The author discusses signal

events, not so much from

the standpoint of the indi-
vidual structures which
were discovered from time
to time during the renais-
sance of anatomy, but in
terms of its drama and
struggle to maintain its
in the hierarchy of
subjects taught in medical
schools.

A. M. LASSEK

M.D., Ph.D.

Department of Anatomy

Boston University

School of Medicine

Boston, Massachusetts

HUMAN DISSECTION

Its Drama and Struggle

THE STORY OF

TWO GREAT

OPPOSING AND

DIVIDED, HUMAN

FORCES, --

neither of which has

been able to win a

total victory.

Brings the great mass of
knowledge regarding the role
of human dissection in the med-
ical profession into a coherent,
historical perspective.

Much of it 1 - . .

nt of cadavers, a
problem which is universally
T more acute.

CHARLES C THOMAS • PUBLISHER

THE CONTENTS, in brief:

• Primitive concepts regarding
the dead.

• Concepts regarding dead among
ancient civilizations - 3000 to
1000 B. C.

• Pre -Alexandrian anatomy -
1000 to 300 B. C.

• The Alexandrian school of
anatomy - 332 B. C. to A. D. 200.

• Claudius Galen (A. D. 1 30-200)
and his influence on anatomy.

• Anatomy in the middle ages -
A. D. 400 - 1400.

• Anatomy during the European
Renaissance - A. D. 1 350 to 1650.

• Andreas Vesalius - A. D. 1514
to 1564.

• Dissection on the European
Continent and in Asiatic countries
during the modern period -A. D.
1650 to 1958.

^i

From the collection of the

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0 Prepiger
^ iJibrary

b t P c

San Francisco, California
2008

HUMAN DISSECTION

ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

HUMAN
DISSECTION

ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

by

A. M. LASSEK, M.D., Ph.D.

Department of Anatomy

Boston University School of Medicine

Boston, Massachusetts

CHARLES C THOMAS • PUBLISHER

Springfield • Illinois • U.S.A.

CHARLES C THOMAS • PUBLISHER

Bannerstone House

301-327 East Lawrence Avenue, Springfield, Illinois, U.S.A.

Published simultaneously in the British Commonwealth of Nations by

BLACKWELL SCIENTIFIC PUBLICATIONS, LTD., OXFORD, ENGLAND

Published simultaneously in Canada by

THE RYERSON PRESS, TORONTO

This book is protected by copyright. No part
of it may be reproduced in any manner with-
out written permission from the publisher.

Copyright 1958, by CHARLES C THOMAS • PUBLISHER
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 58-8425

Printed in the United States of America

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I am especially indebted to Miss Sara Louise Emery, my re-
search assistant, who has been associated with me in every phase
of the development of the book: checking the literature, abstract-
ing, correcting mistakes and proofreading. Her many suggestions
have been pertinent and invaluable throughout.

My secretary, Miss Eileen Barbara Grossman, has also been
of considerable help, not only in the typing, but in locating errors
and improving the diction.

CONTENTS

Page

Acknowledgments v

Chapter

I. Introduction 3

II. Primitive Concepts Regarding the Dead 9

III. Concepts Regarding Dead Among Ancient Civiliza-

tions-3000 to 1000 B.C 20

A. China 20

B. Japan 22

C. Egypt 23

D. Babylonia 28

E. India 29

F. Greece 33

G. The Romans ! 36

IV. Pre- Alexandrian Anatomy- 1000 to 300 B.C 38

V. The Alexandrian School of Anatomy— 332 B.C. to A.D.

200 44

VI. Claudius Galen (A.D. 130-200) and His Influence on

Anatomy 51

VII. Anatomy in the Middle Ages-A.D. 400 to 1400 58

A. The Role of the Church 58

B. Psychology of the Times 59

C. The Arabs and the Reawakening 61

D. The Universities of the Middle Ages 62

1. The University of Salerno 62

2. The University of Bologna 63

3. The University of Montpellier 66

4. General Information on Other Uni-

versities 67

viii HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

Chapter Page

VIII. Anatomy during the European Renaissance— A.D. 1350

to 1650 68

A. General Characteristics of the Period 68

B. The Mind of the Renaissance 69

C. Status of Human Dissection on the Continent. . 71

1. The Church and Dissection during the

Renaissance 74

2. Role of Artists in Anatomical Renais-

sance 74

3. Universities of the Renaissance 79

4. Anatomical illustrations during the

Renaissance 88

IX. Andreas Vesalius-A.D. 1514 to 1564 90

A. Introduction 90

B. Early Life . .• 91

C. Vesalius in Paris 92

D. Professor of Anatomy at the University of

Padua 95

E. The Fabrica 99

F. VesaHus (1543-1564) 102

G. Vesalius and his Personality 104

X. Dissection on the Euroj^ean Continent and in Asiatic
Countries during the Modern Period— A.D. 1650

to 1958 106

A. France 106

B. Germany 108

C. Italy no

D. Holland 110

E. Austria . Ill

F. China 1 lli

G. Japan 113

CONTENTS ix

Chapter Page

H. Other Asiatic Countries 114

1. The Philippine Islands 114

2. Indochina 114

3. Iran 114

XL The Rise of the Resurrectionists and their Methods in

Great Britain-A.D. c. 1750 to 1832 115

XII. Human Dissection in Ireland-A.D. 1590 to 1885 127

XIII. Human Dissection in England-A.D. 1510 to 1958 134

XIV. Human Dissection in Scotland-A.D. 1500 to 1958 154

XV. Early History of Anatomy in New England 180

XVI. Human Dissection in the Medical Schools of New-
England 191

A. Harvard Medical School-A.D. 1748 to 1958. . 191

B. Berkshire Medical College-A.D. 1823 to 1869. . 209

C. Castleton Medical College-A.D. 1818 to 1861 . . 209

D. The University of Vermont School of Medi-

cine-A.D. 1822 to 1958 210

E. Vermont Medical College at Woodstock— A. D.

1827 to 1856 213

XVII. Human Dissection in the Middle Atlantic States 216

A. The University of Pennsylvania— A.D. 1750 to

1958 ^

B. Early Dissection in New York— A.D. 1750 to

1790 222

XVIII. Human Dissection in the South Atlantic States 226

A. The University of Maryland Medical School-

A.D. 1790 to 1958 226

B. Washington, D.C.-A.D. 1865 to 1900 230

C. Dissection in Virginia— A.D. 1830 to 1865 231

X HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

Chapter Page

XIX. Human Dissection in the East North Central States 234

A. Dissection in Ohio-A.D. 1810 to 1880 234

B. Dissection in Illinois-A.D. 1850 to 1900 241

C. Dissection in Indiana-A.D. 1880 to 1890 243

D. Dissection in Michigan-A.D. 1850 to 1870 ... 244

XX. Status of Human Dissection in the United States— A.D.

1900 to 1958 245

XXI. Chronological Highlights on Human Dissection 257

Bibliography 275

Index 287

I

HUMAN DISSECTION

ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

[I]

INTRODUCTION

Xlie progress of medicine remained static and had to mark time
for many centuries. It had to await one development, which was
slo^v in eventuating, was attendant with great superstition, was
unmatched for dramatic incident and heroism, was led by a small
minority against the deep-seated resistance of the masses. In
order to advance, it was necessary for the profession to reveal
the accurate geography and architecture of man by permitting the
restricted privilege of dissecting human bodies of a selected few
from the general population. The means to this end has created
an enduring, silent and gigantic struggle revolving around the
use of dead subjects for the promotion of anatomical science.
There is nothing in the life of man which is more attendant with
fear, uncertainty, mysticism and superstition than his dead.

There is one way, and one only, in which the composition
of man can be understood thoroughly and that is by dissection
or "anatomizing" as it is sometimes called. This is true of every
organic thing which an individual wishes to understand. All great
thinkers on medical education have been in accord with this
view. The parts of animals can be examined individually but
cannot be put together again, whereas other machinery, with
mechanical parts made by man, can be both disassembled and
reassembled. Taking apart, however, remains an accepted method
in teaching about functional units, the essential working organs
of which are always masked.

In respect to the question of human dissection, it offers an
opportunity for man to study man. The evolution of this practice
has been such that the privilege has been granted to a few per-
sons. Looking at it broadly, the spotlight has been focused di-
rectly and sharply on man's opinions and regard for the dead.
Overcoming his objections, to human anatomizing, has been the

4 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

big problem and at times it has been almost insurmountable.
Death constitutes one of the three great enigmas in every normal
person's lite along with how he may have originated in a remote
age and what he exists for. It is said that man has survived on
earth for a million years, plus or minus. As a primordial thinking
specimen, with little mental equipment, he entertained ideas
about death and the hereafter. The remarkable thing about his
first concepts is that they have been perpetuated millennium after
millennium and accepted en toto by the masses, with little change
or modification. There has been nothing so enduring and crystal-
lized in the field of thought as the original analysis of the after-
life by the aboriginals. Perhaps ancient, prehistoric man should
never be underestimated because he was endowed with a fertile
imagination; he was a man with ideas, and of considerable stature
when measured in terms of subsequent influence.

One of the first concepts conceived by the primitive of the
distant past, was that of a soul, not only for himself, but for all
living creatures and inanimate objects as well. The notion of
immortality was born early in his evolution and it has never been
neutralized completely through the intellectual ages of man, in
which he has dealt with magic, religion and science, in that order.
Since the post-mortem state has remained so unfathomable, it is
possible that, through wishful thinking alone, the feeling about
this spiritual essence may either survive for many centuries or per-
manently in human minds. The opinions which have had the
longest past usually have the most prolonged future.

Ghosts, both good and bad, a product of man's imagination,
have been with us from the beginning. Although little or no at-
tention has been paid to the ones regarded as beneficial, those
judged to be vengeful and vindictive have exerted much in-
fluence; they have acted as a whiplash to human behavior and
thinking.

The sternest penalties have been meted out, even in the not
too distant past, by religious or governmental authorities to any
person or persons disfiguring or violating the so-called sanctity
of the deceased human body. Death has been the maximal sen-
tence imposed, imprisonment often under severe and harsh stand-
ards, a lesser, whereas some transgressors have been freed. The

i

INTRODUCTION 5

Church seems to have had more direct interest in this matter
than the courts of justice possibly because it was concerned with
what happens to human beings in the hereafter. It required a
greater power than that inherent in the clergy to break down
traditions, in this respect, which were about as deeply entrenched
in the minds of man as anything could be, namely, that of a
strong temporal agency.

It should be remembered that a part of the human race has
evolved through three important periods: the savage, barbaric
and civilized. The first refers to the state when all men were
hunters and fishermen, the second to the introduction and prac-
tice of primitive agriculture and the third to a social culture
characterized by relative progress in art, science and statecraft.
It is only in the last era, beginning about 1500 B.C., during which
there has been much advancement in the field of medicine. If the
span of the civilized age has been about 4,500 years, then it
is in the last one-eleventh of it, since A.D. 1543, that we can
speak of major medical growth and scientific understanding. This
amounts to about 415 years.

A.D. 1543 is mentioned above because it represents a land-
mark, not only in anatomy, but in medicine generally. It marks
the date when Andreas Vesalius (A.D. 1514-1564) published his
great work entitled, De Corporis Humani Fabrica Lihri Septem
or Seven Books on the Structure of the Human Body, It has been
judged as a classic, one of the ten greatest contributions in the
field of medicine. His pioneering research was responsible for set-
ting the wheels of progress in motion, dating the beginning of
the renaissance of medicine.

The story of anatomy before the middle of the 16th Century
deals with the primitive, the mystic, the philosophic and only to
a minor extent with the scientific study of human structure. Be-
sides considering early aboriginal ideas about the human body,
others are reviewed in respect to the ancient, civilized Egyptians,
Hindus, Chinese and Hebrews; also the prevailing opinions exist-
ing in the following periods: Homeric, classical Greek, pre-Chris-
tian, Galenic and Dark Ages. It is on record that a start in
scientific human dissection, under almost ideal conditions from

Q HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

the medical viewpoint, was made some centuries before the birth
of Christ, but this practice survived only for a short period.

After A.D. 1550, with the Dark Ages past, a great struggle,
lasting almost three centuries, took place in the British Isles be-
tween a handful of men, interested in the dissection of the human
body, and the masses of people. A similar controversy was to
follow in the United States, but it was of shorter duration. With-
out legalization of anatomizing, it became impossible to supply
the demands of an ever increasing student body, made possible
by the growth of new medical schools. The acceptance of medi-
cine as a valuable and worthy profession was the stimulating
factor behind this expansion. On the other hand, the populace
wanted the institutions to maintain the highest educational
standards medically; on the other, they were adamant about
permitting them to use dead bodies for dissecting purposes.

The first legalizations of dissection on the human body were
less than halfway affairs. Although permission to perform anato-
mies was granted in several of the European countries as early
as the 13th and 14th Centuries, it was rarely done. They had
to be performed publicly and then on the bodies of a few ex-
ecuted criminals. Because of the last, a stigma became associated
with the practice which was to endure in the English speaking
nations, until the passage of anatomy acts in the early part of
the 1800's.

The most dramatic chapter in the history of anatomy took
place between the time of Vesalius, from about A.D. 1543, through
the first third of the 19th Century. During the latter part of this
period, the demand for human bodies greatly exceeded the
supply. This provided the impetus for the development and
growth of the flourishing trade known either as "bootlegging
bodies," "body snatching," "grave robbing," or "resurrection." By
themselves, anatomists, surgeons and students were unable to
successfully cope with the shortage. This phase was characterized
by the organization of disreputable and piratical groups designed
for one purpose, and that was to obtain human corpses to sell
to the anatomical departments which were sorely in need of them.
Nothing was too low for these men to stoop to, including murder.
Great profits in this endeavor could be made with little or no

INTRODUCTION 7

initial outlay of cash or equipment. During the height of activity
of these unprincipled gangs, no family, even the most respected
and distinguished, could rest assured that one of its members,
who had passed away, would be interred with any degree of
permanence. It may seem paradoxical that the passage of the
Anatomy Act, in England, in 1832, was expedited, when events
got completely out of hand. In the United States, we have the
historical reputation of having had more emotional uprisings,
characterized by mob riots, as protests to human dissection, than
any other nation.

Marked changes have occurred in the methods of teaching
anatomy during the past century, in the United States particularly,
since the privilege of dissecting human cadavers was legalized, to
the satisfaction of the legislators if not the medical profession,
This was due in part to the establishment and activity of stand-
ardizing boards organized by the American Medical Association,
by the medical schools themselves, by licensing boards and by
governmental agencies. The growth of new subjects and general
financial considerations were also important. The last has prob-
ably been a vital factor in determining the status of medical ed-
ucation although it is not mentioned much in academic publica-
tions. These are facets of the history of anatomy which are dis-
cussed in the heart of the present text.

Gross anatomy, once pre-eminent, and almost the only sub-
ject taught in medical schools, with the assignment of many cur-
ricular hours, has necessarily had to integrate with the other new
ones which have blossomed forth and expanded during the past
few decades. The time which was originally assigned to it has
been whittled away and it is possible that the end is not yet in
sight for this eroding process. In an era where agitation is a
prominent feature of medical education, anatomy has not yet
found stability in the shifting sands of medical curricula.

The purpose of this book is to try to bring the great mass of
knowledge regarding the role of human dissection in the medical
profession into some kind of coherent, historical perspective, to
discuss its signal events, not so much from the standpoint of the
individual structures which were discovered from time to time
during the renaissance of anatomy, which have been well-re-

g HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

corded, but in terms of its drama and struggle to maintain its
place in the hierarchy of subjects taught in medical schools.
Much of it revolves around the procurement of cadavers, a prob-
lem which is universally becoming more and more acute. It is
the story of two great opposing and divided, human forces, neither
one of which has been able to win a total victory.

In spite of the highly adverse conditions encountered in un-
raveling and revealing the gross structure of man, the accomplish-
ment has been worthwhile. This, more than other factors, has
gone a long way toward neutralizing superstition, uncertainty
and mysticism in medicine.

[11]

PRIMITIVE CONCEPTS REGARDING
THE DEAD

Xhe present chapter is an attempt to trace the evolution of
the primeval mentality and reactions toward the dead in the
belief that it is important in understanding the development of
human dissection.

The definition of death as here used is the following: the
"cause or occasion of loss of life." Probably prehistoric man
puzzled more on this phenomenon than he did on any other
theme. Because of his intellectual status, it was more of a mystery
to him and his explanation as to its cause was unique and dif-
ferent than ours. Death has always been of more than passing
interest to all generations of mankind; there are those who be-
lieve that both religion and philosophy are nothing more than
meditation upon it (Metchnikoff, '07). One thing which seems
to be certain is that the idea of the inevitability of death is a
human acquisition. Some animals, like horses and steers, shrink
from seeing dead bodies but they have no notion that it is an
eventuality.

The nearest physiological event occurring naturally during
life, with which the primitive mind could compare death, was
sleep. So he called the former the "long sleep." He could see,
however, that it was of a different kind. His earliest experience
with it consisted of observing a tribal member, perhaps a rela-
tive, lying cold and silent, clammy to the touch, with glazed eyes
staring into space. By contrast to normal slumber, he found that
such an individual could not be aroused. The over-all picture
was such that the presence of the dead filled him with terror, a
powerful impulse to flee which he did, thus leaving the body to
be ravaged by beasts of prey. Flight and total neglect of the

10 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

human body was probably the first response of man to the death
of his kind (Deniker, '06; Eichler, '24).

It is the unanswerable questions in life which arouse curi-
osity, stimulate the imagination and lead to superstitions. What
happens after death can be placed in this category. Where does
man go, is death the end, does he live again in another form
when he vanishes into the great unknown and can he return to
earth again? These became important questions to man as soon
as he became able to think. One of the first concepts concocted
by aboriginal man was that the dead live on as ghosts and then
spirits. In a limited sense, he believed in immortality which today
is supported by nearly every religion and numerous philosophies.
It may not be an overstatement to say that this was one of the
most momentous ideas conceived in the mind of man. The primi-
tive savage went even further than this; he endowed all living
and nonliving objects with an indwelling spirit (Eichler, '24).

The foundation for primitive man's concept of the human
soul was probably laid not only because he regarded death as
akin to sleep, but from the interpretations which he gave to his
dreams, shadow, image in water and other similar phenomena.
In his nocturnal visions, he could perceive himself, his friends,
relatives, and the departed dead. The last came back to him in liv-
ing form, conversed with him and performed deeds classified both
as normal and superhuman. The impact of this was great on his
naturally superstitious mind. It was logical for him to conclude
that all human bodies were tenanted by a miniature spirit; that
it constituted a vital principle responsible for all of his behavior,
consciousness and movements; that it must be restless, wander-
ing and sensitive, capable of escaping from its confines under
minor or major provocations; that it could perform the acts of
which he dreamed: hunting, fishing, fighting or other activities;
that it possessed life beyond death and could continue to evince
an interest in human affairs, both generally and specifically
after death.

To the savage of the distant past, the soul was the double
or duplicate of man or animal, an ethereal image much smaller
and finer than the remainder of his body. Because he did not be-
lieve in uniformity, it was judged, according to his imagining

PRIMITIVE CONCEPTS REGARDING THE DEAD H

faculties, to be either fat, thin, long, short, heavy or light. Lon-
gevity was associated with its size and children who died young
were thought to possess the tiniest of all. Such a one had little
staying power or energy, its delicate flame being extinguished early
in life. The exact location of the soul within an organism dif-
fered depending upon the tribe: it was variously placed in the
kidney, omental fat, heart, liver, gallbladder or in other struc-
tures, but not in the brain, as it often is today (Brown, '23).

The primitive assigned great flexibility, traveling power,
transferability and even divisibility to his and other kindred
souls. He was convinced that it could wander away, leaving him
under manifold circumstances throughout life as well as at the
time of death: while sleeping, during sudden fright, when sneez-
ing or yawning, on the loss of his shadow, during an accident,
when in a trance or when ill. The entrance and exit for this sub-
stance was considered to be the openings of his corpus, more es-
pecially his mouth and nostrils.

How did uncivilized man explain the etiology of death? His
ideas on this subject were original and definitely settled in his
elementary mind. It was not due to natural causes, but specifi-
cally to a mystic or supernatural force. He did not consider fail-
ure of bodily organs, senile deterioration or diminution of func-
tioning power. He could see decrepit old people alive, changed
to be sure, but still performing physiological activities. To him,
man was always ''doomed" to die by the malign influence of an
enemy, in either human or spirit shape. There was no other cause.
The guilty one might have been a wizard, manes (spirit of the
dead) or another supernatural agent, less definitely individual-
ized. Probably the cause was attributed most commonly to the
machinations of a living sorcerer; this was important because it
behooved the surviving relatives of a deceased person and other
tribal members to search for the murderer and apprehend him
as soon as possible so that he could do no further damage (Brin-
ton, 1899; Levy-Bruhl, '23).

A sorcerer "doomed" an individual in one of the following
manners: he took possession of something which belonged to
him, such as hair, nail-parings, excreta, urine, footprints, shadow,
likeness or name, then subjected it to his own form of magic art.

12 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

He might have tried to act directly on the person or deliver him
over to a wild beast, a snake, a malevolent spirit or an enemy
(Brinton, 1899).

A person who suffered a violent death, as a result of an ac-
cident, starving during a famine, being hit by a thunderbolt, sui-
cidal action or from the effects of childbirth was treated in a spe-
cial manner. Because he had come to a "bad end" due to the
^\Tath of unseen, occult powers for some crime committed, his
soul acquired a disposition for evil beyond the ordinary. His body
was strictly avoided and all relationship between him and the
members of his tribe terminated immediately at death. The pen-
alty to the living for not so doing was to share an identical fate.

The outstanding characteristic of primitive opinion regard-
ing death, therefore, was that it was a manifestation of mystic or
supernatural power working through the medium of ghostly
spirits or the magical method of witchcraft. The aboriginal was
impervious to the relation of cause and effect and no attempt was
made to delve into the background conditions which produced
this phenomenon. He lacked intellectual curiosity which was
overbalanced by his extreme emotional response to death and ac-
cidents. Although, he might not show surprise at such events, it
was sure he would show a strong sensitivity or feeling about them.
Repeated experiences of the same kind taught him nothing as to
the real etiology because he bothered little with logical coherence
or abstract thought.

To the savage mind, therefore, there were two worlds, those
of the living and the dead. In other words, the deceased were alive,
at least for a certain time, and were considered to be personalized,
intelligent agents of somewhat different shape than himself. As
such, they were still able to participate remarkably in his daily
life; only by slow degrees did a ghost cease to belong to his social
group. In a sense, they were more important to him than his liv-
ing associates.

The picture which the primitive had in mind about the
ghost of a newly dead was not a salutary one. As a rule, it was
evil-disposed and ready to do harm to survivors including its
nearest of kin. It became irritative, vindicative, weak, unhappy
and suffered while hovering nearby, watching its mortal body

PRIMITIVE CONCEPTS REGARDING THE DEAD 13

decompose. The intention of the spirit was always vengeful re-
gardless whether it had been kind, considerate, loveable and ami-
able during life. There was an immediate and automatic trans-
formation into a definitive, malicious personality. For example,
if a person had not slain another during life, he would make up
for it by killing several in his afterlife. There were a hundred or
more ways in which a departed soul could show its displeasure.
The only recourse in neutralizing such possibilities was to render
customary dues and rites to those recently deceased.

One of the ways in which a dissatisfied ghost might strike
was by trying to carry off a survivor by causing his death. This
was because it felt lonely, forsaken and missed him as a friend.
It wanted to have him near him in his new environment. Should
a surviving relative or close friend fall ill and die at this time, all
knew that it was the spirit of the newly dead which was respon-
sible for the loss. Also, ghosts had a mystical influence over all
natural phenomena: they could exert some measure of control
over the rain, wind, sun, thunder and lightning. By this means,
they could direct their activities to the physical detriment of the
social group.

The effect which the recently dead could exercise over the
living depended upon several factors, the manner in which an
individual died, and his rank during life. The medicine man,
chief, fathers of families and the men who died old and revered
continued to be important after their demise in the eyes of the
primitive. When such a person succumbed, there was added to
his previous power, the mysterious and tremendous potential
produced by his new condition as a ghost. He was now able to do
much harm; he also occupied an invulnerable position because
little or nothing could be done to him' in return. Some tribes
responded by mutilation of the dead, by allowing it to liquefy
or by attempting to chase away or to mislay its spirit, but, in gen-
eral, it was judged to be in order to try to secure its favor and to
satisfy its requirements, whatever they might have been.

The ghost was considered to be most potent and vengeful
immediately after death while his mortal remains were undergo-
ing decomposition, more specifically until the worms began to
destroy its body. Most activities designed to placate the soul oc-

14 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

curred during this interval, which might be shorter in tropical
climates for obvious reasons. By degrees, as the time passed, the
primitive became reassured that the ghost's power had waned.
Whether the funeral ceremonies were prolonged or not depended
upon the dead man himself; if it was judged that he was instru-
mental in bringing all good things to his earthly survivors, the
burial ceremonies were extended. By contrast, if nothing mate-
rialized in this respect, the memory of the dead was soon erased
and people could go about their business as usual. An example
of this, was that the marital partner of the deceased could remarry.

In respect to an afterlife, it was a natural development to
think in terms of a home for departed ghosts. The choice of such
an abode rested between heaven and earth. A spot beneath the
surface of the ground, associated with a fiery hell, was popular
for the lower tribes. Others selected were the following: a far-
off island, a mountain top, a secluded valley and the sun or moon.
The concept of an earthly paradise for departed souls, was strong
among ancient savages; it dwindled during the barbaric stage
and only feebly survived during the mediaeval period. However,
the acceptance of Hades has had a firm place throughout history;
Heaven has gained importance only in modern religions.

Although death seemed dreadful to most mortals of the past,
there were probably variations in tribal sensitivities to it. The
people of some groups could not bear the sight of a dying per-
son (Abipone Indians of South America; Dobrizhoffer, '53);
only old women were permitted in the death house and the body
was removed from the premises while it was still warm. Others
might be more passive about it.

Ancestral worship was a common practice among primitive
tribes. What happened in this case, was a gradual transformation
of gliosts into spirits; in so doing, human characteristics were
lost. They became objects of homage despite the fact that they
might have been either friendly or unfriendly, but mostly the lat-
ter, depending on their disposition. It was believed by some, that
in any assemblage of dead spirits in the afterworld, those who were
relatives would fuse together because of common interests in
survivors. A pool, a higher power, exacting and demanding, was
thus formed which had a terrible, collective power. This could

PRIMITIVE CONCEPTS REGARDING THE DEAD 15

be the source of all misfortunes which afflicted a tribesman and
something which it was imperative to placate. Fear was the pre-
dominating emotion inspired by ancestors; they could behold all
that was done by kinsfolk and if the latter were judged to be out-
of-line, they could send famine, warfare or any other disaster
into their midst. The living were at a distinct disadvantage in such
a situation because it was obvious that this invisible and potent
force could not be compelled or coerced; the approach, therefore,
was to make liberal offerings, to entreat, supplicate and cajole.

The greatest fear of the ghosts of the dead was generated
when the bodies were lying exposed in huts or on the surface of
the ground. Some natives threw their dead in isolated, jungle
spots and left them to the ravages of physical nature and the
animal world.

Other defensive measures taken against demons were as fol-
lows: desertion of homes to give the soul an opportunity to leave
its body; burning all property of the deceased in the belief that it
resided also in its belongings; marching behind funerals brandish-
ing swords to drive the ghost away; eating special types of pro-
tective medicine at time of death; throwing the subject to wild
and giant mastiffs, and dancing on a newly covered grave to
stamp down the spirits.

The use of disguises by the survivors so as to become un-
recognizable and impervious to the ghost at the time of death is
an ancient custom. Again, it was based on fear. A variety of meth-
ods were used: smearing the body with pipe clay, mud, tar or
white clay, hanging a chaplet of bones over the face, wearing a
costume of either grass, veils over the entire body or mourning
costumes covered with black paste. Savage people were strongly
of the opinion that death was contagious, that they would suffer
a like fate if they remained in the vicinity of the dead. Individuals
became dangerous to the general society by virtue of having been
present at the instant of death.

In some groups, such persons became unclean and were un-
able to mix with others for a definite period of time. Where cre-
mation was practiced, the wido^v might have to carry the ashes
of the dead around for two or three years, during which interval

16 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

she was avoided. Tatooing and mutilation were practiced for the
purpose of publicizing previous proximity to death.

The modern custom of temporary retirement from social
life on the death of a family member originated from these old
savage practices designed to warn fellow members against mingling
with those intimately exposed to the corpse. In primitive times,
actual existence was thought to be at stake so that very definite
taboos were placed upon mourners and the mere mention of the
deceased.

The motivating factor which lead to burial of the dead was
fear of ghosts. They could either cause the "long sleep" by means
of contagion or they could perform other vindictive acts. The
procedure of choice was, therefore, to dispose of the body and
demon at one stroke, in other words, the supposition and hope
was that the ghost accompanied its relics. This was a part of the
rationalizing behind the origination of the customs of burning,
burying and other methods of taking care of the dead. Some meas-
ure of peace and security was apparently felt when a subject was
buried five or six feet below the surface of the ground. This prac-
tice can be traced as far back as Neanderthal man, who lived
in the ancient paleolithic period, perhaps a half million years
ago; there was some indication that these primitive people buried
their cadavers with food and stone weapons. At the risk of sound-
ing gruesome, it can be mentioned that sometimes the bodies
were cut up before burial and parts of the flesh eaten. This was
done out of a feeling of reverence for the departed; it was con-
sidered as an honor to the dead, the survivors hoping to retain
some of the virtue and strength of the deceased. It was in this
fashion that the breaking of the earth and preparation of the
grave developed into a ceremony accompanied by dancing and
feasting.

Eventually, death came gradually to be looked upon as the
last great event of a man's life which should be duly celebrated.
From the evolutionary viewpoint, at first it was only the important
leaders, the strong men, who were accorded elaborate burial and
ceremonial rites. Dancing and stamping were performed to
frighten away the evil spirits whereas feasting and sacrificing
were done in honor of the dead. Nighttime, with the moon

PRIMITIVE CONCEPTS REGARDING THE DEAD 17

shining overhead, was the time selected for these events. When
that planet slowly faded from the heavens and the first golden
rays of the sun appeared, the body was slowly lowered into a grave
accompanied by more chanting and feasting. Thousands of years
later, the rites became more ornate; the body was painted and
decorated; there was great feasting and celebration, and weapons,
food and ornaments were also put into the grave.

The position that a corpse was placed in its burial pit had
varying significance to the savage. One method was to adjust
it to a sitting posture, simulating the flexed attitude of a fetus.
A second was to place it in a prone position, face downward, as a
preventive measure against the re-entrance of the ghost leading
to possible reincarnation. This was particularly practiced when
the dead person was judged to have been of evil personality dur-
ing life. A common procedure before actual burial was to carry
the body feet foremost toward the spot of final disposition, in
order to prevent its soul from seeing the death house. If such
should occur, it could cast an evil influence upon the people in
the form of sickness or death.

Going back into remote antiquity was the policy of using
gravestones. Again, this was associated with the idea of evil spirits.
Heavy stones were first used by placing them upon grave mounds
in order to prevent them from arising and creating havoc among
the living people. Marking graves so they could be recognized
and identified also goes far back into the prehistory of mankind.
This was done, not only to keep the ghosts from rising and causing
damage but also that the spot might be avoided by the living.
Paleolithic man utilized headstones to mark the graves of their
dead, whereas the neolithic tribes set up great stone megaliths
above the mounds which hid the dead; it is not known how they
were able to elevate these to a crosswise position.

Cremation was one of the earliest methods of disposing of
the dead and, at one time, it threatened to become a universal
custom. The reason for its use was that it was judged to be the
simplest and most effective way of handling both body and
ghost. It is still practiced in many places. In some territories, to-
day, the people believe that evil spirits may pollute them until
the corpse has dissolved and passed from view; great care is ex-

18 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

ercised to avoid inhaling any of the fumes generated by the process
of burning the body and all belongings.

There is another concept that is highly important from the
standpoint of this discussion and that was a belief in reincarnation.
It has numerous variations but the one that is pertinent here is
that which holds that a spirit might return to its body making it
possible for life to start anew. When the mind of man became
more acute, it occurred to some, at least, that it was necessary to
protect and preserve the corpse for fear of being judged as ir-
reverent or in contempt. Therefore, the belief strongly developed
that mutilation of a body would mean irreparable damage to the
soul which flees from it. Some tribes believed so fully in this that
when warring on their enemies, they would first attack the ceme-
teries, raise and maim the corpses, thus damaging their souls.
Following this, they turned their attention to battling with the
living.

Gifts to the dead originated in the belief that death was but
a journey to another world and that the dying expected such
ceremonies to be performed for them to expedite their travels,
neutralize any dangers on the way and make it easier to gain ad-
mission to the new world. Money, food, clothes, chairs for the
soul to rest on and messages and letters to carry to deceased friends
and patriarchs were buried with the body. Sometimes, slaves were
sacrificed so that they either could serve as valets for their master
or bring news to the population of the dead. The more powerful
and influential a person who died the more servants he deserved
to accompany his ghost. In many early tribes, wives were sacri-
ficed by burning or other methods, at the time of their husband's
death. A widow, of her own volition, depending on custom, might
strangle, poison or hang herself when her mate succimibed. This
practice is dying out in many places but burning of effigies in-
stead, occasionally occurs (Moore, '23).

In summary, it might be said that to primitive man there was
no such thing as death. There was no word in his language which
meant "to die" but only "to be killed" (Brinton, 1899). To the
savage, all things lived on. A ghost could hover around familiar
spots and visit the living in their dreams; its voice could be heard
in the rustling leaves and falling waters. The aboriginal's reaction

PRIMITIVE CONCEPTS REGARDING THE DEAD 19

and behavior to ghosts of dead men revolved around the man-
ner in which he treated the corpse, the modes used in mourning
and the myths concerning the life and actions of the departed. A
soul's power for good or evil, mostly the latter, were multiplied
by deserting its body and entering another sphere of existence.
The aim of each group was either to get rid of it, to secure its
assistance or at least its neutrality by putting it to rest or sending
it on a journey to a better land (Frazer, '48).

[lU]

CONCEPTS REGARDING DEAD AMONG
ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS-3000 TO 1000 B.C.

Xlie history written during the early part of our civilization in-
dicates that an evolution occurred in concepts regarding death
and the afterlife. Prior to this, primitive people had undoubtedly
conceived the idea of a human soul and had heavily populated
their world with unseen ghosts, practically all of which could
do harm in manifold ways. Much of their daily behavior was de-
termined by their mental reactions to them. The new thoughts
which were introduced by certain advanced groups in this period
were those of personal salvation and retribution in either a
nether world or heavenly existence. What an individual did,
therefore, during life could be of paramount significance to him
after death. Associated with the origin of this novel trend, were
specific myths revolving around events said to have happened dur-
ing the lives of certain gods. The story of this development is
intimately related to the genesis of the ancient religions which
is so important in understanding human reactions to the dead.
It is the purpose of the present chapter to review some of the
highlights of these changes. The countries which will be con-
sidered in this respect are the following: China, Japan, Egypt,
Babylonia, Assyria, India, Greece and Italy.

A. China

Primitiveness characterized the early religions and concepts
of the dead in ancient China. In all cases, the cause of death
was judged to be due to the malevolent action of demons. Avoid-
ance of a death house or corpse was practiced because of fear of
a possible lingering, angry, ghostly influence. Both nature and
ancestors were worshiped. All powers were conceived in terms
of localized spirits which could be celestial, terrestrial or human.

20

CONCEPTS OF DEAD AMONG ANCIENT CIVILIZATION 21

They were ranked in the following order: those from heaven,
earth, deceased emperors, sun, moon and ancestors. The rites of
religion were a function of the state and were performed for the
people, not by them. The emperor, son of heaven, was the ec-
clesiastical head of the nation and he alone could perform the
ceremonies. By contrast, the classes privately venerated their for-
bears. The popular faith was practical, the aim being to obtain
mundane goods and health in abundance during life.

In remote times, the Chinese believed that demons, ghosts,
vampires and werewolves populated the country as thickly as hu-
man inhabitants and that they could do all kinds of harm. The
life of man constituted an incessant battle against them; the only
means of defense was considered to be the application of magic
and the possible enlistment of their gods as allies.

The existence of the dead was imagined to be a ghostly con-
tinuation of earthly life in the midst of the living. It was im-
portant to them that the dead be properly interred. Great diffi-
culty was often encountered and expense incurred in finding an
ideal burial spot. Without this, the spirits might be dissatisfied
and responsible for misfortunes in the family. Tombs were, there-
fore, built on a scale ranking next to those of the Egyptians in
grandeur. The bodies were carried to the grave in a temporary
structure and their souls were supposed to go along in a provi-
sional slab or streamer. When the interment was over, a permanent
tablet was brought out, in which the soul took its place; this was
conveyed to its former home and placed on the shelf in the liv-
ing room, in the company of other ancestral spirits. All significant
family events were announced to it. There is on record the fact
that living humans were buried along with their masters; in
619 B.C., 170 persons, including three high ministers, followed
their superior to his grave. Another such incident was reported
as late as A.D. 1398. Thereafter, puppets were substituted.

Confucius, born in 551 B.C., living in a time of great in-
tellectual activity, was in favor of conforming everything to the
ancient pattern. He believed that the destiny of states and indi-
viduals was ordained by heaven, that filial piety was the cardinal
virtue and that man was good at the beginning of life, not neces-
sarily so, at the end. He refused to discuss an existence after death

22 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

maintaining that one could not know about this since he did not
understand what constitutes life.

Buddhism was introduced into China as early as the 2nd
Century B.C. It spread rapidly, even during the beginning of the
Christian period, and no violence of persecution, individual or
en masse, could neutralize it. The basis of its popularity was its
doctrine of retribution, i.e., how one behaved during life was
highly important in a hereafter. Its aim was not only the salva-
tion of all mankind but of all sentient beings. This could be at-
tained only by becoming perfect through Buddhahood. Prior to
this time, the Chinese believed that the souls of the dead con-
tinued to exist, with no essential differences between them. The
Buddhist teachers described in great detail the state of the de-
parted, the blessedness of the good in heaven and the torments
of the bad in hell. A great spirit, by name of T'ai-Shan, residing
in a tall mountain, was the one who served as a judge of the
Chinese dead. There, he had seventy-five hells, each one designed
to promote the maximum in suffering for the ghosts of the con-
demned dead (Moore, '13).

B. Japan

The historical period of Japan began about the year 660 B.C.
At this time, primitive Shintoism existed. It largely represented
a survival of earlier times, especially in respect to myths which
were abundant. The Shinto deities, which still exist in the minds
of many modern Japanese people, stemmed from nature and na-
tural forces. Heading the list of the pantheon was the sun goddess
with a moon and star god on either side of her. Other important
ones were the following: rain, storm, thunder, sea, rivers, waters
in general, earth, food crops, mountains, trees and fire; in other
words, all the constitutents of a natural polytheism. Besides these,
were some who were once men; they were deified without any al-
teration of bodily form. All of the deities of nature were regarded
as gods possessing human intelligence, form and passions.

These people developed a marked reaction to their dead;
contact with a corpse made a person automatically unclean and
it was necessary for him to undergo purification rites by ablution.
Such contamination might infect a whole community, including

I

CONCEPTS OF DEAD AMONG ANCIENT CIVILIZATION 23

the land. Defilement, disease and guilt, with no sharp line of di-
vision, ^vere regarded by them as contagious evils, which were
transmissible to other things, animate and inanimate.

The primitive Japanese first buried their deceased. The
masses were merely interred by covering the bodies with soil
in waste lands remote from communities. Since they entertained
the universal belief in a life after death, with needs similar to
those in the former, their post-mortem requirements were simple,
nothing more than a little rice and water. By contrast, tombs or
great megalithic vaults, covered with huge mounds of earth, were
built for the royalty. Food, arms, utensils, ornaments and even
living servants were deposited with them. The last barbarous cus-
tom was later abandoned and images were placed in the sepulchres
as substitutes. This method of disposing of the dead slowly gave
way to cremation which became universal by the 9th Century
A.D.

The ancient Japanese also believed in an abode for their
dead; it was considered to be located either in the depths of the
earth or beneath the sea. In either case, it was a place of utter
darkness, loathesome corruption and decaying bodies. Existing
there, were a group of ugly hags who fed upon the corpses. There
was no notion of retribution beyond life. They did fear the dead,
however, believing that their ghosts could cause all kinds of mis-
chief. So they made many offerings to their forefathers asking for
their protection arid help in attaining some measure of pros-
perity (Moore, '13).

C. Egypt

Of all the countries of the early civilized world, Egypt un-
doubtedly ranks first in originating new ideas about what may
happen in an afterlife. These people were very much concerned
about the dead and they initially conceived the far-reaching con-
cept of immortality and a possible retribution in another world;
eventually they became bold enough to pioneer in making in-
cisions on human corpses. The former was related to an intepreta-
tion given to an important Egyptian myth whereas the latter was
associated with a belief in reincarnation which led to the prac-
tice of mummification.

24 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

Primitive polytheism was the order of the day in ancient
Egypt. Each of the city states had its own god who presided over
the interests of its inhabitants and most were intimately related
with some animal or plant: ram, cow, vulture, cat, falcon, jackal,
crocodile, ibis and trees, among others. All were imagined to be
endowed with human character and motives.

Certain powers of nature, such as the sun, moon, sky and
the river Nile were also accepted as gods. By contrast, these were
thought to bestow their blessings on all alike, not favoring the
population of one locality over another. About 2750 B.C. the
sun became pre-eminent as a deity; it was called Ra (Re) and
was thought to have been created from sky and earth. At this
period, the heaven was regarded as an immense cow, her four
legs being planted at the corners of the earth. It was obvious to
them that the sun traveled in a circle around the sky and under-
world. Sometimes Ra was imagined as flying across the firmament
in the form of a dung beetle, sometimes as a calf. It was often visu-
alized as traversing its way along either the belly or the back of
the sky-cow in a boat. When the sun went down in the west,
the vessel was exchanged for another designed to transport a
reborn sun. The nocturnal journey of Ra underneath the earth
was divided into twelve parts, representing the hours of the
night; each division consisted of fields, cities and dwellings, con-
nected by a river and each was entered through special doors
placed across the stream. Throughout this part of the trip, the sun
was gradually growing to its full size, which it attained when it
appeared at dawn.

All sorts of demons lived along the banks of this river of
the underworld. Only a few favored ones, accompanied Ra on
this part of his travel; when the sun-god was uplifted at the
horizon, these selected spirits accompanied and remained with
him, without losing their individuality.

The believers, who accepted the sun-god, Ra, were not as
numerous as those who eventually accepted Osiris, god of the
earth. The latter was also thought to have been created by the
sky and earth. Tlie myth relating to this god is as follows: he was
treacherously murdered by his brother Set, following which his
corpse was sought, in the underworld, and found by his wife,

CONCEPTS OF DEAD AMONG ANCIENT CIVILIZATION 25

Isis. Ra, the sun-god, heard her wailing and lamenting for her
lost husband, took pity upon her, and sent Anubis, a mortuary
god, conceived as a jackal which ordinarily devoured the dead,
to inter Osiris. Anubis assembled the various bones of Osiris,
and bound them with a cloth in preparation for burial. Isis then
fanned her wings and Osiris came to life, possessed of immortality.
Thus, he had suffered, died and risen again to become judge of
the dead as well as sovereign of the living. In the latter capacity
he was associated with the fertility of the earth, the supply of
^vater and the growth of vegetation. By some, he was also re-
garded as the procreator of man. Eventually, all of Egypt bowed
down to him because belief in this tale gave each individual
hope that he, too, could attain immortality by resurrection of
his body after death. Its doctrine surpasses any other ever con-
ceived in its preciseness and extent; it dates from remote an-
tiquity, having been complete in pyramid times.

The important factors in the Osiris myth were that it out-
grew all others, that it opened the door of hope to all Egyptians,
that it became associated with the idea that how a person lived
in this world could be important in respect to the way he was
treated in an afterlife. It came to be understood that upright-
ness and goodness commended a person to that god. All that was
necessary, was to simulate the steps which made this deity im-
mortal. This constituted the road to heaven (Moore, '13).

Mummification, or preservation of the human body, by a spe-
cial technique, accompanied the spread in the belief of Osirian
immortality; it became general about 1600 B.C.

The Egyptian particularly regarded some parts of himself
as immortal: his personality, soul, shadow and heart. He an-
ticipated that all of these could be brought together again in
the other world by revitalization of his mummy, providing his
soul, which he thought of as being winged, could pass certain
tests. He considered death as being a long break in life without
altering any of his former conditions of existence, during which
his spirit would have to pass through different kinds of terrestrial,
marine and aerial beings before it could again enter his remains.
This transmigratory cycle might take 3,000 years. Destruction

26 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

of his body (his mummy), in the meantime, would mean the loss
of his soul.

When an Egyptian passed away, it was believed that his
spirit had to make a long journey to the world of the dead, spe-
cifically to the hall where Osiris reigned as chief justice. Ob-
stacles had to be overcome on every hand and in order to sur-
mount them it was necessary to recite magical formulae and per-
form the proper rites for each. His ultimate success depended
upon how well he learned these before death.

Eventually, it became the custom to put a written collec-
tion of magical spells at the disposal of a deceased in his burial
chamber, to help him along his way. Collectively, these were called
The Book of the Dead. Some of the dangers which could be en-
countered on the trip were the following: meeting hostile ser-
pents or unfortunate dead walking upside down, fire, bodily de-
cay and dismemberment. When a soul arrived at the judgment
hall, it had to make negative confessions, denying each type of
sin, of which there were forty-two. Finally his heart had to be
weighed on the scales against the feather of truth. If it were suc-
cessful in passing these tests, this organ was returned to its mum-
mified body, upon which the immortal elements began to re-
unite. The individual concerned now entered a new life by be-
coming a complete and everlasting god, residing in a heavenly
atmosphere where everyone was righteous and blessed. What hap-
pened to the condemned in hell is not known. It is told that they
either were overthrown or destroyed.

From this background, it can be seen that anything which
violated the physical integrity of the human body, was con-
traindicated. Although anointing, embalming and mummifying
were accepted, requiring a total of seventy days to perform, little
anatomical knowledge was gained; what was learned, was acci-
dently acquired. In all preparations, the intent was strictly re-
ligious: to prepare the bodies for the hereafter. Destruction of
parts of the corpse would neutralize the possibility of a functional
existence in a resurrected afterlife. Mummies have been found
with artificial legs, arms, teeth and eyes replacing any normal
structures lost during life.

CONCEPTS OF DEAD AMONG ANCIENT CIVILIZATION 27

Since the ancient Egyptian regarded life beyond the grave
as a certainty, his tomb became a house of eternity, a suitable
refuge for his immortal spirit. Because of this, he was not so much
interested in making an accurate reproduction of his earthly
dwelling, but rather planned to make it as permanent, safe and
impregnable as possible. By the year of 3000 B.C., the simple grave
had evolved into a bricklined or rock-cut chamber, surrounded
by annex rooms, all of which ^vere approached from the ground
level by a long stairway. From a simple sand mound, a superstruc-
ture of masonry developed, which was rectangular and flat-topped.
The next step was in the direction of the impressive, pyramidal
form which was adopted around 2780-2720 B.C. Other less im-
posing types of tombs followed this period. The pyramids were
constructed for the sovereigns to avoid stealing of mummies until
such time, thousands of years in the future, when the spirit would
be in a position to return (Addison, '32; Reisner, '12; Wieder-
mann, 1895).

Thus it can be seen that there were too many factors working
against the practice of human dissection in early Egyptian times
to make this a noteworthy anatomical period. These were in-
herent in the customs and religious beliefs which existed. Since
the body was opened in preparation for mummification, the pre-
cursor of the anatomist was born in Egypt. The embalmers un-
doubtedly obtained some information about human viscera.

What anatomical information is known about this interval
has come down to us in the form of a notable scroll, the Edwin
Smith Papyrus (1600 B.C.). This is a surgical rather than an ana-
tomical treatise. References, however, were made to certain bones
in the human body, as well as to the heart and brain. That on
the heart and its connections, is judged to be remarkable when
taking into account the chronological period. In respect to the
central nervous system, the convoluted appearance of the brain
was described and the meninges and cerebrospinal fluid were
mentioned (Elsberg, '31).

During a part of this epoch, namely 1502 B.C., there was
another medical document, known as the Eber's Papyrus. Refer-
ring to the pulse it stated: "the heart speaks in all the limbs";
they, therefore, believed in the presence of vessels. This was dis-

28 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

covered by the German Egyptologist and novelist, George M.
Ebers in 1872. It was written in hieratic script and is lacking in
general anatomical information (Ranke, '33).

D. Babylonia

Babylonia, which existed between 5000 and 539 B.C., in the
area localized around the Persian Gulf, was characterized by being
populated with people whose religious thinking was on a primi-
tive, polytheistic level. Like Egypt, each city had its own god,
which served as its protector and patron but others of various
origin and type hovered nearby. Some of the earliest deities were
identified with such celestial planets as the moon, sun and Venus.
Spokesmen for the gods (priests) became the kings or rulers. One
of the reasons accounting for the prevailing polytheism was that
wars between the cities were frequent and the conquering groups
were successful in imposing their gods upon the vanquished.

Basically, the universal belief of savages predominated in the
thinking of Babylonians. Misfortune of every kind, especially
those of disease and death, were thought to have been caused
by evil spirits which were motivated either spontaneously or by
instigation of human enemies. There was only one defense against
these unseen essences and that was by means of magic, the use
of certain gestures and words, which had to be developed to the
level of a detailed and mysterious art; these rites were trans-
mitted from generation to generation. The most important chal-
lenge in each situation was to detect the mischiefmaker; without
knowing this, any magician was powerless to act. Shamanism was
also practiced where a powerful spirit, under the dominating con-
trol of a sorcerer, might be ordered to detect the demon causing
any specific trouble.

Eventually, the gods were solicited to defend the members
of a city against malignant foes. A natural sequel to this was the
development of the concept that demons have the power to harm
the living only when permitted to do so by his own god or gods;
these came to be judged more powerful than any ordinary human
magician. Neutralization M'^.iinst injury was best performed, in
the minds of the c iti/cm \ , by propitiation of a god who had been

CONCEPTS OF DEAD AMONG ANCIENT CIVILIZATION 29

offended, followed by confession and contrition. Instead of being
a dual affair, it thus evolved into a triangular situation: god,
demon and man, with the first having some measure of control
over the second and the second over the third.

The priests (rulers) entered the picture by conducting pub-
lic ceremonies, which became a mixture of magic and religion.
This supplanted the less official rites among the masses. These
individuals tried to counteract the practitioners of the black art,
the numerous wizards and witches who used their devilish art
to injure and destroy honest folk, by using primitive sympathetic
magic: making an image of the ones diagnosed as being responsi-
ble for the misfortunes and maltreating it in various ways, by
burning or melting, shooting arrows or sticking pins into it, etc.

The Babylonians were pre-eminent in developing the art of
divination. The specialists were learned men in all methods con-
cerned with discovering the ways of strange and mysterious hap-
penings. Unusual astronomical and meteorological events were
everywhere regarded as ominous signs by priestly interpreters, who
reduced them all into a system.

In harmony with this mental state, the possibility of a retribu-
tive hereafter, never occupied the imaginations of the Baby-
lonians. They buried their dead simply beneath the houses in
which they lived, sometimes in pottery coffins, great jars, or in
reed mats. At funerals, officiating priests asked for and got ex-
tortionate fees. After interment, food and drink were offered to-
the dead. There was no suggestion o£ a final judgment or de-
liverance from the gloomy, nether world to which they were all
assigned; this was conceived as being a vast cavern within the heart
of the earth into which light never penetrated so that the ever-
increasing ghostly population had to sit in total darkness, with
nothing but mud and dust available for food. Like all primi-
tives, they were mortally afraid of the dead body and avoided it
(Moore, '13).

E. India

India has had an interesting evolution in her religion and
concepts of the dead. Going back to 1000 B.C., the people wor-
shiped gods of nature which were neither tribal nor local. These

30 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

were deities forced upon them by conquering Aryans during the
second and third millenniums before Christ: the sky, air, earth
and several classes of superhuman beings consisting of mythical
heroes, priests and seers. It was the power in these that affected
their lives; each was conceived as a spirit, actuated by a will and
prompted by motives similar to those of man. There were no dif-
ferences in either rank or religious importance, between the gods
of the sky, atmosphere and earth.

Some of the manifold demons in their world were classi-
fied as unfriendly, devilish, natural enemies and evil. They spent
most of their time harming man, in both person and property
and were considered to be the antagonists of the gods. Primary
attention was paid to these spirits. In terms of persecution, they
performed their deeds by black magic and could assume, at will,
the form of beasts or ill-omened birds. They were active at night,
during the dark of the moon, and could enter man easily, un-
beknownst to him, through his orifices, consuming his flesh, suck-
ing the marrow from his bones, drinking his blood, confusing
his speech and eventually making him mad. Outside of this, they
could break up marriages, interfere with pregnancy and birth,
swarm about the dying and haunt the houses of death. Diseases and
ailments of all sorts were the work of this lot.

Besides possessing the power to attack persons individually,
they could also drain the milk of cows, devour the flesh of horses
.and defile the spots where religious rites and ceremonies were
held. To make themselves more potent, they were thought to
come out in droves, in families and groups. The defense against
these malignant and dreadful forces was either by means of
counter-magic, proper behavior, making offerings and sacrifices
or invoking the aid of the gods.

The Indians began to entertain ideas of retribution in an
afterlife early, believing that the blessed dead have their abode
in a heaven of light where they have immortality with all needs
and wishes satisfied; by contrast, a hell existed beneath the earth
for the punishment of the wicked. Between about 1000 and
800 B.C., Brahmanism developed as a priestly part of Hinduism.
This religion believed in elaborate ceremonies, material offerings
and animal sacrifice. Tiie Brahman priests became a part of the

CONCEPTS OF DEAD AMONG ANCIENT CIVILIZATION 31

caste system and elevated themselves to superhuman rank. A be-
lief in transmigration, a re-embodiment of human souls in man
or beast, appeared approximately 800-600 B.C. This was not an
original idea since it was characteristic of the primitive savage.
Residence in either heaven or hell, therefore, came to be thought
of as a temporary state of retribution between successive embodi-
ments of a soul. What the Indian strived for, was to save himself
from going through an endless chain of lives and to think in
terms of his future caste, sex and fortune.

Another feature of early Hinduism, was the burning of the
dead, with the exception of children and great saints. It was
customary to carry the body to the shore of a holy river before
death. If this were not feasible, special precautions were taken
to keep the messengers of hell at bay, such as surrounding the
bed of the dying with a ring of cow dung or putting a sacred stone
or plant by its side. Another way to neutralize the powers of these
spirits of the devils was to have the dying man grasp the tail of
a cow which would assure him of being transported across the
waters of death.

Special rites attended the burning of a corpse which was
performed on an open pyre. An important part of the ceremony
was to crack open the top of the skull with a strong blow from a
club, but not until the body was partly consumed. This was done
to permit a still vital soul an exit for escape. The bones which
remained were collected in an urn and buried in the ground; they
were later resurrected to be thrown into the Ganges or another
sacred river.

Since a part of the creed of Hinduism, was a belief in a tem-
porary stay in either a heaven or hell, a few more facts may be
mentioned. Persons reaching heaven, spent a long time in a
state of conscious blessedness. At the other extreme, there were
from twenty-one to twenty-eight hells presided over by a judge
and executioner, named Yama. At death, he sent two of his mes-
sengers to where the cremation was performed. When the soul
of the deceased escaped through the artificially produced opening
in the cranium, they captured and bound it and then hurried to
the seat of judgment. Thirteen days were required to pass muster
in the court, during which the soul grew into an intermediate

32 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

State. If it were judged to be a sinner, it was conducted to hell,
a distance of exactly 86,000 leagues; even on this long journey,
the unfortunate spirit was subjected to minor torments as an
example of what was to come: it was exposed to heated cauldrons,
red-hot irons, a lake of blood, stinking mire, a jungle where the
leaves were as sharp as knives, a plain dotted with iron spikes and
a pair of pincers devoted to tearing the flesh from bones.

Although Zoroastrianism originated in Persia, it spread to
parts of India toward the end of the 7th Century, B.C. Briefly,
Zoroaster, its founder, rejected the myriad gods of his age and
concentrated on the spirit of the good. He attempted to establish
a monotheism which would liberate man from loyalty to the
numerous deities connected with magic; he thought in terms of
a single god who was flanked by evil spirits. This leader main-
tained that there was a life after death, among other things.

In this religion, uncleanliness was due to the contagion of
demons. Death was caused by those which were imagined to exist
in the form of a carion fly. The greatest precaution was taken
against the machinating of such a spirit. When a man was judged
to be dying, a priest was called in to hear a confession and put
liquid drops into his mouth as a last sacrament. This type of
demon could be frightened away by a dog or it could be killed
by an odor produced by a fire fed by a sweet smelling wood. A
priest was required to sit exactly three yards from the dead, re-
citing verses until the funeral procession began.

The burial procedure followed certain standards: it took
place in daylight without rainy weather, the body being trans-
ported on an iron bier; the pallbearers wore protective material
to guard against possible infection. First, the body was interred
in an isolated spot; later it was elevated to a "Tower of Silence."
Behind these actions, was the desire to prevent the defiling of the
elements; in sharp contrast to the Hindu practice, it was con-
sidered a sin to burn a corpse, to deposit it permanently in the
earth or cast it into the water. Prayers for the dead were recited
while the vultures made quick work of the flesh of the cadaver;
the bones once dry were no longer considered as unclean; they
could then be cast into the central pit beneath the tower.

CONCEPTS OF DEAD AMONG ANCIENT CIVILIZATION 33

Contact by a living person with the dead, from which the
devil had not been driven out by beasts or birds of prey, meant
that he became possessed by the demon who caused the death: the
individual was then required to undergo. purification rites by a
time-consuming procedure which included basically washing with
the fluid thought to be the best active disinfectant, cow's urine.
If a dog died in a particular field, it had to lie fallow, by custom,
for a year. The ground in which a human body was buried re-
mained unclean and condemned for fifty years. If a corpse was
found in either running or standing water, it became impure, for
how long, was a subject of great debate. Eating human or dog
flesh was a monstrous sin which could never be atoned. Up to
1,000 lashes with a horsewhip were given to a person throwing
away any part of a dead man or dog the size of a joint of the little
finger or larger. The body of a beast considered to be endowed
with an evil spirit, a worshiper of idols and a heretic were not
judged to be unclean because the devil in them had gone off with
their souls (Moore, '13).

F. Greece

The Iliadj written by the Greek Homer, who lived between
900 and 800 B.C., portrays some habits and beliefs regarding
the dead. In terms of chronology, the following discussion refers
to the era approximately 1,100 years before Christ.

Numerous gods were worshiped and their place of assemblage
was on Mt. Olympus, the highest peak in Greece. Zeus, the leader,
a sky god, was judged to be the offspring of Cronus, a vague nature
power. He was the most po^verful, unprejudiced and farseeing of
the gods. Ranking below the select group of deities, were many
lesser sprites: river gods, sea nymphs and fauns of the wood.
The oldest and most sacred things of all, however, were the sun,
sky, earth, rivers, the underworld and the "falling water of Styx."
The last was the river which circled Hades seven times. It
was to these, rather than the gods, that sworn and solemn oaths
were made. Heroes, legendary founders of cities, ancestral heads
of families and historical persons were also venerated. The good
will of the gods was obtained by means of sacrifices, performed in
grand style; 100 bulls and sheep were frequently offered at one

34 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

time. Pouring out wine, prayers and sometimes hymns accom-
panied the meat offering.

There were Hmitations as to the power of the gods over man-
kind. They could not always save their favorite mortals from the
consequence of their own misdoing as retribution was judged to
be an inherent law of the universe which even the deities could
not break, nor could they make them immortal. The final lot of
mankind was to go weeping down to the house of Hades as a
wan, bloodless and mournful shadow of its former self. There
were even standards to be met for entrance to this place in the
form of proper burial. If not, a spirit might have to wander deso-
late outside of the gate, having lost forever the opportunity of
gaining the companionship of the souls assembled inside.

The intervention of gods and the importance of proper
burial rites are poignantly emphasized in the last chapters of
the Iliad, dealing with the Trojan War, where Achilles bound
the slain body of Hector behind his chariot and proceeded to drag
it ingloriously on the ground, full length, with face downwards.
Hector lay on the surface of the earth twelve days, intermittently
being pulled furiously around; yet his flesh did not waste and
the worms did not eat him, because he was protected by the god,
Apollo. He lay there fresh as dew, not marked or disfigured in
any way, until his father was finally given the humiliating ex-
perience of claiming him. During the battle between Achilles
and Hector, when the latter was mortally wounded, Achilles
threatened his victim by saying that he was going to let the dogs
and vultures ignominously devour his body. The dying man
pleaded to have it burned, which apparently was the accepted
method of disposal. It was believed that this procedure would
properly release the soul for entrance into Hades.

Some of the funeral pyres built in that day attained great
size, up to 100 by 100 feet, which required a considerable amount
of wood gathering. For important persons, it was the custom to
follow the burning with a great spectacle of sport contests: chariot
and foot racing, boxing, wrestling, sword fighting, hurling an
iron quoit, archery and javelin throwing, all of which was thought
to make it easier for the departing soul to gain proper entrance
into Hades.

CONCEPTS OF DEAD AMONG ANCIENT CIVILIZATION 35

The Greeks of the later civilization, before the 4th Century
B.C., shared and cherished the belief that death was not the end
of existence, that man lives on by means of his soul. They were
influenced by certain myths of the gods, particularly those con-
cerned with the soil, crops and the abode of the dead. In na-
ture, things come back to life again and again as evidenced by
the seasonal rebirth of plants and the reappearance of hibernat-
ing animals, therefore, why not man. At first, it was felt that
blessed immortality belonged only to the gods. The common man
was first interested in and looked to those deities who had ex-
perienced struggle, pain and death (Dionysis and Demeter), who
had triumphed over death and risen to a new life. In such a
victory, was the evidence that death can be overcome; therefore,
the only hope for man to escape from the gloomy underworld was
participation in divine nature.

From the 6th Century B.C., the myth of Orpheus, Thracian
singer, son of Apollo, wielded great influence among the Greek
population. He descended to the underworld with his lyre in an
attempt to save his wife, Eurydice, who died after being bitten
by a snake. His music so charmed the queen of Hades that she
gave Orpheus permission to let Eurydice follow him back to
earth on condition that he would not look behind until they
reached the upper world. On the upward journey, because of his
emotional condition, he ventured a glance in her direction and
she vanished. Thereafter, Orpheus mourned her loss and scorned
the women of Thrace. This so infuriated them that they tore him
to pieces in an orgy. They cast his head, which was still calling
for Eurydice into the river Hebrus; it floated down to the shore
of Lisbon, which thereafter became renowned for its lyric poetry.

According to the Orphic doctrine, at death the soul was
carried around upon the wings of the wind until it found another
body, a primitive concept of transmigration. The human frame,
therefore, was nothing more than a prison for this essence and
freedom could be attained only by deliverance from it. The con-
cept of the Orphic hell was on the gruesome side. It was a place
of misery where the souls wallowed in filth, where an earth dragon
with 100 heads existed which could tear out a man's vitals; which
contained a Spanish sea serpent which could claw their lungs;

36 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

also present were the Tithrasian gorgons, capable of tearing kid-
neys and entrails to pieces. In contrast to this, nothing but bliss
existed for the saved who were pure, holy and righteous.

The Orphic doctrine addressed itself to the individual; it set
forth a plan of salvation by which a man could purify himself;
it permitted the offering of sacraments and mystic rites whereby
he could partake of the divine nature; its myth and ceremony ex-
cited the emotions and its primitive theology offered to thinkers
a solution of the problems of god, the universe and man. It had an
important influence on the development of the hell of Christianity
even to the Middle Ages (Moore, '13).

G. The Romans

The Romans took much of their mythology, religious art and
philosophy from the Greeks. Each human had his personal deity
who was conceived as operating in specific spheres of nature and
life. The oldest order of the gods were Janus, Jupiter, Mars,
Quirinus and Vesta. Religion was at first treated as an institu-
tion by the state. At the time of the monarchy, the king was head
and priests officiated. When church and state separated, the col-
lege of Pontifices assumed control of the church. Ceremonies pre-
vailed and offerings were made both publicly and privately; images
of gods and their symbolization were unknown and no divine
dwellings existed. By the year 205 B.C., the whole Greek pantheon
was annexed to the Roman religion.

For these people, there existed a nether world of the dead,
especially for their forefathers. Spirits of ancestors were thought
to watch over each house and avenge infractions of family or-
dinances. They possessed no clear-cut idea of the state after death
including that of retribution. Populating their own world were
ghosts, spectres and bogeys. By means of aversive rites and offer-
ings, they attempted to keep them at bay.

Even some of the priests were not permitted to come in con-
tact with a dead body, approach a grave, touch or even name
things associated with death and the nether world: such as goats,
dogs, beans and ivy.

At the beginning of the Christian era, the worship of deified
emperors was developed, Julius Caesar being the first. This prac-

CONCEPTS OF DEAD AMONG ANCIENT CIVILIZATION 37

tice served to unite the diverse peoples and religions of the Em-
pire, but other gods also existed in their lives.

Attis, an Oriental god, from ancient Phrygia, central and
northern Asia Minor, became an outstanding figure because he
gave the Romans hope for a life beyond death. What men and
women began to think of was salvation for their souls. Even more
influential was the religion centering around the Egyptian god-
dess, Isis, carried into Italy by merchants and seamen as early as
105 B.C. In spite of disfavor by the authorities, it thrived and
spread; it became the most civilized of the various Roman re-
hgions and offered the possibility of a blessed immortality and
the hope of a new life which were welcomed by the common
man.

Another Asiatic religion which gained a foothold in the Ro-
man Empire, was the worship of Mithras, an old Indo-Iranian
deity. It spread rapidly by means of lip service of Roman sol-
diers; in many regions, it became the chief rival of Christianity.
That deity was a god of light, and in the moral world, god of
truth and good faith, a righteous and heroic judge. He was re-
garded as a champion of every good cause, a defender of the up-
right in their conflict with the human and devilish powers of
darkness and had the power to rescue their souls at death from
the assaults of demons. Its big attraction, however, was its con-
cept of salvation.

Finally, Christianity, another Oriental mystery, was intro-
duced to the Romans. It offered nothing new in the way of rites
with its gospel of the cross and resurrection, baptismal initiation,
sacrament of bread and wine, body and blood of the Redeemer,
and its hierarchical organization of the clergy. It differed from
other religions and cults in its intolerant attitude toward other
ways of salvation (Moore, '13). In the 2nd and 3rd Centuries after
Christ, persecutions became common. By the 5th Century, the
demise of heathenism occurred and the older, competing religions
decayed and disappeared.

[IV]

PRE-ALEXANDRIAN ANATOMY-1000 to

300 B.C.

Wi,

hether any actual dissections on man were performed in
the period immediately before the development of the Alexan-
drian School, beginning about 332 B.C. is speculative (Kempf,
'04; Singer, '25; Taylor, '22).

In Egypt, medicine lagged behind achievements in the arts
although the Egyptian embalmer can be classified as the pre-
cursor of the anatomist. It was he who was one of the first to view
some of the organs of the human body. During that remote era,
the populace had definite, antagonistic views concerning those
who tried to dissect. No qualms were felt about killing a man
or satisfying vengeance on the body of an enemy after death, but
it was a different matter when a corpse was cut for the purpose
of learning structure. Anatomy was a mixture of mystery, imagina-
tion, and a few facts learned in everyday life. Magic continued to
play an important part in the religious and commonplace existence
of the Egyptians and was applied to the dead as well as to the
living (Cave, '50; Frazer, '20; Haggard, '29; Wright, '18).

Although it may seem that their knowledge of human an-
atomy was vague and retarded in Egypt, there is little doubt that
it was ahead of contemporaries in other parts of the world. This
was possible because the Egyptians pioneered in the art of em-
balming; they were the first to open the dead for what they
thought was a practical purpose: namely, to preserve it for re-
entrance of its soul; the motive was, therefore, religious, the
process of mummification being important to them in respect
to what happened in the afterworld. Certain of tlie viscera were
removed, in the embalming procedure, so that it was natural tliat
they gleaned something about the topography of the body, par-
ticularly in the thorax and abdomen. Names were given to some

38

PRE-ALEXANDRIAN ANATOMY-1000 TO 300 B.C. 39

of the organs and a deity, which had a life of its own, was identi-
fied with each. There were over 100 anatomical terms in the
Egyptian language of this period. It began largely as a mytho-
logical anatomy, of which traces still exist in terminology; e.g., the
word. Atlas, which refers to the first cervical vertebra.

The human body was regarded as a microcosm reflecting the
macrocosm, or universe. The morphological parts were able to
wander around the body at will; they had appetites, whims and
moods which had to be pacified and satisfied (Sigerist, '51). Or-
gans were also divided into good and evil, most of them being
in the latter category; only the heart and kidney were judged
to be untainted and were the two left within the mummified
body; the others were removed or destroyed with chemicals while
they were in situ. The Egyptian considered the heart to be the
most important, serving as the center of the vascular system and
the seat of intelligence and all emotions. However, he was unable
to differentiate, between arteries, veins, nerves and muscles.

One of the greatest fears the Egyptian embalmer had to over-
come was the mere opening of the abdomen. He tried to negate
the displeasure of his particular gods by hiring a scapegoat, in
the form of an old, depraved man, to make the incision with a
sharp stone; the use of iron was not permitted because of a stigma
attached to its use. Once the cut was made sufficiently, the man em-
ployed for the occasion ran off as fast as feeble legs would carry
him. During his escape, the undertakers hurled rocks at him, to
demonstrate to the deities, that they were righteous and disap-
proved of the mutilation of the corpse. The practice of mummi-
fication reached its height about 700 B.C.

In the final analysis, Sigerist ('51) states that probably more
was learned about anatomy in the kitchen or cult than from
observations made in the embalming procedure in Egypt. To
give credit where it is due, however, it must be admitted that
the art of mummification was instrumental in reconciling the
popular mind for the following twenty centuries to the idea of
incising the human body. This custom made it possible for a num-
ber of outstanding Greeks to openly and systematically study the
human body later in Alexandria, a privilege that was denied to
them in their own country because of religious and public odium.

40 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

According to Dawson ('53), true medical science owes its start
to the single fact that the pre-Christian Egyptians dared to open
the body of man, for the first time.

The spiritual and political climate in pre-Alexandrian Greece
was not conducive to the development of human dissection; it
was actually banned because of the existing laws, customs and
prejudices. Prompt burial was required for the dead and they had
to be left in peace; generals of the army, for example, were given
the death penalty for failure to either bury or cremate soldiers
slain on the battlefield. With the medical teachings of the time,
there was perhaps little need of a knowledge of specific structure;
mere crude, stylized, anatomical figures sufficed (Anson, '56).

Anatomy was in a crude state before the time of Aristotle
(384-322 B.C.), who was unquestionably the first real comparative
anatomist of any stature. It was he who said that the "inward
parts of man are known least of all" (Osier, '22). Bailey ('11)
states that anatomy was a mixture of symbolism, conjecture and
philosophy, which collectively was too uncertain to use as a foun-
dation to build on. It was an examination of open wounds, in-
juries and disintegration of exposed, vinburied bodies which dis-
closed some of the integral parts of the human body. Some mam-
malian anatomy was also learned from sacrifice of different ani-
mals.

Some of the factors militating against performing human
dissection were the following: The Greeks were taken with the
study of philosophy and were blinded by its brilliance; it be-
came authoritative and was used to explain all things (Browning,
1894; Camac, '31; Jonas, '22). Another which may have been of
significance in retarding studies, were the priests of Asklepios,
followers of the Greek mythological god of medicine; they prac-
ticed a secret and hereditary art in this field. They wrote no texts
and all medical information was kept within their cult, being
passed on secretly from generation to generation. The priests were
revered both for their divine and health-giving powers. One of
the first to question the methods of this group was Hippocrates
(Coleman, '50; Cumston, '26). Galen judged one of the last of
these priests, Praxagoras (c. 300 B.C.), to have been a very poor
anatomist.

PRE-ALEXANDRIAN ANATOMY-IOOO TO 300 B.C. 41

A little later (280 B.C.), the school of Empirics was ill-dis-
posed toward human dissection, as well as toward reason. They
held that the search for ultimate causes in disease was in vain, al-
though they were active in endeavoring to discover the immedi-
ate etiology. Anatomy, they believed, could be learned by chance.
They paid particidar attention to the totality of symptoms. The
Dogmatists, another medical sect, of the time, cared more for
rigid doctrine than for investigation. Although a few had enough
desire to progress, it was not sufficient to overcome their innate
repulsion against violation of the dead.

An additional consideration is that the Greeks believed in
the supremacy of the soul over the body. The dead were shrouded
in mystery and a ghost would avenge any amputation or mutila-
tion of its body. Death was not regarded as the end. Like the in-
habitants of Egypt and other parts of the ancient world, the pre-
Alexandrian Greeks were interested in the possible location of
the soul.

During the golden age of Greece, numerous renowned phi-
losophers advanced their personal opinions on a possible life after
death. Pythagoras (582-507 B.C.) believed in salvation and trans-
migration. To him, matter was the basis of all evil; since the body
was so constructed, it was corrupt. The soul was also material
but it emanated from god.

The concept of a single, all-powerful god, began to be ex-
pressed at this time, more particularly by Xenophanes (c. 536
B.C.). His deity was not like human mortals in form or thinking,
but was the universe itself, endowed with purpose and the faculty
of thought. Parmenides (c. end of 6th Century B.C.) conceived
the world as a unity, unchangeable and immovable. He regarded
sense perception as an illusion based on the false opinions of
man, which revealed a world of plurality and change.

Plato (427-347 B.C.) promised salvation believing that the
soul was immaterial, immortal and divine; freed of sin, it ceased
transmigrating and was reabsorbed into god. Sinners, in life,
were destined to go to an eternal hell, an idea which was trans-
ferred to Christian thought. Both Aristotle and Epicurus (342-
E^.C.) were against the concept of immortality. The Stoics
ling about 308 B.C.) held that the body was the prison of the

42 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

soul and that the latter was liberated to be judged at death. When
it joined the blessed ones, nothing but eternal peace lay ahead.
The ultimate fate, however, was that all would be destroyed by
a great conflagration at the end of a certain era.

The situation in Italy was probably more primitive than in
either Greece or Egypt. It was entirely against Roman beliefs to
perform human dissection. The body of man was held in great
respect and a belief in resurrection prevented physical dismem-
berment. Even looking at a corpse was prohibited by Pontifex
Maximus (Gordon, '42). Not even a human skeleton was known
to exist in Rome up to Galen's time.

Human dissection was precluded among the Hebrews of the
pre-Alexandrian era both because the people regarded the body
as unclean and because of their belief in resurrection. Even touch-
ing a corpse or entering a room with one in it, contaminated a
person. This was propounded in the Old Testament. If such a
contact occurred, it was necessary to be isolated for at least seven
days and then purified (Gordon, '42, '44; Guttmacher, '35; Hag-
gard, '29). Very little human anatomy was expressed in the Bible.

China probably, as a whole, has been one of the most back-
ward countries in respect to legalizing human dissection. Al-
though there is some evidence that it was practiced temporarily
as far back as 2700 B.C., this was undoubtedly an oddity (Cas-
tiglioni, '41), for it was not legalized in that country until about
A.D. 1913 (Cowdry, '20a, '21). Osier ('22) states that early Chi-
nese and Japanese medicine gives the impression of impalling
stagnation and sterility. The Oriental religions, especially that of
Confucianism, were such that touching the human body under
certain conditions was considered unholy (Haggard, '29; Hume,
'30).

References were made to the human body in the earliest
Hindu writings (Vedas). There is little question that the people]
of that remote era generally stood in awe of a dead person andj
severe penalties were imposed for molesting it. The only way!
primitive, anatomical knowledge was gained was by observation!
of bodies dismembered by war, in the chase or by accident^
(Barker, '01).

PRE-ALEXANDRIAN ANATOMY-1000 TO 300 B.C. 43

For centuries, the basic text of Hindu medicine was the
Susruta. According to this ancient classic, the human body was
composed of 300 bones, 90 tendons, 210 joints, 500 muscles, 70
blood vessels, 3 humors, 3 secretions and 9 sense organs. Other
structures were also known. The suture of the skull was regarded
as the place where the spirit entered man after creation (Castig-
lioni, '41; Hammett, '29).

There is, however, some evidence that the early Hindus may
actually have examined the human body. Physicians enclosed sub-
jects in a bag and allowed them to decompose for nine days in a
river. By this method, the internal organs could be disclosed
without utilizing a knife; the use of this metal instrument was
forbidden by Hindu religious laws (Castiglioni, '41; Bacon, '03).

There is unanimous agreement among authorities that all
dissection was utterly excluded by Arabian religious beliefs (Chat-
ard, '08). In addition, the physician felt no need for a knowledge
of the subject (Coleman, '50). Otherwise, these people were ad-
vanced in medicine although they subordinated anatomy and
surgery (Haggard, '29). Khairallah ('42) states that Mesiie, Sr.
anatomized a monkey and wrote a book on his observations; he
threatened to do the same to his weak-minded son after his death.
Like peoples of other countries, the Arabians were interested in
localizing the soul; they believed it was situated in the liver.

The Babylonians likewise had some knowledge of anatomy.
Their book, Talmud (5th Century B.C.), contained a number of
interesting anatomical facts. Described therein were parts of the
gastrointestinal, respiratory, genitourinary, cardiovascular and
other systems. They also localized the soul in the liver.

1

[V]

THE ALEXANDRIAN SCHOOL OF
ANATOMY-332 B.C. to A.D. 200

xVlthough the classical Greeks did not permit human dissec-
tion in their own country, for reasons which have been outlined,
they were not averse to having it carried on in one of their con-
quered territories, specifically in Alexandria, Egypt. During the
pre-Christian era, the setting was ripe for anatomical pursuits in
man, but only temporarily. That city became an important center
for learning, because many people who had been granted religious
asylum there, were anxious to avail themselves of the pre-eminent
facilities offered for study at the famous city library and museum.
The Platonic and Stoic schools of philosophy were undergoing
deterioration, monotheism was in vogue and Judaism flourished.
Attempts had been made to combine Greek philosophy and He-
brew theology, and a belief in Gnosticism was gaining headway.
The last is of importance in the history of anatomy because
the Gnostics (a philosophic-religious movement which believed
that emancipation comes through knowledge) held a disdain for
the human body. To them it was merely a prison for the soul,
which was inalienably immortal, existing from eternity to eter-
nity. The Alexandrian men in this group concluded that all men
pass immediately at death to their final lot: the ghosts of the
wicked went to their doom with suffering, the good to absolute
perfection through a series of transmigrations after which they-
would exhibit no interest in mundane affairs. In practice, the
followers of this creed were either rigorously ascetic or completely
licentious. To these individuals, life was an unpleasant interlude
so death was welcomed (Wood, '20). It was largely because of
this adverse regard for the human body that there developed a
relaxation of popular prejudices whereby the first unequivocal
dissections were sanctioned on man. Taking advantage of this

44

ALEXANDRIAN SCHOOL OF ANATOMY-332 B.C. TO A.D. 200 45

rare opportunity were two men, Herophilus and Erasistratus, the
former antedating the other by a few years.

Responsible for the magnificent development of Alexandria
as an educational and medical center, was the great conqueror
Alexander the Great, who founded it in 332-331 B.C. Europe
was then in a state of war. To this metropolis, he and his suc-
cessors were instrumental in bringing some of the intellectual
and materialistic riches of the universe which were placed at the
disposal of distinguished scholars who labored to benefit mankind.
Manuscripts were rare and costly, sometimes only one being avail-
able. They were preserved in families with religious care and a
single book was regarded as a precious heritage. As much as
1 15,000 was paid for an original volume written by Aeschylus,
Euripides or Sophacles. The establishment of the public library
and museum constituted an act of philanthropy and liberality
unparalleled in subsequent history (Fisher, 1881a; Weaver, '30).

It was Eumenes of Cardia, who was the head of the secretarial
or historical department belonging to Alexander the Great. He
accompanied his king on all his expeditions to Asia, and through
his efforts, was able to collect about 700,000 volumes, which were
assigned to the Museum and Serapium at Alexandria: 400,000 to
the former and 300,000 to the latter. This collection had a marked
influence on the study of medicine and other fields and helped to
make the school the leading institution of its kind in the world,
completely eclipsing those at Cnidos, Cos and Pergamon.

The first Ptolemy, who became governor of Egypt, was Soter,
brother of Alexander the Great. After the latter's early death, he
attempted, with some success, to neutralize the central Greek au-
thority and consolidate his own. Unlike some other leaders of his
period, who devoted all their attention to armies and invasions,
he interested himself in commerce and art. It was he who was
instrumental in attracting around him some of the ablest and
most erudite men of his day. He provided them with suitable
homes in the immediate vicinity of the libraries, fed and endowed
them with adequate salaries. Although he gave orders to classify
ind collate all of the assembled treatises in every branch of learn-
^ing, as well as give instruction by means of lectures and discus-
sions, it was medicine which received the most encouragement.

46 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

Because these presentations were called the "Feasts of the Muses,"
the locale where they were held became known as the "museum."
Ptolemy participated in some of the events. It became the rule to
announce forthcoming subjects in advance, so that the public
was informed. At the conclusion of the lectures, the teachers re-
ceiving the most applause were compensated accordingly.

The opportunities and atmosphere which prevailed in Alex-
andria were such that students flocked there from all parts of the
then existing world (Gask, '40). The three things necessary for
academic learning were there: buildings, teachers and students.
Interested in the things of the mind, thoughts mingled leading to
new ideas, which became crystallized to the extent that old reli-
gious dogmas were abandoned (Haggard, '29).

Not all authors are complimentary to the standards which
existed at the school of Alexandria. Dana ('28) states that the
program which developed was kept up for vanity rather than true
love of science. Soter, he claimed, was more concerned with estab-
lishing a reputation for the center, that his teachers were pedants
and not scholars, that many books were of no value, that the in-
quiries were petty and that there was boastful advocacy of spe-
cial theories. Walsh ('35) also libels and censures the teachers,
to some extent, as follows: they withheld knowledge of their dis-
coveries from their students and all their teaching was confined
to the texts at their disposal.

Participating in this intellectual climate, such as it was, were
the two outstanding pioneering anatomists previously mentioned,
Herophilus and Erasistratus. They established a school of medi-
cine at Alexandria which flourished for 300 years and lived
1,000. They must be given credit for developing anatomy into a
distinct branch of science. The first to use the scalpel, they laid
bare many secrets of the human body and succeeded in making
a step forward in correcting existing ideas, based on animal dis-
section (Buck, '17). Galen called them the "ancient authorities"
(Corner, '.30). There is some reason to believe that this pair of
transplanted Greeks had more to do with making the city eminent
than any of the numerous other physicians who participated in
the over-all program. All that was needed, was permission to dis-
sect human bodies. The authorization was by royal decree and it

ALEXANDRIAN SCHOOL OF ANATOMY-332 B.C. TO A.D. 200 47

supplied an impetus to medicine which was unmatched elsewhere.
It was only necessary for a student to have studied in Alexandria
for a short time to obtain the reputation of being a physician.
The fact that the Ptolemies, father and son, condescended to take
knife in hand and dissect along with these two anatomists did
much to dispel the antagonism against the practice.

Herophilus (c. 350-280 B.C.) was the first person to open
the body after death for the purpose of discovering the character
and course of disease. Born in Chalcedon, Asia Minor, he studied
under Praxagoras of Cos (Fisher, 1881a). Fallopius called him the
evangelist of the anatomists. His followers formed a sect, called
"Herophilites" which survived for many years. Probably he
merits the general appelation given to him, "Father of Anatomy."

He is described as having been a tireless investigator and
unquestionably the pioneer in dissecting human bodies in public.
Initially, he asked Ptolemy for and was granted permission to
anatomize the bodies of two executed criminals (Yesko, '40). In
all, he may have carefully dissected 200, and possibly 600, human
specimens, quite a feat for an anatomist in any age; probably
few have approached this record. It indicates that he must have
devoted himself largely to the pursuit of practical anatomy dur-
ing his tenure at Alexandria.

One of the charges leveled against Herophilus is that he dis-
sected living humans. The first to accuse him, in this respect,
was Celsus (42 B.C.-A.D. 37) in his book, De Medicina. Pertinent
facts in the life of this author are unknown. Some describe him
as a doctor of medicine, others as an "Encyclopedist," a compiler
of existing knowledge. He mentioned that both Herophilus and
Erasistratus, several centuries before, had not only dissected the
dead but also living criminals received from the prison of the
king. These were held to have been opened while breathing in
order to observe the inner parts: their position, color, shape, size,
arrangement, hardness, softness, smoothness, relations, processes
^and depressions. Celsus did not believe that dissecting the dead
ras cruel, as most people said, but rather that it was important
id necessary to seek remedies for the innocent people of all fu-
ture ages by studying the bodies of a few executed criminals, but
le drew the line at any policy of vivisection of man.

48 HUMAN DISSECIION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

The most damaging blow struck against Herophilus in this
respect was by Tertullian (A.D. 155-222), one of the most learned
fathers of the early Christian Church. He is quoted as follows:
"Herophilus, that physician, or rather butcher, who dissected 600
men, in order to find out nature; who hated man, in order to learn
the structures of his frame; could not, by these means, come to a
more perfect knowledge of his internal structure, since death pro-
duces a great change in all the parts, so as to render their appear-
ance after death different from what it was before; especially since
they did not die a natural death, but expired amidst all the ago-
nies to which the curiosity of the anatomist was pleased to subject
them" (Fisher, 1881a).

In the final analysis, the accusations of Celsus, Tertullian and
others, on this question have never been proved by eyewitness
accounts and the answer, therefore, will always remain specula-
tive. The evidence seems to be clear that condemned criminals
became the first subjects utilized for "anatomies." This established
a precedent or stigma to the practice which had subsequent, far-
reaching psychological effects (Singer, '28).

The most noteworthy studies of Herophilus were made on
the brain and he applied names to certain parts of it, some of
which are still accepted in translated form, such as the Torcular
Herophili, or confluens sinuum. This indicates that he was in-
terested in the vascular system. He classified the brain as the vital
center of the nervous system, being the only seat of intelligence.
Thus, he took issue with Aristotle, who had localized this func-
tion in the heart. He also differentiated sensory and motor nerves
and described the ventricular system of the encephalon. Outside
of the nervous system, he studied the rhythrhic beatings of the
heart, named both the first part of the small intestine and the
prostate; he also examined the complicated structure of the eye
and the female anatomy of the pelvis. In the last field, he was
the foremost authority of his time. The liver and spleen were like-
wise distinguished.

Not much is known of the latter part of the life of Heroph-
ilus and nothing of his death. Later writers were familiar with
his works largely through the subsequent publications of Galen;
only fragments of the originals of Herophilus have survived.

ALEXANDRIAN SCHOOL OF ANATOMY-332 B.C. TO A.D. 200 49

Of almost equal stature, if not actually so, was Erasistratus
(310-250 B.C.). It is not known where he was born and little is
known of his ancestry. Some historians have stated that he was
the grandson of Aristotle. Apparently, he was quite advanced in
years when he went to Alexandria to gratify his taste for anatomy.
He devoted himself almost exclusively to this study at the ex-
pense of his practice.

Erasistratus was a diligent student, who like his contempo-
rary, dissected the human body publicly at the Alexandrian
school. He made many important discoveries and evinced a par-
ticular interest in the central nervous system. He catalogued
both sensory and motor nerves and traced both divisions to the
brain and spinal cord.

Besides believing that the cerebrum is the seat of the intellect,
he advocated that there is a localization of nervous function there,
this being the first theoretical attempt in this direction. Some
of his attention, was given to the divisions and cavities of the
brain. The soul, he placed in the meninges (Corner, '19). Addi-
tional structures which he examined were the valves of the heart,
the trachea, which he named, and the lacteals, which he described
more fully than Herophilus. Some fourteen books of his were
known in medicine but only parts of their textual material have
survived in the writings of Aretaeus, Coelius, Aurelianus, Celsus,
Discorides, Pliny and others (Fisher, 1881a).

These two renowned individuals were successful in assem-
bling two complete human skeletons which were all that was to
survive, anatomically speaking, at the Alexandrian school. For
many years and centuries, medical men and students, interested
in anatomy, made treks to Alexandria for the purpose of study-
ing these specimens.

There is a gap in our knowledge about the status of anatomy
at Alexandria between 250 B.C. and A.D. 200. Galen (A.D.
130-200) stated that the three outstanding anatomists of his time
were Marinos, Quintos and Lycos, all of whom were attached to
the school of medicine. Marinos (fl. A.D. 130) wrote a text on
anatomy which was highly lauded by Galen but it failed to sur-
vive (Walsh, '27). Galen also mentioned one Numisianos as being

50 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

his teacher while he was at Alexandria. It is known that anatomy
was in a marked state of decay at that time.

Due to the changing of customs and beliefs regarding the
sanctity of the human body, liberalism toward the privilege of
dissection gradually declined until the end of the 1st Century
A.D. and died completely in the middle of the second. The prin-
cipal reason for this was the Roman invasion and domination of
Egypt. Although the Romans seemingly enjoyed and overtly spon-
sored any amount of gladiatorial bloodshed in their arenas, and
all sorts of inhumanities upon living beings, they held that con-
tact with or cutting a corpse was sacrilegious or irreverent. The
next to final blow to the great educational and medical institution
at Alexandria was struck by Julius Caesar who, in the 1st Century
A.D., ordered the library burned. Alexandria never recovered
its intellectual supremacy thereafter (Bailey, '11). Because of this
act, the originals of almost all the writers of those days were lost.
It is said that due to the feminine influence of Cleopatra, Mark
Antony later permitted the volumes of the library at Perga-
mon, in Asia Minor, to be transported and transferred to Alex-
andria but this was insufficient to restore the prestige of the school.
Counteracting the restoration were the rulings of Caracalla
(Marcus Aurelius Antonius, A.D. 188-217), who relieved the
teachers of their residency privileges, their financial support and
the right of making public lectures and holding discussions. This
was the death knell; it inaugurated the onset of the Dark Ages.

[VI]

CLAUDIUS GALEN (A.D. 130200) AND HIS
INFLUENCE ON ANATOMY

xVlthough Galen stands out as one of the greatest medical
men of all time, he made very few personal contributions to our
knowledge of human anatomy. So important was he, however, that
for nearly 1500 years, he ruled the medical world. Many of his
^vords, phrases and thoughts are a part of our medical canon today
as well as being current in our daily speech. In an anatomical
sense, he was an anachronism, because nowhere throughout the
breadth and width of the Roman Empire was he given permis-
sion to dissect the human body. Probably no man ever lived who
possessed more of an urge to anatomize than he, but this trait had
to be sublimated to investigations on lower animals even though
he advocated human dissection. Galen's long inflvience, for which
he merits consideration, stems from the fact that he was a prolific
writer who published all his findings and medical ideas, because
he was followed by a period in which all scientific doors were
locked and because he was the only anatomical specialist of note
in his time.

Galen, a Greek, lived during the Golden Age of the Roman
Empire. He was born in the beautiful Hellenistic city of Perga-
mon, in Asia Minor, which had been absorbed by the po^vers
of Rome in 133 B.C., about 260 years prior to his birth. His birth-
place was almost as well-known, both for its library and as an
intellectual center, as its rival, Alexandria, Egypt. Built there,
during Galen's youth, was the great Asklepieion, which served as
a religious sanctuary, a sanatorium and a place of recreation. It

ton became one of the great attractions of the Roman Empire
id was ranked as one of the wonders of the world. The medical
rine, a component of the imposing center, influenced Galen

52

HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

considerably as he experienced the exaltation of growing up in
one of the leading cities of the world.

The parents of Galen were wealthy and educated. His father
was an intelligent and kindly man who took a deep interest in hisj
son's education; by contrast, his mother was a high-strung, iras-

4,>;/,..-, • *

Figure I. Claudius Galen (A.D. 130-200). From|Ball, J. M.: The Sack-' em^
up Men. London, Oliver & Boyd, 1928. By permission of Oliver & Boyc

cible and difficult woman. Although the boy studied the various
systems of philosophy under the most distinguished teachers, h<
turned to medicine partly on the advice of his father, who ha(
been inspired in a dream by Asklepios (Fisher, 1881b). It mayl

CLAUDIUS GALEN AND HIS INFLUENCE ON ANATOMY 53

seem odd that Galen's career was determined on the basis of a
nighttime phantasy of his father, but phenomena of that sort had
much more significance in the lives of the people in those days.
Also, it seemed to the youth that there was more certainty in study-
ing nature, and in particular anatomical dissections, rather than
the conflicting opinions existing in rhetoric and dialectics. He
may have been influenced in this decision by the presence of
Satyros, a famous anatomist, who was on an extended visit to
Pergamon. Anatomy seemed to bring him back to reality and
reach parts of the truth. He felt that in spite of the accomplish-
ments of many brave investigators, the field was still largely virgin,
that much needed to be done and that honest labor would be
amply re^varded with new discoveries. Galen studied under Satyros
for four years and made many private dissections of animals on
his father's farm.

He then left his native city and worked with Pelops in
Smyrna, now Izmir, Turkey, a harbor of the Roman East, and
finally with Numisianos in Corinth, Greece and Alexandria,
Egypt. By this time, he was a full-fledged comparative anatomist.
Galen reached Alexandria, probably toward the end of A.D. 152
at the age of twenty-two, and remained there for five years. It
should be mentioned that he had no recourse to human subjects
while at the last city, although it was the main, scientific center
of the Roman Empire. The most he saw there in the way of
human structure were two skeletons. From these, he probably
learned much of his osteology. Later, he advised students to go
to Alexandria, to see these two rare specimens, which may have
been the only assembled ones existing in the world. The anato-
mists he mentioned as being present at Alexandira were, Herac-
leianos, Lycos and Julianos, the last being a very fluent though
superficial teacher; Galen classified him with the herd of Thes-
salian asses.

By the time Galen had reached the age of twenty-eight, he
had devoted twelve of them to the study of medicine, chiefly anat-
omy; he already had written a number of medical treatises.
On returning to his native city of Pergamon, he was welcomed
and glorified. Between A.D. 158-161, he served as a physician to
gladiators, being appointed by the chief priest of the Asklepieion,

54 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

who was also president of the games. During his tenure there,
he undoubtedly learned something about living, human structure,
by observation of wounded participants who had fought with
spears, swords and loaded gloves.

Avoiding local wars, Galen traveled to Rome for the first time
at the age of thirty-one (c. A.D. 161-162) and found it in its
heyday, a brilliant capital, which offered golden opportunities
to Greek physicians. In this city, he ascended to a high, medical
rank on the basis of his brilliant elocution, his accurate logic, his
profound erudition and his versatility and practical skill (Park,
'08). However, he was soon at loggerheads with other practi-
tioners, which may have been caused by his rapid success and
his personality traits. He returned to Pergamon at the age of
thirty-eight, in A.D. 168, for reasons not entirely clear: either
because of diverse threats of assassination to himself or dangers
from the bubonic plague, which was then beginning to decimate
the Empire. He was called back within a year, by sovereign decree
of Marcus Aurelius, to serve as military surgeon for the Roman
army which was preparing to fight German invaders from the
north. He begged off from this assignment and was destined to re-
main in Italy until the age of sixty-two (A.D. 169-192) acting as
court physician to both Marcus Aurelius and Commodus. Much
of his time, during this interval, was spent in literary activity.

In A.D. 192, the Temple of Peace on the Sacred Way, many
libraries and bookshops were destroyed by fire in Rome. Most of
Galen's writings were lost. Also, the Roman, political climate
during the reign of Emperor Commodus (A.D. 180-192) had
become intolerable for scholars and philosophers due to his im-
orthodox antics; he was an athletic brute who regarded himself
as the reincarnation of Hercules and he took delight in disporting
himself at the Circus Games as both consul and gladiator. His
supporters finally became outraged at his activities and they
strangled him on January 1st, A.D. 193. Because of these factors,
Galen made the decision to return to the quiet of his native city;
there he spent the remainder of his life, about eight years, in iso-
lated meditation and writing.

Many of the things that Galen was the first to describe in his
his writings, were not necessarily based on pioneering observa^

CLAUDIUS GALEN AND HIS INFLUENCE ON ANATOMY 55

tions of his own. As mentioned, human dissections were frowned
on in Grecian and Italian cities. This was also true at Alexandria,
during the interval of his residence there, because of anatomical
decadence. Almost all of the human anatomy he knew, was re-
stricted to the skeleton and what he had seen in superficially
wounded gladiators. His knowledge of the soft organs was derived
mainly from the bodies of animals: pigs, sheep, oxen, cats, dogs,
horses, lions, wolves, at least one elephant, fish, birds, monkeys
and apes. The last named was his favorite experimental specie
and was apparently fairly common and easy to obtain in his en-
vironment.

There was great difficulty and unpleasantness in dissecting in
those days. The climate was exceedingly warm during the greater
part of the year, making preservation difficult and enhancing the
possibility of infection. There seems to be little question but
what Galen practiced vivisection without benefit of anesthetiz-
ing agents. This was probably done without compunction since
callousness toward animals was customary. All anatomists of the
time, took it for granted that animal and human bodies were
fundamentally alike in their architectural plan and considered
it appropriate to examine the bodies of lower specimens in order
to understand human anatomy. According to Galen, there were
only about five or six men who had devoted themselves to this
specialty in the 400 years preceding him. He evaluated Heroph-
ilus, Erasistratus and Hippocrates as having been the three great-
est physicians before him.

The most important of the anatomical works of Galen, (pos-
sibly 500 in number. Green, '51) was De Anatomicis Administrat-
ionibus. It referred mostly to the monkey and was written in much
detail when considering the inadequacy of the prevailing termin-
ology; it was without illustrations. The portion devoted to the
hand was especially good. He made other publications on the
veins and arteries, nerves, muscles and bones. These books were
not available until the Middle Ages. His physiological experi-
ments on the spinal cord to determine which parts control move-
ment and sensibility were noteworthy.

Although the findings and reports of Galen are praiseworthy
and meritorious, they showed some errors: he could not differ-

56 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

entiate nerves and tendons and called the latter "neurons." His
description of blood vessels was poor and confusing but these are
excusable in the light of the status of anatomy of that day. He
did insist, however, that an arteriovenous anastomosis existed
(Burr, '31; Warbasse, '35).

Being a sensitive individual, Galen marveled at the sight of
the organs, their complexity and beauty. As he was deeply re-
ligious, he was inclined to eulogize a divine providence for the
creation of the morphological structures he saw. He agreed with
Aristotle that nature never makes anything which is superfluous
and he was imbued with the idea that form determines function.
The latter was in opposition to that taught by Asklepiades who
preached that function helps to create the part. This attitude of
Galen was highly acceptable and agreeable to the later theologians,
whether Christian, Jewish or Moslem; they were all delighted
to sing the praises of Galen who extolled the work of god, al-
though he was essentially a pagan. To question liis work became
a heresy.

Since Galen was one of the great men of anatomy and medi-
cine, what manner of a man was he? He was an only child who
remained unmarried throughout his life. On the one hand, he was
honest and sincere; on the other, he was egotistic, boastful, quick-
tempered, hasty in his judgments, lacking in charity, tactless, self-
confidence, complacent and jealous, which makes a rather long
list. His mind was facile and neat but he leaned toward theory
and classification. His writings, most of which were written inj
imperial Rome, almost showed too much learning to be appreci-
ated by the rank and file of those in the medical profession. As
he aged, his mind became less receptive, more dogmatic and;
critical.

The style of writing of Galen has not been acclainud as
being outstanding. It was verbose, hairsplitting, (juibhhiiL;. dif-!
fuse, expansive, repetitious and dull which may have been due to
the fact that he wrote so mudi that he failed to take the time to
devote to organization. In other words, he was more interested
in the content.

In respect to religion, he was a pious pagan who was anx-
ious to keep on good terms with his gods, especially that of modi-

CLAUDIUS GALEN AND HIS INFLUENCE ON ANATOMY 57

cine. He accepted many of the superstitions of the day and strongly
believed in various forms of divination which lie used to make
diagnoses of disease in his patients. Thus, he employed both
science and magic in his approach to medicine; he did not put his
whole faith in reason because he felt there were too many obvious
cases of divine providence.

The Avorks of Galen were widely translated and published
through the 16th Century from Greek to Latin, Arabic and He-
brew. After the beginning of printing, the fame of Galen in-
creased by leaps and bounds. Many physicians were still swearing
by him in the 17th and even into the 18th Centuries. This deep
and long lasting influence was probably due to manifold causes:
his belief that form determines function, that the complexity and
beauty of organic structure must be due to a divine providence
and his opposition to atomism and evolution. These endeared him
to the theologians; they favored Galen over the disliked Epicurus
because his facts and methods provided a basis for their religious
views. There ^vas thus an emotional factor which gave intensity
and fervor to the renown of Galen. He became accepted as an
infallible master. Many regarded him as a god and even formed
a religious cult for his worship. By some, he was called the "Medi-
cal Pope" of the Middle Ages. This accounts for the fact that the
anatomical discoveries during the Renaissance which neutralized
some of the opinions of Galen, augmented the fanaticism of his
defenders. When he is assessed in terms of the medical climate in
which he lived or in comparison with the physicians of the 16th
and 17th Centuries, he measures up as one of the outstanding
men of his or any other time. It is, therefore, a question as to
whether he received a larger share of fame than he truly deserved
as a few historians have suggested. It is even possible that he has
been greatly underrated in recent years, especially when consid-
ering his over-all accomplishments.

After Galen, the practice of dissection, in any form, disap-
peared, due either to a redoubling of the superstitions against it
or to the ignorant apathy of the physicians (Malloch, '26; Pren-
dergast, '30; Sarton, '54).

[VII]

ANATOMY IN THE MIDDLE AGES-
A.D. 400 to 1400

A. The Role of the Church

Xhe Middle Ages is defined as that period between the fall
of the Roman Empire and the revival of letters, roughly during
the chronological interval between A.D. 400 and 1400. The Dark
Age is usually applied to the earlier part of this era because
of its intellectual stagnation.

As far as anatomy is concerned, the Middle Ages was char-
acterized by being a millennium in which little or no progress
was made. The genesis of this status was probably the deteriora-
tion and decline of the school of medicine at Alexandria. The two
great fires there in the 1st and 7th Centuries A.D. destroyed the
great collections of medical books which had been assembled.
Also militating against the advance of human anatomy, was the
prevailing psychology of the people and the hostility of the
fathers of the early Christian Church, the latter probably being
the more important since their standards had much to do with
influencing the thinking of the masses. Human dissection took
root in Italy in the 14th Century, for the first time since the
Alexandrian period, and from there spread to France and Ger-
many. It began and expanded slowly. The one thing that was
needed was legal permission to dissect human material and this
had to come from the all-powerful Church which was temporal
as well as ecclesiastical. The real authority in medical circles was
the writings of Galen, but these had to be rediscovered and trans
lated by the Arabians, particularly by Avicenna (A.D. 980-1037),
so they appeared late during the Middle Ages.

68

ANATOMY IN THE MIDDLE AGES-A.D. 400 TO HOG 59

The majority of historians have felt that the Church was in
a chronic, anti-dissective mood for many centuries; Walsh ('04)
attempted to refute this. Medicine was practiced by religious
orders. Ills were regarded as being of divine origin; the human
body itself had no standing and was regarded with contempt; it
^vas man's soul, which was considered the highest endowment and
its salvation was the priest's main function. If anatomy was studied
at all, it was done to understand and interpret the writings in the
Bible; it ranked as a pagan science and there was no need to com-
prehend it. Life itself was judged to be a way station between two
eternities, a mere, transitory event. There were some people who
primitively believed that after death, sensations disappeared
slowly; thus there was no difference in cutting the living or dead.
Nevertheless, it was in the last part of this period that the first
great step forward was taken in the field of human anatomy
(Cruikshank, '06).

B. Psychology of the Times

Zilborg and Henry ('41) cited the psychological atmosphere
of the people during the Dark Age. The inhabitants of Rome,
they said, were leading an extremely tense and emotional life.
Barbarians were moving in from the north and east which pre-
cipitated a sense of doom. A consciousness of spiritual infirmity
grew deeper and the goal became a personal and mystic salva-
tion. The human mind turned to occult philosophy and religious
experiences. Original work and thinking almost ceased.

An outstanding characteristic of the Dark Age apparently
was the acceptance of magic by many members of the populace.
The "possessed" and "witches" came in for considerable atten-
tion. The Theodosian Code of A.D. 420 officially prohibited sor-
cery, classifying it as a crime. Punishing the magician by death
became a reality which constituted a marked change from that
of the classical period.

The period of the Middle Ages is further described by Zil-
borg and Henry ('41) as being one in which the people were rest-
less, anxiously groping and bewildered, with the cultured begin-
ning to feel out of place. It was an interval of remarkable psycho-
logical reactions in which the sword and not the pen reigned; it

60 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

became necessary for science to become primarily monastic
where certain medically inclined men and other intellectuals
took asylum in the Church. Here, they became compilers of the
medical science of the past, especially that of the Greeks.

In the 4th Century, the influence of the stars on human be-
havior, began to play an important part in medicine and some of
the anatomical figures of the period were decorated with the signs
of the zodiac. The early Christian authorities were frightened and
puzzled by the whole phenomenon of mental illness which ap-
peared to be increasing and were inclined to assign it to the mach-
inations of the devil.

Hostility to science, in all its forms, became more open, in-
tense and crystallized at the beginning of the 7th Century. Exor-
cism and incantations became an indispensable adjunct to even
the legitimate practice of medicine. The fragments of what posi-
tive knowledge existed became further buried by a fusion of the
animistic past of the prehistorics, the mysticism of the early races
and the theurgic ceremonialism of an expiring empire. Man be-
came lost as an individual and had to constantly struggle with
temptation. It came to be believed that the past contained every-
thing.

By the 13th Century, almost all medical writers and physi-
cians were clerics. Dietetics, herbs and drugs were the chief topics
of interest. Scholars were not investigators. Anxiety of the popula-
tion increased, passions were aroused and soon instruments of
torture and burning fagots were introduced. Astrology had defi-
nitely become an approach to the problems of medicine.

The man in the street grew more frightened during the 14th .
Century. Prevailing were an ecstatic religious tradition, a uni-
versal faith in miracles and a cultural monotony. The sorcerer,
the heretic and the psychotic began to be perceived as one; psyc ho-
pathological epidemics increased in number and severity toward
the close of this period necessitating re( ognition by the powers of
government.

With this state of affairs existing in the Middle Ages, it is
ea.sy to see why human anatomical science became stagnant and
failed to progress; everything was against it. Some light, however,

ANATOMY IN THE MIDDLE AGES-A.D. 400 TO 1400 61

began to shine through the prevailing clouds during the end of
the Middle Ages.

C. The Arabs and the Reawakening

The Arabs, a pastoral and nomadic people, noted for their
intertribal feuds and conquests, became welded into a unified na-
tion. They settled down, developed a religious enthusiasm and
cultivated the arts and peace. Both Bagdad (Iraq) and Cordova
(Spain) became centers of learning where the wisdom of the
Greeks was studied and expounded with the help of Syrians, Jews
and Nestorian Christians. Abstracts, commentaries and treatises
were published; all were translations of the work of Hippocrates,
Aristotle and Galen, which were written in a language which had
become dead. They added little to the sum total of knowledge.

Three men especially played a leading role in this develop-
ment: Rhazes (850-923), Avicenna (980-1037), and Constantine
Africanus (1010-1087). These men were compilers rather than
original investigators. Rhazes wrote 226 books. Avicenna wrote
one entitled, Book of Canon in Medicine, based on Greek writ-
ings which was later translated into Latin. It was more lucidly
written than Galen's Anatomy and it overshadowed the latter's
authority for four centuries. Constantine translated thirty-seven
books, mostly those written by Hippocrates and Galen. These
were introduced into the western nations as early as the 11th Cen-
tury and constituted the first glimmer of a new dawn; they had
much to do with a revival of the ethical Hippocratic spirit so
prevalent during the pre-Christian era.

The lack of an investigative spirit constituted the weakest part
of Arabian medicine. Original works were not done. The theo-
cratic basis of the Arabian government stood in the way. The
Koran was the source and authority for all knowledge; anatom-
ical dissection was forbidden; even drawings and sculpture of
the human body were not permitted. It was held that the soul suf-
fered if the body was incised before or after death. They knew
Galen's Anatomy and not much more; this lasted until modern
times. As late as 1830, the Arabs had only a pristine knowledge
of the subject.

62 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

In summary, it can be said that the main accomplishment
of the Arabians was to keep literature and science alive, by trans-
lations of Greek and Roman works, during the numerous bar-
barian invasions, between A.D. 200 and 1300.

D. The Universities of the Middle Ages

Conspicuous, because of the role they played in the revival
of human dissection, were the developing university centers, par-
ticularly those in Italy. Between A.D. 1200 and 1350, fifteen were
opened. With these, scientific controversy and inquiry began to
enliven the student's mind. The open door to post-Alexandrian
human dissection was legal permission. This was forthcoming
from no less a personage than Frederick II, Emperor of Germany
and the two Sicilies. Following this, the practice was to be more
lasting but attendant with many vicissitudes, drama and struggles
when considering the various countries of the world. The im-
portant factor was that it gained a firm foothold from which it
could progress (Dempster, '34).

1. The University of Salerno

The first university to be established in Europe, which taught
medicine, was that at Salerno, located about thirty-five miles south
of Naples, on the western coast of Italy. Its origin is obscure; the
dates which have been given vary between the 7th and 14th Cen-
turies. The Benedictine monks of Monte Cassino originally cared
for the sick at neighboring Salerno, which was a noted health re-
sort: as a result of their work, a medical school developed in the
city. One of the most famous friars was Constantine Africanus,
mentioned above, whose works were chiefly translations from
Arabian and Greek authors. It was there that Cophon, tlu*
younger, wrote De Anatomia Porci which became the standard
anatomical text of the institution. Dissections were made of
the monkey, pig and bear. Frederick II issued an edict about
A.D. 1240 that it was necessary to study anatomy for a year at
Salerno or Naples and pass a rigid exam, in order to obtain a li
cense as surgeon: one human subject was allotted every five years.
There is vague evidence that the administration ordered human

ANATOMY IN THE MIDDLE AGES-A.D. 400 TO 1400 63

dissections be made in the last one-half of the 13th Century.
With the rise of other European universities, Salerno began to
decline in importance (Corner, '31; Packard, '20).

2. The University of Bologna

The University of Bologna became more famous than any
other early center because it was here that the first unequivocal
post-Alexandrian dissection was made on man. As many as 10,000
students were enrolled by A.D. 1200 and later this reached 20,000
in number (Laurie, 1896). Medical studies started there in the
13th Century (A.D. 1260). To Mondino da Luzzi (1276-1326),
^oes the credit of being the first to anatomize a human body for
perhaps 1,700 year^ He is regarded as the "Restorer /^f AnatP^y"
as the one who promoted a new enthusiasm for an old practice,
and the first European to teach from a cadaver. He definitely forms
a link between mediaeval anatomy and Vesalius. As far as is
known, that historical event was performed in 1315, in public, and
was witnessed by medical students as well as others. The subject
was that of an executed criminal, probably a female, and the pro-
ceeding had the blessings of the Pope. A second dissection may
have been done in the same year. It is said that the anatomist had
the choice in deciding the type of execution|^

Since the body was unpreserved, the dissection naturally had
to be hurried. It was accomplished in four readings; a barber did
the anatomizing with crude instruments, including a huge cleaver-
like knife, while Mondino read from a high professorial chair;
thereby, a custom was established which survived for many years;
a demonstrator, the third person in the party, pointed out the
various structures with a rod. Dogg^elped around the table wait-
ing to devour the pieces of human flesh thrown to them when
the professor finished his discourse. No thought, originality, or
critical thinking were involved since the only aim was to illustrate
Galen. The four sessions, probably one each day, covered the fol-
lowing systems: digestive, respiratory, circulatory and superficial
muscles. The dissection was continued into the night.

Not much is known of the personal life of Mondino. He
graduated in medicine in A.D. 1290, became Professor of Anat-

64

HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

Figure '> Anatomical dcmonstratinii in 1 193, being conduclcd in th( nK.nncr
esiablislu-d by Mondino da Luz/i (1270-1326). Fn.n. U.ll. J. M.: Indrras
Vesalim the Reformer of Amitorny. St. Louis, Medical Siiciuc IMcss, IIMO.

ANATOMY IN THE MIDDLE AGES-A.D. 400 TO 1400

65

tnni lEmebata g
joctozemeMat

Figure 3. Title page of Mondino's Ajiatomy, an edition published in 1493
by Melerstat, depicting Mondino and his method of teaching. From Ball,
J. M.: Andreas Vesalius the Reformer of Anatomy. St. Louis, Medical Science

Press, 1910.

66 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

omy at Bologna in 1306 and died in 1326. At the school, he had
two assistants: Otto Agenius Lustralamus and a girl, Alessandra
/ Giliani, both of whom served as prosectors. The latter was gen-
erally skillful but particularly so in dissecting arteries and veins.
She experimented with and became an expert at injecting these
vessels with colored pigments.

In 1316, Mondino published a compendium, De Omnibus
Humani Corporis Interioribus Membris Anathomia, which was
only forty-four pages in length. It offered nothing new over Galen
or Avicenna and was apparently copied from them. Nevertheless,
/^it went through twentydLhi£e>..eddt^^ between A.D. 1478 and
1580 and was widely used in Italy and Germany. In this text,
his language is that of one who dissected frequently; he spoke
of making many experimental dissections. Anatomy at that time,
was apparently cultivated only as an appendage to surgery.

The first sign of rebellion, on the part of the medical pro-
fession, against the restrictions and stigma placed on the supply
of cadavers, made its appearance shortly after the pioneering anat-
/omy of Mondino (A.D. 1315). In 1319, four students were ap-
prehended and accused of resurrecting the body of a criminal
from its grave and transporting it to the school to be used for
dissection. There is no account of the final disposition of this
case.

Mondino's radical method of teaching human anatomy started
a movement in Italy, which was to put this country in the fore-
front as a medical center. As the word spread of the innovation,
medical men, teachers and students from Italy and other coun-
tries journeyed to the University of Bologna for purposes of study
y (Dempster, '34; Pilcher, '06).

5. The University of Montpellier

This institution was founded in A.D. 1180 and rivaled the
school of Salerno in the quality of its instruction and research.
By order of a Papal Bull, a medical department was established
in 1220 and it now ranks as the oldest in the world. Today, the
faculty of medicine occupies the edifices of the Benedictine Abbey
founded by Urban V in 1364. Jewish and Arabian physicians had

ANATOMY IN THE MIDDLE AGES-AD. 400 TO 1400 67

much to do with its rise and they favored Hippocratic methods
of teaching. The University of Montpellier was not far behind
Bologna in respect to pioneering in human dissection. When
Henry de Mondeville (1260-1320) returned to Montpellier, after
attending classes at Bologna, there was no statute permitting re-
stricted anatomies. He is said to have utilized a human skull for
teaching purposes; otherwise, he used charts. His surgical man-
uscript published in 1314 contained crude, anatomical pictures.
It was in 1340 that the first ordinance was passed in France per-
mitting human dissection once every five years, the time interval
being debatable, for two years is also mentioned. The chronologi-
cal gap was evidently lowered in 1376 by another decree allow-
ing an annual dissection of a criminal. Apparently, the proper
authorities did not make delivery of such so the faculty, in 1377,
requested that this be done. Dissections are reported being per-
formed there in 1377, 1396 and 1446 (Cooper, '30).

4. General Information on Other Universities

There is historical evidence that dissection was legalized
in certain other cities of Italy, Spain, and Germany during the
14th Century, but little is known as to how much was performed.
At the most, it is possible that very few humans were anatomized
because of the standards involved and the general reaction against
it. Three factors stood out: one was that the subjects in each
country had to be those of executed criminals, which attached a
stigma to the act; the second was that the proceedings had to be
conducted in public, which publicized the event; the third was
that few specimens were turned over to the proper authorities,
namely the professors of anatomy or surgery. In the last respect,
the most generous law permitted one subject per annum; the
least, one every five years.

The following list consists of other cities in Europe and the
date human dissection was started in the 14th Century: Venice,
1308; Prague, 1347; Naples 1365; Florence, 1387; and Lerida,
1395.

[VIII]

ANATOMY DURING THE EUROPEAN
RENAISSANCE-A.D. 1350 to 1650

A. General Characteristics of the Period

Jji the encyclopedic literature pertaining to the period of the
Renaissance, roughly between A.D. 1350 and 1650, not much is
mentioned in respect to the accomplishments of medicine; it is
a field which is not specifically highlighted. Nevertheless, as far
as human anatomy is concerned, it represents probably one of the
most important and spectacular periods in the history of the sub-
ject. This is because pioneers dared to come to grips with the
superstitions and hostilities of the populace, to make accurate ob-
servations on the structure of the human body and to report what
they saw at the risk of censure and social ostracism.

At this time, when the mediaeval pattern was dissolving, cer-
tain men became interested in the physical world, in the life ol
sensation and concrete experience, in the character and oppor-
tunities offered the individual. Whether a man was a member of
a religious, political or social order began to carry less weight.
Some of the outstanding events of this age were the following:
rapid growth of commerce and travel, development of cities and
industry, and increase in wealth. Making its appearance, was a
new, rich and leisured urban class that devoted much of its energy
to the pursuit of worldly culture. Class distinctions began to
break down and a new, tireless curiosity directed toward secular
knowledge became evident. The temporal power of the chun h
was reduced and its spiritual authority was split by the rise ol
Protestantism.

Exploration was the key word of the era. The boundaries ol
the known world were extended by great voyages of discovery

08

ANATOMY DURING THE EUROPEAN RENAISSANCE 69

to the west, beginning in 1492 with Cohnnbus; these created vast
new sources of weakh and power and stimulated the rise of na-
tionalism and the formation of huge empires. The revival of in-
terest in the culture of antiquity gathered further momentum
when the classical scholars of Constantinople fled westward after
the fall of that great city in 1453. This brought new minds to
Europe, with different ideas, and it provided a potent impulse
to the productive imagination of Renaissance man. The intel-
lectual and artistic response was everywhere about the same.
First, there was a period of critical scholarship (Humanism), then
a time of magnificent artistic and literary flowering, followed by
a terminal phase. In the last, the science and criticism of the de-
veloping age of reason began to overshadow the creative power of
the Renaissance. It was particularly the Italians of the period who
influenced the surrounding countries of France, Spain, Germany,
the Netherlands and England.

Toward the end of the Renaissance, cultural decay became
evident in various countries. This was due to the growth of na-
tionalism in Spain, France and England and their expansion
into world powers. Such a development reduced the commercial
importance of the Italian cities which had been prosperous.
Germany, with her feudal states, was severed by the religious
disagreements revolving around the Reformation and the Thirty
Years War. Elsewhere the creative energy of the Renaissance ex-
perienced a more gradual decline.

B. The Mind of the Renaissance

The picture which is painted of the minds of the Renaissance
by medical psychologists (Zilborg and Henry, '41) is as follows:
According to them, in the early part of the period, the Christian
world was in a bad state, suffering from the cumulative effects of
centuries of superstition.

Belief in witches was widespread, the average mental stage
being about as low as some of the primitive races existing today;
in this respect, many physicians believed in them. Two Domini-
can brothers, Johann Sprenger and Heinrich Kraemer, as leaders
of a movement to exterminate them, wrote a book, The Witches
Hammer, described as one of the most horrible documents of that

70 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

period. By A.D. 1800, it had gone through nineteen editions. In
the year 1484, Pope Innocent VIII issued a Bull, supported by
Maximilian, King of Rome, naming these two men Inquisitors.
Almost all mentally sick were soon classified as sorcerers and life
was made difficult for them. No man, woman or child was safe.
During the reign of Francis I, King of France, severe justice was
handed out to 100,000 persons. The last witch to be killed in
Germany was Anne Marie Schwagelin, March 30, 1775; she was
decapitated.

At the beginning of the Renaissance, the Black Plague swept
Europe and was such that it created a psychological effect on the
masses. It made man realize that he was even more frail than the
mystics painted him. Social consciousness began to stir and cer-
tain individuals began to become puzzled and fascinated with what
went on in the mind and what emotions were.

It wasn't until the 16th Century that things began to change.
In this period, the individual was born, but he was "restless, self-
assertive, self-contradictory, independent, fearless, quixotic and
reckless" (Zilborg and Henry, '41). Many became skeptics and it
was they who made valuable contributions to European civiliza-
tion.

What needed to be done, apparently, was to unshackle the
mind which had been kidnapped by theologists and philosophers.
Although the Renaissance discovered man as a person and was
beginning to think of him and nature as one, nevertheless he
continued to remain uncertain of himself. This was attested to by
the fact that the mentally sick abounded in cities and villages
during the early 1600's. They occupied prisons, cellars and wan-
dered around the streets and highways either to the amusement
or horror of the populace. The medical profession now generally
accepted the fact that it was disease of the brain which was re-
sponsible for psychiatric conditions. However, Thomas Willis
(A.D. 1621-1675), ranked as one of the greatest neuroanatomisis
and physicians of his day, believed in devils and in the value ol
severe treatment of the psychiatric. He was not averse to em
ploying torture and torment as therapeutic methods. By this aj)
proach, he believed that the mind could be induced to give u\)
its abnormalities, its wild ideas, and become mock and orderly.

ANATOMY DURING THE EUROPEAN RENAISSANCE 71

C. Status of Human Dissection on the Continent

During the Renaissance, more and more countries became in-
terested and involved in human anatomy. In each, the factors
miUtating against dissection were religious belief in a soul, super-
stition, faith in Galen and Avicenna, repugnancy of society and
the lack of proper methods to preserve the body. For many years
and even centuries, the standards of anatomizing remained identi-
cal everywhere. Before Vesalius, neither the teacher nor student
touched the cadaver. After Mondino, dissections became more
elaborate and ceremonious. The spiritual factor was not forgotten
since special rites were conferred upon the condemned before
execution to atone for the deed about to be performed upon his
body. High ranking officials and privileged citizens were sent spe-
cial invitations to attend. After all guests had taken their seats,
the Papal writ permitting the dissection was read aloud and the
seal of the university was offered to the corpse.

Prior to the actual performance of the dissection, the subject's
head was removed because there was a prejudice against exposing
the brain, which according to the Christian concept was thought
to be the seat of the soul. During the evening following the com-
pletion of a dissection, which was perfunctory, a festive celebra-
tion was held with a banquet, concert and theatrical performance.
Many of the title pages of books written during the period, were
decorated with ornamental figures depicting both the gayety of
the dissection itself and the unmistakable finery of the time.

The study of human anatomy, under the foregoing standards,
reached its peak in Italy in the last half of the 16th Century.
Magnificent, anatomical theatres were built to accommodate the
thousands of students who had become interested in the subject;
those at the Universities of Bologna and Padua were particularly
outstanding and beautiful. Other countries followed suit: the
Netherlands matched the standards in the Italian schools whereas
less ornateness was characteristic in France, Germany and England.

In respect to suitable legalization of human dissection, which
would provide an ample number of cadavers for the teaching of
anatomy, the Continental countries fared better than England,
Scotland and Ireland. America had not developed sufficiently to
be considered but later it was to experience the same difficulties.

72

HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

Figure 4. Andreas Stog's Engraving of Pieter Paaw's 1 heatre ot Anatomy.

1589. From Ball, J. M.: The Snck-'em-up Men. London, Oliver & Boyd.

1928. By permission of Oliver & Boyd.

ANATOMY DURING THE EUROPEAN RENAISSANCE 73

From the very beginning in the history of human dissection,
two forces were at work and were to remain so indefinitely. One
c onsisted of a minority group of physicians and students who were
subjected to standards and who wanted to dissect. The other was
a larger, non-medical class, influenced by superstition and the
Church, who were opposed to it. It was in the European nations,
the British Isles excluded, where more frictionless systems were
evolved.

In France, cadavers were obtained from civil hospitals, prisons
and almshouses after remaining unclaimed for an interval of
twenty-four hours.

The bodies which were available in Germany, in part, were
those who had died in prisons, penitentiaries or committed sui-
( ide. They were protected to the extent that friends could pro-
vide ordinary burial rites if they paid a certain sum to the funds
of the school. Other sources included those who had died as
paupers, poor people who had been supported at public cost, those
executed and public women. This system functioned so that there
was an ample supply of cadavers for anatomic purposes even
though the law w^as not rigorously carried out; exhumation was
largely unknown.

Unclaimed bodies were used for dissection in neighboring
Austria. They were judged to be such when not claimed forty-
eight hours after death. Most activity centered in Vienna where
cadavers came from the general hospital. The supply was suffi-
cient and there was no recourse to illegal sources.

In Italy, the governmental regulations were even more lib-
eral: all persons who died in hospitals were automatically given
up for dissection provided no friend stepped forth with the money
necessary to defray funeral expenses. Usually, this source was
sufficient to supply all needs. If not, subjects could be obtained
from the "deposit" of paupers who died and were buried at public
expense. In every parish church in Italy, such specimens were
removed either to the dissecting-room or to a pauper burial ground
outside of the town. Body snatching was virtually unknown.

74 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

1, The Church and Dissection during the Renaissance

One of the outstanding features of the Renaissance is that
human dissection was tolerated at all. This again brings up the
question of the stand taken by the Church, which was both ec-
clesiastical and temporal in power. It is probable that the popu-
lace was more hostile to it than the theological authorities. The
Popes did not actually try to prevent it as evidenced by the fact
that permission was given to Italian and other European schools
which were under theurgic control. There was no teaching that
the corpse was sacred or that using the scalpel was sacrilegious.
Walsh ('04) staunchly defended this attitude believing that the
Church was deeply interested in medicine and encouraged legal
regulation of it as well as the establishment of medical schools.

It was Pope Sixtus IV (A.D. 1414-1484), who had been a
student at Padua and Bologna, who gave permission to open
human bodies. This undoubtedly promoted the development of
anatomy during the latter part of the 15th Century and established
a precedent. Pope Clement VII (1478-1534) also sanctioned this.
Under the supervision of these two ecclesiastical authorities,
(Conditions for anatomical study improved and later Rome became
somewhat of an anatomical center. Emperor Charles V (1500-
1558) asked the faculty at Salamanca for its opinion regarding
dissection; the teachers replied that they thought it was permis-
sible according to the edicts of the Catholic Church.

2. Role of Artists in Anatomical Renaissance

The influence of the artist, in respect to anatomy, during the
early stages of the Renaissance cannot be overestimated. It was he
who was primarily interested in muscles, bodily action and pos-
ture and he made every effort to dissect when and where he could.
Quite a lengthy list of the painters known to have been involved
in human dissection could be presented. Among them can be men-
tioned such names as Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), Michel-
angelo (1475-1564), Albrecht Durer (1471-1519), and Titian
(Tiziano Vecellio, 1477-1576). There is some question as to
whether Donatello (Donato di Niccolo di Betto Bardi, 1386
1466) or Antonio Pollaiuolo (1429-1498) was the first artist to
actually dissect a human subject. The former, in a painting en-

ANATOMY DURING THE EUROPEAN RENAISSANCE 75

titled Miser's Heart, portrayed a public dissection, with surgeons
looking into the cadaver's chest. He was the teacher of Pollaiuolo
and was judged to have the best anatomical background of his
contemporaries; this was obtained by observations of his own dis-
sections. Michelangelo spent sixteen years in anatomical studies on
animals and man which almost ruined his health; it is claimed
that he practiced vivisection. Andrea Verrocchio (1435-1488) per-
formed fifty anatomies during his lifetime and made many figures
in wax, plaster and bronze.

The historical evidence indicates that between 1400 and
1543, more anatomies were probably made by artists than by
anatomists, although both worked together when they could. Some
authors state that a rivalry existed between them. Apparently, the
observations made by the artists at the public demonstrations
were insufficient to satisfy their curiosities and needs which led
them to consider ways and means to proceed on their own.

Dissections by artists were carried out either in hospitals with
the sanction and supervision of the superintendents therein, or
in dead houses attached to the churches, with the approval of the
Pope. The privilege to dissect was especially important to Michel-
angelo; he refused to sculpture figures for the Church of the
Holy Ghost, at Florence, unless the monastic superior would pay
him in cadavers taken from a neighboring cemetery. This ar-
rangement apparently reached the ears of the populace who re-
acted unfavorably; the word spread that he was willing to crucify
a man and let him die in order to depict Christ on the cross.
There is thus evidence that the practice of resurrecting human
bodies, which was short-lived, occurred in Italy, during the first
part of the 16th Century and that dissection was done surrepti-
tiously behind closed doors with the approval of the Church.
It is possible that the painters, especially those who had es-
tablished distinguished reputations had less difficulty in obtain-
ing human cadavers than did the anatomists and physicians. More
hostility may have been directed toward the medics because they
_had to associate themselves with the bodies of executed criminals
^■md because medicine lagged behind progress in art; as a whole,
^Bthey were not held in very high repute. Some of the artists, such
^feis Leonardo da Vinci, were noted for their charm, graciousness

L

76 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

and personality, and experienced little trouble in opening doors
and channels barred to other persons.

The minds of the artists were untrammeled by the tradi-
tional bias revolving around anatomy; they were men who were
enthusiastic, trained in making careful visual observations, anxious
both to perform dissections and draw accurate illustrations. It is
possible that the practice was offensive to some but, nevertheless,
they were greatly responsible for advancing the study of all forms
of human anatomy. Their observations, revealed through their
drawings, paintings and statues, had scientific exactitude and in-
troduced a fresh approach. It was they who taught the public
the importance of anatomy through the realism of their work.
Undoubtedly, they took more than a casual interest in human
anatomy and through their collective effort more naturalism was
attained in their creative art.

Of all the artist-anatomists of the Renaissance period, it was
Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) who was the most outstanding.
In terms of the evolution of anatomy, it was he who was the leader
in the transition from the mediaeval to the modern world. In
1516, three years before his death, at the age of sixty-four, he made
the remark that he had dissected more than 100 human subjects,
many of them at Florence. During his lifetime, he made 779
anatomical drawings, on 235 sheets. Some lacked systematic ar-
rangement. This is evidence that he studied anatomy voraciously
and observed keenly; in fact, this work was done basically in prep-
aration for an anatomical treatise which he wished to write.
No less an authority than William Hunter classified him as the
greatest anatomist of his era.

From the standpoint of da Vinci's interest in anatomy, whic h
began at the age of seventeen, his life can be divided into three
periods: those intervals spent successively in Florence, Milan
and Rome. He accomplished most in Milan, where he resided for
thirty-one years, dissecting when the opportunity presented itself.

During and after serving an apprenticeship under Verrocchio.
the artist, in Florence, he studied flayed bodies, that is, ones from
which the skin had been totally removed, permitting examination
of the superficial muscles. His notes tell of anatomizing at the
Santa Maria Nuova liospital in Florence, where he spent thirteen

ANATOMY DURING THE EUROPEAN RENAISSANCE

77

years, between the ages of seventeen and thirty. It was there he
decided that, in order to understand the human body more fully,
it was necessary to delve deeper into its structures, to expose and

Figure 5. Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519). From Garrison, F. H.: An
Introduction to the History of Medicine, Fourth edition. W. B. Saunders
Company, Philadelphia, 1929. By permission of W. B. Saunders Company.

examine all parts down to the bones. Therefore, he went further
ito the anatomical secrets of man because his interests were more
lan artistic. With broad perspective, he made comparisons be-
^een the human male and female and the feet of various ani-

78 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

mals, including man; he also noted the changes in structure from
birth to old age.

When Verrocchio, his master, left Florence for Venice in
1482, Leonardo departed for Milan, at the request of Lorenzo de
Medici. There, he apparently obtained all the material he needed
either at the Ospedale Maggiori or Academia dei Fisici. What he
complained of most, was lack of time to pursue the art of dis-
section.

While at Milan, Leonardo came into contact, for a short
time, with a young Professor of Anatomy at the University of
Pavia, Marc Antonio della Torre (A.D. 1478-1511), who was
anxious to write a treatise on anatomy. Da Vinci sketched from
the dissections made by the anatomist and himself with the in-
tention of using them in the publication. Some were repeated a
number of times to get the picture desired and to account for vari-
ations. The untimely death of della Torre, from the bubonic
plague, prevented this prearranged goal.

Leonardo fared less well in his anatomical pursuits at Rome,
to which city he migrated in 1513, at the age of sixty-one. He
performed dissections for a short period but, for the first time, his
notes indicate, he complained of lack of material. He encountered
opposition from Pope Leo X who denied him admission to the
city hospitals. His anatomical investigations led to his being sus-
pected; sacrilegious motives were imputed; this accounts for the
fact that the last five years of his existence were sterile in this
field.

Leonardo believed imequivocally in the value of dissection
to learn human anatomy; he advocated it strongly and personally
exhibited great zeal in its pursuit and was able to inspire those
around him. He observed that the anatomists of his time showed,
from their behavior at the cadaver table, that they revered the
human body, whereas others in society were more interested in
destroying it. At first, he utilized the text of Avicenna as an aid.
but later abandoned it as well as all authority; he became an
original investigator and probed ever more deeply into the stru(
ture of man.

Like his contemporaries, he did not find dissecting easy lo
perform: there were no methods available to artificially preserve

ANATOMY DURING THE EUROPEAN RENAISSANCE 79

the body. In the warm climate of Italy, they decomposed easily
and he had to conduct his anatomies during nocturnal hours.
However, he undoubtedly found this task more pleasant and less
offensive than some of his fellow-artists. He made comments in
his notebook that a dry, thin body of an aged person was much
easier to dissect than that of a fat, succulent, young one.

What Leonardo was principally interested in was the propor-
tions of the human body since he was, by temperament, an ar-
tist. He related structure and function and was probably the
first to think in terms of cross-sectional anatomy. He paid a good
deal of attention to the composition of the eye since he regarded
it as the window of the soul. The vessels also attracted him, and
with further study, he might have discovered the circulation of
the blood.

When he died, 120 volumes of notebooks were left to his
pupil, Francesco Melzi. They remained in the family of this in-
dividual for some time and eventually many became scattered
and lost. Napoleon took some of them from Milan to Paris.
Currently, twelve to fourteen books survive in England and Italy.
The largest proportion of these are preserved in Windsor Castle
where they were rediscovered and publicized by William Hunter
in 1784 (Belt, '55; Dempster, '34; McMurrich, '30; Streeter, '30).

3, Universities of the Renaissance

a. The University of Bologna. At the beginning of the hu-
manist movement, when there was an increasing demand for a
knowledge of human structure, the University of Bologna thrived
for a while as a center for anatomical teaching. At first, the
academic course was included under the division of Arts.

In 1405, it became necessary for the professor of anatomy
to obtain a license from the Rector of the University in order
to acquire legal possession of a body before any anatomies could
be performed. Both teachers and students, however, were pro-
hibited from dissecting; this had to be done by a barber. Only
third year pupils were allowed to witness the demonstrations.

In 1410, the city of Bologna assumed the burden of paying
the salary of professors; this inaugurated official control of uni-

80 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

versities by the Italian states. There are statements in the litera-
ture that, even at this early date, students organized expeditions
to snatch bodies from graves. When anatomies were held, nothing
more was done than to try to verify the ancient authors, particu-
larly Galen. In the year of 1410, Pietro d'Argellata, Professor of
Anatomy at Bologna, had the unusual distinction of examining
the body of Pope Alexander V who had died suddenly in Bo-
logna (Singer, '25). This may be the first instance where the corpse
of a high-ranking authority of the Church was autopsied by an
anatomist. Before the building of the beautiful, anatomical the-
atres, it seems that the dissections were performed in hidden
rooms, the procedure being kept as secret as possible.

It is known that in 1442, the Rector of the University of
Bologna permitted two bodies per year to be used for dissective
purposes; these were a male and female, but they had to be ob-
tained from an area located at least thirty miles outside of the
city. It wasn't until 1561, about 120 years later, that this ruling
was revised so that cadavers could be procured within urban lim-
its. Alessandro Achillini, Professor of Philosophy and Medicine
(A.D. 1463-1525), is described as dissecting by himself in 1490,
which would have been an innovation at Bologna.

Anatomical study reached its peak at the University of Bo-
logna during the last half of the 16th Century when thousands of
students were in attendance. It then began to wane in prestige.
Some of the decline may have been due to difficulty in obtaining
an adequate supply of subjects. Cortesius, Professor of Anatomy,
for example, complained in the early 17th Century, that he had
received only two cadavers in twenty-four years whereas he had
expected one annually. In the hope of neutralizing this dearth,
Pope Benedict XIV (1675-1758), issued a decree declaring that the
bodies of all those dying in the hospitals of Bologna be made
available for dissection.

It seems permissible to conclude the following in respect to
the University of Bologna: that careful dissections were performed
and witnessed by many students, numbering perhaps in ilu ilioii
sands; that the Popes did not prohibit the practice but rather
encouraged it; that there was no teaching of the sacredness of

ANATOMY DURING THE EUROPEAN RENAISSANCE 81

the corpse and that barbers were not punished for performing
their duties (Bailey, '11; Franchini, '32; McMurrich, '30).

b. The University of Padua. This university was another
which quickly rose to anatomical prominence. Padua was in-
corporated into the Republic of Venice in 1405 and was prob-
ably not so closely supervised by the Church as the school at
Boloona. Dissection was officially recognized there in 1429, when
a male criminal was anatomized. Bertapaglia, a surgeon of the
period, tells of attending similar events in 1439 and 1440. Mon-
tagnana witnessed fourteen post-mortems in Padua in the year of
1444. A magnificent anatomical theatre, which became widely
known, was built in 1446, some say at the personal expense of
Fabricius (1537-1617), others on the general basis of raising funds
w hich were quickly subscribed. Harvey was later to study human
anatomy in this building. It is definitely known that demonstra-
tions were made in 1520, 1532, 1536 and 1537.

The most famous investigator to teach there was Andreas
Vesalius (1514-1564) whose story will be taken up separately.
He was succeeded in 1544, by Realdus Columbus who anatomized
as many as fourteen bodies in a twelve month period; he also
published a treatise on the lesser circulation, De Re Anatomica,
in 1559, the year of his death. He believed the blood was aerated
in the lungs and that there were no pores in the heart septum.
Columbus was followed by Gabriel Fallopius (1523-1562). It was
at this time that anatomists began to dissect on their own, taking
over this duty from the barbers (Ball, '10).

c. The University of Montpellier. In France, the University
of Montpellier was without question the pioneer in anatomical
studies. Permission was granted in 1376, by King Louis D'Anjou
to perform a dissection on the body of one executed criminal
annually. This was about 200 years before Sylvius introduced the
art in Paris. The citizens of Montpellier had shown themselves
to be freer, broader and more independent in thought than the
population of Paris.

The information on succeeding events in Montpellier is
fragmentary. Chronologically, it is as follows: in 1532, Rabelais,
a noted French physician, satirist and humorist, is known to have
dissected there. Between 1552 and 1557, only five or six official

82

HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

demonstrations were given by anatomy professors according to a
diary by Felix Platter; he was a medical student whose journal
reported that he joined a secret band of grave robbers in his sec-
ond year at Montpellier in order to get more material for self-

Figure 6. Entrance to the Medical School of Montpellier. The building

dates from 1364.'<lfrom Castiglionj, A.: A History of Medicine. Translated

and edited by E. B. Krumbhaar. New York, Knopf, first edition, 1911;

second revised and enlarged edition, 1947. By permission of Knopf.

instruction. An anatomical theatre was built by Professor Ron-
delet in 1556; he has been accused of dissecting the body of his
dead son before his classes, indicating possibly a scarcity of ma-
terial.

A chair in anatomy and botany at Montpellier was created
by edi(t of Henry IV, King of France (1553-1610). Richer de

ANATOMY DURING THE EUROPEAN RENAISSANCE

83

Belleval was appointed to this post but refused to give any lec-
tures in anatomy in spite of the protests of his colleagues (Mac-
Callum, '08).

d. The University of Paris: Sylvius and Servetus. No exact
date can be ascribed to the founding of the University of Paris.
In 1483, its faculty decreed that a knowledge of anatomy was
required for a MB, but human dissections were performed prior
to that date. Baker ('09) and Singer ('25) both stated that a public
anatomical demonstration was made as early as 1478.

Figure 7. Jacques Dubois (Sylvius) (1478-1555). From>^arrison, F. H.:
An Introduction to the History of Medicine, Fourth edition. Philadelphia,
W. B. Saunders Company, 1929. By permission of W. B. Saunders Company.

One of the early anatomists to make news at the University

of Paris and elsewhere was Jacobus Sylvius (Jacques Dubois, 1478-

^555). His personality, plus the fact that he taught students who

84 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

wrote about him, had much to do with the spread of his name.
He was a man who apparently could arouse the emotions of people
around him in the direction of antipathy. Vesalius accused him
of entering the profession for the sole purpose of making money.
Historians credit him with being the first in Paris to dissect
man.

Sylvius was born in Louvilly, near Amiens, the son of a
weaver. He showed ability in languages early in his educational ca-
reer and became interested in the human body through his studies
of Galen and Hippocrates. Too poverty stricken to work for a
medical degree, he began teaching students about the human body
with a great deal of success, as far as numbers were concerned.
However, the University of Paris forbade him to carry on this
program so he went to Montpellier, where he managed somehow
to obtain a medical degree; apparently, he dissected there when
he could. When he returned to Paris, he already had established
a reputation as a teacher; he reopened his classes at Tregiurer
and soon became famous. He attracted students reaching 400
to 500 per class. Like his predecessors, he taught anatomy from
the chair and saw the structures of the body through the eyes
of Galen, whom he idolized and glorified. He subordinated all of
his discoveries to him. When forced to admit that some of Galen's
statements were obviously incorrect, he supplied a ready answer,
namely that the body had changed in its organization during the
1400 years since the time of the famous Greek. Nevertheless, he
recommended and encouraged dissection as the best way to learn
and digest anatomy.

Among the students who were attracted to the classes of
Sylvius, were the following: Vesalius, Servetus, Stephanus, Gen
narus and Vulpinus. The first studied under him for three years,
during which he laid the foundation for his famous Fabrica. This
would not have been possible unless he had been given the liberty
of dissecting and observing the structure of the huinan body ;u
his pleasure. Vesalius was very critical of Sylvius, accusing him,
among other things, of providing insufficient bodies for use in
his anatomical theatre.

Sylvius worked under adverse conditions which were either
created by himself or were due to circumstances beyond his con-

ANATOMY DURING THE EUROPEAN RENAISSANCE 85

trol. In the winter time, he endured the cold without benefit of
fire; his method was to counteract this by means of violent exer-
cise. He had a reputation among his pupils of being miserly and
poverty stricken.

In pliysical appearance, Sylvius was short, square-set and had
an abundant head of hair; his voice was harsh and unpleasant.
He remained unmarried and consequently had no one to care
for but himself. His debits, personality-wise, according to his as-
sociates were the following: he was intolerant, avaricious, dis-
agreeable, violent, rough, rude, vindictive and possessive of a
cjuick temper. He was jealous of the fame of others. His pupils
jeered him for these traits. On the credit side, were a quick in-
telligence, tenacious memory, eloquence, industry and teaching
ability.

Baker ('09) believed that many authors in writing the his-
tory of Sylvius have been unjust. He was the first to dissect the
human cadaver in Paris. A great service was rendered by him
because he revived, popularized and gave anatomy renown. With-
out having been cast in the shadow of the anatomical light ema-
nated by his great pupil, Vesalius, he might have been regarded
as the chief anatomist of his age. Because of his bigoted idolization
of Galen, whose teachings were gospel, he came off second best
in his arguments with Vesalius whom he called insane, menda-
cious, vile and impudent. He did, however, improve on Galen's
terminology and distinguished between voluntary and involun-
tary muscles (Montagu, '53).

Sylvius died at the age of seventy-seven years and was buried
unbefittingly in the Cemetery of Poor Scholars with an inscription
on a marker of his grave written by one of his former pupils
(Ball, '10):

Sylvius lies here, who never gave anything for nothing:

Being dead, he even grieves that you read these lines for nothing!

Probably, more has been written about Michael Servetus
(1511-1553) than any other medical man of the Renaissance
period. Bainton ('32) gives a bibliographic list of 156 articles
and books which he was able to find up to 1932. This is due

86 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

. J

to the fact that the events in his life were ultra-dramatic am
such that he became a martyr for his religious convictions. It i
a question as to whether Servetus was first a theologian and thei
a physician or vice versa. He is included with the discussion o
the University of Paris because he studied medicine and pur
sued some original anatomical investigations on the human bod
while there. The focus will be on the latter.

Servetus was born of a noble and devout family at Tudeb
in Navarre, near Catalonia, Spain. He was educated at neigh
boring Huesca College and then attended the University of Sara
gossa, located in the province of the same name. He was then seni
by his father to study law at the University of Toulouse, thin
oldest French university, founded in 1229 in southwestern France
At this institution, he became interested in religion and developec
concepts contrary to the prevailing dogma. He believed that th<
idea of the union of the three divines of the Trinity was a men
phantasy. After publishing his views early in life, he was brandec
as a heretic and thereafter was in trouble with both the Spanisl
and French Inquisitors. Because of this, he lived in semihidinj
under the assumed name of Michael Villanovanus; it was unde
this appellation that he studied medicine in Paris, being supei
vised by the teachers, Sylvius and Guinterius. He was a felloe
dissector with Andreas Vesalius, who was destined with him, to hi
subjected to the bigotry of the time, but in a different way.

Like his dissecting-mate, Vesalius, Servetus had to pursu<
his anatomical studies in the absence of a plentiful supply o
cadavers. He apparently did not deem it worth-while to go ou
and forage for himself and try to obtain subjects from availabU
sources, such as executed criminals from the gallows or bodi<
resurrected from the grave, as did his partner. Perhaps, he grum
bled about the shortage, as Vesalius did. While studying, he su]
ported himself by writing and lecturing, his first book being
Apology to Astrology, indicating an interest in the influence o
the stars upon human affairs (Bainton, '53).

In respect to his anatomical contributions, Servetus standi
out for his observations on the respiratory system. He was prob
ably attracted to this part of the body because he was seardi-
ing for the location of the soul. Here he made three important

I(

ANATOMY DURING THE EUROPEAN RENAISSANCE 87

observations: that the septum of the heart is impermeable, no
pores being present; that the pulmonary artery is too large to
serve solely for the nutriment of the lung (a "Galenic" function);
and that the blood is aerated in the lungs. He believed, however,
as did Galen, that the blood originated from the liver. These in-
terpretations were published in the fifth volume of his Chris-
tianismi Restitutio in 1553 and indicate that he had a grasp of the
basic significance of the circulation of the blood. This book was
suppressed by the Church. Realdus Columbus published essen-
tially the same concept in his De Re Anatomica, in 1559.

In spite of his efforts to remain incognito, Servetus fell into
the hands of John Calvin, the French theologian, in 1553; he
was imprisoned, tried for heresy and burned at the stake on Oc-
tober 27, 1553, at Geneva, at the age of forty-four years, along
with 1,000 copies of his condemned book. Only three originals
survive. This terminal event in his life has been described as
one of the most deplorable tragedies in human affairs (Fulton,
'53; Hemmeter, '15; Osier, '10).

e. Other Universities of the Renaissance. Not much infor-
mation is available about certain other universities which existed
during the period of the Renaissance: Venice, Pisa, Vienna and
Louvain.

At Venice, the Council passed a law permitting dissection
of a human as early as 1368. In 1404, a public anatomy was con-
ducted by Prof. Gallazzo di Santa Sofia, the sittings lasting for
eight days. A collection was taken up from those attending and
the proceeds turned over to the faculty. This is the only instance
I have found of this monetary practice. No further anatomies were
held for twelve years. Dissection was included as a definite part
of the medical curriculum in 1433. Statutes were made regulating
anatomy in 1495 but it was not until 1658 that the university was
able to acquire its first skeleton. Nicolai Massa, one of the best
known syphilologists of his time, with patients coming from all
over Europe to see him, is said to have performed nine demonstra-
tions on human cadavers between 1524 and 1536. An anatomical
theatre was built in 1552.

Berengario da Carpi (1470-1550) cannot be placed in any
one school, because he was a member of the faculties at both

88 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

Pavia and Bologna (1502-1527), where he taught surgery and
anatomy. Since he is classified as one of the restorers of anatomy,
he should be given consideration. That he was a prolific dissector,
is indicated by the statements that he anatomized more than 100
cadavers, possibly as many as 300. As an investigator, of the Renais-
sance period, he refused to be a blind follower of Galen. In his
book. Carpi Commentaria super Anatomia Mundini, he intro- ^
duced, for the first time, a set of anatomical figures, twenty-one in
number, drawn from human dissections. It was published in
1521. They surpassed in quality those of his predecessors. He
also pioneered by writing a short introduction to his book.

The life of da Carpi was made miserable by the machinations
of the agents of the Inquisitors, who objected to some of his opin-
ions regarding the organs of generation. Because he advocated
that surgeons study the living body through opportunities pre-
sented in wounded persons, he was unjustly accused of dissecting
living men. He was the first anatomist to give a correct descrip-
tion of many structures of the human body (Buck, '17; Korns,
'37; McMurrich, '30; Singer, '25).

4, Anatomical Illustrations during the Renaissance,

Not much was done in the way of anatomical illustrations
before the Renaissance; it wasn't until the beginning of the IGtl
Century that this aspect came to the forefront and was integrate<
with textual material in books.

The dawn of medical literature in Europe began in A.D|
1070 with the introduction of Constantine's Pantegni, two book!
on anatomy, based on animal dissection. Following this, durin|
the 12th Century, five books were written by authors of the medi-
cal department at the University of Salerno; all were based oi
the earlier work of Constantine's Pantegni.

Between 1491 and 1543, about 100 different anatomical wood^
cuts were published. The noteworthy ones were stylized drawinj
or "primitives" in John Peyligk's Philosophiae Nahiralis (1499)j
Magnus Hundt's Antropologium (1501) and Laurentius Phryj
esen's Spiegel der Artzny (1518), whose illustrations were the besi
of the group. Characteristic of tlie times, was widespread plagij

ANATOMY DURING THE EUROPEAN RENAISSANCE gg

arism and great dependence on authority; independent observa-
tions were rare. There was another type of picture which ap-
parently had the widest circulation of all; in fact, they were
found all over the world. They were designated as "five-figure
series" and their origin is obscure. There is a tradition that they
go back to Aristotle. They are all characteristically alike, being
portrayed uniformly as five, crude, human figures in squatting po-
sitions showing bones, muscles, nerves, arteries and veins. Some-
times, a sixth figure represented a pregnant woman or the genera-
tive organs of both sexes.

Early in the 16th Century, one page illustrations, known as
fugitive sheets, were popular among the general public and medi-
cal men. These were commonly printed on soft, thick paper about
30 by 40 centimeters. In these, the figure was ordinarily sur-
rounded by the textual material with a decorative margin on the
outside. They were usually printed in black and white but some
were in color and in different languages, in Latin as well as the
\ernacular. Some were undoubtedly printed to satisfy the curi-
osity of the common people; the so-called Adam and Eve plates
revealing the abdominal and sometimes thoracic viscera were
especially popular (Crummer, '23).

[IX]

ANDREAS VESALIUS-A.D. 1514 to 1564

A. Introduction

XjL ndreas Vesalius stands out as one of the greatest medical
men of all time. A single contribution of his is ranked as amon|
the ten most significant and influential in the literature of th<
profession. His publication in 1543 marks a turning point, nol
only in anatomy, but in the entire field of medicine. Althougl
many writers have been attracted to him in the past 400 years^
the details of his life, the circumstances and extent of his labors
and the impact of his work upon the progress of medicine are not]
generally well-known. Probably few men have seen or read his
original works. Over four centuries have elapsed since his death;j
he wrote in Latin and his writings are now found only in the great
medical libraries which may be some of the factors which ac-
count for this.

What no other man could do for 1400 years, Vesalius did.
He neutralized completely, though not immediately, the author-!
ity of Galen; recast the instruction of human structure; started
basic medical research in anatomy, physiology and surgery in
new direction; illustrated his dissections accurately; destroyec
long standing tenets, superstitious and otherwise, and made man^
new discoveries. He ranks in the same class as Bacon, Galileo;
Descartes, Newton, Lavoisier and Bichat in respect to his crea-^
tive contributions to society.

It took a man with certain definite qualifications to mak<
these accomplishments: youth, enthusiasm, power of observation,
courage and diligence, and Vesalius had all these. His master-j
piece, De Humani Corporis Fabrica, was before the public prioi
to his thirtieth year in the form of the most accurate, complete

00

ANDREAS VESALIUS-A.D. 1514 to 1564 91

and best illustrated treatise on anatomy the world had seen.
Probably no other piece of writing in the history of medicine
precipitated such stirring, mental reactions, both positive and
negative. A wide range of emotions were aroused and were slow
in declining. It was with a scalpel, the hand of an artist and
the above human traits that Vesalius created probably the great-
est revolution in medicine. He has been called the "Luther of
Anatomy."

B. Early Life

Andreas Vesalius was born in Brussels on the last day of
tiie year in 1514 uqder astrological conditions which were judged
to be ra\orable by one Jerome Cardan. The placenta and caul
of his afterbirth were carefully preserved by his mother who,
along with most others, ascribed remarkable, magical powers to
them. Cardan, an Italian practitioner and mathematician, whose
real name was Geronimo Cardano (1501-1576) evidently believed
in astrology, as did many other doctors of his day.

For four generations, at least, the male forbears of Vesalius
had been interested in medicine and had occupied high positions
in the royal court of Belgium. Some were noted for their literary
flare. Vesalius' father served as an apothecary to Charles V
and Margaret of Austria; he accompanied the illustrious Emperor
upon numerous journeys and military expeditions. His mother,
whose maiden name was Isabella Crabbe, had unbounded faith
in her son, believed he was destined to accomplish great things,
and exerted considerable influence over him. It was she who pre-
served the manuscripts and books of her husband's ancestors and
made them available to Vesalius. She undoubtedly instilled into
him the traditions of the family, their accomplishments in the
field of letters and medicine, as well as the importance of their
service and loyalty to their sovereigns.

The early life of Vesalius is shadowed with some obscurity.
It is on record that he attended the University of Louvain, lo-
cated a few miles from his home, which in the number of its
students, ranked second to the University of Paris; there, he
studied the ancient languages (Greek, Latin, Hebrew, Arabic)
with facility, and this background stood him in good stead in

Kter literary controversies.

92 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

The field of human structure appealed to Vesalius in his boy-
hood, and for this pursuit, his powers of observations were more
than adequate. At first, he tried to learn anatomy by reading
several texts (Albertus Magnus and Michael Scatus) but decided
this was a poor way to absorb and imderstand the factual knowl-
edge pertaining to the subject. He ventured on a practical pro-
gram of dissection, obtaining animals which were easy to catch:
mice, moles, rats, dogs and cats.

C. Vesalius in Paris

Vesalius, desiring to follow the profession of his ancestors,
selected the University of Paris for his medical education. Hi
reached there in the year of 1533 at the time when the Frenchl
capital was the acknowledged Mecca of the medical world. Thej
reputation of the institution had attracted a great many youn^
men, some from the most remote parts of Europe. Medicine was
being taught there by such eminent professors as Jacobus Sylvius,]
Jean Fernel and Joannes Guinterius. Of the trio, it was the first]
who had the best reputation; he had studied under Jean Fagaultj
a famous Parisian practitioner and surgical author. A resume oi
his unusual life has already been given.

Guinterius (1478-1574) was a colorful figure in his own right.)
Born of very humble parents, in Andernach, Germany, neai
Coblenz, he was sent to the University of Utrecht, at an earh
age. Because of his poverty-stricken condition, he was forced t<
leave that educational institution. He migrated to Deventer, Hol-I
land where he found it necessary to beg in the streets in ordei
to survive. Apparently, he was able to accumulate enough fundsl
to matriculate at the University of Marburg where his brilliancej
and talents were recognized and where he was treated with re-
spect. After teaching in the small town of Gosler, he made a bij
academic jump to the chair of Greek in the lanious University
of Louvain.

Guinterius went to Paris to study medicine in 1525, eight
years prior to the arrival of Vesalius; he received his Bachelor'
degree in 1528 and his full medical title two years later. He W2
brillant in his final examinations and received the accolades oi

ANDREAS VESALIUS-A.D. 1514 to 1564 93

his prolcssors. Electing to remain in Paris, he taught anatomy
and practiced medicine, both with considerable success and re-
nown. Adept in Latin, he translated the writings of numerous
(;rcck medical authors of antiquity. So well did he project him-
self by both the written and spoken word, that his fame spread
beyond the boundaries of France. The enlightened King Chris-
tian III, of Denmark, tried to entice him into his court, without
success. Because of his religious views, having been converted
to Lutheranism, his life was threatened, so he departed from Paris
enroute to Germany. Residing a short time in Metz, he moved to
Strassburg, on being appointed professor at the imiversity; there
he was received with honors and ceremony. His tenure at Strass-
burg was temporary due to the insecurity of his position, en-
gendered by some of his enemies; this caused him to resign his
(hair. Following this, he spent considerable time traveling
throughout Germany and Italy. In 1562, at the age of seventy-five,
he was made a nobleman by Ferdinand I in appreciation of his
merits and contributions.

\V' hile teaching anatomy in Paris, it was the fate of Guinterius
that some of the enrolled students who sat upon the benches in
his department, eventually outshone him: these were particularly
\'esalius, Servetus and Rondelet. Like his predecessors and all of
his contemporaries, with the exception of Vesalius, he was a dis-
ciple of Galen. His lack of long-lasting medical stature is due to
the fact that he failed to grasp the truth that anatomical science
is based on the results obtained from studies of human dissection.

The other luminary at the University of Paris was Jean
Fernel (1485-1558). Although he was regarded as the ablest physi-
ologist of his time, he was also a skilled anatomist and surgeon.
He sought the best from the various medical systems then ex-
tant and had a greater breadth of view than either Sylvius or
Guinterius. A reformer at heart, he stood for freedom of thought
and was in opposition to ancient dogmas. By means of his dar-
ing, he helped to point out the road to progress in anatomy.

How did Vesalius react to his environment at the University
of Paris? Apparently, he did not like what he saw and later was
not backward in his criticisms. He resented the lecturing and
theorizing from Galen's texts and thought there was far too little

94 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

dissection. Anatomizing was performed in traditional style by ig-
norant and uncouth barbers; not once was Guinterius seen to
use a knife upon a cadaver. Few human bodies reached the amphi-
theatre and those which did, lasted less than three days. The
studies made were superficial, at most; they included only the in-
testines and abdominal muscles. Vesalius felt that the teachers
were ignorant but unaware of it. He took matters into his own
hand, grabbed a scalpel, pushed the prosectors aside^ and systema-
tically proceeded on his own. Dissecting down to the bones, with
Servetus, he won the admiration of Guinterius, who now was able
to demonstrate to the class, for the first time, the muscles, ar-
teries, veins and nerves of the whole body.

It was at Paris that Vesalius made a resolution: that he
would henceforth devote his energy, talents and his life to ana-
tomical study and teaching. One facet of his character now
stood him in good stead; namely, his strength of purpose. His
goal became the standards which were used at the famous Alex-
andrian School under the Greeks, Herophilus and Erasistratus,
who represented his ideal. He decided to take advantage of every
opportunity, and even to look for them, to dissect both animal
and man. He anatomized numerous dogs and haunted the ceme-
tery (Of the Innocents) and the place where the bodies of exe-
cuted criminals were deposited, looking for a suitable skeleton,
sometimes at his own peril. Collecting bones, in such fashion, he
was able to become a master of the osseous system, even to the
extent of identifying the finer parts blindfolded. At least one
time, he was questioned for having possession of them in his
home, by the police. Since his anatomical gifts were recognized
by faculty and students, it was not long before he was put in
charge of dissections; these were conducted to the satisfaction
and astonishment of all, particularly the barbers. There is a
legend that Vesalius never dissected a cadaver without first ask-
ing God's pardon.

Vesalius studied three years under Sylvius at Paris. Although
not happy there, he undoubtedly laid tlic foundation for his
monumental work on the Fabrica.

ANDREAS VESALIUS-A.D. 1514 to 1564 95

D. Professor of Anatomy at the University of Padua

After his studies at the University of Paris were completed
(1536), Vesalius returned to Louvain, Belgium where he became
affiliated with the University. Apparently, one of the biggest
events of the year was an expedition made to a gallows outside
of the walls of Louvain in search of bones; accompanying him

^T-S?^:-^

figure 8. Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564). From Garrison, F. H.: An Intro-
luction to the History of Medicine, Fourth edition. Philadelphia, W. B.
Saunders Company, 1929. By permission of W. B. Saunders Company.

96 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

was a faithful friend, a mathematician by name of Regnier
Gemma. There, he found, what he had been searching for: a skele-
ton which from his view from the ground, looked complete with
the bones held together by the ligaments of the joints. It was the
remains of a noted robber, who had been treated according to
his deeds; he had been chained high up on the gallows, and then
slowly roasted alive. The flesh had been picked clean by birds,
which had probably found it a rare delicacy. Vesalius climbed
up and secured the skeleton from its lofty perch and conveyed
it to his home. On examination, he found several parts missing:
one finger, a patella and a foot. He was able to supply the missing
parts on a second expedition to the same spot.

During his stay at Louvain, Vesalius conducted the first
public anatomy that had been held in that city for eighteen years.
He also issued a free translation of one of the A Imanser books writ-
ten by the celebrated Rhazes, an Arabian physician (A.D.
850-923); this particular volume was not anatomical but rather
was concerned with the therapeutics of all parts of the body. It
was judged to be a valuable addition to the literature of the time.

The next highlight in the life of Vesalius took place in
Padua, Italy. He migrated to that country in 1537, his first stop
being the enlightened and prosperous city of Venice. There prob-
ably was not another site, in the then existing world, where
the academic climate was more favorable for the pursuit of
anatomical studies. Here, there were no taboos working against
the study of anatomy: rather, it was actually encouraged, par-
ticularly by a group of Theatin monks, established in Italy in
1524. Their aims were to preach the gospel, combat Lutheranism
and elevate clerical and lay morality. They were forbidden both
to beg and hold property. The group trusted solely to the unso-
licited contributions of the faithful. In Venice, they devoted
themselves to the care of the sick which accounts for their interest
in anatomy. One of the co-leaders of the organization was the
famous Ignatius Loyola, founder of the Jesuits, whose chief pur-
pose in life was to work toward a world-wide acceptance of the
doctrines of Catholicism.

In Venice, Vesalius searched for suitable anatomical mate-
rial. It is not certain whether he was successful, but he may have

ANDREAS VESALIUS-A.D. 1514 to 1564 97

conducted a public demonstration in anatomy while in resi-
dence there. By a happy circumstance, he was introduced to
a man important to his future, namely, his countryman, Jan
Stephan van Calcar, artist extraordinary, an anatomical dissector
in his own right and according to Vesalius' own words, he ranked
"with the divine and happy wits of Italy" (Ball, '10).

During the last month of the year, 1537, Vesalius moved to
Padua in order to gain all the rights and privileges of a full-
fledged physician. Shortly after receiving his doctorate there, he
was appointed Professor of Surgery at the renowned University
of Padua, with the understanding that he would teach anatomy
separately. This may have been the first appointment ever made
to a purely anatomical chair. At this time, he was only twenty-
three years of age.

Imbued with zeal and enthusiasm, his first act was to improve
the course of instruction in anatomy. Contrary to precedent, he
took over all the duties revolving around teaching: lecturing,
demonstrating and dissecting. The ignorant barbers, universally
employed as dissectors, were avoided and substituted with stu-
dents. Every means was taken to have an adequate supply of
human anatomical material even if it had to be secured by
stealth, but lower animals were also included in his program. It
was they which were vivisected: dogs, pigs and rarely cats.

The center of attraction in the anatomical curriculum was
the elegant aula where Vesalius conducted his course; it was
built of wood and could seat 500 persons. In its middle, was placed
a table, under which was a box containing bones and joints. An
assembled skeleton was conspicuous at one end of the room.
Those taking the complete course were subjected to a strenuous
session: the entire day for a period of three weeks. As visual aids,
he used drawings and charts made with his own hand, sometimes
in the presence of an assembly. The dissecting instruments he used
were crude by comparison with modern standards. He showed
the ones utilized in one of the illustrations in the Fabrica: knives,
hooks, sounds, bristles, cannula, catheter, hammer, saw, thread

Eld a sponge.
Vesalius made an auspicious start at Padua. It became known
roughout the entire community, probably by word of mouth.

98 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

that the young Belgian professor was to give a course of instruction
in anatomy. Long before the hour set, for a demonstration, all
seats, even standing room were taken, which meant that well
over 500 persons were interested enough to attend. The audience
was comprised of professors, students of medicine, city officers
and members of the clergy.

The style of his anatomical presentation, which was an inno-
vation, was made evident on this historical occasion by Vesalius.
He walked into the chamber, and without wasting a moment,
launched into preliminary remarks about the significance of anat-
omy and the methods which had been used previously in acquir-
ing knowledge. Then, the structural divisions were rapidly
pointed out on the flayed body of a dog; this was done to con-
serve human material. When the cadaver was placed upon the
table, all eyes were focused upon it with possibly the realization
that this was a rare event and that they were privileged persons.

The dissection, made by Vesalius, was performed and in reg-
ular sequence: abdomen, pelvis, thorax, face and neck muscles,
the remainder of the head and finally the upper and lower ex-
tremities. Physiological deductions, based on the anatomy of the
parts, were made throughout; pathological conditions were con-
sidered as briefly as possible. Structure was particularly high-
lighted because he feared fatiguing his audience with too much
variety. Numerous nonhuman vivisections ended the anatomy
lessons. His large and elite audience remained with him to the
end. Although, it must have been both a physical and mental
strain for Vesalius, as he did most of the work, both preparatory
and actual, he never mentioned it and gave no signs of it. This
and the others which he subsequently presented, were profitable
from the standpoint of financial remuneration.

Vesalius was given the honor of conducting two public dis-
sections at the University of Bologna located not too far away,
probably in the years of 1539 and 1540. This was the institution
where Mondino had revived the practical teaching of anatomy
about 200 years previously. A special, wooden building was
erected for this event; three bodies were turned over to him for
the first class. Using the same standards as at Padua, he handled
the situation in grandiose fashion. A large and select gathering

ANDREAS VESALIUS-A.D. 1514 to 1564 99

was present to witness a demonstration proving that Galen's de-
scription of the vena azygos was incorrect. Apparently, more ca-
davers and an ape were disposed of during the second meeting.
On this occasion, he presented skeletons of man and ape, to the
Professor of Medicine at Bologna, Andreas Albius.

The first anatomical contributions which Vesalius made at
Padua were done in the interests of his pupils. First, he articu-
lated a human skeleton for use in the classroom. In addition, he
prepared a set of six loose-leaf anatomical plates, the Tabulae
Anatornicae, intended to assist beginners in anatomy. Finally, he
edited Guinterius' Institutionum Anatomicarum , which was is-
sued in April, 1538.

E. The Fabrica

Probably every word of approbation found in the dictionary
has been used at one time or another by various historians in de-
scribing Vesalius' publication, the Fabrica. The following is a
quote from Fisher (from Ball, '10): "it was and is a glorious book,
a rare and precious monument of genius, industry and liberality."
All concur that it ranks as one of the greatest achievements in
medicine. In modern times, no one speaks derogatorily about it.
Three years of arduous labor were spent in completing it accord-
ing to the standards of three individuals: Andreas Vesalius (anat-
omist), Jan Stephan van Calcar (artist), and Johannes Oporinus
(printer). A fortune was expended upon the illustrations and
publication and there is little doubt that it was largely a labor
of love. One can easily imagine the amount of time and effort
which was put into the quaint initial letters and the figures
which embellish them. The engraving on the title page is con-
sidered to be one of the most spirited and elaborate to be found
in medical literature.

All of the pictorial representations were made on wood
blocks which were printed in Basel, Switzerland, conveyed there
safely from Padua, in the summer of 1542, by a merchant friend
named Danoni. Early in the following year, Vesalius went to

iasel to supervise his precious work. While there, he conducted
lother public anatomy, the first held in the city in eleven years,
'he skeleton of the subject used, which he articulated, was pre-

100

HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

sented to the University of Basel, with his compliments. Parts
of this exist today and it is thought to be the oldest anatomical
preparation extant.

Figure 9. Title I»agc of Vesalius' Epitome, 1543. From Ball, J. M.:
Andreas Vesalius the Reformer of Anatomy. St. Louis, Medical Science

Press, 1910.

ANDREAS VESALIUS-A.D. 1514 to 1564 101

Although the illustrations in the Fahrica are of surpassing
quality and ingenuity, the road to their completion was con-
fronted with many an obstacle. His artist, according to Vesalius'
own words was so obstinate at times that he felt exasperated and
tormented. Calcar may have complained about having to draw
from skinned and foul smelling bodies; it was impossible to keep
them for any length of time, because antiseptic injections and pre-
serving fluids were unknown. Vesalius certainly complained of
the huge sums it was necessary to pay to keep his artistic project
alive. For many years, it was assumed that Titian was the artist
in question rather than Calcar, his favorite pupil, but this has been
settled in favor of the latter. The most satisfactory plates in the
book are those which portray the undissected body, the deeper
bones and muscles.

It was the Fahrica, with its dissections and plates, which made
the reputation of Vesalius. Six hundred fifty-nine folio pages
long, in the form of seven books, it was dedicated to Charles V.
The text is lucid and yet succinct and it rectified many anatomical
errors made by Galen and others. It touches very slightly on an-
thropology, more so on physiology which is correlated with ana-
tomical description. The osseous system, as a whole, is described
correctly for the first time. That part on muscles and ligaments
is superior to anything previously done, but does not match the
standards of the book on bones. The superficial muscles are
beautifully illustrated and those in the deep group show anatom-
ical accuracy. He described the arteries and veins adequately but
interpreted their physiology in terms of ancient theory; the ar-
teries were the carriers of vital spirits, whereas the veins were
the true blood vessels; he also stated that the heart was filled with
numerous foramina.

Considering the period, Vesalius' work on the nervous sys-
tem was surpassing and elaborately minute. In his other books,
admirable accounts are given of the organs of nutrition and the
respiratory system.

In general, the Fahrica, was remarkably free from errors
rhich, though present, were completely overshadowed by its bril-
iance. Vesalius was successful in laying the foundations of our
;urrent knowledge and in overthrowing the idol of authority.

102 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

Galen, whom he called the Prince of Physicians. In respect, to
the latter, he apparently had many anxious moments in chal-
lenging some of his concepts. Some historians have evaluated
Vesalius as outranking men in other fields: Copernicus, Galileo,
Torricelli, Pascal and Christopher Columbus. The reasoning be-
hind this judgment was that the first study of man is man and that
Vesalius had this object in view and admirably attained it; by
acquiring fresh knowledge of his own structure, man has been
able to expand his existence (Portal, 1770, quoted from Ball,
'10). There is little doubt that modern medicine begins with
the publication of the Fabrica.

Vesalius was violently criticized by the numerous Galenists
of the era. Leading the attack, was his former teacher, Sylvius.
He spoke of Vesalius as a madman, as a Vesanus, whose pesti-
lential breath poisoned Europe. Others included Realdus Co-
lumbus, Dryander, Eustachius and Fallopius. Even his friends
were dubious about his results and serious discussions were held
on both sides. In the end, the Galenists were completely over-
thrown.

F. Vesalius (1543-1564)

Vesalius had felt it necessary to take a years leave of absence
from Padua, in order to assist Oporinus, the printer, in Basel,
with the publication of the Fabrica. When he returned to the
University in late 1543, he found that his book had fermented
extreme opposition, particularly in his former pupil and friend,
Realdus Columbus, who was then lecturing in anatomy. This de-
veloped into a personal and bitter controversy between the
two, creating wounds which were never healed. Other Galenists
joined Columbus in violently attacking Vesalius in an effort to
sully his reputation.

Apparently, the atmosphere at Padua was so uncongenial
and hostile that Vesalius went to Pisa early in 1544, where he is
known to have conducted an anatomy. From there, he moved
to Bologna and made some special dissections upon two human
subjects. The University of Pisa offered him a chair which he
refused. It was at tliis moment that Vesalius, apparently at low
ebb, suddenly and perhaps impulsively decided to end his scien-

ANDREAS VESALIUS-A.D. 1514 to 1564 103

tific career. In a fit of passion, he threw into the fire a manu-
script he had written on the practice of medicine, based on patho-
logical considerations. He had tired of the useless efforts necessary
to convince men of the truth, of the disputes, arguments and per-
secutions. In this frame of mind, he accepted the appointment
of military surgeon to Charles V of Spain which necessitated
a shift in residence to Madrid; he was now only thirty years
of age. After serving with the Emperor in the fourth French
War, he returned to his native country, January 1545. He con-
tinued to serve in the employ of Philip, who succeeded his father.
The latter had surrendered his territories to his son so that he
could enter a cloister. From both royalists, Vesalius received
many honors over a period of two decades, although he found
Philip narrow and bigoted.

In 1564, for no understandable reason, at the height of
success, Vesalius left Madrid. At that time, he was a favorite in
the Spanish Court and had amassed a good sized fortune. Jeal-
ousies, no doubt, existed between him and members of the Span-
ish profession, who regarded him as a foreigner. The controversy
concerning the fallibility or infallibility of Galen had continued
unabated; although Sylvius, the most outspoken had passed away,
others continued to oppose him. There were those, however, who
had chosen Vesalius' way of teaching anatomy: Fallopius at Padua,
Rondelet at Montpellier, Massa at Venice, and Fuchs at Tu-
bingen; all were challenging Galen at every opportunity.

The atmosphere at the Spanish court was not conducive to
any sort of scientific study. The Church had remained powerful
and the Inquisition succeeded in neutralizing all intellectual
life; the city of Madrid was priest-ridden and the populace was
ignorant and superstitious. Anyone who pursued the study of
natural knowledge, was frowned upon.

After reading a copy of Ohservationes Anatomicae, written
by his former pupil Fallopius, who had died in 1562, Vesalius
decided to make a reply in the form of a book. He returned to
Italy, conversed with a printer in Venice, about the possibility of
I publishing it. Then, he disappeared from Italy, shipping out for
Cyprus, in company with Jacob Malatesta, the commander of the
Venetian forces in that island. From here, he continued on to

104 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

Jerusalem intent on a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, for what
reason, is not definitely known. The one often quoted is based on
a letter written by Herbert Languer to Dr. Casper Peucer on
January 1, 1563. It is as follows: believing a young Spanish noble-
man had succumbed while he was in attendance, Vesalius ob-
tained permission to perform a post-mortem examination. When
so doing, he observed the heart beating. This came to the atten-
tion of the youth's parents, and not satisfied with prosecuting
him for murder, they presented his case to the Inquisition; this
was done in hopes it would mete out greater punishment than
would likely occur through the channels of common law. The
story goes that the King of Spain interceded in his behalf on the
condition that he make penance by a pilgrimage to the Holy
Land (Ball, '10).

One thing is really known for certain and that is that the
voyage was made, the Holy Sepulchre visited, both against the
wishes of Vesalius. He was returning to Italy with the under-
standing that he would take the chair of anatomy at Padua, va-
cated by the death of Fallopius. His ship was wrecked upon the
island of Zakynthos in attempting to ride through a violent storm
in the Ionian Sea. He died there of exhaustion at the age of fifty
years, on October 15, 1564.

G. Vesalius and his Personality

Vesalius was of short and stocky stature; he is described as
being burly in appearance, having shaggy hair and beard and a
tip-tilted nose. Although he might not have been very tall, he
looked every inch a man.

In many ways, Vesalius was a gifted though possibly not
a clever individual. He was unquestionably devoted to intel-
lectual pursuits. Living in a period when medical thought was
slowly changing from mediaeval mysticism to the rational study
of man, he was a person who devoted himself largely to a single
purpose, that of studying the architecture, geography and struc-
ture of man. Against great odds, nothing deterred him in this
goal. Tradition, bigotry, prejudice and professional pressure were
all against him. In the face of this, it was necessary for him to

ANDREAS VESALIUS-A.D. 1514 to 1564 105

have courage and pluck; these he possessed, in addition to youth,
energy, zeal and a great capacity for work.

Along with these, he was proud, sensitive, impatient of op-
position, stormy in temperament, indignant to abuse and at times
ungracious with his opponents. He was not averse to making derog-
atory remarks about his former teacher at Paris, Sylvius. Like all
good anatomists he reacted to the beauty, design and morphology
of the human body and he had enough of the artist in him to be
able to set high standards for the superb illustrations which were
incorporated into the Fabrica. He had to be a genius in assem-
bling and coordinating the structures which he saw. This had to
be done in order for him to become a pathmaker and a pro-
claimer of truth. He was a pioneer in daring to observe.

Due to a combination of events, Vesalius completed one of
the great masterpieces of medicine before he reached the age
of thirty years. This was it, his creative contribution to society;
nothing more came from his pen. Yet, the Fabrica shattered tra-
dition and eventually the centuries of long idol worship of Galen,
and brought science back again to rational observation (Doolin
'33; Garrison, '15; O'Malley and Saunders, '53; Welch, '15).

^

[X]

DISSECTION ON THE EUROPEAN CON-
TINENT AND IN ASIATIC COUNTRIES
DURING THE MODERN PERIOD-A.D.

1650 to 1958

H,

.uman dissection, as practiced in the European countries dur-
ing the modern period, has been characterized by stability and
lack of drama and struggle. This probably accounts for the fact
that relatively little has been written on the subject during this
interval. Anatomizing began there six centuries ago; laws were
enacted early which were soon modified and liberalized. The
use of executed criminals as the sole source was uniformly elimi-
nated. This removed the infamy which has had such a neutraliz-
ing effect in respect to obtaining an adequate supply of subjects.
The problem on the Continent, in late years, has been related
principally to the interest and actions of burial, insurance and
church societies which provide funds for interment.

Outside of Japan, human anatomizing is almost nonexistent
in the Asiatic countries about which reports have been made.
The following is a review of the main events which have oc-
curred in some of the countries of Europe and Asia.

A. France

It appears tliat dissection has had a rather successful history
in France. There, the National Faculty of Medicine was author-
ized to accept all those bodies, which remained unclaimed for
twenty-four hours after death, from civil hospitals, prisons and
almshouses. As early as 1790, France repealed the law permitting
dissection of murderers, which removed one of the main stigmas
attached to the practice. Approximately 16 sous were paid to at
tendants in the hospitals for each body. This policy was backed

106

DISSECTION DURING THE MODERN PERIOD 107

by the schools o£ heaUh. To violate a sepulchre, meant three to
twelve months imprisonment and a 60 to 200 franc fine (Bailey,
1896; Guttmacher, '35; Harrington, '05; Mackenzie, 1824).

It was the chief of the anatomy department at the Faculty of
Paris who was required to send carriages to pick up and trans-
port the unclaimed bodies; they were sewed up in mats and no
public excitement existed over this arrangement. Before pathology
began to claim a share of subjects for autopsy purposes, the medi-
cal school received as many as 2,000 per year, afterwards 1,000
to 1,200. Theatres of anatomy existed in all the great hospitals
and a license was needed to conduct classes. The policy of per-
mitting students to dissect started early in France; each student
was charged 5 to 10 francs per cadaver. After anatomizing, the
bodies were again wrapped in mats or cloths, carried to the local
cemetery where they were buried; the cost for this was about 12
sous. With this system, exhumation was not a problem; it was
learned that the French people did not oppose dissection although
some may have had an aversion to it. On the whole, there was
a deep conviction of its utility (Abernethy, 1825; Harrington, '05).

The French, through Petit, Lieutard and Desault in the
1750's, gave a new orientation to anatomy by advocating the prac-
tice of dissecting from the surface of the cadaver to the depths
beneath, until bone was reached. Eventually many English stu-
dents were attracted to Paris where they found that every aid was
given to promote anatomical science (Doolin, '51).

In 1834, Astley Cooper made a tour of France and described
visiting anatomical departments. He attended one having four
large rooms, two of which had numerous bodies in them. Three
and one-half to eight francs were charged the students who dis-
sected, depending upon whether the subject had been opened
or not. A large garden was accessible where they could either sit
and relax or stroll about for a change. The pupils worked in
groups of three on a cadaver: one reading, one dissecting and one
drawing (Cooper, 1843).

Oliver Wendell Holmes went to Paris to study medicine
IHpbout the same time and found that the students were free to
doubt and dispute what they were taught. He personally paid 50
sous, about one-third the price of a chicken dinner for a cadaver;

I

108 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

there was no evidence of any shortage; he and some of his class-
mates sometimes received a specimen at noon and had made con-
siderable progress in dissecting it by nightfall (Fraser, '50).

John Y. Bassett, of Huntsville, Alabama, found the same
favorable conditions prevailing in Paris, in 1836. Subjects were
cheap; he paid 40 sous for the body of a child and 6 francs for that
of an adult. He anatomized from eleven to two daily. Opportuni-
ties for summer work, were excellent. According to him there was
an anatomical school located at Clamart, which had room for 200
cadavers; these also could be purchased for a mere trifle. Imposing,
residential places were available for the students. No prejudice
existed against the practice and even hospital subjects who were
aware of their fate, made no objections (Osier, 1896).

No further data on subsequent events in the history of dis-
section in France are readily available. The scarcity of informa-
tion, over a period of the last 130 years, may indicate that no
serious problems have existed in that country, at least not enough
so that they have been publicly expressed.

B. Germany

Near the termination of the 1600's, human dissections were
a big event in Germany; they were not so frequently performed
as in France, Italy or Holland. Characteristically, they were held
at long intervals and each one became a civic event attended by
gay festivities. The Professor of Anatomy at Heidelberg, in 1685,
John C. Brunner, pioneered in providing anatomical material
for human dissection. He was able to obtain the bodies of all
soldiers dying at the Heidelberg Garrison. These, he dissected in
the presence of his students. In general, such an event was at-
tended by professors, doctors, students, noblemen, civic adminis-
trators and anyone who might be interested. At most, one or two
anatomies were performed publicly each year. As soon as a cadaver
was made available by the magistrate, notice of the coming cere-
mony was published. The essence of such an ad is the following:
the human body compares to a machine; a knowledge of anatomy
is important in medicine; dissection is not against the laws of

DISSECTION DURING THE MODERN PERIOD 109

nature or reason; every person would profit in the end by attend-
ing (De Lint, '34; Garrison, '29; Major, '41).

In the development of anatomical laws, those individuals
dying in prisons, penitentiaries and by suicidal action were auto-
matically given up for dissection unless a certain sum was paid
to the school prior to death. Also, accessible were the bodies of
paupers, executed criminals, those supported publicly and pros-
titutes. From these sources, an ample supply was available and
resurrection men were unknown (Bailey, 1896).

According to Walton (1882), these standards prevailed in
1882. While he was at Leipzig University, much time was spent
dissecting, the material was abundant, the main source being ex-
ecuted criminals and suicides. At this institution, there were six,
well-lighted, dissecting rooms: one for 150 students; two for 50
and three were smaller. Anatomical study extended over a two-
year period after which each student had to pass a rigorous state
examination.

During the next half-century, the situation changed in Ger-
many. About 1930, there were twenty-three university medical
schools in the country and all instruction was standardized. Dur-
ing the 1928-1929 academic season, there were 2,277 medical stu-
dents in Berlin alone. Gross anatomy was taught three semesters
a year and dissection was required during two. The practice of
anatomizing ^vas substandard because of the shortage of cadavers;
often sixteen or seventeen students studied on one specimen, or
six were assigned to one-quarter of a subject. Sometimes, the class
was divided in half, each taking turns examining the same sub-
ject. One brain had to suffice for twenty-five to thirty students
in neuroanatomy. The scarcity of bodies was due to several fac-
tors: relatives claiming them, the activity of burial societies and
the zeal exhibited by priests, embalmers and gravediggers in col-
lecting fees for interment. The last three named were inter-
ested in seeing subjects inhumed for monetary reasons and they
were especially active in small communities and rural areas.
Teachers were overloaded with work because they were too few
in number; laboratory exercises were frequently taught in shifts
and the quizzes were inadequate and varied according to the
:hool (Conel, '31).

110 HUMAN DISSECriON. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

C. Italy

There is nothing mucli to mention about the status of anat-
omy during the modern period in Italy. If any serious difficulty
was encountered, little publicity has been given to it. The source
of anatomical material was the hospitals. All unclaimed persons
who succumbed there, were released for dissection, but friends
could claim them provided they defrayed the costs of the funeral.
This arrangement took care of the dissecting needs, in general;
if a shortage developed, anatomists could resort to the poor people
who died and had to be buried at public cost. These were de-
posited in the parish churches of Italy in special chambers, after
religious ceremonies were performed. At night, the bodies were
removed either to a dissecting-room or to cemeteries outside the
town. Under these standards, body snatching did not exist (Bailey,
1896).

D. Holland

The early history in Holland, in respect to human dissection,
indicates that the times were prosperous. Particularly, interest
was shown in anatomy by the citizenry. The possession of ai
anatomical theatre was regarded as being as much of an asset
an art museum is today. Anatorhizing seems to have gotten it
start at the University of Leyden during the 17th Century (Singer,
'25). They were frequently held in public and were popular.^
Dutch artists of the period attended and some of their paintinj
vividly portray such scenes. At Leyden, the medical school ol
tained its cadaver supply from the civil hospitals located a(
Amsterdam. Exhumation was unnecessary and unknown (Bailey,
1896; Castiglioni, '41; Viets, '.SO).

. A peculiarity in that country, was that the public anatomies
were presented on Sundays, provided there was a hanging sclied-
uled for that day. These were boldly advertised in the newspapei
which stated that seats would be available at 50 cents per person;
The choice ones were reserved for physicians and surgeons. At
the completion of the dissections, parts of the body could be pui;;
chased for a special fee (Meyer, *30).

Tlie anatomical schools of Holland became well-known dur^
ing the last part of the 17th and the first of the 18th Centuries.'

DISSECTION DURING THE MODERN PERIOD HI

Because of this, many students from Scotland, where they were
experiencing anatomical difficulties, migrated there to complete
their medical education. There is evidence that initial efforts at
embalming were made in Holland. Frederick Ruysch (1683-1731)
was considered to be a master at making injections and corrosion
specimens (Blaine, '51; Cunningham, '03; Kerr, '01).

That the same fate befell Holland as did Germany is indi-
cated by a statement of Sigerist ('34). He stated that many uni-
versities in Europe were having great difficulty in obtaining a
sufficient number of cadavers and that, in Holland, they had to
be imported from the colonies.

E. Austria

The first anatomical theatre was opened in Austria (Vienna)
in the year of 1718 and a chair of anatomy established in 1739.
The government of that country lent every aid to promote ana-
tomical science and the law was relatively liberal. Only unclaimed
bodies were used for dissection and these were released to the
teachers forty-eight hours after death. In Vienna, the supply came
from the general hospital and this was sufficient for ordinary
purposes. It was not necessary to resort to illegal means (Gutt-
macher, '35; Korns, '37; Lonsdale, 1870).

Because of this situation, the early Vienna schools also at-
tracted students from the United Kingdom, who were handi-
capped by lack of cadavers. But again, the brakes were applied
to the flow of subjects to the medical institutions, due in part to
private, charitable and religious societies, which claimed nearly
every body. In 1921, the students in anatomy had little opportu-
nity to dissect and had to be satisfied with skeletons and museum
specimens. Now and then, one group watched another anatomize.
Some efforts were made to rectify this situation and further legis-
lation was suggested (Correspondence, '21; Lonsdale, 1870).

The situation became acute apparently as early as 1912.
The number of students applying to the University of Vienna was
creasing to such an extent that accommodations became inade-
quate. Repeated applications to the government to consider im-
provements were unsuccessful. In 1911, 1,500 students were put in

1 J

112 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

four dissecting-rooms. To partially neutralize the crowding, the
medical school administration decided to limit the number of en-
tering pupils to 1,000. Preference was given to local applicants
biu a few were selected from the Austrian dominions (Corre-
spondence, '12).

Later, in the same year, the government relented and granted
enough money to build two anatomical laboratories, large enough
to permit 250 additional students to dissect. When completed, it
was found that twice as many pupils applied as could be accepted.
The number of bodies were reported as diminishing between
1900 and 1910 whereas the students more than doubled.

By 1930, the problem apparently, had not improved. Enough
cadavers were on hand to keep the institute running for two years
provided the number of freshmen was restricted to 250 native Aus-
trians. At that time, the law provided that unclaimed bodies dying
in state hospitals could be utilized for dissection. Suicides, which
were partially anatomized at the Forensic Institute, were turned
over to the anatomical departments. Sale of a body during life
or the willing of one was allowed but rarely done.

Very little factualdata exist on other countries in Europe,
such as Switzerland and Portugal. Spain does not have a spectacu-
lar record in human dissection because the Spanish government
was reluctant to authorize the practice. It actually didn't get
under way until the beginning of the 19th Century (Harris, '19;
Hume, '34).

F. China

In China, the medical profession was long looked upon as
a fourth- or fifth-rate occupation. The populace regarded sickness
as a visitation of god and tended to be passive about it. Human
dissection was contrary to their ideas of future life and was gener-
ally considered with horror. Of all the branches of western cul-
ture, anatomy and pathology may be the last to enter China
enough to establish a strong foothold. In 1913, dissection of a
Chinaman, especially by a foreigner, was sufficient ground for a
first-class riot (Clark, '13; Cowdry, '20a).

DISSECTION DURING THE MODERN PERIOD 113

In recent years, medical education in China has been toler-
ated rather than encouraged. Professional students, in this field,
were of low caste and physicians were not in good standing. In
Hong Kong, the British succeeded in making human dissection
a part of the medical curriculum. The teachers there found that
tlie Chinese made good students up to a point; they were good
dissectors, made neat drawings but were apt to memorize (Clark,
•13).

In 1920, there were twenty-six medical schools in China,
most of them being regulated by foreign missions or agencies;
only twenty-four teachers devoted full time to the teaching of
anatomy. It was natural that they were very much overworked. To
get enough funds to pay the staff, was a considerable problem.
Only twelve of the twenty-six institutions had any sort of course in
human dissection; there was no regular and sufficient source of
bodies. Some were obtained after executions; these had to be
sewed up and buried afterwards. Willed bodies had to be returned
to the family and it was difficult to obtain the permission of the
nearest of kin. In the large city of Peking, four bodies were ob-
tained over an interval of one and one-half years. One school de-
voted 1,178 hours to the subject of gross anatomy. It was natural
that the majority of instructors eventually came to rely upon the
use of models. Skeletons, by contrast, were easy to obtain (Cowdry,
'20a).

G. Japan

Comparatively, Japan has been better off than China. In
1920, there were twenty- five medical schools of various types:
Imperial, War, Municipal and Private. Large, airy, and spotless
wooden buildings were used. Anatomical material was plentiful.
Kyota Imperial University used 438 bodies in 1913. The supply
was controlled by the government and they were obtained from
prisons, workhouses, university hospitals and old people's homes.
Equipment was up-to-date. Most of the teachers were trained in
foreign countries, and, in general, western standards were accepted
although prejudices existed as to the free use of human subjects
^Clark, '13; Cowdry, '20b).

I

114 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

H. Other Asiatic Countries

1. The Philippine Islands

One medical school exists in the Philippines which provides
instruction over a six-year interval. Modern anatomy is taught
there as in the United States. The Filipinos make good students,
especially when under the direction of foreign instructors
(Clark, '13).

2. Indochina

One French medical school held classes in Indochina, in
1913, and served of little practical value. The courses were abbre-
viated and were given as a means to an end; little effort was made
toward an evolution to higher education. The institution served
more as a training groimd for minor technicians than for medical
students (Clark, '13).

3. Iran

According to Garrison ('33), who visited that country, onlyj
one medical school existed, which was located at Teheran. Teach-
ing was highly unsatisfactory according to modern standards. Dis-j
section was totally neglected due to its forbiddance by Moham-|
medan law. Because of fear of polluting earth and "water, bodies o£|
the dead were left exposed on a "Tower of Silence," to be eaten!
by birds. Cremation and burial were considered to be religious]
violations of the greatest magnitude. Contact with the dead w;
a great sin, resulting in contamination which required purifi-j
cation by washing with the urine of cattle. The people visualizec
a spirit of putrefaction, in the form of a plaguing gadfly, ema-
nating from a cadaver.

[XI]

THE RISE OF THE RESURRECTIONISTS

AND THEIR METHODS IN GREAT

BRITAIN-A.D. c. 1750 to 1832

JL he anatomizing of man has encountered the greatest difficul-
ties in Great Britain and the United States. The medical profes-
sion, in these countries, has never been able to organize itself be-
hind human dissection to the extent of publicizing or trying to
exert pressure on individuals or administrations concerned with
regulating the source of material. Few changes have been insti-
tuted on the basis of rational discussions. Rather erupting emo-
tionalism of a high order has evolved in certain geographical
spots and has been instrumental in producing some beneficial
modifications necessary for the teaching of anatomy in a modern
medical curriculum. Once things were relatively straightened
out, the anatomical program has been conducted in a quiet and
rather secluded manner.

Because of certain developments in the British Isles during
the early part of the modern period, it gradually became the
center of medical education throughout the world. Although
latent in inaugurating a renaissance of its own, many British,
medical men took their training in Italy or Paris; some came into
contact with and were influenced by the outstanding anatomists
and surgeons there. They observed the methods in vogue at these
places and returned to their native countries with new ideas,
which they were anxious to experiment with and possibly put
into effect. Since anatomy and surgery were intimately associated
with each other, the former serving as a handmaid to the latter,
le individuals who were to carry the banner for anatomy in
rreat Britain were surgeon-anatomists. At an early stage, there
rere no professors who devoted themselves to full-time teaching

115

116 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

of anatomy; all were practitioners as well, a system which was to
last for many years.

From the standpoint of what viewpoints were accepted from
the Continental system, no immediate innovations were made in
the teaching of anatomy in the British Isles. The developments
paralleled those in Italy in many respects, but they were even-
tually handicapped by less liberality in the dissection laws. Scar-
city of cadaver supply was the outstanding feature during the
17th, 18th and first-half of the 19th Centuries. This became more
acute and distressing when it was decided that medical students,
who were increasing in numbers, should be extended the privilege
of dissecting human bodies.

The sole legal supply of bodies by statute in Great Britain,
until the early part of the 19th Century, was those of executed
felons. Even though there were fewer medical students and rela-
tively more frequent hanging of criminals, in the 1700's, the sub-
jects, which were obtained under the jurisdiction of the court,
only partially satisfied the demand. What developed was an ex-
panding interest in anatomy. This arose from a realization that
the existing morphological knowledge was founded on insecure
grounds, that it was based on equivocal tradition rather than on
scientific considerations, and that ignorance of specific facts was
retarding the whole of medicine.

The first reaction to this state of affairs was the introduction
of secret dissections carried on in the homes of physicians, with-
out the sanction of the guilds, of which they might be a member,
and in violation of the law. It was obvious that a new source of
cadavers had to be found, outside of executed criminals, and that
there was another choice: the newly buried bodies in cemeteries
and especially potter's fields. To obtain them, became a job for
young apprentice barber-surgeons or physicians working in con-
junction with gravediggers.

The name Potter's Field goes back to the time of Christ. After
Judas Iscariot became repentant following his betrayal of Christ,
he returned the thirty pieces of silver he had accepted to the priests
of the temple. Because it was regarded as blood money, the
clergymen decided that the money could not be put in their treas-
ury. Instead, they ruled that it should be utilized to buy a plot.

RISE OF THE RESURRECTIONISTS IN GREAT BRITAIN 117

of ground where strangers who died in the city of Jerusalem
could be buried. Accordingly, they purchased an abandoned field
for this purpose, land which had formerly been occupied by
makers of pottery; it lay on the slope of the Mount of Olives. This
eventually was bought as a place of public burial and the term
potter's field has been widely used to denote a place for the
interment of the poor.

During the latter half of the 18th Century, the demand for
human subjects increased because of two factors: the appointment
of full-time professors and the rise of private and hospital medical
schools. The latter development was destined to play an impor-
tant role in medical education.

This was made possible because of the manner in which
the hospitals handled their new found privilege: it became evi-
dent to members of the profession that corruption, bribery and
favoritism were being practiced in some respects, including the
appointments of professors of anatomy. Because of this, certain
surgeon-anatomists struck out for themselves and succeeded in
establishing their own dissecting and teaching centers. This
started a precedent which had widespread ramifications, because
it paved the way for the entrance of more medical students.
Among the pioneers in this movement were the following: Ed-
ward Nourse, Percival Pott, Caesar Hawkins and William Hunter.
It was the last who introduced a new approach in anatomical
pedagogy in Britain, in his school located on Great Windmill
Street (Guttmacher, '35).

Flaming the conflict, was the requirement of the English
government (Scotland and England were in union) which had
half-heartedly sanctioned the aim of the medical profession for
higher standards in anatomical proficiency. Medical standard-
izing agencies demanded that each student produce a signed cer-
tificate from the anatomy professor stating that he had fully at-
tended two courses of lectures. The surgeon was also placed in
a precarious position: he was required to have an anatomical
background in order to practice his specialty. The statutes of his
government provided but a few bodies from the gallows and made
it a misdemeanor to disinter a corpse; such a violation was penal-
ized by a moderate fine plus imprisonment of a few months. The

118 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

recipient of a cadaver was placed in the same category as a grave
robber so that every student or teacher could become involved.
An odd feature of the law of James I was that it was not actually
directed against the act of body snatching performed for the
purpose of dissection; rather, it was aimed at preventing the use
of bodily parts in witchcraft.

Another twist was added in the year of 1788, in the court case
of the King vs. Lynn, when it was decided that resurrecting a
human body did not constitute a felony since a corpse, by itself,
did not represent real property. This decision had far-reaching
significance since it established a forensic precedent which was
copied later in other English-speaking countries, notably the
United States. However, any part of the burial vestment was con-
sidered to be real property and, if removed, classified it as a more
serious crime. The resurrectionists had enough intelligence to
strip cadavers of habiliments and leave them in the coffin (Gutt-
macher, '35).

The following factual material is taken from the excellent ar-
ticle of Guttmacher ('35): removing human bodies from their
graves became widespread throughout Ireland, Scotland and Eng-
land and was practiced by two classes of men. On one side, were
those who belonged to the medical profession, either surgeons,
teachers or students. They were of a relatively high caliber, being
well-educated men, who were interested in cadavers only from the
scientific standpoint. Dissection of man was regarded as an op-
portunity to advance their knowledge, meet the medical standards
imposed on them, make themselves better practitioners and thus
serve mankind more adequately. In the early days of British
medicine, it was the surgeons who, on a small scale, did most of
the body snatching. They were careful in their selection, choos-
ing bodies from fresh, un watched graves. As the students in-
creased in enrollment, they shared in the program either to the
extent of organizing their own foraging parties or aiding others
more versed in the art. This outside participation was necessary
in order to obtain a supply to meet the needs which they had
helped to create.

It was natural that the "gentlemen" body snatchers, as they
were called, were unable to cope with the increasing demand lor

RISE OF THE RESURRECTIONISTS IN GREAT BRITAIN HQ

cadavers. To meet this challenge, there arose a group of indi-
viduals, who by contrast, were given the name of "rascals." They
were made up of low-class rowdies, criminals, gravediggers and
sextons whose ultimate aim was to make money at the trade. It
did not take them long to commercialize the whole practice. They
found it an exciting form of employment which required more
brawn than brain, or at most what was needed was a crafty type
of intelligence. At first, the men in this group were recruited^ from
the laborers in the graveyard who were careful to hide behind
the curtain of night for the transaction of their business; know-
ing the landmarks and working in secret they, in general, escaped
notice. Others, of diverse ranking and personality, muscled-in on
the profit making enterprise. The smartest among them organized
others into gangs. At the beginning of the 19th Century, they
operated in the form of unlicensed and unwanted guilds in all
of the principal cities of the British Isles: London, Edinburgh,
Glasgow and Dublin. They were not averse to invading every
burial ground and cemetery in these urban centers; they also
roamed far afield in rural areas looking for fresh bodies when
the pickings were slight in the cities. Continued success and
ever keener competition made them bolder in their methods.

The economic law of supply and demand worked perfectly
in the gradually expanding resurrectionist enterprise. When the
need was small, only a few men engaged in the traffic, and the
price was pegged accordingly at 2 pounds, or less. After the num-
ber of students and teachers multiplied sixfold, creating a marked
scarcity, extortion was employed and the cost of an individual
cadaver skyrocketed to as much as 14 pounds; this, in turn, at-
tracted more "rascals" to the trade.

During the early part of the medical renaissance in Great
Britain, the building of anatomical and pathological museums
was in vogue, in all quarters. Whenever an abnormal or unusual
specimen presented itself, every attempt, which sometimes in-
cluded subterfuge, was made to gain possession of it. Occasionally,
a living individual with a diagnosed rarity, would be watched
closely, with the idea in mind of trying to obtain his body after
death. In this category, there seemed to be a fascination for the
giants of the period.

120 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

Connivance between surgeon-anatomists, resurrectionists and
governmental officials occurred at even parliamentary levels. This
does not mean that the body snatchers went about their work im-
mune. It was usually an emotional outburst by a certain portion
of the populace, precipitating mob action, which served as an
impetus to the constables to make an arrest. Lodging in jail was
made more to protect an individual or group rather than on a spe-
cific charge of misdemeanor. People were naturally touchy on the
question of grave robbing and they organized quickly when their
suspicions were aroused. One could cite a number of instances,
where innocent funeral processions were attacked, horses removed
from the carriage, the coach toppled over and the fragments
burned.

When resurrectionists were caught in the act by the rabble,
they were usually beaten severely unless saved by the police. Those
who were apprehended, indicted and imprisoned, managed, in
some manner, to inform the anatomists, with whom they were
associated; if harmony existed between them, the culprits ex-
pected the professors to do all in their power to free them from
police cross-examination and if necessary, furnish bail. In cases
of incarceration, the schools usually took care of the families by
putting the men on a livable salary during their servitude. Sir
Astley Cooper, a London surgeon-anatomist, kept records of the
sums he periodically paid out for bail and family support; some-
times he continued to finance such for as long as 126 weeks.

The teachers at the anatomical schools were also in an un-
favorable position as far as the sack-em-up men were concerned.
Their existence depended upon an adequate supply of cadavers,
especially those anatomists conducting private schools. With the
rapid increase in the number of students and anatomical estab-
lishments, competition became keener and the quantity of sub-
jects received in any one institution, important. Before the begin
ning of a scheduled dissecting period, members of organized bands
of body snatchers would haunt the anatomical establishments,
either bowing and scraping or maintaining complete silence, de-
pending upon the prevailing atmosphere. Their aim was to try
and settle on as large a price per cadaver as possible for the ensu
ing session and even to demand an initial fee, if they could get

I CO

RISE OF THE RESURRECTIONISTS IN GREAT BRITAIN 121

away with it. Sometimes, preliminary financial sparring developed
between the man in charge of the dissecting-room and the resur-
rectionists, rather than the professor and the latter. Eventually,
the pedagogue might be informed indirectly that 50 pounds was
being demanded before the professional body snatchers would
agree to provide any subjects. This might be exacted under the
guise that it was necessary to reimburse a watchman, whose as-
sistance was required during the removals from the burial
grounds. If a leader was successful in this extortionate plan at a
half-dozen anatomical establishments, his gang was assured of
getting off to a flying start.

The resurrectionists also worked on the other end of the
line, that is, they demanded finishing money, or a bonus fee, to
be paid at the end of the dissecting session. The amount demanded
depended principally upon the quality of the services performed.

If the cadaver supply was shut-off, for any reason, the stu-
dents would become dissatisfied; they might hold meetings de-
ciding to send a delegation to the professor launching a complaint
against the insufficiency. Threatening letters were also written
anonymously by them stating they were planning on leaving for
the Continent en masse or accusing him of inactivity, obstinacy
and even parsimony.

The physical condition of a cadaver was of some importance
in respect to the price paid. If a body was sold before it was buried,
there was extra money in the seller's pocket. It was natural,
therefore, that grave robbers would be on the alert to steal this
type of specimen.

More frequently, however, the body snatchers were ultra-
watchful for any dying person who was friendless, homeless and
penniless. They would spend hours studying the history of each
case and would even go to the extreme of trying to personify the
one last spoken of by the deceased, which would allow them an
entree into the death chamber, whether in home or hospital.
Sometimes, this would be done by enlisting the aid of a female ac-
complice, without whom, it might have been impossible. They
Itentimes took into partnership with them lower class under-
^kers whose task was to substitute clay, wood or stone in the
casket, replacing the body. This involved fee-splitting.

122 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

Stealing or purchasing bodies, in the British Isles, before in-
terment, was not the most common way of obtaining them for pur-
poses of dissection. This approach accounted for only about 10
per cent of the total. The remainder was acquired by the method
of exhumation: from the churchyards, private cemeteries and
public burial fields of the principal cities.

In cases where potter's fields were depleted of cadavers suit-
able for dissection, and there was a demand for them, raids were
made on private cemeteries, which required much more effort and
ingenuity on the part of the body snatchers. Walls were built
around such graveyards and the tops littered with broken glass,
loose stones or sharp spikes. The entrance gate was large, strong
and padlocked at night. Watchmen might be hired by relatives
to guard the new graves of their beloved ones or special iron
grilles, called mortsafes, were made to surround the plot to pre-
vent removal. The best plan the resurrectionists could try in such
a case was to entice the sexton into their employ on a piecework
wage basis: so much per subject raised. It wasn't too much ol a
chore for the caretaker to leave the gate unlocked, permitting easy
entrance and it was a simple way for him to earn money.

Pilfered plots in private burial places, when found, were of
much concern to the populace. Discoveries were made, not so
much on the basis of ineptitude on the part of sack-em-up men
but because of machinations and quarrels between rivals. Monop-
olies, which were recognized, were held by certain groups on dil-
ferent cemeteries; if violated by another gang, it meant a war
of retaliation against the offenders: pulling up coffins in the com
petitor's territory, propping bodies up against walls or scatterini;
the graveclothes. A hubbub would thus be created among the citi
zens resulting in a police investigation, which was usually fruit
less in catching the culprits. Putting oil lamps in the burial ground
and hiring a watchman were customary defenses but these almost
inevitably failed because of successful bribery of the guard by
the resurrectionists.

There was no such word as ethics among competing body
snatchers; it was a cutthroat proposition for all concerned. The
aim of each was to spoil the success of the other and further his
own gain. Rival grave robbers sometimes made their weight felt

RISE OF THE RESURRECTIONISTS IN GREAT BRITAIN 123

in respect to the anatomical teachers or other buyers. If a peda-
gogue purchased cadavers from one gang, he risked displeasure
from another; ofTended rivals might break into his dissecting-room
and mutilate subjects to the extent that they were nonserviceable
lor further anatomical study.

Figure 10. The Sack-'em-up Man. From a black-and-white drawing, "The

Kody-snatcher," by Meredith Williams. From Ball, J. M.: The Sack-'em-up

Men. London, Oliver & Boyd, 1928. By permission of Oliver 8c Boyd.

124 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

In removing subjects from their buried coffins, deception had
to be practiced and proper tools used by resurrectionists: sharp,
curved spades with elongated handles, scoops on jointed shafts,
grappling tongs and crowbars. The grave was not always exposed
directly from above but sometimes at a slant. In the latter case,
an amount of turf, about two feet square, was first removed, about
15 to 20 feet from where one end of the coffin was judged to be.
This was carefully set aside to be replaced later. From this spot,
a tunnel was dug leading to the end of the box; once reached,
this part was wrenched off and the corpse pulled out through the
passageway either by its head or feet; considerable effort was re-
quired for this task. The excavated portion was then refilled and
the square of sod replaced to its original position. Since the mound
directly over the casket was undisturbed by this approach, it was
difficult for mourners, revisiting the cemetery, to discern foul
play. When several bodies were buried together, as was done
during an epidemic, it was necessary to excavate the entire plot.
There were other methods utilized.

Concerned relatives, who were aware of the shenanigans of
the body snatchers, tried to put identifying marks on the graves
of their departed ones in the hope that they could detect possible
interference. The grave robbers were on the alert for such tell-
tale signs; when necessary to remove them in the line of their
work, they were carefully restored to their former position. Every
effort was made by regular gangs to keep the details of their
trade a secret. It wasn't until the practice was effectively smashed
that the various methods used came to light.

In the most respectable cemeteries, more elaborate precau-
tions were taken to outwit body snatchers. Spring guns were em
ployed but they never proved highly effective. Women, employed
by gangs, were sent to survey the premises, generally at the time
of a funeral, to note and plot the position of the pegs. With this
information at hand, the culprits could easily locate the wires
leading to the firearm, then remove the latter temporarily, and
replace it in its exact previous position when their work was
completed.

The most effective safeguards were the following: solid stone
houses in which bodies could be kept until they decomposed.

RISE OF THE RESURRECTIONISTS IN GREAT BRITAIN 125

which required about three weeks during summer, and longer
in the winter. They were then buried with the surety they were
unfit for dissection. Such a type of construction still stands in
the burial ground at Crail, located on the coast about twenty miles
northeast of Edinburgh. Strong iron guards (mortsafes), which
resembled a cage, were also used over some graves; the metallic
guards were firmly set in a stone base. The time that it took to
construct one of these protective gadgets tended to neutralize its
usefulness as a body might be snatched before it was completed.
The use of iron coffins constituted the best deterrent against the
machinations of the resurrectionists. Although the lid could be
easily broken by the blows of a sledge hammer, the noise which
attended such an operation prevented its adoption.

The anxiety which pervaded the populace in respect to body
snatching was taken full advantage of by the funeral directors of
the period. They advertised that many hundreds of dead bodies
would be dragged from their wooden coffins during the winter
and used for anatomical dissection. To quote one of these from
Guttmacher ('35): "The violation of the sanctity of the grave is
said to be needful, for the instruction of the medical pupil, but
let each one about to inter a mother, husband, child or friend say
shall I devote ,this object of my affections to such a purpose; if
not, the only safe coffin is Bridgman's patent wrought-iron one."

It was possible for a clever group of four or five resurrection-
ists to unearth close to 400 bodies annually and readily dispose
of them to the anatomical schools. The total income from such
sales might amount to 1,500 guineas, about $7,665. When divided,
it made a sizeable yearly income, for each member, when con-
sidering the pound sterling evaluation at that time. This was
outside of the money which could be made from a by-product,
namely teeth. These were in great demand and commanded fancy
prices (Ball, '28; Guttmacher, '35).

Sometimes, a cadaver would be delivered by a student in-
termediary, particularly when the populace was aroused over
some recently discovered incident of body snatching. From a
hide-out in his home, the subject would be transferred to school
or hospital at a propitious time. A hired coachmen, in such an
instance, might sense the situation, and threaten to drive the

126 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

pupil to the door of the police station unless he was paid a guinea,
an exorbitant fare.

Exportation of cadavers, from one city to another and from
one country to another, flourished in the early 19th Century.
Here again, deception was practiced, the aim being to camouflage
as much as possible. Bales, crates, packing-boxes, piano cases and
barrels were employed as containers for shipment, in each case,
trying to simulate a certain class of goods.

The sale of human teeth, as a profitable sideline, has been
mentioned. These parts were in demand although the porcelain
tooth was invented in 1776; the latter, however, did not become
widely used until after about 1825. Because dental science was
in its infancy, the method of filling teeth was crude and inefficient
and decay was, therefore, common. Plates and bridges were made
of sound teeth extracted from corpses. When a cadaver, removed
from its grave, was too decomposed for anatomical use, these parts
were still valuable.

During the summer months, there was a lull in the trade
of body snatching for two reasons: there was little demand for
bodies at this season of the year and the lighter nights increased
the chance of detection. When a full moon shone, the resurret
tionists either stayed at home or drank in the taverns.

Although a rather constant state of adverse emotionalism
existed, among the people of the British Isles, stimulated ])y
the activities of the resurrectionists, it was not adequate or sufli
ciently well-organized to deter body snatching as it was prac
ticed during the latter part of the 18th Century and the early
part of the 19th. Even though mob violence occurred sporadically,
it took events of a more inflammatory nature for a crisis to occur.

Mob violence invariably developed when murder was resorted
to as a means of supplying cadavers for the anatomical depart
ments. This reaction was not too unexpected when considering the
type of individuals involved, lured by possible monetary gains
and the seriousness of the crime. A total of eighteen known mur
ders were performed in the British Isles, seventeen in Scotland
and one in England, and they were accomplished by special metli
ods to prevent detection.

[XII]

HUMAN DISSECTION IN IRELAND-A.D.

1590 to 1885

[[ JLreland is a country which stands unique in the early history of
human anatomy, in the United Kingdom, because it afforded an
unhmited source of subjects, at least for a certain period. Re-
sponsible for this, to a large extent, was perhaps its economic
status.

All of the early dissection was associated with the University
of Dublin, or Trinity College, as it is also called. This institution
was founded in 1591 by Queen Elizabeth. Some instruction was
given there in medicine about 1597 and lectures were made a part
of the course in 1628. Each candidate for a degree was required
to attend three anatomical dissections. These must have been
performed in private houses as there was no place for such work
at the University (Macalister, 1884).

References are made to dissections having been made in 1672
and 1676 but the first public anatomizing of man was conducted
in 1684. The body of a malefactor was procured by Dr. Patrick
Dun and dissected by Sir Thomas Molyneux over a week's period;
the latter also did the reading from a book entitled. Anatomy
Epitomized. A skeleton was assembled from this subject (Cun-
ningham, 1885; Macalister, 1884).

An anatomical theatre was opened on the campus of the
University, during 1711, in an ugly old red brick building; it was
the first of its kind in the British Isles; this was the same year
that the Board of Trinity College decreed that each medical can-
didate should be examined in all parts of anatomy. Twelve months
prior to these events, a chair of anatomy was founded at Trinity
College (University of Dublin) (Cunningham, '03; Doolin, '51;
Macalister, 1884).

127

;

128 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

Some of the early teachers of anatomy at the University were
Richard Hoyle, Bryan Robinson, Robert Robinson, George Cleg-
horn, his son, James Cleghorn and James Macartney, the last being
the professor at the peak of the resurrection period (Macalister,
1900).

In Ireland, as elsewhere in Great Britain, surgeons and
anatomists were vitally interested in obtaining abnormal speci-
mens. One such incident is recorded where Professor Robert Rob-
inson was involved in successfully attempting to secure a human
giant by name of Corney Magrath.

The latter was a seven foot, nine inch man who died at the
age of twenty-three, shortly after the year of 1741. Robinson,
on learning that some of the members of his anatomical class,
were intent on stealing the specimen, warned them that there
was no law against taking the body itself, but that if they took
so much as a rag or stocking with it, they could be hung. As was
customary, a wake was held by the friends of the giant in quarters
over one of the public houses. Four disguised students of Robin-
son's joined this session and immediately popularized themselves
with the others by ordering a generous amount of whisky. To
the drinks given to the nonmedical group, laudanum, an opium
compound, was added in quantities to produce deep sleep. The
students by prearrangement, signaled to other classmates planted
close by, who appeared with a large door. On this crude struc
tare, the body of Corney Magrath was placed, concealed with
gowns, and finally transported with enthusiasm and triumph to
the anatomical laboratory of their teacher.

The following morning, consternation reigned among the
friends of Magrath, who though a bit woozy, were able to de
cipher the ruse. Accordingly, they marched to the provost ol
Trinity College, indignantly asking him for the return of the
body of their friend. The perplexed official sent for Dr. Robinson
who explained to his superior as follows: "My dear sir, such was
the zeal of the young men that they commenced dissection at on( c .
and it is now far advanced." The head of the institution, sizing
up the situation, dickered with Magrath's friends money-wise and
was able to settle the matter amicably. On returning to his anal
omy room, Robinson was heard to say in a chuckling manner.

HUMAN DISSECTION IN IRELAND-A.D. 1590 TO 1885 129

"Divil a knife's in him yet." The anatomist was able later to
give a public demonstration of the body of the giant, which was
well-attended by the curious. This constitutes an incident con-
cerned ^vith the sale of a human body, not considered to be real
property, where the payment of money triumphed over weak sen-
timent (Guttmacher, '35; Macalister, 1884, 1900).

In 1784, the surgeons of Dublin founded a school of anatomy
which was attended by practically all the medical students in the
city. For example, in 1797, it had 100 pupils to only one at Trinity
College (Macalister, 1900).

Of the four great metropolitan areas, in Great Britain, Dub-
lin was in a class by itself. This was due to the fact that the in-
cidence of paupers was very high in the city. The unemployed,
vagrants, and beggars of Ireland infested the city, some looking
for work, others hoping to be maintained without it. They in-
habited the worst districts, helping to create density of popula-
tion and filth, with an attendant, high death rate. Under these
standards, it was a simple matter to supply an adequate number
of cadavers for the medical schools (Guttmacher, '35).

The main source of human subjects in Dublin was the burial
ground provincially known as Bully's Acre; its real name was
the Dublin Hospital Fields Burying Grounds. For over a thousand
years, it had served as the final resting place of the poor because
no charge was made for interment. It made easy pickings for the
resurrectionists because it was both unguarded and unfenced.
A neighboring inn found it good business to keep picks and
shovels on hand for the use of those relatives or friends who
wanted to dig graves for their dead (Guttmacher, '35; Macalister,
1900).

It was natural that such a tavern was popular with resur-
rectionists, undertakers and hearse drivers, being a place where
they could either watch or assist in the interments. Knowing the
recent burial spots, it was relatively easy for groups to assemble
at a common meeting ground and then almost openly pillage the
newly made graves. The law enforcement authorities apparently
wore blinders and tolerated the practice.

So plentiful were the bodies available in Bully's Acre that
it was exploited for exportation purposes by resurrectionists. Fif-

130 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

teen hundred to 2,000 were removed from it annually. Many
were shipped out of the country at fabulous prices after the market
had been cornered by a body snatcher named Wilson Rae, a
Scotchman by birth. So expanded and profitable did this business
become that it jeopardized the supply to the anatomical schools
in Dublin, partly by raising the cost of cadavers beyond the fi
nancial means of the anatomists. The medical profession of the
city officially protested against the exportation of subjects but
not against the act of grave robbing.

The factors which made exportation of bodies from Dublin
possible were the following: the introduction of steam naviga-
tion into the Irish channel, the augmentation of the number of
medical students throughout the Isles, the scarcity and expense
of bodies in England and Scotland and finally the abundance and
comparative cheapness of them in Ireland.

Wilson Rae had been a half-pay surgeon, in the employ ol
His Majesty. His method was to bribe all parties concerned witli
commerce in human subjects, when necessary. He also purchased
some from the porters of the anatomical schools, who became
traitors to the cause, because they were paid weekly throughout
the year to do all they could in keeping their institutions ade-
quately supplied. It was necessary for Rae to enlist the aid of the
resurrectionists, which he was able to do; he personally acconi
panied them on their forages to the cemeteries. All sense of de-
cency was abolished; the graves, after being ransacked, were lelt
open and bodies were transported from isolated depots, even at
midday. The captain of the ship used in the transportation was
also cut in for a share of the profits. Both Rae and his wife, were
eventually arrested when they were caught shipping corpses in
piano cases (Erinensis, 1829; Guttmacher, '35).

James Macartney, who had accepted the chair of anatomy ai
the University of Dublin in 1813 was exposed to mob action in
1826, when the body of a well-known person was brought into his
laboratory by a group of resurrectionists; the anatomist ininie
diately buried the specimen, otherwise the ired people would
have torn down the place. On another occasion, three Ixxlv
snatchers stole the corpse of a lady from the altar of a convent
church and brought it to Macartney; when he learned the circuni

HUMAN DISSECTION IN IRELAND-A.D. 1590 TO 1885 131

Stances, he made immediate arrangements with the clergy for its
removal. This Irishman was of an unusual character in that he
believed that the general antipathy against anatomy was based
on false sentimentality and he started a one-man campaign to
rectify the situation. Although he was well-supplied with sub-
jects, he tried to educate the cultured people that there was
nothing necessarily repulsive or inhuman in the study of prac-
tical anatomy and he encouraged the willing of bodies to the
University; he met some success. Three hundred and fourteen
persons put their signatures to an anatomical agreement of this
nature about the year of 1827. The anatomist was somewhat dis-
appointed in this number as he had anticipated a thousand
(Macalister, 1900).

Macartney was acclaimed by everyone as a teacher; combin-
ing enthusiasm, culture, genius and industry, he was judged to
be an expert anatomist and philosophical biologist, far in ad-
vance of his period. He stored his mind with knowledge, not all
learned from books, and exerted a marked and favorable influence
on his pupils. By 1827, he had increased his classes to 200, in spite
of the fact that much of his early teaching was done in an old,
wholly unsuitable edifice. Although a new structure was erected
in 1825, he said, it was the "worst-devised building for the pur-
pose," that he had ever seen. It had been constructed without
suggestions from him. So popular were his courses that students
came from England, Wales, Scotland and America, making up
about one-sixth of his pupils. Many later became teachers. There
were some who believed that he matched Robert Knox of Edin-
burgh in ability and might have been his superior. His one weak-
ness may have been that he provided too much superintendence
for the students. He demonstrated from dissections, divided his
pupils into groups and emphasized that they should be mutually
helpful. His teaching museum was kept open twenty-four hours
a day (Macalister, 1884, 1900).

The quantity of bodies, obtained principally from Bully's
Acre, though large, were not all available to Macartney. He was
supplied by resurrectionists of whom there were about fifty in
the business in Dublin, led by a person named Tom Geraghty.
Macartney estimated that 600 to 800 cadavers were used during

132 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

the 1826 season, in five Dublin schools, whereas Erinensis cal-
culated 1,500 to 2,000 which probably overshot the mark (Macal-
ister, 1900). The local Humane Society became so upset over
the situation prevailing at the cemetery mentioned above, that it
organized a successful campaign to collect money to provide it
with guards. The best they could hire were of low caste and they
began by selling disinterred bodies to the resurrectionists; the
majority of such subjects were put in barrels and piano cases and
shipped to Scotland. Nevertheless, by persecuting the body snatch
ers, the Humane Society was instrumental in reducing their nuni
ber from fifty to twenty.

Macartney was likewise concerned about the unchecked raid-
ing of the graveyards and in 1832 after the passage of War-
burton's Anatomy Act, by the English Parliament, he petitioned
this legislative body for a change in the laws, claiming the fol-
lowing:

1. Prejudices existed against the teaching of practical anat
omy.

2. Anatomical students were unable to acquire the necessary
knowledge or meet regulations.

3. There was increasing difficulty in obtaining dead bodies.

4. Crimes were committed because of the impossibilities ol
supplying laboratories in a legal manner.

5. An act was needed which should:

a. Honor dissection.

b. Discontinue the anatomizing of executed murderers.

c. Permit willing of bodies.

He advocated that all dissecting-rooms in the United Kingdom
be closed temporarily.

According to Macartney, if these suggestions were followed.
it would rectify the weak spots in Warburton's Anatomy Ad.
of August, 1832 (Macalister, 1900).

A number of private schools sprang up in Dublin during tlu
last one-third of the 19th Century. The anatomists competed
among themselves, showed little originality and were primarily

HUMAN DISSECTION IN IRELAND-A.D. 1590 TO 1885 133

Cyclopedists. The Crimean War (1854-56) between Russia and
Turkey, with England allying herself with the latter, created an
immediate need for Army surgeons. There was a rush of students
into the medical schools, the standards fell to rock-bottom, cram-
ming became the fashion and the grind rooms were overflowing
(Macalister, 1884).

[XIII]

HUMAN DISSECTION IN ENGLAND-AD.
1510 to 1958

O

ne of the first kings to do anything about human dissection
in England was Henry VIII. When he first came into power in
1509, he granted the collegiate medical schools of Oxford and
Cambridge the privilege of issuing licenses for medical and sur-
gical practice. In 1512, he put all practitioners, except graduates
of the above two academic institutions under the surveillance of
the Church. Six years later (1518), he gave the Royal College of
Physicians its first charter which declared that it could also func-
tion independently of the Church. The Barber-Surgeons Com
pany, organized in 1540, was not left out of consideration, in this
respect. Parliament and Henry VIII made it legal for them to ob-
tain four bodies of executed criminals per year, to be used for dis-
section and teaching. Attendance was open to the public and com
pulsory to members; they were held with much pomp and cere
mony.

The real founder of anatomy in England is considered to he
John Caius (1513-1573). He was a native of Norwich, England
and a graduate of Cambridge. His medicine was studied at the
University of Padua,, in Italy. It is possible that he may have been
influenced in deciding on a medical career by Vesalius, with
whom he lodged for eight months while at Padua. At least, he
gave up a professorship in Greek there and made the change
(Ball, '28; Guttmacher, '35; King, '18; South, 1886).

Caius returned to England in 1541 and was summoned bv
Henry VIII to give anatomical lectures to the London sm^eons
at the Barber-Surgeon's Hall. Through his influence, he was ahh
to obtain the bodies of four executed criminals annually Im iIh
Company. He was instrumental in laying a solid found. »i ion loi

134

HUMAN DISSECTION IN ENGLAND-A.D. 1510 TO 1958 135

anatomical study in this region during twenty years of teaching
which inchided tenures at the Barber-Surgeon's Hall, the Royal
College of Physicians and at Caius College, Cambridge. At the last
institution, he was made master and it was given his name in
1559. After being appointed president of London College he con-
tinued to teach anatomy and became the personal physician of
Queen Mary. He remained a Galenist to the end (Macalister,
1891; Macmichael, '23).

During the reigns of Edward VI (1547-1553) and Elizabeth
I (1558-1603), students at Cambridge were required to attend
t^vo or three dissections before graduating. Here, the Regius
Professor was forced to make, at least, one anatomy per year;
failure to do so meant a fine, according to the law. In 1565,
Queen Elizabeth granted four bodies annually to the College of
Physicians and Surgeons. That there was some surreptitious dis-
section done in those early days in England, is suggested by the
fact that a John Dean was fined for having anatomized in his
home; this was in 1573 (Ball, '28; Guttmacher, '35; Macalister,
1891; Robinson, '05).

Apparently, during the 16th Century, some consideration was
given to the accommodations for students and others. The Barber-
Surgeons built seats in their hall in 1567 to permit better ob-
servation; the competing Royal College of Physicians erected an
anatomical theatre in 1583, and a second one in 1641 (Mac-
michael, '23; South, 1886).

Epitaphs on old tombs suggest that the practice of body
snatching was in vogue early; Shakespeare wrote one in the 16th
Century in one of his books as follows (Arey, '40; Guttmacher,
•35):

Good friend, for Jesus' sake forbear

To dig the dust inclosed here;

Blest be the man that spares these stones.

And curst be he that moves my bones.

One of the outstanding figures in London during the latter

part of the Renaissance period was William Harvey (1578-1657),

I who is better known as a physiologist than an anatomist. Never-

Ieless, he was prominent in anatomical circles during his period
I

136 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

of medical training and gained the background necessary to solve
the important question of the circulation of the blood.

Harvey was the son of a prosperous yeoman. He matricu-
lated as a student at Caius College, in 1593, at the age of sixteen,
and was given a six-year scholarship, the first ever presented for
medical study. During his tenure, Thomas Grimston, anatomist,
conducted two annual human dissections permitted by law, which
Harvey attended. He undoubtedly took full advantage of his fi-
nanical support; he graduated with a degree in Arts in 1597.

After leaving Cambridge, Harvey went to Padua where he
studied under the supervision of Fabricius ab Aquapendente and
Casserius for four years. It was here that he became interested
in the circulation of the blood largely because Fabricius was
completing his anatomical observations on the venous valves,
which he had discovered, but was unaware of their true func-
tional significance. On returning to London, Harvey taught anat-
omy for some years at the College of Physicians and the Barber-
Surgeon's Hall. He is known to have held a public dissection
every winter. During this time, he continued his investigations
on the circulation of the blood and made many examinations of
vivisected animals. In 1615, he announced his radical views con-
cerning the vascular circulation and in 1628 they were pub-
lished in book form in Frankfurt with the title, Exercitatio
Anatomica de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus. It was
seventy-two pages long. The treatise gives a very clear account
of the research performed (Herringham, '32).

His experiments included studies on about forty different
species of animals and led to the following conclusions:

1. The heart contracts actively and dilates passively.

2. Atria contract first and then the ventricles.

3. Blood is forced into the ventricles by means of contraction
of the atria.

4. The atria have no pulsing power, the apparent pulsations
being due to the blood inside them.

5. The heart is the organ which propels the blood.

HUMAN DISSECTION IN ENGLAND-A.D. 1510 to 1958 137

6. The blood passes from the right ventricle to the pa-
renchyma of the lungs and then returns to the left atrium of the
heart.

7. The amount and rate of passage of the blood from the
heart necessitate most of the blood returning to the heart.

8. The blood returns to the heart through the veins.

Harvey disagreed with the ancient theory that the heart is
not muscular. He was unable to explain how the blood is trans-
ferred from the arterial to the venous system but he proved that
it is propelled by the mechanical action of the heart.

This investigator possessed a marked individuality, inspired
confidence and was held in high esteem. His publication created
a sensation and elicited great argument and criticism. He was
moderate toward his adversaries but eventually won out over
all opposition. Stricken with paralysis, he died at the age of
seventy-nine.

In 1663, King Charles II permitted the Barber-Surgeons to
dissect the bodies of six executed criminals per year. As early
as 1674, trouble was encountered in the acquisition of these be-
cause they were sometimes stolen and sold to the highest bidder.
Soldiers commandeered the bodies of several who were publicly
hung from the gallows, in 1706, which had been claimed by and
were to be delivered to the Barber-Surgeon's Company. As many
as 150 military men were in attendance; some of them cut the
bodies down from the scaffold and absconded with them. The
Company later asked the authorities for a special guard to pro-
tect their beadle, the latter being the person who was authorized
to present credentials and take the corpses. Occasionally, the pub-
lic interfered and took possession of such subjects. The combina-
tion of these events were such that they created a scarcity in
cadavers making it necessary for anyone interested in dissection
to turn to the resurrectionists for assistance (Ball, '28; Robinson,
'05; South, 1886).

A Professor of Anatomy, John Rolfe, was appointed at Cam-
bridge in 1707. No elaborate dissecting-place was provided for
him; it consisted of a printing house which had been built eighteen
years before and one of its rooms was shared with another teacher.

138 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

Rolfe, apparently, was a poor choice; he developed a reputation
for neglecting his duties and was warned of this in 1722; in 1728,
the chair was declared vacant. One of the criticisms leveled against
him was that a public anatomy was not held annually (Macalister,
1891).

William Cheselden (1688-1752), surgeon and writer, and a
pupil of William Cowper (1666-1709), British surgeon, was called
before representative members of the Barber-Surgeon's Company
in 1714 to explain why he had been dissecting the bodies of exe-
cuted criminals for three years in his home and teaching from
them without the guild's consent. This practice, it was claimed,
cut down the number of subjects at the Hall. Because of his gay
and genial manner, which made him extremely popular with
everyone, he was forgiven, but fined; he was then given permis-
sion to present regular lectures at his house and at St. Thomas'
Hospital. Although he had plenty of opportunities, he made no
outstanding anatomical discoveries. This decision, on the part
of the Company, led to a gradual relaxation of their standards,
which encouraged the establishment of private dissecting-rooms
and schools. It made matters more complex by creating an addi-
tional demand for bodies and providing the impetus for body
snatching. The dissolution of the Barber-Surgeon's Company in
1745 ended their monopoly of anatomical teaching which had
lasted for 205 years (Ball, '28; Dobson, '51; Guttmacher, '35;
Rolleston, '39).

Obtaining the bodies of executed criminals by legal methods,
not only provided inadequate material but when all the costs
were added up, it was relatively expensive. Money had to be doled
out to various persons and for suitable equipment: for a horse,
coach, coffin, funeral and a certificate; and to such individuals
as sheriffs, two beadles and their assistant, one who washed the
body, a minister, clerk, sexton, the bearers and a charwoman.
The total might amoimt to as much as 16 pounds.

In addition to the dearth of subjects, difTi( ulty was encoun-
tered in filling the posts of Master and Stewards of anatomy, men
regarded as important in preparing bodies for both private and
public anatomies who were assigned the duty of obtaining ca-
davers through legal sources. A new regulation, issued in 1734,

HUMAN DISSECTION IN ENGLAND-A.D. 1510 to 1958 139

required that a demonstrator of anatomy be appointed yearly.
The duties of such a man consisted of assisting the Master and
Stewards, and demonstrating one private and one public anatomy
per year.

Notices of public dissections had to be published in the daily
ne^vspapers but this requirement was discontinued in 1742 (South,
1886).

That the schools were concerned with the resurrection of
human bodies is indicated by the fact that the University of
Cambridge issued an ordinance forbidding grave robbing by mem-
bers of their anatomy classes but this did not prove to be effective
for the practice increased, if anything (Macalister, 1891).

The Barbers and Surgeons parted company in 1745; the lat-
ter built a new anatomical theatre in 1753 and installed it with a
Professor of Anatomy, a Henry Watson. He was given an annual
salary of 120 pounds and was required to teach anatomy three
times a week throughout the year (Ball, '28; Rolleston, '39).

An important event in London was the rise of two hospital
medical schools, St. Bartholomew and St. Thomas, which helped
lead to the separation of the austere and pompous Barber-Sur-
geons. The latter, which imposed rules of its own, had to re-
linquish its long held right in regulating the teaching of anatomy.
It could cope with individual violations of its code, but against
these powerful institutions, their protests were futile.

From the descriptions given, it is apparent that the standards
in dissection in the first hospital medical schools, were not very
high. The students at St. Thomas were subjected to a small room
of the following kind: in the daytime, light was obtained from two
eastward windows; in the night, a square lantern provided the
illumination. Glass cases, stacked from top to bottom, occupied
the western part of the chamber. On the south side, was a large
fireplace and a copper kettle which was used to prepare the sub-
jects. In addition, a large leaden sink, placed under the windows,
was used for washing hands and dumping debris. A dozen tables,
rhich held the subjects were scattered about. Six to eight pupils
^ere assigned to each so that a total of seventy to eighty were
present at one time allowing barely enough space for each to

140 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

move. Filthy linen dissecting gowns that never reached the laun-
dry were the accepted apparel worn (Guttmacher, '35).

Courses were presented twice yearly, beginning the first of
October and January 20th. A 10 guinea fee was paid by the stu-
dent for the privilege of dissecting and another 10 for attendance
at lectures. In the latter, discourses were given on general anatomy,
the bones and the head (Guttmacher, '35).

In order for a hospital or other recipients to obtain the body
of an executed criminal about the year of 1748, it was necessary
to meet the criteria prescribed by law. A hanging, the common
method of execution, was ordinarily scheduled for Monday morn-
ing at eight o'clock and the cut-down at nine. In London, the lat-
ter was performed by a man named Calcraft, alias Jack Ketch.
When death was announced, the body was placed on a large
cart with collapsible sides and taken to 33 Hosier Lane, in West
Smithfield. It was accompanied by the City Marshall, wearing a
typical cocked hat and ornate habiliments. At this address, the
president of the College, members of the court and sometimes spe-
cial visitors were assembled. The clothes and fatal rope were
removed from the subject. The stout cord, used for the execu-
tion, was kept; it was worth money because it could be exhibited
to the morbidly curious at the public houses for so much a view.
It was required that the City Marshall be in attendance and prop-
erly witness the anatomizing. He made the ceremony as brief as
possible; a superficial incision in the chest sufficed; following this,
he beat a hasty retreat, riding his gaily decorated charger to re-
port to his superiors that the procedure was properly discharged
according to statute. While doing this, the opening in the ca-
daver at 33 Hosier Lane, was stitched; the corpse was then re-
moved by an old museum attendant, named Pearson, in a liglit
cart to the hospital to which it was allotted (Guttmacher, '35).

Although a number of private anatomical institutions were
opened during the early half of the 18th Century, it was the de-
velopment of a school in London by William Hunter (1718-1783)
which was most noteworthy. This surgeon-anatomist was instru-
mental in inaugurating dissection by the students in the ruitcd
Kingdom. He had visited Paris to study the French methods and
had noticed that parts of cadavers were dissected by class mnu-

HUMAN DISSECTION IN ENGLAND-A.D. 1510 to 1958

141

S ffi o

142 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

bers. Previously, he had trained both under William Cullen at
the University of Glasgow and William Smellie in London. He
started his classes in October, 1 746, advertising in the newspapers
under the title: "Learning the Art of Dissecting." Two years
later, he was joined by his brother John (1728-1793), who pos-
sessed a genius for experiment and observation which eclipsed
that of his brother. For eleven years, the pair taught anatomy to
huge classes, before a misunderstanding developed between them.

William Hunter is classified as the first great teacher of anat-
omy in London and one of the great surgeon-anatomists. He also
carried on an obstetrical practice. His school was located on Great
Windmill Street. Eventually, in 1768, he built his own labora-
tory and worked there until his death. One of his outstanding
accomplishments, was to create a famous museum, on which, it is
estimated, he spent half-a-million dollars. He was an early riser,
a man of untiring energy who never married. Numerous papers
were published by him and some were based on original ana-
tomical observations. Hunter's ligament, guhernaculum, line and
membrane were named after him. John was disinherited by his
brother William before the latter's death. John refused to offer to
bury his brother and on April 4, 1783, London newspapers re-
quested that all of William Hunter's students each deposit a
guinea at a specified bank in order that he be given a proper
burial. In a will made thirteen years before, William had be-
queathed both his anatomical establishment, including his mu-
seum and 8,000 pounds, to the University of Glasgow.

John Hunter also possessed untiring energy, industry and
perseverance and was the founder of comparative anatomy.

Because the Hunters used the standards of student dissec-
tion, they helped to create a further demand for cadavers. Tn
1748, they had 20 students; in 1756, 100 (Brash, '30; ElHston,
1900; Mettler, '47; Packard, '37; Rohrer, '14; Rolleston, '39).

One of the prized possessions today, in the famous Hun-
terian Museum, housed in the College of Surgeons, London, is
the skeleton of tlie Irishman O'Brien. Guttmacher ( > >) i;i\cs
its Ik I- lit as seven feet seven inches, Ball ('28) as eight feet four
indus. The death of this man in London in 1783 apparently
caused a sensation. The newspapers of the day were alive with

HUMAN DISSECTION IN ENGLAND-A.D. 1510 to 1958 143

excerpts revolving around it and particularly in respect to the
efforts of the medical profession to obtain the corpse. The three
below are quoted from Guttmacher ('35):

June 7, 1783: "The whole tribe of surgeons put in a claim
for the poor departed Irish giant and surround his house just as
Greenland harpooners would an enormous whale."

June 7, 1783: "Since the death of the Irish giant, there have
])een more physical consultations held than were ever convened
since King Henry the Eighth was in existence. The object of
these Aesculapian deliberations is to get the poor departed giant
into their possession, for which purpose they wander after his
remains from place to place and mutter more "fie, fob and fums"
than were ever breathed by the whole gigantic race when they at-
tempted to scale heaven and dethrone Jupiter."

June 13, 1783: "The Irish giant requested in his last mo-
ments that his ponderous remains should be thrown into the sea
in order that his bones might thus be placed far out of reach of
the chyrurgical fraternity. In consequence of which the body was
shipped aboard a vessel last night in order to be sunk in 20
fathoms of water. The body hunters, however, are determined
to pursue their valuable prey, even to the profoundest depths
of the aquatic regions, and have, therefore, provided a pair of
diving bells with which they flatter themselves that they shall be
able to weigh the hulk gigantic from its watery grave."

Although the proper ceremony was performed by a duly
authorized undertaker and the coffin was thrown off the chartered
vessel in waters at the prescribed depth of 120 feet, John Hunter
was able to direct the body of this mammoth specimen to his
private cherished collection. The funeral director was bribed
with 500 pounds, worth $2,500 in that day, a staggering price.
While the escorts, on their way to the ocean, stopped at an inn
to indulge in some drinking, the coffin was locked in an adjacent
barn under the guise of safety. A paid accomplice of Hunter re-
moved the body from the receptacle, replaced it with an equivalent
slab of paving stone, and that night transported it to the museum.
The distinguished anatomist, distrusting its presence there, took

I in his own carriage to his home in Earl's Court. Once there,
e body was immediately immersed in boiling acid which de-

144 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

stroyed identification and removed the flesh. One disadvantage of
this procedure was the brown discoloration of the bones which re-
mains to this day. Many individuals have had a view of the skele-
ton of the giant, O'Brien, placed vividly in the background of
the famous portrait of Hunter by Sir Joshua Reynolds.

That some attempts were made to make the dissecting en-
vironment seem favorable is indicated in a public advertisement
of Joshua Brookes in 1814, a proprietor of one of the largest of
the private schools. He mentioned spacious apartments, thor
oughly ventilated and replete with every convenience, including
private chambers for the gentlemen established in practice, who
desired to renew their anatomical knowledge.

Joshua Brookes was classified as one of the best private
teachers of practical anatomy in London and was a character unto
himself. To mention his oddities and possible shortcomings first,
he is described as one of the dirtiest professional men ever seen
by some of his contemporaries. In the laboratory his hands and
wearing apparel were always filthy and he utilized his fingers in
constantly conveying snuff to his nose; as a result, this part of
his anatomy was invariably soiled. It was always a surprise to his
friends to see him immaculate, not only because of its extreme
rarity, but because he emerged as a new person: pleasant, dressed
in black, with powdered hair, presentable hands, good manners
and well-informed on conversational matters. However, in this
circumstance, the snuff habit was as evident as ever (Guttmacher,
•35; Rolleston, '39).

In spite of these traits, Brookes' School, located on Great
Marlborough Street, attracted a large audience of students, con
siderably more than the hospital institutions. Part of this was diu
to the fact that his establishment was open the year round. He
was one of the pioneers using embalming as a means of preserva-
tion, which enabled him to conduct a summer course; the formula
he kept secret. The only other method then available was by
salting, which was grossly inefficient. In some cadavers, he injec ted
the arteries with hot wax in order that they might more easily
be followed in anatomizing but for these specimens the dissectinu
fee was increased by one guinea (Guttmacher, *35; Rolleston,
•39; Wakley, 1829).

HUMAN DISSECTION IN ENGLAND-A.D. 1510 to 1958 145

As an anatomist, Brookes had numerous dealings with resur-
ctionists and sometimes became caught in a cross fire between
two rival gangs. In one instance, a disgruntled group tipped-off
the authorities that he had a stolen body in his laboratory; it was
removed by the police. To indicate the feelings of the populace,
the officer who conducted the investigation, was given a silver
staff by grateful citizens, the money having been obtained by
public subscription. Brookes lost 16 guineas on this development,
which he had paid to the body snatchers who had first contacted
him and made the sale. Another incident which involved him is
the following: having failed to pay an honorarium of 5 guineas
to a group of resurrectionists who had demanded it before prom-
ising to deliver cadavers, two putrid bodies were dumped at night
by them near his anatomical laboratory. The law enforcers were
notified by two horrified young ladies who had stumbled over
them; this affair aroused such a commotion among the citizenry
that an angry mob collected and had to be halted by the con-
stables, who in this situation, were on the side of the anatomist.

Brookes was probably the only teacher who ever had a live
body sold to him as a cadaver. One night, during his active career,
he was awakened by a man who informed him that he had a
subject for him. "Bring it in," said the anatomist. This was done;
Brookes making a partial payment, told the seller to come back the
next day for the remainder of the money. He then gave the bundle
a strong kick which sent it tumbling down stairs to his dissecting-
room. As he turned to go, he heard sounds emanating from the
parcel. Without fear, he descended the steps to investigate and
' found a man standing there erect and confused. When Brookes
accosted him, the individual begged off, complaining that he had
t)een put in the bag when drunk. The anatomist accepted this
as a trumped-up story and kicked the man, this time, out into
the street. Later he analyzed the situation thusly: the man was
primarily a housebreaker who had gained entrance in this man-
ner for the intent of thievery; he had not forecast that he would
' be catapulted down a flight of stairs (Guttmacher, '35).

Since autopsies were not permitted during the early modern
|)eriod in England, surgeons who were anxious to check the effect
ot operations performed months or years before, had mainly one

146 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

recourse, and that was the resurrectionists. In 1820, Sir Astley
Cooper, one of the most famous surgeon-anatomists of his time,
paid over 13 pounds to two, Hollis and Vaughan, for making it
possible for him to examine the body of one of his patients, whose
iliac artery, he had ligated twenty-four years before. The sub-
ject had been buried in Beecles, County of Suffolk. The payment
involved money for a coach, guards and coachmen, expenses for
two days, a carriage and a porter for the return transportation
and finally the amount paid over to the pair who exhumed tlie
body. It was not unusual for a surgeon to dispatch suitable men a
distance of 100 miles or more for such a purpose, making it an
expensive post-mortem examination. Even the physicians, were
not averse to venturing forth to satisfy their curiosity about op-
erations previously performed. This took time, travel, risk and
money, let alone the disagreeableness encountered in handling
the body.

Sir Astley Cooper is mentioned in the previous paragraph.
Probably no other surgeon of his time performed more anatomical
dissections or had more familiarity with exhumators. He began
anatomizing at the age of sixteen, in 1784, under the jurisdic-
tion of Henry Cline, surgeon and teacher of anatomy, at St.
Thomas' Hospital in London. The class was so large, the avail-
able space so cramped, which Cooper disliked, that he got per-
mission from his teacher to transfer cadavers to the latter 's home
where he worked at his leisure, sometimes far into the night.
He possessed an extraordinary zeal for such study and later con-
tinued the practice daily in his own residence even after he was
internationally recognized as a famous surgeon for his accomplish-
ments at Guy's Hospital.

The peak of the resurrectionist movement was between the
years 1800 and 1832 and it was during this period that Sir Astley
Cooper was most active. He appeared before the special Parlia-
mentary Committee at the time this legislative group was con-
sidering passage of an anatomy act. He had a low opinion of all
body snatchers classed as the "rascal" type and so testified. Quot-
ing him, "They are the lowest dregs of degradation. I do not
know that I can describe them better; there is no crime they
would not commit, and, as to myself, if they would imagine that

HUMAN DISSECTION IN ENGLAND-A.D. 1510 to 1958 I47

I would make a good subject, they really would not have the
smallest scruple, if they could do the thing undiscovered, to make
a subject of me" (Cooper, 1843; Guttmacher, '35).

Many eerie episodes occurred in those days when the practice
of grave robbing was at its height. Four parties, in particular,
were interested in the nocturnal events which transpired: the
relatives or friends of a newly buried deceased, the resurrection-
ists, the anatomists and the police. The evidence indicates that the
last tended to be rather tolerant with the ones most concerned,
the thieves and medical men; the law might even be sympathetic,
lenient and connive with others on occasion. This was true in
the case of Sir Astley Cooper. Without this contingency, it is very
likely that anatomical teaching would not have survived in Eng-
land. The incident described in the succeeding paragraph demon-
strates the cooperation between Cooper and a high-ranking offi-
cial, the Lord Mayor of London. It occurred in the year of 1801.

By mutual understanding between hospital authorities and
resurrectionists, it was forbidden to deliver the subjects they un-
earthed directly to the dissecting-room. This policy had evolved
because of certain disagreements between the hospital porters and
the sack-em-up men. The solution which was adopted, to ease the
friction, was to have the bodies deposited in large baskets at
night in the courtyard of Cooper's home situated in St. Mary
Axe. From here, they were transported to the anatomical rooms
at St. Thomas Hospital via coach, under the supervision of a man
named Butler.

One night while Butler was in charge of delivering three spec-
imens, he was apprehended by the police. He slipped out of the
carriage, returned quickly to report the incident to Charles, the
doorman of Sir Astley Cooper, who immediately conveyed the
message to his master. When the policeman appeared he in-
sisted on seeing the doctor. He was not able to get much satis-
faction out of the surgeon, who claimed that since the gates were
always left open until 11 p.m.^ he could not be responsible for
any parcel that might be deposited in his private hampers or for
their removal by anyone before that hour. The officer left, claim-
ing loudly that he was going to report the matter to the chief
magistrate, the Lord Mayor himself, early the next day. Cooper

148 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

considered the matter important enough to arrange a meeting
with the first ranking official of the city for the following morn-
ing. While breakfasting, the mayor listened to the transaction
of the previous evening, with interest and attention, and then as-
sured the surgeon that he would not be troubled further (Cooper,
1843; Guttmacher, '35).

The following cites an incident as to how a well-known Lon-
don resurrectionist named Patrick handled an opportune situa-
tion to his satisfaction and profit. While sauntering in neighboring
Sydenharri, he learned that the body of a female had been found
the preceding evening in an adjacent canal and removed to a
public house. He went at once to the inn and learned from the
potboy there that it had been placed in the stable to await ex-
amination by a coroner's jury, that it was thought to be an escaped
pauper from the Woolwich workhouse, that it seemed to be un-
claimed for burial and that no person had been selected to watch
over its safety. This was all he needed to know. He took the op-
portunity of examining the size and form of the keyhole of the
barndoor and then left for London.

Along with a companion, Patrick returned to the scene at
a late hour the same night with a large bunch of keys. With
unusual luck, the first one chosen opened the door, following
which, the pair speedily removed the prize to their hidden cart,
and then proceeded to London via an obscure and narrow lane.
They succeeded in depositing their bundle at an anatomical lab-
oratory sometime before daybreak. The resurrectionist returned
to Sydenham the next afternoon; there, he heard a firsthand ac-
count of the commotion which had occurred that morning when
the coroner's jury appeared to make an examination of the body
and found it had disappeared.

Even the bodies of the well-to-do could be spirited away by
clever grave robbers and Patrick was such. On one occasion, he
was informed by an intimate friend, that the latter's employer,
who lived a short distance from London had died. The informant
thought that there was a chance to do some business because
of the physical situation of the premises. Patrick investigated the
possibilities, agreed and decided on a plan of attack. The funeral
was to be held on Sunday and he calculated that the lid of the

HUMAN DISSECTION IN ENGLAND-A.D. 1510 to 1958 I49

coffin would be screwed down tightly on Saturday evening. If it
^vere, he wanted to be notified and he would not take action un-
less it was done. The cover was fastened as he predicted.

Late, on Saturday night, Patrick was admitted to the parlor
l>y his associate. Without the aid of a light, the screws binding
down the top of the coffin were released. After the body was re-
moved, a carefully calculated amount of earth, obtained from
the garden, was substituted. The lid was replaced and attached,
lollowing which, the black velvet funeral cloth was thrown over
the casket. The subject was transferred to a crude box, passed
out of the window, and hidden in a tool house some distance from
the premises. The pair witnessed the entire ceremony, from the
sidelines, and saw that their plan had been successful, working
without a hitch. On the day after the burial, the stolen specimen
was transported to one of the private anatomical schools; Patrick
received the handsome sum of 15 guineas, or more than $75, for
the subject (Guttmacher, '35).

An instance is cited by Lonsdale (1870), in regard to the
dangers incurred by surgeons who attempted to capture the body
of a hanged criminal for the purpose of making a subsequent dis-
section. This particular incident occurred about 1830 in the city
of Carlisle, England, located adjacent to the Scottish border.
Friends of the condemned culprit laid in wait for the medical men,
determined to revenge themselves if the body was touched. In
the ensuing events, the doctors were seriously injured. A Dr. An-
derson was shot in the face and carried the marks inflicted to his
grave. Another surgeon was found dead, by the side of a bridge,
his body having been thrown over the railing. Apparently, these
defenders preferred seeing such a man hanging in chains on a
public road, certain to be devoured by vultures, than being
anatomized by doctors for the advancement of medical science.
This caused great excitement, particularly to Lonsdale, since the
shooting occurred about 100 yards from his father's door.

By 1828, London had eight private and four hospital medi-
cal schools. In addition to St. Bartholomew and St. Thomas, previ-
ously mentioned, there were two other hospital institutions: Guy's
and The London. The larger private ones were the following
with their owners: Webb Street School, Mr. Grainger; Aldergate

150 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

School, Mr. Terrel; The Great Windmill Street School, Caesar
Hawkins and Herbert Mayo, and the Blenheim or Great Marl-
borough Street School, Joshua Brookes (Guttmacher, '35). In
addition, there were also several fly-by-night places, diploma mills,
which tried to teach anatomy without benefit of theatres, mu-
seums, libraries or dissecting-rooms. Eight-hundred bodies were
needed annually to supply the students matriculated in these medi-
cal schools. There was competition between them because there
was money to be made in the teaching of gross anatomy.

With the great increase in the number of medical students,
who were required to anatomize in Great Britain, it is obvious
that the supply of cadavers obtained through legal means was
highly insufficient. Between 1805 and 1820, there were 1,150
executions in England and Wales, an average of less than eighty
per year. There were an average of 1,000 students present an-
nually in London alone (Guttmacher, '35; Wakley, 1829).

In 1828 there were 800 students in London, with 500 dissect-
ing on 475 available bodies, most of which were acquired il-
legally. Ten resurrectionists were regularly employed; 200 others
were occasionally involved. The average price of subjects was
four guineas (Bailey, 1896).

The following year, two anatomical schools located in the
West End of London and those in Sheffield, Bristol, Liverpool
and Manchester closed due to lack of bodies. Even at this late date,
the whole city was invited to attend public dissections (Edi-
torial, 1829).

The private anatomical schools, which were in the majority,
and which for the most part were conducted by the ablest teach-
ers, were not too popular with some of the standardizing boards.
The Royal College of Surgeons passed a bylaw in 1824 requiring
that attendance at anatomy sessions be compulsory and that cer-
tificates verifying this, be signed by an appointed anatomy pro-
fessor in the universities or a person teaching in an acceptable
medical establishment. This was unsuccessful in eradicating the
private institutions because the organization was apparently losing
stature in the profession. Its charter was temporarily abolished be-
cause of monopolistic policies (Ball, '28; Sprigge, 1897; Wakley,
1829).

HUMAN DISSECTION IN ENGLAND-A.D, 1510 to 1958 151

Not all the bodies unearthed by the resurrectionists around
the London area were sold to anatomists within the city. Some
were shipped to other parts of the United Kingdom. In 1826,
three casks were found on Georges' Dock, Liverpool, labeled "Bit-
ter Salts," which were consigned for shipment to Edinburgh.
They remained there overnight and the following morning, the
stench attracted attention. The police who were notified, made
an investigation and found eleven dead bodies contained therein,
salted and pickled. The source of these was traced to the rear
of the home of a Reverend McGowan. Four other similar barrels
filled with subjects were found; there was additional incriminating
evidence. No marks of violence were found on any. When the
minister was questioned by the mayor of the city, he was sur-
prised; he defended himself by saying that he had rented the
cellar to a man named Henderson who was supposed to be an oil
trader and that he was totally unaware of the true nature of the
situation. The specimens were buried in the parish cemetery, as
they were found, and the resurrectionists responsible were never
apprehended.

There were certain outstanding members of the medical pro-
fession who had been trying to impress the government for an
alteration of the law, which they considered weak: such men as
John Abernethy, Charles Bell, Everard and Benjamin Home, Ben-
jamin Brodie and Astley Cooper. Largely through their efforts,
they interested such distinguished individuals as Henry War-
burton, a member of the House of Commons, and Thomas Wak-
ley, editor and founder of Lancet. The influence of this group
was largely responsible for the formation of a select committee
in the House of Commons in 1828 to make inquiries into the
possibility of legalizing dissection.

Surgeons, anatomists, police and resurrectionists testified at
this preliminary session. The Burke and Hare murders in Edin-
burgh (cf. Chapter XIV) prompted Mr. Warburton to intro-
duce his Anatomy Bill in Parliament; it passed Commons but not
the House of Lords. It contained some of the following stipu-
lations: all bodies were required to be buried after use, but it
contained no provisions for Christian rites nor was it clear on the
licensing of schools. Resurrectionists who were apprehended

152 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

would be sentenced to six months imprisonment; for a second
offense, the time would be increased to two years. Unclaimed
bodies from the workhouses and hospitals would be turned over
to anatomists seventy-two hours after death. Willing of bodies
was legalized but the final disposition had to be decided by a
legal executor. A major flaw was a failure to repeal the law that
executed murderers must be dissected (Guttmacher, '35). An-
other impetus was needed to thoroughly activate the parliamen-
tarians. This occurred in England.

The specific incident revolved around the disposal of the
body of a fourteen year-old lad in London, by two men named
Bishop and May. They appeared on the premises of King's Col-
lege, on November 5, 1831, and asked Hill, the porter, if the
medical school needed a cadaver. Assured that one could be used,
they informed him of the age of the subject, and asked 12 guineas
for it, sight unseen. Eventually, they agreed to take 9. That after-
noon, they returned, with another man named Williams, and the
boy, who was in a hamper. The assistant, on seeing the corpse,
suspected foul play, and immediately communicated his distrust
to his superior, Mr. Partridge, the demonstrator in anatomy. The
teacher examined the body and he likewise, was of the opinion
that something might be amiss. He felt that the police should be
notified, and, in order to detain the resurrectionists, he produced
a 50 pound note, which he said would have to be changed before
he could reimburse them.

The officers of the law were notified and when they arrived
they took the trio into custody. It did not take long to ascertain
that the subject was that of an Italian boy, one Carlo Ferrari,
who had eked out a living by exhibiting white mice; his teetli had
been extracted and sold to a dentist by the name of Mills for
12 shillings. The story came out in the confession of Bishop and
Williams. They had lured the youngster to their dwelling in Nova
Scotia Gardens where he had been drugged with opium and his
body lowered into a well, where he suffocated. In their written
statement, they also admitted the additional killing of a woman,
a Fanny Pigburn and another boy, whose name they gave as Gun
ningham; both had been sold to the medical schools. This brings
up the question as to how many murdered bodies may actually

HUMAN DISSECTION IN ENGLAND-A.D. 1510 to 1958 I53

have escaped detection. Some writers believe that the number
may have been considerable.

The offenders were judged guilty in court proceedings;
Bishop and Williams were hung on December 5, 1831, whereas
May was given transportation for life. The trial, with its attendant
revelations, constituted the last straw in the chain of events. The
legislators now hurriedly met to see what could be done about
the enactment of a satisfactory law which would prevent similar
criminal acts.

A second bill was introduced by Mr. Warburton, which re-
ceived a majority vote in both houses; it became law on August
1, 1832 and since has been known as the Warburton Anatomy
Act. It had the following provisions: it

1 . Repealed the law making it compulsory to dissect the body
of an executed murderer.

2. Created a supervisory board of inspectors.

3. Made any body, unclaimed forty-eight hours after death
available for anatomizing providing the person had not expressed
a desire, during his final illness to be properly buried.

4. Allowed persons to will their bodies if their nearest of kin
did not object.

5. Made obligatory the burial of the dissected remains with
religious services.

With this enactment, body snatching and the resurrection-
ists ceased to exist in the British Isles (Bailey, 1896; Frank, '07;
Guttmacher, '35).

Although the Anatomy Act of 1832 may have put an end to
body snatching, it did not serve as a cure-all for the cadaver ques-
tion. A scarcity of subjects has been reported at various times in
Britain: in 1887, 1914, and 1957. In 1957, the schools of Cam-
bridge, Liverpool and Newcastle were not obtaining enough
subjects whereas others were. The University of London needed
448 over a two-year period and got 474. The provincial schools
and Wales wanted 514 for two years and received 621. The supply
fell off between 1947 and 1957. At the University of London, 52
per cent of the bodies during that decade were bequeathed (Edi-
torials, 1887, '14; Foreign letter, '57).

[XIV]

HUMAN DISSECTION IN SCOTLAND-A.D.

1500 to 1958

O,

'f all the countries of Europe, it was Scotland which developed
the deepest, most lasting, unchanging traditions in anatomy. From
the beginning, major significance was attached to its importance
and it has always been treated accordingly in the medical cur-
riculum. It was there that the biggest emotional and dramatic
incidents in the history of anatomy occurred. In Scotland, as in
England, there was no immediate enactment of the laws which
had worked successfully on the Continent, especially in Italy.

Whatever anatomical codes were initially formulated in Scot-
land, they were such that they provided a minimal number of
cadavers. For an interval of 200 years, between 1505 and 1705,
nothing much was done in anatomy. The people of Scotland,
at least many of them, were concerned with theological disputes
and destruction of witches. The center of medical activity was
Edinburgh. A charter was granted there to the Guild of Surgeons
and Barbers granting the privilege of dissection, as early as 1505.
The body of one criminal per year was allowed which apparently
increased public horror of dissection; it had a retarding effect
upon the practice for about three centuries (Ball, '28; Comrie,
'22; Creswell, '14; Guttmacher, '35; Watson, '36).

Annual demonstrations were presented by master surgeons
of Edinburgh until 1645. At this time, a teacher, John Borthwick,
was appointed to fulfill this duty. He was the first teacher of
anatomy in that country. Before this, the craft met in doctors*
homes but, thereafter, held classes in rented rooms. Due to the
efforts of Borthwick, the students were required to take exams
in anatomy in 1647 (Ball, '28; Comrie, '22; Creswell, '14).

A human skeleton was presented to the Town College of
Edinburgh, by Dr. Michael Young, in the year 1671. It was as-

164

HUMAN DISSECTION IN SCOTLAND-A.D. 1500 TO 1958

155

senibled from the body of a young Frenchman which the physi-
xian had obtained while in Paris. This, apparently, excited awe
land wonder (Ball, '28; Lonsdale, 1870).

There is some evidence that one of four gypsies, who were

condemned, hung and buried in a single grave, was stolen by a

surgeon for the purpose of making an anatomical dissection, in

the year of 1678, in Edinburgh.

In 1694, the Town Council of Edinburgh gave permission to
ithe Royal College of Surgeons of that city to use the bodies of
Ifoundlings, suicides, executed criminals, those dying in correc-
[tion houses and stillborns. The stipulation was made that an
[anatomical theatre must be erected within three years and one
[public dissection held annually. The Royal College accepted the
|terms and had the building completed by 1697. There was some
delay in making the initial dissection as it was not performed
luntil December, 1702. The anatomizing took eight days; the

)ody was divided into as many regions and each demonstration

ivas done by a different professor.

In 1705, Robert Eliot was chosen as public dissector and

)aid by the to^vn; he was, therefore, the first Professor of Anatomy

It the University of Edinburgh and in Great Britain. His salary
Iwas 15 pounds per annum and he held the position for twelve
^years. In 1720, following the temporary tenures of John M'Gill
[and Adam Drummond, the chair was given to the first of the three
Monros, who collectively were to form an unparalleled profes-
[sorial hierarchy lasting for 12 decades (Ball, '28; Comrie, '22;
iCreswell, '14; Cunningham, '03; Lonsdale, 1870; Watson, '36).
Body snatching got an early start in Scotland and it came
to the attention of the College of Surgeons in Edinburgh in 1711.
This organization took official notice of the situation and wrote
l^a protest stating that "of late there has been a violation of

^pulchres in the Grey-Friars Churchyard by some who most un-
khristianly have been stealing the bodies of the dead out of their
^graves" (Creswell, '14; Lonsdale, 1870; Watson, '36). Apparently,
[no attention was paid to this notice; in fact, the practice in-
creased, if anything.

The reign of the Alexander Monros at the Department of

inatomy at the University of Edinburgh, began in 1720 and

156 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

lasted for a duration of 126 years. During this time, students
flocked to that city from all over the world. As many as 400 re-
sided there during one session for the purpose of studying anatomy
at the University. However, Monro the first, began with fifty-
seven pupils and did his teaching in the anatomical theatre, or
Surgeon's Hall, as it was called, which belonged to the Royal Col-
lege of Surgeons.

Due to public concern over the status of the resurrection-
ists, the Royal College of Surgeons made the regulation, in 1721,
that all anatomical students be required to sign an agreement
or indenture promising not to participate in grave robbing. They
offered to pay 5 pounds to anyone proving a pupil guilty of such
a misdemeanor. This ruling was ineffective for the students con-
sidered it a point of honor to see that their own teacher had
enough cadavers; a spirited rivalry, not always friendly, developed
between the groups from different schools. For example, the pupils
of one lecturer, on hearing that another band was planning on
raising a body on a particular night, secreted themselves among
the gravestones until after the body had been removed and the
grave refilled with soil. Then they suddenly appeared, wearing
ghostly white sheets and emitting wild shrieks to the confusion
of the opposition, who fled leaving the territory to the invaders.

Monro I changed his pedagogic quarters to a place within
the confines of the University walls, in the year of 1725, in re-
sponse to mob violence of some proportion, directed against Sur-
geon's Hall. The edifice stood in peril of being completely de-
molished following the discovery of a body snatching incident by
certain members of the populace. They destroyed the windows
and threatened the life of the eminent professor as well as his
assistants and students (Ball, '28; Creswell, '14; Lonsdale, 1870;
Watson, '36). This anatomist made some innovations in teach-
ing anatomy: he extended the course so it continued from 0(
tober to May and included some history of anatomy, osteology,
pathology, physiology and comparative anatomy.

It was customary in Edinburgh at that time to advertise
the anatomizing of a human subject in one of the daily news-
papers. The following is one which was written in the Daily
Advertiser of January 15, 1742: "Notice is hereby given that

HUMAN DISSECTION IN SCOTLAND-A.D. 1500 TO 1958 157

there being a publick Body at Barbers and Surgeons Hall, the
Demonstrations of Anatomy and the Operations of Surgery will
be at the Hall this evening and tomorrow at six o'clock precisely,
in the Amphitheatre" (Guttmacher, '35). This indicates that the
dissections were open to the public, that they were held in the
evening, and lasted only two days.

It was during the tenure of Monro I that two nurses, Helen
Torrence and Jean Waldie, residents of Edinburgh, committed
the first known murder in Great Britain in which the body was
sold for anatomical use. The time was 1752. It started with a
promise by them to supply some doctor's apprentices with a sub-
ject. Their original plan revolved around the death watch of a
child. After he succumbed, and the opportunity presented itself,
they expected to substitute something for the body in the coffin.
They were thwarted in this attempt because the parents refused
to hire them for the job. They then decided to victimize another
boy, the son of John Dallas, a prominent man of Edinburgh.
When the eight-year-old lad was alone in his home, they seized
him, enticed him to their own premises and smothered him. It
is said that he was carried to the room of one of the surgeons, in
the apron of Helen Torrence, quite a feat for a woman. She was
offered 2 shillings but bargained for another 10 pence, which she
received, and used to buy a drachm. Because of the crudeness of
execution, the facts in the case soon came to light and both were
hanged for their inhuman crime (Burr, '17; Haggard, '29; Gutt-
macher, '35).

Alexander Monro II has been judged to have been an even
more brilliant teacher and investigator than his illustrious father.
He succeeded to the chair in 1758 and held it until 1798. For six
decades, the University held a virtual monopoly of students dur-
ing ^vhich no opposition prevailed against the teaching of the first
t^vo Monros. However, no less a personage than John Bell, in
1786, publicized the fact that neither of the pair was an operating
surgeon and held that it was a weak spot in their instruction.

John Bell began lecturing in 1786; he was so successful that
by 1790 he built a private anatomical school which had a large
enrollment. He is regarded as the founder of surgical anatomy.
It took thirteen years before a bitter faction at the University

I

158 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

of Edinburgh organized against him; through its influence he
was dismissed from the hospital. His brother, Charles, took over
• the class in 1799, but opposition continued against the school
and it was never able to attract more than ninety students under
his direction. Therefore, he left for London in 1804 (Brash, '30;
Comrie, '22).

Alexander Monro III proved to be an unsuccessful teacher
and students began to get instruction at the private anatomical
rooms which were springing up throughout the city. The open-
ing of these institutions paved the way for a greater number of
medical students; the enrollment increased from 200 in 1793 to
over 1,000 in 1820. By 1828, eight private schools had been estab-
lished there (Comrie, '22).

One of the worthwhile innovations in the teaching of anat-
omy in the British Isles was allowing medical students to make
their own dissections. Up to the year of 1800, they were not given
this privilege; only a few favored and enthusiastic ones had helped
their teachers prepare the demonstrations, but universal anatomiz-
ing wasn't practiced because of lack of material. Dissections by
students became compulsory in 1826, both in the College of Sur-
geons and at the University of Edinburgh. In 1831, the chair of
surgery was separated from anatomy and this marked the begin-
ning of the modern epoch in anatomical teaching in the city
(Comrie, '22).

The introduction of student dissection set one of the worlds
most infamous trades into full motion. Bodies became so scarce
that professors and practitioners, as well as professional resurrec-
tionists and murderers plied the field. Although the medical men
wanted the subjects for scientific purposes such as increasing basic
anatomical knowledge, perfecting or following up the results of
surgical operations and studying the effects of disease processes, the
latter were interested in monetary gains only. The following stories
illustrate the means these men used to attain their own particu-
lar end, in Scotland.

In the early days of the practice of Robert Liston (1794-
1847), who was the first man in England to perform a major
operation under ether anestlicsia, he sought to obtain the body
of a man buried in Fifeshire, who had passed away as a result of

HUMAN DISSECTION IN SCOTLAND-A.D. 1500 TO 1958 159

a peculiar ailment. This was before he moved to London. Taking
two students with him, he rowed across the river Forth at Queens-
ferry, to the village of Rosyth. On reaching the desired spot, they
were successful in raising the subject, which they put in a sack;
feeling tired from their exertions, they put the bundle behind
a hedge and sauntered to a neighboring inn to partake of some
refreshments.

To the astonishment of the trio, a drunken sailor staggered
into the tavern, with their bag on his shoulder. The man was
babbling that he undoubtedly had discovered a valuable treasure,
since he saw three men dig it up and hide it. When they saw
the discoverer open the sack, Liston and his aides prepared them-
selves for a hasty retreat, but everyone else was ahead of them,
rushing through the door in dire panic. Taking their time, the
amateur resurrectionists reclosed the sack, transported it to their
anchored boat and proceeded leisurely back to Edinburgh CWat-
son, '36).

Sometimes it took a great deal of strategy in order for body
snatchers to acquire the material they knew, by previous ex-
perience, would provide a large fee. Such was the case of a country
lad, with hydrocephalic disease, who had developed an enor-
mously large head. The case had attracted the attention of many
physicians who thought in terms of collecting a rare osteological
specimen. After the boy's early death, which was inevitable, the
body was buried in a cemetery located on the shore of the Firth of
Forth, not far from Edinburgh. His grave was guarded nightly
by paid, trustworthy watchers who were cognizant of the prize
underneath their feet. It was not considered necessary to take
precautions in daylight. Special agents of Dr. Liston were unable
to obtain the specimen by means of bribery, which was usually
successful. Many weeks passed and the resurrectionists retired
from the scene, apparently leaving the watchers as the victors
in the contest. Later, one evening, at dusk two smartly dressed
men, looking like gentlemen, smoking cigars, drove up to the
chief lodginghouse of the village and informed the stableboy
that they expected a package to be delivered and deposited in the
box part of their cart. They then disappeared. Not long after,
a third person in the drama, dressed in impeccable livery, ap-

160 HUIVlAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

peared and deposited a parcel under the seat and walked off.
The original pair returned presently, ordered their trap and
briskly drove off. When darkness descended, the guards, on re-
turning to their job, noticed that the grave had been tampered
with, the coffin removed and the body taken. This was accom-
plished by the trio within an interval of thirty minutes, an as-
signment which had baffled experienced resurrectionists for weeks.
The skeleton was bequeathed to one of England's great anatom-
ical museums by Dr. Liston, and was given the number, 3489
(Guttmacher, '35). This figure gives an indication of the quantity
of specimens collected by the middle of the 19th Century. Liston,
a distinguished Edinburgh surgeon, in this incident, joined forces
with one of the most nefarious London gangs of resurrectionists,
led by a man named Ben Crouch. It demonstrates how a certain
kind of strategy and foresight succeeded, where bribery and pos-
sibly brute force failed.

An interesting picture is painted of a well-known Edinburgh
body snatcher of the early 1 9th Century period, one Andrew Lees,
or Merry-Lees, as he was called. He was exceedingly tall, slender,
rawboned, with an elongated, wan face which was likely to excite
laughter at first sight. His physiognomy, however, was extremely
flexible and he could control his muscles to suit any emotional
need: tragedy, comedy or farce. His face was dismal and pale
when assuming the role of a mourner; it became timid and coun-
trified when approaching a house of death, inquiring after a
deceased; on entering such a place, his eyes became bleared and
overflowing with tears. He wore clothes to suit the occasion; some-
times, they were shabby, of the cast-off type, which fit him very
loosely and hung upon his sharp joints so that they actually flapped
with the wind.

As a grave robber, he was always on the alert for candidates
in their last illness, who were friendless. He would canvass a
wide territory searching for such people, and when spotted, would
learn as much of their family background as possible. Eventually,
entrance after death, might be gained under the guise of a distant
relative. From this point on, it required clever acting, subterfuge
and persuasion to gain his goal. His efforts in this direction were

HUMAN DISSECTION IN SCOTLAND-A.D. 1500 TO 1958 Igl

attended with a large measure of success. He is on record as having
sold the body of his exhumed sister (Guttmacher, '35).

It was difficult, if not impossible, to carry out resurrectionist
projects alone because the human body could not be handled
singly whether unburied or buried. Three assistants worked with
Merry-Lees and were named Spune, Mowatt and Howard. The
first was a little man w^ho acted demure, resigned and saintly.
All of his assigned duties were carried out in a grave and stately
manner. To Howard, was given the task of impersonating a clergy-
man, when such was needed. This entailed wearing an appropriate
black suit with a white cravat, knowing how to recite prayers and
importune those around the coffin to reflect on the uncertainties
of life and the need for spiritual uplift. Mowatt was a general
handyman. When their coup went off successfully, they served
as mourners for the funeral cortege, which usually proceeded to-
ward the suburbs. When night came, no time was lost in con-
veying the body to a selected dissecting-room, where an agreed
amount of cash was put in Lees' hand. The climax to the series
of events usually resulted in a wild night of drinking and revelry,
with the head of the gang leading the way. Lees was known to
average about sixteen large glasses of whisky per day and, on oc-
casion, he could consume as many pints.

A remarkable series of events, murder-wise occurred in the
year of 1828, in Edinburgh. The principal characters in this drama
were two men and two women: Mrs. Hare, William Hare, Wil-
liam Burke and his mistress, Helen McDougal. The women al-
ways acted as accomplices up to the point where the crime was
committed, when both discreetly withdrew. Their business of
selling bodies to the anatomical schools began as follows: an old
pensioner, by name of Donald, a roomer in the lodginghouse of
Hare, died leaving an unpaid debt of 4 pounds, on November 29,
1827. The owner decided that the only way he could retrieve
the money due him was to sell the body to the anatomists. He en-
listed the aid of Burke and they were successful in substituting
tanner's bark in the coffin, which had been sent to the house by

I the parish authorities. The body was hidden in the bed. It was
sold later to the laboratory of Dr. Robert Knox for the sum of
I

162 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

7 pounds 10 shillings which meant that a handsome profit was
made on the deal. They spent it on a drunken carousal.

Finding it tedious waiting for another such case, they decided
to prowl the streets in search of a suitable victim. They met one,

Figure 12. William Burke as he appeared at the Bar. Drawn by Luteiior
and engraved by T. Clerk. Edinburgh, 1829. From Ball, J. M.: The Sack-
'em-up Men. London, Oliver & Boyd, 1928. By permission of Oliver & Boyd.

HUMAN DISSECTION IN SCOTLAND-A.D. 1500 TO 1958

163

Figure 13. William Hare as he appeared at the Bar. Drawn by Lutenor
and engraved by Clerk. Edinburgh, 1829. From Ball, J. M.: The Sack-'em-up
Men. London, Oliver & Boyd, 1928. By permission of Oliver & Boyd.

on February 12, 1828, in the person of an old woman, Abigail
Simpson, who was in the city from the neighboring village of
Gilmerton. She was under the influence of liquor and readily
followed them to Hare's lodginghouse, at their invitation. Plied
with more strong drink, she became very merry, talkative, and

I entered into the spirit of the occasion by singing her favorite,
r~

164 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

condition. When this state was reached, Hare placed his hands
over her mouth and nose to stop respiration, while Burke sprawled
over her body to prevent struggling. The woman was dead within
a few minutes. This body brought 10 pounds from Dr. Robert
Knox. This was a modification of the method used by the nurses,
Helen Torrence and Jean Waldie, in 1752, and was character-
ized by leaving no marks of violence on the victim.

The body of Abigail Simpson was disposed of as follows:
students of Dr. Knox, present in his dissecting-room, were in-
formed that another subject was available for the anatomist. They,
in turn, relayed this news to the professor who arranged to send
a porter to meet Burke and Hare behind the Edinburgh castle,
which still stands well-preserved, at a specified hour during the
night. The body was carried to this spot in a chest by Burke and
Hare and from there it ^vas conveyed to the dissecting-room where
Dr. Knox met them to examine the body, which was by then cold
and stiff. He said he liked its freshness but made no interroga-
tions as to how it was obtained.

Between February 12th and November 1st, 1828, an interval
of eight and one-half months, a total of fifteen additional murders
were committed by this pair and all reached the door of the ana-
tomical laboratory of Knox. This gives an indication of the
whetted appetites and vampirian thirst, of the assassins. The age
or sex of the victijiis did not matter in their standards. They were
made up of widows, orphans, streetwalkers and imbeciles. Only
a few more special incidents are described below, because each
murder was a replica of the first.

One which attracted attention but was not suspected, ^vas
that of a young prostitute by name of Mary Patterson, who in
habited the streets of Edinburgh. She was treated by Burke and
Hare in the usual manner: enticed to the lodginghouse, plied
with drink and then smothered. Four hours later, she was lying
in the dissecting-room, her body having been sold to Knox. Al
though the corpse was already cold, rigor mortis had not yet set
in. The murderers were paid 8 pounds. At the time, the girl's
hair was in curlpapers; there were no disfigurements, and her
external appearance sii-^^csicd that she had not been buried.
Two of the students in tiie lab at the time thought they knew

HUMAN DISSECTION IN SCOTLAND-AD. 1500 TO 1958 165

who she was. When Burke and Hare were asked where the body
w^as obtained, the reply ^vas that it had been purchased from an
old woman living near Canongate. During life, Mary Patterson
had been an extremely good looking girl, with well-shaped limbs
and figure. Knox was impressed with these features, so much so,
that he preserved the body for three months in alcohol and in-
vited an artist to sketch it. Robert Louis Stevenson, in his tale,
The Body Snatchers, used her as an important character.

Another case was that of James Wilson, better known as
"Daft Jamie," w^ho was a wandering imbecile. In spite of this
psychological condition, he was well-known and a favorite with
all, including medical students, because of his kind and generous
heart. There w^as no belligerence in his make-up and he had
never been known to defend himself, in spite of his nineteen
years of age. This was taken advantage of by boys half his age
and size. One of the common sights of the city was to see him in
full flight before a group of youngsters. He knew some facts
that no other w^as cognizant of, such as the number of lamps in
the city. This must have taken some detective work on his part.
He was also clever with little conundrums. "In what month of
the year do the ladies talk the least?" His answer was, "The month
of February because there wiz least days in it!" Another of his
questions was, "Why is a jailer like a musician?" His reply, "Be-
cause he must take care of his key." Deserting his mother at the
age of nine, he had eked out a living as best he could, being de-
pendent upon the mercy and pity of the town's people. Liquor was
something that he liked, but there was rarely enough money in
his pockets to satisfy his thirst (Guttmacher, '35).

Mrs. Hare entered the picture in this drama. She accosted
Daft Jamie on the street and was successful in getting him to
follow her to the boardinghouse, as it wasn't his nature to be
suspicious of adults; in general, he had found them sympathetic.
She offered him a drink, which was first refused but later accepted,
along with many others, until he was partly inebriated. Burke and
^^ Hare, who had been summoned, found that he put up a terrific
^■struggle, both because he was naturally strong and not entirely
^K intoxicated; he was finally smothered and his body delivered to

166 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

by the recipients of the subject although it may have been recog-
nized. The absence of Daft Jamie was quickly noted and his
mysterious disappearance took a remarkable hold on the mind
of the populace, not only in Edinburgh but throughout the entire
country, and it remained so until the reason was solved.

The final murder committed by Burke and Hare was that
of a woman named Mary Docherty, who had traveled to Edin-
burgh in search of her lost son. Burke contacted her in the vicinity
of a grocery store, located near his home and started a conver-
sation. On learning her name, he informed her that his mother
was also a Docherty and intimated that they were of the same
clan. By this means, he obtained her good will, which was aided
by a few glasses of whisky at a neighboring pub. She accompanied
him home. A hilarious party followed with Hare and his wife,
Burke and his mistress and a couple named Gray being present.
She was "burked" in the usual way the ensuing morning. Her
naked body was then put under the bed, and partially covered
with straw, until a tea crate could be found.

The next morning Mr. Gray inquired for the old lady and
was given an evasive answer by Mrs. Hare. During the breakfast
meal, which was served in the room with the corpse. Burke be-
haved peculiarly. With a bottle of whisky in his hand, he threw
some of its contents under the bed, on top of it and up to the
ceiling of the apartment; on occasion, he put drops of it on his
breast opening his shirt for this purpose, and then he would take
some sips. When Mrs. Gray wanted to search for some potatoes,
which were under the bedstead, she was forbidden to do so by
Burke; instead he reached for and obtained the bag. This com-
bination of events made Mrs. Gray suspicious; when the others
left the room momentarily, she bent down and lifted the straw
and in so doing, caught hold of the arm of the dead woman.
She motioned silently to her husband, who had also remained;
they investigated further and were able to identify the subject
as being tliat of the elderly woman they had met the night before.
They departed immediately and informed the police of their
discovery; the four persons, Burke, Helen McDougal, Mr. and
Mrs. Hare, were apprehended, imprisoned and indicted. The news
of their capture spread like wildfire and set off one of the greatest

HUMAN DISSECTION IN SCOTLAND-A.D. 1500 TO 1958 167

publicity movements in the history of Great Britain: via news-
papers, magazines and books (Guttmacher, '35).

An important figure, in the murders, always standing mys-
teriously in the background, was Dr. Robert Knox. Most of the
following is taken from Lonsdale's (1870) biography of him. He
is described as the greatest anatomist of his time; he was a lineal
descendant of the famous John Knox, the Reformer, the promis-
ing son of a farmer, who was sent to Edinburgh to obtain the best
education offered in the country. After serving five years as a
military surgeon, he was offered a co-partnership with Dr. John
Barclay, owner of the most respected anatomical establishment in
Edinburgh, who was nearing the end of his allotted years. This
was in March, 1825. Knox came into possession of the class and
whatever profits he could accumulate from it, after just eighteen
months service, as Barclay died on August 24, 1826.

Knox immediately showed that as a lecturer, he was a man
of marked individuality in style, that he treated anatomy as a
pastime of the hour, emphasizing the practical as well as the
philosophical side of the subject. He soon was to be called "the
incomparable Knox," by many of his students. There is a place
for drama and attire in the teaching profession and Knox could
be classified as unusual on both counts. He was, on the basis of
physique alone, bound to attract attention and stimulate interest.
In height, he was slightly above middle stature, very muscu-
lar and possessive of a nervo-sanguineous temperament. He was
more like a Frenchman than Scot in disposition. In build, he
looked something like a wrestler, having a wide chest, powerful
shoulders and long arms. This appearance, however, was neutral-
ized both by his gentlemanly manners and intellectuality. His
military experience may have accounted for the fact that his car-
riage was upright, his walk firm and his movements free and
lithesome. Besides having a large nose, full mouth, strong lines,
coarse features, caused by a severe attack of smallpox, and a bald
head, he possessed an atrophied left eye. The muscles of his face
seemed to be stimulated most when his brain was at work although
^■unpleasant involuntary twitchings occurred otherwise.
^B It was in the sphere of personality that Knox stood out, where
^Biis courtesy and conversation atoned for his physical defects.

I

168 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

In manner, he was suave and full of pleasantry; his voice was
gentle and well-modulated and his ready, persuasive tongue cap-
tured all the members of his audience who could appreciate ex-
cellent speech.

Lecturing was performed by Knox in full dress. At such
times, he wore a black coat, a showy vest embroidered with rich
purple, a high, white cravat, the folds of which passed through a
diamond ring, a conspicuous shirt collar, delicately folded linen
over the front of his shirt, watch-seals and pendants. Across his
chest, dangled an ornate, gold chain. All this was set off by dark
trousers and shining boots. His entire regalia provided a sharp con-
trast to the osseous forms and decaying specimens around him.

As far as the majority of students were concerned, Knox had
no real competitors as a teacher in the Edinburgh medical schools.
It was recognized that his style, his appearance, the illustrations
he used and his extraordinary powers of speech added up to a
fascinating presentation of the subject of anatomy and that he
invested it with the loftiest aims.

Over a nine-year period, from 1826 to 1835, his classes
averaged 335 students, and during the session of 1828-1829 he
had 504. They were the largest ever assembled in Britain. Since
his lecture room held a maximum of 200 pupils, he was obliged
to give the same address three times a day. So interested, however,
was Knox with his duties that it fatigued him not at all. He
sought popularity and it came to him in abundance. It was known
that he practiced his lectures beforehand. The bulk of his stu-
dents were medical but intermixed with these were barristers,
scholars, mathematicians, advocates and clergymen. On occasion,
there were also noblemen, artists and men of letters in attendance.
His students became known as "Knoxites," men of intelligence,
who were naturally attracted to such a man of talent; many be-
came outstanding in the medical field and held important posts
in the various medical societies then extant.

This is a brief description of the man who became involved
in the murders of Burke and Hare and whose name mingled in-
timately with theirs after their deeds became known. His char-
acter was defamed on every hand by all means of communication.
An infuriated mob, made up of the lowest rabble of the town, who,

HUMAN DISSECTION IN SCOTLAND-A.D. 1500 TO 1958

169

fully expected to capture and hang him, along with his effigy,
attacked his home. Outside of this group, the press, with few ex-
ceptions censured him. His rivals, in the other anatomical schools
were mostly pleased at the turn of events, which they felt would
develop to their benefit; they contributed to damaging his repu-

1

,

■

figure 14. Robert Knox (1791-1862) From Ball, J. M.: The Sack-'em-up
I en. London, Oliver & Boyd, 1928, By permission of Oliver k Boyd.

170 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

tation. There were those who also became interested in probing
his religious beliefs and wondered what was to become of his
soul. When it was discovered that Knox belonged to no sect or
congregation, all the denominations of churches breathed more
freely. This gave them an opportunity to condemn him as a
miserable sinner.

The policy followed by Knox was to say nothing; he allowed
the whole winter to pass without making any public declaration
which might appease the clamor. He made an error in expecting
a subsidence of the aroused emotions. In March, 1829, his char-
acter was blasted, in a foul manner, in an article, written in
Blackzvood's Magazine, by John Wilson, Professor of Moral Phi-
losophy. This author even attacked the students of Knox for dis-
playing an obvious, affectionate regard for their teacher. The
medical profession did not show any great signs of supporting
him; little sympathy was extended to him from that direction.
Lonsdale (1870) defended him on every count stating that Knox
never went out on body snatching expeditions, that he abhorred
resurrectionists and that he had suggested that the schools of
London, Dublin and Edinburgh take joint action in seeking
aid from the Parliament on anatomical affairs. Further, it was
by the merest accident that Burke had come in contact ^vith
him; it might have been any other teacher, especially Alexander
Monro III, Professor of Anatomy at the University of Edinburgh.

The anatomical contemporaries of Knox showed overt un-
charitableness and even open hostility towards him, the teacher
who had attracted about two-thirds of all the medical students,
in Edinburgh, to his class. It seems possible that most of the at-
tacks made on him by professionals originated from disappointed
rivals. His laboratory had always been amply supplied with ca
davers principally because he was willing to pay good j)ii((s
for them; he disliked seeing his class disappointed. The greatest
amount paid was 25 guineas. He was known to be lavish and
careless of his own pocketbook, having spent the incredible
amount of about 800 pounds for subjects during one session.
He hated to see a single empty table even though there were
sometimes 400 pupils around him. Special agents were sent ns

HUMAN DISSECTION IN SCOTLAND-AD. 1500 TO 1958 171

far as Dublin to make cadaver arrangements for the approaching
session in October, 1828.

When the case of Burke and Hare was reviewed, the fact was
revealed that Knox saw these two individuals on just two occa-
sions during the delivery of the sixteen murdered bodies; the
others were received either by his student assistants, who were just
out of their teens, the janitor of his establishment or the porter.
In no case, did they find any suspicious marks upon them. Since
all cadavers were obtained surreptitiously by thieves and lawless
villains, there was little general questioning done; it was re-
garded as folly and impolite to pry into the matter too much,
according to Lonsdale. Newly dead corpses, obtained from other
sources than the grave, were not uncommon in the practical
rooms. The resurrectionists were always on the search for persons
dying without friends. On their side, too, was the fact that no
inquests by coroners were held in Scotland which precluded an
authoritative investigation of questionable cases.

Not all influential men of medicine in those hectic days, came
to the defense and rescue of Knox and other members of the
anatomical profession, as did Lonsdale (1870). Sir Thomas Wak-
ley, in his capacity as editor of Lancet, wrote what can be called
diatribes against him and the contemporary teachers of anatomy.
He charged them all with being in commerce, that they were a
cold-blooded lot, showing a monstrous indifference and apathy
to the manner in which they obtained bodies; that they kept their
shambles open to resurrectionists and possibly murderers; that
they enjoyed a profitable monopoly, regulating their student fees
to the exorbitant demand of the dealers in bodies. The schools of
anatomy, as they were then run, he believed, constituted a public
nuisance, that dissection must either be completely suppressed or
encouraged, that the practice might be overrated in its importance
and that its chief claim to a place in the medical curriculum was
related to the operations performed by surgeons. He charged that
one teacher of anatomy took a burial ground for himself and
conducted a business from a small house adjoining his plot. He
jmade a profit in two ways: by charging handsomely for entering
bodies, then, later exhuming them and demanding as much as
8 to 1 2 guineas from his pupils. This practice led, in some schools.

172 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

to dissection of three times as many subjects as were required for
the purposes of science. Wakley advocated that unclaimed bodies
be appropriated and made available for anatomical dissection, and
that executed criminals be divorced from it, because this tradi-
tion had superadded to the popular, natural aversion to dissec-
tion by placing a definite stigma upon it.

In respect to the fate of Burke and Hare, and their two fe-
male partners, justice moved speedily. The court, since it had
nothing more than circumstantial evidence against them, offered
immunity to the least guilty of the pair, namely Hare, providing
he turned state's evidence. This, he did. It was Burke alone who
was found guilty; both women were freed.

The Lord Chief Justice in the notorious case passed sentence
as follows: "In regard to your case, the only doubt that has crossed
my mind is whether your body should not be exhibited in chains,
in order to deter others from like crimes in the future. But taking
into consideration that the public eye would be offended with so
dismal an exhibition, I am disposed to agree that your sentence
shall be execution in the usual way, but accompanied with the
statement of the punishment of the crime of murder . . . that your
body shall be publicly dissected and anatomized. And I trust that,
if it is ever customary to preserve skeletons, yours shall be pre-
served in order that posterity may keep in remembrance your
atrocious crimes" (Guttmacher, '35).

Before his death, Burke made a full written confession which
completely exonerated Dr. Robert Knox.

The hanging of Burke attracted nationwide attention and
was witnessed by about 25,000 people. As the trap was sprung, a
fearful yell was sent up by the excited multitude. After death
was pronounced, the body was removed to the anatomical rooms
of Dr. Monro III, Professor of Anatomy, at the University of
Edinburgh. The same afternoon, he gave a lecture on it, after first
removing the head of the executed man. This part of the cere-
mony was so popular that admittance was regulated by ticket for
students of the teacher's regular class. After the reserved seats were
occupied, those from other medical schools flocked in until the
amphitheatre was filled. A large number of people assembled out-
side, clamoring for admission. To pacify and prevent them from

HUMAN DISSECTION IN SCOTLAND-A.D. 1500 TO 1958 173

tearing down the building, they were informed that the body
of Burke would be put on public exhibition. On the following
day, it was placed naked on a black, marble table in the anatomic
theatre. A crowd streamed through the doors from 10 a.m. until
darkness descended on the scene. It was estimated that sixty per-
sons per minute filed through the narrow passage in front of
his remains, totaling up to about 25,000.

Obeying the wishes of the Lord Chief Justice, his osseous
parts were cleaned and articulated; his skeleton can be viewed
today in the anatomical museum at Edinburgh.

The other three culprits, associated with the murder, al-
though freed, did not fare very well after the trial. In order to
evade possible mob action, they were liberated from prison in
great secrecy. Helen McDougal emigrated to Australia and died
incognito there. Working on a job as a plasterer's apprentice,
Hare's identity was discovered; he was seized and was either
thrown into a bed of lime or some of this substance was cast over
him. Whichever happened, he lost his eyesight. He is known to
have lived for many years afterward. Mrs. Hare, apparently, de-
serted her husband, and disappeared from public view.

For a long period afterwards, a reign of terror, inflamed by
the publicity, existed among all classes throughout Scotland and
England. The poor countryfolk were unable to afford regular
newspapers since they sold for half a shilling; the sale of these
was limited to the towns. For news, such people had to resort
largely to the pungent write-ups in the broadsides published on
a large sheet of paper. Ordinarily it was printed on one side. The
wandering hawkers filled their baskets with these and sold them
to individuals living in hamlets and on farms. Many coarse bal-
lads, centering around the murders were also sung. Collectively,
these stirred the minds of the people in an exaggerated manner
so that it was rare to find a man or woman out after sunset.

Numerous books headlined the events revolving around the
Burke and Hare episodes; some of these were the following.

I Charles Dickens' A Tale of Two Cities.
Thomas Hood's Mary's Ghost, a pathetic ballad, on the hu-
orous side.

174 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

Alexander Leigh ton's (alias Nimmo of Edinburgh) The
Court of Cacus, or The Story of Burke and Hare.

Edward B. Lytton's Lucretia, The Children of Night.

David M. Moir's The Life of Mansie Wauch, Tailor in Dal-
keith.

Robert L. Stevenson's The Body Snatcher.

John Wilson's article in Blackiuood's Magazine.

Sam Warren's Diary of a Late Physician, a chapter entitled,
"Grave Doings" (Ball, '28).

Lord Cockburn, in a charming book on Scottish manners.
Memorial of His Time, included passages regarding the status
of the anatomists of his period. He is quoted as follows: "All of
our anatomists incurred a most unjust and very alarming, though
not an unnatural odium: Dr. Knox in particular, against whom
not only the anger of the populace, but the condemnation of
more intelligent persons, was specially directed. But tried in ref-
erence to the invariable and the necessary practice of the profes-
sion, our anatomists were spotlessly correct, and Knox the most
correct of them all" (Lonsdale, 1870). This author was regarded
as one of the ablest representatives of the Scottish Bar, as one
who could sift evidence and see through human motives with the
readiness of instinct.

A series of lithographic prints, by Alexander Leighton, alias
Nimmo, one of whose books, is mentioned above, merits special
mention. They were entitled, Wretche's Illustration of Shake-
speare, but some dubbed them, Nimmo's Illustrations of Wretches,
and were directed mainly toward Knox. In one of the caricatures,
the devil is portrayed standing in a garden with a large pair of
shears, ready to crop a "NOX-I-OUS plant." It was intended
to show "an old virtuoso appropriating a new curiosity." This
drawing and others were meant to damage Knox in the minds
of the masses, both as a citizen and lecturer (Lonsdale, 1870).

The romantic book by Alexander Leighton (Nimmo), Court
of Cacus, or The Story of Burke and Hare, lacked historical
truth and was a dressed-up tale which highlighted moral and
pious reflections to satisfy the Scottish mind. Tlie author's preju-
dices prevailed on every page and many readers mistook his views
as a true criterion of the events which happened.

HUMAN DISSECTION IN SCOTLAND-A.D. 1500 TO 1958 175

The article by John Wilson (alias Christopher North), Pro-
fessor of Moral Philosophy, in Blackxuood's Magazine, published
in March of 1829, made every effort to defame the character of
Robert Knox. Quoting Lonsdale (1870): "Literary ruffianism is
too mild a term to apply to the foul words used by Wilson, who,
not content with holding up Knox to public execration, rushed
with the savagery of the warhoop and tomahawk upon an un-
offending anatomical class for showing an affectionate re.eard for
their great teacher."

Some of Knox's friends took matters into their own hands
and selected an agent, a Mr. Ellis, to make a rigid and unsparing
examination into the facts. This gentleman appeared before the
Dean of Faculty, at the University of Edinburgh, and other coun-
sel. He gave it as his belief that no grounds existed for action and
that Dr. Knox should resist the temptation of carrying his case
to court. The latter was to be avoided because the disclosure of
even the most innocent proceedings in a dissecting-room would be
a shock to the public and harmful to anatomical science. The
faculty decided to recommend that a few distinguished persons,
whose opinions carried undoubted weight, be asked to investi-
gate the matter. This led to the appointment of a special com-
mittee, consisting of nine members, chaired by Dr. Robinson,
Secretary of the Royal Society of Surgery.

This committee made an extensive examination of the evi-
dence from every quarter. Their report stated that there was no
indication that either Dr. Knox, or his assistants, knew that mur-
der was committed when the subjects reached his laboratory. It
intimated that there was, however, circumstantial evidence which
should have excited suspicion of foul play, that is, the freshness
and unmarked condition of the bodies. They were convinced that
neither Knox, his assistants or students, harbored any doubts,
nor did they attempt to disfigure the features which might have
prevented detection. Further, they expressed the opinion that
Knox, and particularly his aides, might have been more cautious
m their dealings with Burke and Hare, that too ready an ear was
iven to the plausible stories of the murderers. The 1,140 word
jport concluded with the statement that Knox could be blamed
)r laxity of regulation under which the cadavers were received

176 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

into his rooms; because of his standards, he unintentionally gave a
degree of facility to the disposal of the victims of Burke and Hare
However, in the final analysis, he was not acting contrary to th
law of the land.

A few days after this report, March 17, 1829, Knox broke
his long silence by writing a letter to the editor of the Caledonian
Mercury, an Edinburgh newspaper, feeling that he owed an ex
planation to his friends and the medical profession. Parts of it
are hereby paraphrased. He explained that by the nature of his^
work he ran the risk of being imposed upon by those who fur-
nished anatomical material. Every pedagogue in anatomy, he felt,
occasionally incurred odium from his supposed violations of the
law, without which anatomy could scarcely be practiced. In view
of the events, he had expected to become an object of popular
prejudice but he thought that extra means had been taken to in-
flame the public mind, without which the bias would have ulti-
mately passed away. In his mind, he had been exposed to a
misfortune which could have happened to anyone else in hi
situation.

Knox went on to say that every effort had been employed to
convert his mischance into one of positive and intentional per
sonal guilt of the most dreadful character. Scarcely any individual
had ever been the object of more systematic or atrocious attacks
than he, and he knew from what quarter they emanated. The
public authorities had never charged him with any crime. I
respect to the formation of the committee, he claimed that hi
friends took matters into their own hands, without consultin
him. Further, he stated that some of its members were known
to him whereas others were not, that he had never met som
of them. In the absence of being in charge of the proceedings,:
he had given written permission that every person could say wha
he chose about him. He was sure that the extent to which thii
was taken advantage of would not soon be forgotten by those wh
witnessed it.

Knox ended his letter by saying he could not judge whether
the views adopted by the committee were right or wrong. If they
were correct, he was willing to submit to the censure they had
inflicted and would hold it his duty to profit from it and exercise

HUMAN DISSECTION IN SCOTLAND-A.D. 1500 TO 1958 177

due care thereafter. Candid men, would judge him according to
the situation in which he was placed at the time and not on the
basis of the wisdom which had unexpectedly been acquired since.

Knox continued teaching anatomy, in his establishment, after
the trial. In 1829-1830, he commissioned Dr. William Fergusson
to give demonstrations in surgical anatomy, a new innovation in
anatomical teaching, and in January, 1833, Dr. John Reid joined
the pair; together the three taught until 1836 in "Old Surgeon's
Hall," with Knox presiding as high priest, oracle and philosopher.

In the session of 1836-1837, changes were made in his ana-
tomical school. Fergusson's private practice and hospital duties in-
creased to the extent that he could spare less and less time in the
practical rooms and Reid assumed the lectureship in physiology
at the University of Edinburgh. Knox now engaged his brother
Frederick to assist him as well as some of his senior students.
With these alterations, aided by the growing animosities of his
contemporaries, his classes began to decrease in number. There
were other factors involved as follows:

1. The want of anatomical material.

2. The advancing character of the Dublin and London
schools.

3. The founding of provincial medical institutions.

4. An extended curriculum of study attended by greater ex-
pense and difficulties.

5. The glut in the medical market.

These developments also told, to some extent, on the pros-
perity of the other anatomical establishments in Edinburgh. War-
burton's Anatomy Act did not work well in the north, that is, in
Scotland, so that there was an inadequate supply of bodies avail-
able for general teaching purposes. The students began to pro-
test and many went to Glasgow and Dublin. In comparing Knox
and the University, the latter fared better in obtaining cadavers.
In July, 1837, Knox applied for the vacant chair of general pathol-
at the University but failed in the attempt. In 1839-1840, he
mcated Old Surgeon's Hall where he had enjoyed fame and popu-
ity for ten years. He now joined the Argyle Square Medical
:hool, as an anatomical teacher, which later united with the
Ltramural Lecturers; these then functioned under the name

178 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

of Queen's College of Edinburgh. It was hoped that it would
form a strong rivalry with the University. In 1841, Knox applied
for the lectureship in anatomy to the art students of the Scottish
Academy, which was vacant, but did not receive a single vote from
the trustees of the Board.

The status of Knox reached a bad state in 1842. He began
lecturing privately in anatomy in Edinburgh in November, but
was unable to attract a class. In the following session, he attempted
to give a course in physiology, with the same results. Public and
professional confidence in him seemed to be lost and he could find
no vacancy in his country. As a last resort, he unsuccessfully ap-
plied for the open chair of physiology at the University, first hurl-
ing depreciating remarks against his competitors for the position.
Living in a sort of hand-to-mouth fashion, he finally died on De-
cember 20, 1862.

One of the factors which revolved around the performance
of anatomizing human bodies during the period when the resur-
rectionists were in their heyday was the susceptibility of infec-
tion. Probably, the adverse feeling which prevailed against anat-
omists of that era might have been neutralized had the public
been made aware of the dangers which existed when performing
dissections. It took only the minutest drop of poisoned human
virus entering an abrasion in the skin to quickly invade the whole
system and cause death; this could occur in less than fifty hours.
According to Lonsdale (1870), one or more incidents of infection
occurred in the anatomical laboratory during every winter ses-
sion; oftentimes men of great promise were victims. He stated that
the dread influences and casualties surrounding this subject would
fill a chapter of horrors. He mentioned that a Professor Christison
and two of his colleagues, during a period of thirty-two years,
treated upwards of 280 medical students for fever caught in the
hospital wards, only a part of those who suffered. Lonsdale re-
membered four promising students who died from such during
the month of November, 1887. It was calculated that of the 2,500
physicians practicing in Ireland, 500, or one-fifth, contracted
typhus, or idiopathic fever as it was tlien called, and of that num-
ber, 127 succumbed. A large proportion of the cadavers whidi
reached the dissection-room, were those who had died from this

HUMAN DISSECTION IN SCOTLAND-A.D. 1500 TO 1958 179

disease, so that there was always danger from contact with them.
During the period of 1831-1832, cholera spread throughout the
city of Edinburgh, causing such a high mortality among the pop-
ulation that a sufficient number of coffins and bearers could hardly
be obtained to bury the dead. In spite of this, the Edinburgh anat-
omists accepted every unclaimed subject, even those coming di-
rectly from the wards of a hospital. For a period, Knox's dissection-
room contained none other than those holding the virus of this
malady, yet, all this time, there was a clamor against the anat-
omists, particularly from the lower classes. Lonsdale (1870) stated
that they were not only blind to their interests but could not
evaluate, on a rational basis, the manifold benefits they received
from the medical profession.

Nothing very spectacular happened in Scottish anatomy after
the passage of Warburton's Anatomy Act. There is evidence that
the schools have not always been able to obtain an adequate num-
ber of cadavers for dissection purposes. For example, during 1955
and 1956, they needed 262 cadavers, but obtained only 190 (For-
eign letter, '57).

[XV]

EARLY HISTORY OF ANATOMY IN
NEW ENGLAND

Xhe cycle of events in respect to human anatomizing, in America,
has been different quantitatively but not qualitatively, when
compared with that in Europe. What progress was made between
the time of Vesalius in Italy and the Hunters in England, approxi-
mately a span of 300 years, developed more rapidly in the United
States. However, the same series of events and struggles evolved
in both places: hesitancy in developing adequate dissection laws,
body snatching, indictments, high emotional feelings, riots and
even murder, the last to a lesser extent. Here the problems were
somewhat different. The country was colonized; it sought and
succeeded in obtaining its independence; its population quickly
expanded; it went through the Civil War and state after state was
added to the Union. This necessitated more and more medical
schools and students. Only minor Federal laws to regulate the ob-
tainance of bodies have been enacted. Whenever medical schools
were established within a state sovereignty, the legislators were
confronted with a delicate situation; they either evaded the issue
or formulated codes, which with few exceptions, were not ideal.
Between 1765 and 1957, an interval of 192 years, a total of
459 private or state medical schools have functioned at one time
or another in the United States; of these, 81 have survived. A
breakdown of the available data on the number of medical schools,
freshman enrollment and the population is given in tabular
form below:

Year

1765
1800
1810
1840

Number of
Medical Schools

Number of
Freshman Students

U. S. Population

1

4

7

33

180

5,308,483
7,239,881 i
17,069,453 1

i

EARLY HISTORY OF ANATOMY IN NEW ENGLAND 181

Number of

Number of

Year

Medical Schools

Freshman Students

U. S. Population

1875

80

38,558.371

1901

159

75.994.575

1905

163

1910

144

91,272.266

1915

104

3,373

1920

88

.4,234

105,710.620

1925

80

5,492

1930

78

6,457

122,775.046

1935

77

6,356

1940

77 •

5,794

131.669,275

1945

77

6,523

1950

79

7,042

150,697,361

1955

81

7,576

The ten states, which have had the most medical schools, are
located in general, east of the Mississippi, and rank among the
oldest; they are the following: New York, 45; Missouri, 45; Illi-
nois, 44; Ohio, 40; Indiana, 27; Georgia, 20; Pennsylvania, 20;
Tennessee, 19; Michigan, 16; and Massachusetts, 15. Arizona, Del-
aware, Idaho, Montana, Nevada, New Mexico and Wyoming have
never had any. The number has not always been proportional to
the state population. For example, Missouri, Indiana, Georgia and
Tennessee have high values with a relatively low population.

The peak in the number of medical schools was reached in
the first decade of the 20th Century when many private, fly-
i^y-night establishments existed; these had organized to make some
([uick money, particularly in their anatomical courses. About this
time, they became a target for such standardizing boards as the
American Medical Association and the Association of American
Medical Colleges. These organizations were successful in elim-
inating the least stable and worthy of the group.

It is natural that more has been written about the oldest,
medical institutions because, with the passage of time, they de-
\eloped a background of traditions which has attracted the at-
tention of historians. Most of the difficulties encountered in dis-
section occurred during the formative stages of medical education
I in America before satisfactory anatomical laws were developed
in the various states. The following state regions will be high-
Bghted: New England, Middle Atlantic, South Atlantic and East
ilorth Central. A list below gives the names of the schools about

182 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

was founded. Probably more has been written about New England
than any of the others.

1. New England

a. Harvard University— 1782.

b. Dartmouth College— 1797.

c. University of Vermont— 1822.

2. Middle Atlantic

a. University of Pennsylvania— 1765.

b. Columbia University— 1767.

3. South Atlantic

a. University of Maryland— 1807.

b. University of Virginia— 1827.

c. Johns Hopkins University— 1893.

4. East North Central

a. University of Michigan— 1850.

b. Ohio State University— 1907.

There are also data available on medical schools which had
a transient existence and some attention will be given to them.

The exact status of human dissection in colonial times is
difficult to determine. Records of such events are rare because
there were no medical colleges or journals which existed during
the period. The only other source of communication was by means
of a few newspapers, which largely excluded such items, because of
public antipathy to the procedure. There was probably more
anatomizing going on than can be revealed. This was generally
true of conditions elsewhere.

Since early New England was governed by the common and
statutory laws of England, there was nothing which provided anv
penalty for the exhumation of a human body. Removal of a gar
ment or other apparel, however, constituted a felony under tin
underwritten law. A dead human subject, in itself, was and is
still not legally regarded as property. Because of this situation, it
became necessary for colonial assemblies to enact specific supple
mentary statutes to try and prevent body snatching.

One of the first legal codes established was that known as
"The Body of Liberties," which was adopted in Massachusetts in

EARLY HISTORY OF ANATOMY IN NEW ENGLAND 183

1641. In essence, it stated that no man who was condemned to die
was to be put to death within four days after his sentence un-
less the court saw special cause to the contrary, as in the case
of martial law, nor should the body of any man so put to death
be unburied twelve hours unless it be in the case of an "anatomy."
It mentioned no penalty for the disinterment of human sub-
jects. This shows that the bodies of executed murderers were avail-
able for dissection in New England shortly after the landing of
the Pilgrims at Plymouth.

Outside of this statute, there were two others enacted which
attempted to prohibit the disinterment of human bodies; one was
in Rhode Island and the other in Massachusetts. As early as 1655,
the assembly in the former state ruled that any person accused
of robbing graves of bodies, who was found guilty in court, would
be fined or suffer corporal punishment, or both (Waite, '45b).

In the early days, witchcraft was in the air, so much so, that
in 1692, the Massachusetts Bay Colony felt it necessary to incor-
porate a major portion of England's Act of 1604 into its laws.
This was done in an attempt to stop the practice of removing
parts of the body for use as charms or in sorcery. The penalty for
violation was death as a felony with loss of benefit of clergy and
sanctuary. It was repealed in 1695 (Hartwell, 1881b).

A law which was adopted in the same territory in 1660, stated
that a suicide is denied "the privilege of being buried in the com-
mon burying place of Christians, but shall be buried in some
common highway . . . and a cart load of stones laid upon the
grave as a brand of infamy . . . ." Those taking their own lives
were not made available for dissection in the New England Col-
onies (Waite, '45b).

Further evidence of the shortage of bodies for dissection is
contained in the resolution of the Governor and Council of the
Massachusetts Bay Colony, dated 1647. It stated that it was con-
ceived as necessary to those students studying medicine and sur-
gery to have the liberty, once in four years, to read and anatomize
the body of a malefactor providing it was made available by

I roper decision of the court. This followed the familiar pattern
eveloped previously in parts of Europe and it helped to estab-

Ig4 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

lish both a precedent for and a stigma against the practice in this
country (Krumbhaar, '22; Waite, '45b).

The credit for the first dissection on man performed in the
colonies goes to Giles Firmin, a physician and clergyman. He was
in the Massachusetts Bay Colony from 1632 to 1646, at first a
resident of Boston and later of Ipswich. The anatomizing was
conducted at the latter place in 1638, probably on the body of
an executed criminal. He is supposed to have lectured in anatomy
at Harvard, using a skeleton for demonstration. He returned to
England; one of the reasons given was that he did not fare very
well in his practice in this country (Viets, '30; Waite, '45b).

One of the men of this period, John Eliot, a famous Christian
missionary to the Indians, was thinking in terms of establishing
a medical school, even before 1650. He attempted to teach the
redskins anatomy and general medicine. This was done, because
in trying to convert them to the new faith, he was always met with
the same question as to what would happen when they were sick.
In such cases, the savage method was to resort to the powwow or
sorcerer. He found that even the most intelligent were so ignorant
that they might profit by practical instruction in anatomy. In
addition, he proposed the founding of an institution which would
improve the medical education of young colonial students, who
were receiving only theoretical knowledge, and who were forced
to practice before they ever dissected. He stated that prior to his
time the only anatomy which had been performed in the country
was by Giles Firmin, previously mentioned (Ball, '28; Hartwell,
1881a; Krumbhaar, '22).

An idea of the lack of anatomical knowledge prevailing in
the Massachusetts Colonies is indicated by an item in Judge;
Samuel Sewall's diary under the date of September 22, 1676. He,
in conjunction with six others, at least one of whom was a physi-
cian, dissected, on September 21st, the body of an executed In-
dian. One member of the group picked up the heart and affirmed
it to be the stomach.

Several decades before the Revolution, Dr. William Hunter
delivered lectures at Newport, Rhode Island (1754-1756), which
were attended by physicians and laymen. These were first adver-i
tised in the newspapers but no mention was made that demon--

EARLY HISTORY OF ANATOMY IN NEW ENGLAND 185

strations would be performed on dissected cadavers. It is possible
that even though some favoring judge might have provided the
body of an executed murderer so that human material could be
presented, no publicity was made through the press, because of
the hostility and antagonism that it would arouse (Ball, '28;
Sabin, '34; Toner, 1874).

The scarcity of laws in Colonial New England indicates that
the public did not suspect any great amount of body snatching.
The members of the profession who were most interested in at-
tending and performing dissections at that time were the physi-
cians who were either preparing for surgery or serving as pre-
ceptors. Without medical schools, it was the latter who taught
anatomy to apprentices in medicine. In order to obtain an ade-
quate supply, it is probable that surgeons or their agents resorted
to grave robbing. Such removals may have been in excess of what
the public suspected.

Pertinent records point to the fact that very few bodies were
made available to physicians in colonial times through legislative
acts. Some students migrated to Europe in the early 18th Century
to take advantage of more favorable conditions there. Thomas
Bulfinch of Boston traveled to London to study anatomy under
Cheselden. The same was true for Sylvester Gardiner of Rhode
Island.

It was after the Revolution, when medical schools began
to be organized in New England, that the public became more
concerned with body snatching. In fact, they began almost imme-
diately to associate this practice with these institutions. When
Dartmouth College, in New Hampshire, proposed teaching medi-
cine in the early spring of 1796, the general assembly of the state
almost immediately passed its first law regarding grave robbing.
It provided the following penalties: a fine not to exceed $1,000,
imprisonment for not more than one year, and public whipping
not to exceed thirty-nine lashes, any or all of these to be imposed
depending upon the discretion of the court. The last of these
punishments, the thirty-nine stripes inflicted with a whip, goes
back to Biblical times, the era of the New Testament. It was
one less than the original forty applied by the early Hebrews,
based on statements in the Old Testament. Since the Vermont

186 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

border was only about a mile from Dartmouth College, that state
felt it necessary to take precautions against resurrection, by agents
representing the school, so the assembly enacted a statute with
penalties similar to those in New Hampshire.

In 1804, Vermont went further and enacted a new code.
Body snatching was made a felony and indictment and trial were
in the hands of the higher county courts. The clerk of each
tribunal was required to report all data to the state attorney gen-
eral. For a period of two decades, between 1820 and 1840, there
were only seven indictments for "disinterring the body of the
dead." Only two were convicted and punished (Waite, '45b).

By the year 1820, six New England states had laws against
grave robbing. Collectively, the early ones had certain common
penalties: fines, incarceration and public whipping, but the last
was abolished in all codes revised after 1810. Variations in the
types of punishment included fines from $100 to $10,000 and
terms of maximal imprisonment from three months up to fifteen
years. As the number of medical colleges increased, adding to
student enrollment, the penalties became more severe. This was
the method the legislators used rather than trying to provide a
more adequate legal supply. In the earliest statutes, it was just
as serious a crime to transport, conceal or possess a body removed
from the grave as was disinterment. Possession was defined as
being the presence of a body on the premises owned or controlled
by the person accused.

In spite of various enactments, the great majority of illegal
transactions were never discovered; if they were, the offenders
were rarely apprehended, indicted or convicted.

The same preventive measures against resurrection were
used here as in Great Britain: filling the graves with bundles of
straw, sticks or large stones to make excavations difficult. This
procedure delayed but did not prevent grave robbing. Thick
planks were also placed across the coffins for the same reason
which made it necessary to remove the soil from the entire grave,
something rarely done. Such methods as the use of iron coffins
or mortsafes were not utilized in New England or anywhere else
in the United States, but public vaults constructed of heavy stone
and iron doors were adopted. Grave watching was generally un-

EARLY HISTORY OF ANATOMY IN NEW ENGLAND 187

dertaken. In such cases, a man was employed to sit beside a grave
from dusk to dawn; a shotgun was a necessity, to be used for pro-
tective or offensive purposes. This was kept up for ten nights, at
the end of which, it was believed no one would want the body
for dissection. His job was a vulnerable one in some respects. At-
tempts might be made to ply him with whisky either before or
after he reached his post. In the former case, he might sleep off a
jag after arrival. A few tales exist where a watchman was either
bound and gagged or fired upon with bird shot.

The technique of grave robbing was complex and required
much cunning to prevent detection, even after the job was com-
pleted. Notification of a prospective burial was usually sent by
a former medical student in code either by mail or messenger,
not directly to the head of a medical school, but to an apothecary,
in on the deal, who would hastily impart the information to an
anatomist. The grave had to be spotted and surrounding land-
marks noted in daylight, so that it could be easily identified at
night. This needed a person to do the reconnoitering. A proper
conveyance was a necessity; the driver was instructed to appear
on the scene of activities at a specified hour. Suspicion would be
aroused if he loitered near the cemetery. At least, two able-
bodied men were required to do the disinterment. Because friends
of the deceased often marked the grave with stones, sticks or
flowers, arranging them into a specific pattern, the surface of the
grave had to be studied carefully so that such identifying marks
could be restored.

In addition, two large tarpaulins were needed. All the ex-
cavated soil was thrown on one so that none would be left on
the grass as a telltale sign. The actual digging was performed at the
head end of the coffin, which could be determined by the place-
ment of stone-markers, in a space about three square feet until
the casket was reached. It was not usually difficult because the
soil was loose, the grave being recently dug. By boring a row of
holes into the fore end of the lid, it could be easily broken be-
cause the boxes were poorly constructed. The use of a saw or
hatchet was contraindicated because of the noise factor.

Removal of the corpse was done by means of a hook placed
under the chin. It was then placed on the second tarpaulin. An

188 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

alternative was to strap a specially designed harness under the
arms, with a ring in the back, to which a rope was tied. The cloth-
ing and any other apparel were stripped from the subject and
thrown back into the grave; the body and all the tools utilized
were wrapped and tied in the auxiliary canvas. Finally, the ex-
cavated soil was returned to the grave and the surface carefully
restored as nearly as possible to its former state. An average time of
one hour was required to complete the over-all job.

A dark lantern was an absolute necessity to carry out the
proceedings and it had to be carefully shaded; this was usually
done by setting it on a hook and placing the second tarpaulin
partially over it. A bright light in a cemetery at night was a dead
give-a-way and if seen would set off a general alarm, bringing
a group of irate citizens to the scene.

The acquisition of bodies was seasonal, mostly from Novem- ;
ber to February, during the interval anatomical classes were held
in the medical colleges and while the weather was cool. A body
was dissected immediately for two reasons: embalming was not
in use and there was always danger of discovery. In the United
States, as in Europe, the graves of paupers were more attractive
to the resurrectionists than others. These seemed to be fair game
for body snatchers, whether amateur or professional. Public au-
thorities were apt to be lenient and turn their heads in the
opposite direction in such cases (Waite, '45b).

Some secrecy was maintained when a body was received at
the medical college. First, all articles of clothing were burned,
if they were still on which was unusual. Within a few hours, the
skin of the head would be removed and all identifying scars or
marks eradicated. This was done to prevent recognition in case
the premises were searched. Since reparative dentistry was un-
developed during the early 1800's, fewer identifying character-
istics could be discerned by means of the teeth. This custom,
together with concealment of the body, usually made search for
bodies by interested individuals unsuccessful.

Any visitor would probably have seen few subjects in places
where dissection was practiced. Anatomies were performed
quickly for obvious reasons. Usually students worked as steadily
as possible so that the task was often completed within a week;

EARLY HISTORY OF ANATOMY IN NEW ENGLAND JgQ

they were excused from all lectures during this interval. When
indicated, bodies were concealed in superstructures built on medi-
cal colleges: in domes, belfries or observatories. These spots were
reached by means of a ladder through a trap door in the floor.
Closure of the latter made the above appear inaccessible. A per-
manently installed, but hidden rope and pulleys permitted ca-
davers to be hoisted up and down at will. Wide chimneys with
fireplaces were built in dissecting-rooms which were used to hide
subjects when necessary. A block and tackle were likewise at-
tached to the upper part of the flue for quick elevation of one
or more cadavers. Chains were used on the pulleys rather than
rope so that fires could be built when it was suspected that a
search might be made; such suspended subjects suffered no harm
except a little smoking. Receptacles, containing bodies, were
placed in basements and covered with firewood.

One incident which developed outside of any medical school
occurred in Ipswich, Massachusetts on a January night in 1818:
a light was seen in a cemetery when snow was falling. Later, when
it melted, a hair ornament was found, with a peculiar design,
known to have been on the body of a young woman who was
buried there a few days previously. An investigation was made:
not only her grave was empty but also those of seven others
which had been interred that fall and winter. The technique used
in this resurrection was faulty in two respects: no shaded lan-
tern had been employed and the body had not been wrapped in
a tarpaulin so that, in transportation, the comb had fallen on
the ground (Waite, '39, '45b).

The detective work, in this case, led the investigators to the
doors of a local physician, Thomas Sewall. On his premises, were
found the identifiable parts of three bodies which were being
used to teach a group of students fundamental operative surgery.
He was indicted on three counts but one was discontinued on
plea of his counsel, Daniel Webster, that it was inaccurately
drawn. The surgeon was tried and convicted on the remaining
two and fined a total of $800, probably the largest monetary pen-
alty ever leveled against a body snatcher in the history of anat-
omy in this country. In this case, he happened to be an amateur
instead of professional. The event was sufficient to ruin the doc-

190 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

tor's local practice. Webster, who was a member of Congress, at
the time, invited the physician to move to Washington, D.C. So
successful was he there, that he became the personal physician of
three presidents of the United States and was also instrumental
in 1825 in founding the first medical school in Washington, the
National Medical College (now George Washington University
School of Medicine).

[XVI]

HUMAN DISSECTION IN THE MEDICAL
SCHOOLS OF NEW ENGLAND

A. Harvard Medical School-A.D. 1748 to 1958

JLhe idea of organizing a medical school in Boston began to
take shape within a small group of men in the late 1700's. As a
beginning, a small collection of anatomical parts was made and
kept in storage in the Harvard College Library. However, this
edifice was destroyed by fire in 1764. Besides the medical books,
two anatomical cuts and at least a male and female skeleton were
lost. The latter had been presented to the institution by a
Dr. Mead. A third skeleton, donated by Francis Archibald in
1748, may have fared similarly. In addition, a set of human
specimens, in which the arteries and veins had been injected
with wax were burned. An impetus to the concept of a medical
school was provided when Ezekiel Hersey, a 1728 graduate of
Harvard, bequeathed 1000 pounds in 1770, to his alma mater
to be used in establishing a professorship of anatomy and surgery.
The founding actually took place in 1782 (Harrington, '05;
Warren, 1860).

A leading light during the formative years of the Harvard
Medical School was John Warren (1753-1815). It was his de-
termination, ambition and exertions which supplied the essen-
tial driving force.

At this time, he was a marked man although only twenty-
seven years of age. A characterization of him is presented by
Dr. Ephraim Eliot on the basis of his behavior, during one of
the early meetings of the short-lived Boston Medical Society. Ex-
cerpts from his remarks are as follows: ". . . all were determined
to put down Warren; but they could not; he rose triumphant
over them all. Dr. Rand . . . addressing himself to me, . . . said,

191

192

HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

'Eliot, that Warren is an artful man, and will get to windward
of us all. He has made a proposition to the club, that, as there
are nearly a dozen pupils in town, there should be an incipient
medical school instituted for their benefit; . . . He has . . . pro-

I

Figure 15. John Warren (1753-1815) as he appeared in June, 1783. From

Warren, £.: The Life of John Collins Warren, M.D. Volume I. Boston,

Ticknor and Fields, 1860.

posed some suitable person on anatomy and surgery. He was
immediately put up . . .; and, after a little maiden coyness, agreed
to commence a course, as he has many operations and surgical

DISSECTION IN MEDICAL SCHOOLS OF NEW ENGLAND I93

cases in the Continental Hospital, of which he is the sole director
in every respect; and he can always have command of subjects
for dissection, without exciting alarm, or being reduced to the
necessity of taking bodies from the burying-ground, as most of
the inmates of the hospital were foreigners, and no one would
scrutinize into the matter. . . Now, Warren will be able to obtain
fees from the pupils who will attend his lectures on anatomy and
surgery, and turn it to pecuniary advantage. But he will not stop
there: he well knows that moneys have been left to the college
for such an establishment as he is appointed to, and he is looking
at the professorship. Mark what I say, Eliot: you will probably
live to see it verified'' (Harrington, '05).

From this, it appears that John Warren was not profession-
ally popular; this was also manifest in other instances and it may
have been due, in part, to the envy and pettiness of some less
able colleagues.

He graduated from Harvard in 1771 and thereafter began
to educate himself in medicine. Although he was largely self-
taught, he served an apprenticeship for two years under the
tutelage of his brother, Joseph. At no time, did he study under
any great masters in science.

After serving in the Revolutionary War as a surgeon, he
was appointed superintendent of the Continental (Military) Hos-
pital in Boston. Before being elected to the Chair of Anatomy
at Harvard, he gave a series of three anatomical demonstrations
as follows:

1. In 1780, during the winter, he gave a course to Army
and Boston physicians at the Military Hospital. This constituted
the first attempt in that city to teach anatomy by demonstration.
During these, he found it necessary to keep great secrecy because
of the prevailing prejudice against dissection.

2. Warren conducted another session of anatomical demon-
strations, in 1781, under the auspices of the Boston Medical
Society. This was given publicly at the hospital and was attended
by literary and scientific men, including President Willard, mem-
bers of the Harvard Corporation and students from the college.

3. The third presentation was given, in 1782, at "Molineaux
House," located on Beacon Street to an audience made up of the

194 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

senior students at Harvard (Harrington, '05; Harvard Medical
School, '06).

Elected professor of anatomy and surgery at Harvard, on
November 22, 1782, Warren was inducted into office October
7, 1783. Immediately afterwards, he gave a six-weeks course in
anatomy; it was held either in the basement of Harvard Hall
or in Holden Chapel, with an enrollment of twenty students,
who were required to obtain the consent of their parents. Twenty-
six dollars was the fee charged to new students, $21 to seniors.
This presentation was considered to be a novelty by the citizenry
of Boston. Bodies for this instruction and his other demonstra-
tions were not easy to obtain; when the resurrection men failed
him, Warren obtained material as best he could, utilizing ampu-
tated parts from the hospitals.

The first and probably the only national law concerned with
human anatomizing was passed by the United States Congress
in 1790. It gave federal judges the right to add dissection when
imposing the death penalty for murder (Hartwell, 1881a: Nor-
wood, '44).

John Warren was a man of medium stature, well-propor-
tioned physically and he carried a bayonet scar inflicted at Bunker
Hill. He was dedicated to his profession and exhibited great
energy, zeal, concentration and determination in those pursuits
which he considered worthy. By some, he was regarded as im-
pulsive, which may have been exaggerated by the rapidity of
his mind and movements; these were characteristics which he
maintained throughout life and were such that they probably
did not endear him to his contemporaries. The decisions which
he made were almost instantaneous both with his patients and
others. A quality which overshadowed all others was his extreme
sensitiveness to all suffering. He was able to overcome this while
young with a natural youthful resilience but later in life it pre-
cipitated prolonged periods of depression, fostered by a some-^
what weak constitution and physical infirmities. Politics and
social events commanded some of his attention also and he was
often called upon to submit articles or deliver orations expressing
his viewpoints. Though not a democrat, he believed, in general,
in equality among people.

DISSECTION IN MEDICAL SCHOOLS OF NEW ENGLAND 195

Apparently, he served as a sort of jack-of-all- trades at the
newly formed Harvard Medical School. This led to the quip of
Dr. Oliver W. Holmes later on that the Professorship of Anatomy
and Surgery, which Warren held, was not so much a professorial
''chair" as a "setee." This statement was merited because he
simidtaneously taught anatomy, surgery, physiology, and elements
of pathology and histology.

Warren was of such disposition that he was constantly im-
proving and perfecting his knowledge of anatomy and surgery.
He was universally classified as an excellent lecturer; he appeared
attractive to his students; he had a good voice, was enthusiastic,
eloquent, earnest and, according to no less an authority than
Holmes, could make the driest bone the subject of animate and
agreeable description. He did not neglect the historical aspects
of the subject especially concentrating on the "hero" personali-
ties. Always anxious to please his students, he wanted them to
feel satisfied with his demonstrations and explanations.

In his introductory lecture he showed the advantages that
could accrue to the minister, the lawyer, the artist, the sculptor
and the musician by having some knowledge of human anatomy.
He stated, "It may be here observed that no previous medical
knowledge is requisite for the perfect understanding of every
part of our subject; and, let me inform you, that all the most
eminent Anatomists have given it as their opinion that the read-
ing of authors on this subject previous to dissections is by no
means necessary, because books almost universally convey an
imperfect idea of the situation of the parts, or, what is frequently
the case, lead those who have not attended the Demonstrations
into such errors as are exceedingly difficult to correct afterwards"
(Warren, 1860).

At the conclusion of the six-weeks course, he addressed his
students as follows: "The difficulties attendant on the prosecution
of anatomical investigation in this part of the continent have
been so great that only the most determined perseverance will
be capable of surmounting them. It is, however, to be hoped that
with the clouds of ignorance and bigotry those of prejudice and
superstition will speedily be dissipated. We may yet hope for the
happy day when that Profession which has for its object the

196 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

most invaluable of all human blessings will cease to be treated
with neglect and indifference, and the means of education prepara-
tory to the practice of that profession which regards the lives
of our fellow creatures, shall command an attention and counte-
nance at least equal to that which has for its object the precarious
tenure of interest and property ....

"The exquisite harmony and perfection by which the various
parts of this complicated system are adapted to each other must
fill us all with the most exalted ideas of the skill and wisdom of
its architect. By inquiring into it and an acknowledgement of
it, is a rational Tribute, to the omnipotent author.

"The investigation, by instructing us in the knowledge of
ourselves, must evince the position, that Man has been the special
care of Heaven. The structure of the body and the faculties of
the soul are a full proof of divine attention and the considera-
tion must inspire us with sentiments which will naturally be
productive of worthy actions ....

"There is every excitement to diligence, perseverance, and
believe me the present is the only time for laying in a sure
foundation for its splendid superstructure . . ." (Warren, 1860).

These views of John Warren suggest he held a profound
reverence for the human body and its architecture and that he
felt its anatomy was the keystone to medicine.

One of the fortunate consequences of the Revolution, from
the standpoint of anatomy, was to dispel some of the public
prejudice against human dissection. Between 1782 and 1810,
however, there was still some disapproval of the practice and
many considered it a heinous and impious act. During the early
part of his teaching career, Warren, found complete subjects
for human dissection scarce and he had, of necessity, to use
preserved, anatomical parts and other demonstration material.

Besides the bodies of a few executed criminals, an additional,
though limited, supply was made obtainable in Massachusetts.
All of the colonies had enacted laws against the practice of duel-
ing during the 18th Century. In 1784, the state legislature re-
vised theirs in a statute entitled, "An Act of Dueling." One of
the provisions of this act was that a slain duelist should either be
buried in a public place, without a coffin, with a stake driven

DISSECTION IN MEDICAL SCHOOLS OF NEW ENGLAND I97

through his body, or that it be given to a surgeon for dissection.
Both were considered by the public to be a humiliating end. The
winner of such a duel, if he killed his opponent, could be executed
and his body treated in the same manner. A statute was enacted
in 1805 in which dueling was included with murder and some
other crimes. These were not strictly anatomical laws, for they
were intended to add a further penalty and greater stigma to the
crimes rather than to advance the study of anatomy.

The double legal source of bodies, those of executed mur-
derers and duelists, provided only a small number between 1800
and 1829. There were about sixty executions in Massachusetts
during that interval and all were not sentenced to be dissected.
It is easy to see why the public placed anatomizing in close re-
lation to major crime and considered it as a posthumous disgrace
(Waite, '45b).

An unusual student, a resident of Quebec, by name of La
Terriere, attended Harvard Medical School during the years
1788-1789. He was forty-five years of age and he made up the odd
member of a total class of two; the other was Lyman Spalding,
who later had much to do with the founding of the medical col-
lege at Dartmouth. The diary of La Terriere tells about the
Harvard Medical School. He stated that the medical institution
was fortunate and reaped a full harvest of four executed crimi-
nals for dissection during the academic session. Participating in
a body snatching incident, he wrote of it in a sanguinary manner.
He began by describing the death of a fat, old spinster who was
followed to her grave. After the funeral, he and his colleagues
bribed a greedy caretaker who consented to let them abscond with
the body the same night. To make it easier for the amateur resur-
rectionists, the sexton covered the coffin with only a light layer of
dirt. Because he carelessly left a shovel lying close by, the relatives
discovered the thievery the following morning and immediately
created a furor, demanding that a search warrant be issued by
the governor. As a member of the medical class of two, La Terriere
was suspected; he gravely suggested that the head of the state was
also a member of the Harvard Corporation which was enough
to squelch the matter. He is known to have commented after-
wards that, in his opinion, the woman was a superb specimen.

198 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

After graduating, La Terriere returned to Quebec where he
carried on a private practice. This incident indicates that stu-
dents were active in body snatching about forty years prior to the
passage of the Anatomy Act in 1831. However, encouraged by
reports of the success of resurrectionists in Great Britain, certain
men began to appear on the scene who were willing to produce
interred bodies for the right kind of remuneration (Harrington,
'05).

The pace John Warren set for himself in attempting to
maintain his private practice, his professional and social duties,
as well as other personally imposed standards, began to tell on
him. He requested in 1793, that the Corporation allow John
Fleet (M.B. degree, 1788), an assistant, to perform dissections,
which was granted. Still later, 1808, he suggested that an ad-
junct professor be appointed to assist him and that he should be
paid an identical salary and have similar duties. His son, John
Collins Warren, who had received his medical training in Europe,
was appointed to this post on April 27th of that year. Up to that^
time, the elder Warren had made his course at Harvard, the best]
in America. After a long-standing heart condition and a full butj
somewhat difficult life, he succumbed on April 4, 1815, at thej
age of sixty-one.

John Collins Warren, like his father, graduated from Har-
vard. This was in 1797, at the age of nineteen. He then studied]
under his parent for one year. Following this, he spent time in]
Europe: in London, Edinburgh, Holland, Belgium and Paris.

He began his anatomical activities in Boston in 1805 by|
opening a dissecting-room at 49 Marlborough Street (now about]
400 Washington St.). As mentioned previously, he was appointed]
adjunct professor of anatomy and surgery at Harvard in 1809;
and head of the department in 1815. He retained this positioni
for thirty-two years. All told, he was active as a surgeon-anatomistj
for forty-five years.

John C. Warren was regarded as a superior dissector, posses-j
sive of an excellent personality, strict with himself and others!
and devoted to anatomy both as an art and science. He probably]

DISSECTION IN MEDICAL SCHOOLS OF NEW ENGLAND 199

did not have the natural teaching abilities of his father, lacking
his voice, but he was more broadly educated.

Among the biographical notes left by John C. Warren, are
remarks made regarding the procurement of subjects. In the
early part of his dissecting career, he said, this caused him a
great deal of trouble and anxiety. After the Revolutionary War,
great difficulty was experienced in obtaining cadavers. Occasion-
ally, bodies of executed criminals and paupers were available,
averaging not more than two a year. Even before he graduated in
1796, he began the business of acquiring specimens. As a medical
student, he went on a body snatching party.

On this expedition, he described setting out for the North
Burying Ground, reaching it at ten o'clock on a rather light
night. They soon located the pertinent grave but being unsure
about it, went to another place. On examining this, they found
themselves in error and returned to the original site. One of the
group was put on guard while the others worked rapidly. When
the coffin was reached, they broke open the cover, which re-
vealed a stout young man. The body was taken out, put in a
bag and carried to the cemetery wall. As they were about to lift
it over, a stranger was spotted on the other side, walking along
the edge of the barrier smoking a pipe. A plan of action was
formulated by the gentlemen resurrectionists. One of the group,
feigning intoxication, accosted the man, entered into conversa-
tion with him and then started a quarrel. A second member of
Warren's party appeared, pretended to side with the stranger
and ordered the supposed drunk to go about his business. Taking
the unwanted man by the arm, he led him off to a safe distance
and then returned to the burying-ground. The body was then
quickly hoisted over the wall, put in a two-wheeled carriage and
carted off to Cambridge. Warren and a friend stayed behind
to fill the grave and efface the vestiges of their labor. His com-
panion, however, not relishing the task, left the scene before it
was completed (Warren, 1860).

I When the elder John Warren learned that his son had been
engaged in this episode, he was very much alarmed but when

200

HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

he was highly pleased. The cadaver lasted throughout the entire
course.

When John C. Warren opened his private laboratory at 41
Marlborough Street, an adequate supply of bodies was obtainec
for a number of years with the aid of students. As other medical
schools were opened in New England, pupils were sent fromi
Cambridge to Boston to procure subjects and apparently mad<
exhumations in a careless way. The suspicions of the polic<
were aroused; they took all preventive measures possible an<
watchers were hired to guard the cemeteries. This resulted in
scarcity of subjects. Agents were then sent on expeditions t<
regions located outside of the community, some going as far as
New York City. The latter was expensive and constituted a greal
hazard. Two or three times, resurrectionists foraging for cadavei
in that city, were seized by the police and brought to court. Som<
were judged guilty and punished by a small fine, since the officers-
were liberal. Constant efforts were necessary to carry on thisj
business.

Still another incident was mentioned by John C. Warren,
which concerned two of his medical students. Both were de-
scribed as being remarkable for their strength of body and mind.
He requested them to obtain a subject for dissection to whici
they readily acquiesced. Spotting a pauper from an almshouse
being buried at the cemetery on the Neck, in Boston, they markec
the plot with a stick which could be easily identified. Shortly aftei
midnight, noting that the watch had departed, they opened th<
grave, removed the cadaver, and then refilled the excavation,
young man whom Warren labeled 'T" then went to town t<
obtain a wagon which had previously been engaged. The second*
designated as "T" remained in the vicinity to act as guard. Whei
the vehicle returned, a concealed group of watchmen spranj
upon them, seized "T" and attempted to arrest *T." The latter^
however, evaded them, leaped upon the cart, lashed the horse an<
went off at a gallop, dragging several watchmen with him foi
some distance; they were finally dislodged and the driver con-
tinued on into the country since his horse was headed in that
direction.

The student "T" who had been apprehended, was con-

DISSECTION IN MEDICAL SCHOOLS OF NEW ENGLAND 201

ducted by two of the policemen through Washington Street
(then Orange Street) towards the nearest watchhouse. Seeing an
opening in a fence, he suddenly disengaged himself, dashed
through the aperture, leaped down an embankment into a great
open space. Because of the semi-darkness and lack of paths, he
was successful in evading his pursuers. The chagrined watch-
men now sprung their rattles, filled the air with their cries and
set all the bells ringing throughout the town. The escapee plodded
his way through marsh, water and ditch, chuckling to himself and
enjoying the clamor. On reaching Western Avenue, he scaled the
wall, walked deliberately toward the tollhouse where he stopped
to pay the fee. He questioned a number of men standing by
what the commotion was all about. After surveying him closely,
one grasped him by the shoulders and claimed him as a captive.
These were the guards from whom he had previously freed him-
self, who had preceded him there and awaited his approach.

Once more a prisoner, *'T" was marched toward the police
station. At the corner of Beacon and Charles Streets, he said
to his captors, "Why are you treating me in this way? I have done
you no harm." This was enough to divert the attention of the
men. Taking advantage of this, "T," with a strong effort tore
himself loose, sprinted through an open space between Chestnut
and Mount Vernon Streets and was able to leave his pursuers a
good distance behind. A third policeman, on beat, alerted by the
clangor and observing a man running, seized him at Willow
Street. Without giving this officer a chance to question him, "T"
struggled violently, released himself and dashed off again. Com-
ing to a partially constructed house, he threw himself into a mass
of shavings and covered himself up. The searchers tramped around
the place but were unsuccessful in discovering him. They finally
gave up the hunt, following which "T" rested, caught his breath
and returned home without further interference.

His companion, "F" drove around quietly in the country,

^amusing himself until morning, when he returned unsuspected

ito town. John C. Warren described him as living thereafter in

[good health and prosperity, as one who practiced medicine for

lumanitarian reasons, merely as a sideline to a more lucrative

msiness.

202

HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

"T," on the other hand, did not fare so well. The exertions
made in the running from his pursuers, together with the strenu-j
ous efforts in freeing himself from his captors, precipitated
hemorrhage from his lungs. Although a stout and well-forme<
man, he had a recurrence of the complaint, followed by cough,
tuberculosis and eventually a premature death. Warren state(
that he was a man of elevated character, thought his passing w<
a loss to society and that he fell a victim of the narrow-minde(
prejudices existing at the time. Further, he wondered if th<
masses had not reverted to primitive times of superstition am
witchcraft.

John C. Warren cited the case of another pupil of his wh<
had a propensity for procuring subjects and liked to work alonej
He was picked up by the police while in the South Burial
Ground, during the late evening, looking for the grave which h<
had marked during the day. Taken to the station, he was releasee
on the condition that he appear at the courthouse the following
morning. When the session convened, he listened quietly to his
accuser's charge of intent to body snatch. Then, he broke out int(
a tirade, accusing them of conspiracy to extort money, of at-
tempting to ruin his reputation and threatening them with action.
The watchmen were astonished by this attack and became meek,
In analyzing the situation, the judge could not find an act ol
illegality and so discharged him. This particular student eventui
ally obtained his medical degree and settled in Mexico City^
where he established a practice (Warren, 1860).

Outside of these difficulties, both major and minor, Johi
C. Warren highly enjoyed dissecting and making anatomic*
preparations for demonstrations for himself, his students an<
any others of the profession who might be interested. It becam<
his primary occupation and his chief pleasure; he regarded it
an agreeable relaxation from his professional pursuits and in on<
sense, his daily meat and drink. The practice held more chai
for him than games, plays or parties.

It is interesting that John C. Warren was one of the firs!
in the United States to utilize the embalming method for th<
preservation of cadavers. He first used a combination of rumj
arsenic and corrosive sublimate. By this method, he was abl(

DISSECTION IN MEDICAL SCHOOLS OF NEW ENGLAND 203

to preserve subjects for many months. He described one specimen
as being in a well-preserved state after eight years in spirit. Dur-
ing his tenure as professor of anatomy and surgery, he built up
an anatomical collection of considerable proportions which gained
wide acclaim and recognition.

John C. Warren was such an unusual individual in his
field that a few remarks on his character may not be amiss. He
is described as having possessed a highly excitable temperament,
a keen sensibility to impressions of pain or joy, impulsive tend-
encies, which were controlled by habits of reserve. He seemed to
delight rushing into danger and taking the lead from love of
excitement, whether it was to a fire, a bread-riot or what not;
yet, he was ready to listen to the first words of calm reason. His
greatest trait was that of unwearied industry in which each exer-
tion required a separate psychological effort. No moment was lost
in an occupation which seemed worthless. With his patients, he
never gave a hasty opinion nor did he answer a frivolous ques-
tion or risk an erroneous explanation. His manner with stu-
dents was restrained and he often regretted the quick uttering of
an impetuous word which wounded the feelings of those around
him. Although he never seemed to notice things or words foreign
to his immediate interests, his eyes and ears encompassed every-
thing about him.

Throughout his life, J. C. Warren exhibited great tenacity
of purpose in any pursuit he chose to follow. An old friend was
a friend forever, never forgotten. He indulged but little in petty
conversation, amusement or social intercourse. Although not an
obstinate man, a maxim, once adopted, was never altered except
for the strongest reasons, yet he could yield gracefully when he
thought it was wise to do so. Rigid economy was practiced in all
of his financial transactions, both trifling and large because he
believed this was the only way a person could be prosperous vin
his affairs. Religiously speaking, he had been educated to a firm
and reverent belief in the Scriptures and in their full inspiration;
the Sabbath was rigidly observed and church regularly attended.

I Finally, he loved to dwell upon pictures and memories of the
past which probably stemmed from his pride in his English
heritage and his interest in his illustrious ancestors.

204 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

A report on the evolution of the Massachusetts Anatomy
Act of 1831, the first in the United States, and in the English
speaking world, may not be amiss, at this time, because of its
importance to the Harvard Medical School. It portrays how much
difficulty can be encountered in the passage of such a statute.
Prior to this year, the public had become acutely conscious that
body snatching was more common than had been suspected and
the hostility against dissection and medical colleges had increased.
Individual physicians and some groups had asked the legislators
to provide adequate relief but had met with little success because
the lawmakers were cognizant of the well-known popular aversion
to anatomizing. Bills had been introduced by physician-members
of the House and Senate but never got beyond committee con-
sideration.

The medical profession of the state had long desired an
adequate legal source of material for teaching practical anatomy.
The primary stimulus for this opinion was probably the series of
events which had occurred in Edinburgh, notably the Burke and
Hare murders. However, local events also served as an added
incentive, notably an episode of resurrection occurring in 1818,
in Ipswich, which was climaxed in the indictment of Dr. Thomas
Sewall, a local physician; he was found guilty and fined |800
(c.f. Chapter XV). Much credit must be given to Dr. Abel L.
Peirson of the Massachusetts Medical Society who took the lead
in advocating that a committee from that group be appointed to
seek legislation. He introduced such a resolution on February
4, 1829, which was accepted; he was appointed its chairman and
devoted much time and effective effort to the work. Each mem-
ber of the profession was asked to do his best to personally in-
fluence his local and state representatives. The first bill was
introduced in January of 1830. The committee report stated
the following: it "did not think it expedient to propose any alter-
ation of the laws at the present time; because in a community
like ours, it is necessary that laws should proceed from and he
supported by public opinion" (Waite, '45b).

The next step taken by the Medical Society was to educate
the public. Articles signed by members of its committee were
published in the newspapers. A pamphlet advancing arguments

DISSECTION IN MEDICAL SCHOOLS OF NEW ENGLAND 205

for the necessity of such a law was printed and 10,000 copies were
distributed throughout the commonwealth. A second bill was
introduced at the next session of the legislature in May, 1830.
The Governor spoke in favor of providing better facilities for
teaching anatomy. A special committee of the lawmakers then
reviewed the bill but it was postponed until the following year.
It was passed in the January session, 1831, under the title, "An
Act more effectively to Protect the Sepulchres of the Dead and to
legalize the Study of Anatomy in Certain Cases" (Waite, '45b).
It can be classified as the first, effective anatomical law in any
English speaking country, antedating the Warburton Anatomy
Act of England by fifteen months. The Massachusetts law was
somewhat improved by amendments in 1834. It had added signifi-
cance because it influenced the neighboring New England states
in formulating similar codes.

One of the main arguments advanced by the proponents of
the Massachusetts bill was that adequate legal provision for hu-
man dissection would benefit the poor as follows: without satis-
factory instruction in practical anatomy, open to all, the Ameri-
can physicians who were trained abroad in areas where material
for dissection was plentiful, would charge higher fees on their
return to this country.

The new statute permitted civil officials to surrender bodies,
for anatomical use, that must otherwise be buried at public ex-
pense, with some exceptions; this was a forward step beyond the
previous limitation to the bodies of executed criminals. It was
defective in two paramount considerations: it was not mandatory
since it only granted permission to civil officials to release bodies
for dissection at their 'discretion; it forbid the use of the bodies
of any stranger, town pauper, or person who during life had
signified that his remains be buried or any individual whose body
was requested to be interred by kinsman or friend (Harrington,
'05; Waite, '45b).

I A dearth of anatomical material continued for some time
after the passage of the Anatomy Act of 1831. About the year of
1836, a shortage, in this respect, existed which led the Harvard
faculty to petition the Mayor and Board of Aldermen against
I

I

206 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

allotting bodies for dissection to any other person or organization
during their academic sessions.

Although Oliver Wendell Holmes (1809-1894), who suc-
ceeded John C. Warren, has been classified as a man of letters,
rather than a great anatomist, there were certain events which
transpired during his academic career at Harvard Medical School
worthy of mention. He served as chairman and professor of
anatomy between 1847 and 1882. Prior to that he held the same
titles at Dartmouth, 1838-1840; spending fourteen weeks there
annually at a salary of $400. Of the many events in his productive
life, only those relating to his anatomical career will be chronicled.

Holmes described his introduction to medical school as fol-
lows: "I have been going to Massachusetts General Hospital and
slicing and slivering the carcasses of better men and women thanj
I ever was myself or am like to be. It is a sin for a puny little
fellow like me to mutilate one of your six-foot men as if h
were sheep, but vive la science" (Knox, '07). This was during
the fall of 1830 when he was twenty-one years of age. In the
spring of 1833, he went to Paris to complete his medical educa-
tion where he made further human dissections; there he found
that subjects were easily obtained and cheap. He paid 50 sous
for one, about 50 cents in the then prevailing currency, and he
said that it could be cut into one-inch pieces by nightfall. Speci-
mens were also available, upon which, surgeons in training coulcj
perform trial operations. It was not a trifling matter to be a
medical student in Paris, he found. Before breakfast each morn-
ing, he was required to attend an hour and a half lecture followed
by a tedious dissection. To give an idea of the scope of the an^
atomizing rooms at the flcole de MMicine, he said they would
accommodate 600 students. He was so much impressed with the
spaciousness and cleanliness there that he mentioned, by contrast
the "little infernal, suffocating holes in which the unhappy native
of our uncivilized land is often obliged to pursue his labors"
(Tilton, '47).

By some, he was not regarded as a great anatomist but as
probably the best lecturer in the country on the subject. In the
latter respect, his students remembered him as being witty, humor-

DISSECTION IN MEDICAL SCHOOLS OF NEW ENGLAND 207

ous, bright and cheerful in disposition. He was successful in
robbing the material of dryness, even when describing bones,
yet he was concise, exact, clean-cut and employed a scholarly
rhetoric. In other traits, he was careful, conscientious, punctual
and painstaking. Although he was given the last lecture hour of
the day, he could hold the attention and interest of a weary
class continuously week-after-week. As an example of his manner
of dressing up a statement is the following: about the female pel-
vis: "gentlemen! this is the triumphal arch under which every
candidate for immortality has to pass" (Miscellany, 1894). Ap-
parently, he was enthusiastic when excellent preparations were
made by his students. President Eliot of Harvard made the state-
ment that he had never "heard any other mortal exhibit such
enthusiasm over an elegant dissection." He rewarded his demon-
strators with high praise when they performed excellent work.

As a professor of anatomy, he had a particular liking for the
old masters of anatomy. He was tolerant of their misconceptions,
caught the quaintness of them and handed them down to his
students ever more unique by the transmission (D wight, 1894).
To the pioneers, he felt we owe much and he was understanding
of their merits and limitations. He was able to trace the evolu-
tion of a theory or doctrine from a vague origin to its ultimate
development or collapse. Harmony was something he liked and
he was able to keep himself free from professional jealousies.

All anatomical exams, given during his tenure, were of the
oral type and he seemed to adjust them to the individual he was
quizzing. At one of these, he asked William James, who later
became famous, to describe a small nerve in the head. When it
was answered correctly, Holmes said, "If you know that, you
know everything! Now tell me about your dear old father" (Til-
ton, '47). His approach to examinations was very casual which
probably tended to neutralize any tension built up on the part
of a student. On the question of admission of women in medi-
cine, he did not take a decided stand but voted with the majority
I of professors in the negative. He said he was willing to teach
anatomy to women, but in classes and dissecting-rooms separate

208

HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

The following is another anecdote in the teaching careei
of Holmes quoted from Abbot (1895). ''In my early student
days in the Tremont Street Medical School, after a recitation ii
anatomy to Dr. Holmes, at which I happened not to be present, h<
sang to the class a new song of his own composition— probabb
one of his humorous medical productions, but of this I am not
quite sure. Two days after, while he and I were engaged togethei
in the dissecting-room, I casually remarked, "I greatly regret
not being present at the last recitation in anatomy." "Why?'-
he asked. "Because I lost the song you were so kind as to sinj
to the students." After a moment's pause, with his head turne(
down a little towards one shoulder, and a peculiar compressioi
of the lips— an attitude and expression of the mouth which al|
his old friends will remember, he said abruptly, "Would you lik<
to hear it?" "Why, of course, doctor, I should," was my replyj
"Well, I'll sing it to you," was his immediate response. So he lai(
down his scalpel and forceps, and standing facing me, with th<
poor relic of humanity on the table between us, he began, an<
went through the whole of it, with as much enthusiasm as if h<
were singing to a thousand people. After the prolonged applaus<
of his audience of one had subsided, he said, "Do you like it?*
"Why of course, doctor," said I, "no one could hear it without
liking it." "Well," said he, "it is good. No one but a fool wouh
pretend he doesn't know when he has done a good thing."

Besides holding the professorship of anatomy at Harvan
Holmes was dean of the medical school (1847-1853); he wj
selected to present the University Lecture (1863-1864) and w;
overseer of Harvard (1876-1882).

During his tenure as a professor, there had been some agita|
tion concerning supposed abuses in dissection. This had occurre<
in spite of the fact that the Anatomy Act of 1831 had been ii
use for a half-century. After his retirement. Holmes was selectee
as one of the speakers in dedicating a new medical building oi
Boylston Street. The faculty had taken every precaution to pr<
vent the public from inspecting the dissection-room. To theil
consternation, Holmes concluded his remarks by inviting hi
audience to visit the quarters in question. This shows that h<
was open and broad-minded on the subject of anatomizing.

DISSECTION IN MEDICAL SCHOOLS OF NEW ENGLAND 209

One of the many obituaries written after Holmes' death in
1894, which reveals a part of his character, was published as an
editorial in the Boston Medical and Surgical Journal of that
year. A part of it is quoted as follows: "He grew old so quietly,
so sensibly, so judiciously, so gracefully, that it was difficult for
those in occasional contact with him to realize that he was a
very old man" (Editorial, 1894).

B. Berkshire Medical CoUege-A.D. 1823 to 1869

The chief rival of Harvard, during the early medical history
of Massachusetts, was considered to be Berkshire Medical Col-
lege, located in the western part of the state at Pittsfield. It
survived for forty-six years. The founding of that institution was
made difficult due to an incident which happened in 1820. In
that year, the body of George Butler, Jr. was stolen from a local
grave under circumstances unknown. The citizens, on hearing of
it, arose en masse and demanded that the offender be duly pun-
ished. With this event fresh in everyone's mind, the school was
established with some apprehension.

During the years of its survival, it was generally believed
that all cemeteries in the immediate vicinity were periodically
invaded by resurrectionists, both amateur and professional. At
first, the trustees of the medical school did everything possible
to assure the public that preserved anatomical parts and a course
in comparative anatomy furnished excellent substitutions for fresh
dissections. Apparently, the populace adjusted to the situation so
that human anatomies were eventually carried on with the sup-
port, financial as well as moral, of the townspeople. One thousand
one hundred thirty-eight physicians were graduated from this
institution but it had to close its doors in 1869 due to lack of
clinical facilities (Norwood, '44).

C. Castleton Medical College-A.D. 1818 to 1861

I In January of 1824, the Board of Trustees at Castleton
il^edical College in Vermont publicized a resolution that no sub-
ects removed from cemeteries within the county would be used
or the teaching of anatomy. It stated that the supply would be

210 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

furnished from the large seaports in the neighboring states. This
meant a considerable transportation problem since the nearest
sizeable harbor was about 200 miles distant. It was usual for all
medical colleges to have rules forbidding dissection but they
weren't necessarily observed; they were made primarily to mislead
the public. Dissection material was undoubtedly obtained from
nearby graveyards in this case (Waite, '45c).

Castleton Medical College became involved in the following
incident, called the Hubbardton Raid: In 1830, 300 men from
neighboring Hubbardton marched on the school because the
grave of a woman, in their community, had been found empty.
The mob surrounded the building, entered the premises and after
a search found a headless body hidden in the wainscoting. During
the siege, a student walked through the crowd with the head,
wrapped-up and hid it in the hayloft of a neighboring barn. The
entire matter was settled without an arrest being made when
both parts of the corpse were returned for reburial (Waite, '45a).

The college offered a summer course in anatomy. In the
catalogue, this was written up as follows: "It is especially the
design of this institution to offer facilities and means so ample
for the acquirement of a thorough knowledge of anatomy that
county students shall not be compelled to resort to the cities at
an increased pecuniary expenditure and the exposure of health
and morals" (Chapin, '51).

D. The University of Vermont School of Medicine—
A.D. 1822 to 1958

The University of Vermont School of Medicine is one of
the oldest in the United States, being founded in 1822. Through-
out its history, it has had a chronic and troublesome problem in
obtaining anatomical material, particularly in its early days. In
1804, the state formulated a law making it a felony to rob graves.
Vermont physicians, in 1835, made an unsuccessful attempt to
have a suitable law passed but it wasn't until 1870 that judges
were permitted to assign the bodies of executed criminals to
medical schools. The state led, however, in enacting a mandatory
code in 1884 which directed that any body buried at public ex-
pense, whether from town or state institution be surrendered for

DISSECTION IN MEDICAL SCHOOLS OF NEW ENGLAND 211

the promotion of anatomical science. Certain subjects were ex-
cepted. A written application by a licensed resident, physician or
surgeon was necessary (Chapin, '51; Waite, '45b).

In 1825, the fee charged for the course in anatomy at the
University of Vermont was $14, which was paid to the professor
in charge. It was considered a part of his duties to provide
cadavers as best he could.

Between 1820 and 1840, dissection was carried on at the
University of Vermont and two other medical colleges within
the state. Seven hundred ninety-two students were graduated in
medicine by these institutions during this interval. In addition,
there were about 800 others who attended anatomical classes
but did not complete their medical education in Vermont; still
others studied separately under preceptors. It was estimated that
about 400 cadavers were utilized by the combined groups. This
averaged twenty per year. In the medical colleges, six students
commonly dissected on one specimen and fewer with a preceptor,
often only one. The law provided only one or two subjects an-
nually so that practically all had to be procured illegally; most
were obtained within the confines of the state. Since there was
conviction for only one body snatching in two decades, it shows
that detections of grave robbing with punishment of the offenders
were rare. Disinterments were sometimes discovered many years
later ^vhen attempts were made to remove the remnants of bodies-
from places of original burial to some other location (Waite, '45a).

There is an instance where a student became a professional
resurrectionist in order to help defray his expenses at the Uni-
versity School of Medicine. That was in 1872 (May, W. S.: The
Country Doctor, quoted by Chapin, '51). His method was to
disinter a body in a distant community and send it to the college
via train. One of his removals was discovered by friends of the
deceased who went to the college, and identified the body. Sus-
picion rested on the man in question who left the school and
J disappeared from the region. When things quieted down, he
^returned, completed his studies and graduated.

Another story, told by and involving Dr. A. V. Bowker,
p[879, (quoted by Chapin, '51) is as follows: he was ordered by
me of the doctors to take a horse and ^vagon and pick up a

212 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

package arriving at the depot, it having been shipped by train,
via express. Arriving late, he was reprimanded by the station
manager. The parcel, in a coffin, was put on the cart and he
started toward the University of Vermont. He was met by the
local mailman and interrogated; although he feared that the police
might be informed, the parcel was delivered safely to the in-
stitution. Bowker wondered how the physician, who served as a
teacher in a girl's Sunday School class, in a Methodist Church,
could get mixed up in such a business.

The same author tells of another incident where he was
told to get a barrel of onions arriving by train. It was taken to the
school, where he with the help of other students, knocked in the
top of the container. When this was done and the subject re-
vealed, it was obvious that it had died of smallpox. As a pre-
caution, all of the students were vaccinated the next day.

A few years later, 1882, the bodies were described as being
in very poor condition at the University of Vermont Medical
School, making it difficult to perform presentable dissections. It
has been reported that by 1894, each student was required to
purchase his own cadaver (Chapin, '51).

Even after the turn of the century, secrecy prevailed in the
handling of subjects. In 1903, the old medical college caught fire.
The day before this catastrophy, dissection had been started in
the rear room of the upper floor. The students rushed in and
carried the cadavers down the stairs and outside. There they were
placed in mattings, carpets or anything serving as a covering and
transferred to a barn nearby. Extreme care was taken to prevent
observation by the crowd watching the conflagration in front
who probably would have been more interested in what was
going on behind the building.

To give an idea of the value placed on laboratory assistance,
it can be mentioned that a student, at Vermont was paid 50 cents
each for taking care of cadavers, that is, injecting them and put-
ting them into tanks for preservation. When needed for anato-
mizing, they were hoisted up by means of a block and tackle
through a shaft connecting the tank room with the dissection
chamber.

DISSECTION IN MEDICAL SCHOOLS OF NEW ENGLAND 213

E. Vermont Medical College at Woodstock— A.D. 1827 to 1856

This institution, located temporarily in southern Vermont,
had trouble in getting organized; some citizens opposed the
founding because they felt it would lead to grave robbing in the
region. The issue of the charter was delayed when applied for in
1827. It was "hindered by prejudiced or inimical persons; no
nearer patronage could be procured than that of the college at
Waterville in the state of Maine" (Waite, '45c). Degrees were not
issued until 1830 so the school was academically impeded for
two years.

When it was announced in July of 1829 that it would reopen,
an endeavor was made by the faculty to reassure the public as
follows: "We pledge ourselves to the community that we will not
use or suffer to be used in any manner as far as may come to our
knowledge any human body that may have been disinterred here-
abouts; it may appear invidious to set limits but we are willing
to say the state of Vermont. We are well assured of obtaining com-
petency of the means from remote parts and in a manner that
ever will be justified by the well-informed and judicious part of
the community" (Waite, '45c). They agreed to name three promi-
nent citizens who would be allowed access to the medical build-
ing at any time. This promise may have been written with one
eye directed toward the New Hampshire border which was only
thirteen miles away. Graves could be pilfered in the adjacent
state with impunity because the sheriff there had no authority in
Vermont.

One year later, 1830, Woodstock became implicated in an
episode involving the disappearance of the body of Polly Cham-
berlain from her grave in Barnard, ten miles distant. When the
loss was discovered, irate citizens marched on the medical school,
searched the premises, but were unable to find what they were
^looking for. Because of circumstantial evidence, four students
^ere arrested, then taken to Barnard for questioning by the
justice of peace. Two were released, the other pair being held for
ial in the County Court at Woodstock on June 10, 1830. The
ial was continued from early morning until 11:00 p.m., in
jam-packed courtroom. The verdict rendered was not guilty.

214 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

This institution was also involved in another affair which
borders on the unusual and may indicate the plight of the anato-
mists for suitable teaching material. Two brother students at
the medical college were accused of body snatching, in March
of 1834, by the people of Burlington. This implied that the body
was transported over primitive roads, a distance of ninety miles,
something of a feat in those days. John Daggett, aged eighteen,
and his elder brother, were arrested and brought before a magis-
trate who bound them over to the grand jury. Two indictments
were returned against each for "disinterring the remains of the
dead" (Waite, '45c). When the disputed body was returned, one
indictment against each was quashed by order of the attorney for
the state. Both were convicted and sentenced, on the second count,
to serve three years in the Vermont State Prison. The older
brother completed the full term, whereas the younger was par- l
doned and discharged after a little more than two years. The ;
latter returned to the Woodstock School of Medicine and gradu- I
ated in June, 1837. This is, apparently, the only case on record f
in the New England states where a student was sentenced to a ;
state prison. *

In respect to this incident, the following letter is quoted from ;;
Waite ('45c) because it reveals the feelings of the 125 citizens ,^
of Burlington who signed it: ;

** (To the Faculty of the Medical College at Woodstock, Vt.) 'i
Gentlemen: i:

The examination of John F. Daggett, bound over for a ?
trial at the next term of the County Court, recently a student in if
your institution, as well as very intelligible intimations from him <
since his trial renders it certain, in the opinion of the undersigned 1
and of this community, that the body of Mrs. Holbrook late of this ij
place was removed to Woodstock and is now in your College. Mrs. j
Holbrook was, and her family are highly respectable; and the dis- jl
interment of her remains has occasioned to her relatives a distress
which you can properly appreciate, and is universally regarded as
a vile outrage which will not be submitted to unless the laws
have lost their power to punish.

"Information upon which we rely renders it probable that the
dissecting knife has not been used upon her remains; and the

DISSECTION IN MEDICAL SCHOOLS OF NEW ENGLAND 215

undersigned submit to you, Gentlemen, whether your duty to the
pubKck does not demand that her body be restored. We are un-
willing to believe (sic) that Gentlemen so respectable as the
Faculty of the Woodstock Medical School would countenance
in the smallest degree an outrage of the kind— and although we
fully believe that the true character of the outrage was unknown
to you at the time, and would be indignantly reprobated by you
at any time, yet we can have little doubt that your endeavours
to procure the restoration of the body would be successful, and
probably would be the sole means of effecting it.

"We ask, therefore, your assistance and believe it will be
granted, as due to justice, to the feelings of a family lacerated
for the means, the atrocious motive of gain, to public opinion and
to the character of your institution.

Yours respectfully,"

At Woodstock, the cost of cadavers was $15 which sum con-
stituted no profit to the school because the wages to the resur-
rection men or demonstrators in anatomy were relatively high.
No fee was charged for the use of the dissecting-room. Any anato-
mizing was completed in seven to ten days because embalming
was unknown in such a rural school as Woodstock and searches
by the officers of the law were always impending (Waite, '45c).

[XVII]

HUMAN DISSECTION IN THE MIDDLE
ATLANTIC STATES

Xwo of the biggest centers of medical education in the United
States have been in Philadelphia and New York City. Probably
more is known of the early history of the former.

A. The University of Pennsylvania— A.D. 1750 to 1958

Philadelphia was the scene of the first course given in anatomy
in America (1745-1751). The lecturer was Thomas Cadwallader,
but it is unknown whether he employed cadavers for demonstra-
tion.

William Shippen, Jr. (1736-1808) was a figure who stood out
in the early history of anatomical dissection in Philadelphia. It
was he who, at the age of twenty-nine, became the Head and
Professor of Anatomy and Surgery at the University of Pennsyl-
vania School of Medicine, the pioneering medical school in the
United States (1765). He prepared himself for this position by
training under John and William Hunter in London in 1761
and teaching anatomical courses in Philadelphia between 1762
and 1765.

After training under the Hunters in London, Shippen re-
turned to Philadelphia and started teaching what has been called
the first systematic anatomy course in North America. An an-
nouncement of his proposed instruction, appeared in the Pennsyl-
vania Gazette on November 11, 1762. On the 16th, he gave an in-
troductory address at the State House, which was well-attended
by the intelligentsia of the city; subsequent lectures (1762-1765)
were given in a private laboratory in his father's house. His
course was a landmark in anatomical history in the United
States for he was the first to teach in true Hunterian style, in-

21G

I

HUMAN DISSECTION IN THE MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 217

structing his pupils in the art of dissection (Hartwell, 1881a;
Middleton, '32; Packard, '33).

The academic life of Shippen was at first intimately as-
sociated with that of John Morgan regarded as the principal
founder of medical education in America. The latter is de-
scribed as having been impulsive, fervent, positive and a states-
manlike organizer, whereas the former was judged to be calm,
cautious, far-seeing, self-possessed and at times subservient to
a crafty nature (Middleton, '27).

The paths of Shippen and Morgan crossed in Britain, where
they had studied together in part, under the Hunters; there the
pair probably discussed the possibility of establishing a school
in Philadelphia. On returning to America in 1765, Morgan pre-
sented a plan for organizing a medical department before the
Trustees of the College of Philadelphia. It was approved and on
May 3rd of that year, he was elected to the first professorship
offered, that of. Theory and Practice of Physic; upon application,
Shippen was appointed Professor of Anatomy and Surgery (Pack-
ard, '02).

John Morgan had this to say about anatomy: "It is Anatomy
that guides the doubtful steps of the young votary of medicine
through an obscure labyrinth, where a variety of minute objects
present themselves in such a group as, at first to perplex his
imagination ....

"As a skillful pilot informs himself of the last bank of sand
or shoal where he is to avoid navigating his ship; so every follower
of medical pursuits should be intelligent in the minutia of Anat-
omy, if he wishes to practice with ease to himself, and to the
benefit of the patient . . ." (Middleton, '27).

The first cadaver that Shippen received was that of a Negro
who had committed suicide by cutting his throat with a broken
glass bottle. He immediately encountered difficulties because the
citizens of the city were not used to tolerating dissections of

I human bodies. They became suspicious that graves were being
robbed; opposition developed, a mob formed and attacked his
anatomical lab in 1765; windows were broken with stones and a
musket ball was shot through his carriage, with the mistaken idea
that he was in it. Shippen escaped through a back alley. The
I

218 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

violence, in this case, was precipitated by transient sailors, rather
than by the solid citizenry of Philadelphia; for that reason, it
has been labeled the "Sailor's Mob." At other times, Shippen had
to flee his own dwelling (Hartwell, 1881b; Middleton, '32; Nor-
wood, '44).

Shortly before he started his anatomical courses under the
auspices of the College of Philadelphia, which was on November
14, 1765, Shippen felt it in order to put a notice in the Pennsyl-
vania Gazette on October 31st.

"It has given Dr. Shippen much pain to hear that notwith-
standing all the caution and care he has taken to preserve the
utmost decency in opening and dissecting dead bodies, which he
has persevered in chiefly from the motive of being useful to man-
kind, some evil-minded persons, either wantonly or maliciously,
have reported to his disadvantage that he has taken up some|
persons who are buried in the Church Burying Ground, which
has distressed the minds of his worthy Fellow Citizens. The Doc-
tor, with much pleasure, improves this opportunity to declare
that the Report is absolutely false, and to assure them that the
bodies he dissected were either of persons who had wilfully
murdered themselves, or were publickly executed, except now
and then one from Potter's Field, whose death was owing to
some particular disease, and that he never had the body from
the church or any private Burial Place" (Middleton, '32).

Shippen moved into new quarters in 1765, at Anatomical
or Surgeon's Hall, on North Street, which were quite an im-
provement on the ones previously occupied. The building was
100 by 70 feet and belonged to the College of Philadelphia. He
taught there from 1765 to 1806, except for the Revolutionary
War years of 1776-1777, when he served as Director-General of
the Military Hospitals. His classes increased in number from
12 to 250, the greatest numerical growth being between 1769
and 1775. The charter of the College of Philadelphia was re-
voked due to Tory activities. At the time when the school was
reorganized and taken over by the University of Pennsylvania,
1791, there were 104 students in attendance. These figures show
that his course was an exceedingly popular one.

I

d

HUMAN DISSECTION IN THE MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 219

The relationship between John Morgan and Shippen came
to a sad ending. A discord developed between them when the
former, the original appointee as Director-General of the Military
Hospitals, was relieved of the post and replaced by Shippen.
There had been a number of complaints against the manner in
which Morgan loosely handled the care of the sick and wounded.
Among the critics, was Shippen, who wrote to a member of the
Continental Congress, that more soldiers were dying from neglect
of medical care than by the sword. This led to a considerable
amount of friction and eventually distrust between them and
Sthe breach created never narrowed; in fact, it developed into a
violent hatred. Morgan was exonerated by Congress in 1779. In
1781, re-elected to his former professorship, he refused to serve
[on the same faculty with Shippen. The position was kept open
for him until the year before his death in 1789 (Middleton, '32).

Shippen died on July 11, 1808, at the age of seventy-two. The
last part of his life was saddened by the death of his son whom
[he was training to follow in his footsteps.

Another anatomist, Abraham Chovet, a contemporary of Ship-
pen in Philadelphia, is mentioned because of the contrast in the
method of his teaching. The span of his lectures extended between
1774 and 1783. Previous to this, he had taught in London.
Eschewing human dissection, he relied entirely on wax figures
and charts which he made himself. He advertised the use of these
in the newspapers and emphasized that his curriculum was free
from the disagreeable sight of putrid human corpses. His course
was very popular and some considered him a better anatomist
than Shippen. John Adams wrote that his models were excellent,
being better than the Fothergill Collection in the possession of
the Pennsylvania Hospital, which were used by Shippen. Chovet's
reproductions were purchased in 1793 by the same hospital and
added to the above group. All were destroyed by fire in 1888.
Little is known of the life of Chovet: he was born in 1704, place
unknown, and probably was a demonstrator in anatomy at the
Barber-Surgeons Hall, London, in 1734. There he taught begin-
ners in anatomy before they started dissecting, a minor role.
From London, he went to the Barbadoes, then Jamaica, from
whence he migrated to Philadelphia (Miller, '11).

220 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

Shippen was succeeded by Caspar Wistar, who trained under
him. A year before he assumed the chair of anatomy (1805),
Wistar was giving a demonstration to the medical students, at
which he had asked a Quaker student, by name of Joseph Parrish,
to assist him. At this session, Parrish wore his Quaker hat in the
pit, an act which prompted the medical class to hiss him; the
teacher immediately came to his defense, explained the signifi-
cance of the situation, and praised the man for his religious
principles. The assembled students took the explanation in good
stead and thereafter showed respect to Parrish (Middleton, '42).

Wistar was a well-trained anatomist, having studied at both
Pennsylvania and Edinburgh, where he obtained his M.D. degree
in 1786. He was a born teacher and his success was immediate
on returning to America. A part of his efforts was devoted to
collecting models, casts and preparations for a museum. He
stressed the need of each student possessing a set of disarticulated
bones, which was an innovation. Published under his name was
a text entitled, A System of Anatomy for the Use of Students of
Medicine, in two volumes, 1811-1814. It remained popular as
an American text for many years.

He became famous as a professor and was able to fascinate
his audience with his powers of description. His subject matter
was treated philosophically as well as anatomically. In harmony
with this, he endeavored to cultivate literary people. Attracted
to his famous Sunday Wistar parties, were the intelligentsia of
the region; these sessions were later continued by the American
Philosophical Society. He left his anatomical collection to the
University of Pennsylvania; they now form the nucleus of the
Wistar Museum. He taught at this institution between 1791-1818
(Mettler, '47).

Following this, there was an interval in which the chair of
anatomy at the University of Pennsylvania was held by John
Syng Dorsey and then by his uncle, Philip Syng Physick. William
Edmonds Horner (1793-1853) succeeded to the position in 1831.
His character stood out because although he presented a calm
exterior, he possessed a sensitive soul; he practiced self-accusation
and depreciation and frequently suffered severe mental anguish.

HUMAN DISSECTION IN THE MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 221

Serving as a surgeon in the War of 1812, he found the horrors
therein appalling.

Horner became renowned for his skill at dissection. In 1816,
Wistar made him responsible for the preparation of the anatomi-
cal specimens used in his course. He was given an annual salary
of $500 which served as a real boon. His lectures lacked elo-
quence; he resorted to statements of fact and was painstaking in
presenting them. For thirty years, he served as dean of the school
and, under his direction, it maintained the highest standards
in medical education. He was also a very successful surgeon
(Middleton, '23b).

Horner was succeeded by Joseph Leidy (1823-1891), who
became one of the greatest naturalists this country or perhaps
any other has ever produced. As a youth, he was often called, "a
queer boy" (Middleton, '23a). On his first exposure to dissection,
Leidy had this to say: "I was so disgusted with the dissecting-
room that, after spending the first half-day there, I went away
and could not be induced to return for nearly six weeks, and
1 did not get entirely over the melancholy produced for a year.
Then the desire to acquire information gradually overcame my
repugnancy, but so far was I from shaping my course for myself
that I never gave up the idea of sometime forsaking the dissecting-
room, until I was elected to my present position as professor of
anatomy" (Middleton, '23a). Philip Syng Physick, who preceded
him, also had some distaste for practical anatomy; both were
sensitive and scholarly anatomists.

Leidy became well-known for the magnificence of his dis-
sections and the students held him in high regard. He was gentle,
kind and taught anatomy as a pure science; his demonstrations
at the cadaver table, formed the most useful unit of his teach-
ing as his voice carried poorly in his lectures. A natural be-
liever in evolution, he constantly emphasized man's biological
I place in nature. In appearance, he looked like a conventional
Christ. He had a splendid head, deep-set, pensive blue eyes with
almost straight, overhanging eyebrows. In stature, he tended
toward stoutness since he carried 200 pounds on a five foot, ten
inch frame and he walked in a stooped manner. He was not in-
terested in wealth and he led a quiet and unpretentious home
I

222 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

life. In disposition, he was very amiable, friendly, generous and
charitable, honorable, direct, innocent of guile and incapable of,
deceit. At times, he could be quite emotional about things and
he was fond of music. In his pursuits, he was persistent and
diligent throughout his life and was always careful in the economy
of his time. He won a place for anatomy as a science in America.
Apparently, he was loved by all, as he was given a tremendous
funeral (Middleton, '23a).

Pennsylvania passed its first anatomical law in 1867 (Hart-
well, 1881b). It has since become a model for other states. Yet,
it did not abolish grave robbing entirely. As late as 1883, there
was an incident in this respect. In that year, a drunken, worth-
less soldier living in Easton, Pennsylvania, committed suicide by
hanging. Some trouble was encountered in giving him proper
rites but he was finally buried in a pauper's cemetery in Easton^

The evening of interment, Samuel D. Gross, a practicing
surgeon in Easton, called a student from the University of Pennsyl-
vania, who was home on a visit, into his office and said, "Green,
I want that fellow." That night, at a late hour. Gross, Green and
another student marched to the cemetery with a wheelbarrow
and spade. They located the grave in a remote corner of the
potter's field, where the soil was rough and undulating. They
set to work to unearth the coffin but the shovel made so much
noise that Gross said, ''Green, we had better quit or we'll get
caught." So they stopped, filled up the grave and left the premises.
A few days later, a brother of the deceased soldier, with the mis-
taken idea that the body had been stolen, met Green in the
street and said, "Doctor, I believe you got my brother's body."
The student responded with the enigmatical answer, "You can
believe what you please." This closed the incident (Rohrer, *12).

B. Early Dissection in New York — A.D. 1750 to 1790

Going back to colonial times (1750), the body of Hermanns
Carroll, a criminal executed in New York City, was injected
and dissected by Dr. John Bard and Peter Middleton; this was
used for medical instruction and was performed under legal
sanction (Ball, '28; Ladenheim, '50).

HUMAN DISSECTION IN THE MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 223

It became customary to make public announcements of
courses to be given in practical anatomy, that is, dissection, in
New York newspapers. The man who first had the courage to
do this was Thomas Wood. The means of communication was the
New York Weekly Postboy , dated January 27, 1752.
It was written as foJlows (Krumbhaar, '22):
"Whereas Anatomy is allowed on all Hands to be the Founda-
tion of PHYSICK and SURGERY, and consequently, without
SOME knowledge of it, no person can be duly qualified to prac-
tice either: This is, therefore, to inform the Publick That a
COURSE of OSTEOLOGY and MYOLOGY, is intended to be
begun, some Time in February next, in the City of New Bruns-
wick, (for which Notice will be given in this Paper, as soon as
the proper number have subscribed towards it). In which Course,
all the human BONES will be separately examined, and their
Connections and Dependencies on each other demonstrated; and
all the MUSCLES of a human BODY dissected; the Origin, In-
sertion, and Use of each plainly shown. This Course is proposed
to be finished in the Space of a Month.

Thomas Wood, Surgeon

"Such Gentlemen who are willing to attend this Course, are
desired to subscribe their Names as soon as possible, with Mr.
Richard Ayscough, Surgeon, at New York or said Thomas Wood,
at New Brunswick, paying at the same Time, THREE POUNDS,
Proc. and engaging to pay the Sum of Three Pounds more, when
the Course is half finished.

"N.B. If proper Encouragement is given in this Course, he
proposes soon after, to go thro' a Course of ANGIOLOGY and
NEUROLOGY; and conclude, with performing all the OPERA-
TIONS of SURGERY, on a dead body: The Use of which will
appear to every Person, who considered the Necessity of having
(at least) SEEN them performed, before he presumes to perform
them himself on any living Fellow Creature."

Several incidents occurred in New York City which caused
great excitement and attracted wide attention. In the late 1700's,
the greatest opposition to dissection existed among the poorer
classes, including Negroes. The reason for this was that grave

224 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

robbers most often combed pauper cemeteries chiefly because
they were buried closely together, often without coffins, which
made it easier to remove them. There was also greater leniency
toward thefts there.

In 1763, a Negro who was found guilty of rape was executed
and subsequently dissected by surgeon^ interested in anatomy.
This was a few years before the founding of King's College (1768).
The organization of this school was the aftermath of a course
given in anatomy by Dr. Samuel Glossy, beginning in 1763; this
individual became professor of anatomy there. It later merged
with the College of Physicians and Surgeons (1814), which was
founded in 1807 (Davis, 1877; Ladenheim, '50).

During the winter of 1788, reports circulated throughout
the community that grave robbing had been committed both at
a Negro cemetery and from the one at Trinity Church. This
precipitated a series of letters to the editors of newspapers, which
stirred up the feelings of the populace. These apparently con-
ditioned them so that they were in a responsive mood on the
occasion of a specific incident, the "Doctor's Riot," which oc-
curred on April 13, 1788. The following is an account of the
events: Three boys were playing near the hospital when one
climbed a ladder and looked into the laboratory window, where
several students and an instructor were dissecting a cadaver. A
Dr. Hicks either hung up an arm to dry, waved it at the peeking
child to frighten him away, or held it before his face and told
him it was his mother's arm (the boy's mother had in fact re-
cently died). The lad fled in terror and reported the incident to
his father who visited the grave of his recently deceased wife and
found the coffin open and the body missing. He returned to his
fellow laborers, who, armed with tools marched toward the hos-
pital. Adding numbers as they proceeded, they entered its south
wing and broke into the dissecting-room. There they found some
partially dissected bodies which they carried away and buried that
evening. Hospital property was wrecked. Rioters were sent out to
capture the physicians who were involved. Dr. Hicks managed
to escape, but his four companions were apprehended; they were
saved from immediate violence by the mayor and sheriff who
put them ill jail for safety. The following morning a crowd col-

HUMAN DISSECTION IN THE SOUTH ATLANTIC STATES 225

lected before the hospital, looking for Dr. Hicks, without avail,
and then searched the homes of other physicians for evidences
of dissecting material.

The governor, mayor and chancellor, who had assembled,
appealed for order but were for the most part ignored. The
mob went to the College of Physicians and Surgeons and swarmed
through the building but found nothing. By afternoon, 300 to
400 persons had gathered before the jail demanding the doctors.
Later the assembly, which had swelled to about 5,000 began to
storm the prison; the attack was put down only after the militia
resorted to extreme methods: shooting and killing eight rioters.
On the 15th, two days after the affair started, the military group
was reinforced. Although the city was alive with excitement, the
riot was not resumed. Later in the day, the soldiers held a parade.

Afterwards public sentiment ran so high that newspaper
advertisement of physicians were withheld for about ten days.
Several of the surgeons, known to be dissectors or suspected of
being implicated, publicly disavowed any connections with grave-
yard desecrations. Members of the profession tried to persuade
the public that the cadavers utilized were either condemned
prisoners or Negroes taken from cemeteries remote from city
limits. Their words went unheeded and anxious relatives flocked
to check on the graves of their loved ones. For a long time, there
were reports of "Dead Guard Men" protecting new graves (Davis,
1877; Hartwell, 1881a; Ladenheim, '50).

The New York State legislature soon after (1789) passed an
act to prevent the odious practice of digging up and removing
bodies interred in cemeteries for the purpose of dissection. The
penalty for so doing was corporal punishment. It also provided
that those executed for murder, arson or burglary, if unclaimed,
or given by relatives, could be used for dissection.

[XVIII]

HUMAN DISSECTION IN THE SOUTH
ATLANTIC STATES

A. The University of Maryland Medical School—
A.D. 1790 to 1958

JLhe activity in respect to early dissection, in the South At-
lantic States, centered around Baltimore, particularly the Uni-
versity of Maryland School of Medicine, which was founded in
1807.

One of the first to teach anatomy in this vicinity was Dr.
C. F. Wiesenthal. Dissections were carried on in a rear room of
his residence located on Fayette Street; considering the time, his
laboratory was well-equipped. In the year of 1788, he obtained the
body of Patrick Cassidy, an executed murderer, which was put in
the hands of his students. A mob, formed of certain citizens of
Baltimore, attacked his establishment and took the subject by
force (Cordell, '03).

The year 1 807 was a signal one in Maryland, because certain
events led to the development and organization of the University
of Maryland Medical School. Dr. John B. Davidge, who graduated
at Glasgow, in 1793, erected a small anatomical building, in
Baltimore, obtained a cadaver, and immediately started teach-
ing. When the populace, which consisted of about 8,000 people,
learned of this venture, a crowd gathered and totally destroyed
the structure. Great prejudice existed in Baltimore and this type
of violent action was generally approved. In this instance, the
physicians of the state rallied to the support of Dr. Davidge, and
drew up a charter for the purpose of founding a medical school.
The attempt was successful since it passed the legislature within
two weeks. Davidge was elected dean and professor of anatomy.
His first lectures were held in his home, but were discontinued

226

HUMAN DISSECTION IN THE SOUTH ATLANTIC STATES 227

when a suitable building was erected. The new edifice was orna-
mental and a credit to the city; it still stands as the oldest extant
in America, having been in continuous use for almost 250 years.
With its completion, anatomizing was resumed, but was done
under stealth. Concealed dissecting-areas behind the sloping seats
in the anatomical theatre were used when necessary. Also in-
cluded in the construction were hidden exits, stairways and cubby-
holes in anticipation of surprise attacks by irate citizens (Figge,
•57).

The second professor of anatomy at the University of Mary-
land was Granville Sharp Pattison, who would stand out as an
interesting character in any period. He arrived in America from
Scotland with the understanding that he would become professor
of surgery at the University of Pennsylvania but when he dis-
covered that this had been given to William Gibson, he migrated
to Baltimore, taking with him an extensive anatomical collec-
tion, which had evidently been bequeathed to him by Allen Burns
of Scotland. These, he sold to the University of Maryland for the
price of $8,000, a large amount for that time, which is indicative
of the scarcity of this type of material. Some of his collection still
exists and is used mainly for exhibition purposes.

Pattison was probably best known for his behavior in a clash
with Dr. Nathaniel Chapman of the University of Pennsylvania.
This may have been associated with the fact that he had been
rejected in respect to the chair of anatomy and surgery at that in-
stitution. At any rate. Chapman circularized pamphlets of a
malignant nature against the character of Pattison. Being a man
of strong emotions and prejudices, the latter responded in like
manner, publishing denials attempting to show that the claims
were false. So emotional did he become that he issued a chal-
lenge to Chapman to a duel.

Invading Chapman's territory in Philadelphia, Pattison took
the offensive and boldly posted a notice in two public places,
as follows (Figge, '57):

"To the Public

Whereas Nathaniel Chapman, M.D., professor of theory and
practice of medicine in the University of Pennsylvania . . . has

228 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

propagated scandalous and unfounded reports against my char-
acter, and, whereas when properly applied to has refused to give
an explanation of his conduct or the satisfaction which every gen-
tleman has a right to demand, and which no one having claim to
that character can refuse, I am, therefore, compelled to the only
step left me and post the said Dr. Nathaniel Chapman as a liar
and a coward and a scoundrel.— Granff/Ze Sharp Pattison."

For this announcement, Pattison was arrested. The challenge
to a duel was refused by Chapman on the grounds of his age, a
large family and the obligations of his position. He wrote, "It
really would seem, under any circumstances not quite fit to have
introduced my course of lectures with the spectacle of a duel. . . .
With Mr. Pattison it is entirely different. He is an adventurer
with a tainted reputation, which he hoped to repair."

This was not the end of the affair. The feud continued for
several years. Things came to a climax when Pattison openly and
publicly insulted Chapman before his brother-in-law. General
Thomas Cadwalader. A duel with pistols, was arranged and took
place somewhere in Delaware. Both parties displayed great cool-
ness, but Pattison came off the victor, wounding Cadwalader in
his pistol arm near the wrist. The ball traversed the entire length
of the forearm and lodged in the head of the ulna. Cadwalader
put a shot through the skirt of Pattison's coat near the waist
(Figge, '57; Miller, '18).

The University of Maryland was one of the first medical
schools, in America, to make human dissection by medical stu-
dents compulsory. This practice was instituted in 1833 about the
same time it was adopted at the University of Edinburgh. By 1850,
of the sixteen medical schools in the United States, only three
required anatomizing. Introduced at this time also was the in-
stallation of gaslights in the anatomical laboratory which en-
abled pupils to work on bodies in the evenings. It wasn't until
1882 that Maryland passed an anatomy act; however, before that
Baltimore was being called the "Paris of America," because of
the adequacy of its anatomical supply (Figge, '57).

The only known "burking" in the United States occurred
in Baltimore, in 1886. It became a famous case and involved a
well-known woman by the name of Emily Brown; she was the

HUMAN DISSECTION IN THE SOUTH ATLANTIC STATES 229

daughter of a respectable innkeeper who lived on the eastern
shore of Maryland. This lady had the reputation of being a well-
educated and charming southern belle. When her father passed
away, she moved to Richmond where she kept house for her
brother for eleven years. Following his death, she gradually de-
teriorated and at the age of fifty, drifted to Baltimore where she

Figure 16. A photograph of an anatomy class at the University of Maryland,
taken about the time of the passage of the first Maryland anatomy act
(1882). From Figge, F. H. J.: Anatomy 150 years ago. The Kalends,
?(^;11-14, 1957. By permission of Professor Figge and The Williams &

Wilkins Co.

walked the streets, frequently under the influence of drugs and
liquor. Destitute, she began living with a Negro family in one
of the poorest sections of the city. In this residence, lived a Negro
man, John T. Ross, who served as porter in the dissecting-room
at the University of Maryland. He, with the help of another
Negro, strangled her because, as a corpse, she was regarded as

230 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

saleable. Her body was sold for $15 to the University of Mary-
land. On receipt, the condition of the subject aroused suspicion,
the police were called in to investigate, the murderers were ap-
prehended, convicted and hanged on September 9, 1887 (Ball,
'28; Guttmacher, '35).

The 1882 Anatomy Act of Maryland did not function effec-
tively as far as providing sufficient cadavers was concerned. The
anatomical professors signed a petition in 1888 to modify the act,
claiming that shortages prevailed and that they had to rely on
body snatching. This led to the introduction of a bill in the state
senate providing for the use of bodies of tramps and vagabonds.
The teachers suggested that it be amended so that friends of de-
ceased persons could not claim subjects for burial. In March of
1890, a State Anatomical Board was formed, partly precipitated
by the "burking" incident quoted above (Cordell, '03; Kelly, '08;
Sabin, '34).

Franklin Mall, selected as the Head of Anatomy at the newly
formed Johns Hopkins Medical School, complained that the ana-
tomical law of Maryland was inadequate. He wrote on November
15, 1893, that, "The problem now changes from teaching anatomy
to obtaining cadavers for a new school." He used only three for
sixteen students during his first term. One of those, he said he
got at the "risk of his life" (Guttmacher, '35). By the end of the
year, however, he was obtaining enough through legal channels.

In 1897, Dr. Jones, the new Health Commissioner of Mary-
land, ordered all bodies turned over to the Anatomical Board for
disposal. If they were not claimed for educational purposes, they
had to be buried at public expense. In the four years prior to
this, the average number received by Mall per year was forty-
four. During Jones' tenure, it rose to 185. The last subject ac-
quired in Maryland by illegal means was in 1899. The anatomical
law of 1882 was revised in 1938 and again in 1949 (Figge, *57;
Guttmacher, '35; Mall, '05).

B. Washington, D.C.-A.D. 1865 to 1900

The history of dissection in Washington, D.C. was described
in 1896, by Dwight, as being particularly bad and disgraceful after

HUMAN DISSECTION IN THE SOUTH ATLANTIC STATES 231

the Civil War. He cited the instance of 500 students, distributed
among several schools, dissecting bodies, all of which had been
obtained illegally. He claimed that the experiences of the North-
South conflict taught military suregons how important anatomy
could be. The sentiment began to undergo a change, thereafter,
becoming more favorable toward the practice of dissection. After
the hostilities had ceased, Washington became infested with res-
urrectionists and they did a large volume of business. One, by
name of Janssen, was frequently arrested, particularly because he
was bold enough to raid the better class cemeteries. His activities
ranged as far as Baltimore. In the capital city, he stole the body
of a hanged criminal and sold it to a medical school; the next
night he re-stole it with the intention of selling it to another in-
stitution but was caught with the booty in his hack. After serving
the term of his sentence, he had the temerity to give daily lec-
tures in one of the smaller theaters in Washington, using a dummy
as a sham corpse. During his activities in Washington, the police
were kept so busy that the ordinary course of business was badly
disrupted. The medical schools finally combined to make up a
purse to induce Janssen to depart from the region; this is prob-
ably the only case of such an instance on record. His final arrest
for grave robbery was made in 1884.

It wasn't until 1902 that the United States Congress created
an Anatomical Board consisting of the district health officer, two
members from each medical school, one from the postgraduate
school and one from the medical school of the Army and Navy.
The board had to be notified of all unclaimed persons dying
within the District of Columbia and they had to be apportioned
to the medical institutions according to the number of students
enrolled each year (Correspondence, '02).

C. Dissection in Virginia- A.D. 1830 to 1865

In Virginia, the legislature refused to sanction the dissection
of executed murderers, so that it was impossible to anatomize
legally (Hartwell, 1881a; Krumbhaar, '22). A pioneer in the
teaching of practical anatomy there was Augustus L. Warner. He
gave lectures on this subject in a private dissecting-hall located at

232 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

the rear of the University of Virginia, at Charlottesville. The
course started on November 5, 1830 and was continued for four
months. A fee of |10 was charged students for the privilege of
anatomizing. This teacher was held in high regard and made a
great reputation for himself.

Warner was appointed Professor of Anatomy, Physiology and
Surgery at the University in 1834, and began his duties there with
an enrollment of thirty students. He announced that he would
teach from the cadaver. Embarrassed by the lack of material, he
found it necessary to organize groups of students to undertake
expeditions of systematic body snatching. It was he, in association
with other young doctors who liked to teach, who were respon-
sible for chartering the Medical College of Virginia, in Richmond
(Blanton, '42).

The Winchester Medical College, located in Winchester,
Virginia, now extinct, merits some mention, because of an epi-
sode which occurred there. It was chartered in 1826 and was
closed in 1829, but reopened in 1850 and survived until 1861.
During the latter period, it was able to obtain an ample supply
of cadavers by dint of furtive activity and much hard work. The
professor of anatomy, together with his students, frequently drove
out to the cemeteries and dug all night to get enough subjects.

A number of students at this school became involved in an
incident at Harper's Ferry at the time John Brown, the aboli-
tionist, was there with his forces, attacking the federal arsenal.
This was in October of 1859. The young medics attracted by
the excitement, went to Harper's Ferry by train from Winchester.
They alighted before it reached the depot and proceeded toward
the scene of activity; they soon came across a dead body, which
had been shot in the umbilicus, lying on the bank of a river.
Conditioned to be on a constant search for anatomical material,
they obtained a box, packed the subject and shipped it back to
the medical college at Winchester. After it arrived there, papers
were found on the body which proved it to be Owen Brown,
the son of John Brown. The cadaver was prepared for dissection
and used for teaching purposes. McGuire ('38) states that the
specimen was shipped back north again in 1862, by General Banks,
of the Federal Army. This military man entered Winchester in

HUMAN DISSECTION IN THE SOUTH ATLANTIC STATES 233

March of 1862 and ordered the medical building burned, re-
garded by McGuire as an act of hate and passion. If this tale is
true, it means that the dissected body of Owen Brown must have
been preserved in some way from October of 1859 to March of
1862, which seems rather unlikely.

[XIX]

HUMAN DISSECTION IN THE EAST
NORTH CENTRAL STATES

Xhese states comprise Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan and
Wisconsin. A total of 135 medical schools have existed in this re-
gion at one time or another of which thirteen now remain. Most
of the factual knowledge available, in respect to human dissection,
revolves around the states of Ohio and Illinois.

A. Dissection in Ohio-A.D. 1810 to 1880

Of the forty-two medical schools which have been established
in the State of Ohio, three now survive. Considerable informa-
tion has been published on the status of human dissection there
particularly by Edwards ('50-'51, '51, '54).

Body snatching was recognized early by the people of certain
regions in Ohio. In 1811, before the organizing of medical schools,
a robbed grave was discovered during the winter in the city of
Zanesville. A wheelbarrow was the vehicle used to transport the
body, which left a track in the snow. By following it, searchers
were led to a hotel which served as a residence for three medical
apprentices. The mob broke into the building and found the
stolen body placed behind some logs in the basement. A shambles
was made of the hotel.

The state legislature tried to do something about resurrection
in 1831 when it passed a law subjecting those found guilty of
body snatching to a fine up to $1,000 or thirty days imprisonment.
This was amended in 1839, making the sentence one to three
years in the penitentiary. It, apparently, did not stop the practice
since an angry crowd gathered at the Worthington Medical Col-
lege, organized in 1831 for the purpose of protesting recent grave
robberies carried on by the school. So emotionally aroused were

234

HUMAN DISSECTION IN THE NORTH CENTRAL STATES 235

the people, that they threatened to destroy the buildings. The
officials felt forced to close the college and soon moved it to Cin-
cinnati. After changing its name several times, it dissolved in 1939.

Following this (1840), a bill was introduced into the legis-
lature to legalize dissection but it was postponed indefinitely.

Under somewhat similar circumstances, as had occurred at
Worthington, Willoughby Medical College was forced to move
to Columbus in 1847; it is now Ohio State University Medical
School.

On October 25, 1845, the citizens of Painesville, Ohio put
their feelings in writing, challenging the need of medical schools,
in the form of two resolutions, the second of which read as fol-
lows: "Resolved: That the depredation of morals consequent upon
the disinterment of bodies, and the annihilation of the better
feelings and sentiments that usually follow a long familiarity with
the horrid dissecting-room, renders it no doubtful question,
whether medical colleges are not productive of more mischief than
benefit to the country" (Edwards, '51).

In Cincinnati in 1852, it took only human skeletons to pre-
cipitate a mob attack. These were discovered in a small shack, on
Walnut Hill Road, bearing the sign of "Chemical Laboratory."
When confronted, the owner of the place and his partner fled the
scene in horse and buggy. On their way toward the city center,
they were arrested for fast driving. This permitted the pursuing
crowd to overtake them. Both the officers who now served as
defenders, and the pair were badly beaten. Nevertheless, the au-
thorities were able to reach the prison where the suspected men
were safely ensconced. They were soon freed when it was learned
that the bodies, from which the skeletons had been prepared for
scientific purposes, had been legally obtained.

Cincinnati was the habitat of another interesting profes-
sional resurrectionist, William Cunningham, who was born in
Ireland in 1807; he was known in the trade as "Old Cunny."
He was also called "The Ghoul" and "Old Dead Man." Accord-
ing to Edwards ('54), he was described by the parents of the ill-
behaved children as a bogeyman. As a part-time vocation, he
worked at the game of body snatching between 1855 and 1871.

In many respects, he was the counterpart of the lowest type

236 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

of resurrectionist flourishing in Great Britain earlier in the same
century. Physically, he was a big, rawboned muscular man with
a protruding lower jaw and he possessed an unconquerable thirst
for liquor of any kind.

One of his methods of transporting a body was to place it,
dressed in old clothes, on the seat beside him in his buggy.
Throughout the journey to the medical school, the subject was
treated as if it were alive and drunk. With people within hearing
distance, he would talk to the corpse as follows: ''Sit up! This is
the last time I am going to take you home when you get drunk.
The idea of a man with a family disgracing himself in this way"
(Edwards, '54).

On one occasion, while on their way to perform some resur-
recting. Gunny and his two helpers stopped at a saloon in Garthage
for liquor refreshments. It was near midnight and their behavior
aroused the suspicions of the patrons sufficiently so that they
organized a posse to follow them. They were stalked to a ceme-
tery and while in the process of digging for two subjects, shots
were fired at them. The only one who stood his ground was Gunny
and he refused to elevate his hands when so ordered. One of the
members of the posse, with gun aimed at him, pulled the trigger,
but it failed to go off. On hearing the click, Gunny decided he
had enough and gave up, pleading for his life. This was granted
and they headed in the direction of Garthage; on the way, the
captive. Gunny, offered to buy the others a drink at a tavern
they were passing, which was accepted with alacrity. After they
had consumed several. Gunny was released, on the condition that
he return straightaway to Gincinnati. The grave robber, however,
headed back to the scene of his previous activities, found that his
assistants had removed the pair of cadavers and put them in
sacks; thus, they were ready for transportation.

At another time, the same body snatchers were apprehended
near Hartley, Ohio, with two subjects in their possession. They
were arrested; the specimens were taken to a funeral establish-
ment to be identified, if possible. The three culprits were released
on bail, the succeeding morning. That afternoon, two men of
unassuming appearance, arrived at the undertaker's parlor, and
said to an assistant, who was there alone, that they were author-

HUMAN DISSECTION IN THE NORTH CENTRAL STATES 237

ized to remove the pair of bodies to the coroner's office, where an
inquest would be held. When the owner returned and learned
of the news, the coroner was contacted. He was informed by this
individual that the subjects had not been delivered to his office
nor had he sent for them. Because the subjects in question could
not be produced as evidence, the charge against the resurrec-
tionists was dropped and their bail money returned.

Gunny's activities in this field ranged beyond the confines
of Cincinnati as he resorted to shipping bodies across the state
lines. The Cincinnati Daily Gazette on January 20, 1870, con-
tained an item reporting that he had deposited at the United
States express office, a box labeled "glass with care, C.O.D.,"
which was addressed to Dr. M. P. Hayden, Leavenworth, Kan-
sas." On seeing who the shipper was, the agents became suspicious,
opened the container, discovered the body of a Negress, which
they thought was definitely "prepared for the dissecting knife"
since it was enclosed in a giveaway sack. They refused to ship the
parcel and it was returned to Cunningham (Edwards, '54).

Medical students of those days apparently played jokes on
Cunny when they could get away with it, which was not often.
To get revenge on one group, he resurrected the body of a small-
pox victim, delivered it to their school and was satisfied to learn
that several of them contracted the disease.

Near the end of Cunny's resurrecting activities, when he
was sixty-three years of age, he was arrested for being drunk and
firing a huge revolver on Central Avenue in Cincinnati (January
13, 1870). At that time, and the following year, he was doing a
lucrative business. This was possible both because of the local
demand and the ease of obtaining subjects. It was a simple mat-
ter to get in cemetery grounds. A newspaper of the day com-
mented how men of extremely low social standing were buying
fine homes and driving in expensive carriages. Edwards ('54)
states that presumably the article was referring particularly to

I "Old Cunny."
The career of this character came to an end late in 1871 and
the Cincinnati Daily Enquirer^ of August 31st, featured it under
the title, "The Champion Resurrectionist Caught" (Edwards,
'54). At 1:00 A.M., in the morning, two officers, on patrol in Cin-

238 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

cinnati, were attracted to a scene, where an old man, in a horse
and buggy, was being chased down the street, followed by a
crowd of men, who were shouting and trying to catch him. When
the policemen called for him to stop, the man, who was "Old
Cunny," responded by whipping his horse, who was lame and
tired from drawing a heavy load. After sprinting, a patrolman
was able to grab the bridle of the animal and bring it to a halt;
the other took care of the driver. Two sacks, containing bodies,
were found in the wagon; one was that of a mature man, the other
a young boy ten to twelve years of age.

Cunny was imprisoned and the two subjects turned over to
the coroner. On posting $300 bail, he was released but later, in
September, was indicted on five counts. There is no record of
his subsequent history with the law. On October 23, 1871, he
became a patient in the Cincinnati Hospital and died ten days
later. This wasn't actually the end of ''Old Cunny," because his
widow turned his body over to the Medical College of Ohio (now
the University of Cincinnati College of Medicine) and received
the unspectacular sum of |5 for it. His skeleton rests in the mu-
seum of that institution (Edwards, '54).

Baldwin ('36) cites an incident which occurred while he was
teaching anatomy at Columbus Medical College during the last
quarter of the 19th Century. A mulatto, more white than Negro,
had been lynched by an angry mob because he was suspected
of raping a white woman. The body was turned over to the school;
when it arrived in the anatomical laboratory, it made quite an
impression because of its remarkable muscular development. An
agreement was immediately made with the students assigned to
dissect it, that the college would recompense them for turning
the skeletal parts over to them; directions were given to the dis-
sectors as to how the bones should be preserved. Later, these parts
were sent to a reliable firm in the east. Impressed by the mag-
nificence of the osseous parts, they wrote back that they would like
to give it special treatment rather than employ the ordinary boil
ing process for cleansing. Baldwin replied, giving them perm is
sion to treat the matter as they saw best. When the articulated
skeleton was returned, it was judged by all to be a remarkable
specimen and was used for many years in teaching anatomy.

HUMAN DISSECTION IN THE NORTH CENTRAL STATES 239

The same author states that in the early days of grave rob-
bing, it was generally looked upon as a sort of religious offense
rather than a crime. Legally, it was nothing more than a mis-
demeanor, which was difficult to prove; therefore, it was pun-
ished by either a short jail sentence or a minimal fine. Medical
students were usually quite glad to accompany a demonstrator,
or any procurer of bodies, and looked upon such a venture as a
mere lark. There was a feeling among the profession that this
type of stealing should be limited to the subjects which were
those of executed criminals or of the pauper type. However, the
dearth of material led to an utter disregard of this idea.

A body snatching episode of paramount significance, occurred
in the state of Ohio, in the year of 1878. It involved a member
of a distinguished family and was responsible for changes in the
anatomical laws of several states. On May 26, 1878, John Scott
Harrison, U. S. Senator passed away and was buried three days
later in Congress Green Cemetery, located in North Bend, Ohio.
He was the son of William H. Harrison, who served as President
of the United States for one month in 1841, and was the father
of Benjamin Harrison who became President in 1888. The day
after John Scott Harrison was put in his grave, one of his sons
and a nephew went to Cincinnati in search of the body of one
William Devin, a young friend of the family; they had informa-
tion that it had been stolen from its grave and transported to that
city. In their investigation, they canvassed the Medical College
of Ohio (University of Cincinnati) without finding any evidence
of the subject they were looking for and were about to abandon
the project. At that moment, a body was raised up into the dis-
secting-room by means of a hoist. Its head and shoulders were
covered with a cloth. When the hood was removed, both young
men recognized it as being the body of John Scott Harrison, in
spite of the fact that his patriarchal beard had been cut off below
the chin. The commotion that followed can easily be imagined.
The deceased's son, Benjamin, arrived on the premises the fol-
lowing day and he endeavored to arouse public sentiment, at
which he was successful. The newspapers of the city and, in fact,
the whole nation contributed their share in arousing the emotions
of the populace.

240 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

Most of the members of the anatomical departments through-
out the state met to discuss this unusual case and it was not long
after that a delegation representing them met with a committee
of the state legislature. It was decided that the medical schools
sorely needed dissecting-material and that adequate facilities for
obtaining it did not exist. A bill was introduced which was hur-
riedly enacted into law (1879). The act of body snatching be-
came a penitentiary offense, with a heavy fine attached; before
this it was simply a misdemeanor. This was instrumental in pro-
viding a more plentiful supply at the time.

In the late fall of 1878, a body was stolen from the cemetery
belonging to the Columbus Hospital, by several students from
Columbus Medical College. This site had long been a common
ground for resurrectionists. While transporting it from the wagon
into the basement of the school, a policeman who was on beat,
accosted and interrogated them. The "gentlemen" body snatchers
were frank with their answers since they thought that everyone
understood the prevailing custom. The officer decided he had a
case against them and they were arrested.

On learning of the situation, a college official put the body,
that of a young girl, in a cheap coffin, and deposited it in the
potter's field located in the south end of the city. Two men from
the hospital, Baldwin and Bailey, drove to the cemetery and found
the subject in a small, frame tool house. The lid of the box was
opened and it came off with an explosive force. The coffin was
full of flies and the sight filled the pair with horror. The girl's
face was distorted, her eyes were wide open and maggots were
rolling out of her mouth. The corpse was promptly returned to
its former resting place. Later, the policeman was discharged for
his stupidity (Baldwin, '36).

Also, in 1878, Dr. Erwin Heyl, a young Columbus physician,
removed four subjects from a Zanesville cemetery, but was caught
with them in his carriage. He was brought to court and his trial
proved to be a mere formality. The judge sentenced him to one
year in jail, three months for each body, together with a fine
of $1,000. The doctor had little money in his possession but
his wife had some which she used in his behalf. A few months
later, when feelings had died down somewhat, she solicited a

HUMAN DISSECTION IN THE NORTH CENTRAL STATES 241

pardon from Governor Richard M. Bishop, who was sympathetic
and granted one eliminating the jail sentence. However, the
citizens of the commvmity were against the decision and the
sheriff, who was running for re-election, and wanted to stand
in good with the voters, refused twice to give up the prisoner on
the grounds that the governor's secretary had misspelled the name.
When it was considered for the third time, the appellation was
written with great care and the release also included the exclu-
sion of the fine. As a sidelight item, the sheriff was not re-elected.

The attitude of the press towards medical colleges was re-
vealed by the following item in an Ohio newspaper, written on
November 18, 1878 (Edwards, '51):

"In all parts of the country are established medical colleges.
In fact, a second class city is not thought to be complete unless a
medical college is established within its limits. Here collect ig-
norant professors to lecture to still more ignorant pupils. Sur-
gery! Not one in a hundred knows anything whatever about sur-
gery. But bodies must be secured to make the brainless youth be-
lieve the brainless professors know something about surgery. These
brainless youths, who will soon be turned out to prey, like a set
of harpies, upon the people, must be taught, however, to make
sport over the remains of some body, which has been stolen from
where relatives and friends have tenderly placed it. It is a most
disgraceful thing that the people are preyed upon by ignorant
blockheads who sail under the name of physicians."

In 1880, the law was amended so that a more abundant sup-
ply of cadavers became available and resurrection was outlawed
completely. On February 19, 1881, all unclaimed bodies which
liad to be buried at the expense of the town became legally avail-
able for anatomical dissection.

B. Dissection in lUinois-A.D. 1850 to 1900

Forty-four medical schools have existed in the state of Illi-
nois, at one time or another, and only five survive. There is evi-
dence that grave robbing was an established practice as early as
the middle of the 19th Century.

242 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

One of the first incidents of significance involved a Dr. Prince,
who taught anatomy at the Medical Department of Illinois Col-
lege, located in Jacksonville in the east-central part of the state, not
far from Springfield. This institution had only a five year ex-
istence principally because of difficulty in acquiring an adequate
supply of subjects. Dr. Prince refused to teach anatomy without
offering its practical aspects. Nightly excursions were made to
the cemeteries by the demonstrator and students. The professor
was blamed for certain unexplained developments. An irate mob
approached the school and accused him and his students of ex-
huming the body of George Joseph Duncan. With the help of
some influential persons, the wrath of the rioters was assuaged and
injury averted. This event, which took place in 1848, was instru-
mental in hastening the closing of the school.

About this same time, 1849, Franklin Medical College, lo-
cated in St. Charles, about forty miles west of Chicago, became in-
volved in a more serious affair. This school also had a short
survival time. A discovery was made that a fresh grave in the
neighboring town of Sycamore had been robbed of its inhabitant.
The blame fell on the medical students of St. Charles. An armed
mob formed, proceeded to that city and stopped at the home of
Dr. George W. Richards, professor of anatomy, demanding that
the body in question be turned over to them. The teacher's family
fled by climbing the stone wall in the rear of the house, but he
held his ground. He did his best to convince the angry crowd that
the subject in question was not in his residence. When they in-
sisted on entrance, he closed the door, locked it and braced him-
self against it. One of the members of the gang shot through the
door and the bullet passed through the upper part of Richard's
arm, severing a part of his brachial plexus. Thereafter, he was
permanently paralyzed in this part of the body. In this fracas,
the student who was credited with securing the body, was injured
and died of his wounds (Anson, '56; Edwards, *51).

After repeated outrages of this nature, in the year of 188.')
the state legislature passed an anatomical law for the protection
of the people (Weaver, '23-'25).

At the turn of the century, there was little general oui
spoken opposition to human dissection, in Illinois, but a fanatical

HUMAN DISSECTION IN THE NORTH CENTRAL STATES 243

leader of a religious sect in Zion City, a suburb of Chicago, cre-
ated a sensation by claiming that both Michelangelo and da Vinci
practiced dissection on living humans. This zealot was opposed
to all medical treatment and all science. He taught that the world
was flat. He wrote: "I will tell the story of a dissecting-room where
the first touch of the lancet made the supposed corpse rise from
her long trance; and as the sight burst upon her of those butcher-
ing students with their garments stained with blood, standing
around her, all aghast with fear, holding their knives in their
hands, she realized the horrible fact that she had been carried
there for dissection, and she instantly died from the shock and
the wounds inflicted by their knives. . . . The very best man in
the profession will tell you that nineteen-twentieths of the dis-
sections are unnecessary. But they please the devils who are pre-
paring the doctors, and accustom the youths to the atmosphere of
profanity as they hear the filthy and unclean remarks which are
made as they stand over the dead bodies and handle the sacred
secrecies of humanity and laugh with diabolical glee over the con-
sequences of a poor woman's fall or a degraded youth's syphilitic
)dy. I tell you this, that pollution, damnation, and hell are hold-
ig high carnival there, and a young man who escapes from that
dthout life-long injury is only one in a large number" (Hag-
prd, '29).

C. Dissection in Indiana— A.D. 1880 to 1890

The state of Indiana has had twenty-seven medical schools

^during its history of which one survives. Although it passed an

latomical law in 1879, as a result of the resurrection of John

:ott Harrison, in the neighboring state of Ohio, body snatch-

fing was still in vogue at the turn of the century. In this year,

^twenty-five persons were indicted for such violation and these

included several physicians, identified with local medical colleges.

rFifteen empty graves were found in the vicinity of Indianapolis

and several bodies were traced to the medical schools. An editorial

in the Medical Standard, 1902, stated that it was estimated that a

■gang apparently led by a number of Negroes, had resurrected

^approximately 100 bodies. At the time of the article, the real

Iresponsibility for the affair had not been traced to its source.

244 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

The people of the community were very much aroused on learn-
ing of this development and were backing the resources of the
law to catch the offenders (Editorial, '02).

The editor felt that grave robbing was regarded with special
horror and detestation and that the medical profession must look
upon it without a measure of satisfaction and with disapproval.
The practice was doubtless excusable and necessary a century be-
fore when the law made no provision for anatomical material so
essential in the teaching of medicine. He claimed there was no
reason for it in 1902 and he could only conceive of the medical
colleges participating in such a sad business on the theory that
the Indiana law was totally inadequate to fulfill the needs of the
medical students. Until there was more evidence, he viewed with
suspicion any effort to fix the guilt upon his confreres in Indi-
anapolis.

D. Dissection in Michigan— A.D. 1850 to 1870

The state of Michigan has had sixteen medical schools
throughout its history, of which two survive. The University of
Michigan was organized in 1850 and as early as 1866, it had 525
students enrolled in its medical courses, which made it the largest
extant in America at that time. It was staffed by distinguished
teachers. The anatomical classes were so large that bodies had to
be shipped in from the outside. This was done by means of in-
nocent looking barrels labeled "John Smith, University of Michi-
gan, Ann Arbor, Michigan." Bodies were put in these with head
and feet on the bottom, legs flexed and breech uppermost. Most
were white, some were Negroes and a very few were Asiatic.
Only the professor of anatomy and demonstrator knew the source
of these specimens (Johnson, '23).

[XX]

STATUS OF HUMAN DISSECTION IN THE
UNITED STATES-A.D. 1900 to 1958

A,

.natomical teaching in the United States has probably been
subject to more alterations during the past half-century than has
that in the medical schools of any other nation. These changes
have involved the subject of gross anatomy, which is dependent
almost entirely, or at least basically, upon an adequate supply
of suitable cadavers. In considering the evolution of this specialty
in American medicine, the following factors can be enumerated:

1. The impact of standardizing agencies.

2. The number of anatomical departments and medical stu-
dents existing from year to year.

3. The demand, from various sources, for cadavers (medi-
cal, dental, embalmers and others).

4. A consideration of a rapidly expanding population.

5. The status of anatomical laws.

6. The growth of new subjects in the medical curriculum.

7. The general attitude of the public towards dissection.

In order to draw comparisons, a picture of the status of ana-
tomical teaching in this country, shortly before 1900, is briefly
^resented. With a few notable exceptions, the medical schools
^vhich existed were of the fly-by-night variety. Classes were held
in rudimentary buildings possessing the poorest of laboratories.
Any young physician could route out statutes for a proposed medi-
cal school in the form of a stock corporation. All that was neces-
sary, was to elect a council of administration, request state author-
ities to inscribe a new creation in official registers and issue a pros-
pectus for publication in medical periodicals, with a list of profes-
sors, who the day before might have been simple and unknown
physicians. Diplomas were granted at the end of two years and

245

246 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

graduates were allowed to practice in the state where their medical
school was located. Between 1776-1810, seven new medical schools
were chartered; between 1810-1840, twenty-six; in the interval
1840-1875, forty-seven; and seventy-nine between 1875 and 1901.
This sums up to a total of 159.

According to Bardeen ('05), the standards fell as the schools
multiplied and as little medical education as possible was sold
at the highest possible rate. As the competition was keen, they
were reluctant to add anything new, which might frighten stu-
dents away. There were, however, a few first-rate private insti-
tutions affiliated with universities; also state controlled ones were
beginning to be strongly organized and staffed.

Prior to and for a short period after the beginning of the
present century, practically all of the teachers were part time.
They consisted of a professor, who occupied the chair, and one
or more demonstrators who were in charge of the dissecting-
laboratory. The former presented lectures only. Most were sur-
geons, the heads usually having a practice whereas the others
were in the process of establishing one. Together, they spent be-
tween 800 and 900 hours, almost entirely on gross anatomy. In
general, the teachers used their positions as stepping stones to their
practice, which enhanced the opinion that anatomy constitutes
the handmaid of surgery. They taught authoritatively with most
of their energies being devoted to Gray's Anatomy and to the
neglect of microscopy and research. Main stress was put on the
quiz. Because they did not consider anatomy as a science, they
made few contributions to the field. Between 1872-1881, there
were thirty investigations by American anatomists reported in
Schwalkes Jahresberichte, 1 per cent of the total, and in the in-
terval 1892-1901, there were nearly 400 among 10,000 international
contributions, about 4 per cent of all listed (Bardeen, '05; Mall,
'06).

Some of the important medical and private agencies which
have both analyzed and influenced medical schools in reform in
anatomy at various times since 1900 are the following:

1. The Council on Medical Education of the American Med-
ical Association which began to classify medical schools as early
as 1906 on the basis as to how medical students fared in State

STATUS OF HUMAN DISSECTION IN THE UNITED STATES 247

Board examinations, including anatomy (Report of Council on
Medical Education, '06).

2. A sub-committee of anatomists, appointed by the Associa-
tion of American Medical Colleges to make recommendations
for reform in anatomy (Bardeen, '09).

3. The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teach-
ing which published the well-known Flexner report on Medical
Education in the United States and Canada, in 1910.

4. The Commission on Medical Education which was ap-
pointed by the Association of American Medical Colleges and
which reported their conclusions in 1932 in a volume entitled,
Final Reports of the Commission on Medical Education.

5. The Weiskotten report on Medical Education in the
United States, published in 1940 by the Council on Medical Edu-
cation of the American Medical Association.

6. National, State and Specialty Boards of Examiners.

7. The Commonwealth Fund which published Medical Ed-
ucation in the Changing Order (Allen, '46) and Trends in Medi-
cal Education (Atchley, '49) and the John and Mary Markle and
Rockefeller Foundations which sponsored meetings of the Ameri-
can Surgical and Dental Associations for the purpose of suggesting
improvements in undergraduate medical education ('50).

It may be of interest to mention specific opinions and stand-
ards regarding anatomy by some of the above agencies which
have most influenced the subject since 1900. In 1906, the Council
on Medical Education of the American Medical Association di-
vided the medical schools of the United States into four classes de-
pending upon the percentage of student failures in State Board
Medical Examinations in anatomy. The average number was high
and the members believed the first step in raising the general
standards of medical education was by abolishing all the medical
schools which were then conducted for profit.

Bardeen ('05) reported the recommendations of a sub-com-
mittee of anatomists appointed by the American Medical Asso-
ciation to study teaching in anatomy as follows: They felt that
anatomy was in bad repute. The members suggested that all teach-
ers of this subject should be full-time, have a thorough profes-
sional training in the various branches of anatomy, have demon-

248 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

strated ability in applied teaching and research and that there
should ideally be one teacher for every fifteen to twenty students.
The time should be decreased from an average of 800-900 to 680
hours where the course of study had a total of 4,100 hours. They
also proposed that histology, embryology and neuroanatomy be
given consideration as major subjects.

Flexner, in his well-known 1910 report, stated that anatomy,
the oldest of the laboratory sciences, logically comes first in the
curriculum because it is so fundamental. He believed that his-
tology, embryology, physiology and pathology had given it back
its youth making it once more a green and flourishing science.
According to him, the anatomist was carrying a steadily increas-
ing load; the surgeons were embarking on hitherto unknown ven-
tures, the physical indications involving most delicate structures
and discriminations were important to the clinicians and the
preclinical teachers leaned on him. The student, he felt, must
gain a picture of the body as a whole, of its parts taken severally
in their relations. He stated that the teacher had two choices:
stick to teaching what he thought was useful and practical or ap-
proach the subject from the broad scientific viewpoint. There
was no doubt in Flexner's mind that the latter road was the better
to follow; he reported rather deplorable conditions existing in
the anatomical departments of the medical schools functioning
in 1909.

The Commission on Medical Education ('32) reported that
anatomy was overcrowded; that it is closely related to biology
on the one hand and clinical medicine on the other; that students
studying it should visualize structures in the living, healthy in-
dividual; that minute details should not be taught in the under-
graduate courses but rather in the specialties so that the amount
of time devoted to it in the first year could be reduced; and fi-
nally, provisions should be made at intervals throughout the four
year medical course for review and extension of anatomical know I
edge. This group felt that the instruction could be improved by
using such instruments as the ophthalmoscope, otoscope, x-ray
and others as well as clinical illustrations. In the opinion of its
members, it was not necessary for anatomy to have profound ( liiii
cal and practical application in the imdergraduate course.

STATUS OF HI MAN DISSECTION IN THE UNITED STATES 249

According to the Weiskotten report of 1940, no subject in
medical education can be considered to be more basic than anat-
omy; therefore, it should serve as the underlying foundation for
the students, training and experience. It states there is a great
need for more capable and scientific leadership for the students
of anatomy. One of the first essentials for a professor of anatomy
is that he have an M.D. but this might mean nothing as some of
the outstanding teachers in the country are without it. This group
of educators felt that anatomical departments need more financial
support, that standards should not be uniform and that the
teaching should deal with fundamental principles rather than
course content, clock-hours or rnethods. It also felt that anatomical
or other research tends to create a favorable atmosphere and could
be one of the most inspirational features in a department.

Since medical graduates must pass either a State or National
Board Examination in order to obtain a license to practice, the
type and nature of the questions given in anatomy will be of some
significance in determining standards. Some schools, for instance,
require all of their students to pass the National Boards before
they confer the M.D. degree. Clements ('39), in his survey, stated
that the Boards refer to a maze of anatomical detail, that 78.4 per
cent of the questions require descriptive answers and that 79 per
cent were on gross structure. He concluded that a broad knowl-
edge of the subject is necessary to successfully cope with the Board
exams. Whippel ('43) reported that out of 991 candidates ex-
amined by the American Board of Surgery, 175 failed in anatomy
and he felt that many are either poorly trained, have forgotten
the subject or that they are not instructed in the relative im-
portance of certain structures. In the same article, J. S. Rodman,
in the discussion, mentioned that the members of the Board of
Surgery thought that anatomy was still the most important fun-
damental subject in the basic training of surgeons. At the time
of these publications, the essay type of examination was in vogue.
The recent shift to the objective has probably not altered the
necessity for the student to know anatomical detail.

Within the past decade, there have been some relatively radi-
cal criticisms by non-anatomists regarding the status of anatomy
in the medical curriculum. Gregg ('42) believes that more time

250 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

should be devoted to teaching what is known of human indi-
viduality, growth, the aging process, the endocrines and heredity
at the expense of gross dissection, which he suggests should be
correspondingly reduced. The incoming students should be taught
to be thorough and observe accurately and also where and how
to find the anatomical facts they need to know. Dock ('42) states
that anatomy has never been thought of as a cultural subject,
that its present teachers have been mostly students of biology and
physiology who have no practical interest in the subject, that
human dissection is far from being an ideal starting point for the
medical student, and that histology is of value only in connection
with the physiological activity of cells and gross anatomy with
the functions of the body. He feels that anatomy and physiology
should be combined into one department and that histology and
gross anatomical demonstration should introduce each field in
physiology. The dissection should be placed in the curriculum
where it would be most valuable; it should be completed before
the students graduate and should be taught by young internists,
radiologists and surgeons. Further views are expressed by this
writer.

Using as an example the methods employed in teaching bi-
ology to college students, Johnson ('45) advocates collaboration
of teachers in medical schools for the purpose of presenting an
integrated picture of the human body in health and disease. In
this scheme, anatomy would be abolished as a course along with
physiology and pathology and would be taught over a period of
five quarters by members of a committee chosen to teach con-
joint courses during the first and second years. In all the basic
sciences, appropriate clinical material should be presented.

Carpenter ('47) believes it is no longer justifiable to devote
long hours to detailed study of anatomy and other medical sub-
jects because the extent of knowledge today prohibits memorizing.
The important thing is to know where the essential facts are re-
corded. He groups the various courses in anatomy in a division
of "structure" which includes pathology and radiology. An eleven-
weeks course in gross anatomy is recommended which is con-
sidered to be a guide to understanding morphology and its relation
to health and disease. The anatomist should teach throughout

STATUS OF HUMAN DISSECTION IN THE UNITED STATES 251

the medical course in an integrated system. He states that the plan
requires a full staff, that the teaching duties are continuous and
that the whole program offers some handicap to research.

Some of the latest activities in medical education center
around programs advocated and supported by several of the pri-
vate foundations. Allen ('46) believes that anatomists have reached
a point in studying the finer morphology of the human body
where further progress depends largely on correlated studies in
function. Medical, rather than the individual sciences, should be
taught and he feels that the demarcation between the various pre-
clinical departments may entirely disappear. Atchley ('49) ad-
vocates that teaching groups for the first two years be organized
in terms of dynamic units and that they use the systemic or
vertical approach in studying the human body.

The Committee appointed by the American Surgical Associ-
ation, which functioned under the auspices of the Markle and
Rockefeller Foundations ('50) reports that from the surgical stand-
point there has been a shifting emphasis from anatomy and the
techniques of surgery to immunology and pathological physiology.
It believes that cadaver anatomy should be abolished as a his-
toric oddity of teaching and that gross anatomy is best taught at
the autopsy table primarily because the specimens are fresher.
It favors a gradual evolution in integrated instruction with the
surgeons and internists assuming a paramount role. The tutorial
method is recommended as the one of choice, with small groups of
pupils, an approach, which they emphasize puts the burden on
student learning. There have been numerous other important
articles on the topic of anatomy which eulogistically defend the
status quo in teaching the subject.

The above review shows to some extent the evolution of
thinking on the significance of anatomy, particularly gross, in the
medical curriculum by certain influential groups interested in
medical education. In the light of the various viewpoints above,
the question arises as to what changes have taken place in the
field since 1900 which are peculiar to United States medical
schools.

I The period between 1900 and 1958 has been marked first
of all by the disappearance of all anatomy departments which
i

252 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

were originally designed for private gain and which were con-
sidered to be such a bane by the American Medical Association
back in 1904. The number of medical schools have been reduced
by about one-half, from 159 in 1901 to 81 in 1958. Between 1901
and 1940, there were eighty-two medical schools which closed their
doors because of inability to meet the new standards imposed on
them. Recently, there has been a trend toward the organization
of new medical schools.

Further, there has been a shortening of the hours devoted
to gross anatomy from about 900 (Bardeen, '08-'09) to an average
of 330 (Turner, '56). This has been due to the growth of histology,
neuroanatomy, embryology and other subjects in the basic sciences.

In spite of a decrease in the medical schools existing in the
United States from 159 to 81, during the past half-century, the
number of total freshman students enrolled has more than doubled
whereas the average per class has nearly tripled. With a total of
7,576 such pupils in the eighty-one approved medical schools of
the United States, in 1955, this would mean that about 3,800
suitable dissecting cadavers would be required for the ideal ar-
rangement of two working on one subject and half that number
for four on one. Some schools, interested in teaching anatomy for
dentists, embalmers or postgtaduates, would need perhaps more
than double the number used for the first year medical class.
These values do not take into account the fact that some cadavers,
when received, are of such quality that they must be discarded.
It can be estimated that a minimum of about 5,000 subjects arc
annually needed for an all-around, first-rate program for the
teaching of practical anatomy in medical and dental institutions
alone.

Probably the most important factor in the matter of obtain
ing an adequate supply of cadavers to fill all requirements revolves
around the status of the anatomical laws in the various states which
have medical and dental schools.

Jenkins ('13) made a study of the legal status of dissedion
in 1913 by sending out a questionnaire to the medical schools in
the United States. He stated that only recently (prior to 1913)
had any worthwhile anatomical laws been enacted. Before these
body snatcliing was common, the demands for bodies grew, th(

STATUS OF Hl'MAN DISSECTION IN THE UNITED STATES 253

competition became keener, there was connivance with resur-
rectionists, the cost increased, crimes of a grave nature occurred
and anatomical teachers came into disrepute. His statistics show
that of fifty-five medical schools reporting from thirty-six states,
forty-one had an adequate supply, five had barely enough, eight
had an insufficient number and only one had an excessive quantity;
thirty- four Avere receiving^ good material.

Even though the anatomical laws, had been improved, Jen-
kins ('13) found a wide variation in their content. In general,
most cadavers were received from almshouses. A few states per-
mitted only the use of bodies of criminals dying in penal institu-
tions. In the others, the unclaimed dead were made available,
sometimes with reservations as follows: when they had to be
buried at public expense, when claimed by relatives or friends,
when they had served in a branch of the military services and
when requests had been made not to have their bodies assigned
to medical schools.

Woodburne and Gardner ('54) have reviewed the status of
anatomical material and laws in the United States by taking a
poll of anatomists. Their study reveals that most schools now
meet teaching requirements but that the majority of departments
report that such a supply is minimally adequate. In some, an
unsatisfactory situation exists. The factors responsible for varia-
tions in distribution, according to these authors, are the follow-
ing:

1 . Density of population.

2. Prosperity of the economic condition.

3. Increasing social welfare burials.

4. Conflicting social welfare and old-age assistance legisla-
tion.

5. Burial insurance.

6. Increased post-mortem examinations by pathologists.

7. Laws which are so free regarding claimants and exemp-
tions that they give low priority to anatomical teaching.

The medical schools, which are located in areas of dense
population, in general, fare much better, even though several
of the largest are drawing from the same source. By contrast, those

254 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

situated in less crowded regions, have encountered more serious
problems. Some of the institutions in the latter category, may
be placed close to thickly populated centers in an adjacent state,
but are precluded from taking advantage of it by the terms of
their own state laws.

In respect to anatomical statutes, Woodburne and Gardner
('54) found little uniformity in the state laws. They suggest fed-
eral reforms as follows: the right to will ones body to a profes-
sional school regardless of difficulties with the rest of the will;
provisions should be made in all states, for the disposal of dis-
sected remains; anatomical boards should be given the authority
to control autopsies; a reconsideration should be given to the im-
portance of geographical limits and state lines and the costs should
be shared among the schools which utilize bodies.

In a special feature article in the Bulletin of Medical Re-
search ('55) the question of body shortages has been further dis-
cussed. According to it, there is a national concern about the
future supply. There are eight schools where a 4:1 student-
cavader ratio can no longer be maintained. One school was as-
signing eight students to a subject. There is a real problem in
Washington, D.C. The article stated that about 5,000 bodies are
needed per year in the United States, about one-third of one
per cent of those dying annually.

It further reported that in thirty-one schools there has been
a decrease in the number obtained; in thirty-five, it is the same
as before and in eleven it has increased. Florida, which has re-
cently established two new schools, has encountered no difficulties
in its cadaver supply. In twenty-eight months, it had obtained
138 and had 75 willed bequests on file. The writer suggests that
sound policies be formulated for getting material: improving the
laws, which are not always obeyed to the letter; enlisting the help
of civic and religious groups; promoting good public relations;
establishing a unified program; and bringing the question into
public view.

Overholser ('56) states that cadaver supply has become a
serious problem in the Missouri medical schools, although the
state has an anatomical board and it is necessary for pathologists
to obtain permission from it to perform autopsies. The law, how

STATUS OF HUMAN DISSECTION IN THE UNITED STATES 255

ever, in respect to post-mortems has been largely ignored; he be-
lieves that many ot these are unnecessary and that this part of the
legislation should be upheld. Many subjects are buried there at
the expense of religious and charitable organizations. Recently,
a provision was made in the statute that bodies can be willed
for use and this trend should be encouraged. He has found that
the supply of the unclaimed varies with the economic conditions,
that more are available during times of unemployment. There
may be fewer in the future due to social security, pensions, death
benefits and the like.

At the Teaching Institute in Anatomy and Anthropology,
held at Swampscott, Massachusetts, in 1955, it was brought out
that cadaver supply is a perennial problem; that 13 per cent of
the schools have shortages for basic anatomical teaching; that
one-third do not have enough for upper classmen or postgraduate
courses. The methods suggested which might be utilized to com-
pensate for scarcity were the following: more students to a cadaver
and the use of preparations, slides, models, material from ampu-
tations and movies. Possible ways to increase the supply con-
sisted of such considerations as appealing to welfare agencies, hos-
pital superintendents, physicians, and medical students; revamp-
ing the laws, legalizing the bequeathing of bodies; decreasing the
number of autopsies and cultivating public interest. It was unani-
mously decided that teaching without human dissection is not
an acceptable standard in medical education (Report of Third
Teaching Institute, 1956).

One aspect of the problem which has not been mentioned
in the whole question, is that of the role of undertakers. Meyer
('30) notes this in an article published in 1930. The author de-
clares that, in the state of California, funeral directors vied for
bodies of the unclaimed because if not buried by relatives, they
stood to make a good profit. Some actually trafficked in dead
bodies.

It was Meyer's opinion that it was "not the people at large
who oppose anatomists having bodies of unclaimed dead, but a
few financially interested individuals who rely for protection
against exposure upon the possibility of taking advantage of pub-
lic ignorance, sentiment and belief."

256 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

In terms of balance, this is probably the clue to the future,
that it is really the people who have to weigh the merits of hu-
man dissection, the value of its long practice in the field of medi-
cal education, against their deep-seated religious beliefs, which
are natural and to which they have been conditioned throughout
their lifetimes.

There is evidence that more and more people are willing
their bodies to medical schools for the promotion of anatomi-
cal science and some institutions have carried their problem to
the masses with success, notably the University of California in
Los Angeles. Recently, they had over 300 bequests on file (Special
feature article, '55).

[XXI]

CHRONOLOGICAL HIGHLIGHTS ON
HUMAN DISSECTION

H,

.uman dissection is intimately associated with the regard of
the Kving for the dead. Along with man's beginnings and why
he exists, death constitutes one of the three great mysteries of
human life. Before the dawn of civilization, primitive man was
undoubtedly more concerned with the significance of death than
with the other two. Very early in his evolution, man compared
this state to sleep and he called it the "long sleep." Terror and
flight were among his first reactions to this condition. Then, he
concocted the concrete idea that the dead live on as ghosts or
spirits. This probably developed from the interpretations he gave
to his dreams, his shadow, his image in water and other similar
phenomena. It was logical for him, with his mentality, to con-
clude that all human bodies were tenanted by a spirit, a vital
principle, responsible for all his activities. He assigned great
flexibility, traveling power, transferability and even divisibility
to it.

The uncivilized explained death as being due to a mystic
or supernatural force. Man was always "doomed" to die by the
malign influence of an enemy, usually a sorcerer or a spirit. He
had two worlds, the living and the dead, where the latter re-
mained alive in another form. A ghost, particularly that of a newly
deceased, was evil-disposed and vengeful and there were a hun-
dred ways in which it could show displeasure. Every human
accident and diseased process was attributed to it. It had to be
catered to because there was no way to retaliate. Contact with
the departed, in any way, was dreaded. It was considered
dangerous and even contagious. A dead body on the ground made
it unfertile and barren. Greater horror was aroused when an in-
dividual died in an unusual manner. The longer after death, the

257

258 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

more a ghost's power waned and it eventually wandered away
to a spiritual afterworld, which varied according to location and
tribes. Then, it was sometimes worshiped as an ancestor, espe-
cially when the individual had attained great stature during life.
Fear, however, was the predominating emotion inspired by such
progenitors.

The motivating factor leading to burial of the dead was
fear of ghosts; the idea was to dispose of the body and demon
at one stroke. Some measure of peace and security was apparently
felt when a subject was buried five or six feet below the surface
of the ground. Cremation was one of the earliest methods of dis-
posing of the departed because it was judged to be the most effec-
tive way of handling both body and spirit. At one time, it
threatened to become a universal practice.

Another important concept among primitives was that of re-
incarnation, especially that which held that a spirit could return
to the human body. Under such a belief, violation of the dead was
highly contraindicated.

The primitive concepts of death were naturally carried over
into the early period of civilization. The new ideas advanced in
some quarters were those of personal salvation and retribution
in a heavenly afterlife; in other words, what an individual does
in this world may be of paramount significance to him in another.
Associated with this trend, was the origination of specific myths
revolving around events said to have occurred during the life of
certain selected gods, particularly in Egypt. The story of this de-
velopment is intimately related to the genesis of ancient religions.

In ancient China, demons, ghosts, vampires and werewolves
populated the country and they could do all kinds of mischief.
Defense against them was by means of magic or the enlistment
of gods as allies. Confucius was reticent about an afterlife; Buddha
preached the doctrine of retribution.

Under Shintoism, in Japan, the people had a fear of their
dead. Contact with a corpse, was automatically avoided because
it made a person unclean and defiled. Such contamination might
infect a whole community.

CHRONOLOGICAL HIGHLIGHTS ON HUMAN DISSECTION 259

The inhabitants of early Egypt were polytheistic and much
concerned about their deceased; they early conceived the far-
reaching concept of immortality and a possible retribution in
another world. They were the first who became bold enough to
make incisions in a human corpse, which was related to the prac-
tice of mummification, but a stigma was attached to the man who
made the cuts; one of the greatest fears an Egyptian embalmer
had to overcome, was the mere opening of an abdomen. Thus,
he employed a scapegoat to perform the act. During this interval,
the precursor of the anatomist was born and some anatomical in-
formation was obtained about the human viscera. In Babylonia,
the people were mortally afraid of the dead and did everything
possible to avoid them.

Under Hinduism, in India, general burning of the dead was
practiced for many centuries, with the exception of children and
great saints.

In the time of Homer, in Greece, cremation was practiced
and, for prominent personages, a great spectacle was made with
huge funeral pyres and sport contests. Later, during the Golden
Age, in that country, the human body began to be conceived as
having two parts: soul and matter. The latter was thought of as
being corrupt. In general, salvation, transmigration and an
eventual return to earthly life was ascribed to the former.

Before the advent of Christianity in Rome, with polytheism
in vogue, ghosts, spectres and bogeys populated the world. Even
the priests were not permitted to come in contact with the dead,
approach a grave, touch or name things associated with death
and the nether world.

Therefore, during the period from 5000 to about 300 B.C.,
little anatomical knowledge prevailed. Spirits were generally
thought to have an occult relationship to the body, even after
death. A corpse was either preserved carefully, burned or en-
tombed to prevent any insult to it which might embitter its
ghost. Mere contact with a cadaver was sufficient to defile and
pollute the person involved; any attempt at dissection or mutila-
tion constituted a sacrilege of the greatest magnitude. One way
in which anatomical knowledge was gained was by examination

260 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

of severely injured or diseased humans or animals killed for
sacrifice or food.

Before the great Alexandrian period of anatomy, which be-
gan about 300 B.C., mankind probably gave more thought to the
possible location of the soul in the human body, than to any-
thing else. The Edwin Smith Scrolls of 1600 B.C., and the Eber's
Papyrus of 1550 B.C. mention certain bones, the heart and brain.
Referring to the pulse, the latter stated that the pulse revealed
that "the heart speaks in all the limbs." The soul was localized,
at one time or another, beginning about 2300 B.C., in the fol-
lowing: heart, bowels, liver, diaphragm, blood, brain, head, chest,
meninges and the whole body.

In the process of mummifying bodies, the Egyptians accu-
mulated over 100 anatomical terms in the language which then
prevailed; many of them were words based on mythology because
every organ represented one of their gods.

The ancient Hindu text of medicine the Susruta, listed 300
bones, 90 tendons, 210 joints, 500 muscles, 70 blood vessels, 3
humors, 3 secretions and 9 sense organs as being present in the
human body.

In general, it can be said that the period between 1000 and
300 B.C. was devoid of any actual human dissection for the sole
purpose of studying man's structure. During this period, no
qualms were felt about killing a man or satisfying vengeance on
the body of an enemy after death but woe unto him who cut up
a corpse for scientific purposes. Anatomy was a mixture of mystery,
imagination and a few facts learned in everyday life. Magic con-
tinued to play an important part in the religious and common-
place life of the people and this applied to the dead as well as the
living.

The first unequivocal human dissections were made at the
Alexandrian school by Herophilus and Erasistratus, two trans-
planted Greeks. For the first time in the history of man, per-
mission was given by governmental decree, to dissect privately
or publicly. In all, Herophilus, working under ideal conditions,
at Alexandria, may have anatomized from 200 to 600 human

CHRONOLOGICAL HIGHLIGHTS ON HUMAN DISSECTION 261

specimens, quite a feat for an anatomist in any age. Some at
least were bodies of executed criminals. He has been accused of
performing human vivisections but this is unfounded. He is called
the "Father of Anatomy." Erasistratus likewise dissected many
bodies and the pair made noteworthy anatomical discoveries. They
were able to successfully articulate two human skeletons, which
became widely known. This school survived between 332 B.C.
and A.D. 200. Only fragments of their original writings have
survived due to the fact that the great Alexandrian library was
twice destroyed by fire, first by the Roman invaders and again
by the Arabs.

Although Galen stands out as one of the greatest medical
men of all time, he made few contributions to our knowledge
of human anatomy. That he merits this distinction cannot be
denied since his influence extended over a period of 1500 years.
Although possessed of an untiring urge to dissect, this trait had to
be sublimated to investigations on lower animals. The great weight
he exerted on the medical profession stemmed from the facts
that he was a prolific writer, who published all his findings and
medical ideas, that he was followed by a period of scientific stag-
nation and that he was the only anatomical specialist of note.

Galen dissected the bodies of many animals during his life-
time, beginning at the age of fifteen. All anatomists of his time,
including himself, took it for granted that animal and human
bodies were fundamentally alike in their architecture. Many of
the 500 published works by him on anatomy refer to the monkey.
As might be expected, he made some errors, being unable to
differentiate nerves and tendons, and his descriptions of blood
vessels were poor. Being a sensitive individual, he marveled at
the sight of the organs, at their beauty and complexity; he thought
that form determines function and that nature never made any-
thing superfluous. His belief that a divine providence was the
creator of structure made him popular with Christians, Jews and
Moslems. His works were widely though tardily translated into
numerous languages up through the 1 6th Century and many
physicians accepted his views as late as the 18th Century.

262 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

After Galen, the practice of dissection appears to have been
lost either because of further prejudices against it or the apathy
of the physicians.

During the Middle Ages, A.D. 400-1400, anatomy made little
or no progress. This period is characterized by stagnation, de-
generation and actual loss of previous anatomical knowledge. The
genesis of this status was probably the deterioration and decline
of the school of medicine at Alexandria. The prevailing psy-
chology of the people characterized by hostility, militated against
the advance of the subject.

.The human body had no standing; rather, it was regarded
with contempt and anatomy passed for a pagan science. It was
man's soul which ranked high and saving it from hell was the
priests' main function. Life was judged to be a transitory way-
station between two eternities and all learning was monastic.
Magic was accepted by many members of the populace and the
"possessed" and ''witches" came in for their share of attention.
Punishing them by death became a reality of the times.

During the latter part of the Middle Ages, it was the Arabians
who kept literature and science alive, by translations of older
Greek and Roman works.

Between A.D. 1200 and 1350, fifteen new university centers
were established in Italy and it was they who had most to do with
the revival of human dissection. Frederick II, Emperor of Ger-
many and the two Sicilies paved the way by granting permission
to anatomize in A.D. 1240. One human subject was allotted to
the University of Salerno every five years. Mondino da Luzzi,
A.D. 1276-1326, was the first post- Alexandrian to completely dis-
sect a human body, that of an executed criminal, in 1315. He set
standards of procedure which prevailed for centuries: a barber
performing the dissection, the professor reading from a high chair
and a demonstrator pointing out the various structures with a
rod. The sole aim was to illustrate Galen to an audience usually
made up of high ranking officials and privileged civilians. Rites
were performed upon the condemned before execution to atone
for the deed about to be done; festivities climaxed the events.
Mondino wrote an anatomical text which went through twenty-

CHRONOLOGICAL HIGHLIGHTS ON HUMAN DISSECTION 263

three editions. The first incident of resurrecting a body probably
occurred during this period when four students were apprehended
for stealing a body and transporting it to the University of
Bologna, where Mondino taught. During the 14th Century, human
dissection was also carried out at a number of other schools:
Florence, Lerida, Montpellier, Naples, Prague and Venice.

It was during the Renaissance, A.D. 1350-1650, that certain
pioneers dared to come to grips with the superstitions and hos-
tilities of the populace, to make accurate observations on the
structure of the human body and to report what they saw at the
risk of censure and social ostracism. It was one of the most pro-
gressive periods in the history of anatomy.

During that era, factors still militating against human dis-
section were the following: religious belief in a soul, super-
stition, faith in the writings of Galen and Avicenna, repugnance
of society and the lack of proper methods to preserve the body.
But the practice continued to spread throughout Europe and to
Great Britain. Concomitant with this, some attention was paid
to the passage of laws pertaining to anatomical dissection and to
the building of magnificent anatomical theatres.

Many famous painters developed programs of actual anatomi-
cal dissection especially in the early part of the Renaissance.
Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Albrecht Diirer and Titian
were included. As a group, their minds were untrammeled by
traditional bias, they were enthusiastic and they were trained in
making careful observations. They were sometimes able to obtain
bodies, by sanction and help of the Church, as in the case of
Michelangelo. Knowledge of muscular structure and the art of
making anatomical illustrations were advanced through the efforts
of these artists. During his life time, da Vinci made 779 anatomi-
cal drawings; he was of the opinion that the anatomists around
him revered the human body whereas others in society were more
inclined to destroy it.

Among the teachers who stood out in this changing period,
can be mentioned Sylvius, Servetus and Vesalius, each having
distinguishing personality traits. Sylvius, at the University of
Paris, taught anatomy in the traditional fashion but saw the

264 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

Structures of the human body through the eyes of Galen, whom
he idolized and glorified. When forced to admit that some of
his observations were incorrect, he supplied the answer that the
body had altered in its organization during 1400 years. Never-
theless, he encouraged dissection, helped to popularize it and
give it renown.

Servetus, with religious leanings, became interested in the
anatomy of the respiratory system because he was searching for
the site of the soul. This was while he was a student at Paris.
There are some who claim that he was the first to discover the
pulmonary circulation of the blood. Because he believed that the
idea of the union of the three divines of the Trinity was a mere
phantasy, he was finally tried, imprisoned and burned at the
stake in 1553.

Probably the most important figure in the history of anatomy
was Vesalius. His publication of the Fabrica in 1543 marks a
turning point not only in anatomy but in the whole field of
medicine. Although working at great odds to obtain suitable
cadavers, he was successful in the following: neutralizing the
authority of Galen, recasting the instruction of human structure-
starting basic, medical research in anatomy, physiology and sur-
gery; illustrating his dissections accurately; destroying long es-
tablished tenets and making many new discoveries. He ranks
among the greats of all time.

Without much doubt, the most spectacular events in the
evolution of anatomy occurred in Great Britain. It was here that
the road was paved for student dissection in English speaking
countries, which multiplied the problems of cadaver supply, in
the face of inadequate anatomical statutes. More and more young
men became interested in studying medicine which necessitated
more medical schools to accommodate them. vSome of the latter
became fly-by-night places or diploma mills. Medical standardiz-
ing agencies required that students study human anatomy. Body
snatching, which had been largely conspicuous by its absence
on the Continent, became the principal method of supplying sub-
jects in the British Isles.

CHRONOLOGICAL HIGHLIGHTS ON HUMAN DISSECTION 265

This situation led to the rise of a group of low-class pro-
fessional resurrectionists who took over the duty of supplying
cadavers to the needy medical schools: they replaced surgeons,
students and teachers in this endeavor; made up of rowdies,
criminals, gravediggers and sextons whose sole aim was monetary,
it did not take them long to commercialize the practice. They
operated in the form of unlicensed and unwanted guilds. The
peak of this movement was between 1800 and 1832 before the
passage of the British Anatomy Act in 1832. It was possible for a
clever gang of four or five to unearth as many as 400 bodies
annually and rapidly dispose of them to the anatomical schools
at a total price close to $8,000, considerable money in those days.

Many tales have been told about individual resurrectionists
but certain persons who were not strictly grave robbers supplied
the main drama in the early 1800's. Two of these, were the no;
torious pair of Burke and Hare. With the assistance of two fe-
male accomplices, they were able to complete sixteen murders,
during an interval of eight and one-half months in Edinburgh,
before they were apprehended. The victims were made up of
widows, orphans, streetwalkers and imbeciles. After being ap-
prehended and indicted, Burke was sentenced to be hung, his
body exhibited in chains and publicly dissected. His hanging was
witnessed by about 25,000 people on January 28, 1829.

An unusual feature of the murders, was that all of the slain
bodies reached the private anatomical laboratories of Dr. Robert
Knox, one of the outstanding anatomists of his time, who thus
became a central figure in the events. He was condemned pretty
much on all sides, even among members of his own profession.
Violent opinions were expressed through the existing means of
communication and he was never able to overcome the reactions.
It led gradually to his professional downfall.

Even this series of crimes, was insufficient to agitate the
British legislators into final action in respect to the passage of a
workable anatomy act. It required another incident, this time in
London, to set the wheels effectively in motion. A young fourteen
year-old boy was murdered in London on November 5, 1831,
by two men. Bishop and May, and an accomplice, Williams. It
was discovered and Bishop and Williams were sentenced and hung

I

266 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

on December 5, 1831. The Warburton Anatomy Act, an important
piece of legislation, was then hurriedly passed on August 1, 1832.
It sounded the death knell for body snatching in the British Isles.

Each individual country of the civilized world has had its
own problems in respect to its anatomical laws and dissection.
Ireland is one which stands unique in the early history of anatomy,
because it had an unlimited source of subjects. Responsible for
this to a large extent, was perhaps its poor economic status. In
Dublin, a center of medical education, the anatomists had access
to Bully's Acre, where many paupers were buried. In 1826, 600
to 800 cadavers were used in the schools in that city. It was cal-
culated that as many as 1,500 to 2,000 were removed in that
year, many of which were exported to England and Scotland. The
trade in these became so great, because high prices were received,
that the local anatomical teachers began to suffer. The standards
of teaching became low during the Crimean War (1854-1856),
between Russia and Turkey. England allied herself with the
latter which immediately created a need for army surgeons. There
was a rush of students into medical schools so that the standards
fell; cramming was widely practiced and the grind-rooms were
filled to overflowing.

The history of dissection in France has been characterized
by lack of emotional incidents. Anatomy was more stabilized
there than in the British Isles and the country was never highly
infested with resurrectionists. This was due to the early develop-
ment of adequate anatomical laws which did not permit dis-
section of executed murderers, removing one of the main stigmas
attached to the practice. To violate a sepulchre meant fine and
imprisonment. Before pathology began to claim a share of the
bodies for autopsy purposes, the medical school in Paris received
as many as 2,000 per year, afterwards 1,000 to 1,200. The policy
of permitting students to dissect began early. Exhumation did not
exist and the people did not oppose dissection although some had
an aversion to it. On the whole, there was a deep conviction of
its utility. Cadavers were cheap for the students and they were
free to doubt and dispute what they were taught.

CHRONOLOGICAL HIGHLIGHTS ON HUMAN DISSECTION 267

At first the supply of subjects was plentiful in Germany,
probably up to 1882. After this, relatives claiming the bodies
of their kin, the activity of burial societies and the zeal exhibited
by priests, embalmers and gravediggers to collect fees, created
^a scarcity. During the 1928-1929 academic season, 2,277 medical
students were in Berlin alone; as many as seventeen studied on
i-one specimen. Sometimes, the class was divided in half, each
taking turns in dissecting on one. One brain sufficed for twenty-
five to thirty pupils. Teachers were overloaded with work because
there were too few of them.

The same fate befell Holland as Germany. In 1934, many
universities there, as well as in other parts of Europe, were
experiencing difficulties in obtaining a sufficient number of ca-
davers. In that country, they had to be exported from the colonies.
Due, in part, to the effectiveness of private, charitable and re-
ligious societies, which claimed nearly every body, the flow of
^subjects to the medical schools in Austria practically stopped.
This began as early as 1912. By 1921, first year students had little
opportunity to dissect and had to be satisfied with skeletons and
museum specimens. Now and then, a group of students could
watch another anatomize a subject. By 1930, the problem was no
better.

Very little factual material is available on the latest events
in Switzerland, Portugal, Italy or Spain. Spain does not have a
spectacular record in human dissection because the Spanish gov-
ernment was reluctant to authorize the practice. It did not get
under way until the 19th Century.

In China, the medical profession has always been looked upon
as a fourth- or fifth-rate occupation. Human dissection is con-
tary to their ideas of future life and it is generally looked upon
with horror. In 1913, dissection of a Chinaman, especially by a
foreigner would have been sufficient grounds for a riot. Medical
education and schools there are tolerated rather than encouraged.
In 1920, only twelve out of twenty-six institutions had any sort
of dissection, and there was no regular and sufficient source of

268 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

supply. The majority of teachers relied mostly on models. Skele-
tons, by contrast, were more easy to obtain.

Japan has had a more modern approach to the problem. In
1920, anatomical material was plentiful for twenty-five medical
schools. The supply was controlled by the government and bodies
were obtained from prisons, workhouses, university hospitals and
old people's homes. Equipment was up-to-date and most teachers
were trained in foreign schools.

Indochina had one medical school in 1913 and it served
of little practical value. Courses were abbreviated and were given
as a means to an end; little eflFort was made toward an evolution
to a higher education.

In Iran, only one existed in 1933. Teaching there was highly
unsatisfactory and dissection was totally neglected due to its for-
biddance by Mohammedanism. The bodies of the dead were left
exposed to be eaten by birds. Cremation and burial were con-
sidered to be sacrileges of the highest order. Contact with the
dead was avoided because death was the greatest sin and con-
sidered contagious.

The anatomical problems in the United States have been
somewhat the same as in other parts of the civilized world. Here,
there has been a general hesitancy in developing adequate dis-
section laws; there have been incidents of body snatching, in-
dictments, high emotional feelings, riots and even murder, the
last to a lesser extent than on the British Isles. Within the past
few centuries, our country has been colonized, it succeeded in
obtaining its independence; its population quickly expanded and
continued to do so; it went through the Civil War and state after
state was added to the Union. This necessitated more and more
medical schools and students. Only one minor, Federal law to
regulate the flow of bodies has been enacted. Whenever medical
schools were established within a state sovereignty, the legis-
lators were confronted with a delicate and unusual situation,
which they either resisted, evaded or, in general, enacted feeble
laws.

Four hundred fifty-nine private and state medical schools
have functioned at one time or another in this nation, ol which

CHRONOLOGICAL HIGHLIGHTS ON HUMAN DISSECTION 269

eighty-one have survived. The peak in the number was reached
during the first decade ot the 20th Century. Many were private,
fly-by-night establishments and they became successful targets for
medical standardizing boards.

Most of the historical information available on human dis-
section revolves around the oldest medical schools in the United
States particularly those situated along the Atlantic Coast and in
certain parts of the midwest. The initial problems of these in-
stitutions were about the same. It is evident that anatomical laws
were either lacking or inadequate in the early history of the
United States. Those which were enacted permitted dissections
to be done on a few bodies of executed criminals, which attached
an infamy to the practice. To meet the needs, body snatching
f-was established first by gentlemen of the profession: surgeons,
teachers and students. These were eventually replaced by com-
mercial resurrectionists and their methods, exploits and com-
petition matched those who plied their trade in Great Britain.

It would be difficult to find a community of the past which
was lenient and tolerant toward the practice of grave robbing.
On the basis of deep-seated convictions, the reactions of the
people were defensive toward their buried dead. When thieving
was detected, mob response was usually the rule. More rioting
has probably occurred in the United States than any other coun-
try. Sometimes, it was of violent proportions where bodily harm
was inflicted on suspects. The protective measures utilized by
the masses against body snatching were the following: filling the
graves with bundles of straw, sticks or large stones; placing thick
planks across the coffin; building special vaults of heavy stone
guarded by iron doors and grave watching.

As for the resurrectionists, they all followed a standard pro-
cedure. A low class of men worked in secrecy in the dead of night
during the cold seasons with special types of tools and a horse
and cart. They needed to scout funerals, locate the grave, ap-
proach the coffin by a certain technique, open it, remove the
corpse, leave its clothing and restore the soil as nearly as possible
to its former state. Then the body had to be delivered and sold to
the anatomist. It was in potter's fields where most such specimens
were obtained.

270 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

Dissections had to be made quickly, within a week, for ob-
vious reasons, and students often worked all night.

Between 1765 and 1852, at least thirteen riots, possibly more,
occurred within the United States. These took place in the states
of Illinois, Maryland, Massachusetts, New York, Ohio, Pennsyl-
vania and Vermont. They included mob attacks on the homes
of anatomists, hospitals, medical schools and a hotel. The worst
that happened was the closing or demolition of schools; also, one
professor of anatomy was seriously shot in the arm and paralyzed
for life, a student was killed, police were sometimes badly beaten
and on one occasion the militia was called out.

More changes have probably occurred in anatomical teach-
ing in the United States in the past fifty years than in any other
country. At the turn of the century, many fly-by-night medical
schools existed, standards were low, competition was keen and the
cost per student was high; most teachers were part-time surgeons,
whose income was derived from their practice, and they taught
authoritatively. Numerous standardizing agencies, official and un-
official, entered the picture, and collectively asserted that anatomy,
in spite of its great importance, was in bad repute; in fact, they
agreed that conditions bordered on the deplorable, the classes
were overcrowded and anatomical departments lacked sufficient
financial support. This eventually resulted in the following: em-
ployment of full-time teachers, shortening of clock-hours, inclu-
sion of microscopic subjects and more monetary backing. This
led to the almost total disappearance of the surgeon-anatomist
who chose practice rather than teaching, and it marked the be-
ginning of an influx of teachers with graduate school training.

One of the agencies responsible for determining the stand-
ards of student knowledge in medicine generally, has been the
National Board of Examiners. In the past, with the essay type
of exams in anatomy, they have referred to a maze of anatomic
detail and the recent shift to the objective type may not have
basically altered this situation. Unquestionably, a broad grasp
of the subject is necessary to successfully cope with them.

Although the educators on the investigating committees of
several organizations, in the past, Iiave placed great value on ilu

CHRONOLOGICAL HIGHLIGHTS ON HUMAN DISSECTION 271

importance of anatomy in the medical curriculum, it has been
suggested by certain critics that it is not a cultural subject, that
such topics as human individuality, growth, the aging process,
the endocrines and heredity should be considered at the expense
of human dissection.

Because of standards imposed particularly during the first
part of this century, the number of medical schools has been cut
in half. Nevertheless, the number of freshman students has
doubled and there has been an increase from an average of
thirty-two per class in 1915 to ninety-four in 1955. It is estimated
that about 5,000 cadavers annually are now needed to supply all
those required to study anatomy in the United States.

Only in rare instances, have state anatomical laws been able
to take care of the over-all demand for human cadavers. There is
a wide variation in their make-up. The factors which influence
a favorable supply are an adequate anatomical code, density of
)opulation and a poor economic condition. Those militating
igainst a suitable quantity are prosperity in the economic status,
increasing social welfare burials, legislation for old-age assistance,
burial insurance, increased post-mortem examinations by path-
ologists, and laws which are very lenient in regarding claimants
and in giving exemptions so that low priority is given to anat-
omical teaching.

In general, it can be said that cadaver supply to professional
institutions in the United States has become an acute problem.
It may be that it is not the people at large who are deeply opposed
to anatomists utilizing the bodies of unclaimed dead for the
promotion of anatomical science. By publicity, some medical in-
stitutions have carried their problems directly to the laymen with
considerable success in obtaining willed bodies.

In respect to the historical problem of cadaver supply, there
is no question but what there has been a constant struggle be-
tween two opposing groups, the health profession, forming a
minority, on the one hand, and the sentiments of the great non-
medical populace, on the other. Rationalizing and discussions
across the table have not been responsible, perhaps, for any
radical changes in the anatomical laws of most countries. Rather,
progress, has been accomplished more on an emotional basis.

272 HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

Violent opinions and reactions, have occurred in the past, in
parts of the civilized world, as an understandable response to the
commercialism, subterfuge, thievery and murder by a low-class
of people. When things have gotten out-of-hand, as in the case
of the murders in Scotland, England and Maryland, or when
riots have been invoked by outraged mobs, legislators have more
quickly evaluated the pros and cons of the question, and usually
new laws or amendments to old ones, have been forthcoming.

Any one who has studied the history of anatomy cannot
fail, I believe, to be impressed with the attitude of surgeons and
anatomists of the past in respect to their regard for the human
body. On the whole, they have been impressed with its beauty,
architecture, and complexity; their approach has been philosophi-
cal and broad. Both they and their subject have been often
maligned, yet they have stood their ground, always trying to
meet the standards imposed upon them, whether written or un-
written. The same is probably as true today as yesterday. In addi-
tion, they have had a deep faith in the theoretical and practical
value of the subject and what a thorough knowledge of the
structural make-up of man has meant to the profession since the
Renaissance and what it means to each medical student today.

The outstanding feature of the human body is its complexity
which leads inevitably back to its morphology. Because of this
factor alone, it takes time to completely dissect it; there are no
short cuts. In the past fifty years, there has been an attrition in the
number of hours devoted to gross anatomy, and today many de-
partments are teaching all of the anatomical subjects within one
semester. In terms of balance, this condition may eventuate in
all schools in the United States. Dissection probably has no place
for the man who is insensitive to structural beauty, who lacks a
sense of its importance, who has a regard for clock-hours or who
lacks historical perspective.

Although grave robbing is a thing of the past, the pr()l)Icni
of cadaver supply remains. It is receiving more general pubhcity
than ever before. It seems likely that progress, if it occurs, will
not be made on an emotional basis, as in the past, but rather by
enlightening the public and particularly that part of it whi( h has

CHRONOLOGICAL HIGHLIGHTS ON HUMAN DISSECTION 273

the health and welfare of mankind at heart. Rationality may de-
cide that there is no worthwhile and available substitute for the
exploration of man's geography by each medical student. Dissec-
tion is truly one means whereby man can study man.

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INDEX

Abbot, S. L., 208

Abernethy, J., 107

Achilles, 34

Achillini, Alessandro (1463-1525), 80

Addison, J. T., 27

Aeschylus, 45

Alexander the Great, 45

Allen, R. B., 247, 251

Alexandrian School of Anatomy, 44-50.

260-261

Aeschylus, 45

Alexander the Great, 45

appeal to students, 46

burning by Julius Caesar, 50

Celsus, 47, 49

Cleopatra, 50

decline of liberalism in dissection, 50

duration of, 46

Erasistratus, 45, 46, 49

Eumenes of Cardia, 45

Euripides, 45

executed criminals, 47-48

fire, 7th Century, 58

Galen, 53, 55

Gnosticism, philosophic-religious, 44

Herophilus, 45-48

liberality of dissection, 46

library, 50

Lycos, 49

Marcus Aurelius Antonius (Caracalla),
50

Marinos. 49

Mark Antony, 50

museum, 45

pioneering anatomists, 46

Plolcmy I (Sotcr), governor of Egypi.
45

Quintos. 49

Seraph ium, 45

Sophacles, 45

standards of teaching, 46
TertuUian, 48
American colonies

"An Act of Dueling" (1784), 196
Giles Firmin, first dissection, 184
John Eliot, 184
Potter's Field, as source of cadavers,

188
secrecy with cadavers in schools, 188
statutory laws, 182
student migration to Europe, 185
"The Body of Liberties," 182
American Medical Association, standard-
ization of anatomy, 7, 181
American Revolution, influence on anat-
omy, 196
Anatomical theatres

at Trinity College (1711), 127
Barber-Surgeon's Hall (1567), 135
Edinburgh (1697), 155
Royal College of Physicians (1583-

1641), 135
University of

Bologna, 71

Padua, 71

Vienna, 111
Anatomists
training of in,

Italy, 115

Paris, 115
Anatomy

Alexandrian School, 44-50

demand for subjects in British Isles,

117
Galenic. 51,53, 55
in Middle Ages, 58-67
integration with other subjects, 7
interest in British Isles, 116
prc-Alexandrian, 38-43

antipathy, 40

embalming, 38

286

INDEX

287

standardization by American Medical

Association, 7
struggle of, 3
Anatomy Acts

American colonies, 182
Austria, 111
British Isles, 116
dueling law (1784), 196
early 1800's, 6
efficiency of, 186
England (1832), 7
Germany^ 109
Illinois (1885), 242
Indiana (1879), 243
law of James I, 118
Maryland

(1832), 230

(1882), 230

(1890), 230

(1938 revision), 230

(1949 revision), 230
Massachusetts

(1647), 183

(1660), 183

(1831), 204-206
New England until 1820, 186
New Hampshire (1796), 185
New York (1789), 225
of 1604, 183
Ohio

(1831), 234

(1840), 235

(1879), 240

(1880), 241

(1881), 241
Rhode Island (1655), 183
scarcity of, in colonies, 185
Scotland (1505-1705), 154
"The Body of Liberties," 182
United States

(1790), 194

(1900-1958), 252

status of, 271

uniformity of, 254
Vermont (1804), 186
Warburton Act

(1832), 153

weakness of, 132

Anatomy, teaching of
in British Isles, 116

innovations by Monro I, 156
in United States
changes in, 270
criticism of, 250-270
during 20th Century, 245-256
essentials, 248, 252
hours, 248
improvement, 250
increase in medical students, 252
place in curriculum, 248
prior to 1900, 245-246
reduction in number of medical

schools, 252
significance of research, 249
Ancestors

worship of, 14

in ancient China, 20
Anson, B. J., 40, 242
Antropologium, Magnus Hundt's (1501),

88
Anubis, Egyptian deity, 25
Apollo, 34, 35
Apology to Astrology, Michael Servetus,

86
Arabians

accomplishments of, 62
Avicenna (980-1037), 58, 61
beliefs, in pre- Alexandrian era, 43
centers of learning, 61
Constantine, 61

influence in Middle Ages, 61-62, 262
investigative spirit, 61
leading scholars in Middle Ages, 61
Rhazes, 61

translations of Galen, 58
Arey, L. B., 135
Aristotle, 40
Artists

anatomical role of, in Renaissance,

74-79, 263
da Vinci, Leonardo, 74
Donatello, 74
Diirer, Albrecht, 74
human dissections of, 75
Michelangelo, 74
PoUaiuolo, Antonio, 74

288

HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DR.^MA AND STRUGGLE

Ruysch, Frederick, Holland, 111

Titian. 74, 101

van Calcar, Jan Stephan, 97, 99

Verrocchio, Andrea, 75, 76, 78
Aryans, in ancient India, 30
Asklepieion, Medical shrine, 51
Association of American Medical Col-
leges, standardization of anatomy, 181,

247
Astrology, influence in Middle Ages, 60
Atchley, D., 247, 251
Attis, 37
Autopsies

by Sir Astley Cooper, 146

first, 145
Avicenna (980-1037), 58, 61

influence on Renaissance, 71
Austria

anatomical laws. 111

availability of cadavers, 1 1 1

number of medical students, 1 1 1

status of dissection, 111-112

Babylonia

burial procedures, 29

concepts of death, 259

divination in, 29

evil souls in, 29

fear of dead, 29

habitat of souls, 29

magic and religion combined, 29

nature worship in, 28

practice of magic, 28

priests in, 29

primitive polytheism in, 28

retribution in, 29
Bacon, C. B., 43

Bailey, J. B., 107, 109, 110, 150, 153
Bailey, P., 40, 50, 81
Bain ton, R. H., 85, 86
Baker, F., 83, 85
Baldwin, J. F., 238, 240
Ball, J. M., 81, 85, 97. 99, 102, 104, 125,

134, 135, 137, 138, 139, 142, 150, 154.

155, 156, 174, 184, 185, 222. 230

Baltimore

Cassidy, Patrick, executed criminal,
226

Davidge, J. B., 226

dissection in, 226

mob riot (1788), 226

murder of Emily Brown, 228-230

University of Maryland, 226-236

Paris of America, 228

Wiesenthal, C. F., 226
Barber-Surgeon's Company

Barber-Surgeon's Hall (1567), 135

Caius, John, 134

dissolution of (1745), 138

King Charles II and, 136

organized (1540), 134

separation of (1745), 139
Bardeen, C. R., 246, 247, 252
Barker, L. F., 42
Basel, printing of Fabrica, 99
Belief in immortality, 10
Bell, Charles, as a teacher, 158
Bell, John, founder of surgical anatomy,

157
Belt, E., 79
Berkshire Medical College (1823-1869),

resurrections, 209
Bishop, London murderer, 152, 265
Black plague, psychological effect, 70
Blaine, G., 1 1 1
Blanton, W. B., 232
Body snatchers, see Resurrectionists
Body snatching, see Grave robbing
Bologna

Achillini, Alessandro. 80

D'Argellata, Pietro, 80

da Carpi, Berengario, 87

Mondino da Luzzi, 63-66

University of, 63-66, 71, 79

Vesalius at, 81,95-99, 102
Book of the Dead, 26
Bootlegging bodies, see Grave robbing
Borthwick, John, pioneering anatomical

teacher, Scotland, 154
Brahmanism

in ancient India, 30

priests, 30
Brash, J. C, 112, 153

INDEX

289

Briiiton, D. G., 11, 12, 18
British Isles

anatomical and pathological museums,
119'

anatomy laws, 116

as center of medical education, 115,
264

cadaver availability, 116, 150

closure of medical schools (1829), 150

demand for cadavers, 117

grave robbing, 264

interest in anatomy, 116

law of James I, 118

rise of resurrectionists, 115-126, 265

standardization boards, 117, 264

student dissection, 264

surgeon-anatomists, 115

teaching anatomy, 116
Brookes, Joshua, proprietor of school of

anatomy, London, 145
Brown, Emily, murdered in Baltimore,

228-230
Brown, H.M., 11
Brown, Owen, body of, 232
Browning, W. W., 40
Brunner, John C, professor at Heidel-
berg, dissection activities, 108
Buck, A. H., 46, 88
Buddhism, in ancient China, 22, 258
Bulletin of Medical Research ('55), 254
Bully's Acre, Dublin, source of cadavers,

129, 131,266
Burial

ceremonies, of primitive, 14

cremation, as early method of, 17

gravestones, significance, 17

in ancient
China, 21
India, 32
Japan, 23

in Babylonia, 29

motivating factor, 16

of dead, primitive, 14

of living humans, in ancient,
China, 21
Japan, 23

of Neanderthal man, 16

positions, 17

Burke, William, Edinburgh murderer,
161-179,265
confession of, 172
hanging of, 172

McDougal, Helen, accomplice, 161
murder of

Docherty, Mary, 166
Patterson, Mary, 164
Simpson, Abigail, 163
Wilson, James, 165
public exhibition of body, 173
publicity about, 173-175
trial of, 172
Burr, C. W., 56, 157

Cadavers

abnormal specimens, 119

attitude of surgeons and anatomists,
272

cost of

at Vermont Medical College, Wood-
stock, 215
in British Isles, 119
in Paris, 107-108

demand for in British Isles, 116, 150

evaluation as property, 118

exportation from London, 151

exportation of, 126

gentlemen" resurrectionists, 118

handling of, in modern France, 107

Harrison, John Scott, as a, 239

Magrath, Corney, as a, 128

needed. United States, 254

problems, Johns Hopkins, 230

procurement of, 8

"rascal resurrectionists, 119

resurrectionists method of procure-
ment, 121

scarcity, Edinburgh, 158

seasonal acquisition. New England, 188

secrecy
early American medical schools, 188
University of Vermont, 212

student reaction to shortage, 121

supply

after Anatomy Act (1831), 205
at

Leyden University, 110

290

HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

University of Michigan, 244
University of Vermont, 212
in
Austria, 111
British Isles, 116, 150
China, 113
England, 153
France, 106-107
Germany, 109
Ireland, 128-133
Japan, 113
Missouri, 254
New England, 185, 197
Renaissance, 73
Scotland, 179
United States
(1900-1958), 253
factors involved, 271-272
variations in distributions, 253
of

Vesalius, 95
Warren, John C, 200
role of undertakers in, 255
transportation of, 125
willing of bodies, 256
Cadwallader, Thomas, lecturer in anat-
omy, Philadelphia, 216
Caius, John, (1513-1573)
as a teacher, 135
at

Barber-Surgeons Hall, 135
Caius College, 135
Royal College of Physicians, 135
founder of anatomy, England, 134
Calvin, John, French theologian, 87
Camac. C. N. B., 40

Carnegie Foundation for the Advance-
ment of Teaching, standardization
board, 247
Carpenter, C. C, 250
Carroll, Hermanns, executed criminal

(1750), 222
Cassidy, Patrick, executed criminal

(1788), 226
Caste system, in ancient India, 31
Castiglioni, A., 42,43, 110
Castleton Medical College (18181861),
209-210

anatomical code (1824), 209

Hubbardton raid (1830), 210
Cave, A. J. E., 38
Celebration of death, 16
Celsus, 48

De Medicina, 47

writings of, 49
Cemeteries

Bully's Acre, Dublin, 129, 131

graves of paupers, source of cadavers,
188

Potter's Field, origin of term, 116

private and potter's fields, 122
Chapin, W. A. R., 210, 211, 212
Chapman, Nathaniel, adversary of Patti-

son, 227
Charles II, and Barber-Surgeons (1663),

137
Charles V of Spain, employer of Vesalius,

103
Chatard, J. A., 43
Cheselden, William (1688-1752), surgeon

and writer, 138
China, 267

availability of cadavers, 113

medical schools, 1 1 3

ranking of medicine, 112

status of
dissection, 112, 113
legalization of dissection, 42
China, ancient

ancestral worship, 20

Buddhism, 22, 258

burial, of living humans, 21

Confucius, 21, 258

doctrine of retribution, 22

early religions of, 20-22

emperor, as ecclesiastical head, 21

hells of, 22

nature worship, 20

polytheism, 21

practical aim, of religion, 21

soul, status of, 20

tombs, building of, 21
Chovet, Abraham, anatomy teacher,

Philadelphia. 219
Christ, 37

INDEX

291

Christianismi Restitutio (1553), Michael

Servetus, 87
Chronological highlights, on dissection,

257-273
Church

and dissection

Middle Ages, 58-59
Renaissance, 74
ceremonies of, 36
concern with death, 5
power in Spain, 103
separation from state, 36
Cincinnati

Cunningham, William, resurrectionist,

235-238
riot in (1852), 235
I'niversity of, resurrection, 238
Clark, E., 112, 113, 114
Clements, L. P., 249
Cleopatra, 50
Coleman, R. B., 40, 43
Columbus Medical College
riot, 238

student resurrectionists (1878), 240
Columbus, Realdus (1516-1569), 81

De Re Anatomica, 81, 87
Commission on Medical Education,
Final Report of the Commission on
Medical Education, 247-248
Commonwealth Fund, on medical edu-
cation, 247
Comrie, J. D., 154, 155, 158
Conel, J. L., 109
Confucius
his beliefs, 21

ideas on afterlife and death, 42, 258
Constantine Africanus (1010-1087), 61

Pantegni, 88
Contagion, fear of, in death, 15
Cooper, Sir Astley, 120
as a dissector, 146
post-mortem examinations, 146
relations to resurrectionists, 146-148
Cooper, B. B., 107, 147, 148
Cooper, S., 67
Cordell, E. F., 226, 230
Corner, G. W., 46, 49, 63
Correspondence ('02), 231

Correspondence ('12), 112

Correspondence ('21), 111

Council on Medical Education, stand-
ardization board, 246

Cowdry, E. v., 42, 112, 113

Cowper, William (1666-1709), British
Surgeon, 138

Cremation

early method of burial, 17
in ancient India, 31

release of soul through skull, 31

Creswell, C. H., 154, 155, 156

Crimean War (1854-1856), influence on
anatomy, 133, 266

Cronus, 33

Cruikshank, W. J., 59

Crummer, L., 89 ^

Cumston, C. C, 40

Cimningham, D. J., Ill, 127, 155

Cunningham, William "Old Cunny,"
Cincinnati resurrectionist, 235-238

Dana, C. L., 46

D'Argellata, Pietro, Professor at Bologna,

80
da Carpi, Berengario (1470-1550), 87

Carpi Commentaria super Anatomia
Mundindi (1521), 88
Dartmouth College, organization of

medical school, 185

Holmes, Oliver Wendell, 206
Davidge, John B., pioneer medical edu-
cator, 226
da Vinci, Leonardo (1452-1519), 74, 262

anatomical achievements, 79

attitude towards anatomy, 78

life of, 76-79
Davis, N. S., 224, 225
Dawson, W. R., 40
Dead

ancient

Chinese concepts of, 20-22
Japanese concepts of, 22

Babylonian fear of, 29

burial

ceremonies of, 14, 16
positions, 17

292

HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

eating flesh of, 16

gifts to, reasons for, 18

penalties for mutilation of, 4

powers of, 1 3

primitive
burial of, 258
mutilation of, 13, 18
"Dead Guard Men," New York, 225
Death

an enigma, 4

caused by sorcerer, 4, 12

celebration of, 16

comparison with sleep, 9, 10

concepts, in ancient civilizations, 258

concern of Church, 5

definition of, 9

etiology of primitives, 11

fear of, 3, 15

inevitability of, 9

interest to mankind, 9

mystery of, 9

primitive concepts of, 4, 12, 20

relation to religion and philosophy, 9

significance of, 257

speculations on, 10

tribal sensitivities to, 14

violent, 12
DeLint, J. G., 109
della Torre, Marc Antonio (1478-1511),

78
Demand for bodies (1543-1832), 6
Demeter, 35

de Mondeville, Henry (1260-1320), 67
Demons, see Souls
Dempster, W. T., 62, 66, 79
Deniker, J., 10

De Re Anatomica (1559), Realdus Co-
lumbus, 87
Dionysis, 35
Dissection

anatomy acts, of early 1800's, 6

and Church
Middle Ages, 58
Renaissance, 74

beginning of, 106

by

Erasislratus, 49
Herophilus, 47

Ptolemy I, 47

Renaissance artists, 75
characteristics of, 106
compulsory, University of Maryland

(1833), 228
conflicts, in Renaissance, 73
dangers of infection, 178-179
decline of Alexandrian liberalism, 50
early, in New York, 222-225
emotionalism vs. rationalism, 115
evolution of, in United States, 245
executed criminals

in Scotland, 154

role of, 6

use of, 106
first

Middle Ages, 58

United States, 184
human characteristics in, 71
Holme's reaction to first, 206
importance of, 3
in

Austria, HI

China, 112

Colonial times, 182

East North Central States, 234-244

England, 134-153

France, 106-108

Germany, 108-110

Holland, 110-111

Indochina, 1 14

Iran, 114

Ireland, 127-133

Italy, 110

Japan, 113

Middle Atlantic States, 216-225

New England, 180

PhiHppine Islands, 114

Scotland, 154-179

South Atlantic States, 226-233

United States, 245-256
influence of American Revolution. 196
legalization

first, 6

in

Renaissance, 71
Venice, 87
liberalijy, Alexandrian school, 46

INDEX

293

newspaper advertising, 156

opposition to, in Illinois, 242

pioneering student dissector, Edin-
burgh, 158

post- Renaissance period, 6

pre-Renaissance, concepts of, 5

start of, human, 5

status

in Cialen's time, human, 55

on Continent, in Renaissance, 71-73

student, modern France, 107
Divination, in Babylonia, 29
DobrizhofFer, M., 14
Dobson, J., 138
Docherty, Mary, murdered by Burke and

Hare, 166
Dock, W., 250
Doctor's Riot (1788), 224
Dogmatists, in pre-Alexandrian period,

41
Donatello (Donato di Niccolo di Betto

Bard, 1386-1466), Miser's Heart, 75
Doolin, W., 105, 107, 127
Dreams, interpretations of, 10
Dublin

Bully's Acre, 129, 131,266

exportation of bodies, 130

resurrection, 129

school of anatomy, 129

Trinity College, 127
Dun, Patrick, 127

Diirer, Albrecht (1471-1519). 74, 263
Dwight, T., 207. 230

East North Central States, dissection in,

234-244

Illinois, 241-243

Indiana, 243-244

Michigan, 244

Ohio, 234-241
Eber's Papyrus (1502 B.C.), anatomical

information in, 27, 260
Edinburgh

anatomical theatre (1697), 155

Bell, Charles, 158

Bell, John, 157

Borthwick, John, pioneering anatomy
teacher, 154

Eliot, Robert, public dissector, 155

grave robbing (1711), 155

Guild of Surgeons and Barbers (1505),
154

hanging of Burke, 172

Knox, Robert, 161-179

Monro dynasty (1720-1846), 155

murders by Burke and Hare, 161-179

number of medical students (1793-
1820), 158

Royal College of Surgeons (1694), 155

scarcity of cadavers, 158

trial of Burke, 172
Editorial (1829), 150
Editorial (1887), 153
Editorial (1894). 209
Editorial ('02). 244
Editorial ('14), 153

Edward VI (1547-1553) and human dis-
section, 135
Edwards, L. F., 234, 235. 236. 237. 238,

241. 242
Edwin Smith Papyrus (1600 B.C.) an-

otomical information in, 27, 260
Egypt, ancient

Book of the Dead, 26

death, concept of, 259

Eber's Papyrus, 27, 260

Edwin Smith Papyrus, 27, 260

immortality, concept of, 23, 25

mummification, 23, 26, 27

pioneering incisions on human
corpses, 23

polytheism, 23

pyramids, 27

Ra, god of Sun, 24

souls, 24

transmigration of souls, 25-26
Eichler, Lillian, 10
Eliot, John, suggested first medical

school in United States, 184
Eliot, Robert, public dissector, Edin-
burgh, 155
Elizabeth I (1518-1608) and human dis

section, 135
EUiston, W. A., 142

294

HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

Elsberg, C. A., 27
Embalming

ancient Egyptian. 259

art of, pre-Alexandrian era, 38

duties of embalmer, pre-Alexandrian,
39

Warren, John C., pioneer in, 202
Emotionalism

and mob action, 120

in dissection, 115
Emperors

Charies V (1500-1558), 74

Commodus (180-192), 54

Frederick II, 62, 262

importance in ancient China, 21

Julius Caesar, deified, 36
Empirics in pre-Alexandrian period, 41
England

availability of cadavers, 152

Barber-Surgeons Company, 134

Caius, John, founder of anatomy, 134

Charles II and Barber- Surgeons, 136

Edward VI, 135

Elizabeth I, 135

Harvey, William, as an anatomist,
135-137

Henry VIII, 134

human dissection in, 134-153

Royal College of Physicians, 134
Enigmas

death, 4

man's three greatest, 4
Epicurus, 41
Epitaphs on tombs, 135
Erasistratus

Alexandrian school, 45, 260

as a di.ssector, 49

books of, 49

discoveries of, 49

|>ionrcring anatomist, 46
Innciisis, 130
Kuimiics of Cardia, 45
Euripides, 45
Eurydice. immIi (»I. :\'>

F.\il. ;iss(K i.iiioM ol souls with, 12, 17, 20
K\.,luii<.ii

stages of, 5

survival time, 4

Executed criminals

Burke, William, 172-173

Carroll, Hermanns, 222

Cassidy, Patrick, 226

for dissection, 6

Alexandrian School, 47-48
Modern Europe and Asia, 106
Scotland, 154

obtainance procedures, 138, 140

Fabrica, Andreas Vesalius, 5, 6, 90, 99-

102, 264

criticisms of, 102

foundation for, 84

illustrations, 101

nature of text, 101

Oporinus, Johannes, printer, 99

wood blocks of, 99
Fallopius, Gabriel (1523-1562), 81

on Herophilus, 47
Fear of death, 3
Fernel, Jean, professor at University oi

Paris, 92, 93
Figge, F. H. J., 227, 228, 230
Firmin, Giles, first dissection in America,

184
Fisher, G. J., 45, 47, 48, 49, 52
Flexner, A.

ideas on anatomy, 248

on medical education, 247, 248
Florence

da Vinci in, 76

University of, 67
Foreign letter ('57), 153, 179
France

availability of cadavers, 106-107

haiidliiii; of cadavers, 107

law (1 7! 10). 106

niodtiii dissection, 106

studciu dissection, 107
Franchini, G., 81
Francis I, King of France, 70
Frank, M., 153
Franklin Medical College. Ohio, 242

Ridi.iids. {.rorgc W., professor of an-
..(...iiv, 242
liasd. I)., 108

INDEX

295

Frazer, J. E. S., 38

1 lazer, J. G., 19

Frederick II, Emperor of Germany and
two Sicilies, 62, 262

Fulton. J. F., 87

Funeral
customs, in ancient Greece, 34
directors and grave robbing, 125

Galen, 40. 49, 51-57,261-262

anatomical achievements, 51, 55

education of, 52

fame of, 57

human anatomical background, 53

m

Alexandria, 53, 55
Pergamon, 53, 54
Rome, 54

influence on
Middle Ages, 58
Renaissance, 71

parents of, 52

personality of, 56

physician, to gladiators, 53

place of birth, 51

reactions to anatomical architecture,
56

religion, 56

status of human dissections, 55

style of writing, 56
Gardner, E., 253, 254
Garrison, F. H., 105, 109, 114
Gask, G. E., 46

Genesis of ancient religions, 20
Geraughty, Tom, Irish resurrectionist,

131
Germany

anatomical laws, 109

availability of cadavers, 109

Brunner, John C., 108

modern dissection in, 108-110

number of medical students, 109

teachers, 109
Ghosts, see Soul
Gnosticism, philosophic-religious, 44

Gods

and magic, in Babylonia, 28
mythological, 20
power of, in ancient Greece, 34
propitiation of Babylonia, 28
sacrifices to, in ancient Greece, 33
Gordon, B. L., 42

Grave robbers, see Resurrectionists
Grave robbing
as a trade, 6

Berkshire Medical College, 209
funeral directors, 125
in

Dublin, 129

Edinburgh, 155

Great Britain, 264

Indiana, 243

Ohio, 234

United States, 269

Virginia, 232
materials needed. New England, 187
preventive measures, 186
reaction of populace, 122
safeguards against, 124
seasonal factor, 126
student resurrectionists, Ohio, 239
technique of. New England, 187
University of Cincinnati. 238
Vermont Medical College at Wood-
stock, 213
Gravestones

of Paleolithic man, 17
significance of, 17
Greece, ancient
Achilles, 34
Apollo, 34, 35
concepts of death, 259
Cronus, 33
funeral

celebration, sports, 34

pyres, 34
Hades, 34
Hector, 34
Iliad, 33
immortality, 34
Mount Olympus, 33
Mythology, 35
nature gods, 33

296

HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

Orphic
doctrine, 35
hell, 35

polytheism, 33

power of gods, 34

sacrifices to gods, 33

Styx, river of Hades, 33

Trojan War, 34

Zeus, 33
Green, R. M., 55
Gregg, A., 249

Gross, Samuel D., surgeon, as resurrec-
tionist, 222
Guild, influence of, 116
Guild of Surgeons and Barbers (1505),

Edinburgh, 154
Guinterius, Joannes (1478-1574), 92
Guttmacher, A. F., 42, 107, 111, 117,

118, 125, 129, 130, 134, 135, 138, 140,

142, 143, 144, 145, 147, 148, 149, 150,

152, 153, 154, 157, 160, 161, 165, 167,

172, 230

Habitat of soul, primitive concepts, 14

Hades, 34

Haggard, H. W., 38, 42, 43, 46, 157, 243

Hammett, F. S., 43

Hare, William, Edinburgh murderer,

161-179,265

McDougal, Helen, accomplice, 166

murder of

Docherty, Mary, 166
Patterson, Mary, 164
Simpson, Abigail, 163
Wilson, James, 165

post-trial life, 173

publicity about, 173-175

trial of, 172
Harrington, T. F., 105, 107, 191, 193,

194, 198, 205
Harris, D. F., 112

Harrison, John Scott, as a cadaver, 289
Hanwell, E. M., 183. 184, 194, 217, 218,

222. 225, 231
Harvard Medical School ('06). 194

Harvard Medical School, 191-209

Holmes, Oliver Wendell, 206-209

La Terriere, 197

organization of (1782), 191

students as resurrectionists, 200-202

Warren, John, 191-198

Warren, John C., 198-203
Harvey, William (1578-1657), 135-137
Hawkins, Caesar, 117
Heaven, in ancient India, 31
Hebrus, 35
Hector, 34
Hells

of ancient
China, 22
India, 30

distance to, 32
messengers of, 31
number of, 31
Japan, 23
Hemmeter, J. C, 87
Henry IV, King of France (1553-1610),

82
Henry VIII and dissection, 134
Henry, G. W., 59, 69, 70
Herophilus

Alexandrian School, 45, 260

Father of Anatomy, 47

nature of studies, 48

number of cadavers dissected, 47

pioneering
anatomist, 46
pathologist, 47

vivisection ist?, 47
Herringham, W., 136
Heyl, Erwin, gentleman resurrectionist

(1878), 240
Hinduism

in ancient India, 30, 31, 259

medicine, Stisruta, 42

Vedas, 42
Holland, 267

Ruysch, Frederick, 1 1 1

status of dissection in, 1 10-1 1 1
Holmes, Oliver Wendell (1809-1894)

as an anatomist, 20()-209

at
Dartmouth (1838-1840), 206

INDEX

297

Harvard Medical School, 206

examinations given by, 207

in

Paris, 107, 206
retirement, 208

obituary, 209

personality, 206

reaction to first dissection, 206
Holy Land, pilgrimage of Vesalius, 104
Homer, Iliad, 33, 259
Horner, William Edmonds (1793-1853)

professor of anatomy. University of

Pennsylvania, 220
Hospital medical schools, London, 149
House of Commons

investigation of dissection laws (1828),
151

select committee of, 151
Human bodies

complexity of, 272

demand for (1543-1832), 6

mummification, ancient Eg)pt, 23

parts used for magic, 183

penalties for mutilation of, 4

primitive mutilation of, 13, 18

procurement of cadavers, 8

start of dissection, 5
Humanism in European Renaissance, 68
Hume, E. E., 112
Hume, E. H., 42

Hundt, Magnus, Antropologium, 88
Hunter, John (1728-1793)

as a teacher, 142

Hunterian Museum, 142

Irishman O'Brien, 142

portrait by Sir Joshua Reynolds, 144
Hunter, William (1718-1783), 117

achievements of, 142

as a teacher, 142

school of anatomy, 140
Hunter, William, of Rhode Island, 184

Ignatius Loyola, 96
Illinois

anatomy law (1885), 242

dissection in, 241-243

Franklin Medical College, 242

Jacksonville riot (1848), 242

medical department, Illinois College,
242

number of medical schools, 241

opposition to dissection, 242
Illinois College, Medical Department of,

242
Illustrations, anatomical

Fabrica, 101

five figure series, 89

fugitive sheets, 89

Hundt's Antropologium, 88

of Renaissance, 88-89

Peyligk's Philosophiae Naturalis, 88

Phryesen's, Spiegel der Artzny, 88

van Calcar, Jan Stephan, 97
Image in water, importance, 10
Immortality

belief in, 10
ancient

Egypt, 23, 25
Greece, 34
India, 30
Japan, 23

of bodily parts, 25

primitive concepts of, 4
India, ancient

Aryans, 30

black magic, 30

Brahmanism, 30

burial procedure, standards of, 32

carion fly, 32

caste system, 31

cremation, 31

distance to hell, 32

heaven, 31

Hinduism, 30, 31

immortality, 30

messengers of hell, 31

nature worship, 29

polytheism, 30

priest's administrations to dying, 32

retribution, 30

souls in, 30

Tower of Silence, 32, 114

transmigration of souls, 31

Yama, 31

Zoroastrianism, 32

298

HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

Indiana

anatomical law (1879), 243

dissection in, 243-244

grave robbing (1879), 243

number of medical schools, 243
Indochina, status of dissection, 114, 268
Inquisition of Vesalius, 103-104
Integration of anatomy, 7
Intellectual ages of man, 4
Interpretations of

dreams, 10

image in water, 10

shadow, 10
Iran, 267

status of dissection, 114

Tower of Silence, 32, 114
Ireland, 266, see also Dublin

Dun, Patrick, 127

Geraughty, Tom, 131

human dissection in, 127-133

Magrath, Corney, 128

Molyneux, Thomas, 127

Rae, Wilson, resurrectionist, 130

Trinity College, Dublin, early dissec-
tion, 127
Irishman O'Brien, giant, competition for

body of, 142
I sis

Egyptian deity, 25

in ancient Roman religion, 37
Italy

status of dissection in, 110

training of anatomists, 115

Janssen, Baltimore resurrectionist, 23
Japan, 268

cadaver availability, 113

medical schools, 113

status of dissection, 1 13

teachers, 113
Japan, ancient. 22-23

l>clicf in immortality, 23

burial
of living humans, 23
procedures in, 23

concept of hell, 23

polytheism, 22

primitive Shintoism, 22

reaction to dead, 22

tombs in, 23
Jenkins, G. B., 252, 253
Johns Hopkins Medical School, cadaver

problem. Mall, Franklin P., 230
Johnson, C. B., 244
Johnson, V., 250
Jonas, H. C, 40
Julius Caesar, deified emperor, 36

burning Alexandrian school, 50

Kelly, H. A., 230
Kempf, E. J., 38
Kerr, A. T., Ill
Khairallah, A. A., 43
Kings

Charles II and Barber-Surgeon's, 136

Charles V of Spain, 103

Francis I of France, 70

Henry IV of France, 82

Louis D'Anjou of France, 81

Maximilian of Rome, 70

Philip of Spain, 103
King, H. D., 134
Knox, J. H. M., 206
Knox, Robert, 265

and Wakley, Thomas, 171

as a teacher, 167-168

defamation of, 168

early training, 167

Edinburgh anatomist, 161-179

in comparison with Macartney, 131

inquest of, 175-177

later life, 177-179

mol) action, 168

physical characteristics, 167

Simpson, Abigail, murdered, 164

student attendance in classes, 168
Korns, H. M.. 88, 111
Kraemer, Heinrich, The Witches Ham-
mer, 69
Krumbhaar, E. B., 184, 223. 231

INDEX

299

Ladenheim, J. C, 222, 224, 225

La Terriere, student. Harvard Medical

School (1788-1789), 197
Laurie, S. S., 63
Lees, Andrew, Edinburgh resurrectionist,

160-161
Legalization of dissection

first, 6

in

Middle Ages, 58
Renaissance, 71
Venice, 87

status, in China, 42

Warburton Anatomy Act (1832), 153
Leidy, Joseph (1823-1891) professor of

anatomy. University of Pennsylvania,

221
Lerida, University of, 67
Levy-Bruhl, L., 11

Leyden University, cadaver supply, 110
Liston, Robert (1794-1847), as^a resur-
rectionist, 158-159
London

Bishop, May and Williams, murderers,
152

exportation of cadavers, 151

number of medical students (1828),
150
Lonsdale, H., Ill, 149, 155, 156, 167,

170, 171, 174, 175, 178, 179
Lycos, 49

M

Macalister, A., 127, 128, 129, 131, 132,

133, 135, 138, 139
Macartney, James, professor of anatomy.

Trinity College, 130-131
MacCallum, W. G., 83
Mackenzie, W. M., 107
Macmichael, W., 135
Madrid, Vesalius in, 103
Magic

and religion combined, 29

black, in ancient India, 30

in

Babylonia, 28
Mict^jil^ Ages, 59

parts of body used for, 1 83
status in pre-Alexandrian era, 38
Magrath, Corney, human giant, 128
Major, R. H., 109
Mall, Franklin P., 230, 246

cadaver problem, Johns Hopkins, 230
Malloch, A., 57
Man

architecture of, 3
intellectual ages of, 4
Marcus Aurelius Antonius (Caracalla),

Alexandrian school, 50
Marinos, 49
Mark Antony, 50

Maryland, see also Baltimore and Uni-
versity of Maryland
Anatomy acts of
(1832), 230
(1882), 230
(1890), 230
(1938 revision), 230
(1949 revision), 230
Massachusetts
Anatomy Acts

English Act of 1604, 183
evolution of Act of 1831, 204, 206
Law of 1660, 183
Resolution of 1647, 183
Berkshire Medical College, 209
Harvard Medical School, 191-209
"The Body of Liberties," 182
Maximilian, King of Rome, 70
May, London murderer, 152, 265
McDougal, Helen

accomplice of Burke and Hare, 166
emigration to Australia, 173
McGuire, S.. 232
McMurrich, J. P., 79, 81, 88
Medical Schools

closure in British Isles (1829), 150
in

China, 113
Japan, 113
London, 150
New England, 191-215
United States (1900-1958), 245
number in
Illinois, 241

300

HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

Indiana, 243
Michigan, 244
Ohio, 234

United States, 180-181, 268-269
organization in New England, 185
reduction in number in United States,

252, 271
regional considerations, 181-182
secrecy with cadavers, 188
tradition of oldest, in United States,
181
Medical students
as resurrectionists, 156

Columbus Medical College (1878).

240
Ohio, 239

University of Vermont, 211
at University of Michigan, 244
colonial students in Europe, 185
compulsory dissection. University of

Maryland (1833), 228
dissecting in British Isles, 134
increase in United States, 252, 271
number in
Austria, 111

Edinburgh (1793-1820). 158
Germany, 109
London (1828), 150
of

Robert Knox, 168
WilHam Shippen, 218
pioneering dissectors, 158
reaction to cadaver shortages, 121
Vermont graduates (1820-1840), 211
Medicine
problems in United States, 180
progress in, 3
ranking of, in China, 112
renaissance of, 5
superstition in, 8
Metchnikoff, E., 9
Mettler, Cecelia, C, 142, 220
Meyer. A. W.. 255
Meyer, W., 110

Michelangelo (1475-1564), 74, 263
Michigan,
dissection in, 244

number of medical schools, 244

University of, 244
Middle Ages, 58-67, 260

Alexandrian fire, 2nd Century, 58

Arabian influence, 61-62

astrology, influence, 60

Avicenna, 58

characteristics of, 58

church and dissection, 58, 59

de Mondeville, Henry, 67

first human dissections, 58

Galenic influence, 58

hostility to science, 60

legalization of dissection, 58

magic, 59

Mondino da Luzzi, 63-66

psychological atmosphere, 59

Theodosian Code, 59

time interval, 58

universities of, 62-67
Middle Atlantic States

Cadwallader, Thomas, 216

dissection in, 216-225

Shippen, William, Jr., 216

University of Pennsylvania, 216-222
Middleton, W. S., 217, 218, 219, 220, 221.

222
Milan, da Vinci in, 78
Miller, W. S., 219, 228
Miscellany (1894), 207
Miser's Heart, anatomical painting by

Donatello, Renaissance, 75
Mithras, 37

Molyneux, Thomas, 127
•/Mondino da Luzzi (1276-1326), 63-66,

262
Monros, Alexander, I, II and III

dynasty of (1720-1846), 155

Monro I

innovations in teaching, 156
subjected to mob violence, 156

Monro II, as a teacher, 157

Monro III
as a teacher, 158
Burke case, 172
Montagu, M. F. A., 85
Montpellier

de Mondeville, Henry, 67

INDEX

301

Kings

Henry IV, 82
Louis D'Anjou, 81
Rabelais, 81
University of, 66, 81-83
Moore, G. F., 18, 22, 23, 25, 29, 33, 36,

37
Morgan, John
and William Shippen, Jr., 217, 219
ideas on anatomy, 217
Mount Olympus, 33
Mummification
first incisions, 23
in

ancient Egypt, 23, 26, 27, 260
pre- Alexandrian era, 38, 260
relation to Osirian myth, 25
Murder
by

Bishop, May and Williams, 152
Burke and Hare, 161-179
resurrectionists, 6

Waldie, Jean and Torrente, Helen,
157
of

Brown, Emily, 228-230
Docherty, Mary, 166
Patterson, Mary, 164
Simpson, Abigail, 163
Wilson, James, 165
Museum
anatomical and pathological, in Brit-
ish Isles, 119
at Alexandrian school, 45
Hunterian, 142
Mutilation of bodies
penalties for, 4
primitive, 13, 18
Mystery of death, 9
Mythology in
ancient
Egypt

Anubis, 25
Isis, 25
Osiris, 25
Ra, sun god, 24
Set, 24

Greece

Apollo, 34, 35

Demeter, 35

Dionysis, 35

Eurydice, myth of, 35

Hebrus, 35

Orpheus, myth of, 35

Orphic
doctrine, 35
hell, 35

Thrace, women of, 35
Roman religion

Attis, 37

Isis, 37

Mithras, 37
pre- Alexandrian anatomy, 39
relation to certain gods, 20

N

Naples, University of, 67

National board, standards in anatomy,

249, 270
Nature
gods of, in ancient
China, 20
Japan, 22
worship in ancient
Babylonia, 28
Greece, 33
India, 29
Rome, 36
Neanderthal man, burial procedure, 16
New England

anatomical laws, 182-186
cadaver supply, 185, 197
Dartmouth College, 185
early dissection in, 180-215
efficiency of anatomy laws, 186
grave robbing, 187-188
medical schools
number in, 191-215
organization of, 185
New Hampshire, anatomy law (1796),

185
New York

anatomy act (1789), 225
"Dead Guard Men," 225
Doctor's Riot (1788), 224

302

HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

early dissection in, 222-225
opposition to dissection in, 223
Thomas Wood, anatomy notice, 223

Norwood, W. F., 194, 209, 218

Nourse, Edward, 117

Ohio

anatomical laws (1831, 1840, 1879,
1880, 1881) 234, 235, 240, 241

Columbus Medical College, riot, 238

dissection in, 234-241

grave robbing (1811), 234

Harrison, John Scott, 239

Heyl, Erwin, resurrectionist (1879),
240

mob riot (1811), 234

number of medical schools, 234

Painesville resolution (1845), 235

public notice, newspaper (1878), 241

riot, in Cincinnati (1852), 235

Willoughby Medical College (Ohio
State), 235

Worth ington Medical College, 234
Old Testament, Hebrew anatomical

antipathy, 42
O'Malley, C. D., 105
Oporinus, Johannes, printer of Vesalius'

Fabrica, 99
Orpheus

doctrine, 35

hell. 35

myth of, 35
Osiris

Egyptian deity, 25

relation to mummification, 25
Osier. W., 40, 42, 87, 107, 108
Ovcrholser, M. D., 254

Packard. F. R.. 03, 142.217

Padua
Columbus, RealduK, 81
da Carpi. Berengario. 87
Fallopius. (>abricl, 81
University of. 71. 81

Vesalius

as a teacher, 97
in Padua, 95-99, 102
Paleolithic man, gravestones of, 17
Pantegni, Constan tine's (1070), 88
Paris

Fernel, Jean, 92, 93

Guinterius, Joannes, 92

Holmes, Oliver Wendell, 107, 206

Servetus, Michael, 85-87

Sylvius, Jacobus, 83-85, 92, 94

training of anatomists, 115

Uniyersity of, 83

Vesalius in, 92-95
Park, R., 54
Parmenides, 41
Parrish, Joseph, student. University of

Pennsylvania, 220
Patrick, resurrectionist, 148
Patterson, Mary

murdered by Burke and Hare, 164

Stevenson, R. L., The Body Stiatchers,
165
Pattison, Granville Sharp, University of

Maryland, 227
Peirson, Abel L., influence in Anatomy

Act of 1831,204
Pergamon

Asklepieion, 51

Galen, 51,53, 54

library of, 50
Peyligk, John, Philosophiae Naturalis,

88
Philip of Spain, employer of Vesalius,

103
Philippine Islands, status of dissection,

114
Pltilosopliiac Natinalis (1499), John

Pcyligk's, 88
Philosophy, relalion to death, 9
Phryesen's Laurentius. Spiegel der

Arlzny, 88
Pilcher, L. S„ 66

Pisa, Vesalius at Universiiy of. 102
Plato. 41
Pollaiuolo. Antonio (1429-1498), 74

INDEX

303

Polytheism, ancient

Haby Ionia, 28

China, 21

Egypt, 23

Greece, 33

India, 30

Japan, 22

Rome, 36
Pontifex Maximus, 42
Popes

Alexander V, 80

Benedict XIV (1675-1758), 80

Clement VII (1478-1534), 74

Innocent VIII, Papal Bull, 70

Sixtiis IV (1414-1484), 74
Pott, Percival, 117
Potter's Field

origin of term, 116

source of cadavers, 188
Prague, I niversity of, 67
Praxagoras, 40
Pre-Alexandrian anatomy, 38-43

anatomical
antipathy, 40
terminology, 39

Arabian beliefs, 43

art of embalming, 38

beliefs, of Pythagoras, 41

characteristics of organs, 39

duties of embalmer, 39

Epicurus, 41

fear of souls, 41

Hebrew anatomy, 42

in Talmud, 43

magic, status of, 38

nnimmification, 38

mythological anatomy, 39

Parmenides, philosophy of, 41

Plato, philosophy of, 41

Pontifex Maximus, 42

School of

Dogmatists, 41
Empirics, 41

status of anatomy, 38, 39

Stoics, 41

taboos on corpse, 42

Xenophanes, monotheism, 41

Prendergast, J. S., 57
Priests

administration to dying, India, 32

in ancient
Babylonia, 29
Brahmanism, 30
Roman religions, 36

of Asklepios, influence of, 40
Primitive concepts of

death, 4, 20

etiology of death, 1 1

immortality, 4

reincarnation, 18

retribution, 20

soul, 4, 20
Profits, of resurrectionists, 6
Ptolemy I (Soter)

as a dissector, 47

governor of Egypt, 45
Public notices

Ohio newspaper (1878), 241

Thomas Wood, 223

William Shippen, Jr., 218
Pyramids in Ancient Egypt, significance

of, 27
Pythagoras, 41

Quintos, 49

Ra, Egyptian sim god, 24

Rabelais, 81

Rae, Wilson, Dublin resurrectionist, 130

Ranke, H., 28

Rationalism in dissection, 115

Reincarnation, primitive concepts of,

18, 258
Reisner, G. A., 27
Religion

Brahmanism in ancient India, 30

Calvin, John, 87

combined with magic, 29

early Chinese, 20-22

genesis of ancient, 20

Hinduism in ancient India, 30

Ignatius Loyola, 96

304

HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

of Galen, 56

practical aim in ancient China, 21
priests in ancient Roman, 36
relation to death, 9
Theatin monks, 96
Renaissance, European (1350-1650), 68-
89, 262
anatomical

illustrations, 88-89

role of artists, 74-79

theatres, 71
anatomists

Achillini, Alessandro, 80

Columbus, Realdus, 81, 87

da Carpi, Berengario, 87, 88

D'Argellata, Pietro, 80

della Torre, Marc Antonio, 78

Fallopius, Gabriel, 81

Servetus, Michael, 85-87

Sylvius, Jacobus, 83-85

Willis, Thomas, 70
artists

da Vinci, Leonardo, 74, 76-79

Donatello, 74

Durer, Albrecht, 74

Michelangelo, 74

Pollaiuolo, Antonio, 74

Titian, 74

Verrocchio, Andrea, 75
availability of cadavers, 73
Black Plague, 70
Calvin, John, 87
characteristics of, 68
Church and dissection, 74
dissection conflicts, 73
Emperor Charles V, 74
human dissection, characteristics, 71
humanism, 68
importance of, 68
influence of

Avicenna, 71

Galen, 71
kings

Francis I, 70

Henry IV, 82

Ix>uis D'Anjou, 81

Maximilian, 70

legalization of dissection, 71
mind of, 69-70
Popes
Alexander V, 80
Benedict XIV, 80
Clement Vn, 74
Innocent VIII, 70
Rabelais, 81
Sixtus IV, 74

status of human dissection, 71-73
universities, 79-88
Renaissance of medicine, 5
Report of Council on Medical Educa-
tion ('06), 247
Report of Third Teaching Institute

('56), 255
Report to. American Surgical and Den-
tal Associations, 247, 251
Resurrection, see Grave robbing
Resurrectionists
and teachers, 120
apprehended, 120
connivance with surgeon-anatomists,

120
dealings with Sir Astley Cooper, 146,

148
deception of, 124
ethics of, 122
fees of, 12, 125

"gentlemen" resurrectionists, 118
Gross, Samuel D., surgeon, 222
Heyl, Erwin, Ohio, 240
La Terriere, 197
Liston, Robert, 158-159
medical students, 156
Columbus Medical College (1878),

240
Harvard Medical School, 200-202
in Ohio, 239

University of Vermont, 21 1
Scwall, Thomas, 189, 204
Warren, John C. 198-199
in
Great Britain, 265
United States, 269
law of supply and demand. 1 \9
mcihods of cadaver procurcmoin, 121

INDEX

305

murder and, 6
professional

Cunningham, William, 235-238

Geraughty, Tom, 131

Janssen, 231

Lees, Andrew, 160-161

Patrick, 148

Rae, Wilson, 130
profits of, 6

"rascal" resurrectionists, 119
regard to cadaver habiliment, 118
reputation, 6
rise of, 115-126
sale of teeth, 125-126
Retribution
doctrine of, ancient China, 22
first concepts of, 20
in ancient India, 30
in Babylonia, 29

Reynolds, Sir Joshua, painting of John

Hunter, 144
Rhazes (850-923), 61
Rhode Island

Hunter, William, 184

statute (1655), 183
Richards, George W^, professor of

anatomy, Franklin Medical College,

242
Riots

against Robert Knox, 168

and eniotionalism, 120

Baltimore (1788), 226

Cincinnati (1852), 235

Columbus Medical College, 238

Doctor's Riot (1788), 224

Hubbardton Raid (1830), 210

inciting factors, 126

in United States, 7, 270

Jacksonville, Illinois (1848), 242

Monro I (1725), 156

Ohio (1811), 234

Sailors' Mob (1765), 217-218
Robinson, G. C, 135, 137
Robinson, Robert, professor of anatomy.

Trinity College, 128
Rohrer, C. W. G., 142, 222

Rolf, John, Cambridge professor (1707),

137
Rolleston, H., 138, 139, 142, 144
Romans, ancient, 36-37

Attis, 37

Christ, 37

church ceremonies, 36

concept of dead, 259

Isis, 37

Julius Caesar, deified emperor, 36

Mithras, 37

nature, 36

nether world, 36

polytheism, 36

priests, 36

separation of church and state, 36
Rome

da Vinci in, 78

fire (A.D. 192), 54

Galen in, 54

Maximilian, King, 70
Royal College of Physicians

anatomical theatre, 135

Caius, John, 135

first charter, 134
Royal College of Surgeons

by law (1824), 150

Edinburgh (1694), 155
Ruysch, Frederick (1683-1731), Holland,

111

S

Sabin, Florence R., 185, 230
Sack-em-up men, see Resurrectionists
St. Bartholomew's, London, beginning

medical school, 139
St. Thomas Hospital, London, 138
Salerno, University of, 62
Sarton, G., 57

Satyros, early famous anatomist, 53
Saunders, J. B. deC. M., 105
Schools of

anatomy
Dublin (1784), 129
Hunter's, 140
private in Dublin (1865-1900), 132

Dogmatists, 41

Empirics, 41

306

HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

Science, hostility towards, in Middle

Ages, 60
Scotland

anatomical laws, 154

cadaver supply, 179

executed criminals, for dissection, 154

human dissection in, 154-179

traditions in anatomy, 154
Seraphium, at Alexandrian School, 45
Servetus, Michael (1511-1553), 85-87,

264

Apology to Astrology, 86

Christianismi Restitutio, 87
Set, Egyptian deity, 24
Sewall, Thomas, early "gentleman" res-
urrectionist, 189, 204
Shadow, interpretation of, 10
Shamanism, see Magic
Shintoism, in ancient Japan, 22, 258
Shippen, William, Jr. (1736-1808)

advertisement of lectures, 218

and John Morgan, 217. 219

at Surgeon's Hall, Philadelphia, 218

class attendance, 218

Professor of Anatomy, University of
Pennsylvania, 216

Sailors' Mob, 217
Sigerist, H. E., 39, 111
Simpson, Abigail, murdered by Burke

and Hare, 163-164
Singer, C., 38, 48, 80, 83, 88, 110
Sleep, comparison with death, 9, 10
Sophacles, 45

Sorcerer, as cause of death, 11
Souls

ancestral worship of, 14

association with evil, 12, 17, 20, 30

defensive measures against, 15

evaluation of, 257

evil, in Babylonia, 28

first concepts of. 4, 10-11. 20

good and bad, 4

habitat in Babylonia. 29

in

ancient
Egypt. 24
India. 30
Miildic Ages 262

indwelling, 10, 11
nether world, ancient Romans. 36
powers of, 13

pre-Alexandrian, fear of, 41
primitive habitat of, 14
status, in ancient China, 20
transmigration in ancient
Egypt, 25-26
India, 31
types in ancient China, 21
South, J. F., 134, 135, 137, 139
South Atlantic States
Cassidy, Patrick, executed criminal,

226
Davidge, John B., pioneer medical

educator, 226
dissection in, 226-233
Baltimore, 226
Virginia, 231-233
Mob riot, Baltimore (1788), 226
Pattison, Granville S., 227
University of Maryland, 226-230
Washington, D.C., 230-231
Wiesenthal, C. F., early dissector, 226
Spain, power of Church, 103
Special feature article ('55), 256
Specialty boards, standards in anatomy,

249
Speculations, on death, 10
Spiegel der Artzny, Laurentius Phryesen

(1518), 88
Spirit, see Soul

Sprenger, Johann, The Witches Ham-
mer, 69
Sprigge, S. S... 150
Standardization boards
American Medical Association, 7, 246-

247
Association American Medical Col-
leges. 247
Carnegie Foundation for the Advance-
ment of Teaching, 247
Connnission on Medical Education.

247-248
in

Great Britain. 117,264

United States. 246-2.50

National Bonrd. 217 249

INDEX

307

Specialty Boards, 247-249

State Boards, 247, 249
State Boards, standards in anatomy,

247, 249
Stevenson, Robert Louis, The Body

Snatchers, 165
Stoics, 41
Streeter, E. C, 79
Styx, river of Hades, 33
Superstition

in medicine, 8

of dead, 3
Surgeon- Anatomists

Cheselden, William, 138

connivance with resurrectionists, 120

Cooper, Sir Astley, 120, 146-148

Cowper, William, 138

Hawkins, Caesar, 117

Hunter, William, 117

in Great Britain, 115

Nourse, Edward, 117

Pott, Percival, 117
Susruta, Hindu medical text, 42, 260
Sylvius, Jacobus (Jacques Dubois, 1478-

1555), 83-85, 92, 94, 263

Tabulae Anatomicae, Andreas Vesalius,

99
Talmud, anatomy in, 43
Taylor, H. O., 38
Teaching Institute, in Anatomy and

Anthropology ('55), 255
Teachers

and resurrectionists, 120

Bell, Charles, 158

Caius, John, 135

in

Germany, 109
Japan, 113
Renaissance, 263

Knox, Robert, 167-168

Monros, Alexander, 157, 158

Warren, John, 195
Teeth, sale of, 125-126
Tertullian, charge against Herophilus,

48

Theatin monks, encouraged anatomical

studies, 96
"The Body of Liberties" (1641), Mas-
sachusetts anatomy law, 182
Theodosian Code (A.D. 420), 59
The Witches Hammer, Sprenger, J., and

Kraemer, H., 69
Thrace, women of, 35
Tilton, Eleanor M., 206, 207
Titian (Tiziano Vecellio, 1477-1576), 74,

263

Vesalius' artist?, 101
Tombs

building of, in ancient
China, 21
Egypt, 27
Japan, 23

epitaphs on, 1^5
Toner, J., 185

Torrence, Helen, murderess, 157
Tower of Silence, 32, 114
Transmigration of souls

in ancient
Egypt, 25-26
India, 31
Tribal, sensitivity to death, 14
Trinity College, Dublin

anatomical theatre, 127

chair of anatomy (1710), 127

early dissection, 127

Macartney, James, 130-131

Robinson, Robert, professor of anat-
omy, 128
Trojan War, 34
Turner, E. D., 252

U

Undertakers, role of, 255
United States
anatomical
laws, 252, 254
problems, 268
teaching, 245-256
prior to 1900, 245-246

competition of medical schools,

246
number of medical schools, 246

308

HUMAN DISSECTION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

research, 246
status of dissection, 245
teaching hours, 246
1900-1958
changes in, 270
criticism of, 250, 270
essentials for, 249
importance, 248
improvement, 250
knowledge for boards, 249
medical schools, 245, 268, 271

number of, 180-181
place in curriculum, 248
significance of research, 249
standardization boards, 246-256
students, increase in, 252
teaching hours, 248, 252
Teaching Institute in Anatomy
and Anthropology ('55), 255
cadavers
needed, 254
supply, 253, 254, 271
variations in distribution, 253
dissection

evolution of, 245
status (1900-1958), 245-256
grave robbing, 269
medical problems in, 180
riots, 7, 270
undertakers, role in cadaver supply,

255
willing of bodies, 256
Universities of

Middle Ages, 62-67, 262
Renaissance, 79-88
University of

Bologna, 63-66, 79-80
Cambridge, 139
Cincinnati, 238
Florence, 67
Harvard, 191-209
Lerida, 67
Leyden, 110
Maryland, 226-230
compulsory dissection (1833), 228
Davidge, John B., 226
Pattison, Granville S., 227

Michigan, 244

cadaver supply, 244

students enrolled, 244
Montpellier, 66
Naples, 67
Padua, 71, 81, 95-99
Paris, 83
Pennsylvania, 216-222

Horner, William E., 220

Leidy, Joseph, 221

Morgan, John, 217

Parrish, Joseph, 220

pioneering anatomy course in
America, 216

Shippen, William Jr., 216

Wistar, Caspar, 220
Prague, 67
Salerno, 62
Venice, 67
Vermont

anatomical
fee (1825), 211
laws, 210

founding of, 210

secrecy in handling cadavers, 212

student resurrectionists, 211

supply of cadavers (1882), 212

van Calcar, Jan Stephan, artist, 97

Fabrica, 99
Vedas, Hindu writings, 42
Venice

legalization of dissection, 87
University of, 67
Vesalius, 96
Vermont

anatomical laws
(1804), 186
(1870), 210
(1884), 210
Castleton Medical College, 209-210
medical graduates (1820-1840). 211
University of Vermont, 210-212
Vermont Medical (:<)l!(i;o at Wood-
slock, 213-215

INDEX

309

Vermont Medical College at Woodstock

(1827-1856), 213-215
Verrocchio, Andrea (1435-1488), 75, 76,

78
Vesalius, Andreas, 5, 90-105, 264
achievements of, 90
as a

dissector, 94

teacher, 97
at

Bologna, 102

University of
Padua, 81, 95-99, 102

Pisa, 102
availability of cadavers to, 96
Charles V of Spain, 103
death of, 104
early life, 91-92
Fahrica, 5, 90, 99-102
foundation for Fabrica, 84
Ignatius Loyola, relation to, 96
in

Madrid, 103

Paris, 92-95

Venice, 96
Inquisition, 103-104
personality, 104-105
Philip of Spain, 103
pilgrimage to Holy Land, 104
stature of, 90
Theatin monks, 96
van Calcar, Jan Stephan, 97, 99
Vienna, anatomical theatre, 1 1 1
Viets, H. R., 110, 184
Virginia

dissection in, 231-233
grave robbing, 232

Warner, Augustus L., pioneering anat-
omist, 231
Vivisection

accusation against Herophilus, 47

W

Waite, F. C, 183, 184, 186, 188, 189, 197,
204, 205, 210, 211, 213, 214, 215

Wakley T., 144, 150
and Robert Knox, 171

Waldie, Jean, murderess, 157

Walsh, J., 46, 49, 59, 74

Walton, G. I., 109

Warbasse, J. P., 56

Warburton Anatomy Act (1832), 153,
266

Warner, Augustus L., pioneering anat-
omist, Virginia, 231

Warren, E., 191, 195, 196, 199, 202

Warren, John (1753-1815), Harvard pro-
fessor of anatomy, 191-198
as

a teacher, 195
an organizer, 191
personality of, 195
stature among contemporaries, 191

Warren, John Collins, Harvard pro-
fessor of anatomy
anatomical activities, 198
as a

dissector, 202

"gentleman" resurrectionist, 198
cadaver availability, 200
education, 198
personality of, 198, 203
pioneering embalmer, 202

Washington, D.C., 230-231
anatomical board (1902), 231
influence of Civil War, 231
status of dissection in, 230

Watson, B. P., 154, 155, 156, 159

Weaver, G. H., 242

W^eaver, J. C, 45

Weiskotten, H. G., on medical educa-
tion, 247, 249

Welch, W. H., 105

Whipple, A. O., 249

Wiedermann, A., 27

Wiesenthal, C. F., Baltimore

Cassidy, Patrick, executed criminal,

226
dissector (1788), 226
mob riot (1788), 226

Williams, London murderer, 152

Willing of bodies, 256

Willis, Thomas (1621-1675), 70

310

HUMAN DISSECIION. ITS DRAMA AND STRUGGLE

VVilloughby Metiical College (Ohio

State), 235
Wilson, James ("Daft Jamie"). muKJeiccl

by Burke and Hare, 165
Winchester Medical College (1826-1861),

232

Brown, Owen, body of, 232
Wistar, Caspar

professor of anatomy, I'niversity of
Pennsylvania, 220
Wood, C. T., 44

Woml, Thomas, public notice of anat-
omy lectures, 223
Woodbume, R. T., 253, 254
Worship

in ancient China
ancestral, 20
nature, 20

VVorthington Medical College of Ohio

(1831-1939), 234
Wright, J., 38

Xcnophanes, 41

Yama, judge of souls, ancient India, 31
Yesko, S. A., 47

Zeus, 33

/ilborg, G., 59, 69, 70

Zoroaster, 32

Zoroastrianism

in ancient India, 32
reactions to dead, 33
Tower of Silence, 32, 114
Zoroaster, 32

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