SIs iPS Fe, ASAE ep ioe PENA) ai ‘ SAE A Br: ; 3 Aly 92) o ete ia et he ‘i ak is ae iat NEAT ale Pace pi ceed Races 4 ive it — ana pAe. arn iM af ‘4 “ae Pm attenuate iA Soa ee { 4 F | a a 4 4 A: RIAL ESTA Gan SSeS IN ES Sak Satan Seen eos LA Mk Gd, . Preei oeettas PRESATAEINRS ans oeapaeaeey: Serr Peat ra eaeeaa ena ts or NGrit i By ip alan j 33 BN te —~ eee rela SS. idee Giteweess rt : Paetshacscesses | atin | HORTUS GRAMINEUS Wovurnensis, OR, AN ACCOUNT OF THE RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS ON THE PRODUCE AND NUTRITIVE QUALITIES OF DIFFERENT GRASSES, Je. FC. USED AS THE FOOD OF THE MORE VALUABLE DOMESTIC ANIMALS, INSTITUTED BY JOHN DUKE OF BEDFORD. ILLUSTRATED WITH FORTY-FIVE PLATES. Dine a eV HRINTH HDITION.*” TO WHICH IS ADDED, ( f)i-M THE WEEDS OF AGRICULTURE, BY GEORGE SINCLAIR, F.LS., F.H.S., GARDENER TO THE LATE DUKE OF BEDFORD. LONDON: W. RIDGWAY, 169, PICCADILLY. 1869. ’ ne Veh Oe Cae WAS 4 i iy lh ap at ‘ ee e Z LIST OF PLATES. ANTHOXANTHUM ODORATUM %.......cvivecscwsaecerecse to face page 82 DACEY IIS CLOMEERER <5. ..ccc.cneqnas -easetastancaaden ties seeacaeccessean secs 83 PMOPEEUTUS PLALENSIS <2es.snye ncn deceeanceaaest . Sen ORean LadecnnddanatiecBnceooneuert Sea soco 89 SC YMOSITUS: CTISLAGHS. ,.. <<. ccna sa scanaveancssssr iacmesandanadenesnsacaateneues 90 ee hited CUTIUSCUIG:. |. occvcenesscensanes sex saecuetectualeneccucltimeeledathiadeere 93 Camibrica es | cc2.-gaeessse nat sedan slesaracewenes dcencoeeeeees ado JAAS PAYERS TS conpeeeerinaosoars osocctore. Daccocosqddbocodendac Beldieosvecces 98 kiolcus lanatius ebanollis) .<. cs. dcesvaccccekecccsndeen> ctsccoasadeaetenseceeess 101 AVENACEUE ac cacecsiee ah blocesdisonendenadatierticens dye sesiowtiae . 104 STOMIUS ATVENSIS bo lise cuss uetoncncecode cee eeeecee ce tesecncncciecsens 107 Oat; LOBES) s accsceesh otesnsatenactnusaneu ts Tease ste sade aust sae anaes oeedae 117 Pleura Pratense: MIAjOE’ pices COS GD TER Ze — WAS Z7 é ~ Odoralum. Anthoxanthum Clomeratu. HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. 83 chemical examination of its nutritive matter shows that it does not abound in sugar, but chiefly in mucilage ; and the insoluble extract is in a greater proportion than in many other grasses. Its merits, however, in respect to early growth, continuing to vegetate and throw up flowering stalks till the end of autumn, and its hardy nature, suffi- ciently uphold its claim to a place in all permanent pastures. The superior nutritive quality of its latter-math is a great recommendation for the purpose of grazing, the stalks being of but little utility, as they are generally left untouched by the cattle, provided there be a sufficiency of succulent herbage. It is said to give to new-mown hay that delightful scent which is peculiar to it: if it be not the sole cause of the fragrance, it certainly adds considerably to its sweetness. About the middle of April it comes into flower, and the seed is ripe about the first or second week of June. DACTYLIS glomerata. Round panicled Cock’s-foot grass. Specific character: panicle crowded, pointing one way ; leaves keeled ; native of Britain. Experiments. — The produce of herbage from a space of four square feet of a rich sandy loam, on the 15th April, is per acre, in weight (calculated proportionally), 10,209 lbs. Produce at time of flowering 27,905 Ibs. ; at time the seed is ripe, 26,544 lbs. The proportional value at the time the seed is ripe, to that at the time of flowering, is as seven to five. The produce of after- math is 11,910 lbs. By various other tests to which the leaves and stems were submitted at different periods of their growth, the author found that the stems, when full grown, contain more nutri- ment than the leaves at any time; and his general conclu- sions respecting this grass are, that it is more valuable for pasture than for hay, and for the latter purpose is superior to ray grass, and many others. If constantly kept closely grazed, it yields a greater profit than used in any other way, merely because the leaves grow rapidly and give a full bite. G 2 84 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. Oxen, horses, and sheep eat this erass readily. For the superiority of this over ray grass, proved by an extensive cultivation of it, the agricultural world is indebted to the Earl of Leicester, who first persevered in the culture of it at Holkham. The seed was first brought into market by Messrs. Gibbs, seedsmen, Half-Moon Street, Piccadilly, and who have continued to cultivate this and every other sort of grass recommended to farmers by the author of this work, ALOPECURUS pratensis. Meadow Fox-tail orass. Specific character: flowers in a spike; straw upright ; calyx hairy ; blossom awned. Native of Europe. Experiments. — A similar quantity of the herbage of this species, cut on the 12th April, yielded 9,528 Ibs. per acre; and at the time of flowering 20,418 lbs. from off a clayey loam. The produce from a sandy loam was 8,507 lbs. The after-math from the clayey loam weighed 8,167 Ibs. The proportional value of the grass of the latter-math to that at the time of flowering, is as twenty-four to thirteen; and the crop, at the time the seed is ripe, is to that of the latter-math as three to two. This grass, under the best management, does not attain to its full perfection till it is four years from the seed: hence it is inferior to the cock’s-foot for the purpose of alternate cropping. The herbage, however, contains more nutritive matter than that of the cock’s-foot, though the weight of grass produced in one season is considerably less. It thrives well under irrigation, keeping possession of the crowns of the ridges: it is strictly permanent, Sheep are very fond of it: when combined with white clover only, the second season, on a sandy loam, it is sufficient for the support of five couples of ewes and lambs per acre. As it only thrives on moderately moist land, and being longer in arriving at full productiveness, its merits have been misunderstood in many instances; and in others, as in the alternate hus- bandry, it has been by some persons set aside altogether. HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. 85 It is the principal grass in all rich natural pastures; and therefore, in laying down permanent pastures, it should always form one-eighth of any mixture of seeds used for that purpose. Its merits demand this preference, whether with respect to early growth, produce, nutritive qualities, or per- manency. Birds are fond of the seeds, and therefore the seeds should be collected from the first culms that ripen. It flowers in April, May, and June, according as it may have been depastured earlier or later. Seed ripens in June and July, according to the season of flowering. POA pratensis. Smooth-stalked Meadow grass. Specific character: panicle spreading ; spikelets five- flowered, smooth; straw erect, round; root creeping, perennial. Native of Britain. Obs. — This grass is distinguished from the poa trivialis, rough-stalked meadow grass, by its strong creeping roots, and the sheaths of the straw being smooth; whereas in the poa trivialis the sheaths are rough to the touch; the sheath scale is blunt, in the other it is pointed, and so are the leaves. Experiments.— At the time of flowering, the produce from a clayey loam, rich with vegetable matter, of active peat, is 10,209 lbs. per acre; when the seed is ripe, 8,507 lbs. ; and the latter-math weighed 4,083 lbs. This species sends forth its stems but once in the year ; and these being the most valuable for hay, though too small in quantity, it is on this account better adapted for pastur- age than for the scythe. But upon the whole it is an inferior grass; its strong creeping roots exhaust the soil; its growth after mowing is slow; and its spring growth, though early, is inconsiderable; and, upon the whole, it is unfit to be introduced among the superior sorts. It flowers in the beginning of June, and ripens seed in the beginning of July. POA caerulea. Short Blue Meadow grass. Specific character: panicle diffuse ; spikelets oval, gene- 86 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. rally three-flowered ; husks acute, connected by a villus ; sheath-scale very short, obtuse. Obs. — This grass is allied to the poa pratensis, but may be distinguished therefrom by its delicate sky-blue or glaucous colour. The root is powerfully creeping. Native of Britain*. Experiments.— At the time of flowering, the produce froma clayey loam enriched with bog earth is 7,486 lbs. per acre. The produce of latter-math is 4,084 lbs. per acre. This grass is common in meadows where the soil is peaty ; it generally inhabits the drier parts. It ts eaten by horses, oxen, and sheep, indifferently with other grasses; hares, however, prefer the poa pratensis to this: for five successive years they cropped a patch of the poa pratensis, and left un- touched a similar space of this grass that grew close by it. The proportion of saccharine matter was greater, in the nutritive matter of the poa pratensis, compared to that of the other constituents, mucilage and bitter extractive, than in the nutritive matter of this species of poa, which contained more bitter extractive. This seems to confirm, with respect to the liking of the hare, what Sir Humphry Davy has proved with respect to the grasses most liked by cattle, ‘that they have either a saline or subacid taste.” | On a rich warm springy gravel, shaded with shrubs, Mr. Taunton found this grass rismg to the height of three feet in the culm, and having an exceedingly handsome ap- pearance, from fine luxuriant foliage; but on a stiff clay he never found it exceed ten inches in height. What was before said of the demerits of the poa pratensis likewise applies to this grass; and, from the above facts, it is evidently one of the inferior pasture grasses, and cannot be recommended for cultivation with any prospect of advantage, unless in particularly dry soils, where supe- * In the following digest of the work, all the authorities and re- ferences to other works are left out, as well as all botanical criticism, fractions of quantities, in short, all redundant matter of which no use could now be made.— Ep. HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. 87 rior grasses do not thrive. Flowers in the beginning of June, and ripens the seed in the beginning of July. POA trivialis. Rough-stalked Meadow-grass. Specific character: panicle rather spreading; spikelets three-flowered ; florets lanceolate, five-ribbed, con- nected by a web; stipula oblong; stem and _ leaves roughish ; root fibrous. Obs. The great roughness of the culms and leaves mani- fested when drawn between the fingers, the sharp- pointed sheath-scale, and the fibrous root, so conspi- cuous in this species, sufficiently distinguish it from the poa pratensis. Native of Britain; root perennial. Lixperiments.—At the time of flowering, the produce from a brown loam with manure is 7,486 ibs. per acre. The produce of the latter-math is 4,764 Ibs. per acre. The proportional value in which the grasses of the latter- math exceeds that of the flowering crop, is as 3 to 2, and that of the seed crop as 12 to 11. Here then is a satisfactory proof of the superior value of the crop at the time the seed is ripe, and of the consequent loss sustained by taking it when in flower; because, in this instance, the weight of each crop is nearly the same, and the latter-math, which would be produced in the time that is taken up in perfecting the seed, is infinitely less than that of many other species of grass, where the loss of latter-math, under such circumstances, would far outweigh any supe- riority of the nutritive qualities of the crop at the time the seed is ripe, if such superiority was great, which is seldom found. The weight of hay produced from grass of the flowering crop is much less than that which is produced by an equal weight of the grass of the seed crop. In Mr. Young’s Annals of Agriculture we are informed, that so long ago as the year 1785, Mr. Boys, of Betshanger in Kent, a farmer of the highest reputation, raised, at much expense, and several years’ attention, from twenty to thirty bushels of the seed of this grass, which he then offered for sale at 88 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. three shillings per pound. He says that it makes a very fine thick turf, and will produce a great quantity of very excellent grass from moist rich soils. He used the straw after the seed was thrashed, instead of hay, for his riding- horses, and they preferred it to his best meadow hay. To have the land covered thick, more than seven pounds of seed should be sown to the acre. Dr. Smith observes, that it does not bear the frost so well, nor does it shoot so early in the spring, as the poa pratensis; but when the weather becomes warm enough to make grasses in general shoot, this grows faster, and produces a greater crop of bottom Jeaves than most others. The experiments above detailed were made before I met with the observations of Mr. Young and Dr. Smith, just qaoted, and all my observations tend to confirm those opinions concerning this grass, except as regards its fitness to form a pasture of itself, stated by Mr. Boys. The superior produce of this poa over many other species, its highly nutritive qualities, the seasons in which it arrives at perfection, and the marked partiality which oxen, horses, and sheep have for it, are merits which distinguish it as one of the most valuable of those grasses, which affect moist rich soils and sheltered situations: but on dry exposed situations it is altogether inconsiderable; it yearly dimi- nishes, and ultimately dies off, not unfrequently in the space of four or five years. Its produce is always much greater when combined with other grasses than when cultivated by itself: with a proper admixture it will nearly double its produce, though on the same soil, so much it delights in shelter. Those spots in pastures that are most closely eaten down, consist for the most part of this grass: I have exa- mined many pastures with this view, and always found it the case wherever this grass was more predominant. From all which it appears, that the poa iriviahs, though highly valuable as a permanent pasture grass on rich and sheltered soils, is but little adapted for the alternate husbandry, and unprofitable for any purpose on dry exposed situations. It flowers towards the end of June, and ripens the seed in the middle of July. 7 cosy f, i ce “} & 2 " c ‘ee as | | Slee HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. 89 FESTUCA pratensis. Meadow Fescue. Specific character: Panicle nearly upright, branched, spreading, turned to one side; spikelets linear, com- pressed ; florets numerous, cylindrical, obscurely ribbed ; nectary four-cleft ; root fibrous. Refer.— Fig. 1. Spikelet magnified, showing florets and the calyx. 2. Four-cleft nectary. 3. Obvate germen, with its short styles and thick feathery stigmas. Native of Britain. Root fibrous, perennial. Obs.— Dr. Withering makes this a variety of the festuca elatior; but it is more justly made a distinct species in SirJ. E. Smith’s English Botany, and in his English Flora. It differs from the festuca elatior in being only half the height, the leaves only half the breadth, the panicle shorter, and containing only half the number of flowers. The panicle is but once branched, droops but slightly, and leans to one side when in flower, and the flowers grow all one way. In the elutior the pa- nicle branches both ways, it droops much at first, and ihe flowers grow much more loosely ; the spikelets are more round, ovate, and pointed: whereas in the pra- fensis they are somewhat linear, flat, and obtuse. Experiments. —On the 16th of April, the produce from a fertile peat soil, with coal ashes as manure, is 10,890 lbs. per acre. The grass at the time of flowering is of greater value than at the time the seed is ripe, proportionally as 3 to 1. The weight of nutritive matter which is lost by leaving the crop of this grass till the seed be ripe, is therefore very great, That it should lose more of its weight at this stage e growth than at the time of flowering, perfectly agrees with the deficiency of nutritive matter in the seed crop, 1 proportion to the nutritive matter aflorded by the dorenre crop; the straws being succulent in the grass of the latter crop, while those of the former are dry, and constitute a much smaller proportion of the weight of the crop than in the flowering crop. It may be observed here, that there is a great difference between culms and leaves of grasses that have been dried after they were cut in a green and succulent 90 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. state, or in possession of their nutrient qualities, and those culms and leaves which have been dried (if I may so express it) by Nature when growing: the former retain all their nutritive powers, but the latter very little, if any. In point of early produce in the spring, this grass stands next to the alopecurus pratensis (meadow fox-tail), and is superior in this respect to the cock’s-foot. It is eaten by horses, oxen, and sheep, but particularly by the two first: its merits will be more clearly seen by com- paring it farther with the cock’s-foot and meadow fox-tail. As it is often three weeks later in flowering than the fox-tail grass, the latter-math produce must be left out for the truth of comparison, as regards its comparative value for hay ; and as it is much slower in growth after being cropped than the cock’s-foot, it is likewise necessary to omit the latter-math in a comparison of their produce. The meadow fescue constitutes a very considerable portion of the herbage of all rich natural pastures and irrigated meadows ; it makes excellent hay, and though a large plant, the leaves or herbage are succulent and tender, and appa- rently much liked by cattle, as they never form rank tufts, which is the case with the larger grasses. It does not appear to arrive at its full productive powers from seed so soon as either the cock’s-foot or fox-tail grass, and though essential for permanent pasture, is not by itself very well adapted for the alternate husbandry, but should be combined with cock’s-foot, ray-grass, and rough-stalked meadow-grass. Mr. Taunton’s experience of this grass on a stiff clayey soil proved, that a copious crop of seed-stalks may be obtained the second year from sowing. Flowers in June, and ripens the seed at the end of July and the beginning of August. In the deep alluvial soils in Lincolnshire, this grass is not so prevalent as in the clay districts. In the vale of Aylesbury it constitutes a considerable portion of the most valuable and fattening pastures of that rich grazing district. CYNOSURUS cristatus. Crested Dog’s-tail grass. Specific character: Spike simple, linear; neuter spikelets without awns. 7g. 1. Spikelets, showing the floral CY Nosurus Cristatus. Ve ° Sg rae, HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. 91 leaves and neuter florets. 2. Ditto, mag. 3. Floret, 4. Germen, valves, or nectary. Obs.— Floral leaves deeply divided into awl-shaped seg- ments. Husks generally containing three flowers. Smaller valve of the blossom ending in two points: larger valve ending in a short awn. Florets all facing one way. This grass is often viviparous; in wet seasons | have found it generally so, in Woburn Park under the trees. I have found the alopecurus pratensis under the like circumstances viviparous. nial. Native of Britain. Experiments.—At the time of flowering, the produce from a brown loam, with manure, is 6125 lbs. per acre. The produce of latter-math is 3,403 lbs. per acre. The proportion in which the grass at the time of flowering exceeds that at the time the seed is ripe, with respect to nutritive powers, is as 17 to 10, and is superior to the latter- math in the like proportion. The quantity of grass at the time the seed is ripe, is just twice as much as at the time of flowering; but the grass at the former period contains nearly twice the quantity of nutri- tive matter, as appears above; and when the latter-math, which would be produced during the time the seed was ripening, is added to this, it shows the superior advantage of taking the crop when the grass is in flower. The culms of this grass are of a wiry nature, and, at the time the seed is ripe, contain no nutritive matter. The leaves are rather slow in growth, are short, but form a dense turf; hence, the weight of grass at the time the seed is ripe is greater than at the time of flowering, but contains proportionally less nutri- tive matter. It is therefore inferior for the purpose of hay, but admirably adapted for permanent pasture. The roots - penetrate to a considerable depth in the ground, from which circumstance it continues green after most other grasses are hurt by a continuance of dry weather. Mr. Curtis observes, that it affects a dry soil, and that it will not thrive in mea- dows that are wet; but I have always found it more abun- dant in moist, or rather tenacious elevated soils, than in those of a drier and more sandy nature. In irrigated mea- Root peren- 92 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. dows it thrives in perfection, attaining to a greater size than in any other situation. In some parts of Woburn Park, this grass constitutes the principal part of the herbage, on which the deer and South Down sheep chiefly browse, while another part of the Park, which consists chiefly of the agros- tis vulgaris fascicularis, agrostis vulgaris tenuifolia, festuca ovina, festuca duriuscula, and festuca Cambrica, is seldom touched by them; but the Welsh breed of sheep almost constantly browse on these, and almost entirely neglect the cynosurus cristatus, lohum perenne, and poa trivialis. There has been a difference of opinion with respect to the merits of this grass: it certainly does not afford so early a bite to cattle in the spring as many other grasses, and the culms are uniformly left untouched : but this is more owing to the season in which they are produced, than to any particular defect; as there is then a profusion of root leaves and herb- age in general, which is always preferred by cattle to the culms: when the grass is in flower, the culms are succu- lent, and contain much nutritive matter ; it is all, however, exhausted in perfecting the seed. If this grass is employed only for the alternate hubandry, and its merits from thence estimated, it will be considered an inferior grass, as it is by no means adapted for that purpose, either with respect to speedily arriving at perfection, early growth, or quantity of produce ; but it forms a close dense turf of grateful nutritive herbage, and is little affected by the extremes of wea- ther, where other grasses, superior in the fore-mentioned points, would be produced in tufts, and injured by the ex- tremes of weather. From these facts it is evident, a sward of the best quality, particularly under circumstances where sheep are a principal object, cannot be formed without an admixture or proportion of the crested dog’s tail grass. In all the most celebrated pastures I have examined, it consti- tuted a very considerable portion of the produce. It flowers towards the end of June, and ripens the seed towards the end of July. The culms are valuable for the manufacture of straw bonnets*. *In the opinion of those who have the care of high-bred horses, the best hav to be met with in the London markets is the upland mea- SCLOIC CC HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. 95 FESTUCA duriuscula. Hard Fescue. Specific character: Panicle unilateral, spreading ; florets longer than their awns; stem round, upper leaves flat, root fibrous. Hg. 1. Calyx, with unequal valves. 2. Floret, or corolla and anthers. 3. Germen, or rudi- ment of the future seed, and the feathered cylindrical stigmas. Obs.—Sir James Edward Smith, in his English Botany, observes, “‘that in this genus it is hard to say what may, or what may not be a species;” and, with his usual force and clearness, he reduces the festuca glauca, festuca glabra, festuca Cambrica, festuca duriuscula, and festuca rubra, of Hudson, Lightfoot, Withering, Winch, and Stillingfleet, &c. into one species. All these grasses vary much from change of soil and situation ; the flowers are particularly apt to vary in number, as well as in the length of their awns: there is one cha~ racter, however, which I have never found to change under any variety of culture, which is the creeping root; and this is also an agricultural character of dis- tinction which is never to be lost sight of, as it always produces a specific effect upon the soil, very distinct in- deed from that of the fibrous-rooted kinds. The botani- cal characters given by the learned, being, therefore, insufficient to distinguish these grasses (which I have no doubt will be equally so with many of the present specific distinctions of plants, when discoveries have been sufficiently extended over every country), I will here consider them of two distinct species—the creep- ing-rooted, and the fibrous-rooted : noting their varieties from other parts of the plant. This will be sufficient for the purposes of the agriculturist; or, at least, to practical men the discriminating characters will be dow hay, from the neighbourhood of Hendon. The crop is usually cut early in June, and consists chiefly of the cynosurus cristatus ; hence this species is called, par excellence, the Hendon bent,— EDITOR, 94 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. much less embarrassing, and obviate, in a great measure, in these plants the danger of mistake. Root fibrous. Perennial. Lxperiments. — At the time of flowering, the produce from a clayey loam with manure, is 18,376 lbs. per acre. The produce of latter-math is 10,209 lbs. The proportional value in which the grass, at the time of flowering, exceeds that of the latter-math, is as 14 to 5; and to that at the time the seed is ripe, as 6 to 5. The above details confirm the favourable opinion which most writers have expressed respecting this grass. It is most prevalent on light rich soils; but it is likewise always found in the richest natural pastures, where the soil is more retentive of moisture, and is never absent from irrigated meadows that have been properly formed. It appears to be one of the best of the fine, or dwarf-growing grasses ; which are best adapted for the food of sheep, as the festuca ovina, festuca rubra, poa pratensis, agrostis vulgaris, &c. Hares are fond of this grass, they cropped it close to the roots, and entirely neglected the festuca rubra and festuca ovina, which grew contiguous to it. It attains to the greatest per- fection when combined with the festuca pratensis and poa trivialis. It springs rather early, and the produce is re- markably fine and succulent. It withstands the effects of severe dry weather in rich natural pastures better than many other grasses. This property, joined to its merits above- mentioned, entitle it to a place in the composition of the best pastures, though in a smaller proportion, on account of its inferior productive powers, which are not compensated by any superiority in the nutritive qualities of the grass over those grasses that are more productive, as is the case with the poa trivialis, and some other species. The superiority of these natural pastures over those pas- tures which are formed of one or two grasses only, in respect of a constant or never-failing supply of herbage throughout the season, is in one poimt, among many others, owing to the variety of habits which exist in a numerous assemblage of different grasses. Some species thrive best in an excess of moist weather; others in a continuance of dry weather ; SSS SA SSS — ——\ IwN SS =a ff \ = = HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. 95 but the majority of the grasses which compose the produce of the pastures in question, thrive best in a middle state be- tween moisture and dryness. Observation will furnish abun- dant proofs of the truth of this, by comparing the different states of productiveness in natural pastures, during a season of changeable weather, with those of artificial pastures under the like influence of soil and climate. It flowers about the middle of June, and ripens the seed in the third week of July. When cultivated on a poor siliceous soil, or on a thin heath soil, the culms become very fine and slender, and promise to be valuable for the manufacture of straw hats. FESTUCA Cambrica. Welsh Fescue. Specific character: Panicle compact, oblong, upright, branched, spikelets awl-shaped, awned, leaves flat.— Fig. 1. Spikelet magnified. 2. Floret magnified, show- ing the spreading-feathered stigmas. Obs.— This consTAnT variety of festuca rubra is distin- guished at first sight from the festuca ovina, and varieties of festuca rubra, and festuca duriuscula, by the pale green colour of the panicle and culm. The root leaves grow more upright and flat; when cultivated, the spike- lets consist of ten or twelve florets. Stipules membrane- ous, blunt. Root creeping. Perennial. Experiments.— At the time of flowering, the produce from a sandy soil is 6,806 lbs. per acre. The value of the grass at each stage of growth is equal. The superior weight of nutritive matter afforded by the crop at the time the seed is ripe, arises from the increase of grass which takes place during the time the seed is perfecting ; and in this case, as in all others where it is shown that the nutritive matter of the seed crop exceeds that contained in the flowering crop, the loss of latter-math which would have been produced in the time the seed was perfecting must always be considered: this caution is perhaps unnecessary to the truly practical farmer. When the practice becomes general of saving the necessary quantity of seed for the farm, 96 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. (which [ doubt not will happen, though at a remote period), these comparisons between the value of the flowering and seed crops will possess their proper interest. The seed crops of the natural grasses are in general, at least as far as my observations have reached, left too long growing ; the green, or the withered state of the culms, is an uncertain criterion to judge of the ripeness of the seed of the perennial grasses, though generally good for the different annual sorts. In the greater part of the perennial grasses, the culms are far from being either withered or dry when the seed is ripe, which is determined, in almost all cases, by passing the spike or panicle between the fingers ; if a portion of the seed separate by this means, it will be found in the best state for collect- ing; it should, however, be ‘suffered to remain in the ears after being cut until the grass be perfectly dry. When the grass is suffered to remain uncut till the culms are withered and dry, and the seed separates on a slight touch, the grass is rendered of little value, and the seed not improved in qua- lity: the best part of the seed is either lost by devouring birds or insects, or shaken out in the process of cutting and collecting. I have made a number of experiments on the seeds of grasses and other plants, by sowing at different de- grees of what is termed ripeness, and the results went always to prove the truth of the above remarks; also that diseased or imperfectly-formed seed always vegetated best when sown directly after being separated from the plant. An ounce of this seed vegetated by this treatment in three different trials ; the same seed, kept dry for two months only, did not vege- tate by the like means employed in sowing, or any other that I attempted. 1 have repeated experiments of this nature with much interest and care, but the principle still remained unaltered. The produce of latter-math is 6,125 Ibs. per acre. From the above results it appears, that this grass is much inferior to the festuca duriuscula in the quantity of its pro- duce, as well as in nutrient qualities ; which will be evident on a comparison of these properties, as mentioned in the fore- going details. It springs rather earlier than the hard fescue, and also rises better after being cropped, but not, apparently, HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. Q7 in a sufficient degree to compensate for its deficiencies in other respects. It is far from being so common as the f. du- riuscula, and inhabits the drier spots of pastures. Flowers some days earlier than the f: durtuscula, and ripens the seed about the same period as that grass. FESTUCA ovina hordeiformis. Long-awned Sheep’s Fescue. Specific character: Panicle compact, branches subdivided, upright. Spikelets crowded, six to ten flowered. Root leaves thread-shaped, stem leaves very long. Obs.—In the first account of the results of these experi- ments, this grass is received under the name of festuca hordeiformis. Though there are names received among botanists not less incongruous than this one, yet [ am happy to agree with the opinion of Mr. Sowerby in con- sidering it a variety of the festuca ovina. I am uncer- tain as to its native place of growth, having never dis- covered it in any soil or situation in a wild state. The culms are strongly marked with ribs. Root fibrous, perennial. Native of Britain ? Experiments.— At the time of flowering, the produce from a sandy soil with manure is 13,612 lbs. per acre. The produce of latter-math is 5,445 lbs. per acre. The proportional value in which the grass at the time of flowering exceeds that at the time the seed is ripe, is as 9 to 7: and it exceeds the value of the latter-math grass in the like proportion. The grass of the seed crop and that of the latter-math are equal in the quantity of nutritive matter they contain, a circumstance easily accounted for, as the culms at the time the seed is ripe are drier than in most other grasses at the same stage of growth; and the produce then consists almost entirely of leaves, similar to the latter- math produce. This species flowers earlier than any other of the fescue species. Its nutritive qualities are nearly the same as those of the festuca duriuscula. It is superior to that species and to most others in the produce of early herb- age in the spring; the herbage is very fine, tender, and suc- culent. It is highly superior to the festuca ovina, of which u 98 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. it is considered a variety. It does appear to possess merit in a sufficient degree to entitle it to a place in the composi- tion of the best pastures, particularly as a substitute for the festuca duriuscula, which might be effected with advantage on soils of a drier or sandy nature. It flowers in the last week of May, and ripens the seed in June. The culms are well adapted for the manufacture of the finest straw-plait, being very distant in the joints, and of an equal thick- ness throughout. By the compression of the straws, in the process of plaiting, the furrows of the culms disappeai entirely. AVENA /flavescens. Golden Oat, Yellow Oat-grass. Specific character: Panicle much branched, spreading, erect; calyx three-flowered, short, all the florets awned. Fig. 1. Calyx with its unequal valves. 3. The same magnified. 2. Floret, with the awn arising from above the middle of the outer valve. 4. The same magnified. 5. Germen obovate, stigmas densely feathery. 6. Styles short, distinct. Root fibrous, perennial. Native of Britain. Experiments. — At the time of flowering, the produce from a clayey loam is 8,167 lbs. per acre. The produce of latter-math is 4,083 Ibs. per acre. The proportional value in which the grass, at the time of flowering, exceeds that of the latter-math, is as 3 to 1; and the grass, at the time the seed is ripe, is to that of the latter- math as 9 to 5. This is one of those grasses which never thrives when cul- tivated simply by itself; it requires to be combined with other grasses to secure its continuance in the soil, and to obtain its produce in perfection. It thrives best when com- bined with the hordeum pratense (meadow barley), cynosurus cristatus (crested dog’s-tail), and anthoxanthum odoratum (sweet-scented vernal-grass). It affects most a calcareous soil, and that which is dry. It grows naturally, however, in almost every kind of soil, from the lime-stone rock to the irrigated meadow : it is always present in the richest natural HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. 99 pastures. From the above details, its produce is not very ereat, nor its nutritive qualities considerable. The nutritive matter it affords from its leaves (the properties of which are of more importance to be known than those of the culms, for a permanent pasture grass), contains proportionally more bitter extractive than what is contained in the nutritive matters of the grasses with which it is more generally com- bined in natural pastures, and which have just now been mentioned. This latter circumstance is the chief claim it has to a place in the composition of the produce of rich pasture land ; but more particularly, if the land be elevated and without good shelter, this grass becomes more valuable, as it thrives better under such circumstances than most other grasses, and sheep eat it as readily as they do most others. The seed is very small and light; but it vegetates freely if sown in the autumn, or not too early in the spring. I have sown the seeds of this grass in almost every month of the year; and, after making due allowance for the state of the weather, the third week in May, and the first week of August to September, were evidently the best. It flowers in the first and often in the second week of July, and ripens the seed in the beginning of August. HOLCUS lanatus. Woolly Soft-grass. Specific character: Root fibrous; calyx woolly; lower floret perfect, awnless, upper with an arched awn; leaves downy on both sides. Fig. 1. Calyx magnified, showing the dotted, hoary valves, the innermost broadest. 2. The two florets, shorter than the calyx. 3. Germen and slender-fea- thered stigmas. Obs.— Practical farmers often mistake this grass for the creeping-rooted soft-grass; I have therefore given a figure of the latter in the next following page, for the convenience of comparison, otherwise it belongs to another division of the subject, that is, grasses natural to sandy soils. The male, or unisexual floret, contains one pistil; the germen, or rudiment of the future seed, H 2 100 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. is similar to that of the fertile or bisexual floret, but much smaller; it is always abortive. Seed with a shining hardened coat, which was formerly the corolla. Native of Britain, Perennial. Experiments.— About the middle of April the produce from a clayey loam is 4,764 lbs. per acre. The proportional value in which the first grass of the spring is inferior to that at the time of flowering, is as 16 to 9; and the grass of the flowering crop exceeds that of the seed crop in the proportion of 16 to 11. The produce of latter-math is 6,806 Ibs. per acre. The grass of the latter-math is therefore of inferior value to that of the spring, to that at the time of flowering, and to that at the time the seed is ripe. This is a very common grass, and grows on all soils, from the richest to the poorest. It attains to the greatest degree of luxuriance on light moist soils; particularly on those of a peaty nature. Cattle prefer almost any other grass to this ; it is seen in pastures with full-grown perfect leaves, while the grasses that surround it are cropped to the roots. The numerous downy hairs which cover the surface of the whole plant render the hay that is made of it soft and spongy, and in this state it is disliked by cattle, particularly by horses. Sir Humphry Davy has shown that its nutritive matter consists entirely of mucilage and sugar; and that the nutritive matters of the grasses most liked by cattle have either a sub-acid or saline taste; and observes, that the taste of the nutritive matter of the holcus lanatus is similar to that of gum Arabic; and this grass might probably be made more palatable to cattle by being sprinkled over with salt. This may be done at so little expense and trouble at the time the hay is carried, that it cannot be too earnestly recommended to the notice of those gentlemen who may have much of this grass in their meadows or pastures. The late Duke of Bedford made trial of this grass on a large scale: the results proved that it was a very inferior grass for pasture or for hay. Its merits consist in being produc- tive and easy of cultivation. But it is disliked by cattle, is not an early grass, and when once in possession of the al 5 oe ee ew DY PL Lea Ret parent MR py ST nme Ime «rea PRES ee F = aes = fl : : ns “a - a af ae - —— Uh tT, as =—S : =e > Ser. AS UL. —s LZ Aa = SS y y) YF ZZ \W 4 LE <—— SSS SS Holcts Lanetus. Reais gO Holcus Molles. HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. 10] soil can hardly be again rooted out. There being so many grasses superior to this in every respect, it cannot support a good claim to a place in the composition of the best perma- nent pastures, and for cultivation singly, or by itself, it is wholly inadmissible. The quantity of nutritive matter it affords, and being found a constituent of the produce of some of the richest grazing lands in Devonshire, are cir- cumstances, however, which recommend it to a place, in a small degree, in permanent pastures, where the soil is not light and siliceous; where the soil is light and siliceous it will increase to a degree injurious to the superior grasses of the pasture. The seeds of the holcus lanatus should there- fore not be introduced under the circumstances of soil above mentioned without much caution. It produces a profusion of seed, which, being light, is easily dispersed by the winds; and though a late-flowering grass, the seed ripens sooner than that of most others, and before hay harvest begins is generally perfected. The question is, therefore, how to get free of it: hard stocking, and never sutiering it to run to seed, will at least prevent it from spreading farther. But ploughing up the pasture, and taking not less than a five years’ course of crops, and then returning the land to other grasses, will be found the best remedy. Flowers and ripens the seed in July. HOLCUS mollis. Creeping Soft-grass. - Specific character: Root-creeping ; calyx partly naked ; lower floret perfect, awnless, upper with a sharply-bent prominent awn ; leaves slightly downy. Fig. above, the two florets; the lower one perfect, awnless, the upper showing the recurved awn: which is a certain mark of distinction between this and the holcus lanatus. Ig. below, Calyx magnified. Right hand Fg., Germen and feathered stigma. Obs.—The creeping root of this species of soft grass at once determines it to be distinct from the holcus lanatus. The leaves are also narrower, and more soft than those of the holcus lanatus, and grow more distinct from each 102 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. other; on the contrary, those of the h. lanatus are in dense tufts. The awn in the /anatus is hid in the calyx ; but in the mollis it protrudes out of the calyx 5 it is also twisted and knee-bent, like that of an avena. The panicle of the danatus is generally of a reddish purple colour, tinged with green, or, when growing under the shade of trees, of a whitish green colour. The panicle of the h. mollis is always of a pale whitish green colour. Perennial. Native of Britain. Lxperiments.— At the time of flowering, the produce from a sandy soil is 34,031 Ibs. per acre. The proportional value in which the grass of the flowering crop exceeds that of the seed crop, is as 9 to 7. The above details prove this grass to have merits which, when compared with those of other species, rank it as one of the superior grasses ; but then it produces little herbage in the spring, and the latter-math is next to nothing. It is also a very late grass, and whatever merit it may possess with regard to a crop, at the time of flowering, it can only be taken into the account in relation to the soil which natu- rally produces it, which is a ight barren sandy soil. If we therefore compare its produce on such soils with that of other grasses, it will prove superior; but there it must remain, for on ali other soils it will be found inferior to most other grasses. The roots, when once in possession of the soil, can hardly be again expelled without great labour and expense. It is the true couch-grass of light sandy soils. I have found roots five feet in length, the growth of a few months only. The roots contain a very con- siderable quantity of nutritive matter, which has the fla- vour of new-made meal. Pigs are very fond of the roots, and dig them up with eagerness. How far it might be ad- vantageous to cultivate this grass on naked sands, for the sake of the roots, I shall not presume to determine: but the strong nutritive powers they possess, and the little expense that would attend their culture, warrant the recommendation of trial to those who may have such barren sands in their possession. The herbage is apparently more disliked by cattle HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. 103 than that of the holcus lanatus ; it is extremely soft, dry, and tasteless. The best mode of banishing this impoverishing and most troublesome weed from light arable lands that are infested with it, is to collect the roots with the fork after the plough; and when thus in some measure lessened, to apply yearly sufficient dressings of clay, perhaps fifty loads per acre, till the texture of the soil is changed to a sandy loam: this grass will then be easily overcome, and the fer- tility of the soil permanently increased. HOLCUS odoratus (repens). Sweet-scented Soft-grass, or Northern Holy-grass. Specific character: Panicle somewhat unilateral; fruit- stalks smooth; perfect floret awnless; barren ones shehtly awned. Obs.— Botanists have made two species here, which I include in one, as I can perceive no difference in their structure, habits, or agricultural merits, sufficient to separate them. The nectary is the only part wherein these plants vary from each other in a sensible degree, but what may be accounted for from the circumstances of soil and situation. If they are to remain distinct species, they are artificial in no ordinary degree. Since the above remarks were first published, that important work, the English Flora, has been given to the public : from which it appears that this grass has been found a native of valleys among the Highlands of Scotland, and I willingly submit to the opinion of the author, in considering this species distinct from the holcus Australis. Root creeping. Perennial. Native of valleys among the Highlands of Scotland; and in Germany grows in moist meadows. Experiments.— At the time of flowering, the produce is 9,528 Ibs. per acre. The produce of latter-math is 17,015 lbs. per acre. The proportional value in which the grass of the seed crop exceeds that at the time of flowering, is as 21 to 17. The 104 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. erass of the latter-math, and the grass at the time of flower- ing, are of equal proportional value. Though this is one of the earliest flowering grasses, it is tender, and the spring produce of herbage is very inconsi- derable, the flowering straws rising up in a manner destitute of leaves. This deficiency of produce is much to be re- egretted, as the nutritive qualities of the grass are greater than in most of the early spring grasses: it sends forth but a few flower straws, which are of a slender structure, com- pared to the size of the leaves. This accounts, in a great measure, for the equal quantities of nutritive matter afforded by the grass at the time of flowering, and that of the latter- math. The grasses which flower about the same time as this species are—blue moor-grass (seslerta caerulea), Alpine meadow-grass (poa Alpina), and the sweet-scented vernal- grass (anthoxanthum odoratum). In no instance that I have observed was this grass eaten by the hares and rabbits, which preyed upon many of the other grasses. Sir H. Davy has shown, that 82 parts of the nutritive matter of this grass consist of 72 parts mucilage or starch, four parts saccharine matter, and six parts of bitter extractive matter, and a pecu- liar substance which has an acrid taste, more soluble in alcohol than in water. The powerful creeping roots of this grass, its tender nature, and the great deficiency of foliage in the spring, are demerits which discourage the idea of re- commending it farther to the notice of the agriculturist. It comes into flower about the end of April, and perfects hardly any seed ; seldom more than two seeds in a panicle are ever found perfect; but few grasses propagate more quickly by the roots. HOLCUS avenaceus. Tall Oat-like Soft-grass. Specific character: Calyx smooth ; barren floret lowest, with a sharply-bent prominent awn ; fertile one slightly elevated, scarcely awned; leaves rather harsh; root knobbed, or bulbous. Fig. 1. Calyx. 2. The two florets, showing the bent awn in the outer valve of the lower and-barren floret; the fertile floret slightly elevated. 3. Barren floret, with HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. 105 its bent awn. 4. Germen, with the stigmas feathered on the upper side. 5. Germen valves, or nectary. Obs.—In the works of Linneus, Curtis, and Host, this grass is found under the name of avena elatior ; under this name it was also received in the first account of the results of these experiments. The jointed and twisted awn, from the back of the blossom, which caused it to rank with the avenge, is frequently wanting altogether, which is evident in the next following va- riety. It was thought to agree better with the holci in structure; it has in consequence been referred to that genus by Scopoli, in the Flora Carniolica; and by Sir James Edward Smith, in the Flo. Brit. and English Botany ; indeed, it appears to belong to neither of these justly, but serves to form the connecting link between the avene, holci, and aire. Native of Britain. Perennial. Experiments.— At the time of flowering, the produce from a clayey loam is 17,015 lbs. per acre. The produce of latter-math is 13,612 lbs. per acre. The proportional value in which the grass at the time of flowering exceeds that at the time the seed is ripe is as 5 to 2, and is superior to the grass of the latter-math in the proportion of 2 to 1. This grass sends forth flowering culms during the whole of the season, and the latter-math produce, consequently, contains nearly an equal quantity of culms with the flowering crop. Itis subject to the disease termed rust, but it does not make its appearance till after the period of flowering ; it affects the whole plant, and at the time the seed is ripe the culms and many of the root-leaves are withered and dry from its baneful effects. This clearly explains the cause of the latter-math being superior to the crop at the time the seed is ripe; and points out the propriety of taking the crop as soon as the grass is in flower. This grass is eaten by all sorts of cattle. Its produce is very great, but the nutritive qualities of the grass are inferior to many other grasses. It pushes rapidly after being 106 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. cropped ; and though later in flowering than many other species, produces an early and plentiful supply of herbage in the spring. These properties would entitle it to rank high as a grass adapted for the alternate husbandry, but its nutri- tive matter contains too large a proportion of bitter extractive and saline matters to warrant its cultivation, without a con- siderable admixture of different grasses ; and the same objec- tion extends to its culture for permanent pasture. It is always present in the composition of the best natural pas- tures, and, as before mentioned, eaten in common with other grasses. It does not, however, constitute a large proportion of the herbage, but rather the least of any of the more valua- ble grasses that have been mentioned. From the above details it appears that this grass should have a place in the composition of the best natural or per- manent pastures, though its proportion, as a constituent, should be much limited. Flowers towards the end of June, and ripens the seed about the second week of July. In dry or fluctuating soils the roots become largely tuberous, and then constitute a troublesome weed. HOLCUS avenaceus, var. muticus. Awnless tall Oat-like Soft-grass. Var.— Flowers without awns. Obs.—This variety is smaller in every respect than the preceding; leaves very short; root slightly bulbous ; panicle much contracted ; glumes pencilled at the apex with purple. Flowers a week later than the awned variety ; in all other respects it is the same. Native of Scotland. Experiments.— At the time of flowering, the produce from arich clayey loam is 12,251 lbs. per acre. The latter-math is 3,403 lbs. per acre. This variety is much later, in respect of producing herbage in the spring, and in coming into flower, than the awned variety. It seldom perfects any good seed. The latter-math produce is very inconsiderable, and but %e Oe . = ee Oi P r 1. aca es : - Oe ae 2° ce > how oe Serie i” |» ae N = = >= = —— HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. 107 little nutritive. The nutritive matter contains a little more saccharine matter, in proportion to the other ingredients, than what is contained in the nutritive matter of the awned variety. Hares give a decided preference to the awnless variety. If this grass had merits which entitled it to a place among the superior grasses, it could not be cultivated with advantage, on account of its deficiency of seed, and impa- tience of being transplanted by parting the roots. It can only be offered, therefore, as a botanical curiosity. It flowers a week later than the awned variety. BROMUS arvensis. Field Brome-grass. Bromus racemosus. Smooth Brome-grass. Specific character: Panicle almost upright, spreading, slightly branched ; spikelets ovate oblong, naked ; florets imbricated, depressed, ribbed; awns as long as the elumes ; leaves somewhat downy. vg. 1. Lower part of a spikelet magnified, showing the calyx, and a floret with the awn on the larger valve of the corolla. 2. Nec- tary. 3. Germen and short-feathered stigmas. Obs.— This species resembles, in some measure, the Bro- mus multifiorus; but the spikelets being much more linear, and the brown or purple tinge on the under side of the spikelets, readily distinguish them. Native of Britain. Root annual. Experiments.— At the time of flowering, the produce from a sandy loam is 23,821 Ibs. per acre. This species of brome-grass appears, from the results of all my observations, to be confined to rich pastures and meadows, while the next two following species, bromus multiflorus and bromus mollis, are chiefly found to prevail on poor or exhausted grass lands. They are all strictly annual. This species appears to be the most valuable of the three. When this grass is mown at the time of flowering, it affords a considerable weight of nutritive hay; but when left uncut till the time the seed is ripe, it is then compara- tively of no value. 108 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. All these annual bromes are considered bad grasses by the farmer. This much, however, may be said in favour of the field brome-grass, that it affords an early bite in the spring, and is eaten by sheep and lambs equally with other grasses. It exhausts the soil but little; the roots penetrate to little depth in the earth. The seed falls from the husks as soon as ripe, and vegetates quickly among the root-leaves of the perennial grasses, and before autumn draws to a con- clusion, attains to a considerable size. This grass withstands the effects of frost better than many of the superior pasture grasses: hence it is among the early grasses which afford the principal herbage in the beginning of spring. Being strictly an annual plant, its existence another year depends on suffering it to perfect its seed, and, as before stated, the value of its produce at this stage of growth is very little; so that its merits are reduced to this one, the produce of early herbage in the spring, which will appear insufficient to re- commend it for the purposes of cultivation. It flowers in the second week of June, and till August it sends up flowering culms. The seed is ripe in the first week of July, and successively till the middle of September. BROMUS multiflorus. Many-flowered Brome-grass. Specific character: Panicle nodding at the top; spikelets spear-shaped, compressed, naked ; flowers imbricated ; awn straight; leaves woolly. Obs.— By attending to the form of the spikelets, this species may readily be distinguished from the bromus arvensis, whose spikelets are linear spear-shaped. This is nearer to the bromus multiflorus of the E. Bot. than to the bromus secalinus ; indeed, its alliance to bromus mollis is so great, that it may with propriety be consi- dered a variety, permanently larger, of that well-known species. Native of Britain. Root annual. Experiments.— At the time of flowering, the produce from a sandy loam is 22,460 Ibs. per acre. HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. 109 On comparing the quantity of nutritive matter afforded by the produce of one acre of this grass at the time of flowering, with that afforded under the like circumstances by the bromus arvensis, it manifests a superiority of 266 lbs. per acre. This, and also the superior nutritive qualities of the grass, appear to arise from the greater proportion of culms in the produce of the many-flowered brome-grass ; for though the culms of the bromus arvensis grow to a much larger size, they are much less numerous than in the produce of the bromus multifiorus. The leaves of the bromus mul- tiflorus are small in comparison to those of the bromus arven- sis, and the spring produce of foliage is proportionally less ; so much soas2to1. If there were any doubt of rejecting the field brome-grass as unfit for cultivation, there can be none for the many-flowered brome-grass, because it is infe- rior in almost every respect. It is natural to soils of a less tich nature than those which produce the superior pasture grasses, and the bromus arvensis. It flowers about the se- cond week of July, and the seed is generally ripe in three weeks afterwards. BROMUS mollis. Soft Brome-grass. Specific character: Panicle erect; spikelets oval and ob- long, a little compressed, covered with down; flowers imbricated ; outer husk of the blossom divided at top ; awn straight, about the length of the husk; leaves soft and downy.—Frg. 1. Calyx. 2. Floret. 3. Nectary. 4. Germen, or rudiment of the future seed. Obs.—The panicle branches are simple, seldom supporting more than one spikelet. In the bromus arvensis and bromus multiflorus the panicle branches are branched, and some of them simple. The oval oblong figure of the spikelets, and the downy hairs which cover them, are characters which readily distinguish this species from the others. Experiments.— At the time of flowering, the produce from a sandy loam is 10,890 Ibs. per acre. 110 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. On all poor exhausted soils that have been injudiciously laid down to grass, this species is more common than on any other land. It very much resembles the two last-mentioned species of bromus in appearance and habits, but flowers several weeks earlier, and the seed is generally ripe before hay harvest commences. This circumstance, which is an unfortunate one to the farmer, is favourable to the soft brome grass, as it secures its existence for another season. From the above details, it appears to be greatly inferior to the field brome grass, and many-flowered brome. It produces but little foliage in the spring ; and the flowering culms are soon formed, and become nodding at top, or bent downwards with the weight of the seed, which is large, and much re- lished by birds. When once this grass introduces itself into a field, it is a very difficult task to overcome it ; for, though an annual, or one-year-lived plant, like the other two bromes, and though cut when in flower, it will, nevertheless, con- tinue to send up fresh culms from the root till a late period of the season ; and these late or secondary culms being of a very low stature, are seldom perceived, but ona close inspec- tion of the herbage. Thus it happens, that after sacrificing the crop of hay (which, however, is never great if this grass prevails), by mowing the field when this grass 1s in flower, and before the other pasture grasses have attained to any degree of maturity, the soft brome-grass next season makes its appearance in abundance, as before. One remedy is, therefore, to mow repeatedly, as the flowering culms make their appearance, till the roots of the annual grass are ex- hausted, and then to apply sufficient top-dressings to compen- sate the soil for the want of the grazing manure. But pre- vention is most to be recommended ; and that is effected by judicious cropping, and never suffering the land to become too poor or exhausted: when this is faithfully performed, the soft brome will but seldom appear, or will soon be over- come by its more powerful neighbours. This grass, how- ever, sometimes makes its appearance on a sudden in lands that were before strangers to it, which is caused by its seed being mixed with that of the grain or grass-seed used in HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. ild sowing the land. {t may therefore be worthy the notice of the agriculturist to examine such seeds before they are com- mitted to the soil. It flowers about the middle of May, and ripens the seed about the first or second week of June. Geese are remarkably fond of the seeds of this grass, and, if they have access to an orchard or meadow where it grows, will touch nothing else. FESTUCA loliacea. Darnel-like Fescue. Specific character: Spike two ranked, drooping ; spikelets nearly sessile, linear-oblong ; florets cylindrical, awnless, pointed, with five slight ribs at the top. Obs. — This grass at first sight greatly resembles the /o- lium perenne (ray-grass); but, on a closer inspection, the calyx or outer husk, so conspicuous in the spikelets of the ray-grass, is in the spikelets of this grass almost wanting. The spikelets are also arranged in a different manner: in the ray-grass they stand facing the spike- stalk ; but in the darnel-like fescue, they stand with their back towards it. Nativeof Britain. Root fibrous, Perennial. Experiments.— At the time of flowering, the produce from a rich brown loam is 16,335 lbs. per acre. The latter-math produce is 3,403 lbs. per acre. The proportional value which the grass, at the time the seed is ripe, bears to that at the time of flowering, is as 13 to 12; and the grass of the latter-math stands in proportion to that at the time of flowering, as 12 to 5, and to that at the time the seed is ripe, as 13 to 5. This species of fescue is very much like the ray-grass in appearance ; it likewise affects the same kind of soil. Some botanists have supposed it to be a hybrid, the joint produce of the lolium perenne and festuca fluitans ; but the time when the /olium perenne comes into flower, is nearer to that in which the meadow fescue is in flower, than the flote fescue ; the soil and habits of the two former grasses are likewise more similar. 2 112 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. From the above details, it appears that this species of fes- cue is much superior to ray-grass in point of produce. This grass likewise springs earlier than the ray-grass, and im- proves by age, which is not the case with common ray-grass, as it decreases in value, with respect to produce and early erowth, after the fourth year of its being sown, while the darnel-like fescue improves in these properties after that pe- riod of growth. Unfortunately, however, this grass does not perfect its seed, the flowers generally proving abortive ; which renders its cultivation, or rather propagation, incon- venient and expensive. By parting the roots, and trans- planting them, it might readily be propagated; but its merits hardly warrant the practice. In rich meadows this grass is very common, particularly where the land is periodi- cally overflown. In a piece of meadow ground on the banks of the river Trent, near Nottingham, I found this grass to constitute the principal herbage. It flowers in the last week of June, and ripens the seed (if any) in the third week of July. FESTUCA glabra. var. Smooth Fescue. Specific character: Panicle branched, upright, compact ; spikelets spear-shaped, four to six-fiowered, smooth, awned. Root fibrous. Obs.—This is nearly allied to the festuca duriuscula and festuca rubra; it differs in having the awns longer, pa- nicle branches and spikelets smoother; spikelets shining, root scarcely creeping, root-leaves much longer. This is, according to Sir James Edward Smith, a variety of the festuca rubra. To the agriculturist, the distinction, creeping root, is sufficient to guide him in this instance, as the varieties of the creeping-rooted species are all to be rejected as less desirable for cultivation ; and among the fibrous-rooted varieties of the festuca durtuscula, there is not so great a difference in their comparative value, as to render the adoption of one for the other of so much importance as in many other instances, where the distinctions are equally minute. Native of Britain. Perennial. HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. Hs Experiments. — At the time of flowering, the produce from a sandy loam with manure is 14,293 Ibs. per acre. The produce of latter-math is 6,125 lbs. per acre. The proportional value, in which the grass at the time of flowering exceeds that of the latter-math, is as 4 to 1; and the grass, at the time the seed is ripe, exceeds that of the latter-math in the proportion of 5 to 2. From the above details, which show the produce of this grass, it appears to be inferior to the festuca duriuscula, which will be manifest on a comparison of the former de- tails respecting the festuca duriuscula with the above. In regard to early produce, however, this grass is superior. The herbage is uncommonly fine and succulent. But these merits appear hardly sufficient to compensate for the defi- ciency of produce. If its merits be compared with those of some of the early grasses, the anthoxranthum odoratum for instance, it will be found superior. Though this grass cannot be recommended in preference to the festuca duriuscula, yet it is evident, from the above details, that among the fine-leaved fescues, it is the best substitute for that species where it is wanting. It is not so common as the festuca duriuscula, being more confined to the moist spots of the pastures, though occasionally found also on the drier places, in company with it. Flowers in the second week of June, and ripens the seed in the second week of July. POA nemoralis, var. angustifolia. Wood Meadow-grass. Specific character: Panicle capillary, fiowering a little on one side, diffuse; spikelets lanceolate, mostly three- flowered ; florets hairy at the base, without a web. Obs.—The sheath-scale is very short, and truncated ; straw rather compressed than otherwise, vagina smooth, root stoloniferous. Hardly any grass varies more than the poa nemoralis var. in the number of florets contained in the calyx. When the poa nemoralis var. angustifolia is raised from seed, in open situations, the first year, the calyx contains only from three to five florets; after- wards, the number increases to nine florets in each ca- \ 114 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. lyx: when raised from seed in shady situations, it has frequently only two florets in each calyx, and sometimes only one, the first year; the number does not increase afterwards to more than three florets in each calyx. In its natural place of growth, pow nemoralis, in woods under the shade of trees, contains only three florets, and, when long cultivated in exposed situations, the calyx is four and five-flowered. The next following erass, though a distinct species, resembles this in seve- ral of its agricultural merits. Root fibrous and stoloni- ferous. *The plants of poa variegata, cultivated in the Woburn Abbey Experimental Grass Garden, were com- municated to the Duke of Bedford by my friend Mr. An- derson, of the Botanic Garden, Chelsea. Experiments. — At the time of flowering, the produce from a brown loam is 9,188 Ibs. per acre. This grass springs early, but the produce is inconsiderable, compared to that of many others equally nutrient. It is seldom, or, according to my experience, never found in a na- tural state, except in woods and under the shade of trees. Nevertheless, the seeds vegetate readily when sown on ex- posed situations; and the plants grow freely, and attain to a greater size and strength, than those in the woods and in the shade. It is singular, that before the period of coming into flower, the plants that are thus cultivated are invariably attacked by the disease termed rus‘, which pervades every part of the plant. In moist and cloudy seasons the disease is much less severe, being chiefly confined to the leaves. I never could observe the least trace of this affection in the plants of this species while in their natural place of growth. The tall oat-like soft grass (holcus avenaceus), which aflects the shade, and is subject to the above disease, is always free from this affection when growing in the shade. It is like- wise precisely the case with the agrostis stolonifera, var. syl- vatica, or wood stoloniferous bent-grass. There are grasses which are also peculiarly confined to woods or shady situa- tions, but which continue free from this disease when trans- planted to exposed situations, as the wood millet-grass (mz- lium effusum), hairy wood brome-grass (bromus horsutus), HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. VBS and tall brome-grass (bromus giganteus). There exists no difference in the structure of those grasses subject to the dis- ease, to distinguish them from those that are always affected by it when transplanted to exposed situations, only that the former grasses are smooth, or have their surface free from hairs, while the latter are in general hairy, or have their sur- face furnished with numerous hairs. The bromus sylvaticus (wood brome-grass), and festuca pinnata( spiked wood fescue), are subject to the rust likewise, when taken from their natu- ral places of growth: these grasses have hairs, but they are minute, and thinly scattered on the leaves. The early growth of this grass in the spring, and its remarkably fine, succulent, and nutritive herbage, recommend it strongly for admission into the company of the superior permanent pas- ture grasses. The wood meadow-grass flowers in the third week of June, and ripens the seed in the end of July. POA angustifolia. Narrow-leaved meadow-grass. Poa pratensis, var.: Panicle diffused; spikelets four- flowered, pubescent ; culm erect, round. Obs.—Sir James Edward Smith regards this as a variety of the poa pratensis, and its botanical characters are certainly not sufficient to constitute it a species distinct from poa pratensis ; but as it differs much from that spe- cies in its agricultural merits, being much superior, | have kept it distinct from that species, that it may more readily impress the memory. Native of Britam. Root creeping. Perennial. Experiments — At the time of flowermg, the produce from a brown loam is 18,376 lbs. per acre. The produce of latter-math is 12,251 lbs. per acre. The proportional value in which the grass, at the time the seed is ripe, exceeds that at the time of flowering, is as 21 to 20. In the early growth of the leaves of this species of poa, there is a striking proof that the property of coming early into flower is not always connected with the early growth and produce of herbage in the spring. In this respect, 12 116 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. most of the grasses that have come under examination are inferior to this now spoken of. Before the middle of April, the leaves attain to more than twelve inches in length, and are tender and succulent. In the month of May, likewise, when the flowering culms make their appearance, it is not subject to the disease that affects the foregoing species ; the bad effects of which were manifested in the great deficiency of produce in the crop at the time the seed was ripe, being one-half less than at the time the grass is in flower. Though the disease begins in the straws of the nemoralis, the leaves suffer most from its effects, being, at the time the seed is ripe, completely dried up. The culms therefore constitute the principal part of the crop at the time the seed is ripe, and they contain more nutritive matter in proportion than the leaves. When the grass of the nemoralis is cut before the time of flowering, the cGisease makes but small progress, or does not make its appearance if the grass is kept closely cropped. The poa nemoralis has also the property of sending up flowering straws till a late period of the season, and when cut only thrice in the season, the latter-math is consi- derable. The property of early growth in the spring, which this grass, poa angustifolia, possesses, recommends it for the purpose of permanent pasture. It sends up flowering culms successively for several weeks. In this it differs from the poa pratensis, which produces culms only once in the season. The root is as powerfully creeping as that species, but for which, it might rank with the most valuable grasses. It contains more nutritive matter than the poa pratensis or poa trivialis. {ts spring produce is nearly double that of either of these grasses ; and it is perfectly exempt, as before observed, from the disease that detracts so much from the merits of the poa nemoralis, var. angustifolia, which nearest approaches to this species, in the superiority of early and abundant herbage in the spring. It flowers towards the end of May, and the seed is ripe about the third week of June. The culms are most valuable for the manufacturer of the finest straw-plait, in imitation of the celebrated Leghorn. HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. Le The seed of a species of grass was received from America, under the name of spear grass, by Joseph Sabine, Esq. secretary to the Horticultural Society, and communicated by that gentleman to the Duke of Bedford. This grass was stated to be the same as that which Miss Woodhouse, in America, used in the manufacture of her prize bonnet in imitation of Leghorn. This seed was sown in the grass garden at Woburn Abbey, and the plants raised from it proved to be those of poa pratensis, or smooth-stalked meadow-grass. Plants of the American grass, as it is sometimes called, were also received from Mr. Anderson, of the Botanic Garden, Chelsea, which proved to be identical with the poa pratensis. POA fertilis. Fertile Meadow-grass. Specific character: Panicle loose, spreading; spikelets oval, spear-shaped, five-flowered ; florets connected at the base by woolly hairs; husks generally five-nerved, sheaths of the culms a little rough; straw somewhat compressed ; roots slightly creeping. Fig. 1. Spike- let, magnified. 2. Corolla and anthers. 3. Germen. 4. Seed. Obs. —This grass seems to be allied to the poa nemoralis. It differs in having the panicle more loose and spread- ing, and less attenuated. The spikelets are more oval and nerved, otherwise the number of florets might oc- casion a doubt. The culm rises from a foot and a half to two feet in height, and sometimes more ; ascending at the base, afterwards erect, somewhat compressed. In long-continued moist weather the lower joints send up flowering culms. The panicle is erect, and spread- ing when in flower, but contracted and drooping when the seed is ripe. Native of Germany. Perennial. Experiments. — At the time of flowering, the produce from a sandy loam is 15,654 lbs. per acre. The produce of latter-math is 4,764 lbs. per acre. Lis HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. The proportional vaiue which the grass of the latter-math bears to that at the time of flowering, is as 3 to 6; and to the grass at the time the seed is ripe, as 3 to 10. In regard to early growth, this grass stands next to the meadow fox-tail, cock’s-foot, and tall oat. The herbage is more nutritive than that of either of these grasses. It will appear remarkable, that the grass of the latter-math should contain more nutritive matter than the grass at the time of flowering; but this is owing to the property it possesses, of sending forth a succession of flowering culms till the frost arrests it; and hence the trivial names, fertz/is and serotina, fertile and late-flowering meadow-grass, quoted above. M. Host mentions, that it is natural to moist pastures and the banks of rivers; and Schrader remarks also, that in Germany it grows in meadows, vineyards, marshes, walls, and elsewhere, not unfrequently. I have found it to grow on almost every kind of soil; but it attains to the greatest perfection in a rich moist one. Hares and rabbits are very fond of it. It is one of those grasses that thrive best when combined with others: it will not make a superior turf of itself, but it adds much to the value of a sward from its nutritive qualities and powers of early and late growth. As it perfects an abundance of seed, it may be easily propa- gated. By comparing its produce of nutritive matter, from one acre, with those of the cock’s-foot, meadow-foxtail, and sweet-scented vernal grasses, it will be found superior to foxtail in the proportion of 5 to 3, and only inferior to the cock’s-foot in the proportion of 7 to 5. Sir Humphry Davy has shown that its nutritive matter consists of mucilage, 65; saccharine matter, or sugar, 6; extractive matter, 778. From these facts and observations it will appear, that the fertile meadow-grass deserves a place in the composition of rich pastures, and ranks with the superior grasses of irri- gated meadows. It flowers in the beginning of July, and the seed 1s ripe towards the end of the month. HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. 119 LATHYRUS pratensis. Yellow Vetchling, Tare Ever- lasting. Specific character: Tendrils with two leaves, quite simple; leaflets spear-shaped. Tendrils sometimes three-cleft. Native of Britain. Root creeping. Perennial. Experiments.— At the time of flowering, the produce from a clayey loam is 24,502 lbs. per acre. The merits of this vetchling, in point of produce and nu- trient qualities, appear to be much inferior to those of the red or broad-leaved cultivated clover. It is not unfrequent in good pastures and in rich mea- dows: it delights in moisture, and it attained to the greatest perfection in a tenacious clayey soil. It is a late-springing plant, and the shoots come up thinly, but attain to a great length. It appears to be eaten by oxen, cows, and sheep, but with less relish than they seem to have for the Vicia sepium (creeping vetch), or the red and white clovers. Sir Humphry Davy has shown, that the plants most liked by cattle have either a saline or subacid taste, as in the instances of red and white clovers, and the superior grasses. This plant, however, has a greater excess of the bitter extractive and saline matters, in proportion to that contained in these plants, when compared to the rest of the pasture grasses. It is nauseous to the taste. From these facts and observa- tions, it does not seem to be a plant that possesses unequi- vocal merits for admission into the composition of pasture. It attains to the greatest size on tenacious clayey soils. POA nervaia. Nerved meadow-grass. Specific character: Panicle upright; spikelets smooth, five-flowered, nerved. Obs.— Panicle often half a foot and more in length, with slender branches, pressed close, and subdivided ; spike- lets small, of a green colour; valves of the blossom smooth, having five raised nerves on each valve; leaves 120 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. in two rows, resembling a fan, somewhat rough; culm a little compressed. Native of North America. Root perennial. Experiments.— At the time of flowering, the produce from a rich sandy loam is 21,780 lbs. per acre. The produce of latter-math is 9,528 lbs. per acre. The crops of this grass, at the time of flowering, and at the time the seed is ripe, are equal in point of quantity and nutrient quality, a circumstance which has not occurred im any other grass mentioned in this series of experiments. The nutritive matter contained in the latter-math is likewise oreater than in most other grasses. The root-leaves are pro- duced on a shoot, and stand in two rows after the manner of a fan. This shoot, which is formed by the union of the base of the leaves, is very succulent, and contains a greater pro- portion of nutritive matter than the leaves, which accounts for the superiority of the latter-math in nutritive matter. This grass is remarkably hardy. In February 17, 1814, after the severe winter preceding, this species of poa was perfectly ereen and succulent, while not one species of grass, out of nearly three hundred different species that grew around it, remained in a healthy state, but were all inferior, and more or less injured by the severity of the weather. In the fol- lowing season, the produce rather exceeded the above, though it had been mown the preceding season, and no manure had been applied. It is a native of North America, where the winters are longer or more severe, and the summers warmer than in this climate; and the plants, natives of Siberia, exhibit a similar habit, for the severer the winter, the greater is their produce; and the milder the winter, their produce is comparatively less. The long-rooted clover is one of this class: after a severe winter the produce is very ereat, but after a mild winter the produce is considerably inferior™. The nerved meadow-grass affects most soils, but not such as are tenacious. The seed does not vegetate so readily as * This is the case with the greater part of the grasses ; the more they grow in winter, the less they grow in summer.—Ep. HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. 121 might be presumed from the plentiful manner in which it is produced ; nor dves the plant attain to maturity so soon as many other grasses that have equal merits in other respects. The above facts do not offer sufficient ground to recommend the nerved meadow-grass strongly, for the purposes of the agriculturist ; nor go the full length to discourage further attempts to cultivate it to more advantage, as it is a foreign plant, and its defects may probably be lessened by fre- quently raising it from seed ripened in this climate. Farther experience in the cultivation of this grass enables me to state, that it possesses very valuable properties, and that it will be found a valuable ingredient in permanent pastures, where the soil is not too dry, but of a medium qua- lity as to moisture and dryness. It flowers in the third week of June, and the seed is ripe in the last week of July. POA glauca cesia. Sea-green Meadow-grass. Specific character: Spikelets ovate. Florets from two to five, obscurely five-ribbed, bluntish; silky at the keel and lateral ribs; hairy at the base, without a web. Stipulas of the lower leaves very short and blunt. Obs.— Culms from six inches to a foot and a half, accord- ing to the nature of the soil it grows in. The leaves are bluntish, flat and smooth on the back next the base, but in other parts rugged; sheaths the length of the leaves, striated, somewhat rugged. It seems to be very different from the poa glauca in the Flora Danica; that approaches nearer to the poa ne- moralis. Whole plant of a deep glaucous colour. Na- tive of Scotland. Root fibrous. Perennial. Experiments.— At the time of flowering, the produce from a brown loam is 6,806 lbs. per acre. At the time the seed is ripe, the produce is 4,764 lbs. per acre. The weight of grass at the time the seed is ripe is less than that at the time of flowering; which at first sight appears contrary to what might have been expected, as the 122 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. grass had at least three weeks of growth more than that of the flowering crop. But after the time of flowering, the leaves do not appear to increase, but rather diminish, many of them becoming completely dry before the seed be per- fected. The culms retain their succulency, and become heavier till the seed be ripe ; which points out the true cause of the superior quantity of nutritive matter contained in the grass of the seed crop. Sir James Edward Smith informs us, that it is an alpine plant, and only as yet found a native of Scotland, where it was found by Mr. Mackay, on Ben Lawers. It appears, however, to be easily cultivated on soils of an intermediate quality as to moisture and dryness. Its seed is good, and produced in plenty. The above details prove this grass to be capable of culti- vation; but possessed of no excellence in a sufficient degree to render it worthy of a place in the composition of good pasture on soils of the best quality. It flowers in the third week of June, and the seed is ripe about the second and last week of July, according to the state of the weather. POA glauca. Glaucous Meadow-grass. Specific character: Panicle spreading, spikelets ovate ; florets from two to five, obscurely five-ribbed, bluntish, silky at the keel and lateral ribs, hairy at the base, without a web; stipulas of the lower leaves very short and blunt. Obs.— This species resembles the poa nemoralis, and, in a less degree, the p. ¢rivialis, and likewise affects a si- milar soil; while the preceding variety of it resembles more the poa alpina, poa subcarulea and poa pratensis, and like these, affects a somewhat drier soil. Culms from a foot and a half to two feet in height. Whole plant of a light pale glaucous colur. Native of Britain. Root fibrous. Perennial. Experiments.— At the time of flowering, the produce from a rich black sandy loam is 8,848 Ibs. per acre. fa t ey } 4, Z Peeves, sat re tay 4 y SENG ner NS, Se ee S <= SS SSS YS iy yi ; WRN Maus { Phleuse Praeleénése HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. 123 This grass is said to be a native of the north of England, and Scotland. It inhabits alpine situations, but is easily propagated, as it perfects plenty of seed, which vegetates freely on almost every kind of soil. It grows to a larger size than the sea-green meadow-grass; and if the above details of its produce and nutritive powers be compared with those of that grass, it will be found greatly superior. But it is still much inferior to a great number of grasses, in the quan- tity of herbage, hay, and nutritive matter it affords ; and in other respects it possesses no superior merit, either with respect to early growth, reproductiveness, or late growth. It cannot therefore as yet be recommended as a plant for the purposes of the agriculturist. It flowers in the third week of June, and the seed is ripe about the end of July. PHLEUM pratense. Meadow Cat’s-tail Grass. Timothy- orass. Specific character: Spike cylindrical, very long; calyx fringed and awned; straws upright. ig. 1. Calyx magnified, showing the fringes. The same, of the na- tural size. 2. Corolla and stamens. 3. Nectary, ger- men, and stigmas, with the long styles. Obs.—Culms from a foot and a half to three feet high, according to the nature of the soil in which it grows; in moist deep loams it attains the greatest height. Spike regularly cylindric, and blunt at the top; some- times five or six inches long in young plants, but in old plants it is much shorter. Compare the husks of the florets with those of the following variety (phleum pra- tense, var. minus), and likewise with those of the next following species (phleum nodosum, bulbeus-jointed cat’s- tail grass), and they will be found much shorter and straight in the forks or dagger-like points which ter- minate them. This isa sure distinction, the length of the spike being a very uncertain character, for the reason just now mentioned. Root fibrous, sometimes inclining to a bulb. Native of Britain. Perennial. 124 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. Experiments.— About the middle of April, the produce from a clayey loam is 5,445 lbs. per acre. The produce of latter-math is 9,528 Ibs. per acre. The culms of this grass at the time the seed is ripe contain more nutritive matter than those of any other species of grass that have been submitted to experiment. In regard to the production of early herbage in the spring, it is supe- rior to the cock’s-foot grass ; the results of the experiments showed the quantity of grass to be equal in both plants; but the nutritive matter afforded by the grass of the meadow cat’s-tail in the early part of the spring, was superior to that of the cock’s-foot, in the proportion of 9 to 8. The value of the culms simply, exceeds that of the grass, at the time of flowering, in the proportion of 14 to 5; a circumstance which gives value to this grass above many others for the purpose of hay ; as its valuable early foliage may be cropped to a late period of the spring without injury to the culms, which cannot be effected with those grasses which flower earlier in the season, without incurring a loss of nearly half the value of the crop, as has been proved by former ex- amples. Though there is more nutritive matter contained in the seed crop than in the flowering crop, nevertheless the loss of latter-math which would have been produced in the time the seed was ripening, would more than outweigh the superior quantity of nutritive matter contained in the grass of the seed crop. To the practical farmer this last observation (which likewise applies to every similar statement throughout these details) is, | am sure, unnecessary. If the season has been dry, this yrass should be cut at the time of flowering ; but in moist cloudy seasons it should be suffered to stand at least eight days after the period of flowering; in two days after this period it will accumulate more nutritive matter than it did in ten days previous to that stage of growth, pro- vided circumstances do not interrupt the progress of vege- tation, which the results of numerous experiments have proved. This grass is very deficient in the produce of after-math, and is slow in growth after being cropped: these defects TE Sie: re HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. 125 take much from the merits above mentioned. It appears, therefore, to be unfit for cultivation by itself as an alternate husbandry grass ; but of great value as a constituent of any mixture of grasses for permanent pasture, or the alternate husbandry, where it should always form a part. In the Annual Register for 1765, we find that it was much recommended about fifty years ago, under the name of Timothy-grass ; and Mr. Wynch is said to have brought it from Virginia in 1763. It received this quaint appellation from Mr. Timothy Hanson, who first brought its seeds from New York to Carolina. It had then a great character in America, where it is called Herd-grass. I was, in 1815, informed by a proprietor of land in Canada, that it is still considered the best grass in that province. It flowers in the third week of June, and ripens the seed in the end of July. PHLEUM pratense, var. minus. Smaller variety of Mea- dow Cat’s-tail Grass. Obs.—This differs from the preceding variety in the dagger-like points which terminate the husks, these being longer in this variety, and more recurved or bent outwards; the husks are larger in every respect, and less ciliated. Culms almost covered with the sheaths of the leaves ; joints of the culm less swoln, not upright, but ascending ; and the root is morelike a bulb. These distinctions have continued stedfast after the plant has been twice raised from seed. The annexed specimen was produced from the second sowing. The foregoing specimen of the first variety is also of the second sowing; both varieties were raised on the same soil, and, indeed, on the same bed of earth. Fig. 1. Calyx magnified. Native of Britain. Root perennial. Experimenis.— At the time of flowering, the produce from a clayey loam is 14,973 lbs. per acre. The produce of latter-math 9,528 lbs. per acre. A comparison will show how inferior this smaller variety of meadow cat’s-tail grass is to the larger variety. The 126 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. former grass is superior to this one, in the proportion nearly of 25 to 8. This shows how important a point it is to distinguish one variety of grass from another, when they are so very much alike in outward characters as in the above instance. The seeds are also very similar to each other, or rather the marks which distinguish them from each other are minute. This is much later in the produce of herbage in the spring than the larger variety, and it is much less nutritive. It is more common on tenacious soils than in such as are rich, in company with the true meadow cat’s-tail. It flowers and perfects its seed about a week later than the preceding variety. PHLEUM nodosum. Bulbous-jointed Cat’s-tail Grass. Specific character: Spike cylindrical; culm knee-bent, furnished with bulbs at the lower joints, which send out branches. Obs.— There is still another variety of the phleum pratense, distinct from the preceding, and which may be mistaken for the phleum nodosum: that variety grows on poor clayey soils, particularly by road-sides. It approaches to the present species, in having the root somewhat bulbous ; the straw is likewise ascending, but not knee- bent, as in the phleum nodosum: these characters con- tinue constant when the plant is cultivated on different soils, 2. e. on light sandy soil, heath soil, and tena- cious clay. It is smaller in every respect than the two varieties of which specimens have been given. The p. nodosum differs from the p. pratense in having knee- bent culms, bulbs growing out at the root of the stem- leaves, which in time become plants. Culm leaves shorter and smooth, except at the edges. Anthers white. The dagger-like points of the husk are also longer, and more reflexed than in those of the phleum pratense. Native of Britain. Root bulbous. Peren- nial. Experiments.— At the time of flowering, the produce from a clayey loam is 12,25] lbs. per acre. HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. 127 The above details show that this species of meadow cat’s- tail.is much inferior even to the lesser variety of the phleum pratense. It isa very scarce grass, at least as far as my re- searches have extended, having found it but in one meadow in a wild state. It grows in a clayey soil near a spring in Woburn Park, from which the annexed specimen was pro- pagated. Hares and rabbits neglected this grass for the common cotton grass (eriophorum angustifollum), which grew closely adjoining. It flowers in the second week of July, and ripens the seed in the end of the same month: but the seed is seldom sood. CYNOSURUS eruceformis. Linear-spiked Dog’s-tail grass. Specific character: Spike compound ; spikelets scattered, the fruit-bearing ones erect; calices one and two-flow- ered ; husks obtuse, boat-shaped ; keel obtuse ; corollas acuminate. Obs.—This grass is marked an annual in botanical works, but it is strictly perennial. Before the time of flower- ing the spikelets are beautifully tinged with crimson on the sides; it deserves a place in the flower-garden, on account of the singularity and beauty of the spike. Native of Germany, Russia, and Hudson’s Bay. Root fibrous. Perennial. Experiments.— At the time of flowering, the produce from a clayey loam is 6,806 lbs. per acre. The produce at the time the seed is ripe, was taken the season preceding that in which the flowering crop was sub- mitted to experiment; and as the season of 1812, in which the seed crop was ascertained, happened to be more favour- able to the growth of this grass than that of 1813, when the flowering crop was experimented upon, and the seed crop likewise, according to the following details of results, it will be more just to compare the produce of the crops of the same season. At the time the seed is ripe, the produce of the season in which the flowering crop was ascertained is 6,125 lbs. per acre. The produce of latter-math is 3,062 Ibs. per acre. 128 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. I have never been able to obtain any seed from this grass. that when sown would vegetate, though in general it appears good to the eye. I have tried it on three different soils, but without success. It thrives best on a rich deep loam, and, next to that, on a clayey loam: when cultivated on a sandy siliceous soil the produce is very inferior; on this account it is introduced in this place. It might be propagated to any extent by parting the roots; but its merits, as will appear from the above details, do not warrant any recommendation to that effect, but rank it with the inferior grasses. It flowers in the third week of June, and the seed is per- fected about the third week of July. TRITICUM caninum. Bearded Wheat-grass. Specific character; Calyx-valves somewhat awned, with three or five ribs; florets four, awned; leaves flat; root fibrous. Obs.—This differs essentially from the common couch- grass (agropyrum repens), in having the root fibrous ; the awns are also much longer than those of the awned variety of common couch. Native of Britain. Root fibrous. Perennial. Experiments. — At the time of flowering, the produce from a sandy loam is 12,251 lbs. per acre. The crop, at the time of flowering, is of greater proportional value than that at the time the seed is ripe, nearly as 6 to 5. The produce of latter-math is 3,062 lbs. per acre. It appears that this grass is of considerable value, more particularly as it affords heroage early in the spring, in a degree superior to ray-grass, sweet-scented vernal, and nearly equal to the meadow fox-tail. It produces a sufficiency of seed, which vegetates quickly; and the plants soon arrive at perfection in almost every kind of soil, except in such as are tenacious or retentive of moisture. If to these valuable properties it added late growth, or a proportional supply of latter-math, it would rank high among the superior grasses ; but in this it is deficient, as are most of the grasses which HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. 129: produce early foliage in the spring: the cock’s-foot, tall oat-like soft-grass, Taunton’s meadow-foxtail, and meadow soft:grass, are the only exceptions, properly, to this point. On soils of an inferior quality it might be cultivated to advantage instead of ray-grass; but for soils of the best quality it does not as yet uphold a sufficient claim, the awns of the spike being objectionable. It flowers about the first and second week of July, and the seed is ripe generally about the end of July and beginning of August. BROMUS erectus. Upmght Perennial Brome-grass. Specific character: Panicle upright, slightly branched ; spikelets linear-lanceolate ; florets about eight, loosely imbricated, lanceolate, compressed ; awns shorter than the glumes, straight ; radical leaves very narrow, fringed with scattered hairs. Obs.—The awns are a continuation of the keel of the blossom, thus forming the connecting link between this genus and festuca. Corolla with a large knot at the base, hairy, outer valve ribbed and keeled ; awn shorter than the blossom ; anthers of a beautiful saffron colour. Native of Britain. Root fibrons. Perennial. Experiments.— At the time of flowering, the produce from a rich sandy soil is 12,951 Ibs. per acre. Mr. Curtis has remarked of this grass, that it is peculiar to chalky soils, and that its appearance in a wild state is much less favourable than when cultivated ina garden. I have found it on rather low-lying sandy soils, as in some parts of Woburn Park, where it appeared as luxuriant as when cultivated in the grass-garden. But the fact is, the culms rise to a considerable height, and the root-leaves are but few in number, though growing to some length; the grass, by this means, appears to be much more productive than it really is. Itseems to be but little relished by cattle, the leaves being rough with hairs. I have not had an oppor- tunity to examine it while growing on chalky soils in a na- tural state, nor submit it to experiment on a soil of that na ture; however useful, therefore, it may be found hereafter K 130 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. on chalky soils, it is evident, from the above details, that it is but little adapted for the best pasture land. It flowers rather early, but the foliage is comparatively late in growth. Pheasants appear very fond of the seed; they frequently pick off the spikelets before the seed is perfected. The seed is afforded in very small quantity. Flowers in the second and third weeks of June, and the seed is ripe in the second and third weeks of July. BRIZA media. Common Quaking-grass. Ladies’ Tresses. Specific character: Spikelets ovate, about seven-flowered ; calyx shorter than the florets; stipula very short and blunt. Mig. 1. Spikelet magnified. 2. Corolla. 3. Seed, coated with the outer valve of the corolla. 4. Germen, nectary, stamens, styles, and stigmas. Obs.—Stems from half a foot to a foot and a half high, according to the nature of the soilit grows on. In moist soils it attains to the greatest size. Dr. Withering re- marks, that if a seed be carefully dissected with a fine lancet, the young plant will be found with its leaves and roots perfectly formed. Professor Martyn observes, that it is easily distinguished as a species of briza by the shaking disposition of its panicle ; whence its name amongst ancient authors, “gramen tremulum.” The French call these quaking-grasses ‘‘ amourettes.” Na- tive of Britain. Root fibrous. Perennial. Experiments.— At the time of flowering, the produce from a brown loam is 9,528 lbs. per acre. The latter-math produce is 8,167 lbs. per acre. It appears that the weight of nutritive matter, which is lost by taking the crop at the time of flowering, exceeds one-seventh part of its value; and the nutritive matter contained in the grass of the seed crop exceeds that in the flowering grass, in the proportion of 13 to 11, and that of the latter-math as 13 to 8. The results of the experiments on the three different soils now mentioned show this grass to be best fitted for poor soils, and afford one instance, that manure is even hurtful to some Co KL, ION al hice Wide MKS XG K Re Weer . trace MES “G leg — — = HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIs. iat grasses. Its nutritive powers are considerable, when com- pared to other grasses affecting a similar soil. It is eaten by horses, cows, and sheep. These merits, therefore, demand attention, and though it is unfit, comparatively, for rich permanent pasture, yet, for poor sandy, and also for poor tenacious soils, where improvement in other respects cannot be sufficiently effected to fit them for the production of the superior grasses, the common quaking-grass will be found of value. It flowers in the second and third weeks of June, and the seed is ripe about the second week of July. BROMUS inermis. Smooth awnless Brome-grass. Specific character: Panicle upright; spikelets linear, cy- lindric, naked, awnless, or with very short awns some- times, imbricated ; leaves smooth. Obs.— Root powerfully creeping, like common couch-grass. Culms from a foot to two feet high, erect, scored, smooth. Leaves broad, acuminate, smooth, dark green, mid-rib whitish, and rough. Panicle from six inches to a foot and more in length; at first contracted and upright, afterwards nodding. Native of Germany. Root creep- ing. Perennial. Experiments.— At the time of flowering, the produce from a black siliceous sandy loam is 12,251 lbs. per acre. The produce of latter-math is 8,848 lbs. per acre. In Germany, where this grass is a native, it grows in moist pastures, orchards, and by the banks of rivers. Its root is powerfully creeping, like the common couch-grass, and pos- sesses the property of impoverishing the soil in as eminent a degree as that grass. Its produce, when first planted ona soil, is much greater than afterwards, on account of its ex- hausting nature. The produce of early foliage is inconsi- derable, and less nutritive than many others. To the eye it produces an abundance of seed, but, in general, it is imper- fectly formed, and, when sown, produces few plants in pro- portion to the quantity of seed employed. The merits of this grass will appear, from the above details, to be inferior K 2 152 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. to most of the grasses that have already come under obser. vation, and offer no grounds on which to recommend it to the notice of the agriculturist. The smooth awnless brome-grass flowers in the second week of July, and ripeus the seed in the second and third weeks of August. MELICA ciliata. Ciliated Melic-grass. Specific character: The outer petal of the lower floret ciliate; panicle spike-lke; spikelets erect. Obs.— Culms from one to three feet high, according to the quality of the soil. Leaves spear-shaped, mucronate, from three to nine inches long, smooth underneath, slightly pubescent above, somewhat rugged downwards, a white nerve runs along the back. Sheath-scale white, cloven; sheaths striated, the lower a little pubes- cent and rugged, the upper ones smooth and glossy ; but as the seed approaches towards perfection, it be- comes feathered with long woolly hairs. Native of Germany. Root fibrous. Perennial. Experiments.— At the time of flowering, the produce from a rich sandy loam is 6,806 lbs. per acre. The produce of latter-math is 2,041 lbs. per acre. The above facts show this grass to be one of the inferior species with respect to produce, nutritive qualities, and re- productive powers. In Germany it grows wild on hilly erounds, downs, and by the margin of woods; it may be ranked with the glaucous and sea-green meadow grasses (poa glauca et poa cesia). Among the grasses not natives of Great Britain, that have been brought under observation in the course of these details, two species only have offered proofs of fitness for the purpose of permanent pasture, on soils of the best quality; nerved meadow-grass (poa ner- vata), and fertile meadow-grass (poa fertilis) ; the superior merits of these over many other grasses have already been considered. It flowers in the third week of June, and the seed is ripe about the second week of July. YL aT i} Zz S —4 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. 133 VICIA sepium. Bush Vetch.” Specific character: Legumes pedicelled, mostly four toge- ther, erect, smooth; leaflets ovate, obtuse, the outer one smaller. Obs.— Stems climbing by tendrils, from one to two feet high, according to its place of growth, grooved. Leaves many-paired, terminated by a branching tendril. Leaf- lets ovate, obtuse, sometimes emarginate, somewhat hairy, the outer ones gradually smaller. Flowers com- monly in fours, on very short pedicles, all directed one way, dark blue, purple. Legume or pod nearly erect, brown, dotted, smooth. Seeds globular, even. Native of Britam. Root perennial. Experimenis.—The produce on the sixteenth of April from a brown sandy loam, with manure, is 5,445 Ibs. per acre. The produce of latter-math is 6,806 lbs. per acre. In the Memoirs of the Bath Agricultural Society, the Rev. G. Swayne informs us, that the bush vetch “shoots earlier in the spring than any other plant eaten by cattle; vegetates late in the autumn, and continues green all winter. But it is difficult to collect the seeds, as the pods burst and scatter them about, and, moreover, hardly a third part of them will vegetate, being made the nidus of an insect. A patch sown in drills in a garden was cut five times in the course of the second year, and produced at the rate of twenty-four tons on an acre, of green food ; and when dry would weigh nearly four tons and a half.” The nutritive matter of this vetch consists almost entirely of mucilage and sugar ; the bitter extractive principle which exists in the nutritive matter of the leaves of all grasses is here in a less proportion. The produce in these experiments is less than that obtained by Mr. Swayne, but the difference is to be accounted for from the different soils employed. The plant attains toa considerable height when connected with bushes, and evi- dently prefers shady situations. But the produce, as shown above, on a middling soil, in an exposed situation, is very 134 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. considerable ; and it maintains its place when once in pos- session of the soil. Horses and oxen are very fond of it; I have observed them eat it closer to the ground than they did the surrounding herbage of cock’s-foot, tall oat-like soft- erass, ray-grass, and cow clover. Its produce is very inferior when cultivated on a clayey soil, for which it appears unfit. The seeds vegetate readily when sown about the end of April or in the beginning of May. It comes into flower about the middle of May, and the seed is ripe about the middle and end of June. LOLIUM perenne. Rye-grass*, Perennial Darnel, Ray- grass, Perennial Rye-grass. Specific character: Spike awnless ; calyx shorter than the spikelet; florets lanceolate. Fig.1. Spikelet. 2. Flo- ret. 3. Germen and stigmas. 4. Nectary. Obs. — The varieties of this species are very numerous: as the slender ray-grass (var. tenue), see our figure; the compound, or broad-spiked ray-grass (var. compositum) ; Pacey’s ray-grass (var. ramosum); Russell’s grass (Rus- sellianum), see our figure; Whitworth’s grass ( Whit- worthiensis) ; Stickney’s grass (Stickneiensis); panicled ray-grass (paniculatum) ; double-flowered ray-grass (mon- slrosum); viviparous ray-grass (viviparum); and varieties of these, according to the age of the plant and the soil it grows in. The first variety (¢enue) is common to dry pasture land that has been impoverished and worn out by injudicious cropping; it is distinguished from the other varieties by its perfectly upright spike, which is slender, and the spikelets small and distant from each other, consisting of three to five flowers ; the root-leaves are very narrow and few in number; the culms are almost naked or destitute of leaves. The second variety (compositum) grows in a richer soil, or in soils that have been long under grass, and is there for the most part *It should be ray-grass, from the French ivraie or yvre, drunken ; in allusion to the noxious qualities of the larger ray-grass, or darnel (lolium temulentum ). > Risselllanu m | ll Wiese “oet \. ~~ = Pe, /iuln Ferevue HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS, 135 confined to beaten parts, as the cart-ways and sides of paths. It is distinguished by its short and broad spike, crowded with spikelets towards the top; spikelets con- sisting of from seven to nine florets, of a green or purplish colour ; the culm is never upright, but ascend- ing, and almost covered with the sheaths of the leaves, which are numerous. The third variety (ramosum) 1s more common in rich meadow land than in any other soil; the spike is nearly upright, spikelets shorter, glumes more pointed, and the stem furnished with long leaves: the root-leaves are numerous, and larger in every respect than any of the preceding. I believe this to be the improved, or Pacey’s ray-grass: it is the most valu- able of the varieties above mentioned. The panicled ray-grass exhibits a very singular though accidental deviation from the proper character of the species — that of flowers disposed in a spike. 1 found this variety not uncommon in the lower parts of Mr. Westcar’s cele- brated pastures of Creslow. The double-flowering ray- grass I found in a meadow near St.Ives, and it was raised in the Experimental Grass Garden at Woburn Abbey, from seeds communicated by Mr. Neill of Mans- field. It has the spikelets globular, which give to the spike the appearance of being composed of double flowers. The viviparous variety grows luxuriantly after Midsummer ; it is strictly viviparous, never producing flowers or seed, but young plants from the glumes or ears. When supported, the ears emit plants which fre- quently attain to two and three inches in length. A spe- cimen of the stoloniferous ray-grass was communicated by Mr. Whitworth, from his extensive collection at Acre House. Of late years much has been done in discovering new and improved varieties of Jolium pe- renne. Mr. Whitworth has devoted much attention to this subject; and the talents, judgment, and success he has displayed in this important inquiry, deserve very great praise. His collection of the varieties of lolium perenne, in 1823 amounted to the surprising number of 136 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. sixty; but as many of these had been merely trans- planted into his experimental ground, and not submitted to the test of reproduction by seed, their permanency, or their characters as to being permanent or only acci- dental varieties, had not been determined. The labours of this gentleman have been rewarded by the discovery of that valuable variety which bears his name; and fur- ther important results may be expected from his talents and perseverance. Another valuable variety has been introduced very lately into practice, by Mr. Holdich, the late able and ingenious Editor of the Farmer’s Journal, which he named “ the Russell ray-grass,” on account of the original plant from which he raised the first stock of seed having been pointed out to Mr. Hol- dich by the Duke of Bedford. Mr. Stickney, a cele- brated cultivator in Holderness, has likewise introduced into practice a variety, said to have great merit, and which passes under his name, There are other varieties said to be valuable in practice, sold under the names of Dixon’s and Ruck’s ray-grass. All the varieties have a strong tendency to vary in their form when sown on different soils. The annual species are common only to land under cultivation: they will be found under the head of “ Plants adapted for the Alternate Hus- bandry.” On this interesting subject, the comparative value of these new varieties, I have much satisfaction in being able to quote the authority of that eminent agriculturist, Francis Blaikie, Esq.: he considers these new varieties as decided improvements on the common, and on the Pacey’s ray-grass. Since writing the above, I am informed by the Rev. C. Lord, that in some parts of Berkshire an excellent variety of ray- grass is In use, under the name of church-bennet, or church bent-grass. Root perennial, fibrous. Experiments. —On the 16th of April, the produce of the improved Pacey’s ray-grass from a rich brown loam ts 4,083 Ibs. per acre. HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. 137 The proportional value which the grass at the time of flowering bears to that at the time the seed is ripe, is as 1] to 10; and to the grass of the latter-math, as 5 to 2. There has often been occasion to observe, that though grass, when left till the seed be ripe, may afford a greater quantity of nutritive matter, nevertheless the value of the latter-math which is lost by this means is often greater than the extra quantity of nutritive matter thus obtained ; add to this the impoverishing effects of the plants on the soil, by the process of ripening the seed, and the less palat- able nature of the hay. The plants of grass are likewise much weakened by the production of seed ; for in all the ex- periments I have made, the produce of latter-math proved always less, in many instances one-half less, in a given time after the seed crop, than after the crop taken at the time of flowering ; I never could perceive, however, that the bad effects extended in any degree to the next following season, the weight of produce being then as frequently superior as equal or less. Ray-grass appears to have been cultivated previous to the year 1677; besides which, red clover, sainfoin, spurrey, tre- foil, and nonsuch, were the only plants then cultivated as grasses, or termed such. And it is only of late years that any other species of the natural grasses has been tried as a substitute for it in forming artificial pastures — as cat’s-tail grass (phleum pratense) ; cock’s-foot grass (dactylis glome- rata); and fox-tail grass (alopecurus pratensis). The cat’s- tail grass appears to have been made trial of before either of the other two, not more than fifty years ago, by Mr. Rocque, a farmer at Walham Green, near London. The seed of the cock’s-foot grass was introduced about the same time from Virginia, by the Society of Arts, &c., but no trial was made of it till several years afterwards: it was then called orchard- grass; and it is but lately that the fox-tail grass has been tried on an extensive scale—the merits of which seem to have been tirst accurately pointed out by the late excellent Mr. Curtis, in his several works on grasses. There has been much difference of opinion respecting the merits and comparative value of ray-grass. It produces on 138 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS, abundance of seed, which is easily collected and readily vegetates on most kinds of soil, under circumstances of dif- ferent management ; it soon arrives at perfection, and pro- duces in its first years of growth a good supply of early herb- age, which is much liked by cattle. These merits have, no doubt, upheld it till the present day in practice, and will probably, for some time to come, continue it a favourite grass with many farmers. But the latter-math of ray-grass is very inconsiderable, and the plant impoverishes the soil in a high degree, if the culms, which are invariably left un- touched by cattle, are not cut before the seed advances towards perfection. When this is neglected, the field after Midsummer exhibits only a brown surface of withered straws. Let the produce and nutritive powers of ray-grass be com- pared with those of the cock’s-foot grass, and it will be found inferior in the proportion nearly of 5 to 18; and also inferior to the meadow fox-tail in the proportion of 5 to 12; and inferior to the meadow fescue in the proportion of 5 to 17. In these comparisons, from which the above proportions arose, it was necessary to omit the seed crops for the truth of comparison. But as the seed of the fox-tail is often defective, and the plants of the fescue (festuca pratensis) do not arrive at per- fection so soon as those of ray-grass; their superiority, as above, is somewhat lessened with respect to their value as alternate husbandry grasses; for permanent pasture, how- ever, the above proportional values will be found true, as ray- grass is but a short-lived plant, seldom continuing more than six years in possession of the soil, but is continued by its property of ripening an abundance of seed, which is but little molested by birds, and suffered to fall and vegetate among the root-leaves of the permanent pasture grasses. But cock’s-foot grass perfects an abundance of seed, and the plants arrive at a productive state as soon as those of ray- grass; hence its superiority, as above, is equally great for permanent pasture and the alternate husbandry; which is not so precisely the case with the fox-tail grass and meadow fescue. One peck of ray-grass, with 14 Ibs. of clover, per HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. 139 acre, 1s generally considered sufficient for sowing artificial pastures. The above details relate to the Pacey’s variety ; and the following details will show to a certain extent the superiority of the new varieties. 1. The Russell’s ray-grass. The produce on the 16th of April from a brown rich loam is 5,445 lbs. per acre; of nutritive matter, 212 lbs. At the time of flowering the produce is 15,654 !bs. of grass per acre ; of nutritive matter, 733 lbs. The value of this variety, it is perfectly evident, is there- fore greatly superior to the Pacey’s ray-grass in produce and nutritive properties ; and to these must be added its superior early growth in the spring, and its continuing to vegetate later in the autumn and winter. These properties go near to remove entirely the objections which have been so justly urged against the common ray-grass. 2. Stickney’s approaches near to this in its habits and nutritive properties, but I have not had an opportunity to ascertain the produce of it, with that degree of precision and certainty which would ailow of my giving the results of the trials a place here. 3. The Whitworth’s is finer in the foliage than either of the above varieties. This variety seems also to possess the valuable properties of early and late growth, in an eminent degree. These varieties of ray-grass are a valuable acquisi- tion to the farmer; and more particularly, should those cha- racters which now render them so valuable prove permanent, after experiencing the various trying effects of different changes of soil and situation under long cultivation. The habit of the Whitworth’s indicates an origin from higher situated though rich land; while the habits of the Russell and Stickney indicate an origin from a less elevated though equally rich land. It is more than probable that, should attention be paid to have the seeds of those grasses always supplied from their respective original soils, or from analo- gous soils, that the valuable properties they now possess may be perpetuated. Besides those varieties, there have been 140 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. cultivated and submitted to careful experiment in the grass- garden at Woburn Abbey, fifteen apparently distinct varie- ties. The greater number of these have not stood the test of reproduction from seed, but have merged into one or other of the above-mentioned varieties. Mr. Neill, of Mansfield, communicated six varieties, one of which proved identical with Stickney’s grass, and another proved to be the same with the Russell ray-grass. Mr. Neill had first collected the seeds of these from rich pastures, and by afterwards culti- vating them in his garden obtained seed sufficient for farm practice. Ray-grass, when not more than three years old, flowers in the second week of June, and ripens the seed in about twenty-five days after: as the plants become older they flower much later, sometimes so late as the beginning of August. For the following statements of the produce of the Whit- worth ray-grass I am indebted to Mr. G. Whitworth. ‘About eighty acres of rather thin poor wold-land, incum- bent on chalk, was sown with the Whitworth variety and clover, the former predominant. In 1819, the first season of grass, the land kept some ewes and lambs until the Ist of May, when it was shut up for mowing. The produce of hay was fifty-four good waggon-loads, but thirty acres were allowed to stand for seed, the produce of seed from two to three quarters per acre. The pasture was laid in for about four weeks, then stocked with five hundred lambs, which it kept for seven weeks, and afterwards kept one hundred and sixty lambs, with the help of a little hay given occasionally, through the winter, and until the beginning of April, when three hundred ewes and Jambs were put in and did well through the spring months.” To the serious objections to ray-grass as a precursor to wheat, Mr. Whitworth says, ‘‘ that his variety 1s so tenacious of life, that two or even three ploughings are necessary to overcome the grass, otherwise the roots of the grass will take up the nourishment of the soil, to the great injury of the wheat-crop.” Medium N 3 SS < < BK HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. 141 TRIFOLIUM medium. Marl-Clover, Cow-grass. Specific character : Spikes loose, stems flexuose, branched ; corollas nearly equal ; stipules sublate, linear. Obs. —The common broad-leaved red clover is distin- guished from the present plant by the spike, which is loose and rather oblong, while that of the broad-leaved clover is globular and compact. The root of the marl- erass 1s creeping, that of the broad-leaved clover spindle- shaped and fibrous. The stem of the perennial sort is more constantly zig-zag. The leaves are also smoother and longer. There are three varieties of the broad- leaved clover (trifolium pratense), mentioned by bota- nical writers, one of which is said to be perennial and the true marl or cow-grass; but all the seeds and plants I have had for this (except that from Messrs. Gibbs and Co., which proved to be the present plant) have turned out only two-year-lived plants, or never exceeding three, though cultivated on various soils. Since the above details were first printed, I have found the true trifolum pratense perenne in the rich grazing lands in the vale of Aylesbury, and also in the rich grazing lands in Lincolnshire—a figure of which is presented to the reader in the following pages. The plants of marl clover upon which the following experi- ments were made, were taken from a rich ancient pasture, which was so closely cropped at the time, that the plant was only three inches high, though in flower, This plant is also frequent on cold tenacious clayey soils, where it is of smaller stature, more woody, and darker coloured; but when transplanted to a richer soil its appearance is much altered. The distinctions of the perennial and the biennial root are the most certain, and of the most importance to the agriculturist in choosing between two plants of nearly equal value for the purpose of permanent pasture. To avoid any chance of mistake, therefore, I here present a figure of the marl clover or cow-grass, which I have brought 142 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. from a rich ancient pasture that had never been under the plough, according to the oldest recollection. Experiments.—At the time of flowering, the produce from a rich black loam is 20,418 lbs. per acre. | The produce of latter-math at two different cuttings is 19,057 per acre. The weight of nutritive matter contained in the latter-math herbage is equal to that afforded by the flowering herbage. The plant, as it passes this stage of growth, becomes woody, particularly at the bottom of the stalks. It pushes forth flowering stems during all the summer and autumn, if never suffered to perfect its seed. It withstands the effects of severe dry weather better than most pasture plants, owing to their deeper rooting, continuing to flower even when the surrounding herbage is burnt up on strong loamy soils. The white clover (trifolium repens), and the hop clover (tr7- folium procumbens), are, at least so far as my observations have extended, the only plants beside that retain verdure and powers of growth under such circumstances. There were favourable opportunities, during the long continued season of dry weather in this year (1815), to observe the powers of different grasses and plants to resist the effects of drought: there were no plants on ancient pasture land, on lighter soils, or on clays, that appeared so little affected by it as those I have mentioned. The common quaking- grass (briza media), was to all appearance completely dried up, while on a sandy soil, a rich black loam, and a strong clayey soil, the fine bent grass (agrostis capillaris), and the different varieties of the stoloniferous bent-grass or fiorin, were, with respect to foliage, in the same state as the qua- king-grass. This property, therefore, gives additional value to the perennial red clover. On a comparison of the produce and nutritive qualities of the broad-leaved clover (trifolium pratense), with those of the above, the broad-leaved clover is found to be greatly superior. The broad-leaved cultivated clover (trefolium pratense), at the time of flowering, affords of nutritive matter, from the produce of one acre of a clayey loam, 1,861 lbs.; from the HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. 143 produce of latter-math, taken at two different times, 930 lbs. ; total 2,791 lbs. per acre in one year. The cow-grass (trifolium medium ), as above, affords of nutri- tive matter, from the produce at the time of flowering, 717 lbs. ; from the produce of latter-math, at two different cuttings, 670 lbs. ; total 1,387 lbs. per acre in one year. The weight of nutritive matter, in which the produce of one acre of the trifolium pratense (broad-leaved cultivated clover), exceeds that of the cow-grass, is 1,404 lbs. per acre in one year. In regard to produce, therefore, the biennial-rooted clover is superior to the perennial, in the proportion nearly of 2tol. Asa plant for the alternate husbandry, the broad- leaved cultivated clover will evidently be preferred ; but for permanent pasture, the cow-clover (trifolium medium) must of necessity have the preference. The quantity of nutritive matter, contained in the herbage of the broad-leaved clover, is somewhat greater than in the herbage of the cow-clover, proportionally, according to my experiments, as 10 to 9. The constituent parts of the nutritive matters of the plants are nearly alike, only the broad-leaved clover contains nearly three per cent. more of the bitter extractive and saline matters than are contained in an equal weight of the cow-clover. This species, likewise, contains much less superfluous moisture than the former, and is in consequence more quickly and safely converted into hay ; for it is evident, the difficulty of making good hay, is in direct proportion to the quantity of superfluous moisture any herbage may contain. The value of the cow-clover has been disputed, but it seems probable that any doubts as to its merits, may have arisen from using it instead of the trifolium pratense (biennial red clover) in the alternate husbandry, for which it seems unfit, or at least greatly inferior to that species. But for permanent pasture, on soils too light for the trifolium pra- tense perenne, its value is undoubtedly considerable. It flowers about the beginning of July, and the general crop of seed is ripe about the beginning of September. Hares 144 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. and rabbits are very fond of this clover when cultivated on a rich soil. TRIFOLIUM pratense perenne. Perennial Red Clover. Specific character. Obs. — In the fertile grazing lands between Wainfleet and Skegness, in Lincolnshire, this true perennial red clover is abundant. An opportunity was afforded me to exa- mine this species very satisfactorily in its natural soil, when the plants were in full blossom. The root is slightly creeping and extremely fibrous ; in these points it differs essentially from the common _broad-leaved clover, the roots of which are almost spindle-shaped, with comparatively few fibres. The common broad- leaved clover is of a lighter green colour, has fewer hairs on the stem and leaves, and grows more upright. The botanical discriminating characters are less obvious, indeed not sufficient to make this plant more than a permanent variety of trifolium pratense. The sheaths are terminated with narrower and longer points, which are set with longer hairs. The flower-stalks are in gene- ral longer and more slender, with an evident disposition to grow bent and flexuose. The heads of flowers are less crowded with florets, although apparently, to the sight, equally as large as the common cultivated clover. When young, the flower-head has the appearance of extreme woolliness or pubescence. Last summer, when examining the rich grazing lands in Lincolnshire, I found this plant to be more prevalent than any other species of clover. In the clayey districts, and in soils of a peaty nature, this species of clover was more con- spicuous than in the alluvial soils. The natural appearance of this plant, in these celebrated pastures, is such as to recommend it strongly for cultivation. It being strictly perennial, and the root only slightly creeping, it may be used for the alternate husbandry, for which the trzfoliwm medium is inadmissible, on account of its creeping roots, constituting M\\/; 4 LE j i) | ary SS Trifo/ium Frautense nt ee ae ea ae i : 4 ; hire: a ON ae a Y vi t “ eee My HS, iy Ps a iy oe my » he 7, . ye a yer j y dt TL) gan! Fo! . 7 i >, ail : ' oT} ; wah: det A = et Se ONE eg 4 i a8 7! e dae i F ’h . : 4 3 : : ne oS ee) ao ’ 4 i ve b ¥ < = ' 1) ies b } ai a oi ay Ly ak } ‘ ie vet ; if fy Ms 1 S i ¢ _7 i A a " . a ; f fe * 4 rey ij 4 ‘ A ¥ Ed ‘db ry , = ’ ai 4 as = » ik ‘ : bY ain rl j é Pa, wil P " i > —- ; ‘ , : r * A’ Hi a se ‘ 4 “eae ‘ ‘ os ; 4 i] : af ' “Aa erp i ‘ ¥ sia ’ _ aR =" a . ae oi f t. ’ > e , ) A ; iy or, cre . are eg a : ay H { ay. -* eS \ , ¥ as iat - ee r jab Le : “an an 7 te yr : é " a ak ; ns wis ay o oe kis : i a - s HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. 145 what in arable lands is termed fitch. The seed of this valua- ble clover should first be collected from plants in those valuable pastures near Skegness, where it abounds: and from this, a stock of plants to increase the supply of seed for general farm practice might soon be obtained. The nutritive powers of this species are superior to those of the trzfolium medium, in the proportion of 10 to9. At the time of flowering, 64 dr. of the herbage of the trifolium pratense perenne afforded 2 dr. 2 qr. of nutritive matter. It thrives better when combined with other grasses than when cultivated by itself; but this, indeed, is also the ease with all the valuable grasses. The trifoltum medium, the cynosurus cristatus, lolium perenne, alopecurus pratensis, avena flavescens, hordeum pratense, poa trivialis, holcus ave-.~ naceus, poa pratensis, trifolium repens, holcus lanatus, and festuca pratensis, were the grasses among which I found this perennial red clover to flourish, in the clayey and alluvial soils in Lincolnshire. The slightly creeping root remains permanent in the experimental garden, while the roots of the common broad-leaved clover have almost disappeared in the third season from sowing. For permanent pasture, therefore, this variety is the only proper one to cultivate, for disappointment will be found a certain foliower of the broad-leaved clover, when sown with the intention of consti- tuting a part of any permanent pasture. The figure and description will enable the farmer to decide, whether the variety of red clover he cultivates be the true perennial species. For clayey and peaty soils, and for loams, this variety is doubtless superior to the trifolium medium or cow- grass, and to any other variety of red clover at present known for the purposes of permanent pasture; but for soils of a drier nature and lighter texture, the trifolium medium offers greater advantages. TRIFOLIUM repens. White Clover, White Trefoil, Dutch Clover. The white or Dutch clover of the shops has been supposed an hybrid variety of the true perennial white clover of an- iv 146 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. cient natural pastures, and that it continues only a short time in the land when sown ; and not continuing permanent, as is the case with the white clover of natural pastures. I cannot find any facts in direct proof of this supposition. There are, doubtless, more than one variety of white clover (trifolium repens ). Native of Britain. Root perennial. This species of clover is so familiar to every agriculturist, that a specific description of it in a work of this nature may be unnecessary. The value of white clover to the farmer is well known. It is common in most, or rather, it is present in every kind of pasture land in Britain. From the circumstance of grow- ing spontaneously in almost every kind of soil, few plants vary so much in size: in very dry and poor sandy soils it is often so small, and grows so flat among the lower leaves of the herbage, that it is not perceptible unless a turf is cut, and carefully examined by dividing it; hence, on breaking up and manuring such soils, or simply manuring by top- dressing, a spontaneous crop of white clover appears where it was never observed before, and without any supply of seed: this has led to strange conclusions respecting the pro- pagation of plants. The central root of white clover penetrates to a consider- able depth in the soil, and the plant is thereby better pre- pared to resist the bad effects of severe dry weather, parti- cularly on sandy soils. The branches that trail on the sur- face send down fibrous roots from the joints, which pene- trate but a little way into the ground: hence it is, that the white clover maintains itself in soils of opposite natures ; for if the surface be too dry to afford nourishment to the branches, the principal root preserves it; and when the tenacity and retentiveness of the soil in a wet winter is great enough to rot the tap-root, the fibres of the runners preserve the plant in safety. From this habit of growth, top-dressings and a frequent use of the roller encourage the erowth of this plant in an extraordinary degree. White clover, when cultivated by itself, is far from forming so good a pasture as when combined with the natural grasses ; A : KS } WH V, Ny WA V WY V NZ DANN =U SS Asrosti's Solon tlera J attholla- HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. 147 and I have witnessed the dangerous effects of pure clover pasture on sheep, by inducing disease, and at the same time the superior value of it in pastures containing a due admixture of the natural grasses; among many instances of this sort, one is selected, and mentioned in the introduction to these details of experiments. On a comparison of the nutritive matter afforded from equal weights of the white and red clovers, it appears that the white clover is inferior. The biennial red clover (trifolium pratense) affords of nu- tritive matter, 2 dr. 2 qr. The perennial red clover (trifolum pratense perenne) af- fords of ditto, 2 dr. 2 qr. The white or Dutch clover (trifolium repens) affords of ditto, 2 dr. The brown five-leaved variety of white clover affords of ditto, 2dr. 2 qr. The white clover is therefore inferior to the biennial broad-leaved red clover in the proportion of 5 to 4; and inferior to the red perennial clover in the proportion of 10 to 9. The brown variety of white clover is equal to the bien- nial red clover in the quantity of nutritive matter it contains, but with respect to the quantity of herbage it is greatly inferior to the white variety, or Dutch clover. Sir Humphry Davy has shown, that the nutritive matter of the clovers contains a greater proportion of bitter ex- tractive and saline matters than the proper grasses ; and that when pure clover hay is to be mixed as fodder, it should be with summer hay rather than after-math hay. Within these few years, that is, since 1834, a new forage plant has been introduced into British husbandry, called trifolium incarnatum, or flesh-coloured clover. If sown on a wheat stubble, and harrowed in, it succeeds better than if the ground was ploughed. It rises early, and in some instances it has answered pretty well; but, like all other plants, the first trial is always the most promising. AGROSTIS stolonifera (var. 1, latifolia). Larger-leaved Creeping Bent, Fiorin. L 2 148 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. Specific character: Panicle loose at the time of flowering, contracted afterwards ; florets large, numerous; calyx- husks acuminate, outer serrujated from the keel up- wards, inner only slightly towards the top. Obs. —This vanety of creeping bent-grass being confined to the richest natural pastures, at least as far as my observations have extended, I have introduced it in this place; the specimens and details of experiments made on the other varieties which are now to be men- tioned, will be found in another part of this work. Var. 2. Smaller-leaved creeping bent (see agrostzs stoloni- fera, var. angustifolia) is distinguished from the above by its panicle, which is densely crowded with florets, smaller, and of a whitish colour, which distinguishes it at first sight from the large spreading dingy purple panicle of the above ; the leaves of which also are longer and broader, pointing more direct from the stem, and the joints more distant, and distinguished from those of every other variety of fiorm by the dull purple or brownish colour, which seems to unite them with the stem: in the angustifolia the colour is white or grey. This second variety I believe to be the agrostis stolonifera of the English Botany, 1532. Var. 3. Awned creeping bent-grass (see agrostis stoloni- fera, var. aristata), is distinguished from the first variety by its larger valve of the blossom having an awn twice its length, while the same valve in the true fiorin (var. 1) has only the rudiment of an awn fixed below the apex, and which can be distinctly seen only by the aid of a glass; the panicle is also smaller; the colour of that part of the stem nearest to the joint is reddish; the joints much less swoln. Var. 4. Wood creeping bent-grass (see agrostis stolonifera, var. nemoralis) is more like the first variety than any of the others ; but the panicle is more wide-spreading, the branches rougher, the florets more pointed, smoother, the leaves nar- rower, and lying more flat on the ground; the creeping stems or runners are more slender, and lie quite flat on the ground, jomts smaller and nearly colourless. The marsh creeping bent-grass may be justly considered var. 5 (see agrostis palustris); it approaches nearest to var. 2 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. 149 (angustifolia), but the panicle is spear-shaped, loose when in flower, and contracted so much when in seed as to resem- ble a spike, and is of a whitish-grey colour ; it is essentially distinguished from the others by the larger valve of the blossom being furnished with a minute awn, which rises a little above its middle, and reaches to the top of the valve ; the awn is straight, and pressed close to the back of the valve. The above characters of distinction, and the figures which are afterwards given to illustrate them, were taken from plants raised from seed on the same soils that the plants were found naturally growing on, and on different soils; the characters of the wild plants were compared with those of the cultivated ones, and what remained constant after these changes of circumstances are the above. It is easy to conceive the change that takes place in the general appear- ance of a plant when brought out of a wet ditch and culti- vated on a dry exposed soil, or from under the shade of trees on a poor sand, and planted out on a rich loam with full exposure to the sun and air. Characters, therefore, that change with these changes of circumstances, tend more to perplex than enlighten, and may therefore be better omitted. Experiments. — At the time of flowering, the produce from an active peat soil is 17,696 lbs. per acre. At the time the seed is ripe the produce is 19,057 lbs. per acre. The produce of latter-math is 2,722 lbs. per acre. The Rev. Dr. William Richardson has introduced this variety of the agrostis stolonifera to the agricultural world under the name of fiorin, and has shown its merits and pro- perties, deduced from his own experiments, in a variety of publications on the subject, to which the reader is referred. It is greatly superior, in point of produce and nutritive powers, to the other varieties of the agrostis stolonifera which have been enumerated; this will be manifest on referring to the details of experiments made upon them, as given under the head of grasses natural to moist soils. 150 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. On comparing the specimens of these different varieties, their resemblance to each other is so great, that they may be easily mistaken for each other, without a close inspection, and some knowledge of botany to assist it. It was before observed, that this variety (larger creeping bent or fiorin) appears to be confined to rich ancient pasture land, as its natural place of growth, und the other varieties to various soils and situations; and that when taken from these different soils, and cultivated together under the same circumstances, they retain the discriminating characters before mentioned. On damp clayey soils, the second variety is the most common grass. To moors and bog soils the third variety is chiefly, or (at least according to my observations) altogether confined. To light sandy soils, particularly when more or less shaded, the fourth variety is peculiar; and the fifth variety is seldom found but in the bottom of ditches, or by the sides of rivulets. The first variety being therefore scarce, and the others very common, there is little room for surprise at the contradictory results of experiments that have been made on one or other of these inferior varieties, by gentlemen equally eminent for agricultural knowledge, under the conviction of their being one and the same grass as recommended by Dr. Richardson, under the name of fiorin; whereas, though they agree in the general habit of Dr. Richardson’s variety, and indeed in every respect except in the characters before described, their inferiority in every agricultural merit is so great, as to justify the opprobrious epithets that have been bestowed upon them by those, who, from the above causes, have differed from Dr. Richardson’s statements of the merits of the first variety, or fiorm, and prevented that justice being done to the discovery which it may have deserved. The above details will assist the farmer in deciding on the comparative merits of this grass, as a constituent of a mixture of grasses for permanent pasture; from which it will doubtless appear worthy of attention, but its value not so great as has been supposed, if its habits or manner of HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS, 15] growth be impartially taken into the account, when com- pared with the produce and nutritive powers of other grasses. This grass, when cultivated by itself, cannot be profitably depastured, on account, principally, of its peculiar manner of growth, which has been compared to that of strawberries. It sends out runners or stolones, which strike root at the joints ; the feet of cattle mixing part of the soil with these, render the most valuable part of the plant unfit for food. In its combined state in ancient pastures this objection 1s lost, as the root-leaves and consolidated turf of the various grasses prevent completely such an effect from the feet of the cattle, which will be evident on a few moments’ examina- tion of a close-eaten turf of such pastures as now described. In this state it is much less productive than when cultivated singly, as the fibrous roots of the stolones derive their only nourishment from the moisture secreted among the root- leaves of the other grasses. The chief advantage of this grass in permanent pasture is its late growth.. It remains in a degree inactive till other grasses have attained to perfection, and when their produc~ tive powers become exhausted, those of fiorin and_ its varieties begin ; and it will be found, on inspection, that the latest mouthful of herbage, and sometimes the earliest in those pastures, is principally afforded by this grass. There has been much prejudice existing against the different species of agrostis in general; but, let the pro- prietor of a rich ancient pasture divest a part of it of this grass entirely, and the value of the plant will be demon- strated in the comparative loss of late and early herbage. In these pastures, late in the autumn, I have observed the stolones extend to a considerable length, and left untouched by cattle: in the spring, however, they were generally eaten, and the protection they had afforded to the under grasses was evident in the superior early growth of the herbage, where the stolones had most extended; after this, the creeping bent was hardly to be recognized till the other grasses had again exhausted themselves, tewards the end of Ra2 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. the autumn. The plant, in this state of combination, takes but little from the soil. In comparing the produce and nutritive powers of different grasses, to arrive at a knowledge of their relative value, it is absolutely necessary, for the truth of comparison, that the produce of one whole season be taken, and not one crop singly, except in instances where the produce consists but of one crop only. Accordingly, the produce of fiorin may be compared with that of the cock’s-foot grass (dactylis glomerata), meadow fescue (festuca pratensis), and the meadow fox-tail (a/opecurus pratensis), when it will appear inferior to the two former species, and superior to the latter. On referring to former details it appears, that The agrostis stolonifera, var. latifolia, larger creeping-bent, taken in December, affords of nutritive matter 1,405 Ibs. per acre In one year. The dactylis glomerata, cock’s-foot grass, 1,728 lbs. per acre. The festuca pratensis, meadow fescue, 1,719 Ibs. per acre. The alopecurus pratensis, meadow fox-tail, 1,216 lbs. per acre. The cock’s-foot grass, under the circumstances described, is therefore superior to the larger variety of the creeping-bent, in the proportion, nearly, of 11 to 9. The meadow fescue (festuca pratensis) is also superior to fiorin, in nearly the like proportion as cock’s-foot. The meadow fox-tail-grass (alopecurus pratensis ) is inferior to fiorin, in the proportion, nearly, of 6 to 7. Though the quantity of nutritive matter afforded by a grass in one whole season, is the chief property by which its comparative value can be determined, yet the particular season or seasons in which it is produced, the nature of the soil on which it car be cultivated to most advantage, and the superior facilities its peculiar habits of growth afford for its propagation, as also for reaping its produce, are points which must necessarily be taken into the account by the agriculturist, according as they are influenced by ‘ccal circumstances, such as the nature of the soil, and situation of his farm. HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. 158 When cultivated separately for the purpose of green food or hay, fiorin requires to be kept perfectly clear of weeds, its couchant habit of growth affording great encouragement for the health of upright-growing plants—under this circum- stance, weeds. ‘The numerous fibrous roots that issue from the joints of the trailing shoots or stolones exhaust the surface of the soil in a considerable degree; top-dressings with manure are therefore absolutely necessary to keep up the superior productive powers of fiorin. Without these points being sufficiently attended to in the cultivation of this grass, disappointment will be the result. It perfects a sufficiency of seed, which readily vegetates ; and the plants, when properly encouraged by top-dressings, I have found invariably to arrive soon at perfection. When the runners or stolones are used instead of seed, the ground is much sooner clothed with the grass: when meant as a crop by itself, the planting of the shoots or stolones appears to be the best mode; but when intended as part of a mixture uf other grasses, the seed will be found by experi- ence to be the most proper. It flowers about the second and third weeks of July, and the seed is mipe about the second and third weeks of August. The grasses and other plants that have now been submitted to the better judgment of the reader, comprehend all the grasses and plants which the author could ever find in the body of the richest natural pastures, examined every month of the year, and oftener; some other species, it is true, were sometimes found on particular spots, but could not, from their local situation, be considered as naturally belonging to such: they will be mentioned hereafter. To those who may have perused and bestowed some con- sideration on the foregoing details, it may be unnecessary to observe, that the facts and observations there brought forward, offer sufficient proofs, that it is not from one or two, but from a variety of different species of grasses, that the agriculturist can lope to form, in the shortest space of time, a sward equal, if not superior, to that of the richest natural pasture. 154 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. Hastiness in generalizing from a few facts only, in things pertaining to the properties and cultivation of plants, has often led to error; it seldom benefits the cause it meant to advance: every one is told this plant, or that mode of culti- vation, will best suit his purpose; most make trial, and from the want of that caution which generalization in the outset destroys, the majority fails: this leads to a difference of opinion on one side ; and on the other, toa contempt of that, which, when taken in its limited sense, would have produced every advantage the object was capable of aflording. The hope of discovering a single grass or mode of cultiva- tion superior to every other, for all the purposes of the agriculturist, under every circumstance, would surely be as rational, and the discovery, when effected, as great, as those of the Philosopher’s Stone and the Universal Specific. ALOPECURUS arundinaceus. Reed-like Foxtail-grass. Specific character: Root powerfully creeping; leaves spear-shaped, spike oblong, thickly crowded: husks pubescent on the back, and largely ciliate on the edges. Obs.—The florets are larger and more linear, or of a more equal breadth throughout than those of alopecurus pratensis; awns sometimes altogether wanting ; culm very tall in comparison to that of the common fox-tail ; but the reed-like leaves of the a. arundinaceus distinguish it at first sight from the a. pratensis. I received this species, and the next following one, from my friend Mr. Taunton. Poiret mentions that it is cultivated in the Paris gardens, but its native place of growth is unknown. The substance of the culms and leaves of this grass is coarser than that of the alopecurus pratensis; and the root is so powerfully creeping, as to render its introduction into arable land a matter of great caution. The produce and nutritive powers are very considerable ; it is an early grass, producing culms at an early period of the spring, and con- tinuing to vegetate vigorously through the summer and HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. 155 autumn. It cannot be recommended asa constituent of permanent pasture; but as a grass to cultivate by itself, to a certain extent, for green food, or for hay, it offers advan- tages, in the superior produce and nutritive powers above stated. It grows stronger and attains to a greater height than the next species, but owing to the roots spreading wide, being large, and requiring a consequent greater supply of nourishment from the soil, the produce stands thinner, and proves less weighty, than the crops afforded by the alope- curus Tauntoniensis. It flowers in April or early in May, and continues to pro- duce flowering culms until the autumn. ALOPECURUS Tauntoniensis. Taunton’s Meadow Fox- tail-grass. Specific character: Spike much panicled ; florets oblong ; calyx ciliate on the back, on the edges nearly naked ; culm upright, ribbed ; root slightly creeping. Obs. — This holds a middle station between the alopecurus pratensis and alopecurus arundinaceus. The lanceolate, strong, reed-like leaves, and powerful creeping root, of the alopecurus arundinaceus, at first sight, when grow- ing, distinguish it from every other species of alopecurus. The strongly-ribbed lower leaves of the al/opecurus Tauntoniensis, with its slightly, though evidently creep- ing roots, in lke manner, when growing, distinguish it from the alopecurus pratensis and a. arundinaceus. The more minute though certain proper botanical characters of distinction, are less obvious. The florets of the alopecurus pratensis are more dilated or are sub- ovate, those of the a. arundinaceus and a. Tauntoniensis are sub-linear ; but the florets of the latter are shorter. The edges of the calyx of the a. Tauntoniensis are nearly naked and smooth, while in the a. arundinaceus the edges of the calyx are largely ciliate, and the side- ribs so prominent, as to give an angular form to the valves. The a. Yauntoniensis is distinguished from a. pratensis and a. arundinaceus by deep purple tints on the calyx and awns, ‘The anthers of the a. pratensis 156 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. are broad and but littlecloven, while those of the two former species are narrow, long, and deeply cloven; seg- ments bent outwards. The superior productiveness of this grass throughout the season, furnishing very early and late herbage, equal to the very best species, are properties which recommend it very highly for permanent pasture, in company with other kinds peculiarly adapted for the purpose. The roots, although only slightly creeping, vet seem to forbid any recommenda- tion of the plant for the alternate husbandry ; for permanent pasture, however, this habit is here of advantage, as securing the extension and continuance of the plant without the seri- ous objection of impoverishing the soil by the unprofitable production underground of vegetable matter, which occurs in the growth of the powerful creeping roots of poa pratensis, agropyrum repens, holcus mollis, &c. Should the seed of this species prove obnoxious to the same diseases as the seed of the alopecurus pratensis (which I suspect will prove to be the case), this slight creeping habit of the roots will add to the comparative value of this new species, as allowing of its cultivation with more certainty of success and smaller cost, than the general defects of seed in the alopecurus pratensis permit in its cultivation. It comes into flower in April or early in May, and con- tinues to emit flowering culms until September and October. The superiority of ancient natural pastures over those formed artificially with ray-grass and clover, was before alluded to. It will be found principally to arise from the variety of different habits and properties which exist in a numerous combination of different species of grass. From the beginning of spring, till winter, there is not a month that is not the peculiar season in which one or more grasses at- tain to the greatest degree of perfection. Some grasses there are that withstand the injurious effects of long-continued dry weather better than others, and vice versd. Hence the comparatively never-failing supply of nutritive herbage ob- tained from natural pastures, which it is vain to look for in those artificially formed with one or two grasses only. HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS:, 159 Turfs one foot in diameter, from rich ancient paitive value, in Endsleigh, Devonshire, belonging to the Duke of . more for contained the following plants : — iments 1. Turf from Hurdwick ground: Anthoxanthum odoratmer- cynosurus cristatus, lolium perenne Russellianum, poa pratensis, poa trivialis, dactylis glomerata, holcus lanatus, festuca pra- tensis, Achillea millefolium, trifolium repens, trifolium pratense perenne, rumex acetosa, plantago lanceolata, hieracium pilosella, prunella vulgaris. 2. Turf one foot diameter, from Endsleigh grounds: Fes- tuca pratensis, festuca duriuscula, alopecurus pratensis, dacty- ls glomerata, bromus mollis, poa trivialis, cynosurus cristatus, festuca rubra, agrostis stolonifera latifolia, lohum perenne Russellianum, lolium perenne compositum, holcus lanatus, agros- tis vulgaris, trifolium pratense perenne (red perennial clover), white clover, spear-leaved ribwort (plantagaglanceolata), yar- row (Achillea millefolium), hieracium pilosella, rumex acetosa, stellaria graminea, bellis perennis, anthoxanthum odoratum. To those who are accustomed to consider as necessary one or two species of grass only, as ray-grass and clover, the fact of twenty-two different species of grasses and other plants being produced on something less than the space of a square foot of the best fattening pastures, would scarcely appear credible, unless it was thus demonstrated. The pasture of which this turf is a specimen, on an average, per acre, fat- tens one bullock, of from 100 to 120 stone, Smithfield weight, and winters two sheep. 400 grains of the soil consisted of — Water .of absarptions.....¢2.20.10-de0+seseeee 1 OO) CLAIMS. Fine sand, partly siliceous aud pane alUMINOUSE HREM UA e esate .. 148 Decomposing vegetable matter ............. 38 Deideok roms toe e9. ens AY, Sa TE MO is 40 Carbonate of lime or chalk............sse000- 0 Soluble vegetable and saline matter....... 6 Alumina, or pure matter of clay..... A Re des 12 Silex), Meyeep ee seed. ER! Mote sexieGO | DANS ee etre rar BCS os 400 ORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. 156 / ; ; Ee ey, 3t remarkable circumstance in the nature of this are he excessive quantity of the oxide of iron, and the forant of carbonate of lime or chalk. In a drier climate il of this nature would be much less fertile, Lime com- bined with well-prepared compost and applied as a top- dressing, must prove highly fertilizing to a soil constituted as above. In the richest fattening pastures in Lincolnshire, which I have had an opportunity of examining minutely, and which were fully equal to fattening one large ox and four or five sheep per acre, the different species of plants were equally numerous on a given space of the ground, as in those rich pastures I examined in Devonshire; but in the Lincolnshire pastures, the natural or proper grasses were in a much greater proportion, and, excepting yarrow (Achillea millefolium) and the clovers, there was scarcely a plant to be found out of th¢ family of the proper grasses. The soil was a fine loam or alluvial soil; it contained no sensible quantity of carbonate of lime or chalk, and proved, on a chemical examination of its nature, to be very similar in constitution to the soil above mentioned, except that it contained fifty per cent. less oxide of iron, and that the soluble matter of the soil afforded more vegetable extract, in proportion to the sa- line contents, than was indicated in the soluble portion of the Devonshire soil. The results of an examination of the rich fattening pastures in the Vale of Aylesbury, particularly those of Mr. Westcar, at Creslow, were in perfect accordance with the above, and proved in the most clear and satisfactory manner the truth of the conclusions which had, @ priori, been drawn from the results of the experiments made indi- vidually on the grasses which compose the produce of these celebrated pastures, and equally as regarded the produce and nutritive powers of the different species. The chief properties which give value to a grass are, nu- tritive powers, produce, early growth, re-germinating powers, or the property of growing rapidly after being cropped, and the facilities it offers for its propagation by seed. If one species of grass could be discovered that possessed all these properties in a superior degree to every other, the knowledge distinguishing the different species of grass with certainty, that of the soils and sub-soil best adapted to HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. 159 their growth, and their natural habits, comparative value, and merits of the different plants, would then be more for curiosity than utility. But the results of these experiments have proved, that a combination of all the merits and proper- ties which give value to a grass, is not to be found in a su- perior degree in any single grass. Indeed, if such were the case, it would seem singular that nature, for the same pur- pose, finds it necessary to employ so many. If a selection of grasses were made with a view to early flowering only (presuming that this property constituted the chief value of a grass), it will be found, that a combination of equal proportions of sweet vernal-grass (anthoranthum odoratum), sweet soft-grass (holcus odoratus), soft brome- grass (bromus mollis), annual meadow-grass (poa annua), and meadow fox-tail grass (alopecurus pratensis), will produce a crop ripe to mow in the second week of May, on a soil of the best quality, these grasses being then in flower; but the produce will be found very inferior—the nutritive matter from the whole crop being only 367 lbs. A combination of the smooth-stalked meadow-grass ( poa pratensis), rough-stalked meadow-grass (poa trivialis), hard fescue (festuca duriuscula), common quaking-grass (briza media), darnel-like fescue-grass ( festuca loliacea), long-awned sheep’s-fescue (festuca ovina hordeiformis), and the Welsh fescue (festuca Cambrica), will afford a crop ready for mow- ing in the first week of June. The value of a crop, consisting of equal parts of these grasses, is superior to the preceding, in the proportion nearly of 4 to 3; the nutritive matter af- forded by the whole crop being 486 lbs. A combination of equal parts of the cock’s-foot grass (dac- tylis glomerata), meadow-fescue (festuca pratensis), tall oat- like soft-grass (holcus avenaceus), perennial ray-grass (lolium perenne), upright brome (bromus erectus), and field brome (bromus arvensis), will produce a crop fit to mow for hay in the third week of June. The value of this crop is superior to that ripe in the first week of June, in the proportion nearly of 13 to 7; the weight of nutritive matter from the produce of one acre being 844 lbs. A combination of cat’s-tail (phlewm pratense), yellow oat 160 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. (avena flavescens), crested dog’s-tail (cynosurus cristatus), woolly soft-grass (holcus lanatus), wood meadow-grass (poa nemoralis), meadow barley-grass (hordeum pratense), yellow vetchling (lathyrus pratensis), many-flowered brome-grass (bromus multiflorus), and the lesser variety of the meadow cat’s-tail (phleum pratense, var. minus), will afford a crop ready for reaping in the second or third week of July. The weight of nutritive matter afforded by this crop, exceeds that of the preceding in the proportion nearly of 7 to 6; the quantity contained in the produce of one acre being about 1,008 lbs. The first of these selections, though producing the ear- liest crop, is, nevertheless, much less valuable than any of the others ; for, with the addition of the after-grass that would be produced in the extra length of time which the others require to come to maturity, the produce would still be very inferior. A grass which produces an abundance of early foliage, and that does not put forth its flowering culms till the be- ginning of June, can be fed off till a late period of the spring without injury to the crop of hay ; which, with a grass that pushes up its flowering culms early in the spring, cannot be practised without doing considerable injury to the hay crop. This property, therefore, of producing early foliage and flowering late, must be more particularly valuable under cir- cumstances where a breeding flock of sheep is kept. The grasses which are more distinguished in this respect, are the cock’s-foot (dactylis glomerata), meadow cat’s-tail ( phleum pratense), nerved meadow-erass (poa nervata), and the wood meadow-grass (poa nemoralis). As the leaves of grasses are the most valuable part of the plant for the purposes of grazing, a view of the quantity of nutritive matter, afforded by the different species in the spring, will assist in deciding on their comparative value. About the beginning and middle of April, 1,920 grains of the leaves of the following grasses and other plants afford of nutritive matter — Meadow foxtail-grass (alopecurus pratensis)... 96 grs. Tall oat-like soft-grass (holcus avenaceus) ...... 120 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. 161 Sweet-scented vernal (anthovanthum odoratum) 52 grs. Round-panicled cock’s-foot (dactylis glome- PAL era seia clo ctinows cis Sic's as oe nie ansle oa se gate eeneitoalartss 80 Perennial ray-grass (lodium perenne) ....e.eeeee 70 Wallhieseue (festvca clatior):...2 0.0. .50152 08. duae 94 Meadow fescue (festuca pratensis) .....1..+e000 96 Crested dog’s-tail (cynosurus cristatus) ......... 88 Woolly soft-grass (holcus lanatus) .......-+.0000. 80 Creeping soft-grass (holcus mollis).......-.+++0 90 Meadow cat’s-tail (phleum pratense) ........0++. 80 Fertile meadow-grass (pod fertilis)........sse000 70 Nerved meadow-grass (pod nervatd) ....+..060+ 76 Smooth awnless brome-grass (bromus inermis) 84 Wood meadow-erass (poa nemoralis).......++++- 68 Smooth fescue (festuca glabra) ...:.sccsseceeeee 70 Long-awned sheep’s fescue (festuca ovina hor- DCUFOPIUIS )\ sodacgd eek detent cotta ssatc ela reas 102 Darnel-like fescue (festuca loliacea ) ........0.++- 110 Creeping bent or fiorin (agrostis stolonifera TICNGPASGUIG) 306 Stas oe ree ee 42 Wood fiorin (agrosits stolonifera, var. sylvatica) 62 Yellow vetchling (dathyrus pratensis).........++. 40 Rough-stalked meadow-grass (poa trivialis)... 80 Broad-leaved red clover (¢rifolium pratense)... 80 White or Dutch clover (¢rifolium repens) ...... 64 Common quaking-grass (briza media) .........- 54 Greater bird’s-foot trefoil (dotus major) ......... 60 Long-rooted clover (¢rifolium macrorhizum)... 76 Lucern (medicago sativa)....... Bye spa Ad pp ep brad) 90 Bunias' (bunias orzentalis) ..0......0.c0seee.v-sere ne 100 Burnet (potertum sangursorbd) ......20ceeeeseeeees 100 Cow parsnip (heracleum angustifolium) .......+. 90 Those of the indigenous grasses, that afford the least M nutritive matter from their spring leaves, are the creeping bents, common quaking-grass, and the sweet-scented vernal. The leaves that contain the most nutritive matter are those of the fox-tail, cock’s-foot, tall oat-like soft-grass, meadow fescue, tall fescue, crested dog’s-tail, woolly soft-grass, 162 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. creeping soft-grass, meadow cat’s-tail, awnless brome-erass, darnel-like fescue, and rough-stalked meadow-grass. The perennial ray-grass ranks with those that contain the least. Of the grasses that are not indigenous, the long-awned, or barley-like sheep’s fescue, the fertile, and nerved meadow- erasses, stand the highest. The composition of the nutritive matter of the leaves of these grasses, differs chiefly in the proportions of starch or mucilage, and the bitter extractive and saline matters of which they are constituted ; for gluten and sugar form but a small part of their composition, compared to that which they form in the culms or hay crop. The bitter extractive and saline matters, are considered as assisting or modifying the functions of digestion, rather than as being truly nutritive parts of the compound. The experiments already detailed, showed that the mucilage, starch, gluten, and sugar, were retained in the body of the animal for the purposes of life, and that the bitter extractive and saline matters were voided with the woody fibre; which, combined, constituted the excrements, or those parts of the vegetable not retained in the body of the animal for the purposes of life. Tares and white clover are very succulent plants, and their fattening powers are well known; but when cultivated singly, or without admixture of any other plants, there are several instances that have come under my own observation, where they have been, in cold moist weather in the early part of the spring, productive of the diseases termed red- water, and diarrhcea or looseness; the former in sheep fed on white clover, and the latter in cattle fed on tares. In estimating, therefore, the comparative nutritive powers of these different proportions of vegetable principles in different grasses, or other plants, proved by experience, it appears like- wise necessary to ascertain their degree of succulency, or the different proportions of water and woody fibre combined in them, as it will prove the proportion which the saline matters bear to the truly nutritive, as well as to the woody or indiges- tible portion of the vegetable. The statements of the loss of weight which the different grasses sustain in drying, given HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. 163 in the foregoing details of experiments, will assist to deter- mine the above point in most instances. I may be per- mitted to illustrate this by an example : Tares are said to be more fattening than white clover, cock’s-foot grass, or meadow-fescue. 3,000 grains of the green herbage of — Woody or indiges- Nutritive tible substance. Water. matter. Common vetch, or tares (vicza var.. —8TS- gts. gts. S110) CONSISE Of .. ie ; al pays iad a a a ; le tea ae . an ete 5 ‘a wit pre ad Loa . HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. 185 AGROSTIS vulgaris canina. Awned Fine Bent. Specific character: Calyx valves nearly equal, blossom valves very unequal; awn jointed, twice the length of the corolla, fixed just below its middle. Native of Britain. Root fibrous, perennial. Experiments.— At the time the seed is ripe, the produce from a sandy loam is 6,125 lbs. per acre. Results go to prove, that the comparative merits of the agrostis vulgaris exceed those of the agrostis vulgaris ca- nia nearly as2to1. The crop of the awnless variety is greater than that of the awned, but is much less nutritive, being as 10 to 7: the spring and autumn produce is like- wise superior. Neither of these varieties appears to be of much value to the farmer. The brown bent flowers in the second and third weeks of ‘July, and ripens the seed in the end of August. AGROSTIS lobata. Lobed Bent, Sea-side Bent. Specific character: Panicle spike-like, densely crowded with florets; calyx valves equal, acuminate, outer, ser- rulated from the keel upwards, inner valve only towards the top, very unequal, egg-shaped. Native of Britain. Root perennial, fibrous. Lixperiments.— At the time of flowering, the produce from a siliceous sandy soil is 6,806 lbs. per acre. The general appearance of this plant indicates the inferior comparative value manifested in the above details. I have never met with it in a wild state. It does not appear to be of much value to the agriculturist. It flowers in the first week of August, and the seed is ripe about the end of the same month. Found near Epsom. AGROSTIS séricta. Rock Bent, Upright Bent. Trichodium rupestre. Specific character : Panicle branches subdivided, roughish ; calyx valves acuminate; blossom one valve, awned ; awn fixed a little above the base. 186 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. Obs.—This species of bent is distinguished from the agrosits vulgaris mutica, and agrostis vulgaris canina, to which in habit it approaches, by the corolla or blos- som being but of one valve; from the agrostis nivea, vel trichodium niveum, by the erect disposition of the stem, and the awn which is fixed but a little above the base of the valve: the valve has likewise two short awn- hke pomts, which are a continuation of the nerves of the valve. The panicle is also less divided, more spear- shaped, and the calyx is acuminated. Whole plant of a fine deep green colour, by which it is distinguished at first sight from every other species of bent-grass. The culm of this species of agrostis is perfectly upright from the root, and not in the least decumbent or ascend- ing in any part. Native of Britain? Root fibrous, perennial. Experiments.— At the time of flowering, the produce from a bog soil is 9,528 lbs. per acre. The produce of latter-math is 2,722 lbs. per acre. As it will be found a vain attempt to cultivate or main- tain grasses, on soils of a nature opposite to those which naturally produce them, it is therefore necessary, in ascer- taining the comparative value of a grass, that its merits and properties be compared with those of such others only as affect a similar soil. If we compare the agrostis vulgaris with this species, it will be found superior in the proportion nearly of 5 to 3. The agrostts vulgaris (common bent), affords in one sea- son, per acre, of nutritive matter, 501 lbs., whereas this yields 314 lbs. only. This species being therefore inferior to the common bent in most points, its value to the agriculturist can be but little. AGROSTIS nvea. Snowy Bent, Straw-coloured Bent- oTass. j Trichodium caninum, var. stramineis arista calicem vix excedente. Specific characler: Panicle branches subdivided, diverg- ing, flexuose; calyx acute; corolla one-valved, valve HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. 187 awned, awn longer than the valve, protruding from the back, fixed a little below the middle. Experiments.— At the time of flowering, the produce from a sandy soil, incumbent on clay, is 6,125 lbs. per acre. The produce of latter-math is 2,041 Ibs. per acre. On comparing the properties of this grass with those of the common bent (agrostis vulgaris), it will be found inferior in the proportion nearly of 5 to 3. It appears to be a very scarce grass: I have only seen it twice in a wild state, and then but in very small quantities. It grows on the east side of Aspley Wood, and by the side of a field near Wa- vendon. It flowers about the second week of August, and ripens the seed about the beginning of September. AGROSTIS canina fascicularis. Bundle-leaved Bent, Tufted Bent. Variety with the leaves in dense bundles, and culms striking root at the joints. Experiments. — At the time of flowering, the produce from a sandy soil is 2,722 lbs. per acre. In old pastures, on light soils, this bent may be readily distinguished in the autumn by its shoots, which are fur- nished with leaves in tufts or bundles, that generally run along on the surface of the rest of the herbage, and is occa- sioned, apparently, by the cattle, which eat the other her- bage, and leave the scattered shoots of the tufted-leaved bent untouched. It is a very common grass on poor, light, but moist soils, incumbent on clay, that have long been under pasture. This and the woolly soft-grass, in some parts of the country, are termed winter-fog. From the above details it will appear to be the least va- luable of the bent-grasses that have been mentioned. Flowers in the first and second weeks of August, and ripens the seed in the end of the same month. AIRA flevuosa. Zig-zag Hair-grass, Wavy Mountain Hair- grass. 188 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. Specific character: Panicle spreading, triple-forked, with wavy branches; florets about the length of the calyx, acute; awn from the middle of the outer valve, longer than the calyx, twisted ; leaves bristle-shaped. Obs. —The culms and leaves grow in dense tufts; the panicle, before the time of flowering, is of a fine glossy purple colour; the blossom is woolly at the base; awn knee-bent, half as long as the blossom; calyx generally two-flowered, rarely three ; the inferior floret sitting. Native of Britain. Root fibrous, perennial. Experiments. — At the time of flowering, the produce from a heath soil incumbent on clay, is 10,209 lbs. per acre. The produce of latter-math is 2,722 lbs. per acre. The aira fleruosa is much more productive on its natural soil than the festuca ovina; but it requires a deeper soil, though not a richer. The festuca ovina is more common among heath (erica vulgaris), the aira fleruosa among furze (ulex Europe@us), though both grasses frequently grow inter- mixed on the same soil. To those who attempt the improve- ment of such soils in a secondary manner only, this species of hair-grass appears to be the best of those grasses natural to the soils in question, and may form a principal part of a mixture of seeds for that purpose of improvement. Flowers in the first week of July. Seed ripens in August. POA cenisia. Soft Meadow-grass. Specific character: Panicle diffuse, nodding ; spikelets oblong, five-seven-flowered ; fiorets connected at the base by a villus; sheath-scale short ; root fibrous. Obs. — This grass holds a place between the poa laxa and poa alpina. \t differs from the first, to which it is nearest allied, in the culms being twice the height, and roundish towards the top; sheath-scale short ; panicle diffuse, but always contracted before and after flowering ; spikelets larger, oblong five to seven-flowered. From the poa a/pina it differs also as above, but chiefly in the panicle, which is nodding, spikelets oblong, and florets free. HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. 189 Native of Germany. Root perennial. Experiments. — At the time of flowering, the produce from a sandy loam is 6,806 lbs. per acre. This is an alpine species of grass, and attains to a greater size than most others of the same class ; but it is a native of the Alps of the fertile duchy of Carinthia, in Germany. It is rather late in the produce of foliage in the spring, and does not afford much after-grass. Its nutritive powers, as indicated by the quantity of nutritive matter it contains, are not superior to several other grasses that afford a greater abundance of herbage throughout the season. It produces flowers about the first and second weeks of July, and seeds in the second week of August. STIPA pennata. Long-awned Feather-grass. Generic character: Calyx 2-valved, P-fowered ; corolla outer valve ending in an awn; awn joined at the base. Specific character: Awns woolly. Obs. — Awns from six to twelve inches long or more, set with very fine, soft, white, pellucid hairs. In Ray’s Synopsis, p. 393, this elegant grass is said to have been found by Dr. Richardson and Thomas Lawson, on the limestone rocks hanging over a little valley called Longsdale, about six miles north of Kendal, in Westmoreland. Hudson gives no other place of growth ; but in the second edition of Withering’s Botanical Arrangement of British plants, Mr. Alderson is said to have found it near Kendal. Mr. Gough, who lives near Kendal, informs Dr. Withering, that he never could find nor hear of its being found by any person except the two first-mentioned gentlemen; there is therefore reason to fear that it may be exterminated. Experiments. — At the time of flowering, the produce from a heath soil is 9,528 Ibs. per acre. Though, so far as the above experiments prove, it cannot be propagated by the seed on a large scale, yet by parting the roots it may soon be propagated to any extent; but its agricultural merits appear to be so inconsiderable as to rank it with the inferior grasses. The beautiful feather-like awns 190 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS, which terminate the larger valves of the blossom, and which adhere to the seed, serving asa sail to waft it from rock to rock, have procured it a place in the flower-gardens of the curious, and serve to distinguish it at once from all other grasses. Johnson, the editor of Gerarde’s Herbal, says it was nourished for its beauty in sundry of our English gardens; and that it was worn by sundry ladies and gentlewomen instead of a feather, which it admirably resembles, &c. It flowers about the beginning of August, and the seed is ripe about the middle of September. ALOPECURUS agrestis. Slender Fox-tail-grass. Specific character: Culm erect, roughish ; spike racemose, nearly simple, taperimg; calyx glumes almost naked, combined at the base, dilated atthe keel. Ref. 1. Calyx glumes magnified. 2. Corolla. 3. The same magni- fied, showing the awn. 4. Germen and styles. Obs. — This annual species of fox-tail-grass, is distin- cuished from the perennial meadow fox-tail (alopecurus pratensis) by the total want of woolly hairs on the spike, so conspicuous in that of the a. pratensis. The husks of the calyx ure united at the bottom and_half- way up, which is a strong character of distinction. The culms are ascending at the base, afterwards erect. Spike-like panicle, round, acute-pointed, from two to four inches long, according to the nature of the soil ; of a lead colour. Native of Britain. Root annual, fibrous. Experiments. — At the time of flowering, the produce from a sandy loam is 8,167 lbs. per acre. The above details show this grass to be one of the most inferior species. The herbage it produces is comparatively of no value whatever. It appears to be left untouched by every description of cattle. The seed is produced in consi- derable abundance, and is eaten by the smaller birds as well as by pheasants and partridges. The Rev. G. Swayne observes, that it is a very troublesome weed in many places among wheat, and execrated by farmers under the name of HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. 191 black bent. I have always found it prevalent in poor soils, particularly such as had been exhausted by avaricious crop- ping. It is most difficult to extirpate it when once in posses- sion of the soil, for it sends forth flowering culms during the whole summer and autumn, till frost arrests it; so that it can bear to be repeatedly cut down in one season, without suffering essentially from the process. Indeed, it will be found a vain and unprofitable labour to attempt the removal of this grass, by any other means than the opposite of that which gave it possession of the soil, that is, judicious cropping. To return land, in this state, to grass, in the hope of overcoming this unprofitable plant, will be found of little avail. [I have witnessed this practice; and the slender fox- tail, instead of disappearing in these instances, re-appeared with the scanty herbage, and in greater health and abun- dance. The soil must first be got into good heart by very moderate and judicious cropping, which includes the proper application of manure, a skilful rotation of crops, and the most pointed attention to the destruction of weeds; which last can only be effected, in this sense, by adopting the drill or row culture for the crops. After this, the land may be returned to grass for several years with every prospect of success. It flowers in the first week of July, and successively till October. The appearance of the black-bent among wheat, is a cer- tain sign that the crop will be worthless. On wet clayey gravels, if wheat be sown late in the autumn, this bent will certainly rise with the crop ; but if the soil works kindly and rather dry, the wheat will prosper, and no bents will be seen; showing, that it is the bad condition of the tilth which favours the germination of the latter, and discourages the former. It is a remarkable fact, however, that there are some poor clayey soils, which if sown in a rather dry state, will cause the vegetation of every seed of the black bent, while the wheat will be stunted and hardly worth reaping.—Ep. AVENA pubescens. Downy Oat-grass. Specific character: Panicle spreading equally on every 192 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. side; calyx three-flowered, shorter than the florets ; leaves flat, downy. Obs. — Root fibrous, inclining to stoloniferous ; culms numerous, erect, rounded striated, smooth, from six inches toa foot, and two feet high, according to the nature of the soil and shelter; leaves flat and rough on the margin, the other parts soft, with downy hairs; florets purplish and silvery white; corolla bearded at the base, larger valve with an awn fixed at the middle, at first straight, afterwards jointed and bent back, longer than the valve. Native of Britain. Perennial. Experiments. — At the time of flowering, the produce from a sandy loam is 15,654 Ibs. per acre. The produce of latter-math is 6,806 lbs. per acre. The downy hairs which cover the surface of the leaves of this grass when growing on poor dry or chalky soils, almost disappear when culvated on richer soils. It has properties which recommend it to the notice of the agriculturist, being hardy, and a small impoverisher of the soil; the reproductive power is also considerable, though the foliage does not attain to a great length, if left growing. It flowers in the second or third week of June, and the seed is ripe about the beginning or in the middle of July. MELICA caerulea. Purple Melic-grass. Specific character : Petals beardless, acute; panicle close, erect, compound ; flowers upright, cylindrical. Native of Britain. Perennial. Experiments.— At the time of flowering, the produce from a light sandy soil is 7,486 lbs. per acre. For the purposes of pasture or hay, this grass is compara~ tively of no value. It is said that goats, horses, and sheep eat it: I have laid it before cows and sheep, but they turned from it: I have observed hares to crop the foliage in the spring. The Rev. G. Swayne in Withering’s Arrangements, informs us, that in the turf-moors below Glastonbury, Somersetshire, it grows in great abundance. The country people make of the straws a neat kind of besoms, which they HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. 193 sell to the neighbouring inhabitants, as a cheap and no despicable substitute for hair brooms. In Anglesea it flou- rishes in the neighbourhood of the copper works of Pary’s mountain, while almost every other vegetable, even lichens, are injured or destroyed. In deep sands, on the confines of peat-bogs, this grass is frequent; also from sand banks. under hedges enclosing heath soils, it is seldom absent. [i grows to the greatest height on deep peat soils that are not subject to be overflown, but dry for the most part of the year. This grass is useful to point out the fitness of such soils as that last mentioned for the production of ash, alder, and wil- low trees, &c.; and it will be found, that on such parts of the peat as are destitute of this grass they will not succeed so well, if at all. It flowers about the beginning and middle of August, and the seed is ripe towards the middle and latter end of September. NARDUS siricta. Upright Matt-grass. Specific character: Spike slender, straight; the florets pointing in one direction; leaves thrice the length of their sheaths. Obs. — Culm with a single joint near its base, and one bristle-lke leaf. Root-leaves long, thread-shaped. Flo- rets all pointing one way; before flowering, pressed close to the spike-stalk, which has small excavations to receive the florets, afterwards spreading out. The culm is twice the length, at the time the seed is ripe, of what it is at the time of flowering. Root fixed firmly in the eround, on account of its tenacious fibres, which take a flexuose direction. On precipices, therefore, its dense tufts of leaves, though dangerous to the footing, afford to the hand of the botanist or naturalist the best security from the danger of falling. ‘Gramen invisum nature alpestris scrutatoribus, quod vias lubricas reddat; sed quod densis cespitibus crescat, firmiterque terre inhe- reat, sepe etiam gratissimum in precipitiis, quod pro- fundissime ad radicem manu prehensum impediat lapsum.” Native of Britain. Root fibrous. Perennial. 6) 194 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS, Experiments. — At the time of flowering, the produce from a heath loam is 6,806 lbs. per acre. The latter-math produce of this grass is very small. It is common to heaths and by the margins of bogs, but is never found in the bogs themselves, as it affects a dry soil. The nutritive matter offers no reason for the dislike mani- fested by animals for the grass, as its composition is much the same as that of the aira flexuosa, which is eaten with relish by sheep; the only difference is in the proportion of sugar: the ara flecuosa having more of this constituent and less of mucilage than the nardus stricta. But the extreme hard and wiry nature of the foliage explains the cause. That property is so strong in this grass that, in the ordinary way, a scythe is passed amongst it without having the effect of dividing a single leaf; and from this it may easily be con- ceived how ungrateful it must prove to the mouths of cattle. Were it not for this circumstance, and its continuing to send up flowering culms all the summer, it would be the most ornamental grass for forming grass-plats, as its colour is of the finest dark green, being superior in this respect to all the perennial grasses. Linnzeus observes, that goats and horses eat it, and that sheep are not fond of it. Crows stock it up for the sake of the larve of some species of tipule which they find at the root. It flowers in the first and second weeks of July, and the seed is ripe about the first week of August. CYNODON dactylon. Creeping Dog’s-tooth Grass. Durva, Dub, or Doob-grass of the Hindoos. Panicum dactylon. Creeping Panic-grass. Digitaria stolonifera. Creeping Finger-grass. Specific character: Spikes four or five, crowded together ; corolla smooth. Refer. — Fig. 1. Corolla, natural size. 2. Floret, magni- fied. 3. Calyx, magnified. 4. Germen, and feathery stigmas. 5. A seed, the natural size. 6. A seed, magnified. A. B, Lambert, Esq. in the Transactions of the Linnean : WS > Fa = Pe —— | Cynodon Dacty lon. hia ve ie ‘ : iy) af i HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. 195 Society, vol. vi, first pointed out the identity of the panicum dactylon with the doob-grass of the Hindoos. The seeds of this highly celebrated grass in India, were communicated to the Duke of Bedford, from the East Indies, by the Marquis of Hastings. The seeds were sown in the Experimental Grass Garden at Woburn Abbey, where they vegetated readily, and produced plants which flowered the second year from seed. These perfected seed in the month of October, and the plants raised from this seed the following spring differed in no respect from those the produce of the Indian seed ; our figure is taken from a plant of the later sowing. A por- tion of the seed was sown in the hothouse, and the plants cultivated there, in order to ascertain the effects of climate on the habit of the grass. Exposed in the Grass Garden, and cultivated by the side of the English species, the habit of the Indian plants differed from the former in the shortness of the leaves, which grew nearly flat on the ground, and were of a reddish brown colour, instead of the slight glaucous green tint of the native English plant. The foreign plants flower freely every season, but the native ones of this species of grass very seldom, for during fifteen years the native plants have twice, only, produced flowers. In the hothouse, the Indian plants proved of a habit exactly the same as the native plants in the open ground, having the leaves equally as long as those of the latter, of their glaucous colour, and not producing any flowering culms. This last fact is a very re- markable one as connected with the long-continued effects of different climates on the same species of plant. In the hothouse more soluble or nutritive matter, and also more vegetable or woody fibre, were afforded by this grass than was afforded by the plants of it cultivated out of doors in the Grass Garden. Experiments. — At the time of flowering, the produce of the native plant from a sandy loam, with manure, is 31,308 lbs. per acre. The doob-grass, or plants raised from Indian seed, at the time of flowering, from a sandy loam in the Grass Gar- den, afforded 2,722 lbs. per acre. The grass, cultivated in an artificial tropical climate in the Ore 196 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. hothouse, contained a superior quantity of nutritive matter to that cultivated in the open air in the Grass Garden, in the proportion nearly of 39 to 31; and the woody fibre afforded by the grass of the plants cultivated in the hothouse ex- ceeded the woody fibre contained in the grass of the plants cultivated in the open air in the proportion of 4 to 3. In the East Indies the doob-grass grows luxuriantly, and is highly valued as food for horses, &c.; in this climate, however, it scarcely begins to vegetate till the month of June: and the above details show that its produce and nu- tritive powers here are not sufficiently great to hold out any hope, that its valuable properties in the East Indies can be made available in the climate and soil of Britain. Sir William James, in his works, gives a figure of the doob-grass. The essential specific characters of the grass, as exhibited in the figure given by Sir William Jones, and those which our figure present, are precisely the same; the greater size or luxuriance of growth indicated by the former figure, is clearly the effects of climate, one plant being the produce of the East Indies, and the other the growth of England. Sir William Jones observes, ‘‘That every law-book, and almost every poem, in Sanscrit, contains frequent allusions to the holiness of this plant; and in the fourth Veda we have the following address to it, at the close of a terrible incanta- tion: —‘ Thee, O Darbha! the learned proclaim a Divinity not subject to age or death; thee they call the armour of Indra, the preserver of regions, the destroyer of enemies, a gem that gives increase to the fields; at the time when the ocean resounded, when the clouds murmured and lightnings flashed, then was Darbha produced, pure as a drop of fine gold.’ — Again, ‘ May Durva, which rose from the water of life; which has a hundred roots and a hundred stems, efface a hundred of my sins, and prolong my existence on earth for a hundred years.’ ” The doob-grass flowers in September, and the seed is ripe about the end of October, and sometimes in November. The plants, natives of the English coasts, flower about a month earlier than the above. HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. 197 PANICUM viride. Green Panic-grass. Specific character: Panicle spiked, cylindrical, continuous, with numerous prominent bristles, rough with erect teeth; corolla of the perfect floret slightly uneven. Native of Britain. Root annual. Experiments, — At the time the seed is ripe, the produce from a rich siliceous soil, incumbent on clay, is 5,445 Ibs. per acre. This species of panic-grass is therefore of little value to the agriculturist, and as it is far from being a common grass, it is not much to be feared as a weed. It flowers in the second and third weeks of July, when sown in the preceding autumn, and the seed is ripe about the middle of August; but it continues to flower till the cold prevents it. DIGITARIA sanguinalis. Slender-spiked Finger-grass, Cock’s-foot Finger-grass. Panicum sanguinale. Slen- der-spiked Panic-grass. Specific character: Leaves and their sheaths somewhat hairy ; flowers in pairs; calyx rough at the edges of its largest valve only. Native of Britain. Root annual. Experiments.— At the time of flowering, the produce from a sandy soil is 6,806 lbs. per acre. This and the foregoing species are strictly annual plants. From the above details, the nutritive powers of the herb- age they produce is very inconsiderable. Schreber informs us, the seeds are collected from this grass, which is cul- tivated in some parts of Germany as a favourite article of food. When boiled with milk or wine it is extremely palat- able, and is in general made use of whole, in the manner of sago, to which it is, in most instances, preferred. Miss Jen- nings observes, that all the stems that lie nearest the ground strike root, and by this means, though an annual and short- j98 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. lived plant, it increases and spreads very wide in one season. It should be sown as soon as the seed is ripe in the autumn, that the young plants may have sufficient strength before the winter begins ; by this mode of culture it will flower and ripen the seed much earlier than the time specified below ; in that instance the seeds were sown in May. It delights most in a rich, light, siliceous soil. It is said to have received the name sanguinale, not from its colour, but from a mischievous trick of boys in Germany, thrusting the spikelets up the noses of their companions, thereby making them bleed. It flowers about the first week of August, and the seed is ripe in the middle of September. BROMUS sterits. Barren Brome-grass. Specific character: Panicle drooping, mostly simple; spike- lets linear-lanceolate; florets about seven, lanceolate, compressed, seven-ribbed, furrowed ; awns longer than the glumes; leaves downy. Native of Britain. Root annual. LExperiments.— At the time of flowering, the produce from a sandy soil is 29,947 lbs. per acre. It has been asserted that the seeds of this grass seldom arrive at maturity ; but there is hardly a grass, either in a natural or cultivated state, that ripens more seed than the barren brome-grass. Mr. Curtis affirms, that it acquired the name sterilis, or barren, from its inutility with respect to cattle: which appears most probable. Ray calls it great wild oat-grass, or drank. The long sharp awns with which the spikelets are armed must prevent cattle from eating it. It grows chiefly under hedges, and on banks by the road-sides, where it is very common; but it is seldom found beyond the reach of the shade. [ never could observe that any of it had been touched by cattle. It flowers in the first and second weeks of July, and the seed is ripe about the beginning and middle of August. HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. 199 BROMUS diandrus. Upright Annual Brome-grass. Specific character: Panicle erect, a little spreading, scarcely subdivided ; florets lanceolate, with two close marginal ribs, and only two stamens. Native of Britain. Root annual. Experiments. — At the time of flowering, the produce from a rich brown loam is 20,418 lbs. per acre. This, like the preceding species of bromus, is strictly annual. It is much less common than the bromus sterilis : Hudson informs us that it grows on old walls in the neigh- bourhood of London and Oxford. It flowers in the third week of June, and the seed is ripe about the middle and latter end of July. BROMUS tectorum. Nodding Panicled Brome-grass. Specific character: Panicle branches drooping ; spikelets linear, pubescent; florets distant, awned, awn as long as the glume; leaves pubescent. Native of Britain, discovered by Mr. Taunton. It is found in most parts of Europe. Root annual. Experiments.— At the time of flowering, the produce from a light sandy soil is 7,486 lbs. per acre. This is another of the annual bromes which is compara- tively of no value. Dambourney, indeed, says, that at the time it approaches to a state of maturity, it may be useful in dyeing, when it can be collected in sufficient quantity. Birds are fond of the seed, and the plants require protection before the seed be perfected, in order to secure a sufficient supply for the next year’s sowing. It may be remarked from the facts that have been brought forward respecting the annual bromes, that most of them, comparatively, afford more nutritive matter at the time they are in flower, than some of the best perennial grasses at the same stage of growth. The reason of this appears on con- sidering, that the whole of the nutritive matter which is accumulated in one year by these annuals, is present in the 200 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. plant at this period or shortly after; for when the seed is ripe, the straws contain but a small proportion of nutritive matter; and the seed itself contains little more than the plants afforded at the time of flowering, the difference being as 7 to 5: which seems tu prove that the culms and leaves, a little after the time of flowering, contain nearly all the nutritive matter which passes into, or constitutes the substance of the seed. It flowers in the third week of June, and the seed is ripe about the end of July. AGROSTIS cantina capillaris. Fine-panicled Brown Bent. Variety with a hair-like panicle, spreading, flexuose, ca- lyces subulate, equal, smooth, coloured. This variety is nearly akin to the agrostis canina fascicularis; it grows pretty common in some parts of Woburn Park, where the soil is siliceous. Native of Britain. Root perennial. Experiments. — At the time of flowering, the produce from a sandy loam is 4,764 lbs. per acre. The above details afford no proofs of the value of this for agricultural purposes. It is found in a wild state, on heaths chiefly. I never observed that even hares cropped its herb- age. Its manner of growth is similar to that of the agrostzs fascicularis, only that the leaves are not produced in bundles or tufts, which is so distinguishing a feature of that grass. It is seldom combined with any other species of grass, but erows in detached patches on moors and heaths. It flowers about the beginning of August, and the seed is ripe about the end of that month. ALOPECURUS 6 genzculatus bulbosus. |Bulbous - rooted knee-jointed Foxtail-grass. Obs.— Root of this variety bulbous ; awns longer than the blossom; sheaths wider than the thickness of the straw ; anthers purple, and changing to a brown-yellow. Native of Britain. Perennial. HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. 201 Experiments. — At the time of flowering, the produce from a sandy loam is 5,445 lbs. per acre. The produce and nutritive powers of this grass are evi- dently so inconsiderable as to justify a conclusion that it is comparatively of no use to the agriculturist. I have found it but seldom in a wild state. It grows on a soil of a drier nature than the fibrous-rooted variety, to be spoken of here- after. When raised from seed on a moist soil, it still retains the bulbous root, which goes the length to prove, that if it be not a distinct species, it is at least a permanent variety. POA alpina. Alpine Meadow-grass. Specific character: Panicle diffused, four to eleven- flowered, cordate; florets acute, free; sheath-scale oblong, acute; leaves short, obtuse, pointed; root fibrous. Native of Britain. Root perennial. Experiments.— At the time of flowering, the produce from a light sandy loam is 5,445 lbs. per acre. The produce of this grass appears, from these experi- ments, to be equal to that of the alopecurus alpinus, and its nutritive powers greater; but not sufficiently great to render it an object for the farmer’s particular consideration. It is chiefly confined to alpine regions. It grows wild in Scot- land and Wales, also in Lapland, Switzerland, and Silesia. Botanists inform us, that mountainous countries are fur- nished with a much greater variety of plants than flat coun- tries; and that in primitive mountains the number of dif- ferent species of plants exceeds that of the floetz mountains. This has led to the opinion, that the primitive mountains were the sources from which the plains, clothed at a later period, were furnished with plants. The Alpine meadow-grass flowers about the third week of May, and during the rest of the summer; and the seed ripens about the latter end of June, and successively, ac- cording as the grass produces flowers. Hares and rabbits are remarkably fond of this grass, and snails devour the flowering spikelets of the panicle ; it requires therefore 202 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. much care and attention to obtain either seed or perfect spe- cimens of the flowers. SESLERIA cerulea. Blue Moor-grass, or cynosurus ca- ruleus. Specific character: Spike egg-oblong, leafy; bracteas al- ternate; spikelets two-three-flowered ; outer husk of the corolla with three, seldom five awns ; awns shorter than the husk. Native of Britain. Root perennial. Experiments.— At the time of flowering, the produce from a light sandy soil incumbent on clay is 7,486 lbs. per acre. The produce of latter-math is 3,403 lbs. per acre. If the weight of produce, and the nutritive matter it con- tains, be compared with those of the alpine grasses that are included in this series of experiments, the blue moor-grass will be found greatly superior. It is said to grow wild in mountainous pastures in the north of England, and some- times in marshes, in crevices of the limestone rocks at the foot of Ingleborough lime rocks near Kendal, Malham Cone, and on most of the lime rocks in Craven, Yorkshire. Though, as already observed, it is the best of the alpine grasses, yet the above details of its properties do not warrant any recommendation of its cultivation to the farmer. Cynosurus ceruleus is particularly liked by sheep, and may be used for the fattening of mutton, but makes the wool coarse. — Observation by the Wetterauer Gesellschaft. It flowers about the end of April and the beginning of May, and the seed is ripe in the first and second weeks of June. AIRA cristata. Crested Hair-grass ; or Poa cristata, Crested Meadow-grass. Specific character: Panicle spike-like ; husks acuminate ; flowers longer than the calyx; leaves ciliated; glumes all pointed. HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. 203 Native of Britain. Root perennial. Experiments. — At the time of flowering, the produce from a sandy loam is 10,890 lbs. per acre. The produce of this species, and the nutritive matter it affords, are equal to those of the festuca ovina at the time the seed is ripe; they equally delight in dry soils, though the azra cristata will thrive well, and remain permanent, in soils of a moist and clayey nature, which is different with the festuca ovina. The greater bulk of the produce of the aira cristata, in proportion to its weight, makes it of inferior value to the festuca ovina. It flowers about the first week in July, and the seed is ripe about the beginning of August. POA compressa. Flat-stalked Meadow-grass. Specific character: Panicle flowering on one side, rather dense; spikelets oval-oblong, five-seven-flowering ; flowers connected at the base by a complicated web of hairs ; culm compressed ; root creeping. Native of Britain. Root perennial, creeping. Experiments.— At the time of flowering, the produce from a gravelly soil with manure is 3,403 Ibs. per acre. If the produce of this grass was of greater, magnitude, it would rank as one of the most valuable grasses, as it produces foliage early in the spring, of stronger nutritive powers than most other grasses. It has been recommended as a grass to cultivate on poor soils; but the produce is so very deficient, that there are other grasses that might better answer the end, as the meadow-barley oat, hard fescue, and crested dog’s-tail-grass. The roots, in some situations, penetrate to a considerable depth, as in stony dry soils. It grows in abundance on the walls which embank the ponds in Woburn Park. Dr. Smith, in the English Botany, observes, that this grass can scarcely be put. to any agricultural use: the trials that have been made of it here confirm that opinion. It flowers in the second week of July, and the seed is ripe about the middle of August. 204 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. POA compressa, var. erecta. Upright Flat-stalked Meadow- grass. Obs.—This differs from the former variety of poa compressa in having culms more upright, less compressed, and produced in greater quantities. The colour of the leaves is somewhat glaucous ; they grow more upright than those of the other variety. Root creeping like that of the former, but furnished with numerous fibres, which supply culms and leaves in abundance; the plant soon forms a close covering to the ground, while the other remains in a scattered state. Experiments. — At the time of flowering, the produce from a light sandy loam is 15,654 lbs. per acre. The produce of latter-math is 4,764 lbs. per acre. This variety of the flat-stalked meadow-grass affects a soil of a moister and more rich nature than the first-men- tioned variety. It grows more close, forming a pretty good sward ; the roots are less inclined to creeping. It sends up a great quantity of flowering culms, which constitute the principal weight of the produce, and remain green and suc- culent long after the seed is ripe; on this account the seed crop contains so much more nutritive matter than the flower- ing crop. Itis a week or ten days later in flowering than the former variety, and the produce of foliage in the spring is likewise inferior. What was said respecting the merits of the first variety may also be said of this one; for though its produce be greater, and form a better turf, yet it is inferior in early growth, and in the produce of foliage. It flowers in the end of July, and the seed is ripe about the beginning of September. LOTUS corniculatus. Bird’s-foot Trefoil, Bird’s-foot Clover. Generic character: Legume cylindrical, straight; wings of the corolla cohering by their upper edge; calyx tubular ; filaments dilated upwards.— Refer. Fg. 1. Ca~ lyx and anthers magnified. 2. Flower, of the natural SIZe. fou Colmpresse Ee = i + Bs xa my * 3, “fe Nara Lo Te = ree at ts ‘ - HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. 205 Specific character: Heads depressed, of few flowers ; stems decumbent, solid ; legumes spreading, nearly cy- lindrical; claw of the keel obovate ; filaments all di- lated. Native of Britain, and all parts of Europe ; also of Japan. Root perennial. Experiments.— At the time of flowering, the produce from a clayey loam is 10,209 lbs. per acre. This plant has been recommended for cultivation by Dr. Anderson, Mr. Curtis, and Mr. Woodward. Linneus says that cows, goats, and horses eat it; and that sheep and swine are not fond of it. With regard to sheep, as far as my observations have extended, they eat it in common with the herbage with which it is usually combined; the flowers, it is true, appeared always untouched, and, in dry pastures, little of the plant is seen or presented to cattle, except the flowers, on account of its diminutive growth in such situations. This, however, is nearly the case with white or Dutch clover; sheep seldom touch the flowers while any foliage is to be found. Mr. Woodward informs us that it makes extremely good hay in moist meadows, where it grows to a greater height than the trefoils, and seems to be of a quality equal, if not superior to most of them. Professor Martyn observes, that, in common with several other leguminous plants, it gives a substance to hay, and perhaps renders it more palatable and wholesome to cattle. It has been already observed, that the clovers contain more bitter extractive and saline matters than the proper natural grasses, and the bird’s-foot trefoils contain more of these vegetabie principles than the clovers ; in pastures and meadows, therefore, where the clovers happen to be in small quantities, a portion of the trefoil (lotus corniculatus) would doubtless be of advantage; but it appears to contain too much of the bitter extractive and saline matters to be cultivated by itself, or without a large intermixture of other plants. it does not spring early in the season, but continues to vegetate late in the autumn. In irrigated meadows, where 206 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. the produce is generally more succulent than in dry pastures, this plant cannot with safety be recommended, at least in any considerable quantity. It is more partial to dry soils than the next species, lotus major; it attains to a consi- derable height when growing among shrubs, and seems to lose its prostrate or trailing habit of growth entirely when in such situations. It comes into flower about the second week of June, and the seed is ripe about the end of July, and successively till the end of autumn. LOTUS major. Greater Bird’s-foot Trefoil. Specific character: Heads depressed, inany-flowered ; stems erect, hollow; legumes spreading, cylindrical ; claw of the keel linear, shorter, filaments not dilated. Obs.—Stems from one to two and a half feet high, according as it is more or less drawn up by bushes, or exposed without shade, more or less fringed with long loosely-spreading hairs ; leaves also more or less fringed with similar hairs; flower-heads when young very hairy, flowers from six to twelve in each head, of a duller orange than the preceding species; pod slender, and exactly cylindrical. —I have raised this plant from seed on two different soils, a siliceous sandy soil and a clayey loam, and the above characters remain perma- nent in both instances: it is surprising that two plants so distinct in habits should have so long been consi- dered varieties only. Native of Britain. Root perennial, creeping. Experiments. —At the time of flowering, the produce from a clayey loam is 21,780 lbs. per acre. The weight of green food, or hay, is triple that of the foregoing species, and its nutritive powers are very little inferior, being only as 9 to 8. These two species of bird’s- foot trefoil may be compared to each other with respect to habits, in the same manner as the white clover and perennial red clover; and were the latter unknown, there appear to HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. 207 be no plants of the leguminous order, that, in point of habits, would so well supply their place as the common and greater bird’s-foot trefoil. They are, however, greatly inferior to the clovers. The white clover is superior to the common bird’s-foot trefoil in the quantity of nutritive matter it affords, in the proportion of 5 to 4. It is much less produc- tive of herbage, and is much more difficult of cultivation, the seed being afforded in much smaller quantities. The produce of the greater bird’s-foot trefoil is superior to that of the perennial red clover, on tenacious or moist soils, and on drier, and on richer soils of the first quality ; but the produce is inferior, in the proportion of nutritive matter it contains, as 5 to 4. The nutritive matter of this species contains more bitter extractive and saline matters than that of the former, which was before shown to be in excess when com- pared with the clovers, and these with the proper natural grasses. The nutritive matter is extremely bitter to the taste. It does not appear to be eaten by any cattle when in a green state; but when made into hay with the common grasses, I have offered it to sheep, oxen, deer, and the llama, or South American sheep, and they all ate it without reluct- ance, and rather with desire. It does not seem to perfect so much seed as the former species ; but this is abundantly remedied in its propagation by the creeping or stoloniferous roots, which it spreads out in all directions, and thus it soon covers a large space of ground. But the stems rise not in considerable number ; they are thinly scattered over the surface. In moist clayey soils it would doubtless be a most profitable substitute for red clover; but the excess of bitter extractive and saline matters it contains, seems to forbid its adoption without a considerable admixture of other plants. It flowers about the third week of June, and the seed is ripe about the end of the following month. AVENA pratensis. Meadow Oat-grass. Specific character: Panicle erect, with very short simple branches ; florets about five, longer than the calyx; 208 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. partial stalk, all over hairy ; leaves involute, finely ser- rated, naked; sheaths smooth. Native of Britam. Root fibrous. Perennial. ‘ Experiments.— At the time of flowering, the produce from a sandy loam is 6,806 lbs. per acre. The proportional value which the crop at the time of flowering bears to that at the time the seed is ripe, is as 9 to 4. This species of oat-grass is much less common than the avena pubescens or avena flavescens. It is found more fre- quent on chalky than on any other kind of soils: I have also found it in moist meadows as well as on dry heaths. From these observations, it cannot justly be recommended for cultivation. Its nutritive matter contains a less propor- tion of bitter extractive and saline matters than any other of the oat-grasses that have been submitted to experiment. It flowers in July, and the seed is ripe in August. HORDEUM pratense. Meadow Barley-grass. Specific character: Lateral flowers imperfect, with shorter awns; all the calyx valves bristle-shaped and rough. — Refer. Iig. 1. Neuter florets. 2. Perfect floret. 3. Germen, feathered stigmas, and nectary. Obs. — This species has affinity to the hordeum murinum, wall barley-grass, in appearance; but this is strictly perennial, while the hordeum murinum is annual. Native of Britain. Root fibrous. Perennial. Experiments. — At the time of flowering, the produce from a sandy loam with manure is 8,167 lbs. per acre. The grass, at the time of flowering, contains more nutri- tive matter than at the time the seed is ripe, in the propor- tion of 15 to 12. This grass, though said to be partial to dry chalky soils, I have always found most prevalent on good rich meadow eround ; it thrives under irrigation ; and there are but few pastures in which it is not to be found; dry sandy heaths, and moist sour soils, are uncongenial to it. The Rev. G. Swayne observes, that in moist meadows it produces a — —.——— \ i \ ‘ \ ANY i, \ \\ Y V4 is Way YF} S \ NY Z WY WY; \ Yr’ - ; ya Poe A ey Stn ey wee wie ey : Pa Ab a HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. 209 eonsiderable quantity of hay, but is not to be recommended as one of the best grasses for the farmer. The best grasses, in my opinion, continues Mr. Swayne, are the alopecurus pratensis, poa trivialis, dactylis glomerata, cynosurus cristatus, festuca duriuscula, festuca pratensis, festuca hybrida, avena flavescens, and above all, the /oliwm perenne. If gardeners and farmers are so careful, as we know they are, in raising the seeds of their turnips and cabbages, surely some of their care is due to the cultivated grasses. I have observed this grass to constitute the principal herbage of cone or two pas- tures that were considered excellent for sheep. I have been informed, likewise, that in some pastures in Norfolk this grass forms the principal herbage; and the proprietors of the lands in question are famed for their superior breed of sheep. Though this proves nothing positive with respect to the merit of the grass, nevertheless, it offers satisfactory reasons to conclude that the grass is net hurtful in sheep pasture, which is not the case when it is made into hay; the long sharp awns with which the spikelets are armed rendering it dangerous to the mouths of cattle, and forming a serious objection to its introduction (at least in large quan- tities) into irrigated meadows, where the produce is, in part, every year converted into hay. It is tolerably early in the spring produce of foliage, and its nutritive powers are considerable. It is very hardy, and strictly perennial. Flowers in July, and the seed is ripe in August. TRITICUM cristatum. Crested Wheat-grass. Bromus cristatus. Crested Brome-grass. Specific character: Calyx elliptical, awned, keeled, ob- scurely ribbed; florets awned ; spikelets closely imbri- cated, two-ranked, depressed, straight ; stems simple. Native of Scotland. Root perennial. Experiments.— At the time of flowering, the produce from a clayey loam is 8,848 lbs. per acre. The produce of latter-math is 2,722 lbs. per acre. The grass at the time of flowering contains more nutritive matter than the grass at the time the seed is ripe, in the Pp 210 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. proportion of 10 to9; and the grass of the latter-math 1s inferior to that at the time of flowering as 8 to 10; and to the grass at the time the seed is ripe, in the proportion of & to 9. It flowers about the second week of July, and the seed is ripe about the end of August. PHLEUM Boehmeri. Purple-stalked Cat’s-tail Grass. Pha- laris phleoides. Cat’s-tail Canary-Grass. Specific character : Panicle like a spike, cylindrical ; husks of the calyx linear-lanceolate, slightly pointed, nearly smooth, abrupt at the inner margin; stem simple. Native of Britain. Root fibrous, perennial. Experiments.— At the time of flowering, the produce from a siliceous sandy soil is 6,806 Ibs. per acre. The produce of foliage in the spring from this grass is comparatively nothing, as is the case with the latter-math produce. The root-leaves are remarkably short in this spe- cies of canary-grass, and the culms are numerous. At the time of flowering, the produce may be said to consist entirely of culms. It grows naturally in dry sandy places; said to have been first discovered in Great Britain by Mr. Wood- ward and Mr. Crow, near Swaffham, Norfolk, in 1780. It is also a native of Germany, where it grows in pastures, orchards, hills, and dry sandy barren places. It is evi- dently unfit for cultivation in the farm, as the above pro- duce constitutes what it yields in one season, and which, when compared with that of most other grasses affecting a similar soil, proves greatly inferior. It ripens plenty of seed for its propagation. It flowers in July, and the seed is ripe in the beginning of September. FESTUCA alopecurus. Fox-tail-like Fescue-grass. Specific character: Spike erect, attenuated ; calyx-valves very unequal, outer large, three-nerved, acuminate, inner very minute, awl-shaped; corolla, outer valve HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. 211 awned, largely ciliate at the edges; inner two-ribbed, slightly ciliate on the ribs. Native of Barbary. Root annual. Experiments. — At the time of flowering, the produce from a light siliceous sandy soil is 8,167 lbs. per acre. If this annual fescue be compared with the soft brome- grass, many-flowered brome-grass, and others of the annual indigenous grasses, it will be found inferior. The leaves attain to a considerable length, and contain more nutritive matter than those of any other annual grasses that have been submitted to experiment here; the culms, however, contain much less nutritive matter than those of most other annuals. It ripens the seed in sufficient quantity, affects most a light rich soil, and is strictiy annual. The best time for sowing the seed is in the beginning of May. It flowers about the end of July, and the seed is ripe in the beginning of September. CYNOSURUS echinatus. Rough Dog’s-tail Grass. Specific character: Spike compound, ovate; neuter spike- lets awned; awns of the corolla full as long as the glume. Native of Britain. Root annual. Experiments.— At the time of flowering, the produce from a sandy loam is 5,445 lbs. per acre. This grass is not common; it is found in a wild state near Sandwich, and in the Isle of Jersey, on a sandy soil. It is also a native of Germany, growing in pastures, corn-fields, and on sands by the sea-side. Like the preceding grass, this one is evidently of more use in showing the diversity of form that gives specific characters to the individuals com- posing a genera, than to any agricultural purpose to which it can be made subservient; as the above results of experi- ments made upon it, put every idea of that nature out of the question. Flowers about the end of June, and the seed is ripe in August. p 2 212 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. POA distans. Reflexed Meadow-gerass, or Glyceria distans, Reflexed Sweet-grass. Specific character: Panicle equal, divaricated ; branches finally reflexed ; spikelets linear, five-flowered ; florets blunt, distant, obsoletely five-nerved. Obs.—Culms from six to eighteen inches high, round, striated, smooth, obliquely ascending, procumbent from the base to the first joint, sending out branches. Leaves with long sheaths, sharpish, even, glaucous, flat; the root-leaves a little rolled in. Panicle erect, with the branches in half whirls, angular, rugged, somewhat flexuose, branches of various lengths; finally much bent. Spikelets linear, from four to seven-flowered, variegated with white or purple. Florets remote, sub- cylindrical, very blunt, retuse, five-nerved, scariose at the tip, with the inner glumes emarginate. Native of Britain. Root fibrous. Annual when culti- vated in exposed situations. Perennial in its natural place of growth. Experiments.— At the time of flowering, the produce from a sandy loam is 4,764 lbs. per acre. Mr. Curtis observes of this grass, that, though at first sight it bears a near resemblance to the poa annua, and no doubt is often mistaken for it, yet it 1s considerably taller, its leaves narrower in proportion, and much more glaucous ; its spike- lets are also much narrower, as well as longer, and of course contain many more florets, which are, for the most part, prettily variegated with pale green and purple; but the chief character which distinguishes this from poa annua and all other species, is to be drawn from the branches of the panicle ; these, as the plant goes out of bloom, are reflected, or stretched out backwards, so as sometimes to touch the culm; this is effected by little tubercles at the base of the branches on their upper side only, which increasing in size as the plant advances in its flowering, forces them back- wards. Mr. Curtis further informs us, that six years’ cul- HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. 213 ture made no alteration in the appearance of this grass, and that there did not appear sufficient merit in it to recommend it for agricultural purposes. The results of the above experiments confirm the opinion expressed by Mr. Curtis, and rank the reflexed meadow- grass with the most inferior of the British grasses. It is chiefly, though not exclusively, confined to maritime situa- tions. It flowers about the end of May when cultivated in warm situations, and continues to send up flowering culms till the middle of September. The seed is generally ripe in about six weeks after the time of flowering. MEDICAGO lupulina. Black Nonsuch, Trefoil Medick. Specific character: Spikes oval; seed-vessel kidney- shaped, with one cell and one seed ; stems trailing. Obs. —Stems trailing, unless supported by the plants with which it grows; about a foot long, somewhat angular, slightly hairy, branched. Leaves obovate, or wedge- shaped, tooth towards the top, the mid-rib lengthened out to a short broad point, soft, pubescent, particularly on the under side. Flowers small, yellow, from thirty to forty, and upwards, ina head which is at first round- ish, afterwards oval. Legume striated and wrinkled, somewhat hisped with rigid hairs, turning black when ripe. Seed ovate, smooth, yellowish. This plant has such general resemblance to the proper trefoils or clovers, that it is often mistaken for some of the smaller species. The form and colour of the seed-pods afford a ready mark of distinction. Native of Britain. Root annual; in some situations biennial. Experiments. — At the time of flowering, the produce from a sandy loam is 13,612 lbs. per acre. We are informed in Mr. Young’s Annals of Agriculture, that this plant has been much sown of late years for sheep food in open fields, where it is a considerable improvement, first, for the sweet food, and then, to help the land by 214 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. ploughing it in, getting a good crop of wheat after it on indifferent soils. Mr. Zappa, of Milan, says, that it likes deep ground, rich, and exposed to the sun; multiplies very well from the seed, grows chiefly in the spring, flowering at the beginning of May, and ripening the seed at the begin- ning of June; it grows but little towards the end of summer and autumn. It is cut with poa trivialts, fifteen inches high, but is naturally procumbent. The seed of this plant falls so readily that great loss ensues from moving it, and, in thrash- ing, the least stroke clears it. Itis a good way, therefore, to thrash it in the field on a cloth, which is moved to the seed, and not the seed to the cloth. This account, extracted from Mr. Young’s Annals, perfectly agrees with what I have observed of the habits of this plant, only that it does not flower here till the middle or end of May. For light soils only it appears to be adapted, and these must be deep, as the root penetrates to a considerable depth, and is but little fibrous. It does not appear fit for separate cultivation, nor even to be employed in a large proportion in a mixture of other seeds. The root is annual, or at most a two-year-lived plant, and its use is therefore confined to the alternate husbandry. To sow the seeds of this plant with others on land intended to remain for permanent pasture, would be subversive of the intention ; as every spot this plant occupied would be naked the second year; and these spots afford every encourage- ment to the growth of weeds, as well as the decaying roots afford nourishment to the life of grubs. HEDYSARUM onobrychis, Sainfoin, or Cock’s-head. Generic character: Keel transversely obtuse; legume * jointed, with one seed in each joint. Specific character: Legumes one-seeded, prickly ; wings of the corolla equal in length to the calyx; stem elon- gated. Native of Britain. Root perennial. Experiments. — At the time of flowering, the produce from . a poor siliceous sandy soil is 6,806 Ibs. per acre. The produce of sainfoin on a clayey loam with a sandy subsoil, is greater than ona siliceous sandy soil incumbent HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. PAs on clay; but the nutritive powers of the herbage produced on the sandy soil is greater. Sainfoin grows wild in all the chalky districts in England ; but it was first introduced to English farmers as a plant for cultivation from Flanders and France, where it has been long cultivated. Parkinson, in the year 1640, says, that it is “generally known to be a singular food for cattle, causing them to give store of milk.” —Worlidge, in his Mystery of Husbandry, &c. (1681), treats of sainfoin at large: “In Wiltshire, in several places,” says he, “‘ there are precedents of sainfoin that has been there twenty years growing on poor land, and has so far improved the same, that from a noble per acre, twenty acres together have been certainly worth thirty shillings per acre, and yet continues in good proof.” — These extracts show the high opinion which was entertained of this plant above one hundred years ago; but this was, no doubt, in a great measure owing to the small number of plants then known for sowing in the farm. The experiments that have here been made on this plant were confined to a clayey loam and a light siliceous soil. Upon these it was evidently inferior to the broad-leaved and perennial red clover; but on chalky and gravelly soils there have been abundant proofs of the superior value of sainfoin. After the ample details of the uses and cultivation of sainfoin, given in Mr. Young’s Annals, it will be difficult to add any thing new. Itis a perennial plant, and produces but little herbage the first year, and on that account should not be sown on land that is intended to remain only two years under grass. In Mr. Young’s Annals we are informed, that sainfoin is allowed on all hands to be an admirable improve- ment on limestone rocks and chalk downs, which, in order to be cultivated to the greatest advantage, should be in this course, with no more arable than is necessary for the change. Thus, if sainfoin last sixteen years, as it certainly will if properly managed, then sixteen parts of the down should be sainfoin, and as many more parts as there are years _neces- sary for tillage, before the ground should be sowed with it again: suppose this period to be five years, the portions would then be 16 sainfoin, | sainfoin pared and burnt 216 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. and under turnips, | barley or oats, 1 clover, 1 wheat, | tur- nips, | barley or oats, and with this crop sainfoin sown again == 22. In another part we are informed that sainfoin is also a great improvement in thin, loose, dry, sandy loams, upon marl or chalk bottoms. Thin soils that wear out, or tire of clover, are laid down to great advantage with it, will last twenty years, and pay the farmer as well as his best corn crops. It flowers about the middle and towards the end of June. The seeds are large, and when sown in wet soils generally burst and rot without vegetating. There is some difference of opinion with respect to the best season for sowing ; accord- ing to several trials that I have made, the middle or end of April is the most certain; but when sown in the autumn, unless the soil be favourable, many of the plants are lost during the winter: should circumstances prove otherwise, the autumn sowing will be found the most advantageous, as it affords nearly a full crop in the ensuing season. It was before observed, that dry thin sandy pastures are the least capable of improvement, from the defect ia the constitution of the soil, which arises from the want of clay and marl. The process of paring and burning, which is so efficacious in converting bogs and rough tenacious clays, is found to injure thin sands; yet, without this process of burn- ing the surface, the crops that follow the ordinary mode of breaking up such soils by the plough only are devoured by insects at the roots, and seldom repay the expense of labour. The comparative disadvantages which attend the ordinary mode of converting thin sandy pastures into tillage by plough- ing only, are found by experience to be far greater than those which result to the soil by the process of burning. Sir Humphry Davy says, that ‘the process of burning renders the soil less compact, less tenacious, and retentive of moisture ;” burning, therefore, increases the natural defects of sandy soils, and lessens the quantity of soluble vegetable matter they contain. It seems probable, however, that the process of burning may be conducted in such a manner as to prevent any diminution of the original quantity of soluble HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. OT7 vegetable matters contained in the soil. For when the parings or turfs are submitted to the fire, they should only be burnt till the ashes are black, and will then contain carbon- aceous matter, which will be found to afford more soluble vegetable matter than the soil originally contained. But when the parings are burnt till the ashes are red or white, the carbonaceous matter is destroyed, and the ashes that re- main will be found to consist of oxides and saline matters of little value to such soils. With respect to tenacious clayey soils, the case is directly the reverse: these cannot be too much burnt by the ordinary process of burning, as the object here is not so much to destroy insects and the seeds of noxi- ous plants, as to correct the texture of the soil, by rendering it more friable, and less tenacious or retentive of moisture. It is evident that the application of clay or marl, and vegetable manure, even in small quantities, will compensate the soil for the greater division of its parts and loss of de- composing vegetable matter, let the process of burning be conducted in what manner it may; but there are no remedies at present known, for the prevention or even palliation of the ravages of the wire-worm, grubs, and other voracious insects with which these soils generally abound, except that of burn- ing, which, when properly ettected, experience has proved to be effectual to the destruction of a one year’s brood. In Scotland and in England I have witnessed the practice of converting rough pastures, containing heath, furze, and coarse grasses, by first burning the plants on the surface while growing, and then ploughing the land for a course of crops. By this, it invariably happened that the land soon became stocked with its original unprofitable plants, as their seeds and roots were securely preserved in the turf while the plants themselves were burning. In the Essays published by the Board of Agriculture, a variety of facts are brought forward, which go to prove the great increase of value which these pastures are capable of receiving by a proper mode of converting them into tillage. Mr. Stephen Kershaw states, in his experiments, the in crease of value in thin-skinned warren, when converted into 218 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. tillage by previously paring and burning, to be from thirteen pence per acre, the original value, to six or eight shillings per acre. Mr. Wright, of Pickworth, after describing several failures in attempting to convert “a tract of poor light barren heath by the ordinary mode of breaking up with the plough, states the complete success which attended his endeavours on an- other tract of the same soil by paring and burning.” This ground, Mr. Wright says, “ produced an excellent quality of turnips, value 2/. 10s. per acre.” ‘I afterwards,” continues he, ‘‘ sowed with barley on one ploughing in March ; the crop was estimated at five quarters per acre throughout the piece ; clearing to me as much in one year, as it would have done in pasturage, in its original state, in a century.” — Mr. Wright recomiuiends the following course of crops: — First year, pare and burn, and sow with turnips; second year, barley ; immediately after the barley crop plough once, and harrow in winter tares, to be mown for soiling stock of all kinds on the same ground, which may be begun about the third week of May, and continue till the seed in the pod is nearly ripe, perhaps in July; what then remains unconsumed may be made into excellent hay. After this, on one ploughing to sow turnips, with or without manuring. After the turnips, barley with grass-seeds, either to remain one, or many years. Mr. Legard, of Gratton, observes, that paring and burning, when regard is had to subsequent cropping, is advantageous, because it generally ensures a crop of turnips, the foundation of all good husbandry; and in light soils, the advantage of eating the turnip crop upon the land is very great, and should therefore be invariably practised. Other statements, equally satisfactory, might be brought forward, but they all agree in principle —to break up dry rough sandy pastures by paring and burning; white crops seldom, at the most one white to two green crops. In the preparation of the land for these crops, the scarifier should be frequently employed instead of the plough, as the frequent turning up of such soils becomes more injurious than bene- ficial. HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. 219 From the foregoing series of facts and observations, re- specting the different grasses and other plants which compose the produce of dry upland pastures, it may fairly be inferred, that these plants are not susceptible of that degree of im- provement by cultivation which would fit them for the support of the larger domestic animals. Sheep may be considered the only stock that can be profitably maintained on such pastures. Still, however, their natural state may be much improved by frequent top-dressings with manure or compost, and, at the same time, by sowing the seeds of the grasses which will be mentioned hereafter. The roller should be often used; the inferior grasses should not be suffered to perfect or shed their seeds; and the pasture should be closely cropped. By persevering in this mode of treatment, a superior pasture would soon be obtained. But these improvements, effected on poor siliceous sandy pastures by the above treatment, will be found only tempo- rary ; and, as soon as the means are suspended, the pasture will return again to its former inferior state; this kind of soil being of a nature that soon exhausts the manure applied to it, whether on the surface as a top-dressing, or when ploughed in the land. It will be found absolutely necessary to change first the nature of the soil, by the application of clay or marl; and the superior grasses will then keep pos- session of the soil, even under indifferent management. There will be much less occasion for manure, and the quan- tity applied will have double the effect. The land, by this means, 1S improved permanently. It is much to be lamented, that pastures of this nature are often broken up, undergo a course of crops, and are again returned to grass, without any change being made in the nature of the soil. If marl be often out of reach, clay seldom is, as this earth is generally found under sand, or in its neighbourhood. Before clay, marl, or any ingredient that effects a permanent change in the nature of a soil, be applied, the nature of the soil, and the ingredient, should first be ascertained by che- mical analysis; and the exact quantity of the ingredient necessary to effect the desired change in the nature of the soil, will by this be accurately determined. Without this, 220 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. the operation will be performed in the dark, and conse- quently with less certain success. If the reader will look back to the observations on soils, he will find some hints on this important point. Mr. Taunton in his valuable observations on down grasses, states, that the principal strata which afford downs, are first, and most extensively, the chalk, including the wolds in York- shire ; secondly, in order of succession, the green and brown sand ; though these sometimes degenerate into such acerbity, that the heath (erica vulgaris, erica tetralix, et erica cinerea ) is abundant, and they therefore form an exception to the general character of downs, whose produce should princi- pally consist of the natural grasses, and which circum- stance distinguishes downs, from heaths properly so called : next the oolites or calcareous free-stones, upon which the wolds of Gloucestershire are found: next the mountain lime-stone: and lastly, certain elevated portions of the killas, or slate. All these downs unite in a few general cha- racteristics. The soil is generally thin, dry, light, and porous: from its elevation it is also usually cold, and back- ward of growth. In consequence of being continually and perfectly ventilated, these pastures are particularly healthy for sheep: by reason of their not being naturally rich, though for the most part easy to work, they are also better adapted for the alternate husbandry, including turnips, than they are for meadow, or pasture for heavy beasts: there are, how- ever, some few parts where either a cap of strong soil left on the summits, or a greater depth of alluvial soil washed together into hollows, throws out a pasturage so strong that a cow can obtain a tolerable bite, and such parts obtain the honourable pre-eminence of being called cow-leazes. The upper soil of these tracts is usually, in a principal degree, calcareous, with a greater or less mixture of siliceous sand, and some portion of argillaceous matter. In some spots the argil, in some the silex, in some the calcareous matter, pre- dominates. The natural grasses which generally abound in these downs are of small bulk, but they are wholesome and palatable, particularly to sheep. Where there is a tolerable portion of argil, we find the cock’s-foot (dactylis HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIs. DH | glomerata), yellow oat-grass (avena flavescens ), crested dog’s- tail (cynosurus cristatus), hard fescue (festuca duriuscula), smooth-stalked meadow-grass (poa pratensis), and perennial ray-grass (lolium perenne), most prevalent, but not to the exclusion of others. Where the siliceous sand is most abun- dant, the meadow fescue (festuca pratensis), Welch fescue (festuca Cambrica), sweet-scented vernal-grass (anthoxan- thum odoratum), woolly oat-grass (avena pubescens), purple fescue-grass ( festuca rubra), early hair-grass (aira precor), crested hair-grass (atra cristata), common bent grass (agrostis vulgaris), upright bent grass (agrostis stricta), bundled-leaved bent (agrostis fascicularis), common quak- ing-grass (briza media), and flat-stalked meadow-grass (poa compressa), are most prevalent. Where the calcareous matter predominates, we find, in the greatest abundance, sheep’s fescue (festuca ovina), meadow-oat-grass (avena pratensis), upright brome-grass (bromus erectus), pinnate brome (bromus pinnatus), knee-jointed meadow cat’s-tail (phleum nodosum), and (phleum pratense), varietas minor. Unless there be in the soil some proportion of argil, neither the avena flavescens, dactylis glomerata, nor cynosurus cris- tatus, will grow. Mixed with the preceding natural grasses, over these downs, are to be found some species of scabiosa, orchis, carex, trifolium, plantago, lotus, ornithopus, poterium, anthyllis, hedysarum, medicago, campanula, and hieracium. Mr. Taunton expresses little doubt that in a sandy chalk down, with a tolerable depth of soil, and with such a pro- portion of argil as not to starve the cock’s-foot, the union of cock’s-foot, meadow-fescue, narrow-leaved brome-grass, yellow oat-grass, upright brome-grass, barley-like fescue, common quaking-grass, downy oat-grass, and meadow oat- grass, would afford a permanent crop of a ton of hay per acre, per annum. Of the different grasses natural to dry siliceous sandy soils that have been submitted to experiment, and mentioned in the foregoing series, the sheep’s fescue (festuca ovina), flexuose hair-grass (aira flexuosa), long-awned sheep’s fes- cue (festuca ovina hordeiformis), common hent-grass (agros- tis vulgaris), flat-stalked meadow-grass (poa compressa), and poe HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS, common bird’s-foot trefoil (dotus corniculatus), prove to be the best. For dry calcareous soils, on chalky subsoils, the meadow oat-grass (avena pratensis), upright flat-stalked meadow-grass (poa compressa), crested brome-grass (bromus cristatus), will be found the most valuable, if no alteration be made in the nature of the soil. It has already been observed, that the value of these grasses, even when cultivated in the best manner, are only adapted for the maintenance of sheep; and to introduce the superior pasture grasses on such soils, the previous applica- tion of clay or marl is absolutely necessary. When this important point has been effected, to obtain the most valu- able sward the soil is capable of producing, the seeds of the following grasses should be sown; and experience will prove, that, under such circumstances, they are the best for this purpose. Barley-like sheep’s fescue (festuca ovina hor- GELFOTMIS) nono cencedsoecassnessncsncrsarceracens 3 pecks. Cock’s-foot grass (dactylis glomerata )......... 3 Crested dog’s-tail grass (cynosurus cristatus). 1] Yellow oat-grass (avena flavescens) ....++0+0000 2 Ray-grass (loliwum perenne) ..6.-.eeesreerenreeees ] Flat-stalked meadow-grass (poa compressa). 1] Various-leaved fescue (festuca heterophylla). 14 Hard fescue ( festuca duriusculd) ....+.0+sse000 2 Lesser bird’s-foot trefoil (lotus corniculatus).. 1 Ib. White clover (trifoliwm repens) ..-...seereere 3 From a variety of experiments that I have made on a small scale, with a view to ascertain the quantity of seed that would produce the best sward in the shortest space of time, I feel convinced, that any quantity less than four or five bushels per acre of the above mixture should not be used under the circumstances of soil now described. Barley proves always less injurious to the grasses, when sown with them, than any other of the white grain crops. The nutritive matter of barley contains more sugar and pro- portionally less gluten or albumen, than any other species of corn. HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. 223 The defect of sandy soils in germinating seeds is clearly owing to the sudden deprivation of moisture which they suffer when a course of dry weather commences just before, after, or at the time the seed begins to vegetate. For when sandy dry soils are duly supplied with moisture, seeds sown on such, sooner vegetate than on any other kind of soil, whether of a richer or more tenacious nature. The manner of growth of tares offers a remedy for the defect of white grain, or upright growing crops. The stems of tares spread out and shade the surface of the soil from the effects of the sun. But, unless tares are sown very thin, they will be found to destroy the seedling grasses, by excluding the air. In every instance, however, where the seeds of annuals are sown with the perennial grass seeds, it should be remembered, that every plant of these occupies a space, to the detriment of the expected sward; and the results of all my experiments perfectly agree in confirming the opinion, that for permanent pasture, the grasses sown should be free from any admixture of annual, or white grain crops. The results of all the experiments on light sandy soils, tend to confirm the opinion before expressed, respecting the superiority of depasturing or mowing seedling grasses the first year. Oxen are liable to poach the surface ; and horses and sheep weaken the seedling plants, by cropping too near the roots. Sheep are evidently the least hurtful. By fre- quently rolling the surface, and mowing the produce, the young plants establish themselves better in the ground, and all of the plants raised are preserved ; but by leaving the plants to perfect their seed the first year, and excluding cattle, the young plants are deprived of the benefit of the manure supplied by the sheep, which, at this stage of the growth of seedling grasses, is more particularly valuable on a soil of this nature than on rich ancient pasture land; as the roller, when used judiciously, presses the droppings into the surface of the ground, and brings the manure in contact with the fibrous roots of the plants. It is evident, however, that all the benefits accruing to the plants from depasturing the first year, may be supplied by a top-dressing in the 224 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. autumn or spring, and a liberal use of the roller, when the ground is in a suitable state to benefit by it. But suffering the seedling plants to perfect their seed before the crop is collected, is doubtless not the best practice: in all my experiments, the results were decidedly in favour of this opinion. A top-dressing should never be applied without sowing some of the seeds along with it; once sowing will never be found efficient to form the most valuable sward in the shortest space of time, on a light dry sandy soil. Should the mode of depasturing, instead of mowing the first year’s crop, be still preferred in any case, I may be permitted once more to remark, that nothing weakens or retards the growth of grasses so much, as cropping them close at the time their first tender shoots appear in the spring. From various trials it appeared, that close cropping the produce of this soil early in the spring, and late in autumn, was much less injurious to its old sward than to seedling grasses. When a given space of the same species of grass was cut cluse to the roots towards the end of March, and another space left uncropped till the last week in April, the produce of each space being afterwards taken at three different cuttings, the produce of the space that was left uncropped till the latter end of April, exceeded that of the early-cropped space in the proportion of 3 to 2; in one instance, during a dry summer, the last cropped space afforded a produce superior to that of the early cropped space, as 2 to 1. Inall these trials, the produce of the early space consisted of four crops, and that of the latter three. It appears, therefore, that no stock should be ad- mitted to seedling grasses, till after the time of their coming into flower. CHAPTER IV. OF THE GRASSES WHICH NATURALLY GROW IN MOIST SOILS, OR IN BOGS, LANDS THAT ARE PERIODICALLY OVERFLOWN, AND IRRIGATED MEADOWS. Aut the superior pasture grasses will thrive under irrigation, provided the water-meadow be properly constructed, that is, if the water be placed perfectly under command, so as to be admitted on the land, and carried off from it at pleasure. Bogs and lands that are periodically overflown, on which the water stagnates from the want of drains, support few grasses of any value to the agriculturist. They are princi- pally the following :— Marsh-bent (agrostis palustris), awn- less brown-bent (agrostzs canina, vel trichodium caninum, var. mutica), awned creeping-bent (agrostzs stolonifera aristata), smaller-leaved creeping-bent (agrostis stolonifera angustifolia), creeping-rooted bent (agrostis repens), white bent (agrostis alba), flote fescue (glyceria fluitans), tall fescue (festuca elatior), turfy hair-grass (ara cespitosa), knee-jointed foxtail grass (alopecurus geniculatus), water hair-grass (azra aqua- tica), water meadow-grass ( poa aquatica), long-leaved cotton grass (eriophorum polystachion), sheathed cotton-grass (eri0- phorum vaginatum). The above grasses, however, constitute but a small portion of the produce of marshy ground. The following plants compose the bulk of produce : — Different species of rushes (juncus), sedges (carex), rush-grasses (schanus), club-rushes (cyperus), cat’s-tail rushes (typha), bur-weeds (sparganium). Of all these plants, as far as my observations have extended, two or three species of juncus only are eaten by cattle. Mr. Taunton indeed says, that he has observed cattle crop some of the species of carer. The natural or proper grasses Q 326 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. produced on these stagnant lands, are of a very inferior value. The water meadow-grass seems the most valuable, as will appear by the following details of experiments made upon them. To the indigenous grasses natural to marshy and sour clayey lands, mentioned in the following series of speci- mens, I have added such foreign grasses as may be classed with them. AGROSTIS canna, var. mutica. Awnless variety of Brown- bent. Specific character : Panicle branches subdivided, roughish ; corolla of one husk awnless. Experiments. — At the time of flowering, the produce from a bog soil is 5,446 lbs. per acre. It will have been remarked, from the perusal of the fore- going statements, that the stoloniferous grasses afford more nutritive matter at the time, and after the seed is ripe, than at the time of flowering. The decumbent stems, or runners, of this grass, furnished with tufts of leaves at the joints, illustrate, in some measure, the meaning of the term stoloni- ferous. Sir Humphry Davy says, that the concrete sap stored up in the joints of these grasses renders them a good food, even in winter. The weight of nutritive matter con- tained in this grass, at the time the seed is ripe, is superior to that afforded at the time it is in flower, in the proportion of 7 to 10. It is the most common grass on deep bogs, even where they are subject to be under water for six months in the year. Itis a diminutive plant, very unlike the produce of such soils; the leaves seldom attain to more than two or three inches in length. Hares crop the foliage in the spring. The smallness of the produce, even when cultivated under the most favourable circumstances, affords a sufficient proof of its unworthiness to be regarded by the farmer in any other light than that of a weed which indicates a soil capable of being improved, so as to produce the most valuable grasses by artificial irrigation. It may be propagated to any extent a tise ts = oe (ied a SS — i, =e ws — —- = — < ———- Ge LA HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. 227 by seeds, or by planting the stolones, or decumbent-rooting shoots. Flowers in the second and third weeks of July, and ripens the seed about the middle of August. AGROSTIS alba. White Bent. Specific character: Panicle spreading, meagre, branches roughish; culms decumbent; root creeping. Ive. 1. Floret, magnified. 2. Inner husks and germen. The creeping root and meagre produce of the agrostis alba, and the fibrous root and comparatively great produce of the a. stolonifera, are agricultural characters of distinction of the highest importance ; and although the writer of this perfectly agrees in the opinion, that the essential botanical characters of distinction afforded by these grasses are insufficient to constitute them distinct species, yet the very opposite ex- ternal habits and agricultural merits of these grasses, and which have been fully proved to be permanent, induce me, but with the greatest deference, to retain those names of these grasses nearly the same as they are given in the original of these pages. That our agrostis stolonifera is the a. alba of Linneus, is clearly proved by Sir James Edward Smith in his English Flora. The error seems to have ori- ginated in Withering, and from that authority propagated with ready facility among practical men; the term stolonifera being so appropriate a name to that grass, while the term alba, on the other hand, seemed equally unappropriate, as conveying the idea of a property existing in the plant no- where apparent, but when applied to the creeping-rooted agrostis, as described by Withering and others under the name of a/ba, might very properly allude to the white creep- ing roots of that species. Native of Britain. Root perennial. LEixperiments.— At the time of flowering, the produce from a clayey soil is 8,167 lbs. per acre. This grass is late, unproductive, and contains but little nutritive matter. Its creeping roots greatly exhaust the soil; in this variety they are smaller than in the other Q 2 228 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. varieties, but equally difficult to extirpate when once in possession of tenacious clays. The next following species (agrostis repens), is more troublesome as a weed, though less productive. Neither of these plants produces stolones or runners, like the varieties of the agrostis stolonifera ; sometimes, indeed, a few slender runners are found, but they seldom strike root at the jomts. The creeping roots abun- dantly supply this defect in the plant for its propagation, as they creep under the surface, and send up at intervals nume- rous young shoots. This property of the roots is the best character of distinction for the purpose of .the agriculturist, as it may be found at any season or stage of growth of the plant. Flowers in the first week of August, and the seed is ripe about the beginning of September. AGROSTIS repens. Creeping-rooted Bent, White Bent. Specific character: Panicle scattered; branches bare at the base; florets few; calyx inner valve smooth ; root creeping. Obs. —The difference between this and the preceding erass is, perhaps, too little to constitute them distinct species ; the culms of the former are decumbent; in this grass they are upright, and the root is more powerfully creeping. It is later in coming into flower and im per- fecting its seed. Native of Britain. Root perennial. Experiments. — At the time of flowering, the produce from a clayey loam is 6,125 lbs. per acre. Though a later growing grass, it is less productive than the preceding. It is subject to the rust, and a peculiar disease which dries up the extremities of the leaves, and gives it an unsightly appearance. Simple ploughing will be found ineffectual to root out this weed in clayey soils. It will be found ultimately the cheapest and most expeditious mode of extirpating it to follow the plough and fork out the roots. Burning, under such circumstances of soil, would doubtless be highly beneficial, but the roots of this couch- ty Fp ai > l) AS WA; id . Ss a O N f\ Pi Asrostis Stolon tern Aristala Ag HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. god erass penetrate so deep that a considerable part of them =, © would escape; and the least particle of the root soon pro- duces a plant. Flowers in the second week of August, and the seed 1s ripe about the latter end of September. AGROSTIS stolonifera aristata. Awned Creeping Bent. Fig. 1. Calyx. 2. Corolla. Obs. — The first knowledge I had of this variety was from the Duke of Bedford, who pointed it out on Priesley Moor. I have since found it common on peaty moors. It can scarcely be distinguished from the agr. stolonifera latifolia without examining it in the hand. The runners or stolones extend to a great length ; they are of a brighter reddish colour than those of the latifolia, and every part of the plant is rougher. From these few marks of distinction this variety may have been overlooked, as I find no mention made of it in the botanical works to which I have had access. Native of Britain. Root perennial. Experiments. — At the time of flowering, the produce from a bog soil is 8,848 lbs, per acre. The weight of nutritive matter in which the crop taken in December exceeds that of the crop when the grass is in flower, in the proportion nearly of 10 to 13, is 70 lbs. This variety of creeping bent is therefore greatly inferior to the larger-leaved variety (agrostis stolonifera latifolia), or fiorin; for the weight of nutritive matter per acre afforded by the /atifolia is two-thirds greater than that of the awned variety. Cattle appear to eat this grass in common with the rough-stalked meadow-grass and meadow foxtail-grass. It flowers about a week later than the fiorin, but the seed is ripe about the same time. AGROSTIS stolonifera angustifolia. Smaller-leaved Creep- ing Bent. , Var. 3.— Panicle densely crowded with florets; florets small; inner valve of the calyx smooth, the outer 230 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. serrulated ; corolla without any rudiment of an awn. Obs. — This is the most common variety of the creeping bent on damp tenacious clayey soils, and in moist woods. It may readily be distinguished from the other varieties, by its small, oblong, crowded panicle of a whitish colour. The stolones are closely pressed to the ground, and are almost covered by the leaves, which are more numerous, and shorter than in any of the other varieties of this grass. The joints are small, ofa slight brown colour. Native of Britain. Root perennial. Experiments. — At the time the seed is ripe, the produce from a bog soil is 16,335 Ibs. per acre. The agrostis stolonifera latifolia, mown in December, afforded of nutritive matter 1,435 Ibs. The agrostis stolonifera angustifolia, mown at the same time, afforded only 980) lbs. Which shows that the value of the variety latifolia exceeds, in December, that of the angustifolia in the proportion nearly of 11 to 7. From the above details it is evident this common variety stands next in value to the larger-leaved variety of creeping bent. It appeared from ail the observations I could make on this grass when growing in natural pastures, to be entirely neglected by cattle while any of the superior pasture grasses presented a sufficiency for a bite. Though the tem- porary acceptance or rejection of a particular sort of food by cattle will be found a fallacious criterion of its merit or comparative value, nevertheless, in instances like the present, where the plant possesses no superior quality otherwise, to recommend it, the dislike of cattle to partake of it adds greatly to the demerits of the plant. Flowers in the second and third weeks of July, and ripens the seed about the end of August. AGROSTIS palustris. Marsh Bent. Specific character: Panicle loose when in flower, spike-like WAL Z= ~ J Agrostis Slo i nisera Ang ustifolla HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. 231 when the seed is perfected; calyx-valves equal, the outer only serrulated, larger valve of the corolla with a minute straight awn fixed above its middle, and reaching to its point, obsolete. Hvperiments.— At the time of flowering, the produce from a bog soil is 10,209 lbs. per acre. This grass is properly a subaquatic. It will grow on tenacious clays, but it seems only to thrive in very moist soils, or in such as are for the most part covered with water. In moist woods it is more frequent than any other of the ereeping-stemmed bent grasses ; here the culms often attain to five feet in height, when supported by bushes. The above details show the inferior nature of this grass, compared to the larger, and even to the lesser-leaved varie- ties of the agrostis stolonifera. It cannot, therefore, as yet be considered in any other light than a weed that chokes up drains and underwood. Flowers about the second week of July, and the seed is ripe about the middle and towards the end of August. GLYCERIA.— Generic character: Corolla awnless, cylin- drical furrowed, ribbed abrupt, not keeled: seed loose, cylindrical oblong. Glyceria fluitans. Floating Sweet-grass. Specific character: Panicle oblong, branched, divari- cating; spikelets close pressed; florets numerous, obtuse, seven-ribbed, with short intermediate ribs at the base ; nectary obtuse, tumid. Obs. —This grass has sometimes been mistaken for the agrostis stolonifera (fiorm). When in flower there is no difficulty in distinguishing them, the number of florets in each calyx being from five to eleven; in fiorin only one. The leaves are much broader, flat, and perfectly smooth. By simply drawing the finger down the leaves of the fiorin they will be found sensibly rough to the feel, but those of the floating sweet-grass perfectly smooth; by which means the two grasses may be distinguished at any stage of growth. 232 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS.; Native of Britain. Root perennial. Experiments. — At the time of flowering, the produce from a strong tenacious clay is 13,612 lhs. per acre. The above produce was taken from grass that had occu- pied the ground four years, during which time it had increased every year; it therefore appears capable of being cultivated as a permanent pasture grass, which is contrary to what has been supposed of the flote fescue. Some writers on the subject of grasses inform us, that kine and hogs are fond of this grass, and that cows, in the spring, are fre- quently enticed into bogs, by endeavouring to get at the young shoots, which appear earlier than most other grasses. The result of my observations lead me to believe, that when cattle eat this grass it is more through wantonness than any particular relish they have for it. On a bog, where this grass was in much abundance, black cattle only cropped the extremities of the leaves, while the foliage of the agrostis stolonifera aristata, poa trivialis, and alopecurus pratensis, which grew in company with it, were closely eaten down. Birds are fond of the seeds, and generally strip the panicle ere the seeds are all perfected. Schreber informs us, that it is cultivated in several parts of Germany for the sake of the seeds, which are esteemed a delicacy in soups and gruels. When ground into meal, they make bread very little inferior to that from wheat. The bran is given to horses that have the worms, but they must be kept from water some hours afterwards. Fish, particularly trout, are said to be fond of the seeds. The seed will not vegetate unless kept very moist ; indeed I never could obtain any plants from the seed except when sown in mud: when raised in this manner, and transplanted ona tenacious clay, the plants throve very well, and on the fourth year afforded the produce above stated. Flowers from the first or second week of July, till the end of summer. AIRA aquatica. Water Hair-grass. Specific character: Panicle expanding ;. florets without awns, smooth, longer than the calyx; husks obtuse. NS —~ > yY te 2 \ HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. 250 Obs. — Culms seldom more than a foot high, with two or three joints, never more. The leaves are shorter than those of the preceding grass (g/yceria fluitans), and more rounded at the point. When in flower they can- not be mistaken for each other: the hair-grass has only two flowers in each calyx; the flote sweet-grass from five to eleven. Lixperiments. — At the time of flowering, the produce from mud covered permanently with running water is 10,890 Ibs. per acre. This plant is an aquatic, at least [ never could preserve it out of water. Itis found naturally growing in the mud of standing pools, or running waters. It is therefore unfit for cultivation. Flowers in the second and third weeks of July. Root perennial and creeping. AIRA cespitosa. Turfy Hair-grass, Hassock-grass. Specific character: Panicle spreading ; florets about the length of the calyx, abrupt, hairy at the base; one of them on a hairy stalk; awn short, from the bottom of the outer valve; leaves flat. — Ig. 1. A single floret, magnified. 2. Calyx and included florets. Obs. — Root fibrous ; panicle large, of a fine purple silky _appearance ; root leaves forming dense tufts, extremely rough ; the edges so sharp as to cut the finger when passed between them; culms from a foot and a half to three feet high ; two, seldom or never three flowers in each calyx; hairy at the base, the lowermost one sitting. Experiments. — At the time the seed is ripe, the produce from a strong tenacious clay is 10,209 lbs. per acre. Experience proves the innutritious nature of this grass ; but even if it had greater nutritive powers, the extreme coarse- ness of the foliage would render it unfit for cultivation. Cattle sometimes crop the ends of the young leaves, but in all the imstances that have come under my observation, it appeared to be from supreme necessity. The only point to 234 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. be considered here, therefore, is how to overcome or destroy it on soils where it has got possession. It delights in moist clayey soils where the water stagnates; but is found in almost every kind of soil, from the dry sandy heath to the bog. It forms dense tufts in pastures very disagreeable to the sight, which are termed hassocks, bulls’ faces, &c., by farmers. It is a most difficult plant to extirpate when in considerable quantity. Some persons, to get rid of it, dig up the tufts, and fill up the holes with lime compost: this, no doubt, would answer the end, at least for a few years, if all the roots were destroyed ; but this is never the case, — a circle of roots is left which in one or two seasons produce larger hassocks than before ; and besides, when the hassocks are numerous, the expense attending this process is consi- derable. Others depend on occasional mowings to keep the hassocks under; but this is productive of little good, particularly if the mowing of the tufts be deferred till the autumn, which, I believe, is the common practice. I have found no treatment weaken or retard the growth of grass so much as cutting it closely before and soon after the first tender shoots appear in the spring. On the contrary, when left uncut till the flowers are formed, or the seed becomes ripe, mowing then encourages the growth of the plant, and a great increase and activity of the roots ensue. In this palliative remedy, therefore, the principal efforts should be made to keep the plant close to the roots in the early part of the spring, and till Midsummer. But the only effectual and most profitable mode of extir- pating this grass is by first paring and burning the surface of the land, and by making proper drains, to correct, as much as possible, the tenacious nature of the soil: in this case surface drains are as necessary as those termed hollow. Sand should likewise be applied during the course of crops taken previous to returning the land again to permanent pasture,—if such should be desirable from its local situation ; as that, for instance, of a park. Flowers about the third weck of July, and the seed is ripe towards the end of August. porynsgeeuaccece t x nile Af det HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS, Doo ALOPECURUS geniculatus. “Knee-jointed Foxtail-grass. Specific character: Culms ascending, bent at the joints ; panicle spike-like, cylindrical, obtuse; husks of the calyx united at the base, obtuse, somewhat woolly ; apex of the corolla minutely notched. Obs.—There are two varieties of this species of fox-tail grass; the present, which is by far the most common, is distinguished from the other by its fibrous root and ereater size; the less common variety has a bulbous root. The alopecurus bulbosus may be distinguished from the bulbous-rooted variety of the knee-jointed species by its upright culms, which want the knee- jointed form so conspicuous in the culms of the former. The anthers are at first of a purple colour, but after- wards become ferruginous. Native of Britain. Root perennial. LExperiments.— At the time of flowering, the produce from a rich moist alluvial soil is 6,806 lbs. per acre. It grows common in surface-drains, and at the entrance of cattle-ponds, particularly where the soil is clayey. It does not appear to be eaten with much relish by either cows, horses, or sheep. Its nutritive powers are not considerable, and its sub-aquatic natural place of growth excludes any recommendation of it for cultivation. Flowers in the first week of June, and during the summer. GLYCERIA aquatica. Reedy Sweet-grass, or Poa aquatica, Water Meadow-erass. Specific character: Panicle erect, repeatedly branched, spreading ; florets numerous, obtuse, with seven ribs ; nectary cloven, acute. Ig. 1. Spikelet of flowers magnified. 2. The Germen. Obs.—The creeping roots terminate in jointed culms ; fibrous roots numerous. Culms very high, from three to six feet. Leaves straight, broad, smooth on every part except the edges and keel ; sheaths a little com- 236 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. pressed, striated, smooth; scales short, obtuse. Pani- cle very large, upright; branches pressed towards the main stalk before and after flowering. Native of Britain. Root perennial. Experiments.— At the time of flowering, the produce from a strong tenacious clay is 126,596 lbs. per acre. This grass is common on the banks of rivers, and frequent on the margin of standing pools. On the banks and little islands of the Thames, where it is generally mown twice in the year for hay, it affords abundant crops of valuable winter fodder. Mr. Curtis informs us, that in flat countries, which do not admit of being sufficiently drained, it is almost the only grass for hay and pasturage. In the fens of Cambridge- shire and Lincolushire, &c. immense tracts, that used to be overflowed and produce useless aquatic plants, and still retain much moisture, though drained by mills, are covered with this grass: which not only affords rich pasturage in summer, but forms the chief part of their winter fodder. Its powerful creeping roots make it a dangerous and troublesome plant in ditches, where, with other aquatic plants, it soon chokeg them up. In the Isle of Ely they cleanse the ditches of these weeds by an instrument called a bear; which is an iron roller, with a number of pieces of iron, like small spades, fixed init. This is drawn up and down the river by horses walking along the bank, and tears up the plants by the roots, which float, and are carried down the stream. In the Bath Agricultural Papers, the water meadow-grass, we are informed, “in its native soil, the fens of the Isle of Ely, crows to the height of six feet. It is usually cut when about four feet high; when dry they bind it in sheaves; it generally undergoes a heat in the rick, which improves it. It is excellent fodder for milch-cows ; horses are not fond of it. The inhabitants there call it fodder, by way of eminence, other kinds of coarse hay being called stover, 7. e. coarse stuff. Itis also called white lead, drying of a white colour.” The nutritive matter of this grass contains a greater pro- portion of sugar than exists in any of the superior pasture grasses. I offered a bundle of the grass to a horse that was grazing on a field of white clover; the animal ate it with HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. Ir seeming relish, taking a bite of the clover and then another of the poa aquatica, alternately, till the whole of it was con- sumed. It does not grow freely from seed, except when sown in mud. The best manner of propagating it, according to my experience, is by planting the roots, which, from their creeping nature, soon increase the number of plants. The best season for sowing the seeds is in the autumn, as soon as they are ripe. The roots may be planted in the autumn, or spring, with equal success. The Rev. Bartholomew Dacre, of Mosely, has made several experiments on this grass ; and the results prove, that it may be cultivated on more elevated situations than has been supposed, and that propagating it by planting the roots is the best mode. Flowers about the second and third weeks of July, and the seed is ripe about the second week of August. ERIOPHORUM angustifolhum. Long-leaved Cotton-grass. Specific character: Culms almost three-cornered ; leaves channelled, three-sided ; fruit-stalks smooth. Ols.— There are three species of cotton-grass, which greatly resemble each other: the e. triquetrum, e. angus- tifolium, and e. polystachion. The e. angustifolium (the species now under consideration), differs from the triquetrum in having a thicker and more succulent culm; the leaves longer and broader, with only one nerve of a reddish colour; and the fruit-stalks are smooth. It is distinguished from the polystachion by its creeping roots; leaves twice the length; involucre and sheaths smooth, spikelets smaller; fruit-stalks shorter ; and the woolly hairs everywhere longer. Native of Britain. Root perennial. Experiments. — At the time of flowering, the produce from a bog soil is 8,167 lbs. per acre. On bogs and moors where this grass abounds, cattle crop the leaves in the spring; but as soon as the finer kinds of erasses afford them a bite, they neglect it. There are many grasses of superior value, that succeed equally well on this kind of soil. When such lands are capable of being 238 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. drained (which is generally the case), it should be effected, and the soil will then carry the superior grasses, as the meadow-fescue, cock’s-foot grass, meadow cat’s-tail grass, meadow fox-tail grass, rough-stalked meadow-egrass, &c. Where draining cannot be economically practised, the sur- face should be pared and burnt, and afterwards planted with fiorin (agrostis stolonifera, var. latifolia), or with the water meadow-grass (poa aquatica). If the soil be not too wet for the former, or too peaty for the latter, the produce will be found amply to reward the labour of preparing and _ planting the soil. Mr. Pennant says, that about April, in the Isle of Skye, the farmers turn their cattle during the day-time to this grass, which springs first, and at night drive them into dry ground again. In Germany, Professor Martyn informs us, and in the more northern parts of Europe, the down has been manufac- tured into various articles of dress, paper, and wicks for candles. In some parts of Sweden, the peasants stuff their pillows with it, whence it is called “ poor man’s pillow,” but it becomes brittle when dry. Neither the productive or nutritive powers of this grass appear, from the above details, sufficiently great to recom- mend it for cultivation. Though it comes into flower in June, it is late in the spring before the foliage attains to any length. ERIOPHORUM vaginatum. WUare’s-tail, or Sheathed Cot- ton-grass. Specific character: Culms obscurely three-cornered, sheathed ; spike oval oblong. Obs.—Culms erect, smooth, with three or four joints, roundish below, three-cornered above, from six to twelve inches in height. Root-leaves sharp-pointed, streaked on two sides, convex on one side, flat on two sides. Stem-leaves less sharp, upper one with a remarkable inflated sheath. It produces only one spike, which is upright. Native of Britain. Root perennial, fibrous. HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. 239 Experiments.— At the time of flowering, the produce from a bog soil is 6,806 Ibs. per acre. The produce and nutritive properties of this grass appear to be very inferior to the preceding species of cotton-grass. The chief property that would give value to it, if its produc- tive powers were greater, is its early growth, being one of the earliest of the British grasses, flowering in April. The foliage is equally early, growing in proportion with the flowering culms; but its produce of latter-math is very inconsiderable. It is more frequent on moors of a drier nature than moist bogs, though it is to be met with on most of them. Sheep are said to be very fond of this grass, but as far as I have had opportunity to observe, they only crop the foliage in the spring, till the finer natural grasses afford them a bite. It offers, therefore, no particular merit to warrant a recommendation for the purposes of the agricul- turist. It flowers about the third week of April, and the seed is ripe about the third week of May. PHALARIS arundinaceus. Reed Canary-grass. Specific character: Panicle upright, with spreading branches; flowers crowded, unilateral; outer corolla of two bearded valves. Native of Britain. Perennial. Lixperiments.— At the time of flowering, the produce from a black sandy loam incumbent on clay is 27,225 lbs. per acre. From these details of experiments, it appears that the striped reed canary-grass is much more productive on a tena- cious clayey soil than ona rich sandy loam. The striped reed canary-grass has not yet been found ina wild state. It is cultivated in gardens, for the beauty of its striped leaves. The common wild variety, which grows by the sides of rivers and standing pools, wants this distinguishing feature. It grows toa greater height than the striped-leaved variety, and does not appear to be eaten by cattle: but birds are fond of the seeds. There are striped-leaved varieties of the 240 HORNTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. agrostis alba, and dactylis glomerata, in the Woburn collec- tion of grasses, which, for the strength and beauty of the tints in the leaves, are equal, if not superior, to those of the striped-leaved reed-grass. It comes into flower about the first and second weeks of July, and the seed ripens about the middle of August. FESTUCA elatior, var. sterilis. Barren-seeded Tall Fescue. Specific character: Panicle directed on one side, upright ; spikelets mostly awned, the outer one cylindric. Obs.—It greatly resembles the festuca pratensis. It is larger in every respect ; flowers eight or ten days later. The panicle of the pratensis is upright at first, afterwards drooping ; while the panicle of the elatior is drooping at first, and afterwards upright: spikelets of a green and purple colour, cylindric, generally awned ; leaves rougher and less pointed than those of the festuca pratensis. Native of Britain. Root perennial, fibrous. Experiments. — At the time of flowering, the produce from a black rich loam is 51,046 lbs. per acre. The produce of latter-math is 15,654 Ibs. per acre. The grass, at the time of flowering, affords more nutritive matter than that of the latter-math in the proportion of 5 to4; but the grass of the latter-math contains more nutritive matter than that at the time the seed is ripe, in the propor- tion of 4 to 3. A tenacious clay is, therefore, best fitted for the produc- tion of this grass; as, notwithstanding the plentiful supply of manure, the produce from the loam which had the advan- tages of it scarcely exceeds that from the clay. I know of no erass of this class adapted for clays that holds out such fair promises to repay the farmer. “ The garden, farm, and cottage system, for bettering the moral condition of the labouring classes of society,” which has been planned, and is now carrying into execution, by that eminent and benevo- lent individual, William Allen, Esq., would derive benefit by adopting the culture of this and several other highly pro- ductive grasses, in such moist spots of the soil as are pecu- S = = S > ~ = \ IN XS : SAAS = S AK S IES SSS \\ W SX SS Ze : 3 ‘ \ \ SSS SE yy : = \ S I ~SS ——— \ - \ Rs SS SSS \\\ . . S \SS : = =—\~ = Ys, .. \ ~~ HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. 241 liarly fitted for the growth of these species, and less fitted for the growth of proper pasture grasses. It is one of the earliest erasses, with regard to the production of foliage early in the spring. It is nutritive, and very productive. It is true, the produce may be denominated coarse when com- pared to the festuca pratensis, alopecurus pratensis, and other of the superior grasses ; but where is a grass to be found that produces a great weight of crop that is not in some de- gree coarse? This objection, however, as before observed, may be overcome by reducing the hay to chaff and mixing it with clover-hay. The nutritive matter contains but little bitter extractive or saline matter, whereas the clover con- tains an excess. It does not perfect much good seed, and can only therefore be propagated by parting and planting the roots. The present variety flowers in the second week of July; the seed is universally, according to all my observations, af- fected with the disease termed c/avus, and consequently un- fertile. FESTUCA elatior, var. fertilis. Fertile-seeded Tall Fescue. Obs.—Differs from the common variety of tall fescue, in having the panicle somewhat drooping; spikelets six- flowered, more ovate and flat; the larger husk of the calyx often awned, and the awn is fixed on the apex more in the manner of that of a bromus than a fescue. Leaves smoother, and of a less dark green colour. I found this grass on a moist part of a field belonging to Mr. Westcar, at Creslow, Bucks, growing in company with the barren-seeded variety. J%g. 1. Spikelet, mag- nified. 2. Corolla. 3. Germen, styles, and nectary. Experiments. — At the time of flowering, the produce from a black sandy loam, incumbent on clay, is 54,450 lbs. per acre. This grass, which is nearly allied to the common festuca elatior, perfects an abundance of seed. though not entirely free from diseased portions, and is therefore not liable to the objection which takes so much from the value of that variety. R 242 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. It is equally early in the produce of foliage, and flowers earlier than the barren tall fescue by eight or ten days; the produce is equally nutritive. For damp soils that cannot con- veniently be made sufficiently dry by drains, this would be a most valuable plant, either to be cut for soiling or made into hay, and reduced to chaff as it might be wanted. I have never seen this plant in a wild state; it was first dis- covered here in the Grass Garden, seemingly introduced by accident. W.P.Taunton, Esq., of London, was kind enough to send me some seeds of a grass which he found growing on a bastard fuller’s-earth soil in considerable plenty, in the parish of Kilmersdon, Somerset. I believe this to be the same grass. Mr. Taunton, who has paid much attention to the subject, conceives that the disease termed clavus, which renders the seed of the other variety of tall fescue abortive, may be caused by over-richness of the soil. Acznula clavus is a parasite fungus which takes possession of the embryo seeds of grasses. When found on rye it is called ergot; and when used in bread is most dangerous: but used medicinally is a useful drug. It comes into flower about the beginning of July, and the seed is ripe about the first week in August. BROMUS lhittoreus. Sea-side Brome-grass. Specific character: Panicle branches wide-spreading ; spikelets oval-spear-shaped, sometimes awned, from four to five-flowered. Obs.—It may be only a variety of the festuca elatior, but the whole habit of the plant is manifestly different. Native of Germany. Perennial; growing on the banks of the Danube and other rivers. Experiments. — At the time of flowering, the produce from a clayey loam is 41,518 lbs. per acre. When compared with the tall fescue, this species of brome is found to be inferior in nutritive properties, and in the qua- lity of the herbage. The leaves are much coarser in every respect. It cannot therefore be recommended for any agri- cultural purpose. HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. 943 Flowers about the first and second weeks of July, and ripens the seed in three weeks afterwards. ELYMUS Philadelphicus. Philadelphian Lyme-grass. Specific character: Spike pendulous, open; spikelets vil- lose, six-flowered, the lower ones ternate. Experiments. — At the time of flowering, the produce from a clayey loam and retentive subsoil is 30,628 lbs. per acre. In the Hortus Kewensis we are informed, this grass was first introduced into England by the Rt. Hon. Sir J. Banks, Bart., K.B., in 1790, from North America. It is a very pro- ductive grass, and with respect to foliage, is rather early in the spring: it contains a considerable quantity of nutritive matter. From the large size it attains, the produce is rank and proportionally coarse, and is unfit for pasture. It ap- pears that for soiling, or hay to be used in the form of chaff, this, and some other of the gigantic grasses, would be profit- able plants on soils unfit for the production of the superior pasture grasses, or of corn. A comparison of the quantity of nutritive matter contained in hay of the best quality, with that contained in an equal weight of the hay made from this grass, will show, nearly, their comparative value. One pound of hay composed of the best natural grasses contains of nutritive matter 57 dr. One pound of hay com- posed of the elymus Philadelphicus contains of nutritive mat- ter 34 dr. With regard to nutritive powers, therefore, five tons of the hay of this grass are scarcely equal to three tons of that of the superior grasses. But the soil that will pro- duce this grass, and others of the same class, at the rate of six tons per acre, would not produce one-fifth the quantity of the superior grasses; consequently, the adoption of the tall fescue and Philadelphian lyme-grasses, on soils of this description, for the uses now described, might be found a profitable measure. Flowers in the first and second weeks of July, and suc- R 2 244 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. cessively till the end of summer. Seed ripe in about three weeks after the time of flowering. ELYMUS striatus. Striated Lyme-grass. Specific character: Spike erect; spikelets two-fiowered, fringed ; involucre or calyx striated, short. Obs.— Native of North America. Root perennial; was introduced into this country about 1790. Experiments. — At the time of flowering, the produce from a clayey loam is 20,418 lbs. per acre. From these details, therefore, this species is inferior in nu- tritive powers to the Philadelphian lyme-grass in the pro- portion of 17 to 16. It is also much later in the production of foliage in the spring, and does not come into flower till after that species has nearly perfected its seed. It cannot, therefore, be recommended for the purposes of the agri- culturist. Flowers about the latter end of July, and ripens the seed in August. ELYMUS Svbericus. Siberian Lyme-grass. Specific character: Spike pendulous, like an arch; spike- lets longer than the calyx. Native of Siberia. Root, on a moist or clayey soil, biennial; on a sandy soil it continues several years. Experiments. — At the time of flowering, the produce from a rich sandy soil is 16,335 Ibs. per acre. The produce of this grass is very coarse, and the weight of the crop, therefore, though considerable, is comparatively of no value. It is a native of Siberia, and withstands the effects of the severest continued frost, but not sudden changes from frost to mild weather. It requires to be sown every year, and treated as an annual. {[t comes into flower the second season, about the second or third week in June, and continues to emit flowering culms till autumn. The seed is ripe in about three weeks after flowering. A light rich sili- ceous soil appears to be best adapted to its growth. In the oe —s i AN HORTUS GRAMINEUS WORURNENSIS. 245 Hortus Kewensis it is said to have been cultivated, in 1758, by Mr. Philip Miller. ELYMUS hystrix. Rough Lyme-grass. Specific character: Spike upright; spikelets without the involucre, spreading. Native of the Levant. Root perennial. Experiments. — At the time of flowering, the produce from a rich siliceous sandy loam is 27,225 lbs. per acre. The harsh, broad, thin, light-green leaves of this species, and likewise of those of the e. striatus and e. Szbericus, indi- cate that they are naturally inhabitants of woods or wet shady places, and there is no authority for recommending the rough lyme-grass to the notice of the agriculturist. It flowers in the second week of July, and ripens the seed in the second week of August. ELYMUS arenarius. Upright Sea Lyme-grass, Starr, or Bent. Specific character: Spike upright, close; main stalk not winged ; calyx lanceolate, the length of the spikelets ; leaves spinous-pointed. — Ig. 1. Spikelet. 2. Floret. 3. Germen. Native of Britain. Root perennial. - Experiments.— At the time the seed is ripe, the produce from a clayey loam is 43,560 lbs. per acre. The nutritive matter afforded by this lyme-grass is remark- able for the large quantity of saccharine matter which it contains, amounting to more than one-third of its weight ; this grass may therefore be considered as the sugar-cane of Britain. The saccharine matter must render the hay made from this grass very nutritious, particularly when cut into chaff, and mixed with corn or common hay. Its natural soil (if soil it can be called) are the blowing sands on the sea- coast. The arundo arenaria, poa maritima, and festuca rubra, | found in company with the elymus arenarius, on the sands near Skegness, Lincolnshire. The sand-hills on the shore near that place were formed by the e. arenarius and 246 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. arundo arenaria; the latter, with its tufty habit of growth, formed the summit of the hill, while the broad spreading roots and leaves of the elymus arenarius secured the base and sides. These two grasses, when combined, seem admir- ably adapted by nature for the purpose of forming a_ barrier to the encroachment of the sea. What sand the arundo arenaria arrests and collects about itself, the elymus arenarius secures and keeps fast. The culms are produced in small number when cultivated ona clayey loam, or on a sandy soil. This deficiency of culms was even apparent in the plants, when growing in their natural soil. A greater proportion of saccharine matter is afforded by the culms of this grass than by the leaves. Flowers about the third week in July. ELYMUS geniculatus. Knee-jointed Lyme-grass. Specific character : Spike bent perpendicularly downwards, loose ; calyx bristle-shaped, spreading, longer than the spikelets ; leaves sharp-pointed. Obs.— A singular habit of this grass is, that the spike, just before flowering, bends down by the assistance of a joint near the foot of the spike-stalk. Native of Britain. Root perennial. Experiments. — At the time of flowering, the produce from a sandy loam is 20,418 lbs. per acre. The root is powerfully creeping, and the foliage is tough and coarse. The quantity of nutritive matter it affords is not considerable. It seems, therefore, to be but little adapted for useful purposes. Sir J. E. Smith, in the English Botany, informs us, that it was discovered in the salt marshes of Gravesend by Mr. Dickson, and that Mr. Curtis was the first to distinguish it from the e/ymus arenarius, — as it seems even Linnzus had confounded them. At the time of flowering, the produce of the elymus arenarius on a clayey loam is 43,572 lbs. per acre. This species is greatly superior to the above in produce oa 4] of) eae fli cM : ar by * = ~. dies bY HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. 247 and nutritive properties, but neither appear to have merits sufficient to recommend it for cultivation. The knee-jointed, or pendulous lyme- grass, flowers in the second week of July. The sea lyme-grass flowers about a week later. The seed is perfected in about three weeks after the time of flowering. ARUNDO arenaria. Sea-reed, Marram, Starr, or Bent. Specific character: Calyx single-flowered, longer than the corolla; panicle spiked; flowers erect, slightly awned, leaves involute, sharp-pointed.— Fig. 1. Calyx. 2. Floret. 3. Germen, styles, and nectary, magnified. Experiments. — At the time of flowering, the produce from a siliceous sandy soil is 10,890 lbs. per acre. The nutritive matter of this grass affords a large portion of saccharine matter when compared with the produce, in this respect, of other grasses: the elymus arenarius, however, affords about one-third more sugar than the present plant. The quantity of nutritive matter afforded by the elymus arenarius is superior to that afforded by the arundo arenarta, in the proportion of 4 to 5. The above details of produce shew that the arundo arenaria is unworthy of cultivation as food for cattle, out of the influence of the salt spray. But the habit of the plant in its natural place of growth, the loose sands of the sea- coast, is of great utility, particularly when combined with the elymus arenarius ( as was before observed when speaking of that species), in binding the sands of the sea-shore, and thereby raising a natural barrier, the most lasting, against the encroachments of the ocean upon the land. So far back as the reign of William III, the important value of the elymus arenarius and arundo arenaria was so well appreciated as to induce the Scottish Parliament of that period to pass an act for their preservation on the sea-coasts of Scotland. And these provisions were, by the British Parliament, in the reign of George II, followed up by further enactments, extending the operation of the Scottish law to the coasts of England, 248 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. and imposing further penalties for its inviolability ; so that it was rendered penal, not only for any individual (without even excepting the lord of the manor) to cut the bent, but for any one to be in possession of any within eight miles of the coast. SPARTINA juncea. Rush-leaved Cord-grass, or Dactylis patens. Spreading Cock’s-foot Grass. Specific character: Spike spreading, flowering a little on one side; florets bent like an arch; culm decumbent ; leaves two-rowed, spreading very much; keel of the calyx rough. Native of North America. Root perennial. Experiments. — At the time of flowering, the produce from a rich siliceous sandy soil is 33,350 Ibs. per acre. This grass is very late in the production of foliage in the spring, and it does not come into flower till the month of August. The produce, considered as a single crop, is then great, but it is the only one it produces in the season. The nutritive qualities of the herbage are likewise inferior to those of most other kinds of grass. The leaves are remark- able for their length, smoothness of surface, and toughness of fibre. 1 submitted a quantity of the leaves to the process used for forming flax by steeping, drying, breaking, &c. The results were favourable, inasmuch as the clean fibre was equal in strength and softness to that of flax, but it was deficient in length ; for though the leaves of the grass were as long as the plants of flax in general, yet a considerable portion of the top, or from the point of the leaf, did not stand the effects of the process. The only advantage that appears would result from this plant affording flax is, that it could be produced on a soil unfit for the growth of flax or the production of corn. It flowers in the second week of August, and the seed is ripe about the middle of September. FESTUCA sy/vatica. Slender Wood Fescue-grass. Specific character: Spike nodding ; spikelets distant, HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. 249 somewhat erect, awned ; awns longer than the husks. Native of Britain. Root perennial. Experiments. — At the time of flowering, the produce from a rich siliceous sandy loam is 20,418 lbs. per acre. The general appearance of this grass, and that of the next following species, promise but little to reward the labours of the experimentalist. Its natural place of growth is in woods and damp shady places. Oxen, horses, and sheep, refused to eat this grass when offered tothem. During deep snows and severe frosts I have observed hares and rabbits crop the extremities of the leaves. It is very subject to be affected with the rust disease at the time of flowering. Birds appear to neglect the seeds till every other resource fails. Flowers in the second week of July, and the seed is per- fected about the first week of August. FESTUCA pinnata. Spiked Heath Fescue-grass. Specific character: Spike simple, erect, two-ranked ; spike- lets a little distant, awned; awns after flowering a little spreading, shorter than the husks ; root creeping. Native of Britain. Root perennial, creeping. Experiments. — At the time of flowering, the produce from a siliceous sandy soil with manure is 20,418 Ibs. per acre. The wing-spiked brome-grass cannot as yet be considered in any other light than as a noxious weed; for though the weight of produce is considerable, it is neither early, nu- tritive, nor relished by cattle. It flowers about the third week of July, and the seed is ripe about the last week in August. FESTUCA gigantea. Tall Fescue-grass. Specific character: Panicle nodding at top; spikelets spear-shaped, compressed, naked ; florets from three to six, imbricated ; awns somewhat flexuose, longer than the husks; leaves naked. Native of Britain. Root perennial. 250 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. Experiments. — At the time of flowering, the produce from a rich siliceous sandy soil is 27,225 lbs. per acre. This species is confined to woods in its natural state; but it continues in the soil, and appears to thrive equally well when cultivated in open situations. It is a coarse grass, and but little nutritive, though greatly superior to the spzked and wood fescue grasses. The seeds are eaten by birds; and this appears to be the chief use of the plant, its large structure being, apparently, intended to enable it to per- fect its seed among bushes, where it would be otherwise choked up. It flowers in the third week of June, and ripens the seed about the middle and latter end of July. AGROSTIS ramosissima. Lateral-branching Bent-grass. Specific charaeter: Panicle spike-like, heaped ; calyx shorter than the corolla; culms branching at each joint. Obs. —This is nearly allied to the agrostis Mexicana; the culms are taller and more woody, lateral branches more numerous, shorter, and pointing one way; leaves smoother than those of the a. Mexicana; panicle more compact, or heaped together, which gives it more the appearance of a spike; calyx shorter than the corolla, with very few hairs at the base, which are long and numerous in the Mexicana. Flowers a month later than that species. Experiments.— At the time of flowering, the produce from a’strong clayey loam is 28,586 lbs. per acre. This is one of the latest flowering grasses. It is remark- able for the number of branches that issue from the joints of the stem; and the woody substance of the culms makes it approach to the nature of a shrub. It affords little herb- age till the beginning of summer, and flowers at so late a period of the season, that, excepting once, | have never been able to procure any perfect seed, the frost generally destroy- ing the panicles before the seed is perfected. The herbage HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. 251 is killed by frost, but the roots suffer nothing from its effects. It is propagated by parting and planting the roots early in the spring, or late in the autumn. The above details show that it is neither productive nor nutritive. Flowers in the first or second week of October. TRIODIA decumbens. Decumbent Heath-grass. Generic character: Corolla orbicular, expanded, obscurely ribbed, deeply cloven, with an intermediate point ; both valves concave ; seed loose, depressed. Specific character: Panicle nearly simple, contracted, erect ; spikelets oval oblong ; florets four, their middle tooth shortest ; stipula hairy ; calyx smooth, root some- what creeping. Native of Britain. Root perennial. Experiments. — At the time of flowering, the produce from a clayey loam is 5,445 Ibs. per acre. It is chiefly confined to high wet barren pastures, though sometimes found in those that are dry. On some particular spots among the trees in Woburn Park, it is found growing in company with the carex axillaris. It appears to be but little susceptible of improvement by being transplanted to a richer soil; as the produce from a rich black loam scarcely exceeded the above-stated produce from a clayey loam with- out any manure. It never appeared to be cropped by the deer in the Park. It is late in the production of foliage in the spring, and produces little after-grass: it is not, there- fore, to be recommended for cultivation. It flowers about the third and fourth weeks of July, and the seed is ripe in the middle and towards the latter end of August, according as the soil and season are favourable to its growth. From the above details it is evident, that if we except one, or at most two species of grass, the whole natural produce of bogs and low-lying stagnant meadows is of little or no value to the possessors. Such lands, however, by the sim- 252 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. ple process of forming them into water-meadows, have had their original value, which is generally from one to five shillings, increased to forty, and frequently to sixty shillings per acre. From the magnitude, and the short space of time in which the rise in the value of land is thus perma- nently effected, the conversion of waste bogs to irrigated meadows may justly be ranked with the very first improve- ments in this branch of practical agriculture; and were it not from the local nature of the lands in question, when it is considered that in numerous instances, with a spade only, the process may be begun and finished, it may justly per- haps maintain a claim for the first place in improvements of modern agriculture in any branch whatever. At least it appears difficult to find any other improvement in this art that so speedily, permanently, and at so moderate an ex- pense, raises the value of the land to the degree now men- tioned. It is hardly possible, I should conceive, to witness one of these wastes converted into a rich fertile meadow in the short compass of two seasons, without feeling a convic- tion something like this. In forming a water-meadow, the chief point to be obtained is a perfect command of the water, that it may be admitted on the land, and completely carried off at pleasure ; for without this it will be found a vain and useless labour, as none of the valuable species of grass will thrive or even exist in this kind of soil under any other condition. Lands lying on declivities are seldom converted into water- meadows, from the want of a regular and sufficient supply of water in such situations. Bogs and low marshy grounds are generally, in their natural state, the least profitable of soils, but are capable, by means of irrigation, of having their value increased to a higher degree than any other waste lands. Water-meadows situated on declivities are termed catch-work meadows ; and those formed out of bogs and low level land, are styled flowing meadows. The last requires the most art and labour in its formation, on account of the difficulty that sometimes occurs in getting a command of the water. This is generally effected by throwing up the land in high ridges, HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. 253 with deep drains between them. A main carriage is then taken out of the river, at a level sufficiently high to com- mand the tops of the ridges. Along the top of each ridge an open drain or trench is made to communicate with the main water-carriage. These little water-carriages being fur- nished with moveable stops of earth, disperse the water on each side of the ridge, which is received below by the drains, which conduct it to other parts of the same meadow. The point of importance next to that of having a perfect com- mand of water, at least as far as the growth and prosperity of the superior grasses is concerned, is the size of the ridges. Where there is a plentiful supply of water, as from a river, the ridges may be from forty to fifty feet broad, and seventy feet in length; but when the supply of water depends upon a small brook, or upon a reservoir formed by land-drains, thirty feet in width and fifty in length are supposed to be the best dimensions. The height of the ridges seems to be a point of considerable importance. I have invariably observed, that all the superior grasses inhabit the crowns of the ridges, extending generally to eight feet on each side of the water- carriage, and the inferior grasses occupying the lower extre- mities of the ridges. When the ridges are nearly level, much less water is required to irrigate the land; but unless the subsoil is porous, the produce will be found much infe- rior to what it would have been had the ridges been raised to a proper height. In all the observations I have made while examining different water-meadows at various periods of the season, the most productive in the superior grasses were those where the ridges were formed thirty-three feet in width and two feet and a half in height, that is, from the level of the furrow to the crown of the ridge. But when the situation is very low and moist, and the soil deep, as in the instance of a peat-bog, or where the subsoil is tenacious, the height of the ridge should be from two to three feet. From numerous statements published by gentlemen who have made these improvements, the expenses of forming land into water-meadows appear to be from four to twenty pounds per acre,— varying thus according to the local cir- cumstances under which the improvement is made. The 254 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. yearly expenses for repairs appear likewise to be from three. to nine shillings per acre. The value of such lands, by these means, has been increased from one to twelve shillings (their original value) to forty and sixty shillings per acre. But when connected with a breeding flock of sheep, the advantages derived from these meadows are hardly to be estimated, for they produce a full bite of grass at least three weeks earlier than the common pastures, and that at a season when every other kind of food is scarce. Irrigated meadows seldom or never require any manure, the water being found sufficient to produce that extreme degree of fertility for which they are remarkable. Sir H. Davy gives the theory of the effects of water in increasing the fertility of meadows. He says they depend on many causes, some chemical, some mechanical : —“‘ When land has been covered by water in the winter, or in the be- ginning of spring, the moisture that has penetrated deep into the soil, and even the subsoil, becomes a source of nourish- ment to the roots of the plant in summer, and prevents those bad effects that often happen in lands in their natural state, from a long continuance of dry weather. “‘ When water used in irrigation has flowed over a calca- reous country, it is generally found impregnated with carbo- nate of lime; and in this state it tends in many instances to ameliorate the soil. ‘Even in cases where the water used for flooding is pure, and free from vegetable or animal substances, it acts by causing the more equable diffusion of the nutritive matter existing in the land; and in very cold seasons it preserves the tender roots and leaves of the grass from being affected by frost. “Water is of greater specific gravity at 42° Fahrenheit than at 32°, the freezing point; and hence, in a meadow irrigated in winter, the water immediately in contact with the grass is rarely below 40°,—a degree of temperature not at all prejudicial to the living organs of plants. “In general, those waters which breed the best fish are the best fitted for watering meadows ; but most of the bene- fits of irrigation may be derived from any kind of water. HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. 255 It is however a general principle, that waters containing ferruginous impregnations, though possessed of fertilizing effects when applied to calcareous soils, are injurious on soils that do not effervesce with acids; and that calcareous waters, which are known by the earthy deposit they afford when boiled, are of most use on siliceous soils containing no remarkable quantity of carbonate of lime.” — Agricultural Chemistry, p. 305 et seq.* The proper business of irrigation begins in October, and is carried on till April, according to circumstances. In cold backward situations it is continued latest, and in warmer soils it is generally finished in February. As soon as the latter-math is eaten bare, the water-carriages are cleared out, and the stops and sluices made good. The water is then admitted on the land, and suffered to remain for two or three weeks, with a dry interval of a day or two; or, according to _ others, the water is continued on the meadow two weeks at first, then laid dry for one week, and again laid under water for two weeks more. The state of the grass affords the best rule to judge of the frequency of waterings. It is a general principle to make the meadows as dry as possible between every watering, and to stop the water the moment any scum appears on the surface, for that indicates the land has had water enough ; in fact, it is caused by the fermentation ex- cited by the decay of the grass. As soon as the land has been sufficiently dry after the last watering in February or March, the early grass, of which there is always an abun- dance, is consumed by ewes and lambs, if a breeding flock of sheep is kept. In order to prevent the sheep from tram- pling too much of the grass at first, some farmers use hurdles, by which they portion out the consumption of a day. Open spaces are left in the hurdles, to give the lambs free range of the meadow at large. Mr. Davis says, that one acre of good grass will be sufficient for five hundred couples fora day. * To what Sir H. Davy has stated, may be added two other cir- cumstances which operate as special excitements to the growth of flooded grass, namely, the rapid motion of the water, which in- creases its temperature: and to the fleece of water, which, while it acts as a covering against the contact of cold air, admits the full action of light upon the grass.—Ep. 256 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. It is usual to leave off depasturing the meadows about the beginning of May; when the water is again admitted, to prepare the land for a crop of hay. Two days’ flooding at this season is all that the land can receive without injury ; it is then laid dry, and the process may be said to be finished for that season. Six weeks is usually sufficient to produce the crop of hay,—so rapid is vegetation in these meadows. The following is a statement of the produce of a water- meadow of nine acres, belonging to his Grace the Duke of Bedford : — 1803. Stocked with twelve score sheep, and it kept them three weeks. April 16. Shut up for hay. June 23. Cut the crop for hay, supposed to be about two tons per acre. August 20. Cut the second crop for hay, supposed to be about one ton and a half per acre. September 16. Stocked it with four score of fat sheep: three weeks after that it was depastured with lean bullocks, as long and as often as they could find food. 1804. February 27. Stocked with eight score and four lamb hogs; they have now (April 28, the time this account was drawn up) been nine weeks in it. It had more and better water this last winter than that before; but from the want of grass upon the farm, it was in this instance eaten longer than it otherwise would have been. Valuation. 1803. March 29. Two hundred and forty sheep £. s. d. three weeks, at 6d. per head........s...seesesseeees Kosai a ya 0) Spring food per acre, at 2/. June 23. Eighteen tons of hay, at 4/............... 72 0 O August 20. Thirteen and a half ditto, at 4/....... 56> O70 September 16. Eighty fat sheep, three weeks, AE Ad acs envalsncrannscyasseciassccsecscesesessnessiszsiecmee 4 0 0 Lean bullocks. £.150 5 0 1804. February 27. One hundred and sixty-four hog-sheep, nine weeks, at 5d. .......ssseereeeeeres 30-150 Spring food per acre, 3/, 8s, 4d. HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. 257 All the superior perennial grasses thiive under irrigation, when the meadow is properly formed. The following species of grass [ have invariably found to constitute the produce of the best water-meadows. Meadow fox-tail (alopecurus pra- fensis), round-panicled cock’s-foot (dactylis glomerata), field brome-grass (bromus arvensis), meadow fescue (festuca pra- tensis); these occupied the crowns and sides of the ridges. The furrows were stocked with the creeping-bent (agroslis stolonifera), marsh-bent (agroséis palustris), liard fescue (fes- tuca duriuscula), lesser variety of meadow cat’s-tail (phleum pratense, var. minus), woolly soft-grass (holcus lanatus), rough- stalked meadow-grass ( poa trivialis), meadow-fescue ( fes wed pratensis), and a small admixture of other species, which were thinly scattered over every part of the ridge; these were, meadow-barley (hordeum pratense), yellow or golden oat (avena flavescens), crested dog’s-tail (cynosurus cristatus), ray- grass (lolium perenne), sweet-scented vernal-crass (anthox- anthum odoratum), tufted vetch (vicia cracca): with a larger proportion of the tall oat-like soft-grass (holcus avenaceus). The meadow cat’s-tail (phleum pratense), 1 never met with in irrigated meadows, but only the lesser variety of it, and that not very prevalent. Itis a very common grass, however, in some natural meadows. The soil of the water-meadows which produced the above grasses was either a deep active peat, incumbent on a siliceous sand, or a sandy loam on a chalky or gravelly sub-soil. In some irrigated meadows that I examined, where the ridges were formed nearly flat, and the soil consisted of a sandy loam on a retentive clayey sub-soil, the following grasses constituted the chief produce : crested dog’s-tail (cynosurus cristatus), creeping-rooted soft- grass (holcus mollis), ray-grass (lolium perenne), meadow- barley (hordeum pratense), tall oat-like soft-grass (holcus ave- naceus), sweet-scented vernal, and soft brome-grass (holcus mollis). ‘Though this soil was not entirely destitute of the superior kinds of grasses menticned as the produce of the former meadows, yet they were in very small quantity, being thinly scattered over certain portions of the ridges only. It seems probable that the flatness of the ridges tended much to prevent these grasses from flourishing on the sandy loam s 258 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. meumbent on clay, for I invariably found the head ridges, which had been raised considerably above the level of the rest, as the first conductors of the water, were plentifully stocked with the superior grasses, and as productive of grass as those of the first-mentioned meadows. The hay of water-meadows is generally supposed to be less nutritious than the hay of rich permanent pasture land. I compared the quantity of nutritive matter afforded by these grasses, produced under irrigation, and those produced in rich permanent pasture land. The difference was much less than I had expected. An instance may suffice : — Ray-grass from a water-meadow .......-.ees008-. 72 gts. Ditto, from a rich, dry, depastured ditto....... 95 Ditto, undepastured meadow ........0-e:eeee+ 100 Ditto, from the rich undepastured soil ......... 120 A water-meadow may be said to be a hot-bed for grass. The rapidity with which vegetation advances by the process of irigation justifies the comparison. The small deficiency of nutritive matter in water-meadow hay, is what might be expected from such a cause ; as we find it exemplified by daily experience, in the instances of esculent vegetables that are forced beyond their natural habits. The same effects are produced by the application of an excess of manure. When a water-meadow is formed, if the original turf be fine, and free from the coarse inferior grasses, it will be found the most expeditious way to obtain a good sward, to replace the turf on the new-formed ridges, and afterwards to. give a top-dressing with compost, and then to sow a mixture of the following grass seeds: Alopeeurus pratensis, dactylis glomerata, festuca pratensis, poa trivialis, holcus avenaceus, and a small proportion of the agrostis stolonifera latifolia. The quantity of seed per acre, must be regulated by the state of the turf. Consolidating the surface with a heavy roller would be of infinite service, but the turf is often dis- placed by the operation. A light bush-harrow, therefore, drawn over the surface to cover the seeds, or rather to draw them into the interstices of the turfs, followed by a light HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. 959 wooden roller, drawn by men, in the same manner as the bush-harrow, wiil be found the best mode of manage- ment. It is customary, when forming a water-meadow out of inert peat-bogs, to throw the coarse surface (composed of sedges and rushes chiefly) promiscuously together, to form the ridges; but it would surely be more advantageous to pare and burn a surface of this nature, as it affords an abun- dance of excellent ashes; and without these, or asubstitute perhaps of a more expensive nature, to apply as a top-dress- ing, previous to sowing the seeds, soils of this description remain for years in a state of comparative sterility. Caustic or hot lime is found to be the very best simple manure that can be applied to inert peat-moss, to bring it into a state of activity. When the ridges are formed of this soil, the sur- face should have a copious dressing of hot lime, which may be with advantage incorporated with the surface soil by a common harrow, and afterwards suffered to remain unmo- lested for a few weeks. A thick covering of the ashes, mixed with the cleanings of roads, waste headlands, &c. should then be applied; and the seeds of the before-men- tioned grasses, with a larger proportion of the agrostis stolo- nifera, and an equal proportion of the agrostis palustris, sown at the rate of five bushels to the acre: the ground should be well rolled. I have made several trials to overcome the sterile nature of this soil, but in none was I successful, except in that where the above means were adopted. The best season for sowing the seeds of the grasses is in the beginning of May, or early in August. It may be unnecessary to remark, that if the soil becomes very dry, previous to the vegetation of the seed, which is seldom the case in lands of this nature, a gentle watering for one day will greatly promote the pro- eress of vegetation: provided it can be effected without displacing any of the surface-dressiug which covers the seed. CHAPTER V. OF THE DIFFERENT GRASSES, AND OTHER PLANTS, ADAPTED FOR THE ALTERNATE HUSBANDRY. THE grasses, and other plants, best fitted for alternation, are such as arrive at perfection in the shortest space of time, or within the compass of two years; such as have their leaves broad and succulent, and that do not quickly run to seed. Plants of this description are supposed to produce the greatest weight of herbage at the least expense to the soil. It is a curious and well-known fact, that any species of plant that has continued till its natural decay on a particular soil, cannot be again immediately reared with equal success on the same spot, till some other crop intervene; but that a different species of vegetabie will there succeed better, for its peculiar period of life, than it would on a soil naturally better udapted to its growth, where it Had just attained to perfect maturity. This holds good with respect to annual plants, as well as to those that continue to live many years. But it is better seen in the former, as their habits and duration in the soil are oftener and more directly within the reach of common observation. On this antipathy of plants seems to depend the theory of alternate cropping with green crops and grain — varying in some measure according to the circumstances of soil and climate ; but the principle appears to remain the same. On analyzing a soil immediately before and after producing an impoverishing crop, the results of such analysis do not point out any diminution in the weight or proportions of its constituents, sufficient to account for the weight of vegetable matter produced. The decomposing animal and vegetable HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. 261 matters of the soil are the only constituents wherein a sensi- ble loss is perceived. M. Braconnot grew plants in substances free from any kind of soil, as in flowers of sulphur, and in metal. He supplied the plants with distilled water only. They arrived, by these means, to a perfect state of maturity. The produce was submitted to careful analysis; and the results showed that the different vegetables so produced, contained all the constituents of the different species, precisely the same as when the plants were cultivated on their natural soils. [Some have supposed that the antipathy of plants arises from the roots depositing a noxious matter in the soil. This is a new theory, and pretty generally adopted by scientific men, but by few practical farmers. Whether the land be exhausted or poisoned by a previous crop, the remedy is the same, whatever the real cause may be; namely, a change of crops, and fresh supplies of manure. — Ep.] The analysis of a plant, therefore, and of the soil which produced it, appear insufficient to account for the true cause of the impoverishing principle of vegetables to the soil, and why one species should exhaust it more than another. Some useful information, however, on this very interesting point, may probably be drawn from facts obtained by daily practice and observation in the garden and the farm. Nutritive Green Food. Matter. lbs. lbs. Mangel-wurzel, or white beet (beta cicla), produces upon a suitable soil, or a deep rich loam, on an average, twenty-five tons of green food per acre, every pound weight of which contains 390 grains of nutritive matter; and therefore peracre. 56,000 3,120 Carrots (daucus carota), produce upon a deep light loam, on an average, eleven tons, every pound of which contains 750 grains of nutritive matter............ 24,640 2,640 Potatoes (solanum tuberosum), produce upon a fresh loam, of intermediate qua- lity as to moisture and dryness, on an wo (op) bo Green Food. average, 15 tons per acre, affording of nutritive matter per pound 1,000 grs... The common field or white turnip (bras- sica rapa, var.), affords from a sandy loam, upon an average, per acre, 16 tons of green food, a pound of which contains 320 grains of nutritive matter The Swedish turnip, or ruta baga ( Bras- sica rapa, var.), produces on a favourable soil, ora strong loam, on an average, 13 tons per acre, a pound weight of which affords of nutritive matter 440 OTAINS caresvccesceecrcscdeveevscerencssecsecens Cabbages (brassica oleracea, var.), which delight in a rich strong loam, afford of ereen food, on an average per acre, 25 tons, every pound of which contains 430 grains of nutritive matter..........+. Kohl rabi (brassica oleracea, var.), the produce from a soil similar to that for cabbages or Swedish turnips, is on an average 14 tons per acre, and affords of nutritive matter per pound 420 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. Ibs. 33,600 35,840 29,120 56,000 31,360 Nutritive Matter. lbs. 4,800 1,638 1,830 3,440 1,881 If a plant, therefore, impoverishes the soil in proportion to the weight of vegetable substance it produces on a given space of ground, the following will be the order in which the plants just mentioned exhaust the land. Mangel-wurzel............ 25 Cabbages.sivess-sasseese. 20 White Turnip ............ 16 | The proportions which they Potatoes ).ccnie eerie ee ILD bear to each other with re- Koulsrabia eee LA spect to weight of produce. Swedish Turnip .......... 13 Carrots Aoepecrooerarcrecrsenes het ») WHORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. 263 ixperience has long since proved, that carrots exhaust the soil ina much greater degree than white turnips ; though, by this mode of judging, they impoverish land in a less degree than any of these plants. But when we take the weight of nutritive matter which a plant affords from a given space of ground, the results are very different, and will be found to agree with daily experience in the garden and on the farm. EOUALGGS: .saccicveseboccveseenGs Wa GATOS: ccs ocorvasss serve sae The proportion in which they a it Ri (mea 9 i Mangel-wurzel...........+. 28 stand to each other, with AB ALT OGS co iis csceaet wen ae Eee respect to the weight of nu- Moh rabiicisccavsccecueten tritive matter per acre, and Swedish Turnip ......... 16 in exhausting the land. Common Turnip .......+- 14 The effects of some plants are only to impoverish the soil for an immediate succession of the same plant; while others have the property of exhausting the land, not only for an immediate succession of themselves, but likewise for every other kind of vegetable. A consideration of the difference in the composition of component parts of the nutritive matter of different species of plants, it appears, will account in some measure for this property. It has been already mentioned that the nutritive or solu- ble matter of vegetables consists, for the most part, of five distinct vegetable substances — mucilage or starch, saccha- rine matter, gluten or albumen, and bitter extractive, or saline matters. A plant, therefore, whose nutritive matter consists of one or two of these principles only, will impove- rish the soil ina greater degree for an immediate succesion of the same plant, than a different species of vegetable that has its nutritive matter composed of a greater variety of these substances. Hence, plants that have the greatest dissimilarity in the number and proportion of vegetable principles, which constitute their nutritive matter, will be found best fitted to succeed each other in alternate cropping. The different varietics of wheat consist almost entirely of 264 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WCBURNENSIS. starch and gluten; while barley, peas, and turnips, contain a greater proportion of saccharine matter, which is wanting in wheat: and are consequently best qualified to precede or follow that grain, in alternation with green crops. Oats, rye, and beans, afford nutritive matters similar to wheat, though in less proportion ; aad a crop of either of these will have a like effect on the soil to that of wheat, though in a less degree, but totally different from those of barley, peas, and turnips. The former plants, therefore, as they impove- rish the soil only for an intermediate succession of themselves, may be termed partial impoverishers ; and the latter, exhaust- ing the land for themselves, as well as, in a degree, for every other kind of vegetable, may be called general impo- verishers. If the nutritive matter of the following plants be exa- mined with this view, they will be found to rank either as general or partial impoverishers. General Impoverishers. Partial Impoverishers. Oats. Wheat. Rye. Peas. Potatoes. Beans. Carrots. Turnips. Mangel-wurzel. Clovers. Cabbages. Sainfoin. Kohl-rabi. Lucern. Bunias Orientalis. Grasses, when mown. It does not fall within the limits of these pages to give an account of all the plants employed m the Allernate Husbandry, but only of such as have been more particularly submitted to experiment in this series. There have been, however, several plants of this class made trial of, with respect to the quantity of nutritive matter they contain, some account of which will be found in the following pages. TRIFOLIUM macroriizum. Long-rooted Clover. Specific character: Legumes racemed, naked, one-seeded, Se oe 2 i. t u \) < SSS SSS 555 3B War, fillies —S if R RN SR Oli) Om } a ae i, GY PLM; Wi zoo IX VY : } EY x \ : : Se al ; | , / =~. Y | ip f SS : 4 ems = | : ff w —~ — "1 4 i : ; 2 A 4 be 7 : Ade: Vai é | Va! AS SIN Vs ; | Vd , AS 3S: | \ SS eS \ L KZ =<) * = SS , \ 5 : ‘ ~~ e | : ~ TSN Wares : | TN . x | | at xt 3 | ' . ~ . | S } S HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. 265 bow striated, semi-ovate, stem erect. Ig. 1. Calyx and anthers. Obs. — Sicilian Melilot Trefoil. — Leaves ternate, fleshy, subserrate; flowers yellow, small; legumes rather oblong, whitish, wrinkled, with semi-circular streaks ; seeds bigger than in ¢. melilotus officinalis, racemes axil- lary, short, erect; legumes one or two seeded, subcom- pressed, pendulous, oblong, attenuated at both ends, acute, slightly curved in one side. Native of Siberia, Italy, Sicily, and Barbary. Root bien- nial. Experiments. — At the time of flowering, the produce from a rich clayey loam is 74,868 lbs. per acre. The root of this species of clover is biennial when the plant is permitted to perfect its seed; but if kept from flowering, the root remains fertile for four. or five years. It these little after-grass, but a great weight of crop at the time of flowering. In this respect it is Saag superior to most other plas of the same class employed in alternate cropping, as the following particulars manifest : — Trifolium pratense (broad-leaved red clover), produce per acre, herbage, 49,005 Ibs. Medicago sativa (lucern), from a soil of the hike nature, produces grass, 70,7805 lbs. Hedysarum onobrychis (sainfoin), produces per acre, herb- age, 8,848 lbs. It requires good shelter, and a deep soil. The deficiency of latter-math takes much from the merits of this plant. Under circumstances where it may be desirable to plough up the land after the summer crop is taken, hardly any plant can be more valuable than this one; as in this respect, from the foregoing facts, it is evident that the plant, on an equal soil, affords twice the quantity of nutritive matter of that. afforded by the broad-leaved clover. The produce of lucern, in quantity, comes nearer to this clover, but it is inferior in nutrient qualities. The long continuance of lucern in the soil is therefore the chief advantage it possesses over this plant; however, when that, or depasturing, is par- 266 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. ticularly desired, the broad-leaved clover and lucern are ereatly superior. The value of the herbage of sainfoin is equal to that of the broad-leaved clover, and proportionally less than that of the long-rooted clover, as 10 toll. The weight of crop being comparatively small on a soil of the nature above described, it is doubtless inferior. On dry hilly situations, and chalky soils, however, it may be their superior in every respect, on account of its valuable herbage. The white or Siberian melilot, which appears to be only a variety of the long-rooted clover, was cultivated by Arthur Young, Esq., as he informs us in his “ Annals of Agri- culture.” The produce, by drilling ona moist loam, with a cold marshy bottom, was seven and a half tons per acre. It was given to horses, working-oxen, and calves, and they ate it very readily, some even greedily. From the foregoing details it is evident the long-rooted clover should be cut at the time of flowering. It can only be locally useful, as in instances where it is desirable to have the land ready to plough up before the beginning of August. It flowers about the first week of July, and the seed is ripe in August. TRIFOLIUM melilotus officinalis. Melilot Trefoil, Common Melilot, King’s Clover, Hart’s Clover. Specific character: Legumes racemed, naked, two-seeded, wrinkled, acute; stem erect. Obs. — This is very nearly allied to the long-rooted clover. The root, however, appears to be strictly annual. The lower leaves are oblong wedge-shaped ; the upper ones elliptical, they are more serrate, and smaller in every respect than those of the long-rooted clover. The flowers are smaller, and more drooping. The legume contains often more than two seeds, which is seldom, or, according to my experience, never the case in the long-rooted clover. Native of Britain. Root annual. HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. 267 Lixvperiments. — At the time of flowering, the produce from a clayey loam is 37,434 lbs. per acre. Horses and sheep are said to eat this clover, as are also cows, goats, and swine. Dr. Withering says, that water distilled from the flowers possesses but little odour in itself, but improves the flavour of other substances. It does not appear to have been cultivated in England. Professor Martyn observes, that there cannot be a worse weed among bread-corn ; for a few of the seeds ground with it, spoil the flour, by communicating the peculiarly strong taste of the plant: notwithstanding this, horses are said to be extremely fond of it. Some Italian writers call it Trifolium ca- ballium. From the above details, it is very much inferior to the long-rooted clover, and cannot be put to any use for which that species is not equally good or superior: it grows chiefly in clayey soils. In very exposed situations it attains only to a small size; while in such as are much sheltered, I have found it exceeding six feet in height. It ripens an abundance of seed. Flowers in the third or last week of June. VICIA cracca. Tufted Vetch. Specific character: Peduncles many-fiowered ; flowers im- bricate; leaflets lanceolate, pubescent; stipules half arrow-shaped, mostly entire. Obs. — Root creeping, perennial. Stems quadrancular, weak, striated, attaining a great height when growing in hedges. Branches alternate from the axils of the upper leaves. Leaves alternate, consisting of from eight to twelve pair of leaflets, and terminated by a long branched and curling tendril. Leaflets oftener alternate than opposite, more or less hoary on both sides, with silky hairs, commonly rounded at the end, and terminated by a short point. Flowers of a purple or violet bluish colour, Legume half an inch long, contaming four or five globular seeds, the size of a lentil. Experiments. — At the time of flowering, the produce 268 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS, from a clayey loam in an exposed situation is 10,890 lbs. per acre. This species of vetch is chiefly confined to woods and hedges in its natural state: I have found it in two instances among the herbage of irrigated meadows. When growing among bushes, a space of ground equal to that above men- tioned, afforded 48 oz. of herbage, or three times the weight of that cultivated in an open situation. Dr. Plot, in his liistory of Staffordshire, says, that this and the vicra sylvatica advance starved or weak cattle above any thing yet known; and Dr. Anderson, in his Essays, speaks highly of this plant. It is inferior to common tares (vicza sylvatica) in the quantity of nutritive matter it affords, but contains much less super- fluous moisture. This must give it a superiority, in regard to nutrient properties, over tares, which contain an excess. But it has astrong creeping root, that will always prevent its admission to arable lands. It might be best cultivated on tenacious soils, and used after the manner of lucern, than which, though ereatly deficient in the weight of the crop, it is nevertheless more nutritive. Flowers about the middle of July and the beginning of August, and the seed is ripe at the beginning of Sep- tember. VICIA sylvatica. Wood Vetch. Specific character: Fruit-stalks many-fiowered ; leaflets elliptic; stipula crescent-shaped, toothed. Obs. —Stems running to a great height in the bushes where it grows, and spreading widely, so as to choke its supporters. Leaves of six or nine pair of leaflets, mostly alternate. Stipule in pairs, small, deeply divided into several awl-shaped segments. Flowers whitish, with beautiful pencil-streaks of blue. Pods lanceolate, smooth, pale brown. Native of Britain, and most parts of Europe, from Sweden to the south of Italy; also of Siberia. Root peren- nial. HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. 969 [xperimenis.— At the time of flowering, the produce ‘from a clayey loam is 8,167 lbs. per acre. The habits of this vetch are similar to those of the vicia cracca, but it seems more impatient of exposure: it thrives better where it has the support of bushes. When trans- planted to open situations, the produce is inconsiderable com- pared with that of the vicia cracca or vicia sepium; though in its natural place of growth the produce is six times that of either of these vetches; it is lhkewise superior in the quantity of nutritive matter it affords. Horses, cows, sheep, and the Sonth American sheep (llama), ate this vetch with more eagerness than they did the other vetches or natural grasses that were on several trials offered to them. Of all the different vetches that were submitted to experi- ment, the winter tare, or common vetch (vicia sativa, var.), afforded the most nutritive matter; which confirms the justice of that preference which practice has given to the winter tare. Flowers in July and August, and the seed is ripe in September. PHALARIS Canariensis. Manured Canary-grass. Specific character: Panicle spike-like, ovate; husks of the calyx boat-shaped, apex quite entire; corolla four- valved, outer smooth, inner villose. Obs. — Culms from six inches to three feet high, accord- ing to the richness of the soil, erect, roundish, some- what compressed; leaves linear-lanceolate, acute, flat, rough; florets ovate-compressed, outer convex, inner somewhat concave; nectary, two fleshy concave pear- shaped substances on the outside of the base of the corolla. Native of the Canary Isles, now also of England, France, Spain, aud New Zealand. Root annual. Lixperiments.— At the time of flowering, the produce from a rich clayey loam on a tenacious subsoil is 54,450 lbs. per acre. This grass has been cultivated in England for the sake of 270 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. its seeds only, which are esteemed the best for the smaller birds, particularly the canary finch ; whence it takes its name. Its culture here appears to be chiefly confined to the Isle of Thanet. From the results of the above experiments, it proves a great impoverisher of the soil. The herbage is but little nutritive, and the plant cannot be recommended for cultivation but for the seeds only, which are principally in demand in the neighbourhood of large towns. Flowers in the first week of July, and the seed is ripe about the end of August. POA annua. Annual Meadow-grass, Suffolk-grass. Specific character: Panicle divaricate; spikelets ovate, five-flowered ; florets somewhat remote, five-ribbed, without a web; culms oblique, compressed. vg. 1. Nectary and germen. 2. Floret, magnified. Obs. — The poa annua is distinguished from the poa trivialis by its general habit, its spreading panicle, and reclining culms; by its smoothness, greater softness, and delicacy; from poa pratensis, by having the branches in pairs, its panicle more thinly set, and its spikelets larger ; from both, by its inferior size, com- pressed culms, and annual root. Experiments. — About the middle of June, the produce from a rich black loam is 5,445 lbs. per acre. This, though a diminutive annual plant, is the most troublesome weed that infests gravel walks, stone pitchings, and the like. It continues to fiower and produce seed all the spring, summer, autumn, and even sometimes in the winter months. The seed is perfected in a shorter space of time than that of any other species of grass, or of any plant with which I am acquainted. It will produce flowers and seeds, when it cannot attain to more than an inch in height, from the soil being in the next degree to absolute sterility. Mr. Stillingfleet informs us, that in some parts it is called Suffolk-grass, there being whole tields of it in High Suffolk, without any mixture of other grasses; and he expresses an toa Anniv y ¥ Z o7/ gaa: Shee L sige HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. DA opinion, that it is likely to be the best grass for the dairy. But the diminutive size of the plant renders its cultivation unprofitable, compared with that of any other of the pasture grasses; and besides, it is an annual, which, though it continues to produce flowering culms during most part of the year, nevertheless it is soon injured by frost, and often killed by a continuance of dry weather. But the most effectual remedy to destroy this grass when growing in pitchings, and on gravel and sand walks, is by an applica- tion of common salt, which, since the reduction of the duty on this article, can be had ata price that will allow of its application economically. The best manner of applying it is, just after the pitchings or walks have been cleaned, to strew the salt over the surface sufficiently thick to make each particle of the salt touch another. This dressing will be found to prevent the vegetation of the seeds or roots of the grass. It will also be found to destroy worms and slugs. The poa annua flowers and ripens its seed throughout the summer. AGROPYRUM repens. Creeping Wheat-grass, Couch, Quitch, Dog’s-grass, Quicks. Specific character: Calyxes five-flowered, awl-shaped, many-nerved; florets acuminate; leaves flat; root creeping. Obs.—Root perennial, powerfully creeping, jointed, coated ; fibres downy ; stems slender, upright, two feet high, but acquire a much greater height when drawn up in hedges; round, smooth, striated, having five or six joints, which are frequently tinged with red; leaves spreading very much, smooth on the under surface, on the upper and the margin rugged; they are often directed on one side; spike nearly upright, two or three inches long, flat, composed of numerons spikelets, often more or less awned. Experiments. — At the time of flowering, the produce from a clayey loam is 12,25] lbs. per acre. This species constitutes the principal of what is termed, two ite HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBULNENSIS. couch-grass, in gardens or rich cultivated grounds. The holcus mollis, and poa pratensis, are the proper couch-grasses of light or sandy soils. The agrostis alba is chiefly trouble- some as couch in clayey lands. Forking out the roots after the plough, is doubtless the best mode of extirpating this noxious weed ; but the process must not be discontinued while a particle of the root is suspected to remain in the soil, as the least portion will grow, and the land being so much broken and loosened by the operation, gives doable encouragement for the rapid growth of the plant. It does not thrive well when combined with other grasses, but is naturally more common in hedges, or in orchards, where, if it be generally established, it yields a favourite and nutri- tious pasture for lambs. The roots contain a large proportion of nutritive matter ; they are esteemed abroad for feeding horses; at Naples, they are collected in large quantities for this purpose, and brought to market. My friend, the Rev. Thomas Roy, sent me some of these roots from Naples; they were much larger than I had seen of British growth. On trial, the given quantity afforded 6 dr. 2 qr. of nutritive matter, being, in this respect, superior to the English roots in the proportion of 26 to 23. Dogs eat the leaves of this grass, and also thos of the holcus avenaceus, to excite vomiting. ‘The nutritive matter from the leaves contains an excess of bitter extractive and saline matters. Flowers about the beginning of August, and the seed is ripe about the end of the month, but is seldom good, being subject to mildew in its last stage of growth. Some farmers never pick off couch fromm the fallows, but trust entirely to the plough, which, if repeatedly applied, will destroy the couch effectually, unless in a very wet season. MILLIUM effusum. Common Millet-grass. Specific character: Flowers panicled, dispersed, awnless. Obs. — Stems generally rising to three or four feet in height, with about four joints; leaves smooth, thin, and weak ; panicles from four inches to a foot in length; HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. Des branches loose ; pedicles often in whirls, diverging by elands fixed in the axils, which has caused it to be mistaken sometimes for the poa retroflexa, or p. distans. Mr. Curtis observes, that it is distinguished from the panics, to which it has the greatest natural affinity, by having a calyx of two valves only. Root perennial. Experiments.— At the time of flowering, the produce from a light sandy soil is 7,827 lbs. per acre. The common millet, in its natural state, seems to be con- fined to woods as its place of growth. It will thrive and grow, however, when transplanted to open exposed situa- tions. It is remarkable for the lightness of the produce in proportion to its bulk. The foliage comes pretty early in the spring, but appears, from the above results, to be but little nutritive. Birds are remarkably fond of the seeds; so much so, as to raise a doubt whether, for the sake of the seed only, it could be cultivated to advantage on the farm. But in covers, where game is preserved, there cannot be a better grass encouraged ; it will save the corn fields. About the beginning of August is the best season for sowing the seed. The surface of the ground, near the roots of the bushes, should be lightly stirred, and the seeds scattered over it, and raked in; a few of the decaying leaves that cover the ground should be afterwards thrown over it. It flowers in the second week and latter end of June, and the seed is ripe in the middle of July and the beginning of August. AGROSTIS Mexicana. Mexican Bent-grass. Specific character: Panicle oblong, heaped; calyx and corolla acuminate, and nearly equal. Obs. — Culms numerous, from one to two feet high, ac- cording to the nature of the soil it grows in, branched, erect; leaves smooth; sheath-scale truncated ; panicle pale green, tinged with purple, according as it is pro- duced in full exposure to the sun, crowded with sca- brous florets; calyx valves unequal, shorter than the corolla; corolla valves nearly equal, hairy at the base. T 274 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. Linneus observes, that it is very difficult to distinguish this species. Native of South America. Root perennial. Introduced into England by Mr. Gilbert Alexander, in 1780. Experiments. — At the time of flowering, the produce from a rich black siliceous sandy soil incumbent on a tena- cious sub-soil is 19,057 Ibs. per acre. It delights more in calcareous or clayey soils than in those that are of a siliceous sandy nature. It perfects an abun- dance of seed, which, when sown, produces plants that soon arrive at perfection. So far, therefore, it possesses the re- quisite properties of a grass adapted for the alternate hus- bandry ; but it is late in the produce of foliage in the spring, and that herbage is not distinguished by any superior nu- tritive powers. Itis perfectly hardy. Being a native of a warmer climate, its defects may possibly be greatly lessened by being naturalized, and by frequently raising it from seed successively ripened in this country. At present it does not offer any strong reasons to recommend it further to the notice of the agriculturist. It flowers in the third week of August, and the seed is ripe towards the end of September. From the facts brought forward in this and the preceding series, it appears manifest that there are but a small number of the natural grasses peculiarly fitted for the alternate hus- bandry. The meadow-foxtail (alopecurus pratensis) is early, pro- ductive, and nutritive, but it does not arrive at perfection so soon as many other grasses. The seed is also often defec- tive, and the crop in consequence cannot be depended on. Meadow cat’s-tail (phleum pratense) arrives speedily at perfection. It is very productive in the fore-part of the season, and the foliage and culms are very nutritive ; but it runs much to stalks, and the after-grass is very trifling. Rye or ray-grass (loliwm perenne) comes soon to perfec- tion, and when in a young state produces a plentiful supply HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. 275 of early foliage. After the time of flowering, however, it produces comparatively nothing during the rest of the sea- son; and unless the culms are mown previous to mpening the seed, the ground is much impoverished by it. The new varieties, however, of this species of grass, which have been discovered of late years, remove in a considerable degree the serious objections which applied to the common ray- grass. These new varieties have been already mentioned. For the alternate husbandry, ray-grass should be combined with other species of the natural grasses and with clovers. Hard fescue ( festuca duriuscula) early attains to maturity ; the culms are succulent and nutritious; it grows quickly after being cropped, and springs pretty early ; but it is very deficient in the weight of produce. Meadow fescue ( festuca pratensis) is very productive and nutrient, but does not spring sufficiently early, and seldom attains to perfect maturity in two years. In some soils this grass attains to a maturity of produce in as short a time as ray-grass. Tall oat-like soft-grass (holcus avenaceus) attains to matu- rity from seed in a very short space of time. It is very early and productive in the spring, and during the whole season grows rapidly after cropping, and the culms are succulent. The produce, however, is very deficient in nutritive matter, which contains an excess of the bitter extractive and saline principles. Yellow oat-grass (avena flavescens) arrives soon at perfec- tion; the produce is tolerably nutritive, but deficient in quantity. Rough-stalked meadow-grass (poa trivialis) early attains to maturity; the produce is highly nutrient, but likewise deficient in weight. Smooth-stalked meadow-grass ( poa pratensis) is early, and rather nutritive, but comparatively unproductive. The creep- ing roots unfit it for introduction on arable lands. Crested dog’s-tail (cynosurus cristatus) is backward in arriving at maturity. The produce is very nutritive, but wanting in weight. Fertile meadow-grass (poa fertilis) soon attains to matu- ye 276 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. rity; the prodace is highly nutritive, but comparatively de- ficient in quantity. Nerved meadow-grass (poa nervata) is productive, very nutritive, and affords an abundance of early foliage ; but it does not attain to its full productive powers in two years. Narrow-leaved meadow-grass ( poa angustifolia) is greatly superior to the smooth-stalked meadow-grass in early erowth, produce, nutrient properties, and reproductive powers ; but, unfortunately, it possesses a strong creeping root, which exhausts the soil, and renders it inadmissible on arable lands. Wood meadow-grass (poa nemoralis) soon arrives at maturity, and springs early; the spring herbage is likewise very nutritive, and produced in considerable quantity. The after-grass in the autumn is, however, very inferior. Flat-stalked meadow-grass ( poa compressa ) affords much nutritive matter, and continues to vegetate from spring till autumn ; but its deficiency, with regard to weight of produce, puts it out of the question for the purpose of alternate cropping. Darnel-like fescue (festuca loliacea). This grass pos- sesses all the valuable properties of ray-grass, and few of its defects. It would, doubtless, be the best substitute for that species in alternate cropping; but, unfortunately, it does not perfect a sufficiency of seed. Cock’s-foot (dactylis glomerata), though not possessing every excellence in a degree superior to those species now mentioned for the alternate husbandry, nevertheless, it appears to have a greater variety of merits for this purpose than almost any other grass. It soon arrives at maturity ; it bears cropping well, is very productive, and its nutritive powers are considerable. It is much less impoverishing to the soil than ray-grass, and when ploughed in affords a greater quantity of vegetable matter to the soil. It has been objected to cock’s-foot, that it rises in tufts, and is apt to become coarse. But the objections will apply to every grass that is not sown sufficiently thick to occupy with plants every spot of the ground, and that is not afterwards sufficiently stocked to keep the surface in a succession of HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. Qk young leaves. It is the practice of thin sowing, and the strong reproductive powers of the plant, that occasion it to appear a hassocky grass. If one species only is therefore thought preferable to several in the alternate husbandry, there is scarcely a species to be preferred to the dactylis glomerata. But with respect to an early and certain supply of the most nutritious herbage throughout the season, it will be found a vain labour to look for it in one species of grass, but only where Nature has provided it, in a combination of many. It will likewise be found, that the dactylis glomerata, from its more numerous merits, should constitute three parts of a mixture of grasses adapted for the purposes of the alter- nate husbandry. The different species most proper to combine with cock’s-foot, are such as possess in a greater degree the properties of which this grass is deficient. For this purpose, none appear better fitted than the festuca duriuscula, festuca pratensis, poa trivialis, holcus avenaceus, phleum pratense, lolium perenne, and white clover, which should be in a smaller proportion. A combination thus formed of three parts cock’s-foot, and one part of these species just mentioned, will secure the most productive and nutritive pasture in alternation with grain crops, on soils of the best qualitity ; and even on soils of an inferior nature, under the circumstances of unfavourable seasons, will afford nutritive herbage, when otherwise the land would have been comparatively devoid of it, if one species of grass only had been employed. A Percent. ales ae Nu Ge ion ath LiF", Neal att Vind, hw uae Sate lan Myers! oe lobed ai ff, Ho, Deh, Gabe USER tiv bicivitld Y) he natin, Voraves cy at limatarc ged ie Ri hwy Phra BY Tan iivics ° loo erated mesa hid Si } Densely) bh i) Reo! Out Wick fit Jade TR ail Sesh foal UA Mindat dicey Wh none i Me dt OTP: GRIEL GMtiber<,,. PAT rc wT FORE inh Se Sie Hae OO, GEA ALE Lite oP op Rar ae Bil: 1 UE tty HoT ero 2h ni) wy hail Hi mi ’ Pie ity! Hy, mem aie Th ATU Mia ee ag Te tate oes aan OT DRY gece el OO Ss ‘ a ae ‘ y Wile Py a 1)! I wry Ga a te HP ee! “ie Ty) es Lies ty) ta éak 4a, | fy" ane “i TOR PORN WAP TNL Bria ta ECV Yur aa epon ye Ore Sera) , Si zs nea WP: ith ae OL TOT ROCK GOTT Cael i es ore Ms sie vas RE GHEY RLU THRE! Rei slow Sy ONSET FE a oie vs MAG Me VO ORAM Lite a UAE EAL uA) CONS ‘qed Vay bi re arate okay A) Ciao uy tolls a’ ape ot Hida Pe by ae Hg Dearne te Sin Bye UShe Anis: ahiiq: aay YW" Osea ha if Die Oat ai yt PAG WLP PUito ie hil Hah FRB bal) rg (Oty, Any ie ion ati BA, Ahn iy y. AU Solin lost on PY orien: q ey a Tabitha Vt ani ne Bree HD? delve bitin, y Uriah sear ay Py, Bi Wer takin: a "6 cepa ea a ie uA eID ie ¥e WAS Brive tin ( mi? WAL ae snatel viriatead By) 5 Be ploy his ie MY es mat eeuly P Diy! vn ¢leretenei rn es ‘ a ha UR AE 8D Ry MC Re Pie a ia ioe a Uae i Oy) " a ye Sc at NA hell Ae gt doth fe a ty rte om a ve AS Ata nee ag Air wer ahh ASAE RAE Dad iti ee 3 Lavin ene Me ha, Ae Se oe ae A Nae ho vet " rn 0 i Nala’ ah a ae aM i thi AA a re y he Shae mn APPENDIX I. THe mode of returning tillage land to permanent pasture, called transplanting, was invented by Mr. Whitworth, of Acre House, Lincolnshire; and Mr. John Blomfield, of Warham, Norfolk, first practised it to any extent, having, in 1812, or the following year, converted thirty-two acres of tillage-land by this mode. In 1817, Mr. Blaikie published a full account of the process, with details of the merits of the new practice ; from which work, the information communicated by Mr. Whit- worth, by correspondents who have tried this new mode, and from my own personal observations, the following state- ments and remarks are furnished. In laying down land to permanent pasture by this mode, it is essential that the soil should be free of the seeds and roots of weeds, and made perfectly clean by a clear out summer fallow. The autumn is the best season for transplanting turf, and the sooner the work is begun at this season the better, provided the autumnal rains have suffi- ciently moistened the turf to fit it for paring off clear. By transplanting in autumn, the roots of the grasses get established before the commencement of warm weather in the spring, and stored with sap to supply a more luxuriant crop of grass than when the turf is delayed planting until February and March. On a farm of the Marquis of Tavistock, at Oakley, I witnessed the important effects of particular seasons in transplanting turf. One part of the field had been transplanted in the autumn, and another portion at different periods of the spring. The superiority of the 280 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. autumn-transplanted portion of the tield was observable at a considerable distance, and when closely examined could hardly be distinguished from old pasture land. In the hke proportion, the earlier spring-planted land held the same superiority over the latter spring-planted ground. In this new mode of returning tillage-land to pasture, it 1s also essential that the turf should be selected or taken from the very best pasture, for otherwise weeds and inferior grasses will be propagated. If the field, from which the turf is to be taken to make the new pasture, is intended to be broken up for a course of tillage crops, then the whole of the turf may be pared off, and employed in forming the new pasture to the required extent. But should the field be required to remain in per- manent pasture, a portion only of the turf must be taken from the field, and a sufficiency of the sward, or grass plants, left standing for that purpose. In the first of these cases, Mr. Blaikie directs a paring- plough to be used; but if that cannot be conveniently obtained, a common plough, with the coulter and share made very sharp, will answer the purpose; a wheel-plough is preferable to a swing-plough for paring turfs, because it goes steadier, and cuts the turf more regularly. The turf should be cut about two inches and a half thick, and seven, eight, or nine inches wide, according to the nature of the turf-gauge of the plough, and the width of the wing of the share ; it is sometimes cross-cut into short lengths, previous to the operation of paring; but this can only be effected when the turf is moist, and free from stones. The cross- cutting is done by a scarifier with scimetar tines, the convex edges made very sharp, and faced to the work, and the implement heavily weighted, so as to press the tines a proper depth into the turf, into small pieces; but it gives more trouble, and increases the expense of filling into carts; for when cut into small pieces, in the first instance, it requires to be filled with shovels, whereas, if left in large flags, it is readily filled with forks or by the hand, when the turf is tough, and hangs together. The turf is taken in carts (if HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. 281 broad wheels so much the better) to the arable land on which it is to be planted, and then dragged out of the cart in heaps, set in straight lines, and at regular distances, in the same manner as dung-heaps are set in fields, and after the rate of fifty single-horse cart-loads to the acre. It is then chopped into pieces of about three inches square, and spread with shovels regularly over the ground. A scarifier with square or round tines, about one inch and a half in diameter, and set about one inch and a half apart, or four tines in a yard, is drawn regularlarly over the field, and again crossed at right angles, which takes out the cart- wheel tracts, levels the ground, and marks out the distances for placing the pieces of turf; but the operation of scari- fying cannot be practised when the ground is wet. It is, however, much better when the scarifier can be used, as it not only marks out the distances accurately, but it makes an opening for the reception of the plants, at the angles where the tracts of the tines cross each other. The turf being spread, women and children are then em- ployed to place or plant the turf, one piece in each inter- section formed by the tracts of the scarifier; and with the foot or a wooden rammer, having a broad end to correspond with the size of the piece of turf, the plants, or turf, is pressed into the soil. One acre of turf divided in pieces, and placed as before described, will plant nine acres of arable land, as will appear from the following calculation :— Suppose one acre of turf cut into pieces of three inches square, it will produce 696,960 plants, or pieces of turf. One acre of arable land, marked out in squares of nine inches to the side of the square, or eighty-one square inches, and one plant to each square, will require 77,440 plants: consequently, one acre of turf will plant nine acres of arable land ; each plant will stand six inches apart, and occupy a space of nine square inches, the blanks in each square being seventy-two square inches, to be filled up by the future growth of the plants. Mr. Blaikie farther observes, that although this is the most common, and judged to be the most proper size for the plants, and distance for them to be set apart, yet it may 282 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. not always be convenient to allow so large a proportion of turf for plants to the acre. In that case, either the plants may be reduced or the distances apart extended. The process for the second case, or when the field from which the turf is to be taken for transplanting is intended to remain in permanent pasture, is as follows: —the gauge of the paring plough may be set at nine inches, as_ before directed, but the wing of the share should be turned up at six inches, and, being made very sharp, will cut the turf on that side, while the coulter (also made sharp) will cut the turf on the other side; and the flat of the share will turn the turf out six inches wide, leaving ribs of grass three inches wide uncut. The cut turf being removed, the plough, set at the same gauge, is then drawn across the field, at right angles to its former direction, and cross-cut- ting the uncut ribs of grass, will leave patches of grass three inches square in each angle, consequently the same number of plants to the acre as before stated in the calculation for transplanting. After the turf is removed the field should have a good top-dressing, not less than thirty or forty loads per acre, of compost manure, or good vegetable mould. If the natural turf is deficient in any particular species of valuable grasses, the seeds of those should be sown at the proper season after the top-dressing is spread ; after this the surface should be repeatedly well rolled. The turf will soon unite, and in many instances will be found materially im- proved from its former state, particularly so where the turf had been previously Aide-bound, or mossed. The turf may also be taken out of the grass-field in narrow ribs, suppose three inches wide only, leaving three inches uncut; then with a top-dressing of compost, and the ground thoroughly well rolled, the turf soon unites, and the herbage will be greatly improved. In the operative part of trans- planting turf, particular attention is required in carefully turning the flag with its grass-side up, and in pressing the plants well into the ground; for if the roots of the plants are left exposed to the vicissitudes of winter weather, they will certainly be injured in a material degree. The whole process should therefore be effected with all possible expe- HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. 283 dition, particularly when carried on in winter ; but which is not advisable, as frosts, more or less, are expected every night in that season; no more turf should be cut, carried, and spread in the day, than is likely to be planted before night. No stock of any kind should be admitted upon the young pasture until after the grasses have perfected and shed their seed. The expense of converting arable land into pasture by transplanting turf (according to the certificate delivered by Mr. Henry Blyth, of Burnham, as a claimant for the pre- mium offered by T. W. Coke, Esq., 1816, for the encourage-~ ment of this new description of husbandry), is as follows :— Koy Ban B? Extent of grass-land pared to produce plants for transplanting ; the turf being clean pared off... 1 2 18 Extent of arable land transplanted with the above 11 0 15 Expense. fn Se Oe To ploughing or paring | acre, 2 roods, 18 poles, SPURS DEL, ACEC. ere naccy ten sdaee dateu eet seen deehia ares 0 16 Tz To carriage of 600 loads of turf, 50 aoe work for one horse, at 3s. per day....o..sserreecessocees 710 O To lads driving carts, one boy fourteen days, at ls. 2d. per day, and one ditto at 10d. perday 019 8 To scarifying 11 acres and 15 poles of ground, when covered with turf cut in pieces, at 2s. 6d. Pet acre. -..-.<- sthidpscebedeeccacanseagaesen tel: meceaiesets Le Fabege To labourers, filling, cutting, spreading, and planting the turf on 11 acres and 15 poles of RAMPS, DELS ACTCsseneancaiiedasp cada ssessers ss so LD, F292 £27 6 4 Total expense per acre........+++. nesece pM AE OE: Mr. Blaikie observes, that in the foregoing estimate there is no allowance made for the expenses incurred by the clear 284 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. out-summer fallow of the arable land, nor of the year’s rent, poors’ rates, and taxes for that year; neither is there any charge made for restoring the land to its previous state from whence the turf-plants were taken: consequently there may be a very considerable additional charge made against the transplanted pasture. Mr. Whitworth states the expense of the operative part of this process, per acre, to be 2U. 4s., and gives the following details from his own minutes on the business. About 180 sods, of nine square inches, will be equal to one bushel measure, and 240 bushels will be equal to eight cart loads, which, at the rate of about nine sods to a square yard, will plant one acre of land. A man will cut with ease one bushel of sods in eight minutes; and two children in twelve minutes will gather them, put them into the cart, and assist him to plant that quantity; the whole time being twenty minutes. The planting will be at the rate of three bushels per hour, consequently, the day of ten hours will plant thirty bushels, and eight days will finish one acre. SUOSE Babe One man eight days, at 2s. per day.........sseseeees 016 0 Two children eight days, at 6d. per day .......-.+6 0.840 Gareine CUT, it mear at, NANG... sing rst relds abtiapsidvieae 010 O Potal per ater. .rechohcesues assess atte sa Joi Sado eee —— But should the turf for transplanting have to be carted from a distance, the expense would be proportionally in- creased. Having had an opportunity of examining some pasture land on the Duke of Bedford’s estates, near Endsleigh, Devonshire, which, by the Duke’s desire, had been formed by transplanting, I requested Mr. John Forrester, who con- ducted the work, to give me an account of the results; this he favoured me with, ina valuable communication. Mr. For- rester laid down to permanent pasture a field of sixteen acres; one half of the field was transplanted according to the mode above described, and the other half was sown HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. 285 with the seeds of natural grasses and clovers. With the grass-seeds was also sown buck-wheat, which proved a heavy crop, and injured the seedling grasses, by enfeebling their growth. The turf for transplanting being close at hand, saved a great expense in carting, and the expense of the transplanted portion of the field exceeded but little that which was converted by sowing the seeds. In both cases the pasture proved good, and equal to the best ancient pasture ; but Mr. Forrester observes, that from the first year until now (five years from the time the pasture was made), that portion of the field which had been laid down with seeds has always produced more grass than the transplanted portion. In two other instances, one of a field of five acres, and another of two acres, treated in like man- ner as the above by Mr. Forrester, he obtained similar results. On a farm of the Marquis of Tavistock at Oakley, before alluded to, I observed an improvement on the practice of transplanting turf; particularly as regards the recovery of a pasture partially deprived of its turf for the purposes of transplanting. It has been recommended to take the turf out in strips, or ribs, six inches wide, and to leave ribs of grass uncut, of three inches in width, to continue the pas- ture; but here the turf was allowed to remain in ribs of from ten to twelve inches wide, which, with the liberal use of the grass-roller, had the effect of sooner covering the vacant spaces with grass, or of promoting the union of the edges of the stripes of turf, than when they were left of narrower dimensions. A piece of land in Woburn Park was planted with turf, but the expense of the process was here greater than what is mentioned above in the statements of expense. The turf was taken out in stripes six inches broad, and ribs of grass left three inches wide, to continue the pasture, precisely according to the directions above given. ‘The edges of the stripes of turf left standing to con- tinue the pasture did not however approach or unite, so as to furnish the naked spaces with plants, because there were not any creeping-rooted grasses in the sward to throw out lateral roots and plants; and the naked stripes, or furrows, 286 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. caused by the removal of the turf, being very inconvenient to the feet in riding or walking over the ground, they had to be filled up with mould, and afterward sown with grass- seeds. The valuable permanent pasture grasses cannot therefore be said to be propagated or increased on the farm by this process of transplanting turf, but that they are merely removed from one field to another. To bring forward to the reader facts capable of easy demonstration, and which cannot therefore mislead, has been a principal object of the writer of these pages. Had the seeds of those different species of grasses which composed the turf used in these instances of transplanting, been sown on a separate part of the same field (or on a soil of the like nature as that on which the turf was transplanted), and had a dressing of rich mould, equal to that conveyed and applied to the transplanted portion by the turf, been given to the land sown down with these seeds; then the comparative value of the two modes of converting tillage land into permanent pasture would have been tried under equal circumstances. But it is evident, that if we plant ten, fifteen, or twenty different species of the proper grasses and clover in one field, and on another field or soil of the same nature sow the seeds of only one or two species of grasses and clover, it will surely appear unreasonable, if not absurd, to expect that the comparative value of these two modes of culture can be determined by the results of trials made under such unequal circumstances. Had the seeds of all these proper permanent pasture grasses, and of which the richest and most fattening pastures were shown to be con- stituted, been at the command of those eminent agricul- turists who have put in practice this mode of converting tillage-land into pasture, the comparative value between planting the turf, and sowing the seeds of grasses, would have been satisfactorily determined, and the superior advan- tages accruing to the farm from the propagation and extended increase of the valuable permanent pasture grasses by seed, would then have been demonstrated. But, in the absence of these essential seeds from the market, at a price sufficiently low HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. 287 to ensure as regular a demand for them as for ray-grass and clover, the practice of transplanting turf will be found highly useful; particularly in clayey and sandy soils, where a natural defect exists as regards the raising of seedling grasses, and which defect is corrected, and such soils improved for the growth of the valuable species of grass, by the rich mould supplied to the soil by the transplanted turf. AEPEN DIX. II. OF THE GRASSES WHICH AFFORD THE BEST CULMS, OR STRAW, FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF STRAW BONNETS, SUCH AS WILL EQUAL, AND MAY SURPASS, THE FINEST LEGHORN MANU- FACTURE. STRAW-PLAIT, in imitation of the celebrated Leghorn manu- facture, has been made in England for many years past, but the practice till lately had been confined to the London manufacturers of straw bonnets. Above seventeen years since, land was taken at Ampthill, on the estate of the late Earl of Upper Ossory, for the express purpose of raising straw for this kind of plait; and a few years since, a very fine straw bonnet was sent to the Duchess of Bedford from Leighton Buzzard, where it had been manufactured from English straw. About three years since, Miss Woodhouse, a farmer’s daughter of Connecticut, transmitted to the Society of Arts in London, a straw bonnet in imitation of the Leghorn, made of the straw of poa pratensis, smooth- stalked meadow-grass (or the spear-grass of America), which, from its excellence, obtained the reward of the Society. Mr. Cobbett published an account of this circumstance in his “Cottage Economy,” and also an account of his own expe- rience in selecting the best grasses for the purpose, and of bleaching the green culms or straw, and for which Mr. Cob- bett received the Society’s medal. The lady of the Rev. Mr. Morrice, of Great Brickhill, Bucks, manufactured a very beautiful straw bonnet, in imi- tation of Leghorn, of the culms of the crested dog’s-tail grass (cynosurus cristatus), which, being submitted to the Society of Arts, obtained the Society’s medal. Very great merit was displayed in the manufacture of this bonnet. HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. 289 Mrs. Grant, of Leighton Buzzard, has made very success- ful trials with the bleaching and selecting of the straws of the perennial grasses for the Leghorn plait, and, from Mr. Grant’s extensive knowledge of the British grasses, much assistance may be expected from his patriotic exer- tions. The Duke and Duchess of Bedford, being desirous of introducing the manufacture of this kind of straw-plait among the children of the labouring classes at Woburn, and in furtherance of the intention of His Grace to establish bere a girls’ school for the purpose, combining therewith, at the same time, the means of moral and religious instruction to the children, I was instructed to proceed in the cultivation of such grasses as were most likely to supply the best culms or straw for the purpose. The wheat recommended by Mr. Cobbett, and which was said to be the same as that cultivated in Italy for the celebrated Leghorn plait, and which was also said to have been imported from thence, was sown on a siliceous soil, rather poor and exhausted, on the 27th of May. Five different varieties of oats were sown at the same time, and also a considerable number of the differ- ent species of perennial grasses, on a separate space of ground. The wheat was sown on two distinct spaces of ground, at the rate of ten and of fifteen bushels to the acre respec- tively ; and each of these spaces was again divided as to the mode of culture, one half of each respectively being sown in drills, and the other half broad-cast. The oats were treated in like manner. When the wheat came into blossom, it proved to be the common bearded spring or Cape wheat, which in this climate is very subject to the rust disease, or rubigo; and its power to supply clean or bright straw is therefore rendered very uncertain, even should a mode of culture be found out, under the circumstances of a British climate, that would afford culms or straw of this grain sufficiently fine, and at the same time of a texture suffici- ently tough and firm for the Leghorn plait ; but experience will prove, that these last-mentioned properties are not to be obtained here by this plant. U 290 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. W. P. Taunton, Esq., of Bristol, communicated a speci- men of wheat cultivated in Italy for the Leghorn plait; this proved to be a specimen of the triticum spelta, or spelt-wheat. Mr. Taunton states, that in Italy the wheat cultivated for the straw is cut over twice or thrice, or is eaten down by cattle, so as to render the culms which afterwards spring up very slender. The long Italian summer allows of that mode of culture, which this climate will not permit. The straw of Mr. Cobbett’s wheat proved too coarse for Leghorn plaits, but would have answered for the sp/it-straw manufacture. The straw of the fine varieties of oats was also too coarse, though clean and of a good colour. The expense attending the culture of grain for the straw merely, and the difficulty of raising it of the required degree of fineness for the Leghorn plait, without increased labour and expense in picking, seem to forbid the adoption of that mode of obtain- ing straw in this country for that particular purpose, more particularly when the perennial grasses offer culms or straw of a finer quality than is seen in any Italian plait, and which may be obtained at comparatively a very small expense. There are many species of perennial grasses adapted to supply fine and beautiful straw, the principal of which have already been noticed; but as several of these species of grasses affect soils of a different nature, it may be useful to mention the different soils peculiarly adapted for the growth of certain species, that those who may be locally cireum- stanced as to a particular soil, and who may be disposed to encourage the introduction of so valuable a manufacture among the females of the labouring classes, may be saved the temporary disappointment caused by cultivating a grass not adapted to the soil, or not calculated to afford the finest straw for the intention. Heath, or black siliceous Moor-soil. Festuca ovina, sheep’s-fescue grass. Straw very fine and clear. Festuca duriuscula, hard-fescue grass. Straw long, equal, and clear ; but coarser than the sheep’s-fescue. HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. 29] Festuca ovina hordeiformis, long-awned sheep’s-fescue. Straw long, clear, and equal. Nardus stricta, upright matt-grass. Straw long without joints, very fine, equal and tough: perhaps the best grass for the supply of straw for the Leghorn plait. Dry Sorts. Cynosurus cristatus, crested dog’s-tail grass. Straw fine, strong, and tough, well adapted for plait: but the culms are frequently liable to discoloration, particularly after flowering. Poa angustifolia, narrow-leaved meadow-grass. Straw very long, fine, and clear: superior to the poa pratensis, of which Miss Woodhouse’s celebrated bonnet was made. Hordeum pratense. Straw of the best quality for plait, being fine, tough, and clear. Anthoxanthum odoratum, sweet-scented vernal grass. Straw clear and straight, but frequently rather coarse. Agrostis lobata, lobed bent-grass. Straw short, but very fine, clear, and tough. Agrostis spica ventis, silky bent-grass. An annual, straw long, fine, and clear. Avena flavescens. Straw generally fine, bleaches well, and of an equal and tough quality. Agrostis vulgaris mutica. Straw fine, bleaches easily, but is rather short. Avena pubescens. Straw generally fine, long, and of a good colour. Festuca heterophylla, various-leaved fescue. Straw similar to that of festuca duriuscula. Damp or Moist Soils. Agrostis canina fascicularis, bundled-leaved brown bent. Straw very fine and white. Agrostis canina mutica, brown bent. Straw longer than the preceding, in all other respects similar to it. Agrostis stolonifera angustifolia, narrow-leaved runner- u 2 ~ 292 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. bearing bent. Straw long, tough, bleaches equally of a fine white. Agrostis alba, white bent. Straw tough, and bleaches well. Agrostis stricta, upright bent. Straw very fine, straight, and tough. Agrostis repens, creeping-rooted bent. Straw long and equal, bleaches well, though not so fine as some others. Poa nemoralis angustifolia, narrow-leaved wood meadow- grass. Straw very equal, fine, and tough, but not so long between the joints as some others. Agrostis stolonifera aristata, awned runner-bearing bent. Straw long, equal, and bleaches very white, but works rather soft and flat in the plait. There are many other species of the perennial grasses, which afford fine straw, which might be added to the above list; but those named above have been submitted to careful trials, and are found to possess the properties stated. Any number of these species which come into flower at the same period, and which affect similar soils, might with advantage be sown together for the reasons already mentioned. There is scarcely a fibrous-rooted species of grass, that can be cultivated singly without much time and attention, in weeding or keeping out other grasses from combining with it in the soil: whereas, by sowing a mixture of those species which possess in common the pro- perties above mentioned, they will keep possession of the soil, and render weeding almost unnecessary: and after the crop straw is taken, the grass or sward will be found more nutritious and productive for depasturing with sheep, than if it consisted of one species of grass only. The results of all the experiments made here, prove, that the period of flowering is the best stage of growth at which to cut the straw for plait, in imitation of that of Leghorn. This material always exhibits a bland surface, unlike the glossy shining surface of an English bonnet made of the ripe straw ofoats. On comparing the appearance of culms cut when in flower, with others cut at the time the seed is ripe, and after they have each been bleached, the former have a bland surface resembling the Leghorn, and the HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNEWNSIS. 293 latter a glossy surface like that of ripened grain. The culms at the time of flowering are also less hollow, and are more tough and pliable than ripened straw, and therefore easier to work into plait. From these facts it seems probable, that the Italian straw is taken when the plants are in flower. The green straw may be bleached by the process detailed by the late Mr. Cobbett. The culms being selected and placed in a convenient vessel, boiling water is poured over them in quantity sufficient to cover the straw; in this they are to remain ten minutes: when thus scalded, they are to be spread out on a grass-plat to bleach; by turning them once a day, the bleaching is generally effected in seven or eight days. The bleaching, however, may be effected in much less time ; especially if, instead of ten minutes, the straw be allowed to remain in the scalding water from one to two hours, and then spread on grass, regularly watered as they become dry, turning them once a-day for two days, after which the straw is washed clean from dust. It is then, in a moist state, placed in a close vessel, and subjected to the fumesof burning sulphur for two hours. This has been found sufficient to bleach the straw in the most perfect manner. Green straw immersed for ten minutes in a strong solution of acetic acid, and then subjected to the sulphure- ous acid gas, are bleached perfectly white in half an hour. Green culms, immersed for fifteen minutes in muriatic acid, diluted with twenty times its measure of water, and then spread on the grass, became in four days as perfectly bleached as those which were scalded and bleached for eight days on the grass. The texture of the straw was not in the least injured. by these processes. The application of the sulphureous acid gas to the moistened straw, even after scalding and bleaching on the grass, had in every instance the effect of greatly improving the colour. It is necessary that the straw be moist during the application of the fumes of sulphur, to obtain the greatest use of the gas; for water absorbs this gas with rapidity, and assists the action of the gas, in destroying the colouring matter of the straw without injury to its texture. The only apparatus necessary for the 294 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. fumigation, is a platform of laths raised a little off the ground: on it the straw is laid; an iron pan holds the burning sulphur below, and a large tub is whelmed over all, to confine the fumes near the straw till the blanching is complete. When straw is immersed in diluted acid, it should be whole, for if cut, the acid will get into the interior, which can answer no good purpose in discharging the colour. To imitate the Leghorn plait in the most perfect manner, the straw should be plaited the reverse way of the common English split-straw-plait. In this last, the straws are flat- tened by a machine made for the purpose, but the Leghorn plait has the straw wrought without flattening, and pressure is applied after the plait is made. These two points should be observed by those who wish to rival the Italian plaiters. By reversing the common mode of plaiting, the fingers have a much greater power in knitting firmly and intimately the straws, and the unflattened state of them allows of their being more closely knitted ; a circumstance which gives the appearence of fineness to the real Leghorn plait, which, had the straw been flattened by milling, would have given it a coarse and unfinished appearance. It is feasible to appre- hend that. Leghorn plait may be successfully imitated in this country, and from perennial grasses of our own growth, pro- vided we adopt the Italian method of preparing and manu- facturing the article. The foregoing pages contain the substance of the talented author’s discoveries, and results of his practical experiments during his laborious investigation of the natural order of the grasses and other plants useful in agriculture. Every expe- riment which he conducted was executed with the greatest accuracy. Whether made in the field or garden, or in his laboratory, the most trifling minutize were attended to, in order that he might not be deceived in the consequences. His descriptions are equally precise: he was in the pursuit HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. 295 of practical facts; and he considered himself bound to de- tail every circumstance of soil, situation, and season, which he has done with the utmost faithfulness. As practical men in general have very rarely either time or opportunity to make such trials as have been made by the late Mr. Sinclair, the results which he has recorded, will long continue to be regarded as a most useful portion of agricultural knowledge. His facts and conclusions will al- ways be a guide to the farmer, as well in the choice of his seeds, as in the preparation of his land for their reception. Because, it was not only the facilities allowed him in the prosecution of his chemical trials, and the high scientific advice he received during the execution ; nor was it from the necessarily contracted trials made in the grass garden, on which he has founded his conclusions; but from the actual practical proceedings on a great scale on the Park Farm, conducted by the late Mr. Wilson, one of the first agricul- turists of the kingdom. Thus, while our author was experimenting in the garden and laboratory, similar processes were going on in the fields; and the aggregate results determined the inferences to be drawn from the whole, as set forth in the previous sections of the work. It is indeed the accounts of these field opera- tions which constitute the chief value of this volume, and which, for the management of grass and pasture land, will always be considered a first authority on this branch of agriculture. The experiments of the author are particularly useful in another point of view: — Long before these trials were made, experience (that grand and infallible teacher, especially in the rude and simple business of husbandry) had identified cer- tain plants, some of which were British, others foreign, as being particularly relished by domesticated cattle. These plants were slowly introduced into cultivation, such as lucern, sainfoin, tares, clover, ray-grass, &c. These were among the first wild plants which were reclaimed from the wastes ; and certain natural pastures were famous for fattening properties; which, as soon as noticed, was 296 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. attributed to the pasture containing a large share of the superior grasses; which grasses are those that have been tested and botanically described by our author. But what we have to remark concerning these tests, is this,—that they completely justify the preference previously given by cattle and their intelligent owners ; all being found, by chemical analysis, to be superior in nutritive qualities to those plants which were neglected. We know well, that it has been objected to chemical tests, that they do not always accord with the tastes of ani- mals. It is difficult to say what are really the most nutri- tious qualities of plants: sugar and albumen may be con- sidered as such. But we know that neither of these, how- ever pure, singly or together, would ensure the ready fatten- ing of an animal. The food requires an admixture of fibrous matter with that which is mucilaginous. And besides, we know that fodder, whether green or dry, and which, if tested chemically, would be declared worthless, would, if previously sprinkled with either salt or sugar, particularly the former, be eagerly devoured by cattle of any kind. And we always observe that the instinct of brute animals invariably leads them to choose that which is most suitable to them, their olfactory and palative faculties acting in their service instead of judgment. And yet we often hear of cattle picking up noxious herbage: and we know that they will eat what will kill. The preferences shown by cattle are therefore sup- posed to be better proofs than those obtained from the ana- lysis of the chemist. The chemical analysis of oil-cake shows how rich it is in oleaceous, fattening qualities; and we know the rapid im- provement in the weight of beasts fed with it: but neither the scent nor taste of this substance is inviting to cattle when it is first presented to them, it often lying two or three days in the manger or troughs before they will touch the cake, though at last they become exceedingly fond of such unnatural food. This would tend to show that cattle are not judges of what is best for themselves, and that in the process of artificial or stall-feeding, the chemist could pre- HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. 297 scribe for them with more certainty than they can choose for themselves. But here we must distinguish between what is merely necessary and what is redundant. When ranging at large, however, in their pastures, we al- ways see them linger upon the driest parts of the fields; for there the grass, if there be any bite at ail, is always not only the sweetest, but also the most nutritious. There are pas- tures in this kingdom, which in spring and autumn, or in showery summers, yield herbage enough, but of the most in- ferior quality for fattening stock; whereas, at about Mid- summer in every year, and in particularly dry seasons, the grass, though short, is of the most nutritious description ; every thing thrives upon it: and if the same be made into hay, it is always richer, and more palatable to cattle than that made from the lower and moister parts of the pasture. It is curious to observe the display of taste shown by a stray horse or cow, which by accident gets into a rick-yard where there are various kinds of hay, and other fodder in ricks. A general examination is first made, and should there be a small rick or part of a rick of vetch-hay got up without rain, that is preferred to every thing else. If no- thing of this kind invites, then sainfoin is the next selected ; and if one layer of the rick be better than the rest, that layer will be eaten as far as they can reach. Upland mea- dow-hay, if quickly and well got up, and retaining its fine green colour, is the next choice; and afterwards, any other sort of meadow-hay well made, and which has taken the ne- cessary heat in therick. The above are what kine and sheep preter ; horses are first attracted by the hay of vetches and sainfoin, and next, the first crop of clover, especially if there be a good portion of ray-grass along with it. Indeed, we have often seen, when ray-grass alone has been mown and made early enough, it has been relished by horses before any other kind of hay; and certainly the substantiality, and great portion of sugar contained in the straw of this grass, renders it one of the richest kinds of fodder, especially for horses. Ii requires, however, much care in making and ricking, as it takes a violent heat, and is liable to burn if sud- denly put together in a large rick. 298 HORTUS GRAMINEUS WOBURNENSIS. The qualities of every kind of hay (independent entirely of the intrinsic value of the grass), depends vreatly on the manner in which it is made. The richest grass may be spoiled by wet weather, or carelessness. And very inferior grass, by judicious management in the field and in the rick, may become not only palatable, but most nutritious food for cattle. Hence, we cannot always depend entirely on the re- sults of chemical analysis, and therefore the safest plan in the choice of our grasses, is to combine the proofs of the che- mist with the discoveries of experience. Taking this as a rule, the Hortus Gramineus Woburnensis will always be found a most useful directory, and will always deserve a place on the book-shelves of the farm-house. There were two principal objects in view in undertaking this analysis of forage plants. The first was, to detect the most valuable; and the second, to identify the most worth- less, or such as are considered mere weeds by farmers. That those two classes of plants should be well known is uni- versally admitted. And a knowledge of the weeds of agri- culture was considered so necessary a part of agricultural botany, that the late B. Holdich, Esq., Editor of the Farmer’s Journal, had, before his decease, nearly completed a little work on this subject ; and which was bequeathed to Mr. Sin- clair to finish, prepare for the press, and publish for the benefit of Mrs. Holdich. This tract being intimately con- nected with the design of the Hortus Gramineus, and belong- ing to the same proprietors, they have resolved to annex the former with the latter, in order to enhance the value, and improve both, by uniting them in one moderate-sized volume. THE GeAeeds of Aqriculture. Tur term weed is not definite. By some writers the term is used to denote all uncultivated plants. By others, those plants which are, from their specific qualities, hurtful to man or beast; but the best definition seems to be that given by an old botanist, namely, that ‘a weed is a plant out of its proper place.” Oats are not weeds; but, if they grow among barley, they are, in the estimation of the mnaltster, the worst weed that grows. So the common winter tare is not a weed ; but, if sown and harvested with wheat, it greatly deteriorates the sample at market. In Mr. Holdich’s pamphlet, before alluded to, weeds are described in fourclasses. First, Weeds which infest samples of corn. Secondly, Fallow-weeds, or such as are hard to destroy. Thirdly, Rampant weeds, which encumber the soil. Fourthly, Weeds which never rise into the sickle; with observations on those in pastures. ) In making extracts from this little work, for our present purpose, we shall retain only the most useful parts, adding such observations as will serve to elucidate the subject, and render the whole as intelligible as possible to practical men. The Essay is inscribed to the young farmers of Great Britain by Mr. Sinclair, who also added the following advertisement, viz. The following Essay, in an imperfect state, the first chapter only being perfected in manuscript by the Author, was bequeathed to the care of the Editor, who has endea- 300 WEEDS OF AGRICULTURE. voured, as much as in his power, to supply what was wanting to complete the original design. The Author’s introductory remarks explain the origin of the Essay ; viz. the inquiries of a ‘‘ Young Farmer” for a treatise on weeds. Mr. Holdich was a practical farmer of very great ability, as well as a man possessing the most extensive and correct knowledge on rural affairs; which knowledge he acquired solely by his own industry and application, united to supe- rior natural talents, and which procured him the appro- bation of the public, as well as that of the personal friend- ship of the first agriculturists of the day. It may be said, that after the manner in which the sub- ject has been treated by Mr. Pitt, in his Essay; by Pro- fessor Martyn, in his edition of Miller’s Dictionary ; and particularly by Sir John Sinclair, in his great national work, the Code of Agriculture (which should be in the hands of every farmer),—this publication was uncalled for; yet, nevertheless, it has been called for, and it is surely unneces- sary here to mention the great advantages of a manual on a subject of so much importance to good husbandry, and which cannot be too often or too early impressed on the minds of young farmers, for whose especial use the Author designed his essay. Introduction. It has happened, that an essay on weeds and their destruction, has never been published. During the conti- nuance of the Board of Agriculture, an essay of this kind was sent to the Board, by Mr. Pitt, of Wolverhampton, con- taining a pretty long catalogue, but with many important omissions, and without any practical arrangement. Mr. Pitt understood botany very well, but knew little of agriculture. His essay is to be found in the fifth volume of the Commu- nications to the Board of Agriculture, printed in 1806. It seems somewhat strange, at this advanced period of agricultural knowledge, that so many queries should be put, WEEDS OF AGRICULTURE. 301 “How to destroy black grass ?’—“ How to destroy colt’s- foot?” &c.; as if there were any secret known to a few, or any charm in existence, by which an overwhelming increase of any particular weed could be stopped at once. But the world is always in a state of pupilage; some are learning what others know ; and the queries which to the young are interesting, are to the experienced and wise trifling and superfluous. So it must be with essays on agricultural subjects, which can only be directed to the general instruc- tion of the inexperienced ; while the practised and sagacious agriculturist must be requested to pardon the particularity with which things well known to him are so tediously written down. CHAPTER I. OF WEEDS WHI€H INFEST SAMPLES OF CORN. Tue weeds of this description do not exceed ten in number, and it very rarely happens that more than two sorts are found associated in one sample of wheat. They vary as to soil so much, that some of the worst weeds in fens and marshes are not known at all on clay cold soils, and are but very little seen on any sort of dry turnip land. Light loams and deep loose soils generally have most weeds by nature. It seems therefore desirable to divide weeds also as to the soils on which they prevail; but this may be supplied by proper remarks added to each. Weeds which infest the sample are, 1. Darnel. 2. Drank. 3. Cockle. 4. Tares. 5. Melilot. 6. Wild Oats. 7. Hariff. & Crow-needles. 9. Black-bindweed. 10. Snake-weed. 11. Charlock-seeds, in barley sometimes. 1. DARNEL (lolium temulentum). True Darnel. Specific character: Culms two feet or more in length, rigid, jointed; spike bearded, flat, a foot long; seeds ripen with wheat.— Fig. 1. Spikelet. 2. Lower calyx with its occasional elliptical appendage. 3. Flower. 4, Germen, style, and nectary. This plant is a native of Britain, and is marked in books as an annual: but it is more properly in this country a biennial; because it does not ripen its seed freely, unless sown in the autumn. Theseeds are large, and nearly the size of the smaller grains of wheat; they are also equally heavy. Lolium Temulentum. Lolium Temulentim et @r WEEDS OF AGRICULTURE. 303 On this account, the darnel cannot be separated from the wheat by any of the machines we have in use for cleaning corn. Neither birds nor beasts choose this detested plant as food. It is excessively bitter, and if ground with wheat into flour and made into bread, it renders it not only unpalatable and unwholesome, but actually poisonous. It has been said, that, when harvested with barley and malted therewith, the beer made from such admixture is dangerously intoxicating. Such a mixture may have been sown and harvested in Italy or in Greece; but this could scarcely happen in this colder climate, as the darnel would not ripen with barley. But it has from the earliest ages borne the name of ‘‘ drunken darne/,” and there can be no doubt of its deleterious qualities, whether in meat or in drink. We have often been plagued with darnel; and the only means we used was enjoining a duty upon the reapers, binders, and barn-men, to collect it in small bundles for the fire, for which a small reward was given. Its early growth is so much like the wheat plants, that it cannot be weeded out by the spud as other weeds are, and of course it stands till reaped with the wheat. [There is another lolium, called lodium arvense, described in old books under the English name of wfzte darnel; but this is never hurtful among corn, and is only considered as a variety, either of the perennial ray-grass, or of the true darnel. Indeed, there is much confusion in the names of these grasses among farmers. The seeds of darnel, and those of the smooth brome-grass (bromus secalinus), are the only two grass seeds found in wheat; and these are indif- ferently called ray or darnel by farmers, few being aware of the difference, though they may be easily tested by the taste, the one having the flavour of the oat, the other larger and as bitter as gall. That farmers should be ignorant of what darnel really is, cannot be wondered at, as it is quite evident that neither Sir J. E. Smith, Mr. Holdich, nor Mr. Sinclair, ever met with the plant in this country.— Ep. ] 304 WEEDS OF AGRICULTURE 2. DRANK, or drauk (bromus secalinus). Smooth Brome- grass. Panicle spreading, slightly subdivided below ; spikelets ovate, about ten, distinct, somewhat cylin- drical ; florets smooth ; awns wavy, shorter than the clumes ; leaves slightly hairy. Bromus mollis. Soft Brome-grass. Panicle erect, rather close, compound; spikelets ovate, downy; florets imbricated, depressed, ribbed; awns as long as the glumes ; leaves and sheaths very soft and downy. The former of these bromes is an annual plant, being in growth and appearance similar to corn, until it puts forth its characters of fructification. It really gives no trouble, for it generally grows (where it does grow) thinly scattered, and you cannot weed it out. It is true, that it is seldom found but where it is sown with the seed corn; but where you sow it you are sure to have it in the crop. The soft brome-grass perfects its seed earlier than the drank, or smooth ray brome-grass, and the seed, for the most part, is shed before the harvesting of corn crops. About the time that corn comes in ear, or rather later, the bromus throws out its flowering panicles, which, as the corn ripens, droop, each spikelet with its heavy load of seeds ; these drooping spikelets are somewhat short, and nearly smooth, with the seeds thereon crowded, and the spikelets flat. When ripening, the leaves drop away, and the straw looks clear and handsome, much like good bright oat-straw. The seeds resemble the boldest and best seeds of good ray- grass, but are thicker and much heavier; they contain a large quantity of nutritious flour ; and fowls, pigs, and horses, are very fond of them. The objection to bromus, with the miller, is, that it grinds tough, and perhaps somewhat soapy, so as to dull the stones. A very plump and dry sample of wheat is readily saleable, though with a /itt/e in it; but a sample rough in hand, is lowered in value from a shilling to eighteen pence per quarter. Great care ought to be taken not to sow these Be i + hy WX Ae ve Naw i: \\\ \N \\\ i od . Pps . \ Infoliunv otficinatts. AH \ Ervum LelTasvermmum. . P10, = 8 Pil. WEEDS OF AGRICULTURE. 305 seeds with wheat; in any spring crop I have never seen it grow. The name of drank (or more commonly drauk), given to this weed as being common in Norfolk, is a name by which this grass is known and called in many parts of England. In the central counties of England these seeds are called simply ray, both by millers and farmers ; and though neither like to see it in wheat, they know that it is perfectly wholesome. 3. COCKLE. Corn-campion (agrostemma githago). Whole plant, except the petals and capsule, covered with soft hairs ; calyx longer than the corolla; petals entire or slightly emarginate, and naked. A weli-known annual weed, of rather an ornamental ap- pearance, bearing purplish red flowers. In spring its leaves are long, downy, and slender, and the plant is strong and conspicuous at weeding time. It grows somewhat tall before it branches, and is in full flower and bearing when the wheat is ripening, growing two feet and a half high. The seeds are very numerous, and contained in bulky capsules; they are black and rough, resembling a rolled-up hedgehog, and are neatly as big as small wheat kernels; they are filled with white flour, and very heavy. The miller’s objection to these seeds is, that their black husks break so fine as to pass the boulters, and render the flour specky; also, because the seed is bulky, if there be much in the sample, it detracts considerably from the produce in flour: whatsoever is not wheat, must lower the value of that which should be all wheat. It is the duty and interest of farmers to meet their cus- tomers the millers with clean samples; for the latter never forget to make use of every objection to beat down the price. ‘I would give you the other shilling if it were not for the cockle,”’ is a common conclusion to one of these bar- gains: so a farmer having a hundred quarters of wheat grown in one field, loses five pounds by sowing a Little cockle. 306 WEEDS OF AGRICULTURE. [Nothing is easier got rid of than the seeds of cockle, if the proper means are had recourse to. Brass-wire sieves are in common use for sifting small seeds and dust out of wheat, barley, &c.; but these sieves are too closely woven to allow the seeds of cockle to pass. A cockle sieve is therefore necessary, and will also be found, for other purposes, very useful in a barn. The common brass-wire sieves are woven, we believe, on the plan of nine wires to the inch, to discharge charlock and such sized seeds; but the cockle sieve should have but seven wires within the inch, and should be made of somewhat stronger wire. It is a most useful implement. — Ep.] 4. MELILOT. Trifolium melilotus officinale ; melilotus officinalis; melilotus officinale of authors. Common Melilot-clover. Legumes racemed, naked, two-seeded, wrinkled, acute; stem erect. This is an annual plant, growing with an upright stem, about two feet high, branched and furrowed. The capsules containing the seed are very tough and wrinkled, growing in bunches ; each capsule is generally one-seeded, sometimes two, but threshing does not dislodge them; so that, in samples of wheat, the wrinkled capsule is called the seed; and these are easiest separated by sifting the corn in shallow sieves, to raise the pods to the surface to be picked off. This is, of all others, one of the most pernicious seeds in wheat, a few communicating a very strong smell to the flour. The plant is addicted to stiff soils, and often grows on ditch banks in the fences: it blossoms yellow. It is very palatable food to all sorts of cattle, and has a grateful odour when cut down and dried. Nevertheless, as a weed in arable land it cannot be too much guarded against, and ought never to be sown with seed corn. Also, it should be’ sedulously rooted up by weeding in spring; for where it has once got in the land, it propagates itself by scattering many seeds before the corn is ripe. Hence wheat, on land so infested, should WEEDS OF AGRICULTURE. 307 always be sown on a naked fallow. It must be understood that these hints are given with a view to the common hus- bandry. 5. TARES (ervum tetraspermum). Smooth Tare. About two flowers on a peduncle; seeds globular, four in a legume. Ervum hirsutum. WHairy-tine Tare. Peduncles many- flowered ; seeds globular, two in a legume. Two species of wild tares, called the time tare and the strangle tare. It is said, that on dry soils, in wet seasons, they have overrun and destroyed whole crops of corn; and it is well known that the seeds of the hairy-tine tare will lie on the ground for years, but only vegetate in wet sum- mers. They are the favourite food of the turtle-dove. The wild tares are not common, and the seeds of them are much too small to be mistaken in samples for the cultivated sorts. The miller’s objection to these seeds is, that they have a strong taste when ground in the flour. Hence it seems to become an important consideration, whether field tares should be suffered to go to seed, or rather to be fed off, and ploughed down soon enough to prevent it. Also, for soiling, small patches may be set apart, and seeds, at last, may be raised therefrom. For it seems to be a doubtful advantage in agriculture, that the introduction of tares should overrun our fields with new enemies. The cultivated tares are very common in samples of wheat and barley in the market of Peterborough in Northampton- shire. Perhaps in other places they may not yet prevail, and the farmers will do well to avoid them by all means. It must be unpardonable neglect to sow them with seed corn, but if they come of the general cultivation of the plants, the matter is much more serious. 6. WILD OATS (avena fatua). Bearded Wild Oats, or Haver. Panicle erect, compound ; spikelets pendulous; bes 308 WEEDS OF AGRICULTURE. florets about three, shorter than the calyx; bristly at the base, with an oblique scar, all awned. This weed used to abound on stiff clays, in open fields: the fallows were generally free from it, and only brought the land, about Michaelmas time, in moderate condition for this weed to crow and come up with the wheat. Accordingly such abundance of it would come, that at harvest the whole crop would appear to be wild oats. I once knew a farmer, who, in thrashing out a stack of wheat, dressed out of it fourteen or fifteen coombs of these oats: this was during the war, and in a great dearth of oats; and he actually sold them for horse-corn, at about 28s. per quarter. Wild oats are seldom found but on clays and stiff gravels: on all loose soils, on dryish turnip land, on sandy soils, and on fen and marsh land, they are rarely seen. The seed is somewhat larger than common oats, of a dark brown colour, and having a very rough awn or beard. Of course millers may very well object to them ; for when many prevail in a sample of wheat, they occupy a considerable portion of the measure. It does not appear that in spring these weeds can be sufficiently distinguished from the wheat plants to be selected and weeded out, which is also the case with darnel, and is the more to be lamented, because the best system can hardly be expected to eradicate those weeds, in regard to which the hoe and the hand cannot be brought in aid of the fallow and row culture. But this ought to be strictly attended to, as being the strongest argument possible, why these seeds should not be sown with seed corn. So far, the farmers who pay attention are masters of these weeds; and it must be a wilful neglect not to act accordingly. Throwing the corn from one end of the thrashing-floor to the other is a good plan to get the wild oats separated, their lightness causing them to fall behind the heavier corn. 7, HARIFF (galium aparine). This weed has many other names — Goose-tongue, Cleavers, Goose-grass, &c. — by one or other of which it is probably known every- where. Leaves eight in a whorl, lanceolate, keeled, WEEDS OF AGRICULTURE. 309 rough, fringed with reflexed prickles ; stem weak ; fruit bristly *. It is said that geese are very fond of it; and so they are; and cleavers are by far the best vegetable food which can be given to goslings as soon as hatched. Hariff is a very scrambling weed, and runs to the length of seven or eight feet, increasing in weight of branches and foliage as it obtains the light, and gets through whatever it grows with. It is, however, principally addicted to deep, loose soils, mellow marshy land, and the drier sorts of fen land. All lightish loams may have hariff, but it abhors clay, and fen soils lying damp and low are not friendly to it. In many clay countries it is probably not known, though it be one of the very worst weeds where it abounds, The farmers of clay lands on the verge of the fens, often buy their seed wheat of the fen farmers ; and they heed not the seeds of hariff, for, if they grow, they come to no length, and are never seen at harvest. This weed increases excessively on loose, deep soils, when once introduced ; its seeds are round, with a channel on one side, as if rolled up. They are exceedingly rough, and ad- here to whatever woollen stuff they touch, so as not to be easily dislodged. Seed corn having burrs (as the seeds of the cleavers are called) in it, if thrown on a large piece of baize cloth, will attach all the burrs and clear the corn. They are also heavy enough to resist dressing, and big enough to escape the screen. Botanists tell us that they may be roasted instead of coffee; but unless children gather them out of hedges for this purpose, they cannot be ob- tained separate from other rubbish. Without doubt, when roasted, they would grind; but raw they are the toughest of all seeds in agriculture. Millers may very rationally object to them, for, if they be nu- merous, they will almost make the stones whistle. In sam- ples of oats they are abominable ; horses can scarcely grind them. * This common weed has been found wild in the remote country of Nepal, by the Hon, Captain Gardner, from whom Dr. Wallich sent Sir James Edward Smith specimens. 310 WEEDS OF AGRICULTURE. How to destroy this weed, is, how to destroy all annuals, namely, by encouraging the seeds to vegetate, and killing them with the plough. However, as it chiefly infests dry and deep soiis, or black-mould land, it may be useful to the amateur to show by what rotation it may be effectually sub- dued. Suppose a quantity of this weed to grow with a crop of oats; after harvest, as rains come on, the scattered seeds will very numerously vegetate on the surface; this will be much encouraged by getting off the stubble, and harrowing ; when the opportunity occurs, plough the land a shallow tilth, and harrow itagain. Much surface rubbish may now be raked and carried off, and the land lie till spring. After spring seeding, plough this piece a seed furrow pitch, and harrow it; clean it from twitch and roots, and let it lie to be green over with annuals. {t may then be manured, and the manure immediately ploughed under. After a little harrowing and handpicking the twitch, the land may lie till you choose to sow it; the best crop is rape if the land be light, which should be sown rather late (about the begin- ning of August), and perfectly well hoed and cleaned. The crop may be stocked with sheep in February, but not eaten too close down. The surface, as the spring advances, is to be kept clean with hoes, and the rape is to stand to be threshed ; after which the surface must be discharged of the stalks by pulling, and the land may be sown with wheat at once ploughing. This crop may be cleaned with a little exertion by weeding ; and in the spring sow the land well down with the best mixture of grass seeds that can be pro- cured. Though light land does not suit wheat, especially as to quality, yet depth and penetrability of subsoil will generally give you produce enough. It grows too tall and flaggy, and is easily brought down with wind and rain; but if it be clean it will make good seed for other soils; and you can by no other means obtain so much profit, without deteriorating the soil, by any other rotation of the crops. This argument might be beneficially extended, as it applies to the cultivation of dry black-mould land, of deep texture, having some dry peat remaining, and a clay bottom, too far below to be ploughed up, except in spots and WEEDS OF AGRICULTURE. 3H) patches, This land will by no means lie profitably in per- manent grass, neither can any four fields of it be rendered convertible, because the continuance of ploughing pulverizes the soil to dust, and the encroachment of the couch requires much exertion to master it.. In the state of a dry powder, the ‘soil powerfully resists moisture, and becomes highly infertile, and the weeds overpower all husbandry. The usual rotation in the drier part of fen lands, is either from paring or burning the grass surface for rape, eaten off by sheep, to oats the second year, and wheat the third year ; or Heligoland beans after rape, and wheat the third year. If, with the wheat, the land were returned to grass, no fault ought to be found ; but the cultivator will not part with the arable system so soon. After wheat they go to fallow, and here begin the powder and the weeds. Fourth year, fallow, rape; oats the fifth year, and then wheat and grass seeds. No management on earth can subdue weeds on light deep soils, with such a system; those which naturally prevail in the soil, and such as may be sown with the crops, are per- fectly triumphant. Horse-hoeing is here impracticable, the soil being so light ; hand-hoeing and weeding have been followed, to the expense of five or six and twenty shillings an acre, without being able to clean the crop. The mode looked to, is to get a thick crop of corn if possible, and when the crop is a foot high, or more, to put weeders in it, who break off and crop and batter down the biggest of the weeds, and leave the others to contend with the crop as nature and the season may rule. As to hariff, where it abounds, they sometimes drag the crop (if wheat) with a horse-drag. Sometimes the weeders make themselves short rakes, and scratch and tear the crop in pieces, as well as the weeds. These methods never did much good; for that which pulls the corn away, opens the path for the weeds to grow again. Where patches of this weed grow through a thick crop of wheat in spring, nothing better can be done than to crop off the superior shoots within the wheat leaves, and leave the wheat crop as entire as possible, to smother the plants below. But, after a great deal of experience, which | have had in =f |b WEEDS OF AGRICULTURE. the cultivation of dry-bottomed and deep black-mould lands, [recommend short rotations of cropping between longer inter- vals of grass lay. Nothing else can subdue the weeds, which are so numerous and ramping in such soils. 8. BLACK BINDWEED (polygonum convolvulus). Climbing Buck-wheat. In some places called Bear- bind; but in the fens simply Bindweed, because such land produces none of the perennial rooted species here- after mentioned. Leaves heart-arrow-shaped ; stem twining, angular; segments of the calyx bluntly keeled. Annual. Flowers in June and September. This weed is too often a companion to the last: the same soils grow it abundantly where it has got in by sowing, and it runs to as great a length, getting above the corn that is laid, and covering the crop by patches. The seeds are brown, triangular, hard, and smooth, and quite as nutritious as buck-wheat. They are heavy, and large enough to resist dressing, and in wheat samples are objected to for the same reason as cockle. In oats they are really no objection to the buyer, horses being very fond of them. The farmer, however, has just reason to stand in fear of this weed, from the destruction it brings to his crops, and the injury done to the samples. 9. SHEPHERD’S NEEDLE, Venus’s Comb, or Needle Chervil (sandyx pecten veneris). Called also Beggar’s- needle and Crow-needles. Fruit nearly smooth, with a bristly~edged long beak; umbels simple, solitary, or in pairs; bracteas jagged; petals inflexed at the point. Annual. June, September. This is a bushy and troublesome annual in barley crops ; the seeds are long and bent, of a rough texture and brown colour. ‘They are seldom seen in samples of wheat, being a little too short of growth; but barley, being mown, must necessarily be infested if they be in the crop, for no dressing can separate them. I was told in Hampshire that they never weed their barfey: but whether their flinty and calcareous soil be much suited to this weed, | do not know; certainly lonvolvidiis. Ris. & = S iS) = - ae a SA . o, Sie NY } ) Und Ve M4 WEEDS OF AGRICULTURE. Foal ss there were many tall horse knaps, and a sprinkling of this¢les, docks, wild carrots, and such things, standing bolt upright when the barley drooped with ripening. I doubt very much whether any more weeding will be done in consequence of the writing of this Essay: the breadths sown are very large, and I suppose they have not women and children enough in the villages to do what is wanted. 10. ANNUAL SNAKEWEED (polygonum lapathifolium). Pale Persicaria. Styles two, distinct; stamens six; flower stalks rough ; stipulas beardless ; seeds concave on each side. Called in the fens willow-weed, where it is one of the worst weeds they have. It grows very freely on all loose and deep soils, and on marshy lands, though it be scarcely known to any of the cultivators of clay, and it is as rarely to be seen on any sort of turnip land; so that the greater part of farmers will not be able to comprehend what plant is meant. Botanists know it very well, but they do not know it to be a destructive weed; accordingly, in Mr. Pitt’s Essay it is omitted. This plant grows from one foot to near three feet high, but commonly from eighteen inches to two feet. Its stalks are pale, or spotted, or reddish, the joints much swoln, and the stalk appearing tender and succulent (something like that of the balsam). The plant branches much when it has free growth, and produces a great number of crowded spikes of seed. The leaves resemble those of the willow, but are charged with dark spots in the middle. The seeds are very bright and heavy, round one way, but flat and indented on one side; the colour is black. This piant belongs to the same genus in botany with buck-wheat and black bind- weed ; and its seeds are highly nutritious, and very grateful to birds, especially partridges, lapwings, &c. These seeds very much infest samples of fen corn, whether wheat, oats, or barley. The skreen, indeed, discharges much: and, with pardon be it spoken, I have seen sacks filled with it, and shot into a dry ditch. Those who keep 314 WEEDS OF AGRICULTURE. decoys for catching wild ducks, will buy the seeds to feed and entice the fowl. Pigs will do well on them, if boiled. As a weed, in fen soils, it is the most ramping and cum- bersome of any weed that grows. Its seeds abound in the soil, and increase by scattering from each crop, so that in many cases, by spring cleaning, the whole surface is covered with the plants; these are usually ploughed down, and the land sown upon the second earth; but often as many more appear, and very much injure the crop. In 1821, a piece of loose, low land, in the newly enclosed fens of Peterborough, was sown with oats and ray-grass; but this weed usurped the soil, and spoiled the crop. The next spring, when the field should have been grass lay, these seeds again rose so thick as to cover the field entirely, excepting a few patches. The land had sheep put upon it to eat what grass there was, and the crop of weeds was left to stand till autumn. During a great deal of the summer, the sheep could not be easily found in the cover: and when mown down, being then dead and ripe, the swarths lay like peas and beans, sending forth a strong and peculiarly bitter smell. This crop might sup- ply the soil with a stock of seeds, at the rate of twelve bushels to the acre. Of course this was not the way to destroy snake-weed, or willow-weed ; but all fen soils contain a great deal of it: when they come again from grass, to be pared and burned, as much as lies to one inch and a half deep will be con- sumed by the fire. Some will grow (with other weeds) in the rape ; oats the second crop, at once ploughing, is gene- rally a thick and quick growing or smothering crop; not many weeds can contend with this crop, and weeders may easily subdue them. In autumn sow wheat on the oat stub- ble, and in spring sow grass soon enough: roll well, and weed well; and if you have not destroyed much willow- weed, you have done the next best thing, that is—Aindered at from growing. 11. CHARLOCK. It scarcely deserves mentioning, that these seeds are found in samples of corn at all, because a skreen will separate WEEDS OF AGRICULTURE. 315 them completely, they being so minute ; they will therefore be more particularly mentioned hereafter. Of these eleven weeds, whose seeds infest samples of corn, five are princi- pally injurious to wheat; the others are partial, and more common in barley and oats. 12. HORSE GOLD (ranunculus arvensis). This species of frog-wort or corn butter-cup is an annual, or rather, perhaps, a biennial, as it is sown and reaped with wheat. The stem is erect, about a foot and a half high; upper leaves decomposite, segments narrow; flowers small, pale yellow ; seeds flat, convex on one side, concave on the other; about one-sixth of an inch in diameter; edges fringed with crooked prickles, with which the seeds attach themselves to the fur or wool of animals. When this plant is threshed with wheat, the seeds appear in the sample ; and from which they are not easily separated by the com- mon means. Wheat containing these seeds cannot be sold, nor should they be used for seed, and the miller is sure to object, as they belong to an acrid and dangerous family of plants. When met with, they should be thrown out of the sheaves by the reapers. CHAPTER II. OF FALLOW WEEDS. Tne distinction of fallow weeds is not made as if all surface- rubbish, and the seedlings which grow, were not to be also destroyed by the fallow; but rooted weeds, and a few others, deserve to be particularized, and treated as objects to which attention ought to be drawn. After all which has been said about pulverizing the soil, that the seedlings may vegetate, this has never been the object of any fallow. In clay land, and all stiff loams, every exertion is made to break the soil down as fine as possible; but the weeds grow incidentally, and according to the season, and must be destroyed if they grow. In all light soils, a high state of pulverization is unavoidable, because while they are work- ing out the couch, the other necessarily takes place. But whether many seedlings shall grow, depends on the mois- ture of the season, as before. Mr. Pitt says, “J have observed, that wet weather is as necessary as dry, to give a summer fallow its whole effect.”” Meaning, that the frequent showers encourage the germination of seeds, and as plants are destroyed by the next ploughing. Most farmers may have observed the same thing, though they cannot alter the weather ; but in waiting and wishing for rains, all hard land farmers look more to the pulverization of their fallows than to the vegetation of their annual weeds. The only obser- vation of any practical importance is, that clay fields for fallow, ought, if possible, to be autumn-ploughed ; because in spring you may be obstructed by drought, and be prevented from attaining the necessary pulverization. Couch is very hard to kill in clay; it will scarcely ever draw; and in WEEDS OF AGRICULTURE. 317 breaking down the soil, every division of a clod into two parts often leaves a piece of couch running through the middle of each. In wet seasons no good can be done; and as far as regards the real objects of fallowing, dry weather on the whole is the more favourable. In every fallow, a great many annuals are destroyed of course; but in those which are less complete, whether it be from the farmer’s inattention or want of power, or from the interruptions of too much wet, much worse things are left behind than the seeds in the soil. In point of fact, there can hardly ever be above one extra ploughing required to turn down seedlings, on any soil, and in the most favourable season. Modern writers have treated this subject as if pulverizing were a new object in fallowing; or as if the seedlings of weeds did not always grow with pulverization ; or, thirdly, as if all the seeds of annuals which the soil contains might be easily destroyed by due attention to this object. In truth, it is no such thing; for some years these extra exer- tions (if extra pulverization be effected) would fill the crops with a more abundant growth: and if these be all killed by the hoe and the hand, and clean husbandry accomplished, and so continued, the number of seeds must diminish, and the labour would at length be mitigated. Nevertheless, this is wholly impracticable on poor soils, where weeds most abound, because the crops will not pay the expense ; and on obstinate clay soils it is equally impracticable, because the drill system cannot be efficiently worked thereon. The objects of a fallow are, and always were, Ist, To eradicate root weeds, and cleanse and open the soil to the fibres of future crops. 2dly, To pulverize and break down the texture of clay soils, and mix them with manure, in order to bring the land periodically into a mild and fertile condition. The convertible, or turnip system, introduces no new object in fallowing ; the soils being lighter, the business is accomplished in shorter time; therefore turnips are sown with the manure, and the land has thus a double advantage in the renewal of its fertility ; at the same time returning a valuable crop for the expenses incurred. Seedling weeds are destroyed incidentally; and good fallows, with good 318 WEEDS OF AGRICULTURE. seasons, killa great many, though it be not the object of fallowing. The fallow weeds are principally such as follow: — 1. Couch; 2. Rest-harrow; 3. Saw-wort (the common Way-thistle); 4. Curled Dock; 5. Tall oat-like Soft-grass ; 6. Colt’s-foot ; 7. Corn-bindweed; 8. Corn-mint; 9. Sur- face-twitch; 10. Black-grass. Many others might be added ; but if these be subdued, the others must be killed of course. 1. COUCH (agropyrum repens). Calyx valves pointed or awned, lanceolate, many-ribbed ; florets about five, sharp-pointed, or awned ; leaves flat ; root creeping. Until of late years, that botanical science has afforded us better information, it was generally supposed that all couch or twitch was of one sort, or the roots of one species of grass. But many persons observed that some of these roots, on wet sous, were black, and much smaller, and they had locally obtained the name of black twiteh. Queries have also been sent to the Farmer’s Journal, ‘‘ What is black twitch?” In fact, the black twitch, on soils where it prevails, is much worse than the other, because it is wiry and small, and not so easily discharged from the soil; it is also more brittle, and by harrowing breaks short. It is called Agrostis repens. Panicle scattered ; branches bare at the base; florets few; calyx, inner valve smooth; root creeping. There are two other grasses which have strong creeping roots, and are indifferently called couch ; these are the holcus mollis and the poa pratensis: they may locally abound, but, as far as my knowledge goes, they are not so common as the agropyrum repens. Holcus mollis. Creeping-rooted Soft-grass. Calyx partly naked; lower floret perfect, awnless; upper with a sharply bent prominent awn; leaves slightly downy ; root creeping. Flowers in June and July. Poa pratensis. Smooth-stalked Meadow-grass. Panicle WEEDS OF AGRICULTURE. 319 spreading; spikelets four-flowered ; florets lanceolate, five-ribbed, connected by a web; stipula short and ob- tuse: stem and leaves smooth ; root creeping. With respect to destroying couch there can be but one way ; that is, by ploughing up the soil and pulverizing it. If there were no fallow weed but couch, as far as British husbandry is concerned, fallowing would be quite as neces- sary, and much the same in operation, as it is at present. Under every rotation of crops, with the best management possible, couch accumulates in all soils. The very best fal- low must leave some; with the barley it kindles and shoots, and the clover year foster its growth. If then you have wheat at one ploughing, it is seldom wise to break up the tilth, but rather to harrow it lightly down, and drill the seed upon the unbroken furrows: surface hoeing destroys annuals, but has nothing to do with eradicating twitch. Hence, after the wheat the fallow becomes as necessary as before ; and this must be always so. On clay soils, according to their quality, whatever the rotation be, fallows are still more necessary, because of their cohesive nature. Twitch does not work so freely on stiff land, nor does it accumulate so much ; but here the labour, which might be slighted if de- stroying couch only was considered, is necessary to pulve- rize the soil, as an indispensable principle of fertility. By our ancient system of fallowing open-field lands, it does not appear that destroying weeds was much in their thoughts ; nor had the great benefit of pulverization on clays attracted their attention. They broke up their fallows in May and June, sometimes so hardened, and in such immense lumps, that the rest of the summer did not dissolve the clods ; nor, with the assistance of their abortive operations, was the soil half broken down as it ought. Nevertheless, their sole objects appeared to be, to break down the soil, and mix it with manure in preparation for sowing their wheat. At any rate, as the breaking down was frequently incomplete, the cleansing must have been abortive, if they had it m view. The modern dispute about the utility of fallowing, is founded on this point: —that perfect and sufficient pulve- 320 WEEDS OF AGRICULTURE. rization on heavy soils would enable such soils to produce a root crop with the fallow (as potatoes), and the land would go to wheat in a better state than without such crop, This argument is true, as far as heavy soils are rich. A great deal of such land, very ill-managed before, by more expense and exertion, has proved the fact; but this is the same thing as saying that such lands were capable of a better and more profitable rotation. The rule does not extend to cold clays, and especially not to such as are very wet; so that the anti- fallowists have proved nothing, and fallowing remains an in- dispensable part of husbandry, and will for ever. It may, however, be added here, that in many cases of fal- lowing, a summer crop may be taken from off a fallow, with not only advantage to the farmer, but with positive advan- tage to the land, by keeping it shaded from the exhausting effects of the summer sun. It is very seldom that a stiff clayey soil, though fallowed up in the autumn, and well ameliorated by winter frosts, can be sufficiently worked in the spring, and cleared of couch and other root-weeds soon enough to receive a summer crop, to be cleared off before wheat seed time. But with lighter descriptions of turnip land, which may be perfectly cleaned and ready for the dung cart by the Ist of June (and ultimately intended for fallow wheat), may be very properly sowed with yellow clover to be folded off before wheat seed time; or with brank, for a crop which will come off early in October. Under either mode of management, the land being shaded during the dry months, will be of signal service to the wheat crop, whether or not any advantage be derived from the stolen crop. Repeated and unnecessary ploughings of fallows, during a dry summer, deteriorates the soil much more than 1s com- monly imagined. The humid riches of a soil are fugitive under a hot sun, or drying air; and therefore, the less the eround is stirred, if free from weeds, the better it is for future crops. A new idea respecting the real use of fallowing has been lately promulgated by some French philosophers, and which is at complete variance with the notion above hinted, viz. that the sun and drying winds draw out the best qualities of WEEDS OF AGRICULTURE. SoU the soil. On the contrary, it is asserted, that land which has been previously cropped, actually requires bleaching by the sun and air, to free it from noxious exudations discharged by the roots of previous crops; and which act as poisons to plants of the same species. It is thus that these philosophers account for the difficulty of growing crops of the same kind consecutively : why broad clover, or any other crop, ézres of the same field: and moreover, the only cogent reason that can be given for the necessity of a constant change, or rota- tion of crops. There may be some truth in this new philosophy, but it is not yet generally received. Though there can be no doubt of the necessity of fallowing, in order to clear the soil from weeds, or to get it into a proper state for the reception of seed, yet it is a well-known fact, that the more a light soil is ploughed during summer, the less capable is it of bearing a heavy crop of corn, unless recruited by an adequate supply of manure. 2. REST-HARROW (ononis arvensis). Called also Cam- mock. Flowers axillary, in pairs; leaves ternate, upper ones solitary ; branches villose. [ should not have set this down as a fallow weed, had not Mr. William Pitt, of Wolverhampton, mentioned, in his Es- say on Weeds (printed in the 5th vol. of Communications to the Board of Agriculture), that it is common about Wol- verhampton. He adds, ‘ But if the root can be destroyed in the fallow, there is little danger from the seeds.” ‘Though Mr. Pitt, by several of his articles, was not an agriculturist, yet he understood botany very well, and must be allowed to know what was common about Wolverhampton. There can be no doubt but that the rest-harrow and the thorny rest-harrow (ononis spinosa), were common annoyances to the operations of agriculture a hundred years ago, but I should have thought them now confined to wastes, banks, and warrens. The names petty whinand ground furze, given to the thorny species, will indicate to the reader its resemblance to gorse (ulex Euro- peus); but the flower is nearly white, and the plant trails on the surface. It is quoted by Dr. Withering, from Y 322 WEEDS OF AGRICULTURE. Mr. Woodward, “That he examined some hundreds of plants of the arvensis, in the corn fields, at Berkhamstead, in Hertfordshire.” The plant of course is shrubby and peren- nial, but it deserves to be closely examined into, why it is that the roots are not destroyed by fallowing? Is it owing to the great depth to which they penetrate, or to their fibrous minuteness, like nettles? Also it seems to require consider- ation, that in a very great number of fields it has certainly been destroyed; and why, therefore, it should yet be com- mon in others? The rest-harrow is still met with in poor gravelly soils, which have been long arable. It escapes both plough and harrow, from the extreme toughness and length of its root, requiring a mattock to grub it up. 3. SAW-WORT (carduus arvensis). Leaves sessile, pinna- tified, spiny; stem panicled; calyxes ovate, spinulose. The common way-thistle, or pasture thistle; but also a very bad perennial weed on rather light loams, and loose, strong soils. Indeed, it grows almost everywhere, and loves mellow clay, and seemingly wet clay quite as well; but it is more easily subdued on good strong loams than on such soils as are either very loose or very wet. It seems quite impossible wholly to destroy this weed by any exertions of tillage which are consistent with due attention to profit. We can do no better in any case than give a good naked fallow; after which a good many of these weeds may rise the next year with the wheat ; for that season they should be carefully hand-weeded, if the soil be open: if it be clay, they will not draw, but must be cut close with a spud. If neg- lected, there is no weed more unsightly or injurious; the second growth, on loose soils, often gets into the reapers’ hands ; but the first, if not destroyed, will overtop the wheat, bearing innumerable clusters of flowers, and shedding their winged seeds in most noxious abundance. The roots of this weed are sometimes called vermicular, but whether this is because they creep invisibly, and spread in an unaccountable manner, is not mentioned. We have generally understood vermicular roots to mean those creeping roots which are very crooked, and lie much curled together, WEEDS OF AGRICULTURE. Oee as in the great hedge-bindweed (convolvulus sepium). I have observed the roots of the thistle to be often curled up, but it has always been in a dry crack in the clay where they could not get out. I believe the roots of thistles, the living roots, can seldom be seen or found, much less picked out, ina fallow. If they have horizontal roots, they lie deeper than we can plough: and, indeed, something of this sort might be suspected, because the spring and summer plants, especially on loose soils, often draw with a tap root (an annual root) a foot long, or more, still leaving part behind. However, this root or descending caudex may strike down, from midway or higher, in the cultivated soil, as the ascend- éng caudex or stem rises. I have found on light rich soils, in spring, a great many small thistles, as it were, bursting from their matrix, and have gently pulled the horizontal zig- zag roots from the soil, with many green buds and shoots just appearing. These roots were jointed, white, and of a very succulent texture. This, therefore, is the manner of their reproduction: the fibres left, shoot out larger roots, which also rise higher in the soil, and spread; these form buds, and hence come our annual crop of thistles. Now, what is the inference from the facts, that couch- grass and thistles can by no means be extirpated? Is it not perpetual exertions, fallowing, and agricultural labour? Some may be inclined to say, “A melancholy reflection !”’ — But I say no—not at all. Providence could not have better contrived than that exertions should be perpetual, and that success should be in proportion. There is not a weed that we ought to wish out of our fields, unless we remove and destroy it; because, if there were none, or very few, all fields would be clean, and no praise could light on superior modes of tillage. Some may say again, “So much the better !””— But I say no:— Does any man think that our various soils would have been sufficiently pulverized and worked, had there been no enemies of this sort to challenge forth our labour? Sterility would have seized on our turnip Jands, which are only continued in a state to bear their rela- tions of crops, by the necessary periodical renewals of their fertility. So might all our clays have gone to perpetual y 2 324 WEEDS OF AGRICULTURE. erass, for neglect of proper tillage would have rendered them unprofitable. ‘By the sweat of thy brow thou shalt eat bread,” is an ordination of the highest authority, and the fulfilment of it is that precise principle which puts all man- kind in motion. The necessity of subsistence produces in- dustrious hands for every department of labour; but the sluggish nature of man requires every stimulus to exertion. The weeds of the fields excite emulation among farmers, and foul fields are always a reproach to the occupier. Thus we are compelled, by an unseen hand, to better habits and more active industry. Clearing the wheat of thistles by the hook or spud, is usu- ally practised during the months of April and May. But to show of how little avail it is to cut down thistles early in the year, the following rustic doggrel may be subjoined : — “Tf thistles be cut in April, They appear in a little while ; ifin May, They peep out the next day ; If cut in June, They re-appear very soon ; If in July, They'll hardly die ; But if cut in August, Die they must!” Now although we have known many deeply-worked sum- mer fallows fail to destroy thistles, yet we have known a very foul field cleared of them entirely by once fallowing ; and which was attributed to putting in the ploughs at the very nick of time the roots were making a fresh shoot ; and particularly just before making their last summer shoot — say about the beginning of September. 4. CURLED DOCK (rumez crispus). The Common Dock of clover fields. Petals permanent, ovate, entire, all tu- berculated ; leaves lanceolate, wavy, acute. Root pe- rennial; flowers in June and July. To avoid this pest, farmers should be cautious not to sow clover seeds which have the seeds of the dock intermixed. WEEDS OF AGRICULTURE. 320 The seeds are triangular, bright brown, and heavy; and so near the size of red clover seed, that they cannot be sepa- rated by sieves. In some seasons we get good ripe seed from clover eddishes, and this is always free from docks, because these weeds do not form a second seed-stem in the same summer; but I am afraid that maiden seed (seed from the first growing) is rarely quite free. But this really seems to be a point of inexcusable neglect, because the dock plants are sufficiently large and conspicuous to be either drawn or spudded, before the clover is too high to walk in. Dock seeds do not infest corn samples; it rarely happens that they are seen even in barley, because the turnip fallow is quite capable of rooting them out. If otherwise, and they are suffered to seed in the barley crop, it must be very bad farming, because no weed can be more distinctly seen when weeds ought to be pulled out. 5. TALL OAT-LIKE SOFT GRASS (holcus avenaceus), or Tall Oat-grass (avena elatior). Calyx smooth; bar- ren floret lowest, with a sharply-bent prominent awn; fertile, one slightly elevated, scarcely awned; leaves rather harsh; root knotty; flowers in June and J uly. This grass is a noxious weed in arable lands, though not so in pastures; indeed, as an ingredient of permanent pas- ture, it possesses sufficient merit, in respect of early growth and produce, to entitle it to a place in the most valuable pastures — such, however, as are never intended to be con- verted to tillage. Mr. Pitt includes this among the twitch grasses, but its roots do not creep in like manner; they are properly tuberous, and, increasing in the soil, they are hard to destroy. These tubers often subsist in great quantity where there may be but little couch, but at least as much fallowing is required to remove them. In fact, as the bulbs may not all hang to the congeries of fibres to which they be- long, many loose ones, though ever so lightly covered with soil, will escape; it being manifest, that such small things can- not be picked out, excepting as they hang to something. This weed has been found very prevalent in some parts of the North of England ; but wherever it prevails, it ought to 320 WEEDS OF AGRICULTURE. be carefully rooted out, for the plant it bears is tall, strong, and cumbersome, capable of contending with any crop, and often grows taller than the corn. Besides, it has a tendency to take absolute possession of the soil; and, if once in pos- session, it is most difficult to eradicate. In wet, clayey, arable soils, where, through neglect, this weed abounds, the only remedy is paring and burning the surface of the land, and afterwards giving it a naked fallow. The row culture, and liberal use of the horse-hoe, being adopted in every suc- ceeding crop, will effect the destruction of the weed, and prevent its regaining a general footing in the soil. There is a variety of this grass without awns, described in the Hortus Gramineus Woburnensis ; it is also destitute of the knotted roots which constitute the character of couch, as regards this orass. 6. COLT’S-FOOT (tusstlago farfara). Scape one-flowered, scaly ; leaves cordate, angular, toothletted. The roots of colt’s-foot creep horizontally far and wide. Every part of the root will produce a plant, and, though buried to the depth of a yard or more, it will vegetate, send up a stem to the surface, and spread out with astonishing rapidity. It will flourish in the strongest clays, in which it is found to be one of the most injurious of weeds, and hard to destroy. The flowers appear early in the spring, and long before the leaves are expanded. Where it abounds, draining should be had recourse to, if the soil be damp; and if clayey, the texture of the soil should be improved by an abundant ap- plication of sand, coal ashes, or other warm dividing manures. Paring and burning early in the spring, and followed by a naked summer fallow, will overcome this weed so often com- plained of by farmers ; and the adoption and judicious applica- tion of the row, or drill culture and horse-hoe husbandry, will complete the eradication of this vile and troublesome weed. I have completely overcome colt’s-foot, by simply draining and hoeing. It was never suffered to produce flowers, or fully to expand the leaves; this plan persevered in, and faithfully executed throughout one entire season, was found suftlicient to subdue it, But when suffered to flower, and to expand WEEDS OF AGRICULTURE. ae? the leaves, the increase of the creeping roots went on in pro- portion, and rendered simple hoeing afterwards for that sea- son of little use. The roots are frequently found deep in the soil, and when it gets established in clayey or marly lands, it is next to impracticable to get rid of it. By deep plough- ing and forking out, a great expense is incurred; and, as before observed, should the smallest portions of the roots be left in the soil, plants will be produced from them, and the previous operations of ploughing and forking out will be found to have prepared the soil for the more rapid propaga- tion and extension of these plants. However, if the colt’s- foot can be ploughed and forked out at a reasonable expense, it will assist more effectually the practice, recommended above, of destroying the plants, by never suffering them to flower or to develop their leaves, which may be effected by the hoe when the land is under an annual crop, provided the row culture be adopted. CORN BINDWEED, Small Bindweed (convolvulus ar- vensis). Leaves arrow-shaped, acute at each end; stalks mostly single-flowered ; bracteas minute, remote from the flower. Root perennial. Flowers in June and July. The root penetrates to a considerable depth in the soil, and creeps powerfully. Light sandy soils are most subject to it. Corn bindweed is as difficult to extirpate as colt’s- foot: and when it once gets introduced into the soil, whether in grass or in tillage land, it is found to be unconquerable by the ordinary modes of weeding. The stems entwine round and choke the plants of corn, pulse, or grass. Every portion of a broken or divided root will grow and produce a plant ; it vegetates rapidly, and spreads in every direction. By never allowing the young shoots to develop the leaves, but by hoeing on their first appearance above-ground, in the course of one season the roots will be found so much ex- hausted, as to yield afterwards to the drill culture of crops, provided the principle be acted on of using the hoe, so as to prevent the shoots of the plants from expanding their leaves. The mode recommended for the speedy and effectual de- 328 WEEDS OF AGRICULTURE. struction of colt’s-feot equally applies to corn bindweed. Paring and burning the surface, however, recommended in the former case, will not be advisable here, as the light sandy nature of the soil in which bindweed prevails would suffer injury in its texture from the process. But a naked summer fallow, with due attention to deep ploughing, and careful forking out of the roots of the weed, are essential to begin with, and the row culture and persevering use of the hoe ever afterwards followed. 1. WILD CARROT (daucus carota). Bristles of the seeds slender; leaflets pinnatifid, with linear-lanceolate acute segments; when in seed concave. Root biennial ; flowering in June and July. 2, HEDGE PARSLEY (forilis infesta), sometimes called Dill. Umbels of many close rays; general bracteas scarcely any; leaflets pinnatifid; branches spreading. The seeds are destitute of ribs ; covered irregularly with ascending, awl-shaped, shortish, rigid prickles, or partly with blunt, prominent, crowded granulations ; the junc- ture channelled, close. 3. COMMON FOOL’S PARSLEY. Lesser Hemlock (@thusa cynapium). Leaves uniform; leaflets wedge- shaped, decurrent, with lanceolate segments. Root annual ; flowering in July and August. The seeds are ovate, moderately convex, with five rounded, acutely-keeled ribs, and deep acutangular interstices ; their inner surfaces dilated, flat-marked with a pair of coloured longitudinal lines, and closely pressed together. 4. SPINGEL or FENNEL (eum fenieulum), or Common Fennel. Leaves triply pinnate; leaflets awl-shaped, drooping ; bracteas none. Root biennial; flowering in July and August. The names wild carrot and dill are often applied by hus- bandmen to the above four plants generally; the third, or WEEDS OF AGRICULTURE. 329 fool’s parsley, is considered dangerous, or possessing poi- sonous properties. As weeds, they are not of a very trou- blesome nature. Some of the seeds, together with that of the common dock, not unfrequently infest samples of red clover: those who please, as they walk in their fields, may examine the seeds of the wild carrot, by rubbing them in their hand, to ascertain whether they be egg-shaped, equal at both ends, quite plump, and rough on the surface, but not so as to adhere to any thing. When our forefathers had clover seed to sell, they some- times used to recommend it by saying, ‘that it had neither dock nor dill in it.” The seeds of these plants being sown upon the barley, or being in the soil, escape the weeding of that year, and the next they become strong-rooted plants in the clover, and should be as carefully rooted out as the docks. They are local weeds, and but seldom more than one species is found to infest particular soils; on dry chalky soils the last is (as far as my experience goes) peculiar ; the fooi’s parsley is more common on light cultivated soils. CORN MINT (mentha arvensis). Leaves ovate, acute ser- rated ; stamens as long as the blossoms. Root pe- rennial. Where the land is moist this weed chiefly prevails: its creeping roots are said to be difficult to extirpate; I have not, however, from personal experience, had to contend with it. It is certainly not a very common or general tillage weed, except on marshy or fenny land, which has been over-cropped ; the roots are white, fleshy, and creeping, and bind the soil much in which they grow, obstructing the pul- verization ; also many of the roots are cut by the plough, and may break from the tops in harrowing, so that patches (for they generally abound in little hollows) ought to receive extra tillage, by turning short with your ploughs and harrows, and so give more exposure. It is said to be over- come and got rid off by correcting the defects of such soils as encourage its growth, by draining, paring, and burning the surface, and adopting the drill and horse-hoe husbandry. This plant is common enough. 330 WEEDS OF AGRICULTURE. SURFACE TWITCH (agrostis stolonifera angustifolia ). Smaller-leaved Creeping-bent, or Spurious Fiorin, Red Robin, &c. Panicle crowded with florets at the base and towards the top; florets small; inner valve of the calyx smooth, outer serrulated, corolla without any rudiment of an awn. Perennial; flowers in July and August. COMMON KNOT-GRASS, or Wire-weed (polygonum aviculare). Flowers axillary ; leaves elliptic-lanceolate, rough-edged ; ribs of the stipulas distant; stem pro- cumbent, herbaceous. Annual; flowers from April to October. The root is fibrous, long, very tough, and somewhat woody ; branched below ; stems many, spreading in every direction, generally prostrate, much branched, round, striated, leafy, with numerous knots or joints. This and the pre- ceding are indifferently called surface twitch, or red robin, by farmers ; on examination, one will be found a species of the natural grasses, and the latter a species of buck-wheat. They are mischievous weeds among broad-cast sown corn and turnip crops, particularly in the early stages of the erowth of such crops. How to destroy these, is merely to adopt the drill and row mode of culture, to keep the land fertile by judicious manuring and cropping. Poverty of soil and neglect of the hoe, or its imperfect use in the broad- cast sowing mode of culture, are the great encouragers of surface twitch. BLACK-GRASS (alopecurus agrestis), also called Black- bent, Spear-grass, Slender Foxtail-grass, &c. Culm erect, roughish ; spike racemose, nearly simple, taper- ing; calyx glumes almost naked, combined at the base, dilated at the keel. Annual; flowers from July till November. This annual and noxious species of foxtail- grass is distinguished at first sight from the valuable permanent pasture species, meadow-foxtail (alopecurus pratensis), by the want of woolly hairs on the spike, so conspicuous in that of the a. pratensis. WEEDS OF AGRICULTURE. 331 This weed produces an abundance of seed, which attracts the smaller birds, as well as pheasants and partridges, which are fond of the seeds. It is execrated by farmers under the names of black-bent, black-grass, spear-grass, Kc. It is most prevalent in poor soils, or rather such as are reduced to poverty by hard injudicious cropping. Although an annual, yet it is most difficult to extirpate, for it sends up flowering stalks during the summer and autumn; cutting it down, therefore, previous to the time of its flowering, or of ripening the seed,—an effectual remedy for most annual weeds,—is not of avail with this. It can bear to be repeatedly cut down in one season, without suffering essen- tially by the process. It has already been remarked, that the appearance of black-bent among wheat, is a certain sign that the crop will be light and worthless. It rises on poor loamy gravels, that have been sown when in too wet a state: and it is remark- able that it only appears on strong clays which have been sown when too dry. It is seldom seen wherea superior style of farmingis carried on : and this, which is always most pro- fitable to the farmer, will be found the best remedy for re- moving, as it will be the best preventive of its intrusion. GREAT ROUND-HEADED GARLIC (allium ampelo- prasum ). This is a most noxious deep-rooting weed, in some of the deep clayey loams of England. The stem and head of the plant is reaped with the corn, and if also threshed together, the rank and disagreeable scent of the garlic is conveyed to the grain, rendering it almost unsaleable. The roots lie far below the range of the plough-share, and are therefore difficult to extirpate by the ordinary processes of fallowing. Luckily this wild garlic is but locally distributed, and by no means a generally prevailing weed. CHAPTER III. OF THE WEEDS WHICH ARE PRINCIPALLY OBJECTIONABLE AS THEY ENCUMBER THE SOIL, OR WHOSE ROOTS ARE ANNUAL, AND WHOSE SEEDS PASS THE CORN SIEVE. Or this class of weeds, the following deserve particular notice: —1. Charlock; 2. Corn-poppy; 3. Blue-bottle ; 4. Mayweed, or Mather; 5. Corn-marigold. 1. CHARLOCK. This weed was before alluded to, when speaking of those weeds which infest samples of corn; but as the seed is sufli- ciently small to pass through the corn-sieve, its presence in samples must be owing to careless winnowing. There are four different species of plants confounded under the name of charlock, viz. stnapis arvensis, or common wild-mustard ; sinapis nigra, black or Durham mustard; raphanus rapha- nistrum, wild radish ; brasstca napus, wild navew: this last is the least common. Sinapis arvensis has pods with many angles, swoln, and bulged out by the seeds, smooth, longer than the two- edged beak. It is also called Chadlock, Wild Mustard, Corn-cale. Blossom yellow, and without veins. Root annual; flowering in May. Sinapis nigra. Pods rough, laid flat on the spike stalk. Blossom pale yellow ; pods slightly hairy. Root annual ; flowering in June. Raphanus raphanistrum. Calyx upright, close ; pods round, jointed, smooth, of one or two cells. Blossom varying in colour from yellow to straw and white, striped with purple veins. Root annual; flowering in June and July. Straps nigra. Pa: Straps arvensis. PF, WEEDS OF AGRICULTURE. 333 Brassica napus, has the root a regular continuation of the stem. Blossom yellow; pod with warty excrescences. Root biennial; flowering in May. ~o) 2. CORN POPPY (papaver rheas). Indifferently called Red-poppy, Corn-rose, Cop-rose, Head-wark, Red- weed, Red-mailkes. Capsules oblong, smooth; stem many-flowered ; fruit-stalks with bristles laid to; leaves wing-cleft, snipt. Root annual; flowering in May. 3. BLUE BOTTLE (centaurea cyanus). Also named Knap-weed, Corn-flower, Hurt-sickle. Anthodium with serrated scales; leaves strap-shaped, very entire; the lower ones toothed. Root annual; flowering in June and July. 4. MAYWEED, or Mather, or Stinking Camomile (anthemis cotula). Receptacles conical; chaff bristle- shaped; seeds naked. 5. CORN MARIGOLD (chrysanthemum segetum). In Scotland, this is called Yellow Gowans, Quills, Gools ; in Kent, Yellow Bottle; in Norfolk, Buddle; midland counties, Golds, Goulds, Gowls; north of England, Gowlans, Goldens, Gules. Leaves embracing the stem, jagged upwards, tooth-serrated. towards the base. Root annual; flowering from June to October. Linnzus says, this weed was imported into Sweden, along with corn from Jutland, about the end of the last century, and that there is a law in Denmark to oblige the farmers to extirpate it. He recommends the land to be manured in autumn, summer-fallowed, and harrowed frequently after ploughing. The above class of weeds, with their gaudy colours, like heralds of spring and summer, proclaim bad farming to the landlord, the tenant, and to the passenger; and announce the neglect of using clean seed-corn, judicious manuring, fallowing, the row culture, and horse-hoe husbandry. 304 WEEDS OF AGRICULTURE. It is true, however, that certain constituted soils are more obnoxious to particular kinds of weeds than to others; and, vice versa, also that the same proportion of labour, skill, and attention, which, when employed, shall keep clean and in eood heart one kind of soil, shall not be found adequate to produce the same effects of clean and perfect husbandry on another soil differently constituted, but that increased pre- caution and industry are required to produce the same effects. Precaution here is of great importance, for if the seed-corn be not clean, the crop will be foul, whatever care may have been employed on the land ; on the other hand, should the land itself be clean, and the seed-corn likewise, yet, if the hedge-rows are neglected, and suffered to harbour these weeds, the evil will be found only lessened in a degree, not removed. To extirpate these weeds, therefore, clean corn-seed must be used, not a single plant of these weeds suffered to perfect seed in the hedge-rows, and a judicious rotation of crops adopted, so as to admit of the unsparing use of the horse- hoe, as well as of the hand in weeding; by which means, these noxious and disgraceful pests of corn-fields will be overcome, and banished from the soil. The corn-poppy particularly accumulates upon gravelly soils of low quality, also on dry sandy soils, and generally on all dry and shallow lands which are over-cropped and neglected. But much better soils, as loamy gravel, &c. are infested with it, only here the crops are generally good enough to keep it under; and being less abundant, it is much easier subdued by weeding. But the corn-poppy 1s never so triumphant as in a hot and dry season, in which case, many fields, which should have been corn, are wholly covered with it. The misfortune, and that which is borne with wonderful patience by old-fashioned farmers, is, that such a prodigious increase of seeds is added to the soil with every crop. It seems astonishing that the farmers do not think it time now to begin to destroy, rather than propagate them. But they probably reflect that the land is as full of seeds as it can be, or that a bigger crop of the weeds than WEEDS OF AGRICULTURE. gaD they frequently get, can by no means grow. This may be very likely, but it is not the way to any remedy or improve- ment on soils so infested. One of three things must be done by way of remedy: Ist, the soil must be clayed or marled ; 2d, or it must be fed with much larger quantities of farm-yard dung or compost : 3d, if neither of these be easily practicable, the rotation must be changed. have known a farmer, who occupied a gravelly loam quite good enough with good management to bear the four-course shift —to pop in a stolen crop of barley between his wheat and the next turnips: nothing can excuse this conduct, as it must necessarily encourage weeds, and hurt the other crops. But the change of rotations must extend to greater alterations than such as this. It is totally useless to continue a course which will not pay the expenses; and therefore, instead of saying, “ Fallow your land better; hoe your turnips clean (if you get any); drill your barley, and leave not a weed in it;” though all these are highly impor- tant where the soil will pay you for the working, yet where it will not, after the above course once over, sow good grass- seeds, or sainfoin, to lie for a period of years. This will narrow your ploughed land, and strengthen you in manure ; so that improvement may be looked for on the rest of the farm. When such land comes up again, it must be autumn ploughed, and go to turnips; then barley and seeds again for two years; when it comes up again, autumn ploughed, it will probably bear peas (well cleaned). then turnips, barley, and seeds two years; and soon, if any one pleases to ask, ‘‘ Where must we grow wheat?” it may be answered, that probably some pieces on the same farm may bear a better rotation; but at any rate, land of the nature above described can but very rarely be fit for such a crop. When the four-course shift became general, it seemed difficult to think of any other mode, after clover, but wheat ; almost all newly enclosed lands, which had been for ages in open fields, would bear clover at first, and generally good ; they therefore sowed wheat after, and got pretty crops; but this would not last: and thus the four-course shift has been O36 WEEDS OF AGRICULTURE. much too general, and much too long persisted in, on such light soils. Land of too low a quality for wheat after one year’s seeds, is but poor land; but the breadth of it is very considerable in the kingdom. After laying two years in seeds, some try a naked fallow for wheat; but all their manure is wanted for turnips, and these wheat crops are generally very thin and short. Mr. Coke, of Holkham, after two years’ lay, autumn ploughs, and gets the tilth ready for peas, drilled at 18 inches; after the peas, he drills wheat with rape cake, and gets (or did get) good crops. But I should think that this system is now at an end; the present art of farming is to do all that the soil will allow —but spare the pocket. To the foregoing very good advice, where it can be fol- lowed, it is necessary to add a few practical observations, which may be of use to those unacquainted with the natural history of some of the annual weeds above named. It is well known that the seeds of charlock, poppy, and camomile, lie for ages in the bowels of the earth uninjured ; and itis only when brought near the surface, that they can be made to vegetate, and then only under peculiar circum- stances of the surface soil in which they lie. It has long been observed, that the prevalence of charlock and poppy occur periodically. In one year every field will have an abundant share of one or both of these weeds: and it some- times happens, that for ten years at a stretch, neither will appear in any injurious quantity. Hence the old saying, “it is a charlock year,” or it is ‘‘a red-weed year.” Showing that their appearance does not so much depend on the quan- tity of seed in the ground, as on the favourable state and condition of the soil, when it is sown with corn. Old farmers must have been very unobservant indeed, if they had not been able to assign a good reason for this periodical appearance of the weeds in question. But this is not the case : a good experienced farmer will tell you, that, if he were to lay in his wheat in a dry time, in a loose friable soil, and leave it so to take its chance, he can with certainty predict that his wheat will be overrun with the above, and other annual weeds, in the following summer. To prevent WEEDS OF AGRICULTURE. Sot this ruinous result, he therefore takes care that the loose surface be well consolidated (if rain does not fall to do this), either by a heavy roller, or, what is better, treading it firmly down with sheep, till the whole surface is as compact as a foot-path. When wheat is laid in, as it should be, rather heavy, there may be no necessity for either rolling or treading; neither need fears be entertained, that seed weeds will rise plenti- fully in the following summer: but if laid in a loose pul- verized surface, the poppy and charlock will certainly pre- vail, even if no such weeds have been seen in the same field for years before. Almost all other kinds of corn affect a well-compactec surface ; and the business of rolling has other advantage: besides obtaining a smooth surface for facilitating the action of the scythe. CHAPTER IV. OF THE WEEDS CALLED UNDERLINGS, OR SUCH AS NEVER RISE IN THE CROP, NOR COME INTO THE SICKLE: WITH OBSERVATIONS ON PASTURE WEEDS. 1. GROUNDSEL, Simson (senecio vulgaris). Leaves winged-indented, embracing the stem; flowers scat- tered. Root annual; flowering from March to De- cember 2. ANNUAL MEADOW-GRASS, Suffolk-grass (poa an- nua). Panicle divaricate; spikelets ovate, five-flow- ered ; florets somewhat remote, five-ribbed, without a web; culms oblique, compressed. 3. CHI{CKWEED (stellaria media), or Common Stitch- wort. Leaves ovate; stems procumbent, with a hairy alternate line on one side; stamens from five to ten. Root annual; flowering from March to December, and generally upon the richest land. 4, SHEPHERD’S PURSE (capsella bursa pastoris). Pouches compressed, triangularly inversely heart- shaped, smooth, without a border; root-leaves wing- cleft. Root annual; flowering from March to Sep- tember. 5. SPURRY (spergula arvensis)*. Leaves whorled; stalks when in fruit reflexed. Root annual; flowering in June and July. . * There is a larger-growing variety of common spurry, called sper- gula sativa, which is cultivated in some parts of Germany, for sheep, WEEDS OF AGRICULTURE. 309 6. CAMOMILE FEVERFEW (matricaria chamomilla). Receptacles conical ; rays expanding; calyx scales equal at the edge. Root annual; flowering from May till August. 7 FAT HEN, Lamb’s Quarters, Wild Spinach, Mountain Spinach (chenopodium album). Leaves rhomboid-ovate, jagged, mealy, entire towards the~base, upper ones oblong-entire ; seed quite smooth. To which might be added, May-weed ; but as it frequently rises into the sickle, it has been entered under the head of Rampant Weeds. 8. COMMON CORN SALAD, or Lamb’s Lettuce (fedia but chiefly for reclaiming waste, barren sands. Mr. James Booth, of the Flotbeck Nurseries, Hamburgh, informs me, that its effects in this last respect are found to be highly beneficial. This may probably be accounted for as follows:~ The plant is an annual of rapid growth, and derives its chief nourishment from the air; it is consequently very succulent, affording but little vegetable fibre in proportion to its contained juices. It will grow on sands, where scarcely any other plant will vegetate. Its growth is so quick as to afford two or three crops in the season. Sheep are stated to be fond of it. When the plants are full grown, which will sometimes happen in four or five weeks from the time of sowing, particularly if sown after the warm weather commences, the plants may be ploughed in, and another crop of seed sown; when the plants are again full grown, let the pro- cess be repeated. But should the sand produce the plants sufficiently large to afford a regular bite to sheep, then depasturing will be found most beneficial. In this last case, the sand must be ploughed after the sheep have eaten down the spurry ; and by fresh crops, depastur- ing, and ploughing in, the soil will soon be so far improved, as to carry the permanent grasses adapted for light soils. The sand will then bear permanent depasturing ; it will be consolidated, by the feet of the sheep, and this, with the manure supplied by the sheep, will by degrees perfect a sheep-down. In order that the proprietors, in this country, of the above description of waste sands, might have an opportunity of trying the effects of the spergula sativa, as above mentioned, a supply of the seed from Germany is obtained, and may now be had of Messrs. Cormack and Co., Nurserymen, New Cross, near London. z2 340 WEEDS OF AGRICULTURE. olitoria). Leaves linear, tongue-shaped, blunt ; flower: capitate; capsule inflated, two-lobed. Root annual ; flowering in April and June. Professor Martyn observes, that the common Englisk name of this weed probably had its origin from the circum- stance of the plants appearing in flower about the time that lambs are dropped. [n the English Flora, Sir J. E. Smith has happily separated this plant from valeriana, and has thereby lessened the labour and removed the doubts of the voung botanist, which always presented themselves when the botanical characters of this plant came to be compared with those mentioned in the generic character of va/eriana. The name fedza, Sir James Smith observes, as derived from fedus, an ancient word, synonymous with hedus, a kid, is not unsuitable to this genus. As judicious husbandry will render harmless this humble intruder on tillage Jands, I shall just observe, that a small bed of rich garden earth sown with the seeds in August, or in the end of July, will supply an excellent portion of salad throughout the winter, until April*. 9. FLIX-WEED (sisymbrium Sophia). Petals smaller than the calyx; leaves finely divided, somewhat hairy. Root annual; flowering in June and July. This is more prevalent on dunghills and rubbish heaps than in corn fields. It ripens its seeds in August and Sep- tember. The pods retain the seeds all winter. The force of gunpowder is said (with what certainty I know not) to be augmented by mixing a tenth part of the seeds of flix-weed with the other ingredients. * Tt has been long known and used as a salad herb, and lately as an excellent vegetable dish for the table, dressed in the manner of spinach. If sown as above mentioned, the plants will be ready for use when the summer salads are over. I may here be permitted to add, that water-cresses (sisymbrium nasturtium) have lately also been found to afford a salubrious vegetable dish, when dressed in like manner, particularly for invalids. WEEDS OF AGRICULTURE. 541 10. COMMON FUMITORY (fumaria officinalis). Peri- carps one-seeded, racemed; stem diffuse. Root annual; flowering all the summer. This is a very common weed on certain light, sandy soils; it Indicates the want of manure, and the neglect of the drill or row mode of culture. Although cattle and sheep are said to eat it, yet I never could observe, in the course of my experience, any disposition in these animals to touch the plant. 1]. SAND MUSTARD, Isle of Thanet Stinkweed (sinapis murals). Pods ascending on spreading stalks, linear, compressed, slightly beaked ; seeds two-ranked ; leaves sinuated ; stems roughish, with reflexed bristles. Since the above was sent to the press, we had an oppor- tunity of observing this troublesome weed in the Isle of Thanet, to which it seems to be confined. An experienced agriculturist and extensive farmer (I. A. Champion, Esq. of Sarr) informs us, that about twenty years since he remem- bers seeing this weed at Broadstairs, where it was then chiefly confined to the margins of lands lying nearest to the beach. It was said that a vessel laden with corn had been cast away on that part of the coast, and that this noxious weed had been by that means introduced into the Isle of Thanet. Since the time above mentioned, it has overrun the arable land all over the Isle. Mr. Pitt, in the Introduction to his Essay on Weeds, informs us, that where weeds cover the surface, there is no room for corn; and that where they abound and contend with the corn, they take up the nourishment which the corn should have; and lastly, if weeds be not destroyed, they spoil the crops, and deteriorate the soil. With regard to the identity of the nourishment absorbed by corn and by weeds, there may be some doubt, as it appears by continual experience, that you need only plough and pulverize to have crops of weeds for ever. It is not so with corn. And more- over it is equally certain, that poor soils, and those over- cropped, abound with weeds much more than the same soils 342 WEEDS OF AGRICULTURE. well cuitivated, where useful crops of corn are obtained. This dispute is scarcely worth maintaining ; but I believe that weeds do much more harm by excluding the light, and so choking the corn, than by the nourishment they absorb. This may be allowed to be demonstrated in the case of young quick hedges. These plants strike downwards, and bring their sustenance very much from below the soil; yet if weeds be suffered to overgrow them annually, they are much in- jured, and stinted in their growth. In the early part of the growth of corn, let us consider how essential are the func- tions of the leaves; and for some time after the corn shoots up, the side leaves ought to feel the full effects of light and air; but if weeds interfere, and fill all the intervals that should be, and press upon the crop (growing faster, as some of them do), the crop is deprived not only of nourishment at the root, but of the healthy communication of atmo- spherical influences with the soil and the plants. It is no answer to say, that the weeds thrive notwithstanding ; we are speaking of comparatively tender and valuable plants, which are the objects of necessary and expensive cultivation. But by whatsoever means the weeds effect the mischief complained of, it is equally necessary to destroy them. Mr. Pitt, in making a few observations on the corn-poppy, observes, that ‘‘ abundance of it is a pretty sure indication of a light crop.” Upon which he raises this query: ‘Is the lightness of the crop occasioned by the abundance of this plant, or the increase of this plant encouraged by the lightness of the crop?” To which profound doubt he gives a very careful and ingenious answer: “ Probably both.”’ He forgets, however, the rule with which he sets out, “that where weeds cover the surface there can be no room for eorn.” But the truth of this matter is, that he takes no notice of soil, nor makes any allusion to the effects of season. Weeds peculiar to gravelly and dry soil, as corn-poppy, blue-bottles, may-weed, and corn-marigold (among the list of rampant weeds), as well as corn-bindweed, &c. among fallow-weeds —feel no effect from drought. The hottest seasons are congenial to them; but the crops of wheat or barley, and sometimes peas hkewise, are burnt up at the WEEDS OF AGRICULTURE. 343 root by the beginning of July, and thus have gradually, from the commencement of the drought, left the surface to the full occupation of the weeds which prevail. The farmers see that they have no probable interest in resisting this pre- valence ; and no implement but the scythe or the plough could intercept it. Thus, in hot seasons, and on shallow soils, we see these weeds very numerous in many places, and the crops worth very little; but had the season been wet at the time the corn was sown, the crops would have kept ahead. I should be sorry if by this explanation it were under- stood, that this condition of the soil, so full of seeds, and so liable to produce excess of weeds, were at all defended. J have seen such a piece of poor, sandy gravel in Holkham Park, in the hot year of 1818, with a light crop of peas (as it must be), but scarcely more than five plants an acre of corn-poppy ; whereas, before Mr. Coke took it under his own management, it was annually covered with them. In the same Park, I have crossed diagonally over a piece of wheat, measuring forty acres, and found but three plants of cockle, without seeing any other weed. Certainly you cannot have good crops where you are liable to smothering weeds ; the very existence of the weeds shows bad manage- ment, In fact, | have seen the poorer convertible land tilled until it would bring no crop, and grass seeds are thrown upon it with the last attempt to get barley. For several years after, itshas been perfectly covered with may-weed and other weeds, such as underlings, &c. Land may be rendered inert and unfertile from an excess of manure, as well as from the want of it, severe and avari- cious annual cropping long persevered in being understood in both cases. Over-stimulus, as in the first instance, wears out, or renders inert, the principle of fertility in the land; and in the latter instance, the want of stimulus produces the same effect. The underling weeds above mentioned flourish and prosper under this state of the land, brought on by either cause. The remedy is therefore obvious, viz. rest ; or, give a clear-out summer fallow, and if in the first-men- tioned case (which is to be met with in deep fen land and in 344 WEEDS OF AGRICULTURE. old garden mould), apply a good dressing of lime, and sow down with the superior pasture-grasses and clovers, to re- main for not less than five years. In the latter case, or where the fertility of the soil is worn out by injudicious cropping and a niggardly supply of manure, joined to the naturally thin and poor staple of the soil, then a full appli- cation of manure, or marl and manure, the latter consisting as much as possible of cow-dung, should be given, and the latter sown down with the superior permanent pasture- grasses suited to the soil, with a due admixture of clover. OF PASTURE WEEDS. THE most noxious weeds which infest grass lands or pas- tures, have already been alluded to under various heads ; we shall here, therefore, enter less into detail. 1. DWARF-THISTLE, Stemless Thistle (carduus acauls.) 2. COMMON CAMOMILE (anthemis nobilis). 3. STAR THISTLE (centaurea calcitrapa). . OX-EYE DAISY, Maudlin Wort (chrysanthemum leu- canthemum. >. GREAT FLEABANE, Ploughman’s Spikenard (conzya squarrosa). 6. CHEESE RENNING, Yellow Ladies’ Bedstraw, Petty Muguet (galzum verum). 7. LONG-ROOTED HAWK-WEED. o2) WILD THYME, Mother-of-Thyme (thymus serpyllum). Caraduus arvensis - SSSA UW auf = SS RY AF NX R ? x aS we 8 Ww S WEEDS OF AGRICULTURE. 045 9. SHEEP’S SORREL, or Dock (rumex acetosella). 10. KNOT-GRASS, Snake-weed, Red-weed (polygonum aviculare). This has already been noticed under the head of “* Fallow Weeds.” 11. YELLOW RATTLE, or Cock’s-comb, Cock-grass, Penny-weed, Heny Penny, &c. (rhinanthus crista gallr). 12. COMMON CARLINE THISTLE (carlina vulgaris). The above are more frequently found to infest dry, sandy pastures and calcareous soils, than loamy or damp grass lands. Where they prevail to a great extent, there is no remedy like breaking up the land, and taking a course of crops, for palliative remedies are of little avail. The thistles, sheep’s-sorrel, and knot-grass, are the most formidable. Hand-weeding, when the weeds are confined to local spots, and are only just beginning to spread generally over the soil, will be found effectual; but when once the pasture becomes generally infected with the seeds and roots of these plants, no time should be lost in using the plough, harrow, and horse-hoe, and a judicious course of cleansing crops before returning the land again to permanent pasture. Pasture weeds which generally prevail in loamy soils, and such also as are prevalent in clayey and damp soils are prin- cipally as follow. 1. YELLOW GOAT’S-BEARD (trugapogon pratensis). 2. MARSH-THISTLE, or Red Thistle (carduus palustris). This is almost confined to wet, damp pastures. 3. MELANCHOLY THISTLE (carduus heterophyllus). 4. MEADOW-THISTLE, or Small Purple Thistle (carduus pratensis). : A 346 WEEDS OF AGRICULTURE. 5. COMMON BUTTER-BUR, or Pestilent-Wort (¢ussz- lago petasites). Moist meadows. ® 6. COMMON RAGWORT, Ragweed, Staggerwort, St. James’s Wort, Seggrum, Scotch Canker-weed, Stink- ing Elshinder, &c. &c. (senecio Jacobea). 7, COMMON DAISY, Bairn Warts, &c. (bellis perennis). 8. COMMON BLACK KNAP-WEED, Black Mat- Fellow, Bull-weed, Cock-Heads, &c. (centaurea nigra). It is said that horses are particularly fond of the hay of which this plant forms a part. 9. BROAD-LEAVED DOCK (rumex obtusifolius). 10. ORCHIS. Of this weed there are several species, viz. Orchis mascula, orchis maculata. These two orchises furnish the tubers for the manufacture of salep. Orchis latifolia, orchis morio, orchis pyramidalis : they are chiefly confined to damp pastures that require draining. Man- orchis, red-lead, and frog-wort, are the only English names we have heard given to these weeds in damp pastures, where they are but little formidable. In the flower garden they are considered interesting orna- ments. 11. COMMON COW-PARSNIP, Hog-weed (heracleum sphondylium). Leaves pinnate; leaflets pinnatifid, cut, and serrated. This very large and cumbrous plant usurps a large share of the surface of moist meadows, and sheds abundance of seeds. It is checked by grazing late in the spring with sheep. 12. SEDGE (carex). This is a numerous family of coarse, erass-like plants, chiefly confined to damp, sour soils; they are innutritious, and but seldom or ever touched by cattle. To enumerate all the different species of this genus, of which there are upwards of fifty, would here be of little or no utility. The essential family, or WEEDS OF AGRICULTURE. 347 generic character, is as follows: Flowers unisexual, im- bricated; calyx of one leaf; corolla wanting. Female flowers with an inflated three-toothed nectary; stigmas three ; seed three-sided, enclosed in the nectary. The flowers, or the seed, will at once enable the farmer to distinguish every species of sedge from the true or proper grasses. We once examined a sample of meadow hay said to pos- sess very fattening properties, in which was found an incon- siderable quantity of the carex incurva, but the superior per- manent pasture grasses constituted the bulk of the hay: it also contained a considerable portion of burnet (potertum sanguisorba). The warm or stimulant nature of the burnet as a winter food, combined with turnips, will readily account for the superiority of this hay, without the agency of the curved-leaved sedge, which was here in too small a quantity to affect the quality of the hay either way. To the above list of pasture weeds many other plants could be added, if any good were likely to result from their being enumerated here; but as they are only occasionally found, and the foregomg being destroyed or eradicated out of pastures, these will be found harmless, —we shall there- fore pass them over. In the low flat lands bordering on the Isle of Thanet, a very noxious weed infests some of these valuable pastures: this weed they call spurt-grass. It is the scirpus maritimus, or salt marsh club-rush. The means to be adopted for the extirpation of these noxious weeds in pastures, must be regulated by the na- ture of the soil, and the comparative prevalence of the weeds. In good pasture land, where, from accident or neglect, these weeds in part have insinuated themselves, hand-weeding may most advantageously be had recourse to ; and particularly for the larger weeds, such as thistles, rag- weed, docks, and knap-weed, it will be found the best tem- porary remedy. Should the coarseness of the pasture have been occasioned by too frequent haying, then depasturing closely for two or three years, with a good top-dressing of dung-compost applied in the early part of the spring, or late in the autumn, with strict attention to hand-weeding, will be found effectual to recover the pasture and extirpate the 348 WEEDS OF AGRICULTURE. - weeds. We have witnessed pasture land of the best quality brought to produce little else than the coarse grasses, from having been kept for a series of years under the scythe for hay; and, at the same time, land of the same quality, sepa- rated only by a fence from the former, producing the richest quality of herbage from being regularly depastured. On poorer soils, however, the bad effects of too close feeding were evident, — daisies, procumbent trefoil, mosses, and an- nual meadow-grass, prevailed over the superior grasses of the pasture. On this kind of soil, moderate depasturing, and a crop of hay in two or three years, had the effect of encouraging the superior grasses to overcome these dwarf unproductive plants. Frequent top-dressines are of the greatest use in effecting the above improvements on de- teriorated thin pasture lands, as regards the destruc- tion of weeds, as well as of improving the quality of the pasture. In crops of artificial grasses, such as sainfoin, lucern, &c., when the dwarf thistle prevails, and when it is impracticable under such circumstances to draw out this weed without injuring the crops, a good remedy will be found in the use of common salt. An enlightened agriculturist, T. B. Evans, Jun. Esq., informs us, and authorizes us to state the fact, that common salt dropped on the crown of this weed effectu- ally destroys it, without injury to the crop of grasses. Chil- dren may be employed to apply the salt by the hand to the weeds ; and, when we consider how much more expeditiously and safely this remedy may be used on crops of sainfoin, lucern, and clover, in comparison to that of pulling the weeds up by the roots, it is, doubtless, a valuable discovery. When the sedges, marsh thistle, pestilent wort, &c. prevail in meadows, then recourse must be had to other means than that of hand-weeding, viz. draining, paring and burning, liming, and a judicious rotation of crops under the horse-hoe husbandry, until every vestige of the seeds and roots of these noxious weeds disappear. The ground may then be laid down to permanent pasture, with the seeds of the most valuable species adapted to the soil, and where water can be commanded, converted to water-meadow, by which the value of the land will be considerably increased. WEEDS OF AGRICULTURE. 349 The names and quantities of the best grasses recommended by Mr. Sinclair are mentioned at pp. 176, 177, &c., and seeds of the following kinds are cultivated, and may be had of Messrs. Thomas Gibbs and Co., Half-Moon Street, Picca- dilly, London, wiz. Agrostis caninum. Agrostis stolonifera. Alopecurus pratensis. Anthoxanthum odoratum. Avena flavescens. Avena pratensis. Briza media. Bromus arvensis. Cow-grass. Cynosutus cristatus. Dactylis glomerata. Festuca Cambrica. Festuca duriuscula. Festuca fluitans. Festuca glabra. Festuca heterophylla. Festuca hordeiformis. Festuca ovina. Festuca pratensis. Festuca rubra. Festuca sylvatica. Festuca tenuifelia. Holcus avenaceus. Holcus lanatus. Hordeum pratensis. Lolium perenne. Perennial Red Clover. Phleum pratensis. Poa annua. Poa ccerulea. Poa fertilis. Poa nemoralis. Poa nervata. Poa pratensis. Poa trivialis. Red suckling. Rib-grass. Trefoil. White or Dutch Clover. Yarrow. APPENDIX. Some Account of an effectual Mode of Cleansing heavy Lands infested in a high degree with Fallow-weeds, particularly with Couch-grass (Agropyrum repens), without the aid of Naked Fallow ; as practised by Mr. R. Dickson, of Kid- brook, Blackheath. -- By the Eviror. f Tue triumph of skill and perseverance over that powerful enemy to good husbandry on tenacious, damp soils, viz. the worst of fallow weeds, —couwch, we believe was never more satisfactorily demonstrated than by Mr. Robert Dickson, on his farms at Kidbrook, Blackheath. The soil of this part of his farm, to which the following observations are confined, so overcome with couch-grass, is a strong, tenacious clay, and in some parts approaching to cementing gravel. Large portions of the land, when Mr. Dickson entered on the lease, were extremely foul with fallow-weeds, particularly couch- grass. The rent being high, to have attempted the cleansing of all this land by the only known means of naked fallows, or more expensive process of forking out, would have been attended with great loss, if not with ruinous consequences. We shall here content ourselves with stating what we have witnessed of this very excellent practice, referring our readers to a view of Kidbrook farm for full demonstrative evidence of the merits of this valuable practice. A field, containing 83 acres of the nature and condition above described, came into Mr. Dickson’s hands at Christmas last; the previous crop had been potatoes and white crops; two ploughings and harrowings had been given after the white crop was taken, and the land raised up to be ameliorated by the winter frosts. In the month of Apmil WEEDS OF AGRICULTURE. 351 following, when we first saw the field, its surface could not be distinguished from the adjoining pastures, so matted, full, and chain-bound with couch-grass, was this tenacious, obdurate soil. By a series of combined operations, with implements accurately adapted for the purpose, partly new, and partly improved by himself, Mr. Dickson accomplished in a few days all the effects of a clear-out summer naked fallow, without the loss of time and crop always attending on this hitherto unavoidable operation for cleansing neglected couch-bound land. It is well known that strong lands can- not be cleaned for a turnip crop the same season. In one day the same land is ploughed, cleaned, manured, and planted with potatoes; and by the judicious use of his hoeing implements and rotation of crops*, Mr. Dickson completely keeps down and suppresses any attempt of the couch to gain possession, until its enfeebled roots give way altogether to the ordinary mode of culture. The implements required to effect the above important objects on a strong, tenacious soil, are, Ist. Hally’s plough. 2d. Morton’s revolving harrow (invented and made by that ingenious mechanic, Mr. Morton, of Leith), as improved by Mr. Dickson. This powerful and effective implement is so contrived as to allow the horses to walk in the furrows. 3d. Improved drag-harrow, by Mr. Dickson, in four parts for corn, eight feet land. This is also constructed in such a manner as to allow of the full and complete working of the harrow while the horses walk in the furrows, thereby saving their feet when the soil is dry, and composed of hardened lumps on the surface; or, when green, prevents the serious injury occasioned by poaching with the horses’ feet. 4th. A heavy cast-iron cylinder roll, in two parts, with an improved knife for cleaning it when working. * The Kidbrook farm consists of 620 acres; viz. wheat 100, tares 60, potatoes 60, beans 30, oats 40, barley 30, clover 100, meadow 170. But the rotation varies according to circumstances connected with green crops raised for market. The breadth of potatoes every year allows of the above practice, saving so much naked fallow every season. fap WEEDS OF AGRICULTURE. 5th. New improved drill grubber. This implement is constructed so as to accommodate itself to every breadth of the drill husbandry, as regards green fallow crops, such as turnips, potatoes, beans, peas, &c. : it will work in any soil, however dry and stiff. 6th. Improved grubber for pulverizing and broad sharing: by means of three coulters, which are readily affixed to the implement, it acts as a broad sharer. This last-mentioned implement is one of great merit and utility, it produces a friable surface-soil, for moulding up and for encouraging the growth of the plants, which, on cementing, heavy, obdurate soils, cannot be effected by any other implement yet invented. We shall now endeavour to state, in as few words as pos- sible, the mode of using these implements, as practised by Mr. Dickson, to produce the above-mentioned important practical results, and which we had an opportunity of wit- nessing. Hally’s plough is used in the first operation; this is fol- lowed by Morton’s revolving harrow: the effect of this implement is astonishing in separating and breaking down the tenacious couch-bound soil, and shaking out the roots. As before observed, this implement is so con- structed, as to allow of the horses walking in the furrows, —a point of the greatest importance in working a soil of this nature, whether it happen at the time to be in a dry or ina damp state. The couch being now loosened from the soil, the improved drag-harrows are applied to collect it; this they appear to do in a more effectual and expeditious manner than any other kind of harrow we have seen. When this operation is finished, a heavy cast-iron roller is used, to level the surface for spreading the manure ;. the roller is furnished with a knife, so constructed or applied, as to keep the sur- face of the roller always clean when working. The surface being thus levelled, and the manure spread, the last plough- ing is given; the potatoes are either planted in the furrow, or afterwards dibbled in, according as circumstances or con- venience may direct. It is hardly possible to witness these operations of good husbandry (required, as they are, impe- WEEDS OF AGRICULTURE. 353 ratively, under such circumstances of soil as above men- tioned), without feeling a high gratification. At this time, June 27, the crop of potatoes so planted looks remarkably well, the land being comparatively clean, and the plants healthy, although the season has been very unfa- vourable for this description of land, which in dry weather becomes so indurated, as to resemble in some degree a solid mass of stone. As soon as the plants appear above ground in the rows, the drill-grubber, before mentioned, is used to clean and loosen the soil. As this excellent implement is constructed so as to accommodate itself to any breadth of the drill hus- bandry with respect to green crops, it may be used for the bean, pea, and turnip crop, as well as for potatoes; on the most tenacious clay it produces a friable surface-soil for moulding up, it effectually reaches the couch, and by its effects in loosening and breaking the hardened soil, greatly benefits the health of the plants. Wheat crops in Kent, Surrey, and Essex, have severely suffered this season from the slug; salt and other topical remedies have been tried, but without the /east perceptible beneficial effect. This crop, after clover, tares, and beans, has failed this season at least one-third. In wet seasons, the slug propagates with such rapidity, that a wheat crop, after these green crops, is very uncertain, and may be said always to fail. Mr. Dickson has happily adopted a practice which is found to be effectual, in preserving and securing the wheat crop under such cir- cumstances. The following are the principles on which this valuable practice is founded :—The slug, as before observed, prospers under favour of the wet season; the clover, beans, and tares, afford the very best possible shelter and food for this destructive enemy to the wheat crop. At the end of autumn, when the plough is put into the ley, myriads of the slug, in its various stages of life, from the ego to the full grown devourer, lying near to, and on the surface of the land, are by the ordinary practice of deep ploughing, placed below, and out of the reach of harm, until spring, or favour- able open weather during winter, encourages them to come 2A 904 WEEDS OF AGRICULTURE. out. But, instead of the autumn deep ploughing, as ordi- narily practised, Mr. Dickson ploughs at first only from two to three inches deep; if the land is on the flat, he uses his grubber and scarifier, which cuts to the depth of from two to three inches, and 43 feet wide, and which performs the work exactly of five ploughs. The eggs of the slug are here brought to the surface, and exposed to the effects of the sun and air, which, as far as regards the eggs, is com- pletely effective in causing their destruction, as well as in lessening the number of the perfect slugs. This accom- plished, the usual depth of ploughing is given at the proper season. Two pieces of wheat on the same field exempli- fied this in a striking degree this season; the crop of the one, wlich had been treated according to the common practice of first deep autumn-ploughing, had to be ploughed up in the spring, as scarcely a single plant of wheat was left by the slug, although the young plants at first were strong and healthy. On the other piece of wheat, which had been treated as above, the crop was fuli and excellent. Since the above was sent to the press, I was much gratified to receive the following information from an enlightened agriculturist (Thomas Neames, Esq. of Chislet). Last season Mr. Neames had a large ley field; a portion of the ley he scarified, or broke and stirred the surface until the surface plants were all destroyed, or nearly so. The other portion of the ley was ploughed in the ordinary manner; the scarified portion was also now ploughed, and treated in the usual way for wheat. In the spring, the scaritied piece was scarcely deficient of a plant, and the crop proved an average one; while the other por- tion of the field, which was treated in the usual way, had nearly the whole crop destroyed by the slug; which very frequently happens, if the farmer neglects to dust the clover stubble with lime; or does not use a presser to consolidate the surface, to prevent the motions of the slug. It seems clear, therefore, that all the surface plants of the ley should be completely destroyed by scarifying and WEEDS OF AGRICULTURE. 305 harrowing, or by shallow ploughing and harrowing. By these means the slugs and their eges are destroyed, as well as the food which would have supported them until the wheat plants were fit for their ravages. Facts such as these, on a subject of so much practical importance as this, are highly pleasing, for they afford proofs at once clear and satisfactory, and beyond the reach of doubt. 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Page AGRosTIS, generic character of.... 33 stolonifera, described and figured........... 147 VUIGATIS ........cececesers 184 COMM estsecseeeneseel solo LOO lobata StTICtA Sostenniatean tod INDEX TO THE PROVINCIAL NAMES OF GRASSES, Sc. Fe. Grass, Sweet-scented vernal...... 82 Round cock’s-foot.... .... 4. BS Meadow fox-tail ............ 84 Smooth-stalked meadow.. 85 Short blue meadow......... ib. Rough-stalked meadow... 87 Meadow fescue... .... ...... 89 Crested dog’s-tail......... © 990 Hard fEScue ccccoserec sss sag) «ORS Welch fescue@’:assssvessseee 5 Long-awned sheep’s fescue 97 Yellow oat, or golden oat.. 98 NVOOUWASOLUp cs .c ec nesereuces- wn ye, Creeping soft..............00 101 Sweet-scented soft ..... OS Mall) SOltceccsceosessersess |seveallOd Tall awnless soft..........-. 106 Field brome ......... oqedasesulioy, Many-flowered brome .... 108 Soft Drom@rccos |) sneere seveos LOD Darnel-like fescue......-... ant Smooth fescue .........eee00. 112 Wood meadow......s..000- « 113 Narrow-leaved meadow... 115 Fertile MeadOWsseereeseereee 117 Grass, Nerved meadow........eee0. 119 Sea-green meadow ......... 121 Glaucous meadow .......... 122 Meadow cat’s-tail, or Ti- MOtHY «.....00eve0e cgogaacac 123 Small meadow cat’s-tail... 125 Bulbous-jointed cat’s-tail. 126 Linear-spiked dog’s-tail... 127 Bearded wheat... ......s0s- . 128 Upright perennial brome.. 129 Common quaking... ........ 130 — Smooth awnless brome... 131 Ciliated melic ......-. ...... 132 Ray, or perennial darnel.. 134 Creeping bent, or fiorin... 147 Reed-like fox-tail ........... 154 Taunton’s meadow fox-tail 155 Sheep's fescue ....... poeenosoe Us! Viviparous fescue...... ..... 179 Purple fescue ..........ee.0. 180 Woodifescue..2-se-2necamees 2M Glaucous fescue ...... ercoos lee Capon’s tail ....... satetessemoniliccs Wall barley ts.3:2. tsescsecsss LOD ComMMON HeNt.rereeesssesevee 184 INDEX. 361 Page Grass, Awned fine bent ......s+0.0s 185 LRXG@Yel £21 072) #1 aooaSaosicoge ccas00e ib. Lbrdliyetn ya Nt ircaceca cs, cousseos. LN Snowy bent ...... .. -secsee. 186 Bundled-leaved bent....... 187 Zig-zag, or wavy mountain ib. Soft meadow........ese000. «+ 188 Long-awned feather ....... 189 Slender fox-tail........... soo HOW DOW? Oat. s.---625 02-08 ese LOL PUEPLS MCLGs .cessescess esse L oe [Di Derr ny RReTER ee poocesdeados Foo 3) Creeping dog’s-tooth...... 194 GreenipaniCrrs. cocscerencs lod Slender-spiked finger...... ib. Barren brome ..........0.... 198 Upright annual brome .... 199 Nodding panicled brome... ib. Fine-panicled brown bent. 200 Bulbous knee-jointed fox- VEN panocroseconcudoonnussoodds . Léb Alpine meadow........se0000. 201 BIMESMOOLE ss sccsecseceestesme Ue Flat-stalked meadow... .. 203 Upright flat-stalked mea- COWierecsscseeeccseucneseses Meadow soft...... Caabewenatio 207 Meadow barley......... coovee 208 Crested wheat .........+ee... 209 Purple cat’s-tail.........cs00 210 Fox-tail-like fescue......... ib. Rough dog’s-tail ............ 211 Reflexed meadow...... ..... 212 Creeping white bent........ 228 Awned creeping bent...... 22 Smaller-leaved ditto........ ib. Marsh Dent cccosesssssonssares LOU Page Grass, Floating swect.. .....000. 23) Wiaterh alte rassiedceseredudees 232 Turfy hair...... sovcssscseseve LO Long-leaved cotton......... 237 Sheathed cotton .......06. + 238 Reed Canary...c..ses.essercee 209 Barren tall fescue........... 240 Fertile ditto ditto ........... 241 Sea-side brome.........00.... 242 Philadelphian lyme......... 243 Striated lyme ......... Sqnneee 244 Siberian hy Me/eyas-caesses seeds Rough lyme........0....2:0% 245 Upright lyme or starr...... ib. Knee-jointed lyme.......... 246 Sea-reed or marram........ Cord, or rush-leaved ...... Slender wood fescue....... ib. Spiked heath fescue......... 249 Tallifescuches---ssccaeses sees Ds Branching bent............ 250 Decumbent heath............ 251 Vetchling, yellow ......0.0 2. «+ Bush vetch......00- Masters seacese OD Clover, COW OF MaYl......ccccssceseee 14 Perennial réd) ..<.....cs.e.00s 144 IWihiterssececcerdoscuapheeeessnnl ao BIvd S=lOOtisssecteseaeeee Ditto jy MalOrsedaceacesse: oe . 206 Medick trefoil ...........+ sevestlsiectase 213 SdINEOIN cseceshesccuccenceserseccesesesecs Mangel wurzel ...... seein ects esesenes 261 PotabOCSicacsenencsccvateseeenonees Le deeos le Murnip; WILE! c.cacwecwa seq )esecesensse Swedishycccscoscesecsvensessss ib. Cabbage, field ......ssseccsescssesresees Kohlyrabiiesscess