the pressure which cannot be accomplished by one
effort is attempted over and over again. The respiration is quickened —
laborious : the inspiration is lengthened ; the expiration is rapid ; and
when, after all, the lungs cannot be compressed by the usual means, every

PXEUMONIA. — I]S!FLMIMATION OF TUE LUXGS. 28-5

muscle that cau be brought to bear upon the part is called into action.
Hence the horse vrAl not lie c1o"wti, for he can use the muscles of the spine
and the shoulder with most advantag-e as he stands ; hence, too, the very
peculiar stiffness of position — the disinclination to move. The horse with
decided pneumonia can scarcely be induced to move at all ; he cannot spare
for a moment the assistance which he derives from certain muscles, and he
will continue obstinately to stand until he falls exhausted or dying. How
eagerly does the veterinarian ask when he goes into the stable — ' Was he
down last night ?' And he concludes that much progress has not been
made towards amendment in the case when the answer is in the negative.
TVTien the patient, wearied out, Hes do^vn, it is only for a moment ; for if
the inflammation is not subdued, he cannot dispense with the auxiliary
muscles. He frequently, and with dolefal expression, looks at his sides —
at one side or at both, accordingly as one or both are involved. There ia
not, however, the decidedly haggard countenance of bronchitis ; and in
bronchitis the horse rarely or never gazes at his flanks. His is a dread of
suffocation more than a feeling of pain. The head is protruded, and the
nostrils distended, and the mouth and the breath intensely hot. The nose
is injected from the earhest period ; and soon afterwards there is not
merely injection, but the membrane is uniformly and intensely red. The
variation in this intensity is anxiously marked by the observant practi-
tioner; and he regards with fear and vriih despair the Hvid or dirty
brownish hue that gradually creeps on. Pneumonia very rarely runs its
course as a pure disease ; the pleura very early becomes imphcated, and
pleuro-pneunionia more frequently attacks the horse than is generally
imagined.

The unfavourable symptoms are, increased coldness of the ears and legs,
if that be possible ; partial sweats, evident weakness, staggering, the animal
not lying down. The pulse becomes quicker, and weak and fluttering ;
the membrane of the nose paler, but of a dirty hue ; the animal gi'owing
stupid, comatose. At length he falls, but he gets up immediately. For
a while he is up and down almost every minute, until he is no longer able
to rise ; he struggles severely ; the pulse becomes more rapid, fainter, and
he dies of suffocation. The disease sometimes runs its course with strange
rapidity. A horse has been destroyed by pure pneumonia in twelve hours.
The vessels ramifying over the cells have yielded to the fearfal impulse of
the blood, and the lungs have presented one mass of congestion.

The favourable symptoms are, the return of warmth to the extremities
— the circulation beginning again to assume its natural character, and,
next to this, the lying down quietly and without uneasiness ; showing us
that he is beginning to do without the auxiliary muscles. These are
good symptoms, and they will rarely deceive.

Congestion is a frequent termination of pneumonia. Not only are the
vessels gorged — the congestion which accompanies common inflammation
— ^but their parietes are necessarily so thin, in order that the change in
the blood may take place although they are interposed, that they are easily
ruptured, and the cells are filled with blood. This effused blood soon
coagulates, and the lung, when cut into, presents a black, softened, pulpy
kind of appearance, termed, by the farrier and the groom, rottenness, and
being supposed by them to indicate an old disease. It proves only the
violence of the disease, the rupture of many a vessel surcharged with
blood ; and it also proves that the disease is of recent date, for in no great
length of time, the serous portion of the blood becomes absorbed, the more
soHd one becomes organised, the cells are obliterated, and the lungs are
hepatised, or bear considerable resemblance to liver.

in every case of pneumonia early and anxious recourse should be had to

236 PNEUMONIA. — INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS.

auscultation. Here again is the advantage of being perfectly acquainted
witli the deep distant murmur presented by the healthy lung. This sound
is most distinct in the young horse, and especially if he is a little out of
condition. On such a horse the tyro should conunence his study of the
exploration of the chest. There he will make himself best acquainted
with the respiratory murmur in its full state of development. He should
next take an older and somewhat fatter horse ; he will there recognise the
Bame sound, but fainter, more distant. In still older animals, there will
sometimes be a little difficulty in detecting it at all. Repeated experi-
ments of this kind will gradually teach the examiner what kind of healthy
murmur he should expect from every horse that is presented to him, and
thus he will be better able to appreciate the different sounds exhibited
iinder disease.

If pneumonia exists to any considerable degree, this murmur is soon
changed for, or mingled with, a curious crepitating sound, which, having
been once heard, cannot afterwards be mistaken. Its loudness and perfect
character will characterise the intensity of the disease, and the portion of
the chest at which it can be distinguished will indicate its extent.

The whole lung, however, is not always affected, or there are only por-
tions or patches of it in which the inflammation is so intense as to produce
congestion and hepatisation. Enough remains either unaffected, or yet
pervious for the function of respiration to be performed, and the animal
lingers on, or perhaps recovers. By careful examination with the ear,
this also may be ascertained. Where the lung is impervious — where no
air passes — no sound will be heard, not even the natural murmur. Around
it the murmur will be heard, and loudly. It will be a kind of rushing
sound ; for the same quantity of blood must be arterialised, and the air
must pass more rapidly and forcibly through the remaining tubes. If
there is considerable inflammation and tendency to congestion, the crepi-
tating, crackling sound will be recognised, and in proportion to the
intensity of the inflammation. The advantages to be derived from the
study of auscultation are not overrated. It was strong language lately
applied by an able critic to the use of auscultation, that ' it converts the
organ of hearing into an organ of vision, enabling the listener to observe,
with the clearness of ocular demonstration, the ravages which disease
occasionally commits in the very centre of the rib-cased cavity of the body.'

A horse with any portion of the lungs hepatised cannot be sound. Ha
cannot be capable of continued extra exertion. His imperfect and muti-
lated lung cannot supply the arterialised blood which long continued and
rapid progTession requires, and that portion which is compelled to do the
work of the whole lung must be exposed to injury and inflammation from
many a cause that would otherwise be harmless.

Another consequence of inflammation of the substance of the lungs is
the formation of tubercles. A greater or smaller number of distinct cysts
are formed — cells into which some fluid is poured in the progi'ess of
inflammation : these vary in size from a pin's point to a large egg. By
degrees the fluid becomes concrete ; and so it continues for a while — the
consequence and the source of inflammation ; this constitutes a tubercle.
It occupies a space that should be employed in the function of respiration,
and by its pressure it irritates the neighbouring parts, and disposes them
to inflammation.

By and by, howevei', another process, never sufficiently explained, com-
mences. The tubercle begins to soften at its centre, — a pr(>(!e,ss of
suppuration is set up, and proceeds until the contents of the cyst become
again fluid, but of a different character, for they now consist of pus.
This smooth defined collection of matter is called a vomica. The

PNEUMONIA. — INFLAMAIATION OF THE LUNGS. 287

pus inci'eases ; the cyst becomes more and more distended ; it encroaches
on the substance of the lungs ; it comes into contact with other vomicae,
and the walls opposed to each other are absorbed by their mutual pressure ;
they run together, and form one cyst, or regular excavation, and this
sometimes proceeds until a considerable portion of the lung is, as it were,
hollowed out. By and by, however, the vomicis press upon some bronchial
passage ; the cyst gives way, and the purulent contents are poured into
the bronchiae, and got rid of by the act of coughing. At other times the
quantity is too great to be thus disposed of, and the animal is suffocated.
Occasionally it will break through the pleuritic covering of the lung, and
pour its contents into the thorax.

Abscesses may form in the lungs undiscovered. — It is scarcely con-
ceivable to what extent they sometimes exist in animals of slow work,
without being detected by the usual means of examination. Mr. Hales
says that he gave a physic ball to a cart-mare with a bad foot, and she
soon afterwards died suddenly. When inquiring as to the cause of death,
he was told, and not very good-humouredly, that his physic had killed her.
He asked, if it had purged her violently? ' No!' it was repUed, ' it had not
operated at all.' She was opened, and the mystery was all unravelled.
The thorax was deluged with pus, and there were then in the lungs several
large abscesses, one of which contained at least a quart of pus. The mare
had not shown a symptom of chest affection, and the gentleman to whom
she belonged declared that he had believed her to be as sound as any horso
he had in his possession.

The resolution or gradual abatement of inflammation is the termination
most to be desired in this disease, for then the engorgement of the
vessels will gradually cease, and the thickening of the membrane and the
interstitial deposit be taken up, and the effusion into the cells likewise
absorbed, and the lungs will gradually resume their former cellular texture,
yet not perfectly ; for there will be some induration, slight but general ; or
some more perfect induration of certain parts ; or the rupture of some of
the air-cells ; or an irritability of membrane predisposing to renewed
inflammation. The horse will not always be as usefal as before ; there
may be chronic cough, thick wind, broken wind ; but these merit distinct
consideration ; and, for the present, we proceed to the treatment of
pneumonia.

Our treatment will much depend upon the causes in operation producing
the disease, and the progress it has made. If the animal be only in the
early stage, every means should be adopted to encourage the circulation ;
a diffusible stimulant, such as one or two ounces of the spirit of nitric ether
combined with eight ounces of the liquor ammoniee acetatis, the ammonia
being in excess, should be at once administered, a mustard liniment well
rubbed on the bosom and sides, and great attention paid to keeping tho
external surface of the body warm. If the symptoms of inflammation
appear to increase by the pulse rising to seventy or eighty per minute, and
the breathing being increased and laboured, more active treatment must
be adopted. "We must bear in mind that there is inflammation of that
organ through which all the blood in the frame passes — that organ most
of all subject to congestion. Then nothing can be so important as to
lessen the quantity of blood which the heart is endeavouring to force
through the minute vessels of the lungs, distended, irritated, breaking.
Immediate recourse must be had to the lancet, and the stream of blood
must be suffered to flow on until the pulse falters, and the animal bears
heavy upon the pail. The blood must be extracted as quickly as possible,
aT.>d the lancet should be broad-shouldered and the orifice large. This is
tne secret of treating inflammation of a vital organ. The disease ia

i'88 PNEUMONIA. INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS.

weakened or destroyed without permanently impairing the strength of the
patient ; whereas by small bleedings, and with a small stream, the strength
of the patient is sapped, while the disease remains untouched.

From the debilitating form diseases of the respiratory system are apt to
assume, many practitioners never resort to blood-letting in this disease,
and there cannot be a doubt that it should be cautiously adopted, and only
in those cases in which the attack is sudden and violent, and the animal's
general condition in a state to bear it. In all cases of pneumonia resulting
from influenza, fever, and other debihtating diseases, bleeding would only
hasten a fatal termination. "When blood-letting is found necessary it
should be copious, taken as rapidly as possible, and not repeated.

Next comes purging, if we dared ; for by having recourse to it somo
cause of excitement would be got rid of, the circulating fluid would be
lessened, and a new determination of the vital current produced ; but
experience teaches, that in pneumonia there is so much sympathy with th&
abdominal viscera, — there is such a fatal tendency in the inflammation to
spread over every mucous membrane, that purging is almost to a certainty
followed by inflammation, and that inflammation bids defiance to every
attempt to arrest it. It may be said -n-ith perfect confidence that, in the
majority of cases, a dose of physic would be a dose of poison to a horse
labouring under pneumonia.

May we not relax the bowels ? Yes, if we can stop there. We may,
after the inflammation has evidently a Httle subsided, venture upon, yet
very cautiously, small doses of aloes in our fever medicine, and we may
quicken their operation by frequent injections of warm soap and water ;
omitting the purgative, however, the moment the fceces are becoming pul-
taceous. We must, however, be assured that the inflammation is subsiding,
and there must be considerable constipation, or the purgative had better
be let alone.

If we must not give physic, we must endeavour to find some other
auxihary to the bleeding, and we have it in nitre, emetic tartar, the
spirits of nitric ether, and the extract of helladonna, which has been so often
recommended.

The greatest care should be taken with the patient labouring under this
complaint. His legs should be well hand-rubbed, in order to restore, if
possible, the circulation to the extremities ; and a liniment composed of
equal parts of water of ammonia, spiidts of turpentine, and soap liniment
wiU materially assist this. Comfortable flannel bandages should encase
the legs from the foot to the knee. He should be covered up warm. There
cannot be a doubt about this. As for air, he cannot have too much. In
cold weather his box must be airy, but not chilly. We want to detennine
the blood to the extremities and the skin ; but not all the clothing in the
world will keep our patient warm, if he is placed in a cold and uncom-
fortable situation.

As for food, we think not of it. In nine cases out of ten he will not
touch anything ; or if he is inclined to eat, we give him nothing but a
bran-mash, or a little green meat, or a few carrots.

We now look about us for some counter-irritant. We wish to excite
some powerful action in another part of the frame, and which shall divert
the cui-rent of blood from that which was first afiected. We recognise it
as a law of nature, and of which we here eagerly avail ourselves, that if
we have a morbid action in some vital organ — and unusual determination
of blood to it — Ave can abate, perhaps we can at once arrest, that morbid
action by exciting a similar or a greater disturbance in some contiguous
and not dangerous part. Therefore we blister the sides and the brisket,
and produce all the irritation we can on the integument ; and in pro-

PNEUMONIA. — INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS. 289

portion as we do so, we abate, or stand a chance of abating, the inflamma-
tion within.

We have recourse to a blister in preference to a seton ; and decidedly
GO, for our stimulus can be spread over a laro^er surface, — there is more
chance of its being applied to the immediate neighbourhood of the original
inflammation — and most assuredly, from the extent of surface on which
we can act, we can employ a quantity of stimulus beyond comparison
greater than a seton would permit us to do. The first blister should be
applied to the brisket ; the whole of the front of the chest, from the throat
to well down between the fore-legs, should be included, and the bhster
well rubbed in for at least ten minutes or a quarter of an hour. The
result of this will be extensive swelling and bagging of the skin between
the fore-legs, from the large effusion of serum that is poured out into the
cellular tissue under the loose skin. One or two long setons, the entire
depth of the chest, may be inserted at the same time, and become valuable
drains for the effused fluid. The next day a blister, large and extensive,
should be applied on each side of the chest, immediately behind the elbows,
of at least a foot each in diameter.

In the latter stage of disease the bhster will not act, because the powers
of nature are exhausted. We must repeat it, — we must rouse the sinking
energies of the frame, if we can, although the effort "will generally be
fruitless. The not rising of a blister, in the latter stage of the disease,
may too often be regarded as the precursor of death, especially if it ia
accompanied by a hvid or broAvn colour of the membrane of the nose.
Should the usual blisters fail to act, they should be washed ofi", and the
tartar-emetic ointment well rubbed in in their place. This ointment,
composed of a drachm of tartar emetic to an ounce of lard, will rouse the
action of the skin when every other appHcation would be impotent. No
case, indeed, should be allowed to proceed to a fatal termination, — the
blisters having failed to operate, — without this powerful counter-iiTitant
being had recourse to.

Pneumonia, like bronchitis, requires anxious watching. The first object
is to subdue the inflammation, and our measures must be prompt and
decisive. The good which we can do must be done at first, or not at all.

The commencement of the state of convalescence requires the same
guarded practice as in bronchitis. As many horses are lost by impatience
now, as by want of decision at first. If we have subdued the disease we
should let well alone. We should guard against the return of the foe by
the continued administration of our sedatives in smaller quantities, and
give tonics if debihty is rapidly succeeding. When we have apparently
weathered the storm, we must still be cautious ; we must consider the
nature and the seat of the disease, and the predisposition to returning in-
flammation. If the season will permit, two or three months' run at gi*ass
shoidd succeed to our medical treatment ; but if this is impracticable, we
must put ofi* the period not only of active work but of lengthened exercise
as long as it can be delayed, and even after that permit the horse to
return as gradually as may be to his usual employment and food.

Most frequent in occurrence, in connection with inflammation of the
lungs, is

PLEURISY.

This disease of the investing membrane of the lungs and of the thoracic
cavity, namely the pleura, next deniands our attention.

The prevailing causes of pleurisy are the same as those which produce
pneumonia— exposure to wet and cold, sudden alternations of temperature,
partial exposure to draughts of cold aii*, riding against a keen ^vind,

V

290 PLEURLSY.

immersion as high as the chest in cold water, and extra work of the
respiratory machine. To these may be added — wounds penetrating into the
thorax and lacerating the pleura, fracture of the ribs, or violent contu-
sions on the side, the inflammation produced by which is propagated
through the parietes of the chest.

It is sometimes confined to one side or to one of the pleurae on either
side, or even to patches on that pleura, whether pulmonary or costal. The
inflammation of the lungs which occasionally accompanies rabies is cha-
racterised by a singular patchy appearance. That produced on the costal
pleura, arising from violence or other causes, rarely reaches the pulmonary
covering ; and that which is communicated to the tunic of the lungs, by
means of the intensity of the action within, does not often involve the
costal pleura. In some cases, however, it aS"ect3 both pleurae and both
sides, and spreads rapidly from one to the other.

The first symptom is rigor, followed by increased heat and partial sweats;
to these succeed loss of appetite and spirits, and a low and painful cough
The inspiration is a short sudden efibrt, and broken off before it is fully
accompUshed, indicating the pain felt from the distension of the irritable
because inflamed membrane. This symptom is exceedingly characteristic.
In the human being it is well expressed by the term stitcJi, and an exceed-
ingly painful feehng it is. The expiration is retarded, as much as possible,
by the use of all the auxihary muscles which the animal can press into the
service, but it at length finishes abruptly in a kind of spasm. This pecu-
liarity of breathing, once carefully observed, cannot be forgotten. The
next character is found in the tenderness of the sides when the costal pleura
is afiected. This tenderness often exists to a degree scarcely credible. If
the side is pressed upon the horse will recede with a low painful grunt ;
he will tremble, and try to get out of the way before the hand touches
him again. The attempt to turn him short, or quickly round, will produce
the same efi'ect. Then comes another indication, both of pain and the
region of that pain, — the intercostal muscles afi'ected by the contiguous
pleura, and in their turn afiBcting the panniculus camosus or subcutaneous
muscular expansion "without — there are twitchings of the skin on the side
— corrugations — waves creeping over the integument. This is never seen
in pneumonia. There is however, as we may expect, the same disinclina-
tion to move, for every motion must give intense pain.

The pulse should be anxiously studied. It presents a decided diSerence
of character from that of pneumonia. It is increased in rapidity, but instead
of being oppressed, and sometimes almost unappreciable, as in pneumonia,
it is round, full, and strong. Even at the last, when the strength of the
constitution begins to yield, the pulse is wiry, although small.

The extremities are never deathy cold ; they may be cool, they are oftener
variable, and they sometimes present increased heat. The body is far more
liable to variations of temperature ; and the cold and the hot fit more fre-
quently succeed each other. The mouth is not so hot as in pneumonia,
and the breath is rarely above its usual temperature.

A difierence of character in the two diseases is here particularly evident
on the membrane of the nose. Neither the crimson nor the purple injec-
tion of pneumonia is seen on the lining of the nose, but a somewhat darker
dingier hue.

Both the pneumonic and pleuritic horse will look at his flanks, thus
pointing out the seat of disease and pain ; but the horse with pneumonia
■will turn himself more slowly round, and long and steadfastly gaze at his
side, while the action of the horse with pleurisy is more sudden, agitated,
spasmodic. The countenance of the one is that of settled distress ; the
other brightens up occasionally. The pang is severe, but it is transient,

PLEURISY. 291

and tliere are intervals of relief. While neither will lie down or wiliingly
move, and the pneumonic horse stands fixed as a statue, the pleuritic
one shrinks and crouches almost to falling. K he hes do^vn it is on the
affected side, when the disease is confined to one side only. The head of
the horse, with inflammation of the substance of the lungs, hangs heavily
— that of the other is protruded.

We here derive most important assistance from Auscultation. In a case
of pleurisy we have no crepitating crackling sound, referable to the infil-
tration of the blood through the gossamer membrane of the air-cells ; we
have not even a louder and distincter murmur. Perhaps there is no
variation fi-om the sound of health, or, if there is any difference, the
murmur is fainter ; for the pleural membrane is thickened and its elasticity
is impaired, and the sound is not so readily transmitted. There is some-
times a shght rubbing sound, and especially towards the superior region
of the chest, as if there was friction between the thickened and indurated
membranes.

To this may be added the different character of the cough, sore and
painful enough in both, but in pneumonia generally hard, and fall, and
frequent. In pleurisy it is not so frequent, but faint, suppressed, cut short,
and attended by a thin ichorous discharge dropping from the nose.

These are sufiicient guides in the early stage of the disease, when it is
most of all of importance to distinguish the one from the other. Pleurisy
more frequently exists in a purer form than pneumonia, for every now and
then death is the result solely of suffocation, but in most cases the struc-
ture of the lungs is imphcated to a greater or less extent.

If after a few days the breathing becomes a Httle more natural, the
inspiration lengthened and regular, and the expiration, although still pro-
longed, is suffered to be completed — if the twitchings are less evident
and less frequent — if the cough can be fully expressed — if the pulse
softens, although it may not diminish in frequency, and if the animal
begins to He down, or walks about of his own accord, there is hope of
recovery. But if the pulse quickens and, although smaller, yet possesses
the wiry character of inflammation — if the gaze at the flanks, previously
by starts, becomes fixed as well as anxious, and the difficulty of breathing
continues (the difficulty of accoraplisJiing it, although the efforts are
oftener repeated) — if patches of sweat break out, and the animal gets
restless — paws — shifts his posture every minute — is unable longer to
stand yet hesitates whether he shall he down — determines on it again and
again, but fears, and at length drops rather than Hes gently down, a fatal
termination is at hand.

The most frequent cause of death is effusion iu the chest (hydrothorax),
compressing the lungs on every side, rendering expu-ation difficult and at
length impossible, and destroying the animal by suffocation. For some
time before his death the efiusion and extent wiH be evident enough. The
violence of the symptoms will suddenly abate, the pulse falHng from eighty
or ninety to forty or fifty, and in some cases becoming softer in its character.
The membranes also wiU assume a pale colour as the effusion increases.
The animal not only walks unwillingly, but on the slightest exercise his
pulse is strangely acelerated ; the feeling of suffocation comes over him,
and he stops suddenly, looks wildly about, and trembles ; but he quickly
recovers himself, and proceeds. There is frequently also, when the effusion
is confirmed, oedema of some external part, and that occasionaUy to a very
great extent. This is oftenest observed in the abdomen, the chest, and
the point of the breast. The very commencement of efiusion may be
detected by auscultation. There wiU be the cessation of the respiratory
murmur at the sternum, and the increased grating — not tlie crepitating

u2

'202 PLEUKISY

crackling noise as when congestion is going on — not the febler murmur aa
congestion advances, bub the absence of it, beginning from the bottom oi
the chest.

It is painfully interesting to watch the progress of the effusion — how
the stillness creeps up, and the murmur gets louder above, and the grating
sound louder too, until at length there is no longer room for the lungs to
play, and suffocation ensues.

The fluid contained ia the chest varies in quantity as well as appearance
and consistence. Many gallons have been found in the two sacs, pale or
yeUow or bloody, often difiering in the two sides or the thorax — occa-
sionally a thick adventitious coat covering the costal or the pulmonary
pleura — rarely much adhesion, but the lungs purple-coloured, flaccid,
compressed, not one-fourth of their usual size, immersed iu the fluid, and
rendered incapable of expanding by its pressure.

Here, aa in pneumonia, the bleeding should be prompt and copious.
Next, and of great importance, aperient medicine should be administered
— that, the effect of which is so desii^able, but which we do not dare to
give when the mucous membrane of the respiratory passages is the seat of
disease. Here we have to do with a serous membrane, and there is less
sympathy with the mucous membranes of either cavity. Small doses of
aloes should be given with the usual fever-medicine, and repeated morning
and night until the dung becomes pultaceous, when it will always be
prudent to stop. The sedative medicine is that which has been recom-
mended in pneumonia, and in the same doses. Next should follow a blister
on the chest and sides. It is far preferable to setons, for it can be brought
almost into contact with the inflamed sui-face, and extended over the whole
of that surface. An airy, but a comfortable box, is likewise even more
necessary than in pnetunonia, but the practice of exposure, uncovered, to
the cold is both absurd and destructive. The blood, repelled from the
skin by the contractile, depressing influence of the cold, would rash with
fatal impetus to the neighbouring membrane, to which it was before
dangerously determined. Warm and comfortable clothing cannot be
dispensed with in pleurisy.

The sedative medicines, however, should be omitted much sooner than
in pneumonia, and succeeded by diuretics. The common turpentine is as
good as any, made into a ball ^vith Hnseed-meal, and given in doses of two
or three drachms t^vice in the day. If the constitution is much impaired,
tonics may be cautiously given, as soon as the violence of the disease is
abated. The spii'it of nitrous ether is a mild stimulant and a diuretic.
Small quantities of gentian and ginger may be added, but the turpentine
must not be omitted.

There is in pleurisy a far greater tendency to relapse than in pneumonia.
The lungs do not perfectly recover from their state of collapse, nor the
serous membrane from its long maceration in the effused fluid : oedema,
cough, disinchnation to work, incanability of rapid progression, colicky
pains, as the unobservant practitioner would call them, but in truth
pleuritic stitches — these are the frequent sequelae of pleurisy. This will
afford another reason why the important operation of paracentesis should
not be deferred too long.

There is much greater disposition to metastasis than in pneumonia : in-
deed, it is easy to imagine that the inflammation of a mere membrane may
more readily and oftener shift than that of the substance of so large a viscus
as the lungs. The inflammation, shifting its flrst ground, attacks almost
every part indiscriminately, and appears under a strangely puzzling variety
of forms. Dropsy is the most frequent change. Eflusion in the abdomen
is substituted for that of the chest, or rather the exhalant or absorbent

PHTHISIS rULMONALIS, OR CONSUMPTION. 293

vessels of the abdomen, or both of them, soon sympatliise in the debility
of those of the thorax.

Whe

PHTHISIS PULMONALIS, OR CONSUMPTION.

len describing the accompaniments and consequences of inflam-
mation of the lungs in the horse, mention was made of this fatal complaint.
It is nsiially connected with or the consequence of pneumonia or pleurisy,
and especially in horses of a peculiar formation or temperament.

K a narrow-chested, flat-sided horse is attacked with inflammation of
the lungs, or severe catarrhal fever, experience tells us that we shall have
more diSiculty in subduing the disease in him, than in one deeper in the
girth or rounder in the chest. The lungs, deficient in bulk according to
the diminished contents of the chest, have been overworked in supplying
the quantity of arterial blood expended in the various purposes of life,
and particularly that which has been required under unusual and violent
exertion. Inflammation of the lungs has consequently ensued, and that
inflammatory action has acquired an intense character under circum-
stances by which another horse would be scarcely afiected.

When this disease has been properly treated, and apparently subdued,
the horse cannot be quickly and summarily dismissed to his work. He is
sadly emaciated — he long continues so — his coat stares — his skin clings
to his ribs — his belly is tucked up, notwithstanding that he may have
plenty of mashes and carrots, and green meat and medicine — ^his former
gaiety of spirit does not return, or if he is willing to work he is easily
tired, sweating on the least exertion, and the sweat most profuse about
the chest and sides — his appetite is not restored, or, perhaps, never has
been good, and the slightest exertion puts him completely off his feed.

We observe him more attentively, and even as he stands quiet in his
stall, the flanks heave a little more laboriously than they should do, and
that heaving is painfully quickened when sudden exertion is required.
He coughs sorely, and discharges from the nose a mucus tinged with
blood, or a fluid decidedly purulent — the breath becomes offensive — the
pulse is strangely increased by the slightest exertion.

When many of these symptoms are developed, the animal will exhibit
considerable pain on being gently struck on some part of the chest ; the
cough then becomes more frequent and painful ; the discharge from the
nose more abundant and foetid, andihe emaciation and consequent debihty
more rapid, until death closes the scene.

The lesions that are presented after death are very uncertain. Gene-
rally there are tubercles — sometimes very minute, at other times large in
size. They are in different states of softening, and some of them, having
suppurated, burst into the bronchial passages, and exhibit abscesses of
enormous bulk. Other portions of the lungs are shrunk, flaccid, indurated
or hepatised, and of a ^^ale or red-brown colour ; and there are occasional
adhesions between the lungs and the sides of the chest.

Is this an hereditary disease ? There is some difiiculty in deciding the
point. It has been scarcely mooted among horsemen. One thing only is
known — that the side has been flat, and the belly tucked up, and the animal
has had much more ardour and willingness than physical strength. These
conformations and tliis disposition we know to be hereditary, and thus
far phthisis may be said to be so too. Low and damp situations, or a
variable and ungenial climate, may render horses peculiarly susceptible of
chest-affections. All the absurd or cruel or accidental causes of pneu-
monia lay the foundation for phthisis ; and, particularly, those causes
which tend to debilitate the frame generally, render the horse more liable
to chest-affections, and less able to ward off their fatal consequences. The

294 CHRONIC COUGH,

most iwimerous instances of phthisis occur in those poor persecuted animala
that are worn-out before their time, and they are frequent enough among
cavafry horses after the deprivations and fatigues of a long campaign.

What is the medical treatment of confirmed phthisis ? The practitioaer
must be guided by circumstances. K the horse is not very bad, and it is
the spring of the year, a run at grass may be tried. It will generally
seem to renovate the animal, but the apparent amehoration is too often
treacherous. It should always be tried, for it is the best foundation for
other treatment. The summer, however, having set in, the medicinal
effect of the grass ceases, and the flies tease and irritate the animal.

The medical treatment, if any is tried, should consist of counter-irritants ;
they wiU rarely do harm. They should be applied in the form of blisters,
extending over the sides, and thus brought as near as possible to the
affected part.

Sedative medicines should be perseveringly administered; belladonna
should be given in small doses, and the strength of the constitution main-
tained by a continued exhibition of tonic medicine. Nitre may be added
as a diuretic, and pulvis antimoniahs as a diaphoretic.

The tonic effect of mild and nutritious food — green meat of almost every
kind (carrots particularly), mashes, and now and then a malt mash — will be
found of great service. Nothing further than this ? We may try, but
very cautiously, those tonics which stimulate the digestive system yet
comparatively little affect the circulatory one. Small doses of ginger and
gentian may be given, but should be carefully watched, and omitted if
the flanks should heave more, or the cough be aggravated ; but the safest
tonic that can be had recourse to is the sulphate of iron, commonly known
as green vitriol ; half an ounce of this may be given, dissolved in the water,
morning and evening.

The treatment of phthisis is a most unsatisfactory subject of considera-
tion as it regards the practice of the veterinarian. K after the human
being has been subjected to medical treatment, for a long course of time
and at very considerable expense, he so far recovers that Hfe is rendered
tolerably comfortable to him, he and his connections are thankfal and
satisfied, and he will submit to many a privation in order to ward off the
return of a disease, to which he is conscious there will ever be a strong
predisposition ; but the case is different with the horse, and this, the
scope and bound of the human practitioner's hope, is worthless to the
veterinarian. His patient must not only live but must be sound again.
Every energy, every capability, must be restored. Can we cause the
tubercles to be absorbed ? Can we disperse or dispel the hepatisation ?
Can we remodel the disorganised structure of the lungs ? Our considera-
tion, then, will be chiefly directed to the detection of the disease in its
earliest state, and the allaying of the irritation which causes or accom-
panies the growth of the tubercles. This must be the scope and bound
of the veterinarian's practice — always remembering that the owner should
be forewarned of the general hopelessness of the case, and that the con-
tinuance of his efforts should be regulated by the wish of the proprietor
and the value of the patient.

CHRONIC COUGH.
It would occupy more space than can be devoted to this part of our
subject to treat of all the causes of obstinate cough. The irritability of
so great a portion of the air-passages, occasioned by previous and violent
inflammation of them, is the most frequent. It is sometimes connected
with worms. There is much sympathy between the lungs and the intes-
tines, and the one readily participates in the irritation produced in the

CHRONIC COUGH. 295

otlier. That it is caused by glanders can be easily imagined, because that
disease is, in its early stage, seated in or near the principal air-passages, '
and little time passes before the lungs become affected. It is the necessary
attendant of thick- wind and broken-mnd, for these proceed from altera-
tions of the structure of the lungs.

Notwithstanding the clearness of the cause, the cure is not so evident:
If a harsh hollow cough is accompanied by a staring coat and the
appearance of worms, a few worm-balls may expel these parasites, and
remove the irritation of the intestinal canal. If it proceeds from irrita-
bihty of the air-passages — which will be discovered by the horse coughing
after drinking, or when he first goes out of the stable in the morning, or
by his occasionally snorting out thick mucus from the nose — medicines
may be given, and sometimes with advantage, to diminish irritation gene-
rally. Small doses of belladonna, or tartar emetic, and nitre, adminigtered
every night, frequently have a beneficial effect. These balls should, if
necessary, be regularly given for a considerable time ; they are sufficiently
powerful to quiet slight excitement of this kind, but not to nauseate the
horse, or interfere with his food or his work. A blister, extending from
the root of one ear to that of the other, taking in the whole of the chan-
nel, and reaching six or eight inches down the windpipe, has been tried,
and often with good effect, on the supposition that the irritation may exist
in the fauces or the larynx. The blister has sometimes been extended
through the whole course of the windpipe, until it enters the chest.

Feeding has much influence on this complaint. Too much dry meat,
and especially chaff", increases it. It is aggravated when the horse is
suffered to eat his litter, and it is often reheved when spring-tares are
given. Carrots afford decided relief.

The seat of the disease, however, is so uncertain, and all our means and
appHances so inefficacious, and the cough itself so little interfering, and
sometimes interfering not at all, with the health of the animal, that it is
scarcely worth while to persevere in any mode of treatment that is not evi-
dently attended with benefit. The principal consideration to induce us
to meddle at all with chronic cough is the knowledge that horses afflicted
with it are more liable than others to be affected by changes of tempera-
ture, and that inflammation of the lungs, or of the respiratory passages,
often assumes in them a very alarming character ; to which may be added,
that a horse with chronic cough cannot be warranted sound.

When chronic cough chiefly occurs after eating, the seat of the
disease is evidently in the substance of the lungs. The stomach distended
with food presses upon the diaphragm, and the diaphragm upon the lungs ;
and the lungs, already labouring under some congestion, are less capable
of transmitting the air. In the violent effort to discharge their function,
irritation is produced, and the act of coughing is the consequence of that
irritation.

The Veterinary Surgeon labours under great disadvantage in the treat-
ment of his patients. He must not only subdue the malady, but he must
remove all its consequences. He must leave his fatient perfecth/ sotmd, or
he has done comparatively nothing. This is a task always difficult and
sometimes impossible to be accomplished. The two most frequent conse-
quences of severe chest-affections in the horse are recognised under the
terms thick-wind and hrolcen-wind. The breathing is hurried in both, and
the horse is generally much distressed when put upon his speed ; but it is
simply quick breathing in the first, ^vith a peculiar sound like half-roarimg
— the inspirations and expirations being rapid, forcible, but equal. In
the second the breathing is also hurried, but the inspiration does not differ
materially from the natural one, while the expiration is difficult, or doubly

296 THICK-WIND.

laborious. The changes of structure which accompany these states of
morbid respiration are as opposite as can be imagined. Induration of the
substance of the lungs, diminution of the number or the caliber of the
air-passages, are the causes of thick-wind. If the portion of lung employed
is lessened, or the bronchial tubes will not admit so much air, the quick
succession of efforts must make up for the diminished effect produced by
each. In broken-wind there is rupture of the air-cells, and an unnatural
intercommunication between them in the same lobule, or between those of
the neighbouring lobuli. The structure of the lung, and the discharge of
function, and the treatment too, being so different, these diseases require
separate consideration.

THICK-WIND.

When treating of pneumonia, it was observed, that not only are the
vessels which ramify over the delicate membrane of the air-cells gorged
with blood, but they are sometimes ruptured, and the cells are filled with
blood. The black, softened, pulpy appearance of the lungs thus produced,
is the rottenness of the groom and farrier, proving equally the intensity of
the inflammation and that it is of recent date. K the horse is not speedily
destroyed by this lesion of the substance of the lungs, the serous portion
of the effused blood is absorbed, and the solid becomes organised. The
cells are obliterated, and the lung is hepatised, — ^its structure bears consi-
derable resemblance to that of the liver. This may occur in patches, or it
may involve a considerable portion of the lung.

If a portion of the lung is thus rendered impervious, the remainder will
have additional work to perform. The same quantity of blood must be
supplied with air ; and if the working part of the machine is diminished,
it must move with greater velocity as well as force — the respiration
must be quicker and more laborious. This quick and laboured breathing
can be detected even when the animal is at rest, and it is indicated
plainly enough by his sad distress when he is urged to unusual or con-
tinued speed. The inspirations and the expirations are shorter as well as
more violent — the air must be more rapidly admitted and more thoroughly
pressed out, and this is accompanied by a peculiar soimd that can rarely
be mistaken.

We may guess at the commencement of the evil by the laborious heav-
ing of the flanks, but by auscultation alone can we ascertain its progress.
The iiacrease of the crepitus will tell us that the mischief is beginning, and
the cessation of the murmur will clearly mark out its extent.

The inflammatory stage of the disease having passed, and comparative
health being restored, and some return to usefulness having been estab-
lished,— the horse being now thicl--winded, auscultation will be far more
■valuable than is generally imagined. It will faithfully indicate the
quantity of hepatisation, and so give a clue to the degree of usefulness, or
the extent to which we may tax the respiratory system ; and it vnJl also
serve to distinguish, and that very clearly, between the cause of thick-
loind, and the morbid changes that may have resulted from bronchitis, or
thickening of the parietes of the air-passages, and not the obliteration of
the air-cells.

Of the Treatment little can be said. We know not by what means we
can excite the absorbents to take up the solid organised mass of hepatisa-
tion, or restore the membrane of the cells and the minute vessels ramify-
ing over them, now confounded and lost. We liave a somewhat better
chance, and yet not much, in removing the thickening of the membrane ;
for counter-irritants, extensively and perseveringly applied to the external
parietes of the chest, may do something. If thick' wind io^mediately

BROKEN-WIND. 297

followed bronclutis, it would certainly be justifiable practice to blister
the brisket and sides, and that repeatedly ; and to administer purgatives
if we dared, or diui-etics, more efi'ectual than the purgatives and always

Our attention must be principally confined to diet and management. A
thick-winded horse should have his full proportion, or rather more than
his proportion, of corn and beans, and a diminished quantity of less nutri-
tious food, in order that the stomach may never be overloaded, and press
upon the diaphi-agm, and so upon the lungs, and increase the labour of
these already overworked organs. Particular care should be taken that
the horse is not worked immediately after a full meal ; the overcoming
of the pressure and weight of the stomach will be a serious addition to
the extra work which the lungs already have to perform from their altered
structure.

Something may be done in the palliation of thick- wind, and more than
has been generally supposed, by means of exercise. If the thick-winded
horse is put, as it were, into a regular system of training — if he is daily ex-
ercised to the fair extent of his power, and without seriously distressing
him, his breathing will become freer and deeper, and his wind will ma-
terially improve. We shall call to our aid one of the most powerful
excitants of the absorbent system — pressure, that of the air upon the tube
— the working part of the lung upon the disorganised; and adjusting this
so as not to excite irritation or inflammation, we may sometimes do won-
ders. This is the very secret of training, and the power and the dura-
bility of the hunter and the racer depends entirely upon this.

Thick- wind, however, is not always the consequence of disease. There
are certain cloddy round-chested horses that are naturally thick- winded,
at least to a certain extent. They are capable of that slow exertion for
which nature designed them, but they are immediately distressed if put a
little out of their usual pace. A circular chest, whether the horse is large
or small, indicates thick-mnd. The circular chest is a capacious one, and
the lungs which fill it are large ; and they supply sufficient arterialised blood
to produce plenty of flesh and fat, and these horses are always fat. This
is the point of proof to which we look when all that we want from the
animal is flesh and fat ; but the expanding form of the chest is that
which we require in the animal of speed — the deep as well as the broad
chest — always capacious for the purpose of muscular strength, and becom-
ing considerably more so when arteriahsed blood is rapidly expended in
quick progression. We cannot enlarge the capacity of a circle ; and if
more blood is to be furaished, that which cannot be done by increase of
surface must be accomplished by frequency of action. Therefore it is that
many of our heavy draught-horses are thick- winded. It is of httle detri-
ment to them, for their work is slow — or rather it is an advantage to them ;
for the circular chest, always at its greatest capacity, enables them to
acquii^e that weight which is so advantageous for them to throw into the
collar.

BROKEN-WIND.

This is immediately recognisable by the manner of breathing. The in-
spiration is performed in somewhat less than the natural time, and Avithoul
an increased degree of labour : but the expiration has a peculiar difficulty
accompanying it. It is accomplished by a double efibrt, in the first of.
which, as Mr. Blaine has well explained it, ' the usual muscles operate :
and in the other the auxiliary muscles, particularly the abdominal, are
put on the stretch to complete the expulsion more perfectly ; and, that
being done, the flank falls, or the abdominal muscles relax with a kind of
ierk or spasm.'

298 BROKEN-WIND.

The majority of veterinary surgeons attribute broken- wind to an emphy •
sematous state of the lungs. In almost every broken- winded horse which
has been examined after death, there has been found dilatation of some
of the air-cells, and particularly towards the edges of the lobes. There
has been rupture through the parietes of some of the cells, and they have
evidently communicated with one another, and the air could be easily
forced from one portion of the cells to another. There was also a cre-
pitating noise while this pressure was made, as if the attenuated membrane
of some of the cells had given way. These were the true broken cells,
and hence the derivation of the name of the disease.

Broken-wind is preceded or accompanied by cough — a cough perfectly
.characteristic, and by which the horseman would, in the dark, detect the
existence of the disease. It is short, suppressed, and hollow, increased
when the animal is feeding, or exposed to variations of temperature.
When the animal is suddenly struck or threatened, there is a low grunt
of the same nature as that of roaring, but not so loud. Broken- wind is
usually preceded by cough ; the cough becomes chronic, leads on to thick-
wind, and then there is but a step to broken-wind. It is the consequence
of the cough which accompanies catarrh and bronchitis oftener than that
attending or following pneumonia, and of inflammation and, probably,
thickening of the membrane of the bronchiae, rather than of congestion of
the air-ceUs,

Laennec, whose illustrations of the diseases of the chest are invaluable
to the human surgeon, comes to our assistance, and, while describing em-
physema of the lungs of the human being, gives us an expHcation of
broken- wind more satisfactory than is to be found in any of our veteri-
nary writers. He attributes what he calls dry catarrh ' to the partial ob-
struction of the smaller bronchial tubes, by the swelling of their inner
m.embrane. The muscles of inspiration are numerous and powerful, while
expiration is chiefly left to the elasticity of the parts ; then it may happen
that the air, which during inspiration had overcome the resistance opposed
to its entrance by the tumid state of the membrane, is unable to force its
way through the same obstacle dui'ing expiration, and remains imprisoned
in the cells, as it were, by a valve. The succeeding inspirations introduce
a fresh supply of air, and gradually dilate the cells to a greater or less
extent ; and if the obstruction is of some continuance, the dilated condi-
tion of the cells becomes permanent.'

Emphysema, or dilatation or rupture of the tissues of the lungs, is of
two descriptions : in one, termed vesicular emphysema, the air-cells or
vesicles which receive the air in the act of inspiration alone are afiected ;
they may be dilated, enlarged, each separate cell, but when the vacant
space is of considerable size, it is the result of the union of several air-
cells broken into one by the stretching or destruction of the partitions
that naturally divide and isolate them — in the other, termed the puhno-
nary or interlobular emphysema, the air-cells are ruptured, and the air
escapes into the cellular tissue which connects them, the cells being dis-
tended by a full inspiration ; and the air being unable easily to escape
through the obstructed air-tubes, a strong efibrt at expiration is made, a
rupture takes place, and forms a communication between the air-cells and
the cellular tissues. This interlobular effusion of air may take place in a
few minutes or seconds, while the vesicular emphysema, or that limited
to the air- vesicles only, is slow and gradual, their permanent dilatation
being the work of time ; in both descriptions the emphysematous portion
of the lung is paler, drier, and lighter than the rest, for the air being shut
up in these portions, they do not subside, as the adjoining portions do,
when loft to their own elasticity, and in consequence of this they possess

BROKEN-AVIXD. $99

fewer capillary bloodvessels, less blood, and consequently less moisture —
they are dry and light, and float upon water like a bladder filled with air.
Broken-wind may be the result of either of these states : when it comes
on slowly, following an attack of bronchitis, and consequent thick- wind,
it is owing to the overloaded air-cells pressing on, breaking down, and
coalescing with each other ; when it is developed suddenly, it depends on
a rupture of the air-cells into the areolar tissue from some very severe
exertion, and the result is sudden and immediate.

Some circumstances attending this disease may now, probably, be ac-
counted for. A troublesome cough, and sometimes of long continuance,
is the foundation of the disease, or indicates that irritable state of the
bronchial membrane with which broken- wind is almost necessarily as-
sociated. Horses that are greedy feeders, or devour large quantities of
slightly nutritious food, or are worked with a stomach distended by this
food, are very subject to broken-wind. More depends upon the manage-
ment of the food and exercise than is generally supposed. The post-horse,
the coach-horse, and the racer are comparatively seldom broken- winded.
They are fed, at stated periods, on nutritious food that lies in Httle com-
pass, and their hours of feeding and of exertion are so arranged that they
seldom work on a full stomach. The agricultural horse is too often fed
on the very refuse of the farm, and his hours of feeding and of work are
frequently irregular ; and the carriage-horse, although fed on more
nutritious food, is often summoned to work by his capricious master the
moment his meal is devoured.

A rapid gallop on a fall stomach has often produced broken-wind.
When the exertion has been considerable and long- continued, we can
easily conceive a rupture of the air-cells of the soundest lungs ; but we
are inclined to believe, that were the history of these cases known, there
would be found to have been a gradual preparation for this result. There
would have been chronic cough, or more than usually disturbed respiration
after exercise, and then it required little more to perfect the mischief.
Galloping after drinking has been censured as a caus'e of broken- wind,
yet we cannot think that it is half so dangerous as galloping with a
stomach distended by soHd food. It is said that broken- winded horses are
foul feeders, because they devour almost everything that comes in their
way, and thus impede the play of the lungs ; but there is so much sym-
pathy between the respiratory and digestive systems, that one cannot be
much deranged without the other evidently suffering. Flatulence and a
depraved appetite may be the consequence as well as the cause of broken-
wind ; and there is no pathological fact of more frequent occurrence than
the coexistence of indigestion and flatulence with broken- wind. Flatu-
lence seems so invariable a concomitant of broken- wind, that the old
farriers used to think the air found its way from the lungs to the abdomen
in some inexplicable manner, and hence their ' holes to let out broken-
wind ; ' they used literally to make a hole near to or above the funda-
ment in order to give vent to the imprisoned wind. The sphincter muscle
was generally divided ; and although the trumping ceased, there was a
constant although silent emission of foetid gas, that made the remedy
worse than the disease.

Young horses are seldom found the subject of broken- wind, but there is
no class amongst which it is so prevalent as aged horses employed for
agricultural purposes. In these animals it usually comes on gradually,
and can generally be traced to a paralysed condition of thepneumogastric
uerve. It may therefore be considered as primarily a disease of the diges-
tive organs, depending upon the indigestible nature of the food, and the
Regular manner in which these animals are fed. There can be little

boo IHE HEART.

doubt that amongst all horses, especially those last mentioned, broken- wind
is to a certain extent hereditary.

Is there any cure for broken-wind ? None ! no medical skill can repair
the broken-down structure of the lungs.

If, however, we cannot cure, we may in some degree palliate broken-
wind : and, iirst of all, we must attend carefully to the feeding. The food
should he in Httle compass, — plenty of oats and spht beans, with a mode-
rate allowance of chaff. Hay is objectionable, from the rapidity with whicli
il is usually devoured, and the stomach overdistended. Water should be
given in moderate quantities, but the horse should not be suffered to drink
as much as he likes until the day's work is over. Green meat will always
be serviceable. Carrots are particularly useful ; they are readily digested,
and appear to have a peculiarly beneficial effect on the respiratory system.

It is from the want of proper attention to the feeding that many horses
become broken- winded even in the straw-yard. There is little nutriment
in the provender which they find there ; and in order to obtain enough
for the support of life, they are compelled to keep the stomach constantly
full, and pressing upon the lungs. It has been the same when they have
been turned out in coarse and innutritive pasturage. The stomach was
perpetually gorged, and the habitual pressure on the lungs cramped and
confined their action, and inevitably ruptured the cells when the horse
gambolled -with his companions, or was wantonly driven about.

Next in importance stands exercise. The broken- winded horse should
not stand idle in the stable a single day. It is almost incredible how
much may be done by attention to food and exercise. The broken- winded
horse may thus be rendered comfortable to himself, and no great nuisance
to his owner ; but inattention to feeding, or one hard journey, — the
animal unprepared, and the stomach full, — may bring on inflammation,
congestion, and death. Occasional physic, or alterative medicine, will
often give considerable relief.

THE HEART.

The heart is placed between a doubhng of the pleura — the mediastinum,
by means of which it is supported in its natural situation, and all danger-
ous friction between these important organs is avoided. It is also sur-
rounded by a membrane or bag of its own, called the pericardium, whose
office is of a similar nature. By means of the heart the blood is circulated
through the frame.

It is composed of four cavities — two above, called auricles, from their
supposed resemblance to the ear of a dog ; and two below, termed ventricles,
occupying the substance of the heart. In point of fact, there are two
hearts — the one on the left side impelling the blood through the frame,
the other on the right side through the jaulmonary system ; but, united
in the manner in which they are, their junction contributes to theii'
mutual strength, and both circulations are carried on at the same time.

The first is the arterial circulation. No function can be discharged,
life cr-rnot exist, without the presence of arterial blood. The left ventricle
that contains it contracts, and by the power of that contraction, aided by
other means, which the limits of our work will not permit us to describe,
the blood is driven through the whole arterial circulation — the capillaiy
vessels and the veins — and returns again to the heart, but to the right
ventricle. The other division of this viscus is likewise employed in cir-
culating the blood thus conveyed to it, but not the same fluid which was
contained in the left ventricle. It has gradually lost its vital power as it
has passed along ; it has changed from a bright to a dark red, and from a
vital to a poisonous fluid. Ere it can again convey the principle of nutri-

DISEASES OF THE HEART. 301

tion, or give to each organ tliat impulse or stimulus whicli enables it to
discharge its liinction, it must be materially changed.

When the right ventricle contracts, and the blood is di-iven into the
lujigs, it passes over the gossamer membrane of -which the lobules of the
lungs have been described as consisting ; these lobules being tilled with
the air which has descended through the bronchial tubes in the act of in-
spiration. This deHcate membrane permits some of the principles of the
air to permeate it. The oxygen of the atmosphere combines with a
portion of the superabundant carbon of this blood, and the expired air is
poisoned with carbonic-acid gas. Some of the constituents of the blood
attract a portion of the oxygen of the air, and obtain their distinguishing
character and properties as arterial blood ; and being thus revivified, it
passes on over the membrane of the lobes, unites into small and then
larger vessels, and at length pours its full stream of arterial blood into
the left auricle, thence to ascend into the ventricle and to be diffused over
the frame.

DISEASES OF THE HEART.

It may be readily supposed that an organ so complicated is subject to
disease. It is so to a fearful extent, and it sympathises with the maladies
of every other part. Until lately, however, this subject has been shamefully
neglected, and the writers on the veterinary art have seemed to be unaware
of the importance of the organ, and the maladies to which it is exposed.
The owners of horses and the vetei"inary profession generally are deeply
indebted to Percivall in his ' Hippopathology' and to the pages of ' The
Veterinarian' (vol. vi.) for much valuable information on this subject. To
Dr. Hope also, and particularly to Laennec, we owe much, Mr. Percivall
well says, ' This class of diseases may be regarded as the least advanced
of any in veterinary medicine — a cii'cumstance not to be ascribed so much ■
to their comparative rarity, as to their existing undiscovered, or rather
being confounded during life with other disorders, and particularly with
pulmonary affections.'

The best place to examine the beating of the heart is immediately behind
the elbow, on the left side. The hand applied flat against the ribs will
give the number of pulsations. The ear thus applied will enable the
practitioner better to ascertain the character of the pulsation. The
stethoscope affords an uncertain guide, for it cannot be flatly and evenly
applied.

Pericarditis. — The bag, or outer investing membrane of the heart, is
liable to inflammation, in which the effused fluid becomes organised, and
deposited in layers, increasing the thickness of the pericardium, and the
difficulty of the expansion and contraction of the heart. The only
symptoms on which dependence can be placed are — a quickened and irre-
gTilar respu-ation ; a bounding action of the heart in an early stage of the
disease, but that, as the fluid increases and becomes concrete, assaming a
feeble and fluttering character.

Hydrops Pericardii is the tei-m used to designate the presence of the
fluid secreted in consequence of this inflammation, and varpng from a pint
to a gallon or more. In addition to the symptoms already described, there
is an expression of alarm and anxiety in the countenance of tlie animal
which no other malady produces. The horse generally sinks from other
disease, or from constitutional irritation, before the cavity of the pericardium
is filled ; or if he lingers on, most dreadful palpitations and throbbiugs
accompany the advanced stage of the diseaae. It is seldom or never that
this disease exists alone, but is combined with dropsy of the chest or
abdomen.

302 DISEASES OF THE HEART.

Carditis is the name given to inflammation of tlie muscular substance
of the heart. A well-authenticated instance of inflammation of the sub-
stance of the heart does not stand on record. Some other organ proves to
be impHcated in the mischief, even when the disturbance of the heart has
been most apparent.

Inflammation of the Lining of the Heart. — Mr. Simpson relates, in
' The Veterinarian ' for 1834, a case in' which there were symptoms of severe
abdominal pain ; the respiration was much disturbed, and the action of the
heart took on an extraordinary character. Three or four beats succeeded
to each other, so violently as to shake the whole frame, and to be visible
at the distance of several yards, with intervals of quietude of five minutes
or more. At length this violent beating became constant.

On dissection both lungs were found to be inflamed, the serum in the
pericardium increased in quantity, and the internal membrane of the heart
violently inflamed, with spots of ecchymosis.

This would seem to be a case of inflammation of the heart ; but in a
considerable proportion of the cases of rabies, these spots of ecchymosis
and this general inflammation of the heart are seen.

Hypertrophy is an augmentation or thickening of the substance of the
heart ; and, although not dreamed of a few years ago, seems now to be a
disease of no rare occurrence among horses. The heart has been known
to acquire double its natural volume, or the auricle and ventricle on
one side have been thus enlarged. Mr. Thomson relates in ' The Ve-
terinarian ' a very singular case. A horse was brought with every
appearance of acute rheumatism, and was bled and physicked. On the
following day he was standing, with his fore-legs widely extended, the
nostrils dilated, the breathing quick and laborious, the eyes sunk in their
orbits, the pupils dilated, his nose turned round almost to his elbow,
sighing, and his countenance showing approaching dissolution. The pulse
had a most irregular motion, and the undulation of the jugular veins
was extending to the very roots of the ears. He died a few hours
afterwards.

The lungs and pleui'a were much inflamed ; the pericardium was in-
flamed and distended by fluid ; the heart was of an enormous size and
greatly inflamed ; both the auricles and ventricles were filled with coagu-
lated blood ; the greater part of the chordge tendineae had given way ; the
valves did not approximate to perform their function, and the heart alto-
gether presented a large disorganised mass, weighing thirty-four pounds.
The animal worked constantly on the farm, and had never been put to
quick or very laborious work.

Dilatation is increased capacity of the cavities of the heart, the
parietes being generally thinned. It is probable that this is a more fre-
quent disease than is generally supposed ; and from the circulating power
being lessened, or almost suspended, on account of the inability of the
cavities to propel their contents, it is accompanied by much and rapid
emaciation. In the Gardens of the Zoological Society of London this is a
disease considerably frequent, and almost uniformly fatal. It attacks the
smaller animals, and particularly the quadrumana, and has been found in
the deer and the zebra. It is characterised by slow emaciation, and a
piteous expression of the countenance ; but the mischief is done when
these symptoms appear.

Ossification of the Heart. — There are too many instances of this
both in the right and the left auricles of the heart, the aortic valves, the
abdominal aorta, and also the bronchial and other glands. Mr. Percivall
observes of one of these cases, that ' the cavity could have been but a

THE ARTERIES. THE VEINS. »(Vi

passive receptacle for the blood, and the current must have been continued
vrithoiit any or with hardly any fresh impulse.'

Of air ih thf heart destroying the horse there are some interesting
accounts ; and also of rupture of the heart, and aneurism, or dilatation of
the aorta, both thoracic and abdominal, and even farther removed from the
heart and in the ihac artery. The symptoms that would certainly indicate
the existence of aneurism are yet unknown, except tenderness about the
loins and gradual inability to work are considered as such : but it is
interesting to know of the existence of these lesions. Ere long the vete-
rinary surgeon may possibly be able to guess at them, although he vrill
rarely have more power in averting the consequences of aneurism than the
human surgeon possesses with regard to his patient.

This will be the proper place to describe a Httle more fully the circula-
tion of the blood, and various circumstances connected with that mosii
important process.

THE ARTEEIES.

The vessels which carry the blood from the heart are called arteries
{heeping air, — the ancients thought that they contained air). They are
composed of three coats : the outer or elastic is that by which they are
enabled to yield to the gush of blood, and enlarge their dimensions as it is
forced along them, and by which also they contract again as soon as the
stream has passed ; the middle coat is a muscular one, by which this con-
traction is more powerfally performed, and the blood urged on in its
course ; the inner or membranous coat is the mere lining of the tube.

The arteries divide as they proceed through the frame, and branch out
into innumerable minute tubes, termed capillaries (hair-hke tubes), and
they even become so small as to elude the sight. The slightest puncture
cannot be inflicted without wounding some of them. In these Httle tubes
the nourishment of the body and the separation of all the various secre-
tions is performed, and in consequence of this the blood is changed.
When these capillaries unite together, and begin to enlarge, it is found to
be no longer arterial or of a florid red colour, but venous, or of a blacker
hue ; therefore the principal termination of the arteries is in the veins.
The point where the one ends and the other commences cannot be
ascertained. It is when the red arterial blood, having discharged its
function by depositing the nutritious parts, is changed to venous or black
blood.

THE VEINS.

These vessels carry back to the heart the blood which had been conveyed
to the different parts by the arteries. They have the same number of
coats as arteries, but are thin and comparatively weak. They are more
numerous and much larger than the arteries, and consequently the blood,
lessened in quantity by the various secretions separated from it, flows more
slowly through them. It is forced on partly by the first impulse commu-
nicated to it by the heart, also in the extremities and external poi-tions
of the frame, by the pressure of the muscles ; and in the cavity of the
chest, its motion is assisted or principally caused by the sudden expansion
of the ventricles of the heart, after they have closed upon and driven out
their contents, and thereby causing a vacuum which the blood rushes on
to fill. There are curious valves in various parts of the veins, which pre-
vent tho blood from fiowing; backward to its source.

a()4 THE PULSE.

THE PULSE

Is caused by tlie yielding of the coats of the artery to the gush of blood
forced into it by the contraction of the heart. It is a very useful assistant
to the practitioner of human medicine, but much more so to the veterinary
sui'geou, whose patients cannot describe either the seat or degree of ail-
ment or pain. The number of pulsations in any artery wiil give the
number of the beatings of the heax^t, and so express the ia-ritation of that
organ, and of the frame generally. In a state of health, the heart beats in
a horse from about thirty-two to thirty-six times in a minute. This is said
to be the standard pulse — the pulse of health. It varies singularly Httle
in horses of the same size and breed, and where it beats naturally there
can be little materially wrong. The most convenient place to feel the
pulse is at the lower jaw (p. 199) a little behind the spot where the sub-
maxillary artery and vein and the parotid duct come from under the jaw.
There the number of pulsations will be easily counted, and the character
of the pulse, a matter of fully equal importance, will be clearly ascertained.
Many horsemen put the hand to the side. They can certainly count the
pulse there, but they can do nothing more. We must be able to press the
artery against some hard body, as the jawbone, in order to ascertain the
manner in which the blood flows through it, and the quantity that
flows.

When the pulse reaches fifty or fifty-five, some degree of fever may be
apprehended, and proper precaution should be taken ; seventy or seventy-
five will indicate a dangerous state, and put the owner and the surgeon
not a little on the alert. Few horses long survive a pulse of one hun-
dred, for by this excessive action the energies of nature are speedily
worn out.

Some things, however, should be taken into account in forming our con-
clusion fi'om the frequency of the pulse. Exercise, a warm stable, and
fear will wonderfully increase the number of pulsations. In the preg-
nant condition of the mare the pulse will also be found increased.

When a careless brutal fellow goes up to a horse, and speaks hastily to
him, and handles him roughly, he adds ten beats per minute to the pulse,
and vnll often be misled in the opinion he may form of the state of the
animal. A judicious person will approach the patient gently, and pat and
soothe him, and even then probably the circulation will be a Httle dis-
turbed. He should take the additional precaution of noting the number
and quality of the pulse a second time before he leaves the animal.

If a qtoick pulse indicate irritation and fever, a slow pulse will likewise
characterise diseases of an opposite description. It accompanies the sleepy
stage of staggers, and every malady connected with deficiency of nervous
energy.

The i'part may not only be excited to more frequent but also to more
violent action. It may contract more powerfully upon the blood, which
will be driven with greater force through the arteries, and the expansion
of the vessels will be greater and more sudden. Then we have the hard
pulse, the sure indicator of considerable fever.

Sometimes the pulse may be hard and jerking, and yet small : the
stream though forcible is not great. The heart is so ii^ri table that it con- '
tracts before the ventricle is properly filled. The practitioner knows that
this indicates a dangeroiis state of disease. It is an almost invariable
accompaniment of inflammation of the bowels.

A iveaJc pulse, when the arterial sti'eam flows slowly, is caused by the
feeble action of the heart. It is the reverse of fever, and expressive of
debility.

INFL.aiMATION. 305

The oppressed pulse is wlien the arteries seem to be fully distended with
blood. There is obstruction somewhere, and the action of the heart can
hardly force the streaia along, or communicate pulsation to the current.
It is the case in sudden congestion of the lungs. They are overloaded
and gorged with blood which cannot find its way through their minute
vessels. This accounts for the well-known fact of a copious bleeding in-
creasing a pulse previously oppressed. A portion being removed from the
distended and choked vessels, the remainder is able to flow on.

There are many other varieties of the pulse, which it would be tedious
here to particularise ; it must, however, be observed, that during the act
of bleeding, its state should be carefully observed. ]\Iany veterinary sur-
geons, and gentlemen too, are apt to order a certain quantity of blood to
be taken away, but do not condescend to superintend the operation. This
is unpardonable in the surgeon and censurable in the owner of the horse.
The animal is bled for some particular purpose. There is some state of
disease, indicated by a peculiar quality of the pulse, which we are endea-
vouring to alter. The most experienced practitioner cannot tell what
quantity of blood must be abstracted in order to produce the desired efiect.
The change of the pulse can alone indicate when the object is accom-
plished ; therefore, the operator should have his finger on the artery
during the act of bleeding, and, comparatively regardless of the quantity,
continue to take blood, until, in inflammation of the lungs, the oppressed
pulse becomes fuller and more distinct, or the strong pulse of considerable
fever is evidently softer, or the animal exhibits symptoms of faintness.

INFLAMMATION

Consists of a disturbed action of the circulation, by which an imcreased
flow of blood is determined to a particular part. It is characterised by
redness, swelling, heat and pain. The redness proceeds from the greater
quantity of blood flowing through the part, occasioned by the dilated con-
dition of the vessels. The swelling arises from the same cause, and from
the deposit of fluid in the neighbouring substance. The natural heat of
the body is produced by the gradual change which takes place in the blood,
in passing from an arterial to a venous state. If more blood is driven
through the capillaries of an inflamed part, and in which this change is
effected, more heat will necessarily be produced there ; and the pain is
easily accounted for by the distension and pressure which must be pro-
duced, and the participation of the nerves in the disturbance of the
suri'ounding parts.

If the inflammation be slight, and arrested by ti-eatment in its early
stages, resolution and a return to a healthy condition of the part will follow;,
but if it be acute and go on unchecked, it will terminate either in effusion,
adhesion, suppuration, or gangTene.

In the treatment of inflammation, blood-letting has always held a pro-
minent position. In times past it was carried to an injurious extent ;
there is, perhaps, a tendency at the present day to go to the other exti-eme,
by neglecting many opportunities when great benefit might result fro-m
the abstraction of blood, especially in local inflammations. An eminent
writer on this subject says ' it is a measure, life-giving in its proper use,
and deadly if abused. Its benefits may be explained on any theory ; by
diminishing the mass of blood, it lessens the labour of the heart and lungs,
and allows the remaining blood to be oxygenated and purified by natural
influences. It diminishes the rush of blood to the inflamed part, and
allows distended venous capillaries to empty themselves ; it decreases the
specific gravity, and increases the absorptive power of the blood ; it pro-
motes the action ol the skin and bowels, and imitates the spontaneous

306 INFLAMMATION.

hemorrliage by wliich nature often gives relief.' Blood is generally
abstracted from tlie jugular vein, and so the general quantity may be
lessened ; but if it can be taken from the neighbourhood of the diseased
part, it will be productive of tenfold benefit. One quart of blood abstracted
from the coronet in acute founder, by unloading the vessels of the inflamed
part, and enabling them to contract, and, in that contraction, to acquire
tone and power to resist future distension, will do more good than five
quarts taken froia the general circulation. An ounce of blood obtained
by scarifying the swelled vessels of the inflamed eye, will give as much
rehef to that organ as a copious bleeding from the jugular. It is a prin-
ciple in the animal frame which should never be lost sight of by the
veterinary surgeon, or the horseman, that if by bleeding the process of
inflammation can once be checked, — if it can be suspended but for a little
while, — although it may return, it is never with the same degree of violence,
and in many cases it is got rid of entirely. Hence the necessity of bleeding
early, and bleeding largely. Many horses are lost for want or insufficiency
of bleeding, but very rarely is one materially injured by the most copious
extraction of blood in the early stage of acute inflammation. The horse
will bear, and with advantage, the loss of an almost incredible quantity of
blood ; four quarts taken from him will be comparatively little more than
one pound taken from the human being. "We can scarcely conceive of a
considerable inflammation of any part of the horse, whether proceeding
from sprains, contusions, or any other cause, in which bleeding, local (if
possible), or general, will not be of essential service.

Next in importance to bleeding, is purging. Something may be re-
moved from the bowels, the retention of which would increase the general
irritation and fever. The quantity of blood will be materially lessened ;
for the serous or watery fluid which is separated from it by a brisk purge,
tiie action of which in the horse continues frequently more than twenty-
four houxs, is enormous. While the blood is thus determined to the bowels,
less even of that which remains will flow through the inflamed part.
When the circulation is directed to one set of vessels, it is proportionately
diminished in other parts. It was first directed to the inflamed portions,
and they were overloaded and injured, — it is now directed to the bowels,
and the inflamed parts are relieved. While the purging continues, some
degree of languor and sickness are felt, and the force of the circulation is
thereby diminished, and the general excitement lessened. The importance
of physic in every case of considerable external inflammation is sufficiently
evident. If the horse is laid by for a few days from injury of the foot,
or sprain, or poll-evil, or wound, or almost any cause of inflammation, a
physic-ball should be given.

In cases of internal inflammation, much judgment is required to deter-
mine when a purgative may be beneficial or injurious. In inflammation
of the lungs, it should never be given. There is so strong a sympathy
between the various contents of the cavity of the chest, that no one of
them can be inflamed to any great extent without all the others being
disposed to become so ; and, therefore, a dose of physic in inflamed lungs
would perhaps be as fatal as a dose of poison. The excitement produced
on the bowels by the purgative may run on to inflammation, which no
medical skill can stop.

The means of abating external inflammation are various, and seemingly
contradictory. The heat of the part very naturally led to the apphcation
of cold embrocations and lotions. Heat has a strong tendency to equaHse
itself, or to leave that substance which has a too great quantity of it, or
little capacity to retain it, for another which has less of it, or more
capacity. Hence the advantage of cold applications, by which a great

IXFLAMMAnON. 307

deal of the tmn.atural heat is speedily abstracted from the inflamed part.
Wlien benefit is derived from these applications, it is to be attributed in
some measure to their coldness. The cold tends to brace up and invigorate
the parts, and the evaporation from the blood, consequent upon the apph-
cation of moisture, conduces rapidly to reduce the inflammation. A
bandage well wetted, partially wrung out, and renewed every half hour
or less, during the continuance of active inflammation, will cause it to
Bubside considerably. When the acute stage has passed off, the wet
bandage must be well wrung out, covered by three or four folds of dry
linen, changed every three or four hours, and wet hand-rubbing for five
or ten minutes applied twice or thrice a day.

Sometimes, however, we resort to warm fomentations, and the benefit
derived from their use is to be traced to the warmth of the fluid, more
than to any medicinal property in it. "Warm water will do as much good
to the horse, who has so thick a skin, as any decoction of chamomile, or
marsh-mallow, or poppy heads, or any nostrum that the farrier may
recommend. Fomentations increase the warmth of the skin, and open
the pores of it, and promote perspiration, and thus lessen the tension and
swelhng of the part, assuage pain, and relieve inflammation. Foment-
ations, to be beneficial, should be long and frequently appHed, and at as
great a degree of heat as can be used without giving the animal pain.
Poultices are more permanent, or longer-continued fomentations. The part
is exposed to the influence of warmth and moisture for many hours or days
without intermission, and perspiration being so long kept up, the distended
vessels will be very materially relieved. The advantage derived from a
poultice is attributable to the heat and moisture, which, by means of it,
can be long appHed to the skin, and it shoidd be composed of materials
which will best retain this moisture and heat. The bran poultice of the
farrier is, consequently, objectionable. It is never perfectly in contact
with the surface of the skin, and it becomes nearly dry in a few hours,
after which it is injurious rather than beneficial. Linseed-meal is a much
better material for a poultice, for, if properly made, it will remain moist
during many hours. The two, however, may be mixed with advantage ;
and, if judiciously and carefully applied — that is, in close contact with the
skin — are of considerable efiicacy.

It is occasionally very difiicult to decide when a cold or a hot appucation
is to be used, and no general rule can be laid down, except that in cases of
superficial inflammation, and in the early stage, cold lotions will be
preferable ; but, when the inflammation is deeper seated, or fully established,
or extended over a large surface, warm fomentations will be most service-
able.

Stimulating applications are frequently used in local inflammation.
When the disease is deeply seated, a stimulating application to the skin
vrill cause some irritation and inflammation there, and lessen or sometimes
rem-ove the original malady ; hence the use of rowels and blisters in
tuflammation of the chest. Inflammation to a high degree caimot exist in
parts that are so near each other. If we excite it in one, we shall abate
it in the other, and also, by the discharge which we estabhsh from the one,
we shall lessen the determination of blood to the other.

Stimulating and blistering apphcations should never be appUed to a part
already inflamed. A fire is not put out by heaping more fuel upon it.
Hence the mischief which the farrier often does by rubbing his abominable
oils on a recent sprain, hot and tender. Many a horse has been ruined by
this absurd treatment. When the heat and tenderness have disappeared
by the use of cold lotions or fomentations, and the leg or sprained part
remains enlarged, or bony matter threatens to be deposited, it may then

x2

308 FEVEK.

be right to excite inflammation of the skin by a blister, in order to ro'iB6
the deeper- seated absorbents to action, and enable them to take np this
deposit; but, except to hasten the natural process and effects of inflammation,
a blister, or stimilating application, should never be applied to a part
already inflamed.

FEVER,
Fever is general increased arterial action, either without any local
affection, or in consequence of the sympathy of the system with inflam-
mation in some particular part.

The first is pure fever. Some have denied that that exists in the horse,
but they must have been strangely careless observers of the diseases of
that animal. The truth of the matter is, that the usual stable management
and general treatment of the horse are so absurd, and various parts of him
are rendered so likely to take on inflammation, that pure fever will exist a
very little time without degenerating into inflammation. The lungs are
so weakened by the heated and foul air of the ill-ventilated stable, and by
sudden changes from almost insufferable heat to intense cold, and the feet
are so injured by hard usage and injudicious shoeing, that, sharing from
the beginning in the general vascular excitement which characterises
fever, they soon become excited far beyond other portions of the frame ;
and that which commenced a fever becomes inflammation of the lungs or
feet. Pure fever, however, is sometimes seen, and runs its course regularly.
It frequently begins with a cold or shivering fit, which, although not
essential to fever, will very frequently be found preceding it. The horse
is dull, unwilling to move, has a staring coat, and cold legs and feet.
This is succeeded by increased warmth of the body ; unequal distribution
of warmth to the legs ; one hot, and the other three cold, or one or more
unnaturally warm, and the others unusually cold, but not the deathlike
coldness of inflammation of the lungs ; the pulse quick, soft, and often
indistinct ; the bi^eathing a Httle quickened ; but no cough, or pawing, or
looking at the flanks. The animal will scarcely eat, and is very costive.
While the state of pure fever lasts, the shivering fit returns at nearly the .
8ame hour every day, and is succeeded by a warm one, and that often by
a slight degree of perspiration ; and these alternate during several days
until local inflammation appears, or the fever gradually subsides. A
horse rarely dies of pure fever. If he is not destroyed by inflammation of
the lungs, or feet, or bowels succeeding to the fever, he generally recovers.
In the treatment of fever care should be taken to husband the strength of
the animal as much as possible. The horse should be placed in a cool well-
ventilated stable, and his body and extremities warmly clothed. Bleeding,
and the administration of aloes or other active purgatives, should on no
account be had resort to , the former as being likely to increase the
debility which generally attends this disease, and the latter from the
danger of excessive purgation, in consequence of the irritable condition of
the mucous membrane of the bowels. Fever medicines in combination
with diffusible stimulants should be administered, such as the spirit of
nitric ether in combination with the liquor ammoniae acetatis, and nitrate
of potash. The constipation of the bowels usually present should be
relieved by clysters of warm soap and water, or if necessary by a small
dose of oil. The animal should be kept on soft food for the first few days,
when a more generous diet may be allowed. If the disease run its course
as pure fever, we may soon begin the administration of tonic medicine
with advantage, such as ginger, gentian, or chincona bark, the latter being
especially serviceable. Fever, however, terminates in inflammation of
some important organ, particularly the lungs. The same treatment should

PURPURA HiEMORRIIAGlCA. — RHEUMATISM. 309

aov? be adopted as recommended in pneumonia, with the exception of
bleeding and other depleting measures, and the earlier resort to tonic
agents.

Symptomatic fever is increased arterial action, proceeding from some
local cause. No organ of consequence can be much disordered or inflamed
vrithout the neighbouring parts being disturbed, and the whole system
gradually participating in the disturbance. Inflammation of the feet or of
the lungs never existed long, or to any material extent, without being
accompanied by a considerable degree of fever.

The treatment of symptomatic fever should resemble that of simple fever,
except that particular attention must be paid to the state of the part
originally diseased. If the inflammation which existed there can be
«ubdued, the general disturbance will usually cease.

PURPURA H5:M0RRHAGICA.

This is a pecuhar disease of the blood, more frequently met with in the
horse than in any other animal. Little is understood respecting the cause of
it, but it is said to be produced by an altered condition of the blood, depend-
ant upon a deranged condition of the secreting organs, such as the kidneys,
liver, &c. It assumes two forms — the acute, and chronic. In the former
it occurs most in the summer months, and generally makes its appearance
suddenly. In the early stage there will be slight bleeding from the
nostrils ; swellings in the softer parts of the body, especially about the
labia and rectum ; the eyes wiU also be swollen and blood-shot, with blood
trickling from them ; pulse very rapid and wavering ; breathing hurried
and difficult, often sonorous. This disease is generally fatal, and runs its
course very rapidly. The swellings, especially about the head, will generally
increase, in some instances threatening suifocation ; the other symptoms
will go on, and the animal not unfrequently falls down and dies in the
course of eight or ten hours from the commencement of the attack. The
treatment, if seen at the commencement of the disease, should consist of
m.oderate blood-letting ; but if, as is generally the case, the disease has made
considerable progress, we must not bleed, but give diffasible stimulants
and diuretics, as the spirits of niti-ic ether or the spirits of turpentine, the
latter being the best. The animal should be placed in a well-ventilated
box, and the body and extremities well clothed. If the swelhng increase
30 as to threaten sufibcation, tracheotomy should be had resort to. The
chronic form of this disease depends upon a directly opposite state of the
blood, and frequently follows catarrhal affections, influenza, and any de-
bilitating causes. There is generally swelling in the same parts, but
not to the same extent ; and we have no bleeding from the nostril, the
schneiderian membrane being studded with petechial spots. The pulse is
weak and tremulous, and the bowels torpid. It may exist in this state
for two or three weeks, and rarely passes away in less than ten or twelve
days. In treating this form of the disease, the animal should be placed
in a well- ventilated box, the body and extremities warmly clothed, and
allowed a generous diet. Tonics, such as columba, gentian, and ginger,
should be given daily, with diffusible stimulants such as the spirit of
nitric ether, to restore the functions of the kidneys and skin. If there be
much effusion, it vrill be advisable to give sulphate of iron. This form of
the disease, unlike the former, generally yields to treatment.

RHEUMATISM.
This is essentially a disease depending upon the accumulation of
some poisonous agent (probably lactic acid) in the blood. It is only of
late years that it has been adniitted into the list of the diseases of the

310 RHEUMATISM.

horse, although it is in truth a very common affection. Animals at all
ages are subject to it, but it is most frequently met with in old horses that
have been early abused, and amongst younger ones "whose powers have
been severely taxed. In the majority of ca>^es, however, it will be met
with in animals recovering from some debilitating disease, especially pneu-
monia and influenza. The animal will be found very lame on one or both
limbs. On examination, considerable swelhng, attended with great heat
and pain on pressure, will be found about the fetlock joint. This may
suddenly leave the part affected and attack another limb, and as suddenly
return again. The lameness is frequently excessive, and the pain is evi-
dently excruciating. The animal fears to rest his weight on the limb, or
even to touch the ground -with his toe. He is heaving at the flanks, some-
times sweating profasely, his countenance plainly indicative of the agony
he feels. With proper treatment the pain and lameness generally disappear ;
but in other instances the ligaments become thickened and rigid, the
capsules of the joint are loaded with fibrinous deposits, and the joint is
evidently enlarged. In some instances it assumes a somewhat chronic
form.. Most horsemen will recollect cases in which the animal that seemed
the preceding day to be perfectly sound becomes decidedly lame, and limps
as though he had lost the use of his limbs. The lameness is indicated
rather by an unwillingness to use the limb than by an expression of pain
in stepping on it. There will be considerable swelling, extending frequently
from the knee to the fetlock down the whole course of the flexor tendons,
and all the constitutional irritation usually attending excessive pain.
These symptoms may gradually disappear in the course of a fortnight and
the ardmal appear perfectly sound, but in a short time the disease will
again return with all its former violence. This is a very troublesome form of
rheumatism, and one which is rarely cured. It is considerably influenced
by cold or wet weather.

Mr. Cooper, of Coleshill, relates a case very applicable to the present
subject. A farmer purchased a horse, to all appearance sound, and rode
him home — a distance of ten miles. He was worked on the two following
days, without showing the least lameness. On the third day it was with
great difficulty that he managed to limp out of the stable. !Mr. Cooper
was sent for to examine him. The horse had clean legs and excellent feet.
The owner would have hirn blistered all round. It was done. The horse
was turned out to grass for two months, and came up perfectly sound.
The weather soon afterwards became wet and cold, and the horse again
was lame ; in fact, it presently appeared that the disease was entirely
influenced by the changes of the atmosphere. ' Thus,' adds Mr. C, ' in
the summer a horse of this description will be mostly sound, while in the
winter he will be generally lame.'

Rheumatism sometimes affects the muscles, assuming a neuralgic
character. In this form of the disease there may be no acute inflamma-
tion or pain on pressure. The following account of acute rheumatism, by
Mr. Thompson, of Beith, is too valuable to be omitted : — ' I have had,'
says he, ' fourteen cases of this disease. The muscles of the shoulders and
arms were generally the parts afiiected. The cure was effected in a few
days, and consisted of a good bleeding from the jugular, and a sharp
purge.

' One of these cases was uncommonly severe. The disease was in the
back and loins. The horse brought forward bis hind-legs under his flanks,
roached his back, and drew up his flanks with a con\Tilsive twitch, accom-
panied by a piteous groan, almost every five minutes. The sympathetic
fever was alarming, the pulse was 90, and there was obstinate constipation
of the bowels. The horse literally roared aloud if any one attempted to

THE ANATOMY AND DISEASES OP THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 311

sMft him in the stall, and groaned excessively when lying. He was bled
almost to fainting ; and three moderate doses of aloes were given in tlxe
course of two days. Injections were administered, and warm fomentations
were frequently applied to the back and loins. On the third day the
physic operated briskly, accompanied by considerable nausea and reduction
of the pulse. From that time the animal gradually recovered.

' These horses are well fed, and always in good condition ; but they are
at times worked without mercy, which perhaps makes them so liable to
these attacks,'

In the treatment of rheumatism attention should be paid to the probable
nature and causes producing it. When it follows pneumonia, influenza,
or other debilitating causes, our first object should be to restore the genei-al
health of the animal by the judicious administration of tonic medicines
and nutritious foods ; an occasional diuretic may also be given. Our local
apphcations should consist in the acute stage of warm fomentations, to be
soon followed by some stimulating liniment, such as the compound soap
liniment or the vinegar of cantharides. By these means this form of the
disease will generally quickly disappear. When rheumatism suddenly
attacks an animal in apparent health much more active means must be
resorted to. We must endeavour to arouse the excretory organs, as the
Hver and kidneys, into increased action. Half a drachm of calomel and
opium combined with three drachms of aloes should be at once administered,
followed in a day or two by active diuretics. Warm fomentations should
be apphed to the parts, and when the acute inflammation is subdued, a
bhster ; the animal being kept perfectly quiet, and allowed nothing but
bran mash or other soft foods. Colchicum, guiacum, and other medicines
which are esteemed as valuable remedial agents on the human subject in
tliis disease, appear to produce but Httle efi'ect upon the horse.

CHAPTER XIV.

THE ANATOMY AND DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE OKGANB.

We have abeady described the anatomy of the lips, tongue, teeth, and
other organs connected with the digestive system in the mouth of the
animal, and we now pass on to the back of the mouth, and arrive at what
is called the

PHARYNX.

It is a fannel-shaped cavity (carrying or conveying the food towai-ds the
oesophagus). It commences at the root of the tongue, is separated from
the mouth by the soft palate, which hangs down from the palatine bone,
and extends to the epiglottis or covering to the windpipe. When the food
has been sufiiciently ground by the teeth, and mixed with the saliva, it is
gathered together by the tongue, and by the action of the cheeks and
tongue, and back part of the mouth, forced against the soft palate, which,
giving way, and being raised upwards towards the entrance into the
nostrils, prevents the food from proceeding that way. It passes to the
pharjTix, and the soft palate again falhng down, prevents its return to the
mouth, and also prevents, except in extreme cases, the act of vomiting in
the horse. Whatever is returned from the stomach of the horse, passes
through the nose.

The sides of the pharynx are Hned with muscles which now bagin

312

THE (ESOPHAGUS, OR GULLET.

powerfally to contract, and by that contraction the bolus is forced on until
it reaches the g'ullet, which is the termination of the pharynx. Before,
however, the food proceeds so far, it has to pass over the entrance into the
windpipe, and should any portion of it enter that tube, much inconveni-
ence and danger might result ; therefore, this opening is not only lined by
muscles which close it at the pleasure of the animal, but is hkewise covered
by a heart-like elastic cartilage, the epiglottis, with its back towards the
pharynx, and its hollow towards the aperture. The epiglottis yields to the
pressure of the bolus passing over it, and lying flat over the opening into
the wdndpipe, prevents the possibility of anything entering into it. No
sooner, however, has the food passed over it, than it rises again by its
own elasticity, and leaves the upper part of the windpipe once more open
for the purpose of breathing.

THE (ESOPHAGUS, OE GULLET.

The oesophagus consists of a muscular membranous tube extending from
the pharynx to the stomach, and conveys the food from the mouth to the
stomach. At the top of the neck, it is immediately behind the windpipe,
but it soon inclines to the left, and runs down the neck close to the A\dnd-
pipe, and on its left. Having entered the chest between the first two ribs,
the gullet passes along the upper part of it, and then piercing the dia-
phragm, or midriff, enters the stomach. It is composed of three coats ;
the outer one of slight loose cellular substance : the middle one muscular,
and divided into two distinct layers, the outermost layers having the fibres
lengthways, by which the gullet may be shortened, and in shortening
widened for the reception of the food ; — the fibres of the inner layers run-
ning circularly round the tube, so that the portion immediately above a
pellet of food will by its contraction force the food downward, and by
successive actions drive it into the stomach. The inner coat, which is a
continuation of the membrane of the pharynx, lies in folds or plaits, ex-
tending lengthways. The muscular coat, being highly elastic, readily
gives way to the pressure of the food, and these plaits enable the inner or
cuticular coat, likewise, sufiiciently to dilate.

The oesophagus does not, however, enter straight into the stomach, and
with a large open orifice ; but there is an admirable provision made to
prevent the regurgitation of the food when the stomach is filled and the
horse suddenly called upon to perform unusually hard work. The oeso-
phagus enters the stomach in a somewhat curved direction, — it runs
obliquely through the muscular and cuticular coats for some distance, and
_ then its fibres arrange themselves

around the opening into the
stomach. Close observation has
shown that they form themselves
into segments of circles, interlacing
each other, and by their contraction
plainly and forcibly closing the
opening, so that the regurgitation
of the food is almost impossible.

The annexed diagram by Mr.
Ferguson, of Dublin, Avill give a
genei-al idea of the structure of
the termination of the oesophagTis,
and the manner in Avhich it en-
circles the orifice of the stomach.
A microscope of very feeble power will beautifully show this sin-
gular construction. It is not precisely either a sphincter muscle or

THE STOMACH.

313

a valve, but it is a strong and almost insuperable obstacle to the regur-
gitation of the food.

THE STOMACH.

a The oesophagus or gullet, extending to the stomach.

b The entrance of the gullet into the stomach. The circular layers of the muscles are
very thick and strong, and, by their contractions, help to render it difficult for the
food to be returned or vomited.

c The portion of the stomach wliich is covered by cuticle, or insensible skin.
d d The margin, -which separates the cuticular from the villous portion.
e e The mucous, or villous (velvet) portion of the stomach, in which the food is princi-
pally digested.

/ The commimication between the stomach and the first intestine.

g The common orifice through which the bile and the secretion from the pancreas pass
into the first intestine. The two pins mark the two tubes here united.

The stomach is situated on the left side of the abdomen, in what is
termed the hypochondriac region, a small portion extending to the epi-
gastric region. Its anterior part is in connection T\dth the Hver ; its left
extremity with the diaphragm and spleen.

The situation of the stomach will at once explain the reason why a
horse is so much distressed, and sometimes irreparably injui-ed, if worked
hard immediately after a full meal. The stomach must be displaced and
diiven back by every contraction of the diaphragm, or act of inspiration ;
and in proportion to the fulness of the stomach -will be the weight to be
overcome, and the labour of the diaphragm, and the exhaustion of the
animal. If the stomach is much distended, it may be too weighty to
be forced sufficiently far back to make room for the quantity of air which
the animal in a state of exertion requires. Hence the frequency and labour
of the breathing, and the quickness with which such a horse is blown, or
possibly destroyed. Hence also the folly of gi^-ing too full a meal, or too
much water, before the horse starts on a journey or for the chase ; and, in
like manner, the absurdity and danger of that unpardonable custom of
some grooms to gallop the horse after his drink, in order to warm it in
his bell}^ and prevent gTipes.

The horse was destined to be the servant of man, and to be always at his
call whether fasting or full : it would seem, therefore, that, to lessen much

814 THE STOMACH.

inconvenieiice or danger, a smaller stomach, in proportion to his size, is
given to the horse than to ahnost any other animal. The bulk of the horse,
and the services required of him, demand much nutriment, and that of
such a nature as to occupy a very considerable space ; yet his stomach,
compared with his bulk, is not half so large as that of the human being :
therefore, although he. Like every other animal, feels inconvenience from
great exertion immediately after a full meal, he suffers not so much as
other quadrupeds, for his stomach is small, and his food passes rapidly
through it, and descends to a part of the intestines distant from the dia-
phragm, and where the existence and pressure of the food cannot cause
him any annoyance.

The stomach has four coats. The outermost is the lining of the cavity
of the belly, and the common covering of all the intestines — that by
which they are confined in their respective situations, and from which a
fluid is secreted that prevents all friction between them. This is a serous
membrane called the peritoneum — that which stretches round the outside
of the stomach.

The second is the muscular coat, consisting of three layers of fibres, one
running lengthways, the other circularly, and the other obliquely, and by
means of which a constant gentle motion is communicated to the stomach,
mingling the food more intimately together, and preparing it for digestion,
and by the pressure of which the food when properly prepared is urged
on into the intestines.

The third, or cuticular (skin-liJce) coat, c, covers a portion of the inside
of the stomach. It is a continuation of the lining of the gullet. There
are numerous glands on it, which secret a mucous fluid ; and it is pro-
bably intended to be a reservoir in which a portion of the food is retained
for a while, and softened and better prepared for the action of the other
or true digestive portions of the stomach. The cuticular coat occupies
nearly one-half of the inside of the stomach.

The other portion of the stomach is lined by the villous portion, from
which the true gastric juice is secreted, where the work of digestion
properly commences. The mouths of numerous little vessels open upon
it, pouring out a pecuhar fluid, the gastric (stomach) juice, which mixes
with the food already softened, and converts it into a fluid called chyme.
As this is formed, it passes out of the other orifice of the stomach, the
•pylorus (doorkeepers),/, and enters the first small intestine; the harder
and undissolved parts being turned back to undergo farther action.

Every portion of the muscular coat has the power of successively con-
tracting and relaxing, and thus, in the language of Dr. Bostock, ' the
successive contraction of each part of the stomach, by producing a series
of folds and wrinkles, serves to agitate the alimentary mass, and, by
bringing every part of it in its turn to the surface, to expose it to the
influence of the gastric juice, while at the same time the whole of the
contents are gradually propelled forwards, from the orifice which is con-
nected with the oesophagus to that by which they are discharged.'

The pneumo-gastric nerve is the agent in producing these alternate
contractions and relaxations. It is the motor nerve belonging to these
parts. It has to keep the parietes of the stomach in contact with the
food, and the food in contact with the gastric juice. It has to bring the
different parts of the food in successive contact with the stomach, and to
propel them through this portion of the alimentary canal in order that
they may be discharged into the duodenum.

THE INTESTINES.

3i5

THE INTESTINES.
The food liavino- been partially dio-csted in tlie stomach, and converted
into chyme, passes'^through the pyloric orifice into the intestines.

a The commencement of the small intestines. The ducts which convey the bile and
the secretion from the pancreas are seen entering a little below.
b b The convolutions or windings of the small intestines.
ccc Portions of the mesentery.

d The small intestines, terminating in the caecum. AU^A\r,c, it

e The caecum or blind gut, with the bands running along it, puckering and diMdmg it
into numerous cells.

{, tE: S.tfiota'd «;°«i»» «f "- colon, divided, like .he o»cum, in.o oeUs.

h The termination of the colon in the rectum.
i The termination of the rectum at the anus.

The intestines of a full-gTO^^ii horse are not less than ninety feet in
length The length of the bowels in different animals depends on the
nature of the food. The nntritive matter is with much more difl&culty
extracted from vegetable than animal substances ; therefore the aimentary
canal is large, long, and complicated in those which, hke the horse, are
principally or enth'ely fed on corn or herbs. They are divided into the
small and large intestines; the former of which occupy about sixty-six
feet, and the latter twenty-four.

The intestines, like the stomach, are composed ot three coats.
The outer one consists of a peritoneum— that membrane which lias
been already described as investing the contents of the abdomen J^y
means of this coat, the intestines are confined in their proper situations ;
and, this membrane being smooth and moist, all friction and concussion
are prevented. Did the bowels float loosely m the abdomen they would
be subject to constant entanglement and injury amid the rapid and violent
motions of the horse. , , -, ^<.

The middle coat, like that of the stomach, is muscular, and composed ot
two layers of fibres, one running longitudinally and the other circularly;
and by means of these muscles, which are continually contracting and
relaxing in a direction from the upper part of the intestines to the lower,
the food is propelled along the bowels.

The inner coat is the mucous or villous one. It abounds with mna-

316 THE INTESTINES.

merable small glands, whicli secrete a mucous fluid to lubricate the passages
and defend it from irritating or acrimonious substances ; and it is said to
be villous, from its soft velvet-like feeling. This coat is crowded with in-
numerable minute orifices that are the commencement of vessels called
ladeals, fi'om the millvy appearance of their contents, by which the nutri-
tive part of the food is taken up ; and these vessels, uniting and passing
over the mesentery, carry this nutritive matter to a proper receptacle
for it, whence it is conveyed into the circulation, and distributed to
every part.

The intestines are chiefly retained in their relative positions by the
inesentery, c (middle of the intestines), which is a doubling of the peri-
toneum, including each intestine in its folds, and also enclosing in its
dupHcatures the arteries, the veins, the nerves, and the vessels which
convey the nutriment from the intestines to the circulation.

The first of the small intestines, and commencing from the right ex-
tremity of the stomach, is the duode7ium., a, a very improper name for it
in the horse, for in that animal it is nearly two feet in length. It is the
largest and shortest of all the small intestines. It receives the food con-
verted into chjTne by the digestive power of the stomach, and here it
iindergoes another and very important change. It is mixed with the
bile, and the secretion from the pancreas, which enter this intestine about
five inches from its commencement. The bile seems to be the principal
agent in the change now effected, for no sooner does it mingle wdth the
chyme than that fluid begins to be separated into two distinct ingredients
• — a white thick liquid termed chyle, containing the nutritive part of the
food, and a yellow pulpy substance, the innutritive or excrementitious
portion, which, when the chyle is all pressed fi-om it, is evacuated through
the rectum.

The process of digestion being thus to a certain extent completed, the
food passes through the other small intestines, and dui'ing that passage
the chyle, or nutritious portion, is absorbed by the lacteals, so called from
the milky appearance of their contents, to be conveyed into the circulation,
and converted into blood, while the non-nutritious portion passes on to the
larger intestines.

The next portion of the small intestines is the Jejunum, so called because
it is generally found to be empty. It is smaller in bulk and paler in colour
than the duodenum. It is more loosely confined in the abdomen — floating
comparatively unattached in the cavity of the abdomen, and the passage
of the food being comparatively rapid thi'ough it.

There is no separation or distinction between it and the next intestine
— the Ileum. There is no point at which the jejunum can be said to
terminate and the ileum commence. Together they form that portion of
the intestinal tube which floats iu the umbilical region: the latter, however,
is said to occupy three-fifths, and the former two-fifths, of this portion of
the intestines, and the five would contain about eleven gallons of fluid.
The ileum is evidently less vascular than the jejunum, and gradually
diminishes in size as it approaches the larger intestines.

These two intestines are attached to the s^Dine by a loose doubling of the
peritoneum, and float freely in the abdominal cavity, their movements and
their relative positions being regulated only by the size or fulness of the
stomach, and the stage of the digestive process.

The small intestines derive their blood from the anterior mesenteric
artery, wliich divide into innumerable minute branches that ramify
between their muscular and villous coats. Their veins, which are destitute
of valves, return the blood into the vena portce.

The large intestines are three iu number : — the ccecum, the colon, and

THE INTESTINES.

317

the rectum. The first of them is the coicuvi (blind giit), {e)—\i has but one

opening into it, consequently everything that passes into it, having reached

the blind or closed end, must return, in

order to escape. It is not a continuation

of the ileum, but the ileum pierces the

head of it, as it Avere, at right angles

(fZ), and projects some way into it,

and has a valve — the valvula coli —

at its extremity, so that the food that

has passed from the small intestines into

the larger cannot again be returned.

Along the outside of the cfecum run

three strong bands, each of them shorter

than that intestine, and thus puckering

it up, and forming it into three sets

of cells, as sho^-n in the accompan;y4ng

side cut.

That portion of the food which has not been taken up by the lacteals or

absorbent vessels of the small intestines passes through this vah-ular

opening of the ileum, and a part of it enters the colon, while the remainder
flows into the csecum. Then, from this being a blind pouch, and from the
cellular structure of this pouch, the food must be detained in it a veiy long
time ; and in order that, during this detention, all the nutriment may be
extracted, the caecum and its cells are largely supplied with blood-A^essels
and absorbents. It is principally the fluid part of the food that seems to
enter the c^cum. A horse will di-ink at one time a great deal more than
his stomach will contain ; or even if he drinks a less quantity, it remains
not in the stomach or small intestines, but passes on to the ciBcum, and
there is retained, as in a reservoir, to supply the Avants of the system. In
his state of servitude the horse does not often drink more than twice or
thrice in a day, and the food of the stabled horse being chiefly dry, this
water stomach is most useful to him. The ctecum ^^-\\\ hold four gallons.

The colon is an intestine of exceedingly large dimensions, and is capable
of containing no less than twelve gallons of liquid or pulpy food. At its
union Avith the ca?cum and the ileum, although larger than the latter in-
testine (/), it is of comparatively small bulk ; but it soon sAvells out to an
enormous extent. It has likeAA-ise, in the greater part of its course, three
bands like the caecum, Avhich also . divide it, internally, into the same
description of cells. The intention of this is evident, — to retard the
progress of the food, and to g-ive a more extensive surface on Avhich the
vessels of the lacteals may open ; and therefore, in the colon, all the chyle
is finally separated and taken up. This intestine is of considerable length;
it completely traverses the diameter of the abdominal cavity, and is then
reflected on itself, and retraverses the same space. When this is nearly
accomplished, the construction of the colon is somewhat changed:— we find
but tAvo bands towards the rectum, and these not puckering the intestine
so much, or forming such numerous or deep cells. The food does not
require to be much" longer detained, and the mechanism for detaining it
is gradually disappearing. The blood-vessels and absorbents are likeAvise
rapidly diminishing. The colon, also, once more contracts in size, and the
chyle having been'^all absorbed, the remaining mass, being of a harder
consistence, °is moulded into pellets or balls in its passage through these
shallower cells.

At the termination of the colon, the rectum (straight gut) commences.
It is smaller in circumference and capacity than the colon, although it aviU
contain at least three gallon^s of water. It serves as a reservoir for the

318 THE LIVER.

iung until it is evacuated. It has none of these bands, because, all the
autriment being extracted, the passage of the excrement that remains
should be hastened and not retarded ; still, however, it would be very dis-
agreeable were the horse to void his faeces in the same fluid state as does
the cow. To prevent this the inner coat of the rectum and a portion of the
colon form a series of cells, in which the excrementitious portion of the
food lodges until it becomes drier and more compact, and it is then eva-
cuated in a much less offensive form. The faeces descend to the rectum,
which somewhat enlarges to receive them ; and when they have accu-
mulated to a certain extent, the animal, by the aid of the diaphragm and
the muscles of the belly, presses upon them, and they are evacuated. A
curious circular muscle, and always in action, and called the sphincter
(constrictor muscle), is placed at the anus, to prevent the constant and
unpleasant dropping of the faeces, and to retain them until the horse is
disposed voluntarily to expel them. This is effected by the efforts of the
animal, assisted by the muscular coat of the rectum, which is stronger than
that of any of the other intestines, and aided by the compression of tho
internal obHque and transverse muscles.

The larger intestines derive their blood from the posterior mesenteric
artery. Their veins terminate in the vena portaa-

THE LIVER

Is situated principally in the right side of the abdominal cavity, but
extending partially into the left, and is surrounded by the ribs, diaphragm,
and stomach, its right lobe or division in contact with the diaphragm,
the duodenum and the right kidney, and the middle and left divisions
with the stomach. It is an irregularly shaped, reddish-brown substa,nce,
of considerable bulk, and performs a very singular and important office.

It has been already stated (p. 303) that the blood, which has been con-
veyed to the different parts of the body by the arteries, is brought back
to the heart by the veins ; but that which is returned from the stomach
and intestines, and spleen, and pancreas, and mesentery, instead of flowing
directly to the heart, as the blood from every other part of the body does,
has an extra duty to perform before again entering into the general circu-
lation— to secrete the bile : to effect this, it is collected in a large but
short vein, called the vena portae, which enters the liver by two large
branches, that spread by means of innumerable minute branches through
every part of it. As the blood traverses this organ, a fluid is separated
from it, called the bile, which answers an important purpose, for the pro-
gress of digestion is promoted by the bile changing the nutritive portion
of the food from chyme into chyle, and separating it from that which, con-
taining httle or no nutriment, is voided as excrement. Having performed
this additional duty the fluid is returned from one vein into another, that
is, from the vena port», which conveys it to the liver for the secretion of
bile, to the hepatic veins, which return it to the general circulation.

Almost every part of the Hver is closely invested by the peritoneum, which
seems to discharge the office of a capsule to this viscus. Its arteries are
very small, considering the bulk of the liver, to nourish which, however,
is their only duty ; their place in the secretion of bile is curiously
supplied by a vein — the vena portce — a vessel formed by the union of the
splenic and mesenteric veins, and which seems, if it does not quite usurp the
office and discharge the duty of the artery, to be alone conceraed in the
secretion of the bile. There is a free intercourse between the vessels of
*.he two.

The bile, thus formed, is in most animals received into a reservoir, the
gall-bladder, whence it is conveyed into the duodenum {g, p. 313) at the

THE PANCREAS. — SPLEEN. OMENTUM. .SIQ

times, and in tlie quantities, which the purposes of digestion require ; but
the horse has no gall-bladder, and, consequently, the bile flows into the
intestine as rapidly as it is separated from the blood. The reason of this
is plain. A small stomach was given to the horse in order that the food
might pass quickly out of it, and the diaphragm and the lungs might not
be injuriously pressed upon, when we require his utmost speed ; and also
that we might use him \^'ith little danger compared with that which would
attach to other animals, even when his stomach is distended with food.
Then the stomach, so small, and so speedily emptied, must be ofbener
replenished ; the horse must be oftener eating, and food oftener or almost
continuously passing out of his stomach. How admirably does this com-
port with the uninterrupted supply of bile !

THE PANCREAS.

In the domestic animals which are used for food, this organ is called the
sweet-hread. It hes between the stomach and the left kidney. It much
resembles in structure the salivary glands in the neighbourhood of the
mouth, and the fluid which it secretes resembles the sahva in its properties.
The pancreatic fluid is carried into the intestines by a duct which enters
at the same aperture with that from the liver. It contains a peculiar
substance named pancratine. Its use, whether to dilate the bile or the
chyme, or to assist in the separation of the chyme from the feculent matter,
has never been ascertained : it is, however, clearly employed in aiding the
process of digestion.

THE SPLEEN.

This organ, often called the melt, is a long, bluish-brown substance, broad
and thick at one end, and tapering at the other ; lying along the left side
of the stomach, and between it and the short ribs. It is of a spongy
nature, divided into numerous httle cells not unlike a honeycomb, and
over which thousands of minute vessels thickly spread. The particular use
of this organ has never been clearly ascertained, for in some cruel experi-
ments it has been removed without apparent injury to digestion or any
other fonction. It is, however, useful, at least occasionally, or it would
not have been given to the animal. It is probably concerned in the reno-
vation of the blood, and in the preparation of it for the secretion of bile.

THE OMENTUM.

Or cawl, is a doubling of the peritoneum. It is supposed to have been
placed between the intestines and the walls of the belly in order to prevent
concussion and injury during the rapid movement of the animal. That, how-
ever, cannot be its principal use in the horse, from whom the most rapid
movements are required ; for in him it is unusually short, extending only to
the pancreas and a small portion of the colon. Being, however, thus
short, the horse is exempt from a very troublesome and, occasionally, fatal
ispecies of rupture, when a portion of the omentum penetrates through
some accidental opening in the covering of the belly.

The structure of the urinary organs and the diseases to which they are
exposed will be hereafter considered.

CHOKING.

Although choking is rare in the horse as compared with the bovine
cribe, it is attended with much greater danger in the former. It generally
arises from the impactment of some hard substance either in the larynx or
oesophagus, more frequently the latter. Horses that are voracious feeders
frequently swallow their food so rapidly that mastication is not half

320 CHOKING. — RUPTURED STOMACH.

performed, and portions of it get lodged in the cesophagus, producing chokintr.
It may also be caused by tlie animal swallowing pieces of carrot or turnip,
sbowing the necessity of always slicing this kind of food into small pieces,
when given to the horse. Another source of choking arises from the
absurd and dangerous practice of the groom, who, by way of improving
the condition of the horse, forces eggs into the animal's throat. The writer
has often seen several cases arise from hay being given to the horse, when
stopping for gruel or water on the return from huntmg. The animal
begins to eat the hay, and before he has had many mouthfuls the gruel
or water is brought ; the thirst being great, he plunges his nose into the
fluid and drinks rapidly ; by this means a portion of the half-masticated
material is carried into the oesophagus, and all the efiects of choking
speedily follow. When an animal is choked, the following symptoms will
generally be present: — a dejected but somewhat anxious countenance, skin
bedewed with perspiration, saliva dropping from the mouth, frequent
pawing with the feet, and the animal making attempts to swallow, which
brings on a peculiar spasmodic constriction of the neck. The pulse and
breathing are accelerated. When water is offered he mil generally drink,
but the fluid returns through the nosti'il. The treatment should consist
in ascertaining the cause and situation of the obstruction. If it be caused
by hay or chaff, attempts should be made to soften it, and hasten its pas-
sage, hj frequently drenching the animal with warm water, and linseed
oil ; if the obstraction can be felt, careful manipulation may be employed
to assist in breaking it up. These means should always be had resort to
in the early stages, and, when the obstruction depends upon the above
causes, good results will often follow ; but when choking is caused by a
hard substance Hke a piece of carrot or an Qgg, recourse must be had to the
probang, with a view of pushing it down the oesophagus. It must be
borne in mind, however, that the probang is much more difficult and
dangerous to pass in the horse than in the ox, in consequence of the
bent condition of the animal's neck, and should not be had resort to until
nearly every other means had been tried. When even this fails to afford
relief, and the position of the obstraction can be ascertained, the operation
of oesophogotomy may be performed and the obstructing material removed.
The method of performing this will be found under the head of operations.
It is seldom attended with good results in the horse, as stricture of the
oesophagus very frequently ensues. After the animal has been relieved,
great care should be taken respecting the nature of the food which is
given to him, as there still remains a gTeat tendency to choke again. For
the next four days he should be allowed nothing but sloppy mash, and
even after that time considerable caution must be adopted.

Rupture of the oesophagus sometimes takes place either from the disten-
sion of its coats by the obstructing material, or the passing of the probang
or other instrument to remove it. When this takes place we shall find an
emphysematous swelling down the neck. Little can here be done, and a
fatal termination may be expected.

EUPTUEED STOMACH.
The situation of the stomach, and the important part it folfils in the di-
gestive process, render it liable to inflammation and various other lesions.
Simple inflammation of the stomach of the horse is rarely met with, ex-
cept as the result of some powerful irritant applied to its surface, and will
be more particularly noticed under the head of pjisons. We have already
alluded to the effects on this organ produced by the consumption of large
quantities of indigestible food under the name of stomach staggers, but
the most serious lesion of the stomach is one which, although admitting

BOTS. 321

oi" no rrmedial agents being successfully employed, is nevertheless of
inucli importance to distinguish from other diseases of the alimentary
canal which its symptoms often resemble, viz. rupture of the stomach.
It may arise from a variety of causes, such as blows, falls, or any violeni
exertion, especially when the stomach is full of food. Corrosive poisons
and large numbers of bots have also produced it. But we most com-
monly meet with it amongst aged horses as a result of the frequent
engorged state of the stomach. It is not uncommon amongst cab horses,
when kept out many hours "without the nose-bag, and allowed, a large
quantity of food when brought home. The rupture is generally situated
on the right side of the stomach, along its greater curvature. The symp-
toms of ruptured stomach somewhat resemble those of colic. The animal
will give e\4dence of severe pain, by great restlessness, pawing with his
feet, lying down and at times raising himself on his haunches, at others
resting on his breast. The countenance is distressed but anxious, the
body bedewed with perspiration, pulse very quick and feeble, breathing
much accelerated. The animal will also make efforts to vomit, and in
some instances this has taken place shortly before death ; the vomited
material, passing through the nostril, is discharged from the nose. These
symptoms will continue for a greater or less time, dependent upon the
extent of the rupture. If but a small opening exist, they may last
several days ; but if the opening be large, and a considerable quantity of
ingesta has escaped into the abdominal cavity, the symptoms will increase
rapidly in violence, and the animal frequently dies in convulsions in a few
hours.

POTS.

Bots are a peculiar kind of grub, which at certain seasons are found in
considerable quantities adhering to the cuticular lining of the stomach of
the horse. The two varieties most generally met with are the oestrus
equi or large spotted horse bot, and the oestrus hemorrhoidahs or funda-
ment bot. Their history is curious, and we are indebted to Mr. Bracy
Clark for almost all we know of them,

A species of gad-fly, e, the oesti'us equi, is in the latter part of the sum.-
mer exceedingly busy about the horse. It is observed to be darting with
great rapidity towards the knees and sides of the animal. The females are
depositing their eggs on the hair, and which adhere to it by means of a
glutinous fluid with which they are surrounded (a and b). In a few days
the eggs are ready to be hatched, and the sKghtest application of warmth
and moisture will liberate the Little animals which they contain. The
horse in Hcking himself touches the egg, which adheres to the tongue,
and is conveyed with the food into the stomach. There it clings to the
cuticular portion of the stomach, c, by means of a hook on either side of
its mouth ; and its hold is so firm and so obstinate, that it must be broken
before it can be detached. It remains there feeding on the mucus of the
stomach during the whole of the winter, and ujitil the end of the ensuing
spring ; when, having attained a considerable size, d, and being destined
to undergo a certain transformation, it disengages itself from the cuticular
coat, is carried into the villous portion of the stomach with the food,
passes out of it with the chyme, and is evacuated with the dung.

The larva or maggot seeks shelter in the gTOund, and buries itself there ;
it contracts in size, and becomes a chrysalis or grub, in which state it lies
inactive for a few weeks, and then bursting from its confinement, assumes
the form of a fly. The female, becoming impregnated, quickly deposits
her egffs on those parts of the horse which he is most accustomed to lick,
aud thus the species is perpetuated.

y

322

BOTS.

The smaller or fundament bot, y, is not so frequently found. The fly /
in this instance, deposits her eggs on the lips of the horse, and they then

a and b The eggs of the gad-fly, adliering to the hair of the horse.

c The appearance of the bots on the stomach, firmly adhering by their hookecE
mouths.
The marks or depressions are seen which are left on the coat of the stomach
when the bots are detached from their hold.
d The bot detached.

e The female of the gad-fly, of the horse, prepared to deposit her eggs.
/ The gad-fly by which the fundament bot is produced.
g The smaller, or fimdament bot.

pass through the same stages as the one just described, and quit their
habitation at the same season of the year. In their passage with the
duno-, however, they not unfrequently adhere to the verge of the anus,
and cause a considerable amount of irritation.

There are several plain conclusions to be drawn from this history. The
bots seldom, while they inhabit the stomach of the horse, give the animal
any pain, for they have fastened on the cuticular and insensible coat.
They cannot stimulate the stomach, and increase its digestive power, for
they are not on the digestive portion of the stomach. They cannot, by
their roughness, assist the tritui^ation or rubbing down of the food, for no
such office is performed in that part of the stomach — the food is softened,
not rubbed down. They are rarely injurious to the horse, for he enjoj^s
the most perfect health when the cuticular part of his stomach is filled
with them, and their presence is not even suspected until they appear at
the anus. They cannot be removed by medicine, because they are not in
that part of the stomach to which medicine is usually conveyed : and if
they were, their mouths are too deeply buried in the mucus for any
medicine, that can safely be administered, to affect them ; and, last of all,
in due course of time they detach themselves, and come away. Therefore,
the wise man will leave them to themselves, or content himself with pick-
ing them off when they collect under the tail and annoy the animal.

SPASMODIC COLIC.
The passage of the food through the intestinal canal is effected by the
alternate contraction and relaxation of the muscular coat of the intestines.
When that action is simply increased through the whole of the canal, the
food passes more rapidly, and purging is •i)roduced; but the muscles of
every part of the frame are liable to irregular and spasmodic action, and

Sl'ASMODIC COLIC. 323

the muscular coat of some portion of tlie intestines may be thus affocfced.
The spasm may be confined to a very small part of the canal. The gut
has been found, after death, strangely contracted in various places, but
the contraction not exceeding five or six inches in any of them. In the
horse, the ileum is the usual seat of this disease. It is of much importance
to distinguish between spasmodic cohc and inflammation of the bowels,
for the symptoms have considerable resemblance, although the mode of
treatment should be very different.

The attack of colic is usually very sudden. There is often not the
slightest warning. The horse begins to shift his posture, look round at
his flanks, raise his head, curl the upper lip, and make frequent attempts
to void his urine ; he will then paw violently, strike his belly with his
£eet, and crouch in a pecuhar manner, advancing his hind lunbs under
him ; he will then suddenly lie, or rather fall down, and roll himself upon
his back, with his feet resting on his belly. The pain now seems to cease
for a httle while, and he gets up, and shakes himself, and begins to feed ;
the respite, however, is but short — the spasm returns more violently —
every indication of pain is increased — he heaves at the flanks, breaks out
iiito a profase perspiration, and throws himself more recklessly about. In
the space of an hour or two, the spasms begin to relax, and the remissions
are of longer duration, and, in the great majority of cases, cease altogether,
and the horse shortly resumes his work. Or, on the other hand, when
the causes are of a more serious or mechanical natui'e, the torture is
augmented at every paroxysm ; the intervals of ease are fewer and less
marked, and inflammation and death supervene. The pulse is but little
affected at the commencement, but, if relief is not obtained, it becomes
frequent and contracted, and at length is scarcely tangible.

It will presently be seen that many of the symptoms very closely
resemble those of inflammation of the bowels : it may therefore be useful
to point out the leading distinctions between them.

COLIC. IXTLAMMATION OF TKE BOWELS.

Sudden in its attack. Lpss sudden in its approach, with previouo

indications of fever.
Pulse rarely much quickened in the early Pulse very much quickened, but small, and

period of the disease, and during the in- often scarcely to be felt.

tervals of ease.
Legs and ears of the natural temperature. Legs and ears cold.
Relief obtained from rubbing the belly. Belly exceedingly tender and painful to the

touch.
Intervals of ease. Constant pain.

Strength scarcely affected. Eapid and great -weakness.

Among the causes of coUc are, the di-inkiug of cold water when the
horse is heated. There is not a surer origin of violent spasm than this.
Hard water is very apt to produce this effect. Colic will sometimes
follow the exposure of a horse to the cold air or a cold wind after strong
exercise. Green meat, although, generally speaking, most beneficial to
the horse, yet, given in too large a quantity, or when he is hot, will fi'e-
quently produce gripes. Doses of aloes, both large and small, are not
unfrequent causes of colic. In some horses there seems to be a constitu-
tional predisposition to colic. They cannot be hardly worked, or exposed
to unusual cold, without a fit of it. In many cases, when these horses have
died, calcuU have been found in some part of the alimentary canal.
Habitual costiveness and the presence of calculi are frequent causes of
spasmodic colic. The seat of colic is occasionally the duodenum, but
oftener the ileum or the jejunum ; sometimes, however, both the cacum
and colon are affected.

324 FLATULENT COLIC.

Fortunately, we are acquainted with several medicines that allay these
spasms ; and the disease often ceases almost as suddenly as it appeared.
Amongst these, perhaps the best is the tincture of opium and spirit of
nitric ether, given in doses of one ounce of the former with two ounces
of the latter, in a pint of warm water. Should the spasm not be reheved,
this may be repeated in two hours. If the attack proceed from the indi-
gestible nature of the food upon which the animal has been feeding, a
pint and a half of linseed oil may be given, half an hour after the first
dose. The belly should be well rubbed with a brush or hard wisp of
straw. The rectum should be unloaded and clysters of warm water ad-
ministered. The patent syringe will here be exceedingly useful. A
clyster of tobacco -smoke may be thrown up as a last resort. In some
instances reHef has been afforded by moving the animal about, but, if this
be adopted, he should never exceed a walk. In the majority of cases,
however, a loose box, well littered, in which he can he down and roU
about, is very much more rational treatment.

When relief has been obtained, the clothing of the horse should be
removed, his skin rubbed dry, and fresh and dry clothes substituted. He
should be well Httered down in a warm stable or box, and have bran
mashes and luke-warm water for the two or three next days.

Some persons give gin, or gin and pepper, in cases of gripes. This
course of proceeding is, however, exceedingly objectionable. It may be
useful, or even sufficient, in ordinary cases of cohc ; but if there should
be any inflammation, or tendency to inflammation, it cannot fail to be
highly injurious.

FLATULENT COLIC.

This is altogether a different disease from the former. It is not spasm
of the bowels, but inflation of them from, the presence of gas emitted by
undigested food. Whether collected in the stomach, or small or large
intestines, all kinds of vegetable matter are Hable to ferment. In conse-
quence of this fermentation, gas is evolved to a greater or less extent —
perhaps to twenty or thirty times the bulk of the food. This may take
place in the stomach ; and if so, the life of the horse is in immediate
danger, for, as will plainly appear from the account that has been given of
the oesophagus and upper orifice of the stomach, the animal has no power
to exfpel this dangerous flatus by eructation.

This extrication of gas usually takes place in the colon and CEecum, and
the distension may be so great as to rupture either the one or the other,
or sometimes to produce death, without either rupture or strangulation,
and that in the course of from four to twenty-four hours.

In some ill-conducted establishments, it is a highly dangerous disease,
and is especially fatal to horses of heavy di-aught. An overloaded stomach
IS one cause of it, and particularly so when water is given either imme-
diately before or after a plentiful meal, or food to which the horse has not
been accustomed is given.

The symptoms, according to Professor Stewart, are, ' the horse sud-
denly slackening his pace — preparing to He down, or falling down as if
he were shot. In the stable he paws the ground with his fore feet, Hes
down, rolls, starts up all at once, and throws himself down again with great
violence, looking wistfully at his flanks, and making many fruitless attem.pts
to void his urine.'

Hithei-to the symptoms are not much unlike spasmodic coHc, but the
real character of the disease soon begins to develope itself. It is in one
of the large intestines, and the belly swells aU round, but mostly on the

INFLAMMATION OF THE BOWELS. 3-26

right flank. As the disease proceeds, the pain becomes more intense, the
horse more violent, and at length death closes the scene.

The treatment is at first but Httle different fi-om that of spasmodic
colic. The gas which causes the swelling in the early stages generally
consists of carbonic acid, and here the preparations of ammonia would be
of great service ; one ounce of tincture of opium combined with two
ounces of aromatic spirit of ammonia should be given in a quart of cold
water, and repeated if necessary. As the disease progresses, combinations
of hydi'ogen are generated, and the preparations of chlorine, such as the
chloride of lime and the chlorate of potash, may be advantageously em-
ployed. If some compound of chloi'ine, dissolved in water, is administered
in the form of a drink, the chlorine unites with the hydrogen, and
muriatic gas is fonned. This gas, having a strong affinity for water, is
absorbed by any fluid that may be present, and quitting its gaseous form,
either disappears, or does not retain a thousandth part of its former bulk.
All this may be very rapidly accomphshed, for the fluid is quickly con-
veyed from the mouth to every part of the intestinal canal. This should
speedily be followed by four or five drachms of aloes in solution, with
copious and repeated injections.

As a last resource, when the danger is imminent and every other means
have been tried withoiit success, the trochar may be used, in order to
open a way for the escape of the gas. The trochar should be small, but
longer than that which is used for the cow, and the puncture should be
made in the middle of the right flank, for there the large intestines are
most easily reached. In such a disease it cannot be expected that the
intestines shall always be found precisely in their natui-al situations, but
usually the origin of the ascending portion of the colon, or the base of
the caecujn, will be pierced. Much of the danger would be avoided by
using a very small trochar, and by withdrawing it as soon as the gas has
escaped. The wound in the intestines will then probably close, fi'om the
innate elasticity of the parts,

INFLAMMATION OF THE BOWELS.

There are two varieties of this malady. The first is inflammation of
the external coats of the intestines, accompanied by considerable fever,
and usually costiveness. The second is that of the internal or mucous
coat, and almost invariably connected with purging,

ENTEEITIS.

Inflammation of the external coats of the intestines, whether the peri-
toneal or muscular, or both, is a frequent and very fatal disease.

The causes of this disease are, first of all and most frequently, sudden
exposure to cold. If a horse that has been highly fed, carefully groomed,
and kept in a warm stable, is heated with exercise, and has been during
some hours without food, and in this state of exhaustion is suffered to
drink freely of cold water, or is drenched with rain, or have his legs and
belly washed with cold water, an attack of inflammation of the bowels
will often follow. An over-fed horse, subjected to severe and long-con-
tinued exertion, if his lungs were previously weak, Avill probably be at-
tacked by inflammation of them ; but if the lungs were sound, the bowels
will on the following day be the seat of disease. Stones in the intestines
are an occasional cause of inflammation, and colic neglected or wrongly
treated will terminate in it. It speedily runs its course, and it is of great
consequence that its eai'ly symptoms should be known. If the horse has
been carefully observed, restlessness and fever will have been seen to pre-
cede the attack. In many cases a direct shivering fit will occur : the

326 ENTERITIS.

moutli will be hot, and the nose red. The animal will soon expi-ess the
most dreadful pain by pa-n-ing, striking at his belly, looking wildly at his
flanks, gToaning, and rolling. The pulse will be quickened and wiry;
the ears and legs cold ; the belly tender, and sometimes hot ; the breath-
ing quickened ; the bowels costive ; and the animal becoming rapidly and
fearfully weak.

Tbe reader will probably here recur to the sketch given in page 323 of
the distinction between spasmodic coHc and inflammation of the bowels,
or enteritis.

The horse paws and stamps as in coHc, but without the intervals of
ease that occur in that disease. The pulse also is far quicker than in
colic. The breathing is more hurried, and the indication of sufiering
more evident. ' The next stage,' in the grapliic language of ^Ir. Percivall
in his Hippopathology, ' borders on delirium. The eye acquires a wild,
haggard, unnatural stare — the pupil dilates — his heedless and dreadful
thi'oes render approach to him quite perilous. He is an object not only
of compassion but of apprehension, and seems fast hurrying to his end ;
when, all at once, in the midst of agonising torments, he stands quiet, as
though every pain had left him, and he were going to recover. His
breathino' becomes tranquilHsed — his pulse sunh: beyond all perception —
his body bedewed with a cold clammy sweat — he is in a tremor from
head to foot, and about the legs and ears has even a dead-like feel. The
mouth feels deadly chill ; the Hps drop pendulous ; and the eye seems
unconscious of objects. In fine, death, not recovery, is at hand. Mortifi-
cation has seized the inflamed bowel — pain can no longer be felt in that
which a few minutes ago was the seat of exquisite suffering. He again
becomes convulsed, and in a few more struggles less violent than the
former he expires.' The course of the disease, fortunately for the sufi"erings
of the poor beasts aSlicted with it, is a short one ; death may supervene
in foi'ty-eight, twenty-four, or even twelve hours — it may be considered
the most fatal disease of the horse.

The treatment of inflammation of the bowels, like that of the lungs,
should be prompt and energetic. The first and most powerful means of
cure will be bleeding. From sis to eight or ten quarts of blood, in fact as
much as the horse can bear, should be abstracted as soon as possible. The
speedy weakness that accompanies this disease should not deter from
bleeding largely. The weakness is the consequence of violent inflamma-
tion of these parts ; and if that inflammation is subdued by the loss of
blood, the weakness will disappear. The bleeding should be efi"ected on
the first appearance of the disease, for there is no malady that more
quickly runs it course.

A full dose ( 5 i. to 5 ij. of opium) should immediately follow the bleeding;
this may be repeated every four or five hours if necessary, but, considering
the ii-ritable state of the intestines at this period, purgatives should not be
given. After the patient has somewhat recovered we may however give a
small dose of oil. Back-raking, and injections, consisting of warm water
or very thin gruel, should be early resorted to ; and too much fluid can
scarcely be thl■o^vn up. Kthe common ox-bladder and pipe is used, it
should be frequently replenished ; but vdih Read's patent pump, already
referred to, sufficient may be injected to penetrate beyond the rectum, and
reach to the colon and caecum, and dispose them to evacuate their contents.
Enemas of tobacco-smoke may be also administered.

It will now be prudent to endeavour to excite considerable external in-
flammation as near as possible to the scat of internal disease, and therefore
the whole of the belly should be bUstered. In a well-marked case of this
disease, no time should be lost in applying fomentations, but the blister at

ENTERITIS. 39J

once resorted to. The tincture of Spanisli flies, made mth turpentine,
Bhould be tlaorouglalj rubbed in. The legs should be well bandaged in
order to restore the cii'culation in them, and thus lessen the flow of blood
to the inflamed part ; and, for the same reason, the horse should be
warmly clothed ; but the air of the stable or box should be cool.

The horse should be encouraged to drink plentifully of wann water or
thin gruel, and no corn or hay should be allowed during the disease, but
bran mashes, and gi'een meat if it can be procui'ed. The latter will be the
best of all food, and may be given without the slightest apprehension of
danger. 'When the horse begins to recover, a handful of com may be
given two or three times in the day ; and, if the weather is warm, he may
be txirned into a paddock for a few hours in the middle of the day. Clysters
of gruel should be continued for three or four days after the inflammation
is beginning to subside, and good hand-rubbing applied to the legs.

The second variety of inflammation of the bowels affects the internal or
mucous coat, and is generally the consequence of phj^sic in too great
quantity, or of an improper kind.

When the mucous membrane is in an irritable condition, or from sym-
pathy, as in inflammation of the lungs, a small dose of purgative medicine
"vvill sometimes produce this disease. The purging is more violent and
continues longer than was intended ; the animal shows that he is suffering
great pain ; he frequently looks round at his flanks ; his breathing ia
laborious, and the pulse is quick and small — not so small, however, as in
inflammation of the peritoneal coat, and, contrary to some of the most
frequent and chai-acteristic symptoms of that (^sease, the mouth is hot, and
the legs and ears are warm. Unless the purging is excessive, and the pain
and distress great, the surgeon should hesitate at giving any astringent
medicine at first ; but he should plentifully administer wheat-flour gniel,
or arrow-root, or thin starch ; removing all hay and corn, and particularly
green meat. He should thus endeavour to soothe the irritated surface of
the bowels, while he permits all remains of the purgative to be carried ofl',
If, however, twelve hours have passed, and the pui'ging and the pain re-
main undimiuished, he should continue the gruel, adding to it chalk,
catechu, and opium, repeated every six hours. As soon as the purging
begins to subside, the astringent medicine should be lessened in quantity,
and gradually discontinued. The horse should be warmly clothed and
placed in a comfortable stable, and his legs should be hand-rubbed and
bandaged.

Violent purging, and attended with much inflammation and fever, will
occur from other causes. Green meat Avill frequently purge. A horse
worked hard upon gTeen meat will sometimes scour. The remedy is
change of diet, or less labour. Young horses vdll often be strongly purged,
without any apparent cause. Astringents should be used with much cau-
tion here. It is probably an effort of nature to get rid of something that
offends. A few doses of gruel will assist in effecting this purpose, and the
purging will cease Avithout astringent medicine.

Many horses that are not well-rihhed home — having too great space
between the last rib and the hip-bone — are subject to purging if more
than usual exertion is required from them. They are recognised by the
term of ivashy horses. They are often free and fleet, but destitute of con-
tinuance. They should have rather more than the usual allowance of
corn, ^vith beans, when at work. A cordial ball, with catechu and opium,
will often be serviceable either before or after a journey.

328 PHYSICKING.

PHYSICKING.

Tliis would seem to be the proper place to speak of physicking horses —
a mode of treatment necessary under various diseases, often useful for
the augmentation of health, and yet which has often injured the constitu-
tion and absolutely destroyed thousands of animals. When a horse comes
from grass to hard meat, or from the cool open air to a heated stable, a
dose or even two doses of physic may be usefal to prevent the tendency to
inflammation which is the necessary consequence of so sudden and great a
change. To a horse that is becoming too fat, or has surfeit, or grease, or
mange, or that is out of condition fi'om inactivity of the digestive organs,
a dose of physic is often most serviceable ; but the reflecting man will
enter his protest against the periodical physicking of all horses in the
spring and the autumn, and more particularly against that severe system
which is thought to be necessary in order to train them for work, and also
the absurd method of treating the animal when under the operation of
physic.

A horse should be carefully prepared for the action of physic. Two or
three bran mashes given on that or the preceding day are far from saflB.-
cient when a horse is about to be physicked, whether to promote his
condition or in obedience to custom. Mashes should be given until the
dung becomes softened. A less quantity of physic will then suflice, and
it will more quickly pass through the intestines, and be more readily
diffused over them. Four drachms of aloes, given when the dung has thus
been softened, will act much more eflectually and much more safely than
seven drachms, when the lower intestines are obstructed by hardened faeces.
The best time to give physic is about eleven o'clock in the morning, as it
then usually begins to operate early on the following day, and an oppor-
tunity is better afforded of watching the animal, in case he should be
griped, than in the night. On the day after the physic is given, the horse
should have walking exercise for a quarter of an hour, trw'o or three times
in the day ; but after the physic begins to operate freely he should not be
moved from his stall. Exercise would then produce gripes, irritation, and
possibly dangerous inflammation. As much mash should be given as the
horse ^vill eat, and as much water, with the coldness of it taken off, as he
will drink. K, however, he obstinately refuses to drink warm water, it
is better that he should have it cold, than to continue without taking any
fluid.

Eight or ten tolerably copious motions will be perfectly sufficient to
answer every good purpose, although the groom or the carter may not be
satisfied unless double the quantity are procured. The consequence of too
strong purgation will be, that weakness ^vill hang about the animal for
several days or weeks, and inflammation wdll often ensue from the over-
irritation of the intestinal canal.

Long- continued custom has made aloes the almost invariable purgative
of the horse, and very properly so ; for there is no other at once so sure
and sc safe. The Barbadoes aloes, although sometimes very dear, should
alone be used. The dose, with a horse properly prepared, will vary fi-om
four to six drachms. The preposterous doses of nine, ten, or even twelve
drachms, are now, happily for the horse, generally abandoned. Custom
has assigned the form of a ball to physic, and very properly, for it can be
so given with certainty, and without annoyance to the animal, while in
the form of a draught there is both annoyance to the horse and a waste of
the medicine ; but there is good sense in having recourse to the solution
of aloes, as acting more speedily, effectually, and safely in cases of sickness,
when it has to be given in small doses and frequently repeated.

CALCULI, OR STONES, IX THE INTESTINES. '62b

The only otlier purgative on -\vliicli dependence can be placed is the
CROTON. The farina or meal of the nat is generally used ; but from its
acrimony it should be given in the form of ball, with linseed meal. The
dose varies from a scruple to half a di-achm. It acts more speedily than
the aloes, and without the nausea which they produce ; but it causes
more watery stools and, consequently, more debility.

Linseed- OIL is an uncertain but safe purgative, in doses from a pound to a
pound and a half. Olive-oil is more uncertain, but safe ; but castor-oil,
that mild aperient in the human being, is both uncertain and unsafe.
Epsom-salts are inefficacious, except in the immense dose of a pound and a
half, and then they are not always safe.

CALCULI, OB STONES, IN THE INTESTINES.

These are a cause of inflammation in the bowels of the horse, and more
frequently of colic. They are generally found in the caecum or colon,
varying considerably in shape according to the nucleus round which the
sabulous or other earthy matter collects, or the form of the cell in
which they have been lodged. They differ in weight, from an ounce to
between thu-ty and forty pounds, and in size vary from a small marble to
a man's head. When small, they are occasionally found in considerable
numbers, but when of the larger size, there is rarely more than one.
From the horizontal position of the carcase of the horse, the calculus, when
it begins to form, does not gravitate as in the human being, and therefore
calculous concretions remain and accumulate until their very size prevents
their expulsion, and a fatal ii-ritation is too frequently produced by their
motion and weight. They are oftenest found in heavy draught, and
in millers' horses. In some of these horses they have the appearance oi
gi'it-stone or crystallised gneiss. It is probable that they partly consist
of those very minerals, combined with the bran which is continually float-
ing about. An analysis of the calculi favours this supposition. They
are a soui-ce of continual irritation wherever they are placed, and are a
fruitful cause of colic. Spasms of the most fearful kind have been clearly
traced to them.

Professor Morton, of the Royal Veterinary College, — in his valuable
Essay on Calculous Concretions, — gives an interesting account of these
substances in the intestinal canal of the horse. Intestinal calculi are
composed of the phosphates of lime, magnesia, and ammonia, combined
"vvith animal matter ; the phosphates are deposited fi'om the food, when
digestion is not sufficiently complete for them to be completely dissolved
and carried into the circulation. Little advance has been or can be made
to procure their expulsion, or even to determine their existence ; and even
when they have passed into the rectum, although some have been expelled,
others have been so fimdy impacted as to resist all mechanical means of
withdrawal, and a few have broken their way through the parietes of the
rectum, and lodged in the abdominal cavity. Mr. Percivall, in his ' Ele-
mentary Lectures on the Veterinary Art,' has recorded several fearftd
cases of this.

Other concretions are described under the head of oat-hair calculi. Their
surface is tuberculated and their fonns irregular. They are usually with-
out any distinct nuclei, and are principally composed of the hairy material
which exists on the glume of the oat. They are moderate in size, brown
in colour, soft, semi-elastic, and flesh-like in feel ; this feeling depends on
the principal ingredients, a number of minute hairs which invest the oat,
combined with a poi-tion of earthy matter, and inspissated mucus. The
professor very properly adds, and it is a circumstance which deserves

880 INTEOSUSCEPTION OP THE INTP:STINES.

mucli consideration, tliat sucli oats as are liusky, -vvitli a deficiency of fari-
naceous matter, are likely to give rise to these accumulations, "vrlienever
impaired digestion exists. It is also an undoubted fact, that a great pro-
portion of horses affected with calculi are the property of millers, or
brewers. A thu'd species of concretion too frequently existing is the
dung-hall, or mixed calculus. It is made up of coarse, indigestible, excre-
mentitious matter, mixed with portions of the ' oat-hair calculus,' and
many foreign substances, such as pieces of coal, gravel, &c., and the whole
agglutinated together. They are commonly met with in horses that are
voracious feeders, and mingled with particles of coal and stone.

INTROSUSCEPTION OF THE INTESTINES.

The spasmodic action of the ileum being long continued may have been
occasioned, or may be succeeded, by an inverted one from the caecum
towards the stomach, more powerful than in the natural direction ; and
the contracted portion of the intestine will be thus forced into another
above it that retains its natural caHbre. The irritation caused by this
increases the inverted action, and an obstruction is formed which no power
can overcome. Even the natural motion of the bowels will be sufficient
to produce introsusception, when the contraction of a portion of the ileum
is very great. There are no symptoms to indicate the presence of this,
except continued and increasing pain.

Introsusception is not confined to any particular situation. A portion
of the jeiunum has been found invaginated within the duodenum, — and
also within the ileum, and the ileum within the caecum, — and one portion
of the colon within another, and within the rectum. The ileum and
jejunum are occasionally invaginated in various places. More than a
dozen distinct cases of introsusception have occurred in one animal, and
sometimes unconnected with any appearance of inflammation, but in other
cases, or in other parts of the intestinal canal of the same animal, there
^\t11 be inflammation of the most intense character. In the majority of
cases, perhaps it is an accidental consequence of pre-existing disease, and
occasioned by some irregular action of the muscular tunic, or some irri-
tation of the mucous surface.

An equally formidable, but not so frequent disease, is

ENTANGLEMENT OF THE BOWELS.

This is another and singular concomitant of colic. Although the ileum
is enveloped in the mesentery, and its motion to a considerable degi'ee
confined, yet under the spasm of colic, and during the violence with which
"the animal rolls and throws himself about, portions of the intestine may
become so entangled as to be twisted into nooses and knots, drawn to-
gether with a degree of tightness scarcely credible. Nothing but the
extreme and continued torture of the animal can lead us to suspect that
this has taken place, and, could we ascertain its existence, there would be
no cure.

An interesting case occurred in the practice of !Mr. Spooner of South-
ampton. A mare at grass was suddenly taken ill. She discovered
symptoms of violent colic, for which anti-spasmodic and aperient medicines
were promptly administered, and she was copiously bled. The most active
ireatment was had recourse to, but without avail, and she died in less
than four-and-twenty hours without a momentary rehef from pain.

The small intestines were completeley black from inflammation, and
portions of them were knotted together in the singular way delineated in
■the subjoined cut. The parts are a little loosened in order better to show the

WOKMS.

331

entanglement of the intestines, but in tlie animal tliey were drawn into a
tight knot, and completely intercepted all passage.

WORMS.

Worms of diflFerent kinds inhabit the intestines ; but, except when they
exist in very great numbers, they are not so hurtful as is generally sup-
posed, although the groom or carter may trace to them hidebound, and
cough, and loss of appetite, and gripes, and megrims, and a variety oi
other ailments. Of the origin or mode of propagation of these parasitical
animals we can say little ; neither writers on medicine, nor even on natural
history, have given us any satisfactory account of the matter.

The long white worm (lumbricus teres), much resembling the common
earth-worm, and being from six to ten inches in length, inhabits the
small intestines. It is a formidable-looking animal, and if there are many
of them they may consume more than can be spared of the nutritive part
of the food or the mucus of the bowels. A tight skin, and rough coat, and
tucked up belly, are sometimes connected -with their presence. They are
then, however, voided in large quantities.

A smaller, darker- coloured worm, called the needle-worm, or ascaris
vermicularis, inhabits the large intestines. Hundreds of them sometimes
descend into the rectum, and immense quantities have been found in the
caecum. These are a more serious nuisance than the former, for they
cause a very troublesome irritation about the fundament, wdiich sometimes
sadly annoys the horse.

In the treatment for the expulsion of worms an immense variety of
remedies have been employed, many of which are calculated to do serious
mischief to the animal. Large doses of aloes, calomel, tartar emetic,
arsenic, corrosive sublimate, powdered glass, pewter tin scraped fine, &c.,
have each had their advocates as vermifuges. But in the treatment for
the removal of these parasites it should not be forgotten that the intestinal
canal is their natural habitation, and unless from some peculiarity of the
system they accumulate in large quantities, they arc not hkcly to produce

3J2 HERNIA, OR RUPTURE

miscliief. Perhaps there is no cause to which their undue influence can
more generally be traced than a debilitated condition of the animal,
whether as a result of age, the bad quality of the food upon which he has
been kept, or disease. Bearing this in mind, our chief effort in treatment
should consist in restoring the general vigour of the system. The animal
should be well attended to, and kept on the most nutritious foods, such as
oats, or beans, and good hay ; a bran mash should also be allowed twice
a week. Our medicinal agents should consist of the early administration
of a pint and a half of linseed oil, which may be repeated every ten days
for three times. A drachm also of powdered sulphate of iron should be
given every night, for a fortnight, in the animal's food. By these means
we shall frequently succeed in sufficiently restoring the general health of
the animal to produce their expulsion, without running the risk of doing
that injury which by the employment of many of those agents above
mentioned we are Hable to produce.

HERNIA, OB, RUPTURE.

A portion of the intestine protrudes out of the cavity of the belly, either
through some natural or artificial opening. In some cases it may be
returned, but from the impossibility of applying a truss or bandage it soon
escapes again. At other times the opening is so narrow that the gut, gra-
dually distended by gas or feeces, or thickened by inflammation, cannot be
returned, and strangulated hernia is then said to exist. The seat of hernia
is either in the scrotum of the perfect horse, or the canal leading to it —
this is called inguinal, or scrotal ; or at the navel in the centre of the ab-
domen— this is umbihcal hernia ; then there are hernia arising from
wounds or bruises, and these are most frequently found in the flank, and
are known as ventral hernia ; and occasionally there is rupture of and
hernia through the diaphragm, called diaphragmatic. The causes are
violent struggling when under operations, over- exertion, kicks, or ac-
cidents. The assistance of a veterinary surgeon is here indispensable.

The following case of operation for hernia will be acceptable to the
owner of horses as well as to the veterinary surgeon. It occurred in the
practice of Professor Simonds, of the Royal Yeterinaiy College. We
extract this account of it from ' The Veterinarian.'

' The patient was an aged black cart-mare, that had been lent by the
owner to a neighbour for a day or two. I cannot speak positively as to the
cause of the injury which she received, but I believe that it resulted from
her falling in the shafts of a cart laden with manure. She was brought
to my infirmary on the next day, October 18, 1837.

' The most extensive ruptui'e I had ever seen presented itself on the
left side. The sac formed by the skin, which was not broken, nor even
the hair rubbed off, extended as far forwards as the cartilages of the false
ribs, and backwards to the udder. A perpendicular line drawn from the
superior to the inferior part of the tumour measured more than twelve
inches. It appeared, from its immense size and weight, as if by far the
larger part of the colon had protruded.

' To my surprise, there was comparatively Httle constitutional dis-
turbance. The pulse was 45, and full, with no other indication of fever,
and no expression of pain on pressing the tumour.

' She was bled until the pulse was considerably lowered. A cathartic
was given, and the sac ordered to be kept constantly wet with cold
water, and to be supported with a wide bandage. She was placed on a
restricted and mash diet.

' On the next day, being honoured with a visit by Messrs. Morton,
Spooner, and Youatt, I had the pleasure and advantage of submitting the

HERNIA, OK RUPTURE. 333

case to their examination, and obtaining their opinion. They urged me
to attempt to return the protruding viscera, and secure them by a surgical
operation ; and Mr. Spooner kindly offered to be present, and to give me
his valuable assistance.

' On the 24th, our patient was considered to have had sufficient prepa-
ratory treatment, and she was operated upon. We availed oui'selves of
the opportunity of putting to the test that which some among us had
doubted, and others had positively denied, but which had always been
maintained by our talented chemical lecturer — the power of opium to lull
the sensation of pain in the horse. We therefore gave her two ounces and
a half of the tincture of opium, shortly before she was led from the box to
the operating house, and the power of the drug was evident through the
whole of the operation.

' After a careful examination, externally, as well as per rectum, in order
to ascertain the situation and probable size of the laceration of the muscles,
an incision was carefully made tkrough the integument into the sac, in a
line with the inferior border of the cartilages of the false ribs, which in-
cision was about seven inches in length. This, as we had hoped, proved
to be directly upon the aperture in the muscular parietes of the abdomen.
The intestines were exposed ; and, after having sufficiently dilated the
opening to permit the introduction of the hand, they were quickly returned,
portion after portion, into their proper cavity, together with a part of the
omentum, which we found somewhat annoying, it being frequently forced
back again through the laceration.

' At times it required the exertion of our united strength to prevent
the escape of the intestines, and which was only effected by placing our
hands side by side, covering and pressing upon the opening. By these
means we succeeded in keeping in the viscera, until we were satisfied that
we had placed them all within their proper cavity. At about the central
part of the aperture, we decidedly found the greatest pressure of the in-
testines to effect an escape.

' A strong metallic sutui'e of flexible wire was then passed through the
edges of the laceration, taking in the peritoneum and portions of the
transversalis, rectus, and internal abdominal muscles ; and other sutures,
embracing the same parts, were placed at convenient distances, so as nearly
to close the aperture. Two sutures of smaller metallic wire, and three of
stout silk cord, were then passed through the external abdominal muscles,
and their aponeuroses, which effectually shut up the opening into the
abdomen. The integument was then brought together by the interrupted
suture, taking care to bring out the ends of the other sutures, and which
had been purposely left long, so that in case of supervening inflammation,
or swelHng, they might be readily examined. The whole operation
occupied rather less than an hour, our poor patient being occasionally re-
freshed with some warm gruel.

' The hobbles were now quietly removed, and, after lying a few minutes,
she got up, and was placed in a large loose box. A compress and a sus-
pensory bandage, that could be tightened at pleasure, were applied to the
wound. The result was very satisfactory, and at the end of three months
she returned to her usual work.'

In umbilical hernia we get a protrusion of the intestines into the um-
bilicus. On examination, a tumour varying in size will be found about
the centre of the abdomen, which is soft to the feel, and can generally be
reduced by pressure, when the rounded edges of the peritoneal cavity
from which the intestine has escaped will be distinctly felt. By way of
treatment, persistent pressure, in the form of a tmss, will sometimes be
eflfectual ; but the following method will generally be attended with the

334 HEPATITIS.

greatest success : — Tlie animal should be kept witliout food for twelve
hours, and then cast, and placed upon his back, the intestine pushed back
into its proper place. A piece of skin should then be gathered up, and a
ligature placed tightly round it. With a view of preventing the ligature
slipping off, two small iron skewers are sometimes passed transversely
through the skin, and the ligature tied above them. In a short time the
piece of skin will slough off, and permanent obliteration of the sac, and
closure of the opening into the abdominal cavity, vrill generally follow.

DISEASES OF THE LIVER.

As veterinary practice has improved, much light has been thrown on
the diseases of the liver — not perhaps on the more advanced and fatal
stages ; but giving us the promise that, in process of time, they may be
detected at an earlier period, and in a more manageable state,

SOFTENING AND RUPTURE OF THE LIVER.

If horses, destroyed on account of their complaints, are examined when
they are not more than five years old, the liver is usually found in the
most healthy state ; but when they arrive at eight or nine or ten years
this viscus is frequently increased in size — it is less elastic under pressure
— it has assumed a granulated or broken dowTi appearance — the blood
does not so readily permeate its vessels, and at length, in a greater or
less quantity, it begins to exude, and it is either confined under the
peritoneal covering, or oozes into the cavity of the belly. There is no-
thing for awhile to indicate the existence of this. The horse feeds well,
is in apparent health, in good condition, and capable of constant work,
notwithstanding so fatal a change is taking place in this important viscus ;
but, at length, the peritoneal covering of the liver suddenly gives way,
and the contents of the abdomen are deluged with blood, or a suflB.cient
quantity of this fluid has gradually oozed out to interfere vsdth the func-
tions of the viscera.

The symptoms of this sudden change are pawing, shifting the posture,
distension of the belly, curling of the upper lip, sighing frequently and
deeply, the mouth and nostrils pale and blanched, the breathing quickened,
the pulse flagging or imperceptible, restlessness, debility, fainting, and
death.

On opening the abdomen, the intestines are found to be deluged with
dark venous blood. The liver is either of a fawn, or light yellow, or brown
colour — easily torn by the finger, and, in some cases, completely broken
down. This affection is comparatively very rare in the country, but in the
metropolis is of no unfrr-^uent occurrence.

If the haemorrhage has been slight at the commencement, and fortu-
nately arrested, yet a singular consequence will frequently result. The
sight vfill gradually fiiil : the pupil of one or both eyes will gradually
dilate, the animal wUl have gutia serena, and become perfectly bhnd. This
will almost assuredly take place on a return of the affection of the liver.
Little can be done in a medical point of view. Astringent and styptic
medicines may, however, be tried. Turpentine, alum, or sulphuric acid,
will afford the only cliance. The vetennary world is indebted to the late
Mr. John Field for much that is known of this sad disease.

HEPATITIS INFLAMMATION OF THE LIVER.

This may consist in inflammation either of the capsule of the liver or of
its internal structures, or more often of both. It is rare in the horse,
compared with mnn, and may be looked upon as an obstinate and fre-

JAUNDICE. 33&

quentlj fatal disease. It will ansa from a variety of causes, sucli as a
plethoric state of the system, induced by high feeding and want of exer-
cise, over-exertion especially in hot weather, injuries to the side, and sym-
pathy with other inflamed organs, as the lungs or bowels. In the early
6tages of the disease the animal will generally be found dull, and off his
feed ; he will give evidence of abdominal pain, by restlessness and fre-
quently looking at his sides, but not so much as in enteritis. The breath-
ing and pulse Avill also be slightly increased. As the disease progresses
the internal membrane of the mouth, nose, and eyes will become of a
yellow colour, the bowels are constipated, and the small quantities of hard
fteces voided, will be of a clayish yellow colour. The urine also will be
highly coloured with bile. The animal will now give e\'idence of pain,
on pressure being applied to the right side, over the region of the liver ;
lameness of the off fore-limb will also occasionally be present. If the
symptoms go on increasing in severity, and no relief be afforded, a fatal
termination will probably be the result in eight or ten days. Our treat-
ment should consist in the immediate abstraction of blood to the extent of
five or six quarts. This should be at once followed by 5i- calomel, with
5iij. to ^iv. aloes. Counter- irritation, also, in the form of a blister,
should be applied to the right side. The animal should be placed in a
cool well-ventilated stable, kept as quiet as possible, and allowed nothing
in the shape of food, except bran mash, and linseed or oatmeal gruel. If
the symptoms yield to treatment, and the animal begins to recover, he
should for some time be kept on light, nutritious foods. Vegetable tonics
may also be given to restore the tone of the digestive system, gTcat atten-
tion being paid to the state of the bowels.

JAUNDICE,

Commonly called the yellows, is a more frequent, but more tractable
disease. It is the introduction of bile into the general circulation. This
is usually caused by some obstruction in the ducts or tubes that convey
the bile from the liver to the intestines. The horse, however, has but one
duct, through which the bile usually flows as quickly as it is formed, and
there is no gall-bladder. Jaundice does, however, occasionally appear,
either from an increased flow or altered quality of the bile, or obstruction
even in this simple tube. The yello^vness of the eyes and mouth, and of
the skin where it is not covered with hair, mark it sufficiently plainly.
The dung is small and hard ; the urine highly coloured ; the horse languid,
and the appetite impaired. If he is not soon relieved, he sometimes be-
gins to express considerable uneasiness ; at other times he is dull, heavy,
and stupid. A characteristic symptom is lameness of the right fore-leg,
resembling the pain in the right shoulder of the human being in hepatic
affections. The principal causes are over-feeding or over-exertion in
sultry weather, or too Httle work generally speaking, or inflammation or
other disease of the fiver itself.

It is first necessary to enquire whether this affection of the liver is not
the consequence of the sympathy of that organ with some other part, for,
to a very considerable degree, it frequently accompanies inflammation of
the bowels and the lungs. These diseases being subdued, jaundice will
disappear. If there is no other apparent disease to any great extent, an
endeavour to restore the natural passage of the bile by pui-gatives may be
tried — not consisting of large doses, lest there should be some undetected
inflammation of the lungs or bowels, in either of which a strong purgative
would be dangerous ; but given in small quantities, repeated at short
intervals, and until the bowels are freely opened. Plenty of water
slightly wanned, or thin gruel, should bo given. The horse should he

S86 THE KIDNEYS.

warmly clotbed, and tiie stable well ventilated, but not cold. Carrots or
green meat will be very beneficial. Should the purging, when once ex-
cited, prove violent, we need not be in any haste to stop it, unless inflam-
mation is beginning to be connected with it, or the horse is very weak.
The medicine recommended under diarrhoea may then be exhibited. A
few shght tonics should be given when the horse is recovering from an
attack of jaundice.

The Spleen is sometimes very extraordinarily enlarged, and has been
iTiptirred. We are not aware of any means by which this may be dis-
covered, nor any treatment calculated to afibrd relief.

THE KIDNEYS.

The blood contains a great quantity of watery fluid unnecessary for the
nutriment or repair of the frame. There likewise mingle with it matters
that would be noxious if sufiered to accumulate too much. The kidneys
ai*e actively employed in separating this fluid, and likewise carrying ofi" a
substance which constitutes the peculiar ingredient in urine, called the
urea, and consisting principally of that which would be poisonous to the
animal. The kidneys are two large oval glandular bodies, placed under
the loins, of the shape of a kidney-bean, of immense size. The right
kidney is most forward, lying behind the liver ; the left is more backward.
A large arteiy runs to each, carrying not less than a sixth part of the
whole of the blood that circulates through the frame. This artery is
divided into innumerable little branches most curiously complicated and
coiled upon each other, and the blood, traversing these convolutions, has
its watery parts, and others the retaining of which would be injurious,
separated fi-om it, and, thus separated, passes into a muscular membranous
tube connected with the pelvis of each kidney, and is conveyed through
them into the bladder.

This fluid varies ruaterially both in quantity and composition, even
during health. There is no animal in which it varies so much as in the
horse — there is no organ in that animal so much under our command as
the kidney ; and no medicines are so useful, or may be so injurious, as
diuretics — not only on account of their febrifuge or sedative efiects, but
because of the power which they exert. They stimulate the kidneys to
separate more aqueous fluid than they otherwise would do, and thus
lessen the quantity of blood which the heart is labouring to circulate
through the frame, and also that which is determined or driven to parts
already overloaded. The main objects to be accomphshed in these diseases
is to reduce the force of the circulation, and to calm the violence of ex-
citement. Diuretics, by lessening the quantity of blood, are useful
assistants in accomplishing these purposes. At the anterior edges of the
kidneys are two vascular bodies called the renal capsules, large and of a
deep red colour in fcetal bfe, while in maturity they are smaller and
Hghter in colour : their functions are unknown.

The horse is subject to eSusions of fluid in particular parts. Swelled
legs are a disease almost peculiar to him. The ox, the sheep, the dog,
the ass, and even the mule, seldom have it, but it is for the removal of
this deposit of fluid in the cellular substance of the legs of the horse that
we have recourse to diuretics. The legs of many horses cannot be
rendered fine, or kept so, without the use of dinretics ; nor can grease —
often connected with these swellings, producing them or caused by them
— be otherwise subdued. It is on this account that diuretics are ranked
among the most useful of veterinary medicines.

In injudicious hands, however, these medicines are sadly abused

INFLAMMATION OF THE EIDNEYS. '6ii7

A mong the absurdities of stable-management tLere is notliing so injurious
a&i the frequent use of diuretics. Not only are the kidneys often over-
excited, weakened, and disposed to disease, but the whole frame becomes
debilitated ; for the absorbents have carried away a great part of that
which was necessary to the health and condition of the horse, in order to
supply the deficiency of blood occasioned by the inordinate discharge of
urine. There is likewise one impoi-tant fact of which the groom or the
horseman seldom thinks, viz. : — That, when he is removing these humours
by the imprudent use of diuretics, he is only attacking a symptom or a
consequence of disease, and not the disease itself. The legs Avill fill again,
and the grease will return. While the cause remains, the effect will bo
produced.

In the administration of diuretics, one thing should be attended to, and
the good effect of which the testimony of every intelligent man will con-
firm : the Iwrse sliould have plenty to drinh. Not only will inflammation
be prevented, but the operation of the medicine wiU be much promoted.

NEPHRITIS INFLAMMATION OF THE KIDNEYS.

This is no uncommon disease in the horse, and is more unskilfally and
fatally treated than almost any other. The early symptoms are those of
fever generally, but the seat of the disease soon becomes evident. The
horse looks anxiously round at his flanks ; stands with his hinder legs
wide apart ; is unwilling to lie down ; straddles as he walks ; expresses
pain in toi'ning ; shrinks when the loins are pressed, and some degree of
heat is felt there. The ui'ine is voided vii small quantities ; frequently it
is high-coloured, and sometimes bloody. The attempt to urinate becomes
more frequent, and the quantity voided, smaller, until the animal strains
painfully and violently, but the discharge is nearly or quite suppressed.
The pulse is quick and hard ; full in the early stage of the disease, but
rapidly becoming small, yet not losing its character of hardness. These
symptoms clearly indicate an affection of the urinary organs ; but they do
not distinguish inflamm.ation of the kidney from that of the bladder. In
order to efilsct this, the hand must be inlToduced into the rectum. If the
bladder is felt fall and hard under the rectum, there is inflammation of
the neck of it ; if it is empty, yet on the portion of the intestines imme-
diately over it there is more than natural heat and tenderness, there is
inflammation of the body of the bladder ; and if the bladder is empty, and
there is no increased heat or tenderness, there is inflammation of the
kidney.

The causes of this disease are, too powerful or too often repeated diuretics,
which induce inflammation of the kidney, or a degree of irritation and
weakness of that organ that disposes to inflammation, from causes that
otherwise would have no injurious efi'ect. K a horse is sprained in the
loins, by being urged on, far and fast, by a heavy rider, or compelled to
take too wide a leap, or by being suddenly pulled up on his haunches, the
uiflammation is often transferred from the loins to the kidneys, with which
they lie in contact. Exposure to cold is another frequent origin of this
malady, especially if the horse is drenched with rain, or the wet di'ips
upon his loins ; and more particularly, if he was previously disposed to
inflammation, or these organs had been previously weakened. For this
reason, coach and cab horses, and others exposed to the vicissitudes of
the weather, should have theii' loins protected by some waterproof cover-
ing. It may also be produced by some irritating agent, contained in the
food on which the animal is fed, such as dark mow-burnt hay, or what
are called foxy oats, &c.

The chief cause, however, of nephritis, is the unnecessary quantity, or

z

a38 DIABETES, UK PKOFUSE STALING.

undue strength, of the diuretic medicines that are given by ignorart
grooms, Tlus is an evil carried to a most injurious extent, and which
every horseman should positively forbid.

The treatment will only vary from that of inflammation of other parts,
by a consideration of the peculiarity of the organ affected. Bleeding must
be promptly resorted to, and carried to its full extent. An active purge
should next be administered ; and a counter-inflammation excited pa
nearly as possible to the seat of disease. For this pui'pose the loins should
be fomented with hot water, or covered with a mustard-poultice — the
horse should be warmly clothed ; but no cantharides or turpentine should
be used, nor any diuretic be given internally. When the groom finds this
diSiculty or suppression of staling, he immediately has recourse to a diu-
retic ball to force on the urine ; and by thus needlessly irritating a part
already too much excited, he adds fael to fire, and frequently destroys the
horse. Clysters also of warm soap and water, should be thrown up the
rectum every three or four hours ; they will not only promote the early
action of the purgative medicine, but will also, to a certain extent, act as
a fomentation to the inflamed part.

The action of the purgative having begun a httle to cease, carbonate of
soda in half-ounce doses should be given two or three times a day. The
patient should be warmly clothed, a fresh sheep-skin thrown over the loins
and frequently changed, and his legs well bandaged. The food should be
carefully examined, and anything that could have excited or that may
prolong the irritation carefnUy removed. He should be allowed to drink
freely of mucilaginous fluids, such as linseed gi*uel, and be kept on soft
food, as bran mash, for some time.

DIABETES, OR PROFUSE STALING,

Is a comparatively rare disease. It is generally the consequence of un-
due irritation of the kidney, by bad food or strong diuretics, and sometimes
follows inflammation of that organ. It can seldom be traced in the horse
to any disease of the digestive organs. Among the causes of diabetes are
improper food, and particularly hay that has been mow-burnt, or oats that
are musty. The farmer should look well to this. Oats that have been
dried on a kiln acquire a diui-etic property, and if horses are long fed on
them, the continual excitement of this organ which they produce will de-
generate into diabetes.

In the human subject the disease is characterised by the large quantities
of urine voided, and the amount of sugar contained in it ; hence the name
given to it of diabetes melhtis. In the horse we have the same unusual
discharge of urine of a pale colour, but it contains no sugar, bixt a sub-
stance analogous to gum ; hence it is termed diabetes incipdus. It
frequently affects several horses at the same time, and sometimes assumes
a chronic form. It is not an inflammatory disease, and the kidneys will
generally be found paler in colour, and softer in texture.

The treatment is not always satisfactory, and the results often uncertain.
It is evidently increased action of the kidneys, and therefore the most
rational plan of treatment is to endeavour to abate that action. In order
to effect this, our first care should be to change the diet upon which the
animal has been feeding ; and, indeed, the mere substitution of sweet and
wholesome provender, for the indigestible, mow-burnt, and musty diet,
will materially assist the cure. Very careful attention should be paid to
the food. The hay, oats, and split beans, should be of the best quality ;
green-meat and carrots will also be serviceable. The animal should be
kept short of water, in which may be mingled a small quantity of Hme.
Our medicinal agents should consist of either mineral or vegetable tonics.

THE BLADDER. 339

The iodide of iron, in 5j to 3ij doses repeated every twelve hours, may bo
given for a few days.

BLOODY URINE — H5)MATURIA.

The discharge of urine of this character is of occasional occurrence.
Pure blood is sometimes discharged which immediately coagulates — at
other times it is more or less mixed with the urine, and does not coagulate.
The cause of its appearance and the source whence it proceeds cannot
always be determined, but it is probably the result of some strain or blow.
It may or may not be accompanied by inflammation.

Should it be the result of strain or violence, or bo evidently attended by
inflammation, soothing and depleting measures should be adopted. Perhaps
counter-irritation on the loins might be useful. If there is no apparent
inflammation, some gentle stimulus may be administered internally.

ALBUMINOUS URINE.

A peculiar mucous state of the urine of some horses has lately attracted
attention. It has been associated with sferetcliing out of the legs, stiffness,
disinclination to move, a degree of fever, and costiveness. Slight bleeding,
mild physic, the appHcation of gentle stimulants to the loins, quietness,
and gentle opiates have been of service. We are indebted to Mr. Percivall
for what we do know of the disease. It is a subject worthy of the attention
of the veterinary surgeon.

THE BLADDER.

The urine separated from the blood by the kidneys is discharged by the
minute vessels, of which we have spoken, into some larger canals, which ter-
minate ia a cavity or reservoir in the body of each kidney, designated its
pelvis. Thence it is conveyed by a duct called the ureter, to a larger reservoir,
the Madder ; this duct does not dii-ectly perforate the coats of the bladder,
but enters obhquely one coat after another, thus forming a perfect obstruc-
tion to the return of the urine.

The bladder Hes in, and when distended by urine, nearly fills the cavity
of the great bones of the haunch, termed the pelvis. It has three coats,
the outer one covering the greater part (the anterior portion) of it, and
being a continuation of the peritoneum : the muscular, consisting of two
layers of fibres, as in the stomach ; the external, running longitudinally,
and the inner cu-cularly, so that it may yield to the pressui'e of the urine
as it enters, and contract again into an exceedingly small space as it runs
out, and by that contraction assist in the expulsion of the urine. The
inner coat contains numerous little glands, which secrete a mucous fluid
to defend the bladder from the acrimony of the urine. The bladder ter-
minates in a small neck, round which is a strong muscle, called the
sphincter or closing muscle, keeping the passage closed, and retaining the
urine until, at the will of the animal, or when the bladder contains a
certain quantity of fluid, the muscular coat begins to conti^act, the dia-
phragm is rendered convex towards the intestines, and presses them on
the bladder, and by these united powers, the sphincter muscles becoming
relapsed, the fluid is forced through the neck of the bladder, and escapes.

INPLAMMATION OF THE BLADDER.

There are two varieties of this disease, inflammation of the body of the
bladder, and of its neck. The symptoms are nearly the same as those of
inflammation of the kidney, except that instead of a total suppression of
urine, it is voided very frequently and in small quantities, and there is
heat felt in the rectum over the situation of the bladder. The caui5es ai'o

z2

340 STONE IN THE BLADDER.

the presence of some acrid or irritant matter in the urine, or of calculus or
stone in the bladder. With reference to inflammation of the body of the
bladder, mischief has occasionally been done by the introduction of cantha-
rides or some other irritating matter, in order to hasten the period of
horsing in the mare. The treatment in this case will be the same as in
inflammation of the kidneys, except that it is of more consequence that the
animal should drink freely of water or thin gruel.

In inflammation of the neck of the bladder there is, on the contrary, a
great dread of and disinclination to urinate, and often ending in almost
total suppression ; and to such an extent does this proceed, that the case can
never be mistaken by him who will pay sufficient attention to the case, for
the bladder is distended with urine, and can be distinctly felt under the
rectum. It is spasm of the sphincter, closing the neck of the bladder so
powerfully, that the contraction of the bladder and the pressure of the
muscles are unable to force out the ui'ine.

Here the object to be attempted is sufiSciently plain. This spasm must
be relaxed, and the most likely means to eSect it is to bleed largely, and
fven to fainting. This will sometimes succeed, and there will be at once
an end to the disease. To the exhaustion and loss of muscular power occa-
sioned by copious bleeding, should be added the nausea consequent on
physic. Should not this speedily have effect, another mode of abating
spasm must be tried — powdered opium, made into a ball or drink, should
be given eveiy two or three hours, and at the same time half an ounce of
crude opium should be introduced into the rectum ; while active counter-
irritation is applied externally. The evacuation of the bladder, both in
the mare and the horse, should be efiected through the medium of a
veterinary surgeon.

STONE IN THE BLADDER.

The urine is a very compound fluid. In the state of health it contains
several acids and alkaHes variously combined, which, under disease, are
increased both in number and quantity. It is very easy to conceive that
some of these may be occasionally separated from the rest, and assume a
solid form both in the pelvis of the kidney and in the bladder. This is
known to be the case both in the human being and the brute. These
calcuH or stones are in the horse offcener found in the kidney than in the
bladder, contrary to the experience of the human surgeon. The explana-
tion of this, however, is not difficult. In the human being the kidney is
situated above the bladder, and these concretions descend from it to the
bladder by their weight. The belly of the horse is horizontal, and the force
of gi'avity can in no way aflect the passage of the calculus ; therefore it
occasionally remains in the pelvis of the kidney, until it has increased so
much in size as to All it. We know not of any symptoms that would satis-
factorily indicate the presence of a stone in the kidney ; and, if the disease
could be ascertained, we are unable to say what remedial measures could
be adopted. The composition of calculi found in the bladder diSers from
those in the intestines — in the latter the phosphate of Hme is the principal
ingredient, in the former they consist of the carbonate of lime and animal
matter.

The symptoms of stone in the bladder much resemble those of spasmodic
coh'c, except that, on careful enquiry, it will be found that there has been
much irregulaiity in the discharge of urine and occasional suppression of
it. When fits of apparent coUc frequently return, and are accompanied
by any pecuharity in the appearance or the discharge of the urine, the
horse should be careftilly examined. This generally may be satisfactorily
done by introducing the hand into the rectum, and with the other manipu-

STONE IN THE BLADDER. 341

lating the groin, when with the aid of an assistant it will readily be felt —
should this not prove decisive the horse may be thrown. If there is stone
in the bladder, it will, while the horse lies on its back, press on the boAvel,
and may be distinctly felt by the hand in the rectum. Several cases
have lately occurred of successful extraction of the calculus ; but to effect
this it will always be necessary to have recourse to the aid of a veterinary
practitioner.

Both the practitioner and the amateur will be gratified by the descrip-
tion of a catheter, invented by Mr. Taylor, a veterinary surgeon of Notting-
ham, which may be introduced into the bladder without difficulty or pain,
and the existence and situation of the calculus readily ascertained.

It is made of polished round ii'on, three feet long, one and a half inch
in circumference, and with eight joints at its farther extremity. The
solid part between each joint is one and a quarter inch in length, and on-e
and a half in circumference, the moveable part being ten inches, and the
solid part two feet two inches. The latter has a slight curve, commencing
one foot from the handle, and continuing to the first joint of the moveable
part, in order to give it facility in passing the urethra, where it is attached
to the parietes of the abdomen. The joints are on the principle of a half
joint, so that the moveable part would only act in a straight line, or curve
in one direction. The joints are perfectly rounded and smooth when
acting either in a straight line or a curve. It is represented both in its
straight and curved state in the follo^ving cuts.

■- i-^ ^^~;=r"

Many horses occasionally void a considerable quantity of gravel, some-
times without inconvenience, and at others with evident spasm or pain ;
and in some few cases a small calculus has escaped from the bladder and
remained in the urethra. A diuretic might be useful in the first case, as
increasing the flow of urine, and possibly washing out the concretions
before they become too numerous or bulky, but in the latter the canal must
be dilated to allow the stone to pass, or opened for its removal.

The urine having passed the neck of the bladder, flows along the urethra,
and is discharged. The sheath of the penis is sometimes considerably en-
larged. When at the close of acute disease, there are swellings and effusions
of fluid under the chest and belly, this part seldom escapes. Diuretics will
be beneficial, but in extreme cases slight scarifications may be necessary.
The inside of the sheath is often the seat of disease. The mucous
matter, naturally secreted there to defend the part from the acrimony of
the urine, accumulates and becomes exceedingly offensive, and produces
swelling, tenderness, and even excoriation, with considerable discharge.
Fomentation with warm water, and the cleansing of the part with soap
and water, aided perhaps by the administration of a diuretic ball, will
speedily remove every inconvenience. Carters are too often apt to neglect
cleanliness in this respect.

:m2 the skin and its diseases.

CHAPTER XV.

THE SKIN AND ITS DISEASES.

The skin of tlie horse resembles in construction that of other animals.
It consists of two chief parts, viz., the cuticle and mtis, materially
diffeiino- in their structure and office. The outer one is the cuticle —
the epidermis or scarf-skin^ extending over the whole external part of the
animal. It is composed of two parts, the external or scaly, and the internal
or cellular. K the epidermis is examined by means of a microscope, the
existence of the scales somewhat like those of a fish will be readily detected
on its surface. There is always a singular change taking place in this
outward covering of the animal, a constant alteration and renewal of every
pai-t of it, and the scales which fall off in the shape of dandriff are the cells
of which the internal portion of the epidermis is made up, having under-
o-one compression, on their being forced upward to the surface of the skin.
In the action of a bhster they are raised from the skin beneath, in the
form of pellucid bladders, and in some diseases are thrown up in hard, dry,
white scales, numerous layers of which are placed one above another. The
cellular portion of the epidermis is in contact with the papillated surface
of the cutis or true skin, from which it is secreted. The name of rete mu-
cosum has been given to this part of the epidermis from its web-like
structure and soft mucous consistence. In the cells of which it is made up,
the material which gives colour to the animal is secreted. In horses with
white hair the rete mucosum is white ; it is brown in those of a brown
colour ; black in the black, and ia patches of different colours with those,
the hue of whose integument varies. The cuticle does not possess either
nerves or blood-vessels ; it is therefore devoid of sensibility, but it fulfils a
most important function in furnishing a protection to the parts beneath,
which are so often exposed to a morbid sensibility. In every part of the
body the cuticle is perforated by innumerable pores, some of which permit
the passage of the hair ; thi-ough others the perspirable matter finds a pas-
sage ; while from others various unctuous secretions make their escape. The
cutis or true skin lies beneath the rete mucosum. Like the cuticle, it
consists of two pi-incipal parts, the upper or papillated, and the corium or
deeper layer. The papillated layer lies beneath and in contact with the
rete mucosum or cellular portion of the epidermis, and is so named from
numerous conical prominences or papillae on its surface. It is exceedingly
vascular, highly sensitive, and differently an-anged in various parts of the
body. The sensitive lamina of the foot is the papillated surface of the
dermis arrano-ed in a different manner. Beneath this we have the corium,
made up principally of areola mixed with white and yellow fibrous tissue.
The corium makes up the chief thickness of the skin, and constitutes the
pHant and yielding part of it. It varies in its structure in different animals ;
in the better bred one we have a larger development of the yellow elastic
tissue and in the coarser breed a large amount of white fibrous tissue.
It is the substance which is converted into leather when removed
jfrom the body, and binds together the different parts of the frame. In
some places it does this literally, and clings so closely to the substance
beneath that it scarcely admits of any motion : this is the case about the
forehead and the back, while upon the face, the sides and flanks, it hangs
in loosened folds. In the parts connected with progression it is folded
into various duplicatures, that the action of the animal may admit of the

THE SKIN AND ITS DISEASES. 343

least possible obstruction. The cutis is tbiimest, and most elastic, on those
parts tbat are least covered with hair, or where the hair is altogether de-
ficient, as the lips, the muzzle, and the inside of the flanks.

Over a great part of the frame lies a sing-ular muscle peculiar to quad-
rupeds, and more extensive and powerful in the thin-skinned and thin-
haired animals, than in those with thicker hides. It reaches from the poll
over the whole of the carcase, and down to the arm before, and the stifle
behind. By its contraction the skin is puckered in every direction ; and
if it acts strongly and rapidly, the horse is not only enabled to shake ofl"
any insect or fly that may annoy him, but sometimes to displace a great
part of his harness, and to render it diSicult for the most expert rider to
keep his seat. This muscle also assists the skin in bracing that part of
the frame which it covers, and, perhaps, gives additional strength to the
muscles beneath. It is called the panniculus camosus, or fleshy panicle or
covering.

The skin answers the double purpose of protection and strength. Where
it is necessary that the parts should be bound and knit together, it adheres
so tightly that we can scarcely raise it.

It is tight along the muscles of the back and loins, and down the yet
more powerful muscles of the quarters ; but in other places it is loosely
attached, that it may not interfere with the motions of the animah
About the brisket, and within the arms and at the flanks, it hano-s even
in folds.

Of its strength we have abundant proof, both in the livino- and dead
animal. Its fibres are interlaced in a most curious and intricate manner
so as, when living, to be scarcely lacerable, and converted into leather after
death.

It is, while the animal is ahve, one of the most elastic bodies with which
we are acquainted. It not only perfectly adapts itself to the slow growth
or decrease of the body, and appears equally to fit, whether the horse is in
the plumpest condition or reduced to a skeleton ; but when a portion of it
is distended to an extraordinary degi-ee, in the most powerful action of the
muscles, it quickly again contracts to its usual dimensions.

When the horse is in health, and every organ discharges its proper
functions, a certain quantity of sebaceous matter is spread over the surface
of the skin, and is contained iu ah the pores that penetrate its substance,
and the skin becomes pliable, easily raised fi'om the texture beneath, and
presenting that peculiar yielding softness and elasticity which experience
has proved to be the best proofs of the condition, or, in other words the
general health of the animal. Then, too, fi-om the oilxness and softness of
the skin, the hair Hes in its natui-al and proper direction, and is smooth and
glossy. When the system is deranged, and especially the digestive svstem,
and the vessels concerned in the nourishment of the animal feebly act', those
of the skin evidently sympathise. This oily secretion is no more thrown
out ; the skin loses its pHancy ; it seems to cling to the animal, and we
have that peculiar appearance which we call hide-bound. This, however
requires attentive consideration.

We observe a horse in the summer. We find him with a thin, smooth,
glossy coat, and his extremities clean and free almost from a single rouo-h
or misplaced hair. We meet him again towards the winter, when the
thermometer has fallen almost or quite to the freezing point, and we
scarcely recognise him in his thick, rough, coarse, coloiu'less coat, and his
legs enveloped in long shaggy hair. The health of the horse is, to a certain
degree, deranged. He is dull, languid, easily fatigued. He will break into
a sweat with the slightest exertion, and it is almost impossible thoroughly
bo dry him. He may perhaps feed as well as usual, although that will not

H44 THE SKIN AND ITS DISEASED.

generally be the case, but be is not equal to the demands wbicb we art)
comjielled to make upon him.

This process goes on for an uncertain time, depending on the consti-
tution of the animal, until nature has effected a change, and then he once
more rallies ; but a great altei'ation has taken place in him — the hair has
lost its soft and glossy character, and is become dry and staring. The skin
ceases to secrete that pecuhar unctuous matter which kept it soft and
flexible, and becomes dry and scaly ; and the exlialents on the surface,
having become relaxed, are frequently pouring out a profuse perspiration,
.vithout any apparent adequate cause for it.

So passes the approach to winter, and the owner complains sadly of the
appearance of his steed, and, according to the old custom, gives him plenty
of cordial balls, — perhaps too many of them, — on the whole not being
unserviceable at this critical period, yet not productive of a great deal of
good. At length the animal rallies of himself, and although not so strong
and fall of spirits as he ought to be, is hardier and more lively than he was,
and able to struggle with the cold of the coming winter.

Wliat a desideratum in the management of the horse would be a course
of treatment that would render all this unnecessary ! This desideratum
has been found — a free escape of perspiration, a moist and softened state af
the skin, and evident increase of health and capability of enduring fatigue,
and working on shorter supply of food than he could before. This is per-
formed by the clipping and singeing systems.

Mr. Thomas Turner, who was almost one of the earliest advocates of these
systems, states, in the fourteenth vol. of the 'Yeterinarian,' that during the
months of October and 'November an inordinate growth of hair is observed
over the whole surface of the body, and in many horses as early as the
beginning of September, and almost invariably prevails, more or less, in
every horse that is not thorough-bred. The debilitating efiects thereby
Induced are profuse perspiration on the least possible exertion — depression
of the animal spirits, and temporary loss of appetite. The removal of all
the superfluous hair by close clipping, instantly proves so powerful a tonic
to the animal, that he unhesitatingly aflii-ms it to be inferior to none at
present known in our pharmacopoeia.

We may not, perhaps, be able satisfactorily to explain the apparently
magical eSects of clipping and singeing on the general constitution, and
particularly the wind of the horse, or the respiratory functions generally,
but there is no doubt of their existence. Aji increased tone is given to the
system generally ; and, probably, in some way not yet sufiiciently developed,
the increased current of the electric fluid may have much to do with it.

]VIr. Snewing gives an interesting account of the efl'ect of clipping on two
horses in his establishment. He had a cob, with a fixed catarrh of several
months' standing. It did not interfere with the animal's general healthy
but was a source of considerable annoyance. At length the owner deter-
mined to sell him ; but first he had him clipped. After a few days his
attention was di-awn to the cii'cumstance, that either the horse's cough
must have left him, or, from repeatedly hearing it, he had ceased to regard
it. He watched the animal, and, truly enough, he found that the cough
had entirely disappeared. He rode him though the winter and the follow-
ing summer, and there was no return of it.

The other instance was in a mare which he had after this one was sold.
In the months of August, September, and October, 1841, she was con-
tinually the subject of intermittent cough. He had her clipped, and in a
few days she ceased to cough, and has net been he^rd to cough from that
timo.

THE HAIK. — COLOUK. 346-

PORES OF THE SKIN.

Besides the opeuings already mentioned tlirougli which proceeds the
auctuous fluid that supples and softens the skin, there are others more
numerous, by means of which a vast quantity of aqueous fluid escapes, and
perspiration is carried on. As in the human being, this actually exists in
a state of health and quietness, although imperceptible; but when the
animal is excited by exercise, or laboui-s under some stages of disease, it
becomes visible, and appears in the form of di-ops.

This process of perspiration is not, however, so far nnder the control of
medicine as in the human being.

We are not aware of any drugs that will certainly produce it. "Warm
clothing seems occasionally to effect it, but this is more in appearance than
reality. The insensible perspiration cannot escape through the mass of
clothing, and assumes a visible form. This, perhaps, is the case when
sheep-skins are apphed over the back and loins in 'locked jaw.' They
produce a good eff'ect, acting as a warm poultice over the part, and so
contributing to relax the muscular spasms. There are, however, a few
medicines, as antimony and sulphur, that have an evident and very con-
siderable eff'ect on the skin.

Of the existence of absorbent vessels on the skin, or those which, take
up some fluid or substance, and convey it into the circulation, we have
satisfactory proof. A horse is even more easily salivated than the human
being. Salivation has been produced by rubbing a splint with merciirial
ointment, previous to blistering ; and a very few di'achms rubbed on the
inside of the thighs will probably produce a greater effect than tho
practitioner desires.

THE HAIR.

The hair is the natural clothing of all our domestic quadrapeds. It ia
some protection fi^om violence, and more so from cold ; and it varies with
the climate in which they live. It springs from below the- skin. There
are found on the cellular and fatty substance immediately in contact with
the internal surface of the skin, numerous little bulbs, which penetrate into
and pass through the skin, and which arriving at the cuticle the hair
protriides from the summit of them. The haii* itself, when examined
through a microscope, is seen" to be a Httle tube containing a pulpy matter,
which iTins through the whole lengih of it, and by which, probably, the
hair is fed and rendered pliant, and the loss of which under disease may
add to the hard and unthiifty feeling of the coat of a horse out of condition.
Thers is no essential difference in the stmcture of the hair, in different parts,
as the mane, the tail, and the body, except that the former is larger, longer,
and stronger.

The base of the bulb whence the hair proceeds being beneath the tru&
skin, it is easy to perceive that the hair will grow again, although tho
cuticle may have been destroyed. A good blister, although it may remove
the cuticle, and seemingly for a while the hair with it, leaves no lasting
trace. Even firing, lightly and skilfully performed, and not penetrating
through the skin, leaves not much blemish ; but when, in broken kiiees,
the true skin is cut thi'ougli or destroyed, there will always remain a spot
devoid of hair.

COLOUR.

The colotir of the hair admits of every variety, and each colour becomes
in turn fashionable. Like that of the skin, it is influenced by, or depends
on, the mucous mesh- work under the cuticle. There are comparatively

34G COLO UK.

few perfectly white horses now remainmg. The snow-white palfrey, \nth
its round carcass and barb head, originally from Spain, or perhaps from
Barbary, and rarely exceeding the size of a Galloway, is nearly extinct.
They are of good constitution, and pleasant in their paces. The majority
of white horses are those that have become so. Light-grey colts begin to
grow white before they are five years old, especially if they have not
much dark mixtui'e about the joints.

Grey horses are of different shades, from the Hghtest silver to a dark iron-
grey. The silver-grey reminds the observer of the palfrey, improved by an
admixture of Arab blood. He does not often exceed fourteen hands and a
half in height, and is round-carcassed — tliin-legged — with obHque pas-
terns, calculated for a light carriage, or for a lady's riding — seldom subject
to disease — but rot very fleet, or capable of hard work.

The ii-on-grey is usually a larger horse ; higher in the withers, deeper
and thinner in the carcass, more angular in all his proportions, and in
many cases a Kttle too long in the legs. Some of these greys make good
hackneys and hunters, and especially the Irish horses ; but they are prin-
cipally used for the carriage. They have more endurance than the flatness
of their chest would promise ; but their priucipal defect is their feet, which
are Kable to contraction, and yet that contraction not so often accompanied
by lameness as in many other horses.

The dappled grey is generally a handsomer and a better horse. All the
angular points of the iron grey are filled up, and with that which not only
adds to symmetry, but to use. Whether as a hackney, or, the larger
variety, a carriage horse, there are few better, especially since his form
has been so materially improved, and so much of his heaviness got rid of,
by the fi'ee use of foreign blood. There are not, however, so many dappled
greys as there used to be, since the bays have been bred vrith so much
care. The dappled grey, if dark at first, generally retains his colour to
old age.

Some of the greys approach to a nutmeg, or even bay colour. Many of
these are handsome, and most of them are hardy.

The roans, of every variety of colour and form, are composed of white
mixed with bay, or red, or black. In some it seems to be a natural mix-
ture of the colours ; in others it appears as if one colour' was powdered or
sprinkled over another. They are pretty horses for ladies or light car-
riages, and many of them easy in their paces, but they do not usually dis-
play much blood, nor are they celebrated for endurance.

The strawberry horse is a mixtui^e of sorrel with white ; usually hand-
some and pleasant, but more celebrated for these quahties than for strength
and endurance.

The pied horse is one that has distinct spots or patches of different
colours, but generally of white with some other coloui\ When the white
is mixed with black it is called ' pie-bald,' with bay the name of ' skew-
bald ' is given to it. They are not hked as hackneys, on account of their
pecuharity of colour, nor in teams of horses ; but they look well when
tolerably matched in a phaeton or Hght can-iage. Their value must depend
on their breed.

The dun, of the G^Uoway size, and with considerable blood, is often
attached to the curricle or the phaeton. The larger variety is a true
farmer's or miller's horse, -with no great speed or extraordinary strength,
yet a good-tempered, good-feeding, good-constitutioned, useful horse enough.
Varieties of the dun, shaded with a darker colour, or dappled, and with
some breeding, and not standing too high, are beautiful animals, and much
sought after for light carriages.

The cream-colour, of Hanoverian extraction, with his white iris and

COLOUE. ^*^

little experience how far lie would suit otlier purposes

Of the chestnuts there are three varieties— the pale red or the sorrel,
Jally ^ithtL white, either on the face or t^e.legs-generd^^^^^^^
made vet some of them bulky enough for the heaviest loads, /^eir colour
rgene^ally Tbjectionable, and they are supposed to be somewhat deficient

^ThtTo-ht'^hestnut, with less red and ahttle more bay or brown is con-
Bid^redap^^^^^^^^ especially if he has Httle or no _ white about

h^tCenhe though pleasant to ride is --^X^rcWhe:^
generally weak m^^^^^^

extinct. The pretent variety, however crossed, is not equal to the old

^^Th^dark chestnut is as diiferent a horse from the hackney-hke chestnut
as^an be weU imagined ; round in the carcass ; powerM m the quarters,
Tut ratttirtL leg's ; possessed of great -^---.^XitiV^S
c+^fi-,finn fhat rarelv knows an ailment, except that the teet aie smau anu
tpo^^fto co^Laction: and the horse is occasionally of a hot and un-

TfIS wTere are many varieties, and they include the very best of
our horses of 'every descriptiL. The bright J^''^7lX%toi:& ^Z
beautiful, and especially if his mane and tail .^l'}^^^'2etl^eroi
able— the ho-htness of his colour seems to give him some tenaemess oi
able— me ii nxnes about him, and black from the

TnTesl^d hocks toTefit^r^^^ most desirable of aU. He has generaUy
t good institution, and good feet; and, if his confonnation is not faulty,
will turn out a valuable horse for ahnost every purpose.

The baXo^ lias not always so much show and action, but, generally,
mo^-e streno'hTd endurance, Ld usefuhiess. He has greater substance
Tan tte Sihter bay, and more depth of leg; and, ^ 1- h^d ^he same de-
crvee of breeding, he would be as handsome, and more valuable. _
^ men ho^vm-, we arrive at the bro.vns, it is necessary to examme the
deoree of WdLg. This coto is not so fashionable, and thei-efore these
Ee\ hive bet considerably n^^^^^ There are --IJ-^/^-J' ^^

those that are o-ood are valuable ; others, probably, are only a Hall or a
'^::tX:^%li therefore comparatively -a- je -M fo^^^^^^^^^
and for hamess-for slow work, and, occasionally, for that whicJi is more

"^The black-brown is generally more neglected, so far as its breed is con-
ceded and should be more carefally exammed. It is valuable ii
reS the goodness of constitution of the brown and bay-brown

Of the black, greater care has been taken. The heavy b ack of Lm-
ooZ^e and the^dland counties is a noble animal, and ^o^lhej^o^
bPvond nrice if he could be rendered more active. The next in size con
Ste tL maiorTty of our waggon-horses, and perhaps our best; and on
:'slller\3, aid to the Snprovement of J^^^ ^^^^^.^^^ZuZ
been devoted, many of our cavalry are mounted. A few ^^^^^ \^°4^^°^^
bred horses and black hunters are occasionally seen ^^V^^^ ;3373^^^;
of horses of this colour has not been studied, except for the pui poses mat
We been men^^^^ Their peculiar high ^<^^o.X^l2l:^^ZTe
for di-aught, and desirable for the parade, would be unbcaiabit m tne

343 MOULTING.

roadster. Black horses have been said to be more subject to vice, disease,
and blindness, than those of any other colour. This charge is not true
to its fall extent ; but there certainly are a great many worthless black
horses in every part of the country,

Al'ter aU, there is an old saying, that a good horse cannot be of a bad
colour ; and that it is far more necessary to attend to the conformation and
points of the animal than to his colour. The foregoing observations, how-
ever, although they admit of many exceptions, may be useful in guiding to
the judicious purchase of the horse,

MOULTING.

Twice in the year the hair of the body of the horse is changed. The
short fine coat of summer would afford little protection against the winter,
and that of the winter would be oppressive to the animal if it appeared
during the summer. The hair of the mane and tail remains. The bulbous
root of the hair does not die, but the pulpy matter seems to be removed
from the root of the hair, which, thus deprived of its nourishment, perishes
and drops off, and a new hair springs at its side from the same bulb. The
hair which is produced in the autumn, is evidently different from that
which grows in the spring ; it is coarser, thicker, and not so glossy as the
other. As moulting is a process extending over the whole of the skin,
and requiring a very considerable expenditure of vital power, the health
of the animal is generally affected at these times. That energy and nervous
and vital influence, which should support the whole of the f"ame, is to a
great degree determined to the skin, and the animal is languid, and un-
equal to much hard work. He perspires greatly with the least unusual
exertion, and if he is pressed beyond his strength becomes seriously ill.

The treatment which the groom in this case adopts is most absurd and
dangerous. The horse, from the deranged distribution of vital power, is
disposed to fever, or he labours under a slight degree of fever, sufiiciently
indicated by the increased quickness of pulse, redness of nose, and heat of
mouth. The lassitude and want of appetite which are the accompani-
ments of this febrile state, are mistaken for debility ; and cordials of
various kinds, some of them exceedingly stimulating, are unsparingly ad-
ministered. At length, with regard to the hunter, the racer, and even in
the hackney and the carriage horse, the scissors or the lamp are intro-
duced, and a new method is established of guarding against this periodical
debility, setting at defiance the occasional exposure to cold, and establish-
ing a degree of health and streng-th previously unknown. Friction may
be allowed, to assist the falling off of the old hair, and to loosen the cuticle
for the appearance of the new hair, but it is somewhat more gently applied
than it used to be. The currycomb is in a great measure banished, and
even the brush is not appHed too hard or too long. The old hair is not
forced off before the young hair is ready to take its place,

Nature adapts the coat to the climate and to the season. The Sheltie
has one as long and thick as that of a bear ; and, as the summer is short
and cold in those northern islands, the coat is rough and shaggy during
the whole of the year. In the southern parts of our country the short
and light and glossy coat of summer gradually yields to the close and
heavy, and warm clothing of winter. In the deserts of Arabia, where
the winter is rarely cold, the coat remains short and glossy throughout
the year. These are wise and kind provisions of nature, and excite otur
admiration.

HIDE-BOUND. 349

HIDE-BOUND.

This is not so much a diminution of the cellahir or fatty substance
between the skin and the muscles beneath, as it is an alteration in the skin
itseh^ It is a hardness and unyieldingness of the skin, from the want of
the oily matter on its surface and in its substance. It is the difference that
is presented to the feeling by well-cui-ried and supple leather, and that
which has become dry and unyielding.

The sui'face of the skin becoming dry and hard, the scales of the cuticle
are no longer penetrated by the haii-, but, separating themselves in eveiy
direction, give that peculiar roughness to the coat which accompanies
want of condition. It betokens impaired function of the vessels every-
where, and particularly those of the stomach and bowels. Hide-bound is
not so much a disease as a symptom of disease, and particularly of the
digestive organs ; and our remedies must be applied not so much to the
skin — although we have, in friction and in warmth, most valuable agents
in producing a healthy condition of the integuments — as to the cause of
the hide-bound, and the state of the constitution generally. Every disease
that can affect the general system may produce this derangement of the
functions of the skin. Glanders, when become constitutional, is strongly
indicated by the unthi'ifty appearance of the coat. Chronic cough, grease,
farcy, and founder, are accompanied by hide-bound ; and diet too sparing,
.and not adequate to the work exacted, is an unfaihng source of it. If the
cause is removed, the effect vnll cease.

Should the cause be obscure, as it frequently is — should the horse wear
an unthi'ifty coat, and his hide cling to his ribs, without any apparent
disease, we shall generally be warranted in tracing it to sympathy with
the actual, although not demonstrable, suspension of some important
secretion of function, either of the aUmentary canal or the respiratory
functions. A few mashes, and a mild dose of physic, are first indicated,
and, simple as they appear to be, they often have a very beneficial effect.
The regular action of the bowels being re-established, that of all the
organs of the frame will speedily follow. If the horse cannot be spared
for physic, alteratives may be administered. There is no better alterative
for hide-bound and an unthrifty coat, than that which is in common use,
Jevigated antimony, nitre, and sulphur. The pecuHar effect of the
antimony and sulphur, and electric influence on the skin, with that of the
sulphur on the bowels, and of the nitre on the urinary organs, will be
here advantageously combined.

Should the horse not feed well, and there is no indication of fever, a
slight tonic may be added, as gentian, or ginger ; but in the majority of
cases attended by loss of condition, and an unthrifty coat, and hide-bound,
tonics and aromatics should be carefully avoided.

The cause of the impaii-ed action of the vessels being removed, the
powers of nature "vvill generally be sufficient, and had better be left to
themselves.

Friction may be employed with advantage in the removal of hide-bound.
It has repeatedly been shown that this is one of the most efS.cacious instru-
ments we can use to call into exercise the suspended energies either of the
absorbent or secreting vessels. Warmth may likewise be had recourse
to — not warmth of stable, which has been shown to be so injurious, but
warmth arising from exercise, and the salutary, although inexplicable,
influence of clipping and singeing.

350 SURFEIT. MAXGE.

SUSFEIT.

Large pimples or eruptions often appear suddenly on the skin of tlie
horse, and especially in the spring of the year. Occasionally they disap-
pear as quickly as they came. Sometimes they seem to be attended with
great itching, but at other times the annoyance is comparatively Httle.
When these eruptions have remained a few days, the cuticle frequently
peels off, and a small scaly spot — rarely a sore — is left. This is called a
surfeit, from its resemblance to some eruptions on the skin of the human
being when indigestible or unwholesome food has been taken. The surfeit
is, in some cases, confined to the neck ; but It oftener spreads over the
sides, back, loins, and quarters. The cause is enveloped in some obscurity.
The disease most frequently appears when the skin is irritable during or
after the process of moulting, or when it sympathises with any disorder of
the stomach. It has been knovsn to follow the eating of poisonous herbs
or mow- burnt hay, but, much oftener, it is to be traced to exposm*e to cold
when the skin was previously irritable, and the horse heated by exercise.
It has also been attributed to the immoderate drinking of cold water when
the animal was hot. It is obstruction of some of the pores of the skin
and swelling of the surrounding substance, either from primary affection
of the skin, or a plethoric state of the system, or sympathy with the
digestive organs.

The state of the patient will sufiiciently guide the surgeon as to the
course he should pursue. If there is simple eruption, without any marked
inflammatory action, alteratives should be resorted to, and particularly
those recommended for hide-bound in page 349. They should be given
on several successive nights. The night is better than the morning, be-
cause the warmth of the stable will cause the antimony and sulphur to
act more powerfully on the skin. The horse should be warmly clothed —
half an hour's walking exercise should be given, an additional rug being
thrown over him — such green meat as can be procured should be used in
moderate quantities, and the chill should be taken from the water.

Should the eruption continue or assume a more virulent character,
bleeding and aloetic physic must be had recourse to, but neither should
be carried to any extreme. The phy.^ic having set, the alteratives should
again be had recourse to, and attention should be paid to the comfort and
diet of the horse.

If the eruption, after several of these alternate appearances and disap-
pearances, should remain, and the cuticle and the hair begin extensively to
peel off, a worse affection is to be feared, for surfeit is too apt to precede,
or degenerate iuto, mange. This disorder, therefore, must next be con-
sidered.

MANGE.
This disease affects most of our domesticated animals, in different forms,
and in the haman subject a similar disease is known by the name of itch.
In an animal affected with mange, the cuticle and the hair fall off, and
there is, as in obstinate surfeit, a bare spot covered with scurf — some fluid
oozing from the skin beneath, and this changing to a scab, which likewise
soon peels off, and leaves a wider spot. This process is attended by con-
siderable itching and tenderness, and thickening of the skin, which soon
becomes more or less folded, or puckered. The mange generally first ap-
pears on the neck at the root of the mane, and its existence may be
suspected even before the blotches appear, and when there is only con-
siderable itchiness of the part, by the ease with which the short hxiil" at
the root of the mane is plucked out. From the neck it spreads upward

MANGE. ial

to the head, or downward to the withers and back, and occasionally extends
over the whole carcass of the horse.

One cause of it, although an unfi-equent one, has been stated to be
neglected or inveterate sui-feit. Several instances are on record in which
poverty of condition, and general neglect of cleanKness, preceded or pro-
duced the most violent mange. A remark of Mr. Blane is very important :
— ' Among the truly healthy, so far as my experience goes, it never arises
spontaneously, but it does readily from a spontaneous origin among the
unhealthy.' The most common cause is contagion. Amidst the whole hst
of diseases to which the horse is exposed, there is not one more highly
contagious than mange. K it once gets into a stable, it spreads through
it, for the slightest contact seems to be sufficient for the communication of
this noisome complaint.

If the same brush or currycomb is used on all the horses, the propaga-
tion of mange is assui'ed ; and horses feeding in the same pasture with a
mangy one rarely escape, from the propensity they have to nibble one
another. Mange in cattle has been propagated to the horse, and from the
horse to cattle. There are also some well-authenticated instances of the
same disease being communicated from the dog to the horse, but not from
the horse to the dog.

Mange has been said to originate in want of cleanliness in the manage-
ment of the stable. The comfort and the health of the horse demand the
strictest cleanliness. The eyes and the lungs frequently suffer from the
noxious fumes of the putrefying dung and urine ; but, in defiance of
common prejudice, there is no authentic instance of mange being the
result. It may, however, proceed from poverty. When the animal is
half starved, and the functions of digestion and the power of the consti-
tution are weakened, the skin soon sympathises, and mange is occasionally
produced, instead of surfeit and hide-bound. Every farmer has proof
enouo:h of this beino; the case. If a horse is turned on a common where
there is scarcely sufficient herbage to satisfy his appetite, or if he is
placed in one of those straw-yards that are under the management of
mercenary and unfeeling men, and are the very abodes of misery, the
animal comes up a skeleton, and he comes up mangy too. Poverty and
starvation are fiTutfal sources of mange, but it does not appear that fi^lth
has much to do with it, although poverty and filth generally go hand in
hand. The actual cause of mange, however, is the existence of a parasite
burrowing in the skin, the knowledge of which is comparatively of recent
date in this country, although it has been for some time known on the
Continent ; the name of the insect is the Acams equi, and is precisely
analogous to the parasite producing the itch in man — it belongs to the
family of mites, one of the most widely disseminated famihes in the
animal creation ; they are found in the most delicate preparations in our
museums ; in all kinds of preserved animal and vegetable substances ; in
our very food — in the skin of man, producing the itch, in the skin of the
horse and the dog, producing the mange. It is to the valuable aid of the
microscope we are indebted for the discovery of this most miscluevous
and troublesome insect — a regular set of scourgers, burrowing under the
epidermis, or scarf-skin in man, and in the horse, sucking up and thus
clearing away the impurities on the skin, which filth and dirt accumulate,
and in return depositing their eggs, rearing tbeir progeny, and giving
unmistakeable evidence of their existence. The acarus has eight legs,
most of which terminate in a cup-Uke form, which acting like a sucker,
enables the mite to adhere to the skin in a most pertinacious manner.
It is to a paper by Mr. Erasmus Wilson, read in connection with the

8,12 M.\NaE.

Veterinary Medical Association, we are indebted for these and many other
most interesting particulars.

Tlie propriety of bleeding in cases of mange depends on the condition
of the patient. If mange is the result of poverty, and the animal is much
debihtated, bleeding will increase the evil, and will probably deprive the
constitution of the power of rallying. Physic, however, is indispensable
in every case. It is the first step in the progress towards cure. In this,
however, mange in the horse resembles itch in the human being — medi-
cine alone T\ill never effect a cure. There must be some local appUcation.
There is this additional similarity — that which is most efiectual in curing
the itch in the human being must form the basis of every local application
for the cure of the mange in the horse. Sulphur is iadispensable in every
unguent for mange. It is the sheet-anchor of the veterinary surgeon. In
an early and not very acute state of mange, equal portions of sulphur,
turpentine, and train-oil, gently but well rubbed on the part, will be ap-
plied with advantage. Farriers are fond of the black sulphur, but that
which consists of earthy matter, vtdth the mere dregs of various sub-
stances, cannot be so effectual as the pui'e sublimed sulphur. A tolerably
stout brush, or even a currycomb, lightly applied, should be used, in order
to remove the dandiiflF or scurf, wherever there is any appearance of
mange. After that, the horse should be washed with strong soap and
water as far as the disease has extended ; and, when he has been thoroughly
dried, the ointment should be well rubbed in with the naked hand, or
with a piece of flannel. More good will be done by a Httle of the oint-
ment being well rubbed in, than by a great deal being merely smeared
over the part. The rubbing should be daily repeated.

The sulphur seems to have a direct influence on the disease — the tur-
pentine has an indii-ect one, by exciting some irritation on the skin of a
difl'erent nature from that produced by the mange, and under the influence
of which the irritation of mange will be diminished, and the disease more
easily combated. Duii ng the application of the ointment, and as soon as
the physic has set. an alterative ball or powder, similar to those recom-
mended for the other affections of the skin, should be daily given. If,
after some days have passed, no progress should appear to have been
made, half a pound of sulphur should be well mixed with a pint of oil of
tar, and the affected parts rubbed, as before. On every fifth or sixth day
the ointment should be washed off with warm soap and water. The pro-
gress towards cure will thus be ascertained, and the skin vrill be cleansed,
and its pores opened for the more effectual apphcation of the ointment.

The horse should be well suppHed with nourishing, but not stimulating
food. As much gi'een meat as he will eat should be given to him, or, what
is far better, he should be turned out, if the weather is not too cold. It
is necessary, however, to be assured that every mangy place has been
anointed. It will be pmdent to give two or three dressings after the
horse has been apparently cured, and to continue the alteratives for ten
days or a fortnight.

The cure being completed, the clothing of the horse should be well
soaked in water, to which a fortieth part of the saturated solution of the
chloride of Hme has been added ; after which it should be washed with
soap and water, and again washed and soaked in a solution of the
chloride of lime. Every part of the harness should imdergo a similar
purification. The cuiTycomb may be scoui-ed, but the brush should be
burned. The rack, and manger, and partitions, and every part of the
stable which the I orse could possibly have touched, should be well washed
vr^th a hair-broom — a pint of the chloride of lime being added to three
gallons of water. All the wood-work should then be scoured with soap

RINGWORM. 3/53

and "water, after ■wbicli a second washing with the chloride of lime will
render all secure. Some formers have pulled down their stables, when
they have been thoroughly infected with mange. This is being unneces-
sarily cautious. The efficacy of the chloride of lime was not then known ;
but if that is carefully and sufficiently applied to every part of the stable
and its furniture, there cannot afterwards be dano;er.

-n . . .

Every case of itchiness of the skin should be regarded with suspicion.
Wben a horse is seen to rub the root of his tail, or his head, or neck,
against the manger, the parts should be carefully examined. Some of the
hair may have been rubbed or torn off, but if the roots remain firmly
adherent, and there is only redness and not scurfiness of the skin, it pro-
bably is not mange but only inflammation of the skin, from too great
fulness of the blood. A little blood should be abstracted — a purgative
administered — and the alteratives given. The mange ointment cannot do
harm, and may possibly prevent this heat of the skin from degenerating
into mange, or arrest the prog-ress of mange if it has commenced. If a
Bcurfiness of skin should appear on any of the points that are pressed
upon by the collar or harness, the veterinary surgeon will do right to
guard against danger by alterative medicine and the use of the ointment.

EINGWORM.

This is a highly contagious disease, and affects in a greater or less ae-
gree most of our domestic animals. Young animals are most susceptible
of it, but it is sometimes met with in old ones, and is frequently connected
with a debilitated condition of the system, either the result of disease or
poverty. The name ringworm would indicate that this disease was pro
duced by some animal, but although such is not the case, there is no
doubt it is the result of a parasitic vegetable fungus composed of minute
oval spores and short curved filaments, which pervades and splits up the
roots of the hairs. The disease affects the skin in circular patches vary-
ing in size, frequently as large as half a crown. The skin is first raised,
and, in a few days, the hair comes off, leaving a bald round space the
surface of which is dry and scaly. They are found in almost all parts of
the body, but more especially about the neck and quarters, and if neglected
will increase rapidly and prove a very troublesome disease. The treat-
ment should at once consist in removing the animal to a place where there
would be no Liability to his being brought in contact with other animals,
great care being obseiwed by the attendant in keeping everything con-
nected with his treatment, away from any other horse. Ringworm is so
contagious in its nature that it may be propagated in a variety of ways,
and sometimes baffies our most careful efforts to prevent its extension ;
therefore too great caution cannot be observed on the part of those under
whose care the animal is placed. Great numbers of remedial agents have
been employed in the cure of ringworm, but none will be found simpler
or better than the biniodide of raercury made into an ointment in the
proportion of half a drachm of the biniodide to one ounce of lard, a
small quantity being well rubbed on the whole surface of the ringworm
every third day. By this means the parasitic fungus will be destroyed,
and a gentle stimulating eS'ect produced upon the skin, which will hasten
the growth of the hair. Attention should also be paid to the general
health of the animal ; if suffering from debility, a more generous diet will
be found the best tonic, and materially hasten the cure. If, as is some-
times tlie case, the animal affected be in good condition, a dose of physic
followed by alteratives may be necessary,

A A

354 GREASE.

GREASE,

Grease is a specific inflammation of the sebaceous follicles of the skin
of the heels, sometimes of the fore feet, but oftener of the hind ones,
followed by an increased morbid secretion.

There is a peculiarity about the skin of the heel of the horse. In its
healthy state there is a secretion of greasy matter from it, in order to
prevent excoriation and chapping, and the skin is soft and pUable, Too
often, however, from bad management, the secretion of this greasy matter
is stopped or altered, and the skin of the heel becomes red, and dry, and
scurfy. The joint still continuing to be extended and flexed, cracks of the
skin begin to appear, and these, if neglected, rapidly extend, and the heel
becomes a mass of soreness and ulceration.

The distance of the heel from the centre of circulation, and the position
of the hind limbs, render the return of blood slow and difiicult. There
is also more variation of temperature here than in any other part of tho
frame. As the horse stands in the closed stable, the heat of this part is
too often increased by its being imbedded in straw. When the stable door
is open the heels are nearest to it, and receive first, and most powerfully,
the cold current of air. When he is taken from his stable to work, the
heels are frequently covered with mire and wet, and they are oftenest and
most intensely chilled by the long and slow process of evaporation which
is taking place from them. No one, then, can wonder at the frequency
with which the heels, especially the hind ones, are attacked by inflamma-
tion, and the difficulty there is in subduing it.

Some horses are more subject to grease than others, especially draught
horses, both heavy and light, but particularly the former, and if they have
no degree of breed in them. It was the experience of this which partly
contributed to the gradual change of coach and other draught horses to
those of a lighter breed. In the great majority of cases, grease arises
from mismanagement and neglect.

Everything that has a tendency to excite inflammation in the skin of
the heel is a cause of grease. Therefore want of exercise is a frequent source
of this disease. The fluid which accumulates about the extremities, and
is unable to i^turn, is a source of irritation by its continued pressure.
VYhen high feeding is added to irregular or deficient exercise, the disease
is eWdently still more Ukely to be produced. Want of cleanliness in the
stable is a fruitful source of grease. When the heels are imbedded in filth,
they are weakened by the constant moistui-e surrounding them — irritated
by the acrimony of the dung and the urine, and little prepared to endure
the cold evaporation to which they are exposed when the horse is taken
out of the stable. The absurd practice of washing the feet and legs of
horses when they come from their work, and either carelessly sponging
them down afterwards, or leaving them to dry as they may, is, however,
the most common origin of grease.

When the horse is warmed by his work, and the heels share in the
warmth, the momentary cold of washing may not be injurious, if the
animal is immediately rubbed dry; yet even this would be better avoided :
but to wash out the heels, and then leave them partially dry or perfectly
wet, and suffering from the extreme cold that is produced by evaporation
from a moist and Avet surface, is the most absurd, dangerous, and injurious
practice that can be imagined. It is worse Avhen the post-horse or the
plough-horse is plunged up to his belly in the river or pond, imme-
diately after his work. The owner is little aware how many cases of
inflammation of the lungs, and bowels, and feet and heels follow. It

GREASE. 555

would, therefore, be an excellent rule never to wash the heels of these
horses. After they have been suifered to stand for twenty minutes in the
stable, during which time the horse-keeper or the carter may be employed
in taking care of the harness, or carriage, or beginning to dress the horse.
the greater part of the dirt which had collected about the heels may be
got rid of Avith a dry brush ; and the rest will disappear in a quarter of
an hour afterwards under the operation of a second brushing. The trouble
"will not be great, and the heels will not be chilled and subject to inflam-
mation.

Much error has pi'evailed, and it has led to considerable bad practice,
from the notion of hiimours flying about the horse, and which, it is said,
must have vent somewhere, and attack the heels as the weakest part of
the frame. Thence arise the physicking, and the long course of diuretics,
which truhj weaken the animal, and often do irreparable mischief.

Grease is a local complaint. It is produced principally by causes that
act locally, and it is most successfully treated by local applications. Diu-
retics and purgatives may be useful in abating inflammation ; but the
grand object is to get rid of the inflammatory action which exists in the
skin of the heel, and to heal the wounds, and remedy the mischief which
it has occasioned.

The skin soon cracks, and is followed by the exudation of a greasy and
very foetid fluid. As the disease progresses it involves the skin at the
back part of the leg, especially where there is long hair, and sometimes
extends nearly to the hock, but rai-ely above it. ^VTien cracks appear, the
mode of treatment "will depend on their extent and depth. If they are
but slight, a lotion, composed of sulphate of zinc or alum ointment, will
often speedily dry them up, and close them.

If the cracks are deep, wdth an ichorous discharge and considerable
lameness, it will be necessary to poultice the heel. A poultice of linseed
meal and bran will be generally efi^ective, unless the discharge is thin and
ofiiensive, when an ounce of finely powdered charcoal should be mixed
with the linseed meal ; or a poultice of carrots, boiled soft and mashed*
The efficacy of a carrot poultice is seldom sufficiently appreciated in eases
like this.

When the inflammation and pain have evidently subsided, and the sores
discharge good matter, the calamine ointment may be appUed with advan-
tage ; and the cui'e will generally be quickened if a diluted solution of
sulphate of zinc or alum is applied. An application that will be found
nearly a specific, after the poulticing and physicking have been had recourse
to, is a mixture of from two di-achms to half an ounce of sulphuric acid
to a pint and a half of water, making a quart mixture. A little of this
appHed morning and evening, also as soon as the legs have been dressed
after work, will be found highly beneficial.

After the chaps or cracks have healed, the legs will sometimes continue
gorged and swelled. A flannel bandage, evenly applied over the whole of
the swelled part, will be very serviceable ; or, should the season admit of
it, a run at grass, particularly spring grass, should l)e allowed.

In some cases the cracks are not confined to the centre of the heels, but
spread over them, and extend on the fetlock, and even up the leg, while
the legs are exceedingly swelled, and there is a wateiy discharge from the
cracks, and an apparent oozing through the skin at other places. The legs
are exceedingly tender and sometimes hot, and there is an appearance
which the farrier thinks very decisive as to the state of the disease, and
which the better-informed man should not overlook — the heels smoke — the
Bkin is so hot that the watery fluid partly evaporates as it runs from the
cracks or oozes through the skin.

A A 2

556 GREASE.

Tliere will be a great danger, it ia said, in suddenly stopping this dis-
cliarge. Inflammation of a more important part, it is apprehended, may
rapidly succeed to the injudicious attempt. The local application should
be directed to the abatement of the inflammation. The poultices just
referred to should be diUgently used night and day, and especially the
carrot-poultice ; and when the heat, and tenderness, and stiffness of motion
have diminished, astringent lotions may be applied — either the alum
lotion or a strong decoction of oak-bark, changed, or used alternately, but
rot mixed. The cracks should likewise be dressed with the ointment
above mentioned ; and, the moment the horse can bear it, a flannel bandage
should be put on, reaching from the coronet to three or fonr inches above
the swelling.

The medicine should be confined to mild diuretics, or, if the horse is
gross, and the inflammation runs high, a dose of physio may be given.
If the horse is strong, and fall of flesh, physic should always precede
and sometimes supersede the diuretics. In cases of much debility, diu-
retics, with aromatics or tonics, will be preferable.

The feeding should Likewise vary with the case, but with these roles,
which admit of no exception, that green meat should be given, and
more especially carrots, when they are not too expensive, and mashes,
if the horse will eat them, and never the full allowance of corn.

Walking exercise should be resorted to as soon as the horse is able
to bear it, and this by degi-ees may be increased, but in no stage of
the disease neglected.

From bad stable management at first, and neglect during the disease,
a yet worse kind of grease occasionally appears. The ulceration extends
over the skin of the heel and the fetlock, and fungoid growths spring from
the sui'face of both, highly sensitive, bleeding at the sHghtest touch, and
interspersed with scabs. By degrees, portions of the fungoid growths be-
gin to be covered with a horny substance protruding in the form of knobs,
and collected together in bunches. These are known by the name of
grapes, and consist of an altered state of the papillated surface of the der-
mis. A foetid and veiy peculiar exudation proceeds from nearly the whole
of the unnatm-al substance. The horse evidently suff'ers much as he is
Gradually worn down by the discharge. The assistance of a veterinary
surgeon is here ixidispensable.

There has been some dispute as to the propriety of cutting the hair from
the heels. Professor Stewart has the follo\\ang observations : — ' During
two very wet winters, I have had opportunity of observing the results
of trimming and no trimming, among upwards of 500 horses. More than
300 of these have been employed in coaching and posting, or work of a
similar kind, and about 150 are cart-horses. Grease, and other skin
diseases of the heels have been of most frequent occurrence where the
horses are both trimmed and washed ; they have been common where the
horses were trimmed but not washed, and there have been very few cases
where washing or trimming were forbidden or neglected.' Custom has
very properly retained the hair on our farm-horses. Nature would not
have given it had it not been useful. It guards the heel from being in-
jured by the inequalities of the ploughed field ; it prevents the dirt, in
which the heels are constantly enveloped, from reaching and caking on,
and irritatino- the skin ; it hinders the usual moisture which is mixed with
the clay and mould from reaching the skin, and it preserves an equal
temperature in the parts. If the hair is stifiered to remain on the heels
of the farm-horses, there is greater necessity for brushing and hand-
rubbing the heels, and never washing them.

Fashion and utility have removed the hair from the heels of our hack-

WARTS. — VEKMiy. 857

ney and carriage horses. When the horse is carefully tended after his
work is over, and his legs quickly and completely dried, the less hair he
nas about them the better, for then both the skin and the hair can be made
perfectly dry before evaporatioH begins, or proceeds so far as to deprive
the legs of their heat. Grease is the child of neghgence and mismanage-
ment. It is driven from our cavalry, and it will be the fault of the
gentleman and the farmer if it is not speedily banished from every
stable.

WARTS.

These are tumours of variable size, arising from the cuticle, and pro-
duced by an altered (hypertrophied) state of the papillated structure of
the dermis. There are several varieties in different parts of the body.
The scaly wart which frequently acquires considerable size, and the sur-
face of which is generally covered with moisture, is found usually on the
abdomen. The round one on the eyehds and face, and the pointed one on
the teats. Another kind called the encysted wart sometimes exists in
large numbers on the inside of the thigh and prepuce. There is no alter-
ation in the external appearance of the skin, but a hard moveable tumour
is felt depending upon the obliteration of some of the sebaceous follicles,
by an increase of the contents of the whole gland. The walls of the cyst
are composed of condensed areolar tissue. Warts must be removed by an
operation If the root be very small it may be snipped asunder with a
pair of scissors close to the skin, and the root touched with the lunar
caustic. If the pedicle or stem be somewhat larger, a hgature of waxed
silk may be passed firmly round it, and tightened every day. The soui-co
of nutriment being thus cut off, the tumour will, in a few days, die and
drop off. If they are large or in considerable clusters, it will be necessary
to cast the horse, to cut them off close to the skin, and sear the root with
a red-hot iron. Unless these precautions are used, the warts wall speedily
sprout again. In encysted warts an opening should be freely made over
the centre, and the contents squeezed out.

MALLENDERS AND SALLENDERS.

On the inside of the hock, or a little below it, as well as at the bend ot
the knee, there is occasionally a scurfy eruption called mallenders in
the fore-leg, and sallenders in the hind-leg. They seldom produce lame-
ness ; but if no means are taken to get rid of them, a discharge proceeds
from them which it is afterwards difficult to stop. They usually indicate
bad slable management.

A diuretic ball should be occasionally given, and an ointment composed
of carbonate of zinc and lard rubbed over the part. Should this fail, a
weak mercurial ointment may be used,

VERMIN.

Both the biped and quadruped are subject to the visitation of insects
that fasten on the skin, and are a constant nuisance from the itching
which they occasion. If the horse, after being turned out for the winter,
is taken up again in the spring, long and rough in his coat and_ poor in
condition, and with evident hide-bound, he will almost invariably be
afflicted with vermin. In our present acquaintance with natural history,
it is difficult to account for the appearance of certain insects, and of those
alone on the integument of one animal, while others, of an altogether
different character, are found on its neighbour. Each one has a tormentor
peculiar to itself. The vermin o^ the horse can be desti'oyed by an

868 THE FOEE-LEGS.

infasioii of tobacco, or, -wliat is equally effectual, a decoction of stavesacre
seeds. The skin being once cleansed of tbem, attention to the condition
of the animal, and cleanliness •will prevent their re-appearance.

CHAPTER XVI

THE FORE-LEGS.

We arrive Tiovr at those parts of the frame which are most essentially
connected vnih the action and value of the horse, and oftenest and most
annoyingly the subjects of disease. The extremities contain the "whole
apparatus of voluntary motion, -with -which the action, and speed, and
.strength of the horse are most concerned.

The fore-legs, when viewed in front, should be widest at the chest, and
should gradually approach to each other as we descend towards the fetlock.
The degree of width must depend on the purpose for which the horse is
wanted. The legs of a heavy draught-horse can scarcely be too far apart.
His rounded chest enables him to throw more weight into the collar ; and
not being required for speed, he wants not that occasionally increased ex-
pansion of chest which the circular form is not calculated to g-ive. A
hunter, a hackney, and a coach-horse should have sufficient expansion of
the chest, or the legs sufficiently "wide apart, to leave room for the play of
the lungs ; but depth more than roundness of chest is here required,
because the deep chest admits of most expansion when the horse, in rapid
action, and the circulation proportionally quickened, needs most room to
breathe ; yet, if the breast is too wide, there will be considerable weight
thrown before, and the horse will be heavy in hand and unsafe.

^VTiether the legs are near to each other or wide apart, they should be
straight. The elbow should not have the slightest inclination inAvard or
outward. K it inclines toward the ribs, its action will be confined, and
the leg will be thrown outward ivhen in motion, and describe a curious
and awkward curve. This will give a peculiar rolHng motion, unpleasant
to the rider and unsafe to the animal. The toe will like-wise be turned
outward, which will not only prevent the foot from coming flat on the
ground in its descent, but be usually accompanied by cutting, even more
certainly than when the toe turns inward. If the elbow is turned outward
the toes will necessarily be turned inward, which is a great unsightliness,
and to a considerable degree injurious, for the weight cannot be perfectly
distributed over the foot — the bearing cannot be tme. There -n-ill also be
undue pressure on the inner quarter, a tendency to unsafeuess, and a dis-
position to splint and com. The legs should come down perpendicularly
from the elbow. If they incline backward and under the horse, there is
undue stress on the extensor muscles ; and, the legs being brought
nearer the centre of gravity, too great weight is thrown forward,
and the horse is liable to knuckle over and become unsafe. Another
very unsightly defect is that called calf-legged, when the knee, in-
stead of being straight under the ai-m, curves backwards — it is an
unsafe and useless variation of form. If the legs have a direction forward,
the flexor muscles are strained, and the action of the horse is awkward and
confined. The toe should be found precisely under the point of the shoulder.
If it is a little more forward, the horse will probably be deficient in action;
if it is more under the horse, unsafeness will be added to still greater
defect in going.

THE SHOULDER. 359

"We commence -svitli tlie upper portion, of wliicli the fore extremity, the
shoulder, is seen at G, jjage 140.

THE SHOULDEE.

The scap^da or shoulder-blade, situated forward on the side of the chest,
■is a bone of a somewhat triangular shape, with its apex or narrowest point
downward, and its broad and thin expansion upward. The point of the
shoulder hes opposite to the first and second ribs ; the hinder expansion of
the base reaches as far back as the seventh rib ; it therefore extends
obhquely along the chest. It is divided, externally, into two unequal
portions by a ridge or spine running through almost the whole of its extent,
and desig-ned, as will be presently seen, for the attachment of important
muscles. The broad or upper part, having no muscles of any consequence
attached to it, is terminated by cartilage.

The shoulder-blade is united to the chest by muscle alone. There is one
large muscle, with very remarkable tendinous fibres and of immense strength
(the serratus magnus, great saw-shaped muscle), attached to the chest,
all the true ribs, and to the upper third of the internal surface of the
shoulder-blade, and the four last cervical vertebras, and by which, assisted,
or rather strengthened, by the other muscles, the weight of the body is
supported, and the shock of the voidest leap, or the most rapid motion,
sustained. Had there been a bony union between the shoulder and the
body, the vital parts contained in the chest could not have endured the
dreadful shock which they would occasionally have experienced ; nor
could any bone have long remained whole if exposed to such violence.
The muscles within the shoulder-blade act as powerful and safe springs.
They yield, as far as necessary, to the force impressed upon them. By
their gradual yielding they destroy the violence of the shock, and then by
their elastic power, immediately gaixi their former situation,

SLANTING DIKECTION OF THE SHOULDER.

The lessening or breaking of the shock, from the weight being thro^vn
violently on the fore legs, is effected in another way. It will be observed,
that (see G and J, p. 140) the shoulder-blade and the lower bone of the
shoulder are not connected together in a sti'aight line, but form a vei'y
considerable angle with each other. This wall be more evident from the
following cut, which represents the fore and hind extremities in the situa-
tions which they occupy in the horse.

This angular construction of the limbs reminds us of a similar arrange-
ment of the springs of a carriage, and the ease of motion, and almost per-
fect freedom from jolting, which are thei'eby obtained.

It must not perhaps be said, that the form of the spring was borrowed
from this construction of the limbs of the horse, but the effect of the
carriage- spring beautifully illustrates the connection of the different bones
in the extremities of this quadruped.

The obliquity or slanting direction of the shoulder effects other very
useful purposes. That the stride in the gallop, or the space passed over
in the trot, may be extensive, it is necessary that the fore part of the animal
should be considei'ably elevated. The shoulder, by means of the muscles
which extend from it to the inferior part of the limb, is the grand agent
in effecting this. Had the bones of the shoulder been placed more
upright than we see them, they could not then have been of the length
which they now are — their connection Avith the chest could not have
been so secure — and their movements upon each other would have been

360

SLANTING DIRECTION OF THE SHOULDER.

comparatively restricted. The slightest inspection of this cut, or of that at
page 140, mil show that, just in proportion as the point of the shoulder is
brought forward and elevated, will be the forward action and elevation of
the limb, or the space passed over at every effort.

The slanting shoulder accomplishes a most useful object. The muscles
extending over the shoulder-blade to the lower bone of the shoulder are
the power by which motion is given to the whole of the limb. The extent
and energy of that motion depend much on the force exerted or the strength
of the muscle, but there are circumstances in the relative situations of the
diffei'ent bones which have far greater influence.

Let it be supposed that, by means of a lever, some one is endeavouring
to raise a certain weight.

A is a lever, resting or turning on the pivot B ; C is the weight to be
raised; and D is the power, or the situation at which the poAver is applied.
If the strength is applied in a direction perpendicular to the lever, as j-e-
presented by the line, E, the power which must be exerted can easily be
calculated.

In proportion as the distance of the power from the pivot or centre of
motion exceeds that of the weight from the same place, so will be the ad-

cSLAXTING DIRECTION OF THE SHOULDER. 361

vantage gained. The power here is twice as far from the centre as the
weight is, and therefore advantage is gained in the proportion of two to
one° or if the weight is equal to 200 lbs., a force of 100 lbs. will balance
it. K the direction in which the power is applied is altered, and it is in
that of the line F, Avill 100 lbs. effect the purpose ? No ; nothing like it.
How then, is the necessary power to be calculated ? The calculation of
the force which must be exerted in a direction intermediate between the
direction of the line E and of the lever A B, involves questions of geometry
somewhat foreign to the object of these pages. But though the exact
estimation of the exact power to be exerted at intermediate positions is a
question of some difficulty, a very little consideration will serve to show
that the force to be applied, increases with, and in a greater degree than,
the angle between the directions of E and F. For suppose the direction
of F to coincide with that of A B, then no force exerted, however great,
would support C, the whole effect being to move the lever in the direction
of its length.

Let the shoulder of the horse be considered. The point of the shoulder
— the shoulder-joint — is the pivot or centre of motion ; the leg attached
to the bone of the arm is the weight ; the shoulder-blade being more fixed,
is the part whence the power emanates, and the muscles extending from
the one to the other are the lines in which that power is exerted. These
lines approach much more nearly to a perpendicular in the obUque than
in the upright shoulder (see cut). In the upright one, the shoulder-blade
and the bone of the arm are ahnost in a straight hne, and the real action
and power of the muscles are considerably diminished. In this point of
view the obHque shoulder is most important. It not only gives exten-
sive action, but facility of action. The power of the muscles is more than
doubled by being exerted in a line approaching so much nearer to a
perpendicular.

There is yet another advantage of the obHque shoulder. The point of
the shoulder is projected forward; and therefore the pillars which support
the fore part of the horse are likewise placed proportionately forward, and
they have less weight to carry. They are exposed to less concussion, and
especially concussion in rapid action. The horse is also much safer ; for
having less Aveight situated before the pillars of support, he is not sohkely
to have the centre of gravity tlirown before and beyond them by an acci-
dental trip ; or, in other words, he is not so likely to fall ; and he rides
more pleasantly, for there is far less weight bearing on the hand of the
rider, and annoying and tiring him. It likewise unfortunately happens
that nature, as it were to supply the deficiency of action and of power in
an upright shoulder, has accumulated on it more muscle, and therefore the
upright°shoulder is proverbially thick and cloddy; and the muscles of the
breast which were designed to strengthen the attachment of the shoulders
to the chest, and to bind them together, must, when the point of the shoul-
der lies backward, and under the horse, be proportionately thickened and
strengthened, and the horse is thus still more heavy before, more unplea-
sant, and more unsafe to ride.

Then, ought every horse to have an obhque shoulder ? No. The ques-
tion has relation to those hoi-ses that are designed to ride pleasantly, or
from which extensive and rapid action is required. In them it has been
said that an oblique shoulder is indispensable: but there are others which
are seldom ridden ; whose pace is slow, and who have nothing to do but
to throw as much weight as possible into the collar. To them an upright
shoulder is an advantage, because its additional thickness gives them
additional weight to throw into the collar, which the power of their hinder
quarters is fully sufficient to accomplish ; and because the upright position

662 THE HUMERUS, OR LOWER BOXE OF THE SHOULDER

of tlie shoulder gives that direction to the collar which enables the horse
to act upon every part of it, and that inclination of the traces which will
ennble his weight or power to be most advantageously employed.

An improved breed of our heavy draught-horses has of late years been
attempted, and with much success. Sufficient uprightness of shoulder ia
retained for the purposes of draught, while a slight degree of obhquity has
materially quickened the pace and improved the appearance.

Above its junction with the humerus, or lower division of the limb, the
shoulder-blade forms Avhat is called the point of the shoulder. There is a
round blunted projection, best seen in the cut (p. 360). The neck of the
shoulder-blade there forms a shallow cavity, into which the head of the
next bone is received.

The cavity is shallow because extensive motion is required, and because
both of the bones being so moveable, and the motion of the one connected
60 much Tvith that of the other, dislocation was less likely to occur. A
capsular ligament, or one extending round the heads of both bones, con-
fines them securely together.

THE HUMEKUS, OR LOWER BONE OF THE SHOULDER.

Forming a joint with the shoulder-blade at the point of the shoulder is
the humenis. It is a short strong bone, slanting backward in an opposite
direction to the shoulder-blade. At the upper part it has a large round
head, received into the shallow cavity of the shoulder-blade, or as Mr,
Percivall has graphically described it, 'it is the segment of a globe, smooth
and pohshed, evidently for the purpose of playing Hke a spherical hinge
within the cup-like concavity occupying the place of the apex of the
scapula. There are no two bones in the skeleton whose articular connec-
tion is of a nature to admit more varied and extensive motion than exists
between the scapula and the humerus. If we attempt to hft a horse's
fore-leg, we cannot merely bring it forward and carry it backward, but we
can also to a considerable extent make it perform a sort of rotatory motion,
in consequence of the mobility existing in this joint between the socket of
the scapula and the head of the humerus.' It has several protuberances
for the insertion of muscles, and is terminated below by two condyles or
heads, which in front receive the principal bone of the arm between them
as in a groove, thus adding to the security and strength of the joint, and
limiting the action of this joint and of the limb below to mere bending and
extension, without any side motion. Farther behind, these heads receive
the elbow deep between them, in order to give more extensive action to
the arm. In a well-formed horse this bone can scarcely be too short, in
order that the fore-legs may be as forward as possible, for reasons already
stated, and because when, the lower bone of the shoulder is long, the
shoulder must be too upright. Dislocation can scarcely occur in either
of the attachments of the bone, and fracture of it is very rare. The lower
bone of the shoulder and the shoulder-blade are by horsemen confounded
too-ether, and included under the appellation of the sho^clder, and in com-
pliance with general usage we have described them as combining to form
the shoulder. This, however, is not correct, and will lead to error when
we wish to compare the fore-leg of the horse with the arm of man. In
man the arm, of which the humerus is the bone, is perfectly free and
detached from the body ; in the horse it Hes in juxtaposition with the
chest, and is included in the integument covering the body : and this fact
has led to the error so commonly made of calling that part of the fore-
leg of the liorse the arm, which is in reality the fore-arm, corresponding
with the fore-arm of man below the elbow. The knee as it is called, in

SPRAIN OF THE SHOULDER. 863

the horse, corresponds mth the human wrist ; and the joints below it with
the fingers, supposing they were all united m one.

SPRAIN OF THE SHOULDER.

These muscles are occasionally injured by some unexpected shock. Al-
though i "not more than one case in twenty is the farner nght when he
rXs of his shoulder-lameness, yet it cannot be domed, that the muse es
Sile shoulder are occasionally sprained. This is effected oftener by a shp
ot the ^^o^^^^;;^, . . aithouo-h violent exertion. The muscles are also

Z^rhardThstance, such as a tree or wall, when jumping, or running
some l^'^^ f 7'^J^'^l,^^t,le importance to be able to distmguish the
Zflder alnesrfrom iBJuries^of other parts of the fore exti^emity.
There may norbe much teideimess, or heat, or sweUing if it is a sprain
of musS deeply seated, and where these symptoms of injury are not
• TaSv Pvident If on standing before the horse, and lookmg at the
'"^n? tSwrshouldei, or rather^heir points, one should appear evi-
dently la^Jr than the other, this must not be considered as indicative o
spra n 0^0 muscles of th^ shoulder. It probably arises from bruise of
the ioiSt of the shoulder, which a shght exammation will determine

ThnviSptoms, however, of shoulder-lameness can scarcely be mistaken,
and wSweTelate them, the farmer will recollect that they very seldom
occurred when the villag; smith pointed to the shoulder as the seat of
^scase a^d punished the animal to no purpose. In spram of the shouider

t.T+n^ost min • the pain is greatest here when the weight rests on
Zl dbtXuClkmene'ss^ andfhereis apecuUar quicloiess in catching
UP thTh^b the moment the weight is thrown on it. _ This is particularly
e^dentThen the horse is going down lull, and the injured hmb bears an
evident ^^«^ ^ . wei^-ht In the stable too, when, m other cases,

the t": p'ottsTPoiecT^^^^^^ before the other, tliat foot is usually

flat on rheTound.^ In shoulder-lameness, the toe alone rests on the
Sound Th?circumstance which most of aU characteiises this afi-ection
SthJt when the foot is hfted and then brought considerably forward the
horsel^Tl express very great pain, which he will not do if the lameness is
L the foot o?theleg.^ This point has been longer dwelt upon, m order
ILt the reader may be enabled to put to the test the many cases of
Wd r-la^^^^^^ exist only in the imagination of the groom or

fc siTabi of the internal muscles of the shoulder, local measures can be
in spram 01 tu ^^ ^^ ^ ,^^^„, fomentations apphed,

:Se hoi rould ^^^^^ quiet a! possible. The injury is someWs

Joodeeplv seated for external stimulants to have veij great effect, yet an
embrocation composed of oil of turpentine, water of ammonia, and soap
embrocation compt daily after the fomentation, and afterwards

Wnent ^^^ .^^^^P^^^f ^^'^ S^ resorted to, if the lameness is not
' ''"^rvS Vhe "SrS the horJe is an inhuman practice ; it tortu.es
Ihran^al a^dTncrr^^^ the inflammation. The p.,,m, of the shoulde.
rt nSw the sk-in, and blowing into the cellular stiaicture beneath until
t^ s conSderably puffed up) is another relic of ignorance and barbanty.

864 THE ARM.

THE ARM.

The Arm, extending from tlie elbow to the knee (see K and L, p. 140,
and also cut, p. 360), consists in the young horse of two distinct bones.
The long and front bone, called the radius, is nearly straight, receiving
into its upper end the lower head of the humerus ; and the lower end
corresponding with the upper layer of the bones of the knee. The short
and hinder bone is called the ulna. It has a very long and powerful
projection, received between the heads of the humerus and called the
elbow ; it then stretches down, narrowing by degrees (see L, p. 140, and
the cut, p. 360) to below the middle of the front bone, where it terminates
in a point. The two bones are united together by cartilage and hgament ;
but these are by degrees absorbed and changed to bone, and before the
horse becomes old the whole of the arm consists of one bone only.

It will be perceived that, from the slanting direction of the humerus,
the weight of the horse, and the violence of the concussion, will be shared
between the radius and the ulna, and therefore less liable to injure either.
The circumstance, also, of so much weight and jar being communicated
to them, will account for the extensive and pecuharly strong union
between these bones in the young horse ; the speedy inflammation of
the uniting substance and absorption of it, and the substitution of bone,
and complete bony union between the radius and ulna, in the old horse.
The immense muscles that are attached to the point of the elbow likewise
render it necessary that the union between these bones should be very
strong.

The arm is a most important part of the horse, as vnU be seen when
_ we describe the muscles which belong to it. The muscles proceeding from
the shoulder-blade and the humerus, and inserted into the elbow, are the
grand agents in extending the arm, and in proportion to the power which
they exert will be the quickness and the length of the stride. The strength
of the horse, so far as his fore-Hmbs are concerned, principally resides
here. Then there will naturally be a large and muscular arm, and such a
formation of the limb, and particularly of the elbow, as vrill enable these
muscles to act with most advantage.

The principle of the lever (referred to at p. 360) is here beautifully
appHcable. The elbow-joint is the centre of motion ; the whole of the
lower part of the leg is the weight to be raised ; and the power by which
it is to be raised, in one act of progression— the extending of the Hmb, is
the muscles inserted into the elbow. In proportion as the weight is more
distant than the power from the centre of motion, as it is in the construc-
tion of this limb, so will be the greater degree of energy requisite to be
exerted. Supposing that the weight, taking the knee to be the centre of
it, is eighteen inches from the elbow joints — that the limb weighs 60 lbs.,
and that the elbow projects two inches from the joint — then an energy
equal to nine times the weight, or 540 lbs., will be needed to move and
extend the limb, because the weight is nine times farther from the centre
of motion than the power is. If in another horse the point of the elbow
projects three inches from the joint, the weight of the leg remaining the
same, only six times the force, or 360 lbs., will be required, making a
difference in, or saving of, muscular action, equal to 180 lbs. in each
extension of the arm. If a few pounds in the weight of the rider tell so
much for or against the horse in a long race, this sa^dng of power must
make an almost incalculable difference ; and^ therefore, judges of the horse
rightly attach so much importance to the depth of the elbow, or the pro-
jection of the point of the elbow from the joint.

THE ARM. . S6o

When describing the proper obhquity of the shoulder, it Avas stated that
the power was exerted with most advantage in a line perpendicuJar to tho
arm of the lever, and that the slightest deviation from that Hne was mani-
festly disadvantageous. If the reader will examine the cut, he will perceive
that muscles from the shoulder and the bone of the arm take a direction
much nearer to a perpendicular line in the long than in the short elbow,
and therefore act with proportionably greater advantage ; and if this
advantage from the direction in which the power is applied to that which
we gain from the increased length of the bone is considered, it will bo
plain that the addition of one-third to the length or projection of the
elbow would be attended bj a saving of one-half in the expenditure ol
muscular power. There is, however, a limit to this. In proportion as
the elbow is lengthened, it must move over a greater space in order to give
the requisite extension to the hmb ; and consequently the muscles which
act upon it must be lengthened, otherwise, although the action might be
easy, it would be confined. There must be harmony of proportion in the
different parts of the hmb, but a deep elbow, within a certain range, is
always connected with increased power of action.

Enlargements sometimes appear about the elbow, either the consequence
of a violent blow, or from the calkins of the shoes injuring this part when
the horse sleeps with his legs doubled ujider him. If a seton is passed
through the tumour, it will sometimes rapidly diminish, and even disap-
pear ; but if it is of considerable magnitude, the skin should be opened
along the middle of the swelling, and the tumour dissected out. The
result of these operations may be successful, but if the operator does not
repent of having performed them long before they heal again, he is a very
foi-tunate fellow. The better part of valour, however, is discretion, and in
the cases alluded to, supposing, as is generally the case, that no bad effect
beyond the eyesore accompanies it, it had better, much better, be left alone.

One of the most powerful muscles for bending the leg, the flexor hracliii,
arises from the point of the shoulder, in the form of a large round tendon,
which runs over a groove or pulley in the front of the humerus : it then
swells out into a round fleshy body, contributing materially to the bulk in
front of the arm, and is inserted into a tubercle in the inner and upper
part of the radius. It is the main muscle by which, almost alone, the
whole of the leg below the arm is bent. It acts at great disadvantage. It
is inserted into the very head of the bone of the arm, and expanded even
upon the joint. Then the power is apphed almost close to the centre ot
motion, while the weight to be raised is far distant from it. The power
is thirty times nearer the centre of motion than is the weight, and calcu-
lating as before, the weight of the arm and rest of the hmb at 60 lbs., it
must act with a force of thirty times sixty, or 1,800 lbs. In addition to
this, the line of the direction of the force strangely deviates from a per-
pendicular : the direction of the muscle is nearly the same as that of the
limb, and the mechanical disadvantage is almost incalculably great. TTe
will take it as only ten times more : then this muscle, and its feeble
coadjutors, act with a force of ten times 1,800 or 18,000 lbs. Why this
almost incredible expenditure of mtiscular power ? First, that the beauty
of the limb might be preserved, and the joint might be compact. K the
tendon had been inserted half way down the arm, the elbow-joint would
have offered a very unsightly appearance.

Beauty of form, however, is but the least result of this conformation.
Extensive and rapid motion are among the excellences of the horse. He is
valuable in proportion as he has them combined with stoutness ; and by
this conformation of the hmb could he alone obtain them. Therefore the
tendon is at first unusually strong : it plays through the natural but

366 , THK £XEE.

perfect pulley of tlie bone of the arm without friction ; the body of the
muscle is mixed with tendinous fibres, and the insertion into the fore-arm
is very extensive, lest the application of such immense force should tear
it from its adhesions. There is sufficient strength in the apparatus ; the
power may be safely applied at this mechanical disadvantage ; and it is
applied close to the joint to give an extent and rapidity of motion which
could not otherwise have been obtained, and without which the horse
would have been comparatively useless.

It is sufficiently plain that the arm should be large and muscular, other-
wise it could not discharge all these duties. Horsemen differ on a variety
of other points, but here they agree. A full and swelling fore-arm is the
characteristic of every thorough -bred horse. Whatever other good points
the animal may possess, if the arm is narrow in front and near the shoulder,
fiat on the side, and altogether deficient in muscular appearance, that horse
is radically defective. He can neither raise his knee for rapid action, nor
tlirow his legs sufficiently forward. .

The arm should like^vise be long. In proportion to the length of the
muscle is the degree of contraction of which it is capable ; and in propor-
tion also to the degree of contraction "will be the extent of motion in the
limb beneath. A racer, with a short arm, would be sadly deficient in stride;
a hunter, with the same defect, would not be able to double his legs Avell
under him in the leap. There is, however, a medium in this, and the
advantage of length in the arm will depend on the use to which the horse
is applied. The lady's horse, the cavalry horse, every horse in which
prancing action is esteemed a beauty, and in which utility is, to a certain
degree, sacrificed to appearance, must not be too long in the arm. If he is
long tliei-e, he will be proportionably short in the leg ; and although this
is an undoubted excellence, whether speed or continuance is regarded, the
short leg will not give the grand and imposing action which fashion may
require. In addition to this, a horse vrith short legs may not have quite
so easy action as another whose length is in the shank rather than in
the arrtL

THE KNEE.

The K7iee (M, p. 140, and cut p. 360), answering to the human wrist,
constitutes the joint or joints between the arm and the shank or leg ; and
is far more complicated than any joint that has been yet considered. Be-
side the lower heads of the bone of the arm, and the upper heads of the
three bones of the leg, there are no less than six other bones interposed,
arranged in two rows, three in each row, and two others, the seventh and
eighth, placed behind.

What was the intention of tliis compHcated structure ? A joint between
the elbow and the fetlock was absolutely necessary to the action of the
horse. An inflexible pillar of that length could scarcely have been lifted
from the ground, much less far enough for rapid or safe motion. It was
likewise necessary that the interposing joint should be so constituted as
to preserve this part of the limb in a straight direction, and possess suf-
ficient strength to resist all common work and accidents. Being in a
straight direction, the shock or jar between the ends of the bones of the
arm and the leg would be dreadful, and would speedily inflict irreparable
injury. The heads of all bones are covered with cartilage, in order to
protect them from injury by concussion; but this would be altogether in-
sufficient here. Six distinct bones are therefore placed here, each covered
above and below by a thick coating of cartilage, connected together by
strong ligaments, bat separated by interposed fluids and membranes. The

BROKEN KNEES. 3G7

ooncussion is thus spread over tlie whole of them, shared by tho whole of
them, and, by the pecuUarity of their connection, rendered harmless.

These six distinct bones, united to each other by numerous and powerful
ligaments, will also afford a far stronger joLut than the apposition of any
iivo bones, however perfect and strong might be the capsular ligament, or
by whatever other hgaments it might be strengthened. In addition to the
connection between the individual bones, there are three capsular liga-
ments, one extending from the radius to the first row of metacarpal bones,
the second from the first to the second row, and the third from the second
row to the metacarpal bones ; and the result of the whole is, that the
hardest work and the severest accidents produce little deformity, and no
dislocation in the knee ; nor do the shocks and jars of many a year cause
iuflammation or disease. It is an undeniable fact that such is the perfect
construction of this joint, and to so gi-eat a degree does it lessen concus-
sion, that the injuries resulting from hard work are, almost without a.n excep-
tion, found below the knee, which seems to escape the injuries of the hock.
There is a remarkable difference in the effects of work on the knee and
the hock. The knee is subject to enormous concussion, but to a certain
extent escapes those bony enlargements and inflammations of the Hgaments,
like spavins.

The seventh bone, the tra2)ezlum, so called from its quadrang-ular figure,
is placed (see M, p. 140) behind the others, and does not bear the shghtest
poi-tion of the weight. It, however, is exceedingly useful. Two of the
flexor muscles proceed from the bone of the arm, and are inserted into it;
and, being thus thrown off the limb, have a less oblique direction given
to them, and, therefore, according to the principle of the lever, act with
considerably more power. It is also useful in another way. As the ten-
dons of the various muscles descend the limbs, they are tied down, as we
have described, by strong ligamentous bands : this is particularly the case
in the neighbourhood of the joints. The use of it is evident. The extensor
tendons, which lie principally on the front of the leg, are prevented from
starting and strengthened and assisted in their action ; but the flexor
tendons, which are at the back, would be liable to friction, and their motion
impeded, if they were bound down too tightly. This projecting bone
prevents the annular or ring-like ligament from pressing too closely on tho
main flexor tendons of the foot ; and, while it leaves them room to play,
leaves room Ukewise for a synovial sheath to surround them, supplying the
coui'se of the tendons with a fluid that prevents much injurious friction.
The eighth bone, small in size, being not larger than a pea a little flattened,
is called the pisifoiin ; it is placed posteriorly at the inner and lower part
of the knee.

The knee should be broad. It should present a very considerable width,
compared with the arm above, or the shank below. In proportion to the
breadth of the knee is the space for the attachment of muscles, and for the
accumulation of hgamentous expansions and bands. In proportion to the
breadth of the knee there will be more strength ; and likewise the direction
of some muscles will be less oblique, and the course of others will be more
removed from the centre of motion, in either of which cases much power
wiU be gained.

BROKEN KNEES.

The treatment of broken knees is a subject of considerable importance,
for many horses are sadly blemished, and others are destroyed, by wounds
in the knee-joint. The horse when falling, naturally throws his knees
forward ; they receive all his weight and are sometimes very extensively
lacerated. The first thing to be done is. by very careful washing with

3G8 BROKEX KNEES.

cold water, to cleause the wound from all gravel and dirt. It must then
be ascertained whether the joint is penetrated. The grating of the probe
on one of the bones of the knee, or the depth to which the probe enters
the wound, will too plainly indicate that the joint has been opened. Should
any doubt exist, a linseed-meal poultice must be applied. This will at
least act as a fomentation to the wound, and will prevent or abate in-
flammation ; and when, twelve hours afterwards, it is taken off, the synovia
or joint-oil, in the form of a glahy, yellowish, transparent fluid, -nill be
seen, if the capsular ligament has been penetrated.

It having been ascertained that the interior of the joint is not injured,
attention must be paid to the wound that is actually made. The horse
should wear a cradle to prevent his getting at the wound. A stimulating
apph cation — turpentine and oil in equal parts is as good as any — should
be hghtly applied every day until healthy pus is produced on the wound,
and then a little friar's balsam will probably efiect a cure.

The opening of the joint, however, being ascertained, the first and
immediate care is to close the orifice ; for the fluid which separated and
lubricated the bones of the knee being suffered to escape, they will be
brought into contact with, and will rub upon, each other ; the delicate
membrane with which they are covered will be highly inflamed ; the
constitution will be speedily afiected, and a degree of fever will ensue that
will destroy the horse; while, in the meantime, of all the tortures that can
be inflicted on the poor animal, none can equal that which accompanies
inflammation of the membranes lining the joints.

The manner of closing the orifice must be left to the judgment of the
veterinaiy surgeon, who alone is capable of properly treating such a case.
It may be efi"ected by a compress enclosing the whole of the wound, and
not to be removed for many days ; or it may be attempted by the old and
generally successful method of applying the hot iron over the wound, and
particularly over the spot where the ligament appears to be lacerated.

The surgeon will find no difficulty in determining whether the sharp edge
of the common firing-iron should be used, as would be the case if the
laceration is considerable ; or whether the budding-iron should be resorted
to. After the use of the cautery, the application of a blister may, in some
cases, be serviceable. Should the joint-oil continue to flow, the iron may
be applied a second, or even a third time. By its application synovia is
coagulated, so much swelling is produced on the immediate puncture, and
in the neighbouring parts, as mechanically to close and plug up the
orifice.

If, however, the opening into the joint is extensive, and the joint-oil
continues to flow, and the horse is evidently sufiering much pain, humanity
will dictate that he should be destroyed. The case is hopeless. A high
degree of fever will ere long carry him off", or the inflammation will cause
a deposit of matter in the cavity of the joint that "will produce incurable
lameness.

The pain caused by the iron is doubtless great ; it is, however, neces-
sary : but let no reader of ' The Horse ' permit the torturing experiments
of the farrier to be tried, who will frequently inject stimulating fluids,
and even oil of vitriol, into one of the most sensible and ii'ritable cavities
in the whole frame.

A person well acquainted with the anatomy of the part will judge of
the probabihty of a favourable result, not merely by the extent, but by
the situation of the wound. If it is low down, and opposite to the bottom
row of the bones of the knee, a small opening into the joint will be easily
closed. A larger one needs not to cause despair, because there is little
motion between the lower row and the bones of the leg. If it is high up,

TITE LEG. 869

there is more danger, because there is more motion. If it is situated
opposite to the union of the two rows, the result is most to be dreaded,
because between these is the principal motion of the joint, and that
motion will not only disunite and irritate the external wound, but cause
dreadfal friction between the bones brought into actual contact with each
other, through the loss of the joint-oil.

Wlien the knee has been much lacerated, although the wound may be
healed, some blemish will remain. The extent of this blemish will depend
on that of the original wound, and more especially on the nature of the
treatment that has been adopted. Every caustic apphcation will destroy
a portion of the skin, and leave a certain mark. Should the blemish be
considerable, a mild blister may be applied over the part, after the wound
has healed. It will stimulate the hair to grow more rapidly and thickly
round the scar, and particularly haii^ of the natural colour ; and, by con-
tracting the skin, it will lessen the scar itself. Many persons have great
faith in ointments that are said to promote the growth of the hair. Kthey
have this property, it must be from their stimulating the skin in which
the roots of the hair are imbedded. These ointments usually contain a
small portion of blistering matter, in the form of turpentine, or the Spanish
fly. The common application of gunpowder and lard may, by blackening
the part, conceal the blemish, but can have no possible efiect in quickening
the growth of the hair.

In examining a horse for purchase, the knees should be very strictly
scrutinised. A small blemish on them should not induce us at once to
condemn the animal, for a bad rider or the merest accident may throw
the safest horse. A broken knee, however, is a suspicious circumstance,
and calls for the most careful observation of the make and action of the
horse. If it is accompanied by a thick and upright shoulder, and legs far
under the horse, and low slovenly action, he is unwise who does not take
the hint. This faulty conformation has produced its natural consequence.
But if the shoulder is oblique, and the pastern of the proper length and
inclination, and the fore-arm strong, the good judge -will not reject the
animal because he may have been accidentally thrown. From the com-
plicated nature of this joint, from its being placed so immediately under
the centre of gravity, and having to receive the entire weight of the horse
and rider, the concussion is so severe as frequently to produce diffuse
inflammation of the synovial and other tissues. Race-horses are very
frequently lame from diseased knees, which veterinary authors say but
little about.

The animal should have rest ; a dose of physic should be given, with
antiphlogistic applications to the knee, to be followed by counter- irritation
in the shape of a blister. Several valuable race-horses have suffered from
this disease, some of them when only two years old.

THE LEG.
The part of the limb between the knee and the fetlock consists of three
bones : a large one in front, called the cannon or shank, and two smaller or
splint bones behind (see N, p. 140). The shank-bone is rounded in front,
and flattened, or even concave, behind. It is the straightest of the long
bones, as well as the most superficially situated, for in some parts it is
covered only by the skin. The upper head is flat, with slight depres-
sions corresponding with the lower row of the bones of the knee. The
lower head is (differently and curiously formed. It resembles a double
pulley. There are three elevations ; the principal one in the centre, and
another on each side. Between them are two slight grooves, and these so
precisely correspond with deep impressions and slight prominences in the

B B

370 SPLINT.

apper head of the larger pastern, and are so enclosed and guarded by the
elevated edges of that bone, that when the shank-bone and pastern are
fitted to each other, they form a perfect hinge. They admit of the bend-
ins: and extension of the limb, but of no lateral or side motion. This ia

^ /> • ....

a circumstance of very great importance m a joint so situated, and having

the whole weight of the horse thrown upon it.

The smaller bones are placed behind the larger ones on either side. A
shght projection of the head of each can alone be seen in front. The
heads of these bones are enlarged, and receive part of the weight con-
veyed by the lower row of the bones of the knee. They are united to the
larger bone by the same kind of substance which is found in the colt be-
tween the bone of the elbow and the maiu bone of the arm ; and which is
designed, by its great elasticity, to lessen the concussion or jar when the
weight of the animal is thrown on them. They reach from one half to
two thirds of the length of the shank-bone, and, through their whole extent,
are united to it by this substance ; but, as in the elbow, from the animal
being worked too soon or too violently, bony matter is deposited in th(y
room of the Hgamentous, and a bony union takes place instead of
the natural one. There is no doubt that the ease of motion is somewhat
lessened by this substitution of bone, but other elastic principles are
probably called into more powerful action, and the value of the horse is
not perceptibly impaired, although it is hard to say what secret injury
may be done to the neighbouring joints, and the cause of which, the
lameness not appearing until a distant period, is not suspected.

In this process, however, mischief does often immediately extend to tht
neighbouring parts. The disposition to deposit bone, reaches beyond the
circumscribed space between the larger and smaller bones of the leg, and
a tumour, first callous, and afterwards bony, is found, with part of its
base resting on the line of union between these bones. This is called a

SPLINT.

The splint is generally found on the outside of the small bones, and fre-
quently on the inside of the leg. Why it should appear on the outside ot
the small bones it is difiicult to explain, except that the space between
these bones is occupied by an important mechanism, which will be
presently described ; and, as in the case of abscess, a natural tendency
was given to them to determine outward, that vital parts might not be
injured. The cause of their almost exclusive appearance on the inside
of the leg admits of easier explanation. The inner splint-bone is placed
nearer the centre of the weight of the body than the other, and, from the
nature of its connection with the bones of the knee, actually receives more
of the weight than does the outer bone, and therefore is more liable to
injury, from the jar and concussion occasioned by the action of the horse
^vith a superadded weight above, and harsh unyielding roads below, inflam-
mation is set up, and this consequent deposit of bony matter. The inner
bone receives the whole of the weight transmitted to the small bone of
the knee. It is the only support of that bone. A portion only of one of
the bones rests on the outer splint-bone, and the weight is shared between
it and the shank. In addition to this there is the absurd practice of many
smiths of raising the outer heel of the shoe to an extravagant degree,
which throws still more of the weight of the horse on the inner splintr-
bone. Cony tumours occasionally appear on other parts of the shank-bone,
being the consequence of violent blows or other external injuries, and ar^
commonly called splints.

"\Yhen the splint of either sort is forming, the horse is frequently lame^
for the periosteum or membrane covering the bone is paLnfully stretched

SPLINT. 37]

but wlien tliis membrane lias accom.inodated itself to the tumour that ex-
tended it, the lameness subsides, and altogether disappears, unless the
splint be in a situation in Avhich it interferes with the action of some ten-
don or ligament, or in the immediate neighbourhood of a joint. Pressing
upon a ligament or tendon, it may cause inflammation of those substances;
or, being close to a joint, it may interfere with its action. Splints, then,
although, strictly speaking, cause unsoundness, may not materially lessen
the action or value of the horse. The treatment of splints is exceedingly
simple. The hair should be closely shaved ofl' round the tumour, and this
followed by an active bhster.

If the splint is of recent formation, it will generally yield to this, or to
a second bhster. Should it however resist these applications, it can rarely
be advisable to cauterise the part, unless the tumour materially interferes
with the action of the suspensory hgament, or the flexor tendon ; for it
not unfrequently happens, that, although the splint may have apparently
resisted this treatment, it will afterwards, at no great distance of time,
begin rapidly to lessen, and quite disappear. There is also a natural pro-
cess by which the gi-eater part of splints disappear when the horse grows old.

The late Professor Sewell introduced a new treatment of splints described
in the eighth volume of the ' Veterinarian,' which is certainly ingenious,
and generally successful. He removes any inflammation about the part
by the use of poultices or fomentations, and then, the horse being cast, an
operation is performed ; this is commenced by pinching up the skin, im-
mediately above the bony enlargement, with the finger and thumb of the left
hand, and with the knife, or lancet, or scissors, making an orifice sufficient
to introduce a probe-pointed bistoury, with the edge on the convex side.
This is passed under the skin along the whole length of the ossification
beneath, cutting through the thickened periosteum down to the bone ;
and this being eSectually completed by drawing the knife backwards and
forwards several times, a small tape or seton is inserted, and, if the tumour
is of long standing, kept in a few days. The operation is attended with
very little pain to the animal. Perhaps slight inflammation may appear,
which subsides in a few days if fomentation is used. The inflammation
being removed, the enlargement considerably subsides, and in many cases
becomes quite absorbed. This is a great improvement on the practice,
though the efi'ect and the result are the same as in the old system formerly
adopted in many parts of the countrj', and not now obsolete where vete-
rinary assistance is not within reach, of at once cutting down on the spHnt,
when the pain is at once removed, and the wound heals readily, with Httle
or no blemish.

The inside of the leg, immediately under the knee, and extending to
the head of the inner splint-bone, is subject to injury from what is termed
the sjieedy cut. A horse with high action, and in the fast trot, violently
strikes this part, either wdth his hoof or the edge of the shoe. Horses
that are termed dancing masters from turning out their toes, are more
specially liable to this serious defect, from the peculiar position of the
limbs ine-\atably producing a crossing in their action. Sometimes bony
enlargement is the result, at others great heat and tenderness ; and the
pain from the blow seems occasionally to be so great that the horse drops as
if he were shot. The only remedy is to take care that no part of the shoe
projects beyond the foot ; and to let the inner side of the shoe — except
the country is very deep, or the horse used for hunting — have but one
nail, and that near the toe. Care should like^vise be taken that the shoe
is of equal thickness at the heel and the toe, and that the bearing is equal
on both sides. This, however, is a very serious defect, for the animal is
in danger of falling suddenly without the slightest warning, and if it

R F %

b72 PEREOSTITIS (SORE SHINS).

cannot be corrected by a change of shoeing, sbonld always be viewed witt
euspicion.

PEREOSTITIS (SCRE SHINS ).

This disease is most frequently met with amongst race-horses, and con-
sists of a difiused inflammation of the periosteum or covering of the bone,
as a result of the gi-eat amount of work upon the hard ground which
these young animals have to undergo in the process of training. The
animal is generally very lame, and will give evidence of pain on pressure
being applied to the front of the leg. Our treatment should consist in
keeping the animal at rest, the application of warm fomentations, and the
administration of a dose of physic. If the inflammation be very acute
blood may be drawn from the brachial vein. When the inflammation has
abated, the application of a gentle stimulant, such as the vinegar of can-
tharides, will be very beneficial.

SPRAIN OF THE FLEXOR TENDONS OR BACK SINEWS.

At the back of the arm are flexor muscles of great power, to bend th©
lower portions of the limb. The first is the perforated flexor muscle : thp-
reason of the name ^vill presently appear. It arises from the lower and
back part of the inner head of tlie lower bone of the shoulder, and inter-
mixed with, or rather between the origins of the muscles next to be
described, and called the perforating muscle. As it descends along the
bone of the arm it becomes tendinous ; and approaching the knee it is
bound down by bands of ligament. Proceeding from the knee it widens,
and partly wraps round the tendon of the perforating muscle, and they
run down together in contact, yet not adhering ; freely playing over each
other, and synovial fluid obviating all friction. Both of them are enclosed
in a sheath of dense cellular substance, and they are hkewise supported
by various ligamentous expansions. Near the fetlock the tendon still
farther expands, and forms a complete ring round the tendon of the per-
forating muscle. The use of this will be best explained when we aro
treating of the fetlock. 1'he perforated tendon soon afterwards divides,
and is inserted into the smaller and larger pastern-bones, and flexes or
bends them. The next is the j)erf orating flexor muscle. It has nearly the
same origin as the other, but with somewhat distinct heads. It continues
muscular farther down the arm than the perforated, and lies before it.
At the knee it passes, like the perforated, under strong ligamentary bands,
which confine it to its situation. It then becomes round, and is partly
wrapped up in the perforated, and at the fetlock is entirely surrounded
hj it. It emerges from the perforated when that tendon divides, and
continues its progress alone, after the other has inserted itself into the
pasterns, and, passing over the navicuJar-bone, terminates on the base
of the cofiin-bone, or bone of the foot.

As they descend the back part of the leg, the tendons of the per-
forated and perforating flexor muscles should be far and distinctly apart
from the shank-bone. There should be space free from thickening for
the finger and thumb on either side to be introduced between them and the
bone, and that extending from the knee to the fetlock. In a perfect leg,
and towards its lower part, there should be three distinct and perfect pro-
jections visible to the eye, as well as perceptible by the finger ; the sides
of the shank-bone being the most forward of the three ; next, the suspen-
sory ligament ; and, hindermost of all, the flexor tendons. When these
are' not to be distinctly seen or felt, or there is considerable thickening
about and between them, and the leg is round instead of flat and deep,

SPRAIN OP THE FLEXOR TENDONS OR BACK SINEWS. 37;*

fchei'e has been what is commonly, but improperly, called a sprain of the
back tendons.

These tendons are enclosed in a sheath of dense cellular substance, in
order to contine them in their situation, and to defend them from injury.
Between the tendon and the sheath there is a fluid to prevent friction ;
but when the horse has been over- worked, or put to sudden and violent
exertion, the tendon presses upon the delicate membrane lining the sheath,
and inflammation is produced. A difierent fluid is then thrown out,
which coagulates, and adhesions are formed between the tendon and the
sheath, and the motion of the limb is more difficult and painful. At other
times, from violent or long- continued exertion, some of the fibres which
confine the tendons are ruptured. A slight injury of this nature is called
a sprain of the back sinews or tendons ; and, when it is more serious, the
horse is said to have hrohen doton. The first injury is confined to inflam-
mation of the sheath, or rupture of a few of the attaching fibres. This
Luflammation, however, is often very great, the pain intense, and the lame-
ness excessive. The anguish expressed at every bending of the limb, and
the local swelling and heat, will clearly indicate the seat of injury.

In every serious affection of this kind, care should be taken that the
local inflammation does not produce general disturbance of the system ;
and therefore the horse should be bled and physicked. The bleeding may
be at the toe, by which an important local, as well as general, eS'ect will
be produced. The vessels of the heart will be relieved, while fever will
be prevented. Let not the bleeding be performed in the farrier's usual
way of first paring down the sole, and then taking out a piece of it at the
toe of the frog ; in which case a wound is made often difficult to heal, and
through which fungous granulations from the sensible parts beneath will
obstinately spring : but, after the sole has been well thinned, let a groove
be cut with the rounded head of a small drawing-knife, at the junction of
the sole and the crust. The large vein at the toe will thus be opened, or the
groove may be widened backward until it is found. When the blood begins
to appear, the vein may be more freely opened by a small lancet thrust hori-
zontally under the sole, and almost any quantity of blood may be easily
procured. The immersion of the foot in warm water vrill cause the blood
to flow more rapidly. A sufficient quantity having been withdrawn, a bit
of tow should be placed in the groove, and a patten shoe tacked on, by
which the heels may be raised from the ground, and much tension re-
moved from the sinews. The bleeding will thus be immediately stopped,
and the wound will readily heal. A full dose of physic should be given
as soon as the horse could be prepared ; and, after its operation, low and
moist diet should be persisted in till the inflammation and pain have
subsided.

As a local appHcation, no hot farrier's oil should come near the part,
but the leg should be well fomented with warm water two or three times
in the day, and an hour at each time. The beneficial efiect depends sim-
ply on the warmth of the water and the moisture. All stimulating
applications vrill infallibly aggravate the mischief.

The horse beginning to put his foot better to the ground, and to bear
pressure on the part, and the heat having disappeared, the object to bo
accomphshed is changed. Recurrence of the inflammation must be pre-
vented, the enlargement must be got rid of, and the parts must be
strengthened. The two latter purposes cannot be better efiected than by
using a bandage : one of thin flannel used to be the best, but is now
entirely superseded by the linen ones. This will sustain and sup-
port the limb, while by few means are the absorbents sooner induced to
take up the effused coagulable matter of which the swelling is composed

374 SPRALV OF THE FLEXOR TENDONS OR BACK SINEWS.

fchan by moderate pressure. The bandage sbould be kept constantly wet
with cold water — to each pint of which a quarter of a pint of spirit of
wine has been added — the skin will be slightly stimulated and contracted,
and the cold produced by the constant evaporation will tend to subdue
the remaining and deep-seated inflammation. This bandage should be
daily tightened in proportion as the parts are capable of bearing increased
pressure, and the treatment should be persisted in for a fortnight. If, at
the expiration of that period, there is no swelling, tenderness, or heat, the
horse may gradually, and very cautiously, be put to his usual work.

Should there, however, remain the slightest lameness or considerable
enlargement, the leg must be blistered, and, indeed, it would seldom be
bad practice to blister after every case of severe sprain : for the inflamma-
tion may lie deep in the sheath of the tendons, and the part once sprained
may long remain weak, and subject to renewed injury, not only from un-
usual, but even ordinary exertion. If a blister is resorted to, time should
be given for it to produce its gradual and full effect, and the horse should
be afterwards turned out for one or two months. We must here be per-
mitted to repeat that a bhster should never be used while heat or tender-
ness remains about the part, otherwise the sKghtest injury may be, and
often is, converted into incurable lameness.

Veiy severe sprains, or much oftener, sprains badly treated, will require
the appKcation of the cautery. K from long-continued inflammation the
structure of the part is materially altered, — if the swelling is becoming
callous or the skin is thickened and prevents the free motion of the limb,
no stimulus short of the hot iron will be sufficient to rouse the absorbents
to remove the injurious deposit. The principal use of firing is to rouse
the absorbents to such increased action that they shall take up and remove
the diseased thickness of the skin, and likewise the unnatural deposit in
the cellular substance beneath. The firing should be apphed in straight
lines, because the skin, contracting by the application of the cautery, and
gi-adually regaining its elastic nature, will thus form the best bandage
over the weakened part. It should likewise be as deep as it can be applied,
even occasionally penetrating the skin. Here, even more particularly
than in the bhster, time should be given for the full action of the firing.
This removal of diseased matter is a work of slow progress. Many weeks
pass away before it is perfectly accomplished ; and, after firing, the horse
should have at least a six months', and it would be better if he could be
given a twelve months' run at grass. When the animal has been set to
work in a few weeks, and the enlargement remains, or lameness returns,
the fault is to be attributed to the impatience of the owner, and not to tha
want of power in the operation or skill in the operator.

Farriers are apt to blister immediately after firing. A blister may be
useful six weeks or two months after firing, if lameness remains ; but can
never be wanted immediately after the severe operation of the cautery.
If the iron has been skilfully apphed, subsequent blistering inflicts on the
animal, already sufficiently tortured, much unnecessary and useless pain,
and should never be resorted to by him who possesses the shghtest feeUng
of humanity.

In examining a horse for purchase, the closest attention should be paid
to the appearance of these flexor tendons. If there is any thickness of
cellular substance around them, that horse has been sprained violently, or
the sprain has not been properly treated. This thickening will probably
fetter the motion of the tendon, and dispose the part to the recurrence of
inflammation and lameness. Such a horse, although at the time perfectly
free from lameness, should be regarded with suspicion, and cannot fairly

WIND-GALLS. 376

be considered as sound. He is only patched up for a while, and will pro-
bably fail at the close of the first day's hard work.

WIND-GALLS.

In the neighbourhood of the fetlock there are occasionallly found con-
siderable enlargements, oftener on the hind-leg than the fore-one, which
are denominated wind-galls. Between the tendons and other parts,
and wherever the tendons are exposed to pressure or friction, and parti-
cularly about their extremities, little bags or sacs are placed, containing,
and suiFering to ooze slowly from them, a mucous fluid to lubricate the
parts. From undue pressure, and that most frequently caused by violent
action and straining of the tendons, or often from some predisposition
about the horse, these httle sacs are injured. They take on inflammation,
and sometimes become large and indurated. There are few horses per-
fectly free from them. "When they first appear, and until the inflamma-
tion subsides, they may be accompanied by some degree of lameness ; but
otherwise, except when they attain a great size, they do not interfere with
the action of the animal, or cause any considerable unsoundness. The
farriers used to suppose that they contained wind — hence their name,
wind-galls ; and hence the practice of opening them, by which dreadful
inflammation was often produced, and many a valuable horse destroyed.
It is not uncommon for wind-galls entirely to disappear in aged horses.

The treatment for wind-galls cannot begin too soon. When they appear
bandage the limb, from the coronet to the knee, daily with wet bandages.
The wet bandage must be well wrung out of very cold water, and changed
every two, three, or four hours.

Upon every change of bandage the limb must be well hand-rubbed
with wet hands for several minutes. The width of the bandage should
not exceed three and a half inches. The wind-gall will often diminish or
disappear by this treatment, but will too frequently return when the horse
is again hardly worked. A blister is a more eSectual, but too often tem-
porary remedy : wind-galls will return with the renewal of work. Firing
is still more certain, if the tumours are sufficiently large and annoying to
justify our having recourse to measures so severe ; for it will not only
efiect the immediate absorption of the fluid, and the reduction of the
swelling, but, by contracting the skin, will act as a permanent bandage,
and therefore prevent the reappearance of the tumour. The iodine and
mercurial ointments have occasionally been used with advantage, in the
proportion of three parts of the former to two of the latter.

LESIONS OF THE SUSPENSORY LIGAMENT.

At the back of the shank just below the knee, and in the space between
the two splint-bones, behind the perforatus and perforans tendon, is found
an important hgament, admirably adapted to obviate concussion. It
originates in the head of the shank-bone, and also in the heads of the
splint-bones ; then, descending down the leg, it fills the groove between the
splint-bones, but is not attached to either of them. A httle lower do-\vn
it expands on either side, and, approaching the pasterns, bifurcates, and
the branches are inserted into two small bones found at the back of the
upper pastern, one on each side, called the sesamoid-honea. The internal
branch of this Hgament is somewhat longer than the outer, more especially
in limbs of a pecuhar formation, such, for mstance, as those in which the
ioes are everted or turned out. (See page 360.) The bones forni
a kind of joint both with the lower head of the shank-bone and the upper

376 LESIONS OF THE SUSPENSORY LIGAMENT.

pastem-bone, to both of whicb tbey are united by ligaments (t and g),
but much more closely tied to the pastern than to the shank. The flexor
tendons pass down between them through a large synovial bag, to relieve
them from the friction to which, in so confined a situation, they would be
exposed. The suspensory hgament is continued over the sesamoids, and
afterwards obliquely forward over the pastern to unite with the long ex-
tensor tendon, and downward to the perforated tendon, which it surrounds
and fixes in its place, and also to the smaller pastem-bone.

It will be easy to perceive, from this description of the situation of the
suspensory ligament, why splints placed backward on the leg are more
likely to produce lameness than those which are found on the side of it.
They may interfere with the function of this ligament, or, if they are
large, may bruise and wound it.

The principal action of these ligaments is with the sesamoid-bones.
which they seem to suspend in their places, and they are therefore called
the suspensory ligaments. The pasterns (see cut, p. 360) are united to the
shank in an oblique direction, diJFering in degree in the different breeds
of horses, and in each adapted to the purpose for which that breed was
designed. The weight falls upon the pastern in the direction of the
shank-bone, and the pastern being set on obhquely, a portion of that
weight must be communicated to the sesamoids. Much concussion is
saved by the yielding of the pasterns, in consequence of their obhque
direction ; and the concussion which would be produced by that portion
of "weight which falls on the sesamoid-bones is completely destroyed, for
there is no bone underneath to receive it. They are suspended by this
ligament — an elastic ligament, which gradually yields to, and is lengthened
by, the force impressed upon it, and in this gradual yielding and lengthen-
ing, materially lessening, or generally preventing, all painiul or dangerous
concussion.

K the ligament lengthens, the sesamoid-bones must descend when the
weight is thrown on them, and it would appear that they do so. K the
thorough-bred horse with his long pasterns is carefnUy observed as he
stands, the tuft at the fetlock will be some inches from the turf; but
when he is in rapid motion, and the weight is thrown violently on this
joint, the tuft descends and sweeps the very ground. This, however, is
from the combined action of the fetlock and pastern-joints, and the sesa-
moid-bones. The sesamoids do not actually descend ; but they revolve,
they partly turn over. The strong ligament by which they are attached
to the pastem-bone acts as a hinge, and the projecting part of the bone, to
which the suspensory hgament is united, turns round with the pressure of
the weight ; so that part of the bone becomes lower. How is it raised
again ? This ligament, exceptionally constructed as a Hgament, is elastic.
It yields to the force impressed upon it and lengthens ; but as soon as the
foot is lifted from the ground, and the weight no longer presses, and the
force is remo /ed, its elastic power is exerted, and it regains its former
dimensions, and the sesamoid-bone springs back into its place, and by
tiiat forcible return assists in raising the Limb.

Mr. Percivall very clearly desci-ibes this in his Lectures : ' Furthermore,
it seems to us tliat these elastic parts assist in the elevation of the feet
from the ground in those places in which they are called into sudden and
forcible action. The suspensory ligament, by its reaction, instantaneously
after its extension, aids the flexor muscles in bending the pastern-joints.
The astonishing activity and expedition displayed in the movements of the
race-horse at speed, seem to be i-eferable, in part, to the promptitude with
which the suspensory ligament can act before the flexor muscles are duly

THE PASTERNS. 377

pi-epared ; the latter we should say catch, as it were, and then dii-ect the
limb first snatched from the ground by the powers of elasticity.'

It may be supposed that hgaments of this character, and discharging
such functions, will occasionally be subject to injury, and principally to
strains. Mr. W. C. Spooner gives a very satisfactory account of this.
He says that ' hunters and race-horses are considerably more liable to
lesions of the suspensory Ugament than any other description of horses.
The character of these strains is very rarely so acute as that of the ten-
dons. They generally come on gradually, -with little inflammation or
lameness. Occasionally the injury is sudden and severe, but then it is
rarely confined to these ligaments, for although they may be principally
involved, the neighbouring parts are generally implicated. The usual
symptoms are a sHght enlargement and lameness at first, or there may be
the former without the latter. The enlai-gement is commonly confined to
the hgament below the place of bifiu-cation, and sometimes one division
alone is affected. With the exception of strains of the flexor sinews, this
unfits more animals for racing than any other cause — indeed horses are
rarely or never fit for the turf after the suspensory ligaments have been
diseased,' or for hunting.

The suspensory ligament is sometimes strained and even ruptured by
extraordinary exertion. The sesamoids, which in their natural state are
suspended by it, and from which function its name is derived, are in the
latter case let down, and the fetlock almost touches the ground. This is
generally mistaken for rupture of the flexor tendon ; but one circumstance
will sufficiently demonstrate that it is the suspensory hgament which is
concerned, viz., that the horse is able to bend his foot. Rupture of this
ligament is a bad, and almost desperate, case. The horse is frequently
lame for life, and never becomes perfectly sound. Keeping him altogether
quiet, bandaging the leg, and putting on a high-heeled shoe, will afibrd
the most probable means of temporary relief ; but the application of the
actual cautery, in its severest form, vnll alone give a chance of ultimate
utility.

The common injury to this Hgament is sprain, indicated by lameness
and swelHng and heat, more or less severe in proportion as the neigh-
bouring parts are involved. This will sometimes yield to rest and coohng
treatment ; but, if the case is obstinate, it will be necessary to have recourse
to the actual cautery. The hunter and the race-horse are most subject to
lesions of these ligaments ; the hunter from leaping the fence, and the
race-horse from the violent efforts which are occasionally demanded of
him. In both cases, the neighbouring parts usually share in the injury,
and a cure is rarely completely effected.

THE PASTERNS.

The upper pastern-hone (a in the first figure, and b in the second, in the
following cuts) receives the lower pulley-like head of the shank-bone,
and forms a hinge joint admitting only of bending and extension, but
not of side motion ; it likewise articulates with the sesamoid-bones.
Its lower head has two rounded protuberances, which are received
into corresponding depressions in the lower pastern. On either side
above the pastern-joint, are roughened projections, for the attachment
of very strong ligaments, both the capsular ligaments, and many cross
ligaments, which render the joint between the two pasterns sufficiently
secure.

The loioer pastern (h in the first figure, and c in the second, in the next
cut) is a short and thick bone with its lai'ger head downward. Its upper head

578

THE PASTERNS.

has two depressions to receive the protuberances on the lower head
of the upper bone, bearing some resemblance to a pulley, but not so

Fig. 1.
a The upper pastern.
h The lower pastern.
c The navicular bone.
d The coffin-bone.

Fig. 2.
a The sesamoid-bone.
b The upper pastern,
c The lower pastern.
d The navicular bone.
e The coffin-bone.

decidedlyas the lower head of the shank-bone. Itslower head resembles that
of the other pastern, and has also two prominences, somewhat resembling-
a pulley, by which it articulates with the coffin-bone ; and a depression in
front, corresponding with a projection in the coffin-bone. There are also
two slight depressions behind, receiving eminences of the navicular bone.
N"either of these joints admits of any lateral motion. The ligaments of this
joint, both the capsular and the cross ones, are, like those of the pastern-
joint, exceedingly strong. The tendon of the extensor muscle is inserted
into the forepart both of the upper and lower pastern-
bones, as well as into the upper part of the coffin-bone;
and at the back of these bones the suspensory liga-
ment is expanded and inserted, while a portion of it
goes over the fore part of the upper pastern to reach
the extensor tendon. These attachments in front of
the bones are seen in the accompanying cut, in
which a represents the lower part of the shank-
bone ; ?) the sesamoid-bones ; c the upper pastern ;
d the lower pastern ; and e the coffin-bone ; / one
of the two branches of the suspensory ligaments
going to unite with the extensor tendon ; g the long
f extensor tendon ; li ligaments connecting the two
?^C" >^ pastern-bones together ; i the lateral cartilages of
"^^^^^^-^ the foot, and h the coronary ligament.
The length and obliquity of the pastern vary in the different breeds of
horses, and on it depends the elastic action of the animal, and the easiness
of his paces. The pastern must be long in proportion to its obliquity, or
the fetlock will be too close to the ground, and, in rapid action, come vio-
lently into contact Avith it. It is necessary that the fetlock should be
elevated a certain distance from the ground, and this may be effected either
by a short and upright, or a long and slanting pastern. In proportion as
+,he pastern is oblique or slanting, two consequences will follow, less weight
will be thrown on the pastern, and more on the sesamoid, and, in that
proportion, concussion will be prevented.

Every advantage, however, has, to a certain extent, its corresponding
disadvantage. In proportion to the obliquity or slanting of the pasteim,
will be the stress on the fetlock-joint, and, therefore, the liability of that

THE FETLOCK. — GROGGINESS. 37b

joint to injury and strain ; and also the liability to sprain of the back
sinews from the increased action and play of the flexor tendons ; and
likewise to injuries of the pastem-joints, for the ligaments will be weak in
proportion to their length. The long and slanting pastern is advan-
tageous in the race-horse, from the elasticity of action and greater extent
of stride by which it is accompanied. A less degree of it is given in the
hunter, who is to unite continuance of exertion with ease of pace. For
the hackney there should be sufficient obliquity to give pleasantness of
going, but not enough to endanger continuance and strength. Experience
among horses will alone point out the most advantageous direction of the
pastern for the purpose required ; but the slightest observation will show
the necessity of considerable variety in the structure of this part. Let
the reader imagine the heavy dray-horse with his short and upright
pasterns contending in the race ; or the race-horse with his long and weak
pasterns, endeavouring to dig his toe into the ground in order to move
some heavy weight. The concussion which attends the common action of
the cart-horse is little because his movements are slow, and therefore the
upright and strong pastern is given to him, which he can force into the
ground, and on which he can tlirow the whole of his immense weight.
The oblique pastern is given to the race-horse because that alone is com-
patible with extent of stride and great speed. Except a horse for general
purposes, and particularly for riding is very hardly used, a little too much
obliquity is a far less evil than a pastern too upright. While the jolting
of the upright pastern is an insufferable nuisance to the rider, it is
mjurious and most unsafe to the horse, and produces many diseases in the
feet and legs, and particularly ringbone, ossification of the cartilages, and
contracted feet.

THE FETLOCK.

The fetlock-joint is a very complicated one, and from the stress which is
laid on it, and its being the principal seat of motion below the knee, it is
particularly subject to injuiy. There are not many cases of sprain of the
back sinew that are not accompanied by inflammation of the ligaments of
this joint ; and numerous supposed cases of sprain higher up are simple
affections of the fetlock. It requires a great deal of care, and some
experience, to disting-uish the one from the other. The heat about the
part, and the point at which the horse least endures the pressure of the
finger, will be the principal guides. Occasionally, by the application of
cooling lotions the inflammation may be subdued, but, at other times, the
horse sufiers dreadfully, and is unable to stand. A serious affection of the
fetlock-joint demands treatment more prompt and severe than that of the
sheaths of the tendons.

GEOGGINESS.

The peculiar knuckling of the fetlock-joint, and the tottering of the whole
of the fore-leg, known by the name of grogginess, and which is so often
seen in old and over-worked horses, is seldom an affection of either the
fetlock or the pastem-joints simply. Indeed it is not difficult to fix on the
particular joint ; it is that which is deep in the foot, and where the flexor
tendon runs over the navicular bone. When disease attacks these tissues,
as the fearful number of cases of navicular disease proves to be so often
the case, the horse, to avoid throwing a portion of his weight on the flexor
tendon, which in a healthy state is sc well able to receive it, goes as much
as possible on his toes, steps short and lightly, producing that appearance
of unsteadiness to which the term is applied. It may be combined with a
want of power in the ligaments of the joints generally, produced by

am CUTTING. EINGBONE.

frequent and severe sprains, or by ill-judged and cruel exertion. Professoi
Stewart very truly says, in Lis ' Stable Economy,' that, 'it is common
among all kinds of fast workers, and long journeys at a fast pace will make
almost any horse groggy. Bad shoeing and want of stable care may help
to increase, but never can alone produce grogginess. It is one of the
evils of excessive work. In the majority of cases it admits of no remedy.'

CUTTING.

The inside of the fetlock is often bruised by the shoe or the hoof of the
opposite foot. Many expedients used to be tried to remove this; the
inside heel has been raised and lowered, and the outside raised and lowered ;
and sometimes one operation has succeeded, and sometimes the contrary ;
and there was no point so involved in obscurity, or so destitute of prin-
ciples to guide the practitioner. The most successful remedy, and that
which in the great majority of cases supersedes all others, is to put on a
shoe, of equal thickness from heel to toe, and having but one nail, and that
near the toe on the inside of the shoe ; care being taken that the shoe shall
not extend beyond the edge of the crust, and that the crust shall be rasped
a little at the quarters.

There are some defects, however, in the natural form of the horse, which
are the causes of cutting, and which no contrivance will remedy ; as when
the legs are placed too near to each other, or when the feet are turned
inward or outward. A horse with these defects should be carefully
examined at the inside of the fetlock, and if there are any sore or callous
places from cutting, there will be a good reason for not purchasing the
animal. Some horses will cut only when they are fatigued or lame and
old ; many colts will cut before they arrive at their full strength.

SPRAIN OF THE COFFIN-JOINT.
The proof of this is when the lameness is sudden, and the heat and
tenderness are principally felt round the coronet. Bleeding at the toe,
physic, fomentation, and blisters are the usual means adopted. This
lameness is not easily removed, even by a bHster ; and if removed, like
sprains of the fetlock and of the back sinews, it is apt to return, and finally
produce a great deal of disorganisation and mischief in the foot. Sprain
of the coffin-joint sometimes becomes a very serious affair. Not being
always attended by any external swelhng, and being detected only by heat
round the coronet, the seat of the lameness is often overlooked by the
groom and the farrier ; and the disease is suffered to become confirmed
before its nature is discovered.

RINGBONE.

Ringbone is a deposit of bony matter on one of the pasterns, and usually
near the joint. From a disposition to spread, and at first around the
pastern-joint, which is situated just above the coronet, the disease has
acquired the name of ringbone.

Horses with short upright joints, and with small feet and high action,
are oftenest, as may be supposed, the subjects of this disease, which is the
consequence either of concussion or sprain of the pastern-joints. It is
also liereditary in its nature and may come on either with or without
inflammation.

It is more frequent in the hind limb than the fore : from the violent
action of the hind legs in propelling the horse forward, the pasterns are
more subject to ligamentary injuiy ; yet the lameness is not so great there,
because the disease is confined ])rincipally to the ligaments, and the bones
Lave not been injured by concussion : while, from the position of the fore

THE HIXD LEGS. THE IIAGNCH. ^ 3H1

ILmbs, there will generally be in them injury of the bones to be added to
that of the ligaments. In its early stage, and when recognised by a bony
enlargement on both sides of the pastern-joint, or in some few cases on one
side only, if the lameness is considerable, the animal should be kept at rest
and antiphlogistic treatment adopted. The parts should be fomented with
warm water and a dose of purgative medicine administered. When the
acute inflammation has subsided, we apply counter- irritation, either in the
shape of a blister (the biniodide of mercury and lard, in the proportion of
a di'achm of the former to one ounce of the latter, being the best), or the
actual cautery. When it comes on without lameness the latter ti-eatment
may be adopted at once.

But there is so much wear and tear in this part of the animal, that the
inflammation and the disposition to the formation of bone rapidly spread.
The pasterns tirst become connected together by bone instead of b'gament,
and thence results what is called an anchylosed or fixed joint.

CHAPTEPv XVII.

THE HIND LEGS.

THE HAUNCH.

The haunch (see 0, p. 140 ; and the cut, p. 360) is composed of tkree
bones. The first is the ilium, principally concerned in the formation of
the haunch. Its extended branches behind tlie flanks are prominent in every
horse. Wlien they are more than usually wide, the animal is said to be
ragged-hipped. A branch runs up to the spine at the commencement of
the sacral vertebraa, and here the haunch-bones are firmly united with the
bones of the spine. The ischium, or hip-bone, is behind and below the
ilium. Its tuberosities or prominences are seen under the tail (cut,
p. 140). The pubis unites with the two former below and behind. These
three bones are perfectly distinct in the fcstus, but in the horse become so
intimately united as to constitute one solid bone.

From the loins to the setting on of the tail a line should be carried on
almost straight, or drooping only in a slight degree. Thus the haunch-
bones will be most oblique, and will produce a corresponding obhquity, or
slanting direction, in the thigh-bone — a direction in which, as stated when
the fore legs were described, the muscles act with most advantage. This
direction of the quarters is characteristic of the thorough -bred horse; and
by the degree in which it is found, we judge to a considerable extent of
the breeding of the animal. If the bones at D and E, p. 140, take a some-
what arched form, as they do in the cart-horse, it is evident that the
haunch-bone 0 would be more upi-ight. The thigh-bone P would like-
wise be so. The stifle Q would not be so far under the body, and the
power of the horse would be considerably impaired. The oblique direc-
tion of the haunch and thigh-bones, produced by the straightness of the
line of the spine, does not, as is commonly supposed, afibrd increased sur-
face for the attachment of muscles, but places the muscles in a direction
to act with great advantage. It is in the advantageous direction, quite as
much as in the bulk of the muscle, that the strength of the horse consists.

It will be seen, from the different cuts, that the angles formed by the
fore and hind extremities have different directions. One points forward,

882 . THE THIGH.

and the other backward. The action of the fore legs thus least interferes
with the chest, and that of the hind legs with the belly.

Width of haunch is a point of great consequence, for it evidently
affords more room for the attachment of muscles ; and even though it
should be so wide as to subject the horse to the charge of being ragged-
hipped, and may somewhat offend the eye, it will not often be any detri-
ment to action. If the loins are broad and the horse well ribbed home,
the protuberances of the ilium can scarcely be too far apart. Many a
ragged-hipped horse has possessed both fleetness and strength, while but
few that were nan-ow across the haunch could boast of the latter quaHty.

The opening in the centre of these bones, which constitutes the passage
through which the young animal is expelled from the mother, is lai-ge in
the mare, and in every quadi'uped, because there cannot, on account of tho
form of the animal, be any danger of abortion from the weight of the
foetus pressing on the part.

The only portion of these bones exposed to injury or fracture are the
tuberosities or prominences of the haunch. A fall or blow may chip off
or disunite a portion of them, and, if so, there are no means of forcibly
bringing the disunited parts together again, and retaining them in their
natui'al position, the horse is then said to be down in the hip. The power
of nature, however, will gi-adually unite them, but that union will always
be attended by deformity and occasionally by lameness. A charge, or
very strong adhesive plaster, across the haunch may be usefal, as helping,
in some shght degree, to suppoi't the parts, and hold them together.

THE THIGH.
In the lower and lateral part of the hip-bones is a deep cavity or cup for
the reception of the head of the thigh-bone. This, the true thigh-bone, is
so concealed by thick muscles that its situation and shape are not visible
to the eye. It is therefore frequently overlooked by horsemen, who call the
next bone, extending from the stifle to the hock, the thigh. In this
respect, it is analogous to the humerus or arm-bone of the f yre leg, which,
as befoi'e mentioned, Hes as it were in the trunk, instead of being pendent
from it. So here the thigh-bone forms a portion of the trunk itself ; the
pendent portion commencing at the stifle, the joint analogous to the knee-
joint in man. Although in the movement of the hind legs there cannot
be the concussion to which the fore legs are exposed (for the weight of
the body is seldom thrown violently upon them), yet in the powerful action
of these hmbs there is much strain on the joints, and we shall, therefore,
find that there are, in all of them, admirable provisions against injury. The
head of the upper bone of the thigh is received into the deep cup mentioned
above (the acetahulum), by which it is suiTOunded on every side; this consti-
tutes the hip-joint, and dislocation from Avhich would seem almost impossible.
But the bony cup may give way ? Not so, provision is made against this.
All three of the haunch-bones unite in the formation of this cup, and
the sutures by which they are held together are of such a nature, that
generally speaking, no shock, or exertion, or accident, can disunite them.
There is even something more in order to make the attachment doubly
sure. In addition to the usual capsular and other hgaments, a singularly
strong one rises from the base of the cup, and is inserted into the head of
the thigh-bone, called the ligamentum teres or round Hgament, seeming as if
it would render separation or dislocation altogether impossible. Such,
however, is the great power of the muscles of the hind limbs, that, with
all these attachments, sprain of the ligaments of the thigh, or the round
hone, as horsemen call it, and dislocation and even fracture of it, are occa-
RJonally found.

THE STIFLE. 38a

■riie thigh-bone is both tho largest and strongest in the frame. It is
short and thick, and exhibits singular prominences and roughnesses and
hollows for the insertion of the immense muscles that belong to it. Four
prominences, in particular, called by anatomists trochanters, two on the
outside, one on the inside, and one near the head of the boue.

This bone is commonly called the Bound Bone. It has, in some rare in-
stances, been dislocated and fractm-ed. It is much oftener sprained, but
not so frequently as the groom or farrier imagines. There is nothing pe-
culiar in the lameness to detect injury of this part, except that the horse
will drag his leg after him. Injury of the round bone will be principally
discovered by heat and tendei'uess in the situation of the joint.

A part so deeply situated is treated with difficulty. Fomentations
ohould first be used to abate the inflammation, and, after that, an active
blister should be applied. Strains of this joint are not always immediately
reheved, and the muscles of the limb in some cases waste considerably :
it therefore may be necessary to repeat the bUster, while absolute rest
should accompany every stage of the treatment. It may even be requisite
to fire the part, — or, as a last resort, a charge may be placed over the joint,
and the horse turned out for two or three months.

THE STIFLE.

The inferior extremity of the femur presents a pulley-like articulatory
surface in front, over which plays the patella, and two condyles, rounded
and smooth, presenting inferiorly and posteriorly, and which are received
into sHght depressions on the upper sui-face of the lower bone, the tibia ;
while in front is a curious groove, over which plays a small irreg-ular bone,
the patella, or stifle-bone. The whole is commonly called the stifle-joint.
The patella (Q,p.l40) answers to the kneepan in the human subject. Some
of the tendons of the strongest muscles of the upper bone of the thigh are
inserted into it. This important joint is much strengthened by the proper
ligaments between the upper and lower bones, and additional ligaments
from the patella, forming altogether a very powerful union. The patella
likewise answers another and even more important purpose. The tendons
of some strong muscles are inserted into it. When these muscles are not
in action, the patella Hes in the groove which nature has contrived for it ;
but when they begin to contract, it starts from its partial hiding-place,
becomes prominent from the joint, and alters the hne of direction in which
the muscles act. It increases the angle, and thus very materially increases
the power of the muscles.

The lower bone of the thigh consists of two parts. The larger portion,
in front, extending from the stifle to the hock, is called the tibia. The
smaller bone, or fibula, behind (see R, p. 140), reaches not more than a
third of the way down. It is united to the shank-bone, like the splint-
bone, by a cartilaginous substance, which is soon changed into a bony one.
Of the use of the smaller bone we cannot speak.

The loAver bone of the thigh forms an angle with the upper one, being
the reverse of that which exists between the upper bone and the pelvis.
The object of this is twofold, — to obviate concussion, and to give a
direction to the muscles favoui'able to their powerful action ; and in pro-
portion to the acuteness of the angle, or the degree in which the stifle is
brought under the horse, will these purposes be accompHshed. There is
much diflference in this in different horses, and the construction of this
part of the frame is a matter worthy of more regard than is generally paid
to it.

This part of the thigh should likewise be long. In proportion to the

384 DISLOCATION OP THE PATELLA. TIIOROUGH-PIN.

length of the muscle is the degree of contraction of which it is capable ;
and also in proportion to the contraction of the muscle is the extent of
motion in the limb : but it is still more necessary that this part of the
thigh should have considerable muscle, in order that strength may be
added to such extent or compass of motion. Much endurance would not
be expected from a horse with a thin arm. A horse with thin and lanky
thighs will not possess the strength which considerable exertion would
sometimes require. The principal muscles of this part of the thigh are
usually somewhat prominent, and may readily be traced in the livin"-
animal.

SPRAIN OF THE STIFLE.

The stifle-joint is occasionally subject to sprain from some violent exertion
or sudden shp of the animfil. From its somewhat exposed position, it is
also liable to injury, either from the kick of another horse, or from coming
in contact with some hard substance. In these cases there will generally
be sufficient heat, tenderness, and swelling in the part to point out the
seat of injury. The animal will also step short on the affected hmb, being
unable to extend it. The treatment should consist in resting the animal,
applying warm fomentations to the part, and administering a dose of
physic. If the inflammation runs very high it may be further reHeved by
bleeding from the femoral vein. When the acute symptoms have sub-
sided, a blister may be appHed to the part.

DISLOCATION OF THE PATELLA.

This is not a very uncommon disease, and may arise from several causes,
such as a congenitally relaxed condition of the ligaments of the joints, and
weak state of the muscles. It is sometimes caused by some inordinate
force, such as muscular contraction, especially when the condyles over
which the patella plays are not sufficiently developed. Cramp and sudden
unconscious movements will also produce it, and it frequently follows de-
bilitating diseases such as influenza, fever, &c. Toung well-bred animals
are particularly subject to this affection. The symptoms are well marked
and will not easily be mistaken. The animal is quite unable to move or
extend the injured limb, and a carefal examination will generally detect
an unnatural enlargement on the outside of the stifle-joint. The aid of
the veterinaiy surgeon is here requisite ; stiU, however, an attempt
should be made to reduce the dislocation as soon as it is discovered. A
strap should be placed below the fetlock -joint, and the limb drawn forward
by an assistant as far under the abdomen as possible ; the operator should
then steadily press the patella in an inward, downward, and forward
direction, when a moderate degree of force will generally replace it. The
animal should then be tied up and not allowed to lie down for some time,
and a blister apphed over the whole surface of the joint, or in bad cases,
the actual cautery may be used. In young animals we sometimes get a
kind of partial dislocation of the patella ; it slips partly off" the condyle,
and when the animal moves a peculiar snapping sound is heard. This
is a result of a relaxed condition of the ligaments of the joint and gen-
erally disappears as the animal gets older, especially if the joint has been
repeatedly bHstered.

THOKOUGH-PIN.

Mention has been made of wind-cjaUs and their treatment. A similar

enlargement is found above the hock, between the tendons of the flexor of

the foot and the extensor of the hock. As from its situation it generally

projects on both sides of the hock, in the form of a round swelling, it

THE HOCK.

385

is called a iliorougli-pin, a. It is an indication of considerable work, but is
rarely attended by lameness. The mode of treatment must resemble that
for wind-galls, but blistering or firing should be earUer had rcsoi-t to.

THE HOCZ.

This is a most important joint, occasionally the evident, and much
offcener the unsuspected,
seat of lameness, and the
proper formation of which
is essentially connected
with the value of the
horse. It answers to the
ankle in the human being.

The inferior head of
'the tibia is formed into
two deep grooves, with
three sharpened ridges,
one separating the grooves,
and the other two consti-
tuting the sides of them.
It is seen at a in the ac-
companying cut. It rests
upon a singularly- shaped
bone, b, the astragalus,
which has two circular
risings or projections, and,
with a depression between
them, answering exactly
to the irregularities of the
tibia. At the posterior
part, its convex surface is
received into a concavity
near the base of another
bone, and with which it is
united by very strong liga-
ments. This bone, c, is
called the os calcis, or bone
of the heel, and it projects
upwards, flattened at its
sides, and receives, strongly
implanted into it, the ten-
dons of powerful muscles.
These bones rest on two
others, the os cnboides, d
(cube-formed), behind, and
the larger cuneiform or wedge-shaped bone, e, in front. The larger wedge-
shaped bone is supported by two smaller ones, /, and these two smaller
ones, and the cuboides, by the upper heads of the shank -bone, 7, and the
splint-bones, h. The cuboides is placed on the external splint-bone, and
the cannon-bone, or principal bone of the leg ; the small wedge-bone is
principally resting on the inner splint-bone, not seen in the cut; and the
middle wedge-bone on the shank-bone only, g. These bones are all
connected together by very strong ligaments, which prevent dislocation,
but allow a slight degree of motion between them, and the surfaces which
arc opposed to each other are thickly covered by elastic cartilage.

c c

^v-

386 ENLAKGEMENT OF THE HOCK.

Considering the situation and action of this joint, the weight and stress
thrown upon it must be exceedingly great, and it is necessarily liable to
much injury in rapid and powerful motion. What are the provisions to
prevent injury ? The grooved or pulley-like heads of the tibia and the
astragalus, received deeply into one another, and confined by powerful
ligaments, admitting freely of hinge-like action, but of no side motion, to
which the joint would otherwise be exposed in rapid movement, or on an
uneven surface. A shght inspection of the cut will show that the stress
or weight thi-own by the tibia, a, on the astragalus, b, does not descend,
perpendicularly, but in a slanting direction. By this, much concussion is
avoided, or more readily difiused among the different bones ; and, the joint
consisting of six bones, each of them covered with elastic cartilage, and
each admitting of a certain degree of motion, the diminished concussion is
diffused among them all, and thereby neutralised and rendered compara-
tively harmless. Each of these bones is covered not only by cartilage, but
by a membrane secreting synovia; so that, in fact, these bones are formed
into so many distinct joints, separated from each other, and thereby guarded
from injury, yet united by various ligaments — possessing altogether
sufficient motion, yet bound together so strongly as to defy dislocation.
When, however, the work which this joint has to perform, and the
thoughtlessness and cruelty with which that work is often exacted, are
considered, it will not excite any surprise if this necessarily complicated
mechanism is sometimes deranged. The hock, from its complicated struc-
ture and its work, is the principal seat of lameness behind.

ENLARGEMENT OE THE HOCK.

First, there is inflammation arising from injury, such as kicks or blows,
or spram of the hock-joint generallij, arising from sudden violent concussion,
by some check at speed, or overweight, and attended with enlargement
of the whole joint, and great tenderness and lameness. This, however,
like other diffused inflammations, is not so untractable as an intense one of
a more circumscribed nature, and by rest and fomentation, local bleeding
and physic, followed by coanter-irritation, the limb recovers its action,
and the horse becomes fit for ordinary work. When it is the result of
external violence, especially, as is frequently the case, from being kicked
by another animal, inflammation often runs very high, the hock being much
swollen and great pain and lameness present. This may go on increasing
in violence for several days, and sometimes extends to the ijiterior of the
joint, and terminates in the joint becoming open, or the pain and lameness
gi'adually decrease. The swelling, however, does not always subside, and
enlargement spread over the whole of the hock-joint sometimes remains.
The treatment should consist in keeping the animal perfectly at rest, and
the continued apphcation of fomentations of warm water for two or three
hours at a time. A dose of physic should be given, and blood may be
abstracted from the femoral vein. If the inflammation extend to the interior
of the joint and it becomes open, no treatment will do much good, as the
excessive irritation will often destroy the animal. If, however, when the
violence of the symptoms have abated, considerable enlargement of the
hock remains, it should be repeatedly blistered. A horse with an enlarged
tiock must always be regarded -with suspicion. In truth, he is unsound.
The parts, altered in structure, must be to a certain degree weakened. The
animal may discharge his usual work during a long period, without return
of lameness ; but if one of those emergencies should occur when all his
energies require to be exerted, the disorganised and weakened part will
fail. The purchase, therefore, of a horse "with enlarged hock will depend

CURB. 387

on circumstances. If lie has other excellences, he will not be uniformly
rejected ; for he may be ridden or driven moderately for many a year
without inconvenience, yet one extra hard day's work may lame him for
ever,

CUKB.

There are often injuries of particular parts of the hock-joint. Cttrb is
an affection of this kind. It is an enlargement at the back of the hock,
three or four inches below its point. It is either a strain of the ring-like
ligament which binds the tendons in their place, or of the sheath of the
tendons ; oftener, however, of the ligament than of the sheath. Any
sudden action of the limb of more than usual violence may produce it, and
therefore horses are found to ' throw out curbs ' after a hardly contested
race, an extraordinary leap, a severe gallop over heavy ground, or a
sudden check in the gallop. Yormg horses are particularly liable to it, and
horses that are cow-hocked — whose hocks and legs resemble those of the
cow, the hocks being turned inward, and the legs forming a considerable
angle outwards. This is intelligible enough ; for in hocks so formed, the
annular Hgament must be continually on the stretch, in order to confine
the tendon.

Curbs are generally accompanied by considerable lameness at their first
appearance, but the swelHug is not always great. They are best detected
hy observing the leg sideway.

The first object in attempting the cure is to abate iaflammation, and this
will be most readily accompHshed by cold evaporating lotions frequently
appHed to the part. Equal portions of spii-it of wine, water, and vinegar,
\vill afford an excellent application. It wiU be almost impossible to keep
a bandage on. If the heat and lameness are considerable, it will be
prudent to give a dose of physic ; and whether the injury is of the annular
ligament, or the sheath of the tendon, more active means will be necessary
to perfect the cure.

The heels of the shoe should for a time be raised ; by this means part of
the stress on these parts will be removed. Either a liquid bHster should
be rubbed on the part, consisting of vinegar of cantharides, and this daily
applied until some considerable swelling takes place ; or, what is the
preferable plan, the hair should be cut off, and the part bhstered with
biniodide of mercury as soon as the heat has been subdued. The blister
should be repeated until the swelHng has disappeared, and the horse goes
sound. In severe cases it will be necessary to fire ; but although a fair
trial should be given to milder measures, this will generally eflect the
most permanent cure.

There are few lamenesses in which absolute and long-continued rest is
more requisite. It leaves the parts materially weakened, and if the horse
is soon put to work again, the lameness will frequently return. No horse
that has had curbs should be put even to ordinary work in less than a
month after the apparent cure, and, even then, he should very gradually
resume his former habits.

A horse with a curb is manifestly unsound. A horse with the vestige
of curb should be regarded with much suspicion, or generally condemned
as unsound. Some judgment, however, is required to authorise a decided
opinion, for hocks, in every other respect unexceptionable, will occa-
sionally be disfigured by slight curbs, and yet they are equal to their work
and the horse remains sound for hfe ; but where the hocks are not other-
wise well formed, the case is very different — when they are round, fleshy,
full, and curved, instead of straight, clean, and thin, when, in short, they
present that imperfect development which every horseman recognises by

c c 2

308 BOG SPAVIN. BONE SPAVIN.

the term ' curby,' they tend more to render a hor&e worthless than almosl
any other defect to which he is liable.

Curb ig also an hereditary complaint, and therefore a horse that haa
once suffered from it should always be regarded with suspicion, especially
if either of the parents has exhibited it.

BOG SPAVIN.

The hock is plentifully famished with reservoirs of synovia to lubricate
the different portions of this compHcated joint. Some of these are found
on the inside of the joint. From over-exertion of the joint they become
inflamed, and considerably enlarged. They are wind-galls of the hock.
The femoral vein passes over the inside of the hock, over some of these
enlarged synovial reservoirs, and is compressed between them and the
external integument — the course of the blood is partially arrested, and a
portion of the vein below the impediment, and between it and the next
valve, is distended, and causes the soft tumour on the inside of the hock,
called Blood Spavin.

Bog spavin is a very troublesome disease, attended with no great, but
often permanent lameness, and too apt to return when the enlargement
has subsided under medical treatment. It must be considered as decided
unsoundness. In a horse for slow draught it is scarcely worth while even
to attack it. And in one destined to more rapid action, the probabihty of
a relapse should not be forgotten, when the chances of success and the
expenses of treatment are calculated.

The cause of the disease— the enlarged synovial capsule — lies deep,
and is with difficulty operated upon. Uniform pressure would sometimes
cause the absorption of the fluid contained in cysts or bags like these,
but in a joint of such extensive motion as the hock, it is difficult, or
almost impossible, to confine the pressure on the precise spot at which
it is required. Could it be made to bear on the enlarged bag, it would
likewise press on the vein, and to a greater degree hinder the passage
of the blood, and increase the dilatation below the obstruction. The old
and absurd method of passing a ligature above and below the enlarged
portion of the vein, and then dissecting it out, is not in the advanced
stage of veterinary science practised by any surgeon who regards his
reputation; it being merely the consequence, not the cause, of the disease.
The only method of relief wliich holds out any promise even of temporary
success, is exciting considerable inflammation on the skin, and thus
rousing the deeper-seated absorbents to carry away the fluid effused in
the enlarged bag. For this purpose, blisters or firing may be tried ;
but in the majority of cases the disease will bid defiance to all appKances,
or will return and baffle our hopes when we had seemed to be accompUsh-
ing our object.

A horse with bog spavin will do for ordinary work. He may draw in
a cart, or trot fairly in a lighter carriage, with little detriment to his
utility ; but he will never do for hard or rapid work.

BONE SPAVIN.

A still more formidable disease ranks under the name of Spavin, and is
an affection of the bones of the hock-joint. It has been stated that the
bcnes of the leg, the shank-bone, g, page 385, and the two small splint-
bones behind, h, support the lower layer of the bones of the hock. The
cube-bone, d, rests principally on the shank-bone, and in a sUght degree
on the outer splint-bone. The middle wedge-bone,/, rests entirely upon
thp ehaiik-bone, and the smaller wedge-bone (not seen in the cut) presses

BONE SPAVIN. 3Sy

m a very slight degree on the shank-bone, but principallj or almost
entirely on the inner splint-bone. Then the splint-bones sustain a very
unequal degree of concussion and weight. Not only is the inner one
placed more under the body and nearer the centre of gravity, but it has
almost the whole of the weight and concussion communicated to the
smaller cuneiform bone carried on to it. It is not, therefore, to be won-
dered at, that in the violent action of this joint in galloping, leaping,
hea\'y draught, and especially in young horses, and before the limbs
have become properly knit, the inner splint-bone or its ligaments, or the
substance which connects it with the shank-bone, should suffer material
iiijury.

The smith increases the tendency to this by his injudicious management
of the feet. It is a common notion that cutting, and wounds in the feet
— from one foot treading on the other — are prevented by putting on a
shoe with a calkin on the outer heel, that is, the extremity of the heel
being considerably raised from the ground. It is not unusual to see
whole teams of horses with the outer heel of the hind foot considerably
raised above the other. This unequal bearing, or distribution of the
weight, cannot fail of being injui-ious. It places an unequal strain on the
ligaments of the joints, and particularly of the hock-joint, and increases
the tendency to spavin. It, should, therefore, be considered as an axiom,
that whenever it is necessary, in order to give the animal a firmer hold
or footing — to turn up or caulk the outside heel of the shoe, the inside
should invariably be thickened to an equal extent.

The weight and concussion thus thrown on the inner splint-bone pro-
duce inflammation of the cartilaginous substance that unites it to the
shank-bone. In consequence of it, the cartilage is absorbed, and bone
deposited ; the union between the spHnt-bone and the shank becomes
bony, instead of cartilaginous ; the degree of elastic action between them
is destroyed, and there is formed a splint of the hind leg. This is uni-
formly on the inside of the hind leg, because the greatest weight and
concussion are tkrown on the inner spHnt-bones. As in the fore leg,
the disposition to form bony matter having commenced, and the cause
which produced it continuing to act, bone continues to be deposited, and
it generally appears in the form of a tumour, where the head of the
sphnt-bone is united with the shank, and in the front of that union.
This is called Bone Spavin, Inflammation of the Hgaments of any of the
small bones of the hock, proceeding to bony tumour, woiild equally class
under the name of spa\Tn ; but, commonly, the disease commences on the
precise spot that has been described.

Spavins, especially when the result of hereditary predisposition, wiU
sometimes be found of considerable size without either pain or lameness
being present during their formation. But when the result of inflamma-
tory action caused by concussion or other injury, lameness vdll nearly
always be present. "VVTien the membrane of the bone has accommodated
itself to the tumour that extended it, the lameness subsides or disappears,
or depends upon the degree in which the bony deposit interferes with the
motion of the joint. It is well known to horsemen, that many a hunter,
with spa\nn that would cause his rejection by a veterinary surgeon, stands
his work without lameness. The explanation is this ; there is no reason
why an old bony tumour on the outside of any of the bones of the hock,
free from connection with the next bone, and from any tendon, should be
at all injurious ; as, for instance, one immediately under e or/, p. 385, but
from the compHcated nature of the hock, it is diSicult, if not impossible,
to be quite sure of the place or extent, from inspection of the tumour ;
and, besides, the disposition to throw out bone beneath the tumour may

390 BONE SPAVIN.

continue and extend to the joint. The surgeon, therefore, cannot be per-
fectly safe in pronouncing a bone spavin to be of no consequence. Horses
with exceedingly large spavins are often seen that are only slightly lame,
or that merely have a stiffness in their gait at first starting, but which
gradually goes off" after a little motion ; while others, with the bony
tumour comparatively small, have the lameness so great as to destroy the
usefulness of the horse. There is always this pecuharity in the lameness
of spavin, that it abates, and sometimes disappears, on exercise ; and there-
fore, a horse with regard to which there is any suspicion of this affection
should be examined when first in the morning it is taken from the
stable.

If the spavin continues to increase, the bony deposit first spreads over
the lower wedge-bones, /, page 385, for these are nearest to its original
seat. They are capable of slight motion, and share in every action of the
joint, but their principal design is to obviate concussion. The chief
motion of the joint, and that compared with which the motion of the other
bones is scarcely to be regarded, is confined to the tibia, a, and the astra-
galus, h, and therefore stiffness rather than lameness may accompaiiy
spavin, even when it is beginning to affect the small bones of the joint.
Hence too is the advantage of these bones having each its separate liga-
ments and membranes, and constituting so many distinct joints, since
injury may happen to some of them, without the effect being propagated
to the rest. When the bony deposit continues to enlarge, and takes in
the second layer of bones — the larger wedge-bones, e — and even spreads-
to the cuboid bones on the other side, the lameness may not be very great,
because these are joints, or parts of the joints, in which the motion is
small ; but when it extends to the union of the tibia, a, and the astragalus,
b — when the joint, in which is the chief motion of the hock, is attacked
— the lameness is indeed formidable, and the horse becomes nearly or quite
useless.

Young horses are more subject to spavin than old ones, and although
the chief active agent in their production may be traced to concussion or
sprain, there cannot be a doubt but that in many instances, like curb, there
is an hereditary predisposition inherited from the parents of the animal,,
which requires but some very slight cause to hasten its formation. We
cannot too clearly impress upon all breeders of horses the great impor-
tance of gi^ing attention to this well-established fact ; and inducing them
to select only those animals to breed from that are free from those diseases,
Buch as spavin, ringbone, curb, roaring, &c. &c., which vrill assuredly
sooner or later develope themselves in their produce.

The symptoms by which we may detect spavin in its early stages, when
no bony enlargement can be felt, are somewhat obscure. There are,
however, some peculiarities in the action of the animal that will assist us.
When first brought out he goes stifHy and does not flex the hmb properly,
only getting his toe to the ground, Avhich ■will be more evident when
turning a comer ; after a little exercise the stiffness •v\ill generally dis-
appear. If, however, ulcerative disease be going on, the lameness "will
increase with motion. The horse frequently rests the affected limb in the
stable, and when made to move from one side to the other will generally
give evidence of lameness. The history of the case, and absence of any
other source of lameness, will also materially assist hi pointing out the
Beat of disease.

Spavined horses are generally capable of slow work. They are equal
to the greater part of the work of the farm, and therefore they should not
be always rejected by the small farmer, as they may generally be
procured at little piice. These horses are not only capable of agricultuv&3

BONE SrAVIX. 391

work, but tliey generally improve under it. The lameness in some degree
abates, and even the bony tumour to a certain degree diminishes. There
is sufficient moderate motion and friction of the limb to rouse the absor-
bents to action, and cause them to take up a portion of the bony matter
tlirown out, but not enough to renew or prolong inflammation. It cannot
be said that the plough affords a cxhre for spa^"in, but the spavined horse
often materially improves while working at it.

For fast work, and for work that must be regularly performed, spavined
horses are not well calculated ; for this lameness behind produces great
difficulty in rising, and the consciousness that he will not be able to rise
without painful effort occasionally prevents the horse from lying doAvn at
all ; and the animal that cannot rest well cannot long travel far or fast.

The treatment of spavin is simple enough, but far from being always
eflfectual. The owner of the horse will neither consult his own interest,
nor the dictates of humanity, if he suffers the chisel and mallet, or the
gimlet, or arsenic, to be used.

When acute inflammation is present we must endeavour to abate it by
antiphlogistic measures. The animal should be kept at rest, a high-
heeled shoe placed on the foot, and the hock frequently fomented with
warm water. A dose of physic should be given, and the animal kept on
soft diet. In extreme cases, blood may be abstracted from the femoral vein.
VThen the acute inflammation has subsided, or when we meet with it in a
chronic form, measures of considerable severity miist be resorted to. Re-
peated blisters will usually cause either the absorption of the bony deposit,
or the abatement or removal of the inflammation of the ligaments. Setona
also are at present a veiy favourite remedy: two of them inserted per.
pendicularly the whole depth of the joint, and their action kept up for
three weeks or a month, often prove efficacious ; or, as a last resource, the
heated iron must be applied.

The account of the diseases of the hock is not yet completed. It is well
known that the horse is frequently subject to lameness behind, when no
ostensible cause for it can be found, and there is no external heat or
enlargement to indicate its seat. Famers and gi'ooms pronounce these to
be aflections of the stifle, or round bone ; or, if the gait of the horse and
peculiar stiGfness of motion point out the hock as the affected part, vet
the joint may be of its natural size, and neither heat nor tenderness can be
discovered, the gToom has his 0"mi method of unravelling the mvstery.
He says that it is the beginning of spavin ; but months and years pass
away, and the spavin does not appear, and the horse is at length destroyed
as incurably lame.

Horsemen are indebted to ]\Ir. W. J. Goodwiu, late Veterinary Surgeon
to Her Majesty, for the discovery of the seat of frequent lameness behind.
The cut, p. 385, represents the two layers of small bones within the hocic
— the larger wedge-like bone, e, above ; and the middle,/, and the smaller
one below ; and it will be seen that almost the whole of the weight of the
horse, communicated by the tibia, rt, is thrown upon these bones. The
cube-bone, c?, does little more than support the point of the os calcis, c. It is
then easy to imagine that, in the concussion of hard work or rapid travel-
ing, these bones, or the deUcate and sensible membrane in which they
are wrapped, may be severely injured. Repeated dissections of horses that
have been incurably lame behind, T^nthout any external indication, during
life, to point out the place or cause of lameness, have shown that inflam-
mation of the membranes lining these joints, and secreting the fluid that
lubricates them, has taken place.

Mr. Goodwin narrates a very interesting case in corroboration of this
account of hock lameness. The author of this work had the honour of

392 CAPPED HOCK. THE HIND LEG.

being present when the examination took place. ' The patient was a
harness horse of unusual perfection, both in shape and action, and was a
great favourite with a late illustrious personage. He suddenly became
lame behind on the off-leg, but without the least accident or alteration of
structure to account for it. He was turned out for a short time, and the
lameness disappeared. He was then incautiously made to perform his
usual work, ujitil perfectly incapacitated for it by returning and aggra-
vated lameness. Suspecting the seat of lameness to be in the hock,
although the joint was perfectly unaltered in form, he was, three months
after the commencement of the lameness, bhstered and fired, and placed
either in a loose place or paddock, as circumstances seemed to require.
Not the least amendment took place at the end of six months, even in his
quiescent state, and, after twelve months from the time of his being given
up for treatment, he was destroyed, his case being naturally considered
a hopeless one. Ulceration of the synovial membrane was found, taking
its origin between the two cuneiform bones. These bones had become
carious, and the disease had gradually extended itself to other parts of the
joint. Mr. Goodwin had no doubt that if the animal had been sufiered
to work on for any greater length of time, necrosis, or anchylosis of every
bone concerned in the hock, would have been the result.' These opinions
of the seat and nature of obscure hock-lameness are now maintained by
the majority of veterinary surgeons, although some of them differ a Httle
with regard to the articulation that is generally affected, and the manner
in which the depressions or excavations on the surface of these bones is
effected.

CAPPED HOCK.

The point of the hock is sometimes swelled. A soft fluctuating tumour
appears on it.

It is seldom accompanied by lameness, and yet it is a somewhat serious
business, for it is usually produced by blows, and mostly by the injuries
which the horse inflicts upon himself in the act of kicking : therefore it
is that a horse with a capped hock is very properly regarded with a
suspicious eye. The whole of the hock should be carefully examined, in
order to discover whether there are other marks of violence, and the
previous history of the animal should be carefully enquired into. Does he
kick in harness or in the staE, or has he been lying on a thin bed, or on
no bed at all ; and thus may the hock have been bruised, and the swelling
produced ?

It is exceedingly difficult to apply a bandage over a capped hock ; and
puncturing the tumour, or passing a seton through it, would be a most
injudicious practice. Bhsters, or iodine, repeated as often as may be
necessary, are the best means to be employed. Occasionally the tumour
will spontaneously disappear ; but at other times it will attain a large size,
or assume a callous structure, that will bid defiance to all the means that
can be employed.

THE HIND LEG.
The line of direction of the legs beneath the hocks should not be
disregarded. The leg should descend perpendicularly to the fetlock. The
weio-ht and stress will thus be equally diffused, not only over the whole of
the hock, but also the pasterns and the foot. Some horses have their hocks
closer than usual to each other. The legs take a divergent direction out-
ward, and the toes also are turned outward. These horses are said to be
Cat or Coiv-hoched. They are generally supposed to possess considerable
fipeed. Perhaps they do so ; and it is thus accounted for The cow-hocked

SWELLED LEGS. 393

horse has his legs not only turned more outward, but bent more under him,
and this increases the distance between the point of the hock and the
tendons of the perforating muscle. It increases the space which is usually
occupied by the thorough-pin. Then the point of the hock, moved by the
action of the muscles, is enabled to describe a greater portion of a cii-clu ;
and in proportion to the increased space passed over by the point of the
hock, AviU the space traversed by the limb be increased, and so the stride
of the horse may be lengthened, and, thus far, his speed may be increased.
But this advantage is more than counterbalanced by many evils. This
increased contraction of the muscles is an expenditui-e of animal power ;
and, as already stated, the weight and the concussion being so unequally
distributed by this formation of the hmbs, some part must be ovei'strained
and over-worked, and injury must ensue. On this account it is that
the cow-hocked horse is more subject than others to thorough-pin and
spa\'in ; and is so disposed to curbs, that these hocks are denominated by
horsemen curhy hocks. The mischief extends even farther than this. Such
a horse is pecuHarly hable to wond-gall, sprain of the fetlock, cutting, and
knuckling.

A slight inclination to this form in a strong powerful horse may not be
very objectionable, but a horse decidedly cow-hocked should never be
selected.

SWELLED LEGS.

The fore legs, but oftener the hind ones, and especially in coarse horses,
are sometimes subject to considerable enlargement. Occasionally, when
the horse does not seem to labour ujider any other disease, and sometimes
from an apparent shifting of disease from other parts, the hinri legs
suddenly swell to an enormous degree from the hock and ahnost from tht
stifle to the fetlock, attended by a greater or less degree of heat, and
tenderness of the skin, and sometimes excessive and very peculiar lameness.
The puise likewise becomes quick and hard, and the horse evidently
labours under considerable fever. It is acute inflammation of the cellulai'
substance of the legs, and that most sudden in its attack, and most violent
in its degree, and therefore attended by the effiision of a considerable
quantity of fluid into the cellular membrane. It occurs in young horses,
especially those used for agi*icultural purposes, and in those which are
over-fed and httle exercised. Fomentation, diuretics, or purgatives, or,
if there is much fever, a moderate bleeding from the foot, wtH often
relieve the distension ahnost as suddenly as it appeared.

The kind of swelled legs most frequently occurring and most troublesome
is of a difierent nature, or rather it is most various in its kind and causes,
and consequences and mode of treatment. Sometimes the legs are filled,
but there is little lameness or inconvenience. At other times the limbs
are considerably gorged, and with a great degi-ee of stiffness and pain.
Occasionally the horse is apparently well at night, but, on the follo^\ing
morning, one or both of the legs are tremendously swollen ; and on its
being touched, the horse catches it up suddenly, and nearly falls as he does
so. In these cases, fomentations ■\\-ith flannels dipped and wyung out of
hot water, for twenty minutes, or half an hour, wiU afibrd considerable
relief, and after each fomentation some mild stimulating liniment, with
the addition of a Httle tincture of opium, will prove beneficial. Many
horses, in seemingly perfect health, if stLffered to remain several days
without exercise, will have swelled legs. K the case is neglected, ab-
scesses appear in various parts of the legs ; the heels are attacked by
grease, and, if proper measures are not adopted, the horse has an enlarged
leg for life.

394 SWELLED LEGS.

The cure, when the case has not been too long neglected, is sufficiently
plain. Physic or diuretics, or both, must be had recourse to. Mild case?
will generally yield to their influence ; but, if the animal has been neglected,
the treatment must be decisive. If the horse is in high condition thesti
should be preceded or accompanied by bleeding ; but if there are any
symptoms of debility, bleeding would only increase the want of tone in the
vessels. Not unfrequently the cause of this complaint is a want of tone
in the absorbents, their action is sluggish and inert, the quantity of fluid
secreted is merely the usual one, but its removal is not in due proportion ;
in these cases, indicated by the absence of pain or tenderness, the combi-
nation of half a tonic and half a diuretic ball, given night and morning,
will effect an equaHsed action of the exhalant and absorbent vessels. In
all cases of enlarged leg, whether from undue action of the exhalant
vessels or defective action of the absorbents, on examining the inside of
the thigh, close up to the groin, the femoral vein will be found hard and
distended, or the cluster of absorbent vessels around will be rigid and
engorged ; the one or the other evidently overloaded and unable freely to
forward their contents. The application of a stimulus to this particular
part ^vill have a remarkably good effect. A teaspoonfal of the tincture or
infusion of cantharides, carefully and gradually rubbed over a space of two
inches, vrill rouse the action of the vessels and give immediate relief.

Horses taken from grass and brought into close stables very speedily
have swelled legs, because the difference of food and increase of nutriment
rapidly increase the quantity of the circulating fluid, while the want of
exercise takes away the means by which it might be got rid of. The
remedy here is sufficiently plain. Swelled legs, however, may proceed
from general debility. They may be the consequence of starvation, or
disease that has considerably weakened the animal ; and these parts, being
farthest from the centre of circulation, are the first to show the loss of
power by the accumulation of fluid in them. Here the means of cure
would be to increase the general strength, with which the exti-emities
would sympathise. Mild diuretics and tonics would therefore be evidently
indicated.

Horses in the spring and fall are subject to swelled legs. The powers
of the constitution are principally employed in providing a new coat for
the animal, and the extremities have not their share of vital influence.
Mingled cordials and diuretics are indicated here — the diuretic to lessen
the quantity of the cu-culating fluid, and the cordial to invigorate the
frame.

Swelled legs are often teasing, in horses that are in tolerable or good
health : but where the work is somewhat irregular the cure consists in
giving more equable exercise, walking the horse out daily when the usual
work is not required, and using plenty of friction in the form of hand-
rubbing. Bandages have a greater and more durable effect, for nothing
tends more to support the capillary vessels, and rouse the action of the
absorbents, than moderate pressure. Haybands will form a good bandage
for the agricultural horse, and their effect will proba'bly be increased by
pi-eviously dipping them in water. A loose box is an invaluable adjunct
in the treatment of these cases.

THE FOOT.

»93

CHAPTER XVIIi.

THE FOOT.

A The extornal crust seen at the
quarter.

B The coronary ring.

c The little horny plates lining the
crust.

D The same continued over the
bars.

E E The two concave surfaces of
the inside of the horny frog.

F That which externally is the
cleft of the frog.

G The bars.

H The rounded part of the heels,
belonging to the frog.

This smaller cut exhibits, in as satisfactoiy a manner, the mechanism
and structure of the base of the foot.

a a The frog.
h The sole,
e c The bars.
d d The crust.

The foot is composed of the horny box that covers the extremities of
the horse, and the contents of that box. The hoof or box is composed of
the crust or wall, the coronary ring and band, the bai's, the horny laminae,
the sole, and the horny frog.

THE CRUST OR "WALL OF THE HOOP.

The crust or vail is that portion which is seen when the foot is placed
on the ground, and reaches from the termination of the hair to the ground.
It is deepest in front, where it is called the toe, measuring there about
three inches and a half in depth, shallower at the sides, which are de-
nominated the quarters, and of least extent behind, where it is seldom
more than an inch and a half in height, and is termed the heel. The crust
'in the healthy foot presents a flat and narrow surface to the ground,
ascending obliquely backwards, and possessing different degrees of obli-
quity in different horses. In a sound hoof the proper degree of obliquity
is calculated at forty-five degrees, or the fourth part of a semicircle, at
the front of the foot. When the obliquity is greater than this, it indicates
undue flatness of the sole, and the crust is said to have ' fallen in.' If the
obliquity is very much increased the sole projects, and is said to be
pumiced or convex.

If the foot is more upright, or forms a greater angle than forty-five
degrees, it indicates much contraction, and a sole too concave ; and this

«*6 THE CKUST OR WALL OF THE HOOF.

difference of obliquity is often so great, that the convexity or conca\-ity of
the sole may be affirmed without the trouble of raising the foot for the
purpose of examination.

It is of some importance to observe whether the depth of the crusi
appears rapidly or slowly to decrease from the front to the heel. If the
decrease is little, and even at the heel the crust is high and deep, this
indicates a foot liable to contraction, sand-crack, thrush, and inflammation.
The pasterns are upright, the paces of that horse are not pleasant. On
the other hand, if the crust rapidly diminishes in depth, and the heels arc
low, this is accompanied by too great slanting of the pastern, and disposi-
tion to sprain in the back sinew. The foot, generally, is liable to be weak
and flat, and bruised, and there is more tendency to the frequent, but
obscure lameness, of which there will presently be occasion to treat —
the navicular-joint disease.

The crust is composed of numerous horny fibres, connected together by
an elastic adhesive substance, and extending from the coronet to the base
of the hoof. Perhaps as good an idea of its structure as can be obtained,
is, supposing it to consist of a number of hairs or bristles connected
together by a strong glue. It differs materially in its texture, its elasticity,
its growth, and its occasional fragility, according to the state in which it
is kept, and the circumstances that are acting upon it.

The exterior wall of the hoof should be smooth and level. Protu-
berances or rings round the crust indicate that the horse has had inflam-
mation in the feet, and that to such a degree as to produce an unequal
growth of horn, and probably to leave some injurious consequences in the
intemal part of the foot. If there is a depression or hollow in the front
of the foot, it betrays a sinking of the coffin-bone, and a flat or pumiced
sole. If there is a hollow at the quarters, it is the worst symptom of bad
contraction.

The thickness of the crust, in the front of the foot, is rather more than
half an inch ; it becomes gradually thinner towards the quarters and
heels, but this often varies to a considerable extent. In some hoofs, it is
not more than half the above thickness. If however there is not, in the
majority of horses, more than half an inch for nail-hold at the toe, and
not so much at the quarters, it Will not appear surprising that these horses
are occasionally wounded in shoeing, and especially as some of them are
very unmanageable wliile undergoing this process.

While the crust becomes thinner towards both quarters, it is more so at
the inner quarter than at the outer, because more weight is thrown upon
it than upon the outer. It is more ujider the horse. It is under the inner
eplint-bone, on which so much more of the weight rests than on the
outur ; and, being thinner, it is able to expand more. Its elasticity is
called more into play, and concussion and injury are avoided. ^Vhen the
expansion of the quarters is prevented by their being nailed to an
unbending shoe, the inner quarter suffers most. Corns are oftenest found
there ; contraction begins there ; sand-crack is seated there. Nature
meant that this should be the most yielding part, in order to obviate
concussion, because on it the weight is principally tlirown, and therefore
when its power of yielding is taken away it must be the first to suffer.

A careful observer will likewise perceive that the inner quarter is
higher than the outer. WhUe it is thin to yield to the shock, its increased
surface gives it sufficient strength.

On account of its thinness, and the additional weight which it bears,
the inner heel wears away quicker than the outer ; a circumstance that
should never be forgotten by the smith. His object is to give a plane and
level bearing to the whole of the crust. To accompHsh this, it will be

THE CORONARY RING. THE BARS. 397

often scarcely necessary to remove anything from the inner heel, for this
has already been done by the wear of the foot. If he forgets this, as he
too often seems to do, and cuts away with his knife or his buttress an equal
portion all round, he leaves the inner and weaker quarter lower than
the outer; he throws an uneven bearing upon it; and produces corns
an.d sand-cracks and splints, wliich a little care and common sense might
have avoided.

THE CORONARY RING.

The crust does not vary much in thickness (see A, page 395, and b, ii)
the accompanying cut), until near the top, at the coronet, or union of th©
horn of the foot with the skin of the pasterns, where it _

rapidly gets thin. It is in a manner scooped and hollowed
out. It likewise changes its colour and consistence, and
seems almost like a continuation of the skin, but easily
separable from it by maceration or disease. This thin
part is called the coronary ring. It extends round the
upper portion of the hoofs, and receives, within it, or
covers, a thickened and bulbous prolongation of the skin,
called the coronary Ugame7it (see b, in the accompanying
cut) This prolongation of the skin — it is nothing more —
is thickly supplied with blood-vessels. It is almost a mesh of blood-vessels
connected together by fibrous texture, and many of them are employed in
secreting or forming the crust or wall of the foot. Nature has enabled
the sensitive laminse of the coffin-bone, c, which will be presently described,
to secrete a certain quantity of horn, in order to afford an immediate
defence for itself when the crust is wounded or taken away. Of this there
is proof when in sand-crack or quittor it is necessary to remove a portion
of the crust. A pellicle of horn, or of firm hard substance resembling it,
soon covers the wound ; but the crust is principally formed from this
coronary ligament. Hence it is, that in sand-crack, quittor, and other
diseases in which strips of the crust are destroyed, it is so long in being
renewed, or grotving down. It must proceed from the coronary lio-ament
and so gradually creep down the foot with the natural growth or leno-then-
ing of the horn, of which, as in the human nail, a supply is slowly given
to answer to the wear and tear of the part.

Below the coronary ligament is a tliin strip of horny matter, wlaich has
been traced to the frog, and has been supposed by some to be connected
with the support or action of that body, but which is evidently intended
to add to the security of the part on which it is found, and to bind together
those various substances which are collected at the coronet. It resembles
more than anything else, the strip of skin that surrounds the root of the
human nail, and which is placed there to strengthen the union of the nail
with the substance from which it proceeds.

THE BARS.

At the back part of the foot the wall of the hoof, instead of continuing
round and forming a circle, is suddenly bent in at each heel on itself as in
the small cut, in page 395, where d represents the base of the crust, and e
its inflection or bending at the heel. The bars are, in fact, a continuation
of the crust, forming an acute angle, and meeting at a point at the toe of
the frog — see a, b, and c, in the smaller cuts — and the inside of the bars,
like the inside of the crust — see the first and larger cut — presents a
continuance of the horny leaves, showing that it is a part of the same
substance, and helping to discharge the same office.

It needs only the slightest consideration of the cut, or of the naturni

898 THE HORXY LAMINJ^^. THE SOLE.

hoof, to show the importance of the bars. The arch which these form od
either side between the frog and the quarters, is admirably contnved both
to admit of and to hmit to its proper extent the expansion of the foot.
When the foot is placed on the ground, and the weight of the animal ia
thrown on the leaves of which mention has just been made, these arches
will shorten and widen, in order to admit of the expansion of the quarters
— the bow returning to its natural curve, and powerfiilly assisting the foot
in regaining its usual form. It can also be conceived that these bars must
form a powerful protection against tlie contraction, or wiring m, of the
quarters. A moment's inspection of the cut (see g, page 395) will show
that, if the bars are taken awaj, there will be nothing to resist the
contraction or falling in of the quarters when the foot is exposed to any
disease or bad management that would induce it to contract. One
moment's observation of them will also render evident the security which
chey afford to the frog (/), and the effectual protection which they give
to the lateral portions of the foot.

Then appears the necessity of passing Hghtly over them, and leaving
prominent, when the foot is pared for shoeing, that which so many smiths
cut perfectly away. They imagine that it gives a more open appearance
to the foot of the horse. Horses shod for the purpose of sale have usually
the bars removed with this view ; and the smiths in the neighbourhood
of the metropolis and large towns, shoeing for dealers, too often habit-
ually pursue, with regard to all their customers, the injurious practice of
removing the bars. The homy frog, deprived of its guard, will speedily
contract, and become elevated and thrushy ; and the whole of the heel,
having lost the power of resilience or reaction which the curve between
the bar c and the crust d gave it {vide p. 395, cut), will speedily fall in.

THE HOENY LAMIN^;.

The inside of the crust is covered by thin homy leaves (c, p. 395), ex-
tending: all round it, and reaching from the coronary ring to the toe.
They are about 500 in number, broadest at theii' base, and terminating in
the most delicate expansion of horn. They not a little resemble the inner
surface of a mushroom. In front they run in a direction from the coronet
to the toe, and towards the quarters they are more slanting from behind
forwards. They correspond, as will be presently shown, with similar
fleshy leaves on the surface of the coffin-bone, and form a beautiful elastic
body, by which the whole weight of the horse is supported.

THE SOLE

Is under and occupies the greater portion of the concave and elastic
surface of the foot (see b, p. 395), extending from the crust to the bars
and frog. It is not so thick as the crust, because, notwithstanding its
situation, it does not support any weight ; and because it was intended to
expand, in order to prevent concussion, when, by the descent of the bone
of the foot, pressure was made on it. It is not so brittle as the crust,
and it is more elastic. It does not consist of an equally dense fibrous
tissue as the crust, but is developed in layers or scales, which freely exfo-
liate as they accunmlate at the bottom of the foot. It is thickest at the
toe, because the first and principal stress is thrown on that part. The
coffin-bone is driven forward and downward in that direction. It is
likewise thicker where it unites with the cmst than it is towards the
centre, for a similar and evident reason, because there the weight is first
and principally thrown.

In a state of nature it is, to a certain degree, hollow. The reason of
this is plain. It is intended tc descend or yield with the Aveight of the

THE FKOG. 399

borse, and by that gradual descent or yielding most materially lessen the
Shock which would result from the sudden action of the weight of the
animal in rapid and violent exercise ; and this descent can only be given
bv a hollow sole. A flat sole, ah-eady pressing upon the ground, couid
not be brought lower; nor could the functions of the trog be then dis-
charged ; nor would the foot? have so secure a hold. Then li the sole is
naturally hollow— and hoUow it should be because it mustdescend— the
smith should not interfere with this important action. Wlien the toot
wiU bear it, he must pare out sufdcient of the horn to preserve the proper
concavity ; also a small portion at the toe and near the crust, and cutting
deeper towards the centre. He must put on a shoe which shall not,
prevent the descent of the sole, and which not only shall not press upon
it but shall leave suflacient room between it and the sole to admit ot this
descent If the sole is pressed upon by the coffin-bone durmg the length-
enincr of the elastic laminse, and the shoe will not permit its descent, the
sensftive part between the coffin-bone and the horn ^viU necessarily be
bruised and inflammation and lameness wHl ensue. It is from this cause,
that if a stone insinuates itself between the shoe and the sole, it produces
BO much lameness. Of the too great concavity of the sole, or the want
of concavity in it, we shall treat when we arrive at diseases ot the toot.

THE FROG.
In the space between the bars, and accurately fiUing it, is the frog It
is a triangular portion of horn, projecthig from the sole, almost on a level
w^th the crust, and covering and defending a soft and elastic substance
caUed the sensitive frog. It is Avide at the heels, and there extending
beyond a portion of the crust ; narromng rapidly when it begms to be
confined between the bars, and terminating m a pomt at somewhat more
than half the distance from the heel to the toe. It consists of two rounded
or projecting surfaces, \\ath a fissure or cleft between them reaching half
way down the frog, and the two portions again unitmg to form the pomt

or toe of the frog. . . n .,-,•.• ^ xl -4.

The frog is firmly united to the sole, but it is perfectly distmct ti-om it.
It is of a'^difi'erent nature, being softer, and far more elastic ; and it is
secreted from a difi"erent surface, for it is thrown out from the substance
which it covers. It is very analogous in texture to a piece of india-rubber,
being neither so fibrous as the crust, nor as scaly as the sole. _ It very
much resembles a wedge with a sharp point forwards : and it is placed
towards the back part of the foot. The foot is seldom put flush and flat
upon the ground, but in a direction downwards, yet somewhat forwards ;
then the frog evidently gives safety to the tread of the animal, for it
occasionally ploughs itself into the ground, and prevents the horse from
shpping. This is of considerable consequence, when some of the paces
of the horse are recollected, in which his heels evidently come first to the
ground, and in which the danger from sHpping would be very great.
Reference needs only be made to the gallop as illustrative of this.

The froo- being placed at, and filUng, the hinder part of the foot, dis-
charo-es a portion of the duty sustained by the crust ; for it supports the
weio-ht of the animal. It assists, 'likewise, and that to a material degree,
in the expansion of the foot. It is formed internally of two prominences
on the sides (see a, p. 395), and a cleft in the centre, presenting two con-
cavities with a sharp projection in the middle, and a gradually rounde(^
one on each side. It is also composed of a substance peculiarly flexible
and elastic. What can be so well adapted for the expansion of the foot
when a portion of the weight of the body is thrown on it ? How easUy
will these irregular sui-faces yield and spread out, and how readily return

400 THE COFFIN-BONE.

again to their xiatural state ! In tlais view, therefore, the homy frog is a
powerful agent in opening the foot ; and the diminntion of the substance
of the frog, and its elevation above the ground, are both the cause and
the consequence of contraction — the cause, as being able no longer power-
fally to act in expanding the heels, and the consequence, as obeying a law of
nature, by which that which no longer discharges its natural function ifi
gradually removed. It is, however, the cover and defence of the internal
and sensible frog, which will be presently treated of ; enough, however,
has been said to show the absurdity of the common practice of unsparingly
cutting it away. In order to discharge, in any degree, some of the offices
which we have assigned to it, and fully to discharge even one of them,
it must come in occasional contact with the ground. In the unshod horse
it is generally so ; but the additional support given by the shoes, and more
especially the hard roads over which the horse is now compelled to travel,
render this complete exposure of the frog to the ground not only ^un-
necessary, but injurious. Being of so much softer consistence than the
rest of the foot, it would be speedily worn away ; occasional pressure, how-
ever, or contact with the ground, it must have

The rough and detached parts should be cut off at each shoeing, and the
substance of the frog itself, so as to bring it just above or within the level
of the shoe. It will then, in the descent of the sole, when the weight ot
the horse is thrown upon it in the putting down of the foot, descend like-
wise, and pressing upon the gi-ouncl, do its duty ; while it will be defended
from the wear, and bruise, and injury that it would receive if it came
upon the ground with the first and full shock of the weight. This will be
the proper guide to the smith in shoeing, and to the proprietor in the
direction which he gives. The latter should often look to this, for it is a
point of very great moment. A few smiths carry the notion o^ frog pres-
sure to an absurd extent, and leave the frog beyond the level of the sole —
a practice which is dangerous in the horse of slow draught, and destruc-
tive to the hackney or the hunter ; but the majority of them err in a
contrary way, and, cutting off too much of tlie frog, lift it above the
ground, and destroy its principal use. It should be left just above, 07
witJiln the levet of the shoe.

THE COFFIN-BONE.

The interior part of the foot must now be considered. The lower
pastern, a small portion of which is contained in the horny box, has been
already described, p. 378 ; beneath it, and altogether enclosed in the
hoof, is the coffin-bone, or proper bone of the foot. It is fitted to, and
fills the forepart of the hoof, occupying about half of it. It is of a light
and spongy structure, (see J, Hg. 1, page 378), and filled with numerous
minute foramina or holes. Through these pass the blood-vessels and
nerves of the foot, which are necessarily numerous, considering the im-
portant and various secretions there carrying on, and the circulation
through the foot which could not possibly be kept up if these vessels did
not run through the substance of the bone. Considering the manner in
which this bone is enclosed in the homy box, and yet the important sur-
faces around and below it that are to be nourished with blood, the circula-
tion which is thus carried on -svithin the very body of the bone is one of
the most beautiful y)rovisions of nature that is to be found in the whole
frame. No inconvenience can ai-ise from occasional or constant pressure,
but the bone allows free passage to the blood, and protects it from every
possible obstruction.

The forepart of the coffin-bone is not only thus perforated, but it is
curiously roughened for the attachment of the numerous minute laminis

THE SENSITIVE SOLE. 401

a'bout to be described. On its upper surface it presents a concavity for
the head of the lower pastern. In front is a striking prominence, into
which is inserted tlie extensor tendon of the foot. At the back it is sloped
for articulation with the na^-icular bone, and more underneath is a depres-
sion for the reception of the perforans tendon, continued do^vn thi" leg,
passing over the navicular bone, and at length inserted into this bone.
On either side are projections, called the wings, or heels of the coffin-bone,
and at the bottom it is hollowed to answer to theconvexity of the intemal
part of the sole.

That which deserves most attention in the coffin-bone is the production
of the numerous laminae round its front and sides. Tliey are prolongations
of the thick and elastic membrane covering it, and consist of fleshy plates,
proceeding from it, running down the coffin-bone, and correspondjng with
and received between the homy leaves that line the inside of the hoof —
each homy plate being received between two sensitive plates, and vice
versa. These laminae are exceedingly sensitive and vascular, and clastic,
and, as first simply and beautifully explained by Mr. Percivall, their elas-
ticity is not inherent in the laminae, but in the substance which connects
these laminae with the coffin-bone, and which, while it contains highly
elastic properties, affijrds a convenient bed for the numerous vessels that
secrete the laminae. While the animal is at rest, the whole weight of the
horse is supported by them, and not by the sole. This extraordinary fact
has been put to the test of experiment. The sole, bars, and frog were
removed from the foot of a horse, and yet as he stood, the coffin-bone did
not protrude, or in the slightest degree descend ; but when the rapidity
with which the foot descends is added to the weight of the horse, these
little leaves, horny and fleshy, gradually lengthen, and suffer the bones to
press upon tlie sole. The sole then descends, and, in descending, expands ;
and so, by an admirable mechanism, the violent shock which would be
produced by the pressure of such a weight as that of the horse, and the
velocity with which it descends, is lessened or destroyed, and the compli-
cated apparatus of the foot remains uninjured. When the foot is ag-aiii
lifted, and the weight which pressed upon it is removed, the principle of
elasticity is called into exercise, and by it the sole resumes its concavity,
and the homy frog its folded state ; — the quarters return to their former
situation, — the leaves regain their former length, and every thing is pre
pared for a repetition of action.

THE SENSITIVE SOLE.

Between the coffin-bone and the horny sole is situated the sensitive sole,
formed above of a substance of a fibrous nature, and below of a cuticular
or skin-like substance, plentifully supplied with blood-vessels. It was
placed between the coffin-bone and the sole, by its yielding structure to
assist in preventing concussion, and also to form a supply of horn for the
sole. It extends beyond the coffin-bone, but not at all under the frog.
Leaving a space for the frog, it proceeds over the bars, and there is
covered by some lamina?, to unite with those that have been described,
page 397, as found in the bars. It is here likewise thicker, and more
elastic, and by its elasticity is evidently assisting in obviating concuvssion.
It is supplied with nervous fibres, and is highly sensitive, as the slightest
experience in horses will evince. The lameness which ensues from the
[)ressure of a stone or of the shoe on the sole is caused by inflammation of
the sensitive sole.

D D

402 THE NAVICULAR BONE.

THE SENSITIVE FEOG.
Tlie coffin-bone does not occupy more than one lialf of the hoof. The
posterior part is filled by a soft mass, which is fibrous and elastic in its
natirre. Its shape below corresponds with the cavities of the homy
frog ; in front it is attached to the inferior part of the coffin-bone ;
and farther back, it adlieres to the lower part of the cartilages ot
the heels, where they begin to form the rounded protuberances that
constitute the heel of the foot. It occupies the whole of the back
part of the foot above the homy frog and between the cartilages.
Running immediately above the frog, and along the greater part of it,
we find the perforans flexor tendon, which passes over the naviculai
bone, and is inserted into the heel of the coffin-bone.

THE NAVICULAR BONE

Is placed behind and beneath the lower pastern bone, and behind and
above the heel of the coffin-bone, so that it forms a joint with both bones,
and answers a very important office in strengthening the union between
these parts, in receiving a portion of the weight which is thrown on the
lower pastern, and in enabling the flexor tendon to act with more advan-
tage. Supposing that this tendon were inserted into the coffin-bone
without the intervention of the navicular bone, it would act at great
mechanical disadvantage in bending the pastern, for it is inserted near
the end of the coffin-bone, and the weight, concentrated about the middle
of the bone, is far off, and requires a great power to raise it ; but when
the navicular bone is interposed, the centre of motion becomes the
posterior edge of that bone, where it is in contact with the tendon, and
then it will be seen that the distance of the power from the centre of
motion is nearly or quite the same as the weight, and very great expen-
diture of muscular power will be saved. In the one case, the power must
be at least double the weight, in the other they will be nearly equal ; and
also the angle at which the tendon is inserted is considerably more advan-
tageous. Perhaps this is the principal use of the navicular bone ; yet at
the same time we are aware of the benefit which accrues from a portion
of the -weight being taken from the coffin-bone, and thrown on the navi-
cular bone, and from it on the tendon, and the tendon resting on the
elastic frog underneath. The navicular bone is sometimes, but inaccu-
rately, said to descend with the motion of the foot. It does not do that.
It cannot ; for it is connected both with the pastern and cofiin-bonea by
inelastic ligaments. When, however, the homy bulb, with its tuft of hair
at the back of an obhque fetlock, descends in the rapid gallop, and almost
touches the ground, the navicular bone, being as it were a part of the
pastei-n, must descend with it. With this exception, both in the extend-
ing and the bending of the pastern, the navicular bone turns or rolls upon
the other bones rather than descends or ascends, and with this remarkable
advantage, that when the pastern is extended, the navicular bone is placed
in that situation which enables the flexor tendon to act with greatest ad-
vantnge in again bending the foot.

THE CARTILAGES OP THE FOOT,
There is a groove extending along the upper part of the coffin-bone and
on either side, except at the protuberance which receives the extensor
tendon, occupied by cartilage, which, like the cnist, is convex outwards
and concave inwards. It extends to the very post3rior part of the foot,
rising about the quarters half an inch or more aho^ 3 the hoof, and dimi-

THE DISEASES OF THE FOOT. 403

nisliing in lieiglit forward and backward. These cartilages occupy a con-
siderable portion of the foot, and extend behind the coffin-bone. Thej
are held in their situation not merely by this groove, but by other con-
nections with the coffin-bone, the na\acular bone, and the flexor tendon,
and are thus perfectly secured.

Between these cartilages is the sensitive frog, filling up the whole of the
space, and answering several important purposes, being an elastic bed on
which the na,vicular bone and the tendon can play with security, and
without concussion or shock, by which all concussion communicated to
the cartilages of the foot is destroyed — by which these cartilages are kept
asunder, and the expansion of the upper part of the foot preserved. As
the descent of the sole increases the mdtli of the lower part of the foot,
so the elevation of the frog, a portion of it being pressed upward and
outward by the action of the navicular bone and tendon, causes the
expansion of its upper part. Precisely as the strong muscle peculiar to
quadrupeds at the back of the eye, being forcibly contracted, presses
upon the fatty matter in which the ejo is imbedded, which may be dis-
placed but cannot be squeezed into less compass, and which, bein"- forced
towards the inner corner of the eye, drives before it that important and
beautiful mechanism the haw, so the elastic and yielding substance the
frog, being pressed upon by the navicular bone and the tendon, and the
pastern, and refusing to be condensed icto less compass, forces itself out
on either side of them, and expands the lateral cartilages, which again, by
their inherent elasticity, recur to their former situation, when the frog no
longer presses them outward. It appears, that by a different mechanism,
but both equally admirable, and referable to the same principle, viz. that
of elasticity, the expansion of the upper and lower portions of the hoof is
effected, the one by the descent of the sole, the other by the compression
and rising of the frog.

It is this expansion upward which contributes principally to the preser-
vation of the usefulness of the horse, when our destructive methods of
shoeing are so calculated to destroy the expansion beneath. In draught
horses, inflammation is occasionally produced, which terminates in the
■cartilages being changed into bony matter.

CHAPTER XIX.

THE DISEASES OF THE FOOT.

Of these there is a long list. That will not be wondered at by those who
have duly considered the complicated structure of the foot, the duty it has
to perform, and the injuries to which it is exposed. It -wall be proper to
commence with that which is the cause of many other diseases of the foot,
and connected with almost all,

INFLAMMATION OP THE FOOT, OR ACUTE FOUNDEK,
The sensitive laminte, on the front and sides of the coffin-bone, being
replete with blood-vessels, are, like every other vascular part, liable to
inflammation. Laminitis, or inflammation of the laminae of the feet, is
most prevalent amongst the heavier breeds of horses, especially when the
feet are flat and weak. It may be produced by several causes, but v, e most
often meet with it as a result of rapid and long-continued exertion on hard
ground. When we reflect how the feet have been battered and brui/^ed

DD 2

404 INFLAMMATION OF THE FOOT, OE, ACUTE FOUNDER.

in a hard day's journey, it will be no wonder tliat inflammation of the
overworked parts sliould sometimes ensue. It may also be caused by
keeping the animal in a fixed standing position for a lengtli of time ; by
tbese means the laminae are kept constantly on the stretch ; hence its fre-
quency amongst horses as the result of a prolonged voyage on board a
ship.

Sometimes there is a sudden metastasis — change of inflammation from
one organ to another. A horse may have laboured for several d;iys under
evident inflammation of the lungs or pleura ; all at once that will subside,
and the disease will appear in the feet, or inflammation of the feet may
follow in cases also of superpurgation or excessive purgiiig, whether from
physic or irritation of the mucous membrane of the bowels. To this
latter cause may perhaps be attributed the inflammation of the feet, which
frequently follows when animals have been allowed new corn, especially
wheat.

To the attentive observer the symptoms are clearly marked, and yet
there is no disease so often overlooked by the groom and the carter, and
even by the veterinary surgeon. The disease may assume an acute or a
chronic form. The earliest symptoms of fever in the feet are fidgetiness,
fi-equent shifting of the fore-legs, but no pawing, much less any attempts
to reach the belly with the hind- feet. K only the fore-feet be afiected,
he will throw them very forward, and rest on the heels. If it attack all
the feet, the hind-legs will be placed under the belly and the fore-feet
considerably advanced. The pulse is quickened, the flanks heaving, the
nostrils red, the body covered vnih perspiration, and the horse, by his
anxious countenance, indicating great pain. Presently he looks about his
litter, as if preparmg to lie down, but he does not do so immediately ; he
continues to shift his weight fi'om foot to foot ; he is afraid to di-aw his
feet sufficiently under him for the purpose of lying down ; but at length
he di'ops. The circumstance of his lying down at an early period of the
disease will suflBciently distinguish inflammation of the feet from that of
the lungs, in which the hoi'se obstinately persists in standing until he
drops from mere exhaustion ; but the distinction is by no means so clear
when, as frequently happens, he obstinately stands until he dj'ops. The
same fixedness of hmb, the same disinclination to move, as is perceptible
in severe cases of inflammation of the lungs, will be found to exist
occasionally in this disease, and it is the fact of the attention not having
been attracted to the feet, that has led to the fallacious opinion, that the
disease has dropped from the lungs to the feet, when in fact it has been in
the feet from the very commencement — the hurried and laboured respi-
ration being sympathetic with and dependent on the pain in the feet, not
on inflammation of the lungs themselves. His quietness when down will
distinguish it from colic or inflammation of the bowels, in both of which
the horse is up and down, and frequently rolling and kicking when down.
WTien the grievance is in the feet, the horse experiences so much relief,
fi^om getting rid of the weight painfnlly distending the inflamed and
highly sensitive laminae, that he is glad to he as long as he can.

If the feet are now examined, they will be found evidently hot. The
patient will express pain if they are slightly rapped with a hammer, and
the artery at the pastern ^vill throb violently. No great time will now
pass, if the disease is sufiered to pursue its course, before he will be per-
fectly unable to rise ; or, if he is forced to get up, and one foot is lifted,
he "vvill stand with difficulty on the other, or perhaps di'op at once fr-om
intensity of pain.

The treatment will resemble that of other inflammations, with such
differences as the situation of the disease may suggest. Bleeding is in-

CHROMC LAillNlTIS. PLMICED rEET. 405

dispensable ; and that to its fullest extent. K the disease is confined to
the fore-feet, blood should be freelj abstracted from the brachial veins,
but if all the feet be implicated, six or eight quarts of blood should be
taken as soon as possible from the jugular vein. The shoes should be at
once removed, and poultices of linseed meal or bran, made very soft with
warm water, should cover the whole of the foot and pastern, and be fre-
quently renewed, wliich -n-ill promote evaporation from the neighbouring
parts, and possibly through the pores of the hoof, and, by softening and
rendering supple the hoof, will relieve its painful pressure on the swelled
and tender parts beneath. There used to be occasional doubt as to the
administration of physic, from fear of metastasis of inflammation, but
the fear is groundless ; a full dose of physic may be given immediately
after the bleeding.

The horse should be kept on mash diet, unless green meat can be pro-
cured for him ; and even that should not be given too liberally, nor should
he, in the slightest degree, be coaxed to eat. When he appears to be re-
covering, his getting on his feet should not be hurried. It should be left
perfectly to liis own discretion ; nor should even walking exercise be per-
mitted until he stands firm on his feet. "\Mien that is the case, a bhster
should be applied to the coronets, and when the season will permit, two
months' run at grass will be very serviceable.

It is not always, however, or often, that inflammation of the feet is thus
easily subdued ; and, if it is subdued, it sometimes leaves after it some
feai-ful consequences. The loss of the hoof is not an unfrequent one.
About six or seven days from the first attack, a shght separation w-ill
begin to appear between the coronet and the hoof. This should be care-
fully attended to, for the separated horn will never again unite with the
parts beneath, but the disunion will extend, and the hoof will be lost. It
is true that a new hoof will be formed, but it will be smaller in size and
weaker tluan the first, and will rarely stand hard work. WTien this sepa-
ration is observed, it will be a matter of calculation with the proprietor of
the horse whether he will suflfer the medical treatment to proceed.

In other cases, a separation will take place between the sensitive and
horny lamiufe, by which the coffin-bone is let down, producing what is
called pumiced feet.

CHRONIC LAMINITIS.

This is a milder form of the preceding disease. There is lameness
but it is not so severe as in the former case. The horse stands as usual.
The crust is warm, and that warmth is constant, but it is not often probably
greater than in a state of health. The surest sj-mptom is the action of
the animal. It is diametrically opposite to that in the na\'icular disease.
The horse throws as much of his weight as he can on the posterior parts
of his feet.

The treatment should be similar to that recommended for the acute
disease — blood-letting, cataplasms, fomentations, and blisters, and the last
much sooner and much more frequently than in the foiTuer disease.

PUMICED FEET.
The sensitive and homy laminaa which were partially separated during
the intensity of the inflammation of founder, will never perfectly unite
again, or will have lost much of their elasticity, and the coffin-bone no
longer fully suppoi'ted by them, presses upon the sole, and the sole 'be-
comes flattened, or convex, from this unnatural weight, and the horse
acquires a pumiced foot. This will also happen when the animal is used
too soon after an attack of uiflammation of the feet, and before the

40b SEEDY TOE.

laminEe have regained sufficient strength to support the weight of the
horse, or to contract again by their elastic power when they have yielded
to the weight. When the coffiji-bone is thus throwni on the sole, and
renders it pumiced, the crust at the front of the hoof will *■ fall in,^
leaving a kind of hollow about the middle of it.

Pumiced feet, especially in horses Vith large wide feet, are frequently
produced without this acute iaflammation. Undue work, and especially
mach battering of the feet on the pavement, will extend and sprain these
laminae so much, that they will not have the power to contract, and thus
the coffin-bone will be thrown backward on the sole. A very important
law of nature vnll unfortunately soon be active here. When pressure is
apphed to any part, the absorbents become busy in removing it ; so, when
the coffin-bone begins to press upon the sole, the sole becomes thin from
the increased wea^r and tear to which it is subjected by contact -with the
ground, and also because these absoi-bents are rapidly taking it away.

This is one of the diseases of the feet for which there is no cure, and
used to be the common residt of fever in the feet ; it is therefore a point
of primary importance, to have all the available remedies applied before
this irremediable mischief occurs, for then the result is inevitable. No
skill is competent to effect a reunion between the separated sensitive and
horny laminje, or to restore to them the strength and elasticity of which
they have been deprived, or to take up that hard homy substance which
speedily fills the space between the crust and the receding coffin-bone.
Some efforts have been made to palhate the disease, but they have been
only to a slight degree successful. If horses, on the first appearance oi
flat feet, were turned out in a dry place, or put into a box for two or three
months, sufficient stress would not be thrown on the laminae to increase
the evil, and time might be given for the gi'owth of horn enough in the
sole to support the coffin-bone ; yet it is much to be doubted whether
these horses would ever be useful, even for ordinary purposes. The slowest
work required of them would drive the coffin-bone on the sole, and the
projection would gradually reappear, for no power and no length of time
can again unite the separated leaves of the coffin-bone and the hoof. All
that can be done in the way of palliation is by shoeing. Nothing must
press on the projecting and pumiced part. If the projection is not con-
siderable, a thick bar shoe is the best thing that can be apphed ; but
should the sole have much descended, a shoe with a very wide web, be-
velled off so as not to press on the part, may be used. These means of
rehef, however, are only temporary, the disease will proceed ; and, at no
great distance of time, the horse will be useless.

The occasional removal of the shoe, and compelhng the horse to stand
for a while on the crust and lamina), has been resorted to. The bar shoe
and the leathern sole, and occasional dressing with tar ointment, have had
their advocates, and it is sufficiently plain that the p"miced foot should
have plenty of cover.

SEEDY TOE.
This consists in a separation between the fibres of the sensitive and
horny laminse, producing a hollow space between them. The sensitive
lamina;, however, ai'e not exposed, but covered by a plastic horny ma-
terial. It is sometimes met with in both the fore and hind-feet, but more
frequently in the former. It is a species of dry rot, and generally caused
by some ^aolence to the upper jiart of the hoof by which it is rendered
unnaturally brittle. There is usually a bulging out of some part of the
wall of the foot, which, on being rapped, sounds hollow, and on the
shoe being removed and the part examined, a space of greater or less

CONTRACTION. 407

extent ■will be foimd to exist between the lioof and internal structures of
the foot, generally commencing at the toe and extending upwards. ' In
its early stages, it is not generally attended with lameness, but as the
disease progresses, we frequently get considerable pain and lameness.
Our treatment, when the disease has not made much progress, should
consist in cleaning out the hollow, and filling the space with pitch com-
bined with tar, placing a leather sole on the foot, and taking care to avoid
driving the nails near the diseased part. K the animal can be spared, a
bHster should be apph'ed to the coronet. Should the disease have far
advanced, and considerable lameness be present, the detached wall form-
ing the boundary of the hollow, must all be cut away and tar dressing
applied to the surface. A bar shoe should be placed on the foot, and the
coronet well bhstered. The animal should be thrown out of work, and
the blister several times repeated. The object of the blister will be to
stimulate the secretion of new horn, which, under any circumstances, will
be found a very slow process.

CONTRACTION.

The cut, page 395, will give a fair idea of the young healthy foot,
approaching nearly to a circle, and of which the quarters form the widest
part, and the inner quarter (this is the near foot) rather wider than the
outer. This shape is not long preserved in many horses, biit the foot
increases in length, and narrows in the quarters, and particularly at the
heel, and the frog is diminished in width, and the sole becomes more
concave, and the heels higher, and lameness, or at least a shortened and
feeling action, ensues.

It must be premised that there is a great deal more horror of contracted
heels than there is occasion for. Many persons reject a horse at once if
the quarters are iviring in ; but the fact is, that although this is an
unnatural form of the hoof, it is slow of growth, and nature kindly makes
that provision for the slowly altered form of the hoof which she does in
similar cases — she accommodates the parts to the change of form. As
the hoof draws in, the parts beneath, and pai-ticularly the coffin-bone, and
especially the heels of that bone, diminish ; or, after all, it is more a
change of form than of capacity. As the foot lengthens in proportion
as it narrows, so does the coffin-bone, and it is as perfectly adjusted as
before to the box in which it is placed. Its laminas are in as intimate and
perfect union with those of the crust as before the hoof had begun to
change. On this account it is that many horses, with very contracted
feet, are perfectly sound, and no horse should be rejected merely because
he has contraction. He should undoubtedly be examined more carefully,
and with considerable suspicion ; but if he has good action, and is other-
wise unexceptionable, there is no reason that the purchase should not be
made. A horse with contracted feet, if he goes sound, is better than
another with open but weak heels.

The opinion is perfectly erroneous that contraction is the necessary
consequence of shoeing. There can be no doubt that an inflexible iron
ring being nailed to the foot prevents, to a very considerable degree, the
descent of the sole and the expansion of the heels below ; and it is like-
wise probable, that when the expansion of the heels is prevented, they
often begin to contract. But here again nature, cut off from one resource,
finds others. If one of the jugular veins is lost, the blood pursues its
course by other channels, and the horse does not appear to suffer in the
shghtest degree. Thus also if the expansion of the heels below is
diminished, that of the cartilages above is made more use of. If the
coffin-bone has not so much descent downward, it probably acquires one

108 CONTRACTION.

back-ward, and the fimctions of the foot are usefully If not perfectly
performed. The plain proof of this is, that although there are many
horses that are injua'ed or ruined by bad shoeing, there are others, and they
are a numerous class, who suffer not at all from good shoeing, and
scarcely even from bad. Except it be from accident, how seldom is the
farmer's horse lame ; and it might even be farther asked, how seldom is
his foot much contracted ? Some gentlemen who are careful of their
horses have driven them twenty 3-ears, and principally over the rough
pavements of towns, without a day's lameness. Shoeing may be a neces'
sary evil, but it is not the evil which some speculative persons have
supposed it to be ; and the undoubted fact is, that when the horse is put
to real hard work, and when the injury produced by shoeing in destroying
the expansibility of the foot would most of all show itself, the foot lasts a
great deal longer than the leg ; nay, horsemen tell us that one pair of
good feet is worth two pair of legs.

Having thus premised that contraction is not inevitably accompanied by
lameness, and that shoeing, with all its evils, does not necessarily produce
it, those cases of contraction, too numerous, which are the consequence
of our stable management, and which do cripple and ruin the horse, may
be considered. There is nothing in the appearance of the feet which
would enable us to decide when contraction is or is not destructive to the
usefulness of the animal ; his manner of going, and his capability for
work, must be our guides. Lameness sometimes accompanies the begin-
ning of contraction ; it is frequently attendant on rapid contraction, but it
does not always exist when the icirhig in is slow or of long standing.

A very excellent writer, particularly when treating of the foot of the
horse, Mr. Blaine, has given us a long and correct list of the causes of
injurious contraction, and most of them are, fortunately, under the control
of the owner of the animal. He places at the head of them, neglect of
faring. The hoof is continually growing, the cnist is lengthening, and
the sole is thickening. This is a provision for the wear and tear of the
foot in an unshod state ; but when it is protected by a shoe, and none of
the horn can be worn away by coming in contact with the ground, and
the growth of horn continues, the hoof grows high, and the sole gets
thick, and, in consequence of this, the descent of the sole and the expan-
sion of the heels are prevented, and contraction is the result. The smith
might lessen, if not prevent the evil, by carefully thinning the sole and
lowering the heels at each shoeing ; but the first of these is a matter of
considerable labour, and the second could not be done effectually ^vdthout
being accompanied by the first, and therefore they are both neglected.
The prejudice of many owners of horses assists in increasing the evil ;
they imagine that a great deal of mischief is done by cutting away the
foot. Mischief may be the result of injudicious cutting, when the bars
are desti^oyed, and the frog is elevated from the ground ; but more evil
results fi'om the unpelding thickness of the horn of the sole impairing
the elastic and exjDansive principle of the foot. If gentlemen would
occasionally stand by, and see that the sole is properly thinned, and the heels
lowered, they would be amply repaid in the comfort and usefulness of the
liorse.

ril-jndged economy is another source of this disease. If the shoes of
one smith will, with ordinary work, last a little more than three weeks,
while another contrives to make his last six weeks, he is supposed to be
the better workman and the more honest man, and he gets the greater
part of the custom. His shoe is suffered to remain on during the whole time,
to the manifest injury of the feet, and that injur}' is materially increased by
the greater thickness and weight of the;3e shoes, and the tightness with

CONTRACTION. 409

wJiich tliey are fastened on, tlie nails being necessarily placed nearer to
tlie quarters, and possibly an additional nail or two used in the fastening,
and these also applied at the quarters. There is no rule which admits of
so little exception as that, once in about every three weeks, the growth of
horn, which the natural wear of the foot cannot get rid of, should be pared
away — the toe should be shortened in most feet — the sole should bo
thinned, and the heels lowered. Every one who has carefully observed
the shape of the horse's foot, must have seen that in proportion to its height
or neglected growth, it contracts and closes round the coronet. A low-
heeled horse might have other serious defects, of which it will be our duty
to speak, but he has seldom a contracted foot.

Another source of contraction is the want of natural moisture. The
unshod colt has seldom contracted feet, nor does the horse at grass
acquire them, because the hoof is kept cool and damp by occasional rain,
and by the regular dew. It is thus rendered supple, and its elasticity is pre-
served, and the expansive power of the foot is uninjured. The hoof of
the stabled horse sometimes has not one drop of moisture on it for several
days. The effect of this, in the contraction of the horn, is sufficiently
evident. Hence the propriety of stopping the feet where there is the least
Oi.ndency to contraction. The intelligent and careful groom will not omit
it i. single night. Cow-dung, with a small portion of clay to give it con-
sistence, is a common and very good stopping. A better one is cow-dung
with a small proportion of tar mixed with it. A good one is a piece of
thick felt cut to the shape of the sole and soaked in water. The common
stopijing of tar and grease is peculiarly applicable to the 'crust or wall,
making it tough and elastic instead of being brittle and shelly.

The usual management of the farmer's horse that is often turned out
after his daily task is exacted, or whose work is generally performed
where the feet are exposed to moisture, is an excellent pi-eveutive against
contraction.

Some persons have complained much of the influence of Htter. If the
horse stands many hours in the day with his feet imbedded in straw, it is
supposed that the hoof must be unnaturally heated ; and it is said that the
horn will contract under the influence of heat. It Is seldom, however,
that the foot is so surrounded by the litter that its heat will be sufficiently
increased to produce this efi'ect. The question is not, however, whether
the litter will heat the feet, but to what extent. From its being a bad
conductor of heat, it is injurious ; and from this cause it will be found
that the heat of the feet, instead of being carried ofi" as fast as it Is gene-
rated, as It would be were it a good conductor, accumulates and produces
mischievous results. There are thousands of horses that stand upon straw
twenty hours out of the twenty- four, without receiving the slightest injury
from it. The author of this work is not one of those who would, during
the day, remove all litter from under the horse. It gives a naked and
uncomfortable appearance to the stable. Humanity and a proper care of the
foot of the horse should induce the owner to keep some Utter under the
animal during the day ; but his feet need not sink so deeply in It that
their temperature becomes much aSected. If the straw is suffered to
remain until It Is wet, hot, and rotten, the effluvia proceeding from It may
produce cough, or Inflammation of the eyes, or thrushes in the feet ; bat a
light bed of straw, with tolerable attention to cleanliness, can never do harm.
' There are horses,' says Professor Stewar-t, ' that, in the habit of pawing
and stamping, slip about and sometimes lame themselves on the bare stones;
many disposed to lie down during the day wiU not, or ought not, to do it,
with a slight portion of litter under them. It is a fi-cqucut observation
without regard to road horses, and many others, that the more a horse

ilO CONTRACTION.

lies tlie better lie works. Lame or tender-footed horses cannot lie toe
mucli, and a great deal of standing ruins the best legs and feet. Some
horses, indeed, do not need this day-bedding, but many are the better for
it, and none are the worse.'

Thrnshes are much oftener the consequence than the cause of contrac-
tion. The horny frog, yielding to the pressure of the contracted quarters,
is diminished in size, and the lower poi-tion of the fleshy frog becomes
imprisoned, irritated, and inflamed, and pus or matter is discharged at the
cleft ; yet there are many heels in the last stage of contraction that are
not thrushy. On the other hand, thrush never long existed, accompanied
by much discharge, without producing a disposition to contraction ; there-
fore, thrush may be considered as both the cause and consequence of
contraction.

The removal of the bars takes away a main impediment to contraction.
Their use in assisting the expansion of the foot has been already stated,
and should a disposition to contraction be produced by any other cause,
the cutting away of the bars would hasten and aggravate the evil ; but
the loss of the bar would not of itself produce contraction.

The contraction, however, that is connected with permanent lameness^
although increased by the circumstances which we have mentioned,
usually derives its origin from a different source, and from one that acts
violently and suddenly. Inflammation of the little plates covering the
cofiin-bone is a frequent cause ; and a degree of inflammation not suffi-
ciently intense to be characterised as acute founder, but quickly leading
to sad results, may and does spring from causes almost iinsuspected.
There is one fact to which we have alluded, and that cannot be doubted,
that contraction is exceedingly rare in the agricultural horse, but frequently
occurs in the stable of the gentleman and the coach-proprietor. It is rare
where the horse is seemingly neglected and badly shod ; and frequent
where every care is taken of the animal, and the shoes are unexceptionable
and skilfully applied. Something may depend upon the breed. Blood
horses are particularly liable to contraction. Not only is the foot naturally
small, but it is disposed to become narrower at the heels. On the other
hand, the broad, flat foot of the cart-horse is subject to diseases enough,
but contraction is seldom one of the number.

Whatever is the cause of that rapid contraction or narrowing of the
heels which is accompanied by severe lameness, the symptoms may be
easily distinguished. While standing in the stable, the horse will point
with, or place forward, the contracted foot, or, if both feet are affected, he
will alternately place one before the other. When he is taken out of the
stable, he will not, perhaps, exhibit the decided lameness which character-
ises sprain of the flexor tendon, or some diseases of the foot ; but his step
Avill be peculiarly short and quick, and the feet will be placed gently and
tenderly on the ground, or scarcely lifted from it in the walk or the trot.
It would seem as if the slightest irregularity of surface would throw the
animal down, and so it threatens to do, for he is constantly tripping and
stumbling. K the fore-feet are carefully observed, one or both of them
will be naiTOwed across the quarters and towards the heels. In a fev
cases the whole of the foot appears to be contracted and shrunk ; but in
the majority of instances, while the heels arc narrower, the foot is longer.
The contraction appears sometimes in both heels ; at other times in the
inner heel only ; or, if both are affected, the inner one is iv'ired in the most,
either from the coronet to the base of the foot, or only or principally at the
coronet — oftener near the base of the foot — but in most cases the
hollow being greatest about midway between the coronet and the bottom
of the foot. This irregularity of contraction, and uncertainty as to the

CONTRACTION'. 411

placo of it, prove that it is some internal disorganisation, tlio seatof wliicli
varies -with the portion of the attachment between the hoof and the foot
that was principally strained or injured. In every recent case the contracted
part will be hotter than the rest of the foot, and the sole will, in the
majority of cases, be unnaturally concave.

Of the treatment of contraction attended with lameness little can be said
that will be satisfactory. Numberless have been the mechanical contri-
vances to oppose the progress of contraction, or to force back the foot to
its original shape, and many of them have enjoyed considerable but short-
lived reputation. A clip was placed at the inside of each heel, wliich,
resting on the bars, was intended to afford an insurmountable obstacle to
the farther wiring in of the foot, while the heels of the shoe were bevelled
outward in order to give the foot a tendency to expand. The foot, how-
ever, continued to contract, until the clip was imbedded in the horn, and
worse lameness was produced.

A shoe jointed at the toe, and with a screw adapted to the heels, was
contrived, by which, when softened by poulticing, or immersion in warm
water, the quarters were to be irresistibly widened. They were widened
by the daily and cautious use of the screw until the foot seemed to assume
its natural form, and the inventor began to exult in having discovered a
cure for contraction : but no sooner was the common shoe again applied,
and the horse had returned to his work, than the heels began to narrow,
and the foot became as contracted as ever. Common sense would have
foretold that such must have been the result of this expansive process ;
for the heels could have been only thus forced asunder at the expense of
partial or total separation from the interior portions of the foot with which
they were in contact.

The contracted heel can rarely or never permanently expand, for this
plain reason, that although we may have power over the crust, we cannot
renew the lamina?, or restore the portion of the frog that has been
absorbed.

If the action of the horse is not materially impaired, it is better to let
the contraction alone, be it as great as it will. If the contraction has
evidently produced considerable lameness, the owner of the horse will have
to calculate between his value if cured, the expense of the cure, and the
probabihty of failure.

The medical treatment should alone be undertaken by a skilful veteri-
nary surgeon, and it will principally consist in abating any inflammation
that may exist, by local bleeding and physic, paring the sole to the utmost
extent that it will bear ; rasping the quarters as deeply as can be, without
theu' being too much weakened, or the coronary ring (see h, p. 395)
injured ; rasping deeply likewise at the toe, and perhaps scoring at the
toe. The horse is afterwards made to stand during the day in wet clay,
placed in one of the stalls. He is at night moved into another stall, and
his feet bound up thickly in wet clothes ; or he is tui'ned out into wet
pasturage, with tips, or, if possible, ■v\athout thorn, and his feet are frequently
pared out, and the quarters lightly rasped. In five or six months the horn
will generally have gro^vn down, when he may be taken up, and shod ^dth
shoes unattached by nails on the inner side of the foot, and put to gentle
work. The foot will bo found very considerably enlarged, and the owner
"wdll, perhaps, think that the cure is accomplished. The horse may, pos-
sibly, for a time stand very gentle work, and the inner side of the foot
being left at hberty, its natxa'a] expansive process may be resumed : the
internal part of the foot, however, has not been healthily filled up with
the expansion of the crust. If that expansion has been effected forward
on the quarters, the crust will no longer be in contact -wnth the lengthened

412 NAVICULAR DISEASE.

and narrowed heels of the coffin-bone. There will not be the natm-aJ
adhesion and strength, and a very slight cause, or even the very habit
of contraction, will, in spite of all care and the freedom of the inner
quarter, in very many instances cause the foot to wire in again as badly
as before.

• NAVICULAR DISEASE.

]\rany horses with well-formed and open feet become sadly and penna-
nently lame, and veterinary surgeons have been puzzled to discover the
cause. The farrier has had his convenient explanation, ' the shoulder ; '
but the scientific practitioner may not have been able to discover an os-
tensible cause of lameness in the whole limb. There are few accustomed
to horses who do not recollect an instance of this.

Behind and beneath the lower pastern-bone, and behind and above the
heel of the coffin-bone, is a small bone called the navicular or shuttle-bone.
It is so placed as to strengthen the union between the lower pastern and the
coffin-bone, and to enable the flexor tendon, which passes over it in ordet
to be inserted into the bottom of the coffin-bone, to act with more advan-
tage. It forms a kind of joint with that tendon. There is a great deu)
of weight tliro"mi on the navicular bone, and from the navicular bone on
the tendon ; and there is a great deal of motion or play between them in
the bending and extension of the pasterns.

Numerous dissections have shown that this joint, formed by the teiidon
and the bone, has been the frequent, and the almost invariable, seat of this
obscure lameness. The membrane covering the cartilage of the bone has
been found in an ulcerated state ; the cartilage itself has been ulcerated
and eaten away ; the bone has become carious or decayed, this caries, or
decay, however, does not occur in that snrface of the bone forming a portion
of the coffin-joint — but on that surface over which the flexor tendon passes,
and as the disease progresses, tlie tendon itself becomes much attenuated.
Navicular disease is seldom met with in young horses, or those employed
for slow work, but generally amongst well-bred horses, with strong feet,
used for fast purposes on hard ground.

Stable management has little to do with the production of this disease,
any farther than if a horse stands idle in the stable several days, and the
structure of the foot, and all the apparatus connected with motion, beconi<j
unused to exertion, and indisposed for it, and he is then suddenly and
violently exercised, these parts are very liable to be bruised and injured.
This, amongst other evils, will be lessened by a loose box, in which a horse
wO] always take some exercise.

Amongst the predisposing causes, none ought to be more thoroughly
known than that na\ncular disease is hereditary in its nature, and there
cannot be a surer method of propagating this destructive disease than
breeding from parents afflicted with it. The exciting cause is usually
violence applied to the part the result of concussion. By this means in-
flammation is set up in the tissue of the navicular bone, which leads to
ulceration and desti-uction of a portion of the cartilage covering its surface.
As a result of this, the flexor tendon will be in contact with an ulcerated
rough surface, instead of the beautifully smooth and elastic one, when free
from disease. The ulceration always takes place on the lower surface of
the navicular bone, and usually first exhibits itself on the convexity in the
centre of the bone. The disease is nearly always confined to the fore-feet,
and is generally slow in its progress, although in some instances great
concussion has caused rapid ulceration.

The symptoms by which this disease will be recognised are not very
distinct, especially ia the early stages. There is slight lameness at start-

NAVICULAR DISEASE. 413

mg, wliich will probably disappear after going a short distance, and there
is also a peculiarity in the action of the animal, which to a great extent is
characteristic of this disease. The horse 'goes upon his toes,' and
brings the heel of the foot but sUghtly in contact with the ground. This
will in some measure account for horses with navicular disease goinf
lamer dovra hill, the weight being tlien thrown upon the heels, and stress
principally placed on the affected parts. The very reverse of this will be
observed in the action of horses suffering from laminitis. When placed
in the stable after a journey, the animal \^-ill point his feet : if one foot only
be affected, this will be placed at rest in advance of the other ; if both feet,
he will rest and advance them alternately. This is a marked symptom ol
navicular disease, and although it may be occasionally observed in other
injuries to the posterior part of the foot, it should always be looked upon
with considerable suspicion. In the majority of cases more or less con-
ti-action of the hoof will be present. There will be a wii-ing in at the
quarters, and the heels -will generally be found narrow and uprio-ht.
Contraction is rarely a cause, but a frequent result, of navicular disease ;
and although in combination with other symptoms, it will materially assist
us in pointing out the affection, it should be borne in mind that we some-
times get na\'icular lameness without any contraction, and on the other
hand meet with one or both feet contracted without any lameness whatever.

The cure of navicular disease is difficult and uncertain. The first and
all-important point is the removal of the inflaromation. Local bleeding,
poulticing, and physic will be our principal resources. K there is con-
t action, this must, if possible, be removed by the means already pointed
out. If there is no contraction, it will nevertheless be prudent to o-et rid
of aU surrounding pressure, and to unfetter, as much as possible, the
inside heel of the coffin-bone, by paring the sole and rasping the quarters,
and using the shoe without nails on the inner qnai-ter, and applying cold
poultices to the coronet and the whole of the foot. This is a case, how-
ever, which must be turned over to the veterinary surgeon, for he alone,
fi-om his knowledge of the anatomy of the foot, and the precise seat of the
disease, is competent to ti-eat it. K attacked on its earhest appearance,
and before ulceration of the bone has taken place, it may be radically
cured : but ulceration will never be healed, and caries of the bone ^vill for
ever remain.

Blistering the coronet will often assist in promoting a cure by divertino-
the inflammation to another part, and it will materially quicken the
growth of the horn. A seton passed through the frog by a skilful opera-
tor, and approaching as near as possible to the seat of disease, has been
very serviceable.

As a last resource, if there is no gTeat inflammation (and that would be
readily detected by the heat of the foot), neurotomy may be practised
with the hope of alleviating the sufferings of the animal, and thus remov-
ing a portion of the lameness ; but if the lameness is extreme, either ^-ith
or without contraction, and especially if there is heat about the foot, the
operation is dangerous. There is, probably, ulceration — possibly, decay
of the bone ; and the additional friction to which the parts would be sub-
jected, by the freer action of the horse, the sense of pain beinc removed
would cause that ulceration or decay to proceed more rapidly until the bone
would be completely disorganised, or the tendon would be gradually worn
throtigh by rubbing against the roughened surface of the bone.

SAND-CRACK.
This, as its name imports, is a cracJc or division of the hoof from above
downward, and into which sand and dirt are too apt to insinuate them-

414 SAND-CRACK.

selves. It is so called, because it most frequently occurs in sandy districtSj
the lieat of the sand applied to the feet giving them a disposition to crack.
It occurs both in the fore and the hind-feet. In the fore-feet it is usually
found in the inner quarter, but occasionally in the outer quarter, because
there is the principal stress or effort towards expansion of the foot, and
the inner quarter is weaker than the outer. In the hind-feet the crack is
almost invariably found in the front, because in the digging of the toe
into the ground in the act of drawing, the principal stress is in the front.

This is a most serious defect. It indicates a brittleness of the crust,
sometimes natural, but oftener the consequence of mismanagement or dis-
ease, which, in. spite of every means adopted, will probably be the source
of future annoyance. On a hoof that has once been thus divided no
dependence can be placed, unless, by great care, the natural suppleness of
the horn has been restored and is retained.

It is always necessary to examine the inner quarter of the foot at the
time of purchase, for it has more than once occurred that, by low dealers,
and particularly at fairs, a sand-crack has been neatly covered with pitch,
and then, the whole of the hoof having been oiled, the injury was so
adroitly concealed that an incautious person might be easily deceived.

The crack sometimes does not penetrate through the horn. It then
causes no lameness ; nevertheless, it must not be neglected. It shows that
there is brittleness, which should induce the purchaser to pause ; and, if
proper means are not taken, it will generally soon penetrate to the quick.
It should be pared or rasped fairly out ; and if the paring or rasping has
been deep, the foot should be strengthened by a coating of pitch or tar,
with coarse tape bound over it, and a second coating of pitch covering
this. Every crack should be pared or rasped to ascertain its depth. If it
penetrates through the crust, even although no lameness exists, a firing-
iron, red-hot, should be passed somewhat deeply above, in order to pre-
vent its lengthening — the edges should be thinned to remove any painful
or injurious pressure, and the foot should be bound up in the manner
directed, ca^e being taken that the shoe does not press upon the crust
immediately under the sand-crack.

K the crack has penetrated through the crust, and lameness has ensued,
the case is more serious. It must be carefully examined, in order to
ascertain that no dirt or sand has got into it ; the edges must be more con-
siderably thianed, and if any fungus is beginning to protrude through the
crack, and is imprisoned there, it must be destroyed by the application of
nitric acid. This is preferable to the cautery, because the edges of the
horn will not be thickened or roughened, and thus become a source of
after-ii'ritation. The iron may then be run deeply across, above the crack ; a
pledget of dry tow being placed in the crack, in and over it, and the whole
bound down as tightly as possible. A blister applied to the coronet is an
usefal adjunct, relieving the pain by its counter-irritation, and stimulat-
ing the growth of new horn at the same time. On the thii-d day the
part should be examined, and the caustic again apphed if necessary ; but
if the crack is dry and defended by a hard homy crust, the sooner the
pitch plaster is put on the better.

The most serious case is, when, from tread or neglect, the coronet is
divided. The growth of horn proceeds from the coronary hgament, and
unless this ligament is sound, the horn will grow down disunited.

In this case, as in almost every one of sand-crack, the horse should be
kept as quiet as possible. It is not in the power of the surgeon to effect a
perfect cure if the owner will continue to use the animal. When the horn
is divided at the coronet, it will be several months before it will grow
fairly down, »nd not before that should the animal be used even for ordi-

TREAD AND OVEK-REACPI. 415

aarj work. "WTien, liowever, the liora is grown an incli from tlie coronet,
the horse may be turned out — the foot being well defended by the pitch
plaster, and that renewed as often as it becomes loose — a bar-shoe being
worn, chambered so as not to press upon the hoof immediately under the
crack, to prevent which the crust should be also pared away in a small
half-moon form, and that shoe being taken off, the sole pared out, and
any bulbous projection of new horn being removed once in every three
weeks.

To remedy the undue brittleness of the hoof, there is no better appK-
cation than an ointment composed of one part of tar to two of lard,
appUed to the crust daily, the sole being covered at the same time with the
common cow-dung or felt stopping.

TREAD AND OVEE-REACH.

Under these terms are comprised bruises and wounds of the coronet,
inflicted by the other feet.

A TREAD is said to have taken place when the inside of the coronet of
one foot is struck by the calkin of the shoe of the other, and a bruised or
contused wound is inflicted. The coronary ring is highly vascular exter-
nally, and within it is cartilaginous ; the blow, therefore, often produces
much pain and haemorrhage, and contusion and destraction of the parts.
The wound may appear to be simple, but it is often of a sadly complicated
nature, and much time and care will need to be expended in repairing the
mischief. Mr. Percivall, in his 'Hippopathology,' very accurately states
that ' the wound has, in the first place, to cast off a slough, consisting of
the braised, separated, and deadened parts ; then the chasm thereby ex-
posed has to granulate ; and, finally, the sore has to cicatrise and form
new horn.'

A tread, or wound of the coronet, must never be neglected, lest gravel
should insinuate itself into the wound, and form deep ulcerations, called
sinuses or inpes, and which constitute quittor. Although some mildly
stimulating escharotic may be occasionally required, the caustic, too fre-
quently used by farriers, should in the early stage be carefully avoided,
not only lest quittor should be formed, but lest the coronary ligament
should be so injured as to be afterwards incapable of secreting perfect
horn. "WTien properly treated, a tread is seldom productive of much
injury. K the dirt is well washed out of it, and a pledget of tow, dipped
in Friar's balsam, bound over the wound, it will, in the majority of cases,
speedily heal. Should the bruise be extensive or the wound deep, a
poultice may be applied for one or two days, and then the Friar's balsam,
or digestive ointment. Sometimes a soft tumour will form on the part,
which will be quickly brought to suppuration by a poultice ; and when
the matter has run out, the ulcer will heal by the appHcation of the Friar's
balsam, or a weak solution of blue vitiiol ; but supposing that, instead of the
wound healing readily, a foul unhealthy sinus should remain, pouring
out a foul sanious discharge, then more active measui'es are imperatively
demanded, and nothing short of an active caustic, to produce a thorough
slough of the diseased surface, wiU effect a cure.

An OVER-REACH is a tread upon the heel of the coronet of the fore-foot
by the shoe of the corresponding hind- foot, and either inflicted by the toe
or by the inner edge of the inside of the shoe. The preventive treatment
is the bevelling, or rounding off, of the inside edge or rim of the hind-
shoes. The cure is the cutting away of the loose parts, the appHcation
of Friar's balsam, and protection from the dirt.

There is a singular species of over - reaching, termed FOKoma or
'CLICEING.

,H> FALSE QLARTER.

This unpleasant noise arises from tlie toe of the hind-shoe knocking
against the toe of the shoe of the fore-foot. In the trot, one fore-leg and
the opposite hind leg are first Hfted from the ground and moved forward,
the other fore-leg and the opposite hind-leg remaining fixed ; but, to keep
the centre of gi'a^^ty witliin the base, and as the stride, or space passed
over bj these legs, is often greater than the distance between the fore and
hind-feet, it is necessary that the fore-feet should be alternately moved out
of the way for the hind ones to descend. Then, as occasionally happens
with horses not perfectly broken, and that have not been taught their
paces, and especially if they have high hinder quarters and low fore ones, if
the fore-feet are not raised in time the hind-feet will strike them. The fore-
foot will generally be caught when it has just begun to be raised, and the
toe of the hind- foot will meet the middle of the bottom of the fore-foot.
It is an unpleasant noise, and not altogether free from danger ; for it may
so happen that a horse, the action of whose feet generally so much inter-
feres with each other, may advance the hind-foot a little more rapidly, or
raise the fore one a little more slowly, so that the blow may fall on the
heel of the shoe, and loosen or displace it ; or the two shoes may be
locked together, and the animal may be thrown ; or the contusion may be
received even higher, and on the tendons of the leg, and considerable
swelling and lameness may follow them ; these, however, are rare
occurrences.

If the animal is young, the action of the horse may be materially im-
proved ; otherwise nothing can be done, except to keep the toe of the hind-
foot as short and as square as it can safely be, removing the clip from the
toe and placing two smaller ones, one on each side of it ; and to bevel off
and round the toe of the shoe, like that which has been worn by a stumbler
for a fortnight, and perhaps a little to lower the heel of the fore-foot.

A blow received on the heel of the fore-foot in this manner has not un-
frequently, and especially if neglected, been followed by quittor.

FALSE QUARTER.

If the coronary hgament, by which the horn of the crust is secreted, is
dix-ided by some cut or bruise, or eaten through by any caustic, there will
tjccasionally be a division in the horn as it grows down, either in the form
of a permanent sand-crack, or one portion of the hom overlapping the
other. It occasionally follows neglected sand-crack, or it may be the con-
sequence of quittor. This is exteriorly an evident fissure in the horn,
and extending from the coronet to the sole, but not always penetrating to
the laminae. It is a very serious defect, and exceedingly diflBcult to
remedy ; for occasionally, if the horse is over- weighted or hurried on his
journey, the fissure v^T-II open and bleed, and very serious inconvenience
and lameness may ensue. Grit and dirt may insinuate itself into the
aperture, and penetrate to the sensitive lamina?. Inflammation will al-
most of necessity be produced; and much mischief will be effected. While
the energies of the animal are not severely taxed, he may not experience
much inconvenience or pain ; but the slightest exertion will sometimes
cause the fissure to expand, and painful lameness to follow.

This is not only a very serious defect, but one exceedingly difiicult to
remedy. The coronary ligament must be restored to its perfect state, or
at least to the discharge of its perfect function. Much danger would
attend the application of the caustic in order to effect this. A blister,
sufficiently active, apphed to the coronet at the injured part, affords the
best chance of success ; but when any portion of the secreting surface
has been destroyed, there is no remedy will restore it — the edges of the
tiom on either side of the crack may be thinned, the hoof supported — and

QUITTOR. 417

*.he separated parts held together by a firm encasement of pitch, as de-
scribed when speaking of the treatment of sand-crack. The coronet must
be examined at leaNt once in every fortnight, in order to ascertain whether
the desired anion has taken place; and as a palliative during the treat-
ment of the case, or if the treatment should be unsuccessful, a bar- shoe may
be used, and care taken that there be no bearing at or immediately under
tlie separation of the horn. This will be best effected, when the crust is
thick and the quarters strong, by paring off a little of the bottom of the
crust at the part, so that it shall not touch the shoe ; but if the foot is
weak, an indentation or hollow should be made in the shoe. Strain or
concussion on the immediate part vn.\l thus be avoided, and, in sudden or
violent exertion, the crack will not be so likely to extend upward to the
coronet, when whole and sound horn has begun to be formed there.
James Clark, whose works have not been valued as they deserve, expresses
in few words the real state of the case, and the course that should be
pursued : — ' We may so for palliate the complaint as to render the horse
something useful by using a shoe of such a construction as will support
the limb wdthout resting or pressing too much upon the weakened
quarter.' A proper stopping should also cover the sole, on which some
coarse tow may be placed, and a piece of leather over that; the whole
being confined by a broad web shoe.

In some cases false quarter assumes a less serious character. The horn
grows down whole, but the ligament is unable to secrete that which is
perfectly healthy, and therefore a narrow slip of horn of a different and
lighter colour is produced. This is sometimes the best result that can be
procured when the surgeon has been able to obhterate the absolute crack
or separation. It is, however, to be regarded as a defect not sufiicient to
condemn the horse, but indicating that he has had sand-crack, and that a
disposition to sand-crack may possibly remain. There wall also, in the
generality of cases, be some degree of tenderness in that quarter, which
may produce slight lameness when unusual exertion is required from the
horse, or the shoe is suffered to press long on the part.

QUITTOK,

This has been described as being the result of neglected or bad tread or
over-reach ; but it may be the consequence of any wound in the foot, and
in any part of the foot. In the natural process of suppuration, matter is
thrown out from the wound. It precedes the actual healing of the part.
The matter which is secreted in wounds of the foot is usually pent up
there, and increasing in quantity, and urging its way in every direction,
it forces the little fleshy plates of the cofiin-bone from the horny ones of the
crust, or the homy sole from the fleshy sole, or even penetrates deeply into
the internal parts of the foot. These pipes or sinuses run in every direction^
and constitute the essence of qidttor.

K it arises from a wound at the bottom of the foot, the purulent matter
which is rapidly formed is pent up there, and the nail of the shoe or the
stub remains in the wound, or the small aperture which was made is im-
mediately closed again. This matter, however, continues to be secreted,
and separates the horny sole from the fleshy one to a considerable extent,
and at length forces its way upwards, and appears at the coronet, and
usually at the quarter, and there slowly oozes out, while the aperture and
the quantity discharged are so small tlaat the inexperienced person would
have no suspicion of the extent of the mischief within, and the difficulty
of repairing it. The opening may scarcely admit a probe into it, yet over
the greater part of the quarter and the sole the horn may have separated
from ^he foot, and the matter may have penetrated under the cartilages

E E

41 a QUllTOR.

and ligaments, and into the coffin-joint. Not only so, but t^vo mis-
ehicvous results may have been produced, — the pressure of the matter
wherever it has gone has formed ulcerations that are indisposed to heal,
and that require the application of strong and painful stimulants to induca
them to heal ; and, worse than this, the horn, once separated from the sen-
sitive parts beneath, will never again unite with them. Quittor may occur
in both the fore and the hind-feet.

It will be sufficiently plain that the aid of a skilful practitioner is here
requisite, and also the full exercise of patience in the proprietor of the
horse. It may be necessary to remove much of the homy sole, which will
speedily be reproduced when the fleshy surface beneath can be brought to
a healthy condition ; but if much of the hom at the quarters must be
taken away, five or six months may probably elapse before it will be suf-
ficiently grown down again to render the horse useful.

[Measures of considerable severity are indispensable. The application
of some caustic will alone produce a healthy action on the ulcerated sur-
faces ; but on the ground of interest and of humanity we protest against
the brutal practice, or at least the extent to which it is carried, that is
pursued by many ignorant smiths, of coring out, or deeply destroying the
healthy as well as the diseased parts — and parts which no process will
again restore. The unhealthy surface miist be removed ; but the cartilages
and ligaments, and even poi'tions of the bone, need not to be sacrificed.

The experienced veterinary surgeon will alone be able to counsel the
proprietor of the horse, when, in cases of confirmed quittor, there is reason-
able hope of permanent cui'e. A knowledge of the anatomy of the foot
is necessary to enable him to decide what parts indispensable to the action
of the animal may have been irreparably injured or destroyed, or to save
these parts from the destructive effect of torturing caustics. When any
portion of the bone can be felt by the probe, the chances of success are
diminished, and the owner and the operator should pause. "WTien the
joints are exposed, the case is hopeless, although, in a gi'eat many instances,
the bones and the joints are exposed by the remedy and not by the disease.
One hint may not be necessary to the practitioner, but it may guide the
determination and hopes of the owner : if, when a probe is introduced
into the fistulous orifice on the coronet, the direction of the sinuses or jpijyes
is backward, there is much probabiHty that a cure may be effected ; but
if the direction of the sinuses is forward, the cure is at best doubtful. In
the first instance, there is neither bone nor joint to be injured ; in the
other, the more important parts of the foot are in danger, and those in
wliich the principal action and concussion are found.

Neglected bruises of the sole sometimes lay the foundation of quittor.
When the foot is flat, it is very liable to be bruised if the horse is ridden
fast over a rough and stony road ; or, a small stone, insinuating itself be-
tween the shoe and the sole, or confined by the curvature of the shoe, wiU
frequently lame the horse. The heat and tenderness of the part, the oc-
casional redness of the hom, and the absence of puncture, will clearly
mark the bruise. The sole must then be thinned, and particularly over
the bruised part ; and, in neglected cases, it must be pared even to the
quick, in order to ascertain whether the inflammation has run on to sup-
puration. The principal causes of bruises of the foot are leaving the sole
too much exposed by means of a narrow- webbed shoe, or the smith paring
out the sole too closely, or the pressure of the shoe on the sole, or the in-
troduction of gravel or stones between the sole and the shoe.

The modes of cure in this disease are various ; by some the mild or
stimulating plan, by others the caustic or sloughing one. They are both
excellent, and, so far as can well be the case, satisfactory.

PRICK, OR WOUND IN THE SOLE OK CRCST. 419

The former is thus described by Mr. Newport, in the first volume of the
Veterinarian ' : — ' After the shoe has been removed, thin the sole tmtil
it will yield to the pressure of the thumb ; then cut the under parts of the
wall in an oblique direction from the heel to the anterior part, immediately
under the seat of complaint, and only as far as it extends, and rasp the
side of the wall thin enough to give way to the pressure to the over-dis-
tended parts, and put on a bar-shoe rather elevated from the frog.
Ascertain with a probe the direction of the sinuses, and introduce into
them a saturated solution of sulphate of zinc, by means of a small syringe.
Place over this dressing the common cataplasm, or the turpentine oint-
ment, and renew the application every twenty-four hours. I have fre-
quently found three or four such apphcations complete a cure. I should
recommend that when the probe is introduced, in order to ascertain the
progress of cure, that it be gently and carefully used, otherwise it may
break down the new-formed lymph. I have found the solution very
valuable, where the synovial fluid has escaped, but not to be used if the
inflammation of the parts is great.'

The latter is thus given by '^Ir. Percivall in his ' Hippopathology.'
Mr. Percivall says : — ' The ordinary mode of cure consists in the intro-
duction of caustic into the sinus ; and so long as the cartilage presei-ves
its integiity — by which I mean, is free from caries — this is perhaps the most
prompt and eSectual mode of proceeding. The fan-ier's practice is to mix
about half a drachm of corrosive sublimate in powder with tvrice or thrice
the quantity of flour, and make them into a pa^te with water. This he
takes up by Httle at a time with the point of his probe, and works it
about in the sinus until the paste appears rising in the orifice above.
After this is done, he commonly has the horse walked about for an hour
or two, or even sent to slow work again, which produces a still more
efiectual solution of the caustic, at the same time that it tends greatly
to its uniform and thorough diffusion into every recess and T\-inding of the
sinus. The consequence of this sharp caustic dressing is a general slough
from the sinus. Every part of its anterior surface is destroyed, and the
dead particles become agglutinated, and cast off along with the discharges
in the form of a dark firm curdled mass, which the farrier calls the core ;
and so it commonly proves, for granulations follow close behind it, and fill
up the sinus.'

PRICK, OR WOUND IN THE SOLE OR CRUST.
This is the most frequent cause of quittor. It is evident that the sole
is very liable to be wounded by nails, pieces of glass, or even sharp flints.
Every part of the foot is subject to injuries of this description. The
usual place at which these wounds are found is in the hollow between the
bars and the frog, or in the frog itself. In the fore-feet the injury will be
generally recognised on the inner quarter, and on the hind-feet near the
toe. In fact these are the thinnest parts of the fore and hind-feet. Much
more frequently the laminEe are wounded by the nail in shoeing : or if the
nail does not penetrate through the internal surface of the crust, it is
driven so close to it that it presses upon the fleshy parts beneath, and
causes frritation and inflammation, and at length suppuration. When a
horse becomes suddenly lame, after the legs have been carefully examined,
and no cause of lameness appears in them, the shoe should be taken ofi".
In many cases the ofiending substance will be immediately detected, or
the additional heat felt in some parts of the foot will point out the seat
of injury ; or, if the crust is rapped with the hammer all round, the
flinching of the horse will discover it ; or pressure -with the pincers wil)
render it evident.

E E 2

,20 PRICK, OR WOUND IN THE SOLE OR CRUST.

WTien the shoe is removed for this examination, the smith should never
be permitted to wrench it off, but each nail should be drawn separately,
and examined as it is drawn, when some moisture appearing upon it will
not unfrequently reveal the spot at which matter has been thrown out.

Sudden lameness occurring within a few days after the horse has been
shod, will lead to the suspicion that the smith has been in fault ; yet no
one who considers the thinness of the crusty and the difficulty of shoeing
many feet, will blame him for sometimes pricking the animal. His fault
T\nll consist in concealing or denying that of which he will almost alwaj^s
be aware at the time of shoeing, from the flinching of the horse, or the
dead sound, or the peculiar resistance that may be noticed in the driving
of the nail. "We would plead the cause of the honest portion of an humble
class of men, who discharge this naechanical part of their business
Tvith a skill and good fortune scarcely credible ; but we resign those tc
the reproaches and the punishment of the owner of the horse, who too
often, and with bad policy, deny that which accident, or possibly momentary
carelessness, might have occasioned, and the neglect of which is fraught
with danger, although the mischief resulting from it, might at the time
have been easily remedied.

^Hien the seat of mischief is ascertained, the sole should be thinned
round it, and at the nail-hole, or the puncture, it should be pared to the
quick. The escape of some matter will now probably toll the nature of
the injury, and remove its consequences. If it be puncture of the sole
effected by some nail, or any similar body, picked up on the road, all that
will be necessary is a little to enlarge the opening, and then to place on it
a pledget of tow dipped in Friar's balsam, and over that a little common
stopping. K there is much heat and lameness, a poultice should be
applied.

The part of the sole that is wounded and the depth of the wound should
be taken into consideration. A deep puncture towards the back part of
the sole, and penetrating even into the sensitive frog, may not be pro-
ductive of serious consequence. There is no great motion in the part,
and there are no tendons or bones in danger. A puncture near the toe
may not be followed by much injury. There is little motion in that part
of the foot, and the internal sole covering the coffiji-bone will soon heal.
A puncture, however, about the centre of the sole may wound the flexor
tendon where it is inserted into the coffin-bone, or may even penetrate the
joint which unites the navicular bone with the coffin-bone, or pierce
through the tendon into the joint which it forms with the navicular bono,
and a degTee of inflammation may ensue, that, if neglected, may be fatal.
Many horses have been lost by the smallest puncture of the sole in these
dangerous points. All the anatomical skill of the veterinarian should be
called into requisition, when he is examining the most trifling wound of
the loot.

If the foot has been wounded by the wrong direction of a nail in shoe-
ing, and the sole is well pared out over the part on the first appearance of
lameness, little more will be necessary to be done. The opening should
be somewhat enlarged, the Friar's balsam applied, and the shoe tacked on,
with or withovit a poultice, according to the degree of lameness or heat,
and on the following day all will often be well. It may, however, be
pnadent to keep the foot stopped for a few days. If the accident has been
neglected, and matter begins to be formed, and to be pent up and to press
on tlie neighbouring parts, and the horse evidently suffers extreme pain,
and is sometimes scarcely able to put his foot to the ground, and much
matter is poured out when the opening is enlarged, further precautions
nmbt be adopted. The fact must be recollected that the living and dead

CORNS. 421

horn will never unite, and every portion of the homy sole that has sepa-
rated from the fleshy sole above must be removed. The separation must
be followed as far it reaches. Much of the success of the treatment depends
on this. No small strip or edge of separated horn must be suffered to
press upon any part of the wound ; some soft tow, di2:>ped in Fi-iar's
balsam, being spread on the part, the foot stopped, and a poultice placed
over all if the inflammation seems to require it. Ou the following day a
thin pelHcle of horn will frequently be found over a part or the whole of
the wound. If there is an appearance of fungus sprouting from the ex-
posed surface, the application of a caustic such as rutric acid may be
necessary, the tow being again placed over it, so as to afford considerable
yet unifonn pressure. Many days do not often elapse before the new
horn covers the whole of the wound. In these extensive openings the
Friar's balsam will not always be successful, but if not, the cure must be
effected by the judicious and never-too- severe use of the caustic. A dose
of physic will be resorted to as a useful auxiliary when much inflamma-
tion arises.

In searching the foot in order to ascertain the existence of prick, there
is often something very censurable in the carelessness with which the
horn is cut away between the bottom of the crust and the sole, so as to
leave httle or no hold for the nails, although some months must elapse
before the horn will grow down suflBciently far for the shoe to be securely
fastened.

When a free opening has been made below, and matter has not broken
out at the coronet, it will rarely be necessary to remove any portion of
the horn at the quarters, although he may be able to ascertain by the use
of the probe that the separation of the crust extends for a considerable
space above the sole.

CORNS.

In the angle between the bars (c, p. 395) and the quarters, the horn of
the sole has sometimes a red appearance, and is more spongy and softer
than at any other part. The horse flinches when this portion of the horn
is pressed upon, and occasional or permanent lameness is produced. This
disease of the foot is termed corns : bearing this resemblance to the com
of the human being that it is produced by pressure, and is a cause of
lameness. When corns are neglected, so much inflammation is produced
in that part of the sensitive sole that suppuration follows, and the matter
either undermines the homy sole, or is discharged at the coronet.

The pressure hereby produced manifests itself in various ways. When
the shoe is suffered to remain on too long, it becomes imbedded in the heel
of the foot ; the external crust grows down on the outside of it, and the
bearing is thrown on tliis angpilar portion of the sole. No part of the sole
can bear pressure, and inflammation and corns are the result. From the
length of wear the shoe sometimes becomes loosened at the heols, and
gravel insinuates itself between the shoe and the crust, and accumulates
in this angle, and sometimes seriously wounds it.

The bars are too frequently cut away, and then the heel of the shoe must
be bevelled inward, in order to answer to this absurd and injurious shaping
of the foot. By this slanting direction of the heel of the shoe inward, an
tumatural disposition to contraction is given, and the sole must suffer in
two ways, — in being pressed upon by the shoe, and squeezed between the
outer crust and the external portion of the bar. The shoe is often made
unnecessarily narrow at the heels, by which this angle, seemingly less dis-
posed to bear pressure than any other part of the foot, is exposed to acci-
dental bruises. If, in the paring out of the foot, the smith should leave

i-r2 CORNS.

the bars prominent, he too frequently neglects to pare away the horn in the
angle between the bars and the external crast ; or if he cuts away the
bars, he scarcely touches the horn at this point ; and thus, before the horse
Lias been shod a fortnight, the shoe rests on this angle, and produces corns.
The use of a shoe for the fore-feet, thickened at the heels, is, and especially
in weak feet, a source of corns, from the undue bearing there is on the
hoels, and the concussion to which they are subject.

The unshod colt rarely has corns. The heels have their natural power
of expansion, and the sensitive sole at this part can scarcely be imprisoned,
while the projection of the heel of the crust and the bar is a sufficient
defence from external injuiy. Corns seem to be the almost inevitable con-
sequence of shoeing, which, by limiting, or in a manner destroying, the
expansibility of the foot, must, when the sole attempts to descend, or the
coffin-bone has a backward and a downward direction, imprison and injure
this portion of the sole. Tliis evil consequence is increased when the shoe
is badly formed, or kept on too long, or when the paring is omitted or
injudiciously extended to the bars. By this imnatural pressure of the
sole, blood is thrown out, and enters into the pores of the soft and diseased
horn which is then secreted ; therefore the existence and the extent
of the corn is judged of by the colour and softness of the horn at this
place.

Corns are most frequent and serious in horses with thin horn and flat
soles, and low weak heels. And the cause in these cases is an external
one, namely, undue pressure from the heel of the shoe. But they are
found occasionally in high, strong, contracted feet, and in these they are
not produced by the heel of the shoe, but by the concussion produced by
the superincumbent weight jarring against the hard, thick, unnaturally
concave horny sole below. They generally occur on the inside heel, from
its being more under the centre of gravity, and consequently having
greater weight thro-\vn on that part. The method adopted by shoeing-
smiths to ascertain the existence of corn by the pain evinced when they
pinch the bar and crust with tlieii- irons, is very fallacious. If the horn
is naturally thin, the horse will shrink under no great pressure, although
he has no com, and occasionally the bars are so strong as not to give way
under any pressure.

The cure of old corns is difficult ; recent corns, however, wdll generally
yield to good shoeing.

The first thing to be done is well to pare out the angle between the
crust and the bars. Two objects are answered by this : the extent of the
disease wiU be ascertained, and one cause of it removed. A very small
di"awing-knife must be used for this purpose. The corn must be pared out
fo the very bottom, taking care not to wound the sole. It may then be
discovered whether there is only effusion of blood or matter underneath.
K this is suspected, an opening must be made through the horn, the
matter evacuated, the separated horn taken away, the coui'se and extent
of the sinuses explored, and the treatment recommended for quitter
adopted.

In bad cases a bar-shoe may be put on, so chambered that there shall
be no pressure on the diseased part. This may be worn for one or two
shoeings, but not constantly, for there are few frogs that would bear the
constant pressure of the bar-shoe : and the want of pressure on the
heel, generally occasioned by their use, would produce a softened and
bulbous state of the heels, that would of itself be an inevitable source of
lameness.

Mi\ Spooner, of Southampton, very properly states, that the corns
occasionally fester, and the purulent matter which is secreted, having nc

THHUSII. 4-23

lependont orifice, ascends, torturing the animal to a dreadi'ul extent, and
breaks ont at tlie coronet. These cases are very troublesome. Sinuses
ire formed, and the evil may end in quittor. A large and free dependent
orifice must then be made, and a poultice applied ; to which should succeed
a solution of sulphate of zinc, with the application of the compound tar
ointment.

Tlie cause of com is a most important subject of enquiiy, and which a
careful examination of the foot and the shoe ynM easily discover. The cause
being ascertained, the effect may, to a great extent, be afterwards removed.
Turning out to grass, after the horn is a httle grown, first with a bar-shoe,
and afterwards with the shoe nailed on the outside, or with tips, "will often
be serviceable. A horse that has once had corns to any considerable
extent should, at every shoeing, have the seat of com well pared out, and
the butyr of antimony applied. The seated shoe (hereafter to be de-
scribed) should be used, with a web sufficiently thick to cover the place
of corn, and extending as far back as it can be made to do without injury
to the frog.

Low weak heels should be rarely touched with the knife, or anything
more be done to them than lightly to rasp them, in order to give them
a level surface. The inner heel should be particularly spared. Corns
are seldom found in the hind-feet, because the heels are stronger, and the
feet are not exposed to so much concussion ; and when they are found
there, they are rarely or never productive of lameness. There is nothing
perhaps in which the improvement in the veterinary art has reheved the
horse from so much suffering as shoeing.

THRUSH.

This is a discharge of ofiensive matter from the cleft of the frog. It is
inflammation of the lower surface of the sensitive frog, and during which
pus is secreted together with, or instead of horn. When the frog is in its
sound state, the cleft sinks but a httle way into it ; but when it becomes
contracted or otherwise diseased, it extends in length, and penetrates even
to the sensitive laminte within, and through this unnaturally deepened fissure
the thnishy discharge proceeds. A plethoric state of the body may be a
predisposing cause of thrush, but the immediate and grand cause is
moisture. This should never be forgotten, for it will lead a great way
towards the proper treatment of the disease. K the feet are habitually
covered "svith any moist application — his standing so much on his o^ma
dung is a fair example— thrush will inevitably appear. It is caused by
anything that interferes with the healthy structure and action of the frog.
"We find it in the hinder feet offcener and worse than in the fore, because
in our stable management the hinder feet are too much exposed to the per-
nicious efiects of the dung and the urine, moistening, or as it were mace-
rating, and at the same time irritating them. The distance of the hinder
feet from the centre of the circulation would also, as in the case of grease,
more expose them to accumidations of fluid, and discharges of this kind.
In the fore-feet, thrushes are usually connected with' contraction. We
have stated that they are both the cause and the effect of contraction. The
pressure on the frog from the wiring in of the heels will produce pain and
inflammation : and the inflammation, by the increased heat and suspended
function of the part, will dispose to contraction. Horses of all ages, and
in almost all situations, are subject to thrush. The unshod colt is
frequently thus diseased.

Thrushes are not always accompanied by lameness. In a great many
3ascs the appearance of the foot is scarcely or not at all altered, and the
disease can only be detected by close examination, or the peculiar smell of

4-24 THRUSH.

the discliarge. Tlie frog may not appear to be rendered in tlie slightest
deoree tender by it, and therefore the horse may not be considered by many
as unsound. Every disease, however, should be considered as legal un-
soundness, and especially a disease which, although not attended with
present detriment, must not be neglected, for it will eventually injure and
lame the horse. All other things being right, a horse should not be
rejected because he has a slight thrush, for if the shape of the hoof is not
altered, experience tells us that the thrush is easily removed ; but if this
is not soon done, the shape of the foot and the action of the horse vv-ill be
altered, and manifest unsoundness wall result. A favourite hobby of the
late talented Professor Coleman was that pressure on the frog was the
only one thing needful to prevent contraction and thrush, and to such an
extent did he carry out tliis idea, that he took out a patent for a shoe to
cover the toe of the foot only, with a bar projecting back to cover the
frog and receive the weight of the animal : this proved to be an utter
fallacy, and was very soon abandoned. A clever modification of the same
idea has lately emanated from a very talented amateur holding an
important position, and this is, that a thin plate of wood or gutta percha
should be appHed to the frog in the stable, one end, the narrow one, being
secured under the toe of the shoe, and the other, the broad one, tied round
the hock. This is certainly a much more possible and practicable propo-
sition than that of the late Professor.

The progress of a neglected thrush, although sometimes slow, is sure.
The frog begins to contract in size — it becomes rough, ragged, brittle,
tender — the discharge is more copious and more offensive — the horn
o-radually disappears — a mass of hardened mucus usurps its place —
this easily peals off, and the sensitive frog remains exposed ; the horse
cannot bear it to be touched — fungous granulations spring from it — they
spread around — the sole becomes under-run, and canker steals over the
greater part of the foot.

There are few errors more common or more dangerous than this, that
the existence of thrush is a matter of Httle consequence, or even, as some
suppose, a benefit to the horse — a dischai'ge for superabundant humours
— and that it should not be di-ied up too quickly, and in some cases not
dried up at all. If a young colt, fat and full of blood, has a bad thrush,
with much discharge, it -will be prudent to accompany the attempt at
cure by a dose of physic or a course of diuretics. A few diuretics maj
not be injurious when we are endeavouring to dry up thrash in older
horses ; but the disease can scarcely be attacked too soon, or subdued too
rapidly, and especially when it steals on so insidiously, and has such fatal
consequences in its train. If the heels once begin to contract through the
baneful effects of thrush, it will, vsdth difficulty, or not at all, be afterwards
removed.

There are many recipes to stop a running tlirTjsh. Almost every
appHcation of an astringent, but not of too caustic nature, will have the
effect ; the best for ordinary use will be found to be the sulphate of
zinc, or white vittiol and tar ointment. The zinc should be finely pow-
dered, and used in the proportion of a drachm to one ounce of the oint-
ment; a small pledget of tow, moistened with this, should be hghtly
introduced into the cleft of the frog every evening. The common
^gyptiacum (vinegar boiled with honey and verdigrease) is a good lini-
ment; but the most effectual and the safest — drying up the discharge
speedily, but not suddenly — is a paste composed of blue vitriol, tar, and
lard, in proportions according to the virulence of the thrash.

A pledo^et of tow covered with it should be introduced as deeply as pos-
sible, yet without force, into the cleft of the frog evei'v night, and remove**

CANKER. 42&

m the morning before the horse goes to work. Attention should at the
Bame time, as in other diseases of the foot, be paid to the apparent cause
of the complaint, and that cause should be carefully ob\-iated or removed.
Before the application of the paste, the frog should be examined, and
eveiy loose part of the horn or hardened discharge removed ; and if much
of the frog is then exposed, a larger and wider piece of tow covered with
the paste may be placed over it, in addition to the pledget introduced into
the cleft of the frog. It will be necessary to preserve the frog moist while
the cure ia in progress, and this may be done by filling the feet with tow
covered by common stopping, or using the felt pad, likewise covered with
it. Turning out would be prejudicial rather than of benefit to thrushy
feet, except the dressing is continued, and the feet defended fi-om
moisture.

CANKER

Is a separation of the horn from the sensitive part of the foot, and the
sprouting of fungous growths instead of it, occupying a portion or even
the whole of the sole and frog. Nor do these constitute the only seats of
its devastations ; it turns over the lower edge of the foot, and insidiously
creeps up the front or sides, disorganising the laminse in its progress, and
this in some cases to such an extent that the connection between the
sensitive and insensitive laminte is entirely destroyed, and the hoof may
drop from the foot on the road or in the stable. It is the occasional con-
sequence of bniise, puncture, corn, quittor, and tlirush, and is exceed-
ingly difiicult to cure. It is more frequently the consequence of neglected
thrush than of any other disease of the foot, or rather it is thrush in-
volving the frog, the bars, and the sole, and making the foot one mass
of disease.

Although canker is often the result of neglected thrush, it is distin-
guished from it by its mahgnant nature, and the great tendency to the
formation of fungoid growths ; the latter are not found in ordinary
thrush.

It is offcenest found in, and is almost peculiar to the heavy breed of cart
horses, and partly resulting from constitutional predisposition. Horses
^^'ith white legs and thick skins, and much hair upon their legs, — the very
character of many dray horses, — are subject to canker, especially if they
have had an attack of grease, or their heels are habitually thick and
greasy. The disposition to canker is certainly hereditary. The dray
horse likewise has this disadvantage, that in order to give him foot-hold,
it is sometimes necessary to raise the heels of the hinder feet so hio-h, that
aU pressure on the frog is taken away ; its functions are destroyed, and it
is rendered hable to disease. Canker, however, arises most of all from the
neglect of the feet and the filthiness of the stable in these establishments.

Although canker is a disease most difficult to remove, it is easily pre-
vented. Attention to the punctures to which these heavy horses, with
their clubbed feet and brittle hoofs, are more than any others subject in
shoeing, and to the bruises and treads on the coronet, to which from their
awkwardness and weight they are so liable, and the greasy heels which a
very sUght degree of negligence will produce in them, and the stopping
of the thrushes, which are so apt in them to run on to the separation of
the horn from the sensitive frog, will most materially lessen the number
of cankered feet. Where this disease often occurs, the owner of the team
may be well assured that there is mismanagement either in himself or his
horsekeeper, or the smith, and it will rarely be a difficult matter to detect
the precise nature of that mismanagement.

The cure of canker is the business of the vetei-inary surgeon, and a

4-J6 OSSIFICATION OF THE CARTILAGES. (SIDE-BONES.j

most painftil and tedious business it is. Tlie principles on which he pro-
ceeds are, first of all, to remove the extraneous fungous growth, and for
this purpose he will need the aid of the knife and the caustic, or the
cautery, for he should cut away every portion of horn which is in the
sb'ghtest degree separated from the sensitive pai-ts beneath. He will have
to discourage the growth of fresh fungus, and to bring the foot into that
«tate in which it will again secrete healthy horn. Here he will remembei
that he has to do with the surface of the foot ; that this is a disease of the
surface only, and that there vnll be no necessity for those deeply-corroding
and torturing caustics which penetrate to the very bone. A slight and
daily appHcation of nitric acid, and that not where the new horn is form-
ing, but on the surface which continues to be diseased, and accompanied
by as firm but equal pressure as can be made — the carefiil avoidance ot
the slightest degree of moisture — the horse being exercised or worked in
the mill, or wherever the foot will not be exposed to wet, and that exer-
cise adopted as early as possible, and even from the beginning, if the
malady is confined to the sole and frog — these means will succeed if the
disease is capable of cure. Humanity, perhaps, will dictate, that, con-
sidering the long process of cure in a cankered foot, and the daily torture
of the caustic, and the suffering which would otherwise result from so
large or exposed a surface, the nerves of the leg should be divided in order
to take away the sense of pain ; and also to induce the animal to place
the foot freely to the ground, and thus produce that pressure which is so
essential to reduce these fungoid growths. But this will rarely be neces-
sary, inasmuch as it is a disease which does not generally cause much
pain. It sometimes assumes a very malignant form, and extends rapidly,
implicating the coffin-bone and other parts of the foot. In this stage of
the disease, aU attempts at cure will be fruitless, and the animal should
be destroyed.

Medicine is not of much avail in the cure of canker. It is a local
disease ; or the only cause of fear is, that so great a determination of
blood to the extremities having existed during the long progress of cure,
it may in some degree contiuue, and produce injury in another form. It
may, therefore, be prudent, when the cure of a cankered foot is nearly
effected, to subject the horse to a course of alteratives or diuretics.

OSSIFICATION OF THE CARTILAGES. ( SIDE-BONES.)
Mention has been made of the side or lateral cartilages of the foot,
occupying a considerable portion of the external side and back part
of the foot. They are designed to prevent concussion and preserve the
expansion of the upper pai-t of the foot, and especially when that of
the lower part is limited or destroyed by careless shoeing. These cartil-
ages are subject to inflammation, and the result of that inflammation
is, that the cartilages are absorbed, and bone substituted in their stead.
This ossification of the cartilages frequently accompanies ringbone, but it
may exist without any affection of the pastern joint. It is oftenest found
in horses of heavy draught. Very few heavy di-aught horses arrive at
old age without this change of structure ; and particularly if they are
much employed in the paved streets. The change commences sometimes
at the anterior part of the cartilage, but much oftcner at the posterior
and inferior part.

There are few diseases in which the influence of hereditary pre-
disposition is more apparent than in connection with ossification of the
lateral caa-tilages. So much does this prevail in some districts, and
especially in the midland counties, that it is somewhat difficult to find a
cart-horse eight or nine years old without more or less ossification of the

WEAKNESS OF THE FOOT. 427

:;artilages. Tlie extent to wliich this disease exists in these districts from
the continued pernicious system of breeding from parents affected with it,
^vill render its removal, even with the most careftil attention to breeding,
a matter attended with much difficulty, and extending over a considei'able
time. Although side-bones, as the result of hereditary predisposition, do
not as a rule cause lameness, or materially deteriorate the usefulness of
the agi'icultural horse, it should be remembered by the breeder that it is
a disease which renders the animal unsound, and consequently consider-
ably reduces his commercial value. Concussion is the most frequent ex-
citing caiise of ossification of the cartilage. ' From the combined opara-
tion ' (says Mr. W, Spooner, in his work on the ' Foot of the Horse ') ' of
great weight and high action, the feet, and particularly the heels, come
with gi'eat force on the ground. The cartilages, being embedded in the
heels of the feet, are, therefore, the parts that receive the greatest degree
of concussion, the consequence of which is that subacute inflammation is
set up, and the secreting vessels deposit ossific instead of cartilaginous
matter, in the room of that which is absorbed in the usual process of
nature.'

It sometimes arises from direct injury to the parts, such as over-reach.
"Wlien the result of the latter, the ossification is confined to the injured
cartilage. Side-bones are more frequently met with in the fore than in
the hind-feet, but when hereditary, all the feet will not unfrequently be
found affected.

No evident inflammation of the foot, or great, or perhaps even per-
ceptible lameness, accompanies this change ; a mere shght degTee of
stiJffness may have been observed, which, in a horse of more rapid pace,
would have been lameness. Even when the change is completed, there is
not in any cases anything more than a slight increase of stifl"ness, little,
or not at all, interfering vrith the usefulness of the horse. When this
altered structure appears in the lighter horse, the lameness is more decided,
and means should be taken to arrest the progress of the change. These
are bhsters or firing ; but after the parts have become bony, no operation
will restore the cartilage. When the ossific deposit is thrown out on one
side of the foot only, which not unfrequently occurs, the operation of
neurotomy on the affected side will, as has been before stated, be found a
very valuable remedy.

Connected with ringbone the lameness may be very great. This has
been spoken of.

WEAKNESS OP THE FOOT.

This is more accurately a bad formation than a disease ; often, indeed,
the result of disease, but in many instances the natural construction of
the foot. The term iceah foot is familiar to every horseman, and the con-
sequence is too severely felt by all who have to do wdth horses. In the
slanting of the crust from the coronet to the toe, a less angle is almost
invariably formed, amounting probably to not more than forty instead of
forty-five degrees ; and after the horse has been worked for one or two
years, the line is not straight, but a Httle indented or hollow, midway
between the coronet and the toe. This has been described as the accom-
paniment of pumiced feet, but it is often seen in weak feet, that, although
they might become pumiced by severity of work, do not otherwise have
the sole convex. The crust is not only less oblique than it ought to be,
but it has not the smooth even appearance of the good foot. The surface
is sometimes irregularly roughened, but it is much oftener roughened
in circles or rings. The form of the crust likewise presents too much
the appearance of a cone ; the bottom of the foot is unnaturally wide in

♦•2S WEAKNESS OF THE FOOT.

proportion to the corouet ; and the whole of the foot is generally, buL not
always, larger than it should be.

"WTien the foot is lifted, it will often present a round and circular
ri,ppearance, with a fulness of frog that would mislead the inexperienced,
and indeed be considered as almost the perfection of structure ; but, beino*
examined more closely, many glaring defects will be seen. The sole is
5at, and the smith finds that it will bear little or no paring. The bars are
email in size. They are not cut away by the smith, but they can be
scarcely said to have any existence. The heels are low, so low that the
very coronet seems almost to touch the ground ; and the crust, if examined,
appears scarcely thick enough to hold the nails.

Horses with these feet can never stand much work. They will be
subject to corns, to bruises of the sole, to convexity of the sole, to punc-
tures in nailing, to breaking away of the crust, to inflammation of the
foot, and to sprain and injury of the pastern, and the fetlock, and the flexor
tendon.

These feet admit of little improvement. Shoeing as seldom as may be,
and with a light and yet concave web and leather soles : little or no parinc
at the time of shoeing, and as little violent work as possible, and especially
on rough roads, may protract for a long period the evil day, but he who
buys a horse with these feet will sooner or later have cause to repent his
bargain.

Management of the Feet. — This is a part of stable management that is
often sadly neglected by the carter and groom. The feet should be carefully
examined every morning, for the shoes may be loose, and the horse would
have been stopped in the middle of his work ; or the clenches may be
raised, and endanger the wounding of his legs ; or the shoe may begin to
press upon the sole or the heel, and bruises of the sole, or corn, may be
the result ; and, the horse having stood so long in the stable, every little
increase of heat in the foot, or lameness, will be more readily detected,
and serious disease may often be prevented.

When the horse comes in at night, and after the harness has been taken
ofi" and stowed away, the heels should be well brushed out. Hand- rub-
bing will be preferable to washing, especially in the agricultural horse,
whose heels, covered with long hair, can scarcely be dried again. If the
dirt is suffered to accumulate in that long hair, the heels will become sore,
and grease will follow ; and if the heels are washed, and particularly during
the winter, grease will result from the coldness occasioned by the slow
evaporation of the moisture. The feet should be stopped — even the feet
of the farmer's horse, if he remains in the stable. Very Httle clay should
be used in the stopping, for it will get hard and press upon the sole. Cow-
dung is the best stopping to preserve the feet cool and elastic ; but, before
the stopping is applied, the picker should be run round the whole of the
foot, between the shoe and the sole, in order to detect any stone that may
have insinuated itself there, or a wound on any other part of the sole.
For the hackney and hunter, stopping is indispensable. After several
days' hard work, it will aff'ord very great relief to take the shoes off", having
put plenty of litter under the horse, or to turn him, if possible, into a
loose-box ; and the shoes of every horse, whether hardly worked or not,
should be removed or changed once in every three weeks.

ON SHOEING. 4'i9

CHAPTER XX.

ON SIIOEIXG.

The period when the shoe began to be nailed to the foot of th^ horse is
uncertain. William the Norman introduced it into our country.

"We have seen, in the progress of our inquiry, that, while it affords to
the foot of the horse that defence which seems now to be necessary against
the destructive effects of our artificial and flinty roads, it has entailed on
the animal some evils. It has limited or destroyed the beautiful expansi-
bility of the lower part of the foot — it has led to contraction, although
that contraction has not always been accompanied by lameness — in the
most careful fixing of the best shoe, and in the carel&ss manufacture and
setting on of the bad one, irreparable injury has occasionally been done to
the horse.

We will first attend to the preparation of the foot for the shoe, for more
than is generally imagined, of its comfort to the horse, and its safety to
the rider, depends on this. If the master would occasionally accompany
the horse to the forge, more expense to himself and punishment to the
horse would be spared, than, perhaps, he would think possible, provided he
will take the pains to understand the matter himself, otherwise he had
better not interfere.

The old shoe must be first taken off. We have something to observe
even here. The shoe was retained on the foot by the ends of the nails
being tAvisted off, turned down, and clenched. These clenches should be
first raised, which the smith seldom takes the trouble thoroughly to do ;
but after looking carelessly round the crust and loosening one or two of
the clenches, he takes hold first of one heel of the shoe, and then of the
other, and by a violent wrench separates them from the foot ; then, by
means of a third wrench, applied to the middle of the shoe, he tears it
off. By these means he must enlarge every nail-hole, and weaken the
future and steady hold of the shoe, and sometimes tear off portions of the
crust, and otherwise injure the foot. The horse generally shows by his
flinching that he suffers from the violence with which this preliminary
operation too often is performed. The clenches should always be raised
•off; and, where the foot is tender, or the horse is to be examined for lame-
ness, each nail should be partly punched out. According to the common
system of procedure, many a stub is left in the crust, the source of future
annoyance.

The shoe having been removed, the smith proceeds to rasp the edges of
the crust. Let not the stander-by object to the apparent violence which he
uses, or fear that the foot will suffer. It is the only means that he has to
detect whether any stubs remain in the nail-holes ; and it is the most con-
venient method of removing that portion of the crast into which dirt and
gravel have insinuated themselves.

Next comes the important process of paring out, with regard to which
it is almost impossible to lay down any specific rules. This, however, is
undoubted, that far more injury has been done by the neglect of paring
than by carrying it to too great an extent. The act of paring is a work
of much more labour than the proprietor of the horse often imagines. The
smith, except he is overlooked, will frequently give himself as little trouble
about it as he can ; and that portion of horn which, in the unshod foot,
<vould be worn away by contact with the ground, is suffered to accumulate

430 ON SHOEING.

month after month, until the elasticity of the sole is destroyed, and it can
no longer descend, and its other functions are impeded, and foundation is
laid for com, and contraction, and inflammation, and navicular disease.
That portion of horn should be left on the foot which will defend the in-
ternal parts from being bruised, and yet suffer the external sole to descend.
How is this to be ascertained? The strong pressure of the thumb of the
smith will be the best guide. The buttress, that most destructive of all
instruments, being, except on very particular occasions, banished from
eveiy respectable forge, the smith sets to work with his dra"n^ng-knife, and
removes the growth of horn, until the sole will yield, although in the
slightest possible degree, to the strong pressure of his thumb. The proper-
thickness of horn will then remain.

K the foot has been pre\nously neglected, and the horn is become very
hard, the OAvner must not object if the smith resorts to some other means-
to soften it a little, and takes one of his flat irons, and having heated it,
draws it over the sole, and keeps it, a little while, in contact with the foot.
When the sole is really thick, this rude and apparently barbarous method
can do no harm, but it should never be permitted with the sole that is
regularly pared out.

The quantity of horn to be removed in order to leave the proper degree
of tliickness will vary with different feet. From the strong foot a great
deal must be taken. From the concave foot the horn may be removed
until the sole will yield to a moderate pressure. From the flat foot little
needs to be pared ; while the pumiced foot should be deprived of nothing
but the ragged parts.

The paring being nearly completed, the knife and the rasp of the smith
must be a httle watched, or he will reduce the crust to a level with the
sole, and thus endanger the bruising of it by its pressure on the edge of
the seating. The crust should be reduced to a perfect level, all round, but
left a little higher than the sole.

The heels will requii-e considerable attention. From the stress which is
thrown on the inner heel, and from the weakness of the quarter there, the
horn usually wears away considerably faster than it would on the outer
one, and if an equal portion of horn were pared from it, it would be left
lower than the outer heel. The smith should, therefore, accommodate his
paring to the comparative wear of the heels, and be exceedingly careful to
leave them precisely level.

If the reader will recollect what has been said of the intention and
action of the bars, he will readily perceive that the smith should be checked
in his almost universal fondness for opening the heels, or, more truly,
removing that which is the main impediment to contraction. The portion
of the heels between the inflexion of the bar and the frog should scarcely
bo touched — at least the ragged and detached parts alone should be cut
away. The foot may not look so fair and open, but it vnH last longer
without contraction.

The bar, likewise, should be left fully prominent, not only at its first
inflexion, but as it runs down the side of the frog. The heel of the shoe
is designed to rest partly on the heel of the foot and partly on the bar, for
reasons that have been already stated. If the bar is weak, the growth of
it should be encouraged ; and it should be scarcely touched when the horse
is shod, unless it has attained a level with the crust. The reader will
recollect the observation which has been already made, that the destruction
of the bars not only leads to contraction by removing the grand impedi-
ment to it, but by adding a still more powerful cause in the slanting
direction which is given to the bearing at the heels, yrhen the bar does not
contribute to the support of the weight.

THK PUTTLVG OX OP THE SHOE. 431

It Avil] also he apparent that the horn between the crust and the ba?
Bhould be carefully pared out. Every horseman has observed the relief
which is given to the animal lame with corns when this angle is well
thinned. This relief, however, is often but temporary; for when the
bom grows again, and the shoe presses tipon it, the torture of the horse is
renewed.

The degree of paring to which the frog must be subjected -will depend
on its prominence, and on the shape of the foot. The pi-inciple has already
been stated, that it must be left so far projecting and prominent, that it
shall be just within and above the lower surface of the shoe ; it will then
descend with the sole sufficiently to discharge the functions that have been
attributed to it. If it is lower, it will be bruised and injured ; if it is
higher, it cannot come in contact with the ground, and thus be enabled to
do its duty. The ragged parts must be removed, and especially those
occasioned by thrush, but the degree of paring must dejiend entirely on
the principle just stated.

It appears, then, that the office of the smith requires some skill and judo--
ment in order to be properly discharged ; and the proprietor of horses will
find it his interest occasionally to visit the forge, and complain of the care-
less, or idle, or obstinate fellow, while he rewards by some trifling gratuity
the expert and diligent workman. He should like-wise remember that a
great deal more depends on the paring out of the foot than on the construc-
tion of the shoe ; that few shoes, except they press upon the sole, or are
made outrageously bad, wiU. lame the horse ; but that he may be very easily
lamed from ignorant and improper paring out of the foot.

THE PUTTING ON OF THE SHOE.

The foot being thus prepared, the smith looks about for a shoe. He should
select one that as nearly as possible fits the foot, or may be easily altered,
to the foot. He will sometimes, and especially if he is an idle and reckless
fellow, care little about this, for he can easily alter the foot to the shoe.
The toe-knife is a very convenient instrument for him, and plenty of horn
can be struck ofi" with it, or removed by the rasp, in order to make the foot
as small as the shoe ; while he cares little, although by this destructive
method the crust is materially thinned where it should receive the nail,
and the danger of puncture and of pressure upon the sole is increased ; and
a foot so artificially diminished in size will soon grow over the shoe, to the
hazard of considerable or permanent lameness.

While the horse is travelling, dirt and gravel are apt to insinuate them-
selves between the web of the shoe and the sole. If the shoe were flat-,
they would be pennanently retained there, and would bruise the sole, and
be productive of injury ; but when the shoe is properly bevelled off", it is
scarcely possible for them to remain. They must be shaken out almost
every time that the foot comes in contact with the ground.

The web of the shoe is likewise of that thickness that when the foot is
properly pared, the prominent part of the frog shall lie just within and
above its ground sru-face, so that in the descent of the sole the frog shall
come sufficiently on the ground to enable it to act as a wedge and to
expand the quarters, while it is defended from the wear and injury it would
receive if it came on the ground with the first and full shock of the
weight.

Tlie nail-holes are, on the ground side, placed as near the outer edge of
the shoe as they can safely be, and brought out near the inner edge of the
seating. The nails thus take a direction inward, resembling that of the
crust itself, and have firmer hold, while the strain upon them in the-

A'V2 CALKIXS.

common shoe is altogether prevented, and the weight of the horse being
thrown on a flat surface, contraction is not so likely to be produced.

The smith sometimes objects to the use of this shoe on account of its not
being so easily formed as one composed of a bar of iron, either flat or a
little bevelled. It likewise occupies more time in the forging ; but these
objections would vanish when the owner of the horse declared that he
would have him shod elsewhere, or when he consented — as, injustice, ha
should — to pay somewhat more for a shoe that required better workman-
ship and longer time in the construction.

It is expedient not only that the foot and ground surface of the shoe
should be most accurately level, but that the crust should be exactly
smoothed and fitted to the shoe. Much skill and time are necessary to do
this perfectly with the drawing-knife. The smith has adopted a method
of more quickly and more accurately adapting the shoe to the foot. He
pares the crust as level as he can, and then he brings the shoe to the heat
somewhat below a red-heat, and applies it to the foot, and detects any Uttle
elevations by the deeper colour of the burnt horn. This practice has
been much inveighed against ; but it is the abuse, and not the use of the
thing, which is to be condemned. If the shoe is not too hot, nor held too
long on the foot, an accuracy of adjustment is thus obtained which the
knife would be long in producing, or would not produce at all. If, how-
ever, the shoe is made to burn its way to its seat, with little or no pre-
vious preparation of the foot, the heat must be injurious both to the sensi-
tive and insensitive parts of the foot.

The heels of the shoe should be examined as to their proper width.
Whatever is the custom of shoeing the horses of dealers, and the too pre-
valent practice in the metropoHs of giving the foot an open appearance,
although the posterior part of it is thereby exposed to injury, nothing is
more certain than that, in the horse destined for road- work, the heels, and
particularly the seat of com, can scarcely be too weU covered. Part of
the shoe projecting externally can be of no possible good, but will prove
an occasional source of mischief, and especially in a heavy country. A
shoe, the web of which projects inward as far as it can without touching
the frog, afibrds protection to the angle between the bars and the crust.

Of the manner of attaching the shoe to the foot the oTVTier can
scarcely be a competent judge ; he can only take care that the shoe
itself shall not be heavier than the work requires — that, for work a
little hard the shoe shall still be light, with a bit of steel welded into
the toe — that the nails shall be as small, and as few, and as far from
the heels as may be consistent with the security of the shoe ; and that for
light work at least, the shoe shall not be driven on so closely and firmly
as is often done, nor the poiiits of the nails be brought out so high up aa
is generally practised.

CALKINS.
There are few cases in which the use of calkins (a turning up or eleva-
tion of the heel) can be admissible in the fore-feet, except in frosty weather,
when it may in some degree prevent unpleasant or dangerous slipping.
If, however, calkins are used, they should be placed on both sides.
If the outer heel only is raised with the calkin, as is too often the case, the
weight cannot be thrown evenly on the foot, and undue straining and in-
jury of some part of the foot or of the leg must be the necessary conse-
quence. Few things deserve more the attention of the horseman than
this most absurd and injurious of all the practices of the forge. One quarter
of an hour's walking, with one side of the shoe or boot raised considerably
nlK>ve the other, will painfally convince us of what the horse must sufibr

CLIPS. — DIFFERENT KINDS OF SHOES 433

from this too common method of shoeing. It cannot be exciised even in
the hunting shoe. If the horse is ridden far to cover, or galloped over
much hard and flinty ground, he will inevitably suffer from this unequal
distribution of the weight. If the calkin is put on the outer heel, in order
to prevent the horse from shpping, either the horn of that heel should be
lowered to a corresponding degree, or the other heel of the shoe should be
raised to the same level by a gradual thickening. Of the use of calkins in
the hinder foot we shall presently speak.

CLIPS.

These are portions of the upper edge of the shoe, hammered out, and
turned up so as to embrace the lower part of the crust, and which is
usually pared out a little, in order to receive the chp. They are very use-
ful, as more securely attaching the shoe to the foot, and reheving the crust
from that stress upon the nails which would otherwise be injurious. A clip
at the toe is almost necessary in every di"aught horse, and absolutely so
in the horse of heavy draught, in order to prevent the shoe from being
loosened or torn off by the pressui'e which is thrown upon the toe in the
act of drawing. A cHp on the outside of each shoe, at the beginning of
the quarters, will give security to it. CHps are likewise necessary on the
shoes of all heavy horses, and of all others who are disposed to stamp, or
violently paw with their feet, and thus incur the danger of displacing the
shoe ; but they are evils, inasmuch as they press upon the crust as it grows
down, and they should only be used when circumstances absolutely require
them. In the hunter's shoe they are not required at the sides. One at
the toe is sufficient.

THE HINDER SHOE.

In forming the hinder shoes it should be remembered that the hind limbs
are the principal instruments in progression, and that in every act of pro-
gression, except the walk, the toe is the point on which the whole frame of
the animal turns, and from which it is propelled. This part, then, should
be strengthened as much as possible ; and, therefore, the hinder shoes are
made thicker at the toe than the fore ones. Another good effect is pro-
duced by this, that, the hinder foot being shortened, there is less danger of
overreaching or forging, and especially if the shoe is wider on the foot sur-
face than on the ground one. The shoe is thus made to slope inward, and
is a little within the toe of the crust.

The shape of the hinder foot is somewhat different from that of the fore
foot. It is straighter in the quartei-s, and the shoe must have the same
form. For carriage and draught horses generally, calkins may be put on
the heels, because the animal will be thus enabled to dig his toe more
firmly into the ground, and urge himself forward, and throw his weight
into the collar with gTeater advantage : but the calkins must not be too
high, and they must be of an equal height on each heel, otherwise, as has
been stated with regard to the fore feet, the weight will not be faii'ly dis-
tributed over the foot, and some part of the foot or the leg will materially
suffer. The nails in the hinder shoe may be placed nearer to the heel
than in the fore shoe, because, from the comparatively little weight and
concussion throvsTi on the hinder feet, there is not so much danger of
contraction.

DIFFERENT KINDS OF SHOES.
The shoe must vary in substance and weight with the kind of foot, and
the nature of the work. A weak foot should never wear a heavy shoe, nor
any foot a shoe that will last longer than a month. Here, perhaps, we

434

THE CONCAVE-SEATED SHOE,

may be permitted to caution tlie horse-proprietor against having his cattle
shod by contract, unless he binds down his farrier or veterinary surgeon to
remove the shoes once at least in every month ; for if the contractor, by a
heavy shoe, and a little steel, can cause five or six weeks to intervene be-
tween the shoeings, he will do so, although the feet of the horse must
necessarily suffer. The shoe should never be heavier than the work
requires, for an ounce or two in the weight of the shoe will sadly tell at
the end of a hard day's work. This is acknowledged in the hunting shoe,
which is narrower and lighter than that of the hackney, although the foot
of the haokney is smaller than that of the hunter. It is more decidedly
acknowledged in the racer, who wears a shoe only sufiiciently thick to
prevent it from bending when it is used.

THE CONCAVE-SEATED SHOE.
The proper form and construction of the shoe is a subject deserving of
very serious enquiry, for it is most important to ascertain, if possible, the
kind of shoe that will do the least mischief to the feet. A cut is subjoined
of that which is useful and valuable for general purposes. It is employed
in many of our best forges, and promises gradually to supersede the flat
and the simple concave shoe.

It presents a perfectly flat surface to the ground, in order to give as
many points of bearing as possible, except that, on the outer edge, there is
a groove of fuller, in which the nail-holes are punched, so that, sinking
into the fuller, their heads project but a little way, and are soon worn down
level with the shoe. The ground surface of the common shoe used in the
country is somewhat convex, and the inner rim of the shoe comes first on
the ground : the consequence of this is, that the weight, instead of being
borne fairly on the crust, is supported by the nails and clinches, which
must be injurious to the foot, and often chip and break it.

The web of this shoe is of the same thickness throughout, from the toe
to the heel ; and it is sufficiently wide to guard the. sole from bruises, and,
as much so as the frog will permit, to cover the seat of corn.

On the foot side it is seated. The outer part of it is accurately flat, and

THE UNILATERAL, OR ONE SIDE NAILED SHOE. 436

of the width of tlie cnist, and designed to support the crust, for by it tho
whole weight of the horse is sustained.

Towards the heel this flattened part is wider and occupies the whole
breadth of the web, in order to support the heel of the crust, and its
reflected part — the bar : thus, while it defends the horn included within
this angle from injury, it gives that equal pressure upon the bar and the
crust, which is the best preventive against corns, and a powerful obstacle
to contraction.

It is fastened to the foot by nine nails — five on the outside, and four on
the inner side of the shoe ; those on the outside extending a Httle farther
down towards the heel, because the outside heel is thicker and stronger,
and there is more nail -hold ; the last nail on the inner quarter being farther
from the heel on account of the weakness of that quarter. For feet not too
large, and where moderate work only is required from the horse, four nails
on the outside, and three on the inside, will be suflicient ; and the last nail
being far from the heels, will allow more expansion there.

The inside part of the web is bevelled off, or rendered concave, that it
may not press upon the sole. Notwithstanding our iron fetter, the sole
does, although to a very inconsiderable extent, descend when the foot of
the horse is put on the ground. It is unable to bear constant or even
occasional pressure, and if it came in contact with the shoe, the sensitive sole
between it and the cofl&n-bone would be blTiised, and lameness would
ensue. Many of our horses, from too early and undue work, have the
natural concave sole flattened, and the disposition to descend and the
degree of descent are thereby increased. The concave shoe prevents, even
in this case, the possibility of much injury, because the sole can never
descend in the degree in which the shoe is or may be bevelled, A shoe
bevelled still farther is necessary to protect the projecting or pumiced foot.

THE UNILATEEAL, OR ONE SIDE NAILED SHOE.

For a material improvement in the art of shoeing, we are indebted to
Mr. Turner of Regent Street. What was the state of the foot of the horse
a few years ago ? An unyielding iron hoof was attached to it by four
nails in each quarter, and the consequence was, that in nine cases out of
ten, the foot underwent a very considerable alteration in its form and in its
usefulness. Before it had attained its full development — before the
animal was five years old, there was, in a great many cases, an evident
contraction of the hoof. There was an alteration in the manner of going.
The step was shortened, the sole was hollowed, the frog was diseased, the
general elasticity of the foot was destroyed — there was a disorganisation
of the whole homy cavity, and the value of the horse was materially
diminished. What was the grand cause of this ? It was the restraint of
the shoe. The firm attachment of it to the foot by nails in each quarter,
and the consequent strain to which the quarters and every part of tho
foot were exposed, produced a necessary tendency to contraction, from
which sprang almost all the maladies to which the foot of the horse is
subject.

The unilateral shoe has this great advantage : it is identified with the
grand principle of the expansibility of the horse's foot, and of removing or
preventing the worst ailments to which the foot of the horse is liable. It
can be truly stated of this shoe, that while it affords to the whole organ an
iron defence equal to the common shoe, it permits, what the common shoe
never did or can do, the perfect liberty of the foot.

We are enabled to present our readers with the last improvement of the
nnilateral shoe.

ff2

43G

THE UNILATERAL, OR ONE SIDE NAILED SHOE.

The first cut gives a view of the outer side of the off or right uni-
lateral shoe. The respective situations of the five nails will be observed ;

the distance of the last from the heel, and the proper situations at which
they emerge from the crust. The two clips will likewise be seen— one in
the front of the foot, and the other on the side between the last and second
nail.

The second cut gives a \'iew of the inner side of the unilateral shoe.
The two nails near the toe are in the situation in wliich Mr. Turner directs
that they should be placed, and behind them is no other attachment, be-
tween the shoe and the crust. The heel of this shoe exhibits the method
which Mr. Turner has adopted, and with considerable success, for the cure
of coras ; he cuts away a portion of the ground surface at the heel, and
all injurious compression or concussion is rendered in a manner im-
possible in ordinary cases ; however, Avith the exception of being rathe?
thinner the inside heel of the shoe would be the counterpart of the outer.

There can be no doubt that this one-sided nailing has been exceedingly
nseful. It has, in many a case that threatened a serious termination,
lostored the elasticity of the foot, and enabled it to discharge its natural
functions.

THE HUNTING SHOE. — THE BAR-SHOE. 437

Altliougli tlie unilateral shoe Las still its advocates, they arc few com-
pared with the period when it was first introduced. This may be attributed
partly to the different views taken with reference to the expansion of the
foot, and also from the great difficulty in fixing it securely on the foot.
It is an exceedingly useful method of shoeing, in some cases, but for ordi-
nary work no shoe equals the ordinary seven-nailed concave-seated shoe.

It is difficult to tell what was the character of ' the old English shoe.'
It certainly was larger than there was any occasion for it to be, and nearly
covered tha lower surface of the foot. The nail-holes were also far more
numerous than they are at present. The ground side was usually some-
what convex. ' The effect of this,' says Mr. W. C. Spooner, in his
treatise on the Foot, ' was to place the foot in a kind of hollow dish, which
effectually prevented its proper expansion, the crust resting on a mere
ledge instead of a flat surface ; and, on the ground side, from the inner
rim coming to the ground first, the weight was almost supported by the
nails and cHnches, which were placed, four or five on each side, at soTue
distance from the toe, and approaching nearly to the heels.'

It was an improvement to make the ground surface flat, and to take care
that it did not press on the sole. At length, however, came the concave-
seated shoe of Osmer, which was advocated by Mr. Clark of Edinburgh,
improved by Mr. Moorcroft, and ultimately became very generally and
usefully adopted.

THE HUNTING SHOE.
The hunter's shoe is different from that commonly used, in form as well
as in weight. It is not so much bevelled off as the common concave-seated
shoe. Sufficient space alone is left for the introduction of a picker between
the shoe and the sole, otherwise, in going over heavy ground, the clay
would insinuate itself, and by its tenacity loosen, and even tear off the shoe.
The heels likewise are somewhat shorter, that they may not be torn off by
the toe of the hind-feet when galloping fast, and the outer heel is frequently
but injudiciously turned up to prevent shpping. If calkins are necessary,
both heels should have an equal bearing.

THE BAE-SHOE.

A bar-shoe is often exceedingly useful. It is the common shoe with the
heels carried round to meet each other, thus forming a bar, which covers
or rests on, as the case may require, the frog, and from whence the name
is derived, and by means of it the pressure may be taken off from some
tender part of the foot, and thrown on another which is better able to bear
it, or more widely and equally diffused over the whole foot. It is principally
resorted to iu cases of corn, the seat of which it perfectly covers, — in
pumiced feet, the soles of which may be thus elevated above the ground
and secured from pressure, — in sand-crack, when the pressure may be
removed from the fissure, and thrown on either side of it, — and in thrushes,
when the frog is tender, or is become cankered, and requires to be fre-
quently dressed, and the dressing can by this means alone be retained. In
these cases the bar-shoo is an excellent contrivance, if worn only for one
or two shoeings, or as long as the disease requires it to be worn, but it
must be left off as soon as it can be dispensed with.

If it is used for the protection of a diseased foot, however it may be
chambered and laid off the frog, it will soon become flattened upon it ; or
if the pressure of it is thrown on the frog, in order to relieve the sand-
crack or the com, that frog must be very strong and healthy which can
long bear the great and continued pressure. More mischief is often pro-
duced in the frog than previously existed ia the part that was relieved.

433 TIPS. THE EXPANDING SHOE.

It will be plain tliat in the use of the bar-shoe for corn or sand-crack, tha
crust and the frog should be precisely on a level : the bar also should bo
the widest part of the shoe, in order to afford as extended a bearing as
possible on the frog, and therefore less likely to be injurious. Bar-shoea
are evidently not safe in frosty weather. They are never safe when
much speed is required from the horse, and they are apt to be wrenched
off in a heavy, clayey country.

TIPS.

Tips are short shoes, reaching only half round the foot, and worn while
the horse is at grass, in order to prevent the crust being torn by the
occasional hardness of the ground, or the pawing of the animal. The
quarters at the same time being free, the foot disposed to contract has a
chance of expanding and regaining its natural shape.

THE EXPANDING SHOE.

Our subject would not be complete if we did not describe the supposed
expanding shoe, although it is now almost entirely out of use. It is either
seated or concave like the common shoe, with a joint at the toe, by which
the natural expansion of the foot is said to be permitted, and the injurious
consequences of shoeing prevented. There is, however, this radical defect
in the jointed shoe, that the nails occupy the same situation as in the common
shoe, and prevent, as they do, the gradual expansion of the sides and
quarters, and allow only of a hinge-like motion at the toe. It is a most
imperfect accommodation of the expansion of the foot to the action of its
internal parts, and even this accommodation is afforded in the slightest
possible degree, if it is afforded at all. Either the nails fix the sides and
quarters as in the common shoe, and then the joint at the toe is useless ;
or, if that joint merely opens like a hinge, the nail-holes near the toe can
no longer correspond mth those in the quarters, which are unequally ex-
panding at every point. There will be more stress on the crust at these
holes, which will not only enlarge them and destroy the fixed attachment
of the shoe to the hoof, but often tear away portions of the crust. This
shoe, in order to answer the intended purpose, should consist of many
joints, running along the sides and quarters, which would make it too
complicated and expensive and frail for general use. The introduction of
this shoe into general use, was for the greater portion of his life the main
object of that very scientific and acute professor of the veterinary art, Mr.
Bray Clark, and it is only within these few years, that finding the uncer-
tainty of its effects more than negatived its supposed advantages, that he
has given it up.

While the shoe is to be attached to the foot by nails, wo must be content
with the concave-seated or unilateral one, taking care lo place the nail-
holes as far from the heels, and particularly from the inner heel, as the state
of the foot and the nature of the work will admit ; and where the country
is not too heavy nor the work too severe, omitting all but two on the inn
side of the foot.

FELT OR LEATHER SOLES,

When the foot is bruised or inflamed the concussion or shock produced
by the hard contact of the elastic iron with the ground gives the animal
much pain, and aggravates the injury or disease. A strip of felt or leather,
corresponding in shape with the shoe, is therefore sometimes placed between
the seating of the shoe and the crust, which, from its elasticity, deadens or
materially lessens the vibration or shock, and the horse treads more freely
and is evidently relieved. This is a good contrivance while the inflamma-

FELT OR LEATHER SOLES. 4a9

fcion 01 tenderness of the foot continues, bnt a very bad practice if constantly
adopted. The nails cannot be driven so surely or securely when this sub-
stance is interposed between the shoe and the foot. The contraction and
swelling of the felt or leather from the effect of moisture or dryness will
soon render the attachment of the shoe less firm — there will be too much
play upon the nails — the nail-holes will enlarge, and the cnist be broken
away.

After wounds or extensive bruises of the sole, or where the sole is thin
and flat and tender, it is sometimes covered with a piece of leather, fitted
to the sole, and nailed on Avith the shoe. This may be allowed as a terc-
porary defence of the foot ; but there is the same objection to its permanent
use from the insecurity of fastening, and the strain on the crust, and the
frequent chipping of it. There are also these additional inconveniences, that
if the hollow between the sole and the leather is filled with stopping and
tow, it is exceedingly difficult to introduce them so evenly and accurately
as not to produce partial or injurious pressure. The long contact of the
sole with stopping of almost every kind will produce a healthy, elastic
horn, and if the hollow is not thus filled, gravel and dirt will insinuate
themselves, and injure the foot. Facts, however, are stubborn things, and
it is notorious that there are hundreds of horses doing their daily work
over the London stones, with comparative comfort, that otherwise would
be actual cripples working in pain and misery. Axiy alleviation to the
artificial and laborious hfe of the horse in London and other large cities,
must be hailed with satisfaction for its policy and humanity.

The general habit of stopping the feet requires some consideration. It
is a very good or a very bad practice, according to circumstances. When
the sole is flat and thin it should be omitted, except on the evening before
shoeing, and then the application of a little moisture may render the paring
of the foot safer and more easy. K it were oftener used it would soften
the foot, and not only increase the tendency to descent, but the occasional
occurrence of lameness from pebbles or irregularities of the road.

Professor Stewart gives a valuable account of the proper appHcation of
stopping. ' Farm horses seldom require any stopping. Their feet receive
sufficient moisture in the fields, or, if they do not get much, they do not
need much. Cart-horses used in the to^vn should be stopped every Satur-
day night, until Monday morning. Fast going horses should be stopped
once a week, or oftener during winter, and every second night in the hot
weeks of summer. Groggy horses, and all those with high heels, concave
shoes, or hot and tender feet, or an exuberance of horn, require stopping
almost every night. When neglected, especially in dry weather, the sole
becomes hard and rigid, and the horse goes lame, or becomes lame if he
were not so before.'

One of two substances, or a mixture of both, is generally used for
stopping the feet — clay and cow-dung. The clay used alone is too hard,
and dries too rapidly. Many horses have been lamed by it. If it is used
in the stable, it should always be removed before the horse goes to work.
It may, perhaps, be applied to the feet of heavy draught horses, for it will
work out before much mischief is done.

Cow-dung is softer than the clay, and it has this good property, that it
rarely or never becomes too hard or dry. For ordinary work, a mixture
of equal parts of clay and cow-dung will be the best appHcation ; either of
them, however, must be apphed with a great deal of caution, where there
is any disposition to thrush. Tow used alone, or with a small quantity of
tar, will often be serviceable.

In the better kind of stables a felt pad is frequently used. It was first
introduced by principal Veterinary Surgeon Cherry. It keeps the foot cool

440

THE HORSE SANDAL.

and moifet, and is very useful, when the sole has a tendency to become flat.
For the concave sole, tow would be preferable.

The shoe is sometimes displaced when the horse is going at an ordinary
pace, and more frequently during hunting ; and no person who is a sports-
man needs to be told in what a vexatious predicament every one feels him-
self who happens to lose a shoe in the middle of a chase, or just as tho
hounds are getting clear away with their fox over the open country.

Mr. Percivall has invented a sandal which occupies a very small space
in the pocket, can be buckled on the foot in less than two minutes, and
will serve as a perfect substitute for the lost one, on the road or in the field ;
or may be used for the race-horse when travelling from one course to
another ; or may be truly serviceable in cases of diseased feet that may
require at the same time exercise and daily dressing. The following is a
short sketch of the horse sandal.

Toe-ClasD

Middle Bar
Side Bar

Heel Clip

Middle Bar
Side Bar

Heel CUp

Rings

From an inspection of this cut it will be seen, that the shoe, or iron part
of the sandal, consists of three principal parts, to which the others are
appendages ; which are, the tip, so called from its resemblance to the
horse-shoe of that name ; the middle oar, the broad part proceeding back-
ward from the tip ; and the side bars, or branches of the middle bar,
extending to the heels of the hoof. The appendages are, the toe-clasp,
the part projecting from the front of the tip, and which moves by a hinge
upon the toe-clip, which toe-clasp is furnished with two iron loops. The
heel-clips are two clips at the heels of the side bars which correspond to the
toe-clip ; the latter embracing the toe of the crust, while the former em-
brace its heels. Through the heel-clips run the rings, which move and act
like a hinge, and are double, for the purpose of admitting both the straps.
In the plate, the right ring only is represented ; the left being omitted,
the better to show the heel-clip. The straps, which are composed of web,
consist of a hoof^strap and a heel and coronet strap.

The hoof-strap is furnished Avitli a buckle, Avhosc office it is to bind the

FRACTURES. 441

shoe to the hoof; for which purpose it is passed through the lower rings
and both loops of the shoe, and is made to encircle the hoof twice.

The heel and coronet strap is furnished %%dth two pads and two sliding
loops • one, a moveable pad, reposes on the heel, to defend that part from
the pressure and friction of the strap; the other, a pad attached to the
Btrap near the buckle, affords a similar defence to the coronet, m front.
The heel-strap runs through the upper rings, crosses the heel, and encircles
the coronet, and its office is to keep the heels of the shoe closely applied
to the hoof, and to prevent them from sliding forward •. j -i

In the apphcation of the sandal the foot is taken up with one hand, and
the shoe slipped upon it -o-ith the other. With the same hand the shoe is
retained in its place, while the foot is gradually let doA^^l to rest on the
ground. As soon as this is done, the straps are drawn as tight as possible
and buckled.

The above cut presents an accurate delineation of the sandal, when
properly fastened on the foot. The apphcation of the sandal has recently
been considerably simpHfied and improved, the toe-clip has but a single
loop, and the heel-chps each a single ring ; a vulcanised mdia-rubber band,
which is slipped over the hoof, effectually secures the sandal; the front part
of the band is retamed in front of the hoof by the loop of the toe-clip ; the
back part being slipped over the heels, prevents all displacement.

CHAPTER XXI.

FRACTURES.

Accidents of this description are not of frequent occurrence, but when
they do happen it is not always that the mischief can be repaired ; occa-
sionally, however, and much more frequently than is generally imagmed,
the life of a valuable animal might be saved if the owner, or the veterinary
surcreon, would take a little trouble, and the patient is fairly tractable ;
and^'that, in the majority of cases, he will soon become. The number of

442 FRACTURES.

valuable animals is far too great that are destroyed under a confused
notion of tlie diflEiculties of controlling the patient, or the incurable
character of the accident. Messrs. Blaine and Psjrcivall have given a
valuable record of the usual cases and treatment of fracture which occur
in the practice of the English veterinary surgeon ; and the splendid work
of Hurtrel d'Arboval contains a record of all that has been attempted or
effected on the Continent. The author of this volume must confine him-
self to a rapid survey of that which they have described, adding a few
cases that have been brought under his own observation, or communicated
to him by others.

With the exception of accidents that occur in casting the animal for
certain operations, and liis struggles during the operation, the causes of
Fractdee are usually blows, kicks, or falls, and the lesion may be con-
sidered as simple, confined to one bone, and not protruding through the
skin — or compound, the bone or bones protruding through the skin — or
comminuted, where the bone is broken or splintered in more than one
direction. The duty of the veterinary surgeon resolves itself into the
replacing of the displaced bones in their natural position, the keeping of
them in that position, the healing of the integument, and the taking of
such measures as will prevent any untoward circumstances from afterwards
occuri'ing.

In the greater number of cases of fracture it will be necessary to place
the horse under considerable restraint, and even to suspend or sHng him.

The cut in the next page contains a view of the suspensory apparatus
used by LIr. Percivall. A broad piece of sail-cloth, furnished with two
breechlngs, and two breast-girths, is placed under the animal's belly, and,
by means of ropes and pulleys attached to a cross-beam above, he is
elevated or lowered as circumstances may require. It will seldom be
necessary to hfb the patient quite off the ground, and the horse will be
quietest, and most at his ease, when his feet are suffered just to touch it.
The head is confined by two collar ropes, and the head-stall well padded.
Many horses may plunge about and be difiicult to manage at first, but,
generally speaking, it is not long ere they become perfectly passive.

The use of the different buckles and straps which are attached to the
sail-cloth will be evident on inspection. If the horse exhibits more than
usual uneasiness, other ropes may be attached to the comers of the sail-
cloth. This will afford considerable reKef to the patient, as well as add
to the security of the bandages.

In many cases the fracture, although a simple one, may be visible on the
slightest inspection ; in others, there may be merely a suspicion of its ex-
istence. Here will be exhibited the skill and the humanity of the educated
surgeon, or the recklessness and brutality of the empiric. The former
will carefully place his patient in the position at once the least painful to
the sufferer, and the most commodious for himself. He will proceed with
patience, gentleness, and management — no rough handling or motion of
the parts, inflicting torture on the animal, and adding to the injury
already received. It is interesting to observe how soon the horse compre-
hends aU this, and submits to the necessary inspection ; and how complete
and satisfactory the examination terminates under the superintendence
of the humane and cautious practitioner, while the bnite in human shape
fails in comprehending the real state of the case.

Heat, swelling, tenderness, fearfulness of the slightest motion, crepitus,
and especially change of the natural position of the limb, are the most
frequent indications of fracture. It should be laid down as a general rule,
that cases of simple fracture only afford a probable chance of cure ; — in
compound fractures, that is, where the fracture of the bone is comulicated

FRACTURES.

443

with an external ^vonnd, the chances are much more ^^^Xpainto Tnall
the comminuted fracture, that is, where the bone is smashed into small
no reasonable chance of a cure can be entertained.

pieces,

^^J :v/^

The probahihty of reunion of the parts depends upon the depth of the
woundrnnected with the fracture-the contusion of the soft parts mthe
^mediate neidibourhood of it-the blood-vessels, arterial or venous that
hTe been wounded-the propinquity of some large jomt to which the
infl«tion maybe communicated-dislocation of the extremities of the
fracW ?oint- injuries of the periosteum - the existence of sinuses,
caries or necrosis, ov the fracture being compound, or broken into nume-

Tnttte that^SlT of flesh, the cure of fracture is difficult ; likewise
in an old or worn-out horse-or when the part is inaccessible to the hand
or to instruments-or when separation has taken place between the parts
that were ^tinning to unite - or where the surroundmg tissues have
btn or are losing their vitality-or when the patient is already afflicted
with anv old or permanent disease. ^ r n .

It may be useful briefly to review the various seats of fracture^
FRrcTURE OF THE SKULL.-Thc skull of the horso IS so securely defended
by the yiekhng resistance of the temporal muscle, that fracture rarely
occurs except at the occipital ridge ; and should a depression of bone be
Se effected, ^t .vill produce complete coma, and bid defiance to all sur-
S skill Fracture of the skull is generally accompanied by stupidity,
SnvulSve motions of the head or hmbs, laborious breathing, and a stag-
Tenni wir The eyes are almost or quite closed, t^^^ ^^ead is carried low
and the lower lip hangs down. Blows on the cranium, which the brutahty
of man too often^i^^^ as well as many accidents, are very serious matters,
anrequTre considerable attention, for, although it may have been ascer-
tated'that the cranium is uninjured, there maybe considerable concussion
of the brain.

444 FRACTURES.

It having been known that a horse had received a violent blow on tha
head, the strictest examination of the part should take place. An artillery
horse broke loose from his groom, and, after galloping about, dashed in to
his own stall with such force as sadly to cut his face under the forelock.
The farrier on duty sewed up the wound, proper dressings were appUed,
and in a little more than a fortnight the wound was healed and the horse
dismissed, apparently well. Four days afterwards the patient moved stiffly ;
the jaws could not be separated more than a couple of inches, and there
was evident locked jaw. The horse was cast, and the place where the
wound had been was most carefully examined. On cutting to the bottom
of it, a fracture was discovered, and a piece of bone three-fourths of an
inch long was found on the centre of the parietal suture. This was re-
moved — the wound was properly dressed, and a strong aloetic drink waa
given with great difficulty. The aloetie drink was repeated — the bowels
became loosened — the tetanic symptoms diminished, and in less than three
weeks the horse was perfectly cured.

This case, related in the seventh volnme of the ' Veterinarian,' is a very
interesting one. There was some carelessness in entrusting the treatment
of the wound to the farrier ; but the surgeon afterwards repaired the error
as well as he could, and no one was better pleased than he was at the
result. A violent blow being received on the forehead, the part should
always be most carefiilly examined.

Hurtrel D'Arboval relates three cases of fracture of the skull. One
occurred in a mare that ran violently against a carriage. The skull wag
depressed, and a portion of bone was removed, but it was four months era
complete reunion of the edges was effected. Another horse received a
violent kick on the forehead. The union of the depressed bones waa
effected after the external wound was healed, but there was always a
depression, an inch in length. An aged mare met with the same kind ol
accident. A depression here remained as large as a finger.

Fracture of the arch of the orbit of the eye. — Mr. Pritchard, in the
second volume of the 'Veterinarian,' relates an interesting case of fracture
of the orbit of the eye. A chestnut mare, he says, received a blow which
fractured the orbit from the superciliary foramen, in a line through the
zygomatic processes of the temporal and malar bones, to the outer angle
of the eye. The detached bone, together with the divided integument,
hung over the eye so as to intercept vision. On examining the place
where the accident occurred, two portions of bone were found belonging
to the orbital arch. After carefully inspecting the wound and finding no
other detached portions, nor any spiculee which might irritate or wound,
the adjacent portions of the skin were carefully drawn together and
secured by a silver wire, which closed the wound, and confined the
detached portion of bone in its proper place. A mash diet was
ordered. On the following day there was considerable inflammation.
The eye was bathed with warm water, and a dose of physic administered.
On the third day the inflammation and sweUing had still more increased.
Blood was abstracted from the vein at the angle of the eye. The swelling
and inflammation now speedily abated, and on the fifteenth day the
wound had quite healed. If a fracture of this kind is suspected, its exist-
ence may be easily determined, by introducing the thumb under, and
keeping the fore-finger upon, the edge of the orbit.

Fracture of the nasal bones. — This will sometimes occur from falling,
or be produced by a kick from another horse, or the brutality of the
attendant or the rider. We have seen a passionate man strike a horse
about the head with a heavy hunting-whip. The danger of punishment
of this kind is obvious ; and so would be the propriety of using the whip

FRACTURES. 445

for acotlier purpose. A fracture of this kind is generally accompanied by
a laceration of the membrane of the nose, and considerable basmon-liage,
which, however, may generally be arrested by the application of cold
water. The fractured portion of bone is usually depressed, and, the
space for breathing being diminished, difficulty of respii-ation occurs. The
author had a case of fracture of both nasal bones. He was enabled to
elevate the depressed parts, but the inflammation and swelliug vrere so
great, that the animal was threatened with suffocation. The operation of
tracheotomy was resorted to, and the animal did well.

If there is fracture of the nasal bones mth depression, and only a
little way from the central arch and the section between the nostrils, a
slightly curved steel rod may be cautiously introduced into the passage,
and the depressed portions carefully raised. If this cannot be effected, the
trephine must be applied a Httle above or below the fracture, and the
elevator or steel rod be introduced through the aperture. If the fractui'e
is in any other part of the bone, it will be impossible to reach it with the
elevator, for the turbinated bones are in the way. The trephine must
then be resorted to in the first instance. The wound, if there is any, must
be covered, and a compress kept on it,

A writer in a French journal relates a case in which a horse was violently
kicked, and there Avas a contused wound with depression of bone.
The trephine was applied. Fifteen splinters were extracted, and the case
terminated well. It, nevertheless, too often happens that, in these injuries
of the nasal membrane, the inflammation will obstinately continue in
despite of all that the surgeon can do, and an obstinate and almost incur-
able nasal gleet Avill result.

If, however, this do not appear, some portion of bone may remain
depressed, or the membrane may be thickened by inflammation. The
nasal passage wiU then be obstructed, and a difficulty of breathing, re-
sembling roaring, "will ensue.

The superior maxillary or upper jaw-bone will occasionally be frac-
tured. Mr, Cartwright had a case in which it was fractured by a kiok at
the situation where it unites with the lachrymal and malar bones. He
applied the trephine, and removed many small pieces of bone. The wound
was then covered by adhesive plaster, and in a month the parts were
healed,

Mr, Clayworth speaks of a mare who, being ridden almost at speed, fell
and fractui'ed the upper jaw, three inches above the corner incisors. The
front teeth and jaw were turned like a hook completely within the
lower ones. She was cast, a balling iron put into her mouth, and the
surgeon, exerting considerable force, pulled the teeth outward into their
former and proper situation. She was then tied up so that she could not
rub her muzzle against anything, and was well fed -with bean-meal, and
linseed tea. Much inflammation ensued, but it gradually subsided, and,
at the expiration of the sixth week, the mouth was quite healed, and
scarcely a vestige of the fracture remained.

A very extraordinary and almost incredible account of a fracture of the
superior maxillary bone is given in the records of the Royal and Central
Society of Agriculture in France. A horse was kicked by a companion.
There was fracture of the upper part of the superior maxillary and
zygomatic bones, and the eye was almost forced out of the socket. Few
men would have dared to undertake a fracture like this, but M. Revel
shrank not from his duty. He removed several small splinters of bone
— replaced the larger bones — returned the eye to its socket — confined
the parts by means of sufficient sutures — slung the horse, and rendered

446 FRACTURES.

it impossible for tlie animal to rub his head against anything. In sis
weeks the cure was complete.

The inferior maxillart bone, or lower jaw, is more subject to fracture,
and particularly in its branches between the tushes and the lower teeth,
and at the symphysis between the two branches of the jaw. Its position,
its length, and the small quantity of muscle that covers it, especially
anteriorly, render it more liable to fracture, and the same circumstances
combine to render a reunion of the divided parts more easy to be
accomplished. Mr. Blaine relates that in a fracture of the lower jaw he
succeeded by making a strong leather frame that exactly encased the
whole jaw. The author of this volume has effected the same object by
similar means.

M. H. Boulay relates, in the Bee. de Med. Vet. for Nov. 1838, that he
attended a horse, fracture of whose lower maxillary had taken place at
the neck of that bone, between the tushes and the comer incisor teeth.
The whole of the interior part of the maxillary bone in which the incisor
teeth weie planted was completely detached from the other portion of the
bone, and the parts were merely held together by the membrane of the
m.outh.

The horse was cast — the comer tooth on the left side extracted — tho
wound thoroughly cleansed — the fractured bones brought into contact —
some holes were drilled between the tushes and the second incisor teeth,
above and below, through which some pieces of brass wire were passed,
and thus the jaws were apparently fixed immoveably together. The neck
of the maxiUary bone was surrounded by a sufficient compress of tow, and
a Ligature tied around it, with its bearing place on the tushes, and all
motion thus prevented.

The horse was naturally an untractable animal, and in his efforts to
open his jaws the wires yielded to his repeated struggles, and were to a
certain degree separated. The bandage of tow was, however, tightened,
and was sufficient to retain the fractured edges in apposition.

The mouth now began to exhale an infectious and gangrenous odour ;
the animal v/as dispirited, and would not take any food ; gangrene
was evidently approaching, and M. Boulay determined to amputate the
inferior portion of the maxillary bone, the union of which seemed to be
impossible. The sphacelated portion of the maxillary was entirely re-
moved; every fragment of bone that had an obhque direction was sawn
away, and the rough and uneven portions which the saw could not reach
were rasped off.

Before night, the horse had recovered his natural spirits, and was
searching for something to eat. On the following day a few oats were
given to him, and he ate them with so much appetite and ease, that no
one looking at him would think that he had been deprived of his lower
incisor teeth. On the following day some hay was given to him, which
he ate without difficulty, and in a fortnight was dismissed, the wounds
being nearly healed.

In the majority of these cases of simple fracture a cure might be
effected, or should, at least, be attempted, by means of well adapted
bandages around the muzzle, confined by straps. It will always be
prudent to call in veterinary aid, and it is absolutely necessary in case of
compound fracture of the lower jaw.

FRACTURE OF THE SPINE. — This accident, fortunately for the horse, is
not of frequent occurrence, but it has been uniformly fatal. It may take
place in different parts of the vertebras. In fracture of the cervical verte-
bne, especially if it occurs above the fifth or sixth bone, the diaphragm
win become palsied and death from suffocation vnll instantly result. This,

FRACTURES. 447

what is commonly termed ' broken neck,' is not often met with, and is
generally produced by falls or blows. But by far the most frequent seat
of fractured vertebris is in the lumbar region. It sometimes happens iu
the act of falling, as in leaping a wide ditch ; but it is oftener produced by
the violence of some sudden unconscious movement of the animal, such aa
dropping the hind legs into some unseen grip or trench when going fast
with hounds. It has also occurred during the struggles of the animal
when cast and undergoing some painful operation.

It is generally sufficiently evident while the horse is on the ground.
Either a snap is heard, indicative of the fracture, or the struggles of the
hind-limbs suddenly and altogether cease. In a few cases the animal has
been able to get up and walk to his stable ; in others, the existence of the
fracture has not been apparent for several hours : showing that the verte-
brae, although fractured, may remain in their place for a certain period of
time. The bone that is broken is usually one of the posterior dorsal or
anterior lumbar vertebrae. There is no satisfactory case upon record of
reunion of the fractured parts.

In the human being, the depressed portion of the spinal arch and of the
fractured vertebrae have been removed by a dexterous operation, and
sensibility and the power of voluntary motion have, in cases few and
far between, been restored ; but in the horse this has rarely or never been
effected. We should consider him a bold operator, but we should not
very much dislike him, who made one trial, at least, how far surgical skill
might be available here.

Mr. W. C, Spooner relates an interesting case in the eleventh volume of
the ' Veterinarian, ' and many such have probably occurred. A horse had
been clipped about three weeks, and "was afterwards galloped sharply
on rough ground, and pulled up suddenly and repeatedly, for the purpose
of sweating him. After that he did not go so well as before, and would
not canter readily, although he had previously been much used to that
pace. Two days before he was destroyed, the groom was riding him at
a slow pace, when he suddenly gave way behind, and was carried
home and could not afterwards stand. He had, doubtless, fractured the
spine shghtly when pulled up suddenly, but without displacing the
bones.

M. Dupuy was consulted respecting a mare apparently palsied. She
had an uncertain and staggering walk, accompanied by evident pain.
After various means of relief had in vain been tried during five-and-
twenty days, she was destroyed. A fracture of the last dorsal vertebrae
was discovered. It had never been quite complete, and ossific union was
beginning to take place.

Fbacture of the ribs. — These fractures are not always easily recog-
nised. Those that are covered by the scapula may exist for a long time
without being detected, and those that are situated posteriorly are so thickly
covered by muscles as to render the detection of the injury almost
impossible. In the third volume of the ' Veterinarian ' it is related that
a man was trying to catch a mare in a field. She leaped at the gate,
but faiHng to clear it, she fell on her back on the opposite side. She lay
there a short time, and then got up and trotted to the stable. She was
saddled, and her master, a heavy man, cantered her more than three miles.
She then became unusually dull and sluggish, and was left on the road.
She was bled ; and on the following morning an attempt was made to lead
her home. She was not, however, able to travel more than a mile. On
the following morning she was evidently in great pain, and a veterinary
surgeon, discovering a sHght depression of the spinous processes of the
eleventh and twelfth dorsal vertebrae, and detecting a certain crepitus,

448 ■ FRACTURES.

ordered lier to be destroyed. On post-mortem examination, the twelftb
dorsal vertebra was found fractured, and the eleventh, twelfth, and
thirteenth ribs on the near side were all fractured about two inches from
their articulation with the vertebrse.

Hurtrel D'Arboval says that ' the two ribs behind the elbow are the
most subject to fracture, and the false ribs, from the yielding motion
which they possess, are least Hable.' The ordinary causes of fracture
are kicks and blows, or falls on the chest, and especially in leaping.
The fractures are generally about their middle, and, in the tme ribs,
commonly oblique. They are occasionally broken into splinters, and il
those splinters are directed inward, they may seriously wound the pleura,
or lungs. In order most certainly to detect the situation and extent of
these fractures, it may be necessary to trace the rib through its whole
extent, and, should there be any irregularity, to press firmly upon it
above and below in order to ascertain the nature and extent of the
injury.

If fracture is detected, it is not often that much essential good can be
done. K there is httle or no displacement, a broad roller should be tightly
drawn round the chest, in order to prevent as much as possible the motion
of the ribs in the act of breathing, and to throw the labour on the
diaphragm and the abdominal muscles until the fractured parts are united.
Lf the fractured parts protrude outwards, a firm compress must be placed
upon them. If they are depressed, it will always be advisable to place a
firm bandage over the seat of fracture, although, perhaps, there may be
scarcely the possibility of elevating them to any considerable degree.
Should much irritation be the consequence of the nature or dii-ection of
the fracture, proper means must be adopted to allay the constitutional
disturbance that may be produced. General or local bleedings will be
most sei-viceable.

Fractdee of the pelvis. — This is not of frequent occurrence, on
account of the thickness of the soft parts which surround the pelvis, and
protect it from injury, but it is of a most serious character when it doe3
take place, on account of the violence which must have been necessary
to produce it. The usual causes are falls from a considerable height, or
beavy blows on the pelvis. The injury may have reference to the internal
or external portion of the pelvis. In the first case, the danger may not
be discovered until irreparable mischief is produced. When it is chiefly
external, the altered appearance of the hip speaks for itself. It is rarely
in our power to afi'ord any assistance in cases like this, except when there
are fractured portions of the bone that may be partially or entirely
removed, or the projecting spine of the iHum is only partially fractured.

M. Levrat gives an interesting account of a case of fracture of the right
side of the pelvis, near the acetabulum, in leaping a wide ditch when
hunting. ' The lameness which it occasioned,' says he, ' was such that
the toe of the foot was scarcely permitted to touch the ground while the
motion was at all rapid. When the motion was slow the foot was placed
flat on the ground, but with great difficulty moved forward. On applying
my right hand to the fractured part, which did not exhibit any heat, and
seizing with my left hand the point of the thigh, I felt a movement of the
ischium, which easily enabled me to judge of the fracture and its seat,
and to discover that none of the fractured parts were displaced. I
ordered her to be kept quiet for three weeks, and then permitted to wander
about the stable. At the end of two months she was mounted and exer-
cised at a foot pace, and in another month she was enabled to sustain the
longest day's work without lameness. In the following year she was
placed in the stud of the Baron de Stael, where she produced some good
foals.'

FRACTURES. 449

The annals of the school at Alfort contain the case of an old mare
with fracture of the pelvis and of the left ischium, and in whom union of
the bones was effected so promptly, that on the thirtieth day very little
lameness remained, and she shortly returned to her usual work. She soon
afterwards died from some other cause, and the state of the osseous parts
was thoroughly examined. These cases, however, stand almost alone, and
post-mortem examination discovers fractures of the ischium and the pelvis,
and each bone divided into many pieces, so that it is impossible for the
hind quarters of the animal to be supported — also fractures of the exter-
nal angle of the ihum, which rarely is again consoHdated, and roughness
of the bony fragments, which produce sad laceration of the soft parts.
Fracture of the ischium presents almost insuperable difficulties — that of
the ilium is uniformly fatal.

The upper and projecting part of the ilium or hip-bone is not unfre-
quently fractured, by the animal coming in contact with some hard sub-
stance, such as the side of the stable-door, or from getting cast in the
stable. It generally causes lameness, but after a time the bone unites,
although from the action of the muscles attached to this part, it assumes
a different position, producing various degrees of defoiToity, and constitutes
what is termed 'hip down' or 'let down on the hip.'

Feactctre of the tail. — This accident is not of frequent occurrence,
except from accidental entanglement, or the appHcation of brute force.
The fracture is easily recognised, frequently by the eye and always by
the fingers. If the tail is not amputated, a cord passed over a pulley,
and with a small weight attached to it, will bring the separated bones
again into apposition, and in about a month the natural condition of the-
part will be sufficiently reinstalted.

Fractuees of the limbs. — These, fortunately, are of rare occurrence in
the horse, for although their divided edges might be easily brought again
into apposition, it would be sometimes impossible to retain them in it, for
the slightest motion would displace them. A rapid survey of each may
not, however, be altogether useless.

Fracture of the scapula. — The author is not aware of the successful
treatment of this accident by any English veterinary surgeon. Mr. Fuller
says, in the eighth volume of the ' Veterinarian,' that he attempted it,
but from the difficulty of keeping the divided edges of the bone in apposi-
tion with each other, and the natural untractableness of the animal, and
symptoms of tetanus beginning to appear, the patient was destroyed. The
fracture was a little above the neck of the scapula, and the muscles were
dreadfully lacerated.

Fracture of the humerus. — It is not at all times easy to discover the
existence and precise situation of fracture of the humerus. The lameness
is very grea1>-— the animal will not bear at all upon the broken limb — he
will drag it along the ground — he will move slowly and vtdth difficulty, and
his progression will consist of a succession of short leaps. The lifting of
the foot will give very great pain. If he is roughly handled, he will some-
times rear or throw himself suddenly down. By careful apphcation of the
hand a crepitus will more or less distinctly be heard. The chances are
always materially against the union of a fracture of the humerus. The
patient must be kept constantly suspended, and bandages carefully appHed.
M. Delaguette relates in the Journal Pratique for December 1831, that he
attended an entire draught-horse whose humerus had been fractured by
the kick of a mare. The fracture extended longitudinally through two-
thii>ds of the length of the bone, and the parts were separated from each
other. They were brought again into apposition, and kept so by means
of pitcli plasters and splints. The horse was put into slings ; the pavement

Q 0

460 FRACTURES.

of the stable was taken up ; a hollow dug under the fractured limb, and
this depression filled with straw, in order to afibrd a soft support for the
foot. He was bled, gruel alone given as food, and injections daily ad-
ministered.

On the 25th day the rollers were removed and replaced. On the -lOth
day he began to rest on the fractured limb. On the GOth day the bandages
were removed, the fracture had been well consolidated, and the horse
rested his weight upon it. It is reluctantly added that he was afterwards
destroyed on account of some disease of the loins.

Fractuke of the radius. — This accident is not of unfrequent occur-
rence. It commonly takes an obHque direction, and is usually first
discovered by the displacement of the limb. Mr. Gloag, of the 10th
Hussars, in the fourth volume of the ' Veterinarian,' gives an interesting
account of a case that occurred in his practice. ' An entire black cart-
horse was grazing in a field, into which some mares were accidentally
turned. One of them kicked him severely a httle above the knee. He,
however, contrived to get home, and, being carefully examined, there was
found a simple fracture of the radius, about an inch and a half above the
knee. The ends of the fractured bone could be heard distinctly grating
against each other, both in advancing the leg and turning it sideway from
the body. He was immediately placed in a sling, not completely elevated
from the ground, but in which he could occasionally relieve liimself by
standing. The leg was well bathed with warm water, and the ends of the
Done brought as true to their position as possible. Some thin sHps of
green wood were then immersed in boiling water until they would readily
bend to the shape of the Hmb, and they were tied round the part, the ends
of them being tied with tow.

A fortnight afterwards he became very troublesome, knocking his foot
on the ground, and when, at the expiration of the sixth week, he was
taken from the slings, there was a considerable bony deposit above the
knee. This, however, gradually subsided as the horse regained his
strength, and, with the exception of turning the leg a little outwards, he
is as useful as ever for common purposes.

Fracture of the ulna. — This is far more exposed to danger than the
last two bones, and is oftener fractured. The fracture is generally an
oblique one, and about two-thirds from the summit of the bone. It is
immediately detected by the altered action and different appearance of
the limb. It is not so difficult of reduction as either the humerus or the
scapula, when the fracture is towards the middle of the bone. A great
quantity of tow saturated with pitch must be placed around the elbow,
and coiifined with firm adhesive plasters, the ground being hollowed away
in the front of the injured leg, so that no pressui'e shall be made by that
foot.

Fracture of the femur. — Considering the masses of muscle that
surround this bone, and the immense weight which it supports, it would
naturally be deemed impossible to reduce a real fracture of the femur. K
the divided bones are ever united, it is a consequence of the simple repose
of the parts, and their tendency to unite. Professor Dick, however,
relates in the second volume of the 'Veterinarian,' a very singular and
interesting account of the cure of fracture of the femur. He was re-
quested to attend a bay mare that had met with an accident in leaping a
sunken fence. He found a wound in the stifle of the hind leg running
transversely across the anterior of the articulation, about an inch and a
half in length, and in it was a portion of bone that had been fractured,
and that had escaped from its situation towards the inside of the stifle,
vrhere it was held by a portion of ligament. The isolated nature of the

FRACTURES 451

fractured portion, tlie difficulty, or rather impossibility of replacing it in
its situation, and the few vessels which the connecting medium possessed,
rendered it impossible that union would be effected ; he therefore deter-
mined to remove it.

Having enlarged the wound, and divided the portion of capsular liga-
ment w'hich retained it in its place, he extracted the bone, and found it to
be the upper part of the inner anterior condyle of the femur, measuring
three inches in length, one inch and a half in breadth, and about an inch
in thickness, and being in shape nearly similar to the longitudinal section
of a hen's egg.

After the removal of the bone the animal seemed very much relieved ;
the Avound was firmly sewed up, adhesive strapping apphed over it, and
the part kept wet ■with cold water.

Two days afterwards considerable swelling had taken place ; she seemed
to sufi'er much, and there was some oozing from the wound. Fomentations
were again applied, and she was slung.

She now began rapidly to improve, and, although one of the largest
articulations in the body had been laid open, and a part of the articular
portion of the bone removed, the wound healed so rapidly that in three
weeks she walked with little lameness to a loose box. At the expiration
of another three weeks, the Professor again Adsited her. On being led out
she trotted several times along the stable yard, apparently sound, with the
exception of moving the limb in a slight degree wider than usual, and so
completely was the part covered that, had it not been for a small scar
that remained, a stranger could not have known that such an accident had
taken place.

Feactdee of the patella. — This does occasionally, though very seldom
occur. It is usually the consequence of A-iolent kicks or blows, and if
this singular bone is once disunited, no power can bring the divided por-
tions of the bone together again.

Fracture of the tibu. — This afiection is of more frequent occurrence,
and of more serious consequence than we were accustomed to imagine it
to be. Mr. Trump, twelve years ago, first called the attention of the pro-
fession to some singular circumstances connected with the tibia, in the
third volume of the ' Veterinarian.' A large draught-horse belonging to the
Dowlais Iron Company at Merthyr Tydvil, came in from his labour very
lame in the near hind leg, but with no visible sign of any severe injury being
received. The foot was searched, but nothing farther was done. He
stood in the stable several days, and then was turned into a field, and was
discovered one morning with the limb dependent, and a fracture of the
tibia just above the hock.

Fourteen or sixteen months after that, another horse came home from a
journey of seven miles, lame, with a slight mark on the inside of the
thigh — a mere scratch, and very little tumefaction. There was nothing
to account for such severe lameness : but a few mornings afterwards, the
tibia was seen to be fractured. The front of the bone was sphntered as
from a blow.

Two months after that, another horse had been observed to be lame
seven or eight days. A shght scratch Avas observed on the inside of the
thigh, with a httle swelling, and increased heat and tenderness just above
the hock. Mr. Trump had examined the foot during the time that the
horse stood in the stable, not being satisfied that the apparently slight
injury on the thigh could account for the lameness. He was turned to
grass, and three days afterwards the tibia was found broken at the part
mentioned, and evidently from a blow. Were there not positive proof of

062

452 FlUCTURES.

the circumstance, it would have been deemed impossible that a fracture,
and of such a bone, could have existed so long without detection,

]VIi'. J. S. Mayer gives an interesting account of the successfal treat-
ment of a case of fracture of the tibia, in the Transactions of the Vet.
Med. Association, in which some other cases, successfully treated, are
nai-rated. The simpHcity of the process will, we trust, encourage many
another veterinary surgeon to follow his example.

' A horse received a blow on the tibia of the near leg, but httle notice
was taken of it for two or three days. When, however, we were called in
to examine him, we found the tibia to be obhquely fractured about mid-
way between the hock and the stifle, and a small wound existing on the
inside of the leg. It was set in the following manner : — The leg from the
stifle down to the hock was well covered with an adhesive compound ; it
was then wrapped round with fine tow, upon which another layer of tho
same adhesive mixture was laid, the Avhole being well sphntered and
bandao-ed up, so as to render what was a slightly compound fracture Vi
simple one. The local inflammation and sympathetic fever that super-
vened were kept down by antiphlogistic measures. At the end of six
weeks the bandages and splints were removed, and readjusted in a similar
way as before, and at the termination of three months from the time o)
the accident, he was discharged cured, the splints being wholly taken off,
and merely an adhesive stay kept on the leg. The horse is now at work
raid quite sound, there being merely a httle thickening, where the callus is
formed.'

Fracture op the bones of the hock. — This is not of frequent occur-
rence, but very difficult to treat, from the almost impossibihty of finding
means to retain the bone in its sitaation. A case, however, somewhat
simple in its nature, occurred in the practice of Mr. Cartwright. A colt,
leaping at some rails, got his leg between them, and, unable to extricate
himself, hung over on the other side. After being liberated, it appeared
on examination that there was a simple horizontal fracture of the whole of
the OS calcis about the middle. A splint was contrived so as to reach froni
the middle of the tibia to that of the cannon bone, and this was appUed to
the front of the leg, keeping the hock from its usual motion, and relaxing
the muscles inserted into the os calcis. Underneath this spUnt a charge
was applied about the part, in order to form a level surface for the splint
to rest upon. The whole was bound together by proper adhesive band-
ages, and he was ordered to be kept quiet in the stable, but not to be
sluno-. In about two months the hock was fired and became perfectly
sound.

Fracture of the cannon or shank bone. — This is of more frequent
occurrence than that of any other bone, on account of the length of the
leg, and the danger to which it is exposed. There is rarely any difficulty
in detecting its situation, but there is sometimes a great deal in bringing
the divided edges of the bone again into apposition. A kind of windlass,
or a power equal to it, is occasionally necessary to produce sufficient ex-
tension in order to effect the desired purpose : but the divided edges being
brought into apposition are retained there by the force of the muscles
above. Splints reaching from the foot to above the knee should then be
applied. The horse should be placed in slings, after which, if the case is
goino- on well, the animal may often be turned out.

In cases of compound fracture the wounds should be carefully attended
to : but Mr. Percivall says, in his ' Hippopathology,' that he knows one
or two old practitioners, who are in the habit of treating these cases in a
very summary and generally successfal manner. They employ such com-
mon support, with splints and tow and bandages, as the case seems to

FKACTURES. 453

require, and then the animal with his leg boimd up is turned out, if the
season permits : otherwise he is placed in a yard or box, where there is
not much straw to incommode his movements. The animal will take care
not to impose too much weight on his fractured limb ; and, provided the
parts are well secui-ed, nature will generally perform the rest.

Fkacture of the sesamoid bones. — There are but few instances of this
on record. One is related by Mr. Faller, of March, in the third volume of
the 'Veterinarian.' He was galloping steadily and not rapidly a horse of
his own, when the animal suddenly fell as if he had been shot. He was
broken down in both fore legs. The owner very humanely ordered him
to be immediately destroyed. Both the perforans and perforatus ten-
dons of the near fore leg were completely ruptured, just where they pass
over the sesamoid bone, which was fractured in a transvei'se direction.
The sesamoid bone of the off leg was fractured in the same dii'ection, but
the tendons were entire.

Another case is one described by Mr. Harris, of Preston, in the fifth
volume of the ' Veterinarian.' A strong coach-like animal was galloped
rapidly. He had not gone more than a hundred yards before he suddenly
fell, and it was with great difficulty that he could be led home, a distance
of about two miles. There was soon considerable swelling in the off fore
leg — great pain on the animal's attempting to walk, and his fetlock nearly
touched the ground. Some slight crepitus could be detected, but the exact
seat of it could not be ascertained. Mr. Harris considered the case as
hopeless, but the owner would have some means tried to save the animal.
He was accordingly bled and physicked, and cold lotions and bandages
were applied to the foot. Two days afterwards some bony spicula? began
to protrude through the skin, and, the case being now perfectly hopeless,
the animal was destroyed. The inner sesamoid bone was shivered to
atoms.

Fracture of the upper pastern. — Thick and strong, and moveable as
tliis bone seems to be, it is occasionally fractured. This has been the con-
sequence of a violent effort by the horse to save himself from falling when
he has stumbled, — it has happened when he has been incautiously per-
mitted to run down a steep descent — and has occurred when a horse has
been travelling on the best road, and at no great pace.

The existence of fracture in this bone is, generally speaking, easily
detected. The injured foot is as lightly as possible permitted to come in
contact with the ground. As httle weight as may be is thixawn on it, or,
if the animal is compelled to use it, the fetlock is bent down nearly to the
ground, and the toe is turned upward. K the foot is rotated a crepitus is
generally heard.

This, however, is not always the case. A case is related in the Bee. de
Med. Vet, November, 1831, in which M. Levrat was requested to examine
a horse that had suddenly become lame. The near hind leg was reti-acted,
and the foot was kept from touching the ground. He carefully examined
the foot, and discovered that much pain was expressed when the pastern
was handled. He suspected fracture of the bone, but he could not detect
it. He bled the animal, ordered cooling applications to the part, and gave
a dose of physic. Three days afterwards he again saw his patient, and
readily detected a fracture, taking a direction obliquely across the pastern.

The probabiHty of success in the treatment of this fracture, depends on
its being a simple or compound one. If it runs laterally across the bone,
it may be readily and successfully treated — if it extends to the joints above
and beloAv, it "will probably terminate in anchylosis, and if the bone is
sliivered, as it too frequently is, into various parts, there would scarcely
seem the possibility of a successful treatment of the case. The instances.

*li4 FRACTURES.

however, are numeroiis in which the case terminates successfully, Hnrtrel
D'Arboval recommends that a bandage steeped in some adhesive matter
should be applied from the coronet to the middle of the leg. On this some
wet pasteboard is to be moulded, enveloped afterwards in a linen bandage.
A small spUnt is now to be applied before and behind and on each side, and
the hollow places are filled with tow, in order to give them an equal bear-
ing. If this does not appear to be sufficiently secure, other splints,
thicker and broader, are placed over those, extending to the knee or the
hock.

The case related by M. Levrat was treated in this way. It will be com-
paratively seldom that it will be necessary to suspend the patient. The
animal under the treatment of M. Levrat, kept his foot in the air for
nearly three weeks. At the end of that period he now and then tried to
rest his toe on the litter. Six weeks after the accident he began to throw
some weight on the foot ; and a few days afterwards he was able to go to
a pond, about fifty paces from his stable, and where, of his own accord, he
took a foot-bath for nearly an hour at a time. At the expiration of
another month he was mounted, and went very well at a walking-pace ; he
was, however, still lame when he was trotted.

Another horse, treated by the same surgeon, was soon able to rest on the
bad leg, in order to change his position — he was allowed three weeks after
that, and then commenced his former daily work — the drawing of a heavy
cart. He limped a little when he was trotted; but did as much slow work
as he was ever accustomed to do.

Fracture of the lower pastern.— Although this bone is much shorter
than the upper pastern, there are several instances of fracture of it. The
fractures of this bone are commonly longitudinal, and often present a
lesion of continuity extending from the larger pastern to the coffin-bone.
It is frequently splintered, the splinters taking this longitudinal direction.
Hurtrel D'Arboval relates three cases of this, and in one of them the bone
was splintered into four pieces. In several instances, however, this bone
has been separated into eight or ten distinct pieces. When the fracture
of the bone is neither compound nor complicated, it may be perfectly
reduced by proper bandaging, and, in fact, there have been cases, in which
union has taken place with slight assistance from art beyond the appHca-
tion of a few bandages.

M. Gazot relates a very satisfactory termination of fracture of this bone
in a carriage-horse in the Becueil de Med. Vet. for 1834. The animal fell,
and was totally unable to rise again. He was placed on some hurdles, and
drawn home. A veterinary surgeon being consulted, recognised fracture
of the lower pastern in both feet, and advised that the animal should be
destroyed. It was a favourite horse, between five and six years old, and
the owner determined to give it a chance of recovery.

M. Gazot was consulted. He plainly recognised a transverse fracture
in the lower pastern of the right leg, and a longitudinal one in the left
pastern. They were both of them simple fractures. The horse was
manageable, and seemed to comprehend the whole afiair. He was a
favourite of the groom as well as the master, and it was determined to give
him a chance of recover3\ He had plenty of good litter under him, which
was changed twice in the day. The first object that was attempted to be
accomplished was the healing of the excoriations that had taken place in
drawing him home, and abating the inflammation that was appearing about
the pasterns.

At the termination of the first week all these were healed, the horse fed
well, and was perfectly quiet, except that when he was tired of lying on
one side he contrived to get on his knees, and then to raise himself on his

FRACTURES. 455

haunches, and, having voided liis urine and his dung, he turned himself
upon the other side, without the bandages round his pasterns being in the
slightest degree interfered with.

At the expiration of the second week he seemed to wish to get up. The
groom had orders to assist him, and a sling was passed under him. Some
oats were placed in the manger, and he seemed to enjoy the change for a
little while. Soon afterwards he began to be uneasy, and a copious per-
spiration appeared on every part. He was immediately lowered, when,
with evident delight, he stretched out his head and his legs, and lay almost
without motion during several hours. On the following day he was again
placed in the sling, and again lowered as soon as he appeared to be fatigued.

At the expiration of a month from the time of the accident he could get
up without assistance, and would continue standing two or three hours,
when he lay down again, but with a degree of precaution that was truly
admirable. The bandages around the pasterns had been continued until
this period, and had been kept wet with a spii'ituous embrocation. The
horse was encouraged to walk a Httle, some corn being offered to him in a
sieve. He was sadly lame, and the lameness was considerably greater in
the left than in the right foot. A calculous enlargement could also be felt
in the direction of the fracture on each pastern ; but it was greatest in the
left fetlock, and there was reason to fear the existence of anchylosis between
the pastern bones of the left leg. That foot was surrounded with emolhent
cataplasms, and, two days afterwards, was pared out, and the cautery
applied over both pasterns, the spirituous embrocation being continued.

A fortnight afterwards the effect of the cautery was very satisfactory.
The action of the part was more free, and there was no longer any fear of
anchylosis. It was, however, deemed prudent to apply the cautery over
the right pastern. Walking exercise was now recommended, and in the
course of another month the lameness was much diminished. It was most
on the left side, which, however, had resumed its former degree of
inclination.

At the expiration of four months the horse was sent to work. His
master, however, doubting the stability of the cure, sold him, for which he
ought to have had his own legs broken, and he fell into bad hands. He
was worked hardly and half- starved ; nevertheless, the calculus continued
to diminish, and the lameness altogether disappeared. He soon, however,
passed into better hands. He was bought by a farmer at Chalons, in whose
service he long remained, in good condition, and totally free from lameness,
His last owner gave him the name of Old Broken Leg.

Fracture of the corrrN-BONE. — This is an accident of very rare
occurrence, and difficult to distinguish from other causes of lameness. The
animal halts very considerably — the foot is hot and tender — the pain seems
to be exceedingly great, and none of the ordinary causes of lameness are
perceived. According to Hurtrel D'Arboval, it is not so serious an acci-
dent as has been represented. The fractured portions cannot be displaced,
and in a vascular bone like this, the union of the divided parts will be
readily effected.

Mr. Percivall very properly remarks, that, 'buried as the coffin and
navicular bones are within the hoof, and out of the way of all external
injury, as well as of muscular force, fracture of them cannot proceed from
ordinary causes. It is, perhaps, thus produced: — in the healthy foot, in
consequence of the elasticity of their connections, these bones yield or
spring under the impression they receive from the bones above, and thus
are enabled to bear great weights, and sustain violent shocks without in-
jury ; but, disease in the foot is often found to destroy this elasticity, by
changing the cartilage into bone, which cannot receive the same weight

456 OPERATIONS.

and concussion witliout risk of fracture. Horses that have undergone the
operation of neurotomy raore frequently meet witli tliis accident tlian
others, because they batter their senseless feet with a force which, under
similar circumstances, pain would forbid the others from doing.

Fracture of the navicular bone has been sufficiently considered under
the article ' Navicular Joint Disease,' p. 413.

]\Ir. Mayer sums up his account of the treatment of fractures in a way
that reflects much credit on him and the profession of which he is a mem-
ber, 'Let your remedies,' says he, 'be governed by those principles of
science, those dictates of humanity, and that sound discretion, which,
while they raise the moral and intellectual superiority of man, distinguish
the master of his profession from the bungling empiric'

CHAPTER XXII.

OPERATIONS.

These belong more to the veterinary surgeon than to the proprietor of tho
horse, but a short account of the manner of conducting the principal ones
should not be omitted.

It is frequently necessary to bind the human patient, and in no painful
or dangerous operation should this be omitted. It is more necessary to
bind the horse, who is not under the control of reason, and whose struggles
may not only be injurious to himself but dangerous to the operator.

The trevis is a machine indispensable in every continental forge ; even
the quietest horses are there put into it to be shod.

The side-line is a very simple and useful method of confining the horse,
and placing him in sufficient subjection for the operation of docking, nick-
ing, and sHght firing. The long line of the hobbles, or a common cart-rope
with a noose at the end, is fastened on the pastern of the hind-leg that is
not to be operated on. The rope attached to it is then brought over the
neck and round the withers, and there tied to the portion that comes from
the leg. The leg may thus be dra^Ti so far forward that, while the horse
evidently cannot kick with that leg, he is disarmed of the other ; for he
would not have sufficient support under him if he attempted to raise it :
neither can he easily use his fore-legs, or, if he attempts it, one of them
may be lifted up, and then he becomes nearly powerless. K necessary, the
aid of the twitch or the barnacles may be resorted to.

For every minor operation, and even for many that are of more im-
portance, this mode of restraint is sufficient, especially if the operator has
active and determined assistants ; and we confess that we are no friends to
the casting of horses, if it can possibly be prevented. When both legs are
included in the hobble or rope — as in another way of using the side-line —
the horse may appear to be more secure ; but there is greater danger of his
falHng in his violent struggles during the operation.

For castrating and severe firing, the animal must be thrown. The safety
of the horse and of the operator will require the use of the improved
hobbles, by which any leg may be released from confinement, and returned
to it at pleasure ; and, when the operation is ended, the whole of the legs
may be set at liberty at once without danger. The method of putting the
legs as closely together as possible before the pull — the necessity of the
assistants all pulling together — and the power which one man standing at

CASTRATION. 457

the head and firmly holding the snaffle-bridle, and another at the haunch
pushing the horse when he is beginning to fall, have in bringing him on
the proper side, and on the very spot on which he is intended to he, need
not to be described ; but a ttiuch preferable plan to ha"\dng a man at the
haunch is to have a roller round the body, with a rope attached to a ring
on the top of it, by pulling this rope in the opposite direction at the same
moment as the hobbles are tightened, the side on which he falls is a mat-
ter of certainty. This, however, is a method of securing the horse to
which we repeat that we are not partial, and to which we should not
resort except necessity compelled ; for in the act of falling, and in the
struggles aftc* falling, many accidents have occurred both to the horse
and the surgeon.

Among the minor methods of restraint, but sufficient for many purposes,
are the tivitcli and the barnacles. The former consists of a noose passed
through a hole at the end of a strong stick, and in which the muzzle is
enclosed. The stick being turned round, the muzzle is securely retained,
while the horse suffers considerable pain from the pressure — sufficiently
great, indeed, to render him comparatively inattentive to that which is
produced by the operation ; at the same time he is afraid to struggle, for
every motion increases the agony caused by the twitch, or the assistant has
power to increase it by giving an additional turn to the stick.

The degree of pain produced by the apjDlication of the twitch should
never be forgotten or unnecessarily increased. In no case should it be
resorted to when milder measures would have the desired effect. Grooms
and horsekeepers are too much in the habit of having recourse to it when
they have a somewhat troublesome horse to manage. The degree of useless
torture which is thus inflicted in large establishments is dreadful ; and the
temper of many a horse is too frequently completely spoiled.

The barnacles are the handles of the pincers placed over and enclosing
the muzzle, and which, being compressed by the assistant, give pain almost
equal to that of the twitch. These may appear to be barbarous modes of
enforcing submission, but they are absolutely indispensable. In a few
instances the blindfolding of the horse terrifies him into submission ; but
this is not to be depended upon. The tmtch shoidd be resorted to when
the least resistance is offered ; and when that, as it occasionally does,
renders the horse more \'iolent recourse must be had to the side-line or
the hobbles.

In the painful examination of the fore-leg or foot while on the ground,
the other foot should be held up by an assistant ; or, if his aid is required
in an operation, the knee may be fully bent, and the pastern tied up to the
arm. When the hind-leg is to be examined in the same way, the fore-lep'
on that side should be held or fastened up,

CASTRATION.

The period at which this operation may be best performed depends
much on the breed and form of the colt, and the purpose for which he is
destined.

If the horse is designed either for the carriage or for heavy draught, the
farmer should not think of castrating him until he is at least a twelve-
month old ; and, even then, the colt should be carefully examined. If he
is thin and spare about the neck and shoulders, and low in the withers, he
will materially improve by remaining uncut another six months ; but if
his fore-quarters are fairly developed at the age of a twelve-month, the
operation should not be delayed, lest he become heavy and gross before,
and perhaps has begun too decidedly to have a will of his own. No
specific age, then, can be fixed ; but the castration should be performed

4o8 BLEEDING.

rather late in the spring or early in the autumn, when the air is temperat*
and particularly when the weather is dry.

The only preparation necessary for the colt is keeping him without
food for twelve hours before performing the operation. In the majority
of cases, no after-treatment will be necessary, except that the animal
should be sheltered from intense heat, and more particularly from wet.
In temperate weather he will do much better running in the field than
nursed in a close and hot stable. The moderate exercise that he will
take in grazing will be preferable to perfect inaction. A large and well
ventilated box, however, may be permitted.

The manner in which the operation is performed will be properly left to
the veterinary surgeon ; although we must confess we are disposed to
adhere to the old way of opening the scrotum with the hot iron and sear-
ing off the testicle with it. The writer has operated on some hundreds
of colts in this manner, and, however fearful the operation may appear,
experience proves that it is attended with the most successful results. It
possesses the advantage of great simplicity in performing the operation,
and also from the wound made through the scrotum by the hot iron,
taking a considerably longer period to heal than an ordinary incised one,
more time is allowed for the slough from the cord to pass through the
opening, and thus prevent that swelling and inflammation which so fre-
quently follow, when the opening in the scrotum has closed before the
slough has separated from the end of the cord.

There are several other modes adopted by practitioners in performing
this operation. Amongst some, what is called the caustic clam is the
favourite method. This consists in opening the scrotum and compressing
the cord between two pieces of wood on which some caustic preparation
has been placed, and by this means arresting heemorrhage. There is at
least an appearance of brutality in this, and we beheve much unnecessary-
pain inflicted when the spermatic cord (the vessels and the nerve) is
tightly compressed between two pieces of wood, as in a powerfi^l vice,
and left there either until the testicle drops off or is removed on the
following day by the operator. By others, the scrotum is opened and the
testicle removed with a scalpel, hEemorrhage being prevented by a ligature
placed round the cord. Another mode of castration has been lately in-
troduced : it is called the operation by Torsion. An incision is made into
the scrotum as in the latter mode of operation, and the vas deferens is ex-
posed and divided. The artery is then seized by a pair of forceps con-
trived for the purpose, and twisted six or seven times round. It retracts
as soon as the hold on it is quitted, the coils are not untwisted and all
bleeding has ceased. The testicle is removed, and there is no sloughing
or danger. The most painful part of the operation — the application of
the firing-iron or the clams — is avoided, and the wound readily heals. To
the practice of some farmers of hoitcliing their colts at an early period,
sometimes so early as a month, there is strong objection. When the
operation of twitching is performed, a small cord is drawn as tightly as
possible round the scrotum between the testicle and the belly. The cir-
culation is thus stopped, and, in a few days, the testicles and the scrotum
drop off ; but not until the animal has sadly suffered, and inflammation
and death frequently ensue.

BLEEDING.

This operation is performed with a fleam or a lancet. The first is the

common instrument, and the safest, except in skilfal hands. The lancet,

however, has a more surgical appearance, and will be adopted by the

veterinary practitioner. A blood-stick — a piece of hard wood loaded at

BLEEDING. 459

one end with lead — is used to strike the fleam into the vein. This is
sometimes done with too great violence, and the opposite side of the coat
of the vein is wounded. Bad cases of inflammation have resulted from
this. If the fist is doubled, and the fleam is sharp and is struck with
sufiicient force with the lower part of the hand, the blood-stick may bo
dispensed with.

For general bleeding the jugular vein is selected. The horse is blind-
folded on the side on which he is to be bled, or his head turned well away.
The hair is smoothed along the course of the vein with the moistened
finger ; then, with the third and little fingers of the left hand, which holds
the fleam, pressure is made on the vein sufficient to bring it fairly into
view, but not to swell it too much, for then, presenting a rounded surface,
it would be apt to roll or slip under the blow. The point to be selected is
about two inches below the union of the two portions of the jugular at
the angle of the jaw (see cut, p. 199). The fleam is to be placed in a
direct line with the course of the vein, and over the precise centre of the
vein, as close to it as possible, but its point not absolutely touching the
vein. A sharp rap with the blood-stick or the hand on that part of the
back of the fleam immediately over the blade, will cut through the vein,
and the blood will flow. A fleam with a large blade should always be
preferred, for the operation will be materially shortened, and this will be a
matter of some consequence with a fidgety or restive horse. A quantity
of blood drawn speedily Avill also have far more eSect on the system than
double the weight slowly taken, while the wound will heal just as readily
as if made by a smaller instrument. There is no occasion to press so hard
against the neck with the pail, or can, as some do ; a slight pressure, if the
incision has been large enough and straight, and in the middle of the vein,
will cause the blood to flow sufiiciently fast ; or, the finger being introduced
into the mouth between the tushes and the grinders, and gently moved
about, -will keep the mouth in motion, and hasten the rapidity of the stream
by the action and pressure of the neighbouring muscles.

When sufiicient blood has been taken, the edges of the wound should be
brought closely and exactly together, and kept together by a small sharp
pin being passed through them. Round this a httle tow, or a few hairs
from the mane of the horse, should be wrapped, so as to cover the whole
of the incision ; and the head of the horse should be tied up for several
hours to prevent his rubbing the part against the manger. In bringing
the edges of the wound together, and introducing the pin, care should bo
taken not to draw the skin too much from the neck, otherwise blood will
insinuate itself between it and the muscles beneath, and cause an unsightly
and sometimes troublesome swelhng.

The blood should be received into a vessel the dimensions of which are
exactly known, so that the operator may be able to calculate at every period
of the bleeding the quantity that is subtracted. Care hkewise should be
taken that the blood floAvs in a regular stream into the centre of the vessel,,
for if it is suffered to trickle down the sides, it will not afterwards undergo
those changes by which we partially judge of the extent of inflammation.
The pulse, however, and the symptoms of the case collectively, will form a
better criterion than any change in the blood. Twenty-four hours after
the operation, the edges of the wound will have united, and the pin should
be withdrawn. When the bleeding is to be repeated, if more than three
or four hours have elapsed, it will be better to make a fresh incision rather
than to open the old wound.

Few directions are necessary for the use of the lancet. They who are
competent to operate with it, will scarcely require any. If the point ia-
sufficiently sharp the lancet can scarcely be too broad-shouldered ; and an

460 BLEEDING.

abscess lancet will generally make a freer incision than that in common uso.
Whatever instrument is adopted, too much care cannot be taken to have
it perfectly clean and very sharp. It should be carefully wiped and dried
immediately after the operation, otherwise, in a very short time, the edges
will begin to be corroded.

For general bleeding the jugular vein is selected at the largest superficial
i/iie, and most easily got at. In every affection of the head, and in cases
of extended inflammatory action, it is decidedly the best place for bleeding.
In local inflammation, blood may be taken from any of the superficial
veins. In supposed aflTections of the" shoulder, or of the fore-leg or foot,
the radial vein, which comes from the inside of the arm, and runs up-
wards directly in front of it towards the jugular, may be opened. In
affections of the hind extremity, blood is sometimes extracted from the
saphcena, or thigh- vein, which runs across the inside of the thigh. In foot
cases it may be taken from the coronet, or, much more safely, from the
toe ; not by cutting out, as the farrier does, a piece of the sole at the toe
of the frog, which sometimes causes a Mound difiicult to heal, and some-
times followed by festering ; but cutting down \vith a fine drawing-knife,
called a searcher, at the union between the crust and the sole at the very
toe until the blood flows, and if necessary, encouraging its discharge
by dipping the foot in warm water. The mesh- work of both arteries and
veins will be here divided, and blood is generally obtained in any quantity
that may be needed. The bleeding may be stopped with the greatest ease,
by placing a bit of tow in the little groove that has been cut, and tacking
the shoe over it.

The operation of bleeding having been described, we would remind our
readers of the necessity in every case, in which it is required, of making
a large orifice, and abstracting the blood as rapidly as possible, for the
constitution will thus be the more speedily and beneficially affected ; and
also of the propriety of never determining to take a precise quantity of
blood, but of keeping the finger on the artery until the pulse begins to
falter — until the strong pulse, becomes softer or the animal is faint, or
the oppressed pulse is rounder and fuller.

The change which takes place in the blood after it is drawn from the
vein, is very diligently noticed by many practitioners, and is certainly de-
serving of some attention. The blood coagulates soon after it is taken
from the vein. The coagulable part is composed of two substances ; these,
by degrees, separate from each other, and the red particles sink to the
bottom. If the coagulation takes place slowly, the red particles have
more time to sink through the fluid, and there appears on the top a thick,
yellowish, adhesive coat, called the buffy coat. It is supposed that the
slowness of coagulation, and the thickness of buflfy coat, are indicative of
the degree of inflammation.

In a healthy state of the system, the coagulation is more rapid, the red
particles have not time to fall through, and the buffy coat is thin. These
appearances are worth observing ; but much more dependence is to be
placed on the character and change of the pulse, and the sjonptoms gene-
rally. When the horse is exhausted and the system nearly broken up, the
blood will sometimes not coagulate, but be of one uniform black colour and
loose texture. When the blood runs down the side of the vessel in which
it is received, the coagulation will be very imperfect. When it is drawn
in a full stream, it coagulates slowly, and when procured from a smaller
orifice, the coagulation is more rapid. Every circumstance affecting the
coagulation and appearance of the blood, the pulse, and the general
B^Tnptoms, should be most attentively regarded.

BLISTERING. 46J

BLISTEEIITG.

We have spoken of the effect of blisters, when treating of the vai'ioua
diseases to which they are apphcable. The principle on which they act is,
that no two intense inflammations can exist in neighbouring parts, or
perhaps in the system, at the same time. Hence we apply some irritating
substance to the skin, in order to excite external inflammation, and thus
lessen or remove that which exists in some deeper-seated and, generally,
not far distant part. Hence, also, we blister the sides in inflammation of
the lungs — the abdomen in that of the bowels — the legs in that of the
cellular substance surrounding the sheaths of the tendons, or the sheaths
themselves, and the coronet in inflammation of the navicular joints.

Blisters have likewise the property of increasing the activity of the
neighbouring vessels : thus we blister to bring the tumour of strangles
more speedily to a head — to rouse the absorbents generally to more
energetic action, and cause the disappearance of tumours, and even callous
and bony substances.

The judgment of the practitioner will decide whether the desired effect
will be best produced by a sudden and violent action, or by the con-
tinuance of one of a milder character. Inflammation should be met by
active bhsters ; old enlargements and swellings will be most certainly
removed by milder stimulants — by the process which farriers call sweating
down.

There are few more active or effectual blisters than the cantharides or
Spanish fly, mixed with the proportions of lard and resin that will be
hereafter stated. The best liquid or sweating blister is an infusion of the
fly in vinegar, olive oil, or spirit of turpentine, according to the degree of
activity required.

In preparing the horse for blistering, the hair should be clipped or
shaved as closely as possible, and the ointment thoroughly rubbed in.
Much fault is often found with the ointment if the blister does not rise,
but the failui-e is generally to be attributed to the idleness of the operator.

The head of the horse should be tied up during the first two days ;
except that, when the sides are blistered, the body-clothes may be so
contrived as to prevent the animal from nibbHng and blemishing the part,
or bHstering his muzzle. At the expiration of twenty-four hours, a httl©
olive oil should be appHed over the blister, which will considerably lessen
the pain and supple the part, and prevent cracks in the skin that may be
difficult to heal. The oil should be applied morning and night, until the
scabs peel off.

Every particle of Htter should be carefully removed from the stall, for
the sharp ends of the straw coming in contact with a part rendered so
tender and irritable by the bhster, will caiise a very great annoyance to
the animal. After the second day the horse may be suffered to lie down ;
but the possibility of blemishing himself should be prevented by a cradle
or wooden necklace, consisting of round strips of wood, strung together,
reaching from the lower jaw to the chest, and preventing him from
sufficiently turning or bending his head, to get at the blistered part.

A blister thus treated will rarely produce the slightest blemish. When
the scabs are all removed, the bhster may be repeated, if the case ohould
appear to require it, or the horse may be turned out.

In inflammations which threaten life, a bhster can scarcely be too activo
or extensive. In inflammation of the lungs it should reach over the
whole of the sides, and the greater part of the brisket, for, should a
portion of the fly be absorbed, and produce strangury (inflammation, or
spasmodic affection of the neck of the bladder,) even this new irritation

4<ji! BLISTERING.

may assist in subduing the first and more dangerous one. In blistering,
however, for injuries or diseases of the legs or feet, some caution is
necessary. When speaking of the treatment of sprain of the back sinews,
it was stated, that ' a blister should never be used while any great heat
or tenderness remained about the part,' for we should then add to the
superficial inflammation, instead of abating the deeper-seated one, and
enlargements of the limb and extensive ulcerations might follow, which
would render the horse perfectly unserviceable. When there is a tendency
to grease, a blister is a dangerous thing, and has often aggravated the
disease. In winter, the inflammation of the skin produced by blistering
is apt to degenerate into grease ; therefore, if it should be necessary tc
blister the horse during that season, great care must be taken that he is
not exposed to cold, and, particularly, that a current of cold air does not
come upon the legs.

The inhuman practice of blistering all round at the same time, and
perhaps high on the legs, cannot be too strongly reprobated. Many a
valuable horse has been lost through the excessive general irritation which
this has produced, or its \-iolent eflect on the urinary organs, and that has
been particularly the case, when corrosive sublimate has entered into the
composition of the blister.

Amongst other substances employed as counter-irritants, the prepara-
tions of iodine have recently occupied a prominent position ; all the pre-
parations of iodine are more or less valuable from their marked effect on
the absorbent system, but the one most commonly used as a counter-
irritant is a combination of iodine and mercury, named the biniodide of
mercuiy, in the form of ointment consisting of one drachm of the biniodide
to one ounce of lard. This should be apphed in the same manner as the
ointment of cantharides, but not over so great a surface on account of its
irritating eff'ects. For bony enlargements such as splint, spavin, or ring-
bone, this preparation will be found far superior to all others. When
immediate action is required, half a pound or a pound of good mustard
powder, made into a paste with cold water, and applied, will often produce
as good a bhster as cantharides. It is a preferable one, when, as in
inflammation of the kidneys, the effect of cantharides on the urinary
organs is feared. Hartshorn is not so effectual.

FIRING.

Whatever seeming cruelty may attend this operation, it is in many
cases indispensable. The principle on which we have recourse to it ia
similar to that which justifies the use of a blister — by producing super-
ficial inflanunation we may be enabled to get rid of a deeper-seated one,
or we may excite the absorbents to remove an unnatural bony or other
tumour. It raises more intense external inflammation than we can produce
by any other means. It may be truly said to be the most powerful agent
that we have at our disposal. Humanity, however, will dictate, that on
account of the inflammation which it excites, and the pain it inflicts, it
should only be had recourse to when milder means have failed, except in
those cases in which experience has taught us that milder means rarely
succeed.

The part which is to be submitted to the operation should be shaved, or
the hair cut from it as closely as possible with the trimming scissors.
This is necessary in order to bring the iron into immediate contact \vith
the skin, and likewise to prevent the smoke that will arise from the burned
hair obscuring the view of the operator. The horse must then be thrown.
This is absolutely necessary for the safety both of the operator and the
animal. The side-Hne may be applied in a shorter time, and so many

FIRING.

4G3

hands may be not wanted to cast tlie horse ; but no person can fire accu-
rately, or with the certainty of not penetrating the skin, except the
animal is eifectually secured by the hobbles. Although accidents have
occurred in the act of casting, yet many more have resulted to the operator,
the assistants, or the horse, in a protracted operation, when the side-lme
only has been used.

The common hobbles, and the mode of fixing them; also the seat oj several diseases, and
the different methods of firing, cf-c.

«, Enlargement of the flexor tendons, and
the vertical method of firing.

b. The seat of splint.

€, The seat of ringbone.

d, The seat of enlargement of the sus-
pensory ligament, and a mode of firing
for ditto.

e. The seat of bone spavin, and a mode of

firing for ditto.
/, A curb, and another, though not an

advisable, method of firing.
g, The seat of capped hock.
h. The seat of thorough-pin.

The details of the operation belong to the veterinary surgeon. The
grand points to be attended to are to have the edge of the iron round and
smooth — the iron itself at, or rather below, a red heat — to pass it more or
less rapidly over the skin, and with slighter or greater pressure accordino-
to the degree of heat— to burn into the skin until the line produced by the
iron is of a brown colour, rather light than dark, and, by all means, in
ordinary cases, to avoid penetrating the skin. Lea^nng out of the question
the additional cruelty of deep firing, when not absolutely required, we may
depend on it that if the skin is burned through, inflammation, and ulcera-
tion, and sloughing will ensue, that will be with much difficulty combated,
■ — that will unavoidably leave unnecessary blemish, and that has destroyed
many valuable horses. It may happen, nevertheless, that by a sudden
plunge of the animal the skin will be unavoidably cut through. The act
of firing requires much skill and tact, and the practitioner cannot be
always on his guard against the struggles of the tortured beast. It will,
also, and not unfrequently, occur that the skin, partially divided, Avill
separate in two or three days after the operation. This must not be attri-
buted to any neglect or unskilfulness of the surgeon, and the ulceration

464 FIRING.

thus produced will bo slight and easily treated, compared with that caused
by actually bumixig through the skin.

A very considerable change has taken place in the breed of many of
the varieties of the horse, and the labour exacted from him. As illustra-
tions of this we refer to the altered character and pace of the modem
hunter, and the additional increase of speed required from the coach and
the post horse ; the exertion being limited only by the degree to which
every muscle and every nerve can be extended, while the calculation between
the utmost exaction of cruelty and the expenditure of vital power is reduced
to the merest fraction. The consequence of this is, that the horse is subjected
to severer injuries than he used to be, and severer measui-es are and must
be employed to remedy the evil. Hence the horrible applications of the
actual cautery to the horse that have disgraced the present day. Lesions —
gashes have been made on either side of the tendon of the leg, which it
took no fewer than seven months to heal. Was there nothing short of
this lengthened torture that could have been done to reheve the victim ?
Could he not have been more hghtly fired for the road or for the purposes
of breeding ? "Was there no pasture on which he had earned a right to
graze ? — or could he not have been destroyed ? These sad lesions will
occasionally come before the practitioner and the owner. It will be for
the first to advocate that which, on a careful view of the case, mercy
prompts ; and the latter, except there is a reasonable prospect of ultimate
enjoyment, as well as usefulness, should never urge a continuation of
suffering.

Supposing, however, that prospect to exist, the surgeon must discharge
his duty. These gashes, after a while, begin to close, and then commences
the beautiful process of granulation. Little portions of the integument
form on the centre of the wound, and the sides of the wound creep closer
together, and the skin steals over the surface until the chasm is perfectly
closed. In order to insure the continuance of this, a ridge of contracted
integument as hard as any cartilage, but without its elasticity, runs from
one end of the lesion to the other, tighter, and harder, and more efiectual
every week, and month, and year, and lasting during the life of the animal.
Therefore, the veterinary surgeon is not to be too severely censured, if,
after due consideration, he is induced to undertake one of these fearful
operations : but let him do it as seldom as he can, and only when every
circumstance promises a favourable result.

Some practitioners blister immediately after firing. As a general usage
it is not desirable. It may be required in bony tumours of considerable
extent, and long standing, and interfering materially with the action of
the neighbouring joint. Spavin accompanied by much lameness, and ring-
bone spreading round the coronet and involving the side cartilages or the
pastern joint, may justify it. The inflammation is rendered more intense,
and of considerably longer duration. In old affections of the round bone
it may be admitted, but no excuse can be made for it ia slighter cases of
sprain or weakness, or staleness.

On the day after the operation, it will be prudent gently to apply some
olive oil, or lard, over the wound. This will soften the skin, and render
it less likely to separate or ulcerate. A bandage would add to the irrita-
tion of the part. Any cracks of the skin, or ulcerations that may ensue,
must be treated with the calamine ointment.

It will be evident that there is an advantage derived fi-om firing to
which a blister can have no pretension. The skin, partially desti'oyed
by the iron, is reinstated and healed, not merely by the formation of some
new matter filling up the vacuity, but by the gradual drawing together
and closing of the separated edges. The skin, therefore, is lessened in

SETONS. 466

«iirt'ace. ft is tightened over the pai*t, and it acts, as just described, as a
salutary and pennanent bandage. Of the effect of pressure in removing
enlargements of every kind, as well as giving strength to the part to
which it is applied, we have repeatedly spoken, and it is far from being the
least valuable effect of the operation of firing, that, by contracting the
skin, it affords a salutary, equable, and permanent pressure. It was on
this principle, but the practice cannot be defended, that colts which were
not very strong on the legs, used to be fired round the fetlock, and along
the back sinew, or over the hock, in order to brace and strengthen the
parts. It is on the same principle that a racer or hunter, that has become
stale and stiff, is sometimes fired and turned out. For whatever reason
the horse is tired, he should, if practicable, be turned out, or soiled in a
loose box, for three or four months at least. The full effect intended tc
result from the external irritation is not soon produced, and the benefit
derived from pressure proceeds still more slowly. In the thickened and
tender state of the skin, and the substance beneath, a return to hard work
for some weeks after tiring would be Hkely to excite new inflammation,
and cause even worse mischief than that which before existed.

Some weeks pass before the tumefied parts begin to contract — and they
only who have had experience in these cases can imagine how long — with
gentle voluntary exercise, the process of absorption is carried on. He
who would expect that much good should accrue from the operation of
firing must be content to give up his horse for three or four months ; but
if he will use him sooner, and a worse lameness should follow, let him
blame his own impatience, and not the inefficiency of the means, or the
want of skiU in the surgeon.

The firing in every ease should be either in longitudinal or oblique Hnes.
On the back sinews, the fetlock, and the coronet, this is peculiarly re-
quisite, for thus only will the skin contract so as to form the greatest and
most equable pressure.

Some practitioners may pride themselves on the accuracy of their
diamonds, lozenges, and feathers, but plain straight lines, about half an
inch from each other, will constitute the most advantageous mode of firing.
The destroying of deeply-seated inflammation, by the exciting of violent
inflammation on the skin, is as well obtained ; and common sense will ,
determine, that in no way can the pressure which results from the cou--
traction of the skin be so advantageously employed — to which may be/
added, that it often leaves but slight blemish.

SETONS

Are pieces of tape, passed, by means of an instrument resembling a large
flat and thin needle, either through abscesses, or the base of ulcers with
deep sinuses, or between the skin and the muscular or other substances
beneath. They are retained there by the ends being tied together, or by
a knot at each end. The tape is moved in the wound twice or thrice in
the day, and occasionally wetted with some digestive fluid or ointment,
in order to increase the inflammation which it produces, or the discharge
which is intended to be estabHshed.

In abscesses, such as occur in the withers or the poll, when passed from
the summit to the very bottom of the swelling, setons are highly useful,
by discharging the purulent fluid, and suffering any fresh quantity of it
that may be secreted to flow out ; and by the degree of inflammation
which they excite on the interior of the tumour, stimulating it to throw
out healthy granulations, which gradually occupy and fill the hollow. In
ieep fistulous wounds they are indispensable, for except some channel is
made through which the matter may flow from the bottom of the

H H

46G DOCKING.

wound, it will continue to penetrate deeper into the part, and the healing
process will never be accomplished. On these accounts, a seton passed
thi'ough the base of the ulcer in poll-evil and fistulous withers is of so
much benefit.

Setons are sometimes useful hj promoting a discharge in the neighbour-
hood of an inflamed part, and thus diverting and carrying away a portion
of the fluids which distend or overload the vessels of that part ; thus a
seton is placed with considerable advantage in the cheek, when the eyes
are much inflamed. We confess, however, that we prefer a rowel under
the jaw.

With this view, and to excite a new and different inflammation in the
neighbourhood of a part already inflamed, and especially so deeply seated
and so difl&cult to be reached as the navicular joint, a seton has occasion-
ally been used with manifest benefit, but we must peremptorily object to
the indiscriminate use of the frog- seton for almost every disease of the
frog or the foot.

In inflammations of extensive organs setons afford only feeble aid
Their action is too circumscribed, and they are only really valuable when
used in combination with the blister.

On the principle of exciting the absorbents to action for the removal of
tumours, as spavin or splint, a blister is quicker in its action, and far more
effectual than any seton. Firing is still more useful.

DOCKING.

The shortening of the tail of the horse is an operation which fashion
and the convenience of the rider require to be performed on most of these
animals. The length of the dock, or stump, is a matter of mere caprice.
To the close-cropped tail of the waggon-horse, however, we decidedly
object, from its perfect ugliness, and because the animal is deprived of
every defence against a thousand tortures. The supposition that the
blood which would have gone to the nourishment of the tail causes
gi'eater development and strength in the quarters, is too absurd to deserve
serious refutation. It is the rump of the animal being wholly uncovered,
and not partly hidden by the intervention of the tail, that gives a false
appearance of increased bulk. The plan has however become entirely
obsolete, and is now alluded to merely to show how recently such thought-
less cruelties were indulged in.

The operation is simple. That joint is searched for which is the
nearest to the desired length of tail. The hair is then turned up, and
tied round with tape for an inch or two above this joint ; and that which
lies immediately upon the joint is cut off. The horse need not be fettered
with the side-Ime, but with merely the twitch on the nose, and the near
fore-leg held up ; the veterinary surgeon with his docking-machine cuts
through the tail at one stroke. Considerable bleeding ensues, and frightens
the timid and the ignorant ; but if the blood were suffered to flow on until
it ceased of its own accord, the colt, and especially if he were very young,
would rarely be seriously injured. The hair being loosened and dropped
over the joint, a small pledget of tow moistened with a little tincture
of myrrh or aloes is placed on the wound, the hair tied over it, and by the
pressure thus simply applied, the ha3morrhage ceases. The next morning the
string may be cut, the pledget allowed to drop off, and no further care is
required. Contrast this humane, rational, and simple treatment with the
system adopted by the farrier, and, shameful to say, not by the farrier
only, even of the present day, of stopping the bleeding by the appHcation
of a red-hot iron to the stump : the horse plunging and rushing round the
forgo or stable, and the operator valiantly following, alternately brandish-

MCKING. 467

ing and searing wltli tlao hot iron, most cunningly contrived to stop this
most formidable bleedinsr. It is one of tlie most useless and wanton acts
of craeltj that the poor horse is subjected to.

Some farmers dock their colts a few days after they are dropped. This
is a commendable custom on the score of humanity. No colt was ever
lost by it ; and neither the growth of the hair, nor the beauty of the tail,
is in the least impaired.

NICKING.

This barbarous operation was once sanctioned by fashion, and the
breeder and the dealer even now are sometimes tempted to inflict the
torture of it in order to obtain a ready sale for theu' colts. It is not,
however, practised to the extent that it used to be, nor attended by so
many circumstances of cruelty.

We must here introduce a small portion of the anatomy of the horse,
which we had reserved for this place. The eighteen dorsal vertebras or
bones of the back (see d, p. 244), and the five lumbar vertebrae or bones
of the loins (/, p. 244), have already been described. The continuation
of the spine consists of the sacrum, composed of five bones (h, p. 244),
which, although separate in the colt, are in the full-gro%vn horse united
into one mass. The bones of the ilium, the upper and side portion of the
haunch, articulate strongly with the sacrum, forming a bony union rather
than a joint. The spinal cord and the blood-vessels here generally begin
to diminish, and numerous branches of nerves are given out, which, joined
by some from the vertebras of the loins, form the nervous apparatus of the
hind legs.

The bones of the tail are a continuation of those of the sacrum. They
vary in number, generally fifteen, gradually diminishing in size, and losing
altogether the character of the spinal vertebrae. ]\Iuch attention is paid
by persons who are acquainted with the true form of the horse to this
continuation of the sacral and tail-bones. From the loins to the setting
on of the tail the line should be nearly straight, or inclining only a sHght
degree downward. There is not a surer test of the breed of the horse
than this straight line from the loins to the tail ; nor, as was shown when
the muscles of the quarters were described, is there any cii-cumstance so
much connected with the mechanical advantage with which these
muscles act.

The tail seems to be designed to perfect the beauty of the horse's
form, and also as a means of defence against the presence of flies and
other insects on the skin. There are three sets of muscles belonging to
the tail — the erector coccyrps, situated on the supeiior and lateral part of
it, and by the action of which the tail may be both elevated and drawn on
one side — the depressor coccygis, on the inferior and lateral part of it, by
the action of which the tail may be both lowered and drawn on one side
— and the curvator coccygis, by the action of which the tail may be cm-ved
or flexed on either side. The depressor and lateral muscles are more
powerfal than the erector ones, and when the horse is undisturbed, the
tail is bent down close on the buttocks ; but when he is excited, and par-
ticularly when he is at speed, the erector muscles are called into action,
the tail is elevated, and there is an appearance of energy and spirit which
adds materially to his beauty. To perpetuate this, the operation of nicli-
ing was contrived. The depressor muscles and part of the lateral ones
are cut through, and the erector muscles, left vdthout any antagonists,
keep the tail in a position more or less erect, according to the whim of the
operator or the depth to which the incisions h£,ve been carried.

The operation is thus performed. The side^ line is put on the hor?.o. or

bh2

468 NICKING.

Bome persons deem it more prudent to cast him, and that precaution we
should be disposed to recommend. The hair at the end of the tail is
securely tied together, for the purpose of afterwards attaching a weight to
it. The operator then grasps the tail in his hand, and, lifting it up, feels
for the centre of one of the bones — the prominences at the extremities will
guide him — from two to four inches from the root of the tail, according to
the size of the horse. He then, with a sharp knife, divides the muscles
deeply from the edge of the tail on one side to the centre, and, continuing
the incision across the bone of the tail, he makes it as deep on the other
side. One continued incision, steadily yet rapidly made, will accomplish
all this. K it is a blood-horse that is operated on, this will be sufficient.
For a hunter, two incisions are usually made, the second being about two
inches below the first, and likewise as nearly as possible in the centre of
one of the bones.

On the hackney, or cocldail, a third incision is made ; for fashion has
decided that his tail shall be still more elevated and curved. Two
incisions only are made in the tail of a mare, and the second not very
deep.

When the second incision is made, some fibres of the muscles between
the first and second will project into the wound, and must be removed by
a pair of curved scissors. The same must be done with the projecting
portions from between the second and third incisions. The wounds shouJd
then be carefally examined, in order to ascertain that the muscles have
been equally divided on each side, otherwise the tail will be carried
awry. This being done, pledgets of tow must be introduced deeply into
each incision, and confined, but not too tightly, by a bandage. A. very
profuse bleeding will alone justify any tightness of bandage, and the ill
consequences that have resulted from nicking are mainly attributable to
the unnecessary force that is used in confining these pledgets. Even if
the bleeding, immediately after the operation, should have been very
great, the roller must be loosened in two or three hours, otherwise swell-
ing and inflammation, and even death, may possibly ensue. Twenty-four
hours after the operation, the bandage must be quite removed ; and, then
all that is necessary, so far as the healing of the incisions is concerned, is
to keep them clean.

K, however, the tail were suffered to hang down, the divided edges of
the muscles would again come in contact with each other, and close ; the
natural depression of the tail would remain ; and the animal would have
been punished for no purpose. The wounds must remain open, and that
can only be accomplished by forcibly keeping the tail curved back during
two or three weeks. For this purpose a cord, one or two feet in length,
is affixed to the end of the hair, which terminates in another divided cord,
each division going over a pulley on either side of the back of the stall.
A weight is hung at either extremity sufficient to keep the incisions
properly open, and regulated by the degree in which this is wished to be
accomplished. The animal will thus be retained in an uneasy position,
although, after the first two or three days, probably not one of acute pain.
It is barbarous to increase this uneasiness or pain by affixing too great a
weight to the cords ; for it should be remembered that the proper elevated
curve is given to the tail not by the weight keeping it in a certain
position for a considerable time, but by the depth of the first incisions,
and the degree in which the wounds are kept open. By every ounce
of weight beyond that which is necessary to keep the incisions apart,
unnecessary suffering is inflicted. Some practitioners use only one pulley;
others do not use any, but put on a light girth; and tie a cord from the
end of the tail to the girth, bending it over the back. The double pulley

NEURUTOMr. 4tJ!i

However, is the least painful to the horse, and more perfectly secures
the proper elevation and straight direction of the tail.

The dock should not, for the first three or four days, be brought higher
than the back. Dangerous ii-ritation and inHammation would probably be
produced. It may, after that, be gradually raised to an elevation of forty-
five degrees. The horse should be taken out of the pulleys, and gently
exercised once or tsvice every day ; but the pulleys cannot finally be dis-
pensed with until a fortnight after the wounds have healed, because the
process of contraction, or the approach of the divided parts, goes on for
some time after the skin is perfect over the incisions, and the tail would
thus sink below the desii'ed elevation.

K the tail has not been unnecessarily extended by enormous weights, no
bad consequences will usually follow ; but if considerable inflammation
should ensue, the tail must be taken from the pulley and dihgently
fomented "*vith simple warm water, and a dose of physic given. Locked-
jaw has in some rare instances followed, under which the horse generally
perishes. In order to prevent the hair from coming ofi", it should be un-
plaited and combed out every fourth or fifth day.

NEUROTOMY.

The division of the nerve, as a remedy for intense pain in any part of
the frame, was systematically practised by human surgeons more than a
centirry ago. Mr. Moorecroft has the honour of introducing the operation
of neurotomy in the veterinary school.

He frequently met with a strangely formidable disease, in what was
called 'coflELu-joint lameness,' but to which ]\Ir. James Turner afterwards
gave the very appropriate name of ' navicular-joint disease.' It was
inflammation of the navicular bone, where the tendon plays over that
bone ; and it was accompanied by pain, abrasion, and gradual destruction
of these parts.

For a long time he was foiled in every attempt which he made to
remove or even to alleviate the disease. At length he turned his thoughts
to the probability of subduing the increased sensibility of the part by
diminishing the proportion of nervous influence distributed on the foot.
He laid bare one of the metacarpal nerves, and divided it with a pair of
scissors. There was always an immediate and decided diminution of the
lameness, and, sometimes, the horse rose perfectly sound. This happy
result, however, was not always permanent, for the lameness returned after
the lapse of a few weeks, or on much active exertion. He next cut out a
small piece of the nerve. The freedom from lameness was of longer
duration, but it eventually returned.

He then tried a bolder experiment. He excised a portion of the nerves
going both to the inner and outer metacarpals. We transcribe his own
account of the result of the first case of complete nem-otomy — excision of
the nerve on both sides of the leg — that ever was performed,

'The animal, on rising, trotted boldly and \vithout lameness, but now
and then stumbled with the foot operated on. The wounds healed in a
few days, and the patient was put to grass. Some weeks afterwards a
favourable account was received of her soundness ; but she was soon
brought again to us, on account of a large sore on the bottom of the foot
operated on, and extending from the point of the frog to the middle and
back part of the pastern. The mare, in galloping over some broken glass
bottles, had placed her foot upon a fragment of the bottom of one of them,
and which had cut its way through the frog and tendon into the joint, and
Btuck fast in the joint for some seconds, while the animal continued its
course apparently regardless of injury. The wound bled profusely, but

470

NEUROTOMY.

the mare was not lame. Many days had elapsed before I saw her, and
laro-e masses of loose flesh were cut from the edges of the wound without
the animal showing the slightest sign of suffering pain. The processes
usually attending sores went on, with the same appearances, that took place
in sores of parts not deprived of sensibility. Such extensive injury, how-
ever, had been done to the joint, as rendered the preservation of free mo-
tion in it very improbable, even were the opening to close, which was a
matter of doubt, and therefore she was destroyed. It appeared clearly
from this, that by the destruction of sensibility the repairing powers of the
parts were not injured ; but that the natural guard against injury being-
taken away by the division of both the nerves, an accident was rendered
destructive, which, in the usual condition of the foot, might have been less
injurious.'

The follo^ving cut gives a view of the nerve on the inside of the leg, as.
it approaches the fetlock. It will be seen that branches are given off
above the fetlock, which go to the fore part of the foot and supply it with
feeling. The continuation of the nerve below the fetlock is given princi-
pally to the quarters and hinder part of the foot. The grand considera-
tion, then, with the operator is — does he wish to deprive the whole of the
foot of sensation, or is the cause of lameness principally in the hinder part
of the foot, so that he can leave some degree of feeling in the fore part,
and prevent that alteration in the tread and going of the horse which
the horseman so dislikes ?

A The metacarpal nerve on the inside of the off leg at the edg&
of the shank bone, and behind the vein and artery.

B The continuation of the same nerve on the pastern, and pro-
ceeding downward to supply the back part of the foot
with feeling.

C The division of the nerve on the fetlock joint.

D The branch which supplies with feeling the fore part of th&
foot.

E The artery between the vein and nerve.

F The continuation of the artery on the pastern, close to, and
before the nerve.

G The vein before the artery and nerve.

H The same vein spreading over the pastern.

I One of the flexor tendons, the pcrforatus (perforated).

J The deeper flexor tendon, the pcrforans (perforating, con-
tained within the other).

K The tendinous band in which the flexors work.

L One of the extensors of the foot.

M The internal or sensitive frog.

N The posterior lateral ligament.

0 The fleshy or sensitive laminae covering the coffin-bone, th&
horny crust being removed.

P The horny crust.

Q The sole.

The horse must be cast and secured, and the limb to be operated on
removed from the hobbles and extended — the hair ha\'ing been previously
shaved from the part. The operator then feels for the throbbing of the
artery, or the round firm body of the nerve itself, on the side of the shank
bone or the larger pastern. The vein, artery, and nerve here run closo
together, the vein nearest to the front of the leg, then the artery, and the
nerve behind. He cautiously cuts through the skin for an inch' and a half
in length. The vessels will then be brought into view, and the nerve will

NEUROTOMY. 471

be distinguished from them by its lying behind the others, and by ita
whiteness. A curve blunt needle, with a handle, is then passed under it,
in order to raise it a little. It is dissected from the cellular substance
beneath, and about three quarters of an inch of it cut out, — the first in-
cision being made at the upper part, in which case the second incision
will not be felt. The horse must then be turned, and the operation per-
formed on the other side ; for there is a nervous trunk on both sides. The
wounds are now closed, a bandage placed over them, the head tied up for
a couple of days, and the animal kept rather low, and as quiet as possible.
The incisions will generally rapidly heal ; and in three weeks or a month,
and sometimes earher, the horse will be fit for work.

For ringbone — the side cartilages becoming bony, and there being
partial stifiuess of the pastern and cofiin-joints — the operation of nerving
will probably be beneficial. The sense of pain being taken away, the
animal will use these parts more, and they will, to a certain extent, re-
cover their natural action and motion. These are, indeed, some of the
most satisfactory cases in which it can be had recourse to ; and when the
enlargement exists in one of the lateral cartilages only, that is on but one
side of the coronet, requiring the operation on but the outer or inner
nerve, as the case may be, the efiect is very satisfactory without the sen-
sation of the foot being lost. For the same reason, in old contraction of
the feet, it is highly beneficial. The torture occasioned by the pressure of
the homy crust on the sensitive parts within being no longer felt, and the
foot coming fully and firmly in contact with the ground, not only is lame-
ness relieved, but the elasticity and form of the foot partially restored.
Where lameness has long existed, unattended with heat of the foot or
alteration of shape, and the seat of which could not be ascertained,
although probably existing between the navicular bone and the back
tendon that plays over it, neurotomy may be resorted to with decided
advantage.

Mischief, however, will result from the operation if the pastern or
coffin-joints are perfectly stiff, because the concussion occasioned by the
forcible contact of the foot with the ground, and unbroken by the play of
the joints, must necessarily still more injure the bone. When the sole of
the foot is convex or pumiced, the efiect of neurotomy will be most destnic-
tive. The sole, scarcely able to bear the pressure of the coffin-bone, even
when pain induces the animal to put his foot as gently as possible on the
ground, being forced below its natural situation, would be speedily worn
through and destroyed. So if inflammation existed, although its pain
might be removed, yet its progress would be quickened by the bruising
to which the parts might be subjected ; and more especially would this be
the case, if there was any ulceration of the hgaments or cartilages.

To some extent, immediate good effect is produced as it regards the
actual disease. We remove that general constitutional irritability which
long-continued pain occasions, and which heightens and perpetuates local
disease. We obtain for the patient an interval of repose, and every local
ailment soon subsides or disappears, at least to a very considerable extent,
and the whole constitution becomes invigorated.

Mr, Percivall relates two valuable cases of this, A mare with con-
tracted feet was never subject to periodical oestrum, and her owner
lamented in vain that he could not breed from her. She underwent the
operation of neurotomy and became an excellent brood mare, A stallion
with many a good point about liim was useless in the stud : he was suffer-
ing from some disease in the feet. A portion of the nerve was excised—
his constitution underwent a complete change, and he became sire to a
numerous and valuable progeny.

472 TRACHEOTOMY.

The principle of neurotomy is plain and simple — it is the removal of
yain. Taken on this ground, it is a noble operation. It is that in which
every friend of humanity will rejoice. It may be abused. K no auxiHary
means are adopted — if in canker, or quittor, no means are used to lessen
the concussion and the pressure — the destruction of the part and the
utter ruin of the horse are the inevitable consequences. The primary
result is the removal of pain. It is for the operator to calculate the
bearing of this on the actual disease, and the future usefulness of the
animal.

On the question of the reproductioa of the nerves there is no doubt. A
horse is lame, and he undergoes the operation of neurotomy. At the
expiration of a certain time the lameness retui'ns, and he is probably
destroyed. In the majority of cases it is found that the nerves had united,
or rather that a new veritable nervous substance had been interposed.
The time at which this is effected is unkno^vu. There have not been any
definite experiments on the point.

Can the horse that has undergone tha operation of neurotomy be after-
wards passed as sound ? Most certainly not. There is altered, impaired
structure ; there is impaired action ; and there is the possibihty of the
retui'n of lameness at some indefinite period. He has been diseased. He
most probably is diseased now ; but the pain being removed, there are no
means by which the mischief can always be indicated. Besides, by the
very act of neurotomy, he is peculiarly exposed to various injuries and
affections of the foot from which he would otherwise escape. It must,
indeed, be borne in mind, as an invariable rule, that it is never to be had
recourse to till the science and skill of the veterinary practitioner has
utterly failed in giving reHef. When disease cannot be cured, it is an act
of humanity to reheve the animal, if possible, from the pain and suffering
attendant on it : this, in well-selected cases, the operation of neurotomy
will generally effect ; this is its legitimate object, and with this object only
in view should it ever be performed,

TRACHEOTOMY.
The respiratory canal is occasionally obstructed, to an annoying and
dangei'ous degree. Polypi have been described as occupying the nostrils ;
long tumours have formed in them. Tunioiirs of other kinds have pressed
into the larynx. The tumour of strangles has, for a while, occupied the
passage. The larynx has been distorted ; the membrane of the windpipe,
on the larynx, has been thickened, and ulcers have formed in one or both,
and have been so painful that the act of breathing was laborious and
torturing. In all these cases it has been anxiously enquii'ed whether there
might not be estabhshed an artificial opening for the passage of the air,
when the natural one could no longer be used ; and it has been ascei-tained
that it is both a simple and safe operation, to excise a portion of the
trachea, on or below the point of obstruction.

The operation must be performed while the horse is standing, and
secured by a side-line, for he would, probably, be suffocated amidst the
struggles with which he would resist the act of throwing. The twtch is
firmly fixed on the muzzle ; and an assistant holds a scalpel, a bistoury,
scissors, curved needles armed, and a moist sponge.

The operator should once more examine the whole course of the wind-
pipe, and the different sounds which he \vill be able to detect by the ap-
phcation of the ear, and likewise the different degrees of temperature
and of tenderness which the finger will detect, will guide to the seat of
the evil.

The hair is to be closely cut off from the part, the skin tightened iicross

PARACENTESIS THORACIS (TArriNG THE CHEST), 473

the tracliea with the thumb and fingers of the left hand, and then a longi-
tudinal incision cautiously made through the skin, three inches in length.
Tliis is usually efi'ected, when there is no express indication to the contrary,
on the fifth and sixth rings ; a slip from which, and the connecting ligii^
ment above and below, about half the width of each ring, should be excised
with the intervening ligament. The remaining portion will then be strong
enough to retain the perfect arched form of the trachea.

If the orifice is only to be kept open while some foreign body is ex-
tracted, or tumour removed, or ulcer healed, or inflammation subdued,
nothing more is necessary than to keep the lips of the wound a little apart,
by passing some thread through each, and shghtly everting them, and
tying the threads to the mane.

If, however, there is any permanent obstruction, a tube will be necessary.
It should be two or three inches long, curved at the top, and the external
orifice turning downwards wdth a Httle ring on each side, by which, through
the means of tubes, it may be retained in its situation.

The purpose of the operation being answei'ed, the flaps of integument
must be brought over the wound, the edges, if necessary, diminished, and
the parts kept in apposition by a few stitches. The cartilage will be
perfectly reproduced, only the rings will be a little thicker and wider.

The following account will illustrate the use and the danger of the
tracheotomy tube. A mare at Alfort had great distortion of the rings of
the trachea. She breathed with difficulty. She became a i-oarer almost
to sufibcation, and was quite useless. Tracheotomy was effected on the
distorted rings, and a short canula introduced. She was so much relieved
that she trotted and galloped immediately afterwards ^vithout the slightest
distress. Six months later she again began to roar. It seemed that the
rings were now distorted below the former place.

M. Barthelemy introduced another canula, seven inches long, and which
reached below the new distortion. She was once more relieved. Slie
speedily improved in condition, and regulai^y drew a cabriolet at the rate
of seven or eight miles in the hour ; and this she continued to do for three
years, when the canula became accidentally displaced in the night, and
she was found dead in the morning.

PARACENTESIS THORACIS (TAPPING THE CHEST ).
By auscultation and other modes of examination, the existence of effusion
in the chest is ascertained, and, possibly, it is increasing. Is there any
m.echanical way of getting rid of it ? There is one to which recourse
should be had as soon as it is evident that there is considerable quantity
of fluid in the chest. The operation of Paracentesis, or tapping, should be
performed ; it is a very simple one. One of the horse's legs being held up,
and, counting back from the sternum to between the seventh and eighth
ribs, the surgeon should first make a longitudinal incision through the
skin, and then pass a moderate-sized trochar into the chest immediately
above the cartilages. He will not have selected the most dependent
situation, but as near it as he could with safety select ; for there w^ould not
have been room between the cartilages if the puncture had been lower ;
and these would have been injured in the forcing of the instrument be-
tween them, or, what is worse, there would have been great hazard of
wounding the pericardium, for the apex of the heart rests on the sternum.
Through this aperture, close to the cartilages, the far greater part of the
fluid may be evacuated. The operator will now ■\\T.thdi-aw the stilette,
and let the fluid run through the canula. He will not trouble himself
afterwards about the wound ; it will heal readily enough ; perhaps too
quickly, for, could it be kept open a few days, it might act as a very useful

474 A LIST OP THE MEDICINES USED IN

drain. It should be attempted early. Recourse should be had to the opera-
Mon as soon as it- is ascertained that there is considerable fluid in the chest,
for the animal will at least be relieved for a while, and some time will
have been given for repose to the overlaboured lungs, and for the system
generally to be recruited. The fluid will be evacuated before the lungs
are too much debilitated by laborious action against the pressure of the
water, and a state of collapse brought on, from which they wiU be incapable
of recovering. They only who have seen the collapsed and condensed
state of the lung that had been long compressed by the fluid, can conceive
of the extent to which this is carried. It should be added — a fact im-
portant and alarming — that the records of veterinary surgery contain
very few cases of permanently successful performance of the operation.
This should not discourage the practitioner from attempting it, but should
induce him to consider whether he may not perform it under happier
auspices, before the lungs and the serous membrane which lines the
cavity have been too much disorganised, and the constitution itself sadly
debilitated. There could not be any well-founded objection to an earlier
resort to paracentesis, and he must be a bungler indeed who wounded
any important part.

It should be ascertained by auscultation whether there is fluid in both
cavities. If there should be, and in considerable quantity, it will not be
prudent to operate on both sides at once. K much fluid is discharged,
there will be acceleration and difiiculty of respiration to a very great
degree. The practitioner must not be alarmed at this ; it will pass over,
and on the next day he may attack the other side ; or open both at once,
if there is but Httle fluid in either.

CHAPTER XXIII.

A LIST OF THE MEDICINES USED IN THE TREATMENT OF THE
DISEASES OF THE HORSE.

He will rarely consult his own interest, who, not having had the advan-
tage of a veterinary education, undertakes the treatment of any of the
serious diseases of his horses. Many of the maladies of the horse nearly
resemble each other. They are continually varying their character, and
require, in their diSerent stages, a very different treatment ; and in the
plainest case not only the characteristic symptoms of disease are obscure,
but even the indications of returning health, or increasing danger, are
often scarcely ascertainable, consequently the sick horse, as well as the
human being, needs the care of one whom study and experience have
qualified for the task. A list of the drugs generally employed, ^vith a
sHght account of their history, adulterations, and medicinal eflfects, will be
interesting to the horse-proprietor as well as to the veterinary surgeon ;
and may occasionally be useful when professional aid cannot be obtained.

Frequent reference vnll be made to Professor Morton's most valuable
Manual of Pharmacy. This work wiU be found to be a treasure to every
veterinaiy surgeon. Mr. W. C. Spooner's Materia Medica, in his recent
compendium of White's account of the horse, will occasionally be laid
under contribution.

AcACU GuMMi. — Many varieties of gum arable are procured from Africa,
Arabia, and the East Indies. It is an exudation fi-om the trunk and

TREATMENT OF DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 475

branches of various trees. It is employed in tlie form of a mucilage,
made bj dissoh-ing it in water, in tlie proportion of one part of the gum
to three or four of water. Various insoluble powders may be thus sus-
pended, or oils rendered miscible, or emulsions formed. Emulsions com-
posed of gum arable are supposed to be useful in urinary affections.

AciDUM AcETicmi, Acetic Acid, Yinegaji. — Acetic, or pyroHgneous acid
is obtained by the destructive distillation of wood. It is about six times
as strong as ordinary vinegar, and is seldom used except in this diluted
form. Vinegar is obtained by what is called the acetous fermentation,
excited in a saccharine solution. Everyone is famihar with the properties
of vinegar, it has been employed for sprains and bruises, and equal parts
of cold vinegar and boiling water will form a good fomentation. As an
internal remedy, vinegar is rarely given, nor has it, except in large doses,
any considerable medicinal power.

AciDUM Arseniosum, Arsexic. — Were it not that some practitioners con-
tinue to use it as a tonic, in doses of from five to ten gi-ains daily, and
others employ it to core out old ulcers, we would not include it in our list,
for we have little faith in it. There are better and safer tonics, and far
better and safer caustics. The method of detecting the presence of ursenic,
in cases of poisoning, will be found described at page 500.

AciDiTM MuRLVTicuM, Or HYDROCHLORIC AciD : Spirit OF Salt. — This acid
is obtained by distilling a mixture of sulphuric acid and common salt and
water. The acid is generated in the form of gas, and is converted into a
liquid by admixtui-e with water in the receiver. In this state, when pure,
it is colourless, but the ordinary acid met with in commerce is of a yellowish
colour. "When exposed to the air, it emits suffocating fumes, and, from
its great affinity for water, should be always kept in well-stopped bottles.
It is chiefly employed as a caustic in ulcers and other ill-conditioned
wounds. When applied to any hving part, a change of colour is perceived,
the parts becoming blanched. For canker, wounds ia the foot not
attended by healthy action, and for every case where the superficial ap-
pHcation of a caustic is needed, this acid will be found especially valuable.
It has also been given ia a diluted form as a solvent of calculi ia the
kidneys and bladder.

AciDuii NiTRicuM : Nitric Acid, Aquafortis. — This acid is obtaiaed by
distilling together a mixture of sulphuric acid and nitrate of potassa. It
is a pale straw-coloured fluid, with a pungent acrid smell, and possessing
very corrosive properties. Aquafortis is a diluted form of this acid.
Nitric acid is a valuable external application. It is both a caustic and an
antiseptic. It destroys fungoid excrescences. A pledget of tow should
be dipped in the acid, and then firmly pressed on the cankerous surface.
Every part vrith Avliich the acid has come into contact will be deadened
and slongh ofl", and healthy granulations will spring up.

Acidum HrDROCYA:s^icuM : Prussig Acid. — It is prepared by mixing to-
gether cyanide of silver, hydrochloric acid, and water. In this state
it will be found a colom-less Hquid, with a pungent bitter taste, and a
peculiar odour somewhat resembling bitter almonds. The hydrocyanic of
the London Pharmacopoeia contains about two per cent, of acid, while
Scheele's acid, which is more generally used in veterinary practice, con-
tains from four to five per cent. In a concentrated state, it is tinily a
deadly poison ; a few drops of it will kill a large animal. In a diluted
form, it is a powerful sedative. In doses of half a drachm to a drachm,
largely diluted, it abates both pulmonary and gasti-ic irritation. It has
also been used with good effect in the form of enema in cases of tetanus.
It may also be given by the mouth in the same disease. Nothing is more
likely to tranquilHse the general excitement of the nervous system. The

476 A LIST OF THE MEDICINES USED IN

author of this work was the first person who applied the hydrocyanic
acid for the purpose of allaying irritation of the skin in dogs. It seldom
fails of producing the desired effect, and it has had a similar good effect
in subduing itchiness and mange in the horse.

AciDUM SuLPHURiciBi : ScJLPHURic AciD. — This acid, which is familiarly
known by the name of oil of vitriol, is obtained in commerce by the com-
bustion of sulphur and nitrate of potassa in leaden chambers containing
water. Thus obtained it is an oily-looking colourless fluid, devoid of
smell, but intensely acid and powerfully corrosive. It destroys the cuticle,
and acts as a caustic, charring both animal and vegetable substances,
combining with the water and setting free the carbon. In its diluted
state, it is sometimes administered internally as a tonic and astringent.
When thus given, it should be largely diluted with water, or inflammation
of the stomach and bowels may result. This is sometimes produced by
the dangerous practice adopted by waggoners sprinkling this acid amongst
the food of the animal, with a mistaken view of improving his condition.
The antidotes in such a case would be magnesia, carbonate of soda or
potash, and large quantities of soap and water. As an external appH-
cation, when mixed vnth tar in the proportion of an ounce to the pound,
it has been used for thrush and canker, but both the hydrochloric and
nitric acids are better appHcations.

Adeps, Hog's Lakd, very properly forms the basis of most of our oint-
ments. It is tasteless, inodorous, and free from every stimulating quahty.
That cannot be said of all the ingredients used in the composition of our
unguents.

Alcohol, Rectified Spirit. — In its pure state alcohol is seldom used,
but more frequently employed in the diluted form of either rectified or
j)roof spirit, in the preparation of tinctures. It is obtained from the fer-
mentation of saccharine solutions of different varieties of grain or fruit,
and repeated distillation of the product. Internally administered, its
action would be stimulant and antispasmodic. Its chief value as an ex-
ternal apphcation consists when mixed with water, in forming a cold
evaporating lotion.

Aloes. — There are two kinds used in horse practice, the Barbadoes and
the Cape. The Socotrine, preferred by the human surgeon, are very un-
certain in their effect on the horse, and are seldom to be met with pure.
Of the Barbadoes and the Cape, the first are much to be preferred. They
are obtained principally from the island of Barbadoes, and are the juice
of the large leaves of the aloe boiled to a considerable thickness, and then
poured into goui'ds in which they gradually harden. The true Cape are
the extract of a species of aloas chiefly cultivated at the Cape of Good
Hope. The Barbadoes aloes are of a reddish-brown colour, with a strong
aromatic smeU, broken with difficulty, and the fracture dull. The Cape
are darker coloured, very brittle, and the fracture perfectly glossy. Ever^-
veterinary surgeon who uses much aloes should buy them in the mass, and
powder them at home, and then, by attending to this account of the
difference of the two, he can scarcely be imposed upon. It is, however,
the fact, that these are mostly adulterated, by their being melted together.
Aloes purchased in powder are too often sadly adulterated.

The Barbadoes aloes have a greater purgative power than the Cape, ex-
clusive of griping less and being safer. In addition to this, the action of
the bowels is kept up longer by the Barbadoes aloes than by the Cape.
If the horse is well mashed, and carefully exercised, and will drink plenty
of warm water, the Cape may be ventured on, or at least mixed with equal
quantities of the Barbadoes ; but if there is any neglect of preparation for
pliysic, or during the usual operation of the physic, the Cape are not

TREATMENT OF DISEASES OF TFTE HORSE. 477

always to be depended upon. The combination of alkaline componnds with
aloes alters tlie results of the medicine. Their action is quickened, but
their purgative properties are impaired, and they cease to operate specifi-
cally on the larger intestines. Such is the opinion of Professor Morton,
and tmdoubtedly the latter would be an advantage gained. Mashes are
useful helps when physic is administered.

Some persons are fond of what are called half-doses af physic. Tlrree
or four drachms are given on one day, and three or four on the following;
and perhaps if the medicine has not operated, as in this divided state it
will not always, two or three additional drachms are given on the third
day. The consequence is, that the bowels having been rendered imtable
by the former doses, the horse is over-purged, and inflammation and death
occasionally ensue. In physicking a horse, whatever is to be done should
be done at once. Whatever quantity is intended to be given should be
given in one dose.

The system of giving small doses of aloes as alteratives is not good.
These repeated minute doses lodging in some of the folds of the intestines,
and at length uniting, often produce more effect than is desirable. It is
never safe to ride a horse far or fast, with even a small dose of aloes within
him.

Most of all objectionable is the custom of giving small doses of aloes, aa
a nauseant, in inflammation of the lungs. There is so much sympathy be-
tween the contents of the chest and the belly in the horse, and inflamma-
tion of one part is so likely to be transferred to another, that it is treading
on very dangerous ground, when, with much inflammation of the lungs,
that is given which will stimulate and may inflame the intestines.

Aloes are most commonly, because most easily, administered in the form
of ball, but in a state of solution their effect is more speedy, effectual,
and safe.

Aloes are useful in the form of tincture. Eight ounces of powdered
aloes, and one ounce of powdered myrrh, may be put into two quarts of
rectified spirit, diluted with an equal quantity of water. The mixture
should be daily well shaken for a fortnight, and then suffered to stand, in
order that the undissolved portion may fall to the bottom. This will con-
stitute a very excellent application for wounds, whether recent or of lono-
standing and indisposed to heal. It is not only a gentle stimulant, but it
forms a thin crust over the wound, and shields it from the action of the
air.

The principal adulteration of aloes is by means of resin, and the altera-
tion of colour is concealed by the addition of charcoal or lamp-black.
This adulteration is easily enough detected by dissolving the aloes in hot
water. All aloes contain some resinous matter, which the water will not
dissolve, and which has very slight purgative effect. The excess of this
resin at the bottom of the solution will mark the degree of adulteration.

AcONiTUJi, Monkshood. — This plant, which was introduced into this
country from Germany, is found growing in most of our flower gardens.
As a medicinal agent, it has recently come somewhat prominently into
notice in veterinary practice. The preparations chiefly used are the tinc-
ture and extract of aconite. It is said to possess narcotic, diaphoretic, and
diuretic properties, but its action upon the horse is at present but little
understood. It is a very powerful and highly deleterious agent, and
should never be used except by the veterinary attendant.

Alteratives are a class of medicines the nature and effect of Avhich are
often much misunderstood, and liable to considerable abuse. It is a very
convenient name in order to excuse that propensity to dose the horse with
medicines, wticb is tlie disgrace of the groom, and the bane of the stable.

478 A LIST OF THE MEDICINES USED IN

By alteratives "we trnderstand those drags -whicli effect some slow
cliaiige in the diseased action of certain parts without interfering with
the food or work ; but by common consent the term seems to be confined
to medicines for the diseases of the circulation, or of the digestive organs,
or of the skin. If a horse is heavy and incapable of work from too good
keep, or if he is off his food from some temporary indigestion — or if he
has mange or grease, or cracked heels, or swelled legs, a few alteratives
are prescribed, and the complaint is expected to be gradually and imper-
ceptibly removed. For all skin affections there is no better alterative than
that so often recommended in this treatise, consisting of black antimony,
nitre, and sulphur. If there is any tendency to grease, some resin may be
added to each ball. K the complaint is accompanied by weakness, a Uttle
gentian and ginger may be farther added, but we enter our protest against
the ignorant use of mercury in any form, or any of the mineral acids, or
mineral tonics, or heating spices, as alteratives. We indeed should be
pleased if we could banish the term alterative from common usage. The
mode of proceeding which reason and science would dictate is to ascertain
the nature and degree of the disease, and then the medicine which is
calculated to restore the healthy action of the part, or of the frame
generally.

Alum is occasionally used internally in cases of super-purgation in the
form of alum- whey, two drachms of the powder being added to a pint of
hot milk ; but there are much better astringents, although this may some-
times succeed when others fail. If alum is added to a vegetable astringent,
as oak-bark, the power of both is diminished. Its principal use is external
A solution of two drachms to a pint of water forms alone, or with the
addition of a small quantity of white vitriol, a very useful wash for
cracked heels, and for grease generally ; and also for those forms of swelled
legs attended vrith exudation of moisture through the skin. Some add
the Goulard lotion, forgetting the chemical decomposition that takes place ;
the result of which is the formation of a mixture wth no astringency at
ah.

The Burnt Alum is inferior to the conrmon alum for the purposes men-
tioned, and we have better stimulants, or caustics, to apply to wounds. .

Ammonla., which has been termed the volatile alkali, is given off during
the decomposition of animal substances, and to the injury of the horse,
plentifully extricated from the putrefying dung and urine in badly managed
stables. In its pure state ammonia exists in the form of gas, but is freely
absorbed by water, and in this form is generally employed. Administered
internally, either in the form of the aromatic spirit or carbonate of am-
monia, it acts as a stimulant and antacid, and has been given with decided
benefit, when other things have failed, in flatulent colic. In the form of
acetate of ammonia, it forms a valuable febrifuge medicine. As an ex-
ternal application, water of ammonia acts as good counter-irritant, in cases
of sore throat, and is also useful in dispersing indolent tumours. Another
preparation, the hydrochlorate of ammonia, or sal mmnoniac, mixed
with dilute acetic acid, has been used as a stimulant to chronic
sprains.

Anisi Semina, Anise-seed. — This seed is here mentioned principally as
a record of old times, when it was one of the sheet anchors of the fan-ier
It is not yet quite discarded from his shop as a stimulant, a cai-minative,
and a cordial.

Antimony. — There are several valuable preparations of this metal.

The Black Sesqui-Sulphuuet of Antimony, a compound of sulphur and
antimony, is a good alterative. It is given with more sulphur and with
uitre, in varying doses, according to the disease, and the slow or rapid

\

TREATMENT OF DISEASES OF HORSE. 479

effect intended to be produced. It stould T?ever be bought in powdei.
whatever trouble there may be in levigating it, for it is often grossly
adulterated with lead, manganese, forge dust, and arsenic. The adultera-
tion may be detected by placing a little of the powder on a red-hot iron
plate. The pure sulphuret will evaporate without the slightest residue —
so will the arsenic : but there will be an evident smell of garlic. A por-
tion of the lead and the manganese will be left behind.

ANTmoNii PoTASSio Tartras, Emetic Tartar. — The tartrate of potash
and antimony, or a combination of super-tartrate of potash and oxide of
antimony, is a very useful nauseant, and has considerable effect on the skin.
It is particularly valuable in inflammation of the lungs, and in every ca-
tarrhal affection. It is given in doses of from one drachm to a drachm and
a half, and combined with nitre and digitalis. It has also been externally
appHed in chest affections, in combination with lard, and in quantities of
from one drachm to two drachms of the antimony to an ounce of the lard;
but except in extreme cases, recourse should not be had to it, on account
of the extensive sloughing which it sometimes produces.

PuLVis Antimonii Coiiposrrus, The Compound Powder of Antimont,
— commonly known by the name of James's Powder. It is employed as a
sudorific in fever, either alone or in combination with mercurials. The
dose is from one to two drachms. The late Mr. Bloxam used to trust to
it alone in the treatment of Epidemic Catarrh in the horse. It is, how-
ever, decidedly inferior to Emetic Tartar. It is often adulterated with
chalk and burnt bones, and other white powders, and that to so shameful
a degree, that little dependence can be placed on the antimonial powder
usually sold by druggists. The muriatic or sulphuric acids will detect
most of these adulterations.

Anti-spasmodics. — Of these our list is scanty, for the horse is subject
only to a few spasmodic diseases, and there are fewer medicines which
have an anti-spasmodic effect. Opium stands first for its general power.
Oil of turpentine and spirit of nitric ether are also valuable anti-spas-
modics. Camphor, assafoetida, and various other medicines, used on the
human subject, have a very doubtfol effect on the horse, or may be con-
sidered as almost inert.

Argentum, Silver. — One combination only of this metal is used, and
that as a manageable and excellent caustic, viz. the nitrate of silver, or
Lunar Caustic. It is far preferable to the hot iron, or to any acid, for the
destruction of the part if a horse should have been bitten by a rabid
dog ; and it stands next to the mineral acids for the removal of fungus
generally. It has not yet been administered internally to the horse.

Balls. — The usual and the most convenient mode of administering
veterinary medicines is in the form of balls, compounded with glycerine,
syrup, or treacle, the former being the best on account of their longer
keeping soft and more easily dissolving in the stomach. Balls should
never weigh more than an ounce and a half, otherwise they will be so laro-e
as not to pass without difficulty down the gullet. They should not be
more than an inch in diameter and three inches in length. The mode of
delivering balls is not difficult to acquire ; but the balling-iron, while it
often wounds and permanently injures the bars, occasions the horse to
struggle more than he otherwise would against the administration of the
medicine. The horse should be backed in the stall ; — the tongue should
be drawn gently out with the left hand on the off side of the mouth, and
there fixed, not by continuing to pull at it, but by pressing the fingers
against the side of the lower jaw. The ball, being now taken between the
tips of the fingers of the right hand, is passed rapidly up the mouth, as
near to the palate as possible, until it reaches the root of the toLgue. It

4«0 A LIST OF THE MEDICIXES USED IN

13 then delivered with a slight jerk, and the hand being withdrawn and
tbe tongue liberated, the ball is forced through the pharynx into tlie
oesophagus. Its passage should be watched down the left side of the
throat ; and if the passage of it is not seen going down, a slight tap or blow
under the chin ^411 generally cause the horse to swallow it, or a few gulps
of water will convey it into the stomach. Very few balls Fhould be kept
ready made, for they may become so hard as to be incapable of passing
down the gullet, or dissolving in the stomach, and the life of the horse
maj he endangered or lost. This is peculiarly liable to be the case if the
ball is too large, or wrapped in thick paper. The balling-probang, which
may be obtained of any veterinary instrument maker, affords great facility
in administering a ball, avoiding that risk of an awkward scratch or bruise
on the back of the fauces which cannot always be avoided. They are
now made in a very portable form, and should be found in every large
establishment.

Bark, Peruvian. — There are several varieties of cinchona or Peruvian
bark, but the one most commonly erriployed is the Cinchona Flava or
yellow bark, the produce of a tree growing in different parts of South
America. Administered either in the form of infusion or powder, it
possesses very valuable tonic properties, and is especially serviceable in
those cases where great debility is present as the result of influenza. Its
active properties depend upon a principle named quinine, which is highly
valued as a tonic in human medicine, but at the present time is too expen-
sive for general use in veterinary practice.

Basilicon is a valuable digestive ointment, composed of resin, bees'-
wax, and olive-oil. If it is needed as a stimulant, a little turpentine and
verdigris may be added.

BELLADONNiE EXTRACTtIM, EXTRACT OF DeADLT NIGHTSHADE. — The inspis-
sated juice of the Atropa Belladonna is principally used as a narcotic and
sedative, and indicated where there is undue action of the nervous and vas-
cular systems, as in tetanus, pneumonia, and nervous affections generally.
Externally, it is beneficially applied to the eye, on which its action is most
peculiar and extraordinary, its sole effect being on the iris or curtain of
the eye. This curtain, as has been detailed elsewhere, has two sets of
muscles, one set to enlarge, the other to close the pupillary opening. The
great peculiarity is, that it is only on the muscles that dilate the pupil
that this medicine has any power ; and when they are under its in-
fluence, the pupil becomes as fally distended as in paralysis of the optic
nerves.

Blisters are applications to the skin, which separate the cuticle in the
form of vesicles containing a serous fluid. They excite increased action
in the exhalant vessels of the skin, by means of which this fluid is thrown
out. The part or neighbouring parts are somewhat relieved by the dis-
charge, but more by the inflammation and pain that are produced, and
lessen that previously existing in some contiguous part. On this prin-
ciple we account for the decided relief often obtained by blisters in inflam-
mation of the lungs, and their eSicacy in abating deeply-seated disease, as
that of the tendons, ligaments, or joints ; and also the necessity of pre-
A-iously removing, in these latter cases, the superficial inflammation caused
by them, in order that one of a different kind maybe excited, and to which
tbe deeply-seated inflammation of the part will be more likely to yield.
Tlie bUsters used in horse-practice are composed of preparations of can-
iharides or the biniodide of mercury, to which some have added a tincture
of the croton-nut.

For some important remarks on the composition, application, and
management of the bb'i>ter, see page 461 .

TEEATMEXT OF DISEASES OF THE HOKSE. 431

Bole Armenian is an argillaceous earth combined with iron, and is sup-
posed to possess some astringent property. On account of its supposed
astringency, it is employed externally to give consistence to ointments for
grease. Even the bole Ai-menian has not escaped the process of adultera-
tion, and is largely mixed with inferior earths. The fraud may be sus-
pected, but not satisfactorily detected, by the colour of the powder, which
should be a bright red.

Calamine. — See Zinc.

Calomel. — See Mercury.

Camphor is the produce of one of the laurus species (Laui-us Camphora),
a native of Japan, and too often imitated by passing a stream of chlorine
through oil of turpentine. According to Professor Morton, it is a narcotic.
It diminishes the frequency of the pulse, and softens its tone. When
long exhibited, it acts on the kidneys. Externally applied, it is said to be
a discutient and an anodyne for chronic sprains, bruises, and tumours.
The camphor ball is a favourite one with the groom, and occasionally
administered by the veterinary surgeon. ^Ir. "W. C. Spooner uses it,
mixed with opium, in cases of locked-jaw, and in doses of from one to twc
drachms. In the form of camphorated oil, it promotes the absorption of
fluids thrown out beneath the skin, the removal of old callus, and the
suppling of joints stiff from labour. Combined with oil of turpentine, it is
more effective.

Caj^tharides are the basis of the most approved and usefal veterinary
bhsters. The cantharis vesicatoria is a fly, the native of Italy and the
south of France. It is destroyed by the fumes of sulphur or vinegar, and
dried in the sun or a warm apartment. Its action is intense, and yet
superficial ; it plentifally raises the cuticle, yet rarely injures the true
skin, and therefore seldom blemishes. The application of other acrid
substances is occasionally followed by deeply-seated ulcerations ; but a
bhster composed of the Spanish fly alone, while it does its duty, leaves,
after a few weeks have passed, scarcely a trace behind.

The art of blistering consists in cutting, or rather shaving, the hair per-
fectly close ; then well rubbing in the ointment, for at least ten minutes ;
and, afterwards, and what is of the greatest consequence of all, appl^-ing a
little more of the ointment lightly over the part, and leaving it. As soon
as the vesicles have perfectly risen, which will be in twenty or twenty-
four hours, the torture of the animal may be somewhat reheved by the
application of oHve oil, or any emoUient ointment.

When too extensive a bhster has been employed, or, from the intensity
of the original inflammation, the bhster has not risen (for no two intense
inflammations can exist in neighbouring parts at the same time), strangury
— great difiiculty in passing urine, and even suppression of it — has occurred.
The careful washing off of the bhster, and the administration of plenty of
warm water, with opium, and bleeding, if the symptoms run high, will
generally remove this unpleasant effect.

An infusion of the flies in olive oil, vinegar, or oil of turpentine, for
several days, is occasionally used as a hquid bhster ; and, when sufficiently
lowered with common oil, it is called a sweating oil, for it maintains a cer-
tain degree of irritation and inflammation on the skin, yet not sufficient ta
bhster, and thus gradually abates or removes some old or deep inflamma-
tion or cause of lameness.

' Of late cantharides have come into more general use. They were
recommended by Mr. Vines, in combination ■with vegetable bitters, as a
stimulating tonic, in cases of debility. He next applied them for the cure
of glanders. The veterinary public is much indebted to Mr. Vines for the
steadiness with which he has followed up the employment of the Spanlsli

I I

482 A LIST OF THE MEDICINES USED IN

fly. The dose is from five to eight grains given daily, but withheld for a
day or two wiien diuresis supervenes.

Capsici Bacc^, Caf,sicum Berries. — They are valuable as stimulants
affecting the system generally, yet not too much accelerating the pulse.
Their beneficial effect in cases of cold has seldom been properly estimated.
The dose is from a scruple to half a drachm.

Carui Semina, Caraway Seeds. — These and ginger, alone or combined,
are the best carminatives used in horse-practice.

Cascarill^ Cortex, Cascarilla Bark. — Tonic as well as aromatic. It
must not, however, be used with the sulphates of iron or zinc.

Castor Oil, Oleum Ricini. — Is obtained by expression from the seeds of
the Bicinus communis, a plant growing in the East and West Indies. It
is a valuable purgative, acting mildly but quickly, and particularly eligible
vrhen it is desii-able to produce but little irritation along tbe intestinal
canal.

Catechu, Japan Earth, yet no eartb, but extracted from the wood of
one of the acacia trees, is a very useful astringent. It is given in super-
purgation, in doses of one or two drachms, with opium, as a yet more
powerful astringent; chalk, to neutralise any acid in the stomach or bowels;
and powdered gum, to sheath the over-irritated mucous coat of the intes-
tines. It is not often adulterated in our country, but grossly so abroad —
fine sand and aluminous earth being mixed with the extract. It is seldom
given with any alkah, yet the prescription just recommended contains
chalk : but, although the chalk, as an alkah, may weaken the astringency
of the catechu, it probably neutrahses some acid in the stomach or bowels,
that would have diminished the power of the catechu to a greater degree.
It must not be given in conjunction with any metallic salt, for the tan-
nin or galhc acid, on which its power chiefly or entirely depends, has an
affinity for all metals, and will unite with them, and formagallate of them,
possessing little astringent energy. Common ink is the union of this tan-
nin principle with iron.

A tinctui-e of catechu is sometimes made by macerating three ounces ot
the powder in a quart of spirit for a fortnight. It is an excellent applica-
tion for wounds ; and, with the aloes, constitutes all that we want of a
balsamic nature for the purpose of hastening the healing process of wounds.
Caustics are substances that bui-n or destroy the parts to which they
are appUed, First among them stands the red-hot iron, or actual cautery,
and then pure alkahes, potash, and soda, and the sulphuric and nitric
acids. Milder caustics are found in the nitrate of silver, sulphate of cop-
per, red precipitate, burnt alum, and verdigris. They are principally used
to destroy fungous excrescences, to stimulate indolent tumours, or remove
portions of cellular substance, or muscle infected by any poison.

CretaPreparata, Chale, is principally used in combination with catechu
and opium in cases of super-purgation. All adventitious matters are re-
moved by washing, and the prepared or levigated chalk remains in the
form of an impalpable powder. It is usually adbninistered in doses of two
or three ounces. It is externally apphed over ulcers that discharge a thin
and ichorous matter.

Chamomile, Anthemis. — The powder of the flower, or infusion of the
plant, is a useful vegetable tonic, and the mildest in our list. It is given
in doses of one or two drachms, and is exhibited in the early stage of
convalescence in order to ascertain whether the febrile stage of the disease
is passed, and to prepare the way for a more powerful tonic, the gentian.
If no acceleration of pulse, or heat of mouth, or indication of return of
fever, accompanies the cautious use of the chamomile, the gentian, with
sulphate of iron, may be safelj ventured upon ; but if the gentian had

IREATMEXT OF DISEASES OF THE IIOESE. 488

been first used, and a little too soon, there might have been considerable,
and perhaps dangerous return of fever.

Charcoal is occasionally used as an antiseptic, being made into a
poultice with linseed meal, and applied to foul and offensive ulcers, and to
cracked heels. It removes the foetid and unwholesome smell that occa-
sionally proceeds from them.

Charges are thick adhesive plasters spread over parts that had been
strained or weakened, and, being applied to the skin, adhere for a con-
siderable time. The folloAving mixtui-e makes a good charge — Bui-gundy
or common pitch, five ounces ; tar, six ounces ; yellow wax, one ounce,
melted together, and when they are becoming cool, half a di-achm of
powdered cantharides well stirred in. This must be partially melted
afresh when applied, and spread on the part with a large spatula, as hot as
can be done "without giving the animal too much pain. Flocks of tow
should be scattered over it while it is warm, and thus a thick and adhesive
covering will be formed that cannot be separated from the skin for many
months. It is used for old sjorains of the loins, and also strains of the back
sinews. The charge acts in three ways — by the slight stimulant power
which it possesses, it gTadually removes all deep-seated inflammation — by
its stimulus and its pressure, it promotes the absorption of any caUus or
thickening beneath ; and acting as a constant bandage, it gives tone and
" strength to the part.

Clysters. — These are useful and too often neglected means of hasten-
ing the evacuation of the bowels when the disease requires their speedy
action. The old ox bladder and wooden pipe may still be employed, and
a considerable quantity of fluid thrown into the intestine ; but the patent
stomach and clyster pump of Mr. Reid is far preferable, as enabling the
practitioner to inject a greater quantity of fluid, and in a less time.

Two ounces of soft or yellow soap, dissolved in a gallon of warm water,
will form a useful aperient clyster. It will detach or dissolve many irri-
tating substances that may have adhered to the mucous coat of the bowels.
For a more active aperient, half a pound of Epsom salts, or even of
common salt, may be dissolved in the same quantity of water. A stronger
injection, but not to be used if much purgative medicine has been pre-
viously given, may be composed of an ounce of Barbadoes aloes, dissolved
in two or three quarts of warm water. If nothing else can be procured,
warm water may be employed ; it will act as a fomentation to the inflamed
and irritable surface of the bowels, and will have no inconsiderable effect
even as an aperient.

In cases of over-purging or inflammation of the bowels, the injection
must be of a soothing nature. It may consist of gruel alone, or if the
purging is considerable and difficult to stop, the gruel must be thicker,
and four ounces of prepared or powdered chalk well mixed with or sus-
pended in it, with two scruples or a dr-achm of powderod opium.

No oil should enter into the composition of a clyster, except that linseed
oil may be used for the expulsion of the ascarides, or needle-worms.

In epidemic catarrh, w^hen the horse sometimes obstinately refuses to
eat or to drink, his strength may be supported by nourishing clysters ; but
they should consist of thick gruel only, and not more than a quart should
be administered at once. A greater quantity would be ejected soon after the
pipe is withdrawn. Strong broths, and more particularly ale and wine,
are dangerous ingredients. They may rapidly aggravate the fever, and
should never be administered except under the superintendence, or by the
direction, of a veterinary surgeon.

The prrncipal art of administering a clyster consists in not frightening
the horse. The pipe, weU oiled, should be very gently introduced, and

ii2

484 A LIST OF THE MEDICINES USED IN

tlie fluid not too hastily thrown into the intestine ; its heat being as nearly
as possible that of the intestine, or about 96° of Fahrenheit's ther-
mometer.

CoLLTEiA, Lotions for the Eyes. — These have been sufl&ciently described
when inflammation of the eyes was treated of.

Copaiba, Balsam of Copaiba. — The resin is obtained from a tree grow-
ing in South America and the West India Islands. It is expensive, much
adulterated, and seldom used ; for its properties differ but little from those
of common diuretics.

Copper. — There are two combinations of this metal used in veterinary
practice, the verdigris or subacetate, and the bhie vitriol or sulphate.

Verdigris or Suhacetate of Copper is produced by subjecting that metal
to the action of acetic acid. It has been given internally by some prac-
titioners, in doses of two or three drachms daily, as a tonic, and particularly
for the cure of farcy. It is, however, an uncertain and dangerous medicine.
Verdigris is, however, usefully apphed externally as a mild caustic. Either
alone, in the form of fine powder, or mixed with an equal quantity of the
sugar (superacetate) of lead, it eats down proud flesh, or stimulates old
ulcers to healthy action. When boiled with honey and vinegar, it con-
stitutes the farriers' Egyptiacum, certainly of benefit in cankered or ulce-
rated mouth, and no bad application for thrushes ; but yielding, as it
regards both, to better remedies, that are mentioned, under the proper
heads. Some practitioners use alum and oil of vitriol in making their
Egyptiacum, forgetting the strange decomposition which is produced.

Blue Vitriol or Sulphate of Copper is the union of sulphuric acid and
copper. It is a favourite tonic with many practitioners, and has been
vaunted as a specific for glanders ; while others, and we think properly,
have no very good opinion of it. As a cure for glanders, its reputation
has nearly passed away. As a tonic, when the horse is slowly recovering
from sevei'e illness, it is dangerous, and its internal use should be confined
to cases of long continued discharge from the nostril, when catarrh or
fever have ceased. It may then be given with benefit in doses of from
one to two drachms tmce in the day, either in the food or combined with
gentian and ginger. It is principally valuable as an external apphcation,
dissolved in water in the proportion of two drachms to a pint, and acting
as a gentle stimulant. IS an ounce is dissolved in the same quantity of
water, it becomes a mild caustic. In the former proportion, it rouses old
ulcers to a healthy action, and disposes even recent wounds to heal more
quickly than they otherwise would do ; and in the latter, it removes fungous
granulations or proud flesh. The blue vitriol is sometimes reduced to
powder and sprinkled upon the wound for this purpose : it is also a good
application for canker in the foot.

Cordials are useful or injurious according to the judgment with which
they are given. When a horse comes home thoroughly exhausted, and
refuses his food, a cordial may be beneficial. It may rouse the stomach
and the system generally, and may prevent cold and fever ; but it is poison
to the animal when administered after the cold is actually caught and
fever begins to appear. More to be reprobated is the practice of giving
frequent cordials, that by tlieir stimulus on the stomach (the skin sympa-
thising so much with that viscus) a fine coat may be produced. The
artificial excitement of the cordial soon becomes as necessary to enable the
horse to do even common work, as is the excitement of the di'am to sustain
the animal spirits of the drunkard.

In order to recall the appetite of the horse slowly recovering from
illness, a cordial may sometimes be allowed ; or to old horses that have
been worked hard and used to these excitements when young ; or to

TREATMENT OF DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 485

draught horses, that have exhibited slight symptoms of staggers when
their labour has been unusually protracted and their stomachs left too
long empty ; or mixed Tvith diuretic medicine, to fine the legs of the over-
worked and debilitated animal ; but in no other case should they obtain
a place in the stable, or be used at the discretion of the carter or the
groom.

Corrosive Sublimate. — See Mercury.

Creosote has very lately been introduced into veterinary practice, and
is much valued on account of its antiseptic properties. It is obtained by
the destructive distillation of various substances, as pyroligneous acid, tar,
wood smoke, &g. Pure creosote is colourless and transparent ; its odour ia
that of smoked meat, and its taste is caustic and burning. It coaordatea
the albumen of the blood, and hence has been lately employed in stopping
hgemorrhages. It acts very powerfully on the general system, and quickly
destroys small animals. Professor Morton gives a very interestino- and
faithful account of it. It is, according to him, both a stimulant and a tonic.
In an undiluted state, it acts as a caustic. When diluted, it is a o-eneral
excitant and an antiseptic. In the form of a lotion, a liniment, or an oint-
ment, it has been useful in farcy and glanders, also in foot- rot, canker, and
thrush, — mange, caries, excessive suppuration, and the repression of funo-oug
gTanulations. As a caustic, it acts as a powerful stimulant, and it is an
antiseptic.

Croton Tiglii Sejiina, Croton Seeds. — The croton-nut has not been
long introduced into veterinary practice, although it has been used from
time immemorial by the inhabitants of India as a powerful purgative. An
oil has been extracted from it, and both it and the meal are adopted by
the veterinarian. It is given in doses from a scruple to half a drachm,
and, from its acrid nature, in the form of a ball, with an ounce of linseed
meal. When it does operate, the efiect is generally observed in six or
eight hours, the stools being profuse and watery, and the patient frequently
griped. On account of its speedy operation, it may be given in locked-
jaw and staggers : and also in dropsy of the chest or belly, from the watery
and profuse stools which it produces ; but it is often uncertain in its opera-
tion, and its griping, and the debility which it occasions, are serious objec-
tions to it as common physic. The oil, when placed on the tongue of the
horse in quantities varying from twenty to forty di'ops, produces purging^
but the membrane of the mouth frequently becomes violently inflamed.
This likewise happens, but not to so great a degree, when it is given in the
form of a drink, or in a mash.

Demulcents are substances that have the power of diminishincr the
efiect of acrimonious or stimulating substances. The first, by some oily or
mucilaginous substance, sheaths the sensitive parts. The other dilutes the
stimulus, and diminishes its power. It will rarely be difficult to deter-
mine which efiect should be produced, and the means by which it is to be
effected.

DLA.PHORETICS are medicines that increase the sensible and insensible
perspiration of the animal. As it regards the horse, they are neither many
nor powerful. Antimony in its various forms, spirit of nitric ether,
sulphur, and camphor have some efiect in opening the pores of the skin,
and exciting its vessels to action, and especially when assisted by warmth
of stable or clothing, and therefore are useful in those diseases in which it
is desirable that some portion of the blood should be diverted from the
overloaded, and inflamed, and vital organs of the chest, to the skin or the
extremities. The only diaphoretics, however, on which much confidence
can be placed, and especially to produce condition, are warm clothing and
good grooming.

486 A LIST OF THE MEDICINES USED IN

Digestives are applications to recent or old -wounds, as mild stimulants,
in order to produce a liealtlij appearance and action in them, and to cause
them more speedily to lieal. A weak solution of blue vitriol is an excel-
lent digestive ; so is the tincture of aloes, and the tincture of myrrh. The
best digestive ointment is one composed of three parts of calamine ointment
(Turner's cerate) and one of common turpentine.

Digitalis. — The leaves of the digitalis purpurea, or common foxglove,
gathered about the flowering time, dried carefully in a dark place, and
powdered, and kept in a close black bottle, form one of the most valuable
medicines in veterinary practice. It is a direct and powerful sedative,
diminishing the frequency of the pulse, and the general irritabihty of 'the
system, and acting also as a mild diuretic ; it is therefore usefal in every
inflammatory and febrile complaint, and particularly in inflammation of
the chest. It is usually given in combination with emetic tartar and nitre.
The average dose is one drachm of digitalis, one and a half of emetic tartar,
and three of nitre, repeated twice or thrice in the day.

Digitahs seems to have an immediate efiect on the heart, lessening the
number of its pulsations ; but effecting this in a singular manner — not by
causing the heart to beat more slowly, but producing certain intermissions
or pauses in its action. When these become marked — when at every sixth
or seventh beat, the pulsations are suspended while two or three can be
slowly counted, this is precisely the effect that is intended to be produced,
and however ill the horse may appear to be, or however alarming this
intermittent pulse may seem to the standers-by, from that moment the
animal will frequently begin to amend. The dose must then be diminished
one-half, and in a few days it may be omitted altogether : but the emetic
tartar and the nitre should be continued during some days after the prac-
titioner has deemed it pradent to try the effect of mild vegetable tonics.

There is no danger in the intermittent pulse thus produced ; but there
is much when the digitalis fails to produce any effect on the circulation.
The disease is then too powerfal to be arrested by medicine. Digitahs
requires watching ; but the only consequence to be apprehended from an
over-dose is, that the patient may be reduced a Httle too low, and his con-
valescence retarded for a day or two.

In the form of infasion or tincture, digitahs is very useful in inflamma-
tion of the eyes. It is almost equal in its sedative influence to opium, and
it may with great advantage be alternated with it, when opium begins to
lose its power. The infusion is made by pouring a quart of boiling water
on an ounce of the leaves. When it is become cold, a portion of the hquid
may be introduced into the eye. One or two drops of the tincture may be
introduced with good effect. This may be obtained by macerating three
ounces of the digitahs in a quart of spirit.

The infasion has been serviceable in mange ; but there are better appH-
cations.

Diuretics constitute a usefal but much abused class of medicines. They
stimulate the kidneys to secrete more than the usual quantity of urine, or
to separate a greater than ordinary proportion of the watery parts of the
blood. The deficiency of water in the blood, thus occasioned, must be
speedily supphed, or the healthy circulation cannot be carried on, and it is
generally suppHed by the absorbents taking up the watery fluid in some
part of the frame, and carrying it into the circulation. Hence the evident
use of diuretics in dropsical affections, in swelled legs, and also in inflam-
mation and fever, by lessening the quantity of the circulating fluid, and,
consequently, that which is sent to the inflamed parts.

All this is effected by the kidneys being stimulated to increased action ;
but if this stimulus is too often or too violently applied, the energy of the

TREATMENT OF DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 487

kidney may be impaii-ed, or inflammation may be produced. That inflam-
mation may be of an acute character, and destroy tbe patient ; or, altbougb
not intense in its nature, it may by frequent repetition assume a chronic
form, and more slowly, but as surely, do irreparable mischief. Hence the
necessity of attention to that portion of the food which may have a diuretic
power. Mow-burnt hay and foxy oats are the unsuspected causes of
many a disease in the horse, at first obscure, but ultimately referable to
injury or inflammation of the urinary organs. Hence, too, the impropriety
of sufiering medicines of a diuretic nature to be at the command of the
ignorant carter or groom. In swelled legs, cracks, and inflammations
which are said to be produced by humours floating in the blood, diuretics
are evidently beneficial ; but they should be as mild as possible, and not
oftener given or continued longer than the case requires. For some
cautions as to the administration of diuretics, and a list of the safest and
best, the reader is referred to page 337.

Drixks. — Many practitioners and horse-proprietors have a great objec-
tion to the administration of medicines in the form of drinks. A drink
is not so portable as a ball, it is more troublesome to give, and a portion
of it is usually wasted. K the drink contains any acid substance, it is apt
to excoriate the mouth, or to irritate the throat ah-eady sore from disease,
or the unpleasant taste of the drug may unnecessarily nauseate the horse.
There are some medicines, however, which must be given in the form of
drink, as in cohc ; and the time, perhaps, is not distant when purgatives
will be thus administered, as more speedy, and safer in their operation.
In cases of much debility and entu-e loss of appetite, all medicine should
be given in solution, for the stomach may not have sufiicient power to
dissolve the paper in which the ball is wrapped, or the substance of the
ball.

An ox's horn, the larger end being cut slantingly, is the usual and best
instrument for administering drinks. The noose of a halter is introduced
into the mouth, and then, by means of a stable fork, the head is elevated
by the groom considerably higher than for the delivery of a ball. The
assistant stands on a pail or stable-basket on the ofi'-side of the horse, and
with the right hand introduces the horn gently into the mouth, and over
the tongue, and by a dexterous turn of the horn empties the whole of the
drink — not more than about six ounces — into the back part of the mouth.
The horn is now quickly withdrawn, and the greater portion of the fluid
\d\\ be swallowed. A portion of it, however, will often be obstinately held
in the mouth for a long time, and the head must be kept up until the
whole is got rid of, which a qu.ick, but not violent slap on the muzzle will
generally compel the horse to do. The art of giving a drink consists in
not putting too much into the horn at once ; introducing the horn far
enough into the mouth, and quickly turning and withdrawing it, without
bruising or wounding the mouth, the tongue being loosened at the same
moment. A bottle is a disgraceful and dangerous instrument to use, except
it be a flat pint bottle, with a long and thick neck.

Ferrum, Iron. — Of this metal there are two preparations adopted by
veterinarians. The Carbonate is a mild and useflil tonic in doses of from
two to four drachms. Tbe Sulphate (green vitriol or copperas) is more
powerful. It should never be given in the early stages of recovery, and
always Avith caution. The dose should be the same as that of the car-
bonate. The sulphate has lately been recommended for the cure of that
deceitful stage or form of glanders, in which there is nothing to charac-
terise the disease but a very slight discharge from the nostrils. It is to
be dissolved in the common drink of the horse. It is worth a trial, but too
sanguine expectations must not be encouraged of the power of any drug

468 A LIST OF THE MEDICINES USED IN

over tills intractable malady. The iron should be gi-^en in combination
with gentian and ginger, but never with any alkali or nitre or soap, or
catechu, or astringent vegetable. Sulphate of iron may conveniently be
given in the water ; from one to two drachms so dissolved will be freely
drank by the horse.

Fomentations open the pores of the skin and promote perspiration in
the part, and so abate the local swelling, and relieve pain and lessen
inflammation. They are often used, and with more benefit when thei
inflammation is somewhat deeply seated than when it is superficial. The
effect depends upon the warmth of the water, and not on any herb that
may have been boiled in it. They are best applied by means of flannel
several times folded, frequently dipped in the hot water, or on which the
water is poured, and wrung dry, and the heat should be as great as the
hand will bear. The benefit that might be derived from them is much im-
paired by the absurd method in which the fomentations are conducted.
They are rarely continued long enough, and when they are removed, the
part is left wet and uncovered, and the coldness of evaporation succeeds
to the heat of fomentation. The perspiration is thus suddenly checked ; the
animal suffers considerable pain, and more harm is done by the extreme
change of temperature than if the fomentation had not been attempted.

Gentian stands at the head of the vegetable tonics, and is a stomachic
as well as a tonic. It is equally useful in chronic debility, and in that
which is consequent on severe and protracted illness. It is generally
united with ginger, and, when the patient will bear it, sulphate of iron.
Four drachms of gentian, one of sulphate of iron, and one of ginger will
make an excellent tonic baU. An infusion of gentian is one of the best
appHcations to putrid ulcers.

Ginger is as valuable as a cordial as gentian is as a tonic. It is the
basis of the cordial ball, and it is indispensable in the tonic ball. If the
root is large, heavy, and not worm-eaten, the dark ginger is as good as the
white, and considerably cheaper. The powder is adulterated with bean-
meal and the sawdust of boxwood, and rendered warm and pungent by
means of capsicuna.

Helleboeus Niger, Black Hellebore. — This is used mostly as a local
application, and as such it is a very powerful stimulant. Mr. E. Stanley,
of Birmingham, frequently resorts to it in fistulous afieotions of the poll
and withers, and with considerable success. The abscess having formed,
and exit being given to the imprisoned fluid, it is allowed to discharge
itself, for two or three days, being dressed by an ordinary digestive oint-
ment. Wlien the pus assumes a laudable character, he introduces a few
portions of the fibrous part of the root, passing them down to the bottom
of- the sinus, and letting them remain for a fortnight or more ; in the mean
time, merely keeping the surrounding parts clean. On examination it will
be found that the healing process has commenced.

Professor Morton says, that an ointment formed of the powder of either
the black or white hellebore, in the proportion of one part of the powder
to eight of lard, will be found exceedingly active for the dressing of rowels
and setons.

Hemlock, Conium JMaculatdm, is used by some practitioners, instead
of digitalis or hellebore, inaflTections of the chest, whether acute or chronic ;
but it is inferior to both. The dose of the powder of the dried leaves is
about a drachm.

Hydrargyrum (Mercury) . — This metal is found native in many countries
in the form of minute globules. It also occurs in the form of sulphuret, from
which it is obtained by distillation with Hme or iron. It has the singular
property of being liquid in the natural temperature of our earth. It

TREATMENT OF DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 489

freezes, or assnmes a singular species of crystallisation at 39° below 0 of
Fall., and at 660° above 0 of Fah. it boils and rapidly evaporates. In its
metallic state it appears to have no action on tbe animal system, but its
compounds are mostly powerful excitants, and some of them are active
caustics.

The Common Mercurial Ointment may be used for ringworm, and that
species of acarus which seems to be the source, or the precursor of, mange.
The compound mercurial ointment is also useful in the destruction of the
same insect. For most eruptiocs connected vrith or simulating mange,
the author of this work has been accustomed to apply the following oint-
ment with considerable success : —

Sublimed sulphur . . . . .1 pound.

Common turpentine . . . . .4 oz.

Mercurial ointment . . . . . 2 oz.

Linseed oil . . . . . .1 pint.

The Mercurial Ointment is prepared by rubbing quicksilver with lard,
in the pi'oportion of one part of mercury to three of lard, until no globules
appear. The practitioner should, if possible, prepare it himself, for he
can seldom get it pure or of the proper strength from the druggist. It is
employed with considerable advantage in preparing splints, spavins, or
other bony or callous tumours, for blistering or tiring. One or two
drachms, according to the nature and size of the swelling, may be daily
well rubbed in ; but it should be watched, for it sometimes salivates the
horse very speedilv. The tumours more readily disperse, at the application
of a stronger stimulant, when they have been thus prepared. Mercurial
ointment in a weaker state is sometimes necessary for the cure of mallen-
ders and sallenders ; and in very obstinate cases of mange, one-eighth part
of mercurial ointment may be added to the ointment recommended at
page 357.

Calomel, the submuriate or prctochloride of mercury, is obtained by
mixing together mercury and sulphuric acid, adding chloride of sodium,
and then sublimed by heat. It is useful in some cases of chronic cough,
in farcy, and in jaundice. Alone it has little purgative efiect on the horse,
but it assists the action of other aperients. It is given in doses from a
scruple to a drachm. As soon as the gums become red, or the animal
begins to quid or drop his hay, it must be discontinued.

Corrosive Sublimate, the oxymuriate or bichloride of mercury, combined
with chlorine in a double proportion, is a useful tonic in farcy. It should
be given in doses of ten grains daily, and gradually increased to a scruple,
until the horse is purged, or the mouth becomes sore, when it may be
omitted for a few days, and resumed. Some have recommended it as a
diuretic, but it is too dangerous a medicine for this purpose. It is used
externally in solution ; in substance in quittor, as a stimulant to foul ulcers ;
and in the proportion of five grains to an ounce of rectified spirit in obsti-
nate mange, or to destroy vermin on the skin. It is, however, too
uncertain and too dangerous a medicine for the horse-proprietor to venture
on its use.

j^thiop's Mineral, the black sulphuret of mercury, is not often u?ed in
horse practice, but it is a good alterative for obstinate surfeit or foulness
of the skin, in doses of three drachms daily. Four drachms of cream of
tartar may be advantageously added to each dose.

Infusions. — The active matter of some vegetable substances is partly
or entirely extracted by water. Dried vegetables yield their properties
m.ore readily and perfectly than when in their green state. Boiling water
is poured on the substance to be infused, and which should have been pre-
viously pounded or powdered, and the vessel then covered and placed

400 A LIST OF THE MEDICIXES USED IN

near a fire. In five or six hours the transparent part may be poured off,
and is ready for use. In a few days, however, all infusions become
thick, and lose their virtue, from the decomposition of the vegetable
matter.

The infusion of chamomile is advantageously used instead of water in
compounding a mild tonifi drench. The infusion of catechu is useful in
astringent mixtures ; that of linseed is used instead of common water in
catarrh and cold; and the infusion of tobacco in some injections.

Iodine. — This substance has not been long introduced into veterinary
practice. The first object which it seemed to accomplish was the reduc-
tion of the enlai-ged glands that frequently remain after catarrh, but it
soon ajipeared that it could reduce almost every species of tumour.
Much concerned in the first introduction of iodine into veterinary prac-
tice, the writer of the present work bears willing testimony to the zeal
and success of others, in establishing the claims of this most valuable
medicine. Professor Morton has devoted much time and labour to the
different combinations of iodine, and they are described at length in his
useful 'Manual of Pharmacy.' He gives the formulse of the composition
of a liniment, an ointment, and a tincture of iodine, adapted to diff'erent
species and stages of disease. He next describes the preparation of the
iodide of potassium — the combination of iodine and potash, — and then the
improvement on that under the name of the diniodide of copper — the
union of two parts of the iodide of potassium ■with four of the sulphate
copper.

The action of this compound is an admirable tonic and a stimulant to
the absorbent system, if combined with vegetable tonics, and, occasionally,
small doses of cantharides. Professor Spooner and Mr. Daws applied this
compound, and vnth marked success, to the alleviation of farcy, nasal gleet,
and glanders. It is pleasing to witness these triumphs over disease, a little
while ago so unexpected, and now so assured.

Juniper, Oil of. — This essential oil is retained because it has some
diuretic property, as well as being a pleasant aromatic. It frequently
enters into the composition of the diuretic ball.

Lead, Plumbum. — This metal in its natural state is generally found in
combination with sulphur, in the form of sulphuret of lead, from which it
is obtained by mixing with lime and exposure to heat. In its metallic
state, it is of a bright bluish- white colour, with little taste, but a disagree-
able odour. In its pure state, it has little effect on the animal system, but
there are several compounds which possess medicinal and even poisonous
properties. Amongst the latter the Garhonate of Lead has a deleterious
eflPect on the biped and the quadruped in the neighbourhood of lead works
and rifle butts. They are subject to violent griping pains, and to consti-
pation that can with great difficulty, or not at all, be overcome. Some-
thing of the same kind is occasionally observed in the cider counties, and
the ' painter's colic ' is a crrcumstance of too frequent occurrence — the
occasional dreadful pains, and the ravenous appetite extending to every
thing that comes in the way of the animal. Active purgatives followed
by sulphuric acid and opium are the most eff'ectual remedies.

The Acetate of Lead, Phimhi Acetas. — Sugar of lead is seldom given
internally to the horse, but is used as a collyrium for inflammation of
the eyes.

The Liquor Plumbi Suhacetatis, or GnulaixVs Extract, or, as it used to
be termed at the Veterinary College, the Arpia Vegeto, is a better colly-
rium, and advantageously used in external and superficial inflammation,
and particularly the inflammation that remains after the application of
a blister.

TREATMENT OF DISEASES OF THE HOESE. 491

Lime "was formerly sprinkled over cankered feet and greasy lieels, but
there are less painfol caustics, and more effectual absorbents of moisture.
Lime-water is rarely used, but tbe Chloride of Lime is exceedingly valu-
able. Diluted with twenty times its quantity of water, it helps to form the
poultice applied to every part from which there is the slightest offensive
discharge. The foetid smell of fistulous -svithers, poll-evil, canker, and
ill-conditioned wounds, is immediately removed, and the ulcers are more
disposed to heal. Wben mangy horses are dismissed as cured, a washing
with the diluted chloride will remove any infection that may lurk about
them, or which they may carry from the place in which they have been
confined. One pound of the chloride mixed with three gallons of water,
and brushed over the walls and manger and rack of the foulest stable,
will completely remove all infection. Professor Morton, very properly,
says that the common practice of merely whitewashing the walls serves
only to cover the infectious matter, and perhaps to preserve it for an in-
definite length of time, so that, when the lime scales off, disease may be
again engendered by the exposed virus. The horse furniture worn by a
glandered or mangy animal will be effectually pui'ified by the chloride.
Internally administered, it seems to have Httle or no power.

Liniments are applications designed either to soothe an inflamed surface,
or, by gently stimulating the skin, to remove deeper-seated pain or
inflammation. As an emoUient liniment, one composed of half an ounce
of Goulard's extract and four ounces of oHve oil will be useful. For
sprains, old swellings, or rheumatism, two ounces of hartshorn, the same
quantity of camphorated spirit, an ounce of oil of turpentine, and half an
ounce of laudanum, may be mixed together ; or an ounce of camphor may
be dissolved in four ounces of sweet oil, to which an ounce of oil of turpen-
tine may be afterwards added. A little powdered cantharides, or tincture
of cantharides, or mustard powder, will render either of these more power-
ful, or convert it into a liquid blister.

Linseed. — An infusion of linseed is often used instead of water, for the
drink of the horse with sore-throat or catarrh, or disease of the urinary
organs or of the bowels. A pail containing it should be slung in the stable
or loose box. Thin gruel, however, is preferable ; it is as bland and sooth-
ing, and it is more nutritious. Linseed meal forms the best poultice for
almost every purpose.

J^Iagnesia. — The sulphate of magnesia, or Epsom Salts, should be
used only in promoting the purgative effect of clysters, or, in repeated
doses of six or eight ounces, gently to open the bowels at the commence-
ment of fever. Some doubt, however, attends the latter practice ; for the
dose must occasionally be thrice repeated before it will act, and then,
although safer than aloes, it may produce too much irritation in the
intestinal canal, especially if the fever is the precursor of inflammation of
the lungs.

Mashes constitute a very important part of horse-provender, whether
in sickness or health. A mash given occasionally to a horse that is other-
wise fed on dry meat prevents him from becoming dangerously costive.
To the overworked and tired horse nothing is so refreshing as a warm
mash with his usual allowance of com in it. The art of getting a horse
into apparent condition for sale, or giving him a round and plump ap-
pearance, consists principally in the frequent repetition of mashes, and,
from their easiness of digestion and the mild nutriment which they afford,
as well as their laxative effect, they form the principal diet of the sick
horse.

Tliey are made by pouring boiling water on bran, and stirring it well,
and then covering it over until it is sufficiently cool for the horso to eat.

492 A LIST OF THE MEDICINES USED IN

If in tlie heat of summer a cold mash is preferred, it should, nevertheless,
be made with hot water, and then sufi'ered to remain until it is cold. This
■ 8 not always sufficiently attended to by the groom, who is not aware that
the efficacy of the mash depends principally on the change which is effected
in the bran and the other ingredients by the boiling water rendering them
m.ore easy of digestion, as well as more aperient. If the horse refuses the
mash, a few oats may be sprinkled over it, in order to tempt him to eat it ,
but if it is previously designed that corn should be given in the mash, it
should be scalded with the bran, in order to soften it and render it more
digestible. Bran mashes are very necessary preparatives for physic, and
they are given during its operation. They very soon becorue sour, and
the manger of the horse of whose diet they form a principal part should
be daily and carefully cleaned out.

When horses are weakly and much reduced, malt mashes will often be
very palatable to them and very nutritive : but the water that is poured
on a malt mash should be considerably below the boiling heat, otherwise
the malt will be set, or clogged together. K the owner was aware of the
value of a malt mash, it would be oftener given when the horse is rapidly
getting weaker from protracted disease, or when he is beginning to re-
cover from a disease by which he has been much reduced. The only
exception to their use is in cases of chest affection, in which they must
not be given too early. In grease, and in mange accompanied by much
emaciation, malt mashes will be pecuharly usefal, especially if they con-
stitute a principal portion of the food.

Mustard, Sestapis. — This will be found occasionally usefal, if, in in-
flammation of the throat, chest, or bowels, it is well rubbed on the throat,
chest, or the abdomen. The external swelling and irritation which it
excites may, to a greater or less degree, abate the inflammation within.

Mterh may be used in the form of tincture, or it may be united to the
tincture of aloes as a stimulating and digestive apphcation to wounds.
Diluted with an equal quantity of water, it is a good application for canker
in the mouth, but as an internal medicine, it seems to be inert, although
Kome practitioners advocate its use, combined with opium, in cases of
chronic cough.

Nitric Ether, Spirit of, — is obtained from the distillation of a mixture
of rectified spirit and nitric acid. It is a colourless liquid, very volatile,
with a pecuHar odour and somewhat acid taste. As a medicinal agent, i<
is one of the most valuable diffusible stimulants we possess ; it also acts as
a diaphoretic and mild diuretic. It is a usefal remedy in the early stages
of influenza and catarrh, and also in those cases of congestion of important
organs such as the lungs, the result of sudden exposure or exhausting
work. Given in combination with tincture of opium, it forms an excellent
draught for spasmodic coHc. It is also a very useful medicine in the
advanced stages of fever, for while it, to a certain degree, rouses the Ex-
hausted powers of the animal, and may be denominated a stimulant, it
never brings back the dangerous febrile action which was subsiding. It
is given in doses of half an ounce to two ounces.

Olive Oil is an emollient and demulcent. Its laxative effect is very
inconsiderable and uncertain in the horse.

Opiitii. — This consists of the inspissated juice of the papaver somniferum,
or white poppy. It is obtained by making incisions into the unripe cap-
Bule of the poppy and scraping off" the juice which exhales, and drying it
in the sun. The best kind of opium is brought to this country in chests
from Turkey and India. Good opium should be of a blackish-brown colour
externally and reddish-brown internally, with a powerful narcotic odour,
and a strong and permanently bitter taste. However underrated by some,

TREATMENT OF DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 493

tliere is not a more valuable drug on onr list. It does not often act aa
a narcotic exceiDt in considerable doses ; but it is a powerful antispas-
modic, sedative, and astringent. As an antispasmodic, it enters into tbe
colic driiLk, and it is the sbeet-ancbor of tbe veterinarian in tbe treatment
of tetanus or locked-jaw. As a sedative, it relaxes tbat universal spasm
of tbe muscular system wbicb is tbe cbaracteristic of tetanus ; and, perbaps,
it is only as a sedative tbat it bas sucb admirable effect as an astringent,
for wben tbe irritation around tbe moutb of tbe vessels of tbe intestines
and kidneys is allayed by tbe opium, tbe undue purging and profuse
staling will necessarily be arrested.

Opium sbould, bowever, be given mtb caution. It is its secondary
effect tbat is sedative, and, if given in cases of fever, its primary effect in
increasing tbe excitation of tbe frame may be very considerable and bigbly
injurious. In tbe early and acute stage of fever, it would be bad practice
to give it in tbe smallest quantity ; but wben tbe fever bas passed, or is
passing, tbere is notbing wbicb so rapidly subdues tbe irritability tbat
accompanies extreme weakness. It becomes an excellent tonic, because it
is a sedative.

If tbe blue or gi-een vitriol, or cantbarides, bave been pusbed too far,
opium, sooner tban any otber drug, quiets tbe disorder tbey bave oc-
casioned. It is given in doses of one or two di'acbms, in tbe form of ball.
Otber medicines are easily combined witb it, according to tbe circum-
stances of tbe case.

Externally, it is useful in opbtbabnia. In tbe form of decoction of tbe
poppybead, it may constitute tbe basis of an anodyne poultice ; but it
must not be given in union witb any alkab, witb tbe exception of cbalk,
in over-purging ; nor witb tbe superacetate of lead, by wbicb its powers
are materially impaired ; nor witb sulpbate of zinc, or copper, or iron.

From its tagb price, it is mucb adulterated, and it is not always met
witb in a state of purity. Tbe best tests are its smell, its taste, its tougb-
ness and pbancy, its fa^vn or brown colour, and its weigbt, for it is tbe
heaviest of all tbe vegetable extracts, except gum arabic ; yet its weigbt
is often fraudulently increased by stones and bits of lead dexterously
concealed in it.

Pitch is used to give adhesiveness and firmness to charges and plasters.
The common pitch is quite as good as the more expensive Burgundy pitch.
The best plaster for sand-crack consists of one pound of pitch and an ounce
of yellow bees- wax melted together.

Physic. — The cases which require physic, tbe composition of tbe most
effectual and safest physic ball, and the mode of treatment under physic,
bave been already described.

Potash. — Two compounds of potash are used in veterinary practice.
The Nitrate of Potash (Nitre) is a valuable cooling medicine and a mild
diuretic, and, therefore, it should enter into the composition of every fever-
ball. Its dose is from two to four drachms. Grooms often dissolve it in
tbe water. There are two objections to this : either the horse is nauseated,
and will not drink so much water as he ought ; or tbe salt taste of the
water causes considerable thirst, and disinclination to solid food. Nitre,
while dissolving, materially lowers tbe temperature of water, and furnishes
a very cold and usefal lotion for sprain of the back sinews, and other local
inflammations. The lotion sbould bo used as soon as the salt is dissolved,
for it quickly becomes as warm as tbe surrounding air. Tbe Bitartrate of
Potash (Greavi of Tartar) is a mild diuretic, and, combined with ^thiop'a
mineral, is used as an alterative in obstinate mange or grease. The objec-
tion, however, to its use in sucb an animal as tbe horse is tbe bttle power
which it seems to exercise.

494 A LIST OF THE MEDICINES USED IN

Poultices. — Few horsemen are aware of the value of these simple ap-
plications in abating inflammation, relieving pain, cleansing wounds, and
disposing them to heal. They are appHcations of the best kind continued
much longer than a simple fomentation can be. In all inflammations of tho
foot they are very beneficial, by softening the horn hardened by the heat
af the foot and contracted and pressing on the internal and highly sensitivo
parts. The moisture and warmth are the useful quahties of the poultice ;
and that poultice is the best for general purposes in which moisture and
warmth are longest retained. Perspiration is most abundantly promoted
in the part, the pores are opened, swellings are reheved, and discharges of
a healthy nature procured from wounds.

Linseed meal forms the best general poultice, because it longest retains
the moisture. Bran, although frequently used for poultices, is objection-
able, because it so soon becomes dry ; the combination of the two in propor-
tion of one pai-t of meal to two or three of bran is a very useful one. To
abate considerable inflammation, and especially in a wounded part, Goulard
may be added, or the linseed meal may be made into a paste with a
decoction of poppy-heads. To promote a healthy discharge from an old
or foul ulcer ; or separation of the dead from the living parts, in the pro-
cess of what is called coring out ; or to hasten the ripening of a tumour
that must be opened ; or to cleanse it when it is opened, — two ounces of
common turpentine may be added to a pound of linseed meal : but nothing
can be so absurd, or is so injurious, as the addition of turpentine to a
poultice that is designed to be an emollient. The drawing poultices and
stoppings of farriers are often highly injurious, instead of abating inflam-
mation.

If the ulcer smells ofi'ensively, two ounces of powdered charcoal may be
added to the linseed meal, or the poultice may be made of water, to which
a solution of the chloride of lime has been added in the proportion of half
an ounce to a pound. As an emollient poultice for grease and cracked
heels, and especially if accompanied by much unpleasant smell, there is
nothing preferable to a poultice of mashed carrots with charcoal. For old
grease some slight stimulant must be added, as a Httle yeast or the grounds
of table-beer.

There are two errors in the apphcation of a poultice, and particularly as
it regards the legs. It is often put on too tight, by means of which the
return of the blood from the foot is prevented, and the disease is increased
instead of lessened ; or it is too hot, and unnecessary pain is given, and the
iuflammation aggravated.

Powders. — Some horses are very difficult to ball or drench, and the
violent straggle that would accompany the attempt to conquer them may
heighten the fever or inflammation. To such horses powders must be
given in mashes. Nitrate of potassa may be generally used in cases of
inflammation or fever ; or calomel or even the farina of the croton-nut for
physic ; but powders are too often an excuse for the laziness or awkward-
ness of the carter or groom. The horse frequently refuses them, especially
if his appetite has otherwise begun to fail ; the powder and the mash are
wasted, and the animal is imnecessarily nauseated. All medicine, if pos-
sible, should be given in the form of ball or drink.

Resin. — The yellow resin is that which remains after the distillation
of oil of turpentine. It is used externally to give consistence to ointments,
and to render them slightly stimulant. Internally it is a useful diuretic,
and is (riven in doses of five or six di-achms made into a ball with soft soap.
The common liquid turpentine is, however, preferable.

Rowels. — The manner of rowelling has been already described. As
exciting inflammation on the surface, and so lessening that which had pre-

TREATMENT OF DISEASES OF THE IIOESE. 495

vioiisly existed in a neighbouring but deeper-seated part, tbey arc decidedly
inferior to blisters, for they do not act so quickly or so extensively ; there-
fore they should not be used in acute inflammation of the lungs or bowels,
or any vital part. When the inflammation, however, although not intense,
has long continued, rowels will be serviceable by producing an ii-ritation
and discharge that can be better kept up than by a blister. As promoting
a permanent, although not very considerable discharge, and some inflamma-
tion, rowels in the thighs are useful in swelled legs and obstinate grease.
If fluid is thrown out under the skin in any other part, the rowel acts as a
permanent di'ain. When sprain of the joint or the muscles of the shoulders
is suspected, a rowel in the chest will be serviceable. The wound caused
by a rowel will readily heal, and -svith little blemish, unless the useless
leather of the farrier has been inserted.

Secale cornutum, the Ergot of Bye. — This is well known to be an
excitant in assisting parturition in cattle, sheep, and dogs. It has been
used with success in the mare by Mr. Richardson, of Lincoln. It should
only be applied in diSicult cases, and the dose should be two draclims,
combined \\'ith some carminative, and given every hour.

Sedatives are medicines that subdue irritation, repress spasmodic
action, or deaden pain. We will not enquire whether they act first as
stimulants : if they do, their effect is exceedingly transient, and is quickly
followed by depression and diminished action. Digitalis, aconite, hellebore,
opium, hydrocyanic acid, are medicines of this kind. They constitute a
class of remedies that should be used with great caution and unremitting
watchfulness. Digitalis, and more especially hellebore, often produce
effects extremely prejudicial to the operations of nature, and too often
produce unfavourable results in the cases in which they have been em-
ployed. Their effect in different diseases or stages of disease, and the
cii'cumstances which indicate the use of any one of them in preference to
the rest, are considered under their respective titles. The most important
sedative which has ever been introduced into the veterinary pharmacopoeia
is chloroform, important, not as a medicinal agent in the cure of disease,
but ft'om its power of rendering the horse partially or totally insensible to
the infliction of pain. A piece of sponge, saturated with one or two
ounces of chloroform, two-thirds enveloped in a piece of bladder or gutta-
percha, held near one nostril, while the other is partially closed by the
hand, will, as it becomes inhaled, render the animal quickl}^ and effectually
insensible, — held near the nostril, be it remembered, not close to it, as the
fumes of the chloroform require dilutation, from mixing with a proportion
of atmospheric air, or its inhalation would be fatal. It was at first hoped
that this important discovery would supersede the neccosity of casting or
throwing the horse ; experience, however, has shown that this is not the
case, for so great is his repugnance to inhale it, and so violent are his
struggles while its effect is being produced, added to which the uncertainty
of the direction and spot in which he might fall, that it is now only had
recourse to after the animal has been secured by the hobbles ; then, indeed,
its effects are most extraordinary ; the severest operations, the greatest
pain and the most acute suffering, are endured with a passive unconscious-
ness, equally desirable for the operator and the patient. Its effect may
be continued or renewed as long and often as the occasion may require,
and no perceptible ill effects follow the application.

Soda. — The Carlonate of Soda is a useful antacid, but it is not much
used in veterinary practice. The Chloride of Soda is not so efficacious
for the removal of unpleasant smells and all infection as the chloride of
lime ; but it is exceedingly useful in changing malignant and corroding and
destructive sores into the state of simple ulcers, and in ulcers that are not

486 A LIST OF THE MEDICINES USED IN

malignant, it much hastens the cure. Poll-evil and fistulous withers are
much benefited by it, and all farcy ulcers. It is used in the proportion of
one part of the solution to twenty -four of water.

SoDii Chloridibi, Common Salt, is very extensively employed in vet6<
rinary practice. It forms an efficacious aperient clyster, and a solution of
it has been given as an aperient drink. Sprinkled over the hay, or in a
mash, it is very palatable to sick horses ; and in that languor and disincli-
nation to food which remain after severe illness, few things will so soon
recall the appetite as a drink composed of six or eight ounces of salt in
eolutioD To horses in health it is more useful than is generally imagined,
as promoting the digestion of the food, and, consequently, condition.
In the proportion of an ounce of salt to four ounces of water, it is a good
embrocation for sore shoulders and backs ; and if it does not always
disperse warbles and tumours, it takes away much of the tenderness of the
skin.

SoDiE Sulphas, — S^dpliate of Soda. — Glauber s Salt. — This medicine
is seldom used in the treatment of the horse. It appears to have some
diuretic property.

Soap is supposed to possess a diuretic quality, and therefore enters into
the composition of some diuretic masses. See Resin. By many practi-
tioners it is made an ingredient in the physic-ball, but uselessly or even
injuriously so ; for if the aloes are finely powdered and mixed ^vith palm
oil, they will dissolve readily enough in the bowels without the aid of the
soap, while the action of the soap on the kidneys will impau- the purgative
eff'ect of the aloes.

Starch may be substituted with advantage for gruel in obstinate cases
of purging, both as a clyster, and to support the strength of the animal.

Stoppings constitute an important, but too often neglected part of stable
management. If a horse is irregularly or seldom worked, his feet are
deprived of moisture ; they become hard and unyielding and brittle, and
disposed to corn and contraction and founder. The very dung of a neglected
and filthy stable would be preferable to habitual standing on the cleanest
litter without stopping. In wounds, and bruises, and corns, moisture is
even more necessary, in order to supple the horn, and reHeve its pressure
on the tender parts beneath. As a common stopping, nothing is better than
cow-dung with a fourth part of clay well beaten into it, and confined with
splints from the binding or larger twigs of the broom. In cases of wounds
a little tar may be added ; but tar, as a common stopping, is too stimu-
lating and drying. Pads made of thick felt have lately been contrived,
which are fitted to the sole, and swelling on being wetted, are sufficiently
confined by the shoe. Having been well saturated with water, they will
continue moist during the night. They are very useful in gentlemen's
stables ; but the cow-dung and clay are sufficient for the farmer.

Strychnu is obtained from the seed of the stryclmos nux vomica. It is
a white crystalline substance, without odour, but with an intensely bitter
taste. It is but slightly soluble in water, but more so in dilute alcohol.
It is a powerfully poisonous agent, and should be given with great caution.
This drug has frequently been employed with decided advantage in cases
of paralysis in the dog ; and lately, and with decided advantage, it has been
administered to the horse. The dose is from one to three grains, given
twice in the day.

Sulphur, or, as it is familiarly known. Brimstone, is found in consider-
able abundance in Sicily and other volcanic countries. In this country it is
chiefly obtained by roasting the sulphuret of copper and collecting the
fumes ; it is then purified and run into moulds, constituting what is termed
roll sulphur. Sublimed or flowers of sulphur is obtained by heating roil

TREATMENT OF DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 497

sulphur and collecting the vapour. Sulphur is the basis of the most effec-
tual applications for mange. It is an excellent alterative, combined usually
with antimony and nitre, and particularly for mange, surfeit, grease, hide-
bound, or want of condition. When given alone, it seems to have little
effect, except as a laxative in doses of six or eight ounces ; but there are
much better aperients. The black sulphur consists principally of the di-os3
after the pure sulphur has been separated.

Tar melted with an equal quantity of grease forms the usual stopping
of the farrier. It is a warm, or slightly stimulant, and therefore useful,
dressing for bruised or wounded feet ; but its principal virtue does not
■consist in preventing the penetration of dii-t and water to the wounded
part, but in its softening properties on the horn itself, rendering it softer
more elastic, and less likely to break away. As a common stopping it hais
been considered objectionable ; but a small proportion, mixed mth the
cow-dang, checks that disposition to thrush which occasionally follows
the constant use of the latter. From its drpng properties it is the usual
find proper basis for thrush ointments ; and from its adhesiveness, and
slightly stimulating power, it often forms an ingredient in applications
for mange. Some practitioners give it, and advantageously, with the usual
cough, medicine, and in doses of two or three drachms for chronic couo-h.
The common tar is as effectual as the Barbadoes for every veterinary pur-
pose. The oil, or spirit (rectified oil) of tar is sometimes used alone for
the cure of mange, but it is not to be depended upon. The spirit of tar,
mixed with double the quantity of fish oil, is, from its peculiar penetrat-
ing property, one of the best applications for hard and brittle feet. It
should be well rubbed with a brush every night, both on the crust and
sole.

Tinctures. — The medicinal properties of many substances are extracted
by spirit of wine, but in many cases in such small quantities as to be
scarcely available for internal use in veterinary practice. There are
several exceptions to this, however, such as the tincture of opium, tincture
of aconite and several otliers, which are constantly used, and produce very
powerful effects. As applications to wounds or inflamed surfaces, the
tinctures of aloes, digitalis, myrrh, and opium, are highly useful.

Tobacco, in the hands of the skilful veterinarian, may be advantageously
employed in cases of extreme or dangerous colic ; but should never be
permitted to be used as an external application for the cure of mano-e or
an internal medicine to promote a fine coat.

ToNTCS are valuable medicines when judiciously employed ; but, like
cordials, they have been fatally abused. Many a horse recovering from
severe disease has been destroyed by their too early, or too free use. The
veterinary surgeon occasionally administers them injuriously, in his anxiety
to gratify the impatience of his employer. The mild vegetable tonics, cha-
momile, gentian, and ginger, and, perhaps, the sulphate of iron, may some-
times be given with benefit, and may hasten the perfect recovery of the
patient ; but there are few pi'inciples more tmly founded on reason and
experience, than that disease once removed, the powers of nature are
sufficient to re-establish health. Against the more powerful mineral
tonics, except for the particular purposes that have been poiuted out
under the proper heads, the horse proprietor and the veterinarian should
be on his guard.

Turpentine. — The common liquid turpentine has been described as one
of the best diuretics, in doses of half an ounce, and made into a ball with
linseed meal and powdered ginger. It is added to the calamine or any
■other mild ointment in order to render it stimulating and digestive, and,
from its adhesiveness and slightly stimulating power, it is an ingredient

K E

*98 POISONS.

in mano-e ointments. The oil of turpentine is an excellent antispasmodic.
Forming a tincture with cantharides, it is the basis of the sweating blister
for old sprains and swellings. As a blister it is far inferior to the common
ointment. As a stimulant frequently applied, it must be sufficiently
lowered, or it may blemish.

Wax. — The yellow wax is used in charges and some plasters, to rendei
tliem less brittle.

Zinc. — The impure carbonate of zinc, under the name of Calamine
Poivder, is used in the preparation of a valuable healing ointment, called
Turner's Cerate. Five parts of lard and one of resin are melted together,
and when these begin to get cool, two parts of the calamine, reduced to an
impalpable powder, are stirred in. If the wound is not healthy, a small
quantity of common turpentine may be added. This salve justly deserves
the name which it has gained, ' Tlae Healing Ointment.' The calamine
is sometimes sprinkled with advantage on cracked heels and superficial
Bores.

The sulphate of zinc. White Vitriol, in the proportion of three grains
to an ounce of water, is an excellent application in ophthalmia, when the
inflammatory stage is passing over ; and quittor is most successfally
treated by a saturated solution of white vitriol being injected into tho
Binuses. A solution of white vitriol of less strength forms a wash for
grease that is occasionally useful, when the alum or blue vitriol does not
appear to succeed.

ZiNGiBEEis Radix, — Ginger Buot. — This is an admirable stimulant and
carminative. It is useful in loss of appetite and flatulent coHc, while it
rouses the intestinal canal to its proper action. The cordial mass resorted
to by the best surgeons consists of equal parts of ginger and gentian
beaten into a mass with treacle.

CHAPTER XXIV.

POISONS.

The poisons by which the horse may be affected are divided into three
classes, viz. animal, vegetable, and mineral. The virulent effects of
animal poisons, such as the bite of venomous reptiles, are frequently ob-
served in hot climates, but rarely in this country. The vegetable poison
is generally the result of the animal partaking of it in connection with his
food. As a rule, certain characters are possessed by these poisonous plants,
which, assisted by a peculiar instinct on the part of the animal, causes
him to avoid them. But it not unfrequently happens, partly from the
artificial state in which the animal is kept and the long- continued allow-
ance of dry food, that the keener instincts of his nature become altered,
and as soon as he is turned out to grass or the opportunity presents itself,
he eagerly devours almost any green succulent plant that comes in his way,
and thus produces injurious and often fatal results. The poisonous effects
of the third division or mineral poisons, is usually caused either by their
wilful administration or by an overdose when given as a medicinal agent.

We cannot do better than abbreviate the list of poisonous agents, and
the means of averting their fatal influence, given by Professor Morton. It
will occasionally be exceedingly usefal to the proprietor of horses.

He begins with the Animal Poisons. The bite of the viper has been
occasionally fatal to dogs and sheep, A horse was brought to the Veteri-

POISONS. 4Q£

nary College that liad been bitten in the hind-leg while hunting. There
was considerable swelling, and the place of the bite was evident enouo-h,
Mr. Armstrong mentions a case in which a horse, bitten by a viper, snnk
into a kind of coma, from which he could not be roused. The antidote,
wliich seldom or never fails, is an alkaline solution of almost any kind,
taken internally and applied externally. There is no chemical effect on
fche circulation, but the alkali acts as a powerful counter- inntant. In very
bad cases opium may be added to the alkaline solution.

Hornets, Wasps, &c. — These are spoken of, because there are records
of horses being attacked by a swarm of them, and destroyed. The ohve
oil is the best external apphcation.

Cantharides constitute a useful drug in some cases. It is the chief
constituent of most appHcations used in order to excite the process of
bHstei-ing. It is occasionally employed as a medicine in small quantities,
and, combiued with vegetable tonics, it has been given in small doses, for
the cure of glanders, farcy, and nasal gleet. It is valuable in cases of
general and extreme debility. It is a useful general stimulant when
judiciously applied : but it must be given in small doses, and never except
under the dii-ection of a skilful practitioner. A drachm of the powdered
fly would destroy almost any horse. In the breeding season it is too often
shamefully given as an excitant to the horse and the mare, and manv a
valuable animal has been destroyed by this abominable practice. It is
usually given in the form of ball, in which case it may be detected by the
appearance of small ghtteiing portions of the fly, which are separated on
the inner side of the dung-ball in hot water. If the accidental or too
powerful administration of it is suspected, recourse should be had to
bleeding, purging, and plentiful drenching with oily and demulcent fluids.

The leaves of the Yeu- (Taxus Baccata) are dangerous to the horse, as
well as to many other animals. ' Two horses that had been employed in
carrying fodder, were thoughtlessly placed under a large yew-tree, which
they cropped with eagerness. In three hours they began to stagger — both
of them dropped, and, before the harness could be taken off, they were
dead. A great quantity of yew leaves were found in the stomachs, which
were contracted and inflamed.' Mr. "W, C. Spooner mentions a case of
violent suspicion of the poisoning of an ass and a mare in the same way.
On the other hand, Professor SeweU says that on the farm on which he
resided in his early years, the horses and cattle had every opportunity of
eating yew. They pastured and slept under the shelter of yew-trees, and
were often observed to browse on the branches. He thinks that these
supposed cases of poisoning have taken place only when enormous quan-
tities of the yew had been eaten, and that it was more acute indigestion
than poisoning. There are, however, too many cases of horses dying
after feeding on the yew to render it safe to cultivate it in the neighbour-
hood of a farm, either in the form of tree or hedge.

The treatment should consist in the administration of large doses of
oleaginous purgatives, and diffusible stimulants, such as the spirit of nitric
ether or aromatic spirit of ammonia largely diluted with water.

The Water Dropioort (^CEnantlie crocata), common in ditches and marshy
places, is generally refused by horses ; but brood mares, with appetite
somewhat vitiated by their being in foal, have been destroyed by it. The
antidote would be vinegar and gruel, and bleeding if there is inflammation.

The E^ipJwrbium, or Spurge, so common and infamous an ingredient in
the Farrier's Blister, has destroyed many ahorse from the irritation which
it has set up, and the torture it has occasioned, and should never find a
place in the Veterinary Pharmacopa'ia.

Colocyntk and Elaterium fairly rank among the substances that are

¥ K 2

6U0 I'OISOXS.

poisonous to the liorse ; and so does the Bryony Boot (^Bryonia dioica),
not^thstanding that it is frequently given to horses, in many parts of the
country, as a great promoter of condition. Many a young horse has heen
brought into a state of artificial condition and excitement by the use of the
Bryony. It is one of the abominable secrets of the horse-breaker. This
state of excitation, however, soon passes away, and is succeeded by tem-
porary or permanent diminution of vital power. We have occasionally
traced much mischief to this infamous practice.

Not less injurious is the Savin (Jimi'perus Sabina). It is well known
as a vermiiuge in the human subject, and it is occasionally given to the
horse for the same purpose ; but it is a favourite with the carter and the
groom as a promoter of condition. A very great proportion of farmers'
servants regard it as a drug effecting some good purpose, although they
can scarcely define what that pui'pose is ; and thei^e is scarcely a country
stable in which it is not occasionally found, and in which the horse is not
endangered or perhaps destroyed by its use. It is high time that the
horse-master looked more carefully to this, and suffered no drug to bo
administered to his horses and cattle, except by his direction or that of the
medical attendant. The farmer and the gentleman can scarcely conceive
to what an abominable extent this vile practice prevails. The presence of
savin vrill be best detected in the stomach of a horse that has died under
suspicious circumstances, by the black-currant-leaf smell of the contents
when boiled in a Httle water, or beaten in a mortar.

Of the Mineral Poisons it will be necessary to mention only three.
Arsenic was once in great repute as a tonic and vermifuge. Large doses
have been given in many instances with impunity. In some cases, however,
the dose has proved too powerful, and the animal was destroyed. Many
horses and other animals have also been destroyed by the arsenical fames
given ofi" from the tin-burning houses in Cornwall and other parts. Other
cases are recorded in which death has resulted from its wilful administra-
tion, and also through the ignorance of the waggoner in mixing it with
the food of the animal with a view of giving him a sleek coat. The
folio wias: symptoms will generally be present in poisoning by arsenic : —
One of the earliest indications is a shivering fit ; there will be also loss of
appetite, great prostration of strength, a quick but very feeble pulse, cold
extremities, purging and other symptoms of abdominal irritation. The
post-mortem appearance, will generaUy indicate considerable inflammation
of the internal surface of the stomach and bowels, the lining membrane
beino- eroded in patches. The antidotes in a case of poisoning by arsenic
should consist in the administration of lime-water, chalk and water, ot
soap and water in large quantities, but the best remedy if it can be
obtained is the hydrated peroxide of iron. Professor Morton says, ' this
is to be given in large quantities, newly prepared, and in the form of a

soft paste.' . . T, -.

The following tests by which it may be recognised are given in Professor
Moi-ton's Manual of Pharmacy : — ' Arsenic, if mised with charcoal and
heated, emits a very perceptible smell of garlic. Sulphuretted hydrogen,
added to a watery solution of arsenic, throws down a yellow precipitate —
lime-water a white one — and the ammonio- sulphate of copper a green
one.' There are also two other veiy valuable tests in the hands of the
chemist, viz., by nascent hydrogen, by what is termed Marsh's apparatus,
a very delicate and beautiful modification of which was introduced by
Professor Morton a few years ago. The other, which is called Reinsch's
test consists in obtaining the deposition of the arsenic on fine copper
gauze, and afterwards reducing it in a tube by means of heat.

Corrosive Sublimate is given internally, and occasionally with advantage,

POISOXS. 501

m farcy, and, as an external application, it is used to destroy vermin, to
cure mange, and to dispose deep and fistulous ulcers to heal.

It may, however, be given in too large a dose, the symptoms of which
are loss of appetite, discharge of saliva from the mouth, pawing, looking
eagerly at the flanlvs, rolling, profuse perspiration, thready pulse, rapid
weakness, violent purging and straining, convulsions, and death.

The stomach will be found intensely inflamed, with patches of yet greater
inflammation. The whole course of the intestines will be inflamed, with
particular parts black and gangrenous.

The antidote, if it is not too late to administer it, would be the white
of eggs mixed with water, or thick starch or arrow-root.

The following also are the tests of corrosive sublimate: — ' It is sublimeci
by heat, leaving no residuum, and is soluble in water, alcohol, and sulphuric
ether. Lime-water gives either a lemon-yellow precipitate, or a brick-dust
red one. The iodide of potassium occasions a scarlet precipitate. The
most curious test is, however, by means of galvanism. A drop of tie
suspected solution is placed on a sovereign, and a small key being brought
into contact simultaneously with both the gold and the solution, an elec-
tric current is produced which decomposes the bichloride of mercury, for
such it is. The chlorine unites with the ii'on, and the mercury with tho
gold.

Lead. — This in its metallic state has little if any effect upon the horse,
and some of its salts appear to have been given in very large doses without
producing serious results. Numerous instances, however, are recorded
of the fatal effects of the oxide and carbonate of this metal, upon horses
and cattle in the vicinity of lead- works and rifle-butts. The symptoms
generally extend over a considerable length of time, and consist in
general derangement of the digestive system, such as loss of appetite,
falling away in strength and condition, frequent attacks of coKc, with
obstinate constipation of the bowels. The latter is not always present,
but sometimes continued diarrhoea. The animal also will frequently
suffer to a greater or less extent from paralysis. The remedial agents for
lead poison should consist of active purgatives, sulphate of magnesia and
croton oil being the best ; this should be followed by opium. If diarrhoea
be present we may give the dilute sulphuric acid and opium, with an
occasional dose of oil ; the animal in the meantime being kept on the
most nutritious diet. The tests for the salts of lead are the iodide of
potassium, which throws down a yellow precipitate of iodide of lead, dilute
sulphuric acid produces an abundant white precipitate, and hydrosulphui*et
of ammonia or sulphuretted hydrogen gas causes a brown-black precipitate.
So delicate is the latter test that Dr. Taylor asserts that ' a current of this
when properly employed will reveal by the production of a brown tinge, a
quarter of a grain of a salt of lead in a gallon of water, i. e. about
l-300,000th part.'

Is there really occasion for the owner of horses to be acquainted with
these things r Long experience has taught the author that poisoning with
these drugs is not so rare a circumstance as some imagine. In the farmer's
stable he has occasionally been compelled unwillingly to decide that the
death of one or more horses has been attributable to arsenic or coiTOsive
sublimate, and not to any peculiar disease, or to anything wrong in the
manner of feeding. A scoundrel was executed in 1812 for administering
arsenic and corrosive sublimate to several horses. He had been engaged
in these enormities during four long years. The discarded or offended
carter has wreaked his revenge in a similar way ; but, oftener, in his
eagerness to get a more glossy coat on his horses than a rival servant
30uld exhibit, he has tampered with these dangerous drugs.

(502 VICES OP THE HORSE

CHAPTER XXV.

THE VICES A.ND DISAGREEABLE OR DANGEROUS HABITS OF THE

HORSE.

The liorse lias many excellent qualities, but he has likewise defects, and
these occasionally amounting to vices. Some of them may be attributed
to natural temper, for the human being scarcely discovers more peculiari-
ties of habit and disposition than does the horse. The majority of them,
however, as perhaps in the human beiag, are consequences of a faulty
education. Their early instructor has been ignorant and brutal, and they
have become obstinate and vicious.

RESTIVENESS.

At the head of the vices of the horse is eestiveness, the most annoying
and the most dangei"ous of all. It is the produce of bad temper and worse
education ; and, like all other habits founded on nature and stamped by
education, it is inveterate. Whether it appears in the form of kicking, or
rearing, or plunging, or bolting, or in any way that threatens danger to
the rider or the horse, it rarely admits of cure. A determined rider maj
to a certain extent subjugate the animal ; or the horse may have his
favoiirites or form his attachments, and with some particular person he
may be comparatively or perfectly manageable ; but others cannot long
depend ujDon him, and even his master is not always sure of him. It
is a rule, that admits of very few exceptions, that he neither displays
his wisdom nor consults his safety, who attempts to conquer a restive
horse.

An excellent veterinary surgeon, and a man of great experience in
horses, Mr. Castley, truly said, in ' The Veterinarian,* — ' From whatever
cause the vicious habits of horses may originate, whether from some mis-
management or from natural badness of temper, or from what is called in
Yorkshire a mistetch, whenever these animals acquire one of them, and it
becomes in some degree confirmed, they very seldom, if ever, altogether
forget it. In reference to driving it is so true, that it may be taken as a
kind of aphorism, that if a horse kicks once in harness, no matter from
what cause, he wiU be hable to kick ever afterwards. A good coachman
may drive him, it is true, and may make him go, but he cannot make hirn
forget his vice ; and so it is in riding. You may conquer a restive horse-
on may make him go quiet for months, nay, almost for years together ;
ut I aifirm that, under other circumstances, and at some future oppor-
tunity, he will be sure to return to his old tricks.'

ill'. Castley gives two singular and conclusive instances of the truth of
this doctrine. 'When a very young man,' says he, 'I remember pur-
chasing a horse at a fair in the north of England, that was offered very
cheap on account of his being unmanageable. It was said that nobody
could ride him. We found that the animal objected to have anything
placed upon his back, and that, when made to move forward with nothing
more than a saddle on, he instantly threw himself down on his side with
^reat violence, and would then endeavour to roll upon his back.

' There was at that time in Yorkshire, a famous colt-breaker, known by
the name of Jumper, who was almost as celebrated in that country for
taming vicious horses into submission, as the famed Whisperer was in
L'cland. We put this animal into Jumper's hands, who took him away,

I

RESTIVENESS. 5US

[tud in about ten days brought liim home again, certainly not looking worse
in condition, but perfectly subdued and ahnost as obedient as a dog ; for
he would lie doAvn at tliis man's bidding, and only rise again at his com-
mand, and carry double or anything. I took to riding him myself, and
may say, that I was never better carried for six or eight months, dui-iug
which time he did not show the least vice whatever. I then sold him
to a Lincolnshire farmer, who said that he would give him a summer's
run at grass, and show him as a very fine horse at the great Horncastle
fair.

' Happening to meet this gentleman on the following year, I naturally
enough enquired after my old friend. " Oh," said he, " that was a bad
business — the horse turned out a sad rebel. The first time we attempted
to mount him, after getting him up from grass, he in an instant threw the
man down with the greatest violence, pitching him several yards over his
head ; and after that he threw every one that attempted to get on his back.
If he could not throw his rider, he would thrmo himself down. We could
do nothing with him, and I was obHged at last to sell him to go in a stage-
coach." '

In the next story, Jumper's counterpart and superior, the Irish Wliis-
perer, is brought on the stage, and although he performed wonders, he
could not radically cure a restive horse. ' At the Spring meeting of 1804,
]Mr. Wlialley's Kjng Pippin was brought on the Curragh of Ealdare to run.
He was a horse of the most extraordinaiy savage and vicious disposition.
His particular propensity was that of flying at and worrying any person
who came within his reach, and if he had an opportunity, he would get his
head round, seize his rider by the leg with his teeth, and drag him down
from his back. For this reason he was always ridden with what is called
a sword ; which is a strong flat stick, having one end attached to the cheek
of the bridle, and the other to the girth of the saddle, a contrivance to
prevent a horse of this kind from getting at his rider.

' King Pippin had long been diificult to manage and dangerous to go
near to, but on the occasion in question he could not be got out to run at
all. Nobody coxdd put the hridle upon his head. It being Easter Monday,
and consequently a great hohday, there was a large concourse of people
assembled at the Curragh, consisting principally of the neighbouring
peasantry ; and one country-man, more fearless than the rest of the lookers-
on, forgetting, or perhaps never dreaming, that the better part of courage
is discretion, volunteered his services to bridle the horse. 'Eo sooner had
he committed himself in this operation, than King Pippin seized him
somewhere about the shoulders or chest, and, says Mr. "Watts (Mr.
Castley's informant), " I know of nothing I can compare it to so much as
a dog shaking a rat." Fortunately for the poor fellow, his body was very
thickly covered with clothes, for on such occasions an Irishman of this
class is fond of displaying his wardrobe, and if he has three coats at all in
Ihe tvorld, he is sure to put them all on.

' This circumstance in all probability saved the individual who had so
gallantly volunteered the forlorn hope. His person was so deeply enveloped
in extra teguments, that the horse never got fau-ly hold of his skin, and I
understand that he escaped with but Httle injury, beside the sadly rent
and totally ruined state of his holiday toggeiy.

' The Whisperer was sent for, who, having arrived, was shut up with
the horse all night, and in the morning he exhibited this hitherto ferocious
animal, following him about the course like a dog — lying down at his
command — suffering his mouth to be opened, and any person's hand to be
introduced into it — in short, as quiet almost as a sheep.

'He came out the same meeting, and won his race, and his docility

604 VICES OF THE HORSE.

coutinued satisfactory for a considerable time ; hut at the end of about
three years his vice returned, and then lie is said to liave killed a man, for
whicli he was destroyed.'

It may not be uninteresting, in connection with this, to give some accouxit
of this tamer of quadruped vice. However strange and magical his power
may seem to be, there is no doubt of the truth of the account that is given
of him. The Rev. Mr. Townsend, in his Statistical Survey of Cork, first
introduced him to the notice of the public generally, although his fame
had long spread over that part of Ireland. "We, however, give the fol-
lowing extract from * Croker's Fairy Legends and Traditions of Ireland,'
part II. p. 200, for his performances seem the work of some elfin sprite,
rather than of a rude and ignorant horse-breaker.

' He was an awkward, ig-norant rustic of the lowest class, of the name
of SuUivan, but better known by the appellation of the "Wliisperer. His
occupation was horse-breaking. The nickname he acquired from the
vulgar notion of his being able to communicate to the animal what he
wished by means of a whisper ; and the singularity of his method seemed
in some degree to justify the supposition. In his own neighbourhood tho
notoriety of the fact made it seem less remarkable, but I doubt if any
instance of similar subjugating talent is to be found on record. As far as
the sphere of his control extended, the boast of veni, vidi, vici, was more
jastly claimed by SulUvan than even by Ctesar himself.

' How his art was acquired, and in what it consisted, is likely to be for
ever unknown, as he has lately (about 1810) left the world without divulging
it. His son, who follows the same trade, possesses but a small portion of
the art, having either never learned the true secret, or being incapable of
putting it into practice. The wonder of his skill consisted in the celerity
of the operation, which was performed in privacy, without any apparent
means of coercion. Every description of horse or even mule, whether
previously broken or unhandled, whatever their peculiar habits or vices
might have been, submitted without show of resistance to the magical
influence of his art, and in the short space of half an hour became gentle-
and tractable. This eSect, though instantaneously produced, was generally
durable. Though more submissive to him than to others, the animals-
seemed to have acquired a docility unknown before.

' When sent for to tame a vicious beast, for which he was either paid
according to the distance, or generally two or three guineas, he dii'ected
the stable, in which he and the object of the experiment were, to be shut,
with orders not to open the door until a signal was given. After a tete-a-
tete of about half an hour, during which little or no bustle was heard,
the signal was made, and, upon opening the door, the horse appeared lying
down, and the man by his side, playing with bim like a child with a puppy
dog. From that time he was found perfectly willing to submit to any
disciphne — however repugnant to his nature before.' ' I once,' continues
Mr. Croker, ' saw his skill tried on a horse, which could never before be
brought to stand for a smith to shoe him. The day after Sulhvan's half
hour's lecture, I went, not without some increduhty, to the smith's shop,
with many other curious spectators, where we were eye-witnesses of the
complete success of his art. This, too, had been a troop horse, and it was-
supposed, not without reason, that after regimental disciphne had failed,,
no other would be found availing. I observed that the animal appeared
ten-ified whenever Sullivan either spoke to or looked at him ; how that
extraordinary ascendency could have been obtained, is difiicult to con-
jecture.

' In common cases this mysterious preparation was unnecessary. H&
seemed to possess an instinctive power of inspiring awe, the result, pei'-

BACKING OR GIBBING. 606^

baps, of natural intrepidity, in wliich, I believe, a great part of his art
consisted ; though the circumstance of the tete-a-tete shows that, on par-
ticular occasions, something more must have been added to it. A faculty
Uke this would, in some hands, have made a fortune, and I understand
that great offers were made to him for the exercise of his art abroad. But
hunting was his passion. He hved at home in the style most agreeable to
his disposition, and nothing could induce him. to quit Duhallow and the
fox-hounds.*

Mr. Castley witnessed the total failure of the younger Sullivan. He-
says, ' "We have in the regiment a remarkably nice horse, called Lancer,
that has always been very diflB.cult to shoe ; but seven or eight years ago,
when we first got him, he was do^^-n^ight vicious in that respect. When
the regiment was stationed at Cork, the farrier-major sought out the
present Sullivan, the son of the celebrated Whisperer, and brought him
up to the barracks iu order to try his hand upon Lancer, and make him
more peaceable to shoe ; but I must say this person did not appear to
possess any particular controlling power over the animal more than any
other man. Lancer seemed to pay no attention whatever to his charm,
and at last fairly beat him out of the forge. Time, however, and a long,
perseverance in kind and gentle treatment, have effected what force could
not. The horse is now pretty reasonable to shoe.'

BACKING OB, GIBBING.

One of the first kinds of restiveness, taking them in alphabetical order,
is backing or gibbing. These are so closely allied that we hardly know
how to separate them. Some horses have the habit of backing at first,
starting, and that more from playfulness than desire of mischief A
moderate apphcation of the whip will usually be effectual. Others, even
after starting, exhibit considerable obstinacy and viciousness. This is
frequently the effect of bad breaking. Either the shoulder of the horse
had been wrung when he was first put to the collar, or he had been fool-
ishly accustomed to be started in the break up-hill, and, therefore, all his
work coming upon him at once, he gradually acquired this dangerous
habit.

A hasty and passionate breaker will often make a really good-tempered
young horse an inveterate gibber. Every young horse is at first shy of the
collar. If he is too quickly forced to throw his weight into it, he will
possibly take a dislike to it, that will occasionally show itself in the form
of gibbing as long as he lives. The judicious horse-breaker will resort to
no severity, even if the colt should go out several times without even
touching collar. The example of his companion will ultimately induce him
to take to it voluntarily and effectually.

A large and heavy stone should be put behind the wheel before starting,
when the horse, finding it more difiicult to back than to go forward, will
gradually forget this unpleasant trick. It will likewise be of advantage,
as often as it can be managed, so to start that the horse shall have to back
up-hill. The difficulty of accomplishing this will soon make him readily
go forward. A little coaxing, or leading, or moderate flagellation, will
assist in accomplishing the cure.

When, however, a horse, thinking that he has had enough of work, or
has been improperly checked or corrected, or beginning to feel the painful
pressure of the collar, swerves, and gibs, and backs, it is a more serious
matter. Persuasion should first be tried ; and afterwards, reasonable
coercion, but no cruelty : for the brutality which is often exercised in.
attempting to compel a gibbing horse to throw himself habitually into ther

506 VICES OF THE HOKSE.

collar, never yet accomplislied the purpose. The horse may, perhaps, be
whipped into motion ; but if he has once begun to gib, he will have re-
cotirse to it again whenever any circumstance displeases or annoys him,
and the habit will be so rapidly and completely formed, that he will
become insensible to all severity.

Ic is useless and dangerous to contend with a horse determined to back,
unless there is plenty of room, and, by tight reining, the driver can make
him back in the precise direction he wishes, and especially up-hill. Such
a horse should be immediately sold, or turned over to some other work.
In a stage-coach as a wheeler, and particularly as the near- wheeler ; or,
in the middle of a team at agricultural work, he may be serviceable.
It will be useless for him to attempt to gib there, for he will be dragged
along by his companions whether he will or not ; and finding the inutility
of resistance, he will soon be induced to work as well as any horse in the
team. The reformation will last while he is thus employed, but, hke
restiveness generally, it will be delusive when the horse returns to his
former occupation. The disposition to annoy will very soon follow the
power to do it. Some instances of complete reformation may have
occurred, but they are rare.

Wlien a horse, not often accustomed to gib, betrays a reluctance to work,
or a determination not to work, common sense and humanity will demand
that some consideration should be taken before measui-es of severity are
resorted to. The horse may be taxed beyond his power. He soon dis-
covers whether this is the case, and by refusing to proceed, tells his driver
that it is so. The utmost cruelty will not induce many horses to make the
sUghtest effort, when they are conscious that their strength is inadequate
to the task. Sometimes the withers are wrung, and the shoulders sadly
galled, and the pain, which is intense on level ground and with fair
draught, becomes insupportable when he tugs up a steep accHvity. These
things should be examined into, and, if possible, rectified ; for, under such
circumstances, cruelty may produce obstinacy and vice, but not willing
obedience.

They who are accustomed to horses know what seemingly trivial circum-
stances occasionally produce this vice. A horse, whose shoulders are raw,
or have frequently been so, will not start with a cold collar. When the
collar has acquired the warmth of the parts on which it presses, the animal
will go without reluctance. Some determined gibbers have been reformed
by constantly wearing a false collar, or strip of cloth round the shoulders,
GO that the coldness of tb e usual collar should never be felt ; and others
have been cured of gibbing by keeping the collar on night and day, for the
animal is not able to he down completely at full leng-th, which the tilled
horse is always glad to do. When a horse gibs, not at starting, but while
doing his woi"k, it has sometimes been useful to Hne the collar with cloth
instead of leather ; the perspiration is readily absorbed, the substance
which presses on the shoulder is softer, and it may be far more accui-ately
eased off at a tender place.

JVIr. Rarey's method of curing the gibbing horse is of the simplest na-
ture. At starting he pats the head and neck, talking to the horse in the
most soothing accents. He then stands immediately in front of him, takes
the bridle reins close up to the bit in both hands, and gently induces the
animal to move his fore legs alone two or three paces to the left. He then
pauses, caresses the horse afresh, and moves him as many paces to the
right. Mr. R. continues this process until he has induced the horse to
move entirely round, or as much as possible in a circle in both directions.
By that time the horse will have borne well upon the collar, and will not
refuse to draw in any direction. Should the horse evince determined vice,

BITING. 507

then the taming and training system must be repeated several times a-day,
or until the horse has become perfectly tractable.

BITING.

This is either the consequence of natural ferocity, or a habit acquired
from the fooHsh and teasing play of grooms and stable-boys. When a
horse is tickled and pinched by thoughtless and mischievous youths, he
will first pretend to bite his tormentors ; by degrees he will proceed farther,
and actually bite them, and, very soon after that, he will be the first to
challenge to the combat, and, without provocation, seize some opportunity
to gripe the incautious tormentor. At length, as the love of mischief is a.
propensity too easily acquired, this war, half playful and half in earnest,
becomes habitual to him, and degenerates into absolute viciousness.

It is not possible to enter the stall of some horses without danger. The
animal gives no warning of his intention ; he is seemingly quiet and harm-
less : but if the incautious by-stander comes fairly within his reach, he
darts upon him, and seldom faUs to do some mischief A stalhon addicted
to biting is a most formidable creature. He lifts the intruder — he shakes
him — he attacks him with his feet — he tramples upon him, and there are
many instances in which he effects ii^reparable mischief A resolute groom
may escape. When he has once got firm hold of the head of the horse, he
may back him, or muzzle him, or harness him ; but he must be always on
his guard, or in a moment of carelessness he may be seriously injui-ed.

It is seldom that anything can be done in the way of cui'e. Kindness
will aggravate the evil, and no degTce of severity will correct it. ' I have
seen,' says Professor Stewart, in his ' Stable Economy,' 'biters punished
until they trembled in every joint, and were ready to drop, but have never
in any case known them cui'ed by this treatment, or by any other. The
lash is forgotten in an hour, and the horse is as ready and determined to
repeat the offence as before. He appears unable to resist the temptation,
and in its worst form biting is a species of insanity.'

With a biting horse there should be no time lost in commencing and
continuing the taming and training system of Mr. Rarey. The operator
may, nearly as soon as he has thro-wn the horse down, confine his treat-
ment to lifting the head, bringing it close to his own body as he sits upon
the shoulder, and forcing both of the jaws into immediate and repeated
contact. In the act of mounting care must be taken, that a strong strain
be made upon the ofi" rein, so that the muzzle of the horse be well inclined
from the limb or person of the rider. In approaching a biting colt in a
loose box, it will be quite necessary to be armed with a pHable cutting whip
to use upon great emergency. The science of throwing the lasso would
prove invaluable in this instance. For safety, place the colt in a loose box
having the half-door open. Remain by the open door, but out of reach,
until the curiosity of the animal be excited, and he approaches to smell
the open hand, then proceed to handle him in the gentlest manner.

Preveotion, however, is in the power of every proprietor of horses.
While he insists on gentle and humane treatment of his cattle, he should
systematically forbid this horse-play. It is that Avhich can never be con-
sidered as operating as a rewai'd, and thereby rendering the horse tractable;
nor does it increase the" affection of the animal for his groom, because he
is annoyed and iiTitated by being thus incessantly teased

GETTING THE CHEEK OF THE BIT INTO THE MOUTH.

Some horses that are disposed to be mischievous try to do this, and are
very expei't at it. They soon find what advantage it s:ives them over their

508 VICES OF THE HORSE.

driver, who by this manoeuvre loses almost aU comjnand. Harsh treatmeni
is here completely out of the question. All that can be done is, by some
mechanical contrivance, to render the thing difficult or impossible, and this
may be managed by fastening a round piece of leather on the inside of the
cheek of the bit.

KICKING.

This, as a vice, is another consequence of the culpable habit of grooms
and stable-boys of teasing the horse. That "vvhich is at first an indication
of annoyance at the pinching and tickling of the groom, and without any
design to injure, gradually becomes the expression of anger, and the effort
to do mischief. The horse likewise too soon recognises the least appearance
of timidity, and takes advantage of the discovery. There is no cure for
this vice ; and he cannot be justified who keeps a kicking horse in his
stable.

Some horses acquire, from mere irritability and fidgetiness, a habit of
kicking at the stall or the bail, and particularly at night. The neighbour-
ing horses are disturbed and the kicker gets capped hocks, or some more
serious injury. This is also a habit very difficult to correct, if suffered to
become established. Mares are far more subject to it than horses.

Before the habit is inveterately established, a thorn bush or a piece of
furze fastened against the partition or post will sometimes effect a cure.
When the horse finds that he is pretty severely pricked he will not long
continue to punish himself. In confirmed cases it may be necessary to
have recourse to the log, but the legs are often not a little bruised by it.
A rather long and heavy piece of wood attached to a chain has been
buckled above the hock, so as to reach about half way down the leg.
When the horse attempts to kick violently, his leg will receive a severe
blow ; this, and the repetition of it may, after a time, teach him to be
quiet.

A much more serious vice is kicking in harness. From the least annoy-
ance about the rump or quarters, some horses will kick at a most violent
rate, and destroy the bottom of the chaise, and endanger the limbs of the
driver. Those that are fidgety in the stable are most apt to do this. If
the reins should perchance get under the tail, the violence of the kicker
will often be most outrageous ; and while the animal presses down his tail
BO tightly that it is almost impossible to extricate the reins, he continues
to plunge until he has demolished everything behind him.

This is a vice standing foremost in point of danger, and which no treat-
ment will always conquer. It will be altogether in vain to try coercion.
If the shafts are very strong and without flaw, or if they are plated with
iron underneath, and a stout kicking-strap resorted to which will barely
allow the horse the proper use of his hind limbs in progression, but not
permit him to raise them sufficiently for the purpose of kicking, he may
be prevented from doing mischief; or if he is harnessed to a heavy cart,
and thus confined, his efforts to lash out will be restrained : but it is
frequently a very unpleasant thing to witness these attempts, though
ineffectual, to demoUsh the vehicle, for the shafts or the kicking-strap
may possibly break, and extreme danger may ensue. A horse that has
once begun to kick, whatever may have been the original cause of it, can
never be depended upon again, and he ^vill be very unAvise who ventures
behind him. The man, however, who must come within reach of a kicker
should come as close to him as possible. The blow may thus become a
push, and seldom is injurious. Should the horse commence kicking when
in harness at a distance from home, and the leg-straps not at hand, then
a piece of rope or a pocket-handkerchief must be used to bind up the near

KICKING. — REARING. — RUNNING AWAY. 509

fore-leg without loss of time. The horse must be thus driven upon three
legs for some distance, or until he has become completely tired and subdued.
If the vice be exhibited in a saddle horse, the rider in mounting should
always bend the head round nearly to the right flap of the saddle, and
will thus, by the strain upon the vertebras of the neck, effectually prevent
the animal from completing his purpose. In approaching a kicking colt
in the loose box, have a pliable cutting- whip in the right hand, so that,
should he turn suddenly round to kick, the whip may smack well upon
his hind legs, and thus make him more frightened than hurt. The whip
should be used but very rarely.

UNSTEADINESS WHILE BEING MOUNTED.

When this merely amounts to eagerness to start — very unpleasant,
indeed, at times, for many a rider has been thrown from his seat before
he was fairly fixed in it — it may be remedied by an active and good hoi'se-
man. We have known many instances in which, while the elderly, and
inactive, and fearful man has been making more than one ineffectual
attempt to vault into the saddle, the horse has been dancing about to
his annoyance and danger ; but the animal had no sooner been transferred
to the management of a youjiger and more agile rider than he became
perfectly subdued. Severity will here, more decidedly than in any other
case, do harm. The rider should be fearless — he should carelessly and
confidently approach the horse, mount at the first effort, and then restrain
him for a while ; patting him, and not suffering him to proceed until he
becomes perfectly quiet. Horses of this kind should not be too highly
fed, and should have suflB.cient daily exercise.

REARING.

This sometimes results from playfulness, carried, indeed, to an unpleasant
and dangerous extent ; but it is oftener a desperate and occasionally suc-
cessful effort to unhorse the rider, and consequently a vice. The horse
that has twice decidedly and dangerously reared, should never be trusted
again, unless, indeed, it was the fault of the rider, who had been using a
deep curb and a sharp bit. Some of the best horses will contend against
these, and then rearing may be immediately and permanently cured by
using a snaffle-bridle alone.

The horse-breaker's remedy, that of pulling the horse backward on a
soft piece of ground, should be practised by reckless and brutal fellows
alone. !Many horses have been injured in the spine, and others have broken
their ncoks, by being thus suddenly pulled over; while even the fellow,
who fears no danger, is not always able to extricate himself from the fall-
ing horse. Kreaiing proceeds from vice, and is unprovoked by the bruising
and laceration of the mouth, it fnlly partakes of the inveteracy which
attends the other divisions of restiveness.

A rearing horse must be thoroughly tamed and subdued by a great
number of lessons, so that the voice of the operator will be perfectly famiHar
to his ear. He will then be obedient to command, and will desist from
rearing on the instant of being spoken to.

RUNNING AWAY.
Some headstrong horses vnW occasionally endeavour to bolt with the
best rider. Others, with their wonted sagacity, endeavour thus to dislodge
the timid or unskilful one. Some are hard to hold, or bolt only duiing the
excitement of the chase ; others will ran away, prompted by a vicious pro-
pensity alone. There is no certain cure here. The method which affords
any probabiHty of success is, to ride such a horse with a strong curb and

olO VICES OF THE HORSE.

sharp bit ; to have him always firmly in hand ; and, if he will run away,
and the place will admit of it, to give him (sparing neither curb, whip, nor
spur) a great deal more running than he likes.

VICIOUS TO CLEAN.

It would scarcely be credited to what an extent this exists in some
horses that are otherwise perfectly quiet. It is only at great hazard that
they can be cleaned at all. The origin of this is probably some maltreat-
ment. There is, however, a great difierence in the sensibiUty of the skin
in different horses. Some seem as if they could scarcely be made to feel
the whip, while others cannot bear a fly to alight on them without an
expression of annoyance. In young horses the skin is peculiarly delicate.
If they have been curried with a broken comb, or hardly rubbed with an
uneven brush, the recollection of the torture they have felt makes them
impatient, and even vicious, during every succeeding operation of the
kind. Many grooms, likewise, seem to take deKght in producing these
exhibitions of uneasiness and vice ; although, when they are carried a little
too far, and at the hazard of the limbs of the groom, the animals that have
been almost tutored into these expressions of irritation are brutally kicked
and punished.

This, however, is a vice that may be conquered. If the horse is dressed
with a Hghter hand, and wisped rather than brushed, and the places where
the skin is most sensitive are avoided as much as thorough cleanliness will
allow, he will gradually lose the recollection of former ill-treatment, and
become tractable and quiet. Horses that are troublesome to clean are
rendered quite manageable by the strapping up of the near fore-leg.

VICIOUS TO SHOE.

The correction of this is more peculiarly the business of the smith ; yet
the master should diligently concern himself with it, for it is oftener the
consequence of injudicious or bad usage than of natural vice. It may be
expected that there will be some difficulty in shoeing a horse for the first
few times. It is an operation that gives him a little uneasiness. — The man
to whom he is most accustomed should go with him to the forge ; and if
another and steady horse is shod before him, he may be induced more
readily to submit. It cannot be denied that, after the habit of resisting
this necessary operation is formed, force may sometimes be necessary to
reduce our rebellious servant to obedience ; but we unhesitatingly affirm
that the majority of horses vicimis to shea are rendered so by harsh usage,
and by the pain of correction being added to the uneasiness of shoeing. li
should be a rule in every forge that no smith should be permitted to strike
a horse, much less to twitch or to gag him, without the master-farrier's
order ; and that a young horse should never be twitched or struck. There
are few horses that may not be gradually rendered manageable for this
purpose by mildness and firmness in the operator. They will soon under-
stand that no harm is meant, and they will not forget their usual habit of
obedience ; but if the remembrance of corporal punishment is connected
with shoeing, they will always be fidgety, and occasionally dangerous.

This is a very serious "vice, for it not only exposes the animal to occa-
sional severe injury from his own struggles, but also from the correction
of the irritated smith, whose limbs and whose life being in jeopardy, may
be forgiven if he is sometimes a little too hard-handed. Such a horse is
very Hablc, and without any fault of the smith, to be pricked and lamed
in shoeing ; and if the habit should be confirmed, and should increase, and
it at length becomes necessary to cast him, or to put him in the trevis, the
owner may be assured that many years will not pass ere some formidable

SWALLOWING WITHOUT GRINDING. — CRIB-BITING. 5U

or fatal accident -will take place. If, therefore, mild treatment will not
correct this vice, the horse cannot be too soon got rid of. Horses that
have been vicious for a lifetime are frequently rendered quiet to shoe
on being thrown down, and thoroughly handled, when in the horizontal
position, the smith can shoe the horse with the greatest ease.

SWALLOWING WITHOUT GRINDING.

Some greedy horses habitually swallow their corn without properly
grinding it, and the power of digestion not being adequate to the dissolv-
ing of the husk, no nutriment is extracted, and the oats are voided whole.
This is particularly the case when horses of unequal appetite feed from
the same manger. The greedy one, in his eagerness to get more than his
share, bolts a portion of his com whole. If the farmer, without consider-
able inconvenience, could contrive that every horse shall have his separate
division of the manger, the one of smaller appetite and slower feed would
have the opportunity of grindmg at his leisure, without the fear of the
greater share being stolen by his neighbour.

Some horses, however, are naturally greedy feeders, and will not, even
when alone, allow themselves time to chew or grind their com. In con-
sequence of this they carry but httle flesh, and are not equal to severe
work. K the rack was supplied with hay when the com was put into th<?
manger, they will continue to eat on, and their stomachs will become dis-
tended with half-chewed and indigestible food. In consequence of this
they will be incapable of considerable exertion for a long time after feed-
ing, and, occasionally, dangerous symptoras of staggers will occur.

The remedy is, not to let such horses fast too long. The nose-bag should
be the companion of every considerable journey. The food should likewise
be of such a nature that it caimot be rapidly bolted. Chaff should be
plentifully mixed with the com, and, in some cases, and especially in
horses of slow work, it should, with the com, constitute the whole of
the food. This has been treated on more at large ujider the article
' Feeding.'

In every case of this kind the teeth should be carefally examined.
Some of them may be unduly lengthened, particularly the first of the
grinders : or they may be ragged at the edges, and may abrade and wound
the cheek. In the first case the horse cannot properly masticate his food,
in the latter he will not ; for these animals, as too often happens in sore
throat, would rather starve than put themselves to much pain.

CRIB-BITING.

This is a very unpleasant habit, and a considerable defect, although not
so serious a one as some have represented. The horse lays hold of the
manger with his teeth, violently extends his neck, and then, after some
convulsive action of the throat, a slight grunting is heard, accompanied
by a sucking or drawing in of air. It is not an effort at simple eructation,
arising from indigestion. It is the inhalation of air. It is that which
takes place vrith. all kinds of diet, and when the stomach is empty as well
as when it is fall.

The effects of crib-biting are plain enough. The teeth are injured and
worn away, and that, in an old horse, to a very serious degree. A con-
siderable quantity of corn is often lost, for the horse will ft-equently crib
with his mouth fall of it, and the greater part will fall over the edge of
the manger. Much saliva escapes while the manger is thus forcibly held,
the loss of which must be of serious detriment in impaii-ing the digestion.
The crib-biting horse is notoriously more subject to colic than other
horses, and to a species difficult of treatment and frequently dangerous.

6l3i VICES OF THE HURSE.

AJthougli many a crib-biter is stont and strong, and capable of all ordinary
work, tliese horses do not generally carry so much, flesb as others, and
have not their endurance. On these accounts crib-biting has very pro-
perly been decided to be unsoundness. We must not look to the state of
the disease at the time of purchase. The question is, does it exist at all ?
A case was tried before Lord Tenterden, and thus decided : ' A horse with
crib-biting is unsound.'

It is one of those tricks which are said to be exceedingly contagious,
and every companion of a crib-biter in the same stables is considered
likely to acquire the habit, and it is the most inveterate of all habits ; but
it must be confessed that more than one crib-biter in a stable is a very
rare occurrence, nor can the writer recall a single instance in which he
has seen two together. The edge of the manger will in vain be lined with
iron, or with sheep -skin, or with sheep- skin covered with tar or aloes,
or any other unpleasant substance. In defiance of the annoyance which
these may occasion, the horse will persist in the attack on his manger.
A strap buckled tightly round the neck, by compressing the windpipe,
is the best means of preventing the possibility of this trick ; but the strap
must be constantly worn, and its pressure is too apt to produce a worse
affection, viz. an irritation in the windpipe, which terminates in roaring.

Some have recommended turning out for five or six months ; but this
has never succeeded except with a young horse, and then rarely. The
old crib-biter wiU employ the gate for the same purpose as the edge of his
manger, and we have often seen him galloping across a field for the mere
object of having a gripe at a rail. Medicine will be altogether thrown
away in this case.

The only remedy is a muzzle, with bars across the bottom ; sufficiently
wide to enable the animal to pick up his com and to pull his hay, but not
to grasp the edge of the manger. If this is worn for a considerable period,
the horse may be tired of attempting that which he cannot accomplish,
and for a while forget the habit, but, in a majority of cases, the desire of
crib-biting will return with the power of gratifying it.

The causes of crib-biting are various, and some of them beyond the con-
trol of the proprietor of the horse. It is often the result of imitation ;
but it is more frequently the consequence of indigestion. The high-fed
and spirited horse must be in mischief if he is not usefully employed.
Sometimes, but we believe not often, it is produced by pai-tial starvation,
whether in a bad straw-yard, or from unpalatable food. An occasional
cause of crib-biting is the frequent custom of grooms, even when the
weather is not severe, of dressing them in the stable. The horse either
catches at the edge of the manger, or at that of the partition on each side,
if he has been turned, and thus he forms the habit of laying hold of these
substances on every occasion.

WIND-SUCKING.
This bears a close analogy to crib-biting. It arises from the same
causes ; the same purpose is accomplished ; and the same results follow.
The horse stands with his neck bent ; his head drawn inward ; his lips
alternately a little opened and then closed, and a noise is heard as if he
were sucking. If we may judge from the same comparative want of con-
dition and the flatulence which we have described under the last head,
either some portion of wind enters the stomach, or there is an injurious
loss of saliva. This diminishes the value of the horse almost as much as
crib-biting ; it is as contagious, and it is as inveterate. The only remedies,
and they will seldom avail, are tying the head up, except when the horse
is feeding, or putting on a muzzle with sharp spikes towards the neck,

NOT LYING DOWX, ETC., ETC. 513

ajid wticli will prick Lim wlienever he attempts to rein his head in for
the purpose of wind- sucking.

NOT LYING DOWN.
Tt not uncommonly happens that a horse will seldom or never lie down
in the stable. He sometimes continues in apparent good health, and feeds
and works well; but generally his legs swell, or he becomes fatigued
sooner than another horse. If it is impossible to let him loose in the
stable, or to put him into a spare box, we know not what is to be done.
No means, gentle or cruel, will force him to lie dowTi. The secret is that
he is tied up, and either has never dared to lie down through fear of the
confinement of the halter, or he has been cast in the night, and severely
injured. K he can be sufiered to range the stable, or have a comfortable
box, in which he may be loose, he will usually lie down the first night.
Some few horses, however, will lie down in the stable, and not in a loose
box. A fresh well-made bed will generally tempt the tired horse to refvesli
himself with sleep.

PAWING.

Some hot and irritable horses are restless even in the stable, and paw
frequently and violently. Their litter is destroyed, the floor of the stable
broken up, the shoes worn out, the feet bruised, and the legs sometimes
sprained. If this habit does not exist to any great extent, yet the stable
never looks well. Shackles are the only remedy, with a chain sufficientlv
long to enable the horse to shift his posture, or move in his stall ; but
these must be taken ofi" at night, otherwise the animal will seldom lie
down. Except, however, the horse possesses peculiar value, it will be
better to dispose of him at once, than to submit to the danger and incon-
venience that he may occasion.

QUIDDING.

A horse will sometimes partly chew his hay, and suffer it to drop from
his mouth. If this does not proceed from irregular teeth, which it will be
the business of the veterinary surgeon to rasp down, it will be found to
be connected with sore-throat, and then the horse will exhibit some other
symptom of indisposition, and particularly the swallovdng of water will
be accompanied by a peculiar gulping effort. In this case the disease
(catarrh, with sore throat) must be attacked, and the quidding will
cease.

ROLLING.

This is a very pleasant and perfectly safe amusement for a horse at
grass, but cannot be indulged in the stable without the chance of his beino'
dangerously entangled vsdth the collar rein, and being cast. Yet, although
the horse is cast, and bruised, and half-strangled, he will roU again on the
following night, and continue to do so as long as he lives. The only
remedy is not a very pleasant one to the horse, nor always quite safe ; yet
it must be had recourse to if the habit of rolling is inveterate. ' The
horse,' says Mr. Castley, ' should be tied with length enough of collar
to lie down, but not to allow of his head resting on the ground ; because
in order to roU over, a horse is obliged to place his head quite down upon
the ground.'

SHYING.

"We have briefly treated of the cause of this vice at page 165, and ob-
served that while it is often the result of cowardice, or playfulness, or

L L

314 VICES OF THE HORSE.

v\'ant of work, it is at other times the consequence of a defect of sight.
It has been remarked, and we believe very truly, that shying is oftener a
vice of half or quarter-bred horses than of those who have in them more
of the genuine racing blood.

In the treatment of shying, it is of great importance to distinguish be-
t-sveen that which is the consequence of defective sight, and what results
Ci'om fear, or newness of objects, or mere affectation or skittishness. For
the first, the nature of which we have explained at page 166, every allow-
ance must be made, and care must be taken that the fear of correction is
not associated with the imagined existence of some terrifying object. The
severe use of the whip and the spur cannot do good here, and are likely
to aggravate the vice tenfold. A word half encouraging and half scolding,
■«T.th a gentle pressure of the heel, or a shght touch of the spur, will tell
the horse that there was nothing to fear, and will give him confidence in
liis rider on a future occasion. It should be remembered, however, that
although a horse that shies from defective sight may be taught consider-
able reliance on his rider, he can never have the cause of the habit
removed. We may artificially strengthen the human sight, but that of
the horse must be left to itself.

The shying from skittishness or affectation is quite a different affair,
and must be conquered ; but how ? Severity is altogether out of place.
If he is forced into contact with the object by dint of correction, the dread
of punishment will afterwards be associated with that object, and, on the
next occasion, his startings will be more fi-equent and more dangerous.
The way to cui-e him is to go on, turning as little as possible out of the
road, giving a harsh word or two, and a gentle touch with the spur, and
then taking no more notice of the matter. After a few times, whatever
may have been the object which he chose to select as the pretended cause
of affright, he will pass it almost without notice.

In page 114, under the head 'breaking in,' we described how the colt
may be cxu-ed of the habit of shying from fear or newness of objects ; and,
if he then is accustomed as much as possible to the objects among which
his services will be required, he will not possess this annoying vice when
he grows to maturer age.

IVIr. John Lawrence, in his last work on the Horse, says : ' These animals
generally fix on some particular shying butt : for example, I recollect
having, at different periods, three hacks, all veiy powerful ; the one made
choice of a windmill for the object or butt, the other a tilted waggon, and
the last a pig led in a string. It so happened, however, that I rode the
two former when amiss from a violent cold, and they then paid no more
attention to either windmills or tilted waggons than to any other objects,
convincing me that then- shying when in health and spiiits was pure
affectation ; an affectation, however, which may be speedily united with
obstinacy and vice. Let it be treated with marked displeasure, mingled
with gentle, but decided firmness, and the habit will be of short en-
durance.'

' We will suppose a case,' writes an anonymous correspondent in the
first volume of the ' Veterinarian,' ' a very common one, an every-day one.
A man is riding a young horse upon the high road in the country, and
meets a stage coach. What with the noise, the bustle, the imposing ap-
pearance altogether, and the slashing of the coachman's whip, the animal
at its approach erects his head and crest, pricks his ears, looks affrighted,
and no sooner comes alongside of the machine than he suddenly starts
out of the road. His rider, annoyed by this, instantly commences a round
of castigation with whip, spur, and cui-b, in which he persists until the
horse, as weU as himself, has lost his temper ; and then one whips, spurs,

SHYING. 515

and polls, and the other jumps, plunges, frets, and thro\N-s up his head,
until both, pretty well exhausted by the conjQict, grow tranquil again and
proceed on their joui-ney, though not for some time afterwards in their
foi'mer mutual confidence and satisfaction. Should they in their road, or
even on a distant day, meet with another coach, what is the consequence ?
The horse is not only more alarmed than before, but now, the moment he
has started, being conscious of his fault and expecting chastisement, he
jumps about in fearful agitation, making plunges to strike into a gallop,
and attempting to run away. So that by this correction, instead of render-
ing his horse tranquil during the passage of a coach, the rider adds to the
evil of shying that of subsequently plunging, and perhaps running
away.'

It is now generally admitted by all riding-masters and colt-breakers,
that a great deal more is to be effected by lenient than by harsh treatment.
Rewards are found to operate more beneficially than punishments ; and
therefore the most scientific and practised riding-masters adopt methods
based upon the former. The wi'iter of the present work remembers a
very remarkable instance of the efficacy of this plan, or rather of its vast'
and decided superiority over violence of the worst description. A vicious
thorough-bred horse had bafiled the efforts of every one into whose hands
he had been put in order to be rendered tractable : at length a foreigner
of considerable repute among the equestrians of the ' school ' took him to
make a trial of ; and in the course of a twelvemonth had rendered him so
quiet that not only could any person ride him with the utmost safety, but,
at the same time, he was so docile and tractable that he could be induced,
by certain signs, to He dovsTi and permit his rider to mount before he rose
again. This gentleman must have been the Rarey of his day. It is suffi-
ciently proved to us now that, generally speaking, colts, and most horses,
will shy at strange objects, but that as soon as they have smelt at and
touched these objects with their nose, the fear of them almost instantly
ceases. Therefore, in approaching any object at which the horse is likely
to be alarmed, or in bringing such object to the horse, the person or rider
must use the greatest gentleness and forbearance, and permit the animal
to gratify the powerful curiosity inherent in his nature in his own way,
and not to add to his timidity by abusive treatment.

The same forbearance and humanity have been practised with the same
beneficial results upon shy horses. With all such persons as are best able
to give counsel in cases of shyness, the lang-uage is now-a-days, ' Let the
horse alone,' — ' Take no notice of his shyness,' — ' "Work him well, and
accustom him to the objects he dislikes, and in time he will of himself
leave off his trick of shying.'

This is good advice ; but, let it not be misinterpreted. Let it not be
understood to mean that the ammal is to receive any encouragement to
shy ; for by no other expression can be characterised that erroneous and
foolish practice of patting the horse, or ' making much of him,' either
just before or during the time he evinces shyness. The former is bad,
because it draws the attention of the animal to the object he dreads ; the
latter is worse, because it fills him with the impression either that the
object itself is really terrific, or that he has acted right in shying at it,
and ouQ'ht to do so again.

Whether we are approaching the Mghtful object, or the horse is actually
shying, ' we should let him alone ' — ' we should take no notice whatever
of him ' — neither letting him perceive that we are aware that we are ad-
vancing towards anything he dislikes ; nor do more with him, while in the
act of shying, than is necessaiy for duo restraint with a steady hand upon
the rein. We may depend upon it, that battling on our part will only seiwe

L L 2

516 VICES OF THE HORSE.

to augment fright and arouse resistance on his, and that the most judicious
course we can pursue is to persevere in mild forbearant usage.

Shying on coming out of the stable is a habit that can rarelj or never b©
cured. It proceeds from the remembrance of some ill-usage or hurt which
the animal has received in the act of proceeding from the stable, such as
striking his head against a low door- way, or entangling the harness. Co-
ercion will but associate greater fear and more determined resistance with
the old recollection. Mr. Castley g-ives an interesting anecdote, which tends
to prove that while severity will be worse than useless, even kind treat-
ment will not always break a confirmed habit. ' I remember a very fine
grey mare that had got into this habit, and never could be persuaded to
go through a doorway without taking an immense jump. To avoid this,
the servant used to back her in and out of the stable ; but the mare hap-
pening to meet with a severe injury of the spine, was no longer able ta
back ; and then I have seen the poor creature, when brought to the door,
endeavouring to balance herself, with a staggering motion, upon her half-
paralysed hind extremities, as if making preparation and summoning up
resolution for some great efibrt ; and then, when urged, she would plunge
headlong forward with such violence of exertion as often to lose her feet,
and tumble down, altogether most pitiable to be seen. This I merely
mention,* he continues, ' as one proof how inveterate the habits of horses
are. They are evils, let it always be remembered, more easy to prevent
than to cure.'

When the cure, however, is early attempted, it may be so far overcome
that it will be unattended with danger or difiiculty. The horse should bo
bridled when led out or in. He should be held short and tight by the
head, that he may feel he has not hberty to make a leap, and this of itself
is often sufficient to restrain him. Punishment or a threat of punishment
will be highly improper. It is only timid or high-spirited horses that
acquire this habit, and rough usage invariably increases their agitation
and terror. Some may be led out quite at leisure when blindfolded ;
others when they have the harness bridle on ; some will best take their
own way, and a few may be ridden through the doorway that cannot be
led. By quietness and kindness, however, the horse will be most easOy
and quickly subdued.

SLIPPING THE COLLAR.
This is a trick at which many horses are so clever that scarcely a night
passes without their getting loose. It is a very serious habit, for it enables
the horse sometimes to gorge himself with food, to the imminent danger
of staggers ; or it exposes him, as he wanders about, to be kicked and
injured by the other horses, while his restlessness will often keep the
whole team awake. If the web of the halter, being first accurately fitted'
to his neck, is sufiered to sUp only one way, or a strap is attached to the
halter and buckled round the neck, but not sufficiently tight to be of
serious inconvenience, the power of slipping the collar will be taken
away.

TRIPPING.
He must be a skilful practitioner or a mere pretender who promises to
remedy this habit. If it arises from a heavy forehand, and the fore-legs
being too much under the horse, no one can alter the natural frame of
the animal : if it proceeds from tenderness of the foot, grogginess, or old
lameness, these ailments are seldom cured. Also, if it is to be traced to
habitual carelessness and idleness, no whipping will rouse the drone, A
known stumbler should never be ridden, or driven by any one who values

TRIPPING. — WEAVING. 517

tiis safety or his life. A tight hand or a strong bearing rein are precau-
tions that should not be neglected, although they are generally of Uttlo
avail ; for the inveterate stumbler will rarely be able to save himself, and
this tight rein may sooner and farther precipitate the rider. If, after a
trip, the horse suddenly starts forward, and endeavours to break into a
sharp trot or canter, the rider or driver may be assured that others before
him have fruitlessly endeavoured to remedy the nuisance.

If the stumbler has the foot kept as short and the toe pared as close as
safety will permit, and the shoe is rounded at the toe, or has that shape
given to it which it naturally acquires in a fortnight from the peculiar
action of such a horse, the animal may not stumble quite so much ; or if
the disease which produced the habit can be alleviated, some trifling good
may be done, but in almost every case a stumbler should be got rid of or
put to slow and heavy work. If the latter alternative is adopted, he may
trip as much as he pleases, for the weight of the load and the motion of
the other horses will keep him upon his legs.

WEAVING.

This consists in a motion of the head, neck, and body, from side to side,
like the shuttle of a weaver passing through the web, and hence the name
which is given to this peculiar and incessant and unpleasant action. It
indicates an impatient, irritable temper, and a dislike to the confinement of
the stable. A horse that is thus incessantly on the fret will seldom carry
flesh, or be safe to ride or drive. There is no cure for it, but the close
tying up of the animal, or at least allomng him but one loose rein, except
at feedingr-time.

CHAPTER XXVI.

ON SOUNDNESS, AND THE PURCHASE AND SALE OF HORSES.

There are few sources of greater annoyance both to the purchaser and the
seller of the horse than disputes with regard to the soundness of the animal.
Although, in describing the various parts of the horse, we have glanced at
the connection of certain natural conformations, and some alterations of
etmcture, and accidents, and diseases, with the question of soundness or
unsoundness, it may not be uninteresting to those for whom our work is
designed, if we now bring into one point of view the substance of that
which has been scattered over many pages.

That horse is sound in whom there is no disease, and no alteration of
structure that impairs, or is likely to impair, his natural usefulness. The
horse is unsound that labours under disease, or has some alteration of
structure which does interfere, or is likely to interfere, with his natural
usefulness. Since the publication of our first edition, this definition or
rule as to soundness or unsoundness has received very high judicial sanc-
tion. We shall adhere to it as our test of soundness or unsoundness
throughout this chapter, not forgetting that, from recent decisions, it may
now be considered as settled law, that the breach of a waiTanty of sound-
ness does not entitle the purchaser to return the horse, but only to recover
the difference of value of the horse with or without the particular un-
Boundness. The question of temporary maladies, producing no permanent
deterioration of the animal, would, generally speaking, only involve a

il8 OX SOUNDNESS, AND THE

right to damages merely nominal. The term ^ natural usefulness'' must
be borne in mind. One horse may possess great speed, but is soon knocked
up ; another vfill woi'k all day, but cannot be got beyond a snail's pace ; a
third with a heavy forehand is liable to stumble, and is continually putting
to hazard the neck of his rider ; another, -vrith an irritable constitution
and a loose washy form, loses his appetite and begins to scour if a httle
extra work is exacted from him. The term unsoundness must not be
a.pplied to either of these ; it would be opening far too widely a door to
<ii3putation and endless wrangling. The buyer can discern, or ought to
know, whether the form of the horse is that which will render him likely
to suit his purpose, and he should try him sufficiently to ascertain his
natural strength, endui-ance, and manner of going. Unsoundness, we
repeat, has reference only to disease, or to that alteration of structure
which is connected with, or will produce, disease, and lessen the usefulness
of the animal.

The principles will be best illustrated by a brief consideration of the
usually supposed appearances or causes of unsoundness.

Broken Knees certainly do not constitute unsoundness, after the wounds
are healed, unless they interfere with the action of the joint ; for the
horse may have fallen from mere accident, or through the fault of the
rider, without the shghtest damage more than the blemish. No person,
however, would buy a horse with broken knees, until lie had thoroughly
tried him, and satisfied himself as to his form and action.

Capped Hocks may be produced by lying on an unevenly paved stable,
with a scanty supply of litter, or by kicking generally, in neither of which
cases would they constitute unsoundness, although in the latter they would
be an indication of vice ; but, in the majority of instances, they are the
consequence of sprain, or of latent injury of the hock, and, accompanied
by enlargement of it, would constitute unsoundness. A special warranty
shoiild always be taken against capped hocks.

Contraction is a considerable deviation from the natural form of the
foot, but not necessarily constituting unsoundness. It requires, however,
a most careful examination on the part of the purchaser or veterinary
surgeon, in order to ascertain that there is no heat about the quarter, or
ossification of the cartilage — that the frog, although diminished in size, is
not diseased— that the horse does not step short, and go as if the foot were
tender, and that there is not the sUghtest trace of lameness. Unless these
circumstances, or some of them, are detected, a horse must not be pro-
nounced to be unsoimd because his feet are contracted ; for many horses
with very contracted feet do not suflfer at all in theii' action. A special
warranty, however, should be required where the feet are at all con-
tracted.

Corns manifestly constitute unsoundness. The portion of the foot in
which bad corns are situated will not bear the ordinary pressure of the
shoe ; and accidental additional pressure from the gTOvnng down of the
horn, or the introduction of dirt or gravel, will cause serious lameness.
They render it necessary to wear a thick and heavy shoe, or a bar shoe, in
order to protect the weakened and diseased part ; and they are very seldom
radically cured. There may be, however, and frequently is, a difference of
opinion, as to the actual existence or character of the corn. A veterinary
surgeon may consider it so slight and insignificant as not apparently to
injure the horse, and he pronounces the animal to be sound ; but he should
be cautious, for there are corns of every shade and degi^ee, from the slightest
degree to the most serious evil. They may be so slight and manageable as,
though ranging under the class of morbid alteration of structure, yet not
to duninish the natural usefulness of the horse ia any degree. Slight

rURCIIASE AND SALE OF HORSES. 519

corns "will disappear on tlie horse being shod witli ordinary skill and care,
3Ten "witliout any alteration in the shoe.

CoTJGH. — This is a disease, and consequently Tinsoundness. However
shght may be its degree, and of whatever short standing it may be, although
it may sometimes scarcely seem to interfere with the usefalness of the
horse, yet a change of stabling, or slight exposure to wet and cold, or the
least over- exertion, may, at other times, cause it to degenerate into many
dangerous complaints. A horse, therefore, should never be purchased with
a cough upon him, without a special warranty ; or if — the cough not being
observed — he is purchased under a general warranty, that warranty is
thereby broken. It is not law, that a horse may be returned on breach of
ihe warranty. The seller is not bound to take him back, unless he has
contracted so to do ; but he is Hable in damages. Lord Ellenborough has
completely decided this matter. ' I have always held,' said he, 'that a
warranty of soundness is broken, if the animal, at the time of sale, had any
infirmity upon him that rendered him less fit for present service. It is not
necessary that the disorder should be permanent or incurable. While he
has a cough, he is unsound, although that may either be temporary or
prove mortal.' In deciding on another case, the same judge said : ' I have
always held it that a cough is a breach of the warranty. On that under-
standing I have always acted, and think it quite clear.' It was argued on
the other hand that two-thirds of the horses in London had coughs, yet still
the judge maintained that the cough was a breach of warranty.

Roaring, Wheezing, Whistling, being the result of alteration of struc-
ture, or disease in some of the air-passages, and interfering with the
perfect freedom of breathing, especially when the horse is put on his
speed, without doubt constitute unsoundness. There are decisions to the
contrary, which are now universally admitted to be erroneous. Broken
Wend is still more decidedly unsoundness.

Crib- biting. — Although some learned judges have asserted that crib-
biting is simply a trick or bad habit, it must be regarded as unsoundness.
This unnatural sucking in of the air must to a certain degree injure diges-
tion. It must dispose to coHc, and so interfere with the strength, and
usefulness, and health of the horse. Some crib-biters are good goers, but
they probably would have possessed more endurance had they not acquired
this habit ; and it is a fact well established, that, as soon as a horse becomes
a crib-biter he, in nine cases out of ten, loses condition. He is not to the
experienced eye the horse he was before. It may not lead on to strongly
marked disease, or it may rarely do so to any considerable degree ; but a
horse that is morbidly deficient in condition must, to that extent, have his
capabiHty for extraordinaiy work diminished, and so be brought within
our definition of unsoundness. In its very early stage, it may be a mere
trick — confirmed, it must have produced morbid deterioration. The wear
of the front teeth, and the occasional breaking of them, make a horse old
before his time, and sometimes render it difficult or almost impossible for
him to graze, when the state of the animal or the convenience of the
owner requires that he should be turned out.

Curb constitutes unsoundness while it lasts, and perhaps while the
swelling remains, although the inflammation may have subsided ; for a
horse that has once thrown out a curb is, for a while at least, very hablu
to do so again, to get lame in the same place on the slightest extra exer-
tion ; or, at all events, he would there first fail on extraordinary exertion.
A horse, however, is not retui^nable, although he should spring a curb five
minutes after the purchase ; for it is done in a moment, and does not
necessarily indicate any previous unsoundness or weakness of the part.

Cutting renders a horse Hable to serious injury of the legs, and indicates

620 O.N SOUJ!^DNESS, AND THE

that lie is either weak, or has an awkwardness of gait inconsistent with
safety. Many horses go lame for a considerable period after cutting
themselves severel}- ; and others have dropped from the sudden agony,
and endangered themselves and their riders. Although perhaps not
constituting unsoundness, cutting is a serious defect, and very material
objection to a horse, and should therefore always have its consequences
guarded against by a special warranty.

ENLARGED Glands. — The enlargement of the glands under the jaw has
not been so much considered as it ought to have been in our estimate of
the soundness of the horse. Simple catarrh will occasionally, and severe
affection of the chest will generally, be accompanied by swelling of these
glands which does not subside for a considerable time after the cold or
fever has apparently been cured. To slight enlargements of the glands
under the jaw much attention need not be paid ; but if they are of con-
siderable size, and especially if they are tender, and the glands at the root
of the ear pai-take of the enlargement, and the membrane of the nose is
redder than it should be, we should hesitate in pronouncing that horse to
bo sound. We must consider the swelling as a symptom of disease.

Enlarged Hock. — A horse with enlarged hock is unsound, the structure
of this complicated joint being so materially affected that, although the
horse may appear for a considerable time to be capable of ordinary work,
ihe will occasionally fail even in that, and a few days' hard work will
always lame him.

The Eyes. — That inflammation of the eye of the horse which usually
terminates in blindness of one or both eyes, has the peculiar character of
receding or disappearing for a time, once or twice, or thrice, before it fully
runs its course. The eye, after an attack of inflammation, regains so
ueai'ly its former natural brilliancy that a person even well acquainted
with horses will not always recognise the traces of former disease. After
a time, however, the inflammation returns, and the result is inevitable. A
horse that has had one attack of this complaint is long afterwards unsound,
however perfect the eye may seem to be, because he carries about with
him a disease that will probably again break out, and eventually destroy
the sight. Whether, therefore, he may be rejected or not, depends on the
possibility of proving an attack of inflammation of the eye, prior to the
purchase. Next to direct evidence of this are appearances about the eye,
of which the veterinary surgeon at least ought not to be ignorant.
Allusion has been made to them in page 164. They consist chiefly of a
puckering of the Hds towards the inner comer of one or both eyes — a
difference in the size of the eyes, although perhaps only a slight one, and
not discovered except it be looked for — a gloominess of the eye — a dulness
of the iris — a little dulness of the transparent part of the eye generally — a
miuiite, faint, dusky spot, deep in the eye, and generally with Httle
radiations of white lines proceeding from it. If these symptoms, or the
majority of them, existed at the time of purchase, the animal had assuredly
been diseased before, and was unsound. Starting has been considered as
an equivocal proof. It is usually an indication of defective sight, but it is
occasionally a trick. Connected, however, with the appearances just
described, it is a very strong coiToborative proof. There is another cause
of blindness, however, by which the inexperienced horseman may be
woefully deceived, that is, Qutta serena, or paralysis of the optic nerve.
In this irremediable affection, the textures of the eye appear natural and
unimpaired ; there is no apparent alteration of structui'e, no cloudiness,
110 opacity, the only indication being the large and immovable state of the
pupils, which remain equally distended in the dusk of evening and the
glare of the noon-day sun.

PURCHASE AND SALE OF HORSES. 521

Lameness, from wliatever cause arisiBg, is unsoundness. However
tempoi-aiy it may be, or however obscure, tliere must be disease wliicb
lessens the utility of tbe horse, and renders him unsound for the time.
So says common sense, but there are contradictory decisions on the case.
' A horse laboxiring under a temporary injury or hurt, which is capable of
being speedily cured or removed, is not, according to Chief-Justice Eyre,
(as given, 2 Espin. Rep. 673, Garment v. Boors), an unsound horse ; and
where a warranty is made that such a horse is sound it is made without
any view to such an injury ; nor is a horse so circumstanced within the
meaning of the warranty. To vitiate the warranty, the injm'y the horse
had sustained, or the malady under which he laboured, ought to be of a
permanent nature, and not such as may arise from a temporary injury or
accident.'

On the contrary, Lord Ellenborough says (4 Campbell, 251, Elton v.
Brogdeii), ' I have always held, and now hold, that a warranty of sound-
ness is broken if the animal at the time of sale has any infirmity upon him
which renders him less fit for present service. It is not necessary that the
disorder should be permanent or incurable. While a horse has a cough
he is unsound, although it may either be temporary or may prove mortal.
The horse in question having been lame at the time of sale, when he was
warranted to be sound, his condition subsequently is no defence to the
action.' The decisions of Mr. Baron Parke, already referred to, confii-m
this doctrine.

Navicular Disease, however shght, renders the animal decidedly un-
sound.

Neurotohy. — A question has arisen, how far a horse that has undergone
the operation of the division of the nerve of the leg, and has recovered
from the lameness vsdth which he was before afiected, and stands his work
well, may be considered to be sound. Cliief-Justice Best held such a
horse to be unsound, and in our opinion there cannot be a doubt about
the matter. The operation of neurotomy does not remove the disease
causing the lameness, but only the sensation of pain. A horse on whom
this operation has been performed may be improved by it — may cease to
be lame — may go well for many years ; but there is no certainty of this,
and he is unsound, within our definition, unless nature gave the nerve
for no useful purpose.

Ossification of the lateral Cartilages (side-bones) constitutes un-
soundness, as interfering with the natural expansion of the foot, and, in
horses of quick work, almost invariably producing lameness.

Pumiced Foot. — When the union between the horny and sensitive
laminse, or little plates of the foot, is weakened, and the coffin-bone is let
down, and presses upon the sole, and the sole yields to this unnatural
weight, and becomes rounded, and is brought in contact with the ground,
and is bniised and injured, that horse must be unsound, and unsound for
ever, because there are no means by which we can raise the coffin-bone
again into its place.

QuiDDiN'G. — If the mastication of the food gives pain to the animal, in
consequence of soreness of the mouth or throat, he will drop it before it is
perfectly chewed. This, as an indication of disease, constitutes unsound-
ness. Quidding sometimes arises from irregularity in the teeth, which
wound the cheek with their sharp edges ; or a protruding tooth renders it
impossible for the horse to close his jaws so as to chew his food thoroughly.
Quidding is unsoundness for the time ; but the unsoundness may cease when
the teeth are properly filed, or the soreness or other cause of this imperfect
chewing removed.

Quittor is manifestly unsoundness.

622 OX SOUNDNESS, AND THE

Ringbone. — Altliougli when tlie bony tumour is small, and on one side
only, there is little or no lameness — and tlaere are a few instances in
which a horse with ringbone has worked for many years without its
return — yet from the action of the foot, and the stress upon the part, the
inflammation and the formation of bone may acquire a tendency to spread
so rapidly, that we must pronounce the shghtest enlargement of the
pasterns, or around the coronet, to be a cause of unsoundness.

Sand-crack is manifestly unsoundness. It may, however, occur
without the slightest warning, and no horse can be rejected on account of
a sand-crack that has sprung after purchase. Its usual cause is too oreat
brittleness of the crust of the hoof ; but there is no infalKble method of
detecting this, or the degree in which it must exist in order to constitute
unsoundness. When the horn round the bottom of the foot has chipped
off so much that only a skilfal smith can fasten the shoe witb out pricking
the horse, or even when there is a tendency in the horn to chip and break
in a much less degree than this, the horse is unsoimd, for this brittleness
of the crust is a disease of the part, or it is such an altered structure of it
as to interfere materially with the usefulness of the animal.

Spavin. — Bone spavin, comprehending in its largest sense every bony
tumour on the hock, is unsoundness. If the tumour affects in the
slightest degree the action of the horse, it is unsoundness ; even if it does
not, it is seldom safe to pronounce it otherwise than unsoundness. But it
may possibly be (Like sphnt in the fore-leg) so situated as to have no ten-
dency to affect the action. A veterinary surgeon consulted on the
purchase will not always reject a horse because of such a tumour, but he
will invariably point out the defect. His evidence on a question of sound-
ness will depend on the facts. The age of the animal, the situation and
history of the tumour, may be such as to enable him to give a decisive
opinion in a horse going sound, but not often.

Bog or Blood Spavin is unsoundness, because, although it may not be
productive of lameness at slow work, the rapid and powerful action of the
hock in quicker motion will produce permanent, yet perhaps not consider-
able lameness, which can scarcely ever be with certainty removed.

Splint. — Strictly speaking, splint constitutes unsoundness, but so few
horses are entirely free from this disease, that it would be highly injurious
to reject every animal for this defect. It depends entirely on the situation
of the bony tumour on the shank -bone, whether it is Hkely to cause
lameness. K it is not in the neighbourhood of any joint, so as to interfere
with its action, and if it does not press upon any ligament or tendon, it
may not cause lameness, although it is often very unsightly. In many
cases it may not lessen the capability and value of the animal. This, how-
ever, should be left to the judgment of the veterinary surgeon.

Stringhalt. — This singular and very unpleasant action of the hind-
leg is decidedly an u.nsoundness. It is an irregular communication of
neiwous energy to some muscle of the thigh, observable when the horse
first comes from the stable, and gradually ceasing on exercise. It has
usually been accompanied by a more than common degree of strength and
endurance. It must, however, be traced to some morbid alteration of stnic-
ture or function ; and it rarely or never fails to deteriorate and gradually
wear out the animal.

Thickening of the Back Sinews. — Suificient attention is not always
paid to the fineness of the legs of the horse. K the flexor tendons have
been sprained, so as to produce considerable thickening of the cellular
substance in which their sheaths are enveloped, they will long afterwards,
or perhaps always, be Uable to sprain, from causes by which they would
otherwise be scarcely affected. The continuance of any considerable

PUKCHASE AND SALE OF HORSES. 523'

thickness around tlie slieaths of the tendons indicates previous and violent
sprain. This very thickening will fetter the action of the tendons, and,
after much quick vrork, will occasionally renew the inflammation and the
lameness ; therefore, such a horse cannot be sound. It requires, however,
a little discrimination to distinguish this from the gumminess, or roundness
of leg, peculiar to some breeds. There should be an evident difierence
between the injured leg and the other.

ThoroUGHPIN, except it is of great size, and attended with lameness, can
hardly be termed unsoundness ; but as it is the consequence of hard
work, and now and then does produce lameness, the hock should be most
carefully examined, aud there should be a special warranty against it.

Thrush. — There are various cases on record of actions on account of
thrushes in horses, and the decisions have been much at variance, or per-
fectly contradictory. Thrush has not been always considered by legal
men as unsoundness. "We, however, decidedly so consider it ; as being a
disease interfering and likely to interfere with the usefahiess of the horse.
Thrush is inflammation of the lower surface of the inner or sensitive frog
— and the secretion or throwing out of pus — almost invariably accom-
panied by a sHght degree of tenderness of the frog itself, or of the heel a
little above it, and, if neglected, leading to diminution of the substance of
the frog, and separation of the horn from the parts beneath, the pro-
duction of fungus and canker, and, ultimately, a diseased state of the foot,
destructive of the present, and dangerous to the future usefulness of the
horse.

"WiNBGALLS. — There are few horses perfectly free from windgalls, but
they do not interfere with the action of the fetlo3k, or cause lameness,
except when they are numerous or large, They constitute unsoundness
only when they cause lameness, or are so large and numerous as to render
it likely that they will cause it.

In the pui'chase of a horse the buyer usually receives, embodied in the
receipt, what is termed a warranty. It should be thus expressed : —

' Keceived of A. B. forty pounds for a grey mare, -warranted only five years old, sound,
free from vice, and quiet to ride and drive.

'£40. 'CD.'

A receipt, including merely the word 'warranted,' extends only to
soundness, — ' wan-anted sound ' goes no farther ; the age, freedom from
vice, and quietness to ride and di-ive, should be especially named. This
warranty comprises every cause of unsoundness that can be detected, or
that lurks in the constitution at the time of sale, and to every vicious
habit that the animal has hitherto shown. To establish a breach of the
warranty, and to be enabled to tender a return of the horse and recover
the difierence of price, the purchaser must prove that it was unsound or
viciously disposed at the time of sale. In case of cough, the horse must
have been heard to cough immediately after the purchase, or as he was led
home, or as soon as he had entered the stable of the purchaser. Coughing,
even on the following morning, will not be sufiicient ; for it is possible
that he might have caught cold by change of stabling. If he is lame, it
must be proved to arise from a cause that existed before the animal was
in the purchaser's possession. No price will imply a warranty, or be
equivalent to one ; there must be an express waiTanty. A fraud must be
proved in the seller, in order that the buyer may be enabled to retui-n the
horse or maintain an action for the price. The warranty should be given
at the time of sale. A warranty, or a promise to warrant the horse given
at any period antecedent to the sale, is invalid ; for horseflesh is a very
perishable commodity, and the constitution and usefalness of the animal

62i ON SOUNDNESS, AND THE

may undergo a considerable change in the space of a few days. A warranty
after the sale is invalid, for it is given without any legal consideration.
In order to complete the purchase there must be a transfer of the animal,
or a memorandum of agreement, or the payment of earnest-money. The
least sum will suffice for earnest. No verbal promise to buy or to sell ia
binding without one of these. The moment either of these is effected, the
legal transfer of property or delivery is made, and whatever may happen
to the horse, the seller retains, or is entitled to the money. If the purchaser
exercises any act of ownership, by using the animal without leave of the
vendor, or by having any operation performed, or any medicines given to
him, he makes him his own. The warranty of a servant is considered to
be binding on the master : the weight of authority denoting that the mas-
ter is bound by the act of the servant. Lord Kenyon, however, had some
doubt on the subject.

If the horse should be afterwards discovered to have been unsound at
the time of warranty, the buyer may tender a return of it, and if it be not
taken back, may bring his action for the price ; but the seller is not bound
to rescind the contract, unless he has agreed so to do.

Although there is no legal compulsion to give immediate notice to the
seller of the discovered unsoundness, it will be better for it to be done.
The animal should then be tendered at the house or stable of the vendor.
If he refuses to receive him, the animal may be sent to a livery-stable and
Bold ; and an action for the difference in price may be brought. The keep,
however, can be recovered only for the time that necessarily intervened
between the tender and the determination of the action. It is not legally
necessary to tender a return of the horse as soon as the unsoundness is
discovered. The animal may be kept for a reasonable time afterwards,
and even proper medical means used to remove the unsoundness ; but
coui'tesy, and indeed justice, will require that the notice should be given
as soon as possible. Although it is stated, on the authority of Lord
Loughborough, that ' no length of time elapsed after the sale, will alter
the natui^e of a contract originally false,' yet it seems to have been once
thought it was necessary to the action to give notice of the unsoundness
in a reasonable time. The cause of action is certainly complete on breach
of the warranty.

It used to be supposed that the buyer had no right to have the horse
medically treated, and that he would waive the warranty by doing so.
The question, however, would be, has he injured or diminished the value
of the horse by this treatment ? It will generally be prudent for him to
refrain from all medical treatment, because the means adopted, however
skilfully employed, may have an unfortunate effect, or may be misrepre-
sented by ignorant or interested observers.

The purchaser possibly may like the horse, notwithstanding his dis-
covered defect, and he may retain, and bring his action for the depreciation
in value on account of the unsoundness. Few, however, will do this,
because his retaining the horse will cause a suspicion that the defect was
of no great consequence, and will give rise to much cavil about the quan-
tum of damages, and after all, very slight damages will probably be
obtained. ' I take it to be clear law,' says Lord Eldon, in the cause
Curtis V. Hannay, 3 Esp. 83, ' that if a person purchases a horse that is
warranted, and it afterwards turns out that the horse was unsound at the
time of the warranty, the buyer may, if he pleases, keep the horse, and
bring an action on the warranty ; in which he will have a right to recover
the diff'ercnce between the value of a sound horse and one with such
defects as existed at the time of warranty ; or he may return the horse,
and bring an action to recover the full money paid : but in the latter case,

PURCHASE AND SALE OF HORSES. 525

the seller has a right to expect that the horse shall be returned to him in
the same state he was when sold, and not by any means diminished in
value ; for if a person keeps a warranted article for any length of time
after discovering its defects, and when he returns it, it is in a worse state
than it would have been if returned immediately after such discovery, I
thint the party can have no defence to an action for the price of the ar-
ticle on the ground of non-comphance with the warranty, but must be left
to his action on the warranty to recover the difference in the value of the
article warranted and its value when sold.'

Where there is no warranty, an action may be brought on the ground ol
fraud ; but this is very difficult to be maintained, and not often hazarded.
It will be necessary to prove that the dealer knew the defect, and that the
purchaser was imposed upon by his false representation, or other fraudu-
lent means. K the defect was evident to every eye, the purchaser has no
remedy — he should have taken more care ; but if a warranty was given, that
extends to all unsoundness, palpable or concealed. Although a person should'
ignorantly or carelessly buy a blind horse, warranted sound, he may reject it
— the warranty is his guard, and prevents him from so closely examining
the horse as he otherwise would have done ; but if he buys a blind horse,
thinking him to be sound, and without a warranty, he has no remedy.
Every one ought to exercise common circumspection and common sense.

A man should have a more perfect knowledge of horses than falls to the
lot of most, and a perfect knowledge of the vendor too, who ventures to
buy a horse without a warranty.

K a person buys a horse warranted sound, and discovering no defect in
him, and, relying on the warranty, re-sells him, and the unsoundness is
discovered by the second purchaser, and the horse returned to the first pur-
chaser, or an action commenced against him, he has his claim on the first
seller, and may demand of him not only the price of the horse, or the diffe-
rence in value, but every expense that may have been incurred.

Absolute exchanges, of one horse for another, or a sum of money being
paid in addition by one of the parties, stand on the same ground as simple
sales. If there is a warranty on either side, and that is broken, an action
may be maintained : if there be no warranty, deceit must be proved.

The trial of horses on sale often leads to disputes. The law is perfectly
clear, but the appHcation of it, as in other matters connected with horse-
flesh, attended with glorious uncertainty. The intended purchaser is only
liable for damage done to the horse through his own misconduct. The seller
may put what restriction he chooses on the trial, and takes the risk of
all accidents in the fair use of the horse within such restrictions.

K a horse from a dealer's stable is galloped far and fast, it is probable
that he will soon show distress ; and if he is pushed farther, inflammation
and death may ensue. The dealer rarely gets recompensed for this ; nor
ought he, as he knows the unfitness of ius horse, and may thank himself
for permitting such a trial ; and if it should occur soon after the sale, he
runs the risk of having the horse returned, or of an action for its price.

In this, too, he is not much to be pitied. The mischievous and fraudulent
practice of dealers, especially in London, of giving their horses, by over-
feeding, a false appearance of muscular substance, leads to the ruin of many
a valuable animal. It would be a useful lesson to have to contest in an
action or two the question whether a horse overloaded with fat can be
otherwise than in a state of disease, and consequently unsound.

It is proper, however, to put a limit to what has been too frequently
asserted from the bench, that a horse warranted sound must be taken as
fit for immediate use, and capable of being immediately put to any fair
work the owner chooses. A h'inter honestly warranted sound is certainly

526 ON SOUNDNESS, AND PURCHASE AND SALE.

warranted to be in immediate condition to follow the hounds. The mys-
teries of condition, as has been shown in a former part of the work, are
not sufficiently uni'avelled.

In London, and in most great towns, there are repositories for the period-
ical sale of horses by aaction. They are of great convenience to the seller,
who can at once get rid of a horse with which he wislies to part, without
v^aiting month after month before he obtains a purchaser, and he is relieved
from the nuisance or fear of having the animal returned on account of
breach of the warranty, because in these places only two days are allowed
for the trial, and if the horse is not returned within that period, he cannot
be afterwards returned. They are also convenient to the purchaser, who
can thus in a large town soon find a horse that will suit him, and which,
from this restriction as to returning the animal, he will obtain twenty or
thirty per cent, below the dealers' prices. Although an auction may seem
to offer a fair and open competition, there is no place at which it is more
necessary for a person not much accustomed to horses to take with him an
experienced friend, and, when there, to depend on his own judgment, or
that of his friend, heedless of the observations or manoeuvres of the by-
standers, the exaggerated commendation of some horses, and the thousand
faults found with others. There are always numerous groups of low
dealers, copers, and chaunters, whose business it is to delude and deceive.
Very different views will be found to be taken of the question of soundness
in the present day to those existing some years ago ; and very different
conclusions are now di'awn fi'om the indications of disease to what would
then have been done. The leading point in all cases used to be to decide
how long the disease had existed — if, for instance, a spavin is discovered
in an animal two months after purchase, ergo it must have existed at the
time of purchase ; if a young plethoric animal is taken from a dealer's
stable some distance home, and a few days or a week after is found to be ill
— suffering from disease of the throat, lungs or chest, which disease may
result in a fatal termination, then the seeds of the disease must have existed
prior to the sale, and, that being the case, the horse must have been
unsound, and the seller must bear the loss ; or, again, the new purchase is
discovered to be a roarer, or lame, or losing his condition within a few
weeks of the transaction, either of which is a most grievous annoyance to
the purchaser ; but, fortunately for him, the cause of these afflictions must
have existed at the time of purchase, and therefore the animal can be
returned ; and not only were these views surmised among purchasers, but
they were too often adopted by the professional man by whom the horse
is examined. Now a day, however, these things have altered a Httle ; the
question no longer is, how long must the cause of unsoundness have existed ?
but, in how short a space of time may it have been produced ? But this
difference in the mode of viewing the matter may cause remarkably diffe-
rent results. A horse may have a sphnt developed in a few hours ; in
eight-and-forty he may become a roarer ; a spavin is thrown out in the
course of a day or two ; a curb may be sprung in a moment; and disease of
the throat or lungs, wliich may terminate fatally, or at any rate seriously
deteriorate the value of the horse, may have commenced within twelve
hours of his leaving the stable of the seller ; and these views must have
this important effect, the absolute proof of the state of the animal at the
time of sale, for, however shortly after the unsoundness may be discovered
to exist, there has been sufficient time both for its commencement and its
development ; and, therefore, unless its existence can be clearly proved at
the time of sale, it is not, of itself, a proof of unsoundness at the time
of purchase.

ON DRAUGHT.

The investigation of tlie subject of draught bj animal power, to whicii
this treatise is devoted, and which will form an appropriate supplement to
an account of the Horse, has frequently occupied the attention of theo-
retical and practical men ; so much so, that our object will be to collect
what has been said and done, and, by arranging it methodically, to show
in what manner the information may be applied and rendered useful,
rather than to attempt to produce anything absolutely new upon the
subject. Notrnthstanding, however, all that has been ^vi-itten, if we open
any of the authors who have treated the subject, in the hope of obtaining
direct practical information, we shall be much disappointed.

It might have been expected that the particular result of every method
knovm and in use for the conveyance of a load from one spot to another,
by animal power, whether by sledges, by wheel-carriages, or by water, as
in canals, being so constantly and necessarily a matter of practical expe-
riment, would have been accurately known and recorded ; but the contrary
is too much the case.

The theoretical investigations have been made with too Httle reference
to what really takes place in practice ; and the practical portion of the
subject has not generally been treated in that useful and comprehensive
manner which it deserves and demands.

In fact, there is hardly a question in practical mechanics on which,
though much has been written, opinions are apparently less fixed ; or on
which the information we do possess is in a less defined and available
state.

One great object of research has been the average force of traction or
power of the horse.

K we consult the most approved authors and experimentalists, Desaguil-
Hers, Smeaton, &c., we find this power variously stated as equal to 80 lbs.,
100 lbs., 150 lbs., and even 200 lbs.; we are therefore left almost as ignorant
as before ; but the knowledge of this average power is fortunately of
little importance in practice. It is the knowledge of the best apphcation,
and of the effect, of that power which alone is useful ; and these are
governed by circumstances so varying and dissimilar, such as the form
and state of the road, the . structure of the carriage, the size and friction
of the wheels, &c., &c., that scarcely any two cases of draught would,
as regards the effect of the power of the horse, present the same results.

The difierence of opinion here manifest is still greater when existing on
a pui'ely practical question.

In the enquiries instituted by a committee of the House of Commons in
1806 and 1808, on the subject of roads and carriages, two well-informed
practical men, Mr. Russell of Exeter and Mr. Deacon of Islington, the
most extensive carriers in England, were examined upon an impoi-tant
question, viz. the advantage and disadvantage of a particular form of
wheel. It was stated by one that, having given the wheels in question a
twelve months' trial, he found that they tended to injure the road and

o28 O^ DRAUGHT.

increase tlie draught in tHe proportion of four to five ; while it was stated
bj the other, who had also made the experiment on a large scale, that he
found thej materially assisted in keeping the roads in repair, and dimin-
ished the draught in the proportion of five to four.

Amidst such conflicting and contradictory opiniors it would appear
difficult to come to aiiy useful conclusion, and we might naturally be
disposed to adopt a very common practice, that of taMng an average
result.

A little consideration, however, wall show that these apparent discre-
pancies and contradictions arise in great measure from attempting to
generalise and apply to practice the resiilts of experiments made in, and
therefore apphcable only to, particular cases.

The results of experiments thus made at various times and places, and
without that identity of condition and circumstance so necessary when
standard rules are to be deduced from them, have nevertheless been used
for that purpose ; and this circumstance, combined with the variety of dis-
tinct points to be considered before we can estimate accurately what even
constitutes draught, will perhaps account for the disagreement among the
practical and scientific authorities alluded to.

We must therefore examine severally all these points ; and then, by con-
sidering their relative bearing upon each other, we may hope to reconcile
the different opinions advanced, without which we cannot collect from them
any information which will lead us to a practical and beneficial result.

We shall proceed to divide the subject under separate and distinct
heads, and under each head to examine the methods or means now in use,
or which have been proposed, and endeavour to estimate their comparative
advantages by availing ourselves of what is already written and kno\NTi
upon each.

It vnll be necessary first, however, to explain and define clearly some
terms which will occur frequently in the course of this paper, and especially
the word ' draught,' which is itself the title of the treatise.

This word is used in such a very general and vague sense, that it would
be difficult, if not impossible, to give an explanation which should apply
equally to all its different meanings.

In the expression ' draught by animal power,' it would seem to mean the
action itself of drawing ; whde, on the other hand, it is frequently used to
signify the amount of power employed, as well as the degree of resistance
— as when we say the di'aught of a horse, or the draught of a carriage.
' Draught power ' is also an expression used. We shall, however, confioie
our use of the word to the two meanings — draught, the action of dragging
— and draught, the amount of resistance to the power employed to drag
any given weight.

' Force of traction' is another expression requiring explanation ; but
here we must enter into more detail, and give a practical illustration of our
meaning.

A force is most conveniently measured by the weight which it would be
capable of raising ; but it is not therefore necessarily applied vertically, in
which direction weight or gravity acts.

If a weight of 100 lbs. be suspended to a rope, it is clearly exerting upon
this rope a force of 100 lbs. ; but if the rope be passed over a pully void of
friction, and continued horizontally, or in any other direction, and then
attached to some fixed point, the weight still acts upon aU parts of this
rope, and consequently upon the point to which it is fixed, with a force
equal to 100 lbs. ; and so inversely, if a horse be pulling at a rope with a
force which, if the rope were passed over a pully, would raise 100 lbs.,
the force of traction of the horse is in this case 100 lbs. Spring steel-

OS DIl AUGHT .V29

yards being now commonly in use, we may be permitted to refer to them
as affording another clear exemplification of our meaning. In pulling at
a steel-yard of this description, if the same force be exerted, whether
horizontally or vertically, the index will, of course, show the same amount ;
and, consequently, if the strength of the liorse be measured by attaching
the traces to one of these steel-yards, the number of pounds indicated on
the dial will be the exact measure of the strain the horse exerts, and the
amount of strain is called his ' force of traction.'

Having fixed as nearly as possible the meaning of these terms, which
will frequently occur in the course of our progress, we shall proceed to the
division of the subject.

It is evident that there are three distinct agents and points of considera-
tion in the operation of draught, which are quite independent of each
other. They are — First, the moving power and the mode of applying it ;
Secondly, the vehicle for conveying the weight to be moved ; Thirdly, the
canal, road, or railway, or what may be generally termed the channel of
conveyance.

All these individually influence the amount of draught, and require
sejiarate consideration ; but the mode of combining these different agents
has also a material effect upon the result, — consequently, they must be
considered in relation to each other ; and to obtain the maximum useful
efiect, with the greatest economy, in the emplojonent of any given power,
it is evidently necessary that these different agents should not only each
be the best adapted to its purpose, and perfect to the greatest possible
degree, but also that they should all be combined to the greatest advantage.

We shall proceed, then, to examine the different agents now employed,
the modes of applying them, and the proportionate effects produced.

And, first, with regard to the species of moving power ; — this may be of
two kinds, animal and mechanical.

By 'animal power' we mean the direct application of the strength of
any animal to di-agging or pulHng, as in the simple case of a horse
dragging a cart. By ' mechanical,' the application of any power through
the intervention of machinery : the soui'ce of power in this latter case may
still, however, be animal power, or a purely mechanical agent, as a steam-
engine.

The latter is the only species of mechanical power which it has been
attempted, with any prospect of success, to apply practically to loco-
motion ; and therefore that alone we propose to compare with the animal
power.

Now, although these two powers, viz., simple animal power and the
steam-engine, may in most instances be apphed so as to produce the same
effect, and may therefore, to a superficial observer, appear similar ; yet
there do exist such essential differences in the mode of action, or the means
by which the effect is produced, that there are many cases in which the one
may be used, wherein the other may be totally inapplicable.

In this treatise, draught by animal power is the principal object of con-
sideration ; but as great efforts have been made for many years, and are
still now perseveringly made, to supersede animal power entirely by me-
chanical,— to dismiss our old servant the horse, and supply his place by
tie steam-engine, — it may be as well, in justice to the former, to say a
fpAV words in his defence, and to take a brief -^-iew of the distinguishing
features of the two agents.

To enter into all their respective merits, and to weigh their comparative
advantages in all circumstances, would involve us in many questions foreign
to that under our immediate consideration, and would embrace subjects
which may supply matter well worthy of our future attention. It is sufiicieni

530 UM DRAUGHT.

for our ])resent purpose to show that there still exist great objections to
the universal application of machinery to draught, — objections which do
not equally apply to the use of animal power ; that there are many advau
tages in the latter, which are not yet obtained by the former ; and that
animal power continues, for all the ordinary purposes of trafi&c upon
common roads, to be the most simple in its appUcation, and certain in its
effect.

We shall confine ourselves particularly to the consideration of that part
of the question which relates to the slow transport of heavy goods, as being
the most important branch of the subject, especially for agricultural pur-
poses. Economy is, of coui'se, the grand desideratum in the consideration
of this question ; consequently, the comparative expense of the two powers,
supposing them for the moment equally convenient and apphcable, will
first demand our attention.

A difficulty arises here, ho'wever, fi'om the want of a certain measure of
comparison. The power of a oiie-horso engine is by no means exactly the
same thing as that of a horse. As we have before stated, the mode of ap-
plying them being different, the variations in the results are different, and
consequently the effects do not bear a constant proportion to each other,
in different circumstances : we must therefore be careful not to fall into
the nii stake which we have ourselves pointed out as a very common source
of error, viz., the dramng general conclusions from data obtained in a par-
ticular case. We shall take the power of the horse, and that of the steam-
engine as ascertained practically on railways, where the effect of each is
less influenced by accidental cii^cumstances, and consequently can be better
ascertained than on a road. We shall confine our calculations of expense
to this particular case, and then endeavour to discover how far the same
results are to be expected, or what modifications are likely to take place,
and what alterations are to be made in the results under different circum-
stances. As regards the first, viz., the comparative cost of animal and
mechanical power on a railway, we cannot do better than quote the words
of the late Mr. Tredgold upon this subject, and we accordingly extract the
following passage from his work upon Railways : —

' The relative expense of different moving powers for railways is an
interesting enquiry, and the same materials being necessary to estimate the
absolute expense for any time or place, it is desu-able to give some particu-
lars to aid the researches of those who wish to make such comparative
estimates. The annual expense of a horse depends on; —

' 1. The interest of purchase-money,

'2. Decrease of value.

* 3. 'Hazard of loss.

* 4. Value of food.

' 5. Harness, shoeing, and faiTiery.

' 6. Rent of stabling.

'7. Expense of attendance.

' According to the average duration of a horse in a state fit for labour,
of the description required on a railway, the first three items may be es-
timated at one-fourth of the purchase-money ; the food, harness, shoeing,
<fec., included in the 4th, 5th, and 6th, will most likely not exceed 40Z. per
lumum, nor yet be much short of that amount ; and sujoposing one man to
attend to two horses, this would add 15^. 12s. if the man's wages were 2s.
per day ; and, at this rate, the labour of a horse of the value of 20Z. would
cost 601. 12s. per year ; or, since there are 312 working days in the year,
the daily expense would be 3s. lO^cZ., or 186 farthings. But the power of
a horse is about 125 lbs. when travelling at the rate of three miles per hour,
iuid the day's Avork eighteen miles.

ON DRAUGHT. 531

' The annual expense of a higt-pressure locomotive engine, or steam
carriage, consists of: —

' 1. The interest of the first COSt,

' 2. Decrease of value.

' 3. Hazard of accidents.

' 4. Value of coals and water.

' 5. Renewals and repairs.

' G. Expense of attendance.

' It is difficult to procure these particulars from the experience of those
^ho employ engines ; we will therefore annex, by way of example, such
sums as we think likely to cover the expense. The fii'st cost of the engine
and its carriage may be stated at 501. per horse-power, and its decrease of
value and hazard will render its annual expense about one-fifth of its first
cost, or lOZ. per annum per horse-power. The expense of fuel and water
per day will be not less than one bushel and a half of coals per horse-power
and fourteen cubic feet of water ; and, taking the coals at 6d. per bushel,
and the water and loading with fuel at Sd., the annual expense will be
151. 12s. ; the renewals and repairs, at 20 per cent, on the fii-st cost will
be lOZ., which is as little as can be expected to cover them. Attendance,
suppose one man and one boy for each six-horse engine, at 6s. per day, or
Is. per day for each horse-power, or 151. 12s. per annum ; therefore the
total annual expense of one horse-power would be 51Z. 45., or 158 farthings
per day.' — This power is equal to a force of traction of 166§ lbs. for the
same number of roiles per day as the horse ; but from this gross amount ol
power we must deduct that necessary to move the engine with its supply
of coals : this will reduce it at least to 155 lbs. ; consequently, in the one
case we have a force of traction of 125 lbs., at an expense of 18G farthings,
and, in the other, a force of 155 lbs., at an expense of 158 farthings ; and
reducing them both to one standard quantity of work done, Ave find the
expense of the horse is -J-|f=1.488, and of the locomotive engine, 1.019, oi
about as 147 is to 100, In this case, therefore, there appears to be a de-
cided economy in the use of the steam-engine, and accordingly its applica-
tion has become very general, and is becoming more so every day.

Let us now examine what alterations are requisite before we can apply
these calculations to the case of draught upon common roads ; supposing
both species of power equally convenient and appHcable, and confining oui
observations merely to the amount of power and proportionate expense.

The force of traction of the horse, and the yearly cost, will remain so
nearly the same, that for our present purpose we may consider them quite
unaltered, Not exactly so with the locomotive engine.

All the parts of the machine must be made much stronger and heavier,
and consequently more expensive for road- work than for a railway, and,
therefore, the first cost vrHl be greater — the wear and tear will also be
greater, and as the work will be more variable, the consumption of fuel
will be increased as well as the price, which, generally speaking, will be
much less on a line of railway than it can possibly be elsewhere.

Still all these circumstances will not influence the result so much as the
increased efiect of the weight of the engine. On a railway -with the car-
riage, as now constructed, the force of traction is not much more than -^jj or
.j^ of the weight moved ; consequently, the power necessary to move the
engine itself is not very considerable. On a road, however, this proportion
19 materiaUy altered ; here the average force required to move a well-con-
structed carriage cannot be estimated in practice at less, even when the
roads are in good repair, than ^ ; the engine, according to the construction
of the best locomotive engines now in use, will weigh, with its carriage
and fuel, at least one-half ton, or 1120 lbs. per horse-power, and ^'^r of 1120

M M 2

532 ON DRAUGHT.

is nearly 45 lbs., which we have to deduct from the gross power of the
engine, and which leaves only 121§ lbs. as the available power. The pro-
portional expense of the horse and the steam-engine is now therefore about
as 115 to 100, and this without taking into account the causes of increased
expenditure already alluded to as regards the prime cost, the repairs, and
the consumption of fuel. From these calculations it would appear, that
even if mechanical power was found as convenient and applicable in prac-
tice as horse-power, still no great economy can be expected from the em-
ployment, upon common roads, of small locomotive engines, such as the
best of those now in use, and known to the public, unless it is in cases
where other means may fail to produce some particular efiect which may
be required ; if, for instance, a considerable velocity is necessary, the
power of a horse is very nearly exliausted in moving his own body, and
then there can be no doubt that a mechanical agent, in which power may
always be exchanged for a proportional velocity, will have some advan-
tages on a very good road, which in fact approaches very nearly to a
railway. But in every case in which velocity is not a principal object, as
in the one now under consideration, and where, consequently, little mo-
mentum is acquired, and frequent though slight obstructions occur, as on
an ordinary road, an animal appears to possess decided advantages. Ho
adapts himself admirably to the work, increasing or diminishing his efforts
according to the variations of the draught, resting himself, as it were, and
acquiring vigour where his utmost strength is not called for, and thus be-
comes enabled to make exertions far beyond his average strength where
any impediment or obstruction is to be overcome. Indeed, he appears
rather to increase the average effect of his powers by these alternations of
exertion and comparative relaxation ; and when it is considered that the
di-aught will, in an ordinary road, frequently vary in the proportion of six
or eight to one, and that these changes may succeed each other suddenly,
the importance of such an accommodating faculty will be immediately
appreciated.

By mechanical power, such as a steam-engine affords, these advantages
are not easily obtained. Without great weight or rapid motion no momen-
tum can be acquii^ed ; and, unless when the carriage is in very rapid mo-
tion, a very small obstruction will check, and perhaps totally stop, the
machine. For instance, supposing the carriage to be advancing steadily
under the effect of a force of traction of 500 lbs., and that a stone or rut
suddenly causes a resistance, which it would require 800 or 1000 lbs. to
overcome, a case by no means rare even on tolerable roads ; if the impetus
or momentum of the mass be not sufficient to carry it over this obstruc-
tion, the machine must stop until some increased power be given to it.

It is also to be remembered, that what we are accustomed, in practice,
to consider as the average power of a horse, is the average excess remain-
ing over and above that necessary to carry his own body ; and that in all
ordinary cases he is able to maintain and continue nearly the same exer-
tions, although the comparative draught of the carriage be considerably
increased. Thus, if the road be shghtly muddy or sandy, or newly
gravelled, the draught, as we shall see more accurately laid down when
we come to the subject of wheeled carriages, will be double and even
treble what it is on the same road when freed from dust and dirt ; but the
average power of the horse remains nearly the same, and, practically
speaking, equal in both circumstances ; that is to say, that the power
necessary to move the weight of the horse's body, which forms no incon-
siderable portion of his whole power, is not materially increased by a state
of road which will even treble the draught of the carriage ; consequently,
the excess, or available portion of his power, remains unimpaired, and the

ON DRAUGHT. 5JJ3

fiill beuofit of it, as well as of any increased exertions of the animal, is felt
and is applied solely to dragging the load.

Not so with a locomotive steam-engine, because, beyond the power
necessary to perform the work of dragging the load, a large additional
power must be provided to move the engine itself. In other words, if
an engine of ten-horse power be capable of dragging a cei'tain load, the
weight of this engine forming a portion of the load to be moved, a corre-
sponding portion of the power is unprofitably absorbed in moving it, and
the excess, or remaining power, is alone available for useful purposes, and
can alone be compared to the animal or horse-power. Now, if the draught
is augmented, as we have just supposed, by any sand, dii-t, or roughness of
the road or any other inapediment, the force required to move the useless
iVeight (of the engine) is proportionally increased ; it may even, as we
have stated, be doubled or trebled ; and the whole power of the engine
remaining the same, the surplus or remaining portion is considerably
diminished, and that at the very moment when, as before stated, it pro-
duces only one-half or one-third the effect.

Moreover, if at any part of the road a power equal to twenty horses is
required, the engine, as regards its construction, must be a 20-horse
engine. It is erroneous to suppose that a steam-engine, because it is a
high-pressure engine, can therefore, as occasion requires, be worked for
any length of time beyond its nominal power, by merely raising the steam,
Every part of a machine is calculated and arranged for a certain pressure
and corresponding power, and that is the real power of it. It is optional
to work at or below that power, but, if below, it will be to a disadvantage,
as the bulk and weight of the machine will be as great as if it were always
worked to its full extent, and both have to be carried over all those parts
of the road where a far less power would be sufficient. The velocity of
the carriage might indeed be increased, while travelling on the good and
level portion of the road ; but these alternations in the speed and power
cannot be effected without a considerable degree of complexity, weight,
and expense in the machinery ; and, as we are confining ourselves to the
consideration of the case where velocity is not required, and might even be
an inconvenience, the excess of power will be wasted.

These objections to the use of mechanical power, in certain cases, are
pointed out, not as being insurmountable obstacles to the use of machinery,
but as serious difficulties which, in practice, have not yet been overcome.
In fact, there is not at present any practical substitute for horse-power on
common roads, and, as far as the public is concerned, nothing has yet been
done. We, therefore, must consider them as objections remaining to be
overcome ; and we are compelled to draw the conclusion, that, at the pre-
sent moment, animal power (always confining ourselves to the question of
the economical transport of heavy goods upon common roads) is superior
to any mechanical agent, and that beasts of draught, and particularly the
horse, although the most ancient, still remain the most advantageous
soui'ce of power.

Long experience has pointed out various modes of applying animal
power ; but it is fi-equently ill directed, owing to the want of an adequate
knowledge of the mechanical structure of the animal, and the manner in
which he exerts his strength.

In the most powerful steam-engine, if too great a resistance be applied,
or practically speaking, if we attempt to make it do more work than it is
calculated for, there is an immediate loss of power, in consequence of tlie
diminution of velocity caused thereby ; and if we continue to oppose a still
greater resistance, we reach the point at which it is unable to overcome
it, and it ceases to produce any effect. Again, a very small obstacle mo^

534

ON DRAUGHT.

be so applied as greatly to impede an engine of considerable power, or
even to stop it altogether. The power of an engine is limited, and resist-
ance must always be proportioned to it ; and there is a proportion beyond
which it is useless to go, and less than which would not absorb the whole
force.

An animal is bnt a beautiful piece of machinery, and although perfect
in its construction, and wonderfully accommodating in its movements, it
still, like the engine, has a limited power, and has its peculiar modes of
action, its strong and its feeble parts ; and we must well consider its struc-
ture, to be able to apply the resistance in that degree, and in that manner,
which shall enable it to produce the greatest effect. The consideration of
the comparative effects of the exertions of a man and a horse will at once
exemplify this, and lead us more clearly to the knowledge of the peculiar
qualities or faculties of the horse.

If a horse be made to carry a heavy weight rapidly wp a steep ascent, or
if a man be employed to drag slowly a heavy carriage along a rough road,
the strength of both will be soon exliausted, and little effect produced ;
but if a man be made to carry a weight up a ladder, and if a horse draw a
heavy carriage along a road, they will each produce a considerable effect :
yet, in the former case, the horse and the man are as strong as in the
latter, but their power is not properly applied, and is consequently wasted.

These different results are easily explained, by considering the mechanical
structure of the two bodies, and the mode in which their muscular strength
is exerted.

The action of piilling is effected in either case by throwing the body
forward beyond the feet, which form the fulcrum, and allowing the weight
of the body, in its tendency to descend, to act against the resistance
applied horizontally, and drag it forward ; as the resistance yields, the feet
are carried forward ; and the action renewed, or rather continued.

Let A (f!)j. 1) be the centre of gravity, or the point in which the whole

fif the weight of the body may be supposed to be accumulated, and B the
fulcrum, or point of resistance ; AC the direction of the power to be over-
come.

If the legs are inflexible, the body, acting by its gravity, tends in its
descent to describe a circle around the point B, but is opposed by the
resistance AC ; and it is demonstrable, by the law of the resolution of
forces, that if BD be drawn parallel to AC, the lengths of the lines AD,
AB, and DB represent respectively the propoi'tions between the weight of
the body, the strain upon the point of support, and the effect produced ;
that is, if AD be taken as the measure of the weight of the body, then AB
is the measure of the strain upon the legs, and BD or AE the power pulling
in the direction of AC.

Consequently, the effect increases with the weight of the body and the

ox DRAUGHT. .535

distance whicli it is thrown beyond the feet, and is limited only by the ca-
pability of resistance at B, or the muscular strength of the legs. This is
evidently the case in practice ; for even if the body were brought nearly
horizontal, when its weight woiild act to the greatest advantage, still, if
the legs are incapable of resisting the strain, they would yield, and no
effect be produced. In a man, this muscular strength of the limbs is very
great, and he can lift or carry immense weights, and ascend easily, even
loaded, a ladder ; but he is not well adapted to the purpose of dragging: as
his own weight is small proportionally to his strength, and the centre of
gravity is low, and by the construction of his body cannot be thrown far
beyond the fulcram at his feet ; consequently, however capable his legs
may be of resisting a great strain, AE remains small, and his muscular
force is not advantageously brought into action.

A horse, on the contrary, by the formation of the body, can reheve his
weight partly from his fore-legs ; and, extending his hind-legs as in fig. 2,
throw the centre of gravity a considerable distance in front of his feet B.
AE is here proportionably much greater than in the former case, and the
whole of his force is, therefore, advantageously employed. He is, in fact,
by his mechanical construction, a beast of draught.

The same train of reasoning which has here pointed out the species of
work pecuharly adapted to the different structures of the man and of the
horse, if continued fm'ther, will now serve to show the circumstances in
which the power of the latter is best applied, and the greatest effect
produced.

We shall here consider both the quality and the degree of the di-aught.

And first, it is to be observed, that, although the weight of the animal's
body is the immediate cause in the action of pulling, yet, as before stated,
it is by the action of the muscles in advancing the legs and raising the
body, that this cause is constantly renewed, and the effort continued. The
manner and the order of succession in which a horse thus lifts and
advances his legs may, of course, influence the movement of his body, anrl
ought therefore to be examined into : accordingly we find that many
writers upon draught have touched upon this part of the subject, but they
appear to have contented themselves with inventing in their closet the
manner in which they conceived a horse mu.st have moved his legs, rather
than to have taken the trouble to go out of doors to see what really did
take place, and, consequently, many have arrived at eiToneous conclusions.
The ancient sculptors, Avho generally studied nature so faithfully, either
neglected this point, or otherAvise our modern horses, by constant artificial
training, have altered their step : for we find in the celebrated frieze from
the Parthenon at Athens, a portion of which, now in England, is more com-
monly kno^svn under th e name of the Elgin Marbles, tlie only horses which
are represented trotting have both their legs on the same side of the body
raised at once, the other two being firm upon the ground — a position
which horses of the present day never assume while trotting.

In the case of these rehevos, it is true that there are only four horses,
out of more than two hundred, which are in the action of trotting, all the
others being represented in a canter or gallop ; and only two of these four
are entirely in the foi-egTOund, and distinct from the other figures. It
would not be safe, therefore, to draw too general a conclusion from this ex-
ample alone ; but we have another decided proof of the remark we have
made, in the case of the four horses of the church of St. Marc at Venice.

Whether this was then the mode of trotting or not, it is certain that it
is never seen to occur in nature in the present day ; and indeed it appears
quite inconsistent vx-ith the necessary balancmg of the body, and "v\ as,
therefore, more probably an error of the artist.

53G

OX DRAUGHT.

It perhaps may have been found difficult or troublesome to watch the
movement of a horse's legs ; but a very little practice will enable anybody
to verify what we are about to state : by keeping near the side of a horse
that is walking, it will be easily seen that, immediately after the raising of
either of the hind-legs from the ground, the fore-leg of the corresponding
side is also raised, so that the latter leaves the ground just before tlie
former touches it. If the fore-legs be then watched, it will be seen that,
immediately after the movement of either of these, the hind-leg upon
the opposite side is jaut in action, so that the order of succession appears
to be in walking, as numbered in Jig. o.

K the horse be now examined from a short distance, it will be seen that,
when he is walking freely, the successive movements of the legs are at
equal intervals of time, and that the muscular force of one limb only is
brought into action at the same moment. But if a horse which is drag-
ging a load with some considerable exertion be watched, it will be seen
that he then acts longer upon his legs, and allows a less interval of time
for raising and advancing them ; and, at the same time, the regularity of
the movement is generally destroyed ; the limbs on the same side generally
being moved more simultaneously, or at nearer intervals of time, than
those at the opposite corners : thus, the muscular forces of two Hmbs are
always acting together ; the movement of the whole body is less continued
and ujiiform than in the former case, but each impulse is more powerfal,
and a resistance, which would be too great for the muscles of one leg, is
overcome by the united exertion of two. We shall point out, hereafter,
the necessity of attending to this in the application of this power to draught.

In trotting, the action is of course quicker, and a less resistance will, as
might be expected, cause the horse to move his legs at two intervals in-
stead of at four equal intervals of time : indeed, a horse accustomed to
go in harness generally acquires the habit of that action. There is this
striking difference between trotting and walking : in walking, we have
seen that the interval between the movement of the legs on the same side
was less than the other interval of time : in trotting, on the contrary, the
legs situated diagonally, or at opposite corners, move almost simulta-
neously. Owing to the velocity and the momentum which the body
acquires in consequence of that velocity, in trotting fast, the successive
impulses are less distinctly perceptible, and the movement more continued
and uniform than in a slow trot, or in walking.

In galloping, the movement is totally different : the fore-legs are thrown
forward nearly simultaneously, and the hind-legs brought up quickly, and
neai-ly together ; it is, in fxct, a succession of leapsj by far the grt>,atest

0\ DRAI^GHT. j3r

interval of time elapsing Mhile the legs are extended after the leap is
taken : this is the position, therefore, which catches the eye, and "which
must be represented in a drawing to produce the effect of a horse in a
gallop, although it is the moment when the animal is making no exertion.

The canter is to the gallop very much what the walk is to the trot,
though probably a more artificial pace. The exertion is much less, the
spring less distant, and the feet come to the ground in more regular suc-
cession : it is a pace of ease, quite inconsistent with any exertion of
draught.

The consequence of these peculiar movements in the Hnibs of the ani-
mal is, that a succession of impulses is conveyed to the body ; and when
the movement is slow, and the body of the horse does not acquire any
considerable impetus or momentum, the resistance should be such as to
receive each of these impulses, and leave the horse unrestrained in the
intervals.

It must, therefore, be a rigid resistance, void of elasticity.

It must not, however, be a constant unremitted resistance.

For it is a well-known fact, that, however powerful may be the muscks
of a limb, they must not be kept constantly on the stretch. Thus we feel
even more fatigue by standing than by walking, because one particular set
of muscles is then kept constantly exerted. It is evident, therefore, that
the resistance or draught must not be perfectly constant, but should afford
frequent opportunities of relaxing the efforts. Neither must it be a yield-
ing resistance, as in that case the animal could not make any gi'eat exer-
tion ; for if he appHed too much power, he would be Uable to fall forward ;
and should he at any time fall short of the necessary exertion, he would
be di^awn back by the strain, and it would require a considerable effort to
restore the motion.

If a horse be made to drag a rope passing over a pulley and descending
into a well "svith a certain weight, say of 200 lbs., attached to it, it is
obvious that he could not make an effort greater than 200 lbs. without
instantly considerably increasing his velocity, which would be a waste of
power ; nor must he for an instant relax his efforts, or fall below that
mark, for he would then be unable even to resist the pull and would be
overcome by the weight. Such an extreme case as this, of course, is not
likely to occur often in practice, but the disadvantage of the principle is
obvious.

An arrangement of this sort is, indeed, sometimes made use of, for
raising the earth from excavations, or*the materials of a building ; but the
exertion is continued only for a few seconds, or for a distance of not more
than ten or twenty yards : if prolonged, the inconvenience would be
seriously felt, as it is, to a certain degree, in towing canal boats ; the length
and curve of the rope give an elasticity to the sti'ain, and the necessity of
keeping the rope out of the water, or from dragging along the towing-
path compels the animal to keep up a constant unremitted pull, and that,
too, in an oblique direction, so as to throw him into an unfavourable posi-
tion. "We accordingly find that, in these circumstances, the average work
of a horse is equivalent only to about four-fifths of that given by Smeaton,
DesaguiUiers, and others, who estimated the power of the horse from the
work done in a horse-mill, where the resistance is inelastic, and all cii-
cumstances favourable, with the exception of the circular path.

The disadvantage of this kind of resistance is well known to carmen,
though of course without consideration of the reason. A horse is said
to pull better whenhe is close to his work, that is to say, when he is attached
at once to the body to be moved, because every exei-tion he makes is then
communicated at once to the mass ; but the leader of a toam, unless he

538 ON DRAUGHT.

keeps the traces constantly on tlie stretcli, may frequently waste a power-
ful effort without producing much effect upon the caniage.

Another inconvenience resulting from harnessing horses in a team, or
one before the other, is, that the leader, by tightening the traces, is con-
tinually relieving the strain from the body horse, and reciprocally the
body horse from the leader ; so that these horses labour under all the dis-
advantages of a long, elastic, and constantly yielding connection with the
load, which is not only fatiguing to them, but in cases where the resistance
IS variable, prevents the full and united effect of their exertions being
properly communicated to the carriage. For, if a sHght obstacle, as a rut
or stone in a road, checks the progi^ess of the vehicle, the shaft horse car.
immediately throw his whole weight into the collar, and the united effect
of his strength and impetus is conveyed unimpaired to the vehicle, and
forces it over the obstacle ; but if any elasticity is interposed between the
power and the resistance, as in the case of the ti-aces of the leader of a
team, the whole, or the greater part of the effect of impetus is lost, and
that force which, if concentrated in one effort, would effect the object, being
lengthened into a continued and comparatively feeble pull, is insufficient.

If we wish to destroy the impetus of a body moving vdth violence, we
receive it vsdth a yielding resistance ; the action of catching a cricket-ball
exemplifies this perfectly; and, therefore, if the full effect of momentum is
wanted, all elasticity in the direction of the movement should be avoided.

We have entered rather fully into the consideration of this particular
point, because the pi^ciple is not only applicable to the mode of commu-
nicating the immediate action of the moving power, but will be found also
of considerable importance when we arrive at the subject of wheel-
carriages.

A consideration of these various points brings us to this conclusion, that
the draught ought neither to be constantly uniform nor ^vithout remission,
nor yet yielding or elastic : sudden shocks or violent changes in the velo-
city must also evidently be disadvantageous, as tending to distress and
injure the animal.

Having determined upon the necessary quality of the resistance, wewiU
proceed to examine into the quantity or the degree of resistance or draught,
and the speed best adapted to the exertion of the animal. The useful
effect of a horse, or the work done, must evidently depend upon three
things, viz., the rate at which he is made to travel, tJie ])0%ver of traction he
can exert, and tlie mimber of hours he can continue to icorh daily at that
speed ; and where there is no fixed*condition which determines any one of
these, such as a particular load to be moved, or a certain velocity which it
is desirable to attain, or a limited time to perform the work in, then the
object must be to search for those proportions of the three by which, at
the end of the day, the greatest quantity of work shall have been produced.

With respect to the first two, viz., the speed and power exerted, it will
1)6 obvious, that where a horse ti^avels unloaded, the greatest distance he
can go in any given time for several days in succession without injurious
fatigue is the limit of his velocity : on the other hand, the load may be so
great that he can scarcely put it in motion — this is the hmit of his power:
in both cases, the useful effect is nothing. But between these limits of
velocity and power, there is a proportion which affords the maximum quan-
tity of effect, and which, thei-efore, must be the most advantageous for the
application of horse-power.

It has been asserted by theorists, and the theory appears to be supported
by experience, that the velocity corresponding to this maximum, or that at
which a horse working continually a certain number of hours per day ^vill
do the most work, is equal to half the extreme or limit of velocity of the

Hours.

Duration of labour . . 1

2

3

4

5

6

Maximum velocity unloaded, in ? •■ ,3
miles, per hour . • J "*

lOi

81

7i

6§

6

OS LiKAUGHT. 539

same horse Avorking tlic same mimber of hours unloaded; and that ihe
force of traction con-esponding to this speed is equal to half the limit of
his power. For instance, if six hours be the length of a day's work decided
upon, and if a horse working that time can go sis miles per hoiu- unloaded,
and therefore producing no useftd effect, and supposing the limit of power
of the same horse be equal to 250 lbs., it is found that he will do the most
work in the same number of hours when drawing a load at the rate of
half six, or three miles per houi- ; and half of 250, or 125 lbs., will be the
strain corresponding to this speed. Our next step, then, must be to find
these limits: now, the limit of velocity depends upon the length of time
dui-ing which the speed is kept up ; we subjoin therefore a Table deduced
from experiments, and which represents the proportion of the duration of
labour and maximum velocity of the average of horses accustomed to their
respective velocities.

Hours.

8 10

'2 "4 ^■.*

This within, the range here given may be considered as very nearly the
law of decrease of speed by increased duration of labour; and at the fii'st
glance we see the great advantage of reducing the speed and prolonging
the exertion. There are, however, many causes to limit the duration of a
day's work of a horse. Tredgold, in his work on Railways, before quoted,
says : ' The time assigned for the day's work of a horse is usually eight
hours ; but it is certain, from experience, that some advantage is gained
by shortening the hours of labour ; and we have observed that a horse ia
least injured by his laboui- where his day's Avork is perfonned in about six
hours ; where the same quantity of laboui' is performed in less than six
hours, the over-exertion in time shows itself in stiffened joints, while the
wearying effects of long-continued action become apparent, if the duration
of the day's work be prolonged much beyond eight hours. Indeed, urder
the management of a good di-iver, a fudl day's work may be completed in
the time before mentioned — six hours — with benefit to the health and
vigour of the animal.'

We may be permitted, however, to abandon the idea of improving the
health of the animal, or of rendering his business a pleasure' to him— an
attempt, the success of which is, we should think, very questionable, and
content ourselves -with, endeavouring to check the barbarous practice of
working horses to death either by overdriving or overloading them ; and
we shall, as is generally the case, consult our own interests, and folk w the
dictates of humanity at the same time, by not injuring so useful an aBimal :
and we think experience proves there will be no danger of doing this by
working eight or nine hours a day. By referring to the foregoing Table,
we see that the maximum velocity of the average of horses corresponding
to eight hour's work is five miles and a half per hour, consequently, the
rate at which he would travel when loaded is a little more than two miles
and a half per hour. There is no doubt that some horses could con-
veniently ti'avel faster ; but as the speed must generally be governed by
that of other horses, the average is, iu this case, the rate to%e adopted.
The force exerted under these cu-cumstances depending upon the quality
of the horse, it is very difficult to obtain even an approximate value of it,
unless the experiment be made upon each individual horse : it is fortu-
nately, however, of no great consequence in practice, because if we feel sure
that we are employing all the power we can command to the greatest
advantage, it is not of any veiy great importance that we should know
the exact amount of that power.

540 ON DRAUGHT.

In comparing animal liorse-power with that of the steam-engine, we
estimated it at about 125 lbs., but we believe that, with tolerably good
horses, it may generally be taken at more than that.

We have thus far confined our attention to the cases where velocity, as
weU as duration of labour, was left to choice ; this is far from being always
the case. In stage-coaches, or other conveyances for passengers, speed is
absolutely necessary, and it only remains to learn how that speed can be
obtained with the greatest economy. The following Table, extracted from
Tredgold, will show the great reduction in the effect produced by increasing
the velocity.

The first column being the velocity or rate per hour, continued for six
hours per day ; the second represents the force of traction of which the
animal is capable ; and the third the comparative effects produced. A
force of traction of 125 lbs. continued for six hours at the rate of three
miles per hour being taken as the standard, and considered equal to the
arbitrary number 1000.

Miles per hour. Force of traction in lbs. Effect produced.

2 166 888

3 125 1000
3i lO-t 972
4' 83 888
4^ 62i 750
5 41| 555
5| 36^ 500

If, however, the hours of labour be lessened, taking the velocity correspond-
ing to the greatest useftd effect, the results will be much greater, and the
velocity may be raised much higher, as will be seen in the following
Table.

Here the first column is the length of day's work, the second the best
velocity corresponding to that time, or half the limit of velocity shown in
Table (1), and the third column the comparative effect produced, the force
of traction being in each case 125 lbs.

Duration of labour in hours. Velocity, miles per hour. Eilect produced.

2 5| 578

3 4i 709

4 3| 813

5 3:i 909

6 3 1000

7 2| 1063

8 2§ 1110

To attain higher velocity, it is necessary still ftu-ther to reduce the load,
and the next Table is calculated upon the supposition of the strain being
only one-half the last, viz., 62^ lbs. ; this is about the average exertion of
each horse in a four-horse heavy stage-cpach.

Duration of labour, •n-oi„„j4.„ t-jt 4. j ^

hours per day. Velocity Effect produced.

4 5^ 613

3 6f 534

2 7| 434

1 11 307

In mails or light coaches, where ten, eleven, and even eleven and a half

or twelve miles an hour is attained, the average strain of each horse is

barely 40 lbs., and the effect produced, or value of work done, not much

more than one-half the above.

It must be remembered, that these tables are all calculated upon the
supposition of the road being good, and the work such as not to cause any
immediate injury to the animal, and is adapted only to the average quality
of horses. They are not, therefore, at once appHcable as data for calcula-
tions in aU ordinary cases, but only serve to show the comparative forces
which may be exerted under different degrees of speed. The results or

ON DRAUGHT.

54 1

effects of this force will ahvays be influenced by tlie quality of the resist-
ance, as we have already observed, in the cases of slow travelling ; but in
rapid travelling the power is much more expensive, owing to the great loss
which we see by the tables is sustained by increased velocity ; and it is,
therefore, the more important to study Avell the means of applying the
power in question.

In this rapid travelling, the bad consequences of a uniform and constant
strain is still more felt by the horses, and the necessity of occasional relief
is still more urgent than at low velocities. It is universally admitted by
horse proprietors and postmasters, whose interests make them peculiarly
sensible on this point, that a flat piece of road is more destructive of horses
than the same length of road where gentle rises and alternate flat and
swelling ground occur ; and that a long hill is easier surmounted where
there are occasional short levels, and even descents, than when the whole
is one uniform ascent.

It only remains for us, before we dismiss the svibject of the moving
power, to consider the particular mode of applying it, or the manner of
harnessing the horses.

Under this head comes the question of the be t direction of the traces,
or, as it has generally but less clearly been called, the angle of inclination
of the line of traction. This question appears to have been always
considered one of great importance : the point has been frequently
discussed, and various opinions have been advanced ; some having re-
commended it to be horizontal, others inclined ; and, as they have each
in their turn, in demonstrating the correctness of their own theory, proved
the error of others, there can be no presumption in laying them all aside,
and in taking a different, but, at the same time, a more simple and prac-
tical view of the case. By referring to a figure similar to that by which
we showed the mode of action of the horse in pulling, we see that if AD
represent that portion of his whole weight which is relieved from his fore-
legs, and AE the direction of the traces, then AF is the measure of the
horizontal pull upon the carriage.
Now, AF bears a constant propor-
tion to AB, which represents the
strain upon the legs ; and AD being
constant, AB, and, consequently,
AF, increase or diminish accord-
ing as the angle ADB is increased
or diminished : that is to say, the
horizontal pull applied to the car-
riage is proportionate to the strain
upon the legs ; but they are both
dependent upon the angle formed
by the traces, increasing or dimi-
nishing as the latter are inclined
downwards or upwards from the
collar ; so that w^hether the traces
be inclined upwards, as fig. 4, or
downwards, as fig. 6, or whether
they be horizontal as fig. 5, makes
no difference in the manner of
pulling. In the first case, a por-
tion of the animal's weight is borne
by the traces, and is transferred
by them to the carriage. AF is
here small, but the strain upon the

S4»

ON DRAUGHT.

Fig. 6.

legs AB, is also proportion-
ably less than in the second
case, where the traces are
horizontal. In fig. G, where
the traces incline down-
wards, we see that the ho-
rizontal force AE is much
more considerable ; but, at
the same time, AB is in-
creased, and consequently
the muscular exertion re-
quired in the legs is pro-
portionately great ; in fact,
here a portion of the weight
of the load is transferred to his shoulders.

The comparative advantages, therefore, of the three do not follow any
general rule, but depend simply upon the peculiar qualities of the particular
animal employed, and his relative capabiKties of lifting and pulling, or the
proportion existing between the weight of his body and his muscular
strength. To render this more clear to our own feelings, w^e ^Yill take the
case of a man. We have ah-eady seen that an able-bodied man is more
adapted for lifting than pulling ; consequently, in his case, it would be
advantageous to throw a certain portion of the weight upon him, by making
him pull upwards, as in Jig. 7, or what we are more accustomed to see, and

F,y. 7.

which amounts to the same thing, applying his strength to a wheelbarrow,
pg. 8, and we have frequently seen an ordinary man wheel 800 lbs. in this
manner.

If, however, we take a person unaccustomed to hard work, and con-
sequently not so strong in the legs, although he may be unable even to lift
the wheelbarrow which the other moved ^vith ease, still he may, by pushing
horizontally, put in motion a considerable load ; and lastly, in the case
of an invalid who can barely carry his own weight, if he lean on the back
of a garden-chair, he will not only walk himself, but push on the chair ;
or a child who is yet too weak to stand, can, if part of his weight be
supported m a go-cart, not only move himself, but also the frame "which
supports him. These are very familiar and homely comparisons, but they
are cases exactly similar to the three positions of the traces ; and the
argument will equally apply to horses as to men. It is true, we rarely
use for draught a horse that cannot stand ; but the case is very possible
that a largo heavy horse, otherwise not strong, or one which it was not
desirable to fatigue, might pull better and longer, if part of the weight
was borne upon the carriage, or if, in other Avords, the traces inclined
upwards. And we know by experienccj that in the case of stage-coaches,

ON DllAULiUT. 6.W

where, owing to the speed, tlie weight of the horse's body is ah-eady
generally a burden to him, it is disadvantageous to increase that "weight
by inclining the traces much doAvnwards; ou the contrary, where wo Avish
to obtain the utmost effect of a powerful horse, or of a horse that is
muscular, but without much weight forward, it is highly advantageous to
Augment the effect of his gravity by inclining the traces downwards even
as much as 15", or about 1 upon 3 ; the strain upon the traces will be
then considerably increased, and the effect augmented, provided always
that he is able to exert the necessary strength in his legs. As far, there-
fore, as the mere force of traction is concerned, thei'C is no paiticular
angle which vnU. always produce the greatest effect — but it must depend
upon the particular capability of the horse ; and this in its tur^i varies,
and is affected by cii'cumstances ; for the same horse that upon a level
road requires no addition to his weight, might be materially assisted by
.1 slight addition when ascending a hill, if not continued too long j and
most horses would be benefited considerably by the opposite arrangement
in a descent, that is, by a portion of their weight being borne up; they
should at least have no additional load thrown on them while descending
a hill.

There is also a time, when inclining the traces downwards is almost
indispensable ; it is when dragging a four-wheeled waggon over a rough
broken road. If the front wheel, which is generally small, meets with an
obstacle by falling into a hole, or stopping against a stone, it requires no
profound reasoning to show, that a force pulling upwards in the direction
AB, fig. 9, will rise the whole wheel over the obstacle
with much greater facility than if appKed horizon-
tally, as AC ; this is the only circumstance, uncon-
nected Avith the horse, that ought to govern the
direction of the traces, and the degree of the inclina-
tion here must, of course, still be proportioned to the
power of the horse. We see therefore that, in pro-
portion as the horse is stronger, or that we are dis-
posed to make him exert a greater effort, the traces
should be inclined doA\ai wards from the collar ; with a good average horse,
perhaps one-sixth or one-seventh of the distance from the collar to the
extremity ; "with a horse of inferior capabihties, arising from weakness in
the limbs, and not want of weight, or with an ordinary horse when travel-
ling above six miles an hour, the traces should be nearer the horizontal
line, except when the circumstance of a rough road, before alluded to,
requires some modification of this. To be able to apply these rules generally
in practice, it would be necessary to have some means of altering the
traces while on the road ; as we have stated that they should be differently
arranged according as the road is level or rough, or ascending or descend-
ing ; this would not be difficult to contrive, and has, indeed, been suggested
by some writers upon this subject ; but it is probable that, except in stage-
wagfjrons, Avhere the same carriag'e e:oes alono; a ofreat extent, and conse-
quent variety of road, it wall be suflicient to adjust the traces according to
the average state of the roads in the neighbourhood ; and we cannot greatly
err, if we bear in mind that inclining the traces downwards from the collar
to the carriages amounts to the same thing as thro"wing part of the weight
of the load on to the shafts, a thing frequently done in two-wheeled carts,
and a manoeuvre which all good carmen know how to put in practice.
The impossibility of inclining the traces of the leaders, ownng to their
distance from the carriage, is an additional reason to those given before,
why they (the leaders) cannot, when required, exert such an effort as tho
shaft-horse or wheeler ; and on rough cross-roads, is a great argument in
'avour of harnessing: horsc^ abreast.

544

OX DRAUGHT.

Yet what can be more contrary to the rules here laid dovm than the
injudicious mode frequently adopted in hai^nessing horses ? How con-
stantly do we see the efforts of liorses paralysed by misapplication of their

Fig. 10

Fig. n.

respective quahties ! In the annexed sketch {fig. 10) for instance, which
represents a very common specimen of this, the light, muscular, little
horse, which is capable of considerable exertion, is nearly lifted from the
ground, and prevented from making any exertion, by the traces leading
upwards ; while the feeble old horse, scarcely capable of carrying his o-rti
body, is nearly dragged to the ground, and compelled to employ his whole
strength in carrying himself, and even part of the weight of the leader ; so
that the strength of the one willing and able to work is not employed, and
the other is so overloaded as to be useless.

The mode of attaching the traces does not admit of much variety. The
shoulders have always been made use of for this purpose.

Homer, who is sujDposed to have lived about
900 years B.C., describes very minutely, in the
twenty-fourth book of the Iliad, the mode of
harnessing horses at the time of the siege of
Troy, nearly 8000 years ago; but if we suppose
that his description was taken from the harness
in use in his own time, it is still referring to a
period about twenty-seven centuries back.

A simple strap, formed of several thicknesses
of leather, so as to be very stiff, and fitted well
to the neck and shoulders, served as a collar,
as seen at AA, {iigs. 11, 12). A second strap,
BB, passed round the body, and was attached
to the shoulder-strap at the withers. At this
point was fixed the yoke, CC, which was fixed
to the pole.

A pair of horses were thus yoked together, T^-ithout traces or breechings,
as oxen are seen at the present time in many parts of the country.

This was a simple arrangement, but by no means a bad one ; and it
would appear that they performed all the manoeuvi'es of cavalry -w-ith
chariots and horses thus harnessed. The pair yoked to the pole were
called yoked horses ; abreast of these was frequently placed what was
called an outer horse, with a simple shoulder-strap or collar FF, and a
single trace, GG, passing inside, as in fig. 13. Sometimes there were two
of these horses, one on each side, each furnished Avith his strap or collar

ON DRAUGHT.

545

and trace. These straps, if well fitted, were not bad ; but as tlicy must
have pressed in some degree upon the throat, they could not be equal to the
collar of the yoked horses, still less to the collar at present used.

In more modern times these shoulder-straps gave place to the breast-
strap. A horse can no doubt exert a considerable strain against such a
strap, but in action it must impede the movement of the shoulder.

In some parts of South America the trace is fixed to the pummel of the
saddle which in its turn is well secured to the horse by saddle-girths,
lireast'straps, and breechings ; and we are informed that horses in this
manner drag very considerable loads. It resembles completely the harness
of the ancients, with the addition of the breechings. It is, of course, a
mere temporary arrangement, convenient only as requmng no preparation.
The trace is, in fact, the lasso of the rider, which is always fastened to the
saddle ; and when he has entangled it round the horns of a bull, or attached
it to anything he may have occasion to transport, he takes one or two turns
of the thong round the pummel of the saddle, and the horse will at lull
gallop drag the load after him. Here the load being generally upon the
ground, the trace must incline considerably do^vTiwards ; and this, added
to the weight of the rider, will perhaps account in some degree for the
extraordinary effects of a young powerful horse goaded to the utmost, and
continuing the exertion only for a short time.

A o-entleman who travelled some time in this part of America, and

546

OX DRAUGHT.

frequently witnessed the practical effects of this ari-angement has sug'-
gested the propriety of introducing it into the Ai-tillery, by means of which
a number of horses might in an instant be attached to a gun, to extricate it
from any heavy or broken ground in which it might be entangled. Cer-
tainly, the length of these traces would enable these additional horses to
secure a good footing ; and any number of horses might thus be made to
lend theii- assistance in time of need. We do not pretend, however, to
judge of the practical utility of this measure, but merely record the sugges-
tion of another.

The collar now generally used is an improvement upon the ancient
shoulder-strap described by Homer ; and it is probably the best possible
mode of attaching the traces to the horses. If the connection is made at
the proper place on the collar, the latter bears flat and evenly upon the
muscles which cover the collai--bone, and the shoulders of the horse are left
almost as free in their action as if the collar were not there. About A,.
{figs. 14, 15), is the point of the shoulder where the trace should come ; and
Fig. 14. Fig. 15.

a Kttle inclination downwards, which can easily be effected in the case of
the shaft-horse by the shafts, and in the others by the belly-band, will, if
necessary, prevent the collar rising up, and inconveniencing the thi'oat of
the horse.

Reflectmg upon the various circumstances which we have shown to
occur in the application of animal power, and the various conclusions we
have di-awn Avhile considering the best and most advantageous appKcation
of this power— and we must be excused the frequent repetition of the terms,
for the sake of the clearness gained by it— it would appear that the resist-
ance should be as much as possible rigid and inelastic, so as to receive
immediately, and unimpaired, the direct effects of the sUghtly ii-regular
exertions of the animal ; that this resistance should not be such as to yield
directly to a sudden impulse ; that it should be so far uniform as to be free
from violent changes or sudden shocks, but not so constant as to allow of
no remission, nor of those alternations of exertion and comparative relaxa-

ON DRAUGHT. M7

tion which we have- stated to be advantageous to the pei'fect development
of animal power.

That, as regards the degree of resistance where velocity is not required,
a force of traction of from 100 Ibts. to 125 lbs., or even 150 lbs., according
to the strength of the horse, continued for eight hours a day, at about two
and a half to tkree miles per hour, is the best proportion of quantity and
dui*ation of labour. The load which will produce this amount of di-aught
will be determined when we consider the subject of the roads, on the
quahty of which it will be seen that this mainly depends ; that where six
or eight miles per honr is required, the duration of the day's work should
be shortened to five or six hours, and the draught reduced to 80 lbs. or
100 lbs. At still higher velocities the draught must not exceed 50 lbs. or
60 lbs., and the time of working two or thi-ee hoiu's. But this speed
can only be attained by the sacrifice of the horse ; and consequently the
question will rather be what the horse is capable of doing than what can
be done with economy ; and it becomes a matter of calculation, depending
altogether upon the first cost of the horse, and the profits arising from his
employment.

With respect to the mode of harnessing the horse, it is hai'dly necessary
to say that great care should be taken in fitting the collar and in attaching
the traces to the proper point. As to the direction of the traces, it must,
as we have shown, entirely depend upon the circumstances of the case.
Where the draught is heavy and slow, if the road be good, the traces
should be nearly horizontal, unless the journey be short, or the trafiic be
only in one direction, and the cart return empty, or unless any other
reason render it desirable to compel the horse to exert himself more than
he would naturally do ; the traces should then be inchned downward
towards the carriage, mth an inclination perhaps of one upon four or five,
provided always that the horse is capable of continuing the exertion wliich,
by the additional load thrown upon his shoulders, he is thus called upon
to make. K, in the same case of low speed, the road be very heavy, or
broken and rough, the proportion of draught upon each horse must be
lessened by diminishing the load, but the traces should be attached still
lower to the carriage, at a slope of one upon three or four, by which much
greater power is given to the animal to drag the load over any obstiniction.

At all high velocities, the traces should generally be horizontal. The
cases of rough roads or powerful horses may sHghtly afiect tliis arrange-
ment, as at low velocities, but not in so great a degree.

We will now proceed to examine the mode in which these conditions are
practically to be fulfilled, and the result of the apphcation of the principles
which we have laid down, by considering the subject of the vehicles for
conveying the weight to he moved.

Those in present use are boats, as canal-boats, sledges, and wheeled
carriages, which last of course iuclude every species of carriage, whether
waggon or cart, heavy or hght.

Canal-boats and canals we suspect are gradually going out of use, and
will, excepting in some peculiar cases, or unless some great improvement
takes place ia time, be superseded entirely by railways ; but still it must
be many years before this can be effected ; and in the meantime, the pro-
duce of the most extensive manufactories in the world, and the supply of
immense masses of people, will be transported over these beautifully
smooth, level, and noiseless roads ; and, even if their beds were dry, and
become the course of railways (an event which may perhaps befall some of
them), we must, out of respect for the extraordinary benefits we have
derived from their assistance, and the almost incredible effect they have
produced upon the comjnerce and riches of the country, have devoted a few

NN 2

548 ON DRAUGHT.

lines to that part of their consideration which bears upon our subject, viz.
the draught of canal-boats.

The great advantage in the transport of goods by water conveyance is
the smalhiess of the power required. A body floating in water is left so
very free in its movements, that motion may be gradually communicated
to it by any power, however small — at least the limit is very far removed ;
but although a very slow movement may thus easily be obtained, the
sHghtest increase of speed causes a very great increase of resistance.

The resistance to a body moving in a fluid arises principally from the
striking of the particles of the fluid against the front of the moving body,
BO that if the speed of the vessel be increased, not only does it encounter a
proportionably greater number of particles, but also it is struck by each
with a force proportionate to the velocity, and consequently the resistance
is found to increase as the square of the velocity ; thus if the speed of the
vessel be trebled, the number of particles, or the quantity of water which
it meets in its progress for a certain space of time, is trebled, and the
resistance of each particle being also three times as great, owing to the
boat's striking it with treble the velocity, the united effect is nine times as
great ; therefore, if in the first instance it required one pound to draw the
vessel, it would now require nine, but nine times the weight or resistance,
moved at three times the velocity, will require twenty-seven times the
quantity of power in action ; consequently, we see that the resistance
increases as the square of the velocity, and the power required to be
exerted for a given time increases as the cube of that velocity.

This law of the increase of resistance is modified however by other
causes, which have been observed and deeply investigated within the last
few years, and which produce such an effect, that with boats of a pecuHar
form a diminution of resistance actually occui's at a certain increased
velocity, and very high rates of speed, such as even 10 or 12 miles per
hour, have been attained. There are also some small sources of resistance,
such as the friction of the water, which do not increase in the ratio above
named, but at moderate velocities the rule apphes, and as yet no means
have been discovered by which, with the present dimensions of canals and
their locks, larger quantities and weights can be conveyed at any but very
low rates of speed. The di-aught of an ordinary canal-boat, at the velocity
of 2^ miles per hour, is about ^^ of its weight, that is to say, a canal-boat,
with its load weighing 33 tons, or 73,920 lbs., is moved at the rate men-
tioned, by a force equivalent to 80 lbs., being -g-J-g- part of the load. This
is found by Mr. Bevan to be the result upon the Grand Junction Canal,
and a force of traction of 80 lbs. is here found to be equivalent to a horse-
power. The average power of an ordinary horse is certainly rather more ;
and, in the commencement of this paper, we mentioned this as an instance
of a small effect being produced, most probably owing to the pecuUar
application of the power. We believe it to be the case, and think it likely,
that if the disadvantages before alluded to, arising from the mode of
appljdng the power, could be removed, the effect might be raised 100 lbs.,
or 120 lbs. of traction, and consequently the load moved would then be 40
or 50 tons ; this is an increase well worthy of consideration.

We now come to the consideration of the means of transport employed
on land. These are sledges, rollers, and wheel can-iages. The order in
which they are here mentioned is probably that in which they were
invented or first employed. A sledge is certainly the rudest and most
primitive form of vehicle ; the wheeled carriage, and even the placing the
load itself upon rollers, is the effect of a much more advanced state of the
mechanical arts, and is probably of much later date than the sledge.

When man first felt the necessity or the desire of transporting any

ON DK AUGHT. 549

article from one spot to another, he doubtless endeavoured to lift or carry
it : if it proved too heavy for him to carry, he would naturally endeavour
to drag it. Here frequent experiments would soon show him how much
less labour was required to drag a body with a smooth surface in contact
with the ground, than when the contrary was the case ; and if the body
to be moved did not itself present a smooth surface on any of its sides, but
was, on the contrary, rough and angular in all directions, he would
naturally be led to interpose between it and the ground some plane sui-face
which should prevent the angles and projections of the body from entering
the ground and impeding the progress ; and we may presume that sledges
were thus very early brought into use. Wten attempting to transport
still heavier masses, the accidental presence of round stones, or of a piece
of timber, may have shown the advantage of interposing rolling bodies,
and thus may rollers have been invented and first brought into use.

These steps appear natural and likely to have led to these results ; they
are at any rate sufficient to account for the first introduction of these two
means of facilitating transport, but no steps of this kind appear capable of
leading to the beautiful yet simple contrivance of a wheel.

A roller is by no means an imperfect wheel, as it may at first appear to
be ; they have nothing in common but their rotatory or revolving action,
but the efiect of this motion is totally diflferent in the two. in a roller,
friction is avoided altogether by it, in a wheel this friction exists as com-
pletely as in a sledge, but the sliding surfaces, being at the centre of the
wheel instead of on the ground, are always the same, and being under
control, may be kept in that state which shall cause as Httle friction as
possible ; moreover, the friction is at a point where we have the means of
overcoming it, by acting with the power of a considerable lever, as we
shall hereafter show.

There is, indeed, a kind of roller which partakes somewhat of the
character of the wheel, but without possessing the advantages of it.

This species of roller might have been an intermediate step between
the two, and we shall therefore describe it when we have dismissed the
subject of sledges and rollers.

In England sledges are at the present time very little in use. In some
commercial towns the facility vsdth wliich bulky and heavy articles can be
placed upon them, without being raised to the height of a cart, has caused
them still to be employed, but even in these cases, they are in general
used only upon the pavement where the friction is not considerable, and
for short distances, in which case the saving of labour, in loading and
unloading, more than compensates for the increase of power absorbed by
the draught. Low- wheeled trucks, however, in these cases, possess the
same advantage, and have gradually been substituted for them, where this
advantage was indispensable : for agincultural purposes they are almost
become obsolete, and for all purposes of traffic between distant points
they are quite abandoned.

It is only in the North of England and in some parts of Cornwall that
they are sometimes used in farms ; but wherever good roads exist, and
mechanical arts keep pace with the improvements of the age, they have
given place to wheel carriages. An examination into their nature and
action will immediately account for this.

A sledge is merely a frame, generally of wood, upon which the load is
placed, and resting at once upon the ground, the friction between the
under surface of the sledge and the ground bears a considerable propor-
tion to the load ; but if the ground be very uneven and full of holes, the
sledge, by extending over a great surface, avoids the holes, and slides
only upon the eminences, which being naturally the stones of the hard
portions of the ground, cause less friction ; on such a road, a wheel would

550 OX DRAUGHT.

be contimially sinking into those holes, and thus oppose considerable resiflt-
ance, and would also expose the load to frequent danger of upsetting.

It would appear, therefore, that over broken ground, or even upon a
very bad uneven road, a sledge may sometimes be more advantageous than
wheels, and its extreme simplicity of construction renders it very
economical as regards first cost ; but the ground must indeed be very bad,
or the country be very poor and Uttle cultivated, where the formation of
roads would not amply repay themselves by allowing the use of wheels ;
for the power required to draw a loaded sledge will be at least four or
five times greater than that required for an equally loaded cart upon a
tolerably good road.

The di-aught of a sledge, even upon the pavement, is about one-fifth of
the load, so that to draw a ton weight, requires a force of traction of about
four hundred weight ; upon roads the friction will be much greater : it is
difficult to state its amount, as it must depend so much upon the nature
of the ground, but with the load before mentioned, viz. one ton, the force
of traction will probably vary from five to seven hundred weight : over a
strong rocky surface the resistance of a sledge will be much the same as
on pavement. Its use, therefore, must be confined to very particular cases,
where the absence of roads, or the want of means, prevents the adoption of
more improved vehicles ; and these cases are fortunately too rare in England
to render it worth our wliile to bestow much time upon its description.

Sledges are generally formed of two longitudinal pieces of timber, four
or five feet apart, with their lower edges shod with iron : and transverse
planks, bolted to these, form the floor, and they are thus easily constructed.
The traces should be more inclined than with wheeled carriages, because
the friction bearing a greater proportion to the load, it is more advan-
tageous to throw a portion of that load upon the horse, and being used
upon uneven ground it is more important to be able to lift the front of the
sledge over obstacles.

Although in this country the use of sledges is very limited, in many
parts of the world they constitute the best, and, indeed, the only means
of conveyance. Upon ice the friction is so trifling that they oppose less
resistance even than wheels, for the reasons before stated, of their cover-
ing a larger surface, and thereby sliding over those asperities which would
impede the progress of a wheel ; upon snow the advantage is still more
decided : where a wheel would sink a considerable depth and become
almost immoveable, a sledge will ghde upon the thin frozen crust without
leaving a trace, and with an ease truly wonderfal. In all cold chmates
they are consequently in general use ; and the depth of winter is there the
season for the transport of merchandise.

The Esquimaux vdth their dogs, the Laplanders with their rein-deer,
and the Russians with horses, use the sledge to a great extent in the
winter, over the frozen rivers or the hard snow.

In the warm climates, on the contrary, not only are they now almost
unknown, but the records which refer to periods so far removed as 3000
years make no mention of such conveyances.

Rollers come next under consideration ; they certainly afibrd the means
of transporting a heavy weight with less power than any other means
with which we are acquainted ; their motion is not necessarily attended
with any friction. A cylinder, or a sphere, oan roll upon a plane without
any rubbing of the surfaces whatever, and consequently without friction;
and, in the same manner, a plane vnll roll upon this roller withoiit friction;
in practice, this is more or less the case, according to the perfection of
workmanship in the formation of the rollers, and, if cylindrical, the care
with which they are placed at right angles to the direction at which they
are to move. There is only one source of resistance which is inseparable

ox DRAUGHT.

551

Fig. 16.

from tlic use of rollers, viz. the unevcnness of the surfaces, or the yielding
of the material, which amounts to neai-ly the same thing.

A circle resting upon a straight line can only
touch it in a single point, and the contact of a
cylinder with a plane is merely a line : conse-
quently, if the material of the roller, and the
surface on which it rolled, Avere perfectly hard
and inelastic, such would be their contact, what-
ever weight might be placed upon the roller.

But in practice no such material can be ob-
tained, and rollers, on the contrar}', are gene-
rally made of wood, and,when loaded, they must
yield until the surface A B, fig. 16, is propor-
tionate to the pressure. Still, if the substance
were perfectly elastic ; that is to say, if it would
return to its original form with the same force
and velocity which were required to distort it,
this alteration would not cause any resistance ;
the elasticity at E would tend to raise the back
of the roller ^vith a force D ^,fig. 17, equal to,
and exactly similar, but opposite to C B, and
would consequently balance it.

Although perfect elasticity is unattainable, yet most hard substances
possess this quahty to some extent ; consequently, when the load is not
s.ufficient to crush the materials, the resistance is not much increased by
even a considerable yielding, provided this yielding, as we before said,
arises from elasticity. Thus if a bladder be filled -o-ith air and used as a
roller, the resistance will not be greater than if a perfect and hard cylinder
were employed, although the bladder may be nearly flattened under the
weight ; but the permanent compression of the roller, and the crushing
of dust or other extraneous substances lying in the way, are the great
impediments to its movements ; these constitute a resistance in the direc-
tion B C, which is not counterbalanced by any force arising from elasticity'
on the opposite side. The effect of this resistance is dependent upon the
diameter of the roller, diminishing when the latter is increased, though
not in so rapid a proportion.

If to a circle a horizontal force P be applied at G,fig. 18 ; if an obstacle
be placed at E, the force P will tend to push
the roller over the obstacle, and ^A-ill act
with a lever equal to G F, and for all small
obstacles G F may be considered equal to G D
the diameter. The weight upon the roller
pressing it down, acts with a lever equal to
E F; but E F is equal ^/Gl' x a/FD";
therefore E r, which is equal to F D, remain-
ing constant, and the diameter being in-
creased, E F increases only as the square root
of diameter, and consequently, the force ne-
cessary to advance the roller is inversely as
the square root of the diameter ; that is to
say, if a roller be increased four times in diameter, the resistance arising

1

from the causes now under consideration will be reduced to

v'4

and if increased nine times in diameter, the resistance will be only equal
to or i.

552

ON DRAUGHT.

Fig. 19.
w

Tliis being the only source of resistance to the action of a roller, it T\'ill
easily be conceived that, in practice, by laying a plank or any other plane
surface upon the ground, and preparing in like manner the lower surface
of the body to be moved, and interposing rollers between the two, a very
great weight may be moved with comparatively small power ; but, on the
other hand, there is a serious practical inconvenience attending the use of
the roller, which prevents its adoption except in very particular cases.
A weight moved upon rollers proceeds at twice the rate of the roller ;
for if C, fig. 19, be the centre of the roller, D the
point of contact with the ground, and E that with
the weight to be moved, and W the weight, if this
weight be put in motion, the point D is for an in-
stant stationary, since it is in close contact with
the ground. The diameter E C D moves, therefore,
round the point D as a centre, and, consequently, E
being t-\vice as far from D as C is, describes E e
twice as great a distance as C c ; fresh points are
now brought to the summit and in contact with the
ground, and again the latter is stationary, while the
former moves twice the distance which the point C
does. The summit, therefore, or that point which
is in immediate contact with the weight, always moves with twice the
velocity of the centre of the roller ; but the velocity of the centre is, of
course, that of the roller, and the velocity of the point E, which is in con-
tact with, and is moved by, the weight, is the same as that of the weight
moved ; therefore, as the weight is forced forward, it moves at twice the
rate of the roller, it will gain upon the rollers, and others must be con-
tinually supplied in front — an inconvenience much felt in practice.

This confines the use of the roller to cases where the distance is very
short, or where the weight conveyed is exceedingly great, and reduction
in the resistance of more importance than the inconvenience alluded to.

The most remarkable instance of the application of rollers is the trans-
port of the rock which now serves as the pedestal of the equestrian statue
of Peter the Great at St. Petersburg. .

Fig. 20. Fig. 21.

This rock, a single block of granite, was discovered in the centre of a
bog, four miles from the waterside ; it weighed, after being cut into a con-
venient shape, 1217 tons. Notwithstanding its enormous weight it was
raised and turned upon its side, and placed upon a frame. A road was
made across the bog, and a timber railway laid do-\vn ; the whole was then
left till the depth of winter, when the boggy ground was frozen, and the

ON DRAUGHT.

5r>3

operations then commenced. The railway consisted of tyro lines of timber
a aaa, (jigs. 20, 21, 22,) famished with hard metal grooves ; similar and

corresponding metal grooves were fixed to the under side of the sledge^
and between these gi'ooves were placed the rollers, which were spheres of
hard brass, about six inches diameter. The impossibility of confining
cylindrical rollers to a perfectly parallel direction, and -oathout which the
friction would have been considerable, rendered the adoption of spherical
rollers or balls running in a groove a matter of necessity, as otherwise the
small surface upon which they can bear, and the consequent danger of
crushing, or at least fl^attening that surface, is a serious objection to
spheres ; once placed upon the rollers, it was drawn by means of capstans.
The resistance does not appear to have been great, considering the enor-
mous weight, since sixty men at the capstans with treble purchase blocks
moved it ^vith ease.

The ti-ansport of this enormous rock under such disadvantageous cir-
cumstances of country, over a distance of four miles, and its subsequent
passage of thirteen miles by water in a vast caisson or vessel constructed
for the purpose, was a work surpassing anything attempted by the ancients,
and, indeed, in modern times the only thing which can be compared to it
is the dragging a ship of the line up a shp ; the weight is in this case
nearly the same as that of the rock, but the distance traversed is short, and
the difficulties to be overcome much less. A plane of inclined timber is
prepared and well greased ; a frame of wood, technically called a cradle,
is fixed under the vessel, it is floated on to the inclined plane and drawn
up by the united efforts of a number of well-manned capstans, with

powerful tackle : in this case no
rollers are used : it is a sledge, the
sui'face being well covered with
grease to lessen the friction.

We have stated that there was a
particular construction of roller
which might be considered, as re-
gards its form merely, an inter-
mediate step between the roller and
the wheel. It consists of a roller
with the diameter of the extremities
increased, as irifg. 23 ; the onl}^
advantage of this roller is that the
body rests upon the small part of
the roller, see Jig. 24, and when put

Fiff. 23.

Fiff. 24.

554 OX DRAUGHT.

in motion, will not gain so rapidly on the rollers ; or in other words,
the roller will move mth more than half the velocity of the body. A
Fi(i. 25. mere inspection of fig. 25 is suffi-

cient to show that the velocity of
the centre, C, will be to that of the
l)ody resting on the point B, as CD
to B D, so that if the ends of the
rollers are twice the size of the
intermediate part, C D ydW be equal
to two-thirds of B D, and the roller
will move at two-thirds of the rate
of the body ; a less number of rollers
are therefore required, and the re-
sistance is somewhat diminished by having larger rollers in contact with
the ground.

In using a roller of this sort, the idea may have struck the workman, or
it may have occurred accidentally, to confine the spindle of the roller, and
compel it to move with the body ; and thus a clumsy pair of wheels, fixed
to a spindle, would have resulted from his experiment. Such a supposi-
tion is quite gratuitous, as Ave have no record of any such contrivance
having existed before wheels were made ; indeed it is inferior both to the
roller and the wheel : the only argument in favour of such a theory is, that
rollers of this sort have been employed in comparatively modem times.

At Rome, in 1588, an obelisk, ninety feet high, of a single block of stone,
weighing upwards of 160 tons, and which had originally been brought from
Egypt, was removed from one square, in which it stood, to another near
the Vatican, and there again erected in the spot where it now is.

In dragging this through the streets of Rome, it was fixed in a strong
frame of wood, which rested upon a smaller frame, which were furnished
each with a pair of rollers, or spindles, of the form above referred to ; they
were turned by capstan bars : indeed they cannot be better described than
by stating that they resembled exactly the naves of a pair of cart-wheels
(all the spokes being removed), and fixed to a wooden axle. If a heavy
waggon lay upon a pair of these, we can conceive that by putting bars into
the mortices of the naves, we could force them round, and thus advance the
waggon ; but the resistance would evidently be greater than if either rollers
or wheels were employed.

All the difficulties incidental to the use of the roller appear to be sur-
mounted, and all objections met, by the contrivance of the wheel.

The wheel being attached to the load, or to the carriage which contains
it, moves Avith it, is part of the machine, and consequently as we require
only the number of wheels immediately necessary for the support of the
load, we can afford to constnict them of those dimensions and materials
best suited to the purpose. By increasing their diameter, we are enabled
to surmount impediments with much gTeater facility, as we have shown in
the case of the roller; and although there is a resistance arising from friction
at the axle, which does not exist in the roller, yet this may be so reduced,
by increasing the diameter of the wheel, as to form an inconsiderable part
of the whole resistance, or draught of the carriage.

Of the first introduction of the wheel we have no record whatever. The
principle appears to us so simple as to have been necessarily the result of
V)ure invention, almost of inspiration ; while, at the same time, it is so ex-
ceedingly effective and perfect, as hardly to admit of improvement.

The groat antiquity of wheeled carriages or chariots precludes all hopes
of discovering their origin. About fifteen hundred years before the Chris-
tian era they appear to have been in common use amongst the Egyptians

ox DRAUGHT. 555

in tlieir warfare. Pharaoh despatched six hundred chosen chariots in pur-
suit of the Israelites, while the rest of the army followed with all the
chariots of Egj^t : here, therefore, they were in general use, and serving
as the cavalry of the present day. ]\ioreover, the oldest records which
enter into any detail of tlieir construction describe them as in a very for-
ward and perfect state.

At the siege of Troy, nearly three thousand years ago, they formed,
according to Homer, the cavalry of the Greeks and Trojans ; and every
officer or hero of good blood possessed, at least, a pair of horses and a
charioteer.

These chariots being built to run over broken ground, where no roads
existed, were made low and broad, and they were by no means badly con-
trived for the purpose for which they were intended ; the wheels were con-
structed -with a nave and spokes, felloes and tires ; and the pole a, appears
to have been fixed on the axle-tree, 5, in the manner shown in Jig. 26,

The body of the chariot was placed upon this frame. The team generally
consisted, as we have before stated, of a pair of horses, attached to the pole ;
six and even a greater number of horses were, however, frequently har-
nessed abreast, bat in that case a second pole was generally affixed to the
axle-tree, so as to have a pair of horses attached to each pole, and the axle-
trees themselves were always made nearly as long as the whole width
occupied by the horses.

They appear to have had light chariots for more domestic purposes, and
four-wheeled carriages for conveyance of heavy goods ; and certainly Kino-
Priam, when he went to the Grecian camp to ransom the body of his son
Hector, travelled with some degree of comfort and luxury ; he rode himself
in a ' beautiful new-built travelling carriage,' drawn by favourite horses,
while the treasures, intended as a ransom, were conveyed in a four-wheeled
waggon drawn by mules. All these details, as well as the mode of harness-
ing the horses, which operation, it must be confessed, was performed by
Priam himself and his sons, are fully described in the twenty- fourth book
of the Iliad.

That Homer was well acquainted -with the constraction of the spoked
wheel running freely upon the axle-tree, and, perhaps, even with the mode
of hanging the body of the carriage upon straps for springs, in the same
manner as the public coaches are to this day in many parts of France, and,
till lately, even in the neighbourhood of Paris, is evident from the passage
in which he describes Juno's chariot. He there says, while Jiiuo was put-
ting the golden bits to the horses, Hebe fastened on the wheels to the iron
axles. 'These wheels had eight brazen spokes, and the felloes were of
gold, and the tires of brass.' — 'The seat was fastened with gold and silver
cords.'

This, of course, gives us Homer's ideas of perfection in a chariot.

All the epithets which could convey ideas of swiftness were apphed to
these chariots and to the horses, but we have no positive information as
regards the real velocity with which they would travel : as roads were

»56 OX DRAUGHT.

scarce, aad probably at best merely tracks, much could not be ex]jected
from vehicles constructed under such circumstances ; the wheels were
small, from twenty to thirty inches diameter, and all the parts of the cha-
riots excessively heavy, so as to resist the repeated shocks to which they
were subject.

The chariots represented upon the Frieze of the Parthenon, before
alluded to, and which is probably upwards of 2200 years old, are very
light in their construction, and only want springs to be called gigs.

The advancement of all the branches of the mechanical arts has neces-
sarily introduced many improvements in the details of the construction of
the wheel itself, as well as in that of the axle and the rest of the carriage,
and by this means no doubt increased very greatly the use and advantage
of it ; but it is a remarkable fact that these improvements have been con-
fined exclusively to the workmanship and mechanical detail, and that the
principle has remained exactly the same, and has not even received any
addition during this immense lapse of time.

Upwards of 3000 years ago, the wheels appear to have been independent
of each other, and running upon fixed ailes ; we can say no more of the
most improved wheel of the most finished carriage of the present day.

"We are far from intending to cast any slight on modern invention, or to
compare the groaning axle-trees and creaking wheels of the ancients with
the noiseless Collinge's axles of the nineteenth century ; but truth compels
us to acknowledge that a period of thirty centuries, more than half the
time which is supposed to have elapsed since the creation of the world, has
produced no radical change nor brought into action any new principle in
the use of the wheel as applied to carriages.

The particular form and construction of the wheel, as well as of all the
other parts of the carriage, however, admit of great variety, and the
di'aught is materially affected by their variation. We shall, therefore,
after examining the action of wheels in general, describe the mode of con-
struction now adopted, and then endeavour to point out the advantages and
disadvantages of the various forms which have been given to the different
parts of it.

First let us examine the theory of it, and suppose it acting on a level plane.

The wheel being a circle, the centre will remain always at the same
height, and, consequently, will move parallel to the plane in a perfectly
level hne : if any weight be attached to or suspended from its centre, this
will also move in a continued straight line without rising or falling, and
consequently when once put in movement there is nothing to check its
progress (neglecting for the moment the slight resistance of the air), and
it will require no force to keep it in motion so long as the wheels continue
to turn.

We have, therefore, in this case only to examine into the force necessary
to turn the wheels. The wheels, if left to themselves, would roll on with
perfect freedom, whatever might be their weight, or whatever weight
might be attached to them, provided nothing in the mode of attaching that
weight impeded their revolution ; but in practice we cannot admit of the
load revolving with the wheel, and we have no means of suspending it to
the wheel, except by means of an axle fixed to the load, and passing
through the centre of the wheel. This axle presses upon the lower surface
of the hole, and consequently, when the wheel revolves, causes a friction
proportionate to the load upon the axle. This friction is then the only
source of resistance to the motion of a wheel, under the circumstances here
supposed ; and it is the action of this friction, the degree in which this
affects tlie draught, and by what means this effect is increased and dimi-
nished, that we are now about to consider.

ON DRAUGHT. 557

Let C,fig. 27, be the centre of a Avheel, of which C D is the radius, and
C A that of the axle passing through the wheel, and which being fixed
to the load does not revolve with the i?^,^. 27.

wheel.

If a force C B be applied to the centre of
the wheel, tending to advance it in the direc-
tion B, the point D being in contact with
the ground, the wheel is compelled to turn
or roll, and the force C B in turning the
wheel acts with a leverage equal to C D,
but the friction between the axle and the
wheel is at the point A, and in preventing
the turning of the wheel it acts only at the
extremity of the lever C A ; consequently if C D be ten times as great
as C A, the force C B need only be equal to one-tenth of the amount of
the friction, and, as a general rule, the radius of the axle and the friction
remaining the same, the force necessary to overcome the resistance arising
from this friction will be inversely as the radius or the diameter of the
wheel, or, in other words, the di-aught will, va this case, diminish exactly
in proportion as the diameter of the wheel is increased.

The exact amount of resistance occasioned by friction will depend upon
the nature of the substances in contact at the axle, as well as upon the pro-
portionate dimensions of the wheel and axle.

The friction between polished surfaces bears a certain proportion to the
pressure : if the pressure is doubled, the friction will, within certain limits,
be also doubled ; but the proportion between the friction and the pressure
is only constant so long as the same substances are employed : it varies
very much with different substances. Thus with soft wood sliding upon
soft wood, the friction amounts to one-fourth or one-third of the pressure ;
while between hard brass and iron, the surfaces smooth and oiled, the
resistance may be as low as ^^ of the pressure. The relative advantages,
therefore, of different materials, as applied to the axle and box of a wheel,
is a point of much consequence.

Metals, generally speaking, are the best adapted for this purpose. Owing
to their hardness, the friction between them is small, and they will bear
without injury a greater press^u^e, proportionably to the surface ; and, from
their strength, the axle may be of much smaller dimensions than if made
of wood ; and we have proved that a reduction in the diameter of the
axle causes a proportionate reduction in the resistance caused by friction.
In consequence of these advantages, iron or steel axles, working in iron
boxes, are now almost universally adopted. The friction in this case, when
the parts are in proper order, greased, and the pressure upon them not
excessive, amounts to about one-eighth, or, at the most, one-fifth of the
pressure or weight ; suppose it one-sixth, and if the diameter of the wheel
is to that of the axle as 18 or 20 to 1, which is about the proportion in a
large two- wheeled cart, the whole resistance arising from friction at the
axle \W11 be equal to ^ of ^, or of ^, which is equal to -j-^ and y^-g-
respectively. So that to move one ton would not, in the latter case, require
a force of traction greater than 18^ lbs. ; and having overcome this resist-
ance, the force of traction required remains nearly the same at all velo-
cities ; that is to say, friction is not materially affected by velocity :
therefore the resistance arising from it is not sensibly augmented by a
considerable increase in the speed. In practice, however, the friction at
the axle is far from being the greatest im])ediment to the motion of a car-
nage. We have liitherto, for the ])nrp()so of considering fricticm alone,
supposed the surface upon which the wheel moved as perfectly hard,

S68 ON DRAUGHT.

smootli, lovel, and plane ; we need hardly say that such can never be the
case in a road. The friction, however, remains, practically speaking, the
same, and the laws which govern the amount and the effects of it remain
unaltered ; and we have only to ascertain what is the additional resistance
arising from other sources, to. obtain the whole draught of the carriage.
We have already stated, when pointing out the difference between the
roller and the wheel, that the movement of the latter was attended with
two sources of resistance, viz. friction at the centre, which we have con-
sidered, and another, which is common both to the wheel and the roller,
arising from impediments in the road, or the yielding of the materials.

The laws which afiect the amount of this latter are, of course, the same
m a wheel as in a roller.

We have found that the power required to overcome it is inversely as
che square root of the diameter ; therefore, by increasing the diameter of
the wheel, the efTect of friction, which is inversely as the diameter, dimi-
nishes much more rapidly than that caused by impediments in the roads ;
and on ordinary roads, with common carts, the amount of the latter is
about three times as gi-eat as that of the former, and when the roads are at
all injured by weather or by neglect, or if they are naturally heavy or
sandy, it bears a much gi-eater proportion. A hght four-wheeled cart,
weighing, vsdth its load, 1,000 lbs., was repeatedly drawn upon different
sorts of roads. The experiment was not made with a load of exactly
1,000 lbs., but the proportions of the results are calculated to this standard.
The pubhc are indebted to IVIr. Bevan for these as well as for a great
number of other highly useful and practical experiments upon the effects
of power in various cases. The average of a number of experiments gave
the following results : —

Turnpike-road — hard, dry . , . .30^ lbs.

Ditto dirty .... 39

Hard, compact loam ..... 53
Ordinary by-road .... 106

TurnJ)ike-road — new gravelled . . .143

Loose, sandy road .... 204

The friction at the axles, which were of wood, was, of course, nearly
constant, and probably absorbed at least -^ of the weight, or 12-^ lbs. of the
force of traction, leaving, therefore, for the resistance caused by the road
in the different cases, as under —

Ti„^_i„4-i^„ -« x> „j Force of Traction required to move tiie Carriage,

Description of Ei«d. independent of the Friction at the A:.les.

Turnpike-road — hard, dry, about . . 18 lbs.

Ditto dirty . . . . 26A

Ditto new gravelled . . . 130^

Loose, sandy road . . . . . 19l|

So that in the last case, one by no means of rare occurrence in many parts
of the country, the portion of draught immediately caused by the state of
che road was ten times as great as on a good turnpike-road, and about
fifteen times as great as that which arose from friction at the axles. It
would be hopeless to attempt to remedy this by increasing the size of the
wheel ; the experiment, was made with wheels of the ordinary size. To
double their diameter would evidently be attended, iu practice, with
insurmountable difficulties ; and yet, even if this were effected, it would
barely reduce the total amount of the draught by one-foui-th ; but the form
of the wheel may materially influence the state of the road ; we shall,
therefore, proceed to consider the various forms employed.

Some years ago, when the piincipal turnpike roads of the kingdom were
at many parts, at particular seasons of the year, in httle better c ondition

ox DRAUGHT.

559

than that on which the last expemnent was tried, various attempts were
made to reduce the resistance, by using narrow wheels. These attempts,
and the laws which it was found necessary to enact to prevent the entire
destruction of the roads, led, at last, to curious results, having gradually
caused the introduction of the worst-formed wheel which could probably
be invented, either as regards increasing the draught or the destruction of
the roads.

To understand these alterations clearly, we must describe the principal
features of the wheel now in use.

The general construction of it presents a striking instance of strength
arising from the judicious union of substances of very different qualities —
wood and iron.

A strong circular frame of wood, composed of different segments, called
felloes, is bound together by a hoop, or several hoops of iron, called tires,
which thus, at the same time that it gives gTeat strength, protects the
outer surface from wear.

The nave, a circular block of wood, is sustamed in the centre of this
frame by the spokes, which, instead of being in the plane of the felloes,
form a cone ; this is called the dishing of the wheel. The object of it is to
give stiffness, to resist lateral shocks, as when the wheel slips sideways,
into a rut or hole. A reference to a comparative view of the wheel, with
and without dishing, "will more clearly explain our meaning. Fig. 28 is
a wheel "\\dth the spokes all in one plane ; fig. 29 a wheel Avith a
considerable degree of dishing.

Fig. 28.

Fig. 29.

Fig. 30.

Here it is evident that a small pressure on the nave in fig. 28 would have
a tendency to push it through, and would meet with but httle resistance.
Id. fig. 29, on the contrary, this force would be op-
posed at once by the direction of the spokes, which
form an arch, or dome, that cannot be flattened
without bui'sting the felloes, or tires. The dishing,
therefore, gives the wheel a very great degree of
stiffness and strength, which it would not otherwise
possess.

In consequence of this conical form, the necessity
of keeping the lower spokes which support the weight
as vertical as possible, has required that the whole
wheel should be placed oblique, and the axle bent
downwards, as in fig. 30 ; this, as we shall hereafter
show, is attended with very serious evils. As a
Avheel is intended to roll upon the ground, without friction, it is natural to

560

ON DRAUGHT.

¥ig. 31.

suppose tliat the outer surface of tlie tires should be cyUndrical, as it is
the only form which admits of the wheel rolling freely in a straight line ;
but it is nevertheless the form of this surface, its breadth, and the degree
of dishing which have varied so much from the causes before mentioned,
viz. the state of the roads, and to the consideration of which we will now
return.

A road, however much neglected and out of repair, will generally have,
at a certain depth, a hard bottom ; above tliis will be a coat of mud or loose
stuff, more or less deep, according to the material used, and the frequency
of repair or the quantity of wet to which it may be exposed. It is sinking
through this, until it reaches the hard bottom, that causes the resistance to
the progress of the wheel : whether the wheel be wide or narrow, it must
squeeze or grind its way to the bottom of this mud ; a narrow wheel evi-
dently displaces less, and therefore offers less resistance. The gTeat object
of carriers, then, was very naturally to place as great a load as they could
upon wheels which were as narrow as possible, consistent with the
necessary strength.

It was soon perceived that the entire destruction of the roads would be
the consequence of this system, which had its origin in the bad state of the
roads. A certain width of tire proportionate to the load was therefore
required by law. The endeavour to evade this law was the cause of the
absurd form of wheel we are about to describe and to condemn.

In apparent obedience to the law, the felloes of the wheels were made of
an excessive breadth ; but to retain the advan-
tages of the narrow wheel, the middle tire was
made to project so far beyond tlie others (see
^g. 31,) that it in fact constituted the wheel,
the others being added merely to give a nominal,
and not a real width. The enonnous loads
which it was found advantageous to place on
these wheels rendered it necessary to give them
a considerable degree of dishing, to resist lateral
shocks, and, besides, the carriers were by this
means enabled to give a great width of floor to
the carriage, still keeping the vehicle in the common tracts or ruts, so that
the wheels ultimately assumed the form represented, _/?(/. 32.

If such a machine had been constructed for the express purpose of grind-
ing the materials of the road to powder, or of serving as a check or drag
to the waggon, it might, indeed, have been judicious, but as a wheel it was
monstrous. Yet this is the form of wheel upon which the contradictory
opinions referred to in the first page of this treatise were given before a
Committee of the House of Commons. A carrier of Exeter was in favour

of these wheels, and in support of his opinion,
adopts them to this day. But a few days ago
we saw one of his waggons with wheels,
which, although only about twelve inches
wide, were six inches smaller at the outside
than at the inside. Such a cone, if set rolling
and left to itself, would run round in a circle
of little more than twenty feet diameter.
What must be the grinding and the friction,
then, when it is constantly compelled to go on
in a straight line? yet enough has been written
and said upon this subject to convince, we
should imagine, the most prejudiced of the
absurdity of the system.

ox DEAUGHT.

561

We shall repeat the principal arguments -n-hich -were made use of at the
time of the enquiry' mentioned.

Mr. Cummins took great pains, by constructing models, to show that
conical wheels were not adapted for roll-
ing in a straight line, bj making a small
conical wheel run over longitudinal bars,
as in fig. 33. It was seen that if the
middle part of the tire rolled upon the
centre bar without moving it, the bar A
was pushed backwards, while the bar C
was pushed forwards ; clearly showing
if, instead of sliding bars, the wheel had
moved upon a road, how much it must
have ground the road, and what a small
portion of the tire was truly rolling.

That such must have been the case is,
indeed, easily proved without a model.
We will take only three different parts of
the wheel, and consider them as indepen-
dent hoops of different diameter ; if these hoops are compelled to go the
same number of revolutions, the large one will evidently gain upon the
second, while the third will be left far behind. Now, if, instead of being
independent of each other, they be fixed to the same axle, and compelled
to revolve together, the large one not being able to advance faster than the
other, must tear iTp the gTound. The smaller one, on the contrary, being
dragged forward faster than it would natui'ally roll, must drag up the
gi'ound ; and this is what must take place, and does with any but a cylin-
drical wheel, and that to a very considerable extent.

Suppose, for instance, a conical wheel, of an average diameter of four
feet six inches ; that is to say, that the centre advances about fourteen
feet to every revolution of the wheel. If the inner tire be six inches
larger in diameter than the outer tire, the circumference of it will be
about eighteen inches greater ; therefore, at each revolution of the wheel
the inner tire would naturally advance eighteen inches more than the
outer tire : but they are compelled to go over the same distance of gi'ound.
The one or the other, therefore, must have disturbed the ground, or, what
is nearer the truth, upon every fourteen feet of road run, the former has
passed over nine inches less ground than the development of its circum-
ference, the latter nine inches more — the one pushing back the gTOund, the
other dragging it forward, or, which would be equivalent to the dragging
of the load with the wheel locked— a distance of four and a half inches
upon every fourteen.

Every child knows that the front wheel of a carriage goes oftener round
than the hind wheel. If, then, the front wheel were obliged to make only
one revolution to every revolution of the other, but still impelled at the
same rate, it must be partly dragged over the road. If these wheels be
placed side by side, instead of one being in front of the other, the effects
must be the same. Now, suppose them to be the outer and inner tire of
same Avheel, the circumstances are not thereby altered : the smaller circle
and the larger circle cannot both roll upon the ground. A conical wheel
is then constantly tAvisting the surface upon which it rests, and hence
arises a very considerable resistance, as well as destruction to the
roads.

If these arguments are not sufficient to decide the point completely, let
the reader bear in mind simply, that a cone, when left to itself, will always
roll in a circle. The frustrum of a cone, A B, fig. 84, is only a portion of

0 0

562

OX DRAUGHT.

Fig. 35.

the entire cone, ABC, which will roll round the point C ; if this entire
cone be completely severed at the point B, the two parts will still continue

to roll round the same point, and
if the portion B C be now ab-
stracted, the motion of the re-
mainder will not be altered. If
"*' ^ ^ a wine-glass or decanter —

anything which is not of the
same size at the two parts which
are in contact with the surface
on which it rests, be rolled upon a table, those who are not already too
familiar with the fact to require an illustration of it, will immediately see
the truth of this statement. If, then, a Avheel thus formed would naturally

quit the straight line; when compelled to
follow it, it is clear that exactly the same
effect must be produced as when a cylin-
drical mill-stone, as in fig. 35, which, if
left to itself, would proceed in a straight
line, is compelled to follow a straight
line, and is constantly twisted round the
centre C, it would grind everything be-
neath it to powder. Yet these travel-
ling grindstones were in use upwards of
twenty years to the destruction of the
roads, and at a great exj^ense of power to those who have persisted in em-
ploying them.

The increased strain upon the axles, from this constant tendency of the
wheel to be twisted outwards, Avith the consequent friction, is a source of
resistance absorbed and rendered comparatively inconsiderable, by the far
greater friction on the ground ; but it is not the less a cause of great in-
crease of draught, and the union of all these serious disadvantages justifies,
we think, our assertion, that such a wheel is as injudicious a contrivance
as could possibly be invented. We trust they will not long continue to
disgrace our wheelwrights and injure our roads.

The cylindrical form is the only one which ought to be admitted. As a
wheel must, however, always be Kable to sink a little into the road, and
cannot be expected always to bear perfectly flat upon the ground, the
surface of the tires should be slightly curved, and the edges rounded off, as
in fig. 36. As the rounding is rendered necessary by the yielding of the
road, its degree must depend upon the state of tlae road, and the form of
'Fig. 36. the wheel may approach more nearly to the true cylinder, in
a b proportion as the roads approach nearer to perfection in point

of hardness and flatness. When the roads are good, a very
little dishing will be sufficient, and a slight inclination of the
wheel from the vertical will make it correspond Avith the
barrel or curve of the road, which is now generally very
trifling.

Next to the form, the breadth of the wheel is the point
requiring most consideration ; it is one, however, which
depends entirely upon the state of the road.

We have seen, that the displacement or crushing of the
materials forming the upper surface of the road is one of the
principal causes of resistance. If the whole mass of the road
were formed of a yielding substance, into which the wheel
a b would sink to a depth exactly proportionate to the weight
bearing upon it, it is probable that great breadth would be advantageous,

ON DRAUGHT. 563

so that the wheel might form a roller, tending to consohdate the materials
rather than cause any permanent displacement ; but, in the improved state
of modem roads, it may safely be considered that such is never the case.

A road, as we have before stated, always consists of a hard bottom,
covered with a stratum, more or less thick, of soft, yielding material.
A wheel, even moderately loaded, will force its way through, and form a rut
in this upper coating. The resistance will be nearly proportionate to the
breadth of this rut ; the depth of it will not increase in the ratio of the
pressure. In considering, then, simply, the case of a single wheel or a pair
of wheels forming two distinct ruts, it is evident that it should form as
narrow a rut as possible, but that it should not in any degree crush or do-
I'ange the core or hard basis of the road. When a rut is thus formed,
a small track or portion of the road is for a time rendered clean and hard,
and consequently capable of bearing a greater load than before, and with
less injury. Tt is, then, highly important in a four-wheel carriage that the
hind wheels should follow exactly in the tract of the front wheels. If
rollers were necessary for the road, as if, for instance, it was merely a bed
of clay, then indeed, but only in such a case, might it be judicious to cause
the wheels to run in different tracks, as has been proposed, and was at one
time carried into effect under tiie encouragement of an Act of Parliament.
Such wheels were called straddlers : they might have been necessary tools
for the preservation of such roads as then existed, but the increased draught
soon taught the public to evade the law which encouraged them.

]\Ir. Deacon, one of the principal carriers in England, in an excellent
practical work on wheel-carriages, pubUshed in 1810, describing these
wheels, says, 'If the axle of a six-inch wheel is of that length to cause
the hind wheels to make tracks five inches outside the tracks of the fore-
wheels, and nine-inch wheels seven inches outside, they are then called
straddlers, and are allowed to carry a greater weight than if not so. The
original intent of these was most excellent ; but the effect has been defeated
by the carrier or other person not only making the bed or axle contrary to
what was intended, but also by carrying with them a false collar, with a
joint therein, to put on and take off at pleasure ; so that they have no great
difficulty in making the wheels straddlers a little before they come to a
weighing-machine, and making them not so when they have passed the same.*

On modem roads such an arrangement would hardly be beneficial, even
to the road itself, and would nearly double the amount of draught.

Too great care and precaution cannot be taken to insure the wheels run-
ning in the same ti^ack. Let it be remembered that, on a good road, the
forming the rut is the cause of three-fourths, and oftener five-sixths, of the
whole resistance. Narrow wheels, therefore, running in the same track,
without doubt offer the least resistance, provided there is surface sufficient
to bear the weight, without destruction to the foundation of the road.

Six inches in breadth of the flat or cylindrical part, a b, fig. 36, indepen-
dent of the rounded edges, will be quite sufficient, in a wheel of ordinary
size, to bear a ton without injury to the roads, if in good condition ; and
according as the weight upon each wheel is more or less than this, the
breadth should be proportionably increased or diminished.

The most simple innovation upon the original wooden wheel is the cast-
iron nave. This we should think must be much less liable to wear than
the wooden nave, which is literally honey-combed Math the mortices for the
spokes ; and a wheel of this sort can be repaired by the most ordinary
wheelwright, provided he has one of the castings at hand.

"We should strongly recommend that these naves should bo made with a
double row of sockets for the spokes, so as to cross the dishing of them in
the same manner as those of the ■'vrought-iron wheels described above; and

oo 2

664 ON DRAUGHT.

we tliink they wouJd then form a strong, durable, and economical wheel.
There might be some danger from the effects of wet or damp remaining in
the cast-iron sockets, and attacking tlie wood ; but we should tliink a small
hole bored into the socket to allow the moisture to escape, and common
precaution in painting these parts, would prevent any evil consequences.

With respect to the size of wheels, we have shown that wheels of large
diameter certainly offer less resistance than small ones ; but expense end
weight cause a limit to this. From 4 ft. 9 in. to 5 ft. 0 in. is a good size
for cart-wheels, and is about the limit where any gi'cat increase of diameter
would cause more inconvenience and expense than would be compensated
for by any advantage gained ; and if much less in diameter than this, the
draught is unnecessarily augmented.

Yet the front wheels of a waggon are always below this standard ; rarely
exceeding four feet, and frequently much less. This is a serious evil attend-
ing the use of four wheels ; it is an arrangement originally made for the
purpose of enabling the front wheels to lock under the body of the waggon,
which may thus turn in a small space.

Now it rarely happens that a waggon is required to turn short round,
and it cannot cause any serious inconvenience if it be rendered altogether
incapable of doing so.

In this respect a great improvement has taken place within a few years.
In the place of those moving mountains which were formerly dragged
slowly along upon immensely heavy and broad, but low, wheels, we now
see, particularly on the roads leading northward from London, a great
number of light, well-built waggons, with much larger wheels, especially
the front wheels, which, instead of being small enough to turn under the
floor of the waggon, are about four feet six inches in diameter. As those
waggons are used principally on the road, and are never required to turn
in a small compass, but a very small action is allowed to the fore axle, and
the floor and body of the waggon is continued from end to end of nearly
the same width.

A waggon with part of the floor and body cut away, so as to form a sort
of recess for the front wheels to turn into, allows of considerable move-
ment ; and by this arrangement there is nothing to prevent the front wheel
being made of larger diameter, as in the case just described. Our present
object, however, is not to enter into a detailed description of how we should
build a waggon, but simply to recommend the use of large front wheels, as
tending much to diminish the draught. An intelligent wheelwright will
always know how to construct a waggon so as to admit of this.

The consideration of the subject of wheels naturally includes that of the
comparative advantages of two- wheeled and four-wheeled carriages. Upon
this point opinions differ as much as upon any ; and we fear that we are
not hkely to do more than to arrange the different opinions given by
others, without advancing any of our own. Kwe succeed, however, in
doing this clearly, we shall have done much, because we may thus enable
■each individual to separate those arguments which apply particularly to
his own case ; and combining these opinions with his own judgment, he
will be more likely to arrive at a just conclusion than if he were altogether
unaided by the experience of others.

The advocates of light two-wheeled carts assert that a horse working
alone is capable of performing more work than when forming one of a
team ; and that in consequence of this increased effect, there is a saving of
expense nearly in the proportion of three to two, or one-third.

The advocates for waggons assert, on the contraiy, that it requires that
each horse in a single-horse cart should be of a superior quaHty, and
therefore more expensive than those of a team, where the average power

ox DRAUGHT. 665

only is considered; that tlie -wear and tear, first cost, and expense of
attendance of several small carts, is greater than that of a waggon caiTV-
ing the same load, and that in consequence there is an economy obtained
by the latter.

Number of facts and the results of long experience are adduced on either
side, all of which convey much usefid information ; and the substance of
the whole appears to be, that with hght single-horse two- wheeled carte,
good horses are able to di^aw greater loads, and do more work in propor-
tion than a waggon team ; that these carts are easier loaded and unloaded,
do less injury to the roads, and that they do not require more horses in
action than are sufficient for the work to be performed.

On the other hand, it is found that the horses must be stronger and
better fed ; that being entirely dependent on their own exertions, and
doing more work, they are more fatigued and sooner knocked up ; that on
rough roads they are liable to be shaken and injured by the sudden move-
ments and shocks of the cart, all of wliich are conveyed by the shafts
directly to the horse ; that ia ascending or descending hills, the whole
weight being above the axle-tree, it destroys the balance, and is thrown
too much upon the horse in the former case, or tends to raise him from the
ground in the latter, which even if any alteration of the balance be found
advantageous, is exactly the contrary of what would be necessary.

That with a waggon — the average power of several horses is obtained —
horses of inferior quality may therefore be used ; they are not so much
fatigued, because by reheving each other they can alternately exert them-
selves or relax. Greater loads can be carried with less attendance of
drivers, and they are less liable to accidents ; they are easier vvdthdrawn
from any hole, or forced over any obstruction, because only half the load
being upon each pair of wheels, the whole force of the team is appHed
successively to each half of the load, consequently in any bad road the
power occasionally required is less, although the draught of the carriage,
properly speaking, is greater than that of a two-wheeled cart. These various
arguments would appear to lead to the conclusion, that upon good roads,
and for short distances, with good horses, two-wheeled single-horse carts
are the best ; but that, with inferior roads and ordinary horses, light four-
wheeled waggons, with a team of three or four horses, are the most
advantageous.

Two- wheeled carts with two horses are decidedly inferior to either of
these: the shaft horse suffers all the inconveniences complained of in the
single-horse cart, and the leader does not produce more effect than when
in a waggon team.

It is impossible to decide generally upon the comparative merits of the
different aiTangements, because the result depends entirely upon the cir-
cumstances of the case.

We may, however, endeavour to unite in some degree the advantages
claimed by both. The draught of a cart is less than that of a waggon
for several reasons : amongst others, because the wheels are larger, and the
horse produces more effect, because his force is applied immediately to the
resistance. A hght waggon A\Tth large front wheels would not be much
inferior in point of di-aught to the cart, and tAvo horses abreast in double
shafts would work with equal advantage to the single horse ; while an
additional horse may always be apphed when an excessive load or the
state of the roads should require it.

All that we have said with respect to the size and contrivance of wheels
is equally applicable to light carriages as to heavy, and we shall now pro-
ceed to consider the different modes of placing the loads upon the wheels.

It might appear at fii'st sight that this would not affect the amount of

6()6 ON DRAUGHT.

the draugM ; that provided a weight to be moved vpere placed upon the
wheels, and the wheels put in motion, that nothing more could be required.
Upon a perfectly level smooth plane, and with a constant force of trac-
tion, this would, indeed, be the case ; but, in practice, the conditions are
entirely altered. Impediments are continually met with, which obstruct
the progress of the wheels, and the di-aught is constantly varied by the
different inclinations of the road ; it is, therefore, necessary to study the
means by which impediments can be easiest overcome, and by which the
resistance thus caused will affect the animal, which is the source of power,
in the least disadvantageous manner.

We have already stated that impetus is necessary to overcome an
obstruction, and that elasticity in the direction of the inoveinent is destruc-
tive of the ftdl effect of impetus.

When, therefore, the wheel of a carriage comes in contact with any
impediment, it is most essential that the whole of the impetus or momen-
tum which the carriage has already obtained should be brought into full
action, to force the wheel forward. To effect this, no elasticity should
intervene between the wheel and the load, at least in the direction of the
motion, that is, longitudinally; otherwise, as we instanced in the case of
catching a cricket-ball, a force which would be quite irresistible if opposed
by a rigid resistance, is checked with ease by a very Httle degree of elas-
ticity ; so -with a wheel meeting a small stone, if the load were so placed,
or hung upon the wheels, as to allow free or elastic action, longitudinally,
that is, in the direction of the movement, the wheel being stopped against
the stone, the whole load would be gradually checked, and brought to a
full stop ; whereas, if this same load had been fixed firmly to the wheel,
its impetus would have carried the wheel over the stone, with very little
loss of velocity.

In the first case, it would be necessary for the horses to drag the load
over the stone by main force ; in the latter, they would only have to make
up by degrees for the loss of velocity which the mass had sustained in
passing over the stone. The total quantity of power required will indeed
be the same in either case ; but in tlie one, the horses must exert it in a
single effort, while in the other, this momentary exertion is borrowed, as
it were, from the impetus of the mass in motion, and being spread over a
greater space of time, as far as the horses are concerned, only augments
in a small degree the average resistance. It is thus that the fly-wheel of
a steam-engine in a rolHng-mill accumulates power, sometimes for several
minutes, till it is able to roll, with apparent ease, a large mass of metal
which, without the effect of the fly-wheel, would stop the engine imme-
diately ; or, to mention a case more to the point, in the operation of
scotching a wheel, a large stone, and even a brick, Avill render almost im-
moveable a waggon which, when in motion, would pass over the same stone
without any sensible alteration of speed. It is most essential, therefore,
that the effect of the momentum of the load should in no way be reduced
by any longitudinal elasticity, arising either from the injudicious apph-
cation of springs, or weakness in the construction of the carriage.

The action of impetus, and the effect of an injudicious mode of hanging
the load, is of course more sensible at high than at low velocities, and in
a carriage hung upon springs than in a wjfggon without springs ; but
although not so sensible to the eye, it nevertheless affects the draught
materially even in the latter case. Carriages hung upon springs, as in
fig. 37, which are called C springs, and which admit of very consider-
able longitudinal movement in the body of the carriage, are notoriously
the most heavy to pull ; and cabriolets, which are hung in this manner,
are expressively called, in the stable, horse-murd&rers, and require heavy

ON DRAUGHT.

567

and powerful horses to drag them ; while lighter animals are able to drag
much greater weights in stanhopes and spring-carts, which do not admit
of this elasticity.

This is one of the reasons w^hy the di^aught of a two-wheeled cart is
less than that of a waggon. In a cart, the horse pulls at once on the
shafts, which are fixed immediately both to the load and to the axletree,
so that not only the impetus of the load, but also of the horse, acts directly
and without elasticity upon the wheel. In a waggon, owing to the small-
ness of the front wheels, there is a considei-able space between the fore-axle
and the floor of the waggon, which is filled up with pieces of timber called
bolsters : this admits of considerable play in the parts, and except in new-
built or very strong waggons, there is never that firm connection between
the load and the wheels wliich we have stated to be necessary. Large
wheels would bring the axletrees much nearer the floors of the waggons,
and, therefore, admit of a much sti-onger and firmer mode of attachment,
which would be found to produce a very considerable efiect in. diminishing
the draught.

We have been very particular in confining our observations to longitu-
dinal elasticity, or yielding in the direction in which the power is applied,
and in which the progressive movement takes place ; because elasticity' in
any other dii'ection, instead of increasing the draught, tends very much
to diminish it. Let us suppose the load placed upon perfectly easy springs,
which allow it to move freely in every direction, except longitudinally,
when any one of the wheels comes in contact with a stone, the elasticity
of the spring will allow it to run over the stone without sensibly raising
the load which is upon it ; and the force which is required to pull the
wheel over the stone will be restored again hj the descent of the wheel
from the stone, which will tend to impel the mass forward, with exactly
the same force as was required to draw it up to the top of this impedi-
ment. Without this elasticity, it would.be necessary to raise the whole
load with a sudden jerk, and thus instantaneously impart rapid movement
to the whole mass, which would absorb much power, and which w^ould by
no means be returned by the load falling do-svn from the stone. We see,
therefore, that the use of springs is to enable the wheels to rise and fall
according to the inequalities of the ground, while the load continues one
constant equable motion. The advantages of this action are very clearly
pointed out in a letter addressed to the Committee on the Highways of
the Kingdom, by Mr. D. Giddy, and given in the Appendix to their fir.st
Report, printed in the year 1808 ; and this letter explains so clearly, and
in such few words, the whole theory of Avheels, as well as springs, that
we think we cannot do better than quote it at length : —

563 OX DRAUGHT.

' Taking wheels completely iji the abstract, they must bo considered as
answering two diS'erent purposes.

'Fii'st, they transfer the friction which would take place between a
^hding body and the rough uneven surface over which it sHdes, to tbo
smooth, oiled peripheries of the axis and box, assisted by a leverage in the
oropoi-tion of the diameter of the wheel to the axis,

' Secondly, they procure mechanical advantage for overcoming obstacles,
by introducing time propoi'tioned to the square roots of their diameters,
when the obstacles are small as compared with the wheels ; and they pass
over transverse ruts or hollows, small in the same comparison, with an
absolute advantage proportioned to their diameters, and a mechanical one
proportionate to the square roots of these diameters.

' Consequently wheels, thus considered, cannot be too large ; ia
practice, however, they are limited by ^veight, by expense, and by
experience.

' With reference to the preservation of roads, wheels should be made
wide, and so constructed that the whole breadth may bear at once ;
and every portion in contact with the ground should roll on without
any sHding.

' It is evident, from the well-known properties of the cycloid, that the
above conditions cannot all unite, unless the roads are perfectly hard,
smooth, and flat ; and the felloes of the wheels, with their tire, are accurate
portions of a cylinder. These forms, therefore, of roads and vrheels,
would seem to be asymptotes, towards which they should always approxi-
mate, but which, in practice, they are never likely to reach.

' Roads must have some degree of curvature to throw off water, and the
peripheries of wheels should, in their transverse section, be as nearly as
possible tangents to this cui-ve ; but since no exact form can be assigned to
roads, and they are found to differ almost from mile to mile, it is presumed
that a small transverse convexity given to the peripheries of wheels,
otherwise cylindrical, will generally adapt them to all roads ; and that the
pressure of such wheels, greatest in the middle, and gradually diminishing
towards the sides, will be less likely to disarrange ordinary materials, than
a pressure suddenly discontinued at the edges of wheels perfectly flat.

' The spokes of a wheel should be so arranged as to present themselves
in a straight line against the greatest force they are in common cases
likely to sustain. These must evidently be exerted in a direction pointed
towards the carriage, from lateral percussions, and from the descent of
either wheel below the level of the other ; consequently, a certain degree
of what is termed dishing must be advantageous, by adding strength,
whilst this form is esteemed useful for protecting the nave, and for obviat-
ing the ill effects of expansions and contractions.

' The line of traction is theoretically best disposed, when it hes exactly
parallel to the dii'ection of motion ; and its power is diminished at any
inclination of that line, in the proportion of the radius of the wheel to the
cosine at the angle. When obstacles frequently occur, it had better, per-
haps, receive a small inclination upward, for the purpose of acting with
most advantage when these are to be overcome. But it is probable, that
different animals exert their strength most advantageously in different
directions ; and, therefore, practice alone can determine what precise
inclination of the line is best adapted to horses, and what to oxen.
These considerations are, however, only applicable to cattle drawing
immediately at the caiTiage ; and the convenience of their draft, as con-
nected with the insertion of the line of traction, which continued, ought
to pass thi'ough the axis, introduces another limit to the size of the wheels.

' Springs were inaU likelihood first applied to carriages, with no other

ON DRAUGHT. 5(jy

view tlian for the accomruodation of travellers ; tliey have since been foimd
to answer several important ends. They convert all percussions into mere
increase of pressure, thus preserving both the carriage and the materials
of the roads from the eftect of blows ; and small obstacles are surmounted
when springs allow the frame and wheels freely to ascend, without sensibly
moving the body of the carriage from its place.

' If the whole weight is supposed to be concentrated on springs very
long, extremely flexible, and with the frame and wheels wholly devoid of
iaertia, this paradoxical conclusion will most certainly follow : that such
a carriage may be di'a'wn over the roughest road without any agitation,
and by the smallest increase of force.

' It seems probable that springs, under some modification of form and
material, may be applicable with advantage to the heaviest waggon.'

And there can be no doubt that, in the words of the MT-iter, the appHca-
tion of springs would be highly advantageous. At high velocities, as we
have before said, the effect of springs is still greater. What we have in-
stanced as regards springs is generally well known and understood. All
stage-coaches, and many travelling carriages, hang upon grasshopper-
springs, which allow of perpendicular without any longitudinal action.
It would be much to the interests of horse masters if the mode of suspending
post-chaises were a little more attended to. The more elasticity, or in other
words, the more action, there is in grasshopper- spi-ings, the more effect it
will produce in diminishing the draught : with a C spring a very contrary
effect is produced. A carriage hung upon 0 springs may certainly be made
the most comfortable to the rider; but all the ease that can be required,
and much more than is found in the generality of post-chaises, may be
obtained by well-constructed gTasshopper-springs, and with considerable
advantage to the horses.

The practice of loading coaches as high as possible to make them run
Hght, as the coachmen have found by experience, is only a mode of assist-
ing the springs. The mass being placed at a greater height above the
wheels, at the extremity of a long lever, is not so easily displaced laterally
by any motion of the wheels, which, therefore, rise and fall on either side as
they run over the stones, acting only on the springs, which restore the full
pressure and velocity in descending, from the obstacle which was imparted
to them in ascending, and ^vithout producing any sudden concussions upon
the load, which swings to and fro with long, easy movements. It is possible,
also, that the weight, being thus swung from side to side, may, upon good
roads, diminish the di-aught, as it is in fact generally running upon two of
the wheels ; while, in the other direction, it equally admits of the front and
hind wheels successively passing over any impediments ; and yet, by the
manner in which it is fixed upon the springs, it does not adinit of any
longitudinal elasticity.

The fact of coaches thus loaded running Hght has been clearly proved
by the failure of what were called Safety Coaches, in which the only differ-
ence consisted in placing the load very low. These coaches, although
completely answering their purpose of safety, were discontinued solely, we
believe, from their being found destructive of the horses.

Expeiiments, nevertheless, have been made to prove that this was only
an idle prejudice of coachmen ; but universally received opinions, even if
leading to erroneous conclusions, generally have some good foundation ;
and coachmen, although they may not have been so much so at the time
these experiments were pubUshed (in 1817) are certainly now rather an
LntelHgent class of men. We should, therefore, prefer risking a theory, if
a theory were necessary, in support of their prejudices rather than in op-
position to them. The experiments alluded to were not. in our opinion.

670 ON DRAUGHT.

made under the circumstances wliicli occur in practice. Small models (thp
wheels being seven inches in diameter) were drawTi along a table across
which were placed small strips of wood to represent the obstructions met
with in a road ; but these strips of wood came in contact with each pair
of wheels at the same time, and never caused any lateral motion. Thej
produced, therefore, a totally different effect from that which takes place
in a road, where the action rarely affects more than one wheel at a time ;
consequently, in the model, the wheels, in passing over an obstruction,
threw the whole weight backwards in a direction exactly opposite to the
movement required ; while, in practice, the carnage is generally thrown
sideways, which does not affect its forward motion.

The conclusions drawn from these experiments are, therefore, as might
be expected, at variance with practical results, and directly contrary to the
opinions of those -whose daily experience ought to enable them to judge
correctly.

The effects, also, of velocity and momentum must be difficult to imitate
in models.

The advantage of placing the load high will not, however, equally apply
at low velocities, still less when springs are not used ; it may frequently,
indeed, in the latter case, produce quite a contrary effect.

In a rough road, the increased force mth which the load would be thrown
from side to side might prove very inconvenient, and even dangerous, and
would certainly be liable to increase the resistance when the front wheels
meet vnth any obstruction ; but this, it must be particularly remembered,
is only true in the case of low velocities and carriages without springs.

We have now considered in succession the various parts of the vehicle
for conveying the weight, and shown in what manner they affect the draught,
and how they should be constructed so as to diminish as much as possible
the amount of this draught. We have endeavoured to point out the advan-
tages and necessity of attending to the construction and size of the wheel.
Thus it should be as nearly cylindrical and vertical as possible, and of as
large a diameter as can conveniently be admitted. 2dly, That there should
be a firm, unyielding connection in the direction of the movement between
the power employed, the weight moved, and the wheels : in other words,
that the force should always act directly and without elasticity both upon
the load and upon the wheels ; and that the impetus or momentum of the
load, when in movement, should always act in the same manner, wdthout
elasticity, in propelling the wheels ; and lastly, that it is highly advan-
tageous to interpose as much elasticity as possible by means of springs in
a vertical direction between the wheels and the body, so that the former
may rise and fall over stones or it-regularities in the road without commu-
nicating any sudden shocks to the load ; and we believe that the proper
application of springs in all cases, even with the heaviest loads, would be
found productive of great good effect.

Attention to these points ■will tend to diminish considerably the amount
of draught. As far as regards friction at the axles, and the resistance in
passing over obstacles in the road, it will assist the favourable application
of the force of traction when obtained from animal power ; but that which
we have shown to be the most considerable source of resistance is unfor-
tunately least affected by any of those arrangements. We allude to the
resistance arising from the yielding or crushing of the material of the road;
we have seen that on a good turnpike-road the draught was increased in
the proportion of thirty to forty, or about one-third, by the road being
eUghtly dirty ; and that, on a heavy, sandy road, the draught was increased
to 205, or nearly seven times. Springs will not affect this ; and even in-
creasing the diameter of the wheel will be of very slight assistance ; nothing

ON DRAUGHT.

571

but remo\nng at once the prime som^ce of tliis e\'il, improving the roads,
can remedy this. We are thus naturally led to the third division of our
subject, viz. the road, or channel of conveyance. In considering this as a
branch of the subject of draught by animal power, we shall merely point
out what are the principal desiderata in the formation of a good road, and
what are the evils principally to be avoided. To enter into all the details
of their construction, dependent as it is on the difFei-ent materials to be
found in the neighbourhood, their comparative cost, the quality of the
ground over which the road is made, and many other points, would be to
enter upon a much more extensive field than is at all requii^ed for the
proper consideration of the subject of draught by animal power. The
requisites for a good road are all that Ave shall indicate.

Channel of conveyance, in a general point of view, would include canals,
roads, and railways. Of the first, however, we shall say little ; their
construction does not materially affect the amount of draught, and we
have already examined the mode of applpng the power, and the quantity of
effect produced. We shall proceed therefore at once to the question of roads.

The inquiry into the best form and construction of Avheel carriages has
taught us what we might indeed have foreseen, that perfection in a road
would be a plain, level, hard surface : to have learned this only would not
have advanced us much, as such perfection is unattainable ; but we have
learned also the comparative advantages of these different qualities of
hardness, smoothness, and level. We have come to the conclusion, that
slight alterations of level which shall vary the exertion required of the
animal, without at any time causing excessive fatigue, are rather advan-
tageous for the full development of his power than otherwise ; that the
inconvenience of roughness is obviated by the use of springs ; and that
even when the ordinary carts and waggons without springs are used, still
the resistance arising from mere unevenness of sui-face, when not excessive,
is not nearly so great as that which is caused by the yielding of the sub-
stance of the road. Hardness, therefore, and consequently the absence of
dust and dirt, which is easily crushed or displaced, is the great desideratum
in roads.

To satisfy this condition, however, smoothness is to a certain degree
requisite, as the prominent parts would be always subject to abrasion and
destruction : for the same reason, even if for no other, ruts and everything
which can tend to form them must be avoided.

A road should, in its transverse section, be nearly flat. A great cur-
vature or barrel, as it is termed, is useless ; for the only object can be to
di-ain the water from it ; but if there are ruts, or hollow places, no prac-
ticable curvature will effect this ; and if the road is hard and smooth, a
very slight inclination is sufficient. Indeed, an excess of curvature is not
only useless with the present construction of carriages, but facilitates the
destruction of the road ; for there are few wheels perfectly cylindrical : yet
these, when running on a barrelled or curved road, can bear only upon one

edge, as in fig. 38. The conical
wheels still in use, although
much inclined at the axle, are
never sufficiently so to bring
the lower surface of the wheel
even, horizontal, and therefore
are constantly running upon the
edge, as in fig. 39, until they
have formed a rut coinciding
with their own shape. In a
barrelled or curved road, the

Fiff. 38.

Fig. 39.

572 ON DRAUGHT.

miscliief done will, of course, be great in proportion to this curvatui-e.
This form is, therefore, mischievous as well as useless. Six inches rise in
the centre of a road of twenty feet wide is more than sufficient to ensure
drainage, if drainage is not effectually prevented by ruts or hollow places,
and less than this will suffice where the road is good, and is kept in proper
order.

The hardness of the surface, the most imjDortant feature, will of course
principally depend upon the materials used, and the formation of the road,
and still more upon the state of repair in which it is kept. It is easy to
form a good road when the foundation is already laid by the existence of
an old one : levelling the surface — applying a covering of eight or ten
inches in thickness of broken stones — having as few round or smooth
surfaces as possible, the hardest that can be obtained — and above all
things securing good drainage, both from the surface and from the bottom
— is all that is required ; but constant repair and unremitting attention are
necessary to keep a road thus formed in good condition.

These repairs and attention do not consist in laying on at certain
intervals of time large quantities of materials, but in constantly removing
the sand which is formed, and which, in wet weather, holds the water, and
prevents drainage ; in filling up as quickly as possible, with fresh ma-
terials, any ruts or hollows ; and particularly in keeping clear all the
drains, and even in scraping small drains from ruts, or such parts of the
road as may contain the water, and which it may not be possible imme-
diately to fin up.

By attention to these points, those who are interested in the preservation
of the roads, and the expenses attending it, will find that economy ^vill
ultimately be the result ; and those who are interested in diminishing the
labour and expense of draught, we shall only refer again to the table
(page 558) of the resistances of a waggon upon different roads, from which
they will see that a horse upon a clean road will do one-third more than
upon one shghtly muddy, more than four times as much as upon new-laid
gravel, and nearly seven times as much as upon a heavy sandy road.

No arguments that we can put forward can at all strengthen the effect
that such facts must produce ; and we shall, therefore, quit the subject of
roads, and conclude our observations on draught by a few words ex-
planatory of the object of railroads, and their effects as regards diminishing
draught.

The great desideratum in the formation of a good road is the facilitating
the rolling of the wheels. We have shown that, for this purpose, a hard,
smooth surface is necessary ; and, as this is only required for the wheels,
two longitudinal tracks, of such sui'face, of proper width, are sufficient for
the mere passage of the carriage. If, therefore, there is a considerable
traffic between t^vo points along a Hne of road, without much interruption
from crossing, all the qualities of a good road may be obtained in a very
superior degree, by having two parallel rails, or tracks of wood or iron,
raised a httle above the general level of the ground. This is a railroad.
It evidently affords the means of attaining any degree of perfection in those
essentials for a good road — hardness and smoothness of surface for the
wheels to roll upon. It requires, however, that the carriages should be aU
nearly alike, as regards the "w-idth and form of the wheels ; and experience
has proved that such a road is not generally worth constructing, unless the
traffic is sufficient to allow of carriages being built expressly for that or
similar roads. This being the case, the form and dimensions of the rails,
and the general construction of the carnages, are uncontrolled by any
other consideration than that of diminishing draught.

A considerable improvement upon this point may, therefore, be ex-

ox DRAUGHT. 573

pected in the railway over the common road. A railway, as now con-
structed, consists simply of two parallel bars of iron, having a flat upper
STirface of about two and a half inches wide. With the exception of this
surface, the forms adopted for the bars are various, depending principally
on the mode selected for supporting them, some resting on and secured to
blocks of stone, placed at intervals of about tliree feetr— others secured in
like manner to ' sleepers,' or beams of wood which are placed transversely,
resting on the ground ; while according to a third system the bars are
secured along their whole length to longitudinal timbers. The wheels at
the present time, generally made of WTOught iron, and fi'om 3 to 4 feet in
diameter, are made slightly couical with a flange about one inch deep on
the inner side. This shght flansfe, and the cone of the wheel, which is also
very slight, are found su-Sicient to keep the wheels from running off the
rails, even at the highest velocities. This brief description is sufficient to
give a general idea of the construction of railways, which is all that is
necessary for our present pui-pose. It will be easily conceived that hard,
cast-iron wheels, running upon smooth edges of iron in this manner, can
meet with but little resistance except that arising from friction at the axis.

Accordingly we find, upon a well-constructed railway in good order,
that the resistance at moderate velocities does not exceed, in any sensible
degree, that which must arise from this cause. It has been found that a
force of traction of 1 lb. will put in motion a weight of 200, 300, and even,
in some cases, 350 lbs. ; so that a horse, exerting an effort of only 125 lbs.,
would drag on a level 12 or 14 tons. This is ten or twelve times the
average effect of his work upon a good common road, and, as it arises
entirely fi-om the hardness and smoothness of the surface, we cannot con-
clude our observations by a more striking and unanswerable argument
than this, in proof of the immense advantages and saving of expense which
would result from greater attention to the 6tat« of the roads.

INDEX.

ABY

A BYSSINIAN horse, the, 18

**■ Acetabulum, description of the, 382

Acetic acid, its properties, 474

Aconitum, tincture and extract of, 477

Action of tlie hackney described, 87; high, not
indispensable in the hackney, 88

Adeps, properties of, 476

Jithiop's mineral, an alterative, 489

Age, natural, of the horse, 229 ; of the horse
as indicated by the teeth, 222; other indica-
tions of, 206.

Air, a supply of pure, necessary for the health
of the horse, 122; air in the heart, 302

Alcohol, its medicinal properties, 476

Alfred, his attention to the improvement of
the horse, 55

Aloes, Barbadoes, far preferable to Cape, 476;
description of the different kinds of, 476;
principal adulterations of, 477; tincture of,
its composition and use, 477

Alteratives, the best, 478; nature and effect,
478

Alum, the use of, in restraining purging, 478;
solution of a good wash for grease, 478;
burnt, a stimulant and caustic for wounds,
478

Amaurosis, or gutta strena, nature and treat-
ment of, 194

American horse, description of the, 41

Ammonia, given in flatulent colic, 478; vapour
of, plentifully extricated from dung and
nrine, most injurious to the eyes and lungs,
478

Anchylosis of bones, what, 249

Anderson, Dr., his account uf the Galloway,
103

Animal poisons, an account of, 499

Animal power compared with that of the
steam-engine, 529; its advantage over nie-
chanical, except where velocity is required,
532

Animals, zoological divisions of, 139

Anise-seed, its properties, 478

Antea-spinatus muscle, description of the, 143

Antimonial powder, a good febrifuge, 479

Antimony, black sesqni-sulphuret of, method of
detecting its adulterations, 479; used as an
alterative, 479; tartarized,used as a naoseant
diaphoretic and worm medicine, 479

BAX.

Antispasmodics, nature of, 479
Apoplexy, nature and treatment of, 171
Aqueous fluid, an, why placed in the labyrinth
of the ear, 155; humour of the eye, descrip.
tion of the, 163
Arab breed, the, introduced by James I., 64
Arabia, not the original country of the horse,
22 ; few good horses there even in the seventh
century, 23
Arabian horse, history of the, 22; Bishop
Heber's description of, 26; comparison be-
tween, and the Barb, 24; general form of,
24; qualities of, 24; scanty nourisiiment of,
27; treatment of, 27; varieties of, 25
Arabs, attachment of, to their horses, 26;
value their mares more than their horses, 27
Arched form of the skull, advantage of, 150
Arm, description of the, 364; action of, ex-
plained on the principle of the lever, 361,
364; extensor muscles of the, 365; flexor
muscles of the, 365; full and swelling, ad-
vantage of, 366; should be muscular and
long, 366; fracture of the, 450
Arsenic, treatment under poison by, 500
Arteries, description of the, 239, 303; of the

arm, 364; of the face, 199; neck, 239
Ascaris, account of the, 331
Ascot course, length of the, 74
Astragalus, account of the, 385
Athelstan, his attention to the improvement of

the horse, 55
Atlas, anatomy of the, 236
Attechi, the, an Arabian breed, 23
Auscultation, the importance of, 266
Australian horse, description of the, 32
Axle, friction of the, dependent on the material
employed, 570

"DACK, general description of the, 249; pro-
-L' per form of the, 249; long and short,

comparative advantages of, 249; anatomy of

the, 249 ; muscles of the, 252
Backing, of the colt, 505; a bad habit of the

horse, usual origin of it, 505
Back-sinews, sprain of the, 372; thickening of

the, constituting unsoundness, 252
Balls, the manner of giving, 479; the manuflr

of making, 480

676

INDEX.

Barb, description of the, 18, 20, 73; comparison
between, and the Arabian, 24

Barbs or paps, treatment of, 233

Bark, Peruvian, the properties of it, 480

Barley considered as food for the horse, 133

Barnacles, use of the, as a mode of restraint,
457

Bar-shoe, description and use of. 437

Barrel, proper shape of the, in the hunter,
82

Bars, description and office of the, 397; proper
paring of, for shoeinf;, 393 ; folly of cutting
them away, 398 ; removal of, a cause of con-
traction, 398; corns, 393

Basilicon ointment, 480

Bay horses, description of, 24, 347; Malton,
account of him, 69

Beans, good for liardly worked horses, and that
have a tendency to purge, 134, 137; should
always be crushed, 134

Bearing-rein, the use and abuse of, 217

Beet, the nutritive matter in, 137

Belladonna, extract of, 480

Berners, Juliana, authoress of the first book on
hunting, 84

Bible, history of the horse in the, 2

Bile, account of the, 318, 319

Birman horse, account of the, 32

Bishoping the teeth, description of, 228

Biting, a bad habit, and how usually acquired,
507; remedy for, 119

Bit, the, often too sharp, 217; the ancient,
10; sometimes got into the mouth, 507

Bitting of the colt, 114

Black horses, description and character of, 101,
347

Bladder, description of the, 339; inflammation
of, symptoms and treatment, 339; neck of,
340; stone in the, 340, 341

Bleeding, best place for general, 458; directions
for, 459; from veins rather than arteries,
305; finger should be on the pulse during,
305; importance of, in inflammation, 306,
459; at the toe described, 460; comparison
between the fleam and lancet, 458

Blindness, usual method of discovering, 163;
discovered by the pupil not dilating or con-
tracting, 164; of one eye, 164

Blistering all round at once, barbarity and
danger of, 462, 4S0; after firing, absurdity
and cruelty of, 461, 464

Blisters, best compo.sition of, 461; the different
kinds and uses of, 461; best mode of ap-
plying, 461 ; caution with regard to their
application, 461; the principle of their ac-
tion, 480; use of, in inflammation, 461;
comparison between them and rowels and
setons, 466

Blood, change in after bleeding, 460; coagula-
tion of, 460; diseases of tlie blood, 309;
spavin, nature and treatment of, 252

Blood horses liable to contraction, 410

Bloody urine, 330

Bog spavin, nature and treatment of, 388

Bole-Armenian, medical use of, 481

Bone, round, 383

Bone-spavin, nature and treatment of, 388

Bots in the stomach, natural history of, 32 1 .
not usually injurious, 322

Bournou horse, description of the, 21

Bowels, inflammation of the, 325; enlargement
of the, 330

Brain, description of the, 150; its cortical and
cineritious composition, 151; the office of
each, 151; concussion of the, 168; pressure
on the, 169; inflammation of the, 172

Bran, as food for the horse, 134

Breaking in should commence in the second
winter, 113; description of its various stages,
115; necessity of gentleness and patience
in, 115; of the farmer's horse, 113; of the
hunter or hackney, 114; the South American,
33; cruel Arabian method of, 281; Mr.
Rarey's system, 116

Breast, muscles of the, 251

Breathing, the mechanism of, 256

Breeding, 92; as applied to the farmer's horse
92; qualities of the mare as much import-
ance as those of the horse, 92, 108 ; the
peculiarity of form and constitution inherited,
108; in-and-in, observations on, 109

Brewers' horses, account of them, 101; portrait
of one, 102; account of their breed, 102

Bridle, the ancient, 10

Broken down, what, 372

Broken knees, treatment of, 367; method of
judging of the danger of, 368 ; when healed,
not unsoundness, but the form and action of
the horse should be carefully exatnined, 518

Broken wind, nature and treatment of, 297;
influenced much, and often caused by the
manner of feeding, 299

Bronchial tubes, description of the, 260

Bronchitis, nature and treatment of, 282

Bronchocele, account of, 270

Brood mare, description of the, 109; should not
be too old. 111 ; treatment of, after covering,
111; after foaling, 1 1 1

Brown horses, description of, 347

Bryony, dangerous, 500

Buccinator muscle, description of the, 200

Bucephalus, account of, 9

Burleigh, Lord, his opinion of hunting, 84

Busbequius, his interesting account of the
Turkish horse, 36

pABBAGE, the nutritive matter in, 137

^ CsEcnm, description of the, 317

Calamine powder, account of, 498

Calculi in the intestines, 329

Calkins, advantages and disadvantages of, 432
should be placed on both heels, 433

Calinuck horse, description of the, 49

Camphor, the medical use of, 481

Canadian horse, description of the, 41

Canals, advantages and disadvantages of, 547;
smallness of power requisite for the trans-
mission of goods by them, 548

Canal-boat, calculation of the draught of, 548;
the ease of draught of, might be increased by
a different moiie of applying the power, 546

Canker of the foot, nature and treatment of,
425

INDEX.

C77

CAJJ

Cannon, or sliank-bone, description of the, 369
Canter, action of the horse during, 537
Cantharides, foi-m tiie best blister, 481, 499;

given for the cure of jrlamiers, 481
Cape of Good Hope, the horses of, 21
Capillary vessels, the, 305
Capivi, balsam of, 484

Capped hock, nature anil treatment of, 392;
description of, 392; although not always un-
soundness there should be a special warranty
against it, 518
Capsicum berries, their stimulating effect, 482
Carbonate of iron, a mild tonic, 487
Carditis, 302

Carraways, a good aromatic, 482
Carriage-horses produced by crossing the Suf-
folk with a hunter, 101
Carriages, two and four-wheeled, comparison
between, 567; light, should have no longi-
tudinal elasticity in the hanging or springs,
568; disadvantage of C springs in, 567;
hung on straps or springs in the time of
Homer, 544
Carrots, excellent effects of in disease, 136;

the nutritive matter in, 137
Carts, two-wheeled, computation of the friction
of, 564; can perform proportionably more
work than waggons, 565 ; easier loaded, and
do not so much injure the roads, 565 ; require
better horses and more attendants, 565; the
horse sooner knocked up, and injured by the
shocks of the shafts, 565 ; on good roads and
for short distances, superior to waggons, 565;
with two horses, disadvantage of, 565; liave
less draught than waggons, reason why, 565
Cartilages of the foot, description and action of
the, 402; osssification of the, 426, 521; a
cause of unsoundness, 521
Caruccula lacrymalis, the, 189
Cascarilla bark, a tonic and aromatic, 482
Castley, Mr., on restiveness in the horse, 502
Castor-oil, not a purgative for the horse, 482
Castration, method of, 457 ; proper period for,

457; the operation by torsion, 458
Cataract in the eye, nature of, 191; cannot be
operated on in the horse, 191; method of
examination for, 191; the occasional appear-
ance and disappearance of, 193
Catarrh, description and treatment of, 265;
distinguished from inflammation of the lungs,
265; epidemic, or influenza, 272
Catarrhal fever, nature and treatment of, 265
Catechu, a good astringent, method of giving,

and adulterations of, 482
Catheter, description of one, 341
Caustic, an account of the best, 482
Cavalry horse, description of the, 94; anecdotes

of the, 94
Cawl, description of the, 319
Cerebellum, description of the, 151
Cerebrum, description of the, 151
Chalk, its medicinal use in the horse, 482
Chaff, attention should be paid to the goodness
of the ingredients, 130; best composition of,
131 ; when given to the hard worked horse,
much time is saved for repose, 131; quantity
of necessary for different kinda of horses, 131

P

COL

Chamomile, a mild tonic, 482

Channel of the jaws, what, 221

Charcoal, useful in a poultice, and as an anti-
septic, 483

Charges, composition and use of, 483

Chariots, the first account of the use of, 3; in
Solomon's time, 6; the Grecian, 12; descrip-
tion of that of Priam, 555; that of Juno
described, 555; on the frieze of the Par-
thenon, description of, 556 ; used by the
Egyptians 1500 years before the Christian
sera, 554 ; at the siege of Troy, 555 ; descrip-
tion of the ancient, 555 ; of the ancients,
could not move with much velocity, 555

Chest, anatomy of the, 243 ; proper form of
the, 244, 246; cut of the, 246 ; the import-
ance of depth of, 245; narrow and rounded,
comparison between, 246; the broad chest,
247; dropsy of the skin of the fhest, 253-,
paracentesis, or tapping the chett, 473

Chesnut horses, varieties of, 347

Chillaby, friendship between him and a cat, 7?'

Chinese horse, description of the, 32

Chinked in the chine, what, 249

Chloride of lime, an excellont disinfectant, 491 ;
of soda, useful in unhealthy ulcers, 495

Choking, 319; treatment, 320

Choroid coat of the eye, description and use of
the, 161

Chyle, the formation of, 316

Ciliary processes of the eye, description of the
163

Cineritious matter of the brain, nature and
function of the, 152

Circassian horse, description of the, 30

Cleveland Bay, description of the, 93

Clicking, cause and remedy of, 415

Clipping, recommendation of, 344

Clips, when necessary, 433

Clover, considered as an article of food, 136,
137

Clysters, the composition and great usefulness
of, 483; directions as to the administration
of, 483

Clydesdale horse, description of the, 101

Coaches, calculation of the power of horses in
drawing according to their speed, 540;
loaded high, run lighter, especially in rapid
travelling, 569 ; safetv, heavy draught of,
570

Coach-horse, description of the, 95; best breed
of, 96

Coat, fine, persons much too solicitous to pro-
cure it, 128

Cocktail horse, mode of docking, 468

Coffin-bone, description of the, 400; the lamell»,
or leaves of, 401 ; fracture of, 431

Coffin-joint, sprain of, 380

Cold, common, description and treatment of
265

Colic, flatulent, account of, 324; spasmodic,
description and treatment of, 322

Collar, the best method of attaching the traces
to the horse, 547; proper adaptation of to
the shoulder, 540

Colocynth, is poisonous, 500

Colon, description of the, 117

67 U

INDEX.

COL

Colonel, portrait of, C6 ; account of his perfor-
mances, 77

Colour, remarks on, 345

Colt, early treatment of the. 112 et seq.

Complexus, major, description of the, 23S;
minor, description of the, 238

Concave-seated shoe, the, described and recom-
mended, 434

C jnestoga horses, description of the, 42

Conical wheels, compared with flat ones, 559;
extreme absurdity of, 561; strange degree of
friction and dragging with them. 561 ; afford
great resistance and destroy the road, 561 ;
are in fact travelling' grindstones, 562

Conjunctiva, description of the, 161; appear-
ance of, how far a test of inflammation, 161

Consumption, account of, 293 j treatmer.t of,
294

Contraction of the foot, nature of, 587, 518;
the peculiarity of permanent lameness pro-
duced by, 410; how far connected with the
f.avicular disease, 412; is not the necessary
consequence of shoeing, 407 ; produced by
neglect of paring, 408; wearing the shoes too
long, 408; want of natural moisture, 409;
the removal of the bars, 410; not so much
■produced by litter as imagined, 409; the
;ause rather than the consequence of thrush,
410; best mode of treating, 411 ; rarely per-
manently cured, 411; does not necessarily
imply unsoundness, 518; although not neces-
sarily unsoundness, should have a special
warranty against it, 518; blood horses very
subject to, 410

Convexity of the eye, the proper, not sufficiently
attended to, 161

Copaiba, account of the resin, 484

Copper, the combinations of, used in veterinary
practice, 484

Corded veins, what, 212

Cordials, the use and abuse of, inthehorse, 484

Cornea, description of the, 161; mode of ex-
amining the, 161; its prominence or flatness,
161; should be perfectly transparent, 161

Corns, the nature and treatment of, 42 1 ; pro-
duced by cutting away the bars, 421; not
paring out the foot between the crust and
bars, 422; pressure, 422; veiy difficult to
cure, 422; constitute unsoundness, 518

Coronary ligament, description of the, 397; the
crust principally produced from, 397; ring,
description of the, 397

Coronet, description of the, 397

fiorrosive sublimate, treatment under poison by
500; a good tonic for farcy, 489, 500

Corsican horse, account of the. 46

Cortical substance of the brain, description and
fracture of, 151

Cossack horse, description of the, 49; beaten
in a race by English blood horses, 49

Cough, chronic nature and treatment of, 294;
constitutes unsoundness, 519; the occasional
diflSculty with retrard to this, 523

Cow hocks, description of, 392

Cradle, a safe restraint upon the horse when
blistered, 461

Cramp, the nature and treatiiient of, 183

DOQ

Cream-coloured horses, account of, 346 ; pecxi-

liarity in their eyes, 163
Cream of tartar, a mild diuretic, 493
Creasote, its use in veterinary practice, 485
Crib-biting, description of, 511 ; causes and
cure, 512; injurious to the horse, 512; con-
stitutes unsoundness 519
Cricket ball, the action of catching a, 538
Cricoid cartilage of the windpipe, the, 257
Cromwell, Oliver, his stud of race-horses, 64
Cropping oflf the ear, absurdity of, 154
Croton, the farina of, used as physic, 485
Crusaders, the improvement of the horse

neglected by them, 58
Crust of the foot, description of the, 395; com-
position of the, 396; consisting within of
numerous horny plates, 398; proper degree
of it, slanting, 396; proper thickness of the,
396; brittleness of, remedy for, 398; the
cause of sandcrack, 413
Crvstalline lens, description of the, 165
Cuboid bones, description of the, 385
Cuneiform bone.s, description of the, 385
Curbs, nature and treatment of, 387; heredi-
tary, 93; constitute unsoundness, 519
Cuticle, description of the, 342
Cutis, or true skin, account of the, 342
Cutting, cause and cure of, 380, constitutes
unsoundness. 519; away the foot, unfounded
prejudice against, 408

"TvANDRIFF, the nature of, 342

-L^ Darley Arabiun, account of the, 68

Dartmoor ponies, description and anecdote of,

106
Deafness, 195
Deacon, Mr., his opinion on the forms of wheels,

527, 563
Denham, Major, interesting account of the loss

of his horse, 27
Depressor labii inferioris muscle, description of

the, 200
Desert horses, account of the, 2 1
Diabetes, the nature and treatment of, 338
Diameter of wheels, the effect of increasing the,

568
Diaphoretics, their nature and effects, 485
Diaphragm, description of the, 254: spasm of

the, 263; rupture of, 264; its connection with

respiration, 255
Digestion, the process of it described, 313
Digestive organs, anatomy and diseases of the,

311
Digestives, their nature and use, 486
Digitalis, highly recommended in colds and all

inflammatory complaints, 486
Dilator magnus lateralis muscle, description of

the, 200; naris lateralis nmscle, description

of the, 200
Dishing of wheels described, and effect of, 560,

both inward and outward effect of, 564
Distressed horse, treatment of the, 85
Diuretic medicines, the use and abuse of, 486
Docking, method of performing, 466
Dogs, danger of encouraging them about the

stable, 176

IXDSX.

«79

Doncaster course, the length of, 74

Dongola horse, description of the, 1 7

Draught, theorv of, 527; has not been suffi-
ciently explained, 527, 535; implies tlie
moving power, the vehicle, and the road, 527;
the moving power particularly consideied,
527; considered in respect of the resistance,
532; calculation of, according to velocity and
time, 532; much influenced by the direction
of the traces, 537; the line of, sliould be p.ar-
allel to the direction of motion, 538; in cattle
should pass through the axle of the wheels,
539 ; in bad roads may have a slight incli-
nation upward, 540; resistance of, should be
as much as possible firm and inelastic, 538 ;
how increased by the state of the road, 571 ;
of boats, difficulty of, increasing rapidity with
the velocity, 548 ; calculation of the power of,
548; of the sledge, 548; of the roller, 549;
horse, the heavy, 99 ; horses, the inferior ones
about the metropolis, wretched state of. 103

Dray horse, proper form of the, 101 ; the largest
bred in Lincolnshire, 102 ; usually too large
and heavy, 102

Drinks, how to administer, 487; comparison be-
tween them and balls, 487

Dropsy of the skin of the chest, 253; treatment
of, 253; of the chest, 291 ; of the heart, 301

Drum of the ear, description and use of the,
155

Dun horse, account of the, 346

Dung-balls, 330

Duodenum, description of the, 316; diseases of
the, 316

Dura mater, description of the, 150

Dutch horse, description of the, 54

EAR, description of the external parts, 154;
internal parts, 155; bones of the, descrip-
tion and use of, 155; labyrinth of the, 155;
indicative of the temper, 154; clipping and
singeing, cruelty of, 155; treatment of wounds
or bruises of, 194 ; cruel operations on the, 195

East Indian horse, description of the, 30

Eclipse, the pedigree and history of. 70; account
of his proportions, 7 1

Edward II. introduced Lombardy horses into
England, 58

Edward III., the breed of horses much improved
by, 59; introduced Spanish horses. 59; had
running horses, 59

Egypt, account of the horse of, 3, 17

Elasticity of the ligament of the neck, 149

Elaterium, poisouous, 500

Elbow, the proper form and inclination of, 364;
capped, 365; fracture of, 450; punctured, 3C5

Elizabeth, Queen, the number and value of horses
much diminished when she reigned, 63; a
staunch huntress, 84

Emetic tartar, used as a, natiseant, diaphoretic,
and worm medicine, 479

Enamel of the teeth, account of the, 222

English horse, history of the, 54; first crossed
by the Romans, 55; improved by Athelstan,
55; William the Conqueror, 56; Jukn, 58

Ensiform cartilage, the, 246

FET

Entanglenientof the intestines, descriptionof,330
Enteritis, account of, 325, 326, and 327
Epidemic catarrh, nature and treatment of, 272;

malignant, nature and treatment of, 279
Epiglottis, description of the, 257
Epilepsy, nature and treatment of, 174
Epsom salts, used as a purgative, 491
Epsom course, the length of, 74
Ergot of rye, the action of, 495
Ethmoid bone, description of the, 150
Etliiopian horse, account of, 18
Enphorbium, the abominable use of it, 499
Ewe-neck, unsightliness and inconvenience of,

238
Exriianges of horses stand on the same ground

as sales, 525
Exercise, directions for, 129; the necessity of
regular, 129; want of producing grease, 382;
more injury done by the want of it than by
the hardest work, 129
Exmoor pony, description of the, 105
Expansion shoe, description and use of the, 438
Expense of horse, calculation of the annual, 544
Eye, description of the, 155; cut of the, 160:
fracture of the orbit of the, 168; healthy ap-
pearance of the, 159; diseases of the, 188,
inSammation of, common, 189; ditto, specific.
190; ditto, causes, 192; ditto, medical treat-
ment of, 192, 193; ditto, untractable nature
of, 193; ditto, consequences of, 192, 193; ditto,
marks of recent, 520; ditto, constitutes un-
soundness, 520; ditto, hereditaiy, 192; indi
cative of the temper, 156; the pit above, in-
dicative of the age, 146; muscles of the, 166
Eyebrows, substitute for, 157
Eyelashes, description of, 157; folly of singeing

them, 157
Eyelid, description of, 156, 157
Eyelids, diseases of the, 188

"HACE, description of the, 186; cut of the

-*- muscles, nerves, and blood-vessels of, 199

Falling in of the foot, what, 406

False quarter, nature and treatment of, 416

Farcy, a disease of the absorbents of the skin.
212, 213; connected with glanders, 212; Loth
generated and infectious, 214; symptoms of,
214; treatment of, 215; buds, what, 213; the
effect of cantbarides in, 215; dmiodide of
copper, 2 1 5

Farmer's horse, description of the, 92; £t for
riding as well as draught, 92 ; the general
management of 92; no blemished or unsound
mare to be used for breeding, 93

Feeding, high, connected with grease, 382 ;
regular periods of, necessity of attending ti*.
137; manner of, has much influence on brokei'
wind, 299

Feeling of the mouth, constant, indispensable in
the good rider, 88

Feet, good, importsnce of, in the hunter, 83; the
general management of, 428 ; attention to, and
stopping at night, recommended, 428

Felt soles, description and use of, 438

Femur, fracture of the, 450

Fetlock, description of the, 379

VPl

580

INDEX.

FEV

6R0

Fever, idiopathic or pure, 308 ; symptoms of, 308 ;
symptomatic, 309

Fibula, description of the, 383

Finland horse, description of the, 52

Firing, the principle on which resorted to, 462;
mode of applying, 462 ; should not penetrate
the skin, 465 ; absurdity and cruelty of blister-
ing after, 464; horse should not be used for
some months after, 465

Fistula lacrymalis, 158; in the poll, 240; fis-
tulous withers, 252 ; flatulent colic, 324

Fits, symptoms, causes, and treatment of, 174

Flanders horse, description of the, 103; our
heavy draught horses advantageously crossed
with it, 103

Fleam and lancet, comparison between them, 458

Flemish horse, account of the, 54

Fleur-de-Lis, account of her perforinances, 77

Flexor of the arm, description of the, 365;
metatarsi muscle, description of the, 384;
pedis perforatus, the perforated muscle, de-
Bcription of the, 372; pedis perforans, the
perforating muscle, description of the, 372;
sprain of the flexor tendons, 372

Flying Chil(iers, an account of him, 68

Foal, early treatment of, 112; early handling
of, important, 1 13; importance of liberal feed-
ing of, 112; time for weaning, 112

Fomentations, theory and use of, 488

Food of the horse, observations on, 130; a list of
the usual articles of, 132, 133; should be ap-
portioned to the work, 132

Foot, description of the, 395 ; the original defence
of, 11; diseases of the, 403; canker, 425;
corns, 421; contraction, 407; false quarter,
416; founder, acute, 403; chronic laminitis,
405; inflammation, 403; navicular joint
disease, 412; overreach, 415; prick, 419;
pumiced, 405;quittor, 417; sandcrack, 413;
thrush, 423; tread, 415; weakness, 427;
wounds, 419

Forehead, the different form of, in the ox and
horse, 151

Fore-legs, description of, 358; diseases of them,
370; proper position of them, 358

Forrester, an example of the emulation of the
horse, 76

Founder, acute, symptoms, causes, and treatment
of, 403 ; chronic, nature and treatment of, 405

Foxglove, strongly recommended in colds, and all
fevers, 486

Fracture of the skull, treatment of, 168,442;
general observations on fractures, 441 ; of the
skull, 443; orbit of the eye, 444; nasal bones,
444; superior maxillary or upper jaw-bone,
445; inferior ditto,446; spine, 446; ribs, 447;
pelvis, 448; tail, 449; limbs, 449; scapula,
449; humerus, 449; radius, 450; ulna, 450;
femur, 450; patella, 451 ; tibia, 451; bones of
the hock, 452; leg, 452; sesamoid bones, 453;
pastern, 453; lower pastern; 454; coffin bone,
455; navicular bone, 456

French horse, description of the, 44

ffriction, comparison of, in the wheel and roller,
649 ; on the axle, dependent on the material
employed, 571 ; is not materially increased by
the velocity, 571; reduced, as the diameter

of the axle is diminished, 571; inversely a-

the diameter of the wheel, 571
Frog, horny, description of the_, 402; sensitive.

description of the, 402; ditto, action and use

of the, 402
Frontal bones, description of the, 145; sinases,

description of the, 146
Furze, considered as an article of food, 137

GALL, account of the, 319; bladder, the
horse has none. 318

Galloping, the action of the horse during, 536

Galloway, description of the, 103; anecdotes
and performances of the, 103

Gall-stones, 335

Gaucho, the South American, description of, 39;
his method of taking and breaking the wild
horse, 39 ; his boots, curious manufacture of,
39

Gentian, the best tonic for the horse, 488

Gibbing, a bad habit, cause of, and means o{
lessening, 505

Gigs, formation of, 234

Ginger, an excellent aromatic and tonic, 488, 497

Glanders, nature of, 203, 206 ; symptoms, 20t>,
208, 210; slow progress of, 203, 206; ap-
pearances of the nose in, 203, 206; how dis-
tinguished from catarrh, 206; ditto from
strangles, 206; connected with farcy, 205,
208; treatment of, 211; causes, 208; both
generated and contagious, 210; oftenest pro-
duced by improper stable management, 208,
209; mode of communication, 210,211; pre-
vention of, 212; account of its speedy ap-
pearance, 208

Glands, enlarged, it depends on many circum
stances whether they constitute unsoundness,
520

Glass-eye, nature and treatment of, 194

Glauber's salt, its effect, 496

Glaucoma, nature of, 194

Glutjei muscles, description of the, 377

Godolpbia Arabian, an account of the, 73

Goulard's extract, the use of it much over-
valued, 490

Grains, occasionally used for horses of slow
work, 133

Grapes on tlie heels, treatment of, 356

Grasses, neglect of the farmer as to the proper
mixture of, 135

Grasshopper springs, description of 568 ; would
be advantageously adopted in post-chaises, 568

Grease, nature and treatment of, 354; cause of,
354; farmer's horse not so subject to it as
others, 355; generally a mere local complaint,
355

Greece, early domestication of the horse in, 9;
the horse introduced there from Egypt, 9

Grey horses, account of the different shades of,
346

Grinders, construction of the, 222

Grinding, of the food, accomplished by the me-
chanism of the joint of the lower jaw, 220;
swallowing without, 511

Grogginess, account of, 379

Grooming, as important as exercise to the hors«.

INDEX.

581

128; opens the pores of the skin, and gives
a fine coat, 128; directions for, 128
Grunter, the, unsound, 519
Gullet, description of tlie, 312
Gam-arabic, for what purposes used, 475
Gatta Serena, nature and treatment of, 194

XJABITS, vicious or dangerous, 502

-'-'• Hackney, description of the, 87; its pro-
per action, 88; anecdotes of the, 87; coaches,
account of, 96

Hair, account of the, 345; question of cutting
it from the heels, 356

Hamilton, Duke of, the Clydesdale horses owe
their origin to him, 100

Harnessing, the best mode as regards draugiit,
547; method of, in the time of Homer,
544

Haunch, description of the, 381; wide, advan-
tage of, 382; injuries of the, 382; joint,
singular strength of it, 381; also of the
thigh bones, advantage of the oblique direc-
tion of, 382

Haw, curious mechanism of the, 160; diseases
of, 189; absurdity and cruelty of destroying
it, 160

Hay, considered as food, 131 ; mowburnt, in-
jurious, 135; old preferable to new, 135

Head, anatomy of the, 145 ; the numerous
bones composing it, the reason of this, 145;
section of the, 146; importance of the pro-
per setting on of, 89; beautiful provision for
its support, 148

Head, Captain, his account of the South Ame-
rican horse, 38

Healing ointment, account of the, 498

Hearing of the horse, the very acute, 154

Heavy black horses account of, 101

Heart, description of the, 300; its action de-
scribed, 300; inflammation of thj, 301;
dropsy of the, 301; carditis, 302; inflam-
mation of the lining of the heart, 302 ; dila-
tation, 302; ossification, 302; air in the
heart, 303 ; hypertrophy of, 302

Heber, Bishop, his account of the Arabian, 25;

Heels, question of cutting the hair from them,
356; low, disadvantage of, 428; proper par*
ing of, for shoeing, 429

Hellebore, black, its use, 488

Hemlock, given in inflammation of the chest,
488

Henry VIII., tyrannical regulations concerning
the horse, by him, 60; the breed of the horse
not materially improved by him, 61

Hepatitis, nature and treatment of, 334 ;

Hernia, the nature and treatment of. 332; um-
bilical, 333

Hide-bound, the nature and treatment of, 349

High-blower, a description of the, 268; is un-
sound, 519

Highland pony, description of the, 106

Hind legs, description of the, 381

Hind wheels should follow the precis^ ir»ck of
the fore ones, 563

ilip-joint, the great strength of the, So2

Hips, ragged, what, 381

HOR

Hissar, the East India Company's sale of horses
at, 31

Hobbles, description of the best, 456

Hock, the advantage of its numerous separate
bones and ligaments, 385 ; capped, 392 ;
cow, 392; description of the, 386; enlarge-
ment of the, nature of, and how afiecting
soundness, 386, 520 ; inflammation of the
small bones of, a frequent cause of lameness,
386; the principal sieat of lameness behind,
387 ; lameness of it, without apparent cause,
392; fracture of, 452

Hog's lard, properties of, 476

Holstein horses, account of the, 52

Homer, his account of the method of harntssmg
horses, 544

Hematuria, 339

Hoof, cut of the, 395; description of the, 396

Horizontal direction of the traces,whenproper,547

Horn of the crust, secreted principally by the
coronary ligament, 398; once separated from
the sensible part within, will never again unite
with it, 398

Hornet, sting of the, 499

Horse, the first allusion to him, 1 ; not known
in Canaan at an early period, 2; description
of, in early times, 14, 16; American, 41 ; not
the native of Arabia, 4; Arabian, 22; Arme-
nian, 7; Austrian, 47; English, 54; Barb,
18; Birman,32; Bournou, 21 ; Cappadocian,
7 ; first used in the cavalry service, 3 ; chariot
races formed part of tlie Olympic games, 13;
calculation of the annual expense of, 540;
Chinese, 32 ; Circassian, 30; was trained to
draught before he was mounted, 6; Coach,
proper form, qualities, breed of, 95; the dif.
ferent colours of the ditferent breeds, 345;
Corsican, 46; Cossack, 34; Dongola, ]7j
Dutch, 54; when first domesticated in Egypt
and Canaan, 2; not domesticated until after
many other animals, 2 ; not found in Egypt
in the very early periods, 1 ; East Indian, 30;
the flesh of, eaten, 34; English, history of,
54; farmers', 92; Finland, 51, Flemish, 54;
his fossil remains found in every part of the
world, 1; French, 44; the general manage-
ment of, 122; among the Greeks, 4; heavy
black, 101; early employed in hunting the
ostrich, 1 ; heavy draught, 99 ; tyrannical
regulations respecting, by Henry VIII., 60;
grey, the, of Sir Edward Antrobus, 83; hir-
ing, early regulations of, 56, 58; Hungarian,
49; Iceland, 51; Irish, 107; Italian, 46;
sublime account of by Job, 2; much im-
proved by John, 58 ; Lombardy, when first
introduced into England, 58; market, first
account of, 57; Mecklenburg, 52; Nubian,
17; Parthian, 8; Portuguese, 43; Russian,
49; Prussian, 53; Norwegian, 52; Persian,
8, 28; the early price of, 5; Enghsh, not
used for the plough in early times, 56; power,
calculation of, 56, 6, 37 ; price of, in Solo-
mon's time, 5; prices of, at difl'erent periods,
56, 64; ridden, the first account of, 2; sa-
gacity of, 90; can see almost in darkness,
131; Sardinian, 45; South Anierican, 37;
ditta instinct and sagacity of, 37 , manage-

S82

INDEX.

HOW

nient of, in South America, 38; Spanish, 42;
Swedish, 51; Tartarian, 34; Tliessalian, 9 ;
Toorkoman, 36; Turkish. 36; wild, 34, 37;
English, improved under William the Con-
queror, 56; zoological description of, 107;
immense number of, in the armies of some
ancient eastern monarchs, 3; numerous in
Britain at the invasion of the Romans, 54
Howell the Good, his laws respecting tiie horse,

55
Humerus, description of the, 362
Hungarian horse, description of the, 48
Hunter, the, general account of, 81; proper de-
gree of blood in, 81; form of, 82; spirit of,
83; anecdotes of, 85; management of, 84
symptoms of dangerous distress in, 85
management of the, when distressed, 86
summering of, 86; shoe, description of the,
437
Hydatids in the cranial cavity, 168
Hydrocyanic acid, its occasional good service,

475
Hydrops pericardii, or dropsy of the heart, 301
Hydrothorax, symptoms and treatment of, 291

rCELAND horse, description of the, 51

-•- Ileum, description of the, 316

Inflammation, nature of, 305; treatment of,
306; hot or cold applications to guide in the
choice of, 307; importance of bleeding in,
306, 459; when proper to phytic in, 306; of
the bowels, 325; ditto, distinction between
it and colic, 323; brain, 172; eye, 189;
foot, 403; kidneys, 337; larynx, 266; lungs,
283; trachea, 267; veins, 241; heart, 301;
liver, 334

Influenza, nature and treatment of, 272

Infusions, manner of making them, 489

Intercostal muscles, description of the, 246

Intestines, description of the, 315, 316, 317;
inflammation of the, 325

Introsusception of the intestines, treatment of,
330

Invertebrated animals, what, 139

Todine, usefulness of, in reducing enlarged
glands, 490

Iranee horse, description of the, 30

Iris, description of the, 163

Irish horse, description of the, 107

Iritis, 190

Iron, the carbonate of, a mild and useful tonic,
487; sulphate of, a stronger tonic, 487;
ditto, recommended for the cure of glanders,
487

Italian horse, description of the, 46

Itchiness of the skin should always be regarded
with suspicion, 353

JAMES I. established the first regulations for
racing, 64; introduction of the Arabian
blood by him, 64
James's powder, 479

J:tundice, symptoms and treatment of, 335
Jaw, the lower, admirable mechanism of, 219,
220; upper, description of, 217

Je'unum, description of the, 316

John, the breed of horses improved by, 58

Jointed shoe, the description anil use of, 438

Jugular vein, anatomy of the, 460

Jumper, the horse-breaker, anecdotes of hit

power over animals, 502
Juniper, oil of, use of, 490
Juno, her chariot described, 556

I^ADISCHI, an Arabiiin breed of horses, 23
^ Kicking, a bad and inveterate habit, 508
Kidneys, description of the, 336 ; inflammation

of, symptoms and treatment of, 337
King Pippin, anecdotes of him as illustrating the

inveterateness of vicious habits, 503
Knee, an anatomical description of the, 366;

broken, treatment of, 367, 518
Kochlani, an Arabian breed of horses, 23
Knowledge of the horse, how acquired, 144

LABYRINTH of the ear, description and use
of the, 155

Lachrymal duct, description of the, 158; gland,
description and use of the, 158

Lamelte or laminse, horny, account of the, 398;
fleshy, account of the, 398; weight of the
horse, supported by the, 398

Lameness, shoulder, method of ascertaining,
363; from whatever cause, unsoundness, 52 1

Lampas, nature and treatment of, 219; cruelty
of burning the bars for, 219

Laminae of the foot. See Lamellae.

Lancet and fleam, comparison between them.
458

Lapland horse, account of the, 51

Laryngitis, chronic and acate, 266, 267

Larynx, description of ie, 257; inflammation
of the, 266

Lasso, description of the, 39

Laudanum, the use of in veterinary practice,
493

Lead, the compounds of, used in veterinary prac-
tice, 490

Leather soles, description and use of, 433

Leg, cut of the, 470; description of the, 369;

♦ fracture of the, 452

Legs, fore, the situation of, 358 ; hind, anatomi-
cal description of the, 358 ; of the hackney,
should not be lifted too high, 88; swelled,
393

Levator humeri muscle, description of the, 239,
247

Lever, muscular action explained on the prin-
ciple of it, 360

Ligament of the neck, description and elasticity
of the, 149; suspensory, lesions of the,
375

Light, the degree of, in the stable, 126

Lightness in hand, of essential consequence in a
hunter, 82

Limbs, fracture of the, 449

Lime, the chloride of, exceedingly useful forbad
smelling wounds, &c., 491; the chloride of.
valuable in cleansing stables from infection
491

INDEX.

M3

Lincoinstiire, the largest heavy black horses

bred in, 102
Liniments, the composition and nse of, 491
Linseed, an infusion of used in catarrh, 135,

491; meal forms the best poultice, 491,

494
Lips, anatomy and uses of the, 215; lips the

liands of the horse, 215
Litter, the, cannot be too frequently removed,

125; proper substances for, 126; contraction

not so much produced by it as some imagine,

410
Liver, the anatomy and nse of it, 318; diseases

of the, 334; softening and rupture, 334; in-
flammation of the, 334
Liverpool, account of the course at, 75
Locked jaw, symptoms, cause, and treatment of,

178
Loins, description of the, 250
Lomba.-dy horse, the, when introduced into

England, 58
Longissimus dorsi muscle, description of the,

252
Lucern, considered as an article of food, 136
Lumbricus teres, the, 331
Lunar caustic, a verv excellent application,

479
Lunps, description of the, 260; symptoms of

inflammation of tlie, 283; causes of, 284;

consequences of, 286; treatment of, 287;

bleeding in, 288; blisters preferable to rowels

or setons in, 289

MADNESS, the symptoms and treatment of,
175
Magnesia, the sulphate of, 491
Mahratta horse, account of the, 31
JIallenders, the situation of. 357; the nature

and treatment of, 357
Mammalia, the, an important class of animals,

139
Manchester, account of the course at, 75
Mane, description and nse of the, 2, 239
Mange, description and treatment of, 350;
causes of, 351; ointment, recipes for, 352;
highly infectious, 352; method of purifying
the stable after, 356
Manger- feeding, the advantage of, 130
Mare, put to the horse too early. 111; deteriora-
tion in, 109; her proper form, 109; breeding
in-and-in, 109; time of being at heat, 111;
time of going with foal. 111; best time for
covering, 111; management of, when with
foal, 111; management of, after foaling. 111;
more concerned than the horse in breeding,
92; preferable to gelding for the farmer, 92;
selection of, for breeding, 93
Mark of the teeth, what, 222
Markham's Arabian, an account of, 64
Marsk, the sire of many of the New-foresters,

104
Mashes, importance of tlieir use, 491; best

metLod of making them, 492
Masseter muscle, description of the, 199, 221
Maxillary bone*, anatomy of the, 217; fractures
of. 445

Meadow grasses, th« quantity of nutritive
matter in, 137

Mechanical power, objections to the use of,
533

Mecklenburg horses, account of, 52

Medicines, a list of the most useful, 474

Medullary substance of the brain, its nature
and function, 150, 151

Jlegrims, cause, 174; symptoms, 174; treat-
ment, 174; aiit to return, 174

l\Ielt, description of the, 319

Memory of tiie horse, instances of, 90

Jlercurial ointmeut, the use of, in veterinai-y
practice, 489

Mercury, its use in epidemic catarrh, 279

Merlin, the sire of many of the Welsh ponies,
104

Mesentery, description of the, 316

Moisture, want of, a cause of contraction, 409

Mojinniss horse, description of the, 30

Moon-blindness, the nature of, 1 90

Moultintr, the process of, 348; the horse usually
languid at the time of, 348; no stimulant or
spices should be given, 348; mode of treat-
ment under, 348

Mouth of the hor.se, description of the bones of,
217; should be always felt lightly in riding,
217; importance of its sensibility, 216, 217

Mowburnt hay injurious, 135

Muriatic acid, its properties, 475

Muscles, description of the, 141

Muscles of the back, description of the, 252 ;
breast, ditto, 251 ; eye, ditto, 166; face, ditto,
199; neck, ditto, 237; ribs, ditto, 246;
shoulder-blade, 359 ; lower bone of the
shoulder, 359; the advantageous direction of,
more important than their bulk, 359, 361

Muscular action, the principle of, 362

Mustard, the use of, 492

Myrrh, the use of, for canker and wounds,
492

NASALIS labii superioris muscle, description
of the, 200

Nasal bones, fracture of, 444
„ gleet, 201
„ polypus, 200

Naves, cast-iron, to wheels, advantage of, 564 ;
description of the best construction of, 564

Navicular bone, description of tlie, 402 ; the
action and use of it, 492

Navicular disease, nature and treatment of tie,
412; how far connected with contraction,
413; the cure very uncertain, 413; fracture
of, 456; unsoundness, 521

Neapolitan hurse, description of the, 46

Neck, anatomy and diseases of the, and neigh-
bouring parts, 236; description of the blood-
vessels of the, 239; description of the veins
of the, 240; bones of the, 237; muscles and
proper conformation of the, 237 ; comparison
between long and short, 237; loose, what, 238

Nephritis, nature and treatment of, 337

Nerves, the construction and theory of, 145;
spinal, the compound nature of, 153: of tha
face. 199

5a4

INDEX.

Neurotomy, or nerve operation, object and effect
of it, 469; manner of perfcinning it, 470;
cases iu which it should or should not be
performed, 471; a vestif^e of the performance
of it, constitutes unsoundness, 472

Newcastle, the Duke of, his opposition to the
introduction of the Arabian blood, 64

New-forester, description of the, 104

Newmarket, races established at, by Charles I.,
64; description of the different courses at, 110

Nicking, the method of performing, 467; useless
cruelty often resorted to, 468

Nitre, a valuable cooling medicine, and mild
diuretic, 493

Nitric acid, for what employed, 475

Nitric ether, spirit of, a mild stimulant and
diuretic, 492

Norman horse, description of the, 44

Norwegian horse, description of the, 52

Nose, description of the bones of the, 196; the
importance of its lining membrane, 197, 256;
the nose of the horse slit to increase his wind,
199; importance of the colour of the mem-
brane of the, in judging of many diseases,
198

Nosebag, importance of the, 138

Nostrils, description of the, 196; the mem-
brane of, important in ascertaining disease,
200, 54; importance of an expanded one,
198 ■ slit by some nations to increase the
wind of the horse, 198

Nubian horse, account of the, 17

Nutriment, the quantity of, contained in the
different articles of food, 137

OATS, the usual food of the horse, 132, 137;
should be old heavy, dry, and sweet, 132;
kiln-dried, injurious to the horse, 137; proper
quantity of, for a horse, 137

Oatmeal, excellent for gruel, and sometimes used
as a poultice, 133

Occipital bone, description of the, 146

(Enanthe fistulosa, poisonous, 499

Qisophagus, description of the, 312

O'Keliy, Colonel, anecdotes of him, and Eclipse,
70

Olfactory nerves, the importance of them, 197

Olive oil, an emollient, 492

Olympia, the races at, 13

Omentum, description of the, 319

Opacity of the eye, the nature and treatment of,
191

Operations, description of the most important,
456 ; the dreadful ones caused by cruel treat-
ment and driving, 97

Ophthalmia, simple, 189; specific, or moon-
blindness, 190

Opium, its great value in veterinary practice,
492; adulterations of it, 493

Orbit of the eye, fracture of, 168

Ossification of the curtilages, cause and treat-
ment of, 426

Over-reach, the nature and treatment of, 415;
often producing sand-crack or quittor, 415,
414,417

Oaenaj account of, 202

PACE, the effect of, in straining the horse,
97

Pachydermata, an order of animals, 140

Pack-horse, description of the, 105

Pack-wax, description of the, 149

Palate, the, 218

Palsy, the causes and treatment of, 186

Pancreas, description of the, 319

Panniculus carmisus muscle, 343

Paps or barbs, 233

Paracentesis thoracis, operation of, 473

Parietal bones, description of the, 146

Paring out of the fool for shoeing, directions for,
429 ; neglect of, a cause of contraction, 408

Parotid gland, description of the, and its diseases,
200, 232

Parsnips, the nutritive matter in, 137

Paiihenon, description of the chariots on tht
frieze of it, 556

Pastern, upper, fracture of, 453 ; lower, fracturb
of, 454; description of the, 377; bones o!
the, 378; cut of the, 378; proper obliquity
of the, 378

Patella or stifle bone, description of the, 383;
dislocation of the, 384

Pawing, remedy for, 513

Payment of the smallest sum completes the
purchase of a horse, 523

Peas, sometimes, used as food, but should be
crashed, 134, 137

Pectorales muscles, description of the, 251

Pelvis, fracture of the, 448

Pereostitis, or sore shins, 372

Pericarditis, 301

Pericardium, description of the, 300

Persian horse, description of the, 28; manage-
ment of, 29

Persian race, description of a, 29

Perspiration, insensible, no medicines will cer-
tainly increase it, 345

Peter the Great, the inmiense block of marble
constituting the pedestal of his statue, how
moved, 567

Pharynx, anatomy of the, 31 1

Phrenitis, 172

Phthisis pulmonalis, description of, 293; treat-
ment of, 294

Physic balls, method of compounding the best,
477

Physicking, rales for, 328

Pia mater, description of the, 150

Pied horse, account of the, 346

Pigmentuin nigrum, account of the, 162

Pit of the eye, the, indicative of the age,
146

Pitch, its use for charges and plasters, 493

Pithing a humane method of destroying animals,
236

Pleura, description of the, 261

Pleurisy, the nature and treatment of, 289

Pneumonia, the nature and treatment of, 283
Poisons, account of the most frequent, 498;

tests of the different ones, 501
Poll- evil, the cause and treatment of, 240; im-
poi'tance of the free escape of the matter,
241

LVDEX.

£85

FON

Pony, varieties gf the, 103

Porter, Sir R. Ker, hii account of tiie Persian
horse, 29

Portuguese horse, the, 43

Post, the first establishment of it, 78

Pust-cbaises, grasshopper springs would be ad-
vantageously adopted for, 567, 568

Postea spinatus muscle, description of the, 342

Potash, the compound of, 493

Potatoes, C'lnsidered as an article of food, 137

Poultices, their various compositions, inanner of
acting, and great use, 494

Powders, coniparison between them and balls,
494

Power of draught in the horse, illustrations of,
98; calculation of, 530 ; compared with that
of the human being, 534; compared with that
nf a steam-engine on railways, 531; on com-
mon roads, 532; on bad roads, 532; depend-
ent on his weight and muscular force, 532;
how diminished when towing a boat on a
canal, 537; greater when close to his work,
537; this depends on his strength and the
time he can exert it, 538; the diminution of,
according to his speed, table of, 539

Pressure on the brain, effect of, 169

Priam's chariot, a description of, 555; he har-
nessed his own horses, 555

Prices of horses at different periods, 56, 5S, 59,
60

Prick in the foot, treatment of, 419; injurious
method of removing the horn in searching for,
421

Prussian horse, account of the, 53

Puffing the glims, a trick of fraudulent horse-
dealers, 146

Pulling, the action of, explained, 534

Pulse, the natural standard of the, 304 ; varieties
of the, 304; importance of attention to the,
198, 304; the most convenient place to feel
it, 304; the finger on the pulse during the
bleeding, 305

Pumiced feet, description and treatment of, 405;
do not admit of cure, 406; constitute un-
soundness, 521

Pupil of the eye, description of the, 163; mode
of discovering blindness in it, 164

Purchase, to complete tiie, there must be a me-
morandum, or payment of some sum, how-
ever small, 523

Purgatives, 328

Purging, violent treatment of, 325

Purpura hasmorrhagica, 309

QUARTERS of the horse, description of the,
381 ; importance of their muscularity and
depth, 382; foot, description of, 395; the
inner, crust thinner and weaker at, 395; folly
of lowering the crust, 397

Quidding the foot, cause of, 513; unsoundness
while it lasts, 521

Quinine, the sulphate of, 480

Quittor, the nature and treatment of, 417; the
treatment often long and difficult, exercising
the patience both of the practitioner and
owner, 419; its unsoundness, 521

ROA

RABIES, symptoms of, 175
Race-courses, different lengths of, 74

Races, early, mere running on train scent, 64 ;
frequent cruelty of, 73, 77; different kinds
of, described, 74; regular, first established at
Chester and Stamfcird, 63; regulations tor,
established by James I., 64; patronised by
Charles I., 64; Persian, description of, 29:
the great length of the old courses, 74; con-
sequences of the introduction of short races,
74, 75; the different lengths that are run,
75; the races at Smithfield, 57

Race-horse, his history, 66; form, 68; action,
73; emulation, 76

Racks, no openings should be allowed above
them, 123

Radius, description of the, 364; fracture of the,
450

Ragged-hipped, wliat, 382; no impediment to
action, 382

Railways, mechanical advantajeof, 98, 556 ; they
immensely increase the power of the horse, 572

Rearing, a dangerous and inveterate habit, 509

Recti muscles, of the neck, description of, 238

Rectum, description of the, 317, 318

Keins, description of the proper, 217

Resin, its use in veterinary practice, 494

Resistance in draught, observations on, 538

Respiration, description of the mechanism and
effect off, 255

Respiratory organs, anatomy and diseases of,
254; nerves, the, 153

Restiveness, a bad habit, and never cured, 502;
anecdotes in proof of its inveterateness, 502,
503

Retina, description of the, 165

Retractor muscle of the eye, description of it, 166

Rheumatism, nature and treatment of, 309, 310,
311

Ribbed-home, advantage of being, 248

Ribs, anatomy of the, 245, 246

Richard Coeur-de-Lion, account of his Arabian
horses, 58

Richmond, Duke of, his method of breeding good
carriage horses, 100

Riding, directions for, 88

Ringbone, the nature and treatment of, 380;
constitutes unsoundness, 522

Ringworm, nature and treatment of, 353

Ruach-backed, what, 250

Roads, how aSected by different wheels, 560;
how influencing the proper breadth of the
wheels, 570; the great extent to which they
affect the draught, 571; soft and yielding,
far more disadvantageous than rough ones,
571; slight alterations in their level advan-
tageous, 571; hardness, the grand desider-
atum in, 571; should be nearly flat, 571;
necessity of constant repairs and attention to
them, 572; calculation of the degree by which
the resistance is increased by h;id ones, 572

Roan horses, account of, 346

Roaring, tiie nature of, 268; curious history of,
269; constitutes unsoundness, 519 ; firom
light-reining, 270; from buckling in crib-
biting, 270; treatment of, 272

o86

INDEX.

Rollers, calculation of the draught of, 550; how
probably first invented ot ijrought into use,
550; comparison of their power with that of
wheels, 555; mechanism and principle of,
553; particular circumstances in which their
use is advantageous, 553; the weight moves
with double the velocity of thein, and there-
fore fresh rollers must be supplied in front,
553; the immense block of marble at St.
Petersburg, description of its being moved on
them, 553

Rolling, danger of, remedy for, 513

Roman nose in the horse, what, 196

Rome, the ancient races at, 15

Round-bone, the, can scarcely be dislocated,
383

Rowels, manner of inserting, and their opera-
tion, 494; comparison between them, blisters,
and setons, 466

Running away, method of restraining, 509

Piupture, treatment of, 332; of the suspensory
ligament, 375

Russian horse, account of the, 49

Kye-grass, considered as an article of food,
136

SADDLES, the ancient, U ; the proper con-
struction of, 252, 253
Saddle-backed, what, 250; galls, treatment of,

253
Saddling the colt, 115
Safety coaches, the heavy draught of, 570
Sagacity of the horse, 90
Sainfoin used as an article of food, 136
Sal ammoniac, the medical use ot, 478
Saliva, its nature and use, 232
Salivary glands, description of the, 232
Sallenders, nature and treatment of, 357
Salt, use of in veterinary practice, 496 : value

of, mingled in the food of animals, 136
Sandal, Mr. Percival's, 440
Sand-crack, nature and tieatment of, 413; most

dancerous when proceeding from tread, 414;

liable to return, unless the brittleness of the

hoof is remedied, 415; constitutes unsound-
ness, 522
Sardinian horse, account of the, 46
Savin, dangerous, 500
Scapula, description of the, 359; fiacture of

the, 449
Sclerotica, description of the, 161
Secale cornutum, the effect of, 495
Sedatives, a list of them, and their mode of

action, 495
Serratus major muscle, description of the, 244,

359
Sesamoid bones, admirable use of, in obviating

concussion, 378 ; fracture of, 453
Setons, mode of introducing, 465; cases in

which they are indicated, 465; comparison

l)etween them and r^jwels and blisters, 466
Shank-bone, the, 369
Shetlan-^ pony, descnption of the, 106
Shins, sore, 372
Shoe, the concave-seated, cut of, 434 ; described

and recommended, 434; the manner in which

son

the old one should be taken off, 430; the
putting on of the shoe, 431; it should be
fitted to the foot, and not the foot to the shoe,
431 ; description of the hinder, 433; the uni-
lateral, or one side nailed shoe, 435; the bar
shoe, 437; the tip, 438; the hnntiDg, 437;
the jointed, or expansion, 438
Shoeing, not necessarily productive of contrac-
tion, 410; preparation of the foot for, 429,
the principles of, 430
Short-bodied horses, when valuable, 83
Shoulder, anatomical description of the, 359;
slanting direction of the, advantageous, 359,
when it should be oblique, and when up-
right, 361; sprain of the, 363; lameness,
method of ascertaining, 363; fracture of the,
449
Shoulder-blade, muscles of the, 359; why
united to the chest by muscle alone, 359 ;
lower bone of the, description of, 362;
muscles of the, 365
Shying, the probable cause of, 165, 513; treat-
ment of, 515; on coming out of the stable,
description of, 516
Side-bones, or ossification of the cartilages, 426
Side-line, description of the, 456
Sight, the acute sense of, in the horse, 154
Silver, the nitrate of, an excellent caustic, 479
Singeing, recommendation of, 348
Sitfasts, Ireatment of, 253
Skeleton of the horse, de.scription of the, 140
Skin, anatomical description of the, 342 ; func-
tion and uses of it, 342; pores of it, 345;
when the animal is in health, is soft and
elastic, 343; colour of the skin, 345; hide-
bound, 349; diseases of the skin, 342
Skull, anatomical description of the, 146;
arched form of the roof, 150; fracture of
the, 168,444
Smitlifield market, early account of, 57
Sledges, calculation of the draught of, 548 ; de-
scription of the mechanism and use of, 549;
where more advatitageous than wheels, and
where very disadvantageous, 550; calcula-
tion of the power of, 550; their advantage in
travelling over ice and snow, 550; Esqui-
maux, an account of the, 551
Slipping the collar, remedy for, 516
Smell, the sense and seat of, 197; very acute

in the horse, 197
Snewing, Mr., his advocacy of clipping, 348
Soap, its use in veterinary practice, 496
Soda, chloride of, its use in ulcers, 496; sul

phate of, 496
Sole, the horny, description of, 398; descent of,
398; proper form of, 398; management of,
in shoeing, 399; in sensitive, 401 ; felt or
leather, their use, 438
Solomon imported horses from Egypt, 6
Sore-throat, .symptoms and treatment ol', 266
Soundness, consists in there being no disease or
alteration of structure that does or is likely
to impair the usefulness of the horse, 517,
considered with reference to the principal
causes of unsoundness, 518
South American horse, description of it, S7;
maiiaf:enient of it, 39

INDEX.

587

SPA

Spanish horse, description of it, 43
Spasmodic colic, nature and treatment of, 322
Spavin, blood, the nature and treatment of, 388 ;
is unsoundness, 522 ; bo^, cause, nature and
treatment of, 388; bone, 388; why not always
accompanied by lameness, 388; is unsound-
ness, 522
Spavined horses, the kinJ of work they are cap-
able of, 390
Speed of the horse produces rapid diminution
of power, 538; and time of labour, the most
advantageous proportion of, 539 — 541; the
sacrifice of the horse in endeavouring to ob-
tain it, 540
Speedy-cut. account of. 371
Sphenoid bone, description of the, 150
Spinalis dorsi muscle, description of the, 252
Spine, description of the. 249 ; fracture of. 446
Spleen, description of the, 31 9 ; diseases of the, 336
Splenius muscle description of the. 237
Splint, nature and treatment of, 370; when con-
stituting unsoundness, 522 ; bones, descrip-
tion of the, 370
Sprain of the back sinews, treatment of. 372 ;
sometimes requires firing, 374; any remain-
ing thickening constitutes unsoundness, 522 ;
sprain of the shoulder, 363
Spring steel-yard, the force of traction illus-
trated by, 5*28
Springs to carriages, theory of their efiFect, 568;
with some modifications might be adapted to
the heaviest waggons, 569; great advantages
of, in rapid travelling, 569 ; grasshopper, de-
scription of, 569; C, disadvantages of, 569
Spur, the ancient, 1 1

Stables, dark, an occasional cause of inflam-
mation of the eye, 192; hot and foul, a fre-
quent one of inflammation of the eye, 192;
ditto, lungs, 122; ditto, glanders, 208, 209;
should be large, compared with the number of
horses, 122 ; the management of, too m.uch
neglected by the owner of the horse, 123; the
ceiling of should be plastered, if there is a
loft above, 123; should be so contrived that
the urine will run off, 125; the stalls should
not have too much declivity, 126; should be
sufficiently light, yet witnoui any glaring
colour, 126
'Staggers, stomach, symptoms, cause, aud treat-
ment of, 169, 138: sleepy, symptoms and
treatment, 170, 171; mad, symptonas and
treatment, 172
Staling, profuse, cause and treatment of, 338
Stallion, description of the proper, for breeding,

109
Stamford, races first established at, 63
Starch, useful in superpurgation, 496
Star-gazer, the, 238

Steam-engine, comparison of the, with the exer-
tion of animal power on railways, 532; com-
mon roads, 532 ; calculation of the expense,
531 ; small, has little aJTantage in expense
over horse power, 533
Steeple-chase, description and censure of it, 87
Sternum, or breast-bone, description of the, 245
Stifle, description of the, 383 ; sprain of the, 384
Stirrup, the ancient, 1 1

TEA

Stomach, description of the, 313, 314; verj
small in the horse, 314; ruptured ,320; pump
recommended in apoplexy, 142

Stone in the bladder, symptoms and treatment
of, 340; kidney, 339

Stoppings, the best composition of, and their
great use, 497

Straddlers, wheels so called, description of, 563;
objection to them, 563. methi)d of evading
the law concerning, 563

Strain, uniform and constant in draught, bad
consequences of, 542

Strangles, symptoms and treatment of, 23 4; dis-
tingui^hed from glanders, 206; the importance
of blistering early in, 235

Strangury, produced by blistering, 462; treat-
ment of, 462

Strawberry horse, account of the, 346

Stringhalt, nature of, 183; is decidedly unsound-
ness, 186, 522

Structure of the horse, importance of a know-
ledge of, 144

Strychnia, account of, 496

Stylo-maxillaris muscle, description of the, 199

Sublingual gland, description of the, 234

Submaxillary glands, description of the, 233:
artery, description of the, 200

Sub-scapnlo hvoideus muscle, description of the,
199

Suffolk punch, description of the, 99; honesty
and continuance of the old breed, 99

Sugar of lead, use of, 490

Sullivan, the Irish whisperer, anecdotes of his
power over the horse, 502: the younger, did
not inherit the power of his father, anecdote
of this, 505

Sulphate of copper, u.se of in veterinary prac-
tice, 484; iron, 487; magnesia, 491; zinc,
498

Sulphur, an excellent alterative and ingredient
in all applications for mange, 496

Summering of the hunter, consideration of, 86

Surfeit, description and treatment of, 350; im-
portance of bleeding in, 350

Suspensory ligament, beautiful mechanism of
the, 375; rupture of the, 375

Suspensory muscle of the eye, description of the.
166

Swallowing without grinding, 511

Swedish horse, description ot the, 51

Swelled legs, cause and treatment of, 393 ;
most frequently connected with debility,
394

Sweetbread, description of the, 319

Sympathetic nerves, description of the, 153

TAIL, anatomy of the, 243; fracture of the
I 449; docking, 466; nicking, 467

Tar, its use in veterinary practice, 497
Tares, a nutritive and healthy food, 136
1 Tartar, cream of, 493
I Tartarian horse, description of the, 34
! Tazsee horse, description of the, 34
I Team, disadvantages of draught in, explained,
j 537 : tlieir united power not equal to the
I calculation of so many horses, 537

588

INDEX.

TEA

Tears, the secretion and nature of the, 1 58 ;
how conveyed to the nose, 158; sometimes
shed by the horse from pain and grief, 158
Teeth, description of the, as connected with
age, 221: at birth, 221; 2 months, 222; 12
months, 223; 18 months, 223; the front
sometimes pushed out, that the next pair
may sooner appear, and the horse seem to be
older than he is, 224; 3 years, 224; 3|
years, 225; 4 years, 225; 4| years, 226; 5
years, 226; 6 years, 227; 7 years, 228; 8
years, 228; change of the, 224; enamel of
the, 222; irregular, inconvenience and danger
of, 230; mark of the, 232 ; frauds practised
with regard to the, 225 ; diseases of, 230

Temper denoted by the eye, 156; by the ear,
154

Temperature, sudden change of, injurious in its
effect, 122

Temporal bones, descriptioa of the, 146

Tendons of the leg, 370

Tetanus, symptoms, causes and treatment of,
178

Thessalian horses, account of, 10

Thick wind, nature and treatment of, 296;
often found in round-chested horses, 297

Thigh and haunch bones, description of, 382;
form of, 383; should be long and muscular,
383; description of the muscle, of the inside
of the upper bone of, 383; do. of the outside,
383; mechanical calculation of their power,
377

Thorough-bred horses, the quality of, has not
degenerated, 67

Thorough-pin, the nature and treatment of,
384; is not unsoundness, 523

Thrush, nature and treatment of, 423 ; the
consequence, rather than the cause of con-
traction, 424 ; its serious nature and conse-
quences not suiEciently considered, 424;
constitutes unsoundness, 523

Thyroid cartilage of the windpipe, description of
the, ?57

Tibia, a^-ount of the, 383, 368; fracture of, 427

Tinctures, account of the best, 497

Tips, description and use of, 438

Tobacco, when used, 497

Toe, seedy, 406

Tongue, anatoir.y of the, 231 ; diseases of, 231 ;
bladders alone; the under part of, 232

Tonics, an account of the best, 497; their use
and danger in veterinary practice, 497

Toorkoman horse, description of, 36

Torsion, the mode of castratiou by, 357; for-
ceps, description of, 357

Traces, the direction of them, very important
in draught, 541, 542: proper angle of the,
542; the proper inclination of tliem, depend-
ing on the kiud of horse and the road, 543;
they should he inclined downward on rough
roads, 543; ioclined downward, the same as
throwing a part of the weight on the shafts,
542; direction of them rarely attended to,
548; the manner of affixing them in South
America, 545

Trachea, or windpipe, description of, 258; in-
flammation of,2G7

Tiacheotomy, 472; operation of, 473
Traction, the force of, illustrated by reference tc

the spring steelyards, 528) the proper line of,

very important in draught, 547
Trapezium bone, description of the, 367
Travelling, different rate of, at different times,

94; comparison of rapid and slow, 540
Tread, nature and treatment of, 415; often pro-

ducins; sand-crack or quittor, 415
Tredgold, Mr., his comparison of moving power

in draught, 540
Tripping, an inveterate habit, 516
Trochanter of the thigh, description of the, 383
Trochlearis muscle, the, 167
Trotter, the performance of the hackney as, 90
Trotting, cruel exhibitions of, 91 ; action of the

horse during, 535; position of the limbs in,

unfaithfully represented in the Elgin marbles.

and the church of St. Mark, 535
Turbinated bones, description of the, 197
Turkish horse, description of the, 36
Turner, Mr. T., on clipping, 348
Turnips, considered as an article of food, 137
Turpentine, the best diuretic, 336; a useful in-

gredient in many ointments, 497
Toshes, description of the, 226
Twitch, description of the, 457

ULCERS in the mouth, treatment of, 207
231, 232

Ulna, description of the, 364

Unguiculata, a tribe of animals, 139

Ungulata, a tribe of animals, 139

Unilateral shoe, 435

Unsoundness, contraction does not always cause
it, 410; being discovered, the animal should
be tendered, 524; ditto, but the tender or re-
turn not legally necessary, 524; the horse
may he returned and action brought for de-
preciation in value, but this not advisable,
524; medical means may be adopted to cure
the horse, they are, however, better declined,
lest in an unfortunate issue of the case they
should be misrepresented, 524

Unsteadiness, whilst mounting, remedy for, 509

Urine, albuminous, 339 ; bloody, 339

yASTUS muscle, description of the, 383
' Vatican, the obelisk in the, curious mjthoti
of moving it, 554

Vehicles of draught, comparison of the best,
565, 567

Veins, description of the, 303; inflammation of
the, treatment of, 241

Velocity, calculation of, 539, 540

Vena portarum, the, 318

Ventilation, importance of attention to, in sta-
bles, 122

Verdigris, an uncertain nredic^ne, when given
internally, 484; a mild caustic, 434

Vermin, account of, 357

Vertebrae, the dorsal and lumbar, 246

Vertebrated animals, what, 139

Vices of horses, account of the, 502

Vicious to ciean, a bad habit that should be con-

INDEX.

689

VIN

qnered, 510; to shoe, a bad habit that may
also be conquered, 510
Vinegar, its use in veterinary practice, 475
Vines, Mr., his use of the Spanish fly in glan-
ders, 481
Viper, account of the bite of, 498
Vision, tljeory of, 162

Vitreous humour of the eye, account of the, 165
Vitriol, blue, use of, in veterinary practice, 484

WAGGON horse, the, 100
Waggons, inferior horses may be used in
them, compared with carts, 565 ; horses
drawing, not so fatigued as in carts, 565;
require fewer drivers, and are not so liable
to accidents, 565; with inferior roads and
ordinary horses preferable to carts. 565; with
large front wheels, advantage of, 564; par-
ticularly with two horses abreast, 564; reason
why they liave more draught than two- wheeled
carts, 566

Walking, movement of the legs in, 536: differ-
ent when drawing a load, 536

Wall-eyed horses, what, 163; whether they be-
come blind, 164

War-horse, description of the ancient, 58

Warranty, tlie form of a, 523; breach of, how
established, 523; no price will imply it, 523;
when there is none, the action must be
brought on ground of fraud, 523

Warts, method of getting rid of, 357

Washy horses, description and treatment of, 327

Wasps, treatment of the sting of, 499

Water, generally given too sparingly, 138 ;
management of on a journey, 139; the differ-
ence in effect between hard and soft, 138;
spring principally injurious on account of its
coldness, 138; stomach of the horse, the, 317

Water farcy, nature and treatment of, 214

Water conveyance, smallness of power required
in, 548 ; resistance to, increases with the
square of the velocity, 549 ; power to be ex-
erted in, increases as the cube of the velocity,
549

Water-dropwort, poisonous, 499

Wax used in charges and plasters, 498

Weakness of the foot, what, 427

Weaving indicating an irritable temper, and no
cure for it, 517

Weight, calculation of the power of the horse to
overcome, 98, 534, 538

Wellesley Arabian, account of the, 73

Welsh pony, description of the, 104

Wheat, considered as food for the horse, 133,
137; inconvenience and danger of it, 133

Wheels, the principle on which they act ex-
plained, 527; effect of increasing the diame-
ter of the, 570 ; no record of the time of their
invention, 555 ; spoked, known to Homer,
555 ; little improvement of the principle of,

from the earliest times, 555 ; principle of, on
a level surface, 556 ; theory of the degree of
friction attending them, 557; friction of on
the axle, dependent on the material employed,
557; Consideration of the various forms of,
5.')9; dishing (if, described, 560; advantages
of, 560; conical and flat, calculation betweeit
the effects of, 565, 572; obliquely placed, ill
consequences of, 561 ; narrow and broad,
comparison between, 560 ; conical, strange
degree of friction and dragging with, 561;
travelling grindstones, 561; cylindrical, the
best form, 561 ; description of, and proper
rounding of the edges, 563; but influenced
by the state of the road, 563; hind, should
follow the precise track of the fore ones, 563;
considered as to their effect on the road, 563;
straddlers, description of, and their effect,
563; proper breadth of, in proportion to the
load, 564; with cast-iron naves, 564; size of,
564; advantage of large front ones, 564;
should have the spokes so arranged as to pre-
sent themselves against the greatest force, 568

Wheezer, unsound, 519

Whip, accustoming the colt to the, 115

Whipping, sound, cruelty of, 98

Whisperer, the, anecdotes of his power over the
horse, 502

Whistler, unsound, 519

White Turk, account of the, 64

White lead, use of, 490; vitriol, its use in
veterinary practice, 498

Wild horse, description of the, 34, 37

William the Conqueror, improvement effected in
the English horse by him, 56

Wind, broken, nature and treatment of, 297;
giills, description and treatment of, 375; ditto,
unsoundness when they cause lameness, or
are likely to do so, 523; thick, nature anQ
treatment of, 296

Windpipe, description of the, 258 j should be
prominent and loose, 259

Wind-sucking, nature of, and remedy for, 512

Withers, description of the, 250; high, advantage
of, 251 ; fistulous, treatment of, 252

Work of the horse, should not exceed six hours
per diem, 539

Worms, different kinds, and treatment of, 331

Wounds in the feet, treatment of, 419

VENOPHON, his account of the horse, 15

YELLOWS, synaptoms and treatment of the,
335
Yew, the leaves of, poisonous, 499

yiNC, its use in medicine, 498
^ Zoological classification of the horse, 107
Zygomatic arch, reason of the strong construc-
tion of the, 147
Zygomaticus mnscle, description of the, 1 99

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INDEX

Page
Abbott (Evelyn) - 3. i8
(T. K.) - -14,15

(E. A.) - - 14

Acland {A. H. D.) - 3

Acion (Eliza) - - 28

AdeaneO-H.)- - 8

itsch\lus - - 18

Ainger lA. C.) - - 12

AlDemarle (Earl of)- 10

Allen (Grant) - - 24

Amos (S.) - - 3

Anguin iM. C.) - 28

An»ie\ (F.) - - 20

Aristophanes - - lb

Aristotle - - - 14

Arnold (Sir Edwin)- 9,19

— (Dr. T.) - - 3
Ashbourne (Lord) - 3
Ashby.H) - - 28
A-Mlev (\V. J.)- - 3, 17
Ave bury (Lord) - 17
Ayre (Kev. J.) - - 25

Bacon - - - 7, 14
Baden-Powell (B. H.) 3
Bagehot (W.) 7, 17, 27, 30
B gwell 'K > - - ^

Bailey (H. C.i - - 20
P;<ii> (Alexander) - 14
Baker (J. H.) - - 27, 30

iSii S. W.) - 9, 10

Balfour (A. [.) - n, 32
(Lady Betty) - 5

OF AUTHORS AND

Page
9

Ball (John)
Banks (M. M.) •
Haiing-Gnuld(Rev.S.)27,30

Barnett (S. A. and H.) 17

Baynes (1 . S.) - - 30

Beaconsfield (Earl of) 20
Beaufort (Duke of) - 10,11

Becker (W. A.) - 18 '

Beeslv (A. H.) - - 7

Bell (i\lrh. Hut;h) - 19

Bent (J. Theodore) - 9 !

Besant (Sir \\ alter)- 3 1
Bickerdyke (J.) 11,12,13

Bird (G.) - • - 19

lllackburne ij. H.) - 13

Bland (M:s. Hubert) 20

iioase iRev. C. W.) - 5

Boedder (Rev. B.) - 15
Boyd (Rev. A. K. H.) 30, 32

Brassey (Lady) - 9

(Lord) - - 12

Brav (C ) - - • 14

Hrighi (Rev. J. F.) - 3

Brnadfoot (Major W.) 10

Brown i.\. F.) - - 25

Bruce (R. I.) - - 3

Huck iH. A.) - - 12

Buckland das.) - 25

Buckle (H.T.)- - 3

Bull (T.) - - - 28

H.irke ill. R.) - - 3

Burns (C. L ) - - 29

Bunows (Montagu) 5

Butler (E. A.)
(Samuel)

Cameron of Lochiel 12
CampbelKRev.Lewis) 18,32
Camperdown (Earl of) 7
Cawihorne iGeo. Jas.) 13
Cnesncv (Sir G.) - 3

Childe-Pemberton(W.S.) 7
•Chula' - - - 20
Cholmondeley-Pennell

(H.) ... II
ChurchilUW. Spencer) 3, 20

EDITORS,

Page

24 Creed (S.)
20,30 Jteiehton (Bishop).
Crozier (J. B.) -
Curzon of Kedleston

(Lord) .
Castance (Col. H. -
Cutts (Kev. E. L.) -

4. 5
7. 14

Cicero

Clarke (Rev. R. F.)
Clodd (Edward)
Clutterbuck (W.J.)
Co enso (R. J.)
Coleridge (S. T.)
Comparetti (D.)
Conint;ton (John) -
Conway (Sir VV. M )
l_on>beare(Rev.\V. J.)

& Hr>wson (Dean)
Co. lidt;e (VV. A. B.)
Corb n (M.)
C orbett ( Julian S.) -
C()Utis(VV.) .
Co\eniry ( A.) -
Cox (Ha ding)
Crake iRev. A. D.) -
Crawford (J. H.)
(R.) - - -

Dallinger (F. VV.) - 5

Davidson (VV. L.) 15, 16, 32
Davies (J. F.) - - 18
Dent (C. T.) . - 11
De Salis (Mrs.)

18 I Oe Tocqueville (A.) .
Devas (C. S.) .
Dickinson (G. L.) -

(VV. H.) - -

Dougall (L.)
Dowden (E.) -
no\le (.A. Conan)
DuBois(VV. E. B.)-
Uufferin (Marqris of)
Dunbar (Mary F.) -

Ebrington (Viscount)
Ellis (J. H.) ■
Evans (Sir John)

16

17.24

9

29
19,20

'9
16
II

27
9
25 '

29
4

17
4

30

30

Farrar (Dean) - . 16, 21
Fitzmaurice (Lord E ) 4
Folkard (H. C.) - 13
Foid(H.). . - 13
(W.J.) - - 15

INDEX

OF

Page
Fowler (Edith H.) - 21
Francis (Francis) - 13
Francis (M. E.) - 21
Freeman (Edward A.) 5

Freshfield(D. W.) - n
Froude (lames A.) 4, 7, 9, 21
Fuller (F. \V.) - - 4

Furneaux (W.) - 24

Gardiner (Samuel R.) 4

Gathorne-Hardy (Hon.

AUTHORS AND EU IT OHS— continued.

- 12, 13
12

14

A. E
Gibbons (J. S.)
Gibson (C. H.)-
Gleig(Rev. G. R.) - 8

Goethe - - - ig
Going (C. B.) - - 25
Gore-Booth (Sir H. W.) u
Graham (P. A.) - 13

(G. F.) - - 16

Granby (Marquis of) 12
Grant (Sir A.) -
Graves (R. P.) -
Green (T. Hill)
Greene (E. B.)-
Greville (C. C. F.) -
Grose (T. H.) -
Gross (C.)
Grove (F. C.) -

(Mrs. Lilly)

Gurdon (Ladv Camilla)
Gurnhill (J.)' -
Gwilt(J.)-

Haggard (H. Rider)- 21, 31

Hake (O.) - - - 12

Halliwell-Phillippsd.) 8

Hamilton (Col. H. B.) j

Hamlin (A. D. F.) -

Harding (S. B.)

Harte (Bret) -

Harting(J. E.)-

Hartwig (G.) -

Hassall (A.) -

Haweis (H. R.) - 8,

Head (Mrs.) -

Heath (D. D.) -

Heathcote (J. M.) -

(C.G.) -

(N.) - - -

Helmholtz (Hermann
von) -

Henderson (Lieut-
Col. G. F.)

Henry (W.)
Henty (G. A.) -
Herbert (Col. Kenney)
Herod (Richard S.) -
Hiley (R. W.) -
Hillier (G. Lacy) -
Hime(H. W.L.) -
Hodgson (Shadworth)i5
Hoenig (F.)
Hogan (J. F.) -
Holmes (R. R.)
Holroyd (M. J.)
Homer

Hope (Anthony)
Horace - - -
Houston (D. F.I
Howard (Ladv Mabell
Howitt (W.) ' -
Hudson (W. H.) -
Huish (M. B.) -
Hullah(J.)
Hume (David) -
Hunt (Rev. W.)
Hunter (Sir W.) -
Hutchinson (Horace G.)

II, 13

Ingelow (lean) • iq

Ingram (T. D.) - 5

Page

Jefferies (Richard) - 31
Jekyll (Gertrude) - 31
Jerome (Jerome K.) - 22
Johnson (J. & J. H.) 31
Jones (H. Bence) - 25
Jordan (W. L.) - 17
I Joyce (P. W.) - 5, 22, 31
t Justinian : - - 15

Kant (I.) -• - - 15

i Kaye (Sir J. W.) - 5

Kelly (E.)- - - 15

' Kent (C. B. R.) - 5

, Kerr (Rev. J.) - - 12

Killick (Rev. A. H.) - 15

Kingsley (Rose G.) - 29

Kitchin (Dr. G. W.) 5

Knight (E. F.) - - g, 12

Kostlin (J.) - - S

Ladd (G. T.) - - 15
Lang (Andrew) 5, 10, 11, 13, i
17,18,19,20,21,22,26,31, 32
Lapsley (G. T.) - 5

Lascelles (Hon. G.) 10, 12
Lawrence (F. W.) - 17
Laurie (S. S.) - - 5

Lawley (Hon. F.) - :i
Lear (H. L. Sidnev) - 2g
Lecky (W. E. H.)' 5, 15, ig
Lees (J. A.) - - g

LesHe (T. E. Cliffe) - 17
Levett-Yeats (S.) - 22 \
Lillie (A.) - - - 13
Lindley (J.) - - 25 ;
Loch (C. S.) - - 30 1
Lodge (H. C.) - - 5

4 i Loftie (Rev. W. J.) - 5

29 i Longman (C. J.) 10, 13, 30
5 (F. W.) - - 13

21 I (G. H.) - - II, 12

12 1 (Mrs. C. J.) - 29

24 ] Lowell (A. L.) - - 5

7 I Lubbock (Sir John) - 17 !

30 j Lucan ■ - - 18 ■
2g I Lutoslawski (W.) - 15
14 : Lyall (Edna) - - 22
12 I Lynch (H. F. B.) - 9
12 j Lyttelton (Hon. R. H.) 10

9 I (Hon. A.) - - 12

Lytton (Earl of) - 5. 19

lames (W.)
Jameson (Mrs. Anna)

Macaulay (Lord) 5, 6, ig
Macdonald (G.) - g

(Dr. G.) - - ig, 32

Macfarren(Sir G. A.) 29
Mackail (J. W.) - 8, 18
Mackinnon (J.) - 6

Macleod (H. D.) - 17
Macpherson (Rev. H. A.)i2
Madden (D. H.) - 13
Magnusson (E.) - 22
Maher (Rev. M.) - 16
Malleson(Col.G.B.) 5

Mann (E. E.) - - 29
Marbot (Baron dc) - 8

Marchment (A. W.) 22

Marshman (J. C.) - '8
Martineau (Dr. James) 32
Maryon (M.) - - ■ 31
Mason (A. E. W.) - 22
Maskelyne (J.N.) - 13
Matthews (B.) - 31

Maunder (S.) - - 25
Max Muller (F.)

8, 15, 16, 17, 22, 31, 32
May(SirT. Erskinel 6

Meade (L. T.) - - 26
Melyille(G.J.Whyte) 22
Merivale (Dean) - 6

Merriman 'H. S.) - 22
Mill (John Stuart) - 15, 17
Millias (J. G.) - • 13
Milner (G.) - - 31
Moffat (D.) - - 13, 19
Monck(W. H. S.l - 15

Page

Montague (F. C.) - 6

Moon (G. W.) - - 19

Moore (T.) - - 25

(Rev. Edward) - 14

Morgan (C. Lloyd) - 17

Morris (Mowbray) - 11

( W.) 18, 19, 20, 22, 30, 31

Mulhall (M. G.) - 17

Nansen (F.) - - 9

Nash (V.)- - - 6

Nesbit (E.) - - 20

Nettleship (R. L.) - 15 ',

Newman (Cardinal) - 22

Oldfield (Hon. Mrs.) 7
Onslow (Earl of) - 11,12

Osbourne (L.) - - 23

Park (W.) - - 14
Pavne-Gallwey (Sir

■ R.) - - - II, 14

Pearson (C. H.) - 8

Peek (Hedley) - - 11
Pemberton (W. S.

Childe-) - - 7

Pembroke (Earl of) - 12

Pennant (C. D.) - 12
Phillipps-Wollev(C
Pitman (C. M.)
Pleydell-Bouverie (E. O.) 12

Pole (W.) - - - 14
Pollock (W. H.) - 11,31

Poole (W. H. and Mrs.) 29

Pooler (C. K.) - - 20

Poore (G. V.) - - 31

Pope (W. H.) - - 12

Powell (E.) - - 6

Praeger (S. Rosamond) 26

Prevost (C.) - - 11

Pritchett (R. T.) - 12
Proctor (R. A.) 14, 24, 28

Raine (Rev. James) - 5

Randolph iC. F.) - 6
Rankin (R.)
Ransome (Cvril)
Raymond (W.)
Reader (Emily E.) -
Rhoades(J.) -
Rice (S. P.)
Rich (A.) -
Richardson (C.)
Rickaby (Rev. John)

(Rev. Joseph) ■

Ridley (Sir E.)-

(Alice)

Riley (J. W.) -
Roget (Peter M.)
Romanes (G. J.)

8, 15, 17, 20, 32

(Mrs. G.J.) - 8

Ronalds (A.) - - 14

Roosevelt (T.) - - =;

Ross iMartin) - - 23
Rossetti (Maria Fran-

cesca) - - - 31

Rotheram (M. A.) - 29

Rowe (R. P. P.) - II

; Russell (Lady)- - 8

Page
23

31
31
17

7. 14
24

8,23

Somerville (E.)
Sophocles
Soulsby(LucyH.)
Southev (R.) -
Spahr (C. B.) -
Spedding(J.) -
Stanley (Bishop)
Stebbing (W.) -
Steel (A. G.) -
Stephen (Leslie) - 10
Stephens (H. Morse) 6

Sternberg (Count

Adalbert) - - 7

Stevens (R. W.) - 32
Stevenson (R. L.) 20,23,26
Stock (St. George) - 15
Storr (F.) - - - 14
Stuart-Wortley (A. J .) 1 1 , la
Stubbs (J. W.) - - 7

Suffolk & Berkshire

(Earl of) - - II
Sullivan (Sir E.) - 12
Sully (James) - - 16
Sutherland (A. and G.) 7

(Alex.) - - 16, 32

7 I (G.) - - - 32

12 I Suttner (B. von) - 23

12 I Swan (M.) - - 23

10,22 I Swinburne (A. J.) - 16

Symes (J. E.) - - 17

3,6

10, 12
16
16
18
23
20

16, 25

Tavlor (Meadows) -

7

— - (Una)

23

Tebbutt (C. G.)

12

Terry (C. S.) -

8

Thornhill (W. J.) -

18

Thornton (T. H.) -

8

Todd (A.) -

7

Tovnbee (A." -

17

Trevelvan (Sir G. O.) 6, 7, 8

(G. M.) -

6.7

Trollope (Anthony) -

23

Turner (H. G.)

32

TyndalUJ.)

7,10

TyrrelKR. Y.)-

18

Saintsbury (G.) - 12
Sandars (T. C.) - 15

Savage-.Armstrong(G.F.)20
Seebohm (F.) - - 6, 8
Selous (F. C.) - - 10, 14
Senior (W.) - -11,12
Sewell (Elizabeth M.) 23
Shakespeare - - 20
Shand (A I.) - - 12
Shaw (W. A.) - - 6

Shearman (M.) - 10, 11

Sinclair (A.) - - 12
Smith (R. Bosworth) 6

(T. C.) - - 5

(W. P. Haskett) 10 Zeller (E.)

Upton(F.K.and Bertha) 26

Van Dske (J. C.) - 30

Virgil - - - 18

Wagner (R.) - - 20

Wakeman (H. O.) - 7

Walford (L. B.) - 23

Wallas (Graham) - 8

Walpole (Sir Spencer) 7

Walrond (Col. H.) - 10

Walsingham (Lord)- 11

Ward (Mrs. W.) - 23

Warwick (Countess of) 32
Watson (A. E.T.) 10,11,12

Weathers (J.) - - 32
Webb (Mr. and Mrs.

Sidney) - - 17

(T. E.) - - 16, 19

Weber (A.) - - 16

Weir (Capt. R.) - 11
Wellington (Duchess

of) - - - 30

West (B. R.) - - 23

Weyman (Stanley) - 23
Whatelv(Archbishop) 14, 16

White (W. H.) - 20
Whitelaw (R.) -
Wilcocks (J. C.)
Wilkins (G.) -
Willard (A. R.)
Willich (C. M.)
Witham (T. M.)
Wood (Rev. J. G.) -
Wood-Martin (W. G.)

Wordsworth (W.) - 20

Wyatt (A. J.) - - 19

Wylie (J. H. - - 7

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