Utbrarg llmtwrHtig of Pittsburg] "Darlington Memorial Library (&111BB.S4/&. Mo ok — J* a j /66X DAK>L_ SM«M T2Jj el f~ A H J^i ■.a*. \& 9m* i&f ^ %&> ^ m =V3B- \-,«2- P^ Price 25 Cents. NUMBER EIGHT. §! THE ILLUSTRATED & OF RURAL AFFAIRS, i FOR 18'6'2. One Hundred and Sixty Engravings. ^ C^ ALBAxNY: ,'IIER TUCKER & SON'. ^ LUTHER TUCKER & SON'S ttBlicaJlatts* • • « To Kecord and Uliistrate the Best Practice in Agriculture, to Advancement in Kural Economy, and to Improve the Soil and the Mind. • • • THE COUNTRY GENTLEMAN—Weekly. The Country Gentleman was commenced in 1853. The Variety, Soundness and Practical Nature of its contents, not less than the strictly National character of its circulation, have rendered it the favorite authority of the Best Farmers in all parts of the country, and the Repository of the most valuable Results of their Experience. No expense or pains have been, or will be, spared by its Editors and Publishers, to place it BEYOND COMPETITION In the extent and interest of its Correspondence, Domestic and Foreign; in its Illustrations, and general Typographical Execution. Containing from week to week, in their season, more or less upon all of the following wide range of subjects, it is offered with confidence as furnishing A COMPLETE MANUAL POR EVEEY COUNTRY RESIDENT! 1. PRACTICAL FIELD HUSBANDRY: all the Crops and Processes of Improved Fanning. 2. DOMESTIC ANIMALS: Breeds, Diseases, Fattening and Management. 3. THE DAIRY: Butter and Cheese-the POULTRY YARD and the APIARY. 4. HORTICULTURE: Fruits and Fruit Trees; Landscape Gardening ; Arboriculture. 5. KITCHEN AND FLOWER GARDENING: all Edible and Ornamental Plants. 6. RURAL ARCHITECTURE-DOMESTIC ECONOMY— ENTOMOLOGY-BOTANY. 7. PROGRESS OF AGRICULTURE: Sales and Shows; New Implements and Inventions. 8. THE FIRESIDE: Travels; Natural History; Home Embellishment and Comfort. 9. RECORD OF THE TIMES: State of the Crops; News at Home and Abroad. 10. FARM PRODUCE MARKETS: Albany. New-York and Boston Prices. New volumes begin with January and July in each year— Published in Weekly Numbers of 16 quarto pages— $2 per annum ; $2.50 when not paid in advance. Subscriptions may commence at any time. Club Prices— Three copies for $5 ; Five copies, $8 ; Ten copies, $15. THE CULTIVATOR— Monthly, Is now made up from the columns of the Country Gentleman. It has been published many years and is well known in every part of the country. Issued in Octavo form, making a Yearly Volume of 384 pages. All subscriptions begin with January— 50 cents per annum. Each member of a Club of Ten receives a copy of the Illustrated Annual Register. The Illustrated Amual Register, Is a Duodecimo volume of 144 pages— commenced in 1855— issued toward the close of each year— profusely illustrated— an original and concise " Register" of Rural Progress. All the previous num- bers can be had, separately or together— Price, 25 cents ; *3 per dozen, sent by mail, prepaid. imw—mwww*— «■«—"»»— —■' ■' ' '■ ■— ■■ * ' ■ " ■ '■ ■ ■ ' m THE ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER OF RURAL AFFAIRS AND CULTIVATOR ALMANAC, FOR THE YEAE 1862, CONTAINING PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS FOR THE FARMER AND HORTICULTURIST, EMBELLISHED WITH OVER ONE HUNDRED AND SIXTY ENGRAVINGS, INCLUDING FARM BUILDINGS, IMPLEMENTS, FRUITS, GRASSES, &c. »♦» By J. J. THOMAS, AUTnOR OF THE "AMERICAN FRUIT CULTDRIST," AND "FARM IMPLEMENTS," ASSOCIATE EDITOR OF THE "COUNTRY GENTLE1IAV" AND " CULTIVATOR." ALBANY, N. Y. LUTHER TUCKER & SON, 397 BROADWAY. NEW-YORK : C. Iff. SAXTON, 25 PARK ROW. 1862. <^=>3§ ^?/^ -2 ^Publishers' -AxlvertiseiTieiit. Op TnE Illustrated Annual Register of Rural Affairs has now been so long before the public that few words are necessary with reference to its design and scope. 'While the contents of its successive numbers are, in some degree, continuous in their charac- ter, each forms a separate work by itself. It is issued in advance of the commencement of each year, and furnishes, together with the usual Calendar Pages of an Almanac, a series of chapters upon subjects of Rural interest— largely embellished with Engravings, eminently plain and practical in their nature, and serving to illustrate in a concise and attractive way the advances we are making in Agriculture and Horticulture— includ- ing, also, the Household Economy of the Farmer — from year to year. Among the articles of leading importance in the number of the Annual Register for 18(52, will be found one upon Farm Buildings, with Thirty Illustrations and Four Designs; upon Vegetable Physiology and the Growth of Plants, with Sixty-One Illus- trations; upon Grasses, with Descriptions of Twenty-Two Varieties, and Thirteen En- gravings; upon Lightning Rods, and the Method of Putting them Up, with Thirteen Engravings; and upon Balloon Frames and their Construction, with Twenty-Four En- gravings. A great variety of shorter articles, for the Orchard, the Garden, the Apiary, and the Dairy, are also given, with Useful Tables, and much relating to Domestic Ani- mals, and general Rural Economy. Among articles in previous numbers of the Annual Register, for which there is now frequent inquiry, we may refer to the following: — Designs for Country Dwellings, Farm Houses, and Working-Men's Cottages, in the Num- bers for 1855, 1856, 1857, 1858, 1859, I860 and 1861. Essay on Poultry and their Diseases, in Number for 1861. Weeds and their Destruction, in Number for 1861. Ornamental Planting, in Number for 1860. Thomas' Invaluable Essay upon Farm Management, in Number for 1859. Complete Essay on Under Draining, in Number for 1859. Adjuncts of a Complete Country Residence, in Number for 1858, Rustic Seats and Structures, in Number for 1857. Doctoring Sick Animals, in Number for 1857. Descriptions of Select Fruits of all kinds, on which much labor was bestowed, in the Number for 1856. Many others might be named, embracing Agricultural Implements, the Breeds of Do- mestic Animals, etc., etc. Either of the previous Numbers may at any time be had separately, by mail, post paid, upon inclosing 25 cents in a letter to the Publishers, Luther Tucker & Son, Albany, N. Y. The six Numbers, from 1855 to I860, inclusive, are also published upon heavier and finer paper, in two volumes, with new Index and Title Page for each, (the Calendar Pages and Advertisements omitted.) of which a notice will be found on a succeeding page. A Third Volume will be made up of the Annual Register for 1861, '62 and '63, when the latter appears. Meantime complete sets of the Annual Register, in paper covers, Eight Numbers, may be had by mail, post paid, for $1.60; or the two bound volumes, above referred to, at One Dollar each, and the Numbers for 1861 and '62 at 25 cents each. X v,v ©c^~ INDEX OF No. 8, FOE 1863. PAGE Animals, Best Doctor for, 210 Animals, Beginning Winter Right with, . , 219 Animals, Comparative Value of Food for, 22tf Animals, Gestation of, 228 Animals, Hay Consumed by 226 Animals, Regularity in Feeding, 2H> Animals. Training Draft 219 Apples. Dwarf, 215 Apples for Wisconsin, 214 Apples, Selection of for the West 213 Apple Trees, Borers in 213 Astronomical Calculations 9-20 Balloon Frames, Chapter on 186 Balloon Frames, Economy of, 187 Balloon Frames, History of, ]*•; Balloon Frames, Specifications for 188 Barns, Basements of, 128 Barns, Designs for 129 Barn No. I , for 50 Acres 129 Barn No. II., for 75 or 100 Acres 133 Barn, Enlargement of No. II., 135 Barn, No. 111., a Large Three Story, .. . 137 Barn, No. IV., a Small Three Story, 141 Barns. Estimating Cost of, 129 Barns, Forms of, 127 Barns, How to Estimate Capacity of, 126 Barns, How to Plan, 127 Barns, Importance of, 125 Barns, Various Details for 143 Beef. How to Make Cheap 218 Bee Hives, History of, 195 Bee Hives, Langstroth's 197 Bee Hives, Movable Comb 195 Bee Hives, Underbill's Leaf, 200 Bees, Management of, 231 Blackberry, Culture of, 214 Budding 101 Buds, Leaf and Flower 157 Bushel, Contents of. 220 Butter Dairies of Chenango and Dela- ware Counties, 230 Butter Making, Premium 229 Calendar Pages 9-20 California, Large Trees of, 19 Cattle, How to Fat Cheaply 218 Cattle, Hacks lor 220 Cattle, Regularity in Feeding, 219 Cattle, Relieving Choked 230 Cattle, Training for Draft 219 Cattle. Training to Jump, 217 Cheese Making 229 Cheese Making, Rules for, 229 Cherry Trees, Treatment of Young, 214 Chronological Cycles 8 Cisterns Calculating Contents of, 227 Clod Crusher, Use of, 225 Celts, Training 218 Cubic Foot, Weight of Different Substan- ces of, 220 Curculio, Remedy for 213 Domestic Conveniences, Necessity for... 224 Drains, Velocity of Water in 227 Duration of Seasons 8 Eclipses for 1802 7 Equinoxes and Solstices, 8 Pace. Farm Buildings, Chapter on, 125 Farmers' Tools, 221 Farmers, Facts for Poor 223 Farming, Fortunes Sunk in, 211 Fence Posts, Durability of, 223 Fences, Cost of, 225 Food for Animals, Comparative Value of, 220 Fruit 'frees. Broadcast Cultivation of,. .. 214 Fruit Trees, Distances to Plant 227 Fruit Trees, Hardy and Tender, 214 Fruit Trees, Number Required per Acre, of Different Kinds 227 Fruit Trees, to Prevent their Injury by Mice 213 Fruit Trees, Transplanting, 154, 212 Gallon, Contents of, 220 Garden Seeds, Quantity to Plant, 228 Gestation of Animals 228 Gold from Australia 20 Grafting — 161 Grain. To Measure in the Granary, 220 Grain, Weight of per Bushel, 220 Grapes, Root Grafting 213 Grapes, Rules for Pruning 212 Grapes, Selection of Hardy 213 Grasses, Chapter on, 100 Grasses. Description of the more Common Species .- 107 Grass Land, Management of, 177 Grass Seed, Depth of Burying, 178 Grass Seed, Old and New,...T 178 Crass Seed, Time and Manner of bowing, 179 Grass, Time to Cut 1 79 Hay and Grain Racks 222 Hay. Consumption of by Animals, 220 Hay, Expense of Making 179 Hay, Nutritive Value of, 177 Hay Sweep ^180 Horses, To Prevent Gnawing Reins 220 Horses, to Prevent Kicking, 218 Horses, Training 217 Dorses. Training Colts 218 How to Ascertain Length of Day and Night 14 Hungarian Grass 170 Indian Corn, To Measure in Crib 22<> Lambs, Weaning 220 Leap year 10 Length, Measures of, 220 Lightning Rods, Cost of. ]85 Lightning Hods, Filtering the Earth, 184 Lightning Rods, How to 1'ut up 181 Lightning Rods, Length and Height of,. . 182 Lightning Rods, Materials and Connec- tions 182 Lightning Hods, Supports for 183 Lightning Hods, Various Errors About, . . 1*5 Milky Way ii Millet, Varietiesof. 178 Nails. Screws and Holts 221 Nebula- 13 Orchards. Value of 206 Peach Trees, Worms in 213 Pear, Clout Morceau 214 Pears, Best Summer 201 -=^o« IV INDEX. Page. Pears. High Prices for 214 Pear Trees, Fire Blight on, 213 Planets, The 8 Planet between Mercury and the Sun,.. 18 Plants, Buns, Leaf and Flower, 157 Plants, Flowers of, 183 Plants, Germination of, 148 Plants, Grafting and Dudding 161 Plants, How they Grow, 144 Plants, Mode or Growth 151 Plants, Process of Growing, 159 Plants, Roots of, 153 Plants, Species and Varieties of, 105 Plants, Stems and Branches, 155 Plants, Structure of, 152 Plants, The Seed of, 145 Plants, Transplanting, 154 Plants, Wood and Branches 156 Plows, How to Keep Bright, 223 Plum Trees, Black Knot in 213 Pole Star 4.000 Years Ago 15 Poor Farmers. Facts for, 223 Posts, Durability of, 223 Racks for Cattle 220 Rawhide, How to Tan, 224 Rawhide, Use of, .224 Sap Pails, Tin .' 225 Sawing by Horse Power 224 Seasons, Duration of, 8 Seed Required per Acre, of Different Kinds, 227 Seeds, Garden, Quantity to Plant, 227 Sewing Machines 20 Sheep, Bringing Out of Winter, 218 Sheep, Profits of Raising, 219 Page. Sheep, Registering 218 Sheep, Shropshire Down, 217 Sheep, Weaning Lambs, 220 Sheep, Wintering 217 Shingles, How to Preserve, 222 Solar System, 8 Soils, Capacity for Holding Water 226 Stars, Morning and Evening, 8 Strawberries, Transplanting 215 Swine, Fattened on Skim Milk, 220 Swine, Treatment of Sows with Young Pigs 220 Tables, Useful 226 Telegraphic Weather Reports 18 Thickness of the Earth's Crust, 15 Threshing by Horse Power, 224 Tide Table 8 Timber, Best Time to Cut 223 Ton, Bulk of, Different Substances of,... 226 Transplanting 154 Transplanting. Directions for, 212 Trees, Distances for Planting Different Kinds of, 227 Trees, Number of, Required per Acre, at Different Distances 227 Trees, Removing Large, 209 Trees, Training Weeping, 209 Trees, Transplanting 154, 212 True Time 9 Vegetable Physiology, 144 Washing Machine, The Union, 221 Water, Capacity of Soils for 226 Water, Velocity of, in Tile Drains, 227 Wind Mills, Force of. 227 Wood, Quality of Different Kinds of, ... . 227 ElS"G}-R,A.VI3SrG^S. No. Figures. Page. Apiary, The 5 .... 231 Balloon Frames 24 .... 187 Barn No. 1 5 .... 130 Barn No. I, Tool Room for 2 .... 131 Barfl No. II 3 .... 133 Barn No. II, Stalls for 1 . . . . 136 Barn No. Ill 8 .... 138 Barn No. IV 5 .... 142 Barns, Basements of, 2 128 Barns, Details for 2 .... 143 Bee Hives 8 .... 198 Buds 2 .... 157 Cells in Leaves 2 .... 159 Creeping Roots 1 156 Embryo of Seeds 19 145 Forms of Vegetable Growth, .... 1 .... 144 Flowers, Forms of, 10 .... 163 Germination of Seeds, 12 148 Grafting 2 .... 161 Grass, Hungarian 1 176 Grass, Italian Rye, 1 .... 175 Grass, June 1 .... 171 Grass, Meadow Fox Tail, 1 .... 169 Grass. Meadow Fescue, 1 .... 173 Grass, Orchard 1 .... 170 Grass, Red Top 1 .... 169 No. Figures. Grass, Rough Meadow, 1 , Grass, Rye 1 Grass, Sweet Scented Vernal, 1 Grass. Timothy, 1 . Hay and Grain Racks, 2 Hay Sweep 2 . Lightning Rods 13 , Pear, Beurre Giffard 1 . Pear, Doyenne d'Ete, 1 . Pear, Ogden's Summer, 1 . Pear, Ott 1 . Pear, Pulsifer 1 . Pear, Rostiezer, 1 . Pear, Skinless, 1 , Pear, Tyson, 1 , Pears, Figures of, 8 , Registering Sheep 1 . Removing Large Trees 4 , Root Grafting the Grape, 1 , Roots of Plants, 4 , Shropshire Down Sheep, 1 . Structure <>f Plants 4 . Training Weeping Trees 2. Transplanting. 4 . Washing Machine, 1 . ©c^- « RURAL AFFAIR S." \ NEW EDITION of the Six Numbers of the Annual Register from 1855 to 1860, inclusive, ■**■ is now ready under the simple and comprehensive title of RURAL AFFAIRS. In this Edition the Calendar and Advertising Pages of each year are omitted, and larger, finer and heavier paper employed— the whole comprised in Two handsome and uniform Volumes of over 300 pages each, well bound in Muslin, price $1 each, sold separately or together, as may be desired, and sent postage prepaid at this price to any part of the Union. They contain NEARLY NINE HUNDRED ENGRAVINGS, And we subjoin a brief Abstract of their Contents to show the scope embraced, although but a very incomplete idea can be conveyed of their variety and extent within the limited space here at command— including in their range, as will be seen, both Agriculture and Hor- ticulture—Country Houses and Farm Buildings— Domestic Animals and Farm Implements- whatever, in fact, may be embraced under the above Title : — ■VOILTJiMIE 03STE. Country Dwellings. Fifteen Designs, accompanied with Plans, in many instances of several Floors— also es- timates of Cost— together with General Rules for liuilding, and Remarks on the Art of Planning a House. Laying Out Grounds. Four Articles on Laying Out Farms— two on Grounds around Houses and Flower Gar- dens—eight on Modes ok Planting and the Trees and Shrubs to be employed. What Fruits to Choose* Sixty-one Varieties of Apples ; Fifty-four of Pears; Twenty-eight of Peaches; Ten of Nectarines and Apricots; Thirty-four of Plums; Twenty-khjht of Cherries; Thir- teen <>f Strawberries, and a Dozen of Native and Foreign Grapes, are described— with Ap- proved Lists at greater length, and Select As- sortments recommended. Domestic Animals. Improved Breeds illustrated by Portraits. A valuable article on Doctoring Sick Animals, with Simple Rules and Remedies, embracing the most common Diseases of Horses, Cattle, Sheep and Swine. [Continued on next page.] VOLUME T"WO_ A Complete Country Residence. The Dwelling, Ornamental Grounds, Or- chard, Gardens, Out-Houses, described and illustrated — concluding with an Article on the Apiary, embracing the Management of Bees, by M. Qcinby. Country Houses. Twenty-seven Designs, including some of great merit for Workingmen's Cottages, and an illustrated Chapter on Ventilation. Fruits and Fruit Culture. Farther Notes and Lists— a full Article on Pear Culture— Hardy Fruits at the West — Apples and Apple Orchards— Grafting and Grafting Knives, with upwards of Fifty Illus- trations. Flower and Kitchen Garden. Annual Flowers— Vegetable Management — the Vinery and Green-House— the Verbena— also ;i full Article on Hedging and Hedges, with directions for their Cultivation. Farm Buildings. EIGHT Designs of Barns and Stables ; Stalls for Horses and Cattle — Cattle and Sheep Racks— also a full Chapter on Iron for Fur. nitnre and Rural Structures. [Continued on next page.] ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER Volume One—Continued. Fruit Culture. Twenty-two Articles— Treatment of Or- chards, Large and Small Fruits, with a large number of brief Notes, presenting many val- uable hints and suggestions. Farm Buildings. Barns, Carriage Houses. Stables, the Pig. gery, Smoke House, Poultry House— mode of Cistern Building, of Erecting Lightning Rods, &c. Farm Implements. Twenty-three Akticles amply illustrated, embracing nearly all the principal Imple- ments in which the Farmer is concerned— also the Wind Mill, Steam Engine, &c. Butter aud Cheese Making. The best modes and means treated at con- siderable length, accompanied by Designs for Dairy Houses. Rural Economy. Many Articles and Notes, the fruits of the Author's long experience and observation, ou Farm Management, Rotation, Packing Trees and Plants, Satisfactory Farming, &c, &c. Rustic Seats and Structures. Illustrated Designs for Summer Houses, Flower Stands, Rock Work, and other similar Rural Ornaments. School Houses. A Chapter embracing several neat and tasteful Designs. Weights and Measures. Tables for Reference, including Length, Distances, Specific Gravities, &c. Domestic Economy. Numerous valuable and well tested Recipes for household use. Volume Two—Continued. Farm Management. Mr. Thomas' Prize Essay, with new Illus- trations—also a Chapter on Under-Draining. pronounced by ail the most concise and com- plete of its kind that has yet appeared. Farm Fences and Gates. Cheap Fences— a full Article on Wire Fen- ces—Modes of Construction— Hurdles— use- ful Hints about Gates, with Fifteen Engra- vings on the latter subject alone. Domestic Animals. Feeding; Steaming Food; Veterinary Re- ceipts; Wintering and Stabling; Wool Table, &c, &c. Nursery I^ists. A Descriptive and Illustrated List of the Principal Nurseries in the United States- Supplement to the above— Principal Nurse- ries in Europe. Ornamental Planting. Beautifying Country Houses— Modes of Grouping— Lawns, Walks and Rustic Objects —with Nine Plans of Grounds and nearly Forty Engravings. Implements of Tillage. Tillage— the Gang Plow— Improvements in Plows and Harrows— Plowing and Subsoiling —Ditching Plows— Implements for Surface Tillage. Other New Implements, &c. Farm Work Shops — A Horse Power— Hay Fork — Mill — Stalk Cutter — Potato Digger, Painting Tools, with numerous hints. Rural and Domestic Economy. Root Crops— Good and Bad Management- Dairy Economy— Rules for Business— Early Melons— Cleaning Seed Wheat — Packing Trees for Transportation. &c. Four Hundred and Forty Illus- trations. Including among others the following : Country Dwellings, 44 Engravings. Siliool Houses 8 do. Rarns and other Out-Build- ings, 36 do. Rustic Structures, &c, 25 do. Figures of Best Fruits 71 do. Fruit Culture, &c 77 do. Trees and Ornamentals 20 do. Implements and Machines, .. 63 do. Domestic Animals, &c 28 do. Together with many figures illustrative of Dairy Processes, Drying Fruits, Wind Mills, Insects, Lightning Rods, &c, &c. Four Hundred and Fifty Illus- trations. Including among others the following: Complete Country Residence, 36 Engravings. Country Dwellings 78 do. Fruits and Fruit Culture 47 do. Flowers, Ornamental l'lant- i i i tr and Rural Fixtures, 61 do. Farm and Garden Buildings,. 41 do. Fences, Hedges and dates, .. 60 do. Domestic Animals, ftc 12 do. Farming and Draining 14 do. Farm Implements 30 do. Also Illustrations of Nurseries, Poultry Houses, and various Rural Processes and In- struments. ~<=3© THE CULTIVATOR ALMANAC, FOR 18 6 2. ASTRONOMICAL CALCULATIONS IN EQUAL OR CLOCK TIME. ECLIPSES FOR. THE YE^R- 1SG2. There will be five eclipses this year, as follows: I. A total eclipse of the Moon, just before aud after midnight of June 11. Size, 14.4 digits. (See the table Mow.) II. A partial eclipse of the Sun, Juue 27, in the morning. Invisible in America, but visible in the Indian ocean. III. A partial eclipse of the Sun, November 2L Invisible in America, but seen in the great Southern ocean. IV. A total eclipse of the Moon, early in the morning of December 6. Visible. Size, 16.98 digits. (See the table below.) V. A partial eclipse of the Sun, December 20. Invisible in America, but visible in Asia generally. Table of the Eclipses of the Moon. Principal Places. Halifax. N. S. Portland, Me. Boston. Mass Quelle C. E. Providence. H. I.. Concord, N. !l Montptlier, Vt Hartford, Conn. . . Montreal, C. E. .. Alhanv. N. Y New York. X. Y. . Trenton, X. J. Philadelphia. Pa.. Baltimore. Md.... Annapolis. Md II uri-bnrg. 1'a Washington. 1). C Richmond. Ya Rochester, N'. Y. . Raleiph, N. C Toronto, C. W.... Pan nin a. N. (! Pittsburgh, Pa.... Charleston, 8. C Savannah, (la. Columbia, S. C- . . Eclipse of Eclii )se of June 11-12. DecembrO. Begin. F.nds. Been Ends. H. M. H. M. H. M. H. M. morn. 028 3 48 1 31 4 12 0 1 3 19 1 4 4 54 even. 11 58 3 16 1 1 4 51 1 11 57 3 15 1 0 4 50 11 57 3 15 1 (I 4 50 11 56 3 14 0 59 4 49 11 S3 3 10 0 55 4 45 11 .V2 3 10 fl 55 4 45 11 48 3 6 0 51 4 41 '. 11 47 3 5 0 50 4 40 11 46 3 4 0 4:> 4 39 11 44 3 2 0 47 4 37 I 11 42 3 0 (1 45 4 35 | 11 36 2 54 0 39 4 2!l 11 :>: 2 54 It 39 4 29 11 :r, 2 53 0 38 4 28 11 34 2 52 (1 37 4 27 11 32 2 49 (I 35 4 24 11 31 2 48 0 3 1 4 23 11 27 2 44 ii 30 4 lit 11 25 2 12 o 28 4 17 11 23 2 42 0 28 4 17 11 22 ° 39 «i 25 4 14 11 29 2 39 0 25 4 14 11 H 2 35 I) 21 4 in 11 is 2 35 0 21 4 10 Principal Places. St. Augustine, Fla, Havana. Cuba ... Detroit. Mich Columbus. Ohio.. Cincinnati, Ohio,. Louisville, Ky. . . . Indianapolis, Ind. Nashville. Tenn. . Chicago. Ill Tuscaloosa, Ala. . Madison, Wis New Orh-ans, La . Jackson. Miss. ... St. Louis, Mo Natchez. Miss Iowa City, Iowa.. Jefferson City, Mo Little Rock, Ark.. Austin, Texas Mexico Santa IV. N. Mex. Oregon City, Oreg Monterey, Cal... SanFrancisco.CaL Vstoria, Oregon... Eclipse of Eclipse of June 11-12. December 6. Begin. H. M. even. 11 16 11 13 11 10 11 Id 11 10 11 0 10 58 10 55 1(1 52 10 51 10 -14 in 42 in 42 111 4't in 37 I'i 35 lit 34 10 31 Id 21 1(1 hi 9 18 e is 8 45 8 42 8 37 Ends. H. M. 2 15 12 9 8 1 59 I 59 1 57 1 54 1 52 1 51 I 51 1 38 1 33 I 5 0 5 0 2 11th II 59 1154 Begin. II. M. 0 19 0 16 0 13 (i 13 0 13 0 3 0 1 eveotb 11 58 11 55 11 54 11 47 11 45 11 45 11 4:; 11 4(1 11 38 11 37 11 37 11 21 11 19 10 51 '.i 61 9 48 9 45 9 40 Ends. H. M. 3 52 3 50 3 47 3 44 3 43 3 36 3 34 3 34 3 32 3 29 3 27 3 2ii 3 26 3 13 3 8 2 40 1 40 1 :!7 1 34 1 29 Total eclipse begins 1 hour and 7 minutes after beginning, and lasts 1 hour and 3 minutes. Total durasion, 3 hours and 17 minutes. The eclipse of December 6 becomes total 1 hour and 9 minutes after the beginning, and lasts one hour and 32 minutes. Total duration, 3 hours and 49 minutes. 8 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER. Tide Table. The Calendar pages of this Almanac exhi- bit the time of high water at New-York and Boston. To find the time of high water at any of the following places, add to, or sub- tract from, the time of high water at New- York, as below. (There is a great deal of un- certainty about the tides, in consequence of the direction and strength of the winds.) H. M. Albany add 6 34 Amboy, subtract 0 39 Annapolis, Md., add 8 25 Annapolis, N. S add 1 49 Baltimore add 10 20 Bridgeport, , add 2 58 CapeSplit, add 2 0 Eastport, add 2 9 Hellgate add 1 41 Holmes' Hole add 3 30 Machias, add 1 54 Marblehead add 1 49 New-Bedford, subtract 0 16 New-Haven, add 3 3 New-London, add 1 15 Newport subtract 0 28 New-Rochelle add 3 9 Norfolk subtract 0 41 Oyster Bay add 2 54 Plymouth add 2 19 Portland add 3 12 Portsmouth, add 3 10 Providence, subtract 0 41 Richmond add 8 15 Salem add 3 0 Sand's Point, add 3 0 Sandy Hook, N. J., subtract 0 44 Sunbury add 0 19 Throg'sNeck add 3 7 Windsor add 2 49 Chronological Cycles. Dominical Letter, E: Golden Number, 1: Jewish Lunar Cycle, 17 ; Epact, — ; Solar Cycle, 23: Roman Indiction, 5; Julian Pe- riod, 6,575. Morning and Evening Stars. Venus will be Evening Star until February 25, then Morning Star until December 10. Mars will be Morning Star until October 5. Jupiter will be Morning Star until March 13, then Evening Star until October 1. Saturn will be Morning Star until March 9, then Evening Star until September 18, then Morning Star. Mercury. This Planet will be visible in the west soon after sunset, about February 7, June 3, and September 30; and in the east before sunrise, about March 29, July 29, and November 15. Equinoxes and Solstices for 1862. n. H. m. Vernal Fquinox March 20 3 37 eve. Summer Solstice June 21 0 12 eve. Autumnal Kquinox,. .Sept. 23 2 20 morn. Winter Solstice Dec. 21 8 12 eve. The Solar System. The Sun is the source of light and heat to our system, Its true diameter is upwards of 887,000 miles ; its bulk is 1, 384, 0CO times greater than the earth, and 700 times greater than that of all the planets and satellites together. It revolves on its axis in about 25 days 7 hours and 48 minutes. Mercury is the nearest planet to the Sun, being about 36,890.000 miles from it. It per- forms its revolution round the Sun in 87 days 23 hours, which is the length of its year. The diameter of Mercury is about 2,950 miles ; its bulk l-16th of the Earth. Venus.— Distance from the San 68.000,000 miles; the length of its year is 224 days 16 hours; the rotation on its axis is 23 hours 21 minutes. Its diameter is about 7,800 miles ; its bulk is about 9-10ths that of the Earth. The Earth is also one of the planets that revolve about the Sun. Its mean distance is about 95,000,000 miles, and its diameter about 7,912 miles. Mars.— Distance from the Sun 145.205,000 miles; the length of its year is 686 days 23 >£ hours ; its true diameter is about 4,500 miles, which is rather more than half the diameter of the Earth. The AsTERoms.— Very small planets, be- tween the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. Up to this time 62 have been discovered, of which Vesta, Juno, Ceres and Pallas, are the larg- est ; but all are invisible to the naked eye. They revolve at a distance of two or three hundred millions of miles from the San, and in periods of from three to five years. Jupiter. — Mean distance from the Sun 495,917,000 miles; performs its revolution in 4.334 days 15 hours ; its true diameter is 88,000 miles, and its bulk is 1,281 times that of the Earth. Length of its day, 9 hours and 56 min- utes. Jupiter has four satellites or moons. Saturn.— Distance from the Sun, above 909,000,000 miles; the length of its year is 10,755 days ; its true diameter is 73,000 miles ; its bulk is 995 times that of the Karth. Saturn has eight satellites, and is also surrounded with a double ring. Uranus. — Mean distance from the Sun about 1,829,000,000 miles; it performs its rev- olution in about 84 years. This planet has six satellites. PTeptonk. — The most remote and lately dis- covered planet, is 2,864,000,000 of miles from the Sun. It is 35,000 miles in diameter ; re- volves around the Sun in 161 years : and has at least one satellite.— Christian Almanac. Duration of the Seasons, etc. n. h. Sun in Winter Signs. 89 1 Sun in Spring Signs 92 20 Sun in Summer Signs 93 11 Sun in Autumnal Signs 89 17 Tropical Year 366 5 Sun North of Equator 1*6 10 Sun South of Equator 178 19 M. 10 35 8 52 45 48 q IVote.— The Sun's declination in the Tables for each month, for the instant his centre is on the meridian of Washington. 1st MOXTH. JANUARY, 1862. 31 DAYS Sun on Meridian \l or Noon Mark MOON'S PHASES. Boston. I N. York. FtrtsT QUARTER, Full Moon. • •• • Third Quarter, New Moo .v. • •• • 7 15 23 29 H 6 9 1 10 M 2e 12 e J 53 m 7e H 5 8 1 9 M 50 e 59 e 41 in 55 e "Wash' ton H 5 S 1 9 M 39 e 47 e 29 m 43 e D 1 9 17 25 H 12 12 M 3 7 12 10 23 12 12 40 s 58 31 AS o O >> < < 1 W 2 T 3 F 4 S 5 JE 6 I\l 7 T 8 W 9 T 10 F 11 S 12 t: 13 M 1-1 T 15 W 16 T 17 F 18 S 19 E 20 M 21 T 22 W 23 T 24 F 25 > 26 b: 27 m 28 T 29 W 30 T 31 1 F 'J 32 CD a ,2 a X 3 22 22 22 22 22 22 22 22 22 21 21 21 21 21 21 20 20 20 20 20 19 19 19 19 18 18 18 18 17 17 17 59 54 48 42 35 28 20 12 4 55 46 36 26 15 4 53 41 20 16 3 50 36 22 8 53 38 23 7 51 34 18 CALENDAR For Boston, N. England, New-York State. Mi- chigan, Wiscon., Iowa and Oregon. SUN rises 3( 10 23 9 27 19 44 43 16 23 5 21 12 39 41 18 32 23 50 54 36 55 53 29 44 3S 12 26 20 55 1211 SUN sets. M H 30:4 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 29 29 29 28 28 27 27 26 25 25 24 23 22 22 21 20 19 19 18 17 16 15 M 38 39 40 41 41 MOON sets. 11 6 7 M 16 28 H. W. Bost. H M morr I 0 38 CALENDAR For N. York City, Phi ladelphia. Conn., New Jersey, Penn'ia, Ohio Indiana and Illinois. SUH rises 8 38, 9 44 10 47 42 11 18, 43;tnorn 44 45 46 47 43 49 50 0 49 1 2 3 4 5 6 48 47 45 41 32 18, 1 2 2 3 4 5 5 6 7 8 38| 9 30 10 22 23 12 45 29 12 0 50 44 40j H M 7 25 7 25 17 25 25 26 25 52 rises 111 4 53 54 *§ 5 1 58 59 1 1 2 3 4 5 7 8 9 53 0 8 15 11 48 qv 33 1 13 ■7 25 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 0 24 35 morn 0 48 11 2 3 4 5 6 sets 6 16 2 13 18 16 4 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 51 32 20 11 10 IP 30 25 ■25 24 24 24 23 2- 22 22 7 21 7 20 7 7 5 12' 7 24 8 40 9 44 10 39 111 26 umrn 0 12 SUN sets. M 43 44 45 46 46 47 48 49 50 51 MOON sets. H M 6 19 H. w. N. Y H H 9 24 7 31 10 9 8 40 10 48 9 44 11 31 10 47 morn 11 46 0 15 morn ' 0 5& 0 46! 1 46 1 45 2 36 2 42 3 3C 52i 3 40; 4 26 53j 4 36; 5 24 54' 5 26 6 16 55 6 13 57 Irises 20 19 18 1? 17 16 16 15 14? 13 13 12 11 58 59 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 7 50 8 34 9 19 9 59 5 57 7 2 8 9 9 15 10 37 10 23 11 18 11 32 ev 6 morn I 0 57 0 44 1 56 7| 1 57 3 5 8 3 7 4 16 9 4 12 5 26 111 5 11 6 30 5 12; 5 59 7 25 5 13!>ets j 8 12 5 15 6 19 8 58 5 16' 7 25 9 39 CALENDAR For Washington, Mary I'd, Virg'a, Kent'y, Miss'ri, and California. SUN rises SUN sets. M H 19 4 19 19 19 M 49 50 51 52 J9 4 19 4 19|4 19 19 MOON sets. H M 6 24 7 34 8 41 9 45 52 10 46 53 11 44 54|morn 0 43 19 18 18'4 1815 17 17 16 16 16 15 5 14 5 14 5 135 12 5 12 5 11 5 10 5 9 5 9 5 8 5 75 75 41 38 35 30 20 7 rises 6 10 7 8 9 5 10 15 55 56 57 58 59 0 1 2 3 4 6 7 8 9 10 morn 11 0 34 1 45 3 4 5 5 17 sets 19 6 21 20 7 26 10 21 11 30 12 13 N 15 16 2 6 5 54 True Time. Two kinds of time are used in Almanacs; Clock or Mean-time in some, and Apparent or Bon-time in others. Clock-time is always right, while Sun-time varies everyday. Peo- ple generally suppose it is 12 o'clock when the sun is due south, or at a properly marie noon- mark. But this is a mistake. The sun is sel- dom on the meridian at 12 o'clock; indeed, this is the case only on four days of the year, viz: April 15, June 15, Sept. 1, and Dec. 24. In this Almanac, as in most other Almanacs, the time used is Clock-time. The time when the sun is on the meridian or at the noon- mark, is also given to the nearest second, for the 1st, 9th, 17th, and 25th days of each month, at the right hand of the top of each Calendar page. This affords a ready means of obtaining correct time and for setting a clock by using 2d MONTH. FEBRUARY, 1862. 28 DAYS. MOON'S PHASES. First Quarter, • Full Moon,- Third Quarter,' New Moon, D 6 14 21 28 Boston. a 3 0 9 0 K 27 e 22 e 27 a 5 e N. York. H M 3 15 e 0 10 e 9 15 m 11 53 ml Wash' ton H M 3 3e 11 58 in 9 3m 11 41 ID Sun on Meridian or Noon Mark. D 1 9 17 25 H M S 12 13 55 12 14 30 12 14 15 12 13 16 X H S5 c % '- o O >- «« ft >• < 1 S 2 E 3 M 4 T 5 W 6 T 7 F 8 S 9 E 10 M 11 T 12 W 13 T 14 F 15 S 16 E 17 M 18 T 19 W 20 T 21 F 22 S 23 E 24 M 25 T 26 W 27 T 28 F m o © a CO 17 1 16 43 16 26 16 8 15 50 15 31 15 13 14 54 14 34 14 15 13 55 13 35 13 15 12 55 12 34 12 14 U 53 11 31 11 10 10 49 10 27 10 9 9 5 43 21 8 59 8 36 14 51 10 51 14 20 10 43 1 3 51 24 43 48 40 19 46 0 3 54 35 5 24 34 35 27 10 45 13 33 CALENDAR For Boston, N. England, New-York State. Mi- chigan, Wiscon., Iowa and Oregon. SUN rises SUN MOON sets. sets. M 14 12 11 10J5 °5 65 55 35 2j5 15 05 585 57,5 55 5 54 5 52 5 5115 49 48 47 45 43 42 41 39 37 M 14 15 17 18 19 21 22 24 25 26 27 29 30 31 32 33 34 36 37 39 40 41 43 44 45 46 47 4- H M 8 29 9 32 10 33 11 35 morn 0 36 34 30 23 12 49 32 5 rises 7 3 14 25 10 37 11 50 morn 1 3 2 3 3 4 5 5 sets 10 9 59 40 15 43 n. w. Bost. H 0 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 9 10 11 ev 0 1 2 3 3 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 11 M 53 31 57 47 31 18 8 8 4 5 52 55 41 21 5 47 28 1C 0 56 10 11 22 29 28 20 0 40 CALENDAR For N. York City, Phi- ladelphia. Conn., New Jersey, Penn'ia, Ohio. Indiana and Illinois. SUN rises SUN sets. 6 58|5 6 M H 105 95 85 7 6 5 4 3 2 0|5 5915 56 55 54 53 51 50 49 47 46 44 43 41 39 38 37 36 M 18 19 20 21 22 24 25 26 28 29 30 32 33 31 35 36 37 38 39 41 42 43 45 46 47 48 49 49 MOON h. w. sets. N. Y. H M H M 8 29 10 17 9 31 10 53 10 31 11 33 11 32 morn morn 0 17 0 32 1 4 1 29 1 54 2 25 2 54 3 17 3 50 4 6 4 51 4 44 5 48 5 23 6 41 6 2 7 27 rises 8 7 7 3 8 51 8 13 9 33 9 22 10 14 10 34 10 56 11 46 11 46 morn ev 42 0 58 2 4 4 51 36 12 41 sets 56 57 8 15 14 6 41 i CALENDAR For Washington, Mary I'd, Virg'a, Kent'y, Miss'ri, and California. SUN rises 8 26 1 6 M 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 59 58 57 56 55 54 53 51 50 49 48 47 45 44 43 42 40 39 38 36 34 SUN | MOON sets sets. M H M 22 8 29 5 23 9 30 24 10 29 25 11 29 26 morn 27 0 27 28 29 30 31 1 32 34 35 23 19 11 0 39 23 59 5 36 rises 5 37 7 4 5 38 8 12 5 39 9 20 40 10 31 41 11 42 42 morn 43 44 46 47 48 49 50 0 53 1 59 58 49 31 8 39 5 51 sets a noon-mark, adding or subtracting as the sun is slow or fast. Old-fashioned Almanacs, which use appa- rent time, give the rising and setting of the sun's centre, and make no allowance for the effect of refraction of the sun's rays by the atmosphere. The more modern and improv- ed Almanacs, which use Clock-time, give the rising and setting of the sun's upper limb, and duly allow for refraction. The practice of setting time-pieces by the rising or Betting of the sun or moon, is not strictly correct, astbe unevenncss of the earth's surface and inter- vening objects, such as hills and forests, near the points of rising and setting, occasion a deviation in every place, from the time ex- pressed in the Almanac, which time is adapt- ed to a smooth, level horizon. The only means of keeping correct time is by the use of a noon-mark, or a meridian line. Lenp-Yenr. Every year the number of which is divisible by \ without a remainder, is a leap-year, ex- cept the last year of the century, which is a leap-year only when divisible by 400 without a remainder, Thus, lt«X> will not be leap year. 3d MONTH. MARCH, 186 2. 31 DAYS. MOON'S PHASES. First Quarter, Full Moon,- •• • Third Quaktkr, Nf.w Moon.» D 8 16 22 30 Boston. H 0 0 5 3 H 37 e 33 in 5 e 1 m N. York. II M 0 25 e 0 21m 4 53 e 2 49 m Wash' ton II D 0 4 2 ir 13 e 9 m 41 e 37 t. .Sun an Meridian or Noon Mark. D 1 9 17 25 H 12 12 12 12 M 12 10 8 6 s 32 42 28 2 ffi Z o W [ K W O o < < 1 S 2 E 3 M 4 T 5 W 6 T 7 F 8 S 9 e 10 M 11 T 12 \Y 13 T 14 F 15 S 16 e 17 M 18 T 19 W 20 T 21 F 22 S 23 E 24 M 25 T 26 W 27 T 28 P 29 S 30 E 31 M w. ■L c o 02 7 28 7 5 6 42 6 19 5 56 5 33 5 10 4 46 4 23 47 5-1 55 51 42 2S 10 CALENDAR For Boston, N. England, New-York State, Mi- chigan, Wiscon.. Iowa and Oregon. rises 3 59 36 12 49 ii 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 4? 6 22 6 53 6 21 6 47 6 M 35 33 32 30 29 27 26 24 23 21 19 SUN MOON sets, sets. 2 25 2 1 38 14 0 50 0 27 0 3 NT. 20 0 43 7 31 54 18 4.1 5 28 51 15 10 32 52 12 30 48 6 25 16 56 35 12 47 19 49 15 38 56 11 176 15 14 12 6 10j6 9|6 7*5 5 6 36 2 6 0 59 57 55 53 52 6 51 49 47 45 M 50 51 53 54 55 56 58 59 0 1 2 3 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 13 11 15 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 ii 7 8 9 M 16 19 22 II. w. Host. II 91 morn 0 20 0 59 10 22 11 22 morn 0 15 13 3 47 27 2 33 2 35 12 55 52 34 31 30 32 rises 7 5 8 22 9 38 10 50; morn ] 8 29 9 22 10 10 10 54 11 35 &v 21 2 4 56 41 16 3 47 4 12 8 54 47 48 54 3 7 9 4 38 24 :ets 8 9 1 1 2 3 4 6 7 8 9 9 52 10 34 11 20 11 47 mom CALENDAR For N. York City, Phi- ladelphia, Conn., New Jersey, Penn'ia, Ohio Indiana and Illinois. SUN rises M 35 33 32 30 29 27 26 24 23 21 19 17 15 14 12 10 9 7 5 3 2 0 59 58 56 55 51 52 51 49 47 SUN sets. M 50 51 53 54 55 56 58 59 0 1 2 3 4 5 MOON sets. H M 7 15 8 17 9 19 10 18 11 17 morn 0 10 1 7 1 57 2 42 3 23 3 59 4 30 6 0 6 rises 7| 7 3 8 8 19 9 9 34 lOllO 46 12 11 57 1 3 morn 14 15 16 58 1 51 2 36 17 3 12 3 41 4 12 4 37 5 25 22 sets 23 8 6 18 19 20 21 H. W. N. Y. H JI 9 6 9 45 10 21 10 58 11 41 morn 0 38 1 20 2 17 3 16 4 18 5 15 6 8 6 56 7 40 8 2J 9 7 9 54 10 40 11 33 ev 34 1 40 2 49 3 53 4 55 5 50 6 38 7 20 8 12 8 3b 9 13 CALENDAR For Washington, Mary I'd, Virg'a, Kent'y, Mise'ri, and California. SUN rises II SHU sets. M II 33 5 31 5 30 5 29 .5 27 5 26 5 25 5 24 5 22 6 2016 18,6 176 15 14 13 6 116 10 6 8 6 6 6 5 6 M 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 MOON sets. H 7 ji 15 8 15 9 16 10 14 Jl 12 morn 0 5 2 52 37 18 55 28 58 36 2 6 16 59 6 57 6 56 6 54 6 53 6 62 6 50 6 4816 1 1 2 3 3 4 5 rises 7 2 8 16 9 30 10 41 11 11 51 12 morn 13 0 53 11 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 46 31 9 42 10 37 26 sets 8 2 A The Milky Way. That Irregular stream of faint cloudy light which may he seen on clear moonless nights, by the naked eye, forming a circle entirely round the heavens- -is supposed to be the re- moter parts of the group of stars in which our sun is enveloped. To a spectator at a dis- tant point in the heavens it may Appear 96 a small annular nebula, or as a thin stratum of starry light, covering but a small spot in the sky. In the constellation Argo Navis, is a ▼ast nebular cluster, in which from 2,000 to 6,000 stars have been revealed by the tele- scope, besides large nebulous tracts which no ' 1 iscope has yet resolved into stars. This nebula la seen through the Milky Way, but is supposed to lie at an immeasurable distance beyond it,. 4th MONTH. APRIL, 1862. 30 DAYS. Sun on Meridian V or Noon Mark. MOON'S PHASES. First Quarter, Fuli, Moon,' •• • Third Quarter, New Moon.- • • • j) 7 14 21 28 Boston. H 7 10 1 6 si 28 18 19 42 N. York. H 7 10 1 6 M 16 w 6 m 7m 30 e Waeh'ton H 7 9 0 6 M 4 m 54 in 55 m 19 e D 1 9 17 25 H 12 12 11 11 M 3 1 59 57 s 54 34 29 50 M to - i CALENDAR CALENDAR CALENDAR 55 to a For Boston, N. England. For N. York City, Phi- For Washington, is a> New- York State. Mi- ladelphia. Conn., Ni'\v Mary I'd, Virg'a, Pk fcl chigan, Wiscon., Iowa Jersey, Penn'ia. Oliio, Kent'y, Miss'ri, O o •a m and Oregon. Indiana and Illinois. and California, >< SUN SUN MOON II. w. SUN SUN MOON ii. w. SUN SUN MOON P 02 rises (I M sets. H M sets. H M Boat. n m rises H M sets. H M set*. H M N\ Y. II M ri ses II M sets n m sets. o / // H M 1 T 4 38 21 5 43 6 26 9 15 0 27 5 45 6 24 9 11 9 51 5 46 6 22 9 6 2 W 5 1 25 a 41 6 27 10 8 1 5 5 42 6 25 10 3 10 30 5 44 6 23 9 57 3 T 5 24 25 5 40 6 28 11 3 1 44 5 41 6 26 10 57 11 12 5 43 6 241 10 52 4 F 5 47 18 5 38 6 29 11 54 2 26 5 39 6 27 11 49 11 59 5 41 6 25 11 43 5 S 6 10 5 5 36 6 30 morn 3 13 5 37 6 28 morn morn 5 39 6 25 morn 6 E 6 32 46 '•> 34 6 31 0 41 4 4 5 35 6 29 0 36 0 50 5 38 6 26 0 30 7 M 6 55 20 5 32 6 32 1 22 4 56 5 33 6 30 1 17 1 42 5 37 6 27 1 12 8 T 7 17 47 5 30 6 33 2 7 5 54 5 31 6 31 2 3 2 40 5 35 6 28 1 58 9 W 7 40 7 5 29 6 34 2 30 6 53 5 30 6 32 2 27 3 39 5 33 6 29 2 24 10 T 8 2 19 5 27 6 35 3 0 7 48 5 28 6 33 2 58 4 35 5 31 6 30 2 56 11 F 8 24 22 5 25 6 36 3 28 8 45 5 26 6 34 3 27 5 31 5 29 6 31 3 26 12 s 8 46 17 - 5 24 6 37 3 54 9 36 5 25 6 35 3 54 6 22 5 28 6 32 3 55 13 E 9 8 4 ? 22 6 38 4 24 10 24 5 24 6 36 4 25 7 10 5 27 6 33 4 27 14 M 9 29 41 5 21 6 39 rises 11 9 5 22 6 37 rises 7 55 5 25 6 34 rises 15 T 9 51 9 5 19 6 40 8 30 11 59 5 21 6 38 8 25 8 45 5 24 6 35 8 21 16 W 10 12 27 "i 17 6 41 9 44 ev 51 5 20 6 39 9 39 9 37 5 23 6 36 9 34 17 T 10 33 35 5 16 6 42 10 53 1 43 5 18 6 40 10 48 10 29 5 21 6 37 10 42 1R F 10 54 33 5 15 6 43 11 52 2 38 5 16 6 41 11 47 11 24 5 20 6 38 11 41 19 S 11 15 21 i 13 6 44 morn 3 40 5 15 6 42 morn ev 26 5 19 6 39 morn 20 E 11 35 57 5 12 6 46 0 39 4 41 5 13 6 44 0 34 1 27 5 17 6 40 0 29 21 M 11 56 22 5 10 6 47 1 16 5 44 5 11 6 45 1 13 2 30 5 15 6 41 1 9 22 T 12 16 35 5 8 6 48 1 49 6 43 5 10 6 46 1 47 3 29 5 14 6 42 1 44 23 W 12 36 37 5 6 6 49 2 16 7 38 5 9 6 47 2 14 4 24 5 13 6 43 2 13 24 T 12 56 26 "5 4 6 51 2 40 | 8 29 5 7 '6 48 2 40 5 15 5 11 6 44 2 39 25 F 13 16 2 5 3 6 52 3 6 9 17 5 6 6 49 3 7 6 3 5 10 !6 45 3 7 26 S 13 35 26 5 2 6 53 3 31 10 1 5 5 6 50 3 33 6 47 5 9 6 46 3 34 27 E 13 54 36 "j 1 6 54 3 57 ,10 40 5 3 6 51 3 59 7 26 5 7(6 47 4 2 28 M 14 13 32 1 59 6 56 sets jll 18 5 2 6 52 sets 8 4 5 6 6 48 sets 29 T 14 32 14 4 57 6 57 8 1 11 56 5 1 '6 53 7 56 8 44 15 4 6 49 7 51 30 W 14 50 42 4 56 6 58 8 56'mnrn 15 00 54 8 51 9 26 5 3 6 50 8 26 Nebulae. " I wonder as I gaze. That stream of light Uundimined, unquenched— just as I see it now — Has issued from those dazzling points thro1 years That run far back into eternity. Kxhaustlesa flood ! forever spent, renewed Forever!" A nebula is a cloudy spot of light in the sky, Invisible to the nuked eye, and which the most powerful telescope cannot in all cases resolve into the stars which compose it. There are between one and two thou- sand nebulss noted in Herschel's Cata- logue. Tliey are supposed to be immensely remote beyond the fixed stars; and if they are each composed of multitudes of stars, how vast must be the system, the combined light of whose thousands of suns appears only as a faint haze, and has required thousands of years to reach us ! Nebuhe vary exceedingly, both in apparent -^ ^' I 5th MOXTH. MAY, 1862. 31 DAYS. Ay MOON'S PHASES. First Quarter, Full Moon,. •• • Third Quarter, New Moon,- D 6 13 20 28 Boston. H 10 6 10 10 M 40 16 54 42 N. York. H 10 6 10 10 M 28 e 4 e 42 m 30 m Wash' ton 10 5 10 10 M 16 e 52 e 31 n 18 u Sum on Meridian or Noon Mark. D 1 9 17 25 H 11 11 11 11 M 56 56 56 56 a 56 14 8 38 d O ■ w K o i. O >• < 1 T 2 F 3 S 4 E 5 M 6 T 7 \V 8 T 9 F 10 S 11 E 12 M 13 T 14 W 15 T 16 F 17 S 18 E 19 M 20 T 21 W 22 T 23 F 24 S 25 E 26 M 27 T 28 W 29 T 30 F 31 S a "3 3 15 15 15 16 16 16 16 17 17 17 17 18 IS 19 18 19 19 19 19 20 20 20 20 20 20 21 21 21 21 21 21 8 55 26 53 44 36 2 3 19 14 36 9 52 48 9 9 25 13 41 0 56 29 11 40 26 33 41 7 55 23 9 19 22 56 36 14 49 11 1 49 14 6 26 2 37 37 48 51 59 44 10 15 20 24 30 11 39 36 48 38 57 17 CALENDAR For Boston. N. England. New-York State. Mi- chigan, Wiscon.. Iowa and Oregon. SUN rises 54 53 51 50 49 48 47 46 45 44 43 42 41 40 39 38 37 36 35 35 34 33 32 31 30 29 28 28 27 26 26 SON sets. H M 6 59 7 0 7 1 7 2 7 3 7 4 7 5 7 6 7 7 7 8 7 9 7 10 7 11 7 12 7 13 7 14 7 15 7 16 7 17 7 18 7 19 7 20 7 21 7 22 7 23 7 24 7 25 7 26 7 27 7 28 7 28 MOON sets. H M 9 49 10 37 11 19 11 58 morn 0 31 0 27 54 21 50 24 rises 8 33 9 37 10 33 11 15 11 51 morn 0 20 0 46 1 12 H. W. Bust, H JI 0 4C 23 0 47 36 25 16 10 8 5 2 58 10 52 11 43 35 0 29 59 35 sets 8 35 9 18 9 57 ev 1 2 3 4 5 6 6 7 41 35 27 23 18 11 7 59 49 8 40 9 26 10 11 10 56 11 33 tnorr 0 19 1 1 CALENDAR For N. York City, Phi- ladelphia. Conn., New Jersey, Penn'ia, Ohio, Indiana and Illinois. SUN rises M 59 5S 57 56 55 54 53 52 51 50 49 48 47 45 44 43 42 41 40 39 38 37 36 35 35 34 33 33 32 31 31 SUN sets. H M 6 55 56 57 58 59 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 MOON 6ets. H M 9 44 10 31 11 14 11 53 morn 0 27 0 57 26 53 22 53 28 rises 8 27 9 32 10 28 11 11 11 48 morn 0 19 0 45 1 12 H. W. N. Y II M 10 9 10 46 11 33 morn 0 22 1 11 2 22 56 54 51 48 44 38 8 28 9 27 10 21 36 2 32 3 40 sets 8 30 9 13 9 52 11 ev 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 6 7 8 9 9 la 9 4 57 53 45 35 26 15 67 42 19 5 47 10 26 CALENDAR For Washington, Mary I'd, Vug a, Kent'y, Miss'ri, and California. SUN •ises SUN sets. M 2 1 0 59 58 57 56 55 54 53 52 51 50 49 48 47 46 45 44 44 43 42 42 41 40 40 39 38 38 37 37 M 52 53 54 55 56 56 57 58 59 0 1 2 3 4 5 MOON sets. H M 9 38 10 26 11 9 11 49 morn 0 24 0 55 25 53 22 55 31 1 1 2 2 3 rises 8 22 9 26 6; 10 23 7 11 6 7lll 45 8 'morn 9| 0 17 0 44 10 10 11 12 13 14 14 15 16 16 17 J2 38 5 36 7 45 sets 8 24 9 7 9 48 size and in form. Some are elliptical, others annular, and many are globular. In the tail of Scorpio is a cometary nebula. In Sobies- ki's Shield is a singular oval nebula contain- ing two small distinct stars. And in the con- stellation Cygnus is a globular nebula, with a single distinct star in the centre. Another in Auriga, surrounds an equilateral triangle of three minute stars. In the right foot of Andromeda is a beau- tiful elliptical nebula, called by Sir John Herschel "a wonderful object." The centre is black, with a small star at each end. It is believed to be of immense size, and to be in shape a ring, seen sideways. The nebular cluster appears like a small hazy star to the naked eye, but in a good tel- escope shines with a lustre truly astonishing. In the constellation Orion is a remarkable nebula, the diameter of which must be at ik 6th MOXTII. JUNE, 18 62. 30 DAYS. MOON'S PHASES. First Quarter, Full Moon,- •• • Third Quarter, New Moon.- • • • o 5 12 IS 27 Boston. H 9 1 10 2 DO M 59 33 m 23 e 10 m N. York. H M 9 47 m 1 21 m 10 16 e 1 58 m Wash' ton Sun on Meridian or Noon Mark. H 9 1 10 1 M 35 m 9 m 4 e 46 rn D 1 9 17 H M S 11 57 31 11 53 54 12 0 33 12 2 17 i % fc CALENDAR CALENDAR CALENDAR % E to a For Boston, N. Eneland. For N. York City, Phi- For AVashington, ? £ o New-York State. Mi- ladelphia. Conn., N ew Maryl'd. Virg'a, pri s chigan. Wiscon., Iowa Jersey, Penn'ia. Ol io, Kent'y, Miss'ri, o O 31 and Oregon. Indiana and Illinoi w. and California. >- 8 UN SUN MOON | it. w. .SUN SUN MOON it. SUN 1 SUN MOON p < QQ rises fl M sets. H M sets. H M Bost, H M rises a ji sets. H M sets. H M N. H Y. 7 rises H M sets H M sets. o / ft H M 1 F 22 5 34 4 25 7 29 10 31 1 40 4 31 7 24 10 28 11 8 4 36 7 18 10 24 2 M 22 13 27 4 24 7 30 11 3 2 12 4 30 7 25 10 59 11 52 4 36 7 19 10 56 3 T 22 20 57 4 24 7 30 11 30 3 6 4 30 7 25 11 28 morn 4 35 7 19 11 27 4 W 22 28 4 4 23 7 31 11 55 3 52 4 29 7 26 11 55 0 33 4 35 7 20 11 54 5 T 22 34 47 4 23 7 32 morn 4 41 4 29 7 27 morn 1 27 4 35 7 20 morn 6 F 22 41 7 4 23 7 33 0 22 5 33 4 28 7 27 0 22 2 19 4 34 7 21 0 23 7 R 22 47 3 4 22 7 33 0 49 6 29 4 28 7 28 0 51 3 15 4 34 7 21 0 52 8iE 22 52 34 4 22 7 34 1 19 3 32 4 28.7 28 1 22 4 18 4 34 7 22 1 25 9j M 22 57 42 4 22 7 35 1 55 8 34 4 23 7 29 1 58 5 20 4 34 7 22 2 3 10 T 23 2 26 4 22 7 35 2 38 9 36 4 28 7 29 2 43 6 22 4 34 7 23 2 48 11 W 23 6 45 4 22 7 36 3 31 10 36 4 28 7 30 3 37 7 22 4 34 7 24 3 40 12 T 23 10 40 4 22 7 37 rises 11 30 4 28 7 30 rises 8 16 k 34 7 25 rises 13 F 23 14 10 4 22 7 37 9 7 ev 29 4 287 31 9 2 9 15 4 34 7 25 8 58 14 B 23 17 16 4 22 7 38 9 47 1 12 4 28 7 31 9 43 10 8 4 34 7 26 9 40 15 F 23 19 57 4 22 7 38 10 20 2 8 4 287 32 10 16 10 54 4 33 7 27 10 15 16 M 23 22 13 4 22 7 33 10 48 2 57 4 28 7 32 10 47 11 43 4 33 7 27 10 46 17 T 23 24 5 4 22 7 39 11 14 3 46 4 28 7 33 11 14 ev 32 4 33 7 28 11 14 18 W 23 25 32 4 22 7 39 11 39 4 34 4 28.7 33 11 40 1 20 4 33 7 28 11 40 19 T 23 26 34 4 23 7 39 morn 5 21 4 29 7 34 morn 2 7 |4 33 7 28 morn 20 F 23 27 12 4 23 7 39 0 4 6 16 4 29 7 34 0 6 3 2 4 34 7 28 0 8 21 S 23 27 24 4 23 7 39 0 32 7 8 4 29 7 34 0 35 3 54 4 34 7 28 0 38 22 E 23 27 12 4 23 7 40 1 1 8 1 4 29 7 34 1 4 4 47 4 34 7 29 1 9 23 M 23 26 35 4 23 7 40 1 35 8 54 4 29 7 35 1 40 5 40 4 34 7 29 , 1 45 24 T 23 25 33 4 24 7 40 2 15 9 45 4 30 7 35 2 20 6 31 4 35 7 29 2 25 25 W 23 24 6 4 24 7 40 2 59 10 32 4 30 7 35 3 4 7 13 4 35 7 29 3 10 26 T 23 22 15 4 24 7 40 3 49 11 13 4 30 7 35 3 55 7 59 4 35 7 29 4 0 27 F 23 19 59 4 25 7 40 sets 11 56 4 30,7 35 sets 8 42 4 35 7 29 sets 28 S 23 17 18 4 25 7 40 8 33 morn 4 31 7 35 8 29 9 25 4 36 7 29 8 24 29 E 23 14 13 4 25 7 40 9 6 i ° 39 4 31 7 35 9 3 10 5 4 36 7 29 9 0 30 M 23 10 43 4 25 7 40 9 35 ' 1 19 4 31 7 35 9 32 10 43 >4 36 7 29 9 30 least 19,000,000,000 of miles ; and if, as is alto- gether probable, it lies at a vast distance be- yond the most distant stars, its magnitude roust be inconceivably great. It is like a uni- verse by itself, immeasurably remote beyond the universe heretofore known. And yet it is but one of many such, disclos- ed to the telescopic eye of modern science, and proclaiming as nothing else can the infi- nite powerof Him at whose word they sprang into being. To Ascertain the Length of the Day ond Xlght, At any time of the year, add twelve hours to the time of the sun's setting, and from the sum subtract the time of rising, for the length of the day. Subtract the time of setting from twelve hours, ami to the remainder add the time of rising next morning, for the length of the night. These rules are equally true for apparent time. 7 th MOXTH. JULY, 186 2. 31 DAYS. MOON'S PHASES. Boston. First Quarter, Full Moon, • Third Quarter, New Moon, n 4 11 18 26 H M 6 6e 8 54 m ■0 29 e 4 21 e N. York. it 5 8 0 4 ■ 54 e 42 m 17 e 9e Wash' ton ii 5 3 0 3 M 42 e 30 m 5 e 57 e Sun on Meridian or Noon Mark. D 1 9 17 25 ii 12 12 12 12 ai s 3 30 4 53 5 49 6 12 s U! f a c ft b. Ba O O >> >« < -0 fi c 1 T 2 W 3 T 4 F 5 S 6 E 7 M 8 T 9 W 10 T 11 F 12 S 13 JE 14 M 15 T 16 W 17 T 18 F 19 S 20 E 21 M 22 T 23 W 24 T 25 F 26 S 27 K 28 M 29 T 30 W 31 T -. 'a 2 9 17 25 Boston. M 12 m 19 e 13 m 56 m N. York. H M 12 Oe 4 57 e 4 51 m 4 44 m Wash'ton H 11 4 4 4 ■ 48 e 45 e 39 m 32 m Sun on Meridian or Noon Mark. D 1 9 17 25 H M S 12 6 3 12 5 15 12 3 50 12 I 53 - O M o Eh O P P 1 F 2 S 3 K 4 M 5 T 6 W 7 T 8 F 9 S 10 IE 11 M 12 T 13 W 14 T 15 F 16 S 17 K 18 M 19 T 20 W 21 T 22 F 23 S 24 K 25 M 26 T 27 W 28 T 29 F 30 S 31 ¥S a 02 O 17 17 17 17 16 16 16 16 15 15 15 14 14 14 14 13 13 13 12 12 12 11 11 11 10 10 10 9 9 8 8 59 43 28 12 56 39 23 6 48 31 13 55 37 19 0 41 22 3 43 23 3 43 23 2 42 21 0 39 17 56 31 10 51 15 22 12 46 4 6 53 24 41 42 29 3 22 28 21 1 28 43 47 38 19 49 8 17 16 6 47 18 42>l5 CALENDAR For Boston, N. England. New-York State. Mi- chigan, Wiscon., Iowa and Oregon. SUN rises SUN set*. M H 52 7 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 14 15 16 17 18 1916 20 21 22 23 20 19 18 16 15 14 13 11 10 9 8 7 5 4 2 1 0 58 56 55 54 52 51 49 48 46 44 42 41 39 37 MOON sets. II M 9 54 10 30 11 13 oaorn 0 4 1 6 2 14 3 28 H. W. Bost. H M 2 52 3 41 38 43 53 5 14 10 14 rises 11 1 7 14 7 42 8 9 8 35 9 4 9 35 10 11 10 51 11 37 morn 0 28 1 24| 2 24 1 3 27 4 30 sets 11 49 ev 35 34 53 32 17 4 57 52 52 51 1 28 59 8 47 9 37 10 15 10 53 11 43 morn 0 25 8 33 9 13 4 47 2 31 10 3' 3 26 CALENDAR For N. York City, Phi- ladelphia. Conn., New Jersey, Penn'ia, Ohio. Indiana and Illinois. SUN rises SUN sets. M 56 57 58 59 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 MOON sets. J! 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 6 5 3 2 0 59 58; 57! 55 54 53 51 50 49 47 45 43 41 40 38 36 31 H M 9 57 10 34 11 18 morn 0 9 1 11 2 19 3 32 rises 13 41 8 10 8 9 9 II . w. N. Y H M morn 0 27 1 24 2 29 39 51 0 0 47 8 35 9 21 10 0 37,10 39 18 a 10 16 10 56 11 42 morn 0 33 1 2 3 4 711 39 ev 0 50 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 7 29 28 30 33 ets 7 1 30; 4>; 38 38 37 33 23 11 49 8 29 1 50 7 8 lllu 33 8 36 11 17 9 18 morn S 0 12 10 CALENDAR For Washington, Maryl'd, Virg'a, Kent'y, Miss'ri, and California. SUN rises SUN sets. MOON sets. M 0 1 2 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16;6 17J6 136 196 20 '6 21 6 21 6 22 G 23 6 24 6 25 6 26 6 27 6 286 M H M 12110 0 11 10 39 10 11 23 morn 0 15 1 17 2 25 3 37 3 rises 1 0 59 58 57 55 54 53 52 12 41 il 39 10 43 7 7 8 8 9 9 10 21 11 1 11 48 50 morn 49| 0 39 1 2 3 4 48 46 45 43 42 41 39 38 36 34 33 34 33 33 35 sets 7 2 7 8 21 4 8 40 9 23 10 13 Pyramid of Gizeh, which precedes the pre- sent epoch hy nearly 4,000 years, the longi- tudes of all the stars were less by 55 deg. 45 min. than at present. Calculating, from this datum, the place of the pole of the heavens among the stars, it will he found to fall near a Draconis; its distance from that star being 3 deg. 44 min. 25 sec. This being the most conspicuous star in the immediate neighbor- hood, was therefore the Polestar at that epoch. The latitude of (Jizeh being just 30 rleg. north, and consequently the altitude of the North Pole there also 30 dec., it follows that the star in question must have had at its lower culmination at Gizeh, an altitude of 26 deg. 15 min. 35 sec. Now it is a remarkable fact, that of the nine pyramids still existing at (Jizeh, six— includ- ing all the largest -have the narrow passages by which alone they can be entered— all ■c^ 9th month. SEPTEMBER, 1862. 30 OAY8. MOON'S PHASES. First Quarter, Full Moon,- Third Quarter, < New Moon, Ftrst Quarter, • n 1 8 15 23 30 Boston. H 5 3 11 4 11 M 33 in 13 m 38 e 13 e 26 m N. York. H 5 3 11 4 11 M 21 m 1 in 26 e 1 e 14 m Sun on Meridian Wash'ton or Noon Mark. H M D H M S 5 9 m 1 11 59 50 2 50 in 9 11 57 12 11 14 e 17 11 54 24 3 49 e 25 11 51 37 11 2m a K C E fa o < K H o < P 00 G o o> m o QQ o / // 1 M 8 12 57 2 T 7 51 4 3 W 7 29 4 4 T 7 6 57 5 F 6 44 42 6 S 6 22 21 7 K 5 59 54 8 M 5 37 21 9 T 5 14 42 10 W 4 51 58 11 T 4 29 9 12 F 4 6 15 13 S 3 43 16 14 E 3 20 13 15 M 2 57 7 16 T 2 33 57 17 W 2 10 44 18 T 1 47 28 19 F 1 24 10 20 S 1 0 49 21 B2 0 37 27 22 M 0 14 4 23 T s. 9 21 24 W 0 32 46 25 T 0 56 12 26 F 1 19 37 27 S 1 43 1 28 i-: 2 6 25 29 M 2 29 4F 301 T 2 53 9 CALENDAR For BoBton, N. England. New-York State, Mi- chigan, Wiscon., Iowa and Oregon. SUN rise* M 24 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 53 54 55 SUN sets. H M 6 36 6 35 6 33 6 31 6 30 6 28 6 26 6 25 6 23 6 21 6 19 6 17 6 16 6 14 6 12 6 11 6 9 6 7 6 5 6 4 6 2 6 0 5 58, 5 56 5 54 5 52 5 50 5 49 5 46 5 45 MOON sets. H M 10 57 mom 0 3 13 26 38 47 JI. w. Boat, rises 6 36 7 4 7 35 8 9 8 48 9 31 10 20 11 14 morn 0 12 1 11 2 15 3 17 4 26 sets 6 0 6 32 7 13 7 59 8 54 9 57 11 4 H 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 ev 0 1 2 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 9 10 11 11 M 27 33 45 55 59 55 41 20 3 44 23 0 43 32 25 23 18 16 9 2 50 34 15 58 morn 0 44 1 2 3 4 31 20 is ■in CALENDAR For N. York City, Phi- ladelphia. Conn., New Jersey, Penn'ia, Ohio, Indiana and Illinois. SUN rises N 27 SUN sets. 2S6 296 306 31 6 32 6 336 346 356 366 366 376 38 ; 6 396 406 41 6 42 6 43 44 45 46 47 48 5 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 M 33 32 30 29 27 26 24 23 24 19 18 16 14 12 10 8 7 5 4 2 1 59 57 55 53 52 50 49 47 45 MOON sets. H M 11 3 morn 0 8 1 18 2 30 3 40 4 49 rises 6 38 7 7 7 38 8 14 8 53 9 36 10 25 11 19 morn 0 16 1 15 2 17 3 19 4 26 seta 6 2 6 35 7 17 8 4 8 59 10 2 11 9 II 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 M 13 19 31 41 45 41 27 6 8 49 9 10 30 9 10 46 11 29 ev 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 7 8 18 11 9 4 2 55 48 36 20 1 CALENDAR For Washington, Mary I'd, Virg'a, Kent'y, Miss'ri, and California. SUN rises 8 44 9 10 11 30 17 6 morn 0 4 1 6 SUN seta M H 29 6 306 316 32 6 336 346 35 6 35 6 36|6 376 38l6 39l6 40|6 40 6 MOON sets. M H M 31 11 9 30 morn 281 0 13 1 2 3 4 27 25 24 23 22 33 43 50 21 rises 41 42 43 20 13 17 15 13 12 6 7 7 39 10 42 6 446 44J6 45'6 466 475 485 495 505 515 52 5 53 5 54 5 55 5 8 18 8 59 9 42 1010 31 9 11 24 7 morn 5 0 21 1 19 2 20 3 21 4 26 57 sets 55| 6 4 6 7 8 9 4 2 1 59 53 52 511 49 47 10 45' 1 1 39 22 9 5 8 14 which open out on the Northern faces of their respective pyramids— inclined downward at an angle as follows: DEG> MIN> 1. Pyramid of Cheops, 26 41 2. Pyramid of Cephren 25 55 3. Pyramid of Mycerinus, 26 2 4 27 0 5 27 12 6 28 0 Mean 26 47 At the bottom of every one of these passages, therefore, the Polestar must have been visi- ble at its lower culmination, a circumstance which can hardly be supposed to have been unintentional.and was doubtless connected- - perhaps superstitiously— with the astronomi- cal observations of that star, of whose proxi- mity to the pole at the epoch of the erection of these wonderful structures we are thus fur- nished with a monumental record of the most imperishable nature." lOth MOUTH. OCTOBER, 1862. 31 DAYS. MOON'S PHASES. Full Moon,« Third Quarter, Njsw Moon, First Qhartkr, n 7 15 23 29 Boston. M 3 e 58 e 52 m Oe N. Fork. H x 3 51 e 6 46 e 2 40 in. 6 48 e ! Wash' ton H 3 6 2 6 M 39 e 34 e 29 m 36 e Sun on Meridian or Noon Mark. D 1 9 17 25 H 11 11 11 11 M 49 47 45 44 s 38 17 24 11 si M W s * fc fe o O !h >< < < P P 1 W 2 T 3 F 4 S 5 E 6 M 7 T 8 W 9 T 10 F 11 S 12 c<: 13 M 14 T 15 W 16 T 17 F 18 S 19 E 20 M 21 T 22 W 23 T 24 F 25 S 26 E 27 M 28 T 29 W 30 T 31 F OQ CALENDAR For Boston, N. England o New York State, Mi- 0> chigan, Wiscon., Iowa T3 OS ami Oregon. SON SON MOON n. w. QQ rises [I M sets. H M sets. H M Bost, O / /' H M 3 16 29 5 56 5 43 morn 5 26 3 39 46 5 57 5 42 0 16 6 33 4 3 0 5 58 5 40 1 26 7 37 4 26 12 5 59 5 39 2 36 8 36 4 49 20 6 1 5 38 3 42 9 26 5 12 25 6 2 5 36 4 49 10 13 5 35 26 6 3 5 34 rises 10 54 5 53 23 6 4 5 33 5 35 11 30 6 21 14 6 5 5 31 6 8 cv 14 6 44 1 6 6 5 29 6 431 0 54 7 6 43 6 8 5 28 7 26| 1 35 7 29 19 6 9 5 26 8 13! 2 16 7 51 49 6 10 5 24 9 5! 3 2 8 14 12 6 11 5 22 10 0! 3 51 8 36 29 6 12 5 20jl0 59: 4 43 8 58 38 6 13 5 19! 11 59 5 38 9 20 40 6 14 5 17 morn | 6 31 9 42 33 6 15 5 16 1 2 7 29 10 4 19 6 17 5 14 2 6 8 19 10 25 55 6 18 5 13 3 12 9 13 10 47 22 6 19 5 11 4 21 10 2 11 8 40; 6 21 5 10 sets 110 50 11 29 4S| 6 22 5 8 5 8 11 36 11 50 45| 6 23 5 7 5 51 morn 12 11 31 6 24 5 5 6 45 0 28 12 32 6 6 25 5 4 7 48 1 21 12 52 29 6 27 5 2 8 57 2 13 13 12 40 6 28 5 1 10 7 3 11 13 32 39 6 29 5 0 11 18 4 10 13 52 241 6 21 4 58 morn 5 10 14 11 57! 6 32 1 57 0 28 6 10 CALENDAR For N. York City, Phi ladelphia. Conn., New Jersey, Penn'ia, Ohio Indiana and Illinois. SUN rises M 56 57 58 59 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 / 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 18 19 20 21 22 24 25 26 27 28 S D -N' sets. MOON sets. M 43, 42 41 39 37 36 II M morn 0 19 1 29 2 38 3 43 4 49 34 rises 33 31 29 28 26 25 5 38 6 12 6 48 7 31 8 18 9 10 2310 5 22 1 1 3 20 morn 19 0 2 1 2 3 4 H. W. N. Y 17| 16 15 13 4 8 12 20 12 gets 5 5 6 7 9 10 11 11 55 50 53 10 8 7 5 4 3 2|ll 21 0 morn 591 0 30 H M 2 12 3 19 4 23 5 22 6 12 6 59 7 40 8 16 9 0 9 40 10 21 11 2 11 48 ev 37 29 24 17 15 5 59 48 36 1 2 3 4 5 5 6 7 8 22 9 14 10 7 10 59 11 57 morn 0 56 1 56 2 56 CALENDAR For Washington, Maryl'd, Virg'a, Kent'y, Miss'ri, ami California. SUN rises SUN sets. : m 56 57 58 59 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 1515 166 175 185 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 si 44 42 41 39 38 37 35 34 32 31 30 29 27 25 24 22 20 19 17 16 15 14 13 12 10 9 7 5 4 3 2 MOON sets. H M morn 0 23 1 31 2 39 3 43 4 48 rises 5 41 6 16 6 53 7 37 8 24 9 15 10 10 11 7 morn 0 5 1 2 3 4 sets 6 9 12 19 16 0 55 58 6 10 15 11 24 morn 0 32 Planet Between Mercury and the Sun. Within a century and a half, twenty-one reliable observations have been had of tran- sits of Mercury over the sun's disk. In these a progressive error of small amount was not- ed, which led astronomers to conclude there must be some small planetary body within the orbit of Mercury. Studying therefore, atten- tively the small spots upon the sun, an obser- ver 50 miles from Paris, named Lescarbault, has discovered the planet in question. Telearnphic Weather Reports Are daily sent to the Smithsonian Institution at Washington, from almost all parts of the Union ; and the state of the weather being indicated on a large map in the public hall, by cards of dill', lent colors, the spectator can observe where storms are occurring, and trace their progress annually toward tlic east. Thus, from the Cincinnati and St. Louis re- ports, the state of the weather at Washington may be foretold twelve hours in advance, 11th MOXTH. NOVEMBER, 186 2. 30 DAYS. MOON'S PHASES. Full Moon,' Third Quarter,. New Moon, First Quarter, • D 6 14 21 28 Boston. ii 8 1 1 5 M 4 m 26 e 30 e 18 m Sun on Meridian X.York. Wash'ton. or Noon Mark. H 7 1 1 5 M 52 m 14 e 18 e 6 m H M 7 41 id! 1 2 e j 1 6ei 4 54 m D 1 9 17 25 H 11 11 11 11 M 43 44 45 47 s 44 0 11 3 M •\ CO CALENDAR CALENDAR CALENDAR 85 H C For Boston, N. Entrland. For N. York City, Phi- 'For "Washington, M | * s New-York State. Mi ladeiphia. Conn., New ; Mary I'd, Yii^'a. a. fc w chii^an, "Wiscon., Iowsi Jersey, Penn'ia. OliioJi Kenl'y, Misn'ri. o o p 'O • and Oregon. Indiana and Illinois. and California. > SDH SUN MOON H. W. SUN SUN MOOH H. W. SDH BOH MOON p 00 risen H M sets. H M sets. H M Bost. H 11 rises II M sets. sets. N. Y. H II rises H M sets n it sets. o / // H M H M n m 1 s 14 31 15 6 33 4 55 1 34 7 7 6 29 4 59 1 35 3 53,6 27 5 1 1 36 2 E 14 50 20 6 34 4 54 2 40 8 2 6 30 4 58 2 40 4 48,6 28 5 0 2 39 3 M 15 9 10 6 35 4 53 3 43 8 53 6 31 4 57 3 41 5 39 6 29 4 59 3 40 4 T 15 27 45 6 36 4 52 4 16 9 41 6 32 4 56 4 43 6 27 6 30 4 53 4 41 5 w 15 46 4 16 37 4 50 5 43 10 25 6 33 4 55 5 44 7 11 6 31 4 57 5 40 6 T 16 4 8 "6 39 4 49 rises '11 3 6 35 4 53 rises 7 49 6 32 4 56 rises 7 F 16 21 57 16 40 4 48 5 22 11 45 6 36 4 52 5 27 8 31 6 33 4 55 5 32 8 s 16 39 28 6 41 4 47 6 8 ev 30 6 38 4 50 6 13 9 16 6 35 4 54 6 18 9 E 16 56 42 6 43|4 45 6 58 1 1 6 39 4 49 7 3 9 57 6 36 4 53 7 9 10 M 17 13 40 6 44 4 44 7 52| 1 51 6 40 4 48 7 57 10 37 6 37 4 52 8 2 11 T 17 30 20 6 45 4 43 8 48 2 33 6 41 4 47 8 53 11 19 6 39 4 51 8 57 12 W 17 46 41 16 47 4 42 9 48 3 20 6 43 4 46 9 51 ev 66 40 4 50 9 55 13 T 18 2 44 6 48 4 41 10 47 4 7 6 44 4 45 10 50 0 53|6 41 4 49 10 52 14 F 18 18 29 ,6 49 4 40 11 50 4 55 6 45 4 44 11 51 1 41 6 42 4 48 11 53 15 S 18 33 54 6 51 4 39 morn 5 48 6 47 4 43 morn 2 34 6 43 4 47 morn 16 E 18 48 59 6 52 4 38 0 53 6 42 6 48 4 42 0 54 3 28|6 44 4 46 0 55 17 M 19 3 44 6 53 4 37 1 58 7 37 6 49 4 41 1 56 4 23!6 45 4 46 1 57 18 T 19 18 9 6 54 4 36 3 8 8 35 6 50 4 40 3 6 5 21 6 46 4 45 3 4 19 W 19 32 13 ,6 55 4 36 4 19 9 31 6 51 4 40 4 16 6 17 6 47 4 44 4 13 20 T 19 45 56 16 56 4 35 5 34 10 28 6 52 4 39 5 31 7 14;6 48 4 44 5 26 21 F 19 59 17 !6 58 4 34 sets 11 19 6 54 4 38 sets 8 5 6 49 4 43 sets 22 S 20 12 16 ;6 59 4 33 5 29 mom 6 55 4 38 5 34 9 2 6 50 4 42 5 39 23 E 20 24 53 7 0 4 33 6 37 0 16 6 56 4 37 6 42 9 56 6 51 4 42 6 48 24 M 20 37 7 7 1 4 32 7 50| 1 10 6 57 4 36 7 54 10 46 6 52 4 41 7 59 25 T 20 48 58 7 3 4 31 9 6 2 0 6 58 4 36 9 9 11 42 6 53 4 41 9 12 26 W 21 0 26 17 4|4 31 10 17 2 56 6 59 4 35 10 19 morn 6 54 4 41 10 21 27 T 21 11 30 7 54 30 11 26 3 49 7 04 34 11 27 0 35 6 55 4 41 11 28 28 F 21 22 10 7 6j4 29 mom 4 4S 7 1 4 34 morn 1 29 6 56 4 40 morn 29 S 21 32 26 7 7 4 29 0 32 5 38 7 2 4 33 0 32 2 24 6 57 4 40 0 33 30 E 21 42 17 7 9! 4 29 1 27 6 31 7 4 4 33 1 26 3 17 6 58 4 40 1 25 California Trees. There are two large groves of mammoth trees in California, one near Mariposa, the other in Calaveras county. The latter, the smaller of the two, covers as much space as Boston Common, and encloses a hotel. At the entrance stand two sentinel trees. 25 feet apart, 60 feet in circumference, and 300 feet high. One tree is 93 feet in circumference, another 73 feet, and 310 feet hieh. A third is 3-7 feet high. In the Mariposa grove there are 650 giant trees in less than a square mile, more than 100 of them measuring 50 feet or more in circumference, two measuring 100 each, and one 102. This latter raises its crown 80 feet higher than Bunker Hill Mon- ument. There is a petrified cedar near Honey Lake, on the Eastern slope of the Sierras, which measures 42 feet in diameter at the butt, (about 120 feet in circumference, I and is over660feet long, besidesan unknown length buried in the soil ; for at the point ©c^— -<=>g 13 th MONTH. DECEMBER, 18G2 • 31 DAYS. | Sun on Meridian MOON'S PHASES. Boston. N". York. Wash' ton J or Noon Mark. D H M H M H M D H M S fi 2 53 m 5 49 m 0 20 m 7 n « 2 41 m 5 37 w 0 8m 6 48 e 2 29 m 5 25 m 11 56 e 6 36 e ] 11 49 19 11 52 39 11 56 27 12 0 27 14 J. 9 17 25 First Quarter, 27 • J~ 1 1 V c X UJ m CALENDAR CALENDAR CALENDAR 63 63 CD a For Boston, N. England. For N. York City, Phi For Washington, o S3 £ S «frrr.'C_V * > -_^j*. Fig. 3— Perspective View of Design I. doors on the further side, and the wagon, when unloaded, is backed out. These doors should be each at least five feet wide, so as to give an opening of ten feet ; and about twelve feet high, to allow ample space to drive in a load of hay. The door at the other end of the floor is about five feet wide, and is used for throwing out straw. A narrow window on each side of this door, and one with a row of single horizontal lights over the large doors, keep the floor well lighted, when stormy wea- ther requires the doors to be shut. The bay, on the right, will hold at least one ton of hay for every foot of height, or some By marking the feet on one of B. Closet forCharness,sad(lle. buffalo the front Posts> the owner ma? know> at any H i; L00R 13X32 G=Ar.-s- ^ Fig. 4 — Principal Floor A. A trap door, for throwing down 20 or 25 in all. manure skins. &c. C. Tool room. E. Trap door for straw and roots. F. Ladder to bay. V. Ventilator and hay shoot. S. Stairs to basement. time, with some degree of accuracy, how many tons of hay he has in this bay, after it has become well settled. The upright shaft, Y, serves at the same time to ventilate the stables below, and for throwing down hay directly in front of the cow stables. It should be made of planed boards inside, that the hay may fall freely, and for the same reason it should be slightly larger downwards. It should have a succession of board doors two feet or more square, hung on hinges so as to open downwards, through the openings of which the hay is thrown down for the animals. Woes not in use, these doors should be shut by turning upwards and buttoning fast. A register should be placed in this*shaft, to regulate the amount of air in severe weather. This may be a horizontal door at the bottom, dropping open on hinges, and shut | by hooking up closely or partially, on different pins. Fig. 5 shows the form of the ventilator at the top of the building. It is ©c>- OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 7-r H i '"////.'//W~- mr! • MM. , made of wood, except the four iron rod3 or bolts at the corners, and secures the advantages of Emer- son's excellent cap, which causes the air to draw up- ward at all times when there is wind from any """G quarter. Fig. 6 is a sec- '•' tion showing the interior. Fig j^> 6. A fixed ladder, on the line between the bay and the floor, enables the attendant to ascend readily at any moment. As a basement is usually too damp for horses, a stable large enough to hold five is placed on this floor. The middle stall will receive two horses to stand abreast ; and being placed opposite to the door six feet wide, will readily admit a span in harness, for temporary feeding, which is often a great con- venience. A narrow passage from this stall admits the attendant to the barn floor. A trap door at A. allows the cleanings of the stable to pass at once to the manure heap below. These stalls are represented as only four feet wide. Five feet wrould pro- bably be better, making but one narrow stall on each side the wide one, and allowing room for four horses in all. A door under the girth, at E, allows straw and roots to be discharged into the root cellar below — the roots being first deposited there, and then a few feet of straw upon them, protects from freezing. The. Tool Room, (Fig. 4, C.) A place for every thing, and every thing in its place, will save many hours of searching, many weary steps, and much vexation, every year. The tools should not only be in the room, but every one in its place, where the hand may be always laid on it in a moment. For this purpose they should be hung up against the wall, and be neatly arranged. Nearly every tool can be hung on a spike or Kg. 7-IXTERK)R OF TOOL ROOM-SMALL TOOLS. ^ Qr between twQ large nails. If hung perpendicularly, they will occupy less room, and may be quickly taken down and replaced. Fig. 7 shows the manner in which the smaller tools may be thus arranged ; and fig. 8 exhibits the larger tools hung on the opposite wall of the same room. In order that eaeh tool may be always in its place, the plan devised by Townsend Sharpless, of Phila- ttiTH Ail r\ r p r\ RIVETS '-y-'^A»\>JS% OLD IRDN I 132 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER delphia, is the best. Hang each tool in its position; then draw its outline accurate- ly on the board wall with pencil or chalk ; then with a brush dipped in some dark colored paint, make a distinct represent- ation of the shape of the tool. These outlines will not only Fig. 8— Interior of Tool Room— Large Tools. show where the tool should be put, but show at a moment if any has been left out of place. The consciousness that there is such a tell-tale in the tool room, will stimulate any careless laborer to return every thing which he takes out. The Granary, 8 by 13 feet, contains three bins, which have a part of the front boards moveable or sliding, so that when all are in their place, they may be rilled six feet high. They will hold, in all, about 350 bushels. The contents of each bin may be readily determined by measuring and multiply- ing the length, breadth, and depth, and dividing the number of cubic feet thus obtained by 56, and multiplying by 45. The result will be bushels. It will, therefore, be most convenient to make each bin even feet. A scale should be marked inside, showing the number of bushels at any height. Bags may be marked in the same way, after trial, with considerable accuracy, and save much trouble in measuring, for many purposes, but not for buying and selling. A short tube, with a slide to shut it, may pass downward from one or more of these bins, so that bags placed in a wagon in the shed below, may be easily and rapidly filled. A bay for unthrashed grain occupies all the space over the horse stable, tool room, and granary ; and moveable poles or platform over each end of the floor also admit a considerable quantity besides. T7ie Basement, (Fig. 9.) This needs but little explanation. The cows are fed from the passage in front of them, into which the hay- shoot discharges, in front of which a door opens to the shed, for the ready feeding of animals outside. The two inner stalls shut with gates, and serve for calf pens when needed. Coarse implements, as sleds in sum- mer, and wagons and carts in winter, may A occupy the inclosed space adjoining, entered by a common gate. If a lever l/k horse power for thrashing is used, it may be placed in the " shed" in the Q 3TS& COARSE - RAW TOOLS MANURE S.SHED i -J "" Id . -1 1 a < 1 l- 1 3 — o 1 o Fig. &— Basemi;st. ®c^=- Or RURAL AFFAIRS. 133 basement ; but it would be better to use a two horse endless chain power, which may be placed on the floor above, and used for thrashing, cutting stalks, and other purposes. The farmer may thus do his own thrashing, in winter and on stormy days, with the assistance of a hired man, not only thus saving much expense, but turning out a fresh supply of straw whenever needed. The cost of this barn, if built rough, would be about $500 ; planed and painted, $600 or $700. In order to prevent the bank of earth from crowding in the cellar wall, the latter should be made thick and substantial on the upper side. DESIGN II. BARN FOR SEVENTY-FIVE TO A HUNDRED ACRES. (A view of which is placed at the head of the article on p. 125.) This barn stands on a slight declivity, and is so constructed that a wagon may be driven through it, obviating the necessity of backing out. Its size is forty-two by sixty feet. (Its capacity may be increased to any extent by greater length.) The main floor is lighted by a long horizontal window over each double door ; the trap door for BAY 16X60 UL FLOOR 13X60 TT^T HORSE:"-" Er-y" 13X30 FLOOR 10X13 TOOLS i c : i i— 12X13 Fip. 11— Principal Floor. A. Trap door and shoot for straw and chaff. G. Granary. V.V. Ventilators and hay shoots. S. Stairs to basement. . straw turns down and buttons up under the girth ; if desired, two more may be placed outside the ven- tilators. A smooth planed shoot below allows the straw to slide freely in the root and straw cellar below, and a cart of roots is dumped down this shoot. Roots will keep finely if a foot of straw is first thrown down, then several feet of roots, then a few additional feet of straw or chaff, to protect them from freez- ing. There are two ventilators at the side of the bay, through which hay is thrown down into the feeding passage below ; the mode of constructing these shafts is already described. A third is placed over the passage in the hor.se stable, for the purpose of ventilating only. They are made to unite at the ridge of the barn by extending them up next to the roof, as shown by a section in Fig. 12. This bay contains 960 square feet, and will hold about forty tons of hay, or two tons for every foot of rise, when the hay in well settled ; and if one of the ventilator shafts is marked in feet outside, the Fig. 12. owner may see at any time nearly how much he has on hand. A fixed ladder for ascending it may be pieced near A. The Horse Stable is 13 by 30 feet, and contains five single stalls, each four ^C^- -^=>g ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER and a half feet wide, and one double stall seven feet wide, for a team to feed when in harness, and readily accessible through the wide stable door. One or two small trap doors allow the attendant to cast the cleanings through to =j the manure shed below ; and a cast-iron drainage plate, slightly con- cave, set with holes, (Fig. 13,) allows all the liquid to fall on the manure heap, which, if necessary, should have an amount of absorb- ents, such as straw, sawdust, or coal ashes, sufficient to prevent This stable is well lighted with three small glass windows. l\ Fig. 13. waste. Next adjoining the stable is a room, 10 by 13, for holding all coarse tools or implements connected with the farm ; and next to this is a smaller room for the smaller tools, such as are represented in Fig. V, which need occupy but one side, while the other side may have a work bench and vice. The Granary is 12 by 13 feet, and contains five bins, which will hold over 600 bushels. The rear and larger bin may contain mixed grain for cattle and horse feed, and be discharged through a tube into a wagon below. The smaller ones may have the bottoms raised eight inches above the floor, with an opening and slide in front of each, and a recess beneath, so that a half bushel may be placed under the opening, and filled in a moment with little labor. The granary being on the corner of the barn, with the barn floor on one side and the tool room on another, is less liable to be entered by rats, than if surrounded by concealed passages. All the space over the granary, tool rooms, and horse stables, may be filled with unthrashed grain, besides the poles or platforms extending across the ends of the space over the floor. A slate and pencil should always hang in the granary, to keep reckonings, register orders, &c. The plan of the basement nearly explains itself. The mode of tilling the root room has been already described. There are a number of sliding board windows in the rear of the cow stalls, for throwing out manure, and over a part of them glass windows for admit- ting light. It will be observed how accessible the roots, straw A. A. A. A. Boxes or pens for calves and cows with calf, and hay are in front ; and that n J* bZ 1° feet ea,c\u u * > <■ the manure in the rear is easilv C. C. Cisterns under the wngon-way or abutments, from which water for cattle may be drawn through a drawn off by a cart, without cock- the necessity of resorting to the wheelbarrow, except it be in cleaning the cow and calf pens. The thrashing may be done in the most economical manner, according to the directions given in the description of the first design. Fig. 14— Basement. OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 135 There are over 3,000 square feet of surface on the roof, and about 2,000 barrels of water fall annually upon it, in the form of rain, affording five or six barrels daily for watering cattle, if watered by it all the year round. The cisterns should, therefore, hold not less than 500 barrels. (This size will not be needed, if there are other supplies of water — or if the herd is not large enough to consume so much.) If these are each twenty-five feet long and six feet wide, they will hold this amount. They should be well built, of masonry and water-lime, and arched over the top like a stone culvert, so that there will never be danger of the embankment falling in. A good well in the middle of the passage, with a pump, would obviate the necessity of these cisterns. The cost of this barn, built with rough boards, would be about $800 or $900; planed and painted, $1,100 to $1,200. ENLARGEMENT OF THIS PLAN. It will be observed that by increasing the length of this barn, accommo- dations may be procured for any additional amount of land. If more room for hay is desired, the bay or a part of it may extend down into the base- ment ; and it may be two feet wider. Or, two rows of cattle stalls may be placed so as to run across the basement, from the root cellar to the front. Or, by building it between two slight elevations of land at the ends, the basement may open on both sides. All the principal doors should be hung on rollers, and they will never cause annoyance by swinging about in the wind, and require no room for opening and shutting. STABLE DETAILS. Details for the construction of stalls are given in the Register for 1860, or in Rural Affairs, p. 285 of vol. 2. For those who do not desire their cat- tle to occupy stables all the time, and especially for such as have a well pro- tected shed, the following mode of constructing stalls, copied from the Coun- try Gentleman, may be valuable. "This plan consists of a series of open stalls, as they are called, constructed as shown in the engraving, in two rows, face to face — perhaps ten or twelve stalls, or even more, in each row — with a wide manger or feeding-way between, into which the fodder or meal, or whatever the cattle have, is admitted from above, the ends open by mova- ble boarding, so that it may be swept out if occasion requires. These stalls are too narrow for the animal to lie down in at all, and each goes out and in at pleasure. The floor slopes about two inches from the head backward, and in going out and in, the animal cleans out its own droppings, so that no labor is required in this respect. The triangular space through which they put their heads into the manger, is too small to admit of their getting their feet into it, while, by the projection of the side of the stall 15 or 16 inches into the manger, they are completely prevented from interfering with one another, as regards the head and horns. The cattle are never tied in the stall. 136 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER Fig. 15 — Stalls for Cows, or Steers of Medium Size. Dimensions.— Partitions between stalls— 3-inch scantling, boarded on each side— distance apart, 2 feet 10 inches from center to center. Length of stall, 5 ft. ti in. to the manger— side of stall projects into manger 1 ft. 4 in. Manger— 6 ft. 6 in. wide from center to center— 1 ft. 11 in. high on outside— 1 ft. 1 in. high on inside. Floor — 16 to 18 inches high from ground— with step— slopes about 2 inches backward from manger. In the engraving, the end is taken out of the manger to show the heads of the opposite stalls, and the first stall at the right hand is represented without siding— the triangular space through which the cattle insert their heads into the manger is 4K inches wide at the bottom, instead of coming quite to a point, as might be inferred from the cut. Dimensions of Similar Stalls for Calves.— Width of stalls, 2 feet, center to center- length. 4 feet 4 inches to manger — width of manger, 4 feet from side to side — height of man- ger outside, 20 inches ; inside. 12 inches— sides of stall project 11 inches into manger, to keep each animal's feed separate when so desired. An aperture in the Moor above corresponds in width with the manger, through which hay, &c, is put down for the use of the cattle. The first objection urged against this system before one sees its operation, is that the cattle in the stalls would be injured by others " hooking" them, and some have said that no printed description of the open stall would con- vince any man that such would not be the case. The truth is, however, that the elevation of the stall floor, 16 to 18 inches above the ground, a stick of timber or other step being provided, as shown in the above cut — prevents this hooking, because the animal outside, to get at the one inside, must put its fore feet upon the step, thus raising the head entirely out of the down- ward position in which it must always be put for " hooking" purposes. The advantages of the system, are the material saving of labor effected in feeding and cleaning out, as compared with other stalls ; and, as compared with feeding boxes, in the fact that each animal is protected in obtaining all it wants, and " underlings," instead of being forced to eat the scanty leav- ings of the stronger beasts, have an equal chance at the first and best. Indeed, when the cattle get to running around and annoying one another, the weaker will go into these stalls for protection at once. The system is thought more healthy also, because water troughs are kept close by the stalls, and the animals while at their food are seen to come out at intervals for a drink, and return to the manger; while it is noticed on the old plan of taking them out to water at night and morning, that after a night's abstinence and a dry feed with daylight, they will fill themselves so full of the almost freezing liquid as \L OF RURAL AFFAIRS. ¥ I to chill the whole system, and perhaps prevent their drinking much when again taken out at a later hour. They would then really have but one long drink during the twenty-four hours, and it is easy to see that this cannot be as natural or healthy as it is to leave them free to quench their thirst before it becomes immoderate, and as often as Nature may dictate. Salt is also kept within their reach, as well as water ; the floor is littered whenever necessary, perhaps twice a week ; the manure from the horses comes down into the same place, and not a drop or an atom of the whole is lost." A difference of opinion prevails among good farmers, as to the comparative advantages of stabling cattle and allowing them to run loose under a well pro- tected cover. There is but little utility in a shed, with the wind sweeping freely under the sill, or blowing into its open side from the opposite direction. On the other hand, the benefits of stabling are greatly diminished by foul air and want of general cleanliness. The advocates of sheds have probably derived their dislike to stables by seeing animals breathing fumes from unre- moved manure, or lying on wet and dirty straw. Those who prefer stables may not have given sufficient credit to a spacious, deep, perfectly sheltered shed. One of the best of these that we have seen, occupied the whole of the barn basement, opening from prevailing winds, and the yard in front was flanked by high fences. More room is thus required for a given number of cattle, and they probably consume rather more food, thus partially exposed, than if entirely shut in ; but they did not need the constant attention i-equired to keep stables in a condition of perfect cleanliness. The feeding stalls just described, would be a valuable appendage to such a shed, and by protecting the smaller animals, admit of a larger herd for the same space or accommo- dations. DESIGN III. A LARGE THREE-STORY BARN. A three-story barn can be erected only on a hill-side. The descent, how- ever, should be very moderate — not to exceed ten feet in forty or fifty. A steeper descent will make a slippery cattle-yard. The natural rise on the higher side of the barn should be about equal to the height of the basement on that side ; an embankment of eight or nine feet more, including abutment and bridge, will give easy access to the upper floor. Barns with three stories are the best for saving labor. The hay is mostly pitched downward. The straw, when thrashed, is thrown downwards through shoots, or down on the tops of stacks, out the back door. Grain from the fanning mill runs down through trap-doors into the granary bins ; or is drawn off through tubes, for feeding horses and cattle below. The barn here represented is 42 feet wide, and 104 feet long. It will hold j[ over 150 tons of hay, or a corresponding proportion of grain; stable eight /A horses, and nearly forty head of cattle. It will consequently furnish aecom- A 138 f ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER ^^-""ratww,'161" '* Fig. 16.— Large Three Story Barn. modations for a good farm of about 150 arable acres. Some poor and badly cultivated farms of twice this size would not fill it. c c III!' || HORSE 1 1 1 STAL .LS 1 1 M ii i i i i— i_i _ LJ .-- . L — i — - Fig. 17— Basement— First Plan. C. C. Calf pens. M. M. Manure heaps. S. S. Places where shoots from above discharge straw for litter. V. V. V. V. Places of ventilators above, through which hay is discharged for feeding. Two plans are furnished for the basement. The first, fig. 17, is mostly occupied with stalls ; eight of which, the driest and most remote from the damp walls, are for horses. To prevent all dampness, they should be well floored, well drained, properly littered, and perfectly ventilated. The rest are cattle stalls. If stanchions are employed to secure the cattle, the whole may be set free, and again fastened, by the single movement of a rod extend- in?; the whole length, and attached to each moveable bar. If the cattle O ~ 7 always find their feed on returning to the stalls, they will always readily take -=s^>( OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 139 their places in order, on admission to the stable. Hay from above is thrown down through the shafts V. V., and straw for litter through S. S. The cart-way extending through the middle, affords easy cleaning of the sta- bles ; and the manure thus collected, amounting to two large loads daily, may be drawn directly to the land, or to the compost heap ; or it may be deposited in large square heaps at M. M. This barn is supposed to be erected on a farm where roots are not raised ; but if room for them is needed, a root cellar may be made at M., reducing, if necessary, the length of the corres- ponding range of cow-stalls. I CISTERN CaRT WAY U w COVERED YARD :vi MANGER CART WAY Fig. 18— Basement— Second Plan. W. Water trough, fed by pump from well, cock from cistern under bank. V. V. V. V. from above. w. is the place for water trough if fed by stop- Places where hay and straw are thrown down The second plan of the basement is adapted to the kind of feeding stalls shown in fig. 15, on a former page, leaving a covered yard or space for loose cattle 40 feet square, and two passages wide enough for carting away daily the manure. If this plan is adopted, the places for discharging hay from above are changed to suit this plan, as will be soon explained. If a well is used for watering the cattle, the trough may be placed at AV. If a cistern, this may be built under the bank, outside the walls, and be made of stone and cement, of an oblong form, arched overhead, like a culvert, so as to be secure from ever breaking it, when trodden upon by horses above. Fig. 19 is a cross section of this cistern, showing the slope of its bottom, for completely drawing off all the water, through the stop-cock or faucet. Such a cistern, fifty feet long and six feet wide, will hold about five hundred barrels of water. To accommodate sheep, pens, like the calf pens C. C. in the first plan, may be added in the same range ; or the covered yard in the second plan may be partly devoted to this purpose. The floor or story next above the basement, fig. 20, may be about eight or nine feet high. The large carriage room will contain several vehicles, which :\ may be run around the central bay and passed easily out the other door. A Fig. 19. Suction of ClSTEKN. 140 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER w FLOOR & CARRIAGE ROOM i r 3 BAY 23X29 a X o < ® animals, when ground into meal or flour. It is not always mealy. In poppy seeds it is oily ; in the peony and barberry, it is fleshy ; in coffee, it is horny. But it always becomes softened when the seeds begin to grow. The quan- Fig. 7. Fig. 9. Fig. 11. Fig. 13. tity varies in different seeds. Fig. 7, for ex- ample, is the section of a seed of the peo- ny, filled with albu- men and with a very small embryo near one end — fig. 8 is the em- bryo, separate, and magnified. Fig. 9 is a section of a barber- ry seed, and fig. 10 Fig. 8. Fig. 10. Fig. 12. Fig. 14. the detached embryo. Figs. 11 and 12 show the seed and embryo of a potato seed; and figs. 13 and 14, of the four-o'clock. Fig. 15. Fig. 16. Fig. 17. Fig. 18. Fig. 19. Figs. 15, 16 and 17, are slightly magnified views of a cut grain of Indian corn, the first cut the longest way, showing the embryo, lying against the albumen, which constitutes most of the grain ; the next, cut across ; and the third, the embryo detached. There are many kinds of seed that have no separate deposites of albumen for nourishing the young germinating plant, but this nourishment is afforded by the thick seed-leaAres of the embryo itself, as in the maple, the apple, the bean, and pumpkin. Fig. 18 shows an apple seed cut through the middle lengthwise, showing the small embryo, with its larger seed leaves above. Fig. 19 shows the embryo and seed leaves taken out. In the peach, almond, chestnut, and horse-chestnut, these seed leaves are still larger and more fleshy and supply much food to the young plant. The word kernel is usually applied to the whole of the seed within the coats, whether it is all embryo, or a large part albumen. GERMINATION. The first movement of the seed towards forming a new plant is termed germination. After the plant is formed, and its growth is carried on through Sc^= OF RURAL AFFAIRS. the agency of its leaves, the process is termed vegetation ; the latter imme- diately following the former. To produce germination, seeds require heat, moisture and air, but not light. It will be observed that these three requisites are present when seeds are slightly buried in moist, warm, mellow earth. Heat, although essential to all seeds, varies in the required degree, with different species. The duckweed, for instance, will vegetate nearly down to the freezing point ; while tropical or hot-house plants often need a blood heat. Nearly every person has seen fre- quent proofs of the necessity of moisture to cause seeds to germinate — indi- cated by the practice of watering newly sown beds. The farmer knows that wheat sown in a very dry soil may not come up. The florist is aware that minute seed, which cannot be planted deep, as the portulacca, must be kept moist by a thin covering or shading. It is often requisite to bury seeds to a considerable depth, in order to secure a proper degree of moisture to start them. It is not unusual to see uncovered grains of wheat or corn sprouting and growing in long continued rains, which also sometimes ruin crops of wheat left exposed in the sheaf, or even in the field uncut. The third requisite, aii\ is an important one. Seeds may be kept dormant a long time by deep burying. Nurserymen have often retained the vitality of peach stones for a year or two, by burying them a foot or more in com- pact earth. Other seed might doubtless be kept for a time in the same way. Planting too deep is often fatal to the success of a crop. The seeds of noxious weeds remain many years buried beneath the soil, until cultivation bring3 them up, mixes them with the soft mellow surface, accessible to air, when they spring up in profusion over the ground. Many of the seed are quite minute, and not occupying a ten-thousandth part of the soil in which they lie, their presence cannot be detected. Hence some persons, ignorant of the laws of vegetable growth, erroneously suppose that weeds spring up spontaneously, or without seed, a thing which has probably not occurred since the creation of vegetable growth. For example, of the seed of the chess plant, about two million are required for half a cubic foot ; yet a single grain to each square foot of soil would produce a heavy crop, if all the wheat with which it is sown were killed, so as to give room for it to grow. Hence, only a two-millionth part of the bulk of the soil in chess seed, may produce a crop. Other seed are much smaller, and the disparity more striking. In order to produce germination, moisture must find ready access to the the interior of the seed. It is often excluded with some seeds, if the coats have been allowed to become too dry. The thick coverings of the chestnut, horse-chestnut, and many seeds of similar character, if left a few days exposed to the air, become so hard as to prevent it. To secure success, they must be kept moist by imbedding them in moist sand, leaf mold, or moss, from the moment they separate from the tree, until planted in the earth. Apple and some other seeds, which have been allowed to become too dry, may frequently h be started by scalding and then exposing to the action of the frost, and by 148 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER ^=j?3^, repeating the process several times, there is •^greater certainty of germinating. Ao tVio As the scalding and cooling must be quickly done, portions not larger than two or three pounds should be taken at a time. The object in cracking peach and plum stones before planting, is to admit air and moisture — a process which is also hastened by subjecting to freezing and thawing. Process of Germinating. Moisture and heat produce chemical changes in the fleshy part of the seed. The embryo immediately begins to expand. The result may be seen in various examples, one of which is repre- sented in the annexed figure, (fig. 20), which represents the embryo of the pumpkin, taken from the seed, by simply removing the coats. The little projection at the lower end is the part that afterwards becomes the stem, and is commonly called the radicle, because it was formerly supposed to be the little root. It would be more correct to call it the stem- let, because the new roots shoot out from its lower end, and the seed-leaves or cotyledons expand with green leaves above, as soon as the stemlet has become long enough to thrust the seed-leaves out of the ground, as is shown in fig. 21, which is the young pumpkin plant as soon as it has come up. It will be seen that the stemlet of the seed has here become more than twenty times its original length ; and if the seed are planted very deep it will stretch itself up much longer, in its effort to thrust the cotyledons up to the light. The young seed-leaves furnish nourishment to the new plant, until perfect leaves are formed from the bud between. The bean is more fleshy than the pumpkin, and its cotyledons do not become leaves, but only supply nourishment until leaves are formed. It will be now seen why destroying the cotyledons before new leaves are formed, (as by insects,) destroys the plant itself, by cutting off its supply of nourish- ment. Fig. 22 is the embryo of the bean ; fig. 23 is the young plant as soon as up; and fig. 24 the same more advanced. The apple, pear, cherry, and many other trees, push their seed leaves to the surface of the ground ; but in the pea, the oak, the peach, and others, they remain beneath the soil, and simply supply nourishment to the young plant, without performing at all the office of leaves, as is done in the pumpkin, maple, &e. Figs. 25 and 26, show the germination of the pea ; figs. 27 and 28, that of the oak. In these Fig. 21. OF RURAL AFFAIRS. instances, the cotyledons are so fleshy as to afford all the needed food for growth, without assuming the office which leaves usually perform. One-Cotyledoned Plants. In the cases already given, the seed have two cotyledons or seed-leaves. By far the larger portion of all plants, and all trees with scarcely an exception, growing in the Northern States, are two-cotyledon- ed. There are, however, many herbaceous plants, and among them wheat, corn, oats, Fig. 24. Fig. 23. Fig. 26. barley, broom-corn, and all the grasses, which are one-cotyledoncd. These two great divisions are readily distinguished from each other by a single glance at the leaves. If the veins of the leaves ramify or branch into many smaller veins, like net-work, as shown in the annexed representation of a quince leaf, (fig. 29,) they nearly always belong to the two-cotyledoned class of plants. If, on the other hand, these do not branch, but are parallel- veined, or nerved, as in the lily, (fig. 30,) they commonly belong to the one- cotyledoned class. Every observing person has seen that the leaves of the ®c^~- -^p® 150 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER Fig. 28. Fig. 30. Fig. 31. Indian corn, flag, grass, lily, &c, have only parallel veins or nerves; while those of the maple, beach, cherry, melon, buckwheat, pig-weed, thistle, and many others, have finely branching veins. There is another striking distinction between these two classes of plants. OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 151 Two-cotylcdoned trees grow by successive annual layers formed on the out- side, which are the successive rings or circles by which the age of the tree is known when cut across. But one-cotyledoned trees grow from the inside and expand outwards, as in the palm and cocoa-nut tree. In the latter there is no distinct and separate bark ; in the former the bark is distinct, and gen- erally separates easily. In the corn-stalk, for example, no bark is found ; in the hemp, flax, &c, it is easily removed, and becomes an important sub- stance. The first are called endogenous, or inside growers; and the latter exogenous or outside growers. Figs. 16, IV and 18, on page 146, in this article, show the single cotyledon of the grain of corn, containing inside the bud of a new leaf. Fig. 31 shows the grain of corn after germination has commenced, and fig. 32 exhi- bits the same more advanced. As soon as the growth of the seed com- mences, the stem tends to push upwards to the light, and the root thrusts itself downwards into the darker parts of the earth ; they im- mediately extend away from each other in opposite directions. If the seed at this time be turned over, so as to reverse their position, they will immediately bend, and each assume its proper direction, no matter how many times this adverse process or turning is repeated. The stem, growing upward, sends out nume- rous branches from its buds. The root, run- ning downwards, branches more irregularly below, and without any buds. The growth of the plant or tree having now fairly com- menced, it may be well to describe briefly how the process is carried on, before pointing out minutely the structure of each organ or part. Mode of Growth. The sap enters the plant by the small thread-like fibres of the roots, and passes from these into the larger roots, and into the stem. From the stem it is sent into all the branches, and to the extremities of the smallest shoots. Pass- ing through the leaf-stalks, it is spread out by minute veins all over the leaves, wh.-re it is exposed to light and air. Much of the water of the sap is here evaporated, at the same time that it receives carbonic acid from the air, and a new and thickened substance is formed, which now gradually descends, not through the sap wood by which it came up, but through the inner bark ; and as it descends it deposites a coating of the new soft wood on the outside of Fig. 32. &C^~ «=^=>^ 152 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER — Y last yeai'S1 wood, thus forming a new growth. This is the ordinary mode in which all exogenous or two-cotyledoned plants grow and increase in size. With this brief explanation, it may now be proper to describe more minutely, The Structure of the Plant or Tree. All plants, in the first place, are manufactured or built up of innumerable little cells, sacs, or cavities. These are usually not over a five-hundredth part of an inch in diameter, and in many plants thejr are still smaller. The original ovule is a single cell ; when im- pregnated by the pollen, it immediately begins to increase by the addition of new cells, which it appears to have the power to form ; and thus by successive additions, like the building of a house of bricks, i* becomes a large growing plant or tree. Fig. 33 represents a greatly magnified single cell ; fig. 34, a large number together, as they usually exist in the plant. In the woody part of a tree, these cells become thickened and hard- ened, and drawn out as seen in fig. 35, which shows the magnified wood of the buttonwood. They are often irregu- larly placed together, and small ducts or air tubes are inter- posed between them. Fig. 36 exhibits a small part of the young shoot of the peach, cut across — the whole shoot pre- ^ '~\ i k) i a Fig. 34. ^t£ OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 153 plant of these cells has been compared to the erection of a house by the suc- cessive addition of bricks ; but if as many bricks were daily added to a struc- ture, they would be enough to make a building daily larger than the great pyramid of Egypt, or the Colliseum at Rome. Yet every one of these cells is as perfect and finished as the finest work of art. THE ROOT. The root consists of several parts. The main root, also called the tap root, is the large central portion, extending directly downwards ; the lateral roots are subdivisions or branches of the main root ; the fbres are the small thread-like roots proceeding from the laterals; and the spongioles or spongelets, are the porous and spongy extre- mities of the fibres, when they are extending in length, and through which they receive much of the sap from the soil. Fig. 37 is a greatly magnified section of a spongelet. The collar is the point of union between the root and the stem, but its place may be easily changed in many young plants by banking up the stem, which will emit new roots above. Or, a branch may be buried, as in the formation of a new plant by layering, as in the case of grapevines, honey- suckles, gooseberries, and many other woody plants. Small portions of roots attached to a graft will often produce a new plant ; this is especially the case with the grape and rose, which are now extensively propagated in this way ; and also in some degree with the apple, which, however, when thus root- Fig. 37. Fig. 38. Fig. 39. grafted, larger portions should be employed of the roots of one-year, or at most two-year seedlings. Nearly all trees and shrubs will produce new plants I by layers, if young shoots are selected that have soft green bark, through 'A which the new roots are easily omitted, fig. 38. "When the roots do not readily fj strike through the bark, the process may be hastened by splitting, as in fig. 39. 7\ £C^ 3 Fig. 40. ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER Some plants strike roots readily in open air from cuttings, partly buried in soil. This is especially the ease with the grape, currant, gooseberry, quince, and running roses, fig. 40. They are usually taken from the parent plant after it lias ceased growing, and they should be compactly imbedded in the soil with a small portion of the upper extremity uncover- ed. When long, like the grape, they should be placed slop- ing, so as not to be buried too deep or beyond the influence of the sun's warmth; at the same time the moisture of the soil is often beneficially preserved by a thin surface coating of fine manure. There are many other plants easily propa- gated by cuttings, if the two great requisites of vegetation, namely, moisture and warmth, are increased by artificial means, as in a hot-bed under glass; or in a propagating- house, under sash, or bell glasses, with fire heat gently applied beneath. Roots which throw up suckers readily, may be rapidly increased by planting small cuttings or pieces of the roots, in a warm, moist soil, especially if artificial heat and covering be given. Nurserymen have increased raspberries and black- berries in this way in great numbers. Transplanting. Yery few fruit or ornamental trees ever remain where they first came up from seed, but nearly all are removed one or more times, to the spot where they are finally to remain. For this reason, transplanting becomes a most important operation. If a tree could be removed with all its roots, including the numerous thread-like radicles, and all the spongelets, and placed compactly in the soil, precisely as it stood before, it would suifer no check in growth. The nearer we can approach this condition, therefore, the greater will be our success. As a general rule, roots extend as far on each side of the tree as the height of the tree itself, or nearly so. If, for instance, a tree be five feet high, the roots will be found to extend five feet on each side, or to form a circle ten feet in diameter. Great care would be required, however, to detect the mi- nute fibres so far. This rule will not apply to slender trees, which have become tall by close planting, but to those that are healthy and well-devel- oped. The great length of the roots is often shown by trees which send up many suckers, as the silver poplar and locust, which may be seen to extend over a circle much greater than the height of the tree. Many persons "wonder" why trees are so much checked in growth by transplanting, or why they so often die from the operation. They would not be surprised, if they saw all the usual destruction of roots in taking them up. Fig. 41 represents a nursery tree with its roots entire; the dotted lines show where the spade is commonly set for the purpose of lifting; fig. 42 is the tree after taken up, when more than nine-tenths of the roots are cut off — OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 155 ^r. Fig. 42. Fig. 43. Fig. 41. Fig. 44. sometimes it is as badly mutilated as in fig. 43. Fig. 44 ex- hibits the same as removed by careful nurserymen. As it is impossible, in or- dinary practice, to secure all the roots, there must be a cor- responding shorten- ing back of the shoots at the top, when the tree is set out, in or- der that the reduced quantity of roots may have no more buds and branches to sup- ply with sap than they can sustain. On page 180 of the 2d volume of "Ru- ral Affairs," the necessity of cultivating the whole surface of orchards and fruit gardens is distinctly shown — the roots rapidly extending through the soil and meeting, so that in a few years a young and well cultivated orchard will cover all the ground beneath the surface with one continued network of roots and fibres. The fallacy of the practice of spading small circles around trees is obvious, as the great mass of the roots extend far beyond. Manur- ing the foot of the stem only, which is often done, is equally useless. Practice has fully proved the importance of keeping the whole surface of the ground clean and mellow, where young orchards or plantations of trees are set out. A mere surface covering of thin grass has been found to retard and almost wholly prevent growth. A young peach tree, growing in grass, will not make a shoot more than three or four inches long. Well cultivated, it will grow three or four feet. THE STEM AND BRANCHES. As roots are annual, biennial, or perennial, as they continue living one, two, or more seasons ; so the stem is herbaceous or wood;/, as it grows only one year or more — in the latter instance hardening into wood. A perennial root may have an annual or herbaceous stem, as the peony and lily. Woody A plants, when small, are called shrubs, as the rose, honeysuckle, and lilac, or the gooseberry and currant. When large, they are trees, as the apple, the M \ pine, and the oak. A dwarf apple, made small by budding any common A ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER variety on the small Paradise stock, becomes a shrub. Stems are twining, as in the morning glory or bean ; and each twining species always turn3 to the right, or to the left, and never changes, and nothing can make them twine in a different direction from their natural course. They are climbing, as in the grape vine and pea ; creeping, as in the white clover. What are termed Fig. 45. creeping roots, as in the Scotch rose, the couch grass, or peppermint, (fig. 45,) are only creeping stems beneath the surface. Sometimes such stems become enlarged at the growing ends, and produce tubers, as in the potato, which is nothing but a thickened subterranean stem, the eyes being the buds. Suckers are branches springing up from underground stems ; sometimes they come from mutilated roots. Runners are creeping stems, which strike roots at the tips and form leaves there, as in the strawberry. A single straw- berry plant will in this way produce a hundred new ones or more in a single summer, and by care ten thousand by the end of the second year, a million the third, and so on. A btdb is a very short subterranean stem, with roots beneath, and throwing out leaves above, as the onion, tulip, and lily. Or, it may be regarded as a bud only, with roots and a. thick fleshy covering. Outside-growing woody stems, (or those which are two-cotyledoned,) are made up of the bark, wood, and pith. The liber, or inner bark, lies next the wood ; and the rind or outer bark, on some trees, forms gradually into a thick, hard, corky substance, termed cortical layers. When young it is the green bark, and performs the same office in the growing plant as the leaves. The sap descends from the leaves through the inner bark, and deposites new layers of both wood and bark yearly. Thus the newest bark is inside, and the newest wood outside. The liber forms the bast or bass matting, obtained from basswood by soaking in water ; and in flax and hemp, herba- ceous plants, it constitutes the material made into cordage. Wood. The outer wood, which is the youngest and freshest, is called the alburnum or sap wood — through this, the sap ascends into the leaves. The heart wood is the older, harder, and usually more dried portion ; and it bears the same relation to the sap wood, as the cortical layers do to the liber. The pith, in young plants, holds a useful place for retaining moisture ; but in old trees it becomes dry, shriveled, and useless, and trees grow as well where it has been cut out. Branches. These consist of main branches or limbs; secondary or ©c^- f OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 157 Q, Y smaller branches ; and shoots, or the extremities, being one year's growth. Thorns are a modification of branches, and are sometimes simple, as in the common thorn ; or branched, as in the honey locust. Ungrafted pear trees often present all the intermediate forms between perfect branches and per- fect thorns. Prickles grow only from the bark, and when the bark is strip- ped off they are all taken off with it, but thorns remain attached to the wood. Buds are of two kinds, leaf and flower. The former grow into branches, the latter produce fruit. To distinguish these buds is of great importance to the cultivator of fruit trees. In fig. 46, A. re- presents a portion of the branch of a pear tree, and b. b. b. are flower or fruit buds on the extre- mities of short spurs termed fruit spurs; and c. is a leaf bud on a one-year shoot. B. exhibits these two kinds of buds as seen on the cherry, b. b. being the rounded fruit buds, and c. c. the sharper leaf buds. Causes of this difference. — When young trees grow rapidly, all their buds are leaf buds ; when they become older and grow more feebly, many of them become flower or fruit buds. One is the result of rapid, and the other of slow growth. Check the growth of a young tree by transplanting it, or by root-pruning, or by neglect- ing cultivation, or allowing it to grow with grass, and many fruit buds will be found upon it, and it will bear early. But as the growth is unnaturally enfee- bled, the fruit is not always of the best quality. The natural diminution of vigor from increased age furnishes better fruit. Fruit buds are likewise pro- duced by checking the free flow of the sap in grafting on dissimilar stocks, as for example the pear on the quince, producing dwarf pear trees. The fruit spurs shown by A., fig. 46, are nothing more than stunted shoots, origi- nally produced from leaf buds, but which, making little growth, have become fruit bearers. The vigorous one-year shoot of the cherry, B., is mostly sup- plied with leaf buds, but the short spurs on the second year's wood, which are but dwarfed branches, are covered with fruit buds, with only a leaf bud in the centre. It is not, however, always the slowest growing kinds of fruit trees that bear soonest. There appears to be a constitutional peculiarity, with different sorts, that controls the time of beginning to bear. The Bartlett, Julienne, and Howell pears, vigorous growers, bear much sooner than the Dix and Tyson, which are less vigorous. Fig. 46. 158 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER By pruning away a part of the leaf buds, the fruitfulness of a tree may be increased ; and by pruning away the fruit spurs, bearing may be prevented, and more vigor thrown into the shoots. Buds are lateral, when on the side of a shoot ; and terminal, when on the end. Terminal buds are nearly always leaf buds, and usually being larger and stronger than others, make stronger shoots. All buds are originally formed as leaf buds, but the more feeble are generally changed to fruit f~\ buds. Now, it happens that on many kinds of trees, the feebler buds are on the lower parts of shoots, (by lower is meant fur- thest from the tip,) and these consequent- ly often change to fruit buds. This change in some kinds of trees, as cherry 7 /f and plum, takes place II the year after they (] are formed ; and in others the same year, as for instance in the Fig. 47. peach and apricot. — This transformation is a very curious process, and is effected by the em- bryo leaves changing to the organs of the flowers. A contrary change of stamens to flower leaves produces double flowers. Fig. 50 represents all the different gradations of such a change, from perfect stamens to perfect petals, as occurring in the Nymphsea or Pond lily. Latent Buds. Only a small proportion of all the buds formed, grow the second year ; the rest remain dormant or latent for years, and are made to grow and produce shoots only when the others are destroyed. Adventitious Buds are produced by some trees irregularly any where on the surface of the wood, especially where it has been mutilated or injured ; and they form on the roots of some trees which are cut or wounded. In these cases such trees may be usually propagated by cuttings of the roots. Leaves. These are usually made up of two principal parts, viz : the frame- work, consisting of the leaf-stalk, ribs, and veins, for strengthening the leaf, and supplying it with sap; and the green pulp, which fills these meshes or interstices. The whole is covered by a thin skin or epidermis. The green pulp consists of cells of various forms, with many air-spaces between. The , cells are commonly placed very compactly together on the upper side of the /f leaf, and more loosely, or with air-spaces, on the lower side — hence the reason OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 159 ziDnncDGc that leaves are usually lighter colored below. Fig. 48 is a highly magnified section of a leaf, showing the green cells, air spaces, and epidermis above and below. Leaves have also breathing pores, through which moisture and air are absorbed, and vapor given off. They are so small as to require good mi- croscopes to discover them; and they vary in different plants from 1,000 to 1 70, 000 on a square inch of surface. The apple and pear have about 25,000 or 30,000, and the white lily about 60,000 to the square inch. They are mostly on the lower side of the leaf. Fig. 49 represents the pores on an ap- ple leaf. Leaves are a contrivance ^ for increasing the surface exposed to the air and sun. Prof. Gray says the Washington elm at Cambridge was estimated to bear " seven million leaves, exposing a surface of 200,000 ■*' (%\f\ square feet, or about five acres of Fis. 49. foliage." A common fully grown apple tree has from three to five hundred thousand leaves, and the breathing pores they all contain must be more than a thousand million. THE PROCESS OF GROWING. Water is absorbed by the roots, and undergoes a very slight change ; mat- ter from the cells of the root is added, (as sugar, in the maple,) and it is then denominated sap. It passes from cell to cell upward, through the sap-wood, until it reaches the leaves. The cells being separate, and not continuous tubes, it is conveyed from one to another through a great number of parti- tions; in the basswood, for example, which has very long cells, it passes about 2,000 partitions in rising a foot. When the sap enters the leaf, it emerges from the dark cells through which it has been passing, and is spread out to the light of the sun. A large portion is evaporated through the breathing pores, and it becomes thickened. The carbonic acid of the air, and the small portion of the same acid which the sap contained before it entered the roots, now forms a combination with the oxygen and hydrogen of the sap, and produces the triple compound of oxy- gen, hydrogen, and carbon, which constitutes woody fibre — the oxygen of the carbonic acid escaping. This escape of oxygen may be seen by placing leaves under water in the sunshine. Innumerable little bubbles of oxygen form on the surface of the leaves, and give them a silvery appearance. If continued, air-bubbles rise in the water, and if a glass tumbler full of water is inverted over them, pure oxygen in small quantities may be procured. A plant growing in carbonic acid gas, takes the carbon, and leaves the oxygen; in this way changing the acid to oxygen. Growing plants thus perform a most important office by purifying the atmosphere. Fires in burning, and animals ®c^= ■ A 160 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER in breathing, consume carbon, combine it with oxygen, and then throw off the carbonic acid thus formed. This acid, being poisonous, would after a while become so abundant as to prove injurious to animal life, were it not for the wise provision by which plants consume it and restore the oxygen. Con- nected with this, there is another interesting proof of creative design. If there were no carbonic acid in the air, plants could not grow ; but one twenty- five hundredth part, as now exists, supplies food for vegetation, and does not affect the health of animals and man. Leaves require sunlight to enable them thus to decompose carbonic acid. It does not go on in a dark room, or in the night. An excess of oxygen in a plant makes it pale in color, and either sour or insipid in taste ; an excess of carbon makes it dark green, and bitter. Hence, a potato, growing in a dark cellar is pale or white ; hence the process of blanching celery and sea-kale to remove the bitter taste. Hence also the reason that a potato, too much exposed to the sun, imbibes too much carbon, and becomes bitter. Hence too, why strawberries and other fruits are more acid when hid by leaves or in cloudy weather ; and why apples on the thickly shaded part of an unpruned tree are more sour and imperfect, than where, by good pruning, the leaves which feed them are fully exposed to the light, and receive a proper share of carbon. Sap, on entering the roots, always contains some mineral substances in solution, as potash, lime, silex, &c, which is carried up into the leaves; and when a part of the moisture is evaporated, a large portion of the mineral sub- stances is left there. This is the reason that leaves contain more than the other parts ; in most of our forest trees, for instance, the leaves contain about ten times as much mineral substances as the wood. When vegetable sub- stances are burned, these mineral parts remain behind and form ashes. It will be seen from what has just been said, that ashes from leaves, or leaves without burning, afford the most ashes or mineral ingredients, and thus trees return, by the annual fall of the leaf, much of these substances which have been taken from the soil. The sap, thickened and prepared in the leaves, then descends through the inner bark, forming a layer of fresh, half liquid substance, between bark and wood, called the cambium — most of which, by hardening, constitutes a new layer of wood — a small part making a new layer of bark. The annual depo- sites of new wood, form distinct concentric rings, by which the age of the tree may be counted when the trunk is cut through. That this is the mode by which wood in exogenous trees is deposited, may be proved by an inte- resting experiment, performed by slitting the bark of a young tree, lifting it up carefully, and then slipping in between wood and bark a sheet of tin foil, and binding the bark on again. The bark will deposite layers of wood out- side the tin foil, and none inside ; and after a lapse of years the concentric rings will be found to correspond exactly with the time since the operation was performed. OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 161 The descent of the forming wood in the inner bark maybe shown by tying a ligature around a growing branch, or by removing a ring of bark. The downward currents are obstructed, like that of a stream by a dam, and the new wood accumulates above the obstruction and not below, as shown in fig. 50. In Grafting, it is essential that some portions of the cut surfaces uniting the stock and shoot, should be placed so accurately together that the sap may flow up through the alburnum or sap wood from the stock to the shoot, and back 1 again through the inner bark of the shoot to that of the $\ ,1 ll: Fig. 50. stock. When this union takes place, the rest of the cut faces, even if some distance apart, are soon cemented by the newly forming wood, which fills all the vacant space. In Budding, the newly set bud is cemented to the wood of the stock by the cambium, which hardens and fastens it only. The next spring the bud grows, forms a shoot, and the two portions become securely united by the new wood. Unless there is enough of the cambium to cement the wood to the stock, the operation cannot succeed ; and this is the reason why, with vigorously grow- ing stocks, which are depositing much, budding succeeds much better than with feeble growers, where but little of this cement exists. The rapidity with which leaves exhale moisture, is shown by severing them from the stem in dry weather. They soon wither and become dry. Cut a shoot from a tree, and throw it down in the sun's rays, and it will soon shrivel, in consequence of the rapid escape of its moisture through the leaves. But first cut off all the leaves, and the shoot will remain plump a long time. This is the reason that it becomes necessary to remove the leaves at once from scions cut for budding. Hence also the reason that plants and trees are so liable to die, if trans- planted with the leaves on ; a disaster which may be partially prevented in trees by removing the leaves ; and in plants or cuttings with leaves on, by covering them immediately with a bell-glass, which by holding the watery vapor, keeps a humid atmosphere about them. It is for this reason, also, that when young trees lose a large portion of their roots, a part of the top must be cut off, to prevent the heavy evaporation which all the leaves would occasion. A sunflower plant, about three feet high, was found to exhale from its leaves in very dry weather between one and two pints of water in a day. A bunch of growing grass, placed beneath a cool inverted glass, soon covered the sides of the glass with condensed drops from the vapor, and in a few minutes the water ran down the sides. These experiments show the great amount of water needed by growing plants ; and also prove the great mistake which some persons commit, by leaving weeds to grow to shade the ground A IL and keep it moist, while these weeds are actually pumping the water rapidly JA A up from the soil, and dissipating it through their leaves. A ® =*^=>® ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER £ In the spring, before the leaves expand, but little evaporation takes place from the bark, which is the reason that newly transplanted trees are water- soaked and injured at the roots, by watering them faster than they can carry off the moisture. Washing the stems should be the only watering at this period. But when the leaves are expanded, a more copious application becomes useful ; but it should never be performed, as so frequently done, by flooding the tree at one time and allowing it to dry at another; or by pour- ing the water on the surface, which it hardens, and never reaches the roots. Keeping the soil finely pulverized, and if necessary, with an additional shad- ing of hay or straw thickly spread over the surface, will preserve a sufficient and uniform degree of moisture ; or if watering is given, the earth should be first removed from the roots, the water poured on, the earth replaced, and a mulching applied. The absolute necessity of leaves to the growth of the tree, is shown by the fact that when leaves are stripped off by caterpillars, the tree ceases to grow till new ones expand ; and if often repeated the tree perishes. Canada this- tles and other noxious weeds are easily destroyed by keeping the leaves buried for one season by frequent plowings, or destroyed by constantly cutting off at the surface on their appearance. When the leaves of young pear stocks cease to act, in consequence of leaf blight, the tree no longer grows ; cam- bium ceases to form, and they cannot be budded. An interesting illustra- tion of the office of leaves occurred to the writer a few years since: — A yellow gage plum tree set a heavy crop ; but when the fruit was nearly grown, all the leaves dropped. The fruit remained green, flavorless, and stationary, until a new crop of leaves came out. It then finished growing, acquired a golden color, and a rich and excellent flavor. Perfect fruit requires perfect leaves ; and thick, crowded, half grown leaves, give small fruit with poor flavor. The great object of pruning, and of summer pruning especially, is to give plenty of good, healthy, and not crowded foliage, and the crop will also be good. The green bark of trees and plants performs the same office as leaves ; and in connection with the cells adjoining, appear to fulfill sometimes an office which the leaves fail to accomplish. This is, preserving the identity of the species or variety. For example, bud a pear tree on a quince. All the wood above the place of union will be pear wood ; all below will be quince. All the supplies which come from the pear leaves, change to quince wood the moment they pass this point ; and if the budding is performed when the quince stock is smaller than a quill, yet all the wood below, when it becomes a large tree, will still be perfect quince wood, as is shown when any chance shoots or suckers spring up from below. Or, bud for example the Northern Spy, which has dark bark, with the Bellflower, which has yellow ; and again, bud the Snow apple, which has dark colored bark, on the Bellflower, and the light colored Sweet Bough on this — each being an inch above the last bud- Jj ding. Successive dark and light bark, the peculiarity of each variety, will OF RURAL AFFAIRS. remain as long as the tree grows ; showing conclusively that the bark per- forms the finishing process in the manufacture of the new wood. FLOWERS. The object of the flower is the production of seed, and through them the reproduction of new plants. The protecting organs of each are, the calyx, / outside, which is usually, not al- 1^\ y ways, green; and the corolla, or flower leaves, of various colors, which are next within the calyx. These two are sometimes called the -floral envelopes ; the essen- tial parts of the flowers are the stamens and pistils. Fig. 51 re- presents an enlarged flower of the cherry, cut through the middle, Fig. 51. showing the small calyx, the large corolla, the many stamens, and the single pistil. Fig. 52 is a magnified flower of the purslane, showing several pistils. The head of the stamen, (6, fig. 53,) is called the anther. It contains a powder called pollen, which it discharges by bursting open, the pollen being the fertilizing matter, essential to the pro- duction and growth of the new seed. The threadlike stalk of the stamen (a.) id., a I Fig. 52. Fig. 53. is called the filament. The pistil (fig. 54) consists of the stigma, c, at the top; the style, b, its support; and the ovary, a, or future seed-vessel. The ovules, d, are the rudimentary seed. The pollen of the stamens falls on the stigma, and the ovules are fertilized or impregnated, and become seeds. Sometimes the stamens and pistils ai-e in different flowers, on different parts of the plant. A familiar instance occurs in Indian corn, the "silk" being the pistils, and unless these are impregnated by the pollen of the anthers at the top, no grains of corn will be produced. Sometimes the staminate and pistillate flowers are not only separate, but are on distinct plants, as the Buckthorn, Buffalo berry, and Hemp. The 164 ~^=>© ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER pistillate flowers are said to be fertile, and the staminate sterile, and both must be planted near each other in order to obtain fruit or seed. Sometimes the stamens, when not absent, are so defective, that they can- not fertilize the pistils, or but imperfectly. This is the case with what are termed pistillate strawberries, such, for example, as Hovey's Seedling and Burr's New Pine. In order to produce good crops, some other variety that has per- fect flowers or perfectly developed stamens, as the Scarlet, or Wilson, must be planted near, from which the wind may waft or the bees carry the pollen to the imperfect flow- Fig. 56. ers pjg 55 represents the flower of a staminate strawberry, or one where stamens as well as pistils are perfect; fig. 56 is a pistillate flower, the stamens being small, and containing but little pollen in the anthers. Fig. 57 is an enlarged view of the former, a being the Fig. 57. Fig. 58. stamens, and b the pistils. Fig. 58 is a flower of Hovey's Seedling, showing at a the dwarfed and useless stamens. Sometimes very favorable circum- stances will enable these dwarfs to afford a portion of pollen, and some ber- ries will be produced, even if they are remote from other fertilizing varie- ties. Raising new varieties of fruit by crossing, is accomplished by fertilizing the pistils of one sort by the pollen from another. It was originally performed by cutting out the anthers of flowers with scissors, to prevent the influence of these stamens, and then bringing the pollen of the other sort, and apply- Fig. 59 is a pear flower, as usually seen ; a, the pis- tils, and b, the stamens ; and fig. 60 is the same with the stamens dipt out. This being a very tedious process, is now discarded, and the two sorts are planted close <%> ing it artificially. Fig. 59. Fig. 60. together, so that the branches shall intermingle, and produce cross-fertiliza- tion without any further labor. It was in this way that Dr. Kirtland produced the seed of all his new and excellent varieties of the cherry. ^ -*%=% OF RURAL AFFAIRS. Some plants, as the squash, become cross-fertilized so easily, by the pre- sence of bees, which carry pollen from one flower to another, that caution is required, and remote planting of the different sorts, to prevent those varieties from mixing which it is desirable to keep separate and distinct. SPECIES AND VARIETIES. Plants and animals, of one species, are supposed never to produce a pro- geny of a different, no matter how many successive generations may inter- vene. For example, a wolf never brings forth dogs, a cow never produces sheep, and never has, 50 far as we know, since the creation. Each produces "after its kind." These are therefore distinct species. But of some there are many breeds ; of sheep, for example, there are the Merino, the Cotswold, the Southdowns, &c, which are varieties of the same species, the changes being gradually and slowly produced by successive generations. So also there are many varieties of dogs and of cattle. In the same way the seed of a pear never produces an apple, these being distinct species, but it produces many different sorts of pears, which are only varieties. So the apple produces innumerable varieties, but it can never yield a pear, a quince, or a peach. Sometimes, when varieties have remained a long time distinct, without much variation by successive planting, they are termed races. For instance, the White flint, Mediterranean, and other varie- ties of icheat, and the King Philip, Dutton, Gourd seed, and other sorts of corn, may be mentioned. The races of men are analogous, "all nations hav- ing been created from one blood."* A knowledge of the distinction between species and varieties, now so well pointed out by botanists, would prevent many of the errors which some have adopted, that plants of one species would change to another, as for instance, a useful crop to a weed with which it is liable to be much infested, and the seeds of which are easily scattered in various ways. Some erroneously sup- pose that wheat changes to chess, and others believe that barley changes to oats, and rye to darnel, although these are all quite distinct species. This knowledge of the character of species, and their affinities, would fre- quently prevent the blunders which grafters make, in trying to make the peach grow on the willow or butternut ; or the rose on the sumach. Bud- ding and grafting succeed best when performed on plants of the same species, as apples on apples, peaches on peaches, and pears on pears. But sometimes the operation succeeds with different species of the same genus, as the pear on the apple, and the cultivated cherry will grow well on some wild spe- cies. Some varieties of the pear grow well on the large sorts of the quince. De Candole succeeded, in rare instances, in making the Bigno- nia grow on the Catalpa, the Olive on the Ash, and the Lilac on the Philly- *Some persons have formerly endeavored to show that the human race might have had more than one origin ; hut of late years the proofs that it sprung from one source have accu- mulated to such an extent and magnitude as to be no longer denied by persons well informed on the subject. ad , HJk ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER rea, plants of different genera but of the same natural order, but they soon died. As a general rule, it may be said that different species work imper- fectly, and often fail to adhere at all ; that different genera, of the same natu- ral order, in rare instances, may be grafted or budded, and live for a time ; but no instances are known where trees of different natural orders can be made to unite. THE GRASSES. The annual value of the grass crop in the United States, exceeds three hundred million dollars. An improvement, therefore, effected by procuring the best sorts for sowing, or by a better system of management, that shall increase the average crop but one-tenth, will add to the aggregate product no less than thirty millions. There is no question, however, that a much greater increase than this might be readily effected ; for while the average product of hay per acre is not more than a ton or a ton and a half, the best farmers cut from two to three tons. There is nothing, therefore, but a want of intel- ligence and skill, to prevent an increase of value amounting yearly to at least three hundred million more. The subject is well worthy of more considera- tion than it commonly receives. There are two ways of increasing the crop. The first is, to procure the best kinds of grasses ; the second, to improve the cultivation or management. A notice of some of the most valuable species, with their qualities and cha- racteristics, may assist in promoting the desired improvement. The number of grasses which are highly esteemed in this country, for mea- dows and pastures, is very few. With many farmers, timothy, red-top, and June or Kentucky blue grass, constitute the entire catalogue. There are many hundred known speeies, some of which, if they could be subjected to proper cultivation, would doubtless prove valuable ; and the enterprising cul- tivator who, by undertaking the task, should introduce, out of the great mul- titude, but one equal in value to timothy or Kentucky blue grass, would richly deserve the thanks of the whole country. The object of this brief article is to point out those of most merit which have been already tried. Its limits pre- vent a scientific description of the minute parts of the flower, by which alone the numerous species are accurately distinguished from each other. The cuts which are given are correct representations of the most valuable kinds, and, carefully observed, with a little additional description, will enable the reader to recognize them at once.* There are a few general terms that every one should understand. For example, the head of wheat, barley, rye, or timothy grass, growing in an * For the cuts of Grasses illustrating this article, we are indebted to the courtesy of Chas. L. Flint, Secretary of the Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture, for whose excellent Treatise on " Milch Cows and Dairy Farming." they were originally prepared. I OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 167 oblong, compact form, is termed a spike ; and the loose and spreading head of oats, and June grass, is called a panicle. The spikelets are the small spikes on the panicles, often consist- ing of several seeds and chaff, as in the chess plant, where the spikelets are about an inch long, and often hold a dozen seed ; or in the June grass, where they are only about the tenth of an inch long, and contain five or six seeds. A spike, as in timothy grass, is also composed of spikelets, but they are less distinct or more crowded together. DESCRIPTION OF THE MORE COMMON SPECIES. . Timothy, or Herd's grass of New England, and Cat-tail of Britain — Phleum pratense, fig. 1. (The Herd's grass of Pennsylvania and the Southern States is the Red-top, wholly dif- ferent from this.) The cut affords an accurate representation of this grass when in flower. The root is perennial, and often slightly bulbous. This is probably the -most valuable of all culti- vated grasses, and especially so for hay. It is rather coarse and harsh if left uncut too long, but mown when in blossom, or immediately after, it constitutes excellent fodder. Another advantage of cutting rather early is the after- growth, which is tardy and scant if the seeds ripen. The chief objection to this grass is the want of a good second crop ; but when sown with clover, the latter supplies the deficiency, and when, in a year or two, the clover disap- pears, June grass often comes in and is a valu- able successor, where pasturage is the object. It succeeds best on rich and rather moist soils. It is an admirable crop for reclaimed marsh or swamp. At least one peck of seed is sown by good farmers, per acre, and a larger quantity will give a heavier crop, and softer and finer hay. It may be sown as a crop by itself, either in autumn or early in spring, and brushed or If early in autumn, it will give a good crop the Fig. 1— Timothy. very lightly harrowed in. next year ; and a moderate or fair one the same season, if sown in s pring. ^c^=- 168 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER Three tons of hay to the acre, when plenty of seed has been used on fertile land, are not rare. It gives a large product of seed when allowed to ripen, varying from ten to twenty bushels per acre. This grass has been called Herd's grass, from Herd, of New England, its supposed discoverer ; and Timothy, from Timothy Hanson, of Pennsylvania, who largely cultivated and introduced it to notice. Who will introduce ano- ther grass of equal value, from the hundreds of wild species ? Meadow Fox-tail Grass — Alopecurus pratensis, fig. 2. The flowers grow in a spike, somewhat like timothy, but the spikes are shorter, and feel soft to the touch, while that of timothy is rough. The spikes appear earlier, but it grows too thin and light for hay ; it makes, however, a fine early pasture. It would probably be a good mixture with other grasses in seeding down to permanent pasture. Flint says that on account of its light and bearded chaff, there are but five pounds in a bushel, and 76,000 seed to an ounce. This would be six million to a bushel, which would seed about an acre. The Floating Fox-tail — Alopecurus gcniculatus — resembles the preced- ing, but is later, and grows in water. It is found in wet meadows, ditches, and marshes. It is of no value, unless possibly it be for furnishing pasture on flooded grounds, where other grasses will not grow. Cut-grass or False Rice — Leersia oryzoides. Flowers in rather one-sided panicles, coming out late in summer, stems two or three feet high ; the sheaths of the leaves which clasp the stems are exceedingly rough when drawn downward through the hand, owing to very small points or minute prickles pointing downwards. The general color of the heads or panicles is a yellowish green. It grows in swampy meadows, and along the margin of turbid streams. It is a weed in the North, but is cultivated to some extent at the South, and cut as hay. It will not flourish on dry or drained land, and hence thorough draining will destroy it. Red top, Herd's grass of Pennsylvania and the South — Agrostis vulgaris, fig. 3. The flowers are in a loose, open panicle ; the spikelets are one-flowered or one-seeded ; and the whole head has usually a redish purple color, very conspicuous where growing in quantity in meadows. It grows about two feet high. Roots creeping. This grass is widely known. In England it is called Fine Bent. It succeeds best on rather moist soils, where it is one of the most valuable grasses, although as a whole much inferior to timothy. It is well adapted (like June grass) to sow with the latter, and forms a dense swrard over the surface, which otherwise is left bare after cutting timothy for hay. It is perennial, and makes good permanent pastures, in which it should be fed down so as to prevent going to seed, which renders it unpalatable. It is one of the best lawn grasses, and, sown with June grass and white clover, forms with weekly mowing, a beautiful green carpet. The seed is small, and four to six quarts usually seeds an acre. English Bent or White-top — Agrostis alba — resembles Red-top in gene- ral growth, but differs in having a light green and sometimes faintly purple ■ -=^=^ OF RURAL AFFAIRS. Fig. 2— Meadow Fox-tail. 169 Q, -Y FIk. 3— Red-top. c^= ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER panicle, and by the rough- ness of the sheaths of the leaves. It is of little or no value. A variety known as the Fiorin grass — A. alba, var. stolonifera) — was once in high repute, but it is now regarded as little else than a weed, difficult to eradicate, on account of its rooting re- cumbent stems. It grows in wet places. There are several other species of Agrostis, but they |fS? have not been found valua- ble. Nimble Will — Muh lenber- gia diffusa — has a slender, branched stem, with several narrow, slender panicles ; the chaff has a slender beard about a twelfth of an inch long. In Kentucky and Tennessee, it forms a pas- ture grass of some value, but cannot be recommended for sowing. Bine Joint grass, or Ca- nadian Reed grass — Cala- magrostis Canadensis — much resembles an Agrostis in its general character; it is a large grass, sometimes growing three or four feet high. The panicles are of- ten of a purple hue; are stiffly erect, at first contract- ed or narrow, somewhat re- sembling a spike, but after- wards more spreading. The inner chaff lias a fine bristle on the back, a little below A the middle. It is common on low grounds in many places, and is regarded JA as a valuable grass, being both nutritious and palatable. It is said to be /) Fig. 4— Orchard Grass. <^3g§ n OF RURAL AFFAIRS. Fig. 5-:June Grass. than any other known grass. abundant and much esteemed about Lake Superior. It deserves more attention from agricultur- ists. Sea-Reed — Calamagrostis are- naria. The panicle is long and close, or spike-like, nearly white, leaves smooth, root (rhizoma) branching and creeping exten- sively in the sand. Often two or three feet high. It is not culti- vated for agricultural purposes, but by holding the sand on the seacoast, where it would other- wise drift, is of great value. It has been extensively planted along the shores of Cape Cod, and has saved buildings from being buried by sand. Orchard grass — Dactylus glo- merata, tig. 4 — is accurately re- presented in the cut, as it appears when fully grown, but when the panicle first appears, the parts are more closely crowded into nearly one cluster. It flowers earlier than timothy, or about the time of red clover, which renders it better than timothy in this respect to mix with clover. It is, how- ever, objected to as hay, on ac- count of its coarseness. Its great value is for pasture, and it should be kept eaten rather close for this purpose. The root is perennial, and it should be sown thickly, to pre- vent the irregular tussocks where thinly covering the ground. It endures drouth, and no grass is equal to this for growing in the shade, whence its use in orchards, and its name. It is thought to produce more pasture per acre The seed are light and chaffy, and two bushels ©c^=- -<=>3 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER are required for an acre, if sown alone. It deserves more attention as a pas- ture grass than it generally receives. June-grass, Spear-grass, or Kentucky Blue grass — Poa pratensis, fig. 5. The genus Pox comprises seve- ral valuable species, among which are the Rough-Stalk- ed Meadow, and the Foul Meadow grass. All the species have panicles, and the spikelets usually have several flowers (or seeds) and are not often more than about one-eighth of an inch long. The leaves are generally quite smooth. The June grass is rea- dily distinguished by the minute cottony hair at the Jjase of the inner chaff. It varies much with the soil — where poor, it is small having Fig. 6— Rough Meadow Grass. have been wrongly sold in market for Kentucky Blue grass and insignificant, little resemblance to the dense and luxuriant masses presented on rich land. Its great value is for pasturage. It attains great perfection in Kentucky. It remains green all winter under snow, and furnishes early pasturage in spring, when a good autumn growth has been allowed. It requires two or three years to form a perfect turf, and is not well adapted, therefore, to short rotations. Four quarts of seed are commonly sown on an acre. It has been confounded by some with the Blue or Wire grass of the East, {Poa compressa,) which is of less value, and in many places A is regarded as a weed ; seed of the latter ]L ft OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 173 / Fig. 7— Meadow Fescue. ©c^=~ Fig. &— Rye Grass. 174 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER Fowl Meadow or False Red-top — Poa serotina. This grass has a large, loose panicle, and small spikelets of a redish brown or purple cast, giving it at first glance a resemblance to Red-top, (Agrostis vulgaris,) already described, but it is readily distinguished by having several flowers in the spikelets, (2 to 4,) while Red-top has one-flowered spikelets. It is perennial, and grows in wet meadows. Its name comes from the supposed fact of the seeds having been first scattered by ducks. It is one of the best of all grasses for wet meadows and pastures, which are occasionally overflowed, and should be mixed with other sorts for this purpose. The hay which it makes is of excellent quality, and may he cut late in the season without detriment. Hough Meadow grass — Poa trivialis, fig. 6 — much resembles June grass, but is distinguished by its slightly rough stalk, and by the panicle being rather slenderer and longer. It is not equal in value to the two preceding, but is a good grass to mix with others for seeding moist meadows, and it con- stitutes excellent hay. Blue grass or Wire grass — Poa compressa — is readily distinguished by its flat stem. Its only value is on dry knolls and hill sides, where the soil is rather sterile, and where it forms rich and excellent but rather scant sheep pasture. The stems retain their color after the seed ripen. Its hardiness, and the tenacity of life by means of its numerous creeping roots, render it a weed in cultivated fields. The Annual Poa — P. annua — is a small species, the stalk from four to eight inches high, and distinguished by the very light green hue of the whole plant. It is an annual, although the plants often survive a winter. It grows along door paths and other frequented places, is of little or no value, and is only noticed to distinguish it from other grasses of more importance. Poa nervata is a rather coarse, light green plant, the leaves slightly rough, and the panicle large, spreading, and branches becoming drooping. The small chaff is nerved or striped. It may prove of value for very wet or marshy places, although not equal to most other sorts in quality. The seed grows in great abundance and is easily thrashed or gathered. Meadow Fescue — Festuca pratensis, fig. 7. The Fescue grasses, (or genus Festuca,) usually grow in panicles, and the spikelets have several flowers. It differs from Poa in not having any cottony web at the foot of the inner chaff, and in the spikelets being commonly larger, and harsh to the touch, and not soft, as in the Poa. The chaff is frequently furnished with a sharp, bristly point. The Meadow Fescue is one of the most common as well as valuable spe- cies. It is perennial, grows two or three feet high, and, mixed with other grasses, is valuable for pasture. The Tall Fescue resembles this, but has a larger panicle, and is of little value. Rye Grass, or Perennial Rye Grass, or Darnel — Lolium pcrenne, fig. 8 — grows in spikes, and the spikelets are set alternately on the wavy or zig-zag main j stalk, with their edges, and not flat sides, towards this main stalk. It grows OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 175 Fig. 9—Italian Rye Grass. Fig. 10— Sweet-Scented Vernal Grass. about two feet high. It has been long known and valued in England, and has been introduced into this country, but does not prove of equal value 176 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER here. It is not culti- vated, but has found its way into grass fields. Another spe- cies, called The Italian Rye- grass— Lolium ita- licum, fig. 9 — has been more recently introduced, and is undergoing experiment, and high hopes are entertained of its value by some. Sweet- Scented Vernal grass — Anthoxanthum odoratum, fig. 10 — is distinguished from nearly every other grass by its fine perfume while drying. The panicle is contracted nearly to a spike, but in shady places is more spreading. It is of little value in agriculture, although recommended as a mixture for early pastures, and for lawns. The Hungarian grass, or Hungarian millet — ' Setaria italica, var. germanica, fig. 11 — being an annual crop, and not a grass for meadows and pas- tures, hardly belongs here. A brief notice may, however, be useful. There are several varieties of this species, and this is regarded as one of the best. The large compound spike is well repre- sented in the accompanying cut. It has been long cultivated in Hungary as grain for horses, and has been within a few years extensively introduced into this country, and is highly valued by many. Another millet, wholly unlike this in appear- ance, which has been much cultivated in Germany and to some extent in England, as food for fowls, called the Common Millet, is the Panic urn mili- aceum, and has a partly drooping and much branching panicle. It has hard yellow seed. Indian Millet is several feet high, and is a Sorghum, or allied to broom-corn and Chinese sugar-cane. The Polish Millet is a small plant with finger-like spikes, and known as a Digitaria. The limits of this article will admit of only a brief mention of such grasses as become "Weeds. The two worst, the Chess, and Couch grass, were described in the last number of the Register, and a brief notice given of the Pox-tail grass. Seve- Fig. 11— IIcngarian Grass. -=4=^ OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 177 Q ral species of the genus Panicum are weeds of more or less troublesome character, among which may be mentioned the P. crus-galli, and the P. capillare, (or the cocks-foot and old-witch grasses ;) the Digitaria or crab grass, which is more troublesome towards the South ; and the Andropogon furcutus and A. scoparius, or Indian grass, coarse brown plants, growing in poor neglected fields, and of which Dr. Darlington remarks, "no further evi- dence is required to demonstrate the unprofitable condition of the land or the miserable management of the occupant." The Sedge grasses, of which the genus Carex forms the largest portion grow mostly in wet places, and are coarse and of little value. Cattle eat them only when they can get nothing better. The sedges are eradicated by drain- age and cultivation. Of Forage plants, which are not grasses, the only ones cultivated success- fully in this country, are Red and White clover. There are two or more varieties of the Red — the larger, coarser and later flowering, and the smaller, finer and earlier flowering. The latter is best for hay, the former for plow- ing in as green manure. The White clover is of little value in meadows^ but forms a good mixture in pastures, and is especially valuable mixed with Red-top, for lawns requiring frequent mowing. NUTRITIVE VALUE OF HAY. According to the experiments of several eminent European agriculturists, 100 lbs. of good meadow hay are equal to about 90 lbs. of best cured clover hay, 300 to 500 lbs. of rye straw, (varying with time of cutting, &c.,) 200 to 400 lbs. of oat straw, 200 to 300 lbs. of ruta bagas, 250 to 400 lbs. of mangold wurtzels, 200 to 300 lbs. of carrots, 150 to 200 lbs. of potatoes, 30 to 60 lbs. of beans or peas, 50 to 60 lbs. of Indian corn, 65 lbs. of buckwheat, 35 to 75 lbs. of barley, 40 to 80 lbs. of oats, 30 to 70 lbs. of rye, 30 to 60 lbs. of wheat, and 40 to 100 lbs. of oil cake. MANAGEMENT OF GRASS LAND. The limits of this article will allow only a brief outline of the essential requisites for growing heavy crops of good grass. The Jirst, is a rich soil. Every farmer has observed the great difference in the crop on a poor knoll, and on a manured, fertile, or moist spot. Land laid down to grass should, therefore, be in the best order ; and as most grass roots do not run deep, a surface manuring on heavy soils, or a coating turned in with a gang-plow on lighter land, would be very useful before seeding. Thick seeding is the next requisite. Many thinly seeded fields show bare spots, which are so much loss in land. If these spots constitute a third of a six acre field, then two acres are wasted. It has been found by careful counting that a foot square of rich old pasture, composed of mixed grasses, contains about a thousand plants ; and some highly enriched and irrigated meadows have contained nearly twice that number. This is 7 to 12 plants to fc^= ■ ; ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER a square inch. Now, let us see how much of the different grass seeds will give this number of plants. There are in a bushel of clear seed, of Meadow Fescue, 25,000,000 seeds. Red clover, . . . 16,000,000 seeds. White clover,. . 25,000,000 seeds. Timothy, .... 40,000,000 seeds. Orchard grass,. 7,000,000 seeds. June grass,. . . 45,000,000 seeds. Red-top, .... 10,000,000 seeds. There are about 6,000,000 square inches to an acre ; and allowing for one- third not growing, there ought to be 10 seeds to a square inch, or 60,000,000 per acre. It will be seen that this would require nearly a bushel of Red-top, and more than a bushel of June grass or Timothy. There are some grasses occupying more room ; for example, a good sod of Meadow Fox-tail, six years old, was found to have but 80 plants to the foot, or less than one to each square inch ; there are 6,000,000 seeds of this grass to a bushel ; consequently about two-thirds of a bushel would seed an acre, if all grew. Clover plants occupy as much space, and a peck to half a bushel is a good seeding. The preceding table will show the proportions of each to take, in forming a mixture of several sorts. The writer of this article has tried thick seeding to great advantage ; from half a bushel to a bushel of mixed timothy and clover having nearly doubled the crop from ordinary quantities, and rendered it finer and softer. The coarse and harsh character of hay from new meadows would be avoided by heavy seeding. Depth of Burying. Much seed is lost by want of moisture and no cover- ing, and much by burying too deep with the harrow. By careful experiments it appears that most of the common species of grass grow best when covered not over one-fourth of an inch deep ; at a depth of about three-fourths to one inch only one-half grows ; and nearly all kinds, including red clover, fail when buried two or three inches. The character of the soil would make much difference ; for example, seed might be buried nearly twice as deep on light sandy as on strong loams. Seed sown on smooth mellow ground, and rolled, will generally be covered from a quarter to half an inch, and will suc- ceed well if not followed by drouth. On light and thin soils, a fine harrow, made of many large cut nails, driven through plank, sloping backwards, will do good service. Nothing is better to make seed " catch," and start the young grass speedily, than a top dressing of rotted manure or fine compost, just before seeding. Old and New Seed. Grass seed two or three years old is comparatively worthless ; yet there is no ready way to detect it. The temptation in dealers to mix old with new, is no doubt sometimes great. The best way to test it, is to sprinkle the seed evenly and thinly between folds of cloth, and keep these constantly wet, but not soaked, and in a warm place, for a few days. If all or nearly all sprout, the seed is evidently of the best quality ; if they are plump and only half germinate, it will lead to suspicion of mixture. In this case, twice the usual quantity should be sown. OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 179 A mixture of different species, always produces more grass, especially in pastures, than only one or two sorts. The smaller fill the interstices among the larger ; the roots descend to different depths, and enrich the soil more equally by the supply of dense turf. Time and Manner of Seeding. The most common practice is to seed to grass with some grain crop. The only advantage of this is the saving of labor by sowing two crops at one plowing. The disadvantage is the shading and retarding of the grass by the overgrowth of the grain. All crops dry up the soil, by the leaves pumping up the water through the stems and scattering it to the winds. Hence, after the first germinating process, while the earth is yet wet in spring, the grain crop is detrimental. It requires more labor, but is enough better to repay it, to prepare the land late in fall, and sow grass very early in spring, with nothing else. If well seeded on a rich soil, the young plants will quickly spring up, and soon be out of the reach of drouth. It will make a good crop the first year. If not sown quite early it will be likely to fail. Or, for any hardy grasses, an equally good and perhaps better time is early in autumn, after a grain crop has been harvested from the land. If the autumn is moist, it will make a good growth before winter, and bring a heavy crop next year. Top-dressing with manure or compost in autumn greatly improves all grass land, the soluble parts of the manure wash into the soil and enrich it — it pro- tects the roots from cold winds and exposure — and. serves as a mulch the succeeding summer. The product of grass fields has been doubled by repeated top-dressings. Irrigation, where it can be practiced, is always advantageous. Flooding grass lands with muddy Avater early in spring, by passing swollen streams over freshly plowed loam, has greatly increased the crop. It effects a fine, even mulching of the plants, more perfectly than any other process can accom- plish. Feeding close in autumn, exposes the roots to cold winds, which checks their early growth in spring, while a good coating of grass serves as an excel- lent protection, and favors an early and abundant crop. Pastures or mea- dows which have been closely fed, will be greatly improved and saved by a top-dressing of litter or of compost, applied in autumn. Time of Chitting Grass for Hag. Early in its growth, grass is waterv ; as it approaches blossoming, the amount of sweet nourishing juice increases; after blossoming, and as the seed ripens, the sugar diminishes, and the hard woody fibre increases. The best time, therefore, generally is to cut within a few days after the principal portion of the crop has appeared in flower. For milch cows it should be cut a little earlier than for working oxen and horses. Hard stemmed grasses, as Orchard grass and Timothy, should be cut earlier than softer stjrts. Expense of Making Hag. When meadows were cut by scythes, and raked by hand-rakes, the cost of securing the crop was computed to be one- ( | -«3@ ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER half its value. Now, by the use of mowing machines, horse-rakes, horse- forks, &c., it need not be one-fourth, as the following estimate for cutting fifty aeres will show : Interest on $100. cost of Mowing Machine, $7 00 Wear and tear, annually, say 3 00 Team and man, 8 days, 6 acres per day, (a low estimate,) 20 00 Cost of cutting 50 acres, 130 00 Raking, horse and man, 20 acres a day 5 00 Drawing, if 2 tons per acre, 2 men and 1 team ; with horse-fork, 8 tons daily, $3 per day, 12 days, 36 00 Contingencies, rain, &c, say 7 00 Cost of securing 100 tons. 00 Fig. 12— Hat Sweep. Or, 78 cents per ton. It will be observed, however, that the team of the farmer stands idle much of the time in harvest, and that the actual cost, as compared with the old way, would there- fore be really less. Where the hay is secured in stacks or in hay-barns situated contiguous to the meadow, the use of the hay-sweep in connection with the horse-fork, would probably enable two or three men and two boys, with three horses, to draw and pack away thirty tons a day or more. The hay-sweep is but little known. — The accompanying figures (12 and 13) exhibit its construc- tion and use. It is essentially a large, stout, coarse rake, with teeth project- ing both ways, like those of a common revolver ; a horse is attached to each end, and a boy rides Fig. 13— Hay Sweep in Operation. each horse. A horse passes along each side of the winrow, and they thus drag this rake after them, scooping up the hay as they go. When 500 pounds or so are collected, they draw it at once to the stack or barn, and the horses turning about at each end, causing the gates to make half a circle, draw the teeth backwards from the heap of hay, and go empty for another load — the OF RURAL AFFAIRS. teeth on opposite sides being thus used alternately. To pitch easily, the back of each load must be left so as to be pitched first. The dimensions should be about as follows : — Main scantling below, 4 by 5 inches, 10 feet long ; the one above it, same length, 3 by 4 inches ; these are three feet apart, connected by 7 upright bars, 1 by 2 inches, and 8 feet long. The teeth are flat, 1^- by 4 inches, 5 feet long, or projecting 2^ feet each way — they are made tapering to the ends, so as to run easily under the win- row. A gate, swinging half way round on very stout hinges, is attached to each end of this rake, and to these gates the horses are attached. They con- sist each of two pieces of scantling, 3 inches square and 3 feet long, united by two bars of wood 1 by 2 inches, and a third at the bottom 3 inches square, and tapering upwards like a sled-runner — these runners project a few inches beyond the gate. The whiffle-trees are fastened a little above the middle of the gate, and should be raised or lowered so as to be exactly adjusted. It may be made for $5. In using this machine, not a moment is lost in loading or unloading. No person is needed in attendance, except the two small boys that ride the horses. If the horses walk three miles an hour, and travel a quarter of a mile for each load, they will draw 12 loads, or three tons an hour, or 30 tons in 10 hours, leaving the men wholly occupied in raising the hay from the ground when deposited by means of another horse with the pitchfork. It will be obvious that this rapid mode of securing hay will enable the farmer to elude showers and storms, which might otherwise prove a great damage. The horse-pitchfork is figured and particularly described in a former num- ber of the Register. HOW TO JPTJT TJP JL LIGHTNING- ROD. Having been repeatedly requested to give practical directions on this sub- ject, we present a few brief instructions, illustrated with figures. In order that every one may know what is essential to success, we give in the first place a few rules or necessary requisites. ESSENTIALS. 1. The rod must extend several feet at bottom into moist earth. 2. It must be connected throughout — not essentially in one piece, but if more than one, they must be in contact. 3. It must be sharp at top, and if there are several points, to divide any discharge, all the better. 4. It must be half as high above the top of the building, as the distance horizontally to the most remote part of the top. 182 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER 5. It should be large enough to carry off any discharge without danger of being melted or broken. NON-ESSENTIALS. 1. It is needless to keep the point bright, provided it is sharp. Hence, gilding or tinning, although giving a handsome finish, is little or no better than a point of iron, filed bright and sharp, which cannot hold moisture, nor become dull by rusting, in many years. 2. Insulators, made of iron staples or sockets holding rings of glass or horn, are of no value ; as a slight charge from an electric machine will leap across such a small insulation ; and when wet in any shower the glass con- ducts freely. A good, continuous rod, running into moist earth, will carry down the electricity, no matter what supports it — the fluid always takes the best conductor, if a continuous circuit is found. Wooden supports are cheapest, as good as any, and better than many others. MATERIALS. For general purposes, iron is best ; copper is a better conductor, but the cost of this metal is as much greater than iron, as its increased value. At the same time, iron is stiffer, and will withstand the wind. As iron becomes slowly oxidised by water, it would be better to construct that part which passes into the earth of copper, which moisture alone does not rust. Iron rod, one-half or five-eighths of an inch in diameter, is large enough. Smaller rod has been melted by a discharge of lightning, but this size is safe. CONNECTIONS. The simplest and best way to fasten the several rods together, to make one whole, is to weld the ends. This is done by a common blacksmith, passing the rod thus made through the opposite doors of his shop. It is then dragged home by tying to a wagon. Where the building is very high, it may be dif- ficult to ereet the rod in one piece ; in which case the connections may be made by screwing the two ends into a nut, as in fig. 1 ; or the ends may be spliced and screwed together, as in fig. 2, but this is less strong or firm. The points are made by welding to one end half a dozen smaller rods, (say •§ inch diameter and 6 inches long,) after having sharpened them, and then bending them outward. Fig. 3 shows these points as welded on, and fig. 4 the same spread out. If filed sharp, like needles, they will remain so as long as the rod stands, but it gives them a handsomer appearance to tin them. LENGTH AND HEIGHT. The rule for the height above the building is this : — A rod in the center will protect a space whose diameter is four times the height of the rod above the building. If, for example, a building is 40 feet long, a rod in the middle 10 feet above the roof, will be a sufficient protection (fig. 5) ; but if at one OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 183 10/t. Fig. 5. 1 Fig. 6. =?-" Fig. I. Fig. 2. Fig. 3. Fig. 4. Fig. 7. Fig. 8. end, it must be 20 feet above (fig. 6). A barn 80 feet long, must either have a rod in the middle 20 feet high, or one at each end 20 feet high; or, if two are placed each 20 feet from the ends (fig. 1) they need be but 10 feet high, because each protects a circle of 40 feet diameter. Every rod should enter the ground to a depth of at least six feet. Add the height of the building to this depth, and to the height above it, and we shall have the required length ; but if the rod is placed in the centre, the height of the building must be determined, not by measuring it perpendicularly, but along up the slope of the roof. SUPPORTS Wood is the best and cheapest. The only requisite is to hold the rod firmly. Usually a short bar, securely nailed to the building, with an auger hole at the outer end for the rod to pass through, is all-sufficient. Such a support is represented by fig. 8. The upper support on a chimney may be a light square wooden frame, a, fig. 9, nailed toge- ther, and accurately fitting the chimney outside, one of the rods forming the frame projecting a foot, through which a hole is bored to receive the rod. A carpenter will make such a frame in half an hour. At the foot of the chimney, a piece of plank with a hole through the upper edge, as shown by fig. 10, is nailed on the roof, so as to keep the rod about six inches from it. One or more like this may be placed between the chimney and eaves, to keep the rod above the roof. At the eaves, a very simple fastening is made, consisting merely of a piece of board, with a hole through the outer end, nailed on the roof, or still better beneath the eaves, and projecting a few inches. In all these instances, it is obvious that the lower end of the rod must be thrust through these supports before they are nailed to the building, and Fig. 9. Fig. 10. 184 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER -=^^© before the rod is elevated, and both must go up together. Three or four hands may be needed to do this work for a tall house. STIFFEXERS ABO YE THE ROOF. "Where there is no chimney or other projection above the roof, for a sup- port, a short stiff wooden point should be placed where the rod is to be erected. This wooden piece may be set perpendicularly into the timbers, when the roof is made, and firmly secured in its position. But when this has not or cannot be done, a four-legged bracing may be attached to the ridge of the roof as shown in fig. 11, the legs being made of small strips of board an inch by an inch or two, and three to five feet high, according to the height of the rod above. F,g- 11# They are nailed to the roof, and to a small block at the top, with a hole for the rod. In order to stiffen that part of the rod above the roof, it should be largest at the roof, and taper upwards, which is easily effected by welding three or four rods of different sizes together at their ends, the lower one being about an inch in diameter, the next above three- Fjg> 12. fourths, the third five-eighths, and the upper one-half an inch. ENTERING THE EARTH. The most important and most frequently neglected requisite, is a sufficient depth for the rod below. If it enters but a short distance, the earth may become dry in summer, and thus being a poor conductor, the rod may do more harm than good, by inviting the fluid but not discharging it. Houses having rods, have been torn to pieces in consequence of this deficiency. The rod should enter permanently moist earth. This is sufficient. It is not com- monly found less than five or six feet deep. To assist in the discharge and dissipation of the fluid, place a bushel (more or less) of charcoal in the bot- tom of the hole, into which the rod may enter. Charcoal is an excellent con- ductor, and will scatter the lightning into the earth. As the iron rod which enters the soil may in many years become rusted through, it is safest to use copper for this part ; either a copper tube, the size of the rod, or several narrow copper straps riveted on a few inches above the ground, and spread- ing off in different directions below. THE COPPER ROD. The objection to the use of a copper rod, is its increased .cost and want of stiffness. But a perfect copper conductor may be made by erecting a pole for its support. This pole may be a few feet from the building, and rising a IJ& sufficient height above it, according to the rule already given. A copper JL I ] strap, nailed to this post, serves as the conductor. It would be best if in one / ) @C^ OF RURAL AFFAIRS. piece, coiled, and unrolled as nailed on. The upper end may extend a foot or so above the pole, and be sheared into sharp points, as in fig. 12. The lower end enters the earth six or seven feet, and has a bed of charcoal about it. An objection to this kind of conductor is the cost of erecting the pole, and its liability to decay and fall in a few years. This objection is removed by securing it to the building itself, and to a stiff rod of sufficient height above it, erected when the building is made. VARIOUS ERRORS. "Very few inventors of patent rods understand fully the principles of elec- tricity, and most of them fall into serious errors. One has been already mentioned, namely, insulating iron staples, with small glass or horn rings, which the smallest charge of a machine would pass. Another is the alledged necessity for silver, or platinum, or palladium points. Iron, if sharpened like a needle, will always remain so, as it cannot retain a drop of water nor rust. Another is, twisting together many wires, copper or iron, or both, claiming that this gives more surface, according to the well known principle that the fluid remains in the surface. The error consists in supposing that the fluid exists on inner surfaces, or sunk faces. Make a conducting body in the form shown by fig. 1 3, or with various depressions ; insulate and electrify it. Apply the trial planes which electricians use, to the depres- Fig. 13. sions, and they will be found to contain no electricity at all. It is only the outer parts of a conductor that hold the fluid. Hence the inner surfaces of the wire conductors are of no value. Another error is, the assertion that painting an iron rod makes it a non- conductor. Those who make the assertion never tried the experiment. Trial shows it to be perfectly groundless. Another error is, in making angular rods, on the supposition that the angles will draw the fluid. They discharge it as readily as they drew it ; and hence, if a heavy charge should come down from the clouds, they would tend to throw it into the building from the angles, if there were any impediment below. We admit, however, that when all the connections are perfect, these angles would be neither useful nor detrimental. COST OF RODS. We give a single bill of cost, of two rods erected on barns last year by the writer. One barn was 54 feet long — the rod was placed in the middle, and extended 15 feet above the roof — total length of rod, 55 feet. The other barn was 38 feet long, the rod also in the middle, extending 11 feet above, and total length 49 feet. Round iron rod was used, five-eighths of an inch in diameter, except the lower portion above the roof, which was partly an inch, partly three-fourfhs, and so tapering upwards. The rods were stiffened as shown in fig. 11. The following was the entire cost of both rods : — 186 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER 0 Cost of 103 feet rod, *3. 68 Blacksmith work, welding, setting on points, &c 1.50 Tinning the points, 25 Digging the holes, 50 Charcoal 20 Carpenter, erecting 87 Total cost, *7.00 If an itinerant erector had been employed, he would have probably bristled these buildings with various points, at a cost of some twenty or thirty dollars, at doubtful value or permanency. ■ » » BALLOON FRAMES." By Geo. E. Woodward, Architect and Civil Engineer, No. 29 Broadway, New-York. [written for the annual register of rural affairs.] Illustrated, from Original Drawings by the Author, made from Practical Examples. " If it had not been for the knowledge of balloon frames, Chicago and San Francisco could never have arisen as they did, from little villages, to great cities in a single year." — Solon Robinson. In these days of ballooning, it is gratifying to know that there is one practically useful, well tested principle, which has risen above the character of an experiment, and is destined to hold an elevated position in the opinions of the masses. That principle is the one which is technically, as well as sarcastically, termed Balloon Framing, as applied to the construction of all classes of wooden buildings. The early history of the Balloon Frame is somewhat obscure, there being no well authenticated statements of its origin. It may, however, be traced back to the early settlement of our prairie countries, where it was impossible to obtain heavy timber and skillful mechanics, and the fact is patent to any one who has passed through the pleasures and the vicissitudes of the life of a pioneer, that his own necessities have indicated the adoption of some princi- ple in construction, that, with the materials he has at hand, shall fulfill all the necessary conditions of comfort, strength and protection. To these circum- stances we must award the early conception of this frame, which, with subse- quent additions and improvements, has led to its universal adoption for buildings of every class throughout the States and cities of the west, and on the Pacific coast. The Balloon Frame has for more than twenty years been before the build- ing public. Its success, adaptability, and practicability, have been fully demonstrated. Its simple, effective and economical manner of construction, has very materially aided the rapid settlement of the "West, and placed the art of building, to a great extent, within the control of the pioneer. That necessity, which must do without the aid of the mechanic or the knowledge of OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 187 his skill, has developed a principle in construction that has sufficient merit to warrant its use by all who wish to erect in a cheap and substantial manner any class of wooden buildings. Like all successful improvements, which thrive on their own merits, the Balloon Frame has passed through and survived the theory, ridicule and abuse of all who have seen fit to attack it, and may be reckoned among the promi- nent inventions of the present generation, an invention neither fostered nor developed by any hope of great rewards, but which plainly and boldly acknowledges its origin in necessity. The increasing value of lumber and labor, must turn the attention of men of moderate means to those successful plans which have demonstrated econo- my in both, and at the same time preserved the full qualities of strength and security so generally accorded to the old fogy principles of framing, and which, we presume to say, is inferior in all the true requisites of cheap and substantial building. Light sticks, uninjured by cutting mortices or tenons, a close basket-like manner of construction, short bearings, a con- tinuous support for each piece of timber from foundation to rafter and embracing and taking advantage of the practical fact, that the tensile and compressible strength of pine lumber is equal to one-fifth of that of wrought iron, constitute improvements introduced with this frame. If, in erecting a building, we can so use our materials that every strain . will come in the direction Fig. 1- -isometrical perspective vlbw of the Balloon Frame. ©c^>- of the fibre of some por- tion of the wood work, we can make inch boards answer a better purpose than foot square beams, and this application of materials is one reason of the strength of Balloon Frames. The Balloon Frame belongs to no one per- son; nobody claims it as an invention, and yet in the art of construction it is one of the most sensi- ble improvements that has ever been made. That which has hither- to called out a whole neighborhood, and re- quired a vast expenditure k of labor, time, and noise, ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER -=^#0© can, by the adoption of the balloon frame, be done with all the quietness and security of an ordinary day's work. A man and boy can now attain the same results, with ease, that twenty men could on an old fashioned frame. The name of " Basket Frame" would convey a better impression, but the name "Balloon" has long ago outlived the derision which suggested it. The moment the foundation is prepared, and the bill of lumber on the ground, the balloon frame is ready to raise, and a man and boy can do all of it. The sills are generally 3 inches by 8 inches, halved at the ends or corners, and nailed together with large nails. Having laid the sills upon the founda- tion, the next thing in order is to put up the studding. Use 4 by 4 studs for corners and door posts, or spike two 2 by 4 studs together, stand them up, set them plumb, and with stay laths secure them in position. Set up the intermediate studs, which are 2 by 4 inches, and 16 inches between centres, toe or nail them diagonally to the sill. Then put in the floor joists for first floor, each joist to be placed alongside each stud, and nailed to it and to the sill. Next measure the height to ceiling, and with a chalk line mark it V IT) a- wg ^m T71 w M " 0 11 \ A B N H B ±£^J C h* Fig. 2— Floor Plan. Fig. 3— Elevation Section —manner of nailing — A. corner stud, 4 by 4 — U. joist. 5 by 3-C. 2 by 4. Fig. 4— Upper Edge of Joist— E. Stud. around the entire range of studding; below the ceiling line notch each stud one inch deep and four inches wide, and into this, flush with the inside face of the studding, nail an inch strip four inches wide. This notch may be cut before putting up the studs. If the frame be lined on the inside, it will not be necessary to notch the strip into the studs, but simply to nail it to the studding ; the object of notching the studding is to present a flush surface for lathing, as well as to form a shoulder or bearing necessary to sustain the second floor ; both of these are accomplished by lining inside the studding — (for small barns and out-buildings that do not require plastering, nail the strip 4 by 1, to the studding) — on this rests the joists of the second floor, the ends of which come flush to the outside face of the studding, and both ends of each joist are securely nailed to each stud ; the bearing of the joist on the inch strip below, it is close by the stud, and the inch strip rests on a shoulder or lower side of the notch cut to receive it. This bearing is so strong that the joists will break before it would yield. Hav- ing reached the top of the building, each stud is sawed off to an equal OP RURAL AFFAIRS. height ; if any are too short they are spliced by placing one on top of the other, and nailing a strip of inch board on both sides. The wall plate, 2 by 4 inches, is laid flat on top of the studding, and nailed to each stud ; the rafters are then put on ; they are notched, allowing the ends to project outside for cornice, &c. The bearing of each rafter comes di- rectly over the top of each ^P? stud, and is nailed to it. A Balloon Frame looks Si [111 _J J J 1 _J [ flU G 1 1 L T light, and its name was given in contempt by those old fogy mechanics who had been brought up to rob a stick of timber of all its strength and dura- bility, by cutting it full of mortices, tenons, and au- ger holes, and then sup- posing it to be stronger Fig. 5— Side Elkvation.-G. Manner than a far lighter stick, of 8pUcinpVci^-F. Manner of ^ereuily applied, and Fig. 6— End Ele- vation. with all its capabilities un- impaired. Properly constructed, and with timber adapted to its purposes, it will stand secure- ly against the fury of the elements, and answer every purpose that an old fashion- ed timber frame is calculated to fulfil. If the building is to be erected on piers, as is often done with barns and out- buildings, then the sills should be heavy, as shown in fig. 5. Fig. 7 shows a half sec- tion of two modes of fram- N^; N0 ing corn cribs. The lumber or timber may range in size from 2 by 4 up, according to the capacity requir- fc^~ -=^3® w 190 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER ed — 2 by 4 inch stuff, except for floor timbers and sills, is sufficiently large for the ordinary size of these buildings. Where the building is supported on posts, heavy sills are necessary, and the frame should be securely nailed or spiked together. The bents may be 16, 24 or 30 inches apart, and covered in the usual manner. The thrust of p. both the rafters and contents of the build- ing are outward; the tie, 1 by 4, is abun- dantly strong, as each one will practically sus- tain in the direction of its fibre, three tons. — The floor joists are nailed to studs at each end. No one need fear any lack of per- fect security, as these ties exceed in strength any hold that tenons could have. Fig. 8 illustrates the manner of framing buildings of one story, such as are used about most every farm or country seat, as tool houses, granaries, wash houses, spring houses, &c, &c, and on south- ern plantations admir- Fig. 8— Isometrical Perspective Balloon Frame, ably adapted for the erection of negro cabins in a cheap and attractive style, adding much to their appearance and economizing in their cost. Very small buildings, if unplastered, will not require ceiling joists ; a tie at each end will be all-sufficient. Moderate size buildings will be strong enongh if the ceiling joists are left out, and collars put on half way up the rise of the rafter. According to the size and uses of the building, the collars or ceiling joists may be put on every rafter, every other, or every third rafter ; floor joists should be about 16 inches between centres, and the studding may be from 16 inches to 8 feet apart ; in the last case only, every sixth floor joist is nailed to the stud, the intermediate ones being arranged equally distant from each other between the studding. Where the studding is placed wide / ) apart, the plate must necessarily be heavier to sustain the roof; if vertical 1 OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 191 siding be used it should be nailed to the sill and plate, and to an intermedi- ate horizontal strip spiked in between the studding ; if done in this way the plate may be lighter ; when horizontal siding is used, the studding should not be more than 4 feet apart — in small buildings, say 12 by 20 feet, we should cut all our stuff, except joists, from 1£ inch plank. Studs four inches wide, rafters 5 inches wide ; floor joist should be 2 by 9 inches, and put all up 30 inches between centres. Ridge board. i —v L^ _t i 1 I o n CO ■ i Q P '3 3 = o • i i ■ ' 1-1 "n ■ =, * o «t> - t |~1 "~i ii I ==T ■ \ Rafters. Flooring. Joists. Plate. Studs. Flooring. Joists. Side girth. Studs. Flooring. Joists. Side girth. Studs. Flooring, Joists. :^ Sill. Joist resting on plate. Joist notched down on side gut. Side girt gain- ed in, flush for plaster. Joist bearing on sill and foundation. Fig. 13. Balloon Framing. Fig. 14. Details. Fig. 9— Three Story Building. Fig. 10. Joist notched down on plate. Fig. 11. Side girt not gained in for small unplastered buildings. Fig. 12. Inside lining— answers the same purpose as a side girth. Fig. 13. Joist bearing on sill. In fig. 9 is shown the manner of constructing frames for buildings of three stories. The corner stud, 4 by 4, is composed of and built up with two 2 by 4 studs, which are nailed together, breaking joints as the building progresses in height ; the splicing of studs is done in the same manner, being nailed toge- ther as fast as additional length is required ; the joists of the last floor are laid upon the plate, and they act as tie-beams to sustain the thrust of the rafters. We consider the splice where the studs butt and have side strips nailed to ANNUAL REGISTER them, to be the most secure ; the lapping splice is very gene- rally used, however, and found to answer every purpose. Ribs for vertical siding may be put on in two ways ; one as shown, by which the ribs run over the sill and are nailed to it; a strip of the same thickness as ribs, say 1£ inches, nailed on to the sill to fill up the space between the ribs, and is then covered by the outside plinth or Fig. 15— Diagonal Ribs for Vertical or Battened Siding. base- ™he Other plan V is to set the studs back 1£ inches from face edge of sill ; then let the end of ribs bevel down on the sill, or dovetail them into the edge. Either outside or inside lining may be used, or both together. Where diagonal lining is used it should be reversed or run the other way on the op- posite side of the house. Where a frame is lined inside it is best to do it as shown in fig. 17, as it be- comes an additional tie to the corners of the frame, it being alternately lapped on the corner stud. The lining of a Balloon Frame adds immensely to Fig. lb— Showing the manner of Putting on Diagonal Lining. . Outside and Inside. Siding may be Horizontal or Vertical. ^ strength, particularly OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 198 so if put on diagonally ; it may be done outside or inside, though on the whole the inside is preferable. If done outside, it should be carried over the sill and nailed to it ; the sill being wider than the studding, in order to get a larger bearing on the masonry, and the floor joists being in the Avay, does not admit of in- side lining being put on in the same man- ner. A first class Balloon Frame should be lin- ed, if for vertical sid- ing, outside the stud- ding if horizontal siding is used, line inside ; it makes the frame stiffer and the J building warmer. — Fig. 17— Manner of Lining Balloon Frames inside. Some line diagonally, say from centre next the first floor towards extreme upper corners both ways ; others line one side diagonally in one direction, and the other in an opposite direction. This makes assurance of strength doubly sure. If lined inside, nail perpendicular lath to the lining 16 inches from centres, and on this lath horizontally for plastering. In the construction of Balloon Frame houses, the studs for those partitions that run through the building are not cut separately for each floor, as in the old mode of fram- ing, but are preserved entire, or spliced when required, in the same manner as the outside frame. The studs pass between the joists of each floor, which rest upon a girt 1 by 4 inches, let into the studs. The joists are locked over this girt, by cutting an inch notch on the under side, and lap each other tions that run two or moke stories, from 8 inches to 1 foot, as shown in fig. 18. The flooring, when laid, Fig. 18— Manner of Framing Parti- n* h II— , IS is nailed to all the joists, and each joist should be f brought close up along- side the stud. Figs. 19, 20 and 21 are Fig. 19-Side View. Fig. 20-End View. Fig. 21-Plan. ^ ^ ^ end f|wf Showing Manner of Framing Partitions. and ^ rf j^ AowiDg the manner of doing the work. The side girts on the partition studding €5C^s= I 194 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER should be put on an inch higher than the side girts on the outside frame, unless both ends of the floor joists are notched, to be locked over the girts. Fig. 22 shows the manner of arranging joists over a partition that does not run above one story, or that which has no partition over it on the next floor. This is like the old mode, ex- cept that the joists are notched and locked over the plate. The object of lapping and _,. gg locking joists, is to make them a continuous tie Showing manner of framing parti- from one side of the building to the other, and tions that run only one story, when the flooring is nailed on, they are practi- cally as strong as if they were in one solid piece. This prevents bulging, and the joists of all frames, whether Balloon or otherwise, should be arranged in this manner. It will be observed, on looking again at fig. 18, that there are three conti- nuous ties, in three different directions — thus, up and down, lengthwise and crosswise, and that every joint in the frame, whether outside or inside, has each of these three different conditions of strength. This applies to the naked frame. After the flooring is laid, and the outside boarding on, the building becomes so knit together, laced and interlaced, that it is as one entire piece. The principle of Balloon Framing is the true one for strength, as well as for economy. If a mechanic is employed, the Balloon frame can be put up for forty per cent, less money than the tenon and mortice frame. If you erect a balloon frame yourself, which you can easily do without the aid of a mechanic, it costs the price of the materials and whatever value you put upon your own time. rv*1 7% P 11 Fig. 23 shows the manner of at- taching the floor- to gable end ing studding and in those buildings in which the thrust of the rafters is in the direction of Fig. 23. Showing lengthwise and cross- wise manner of tying frame. the flooring — if every third stud be bolted to the joist in the manner shown, it makes the tie equal if not superior to that in the direc- tion of the joists. Fig. 24 explains the manner of framing the largest class of barns. Wide openings, like bays, require the use of heavy timber, and the Fig. 24. Manner of Framing Large Barns. OF RURAL AFFAIRS. mortice, tenon and brace, only so far as the gallows frame is concerned ; the balance of the frame is of light stuff, studding 2 feet to 2\ feet apart, 2 by 6 inches, every third one 2 by 8 inches, into which is gained the side girt, it being nailed to the others. On this rests one end of the temporary floors, the gallows frame supports the roof, and the rafters are secured to it, so that they become ties. The side of this building is like a floor turned on edge, and is firmly secured by the floor joists at the bottom and the rafters at the top. Warehouses, depots, and other buildings of a very large size, can be made stronger by using the Balloon Frame, instead of the heavy timber frame. Those who prefer to err on the right side, can get unnecessary strength by using deeper studding, placing them closer together, putting in one or more rows of bridging, and as many diagonal ribs as they like. In large buildings there is no saving in timber, only the substitution of small sizes for large — the great saving is in the labor, which is quite important. The following are some of the advantages claimed foi* the Balloon Frame : 1. The whole labor of framing is dispensed with. 2. It is a far cheaper frame to raise. 3. It is stronger and more durable than any other frame. 4. Any stick can be removed, and another put in its place, without dis- turbing the strength of those remaining — in fact, the whole building can be renewed, stick by stick. 6. It is adapted to every style of building, and better adapted for all irre- gular forms. 6. It is forty per cent, cheaper than any other known style of frame. 7. It embraces strength, security, comfort, and economy, and can be put up without the aid of a mechanic. » ♦ • MOVABLE COMB BEE HIVES. [Written for the Illustrated Annual Register, bt M. Quinby.] If a clock had stopped, and was so constructed that we could not get at the interior to see the difficulty, without spoiling it, we would be in about the same predicament that we are with a colony of bees in the old box hive, not in running order, and which wants repairs in some little wheel, axle or cord. The clock runs, if properly made and set up, until something interferes with its operation, or some weak part gives out. So with bees, an ordinary swarm put into a hive works regularly until some part of our artificial arrangements are out of order and wanting repairs. Now we have a hive, like the clock, that can be taken in pieces, every part examined, the evil found and reme- JA died, and the parts united together and again put in motion. After hundreds ' ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER of worthless patents inflicted on bee-keepers, we have at last an improve- ment. There is no longer need of guessi?ig about the interior. It is unne- cessary to wait a post mortem examination, or to depend on a diagnosis from outside appearances. If your hive is queenless, the fact can be at once known and remedied, without waiting till it is ruinously reduced to ascertain. Should the queen produce nothing but drones, the discovery is early made. She can be readily looked up and removed, and her place supplied with a more profitable incumbent. If the bees have made, as they often do, an unprofitable amount of drone comb, it may be removed and its place sup- plied with worker comb instead. When the moth worm has effected a lodg- ment in the combs, they are readily taken out, and he is successfully attacked in his strongholds. If the apiarian wishes to limit the number of his swarms to one from each hive, he can, a few days after the first has issued, take out the combs, remove all the queen cells but one, and prevent all after swarming. When one hive has a surplus of stores and another is deficient, it only requires an exchange of a comb or two, which is readily made, to equalize and benefit both. When combs get old and need renewing, the cells being reduced in size, it is only necessary to substitute empty frames in place of the full ones to effect it. For making artificial swarms, and rearing queens artificially, I know of no other hive with facilities equal to this. And now, the introduction of the Italian bee into this country, makes some form of the movable combs almost indispensable to all who intend propagating this variety. Very likely, after having purchased and introduced a queen into a colony of native bees, curi- osity would induce an examination the next day, to see that all is safe. A very few moments would suffice to obtain the assurance, with this hive, while with the box it would be necessary to wait several days for brood to appear, or drive out the bees — a slow, tedious process — and look her up. The movable comb hive proper was not obtained with the first effort, but is the result of successive steps or degrees. The first attempt was long since made by different apiarians of Europe, and a few in this country. The first form was simply a series of cross-bars at the top, the ends resting on rabbeting, to support the combs instead of being attached to the board top. (Fig. 1.) Guide combs were attached to these bars, in order to have the bees work them straight. Access to the interior of the hive was had by taking off one of its sides. The combs were removed in succession by detaching with a knife the edges where they were joined to the hive. (The bees, during these operations, are quieted with smoke blown ©c^- OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 197 im a T -~~Z among them, or Ml & ^%S»»fa»a ""*■/#//'/. sprinklin tweetened a Fig. 2— a. a. a. Hive— b. b. Frame. Fig. 3— Movable Frames Taken Out. Fig. 4— Langstroth's Hive. them with water with su.ar.) The next step was an addi- tion to the cross-bar, of a frame to surround the comb, the edges of which are attached to the two vertical pieces that pass down inside the hive, but not touching it, instead of the sides of the hive. (Fig. 2.) As this frame is supported by the rabbeting at each upper corner, it can be taken out without difficulty ; but as all the combs had to be re- moved before access could be had to the last one, it was found too tedious an operation for general adop- tion. To the Rev. L. L. Lang- stroth belongs the merit of introducing to the Ame- rican public a hive acces- sible to these frames, by opening the top. Patent- ed in 1852. Any comb, properly made, could be selected and removed at pleasure. (Fig. 3.) He has several forms to his hives, all made on this principle. The one figured here is the usual mode. (Fig. 4.) It is made dou- ble; the inside, or hive proper, is of glass on three sides. The top movable, on which are placed the surplus boxes, and to be removed whenever the frames are taken out. The whole is inclosed in a case 198 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER connected with all other parts ; bottom fast to the hive, cover to boxes con- nected by hinges, &c. In some respects this, having all fast together, is a convenience ; it can be taken up and put down anywhere ; it is always complete ; and yet it sadly interferes with many operations. When the hive is separate from the bot- tom, and can be raised, we can clean off the filth from the floor easily ; the strength of the colony is readily ascertained by looking at the bottom of the combs, and the presence of the moth worm is often first indicated by the appearances on the bottom board. These little things need looking to many times in the course of the summer, and are quite sure to be neglected — by some bee-keepers at least — if the combs are to be lifted out before an exa- mination can be made. But the movable comb hive need not necessarily be fastened to the bottom. There are many forms of movable combs, beside those given by Mr. Langstroth. One made according to the following direc- tions, will combine all the essential qualities of those costing much more. It has been used to some extent, and those who are satisfied with a plain, sim- ple hive, will hardly be able to do better with any other one of its class. The boards to construct it should be 12-J- inches wide, and one inch in thickness; cut two lengths, two pieces 21-i inches and two 12 inches long; the shorter pieces are rabbeted out on the inside upper edge a half inch square, to receive and support the ends of the frames. The pieces are now thoroughly nailed together, making a box without top or bottom, the inside just 12 by 19-^- inches square, and 12£ deep. In one end is made an entrance 4 inches long by J deep at the bottom, and an inch hole for another, half way to the top. A strip of wood, f inch thick by 2 inches wide and 14 long, is nailed across each end at the top as handles. If desired, these handles may be mouldings, with more added to the sides, to make a better finish. The frames for the inside consist of five pieces: one, triangular, 1 inch wide, 18 inches long ; one, 20^ inches long, 1£ wide, and i inch in thickness. The second is nailed to the first, having each end of the longest project 1£ inches beyond the other. Two pieces for the ends, 11 inches long, ■$■ inch wide by £ in thickness. For the bottom, a piece -|- wide by f thick and 18 in. long, to correspond with the triangu- lar one at the top. Drive the nails through the short strips. When to- gether we have a frame in this shape, 18 inches long by 10 deep, inside. Fig. 5. Fig. 5. This will go down into the hive and leave a space between the end of the frame and end of the hive. The strip that is nailed to the triangular one will rest on the rabbeting and support it, touching no other part of the hive, JA (as seen in fig. 5.) Eight of these will be needed in a hive 12 inches wide — A OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 199 1£ inches being the right distance from center to center. To keep them the right distance apart at the bottom, a small strip •$ by ^ inch square is put a a a a across the middle of the hive, f inch /\/\/\/\ /\./Y/\ /\ . from the bottom, with wire braces in "*" "■■™' '" ^h^tm^^m thi3 form ^fig 6_j TwQ gmall mor_ 1S' ' tices, £ inch deep, on each side, will hold it. It may be put in after the hive is together, by bending it a little. Very small annealed wire will answer. Cut it in pieces, long enough to reach through and turn over to the upper side, which will hold them firmly. The points or angles should be just \\ inches apart, and correspond with the spaces between the frames at the top. The top can be made of whole boards, but it is apt to warp, even when clamped, and is much better when constructed of several pieces, thus : Two pieces are cut 21^ inches long by 1& wide, the others 11 long; two of the latter, 6 inches, and two 4£ wide. The nails are driven through the long narrow strips edgewise into the ends of the boards. Around the edge is a rabbeting half an inch in depth and width. The open spaces, a. a. a. (fig. 7,) are passages for the bees into the surplus boxes, which set on the spaces with corresponding openings in the bottom of the boxes. These boxes may be the same as for any other hive. To pro- tect them and shut out the light, a close fitting cover or cap is necessary, six or eight inches deep, and large enough square to fit the rabbeting in the edge of the board. The top of this cover may receive a molding or be left plain — this is a matter of taste. The large surface at the top gives room for a greater number of surplus boxes than many other hives, which occasionally is quite important. The frames being long a less number will suffice, and as a long one can be made as quickly as a short one, there is some gain in making. Other advantages of this shape, in relation to the winter stores, are not mentioned. The smooth whole combs that are made in frames, without passages through them, are not as well adapted to wintering bees in the open air as the old box hive with cross sticks, on the under side of which the bees usually leave an opening.* To remedy this, there seems to be no better way than to take out the combs at the approach of cold weather, and cut out a hole near the cen- ter of each. Any contrivance dividing the frame with bars in which was made a passage permanently, does not operate so well. Even the long frame.-;, when divided, have not proved satisfactory. Another difficulty with all these Fig. 7. •These remarks apply to all movable comb hives. ggc^= A 200 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER hives, is to always get straight combs. The bees follow an angle when sawed smoothly, much better than when roughly done, yet with all possible pains some of the combs will be made crooked, and those that are straight will be unequal in thickness, making it difficult, and sometimes impossible, to raise out the frame. The guide comb, when to be had, should be used. To obvi- D ate this difficulty, Mr. U nderhill has constructed the leaf hive, (fig. 8,) from which combs can be removed when irregular, and even quite crooked. The frames are not con- nected with the hive at all, but stand on the floor inside. On one side is a pivot that passes down through the floor, and supports them upright. To operate, one side of the hive is removed ; it is then moved back, or away from the frames, leaving them exposed. These, turning on a pivot, and swinging like a door sideways before they are lifted out, do not in- Fig. 8— Underbill's Leaf Hive.* terfere with each other when a little out of straightness. A hive with these conveniences, of course, is a little more expensive to construct than the plain one just described. There are still several other patent or movable frames, but as they involve no new or important principle, it will be unnecessary to describe further. None are, as yet, perfect. But any one of them, probably, with all its defects, is superior to the old box. A bee-keeper, well enough posted on the nature of the bee to take advantage of all the facilities that are offered by them, can hardly afford to do without some one of them. * A. is the hive made in the usual manner, with the ordinary hox, B., on the top, and pro- per holes, c. c, for the entrance of the bees. The frames, d. d. d. d., made in the manner described, are connected by a pivot to the table in the manner represented in D. A wooden pin, e., has inserted firmly into it the wire rod, f., which passes through staples in the frame, so that the frame may swing on the rod, as a door swings on its hinges. The hive. A., slides in the grooves, g. g., of the table, so that it may be pushed back from around the frames as shown in the cut. When it is desired to examine the interior of the hive, the box, A., is pushed away from the frames, when these maybe turned gently outward on their hinges, so as to separate them from each other, and if one of them is found to be filled with honey, it may be removed without any damage to the comb, and its place supplied with an empty frame. A strip of tin a quarter of an inch in width projects vertically downward along the middle of the upper part of the frame, to induce the bees to make their comb in a straight line, a plan which was discovered by accident, and which is found to be perfectly successful in practice. The capacity of the hive inside may be adjusted to the size of the swarm by means of the movable slide, G. A series of holes are made, and stopped by the movable pins, i. i. i.. and the slide, G., is pushed in as far as desired opposite any of these holes, when pins are inserted to hold it in place ; the proper amount of frames, of course, being removed to make room for the admission of the adjustable slide. "When the hive is closed, the box, A., is held in place by means of a hook and staple. ©c^=~ -#=S OP RURAL AFFAIRS. 201 SUMMER PEARS OLD AND NEW SORTS. The improvement of the pear, and dissemination of many new and excel- lent varieties, are marked features in the progress of pomology. Forty-three years ago, William Coxe described sixty-five sorts, in the best and most com- plete American work known at that time. Yet out of this number, only about four sorts are now regarded as worthy of cultivation, namely, the Fig. 1— Skinless. Fig. 2— Rostiezer. Madeleine, Skinless, (fig. 1,) Seckel and Virgalieu or Doyenne\ We have since added, equal to these as an average, the Summer Doyenne, Osband, Giffard, Brandywine, Tyson, Rostiezer, (fig. 2,) and Bloodgood, for summer ; Bartlett, Ananas d' Ete, Kirtland, Washington, and others, for early autumn ; for other autumn varieties we have such fine ones as Flemish Beauty, Anjou, 202 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER Fig. 4— Osband's Summer. Belle Lucrative, Bosc, Autumn Paradise, Nouveau Poiteau, Urbaniste, Louise Bonne of Jersej7, Superfin, Sheldon, Law- rence, Buerre Hardy, and others. And yet nothing has been found equal to the Seckel for high flavor, nor to excel it for general hardiness ; and for general value, "where it is not liable to crack, no new sort scarcely equals the Yirgalieu. In order to assist our read- ers to make good selections, it is well to name not only good varieties, but those that have been rejected as of inferior value. Some think they have " the best pears in the world," till they see and know of bet- ter. We have had the old French Jargonelle sent hun- dreds of miles, as a new and valuable sort, "very superior," because the honest cultivator was not familiar with our deli- cious early varieties ; and the Summer Bell and Bonchretien are still sometimes eagerly ask- ed for of nurserymen. The very best early pears — ripening at the same period — and about the time that farm- ers usually begin to cut their wheat, are the Madeleine, an old sort, and Summer Doyenne (Doyenne d' Ete, fig. 3,) a new one. Each sort has its admir- ers. Some have pronounced the Madeleine the best; it is larger and more melting, while the slight grain of acidity makes it very agreeable as a summer fruit. But it is not so e>c^=- OF RURAL AFFAIRS. productive as the Summer Doy- enne, the tree is not so hardy, and is more subject to fire blight ; while the Summer Doy- enne, although less juicy, has undoubtedly the highest fla- vor. On the whole, the votes preponderate in favor of the latter. Osband's Summer, (fig. 4,) ripens a week or two later than the preceding, and is valuable for the hardiness and fine growth of the tree, its even bearing, and the fair appearance and good quality of the fruit — although not of the highest flavor. Blood- good ripens nearly the same time, is about the same size as the Osband, is often superior to it in flavor, but sometimes falls below, being somewhat variable ; and the tree is slow in growth. Nearly or quite equal to Os- band's Summer, and a little later, is the Sa?ispeau or Skinless, (fig. 1,) an old variety, whose merits Fig. 5-Beurre Giffard. have been too much eclipsed by newer sorts. It is remarkable for its handsome and free growth, and for growing well in different soils — probably no pear thrives so well as this on such as are light or sandy — for its great productiveness, and for the uniform quality of the fruit. It has almost a glossy smoothness, and a very thin skin ; whence its name. If it were a new sort, " far brought and dear bought," it would have many admirers. The Beurre Giffard, (fig. 5,) would stand at the head of summer pears, (next preceding in maturity the Eostiezer and Tyson,) if it was a free grower. It is almost as bad in this respect as the Nelis among later varieties. The growth is slender, crooked, and feeble. The peculiar purplish shoots, and the long slender leaf-stalks, enable the cultivator to recognize it very readily among all other sorts. The pear itself is of very high quality — rich, juicy, melting, and perfumed. It is of full medium size, and the tree a good bearer. Notwithstanding its poor growth, it must stand as high as any kind of its sea- son, which is about the same as Osband's Summer and Bloodgood, or a little later. 204 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER About the same season, there are several other summer pears, of various degrees of value : — Dearborn's Seedling is a rather small pear, mostly of high quality, but in some places of little value. It is a handsome grower, and an early and good bearer. Notwithstanding its smallness, it may be regarded as worthy of a place in large collections. The Zoar Beauty, a native of Ohio, is a fruit of mo- derate flavor, but the fine growth and productiveness of the tree, and the handsome appearance of the fruit, render it worthy of attention. It grows freely as a dwarf, and the fruit on our trees has been three inches long, and two and a half in diameter. It is subject to rot at the core, which may be prevented, as in all other summer pears, by early picking and house-ripening. The Limon, a Belgian variety, is a small obovate fruit, buttery and melting in texture, and usually, not always, with a high " very good" flavor. It should be in large collections. Immediately after the pre- ceding, or near the close of sum- mer, several fine pears ripen. Among these the JRostiezer (fig. 2) is undoubtedly the highest fla- vored. It holds the same rank among summer pears as the Seckel among those of autumn. Unlike the Seckel, however, it is a strong grower, and it makes a handsome and productive tree. Fig. 6— Tyson. The fruit is a little below medi- um in size, juicy and melting, rich, sugary and perfumed. We have never heard any one object to its flavor. Equal in general value, but not quite so high flavored, is the handsome and excellent Tyson, (fig. 6.) It is a fine, upright grower, larger than the Rostiezer, and of uniformly good quality. It is a tardy bearer on pear stocks, although ultimately quite productive. As a dwarf, it bears early and profusely. The Ott, (fig. 7,) a new Pennsylvania pear, a seedling of the Seckel, is a rather small, and delicious late summer 11 sort. The tree is a moderate grower. The figure which we give is drawn A OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 205 from an unusually large speci- men, grown on the grounds of Elhvanger & Barry, of Rochester. The Pulsifer (fig. 8) is an Illinois variety. The tree is an upright and vigor- ous grower ; the pear about medium in size ; it is melting and juicy, and if well ripened is "very good." The Bran- dyxcine is one of the best late summer pears, and originated in Delaware county, Pa. It ©c^~- Fig. 7— Ott. Fig. 8— Pulsifer. is a vigorous and handsome grower, both on pear and quince. The fruit is full me- dium in size, but rather dull in appearance. Its quality is usually "very good," although sometimes inferior. Man- ning's Elizabeth is a beautiful and very good fruit, but too small to become a great gene- ral favorite. Moyamensivg, of Philadelphia origin, is a vigorous and productive tree, with an irregular, obovate, rough or knobby fruit. It is "good," sometimes "very good," but must be taken at ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER exactly the right time in ripening, or, as Dr. Brinckle, who introduced it, once remarked to us, "it should be eaten by the chronometer." There are some old summer varieties, that may be worthy of a passing notice. Amire Joannet is the earliest known pear, ripening a week before the Madeleine ; it is very small, rather handsome, and the tree a free, upright grower and early bearer. We consider it, however, as entirely unworthy of cultivation; for although sometimes tolerably good, it is more usually dry, mealy, poor, and worthless. The Little Musk or Primitive, is a week later, even smaller than the preceding, but a profuse bearer, and better in quality. It is but little or no earlier than the Madeleine and Summer Doyenne, and is therefore rejected. The Muscat JRobat is larger, better, and later, but has not good qualities enough to render it worthy a place with the best sorts. The Sugar-top is about the size of the Madeleine and ripens with it, but the flavor is poor. It is admired, however, by those who never saw a good sum- mer pear. The Jargonelle, one of the best of the old sorts, matures two weeks after these, and if picked early and house-ripened, so as to prevent the core-rotting to which it is so liable, is often of quite good quality ; to some its agreeable acidity renders it a favorite. Nearly all persons would, how- ever, greatly prefer the Bloodgood, Giffard and Osband, which are nearly as early. The Julienne was formerly highly prized, but is not now cultivated in the Northern States. In the South, it is greatly improved both in size and quality, and is one of the very best early pears for that region, ripening, along the borders of the Gulf of Mexico, before midsummer. No sort is equal to it for early bearing, nothing being more common than to see small trees in the nursery row bending under loads of fruit. THE VALUE OF ORCHARDS. Those who are about to prepare the ground and set out orchards, have mostly very indistinct views of their real value. They know that good fruit sells in market, but they have never made any defined estimate of the proba- ble income from ten acres of well selected, well planted, and well cultivated trees. Whether there will be an annual return of a hundred, five hundred, or five thousand dollars, they have never carefully figured ; and those who have made calculations have perhaps greatly erred as to the probable amount to be reasonably expected, for want of reliable data. Apple orchards are the most certain and reliable, and their profits are very high. There is always an extensive market for good apples, because they are useful for every day food, and are within the reach of all. When more skill is generally acquired in picking and keeping, the market will increase, because there will be less loss by decay on the part of the purchaser. Forty years ago, good winter apples sold for 25 cents per bushel at the orchard ; and it is remarkable that notwithstanding the millions of trees which I OF RURAL AFFAIRS. have since that time been set out, and the changes which have passed over the country and its people, the price has not at any time greatly varied from this sum. During scarce seasons it has been higher ; and when the crop has been abundant, market has not been found for all ; but even in the latter instance, selected fruit, from thrifty, well managed orchards, would always command a ready price, and at higher rates than the average, by special con- tract Rare or fancy sorts, (as Northern Spy, Lady Apple, &c.,) would often sell for several times more than that we have mentioned, but we do not take these into the account. What, then, is the value of a good, well managed apple orchard, per acre, and at different ages in growth ? If well cultivated, the trees may be regarded as full grown at fifteen years, and they will continue to bear from 30 to 50 years more. Casualties, or danger of dying, would not exceed 10 per cent., the owner spending not over one dollar per acre yearly, in destroying borers, caterpillars, &c. The crop will vary with seasons, but on good trees of pro- perly selected sorts, the average will be eight bushels yearly. (In abundant seasoas it will be frequently three times as much.) Forty trees per acre, will give 320 bushels. At 20 cents per bushel, on the tree, an acre will yield $64. Deduct 10 per cent, for casualties, 10 more as allowance for the limited duration of the orchard, and $1 for assaults on insects, and the yearly return will exceed $50. This is the interest, at *7 per cent., on $*700 per acre — or $1*7.50 per tree — which may be fairly reckoned as the true value of the best orchards. Poor ones, uncultivated, unpruned, enveloped in suckers, and of unsaleable or unproductive varieties, would be indefinitely lower. (We have sold a good orchard at $600 per acre, and the purchaser was abundantly satis- fied.) The cost of such an orchard may be easily reckoned. The 40 trees, and freight on them, $10 ; transplanting, including thorough preparation of the ground, $8 ; land, say $100 per acre; total, $118. The crop of potatoes, beans, turnips, &c, among the trees, until they are grown, or begin to bear, would pay interest on the land. The net profit, therefore, per acre, would be $582. The orchard at eight years, or half grown, would not produce more than one-fourth or one-third the amount in eight years more, but in view of its constantly increasing value, it would be safe to estimate it at half price. These estimates, it must be particularly observed, are for well selected and well managed trees. It would be safer not to make any estimate or calcula- tion whatever, on neglected ones, such as nineteen-twentieths are, of all that are set out Peach orchards. Estimates on peach orchards are more difficult, because the crop quickly perishes, and more knowledge, care and skill, is required in marketing. The market, as well as the crop, is more uncertain, and the trees are of shorter life. In some places, they will not live over 10 years ; in others they endure 20, and with good management, 30 years. The fruit of the finest sorts may sell for 50 to 150 cents per bushel, on the tree; and in 208 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER the best localities, such as along the south shore of Lake Ontario,, the crop will be good three-fourths of the seasons. If trees yield a bushel yearly, as an average, they may be estimated at the lowest at fifty cents yearly per tree, and two hundred trees per acre, (15 feet apart,) would give $100 yearly — the interest on $1,400 per acre. Deduct 50 per cent, for casualties and short life, and the value would be about the same as for an apple orchard, for trees just coming into good bearing, in localities where they grow and bear best. This estimate is much at random, will be thought by many as too low, and will vary greatly with circumstances. Pear orchards, are either good for nothing, or so profitable as to present apparently fabulous estimates. If standards, the trees are more difficult to transplant successfully than the apple and peach ; and if dwarfs, which are very easily transplanted, better cultivation is required than nineteen-twen- tieths of the owners are willing to give them. But when in good bearing condition, if intelligently managed and marketed, the profits are very heavy. Single standard trees, with but little care after they are full grown, have yielded, for a series of years, from $20 to $30 annually. A hundred such per acre, (20 feet apart,) allowing 50 per cent, to fail, would be $1,000 to $1,500, which, allowing 50 per cent, more for casualties and limited duration, would be $V,500 to $10,000 for the ten acres. This would not be an extra- vagant estimate for well selected, well managed trees, and skillful marketing. For neglected trees, of poor sorts, it would be about $7,500 to $10,000 too much. The long time required to raise such an orchard, is the reason there are so few, our people being either too impatient for so long a delay, or, which is a still more frequent reason, entirely unwilling to give them the attention they should receive during the early stages of their growth. Dwarf pears are transplanted with facility, and a young orchard is easily started ; but very few ever arrive at good profitable bearing condition. This is owing to several reasons ; a prominent one is, that it is nearly impossible to induce the owners to give them a mellow, cultivated soil. When the essential requisites of good management are regarded, and the locality has been a favorable one, the best results have followed. Ellwanger & Barry, T. G. Yeomans, W. P. Townsend, T. R. Austin, and others, have obtained from their dwarf pear orchards various sums, ranging from $400 to $2,000 per acre, in favorable seasons. One of these, which yielded in a single year $500 from one-fourth of an acre, was simply manured, and cultivated with two horses abreast, between the rows, at less cost than is required for the culture of corn — the whole probably not amounting to $3 for the quarter acre. Neglected, as most orchards are, they would not probably have afforded $10; consequently, the nett profits of good management were over $4S0. In the instance here mentioned, the crop sold for $14 to $35 per barrel, and well grown fruit may be safely reckoned, at any time, at the lowest, at $2 to $3 per bushel, on the tree. We may estimate the value of an orchard, there- fore, as follows : Average product of good trees, of the best sorts, one bushel ; OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 209 number of trees, per acre, 600 ; product in dollars per acre, annually, $1,200 to $1,800. Making allowance of 50 per cent, for liability to fire-blight and other disasters ; and then 50 per cent, more for limited duration of the trees, and the yearly income would be about $350, which is the interest on $5,000 per acre — a fair estimate of the real value of a good, well treated acre of dwarf pears, just coming into full bearing. TRAINING WEEPING TREES. Weeping Ornamental trees are often allowed to grow irregularly, and of some sorts the branches become too drooping, and present a less ornamental appearance than when pains are taken to give them a symmetrical form. Fig. 1. Fig. 2. For example, Fig. 1 shows the common way in which the new weeping wil- low is left to grow of its own accord ; and fig. 2 is the same, trained into a fine umbrella shape, by means of hoops tied beneath, at the places indicated by dotted lines. The branches in a few years become stiff enough to support their own weight, and the hoops are then removed. REMOVING LARGE TREES. For common practice, and with good cultivation, it is now fully established that small trees, well removed, will become larger and better with a few years growth, than when transplanted of large size. In transplanting from nurse- ries, small trees are therefore selected by skillful cultivators. There are cases, however, where the removal of large trees becomes desirable— such, for example, as thinning out plantations, or transferring trees from one part of the same grounds to another. To do it imperfectly, or by mutilating the trees in a hasty manner, would be no better than throwing them at once away. A large mass of the roots must be carefully secured, and this cannot be done without conveying with them a large ball of earth. Nor should the operation in any instance be performed on such as are more than three or four inches 210 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER in diameter, and twenty or twenty-five feet high. The operation succeeds better with evergreens than with most deciduous trees, on account of the more circumscribed and denser mass of fibrous roots. It is commonly per- formed in winter, with a frozen ball of earth ; but if done in spring, it is equally successful, and the labor is not one-half that of cutting frozen earth. One of the simplest and easiest modes of removing the trees that we have met with, is that practiced by W. P. Howl and, Esq., of Aurora, N. Y., who has carried evergreens twenty feet high or more, with half a ton of earth on the roots, with the labor of two men and a single horse. A large number of trees were thus removed, and so successful was the work, that, supplied as they were with mellow and rich earth outside the balls, they actually grew more the following summer than they had for any single year previously. The trees are first dug about and com- pletely loosened.— A piece of carpet or thick sacking is then wound about the trunk for a foot or two, to prevent any accidental chaf- ing. An iron ring, shaped as in fig. 3, and 5 or 6 inches long, is then fas- tened to the trunk close to the ground, by passing through it and around the trunk, a broad strip of stout sacking — strong enough to hold the weight of the tree, fig. 4. The hinder wheels of a common farm wagon, with their axle, are then run up near the tree behind it. Chains attached to the axle, as shown in fig. 1, enable the horse to draw it, when hitched to the whiffle-tree, a. The long lever &, is then placed upon the axle, which serves as a fulcrum, and the hook at its end, (shown in fig. 2,) is hooked into the ring already mentioned. By bringing down the end b of this lever, (fig. 1,) the tree is hoisted out of its hole, as shown in the figure. One man holding the lever b, and the other driving the horse, it is carried and deposited at i £*-_ . . . .1 b the exact spot desired ; it is lowered into the new hole with the same ease that it was raised from its former position. After ^FCFBUSOH Fig. 1. **&£& — Fig. 2. =^=>&J OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 211 ;^....„.„..^.- minutes, and there is no hard lifting, grunting, nor severe strain of the ver- tebral column, but all is done with ease, satisfaction, and precision. Where other trees stand thickly, and in the way, the pole may be first set upright against the side of the tree, and both tied together a few feet from the ground ; then by bringing both down horizontally, the tree is drawn off without interfering with others. A rope attached to the end of the pole will enable the operator to lower it easily. ♦ ■» « FORTUNES SUNK. We know a farmer over sixty years old, who has worked hard for more than forty years. He began with a good 150 acre farm given him, but sub- ject to an incumbrance of about one-third its value. This was a good start. He is, after a lapse of forty years, still in debt. He is temperate ; had he not been, his farm would have gone long ago. He has worked hard ; had he not, he must have failed. He has been economical, in its common meaning, or he never could have kept even with his creditors. What, then, has kept him back in the world? We have figured up, and found that he has virtually sunk three good estates, by a want of manage- ment. First. In wintering his cattle and sheep. He kept, generally, about 20 cattle and 100 sheep. The cattle trod about three tons of hay under foot each year, and consumed half a ton each extra by exposure to the winds, in all 13 tons, worth $91. This exposure of cattle and calves reduced their size and market value one-third — annual increase, 6 head, and average value lost, $8 each — $48. Ten per cent of his sheep and lambs were lost by want of shelter, and the clip was diminished 25 per cent, from the same cause — total loss on sheep, per annum, $50. The whole yearly loss on cattle and sheep was, therefore, $189. In forty years this annual loss, with compound interest, would amount to about $35,000. Thus one fortune has been sunk. Secondly. In a want of good rotation of crops. He raised wheat after wheat, oats after oats, and corn after corn, because the stubble was most easily plowed, till his land was exhausted, and full of weeds. The crops, as a whole, scarcely paid his labor. A good rotation would have safely given him one-third more, which would have been a clear gain, on an average, of at least $5 an acre, on about 50 acres, yearly — total, $250 a year. This loss repeated for 40 years, and interest, would amount to more than $50,000 ! This was the second fortune sunk. Thirdly. In raising crops of weeds. Some of his pasture fields had a a heavier growth of mulleins, rag-weed, johnswort, and thistles, than of grass ; consequently, at least half his land was wasted to grow them. On 50 acres 212 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER of pasture, at least $2 each were yearly wasted, to say nothing of the loss of grain by the Canada thistle patches, in retarding growth and preventing clean harvesting, and his greatly diminished crop of corn by fos-tail and pig-weed. The annual loss from weeds was, therefore, at least $100 — the amount of which, with interest, in 40 years, would be $20,000. The third fortune. There are several other items of bad management that might be added, but these will do at present. If any one doubts these estimates, let him examine carefully the amount raised by one of our best and thriftiest farmers, and from this amount deduct what is produced by a poor manager ; then calculate compound interest, adding in the yearly loss, for 40 years, (the period of active business,) and he will probably find that on 150 arable acres, not merely the $110,000 have been virtually sunk, but a much larger sum. If, however, the yearly loss should be much less, all we ask is that the reader may take that diminished amount and go carefully through the calculatiou, and he will doubtless per- ceive why some men get rich at the business and others do not. FRUITS AND FRUIT CULTURE. Rules for Pruning Grapes. Hovey's Magazine gives substantially the following general rules for grape pruning, after recommending grape-growers to be free in the use of the knife, followed by the remark that where one vine is pruned too severely, nine are not pruned enough: 1st. No shoots should be nearer than one foot of each other. 2d. Prune back to within one eye of the old wood, every fall and spring, about one-half of the aunual shoots— the remaining eyes producing canes to be retained for bearing next year— when the old bearing wood is in turn to be cut out, to make room for new shoots. 3d. Disbud or rub off, as soon as they ap- pear, all shoots not wanted as bearing wood. Directions for Transplanting. 1. First, have a good, deep, dry soil— well underdrained, if wet. Bad fruit is often caused by hidden water standing below the surface. 2. If not very fertile, it must be enriched by manure, which is best done a year or two before planting, as fresh, unmixed manure should never touch the newly set roots. Or strips of land eight feet wide for each row. may be deeply plowed with the dead furrow in the middle, (to promote drainage,) half a load or less of old manure or compost, placed for each tree, and thoroughly harrowed into the soil before setting. 3. If the ground has been well and deeply mellowed and enriched, the holes need be only large enough to receive the roots with- out bending; otherwise they should be five or six feet across, and a foot deep. On heavy land, inveited sods are good in the bottom. Large holes, filled with rich earth or old com- post, will cause young trees to grow rapidly. Never place manure near the roots. 4. Pare off with a knife all bruised parts of the roots, to prevent decay. Place the tree no deeper than it stood before— less deep is better than more. Fill the fine earth care- fully among the roots, spreading them all out with the fingers. No cavities should ever be left among or beneath the roots, and the earth may be well settled among them by pouring in water when the hole is part filled. All except small trees need staking to protect from the wind. 5. Autumn and spring are both good sea- sons for transplanting— except that tender trees, as peach and apricot, do best in spring, unless on a dry bottom. The autumn is the better season to procure trees from distant nurseries, even for spring planting. They may be safely wintered by burying the roots deeply in the earth, in a dry, sheltered situa- tion. Trees should be always well shortened or cut in at the head, when set out. OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 213 6. Good, clean cultivation, 19 of the ut- most importance. Neither corn, potatoes, nor fruit trees, can flourish surrounded by weeds and grass sod. 7. Watering usually injures young trees by baking the earth. If necessary, lay the roots bare, pour on the water, and replace the earth. A rich soil, kept mellow, will not need water. Young cherry trees often die about midsummer, unless mulcheu, or with the earth about them cover- ed several inches with old straw, or other litter. Trees dried by f"C' ;"M long carriage, may be restored {^~- :'i\ by immersion for a day or two in \\>''l water. I Root-Grafting the Grape. This mode of propagation is becoming extensively adopted by nurserymen. The accompa- nying figure shows how it is done. The cleft is made in a short graft, and a small root, an inch and a half long, is inserted. (Fig. 1.) The parts are bound well toge- ther with strips of waxed paper, leaving a small portion of the lower end of the graft open, for the free emission of roots. They are then subjected to a bottom heat under glass, and soon make growth. They are transferred to pots once before being set out in the open ground, and they make good saleable plants by autumn. The grafting is done about mid- winter, or later. Depredators and Diseases. Mice are excluded by banking up a foot around every tree, late in autumn— Curcu- lios, by jarring down on sheets daily, and by turning in pigs and geese— Apple Tree Bo- BBB8, by punching to death in their holes with a small twig— and the Peach Worm by cutting out with a knife. Fire Blight in the pear must be instantly cut off far down, and the branches burned— and the Black-knot may be kept off the plum by prompt and con- tinued amputation, beginning in time. Apples for the West. The following carefully selected list of ap- ples, for the Northern, Middle, and Southern portions of Illinois, adopted by the Illinois Horticultural Society, will apply to any of the Western States, of corresponding latitudes: North Illinois.— For general cultivation. Summer.— Early Harvest, Carolina Red June, Duchess of Oldenburg, Keswick Codlin, Sweet June. Autumn.— Fameuse, Maiden's Blush, Fall Swaar, (of the West,) Bailey's Sweet, Lowell. Winter.— Winesap, Rawles' Janet, Domine, Jonathan, Willow Twig, White Pippin, Yel- low Belleflower, (on clay soil,) Roman Stem, Red Romanite, (of poor quality, but an abun- dant bearer and long keeper,) Tallman's Sweet, Fulton. For Amateur Culture.— Summer.— Benoni, Red Astrachan, Early Pennock, Summer Queen. Autumn.— Fall Strawberry, Holland Pip- pin, Fall Wine, Northern Sweet, Striped Gil- liflower (or Scollop.) Winter. — Seek-no-Further, (Westfield.) WhiteWinter Pearmain, Herefordshire Pear- main, English Golden Russet, Michael Hen- ry Pippin, Swaar. The Committee for Central Illinois report- ed the following lists : For general cultivation.— Summer. — Early Harvest,Sweet June.CaroliDa June, Hocking, Benoni, Summer Pearmain, Keswick Codlin. Autumn. — Maiden's Blush, Fall Wine, Rambo, Bailey's Sweet, Fall Swaar, (of the West,) Fameuse, Trenton Early. Winter.— Jonathan, Fulton, White Belle- flower, Yellow Belleflower, Roman Stem, Domine, White Pippin, English Golden Rus- set, Milam. Smith's Cider, Wine Sap, Janet, Willow Twig, Limber Twig, White Pearmain, Little Red Romanite. For Amateurs they add to the above list : Sine qua non, Summer Rose, Fall Pippin, Paragon. American Golden Russet, Red Can- ada.Swaar, Pryor's Red.iEsopusSpitzenburg. For further trial.— Red Astrachan, Red Seedy Fringe, Ragan Apple, Herefordshire Pearmain, Minkler. The above lists were adopted. South Illinois.— Summer— Early Harvest, Carolina June, Red Astrachan. Autumn.— Maiden's Blush, Fall Queen or Buckingham, Rambo. Winter. — Rawles' Janet, White Winter Pearmain, Limber Twig, Wine Sap, Yellow Belleflower, Carolina. Selection of Hardy Grapes. The Fruit Growers' Association of Eastern Pennsylvania took a vote on the best varie- ties of hardy grapes, with the following re- sult : VOTES. Concord 9 Delaware, 8 Diana 7 Clinton 6 Isabella 5 Hartford Prolific 3 Catawba, 3 Taylor , Cloentha Ontario, Cassiday, ©c^- 1 4 214 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER Young Cherry Trees. A large portion of newly transplanted cher- ry trees die about midsummer, after having appeared in leaf, resulting from dry and hot soil at the roots. Water often increases the difficulty, and kiils them by making a hard crust. Tf water is applied at all, the earth should be first removed from the roots, and a copious supply poured on. But this too is of little use. The roots are drenched for the moment, and in a short time are as dry as ever. The only remedy is a thick, heavy mulching. If of old straw, it should be about 6 inches thick, and several feet in diameter. High Prices for Pears. T. G. Yeomans, of Wayne county, whose success as a pear grower has frequently been alluded to in the Country Gentleman, has been very successful the past season, both in growing and selling his fruit. A Rochester paper says: "This year he has had remark- able success, and has raised some of the most magnificent specimens of fruit ever exhibit- ed. One barrel of Duchess d' Angoulemes, which he sent to Philadelphia, contained only one hundred and twenty five pears. The fruit alone weighed one hundred and twenty- seven pounds, so that the pears averaged over a pound each. This barrel sold for $35.63, and the purchaser trebled his money in retailing it. Four other barrels sent by Mr. Yeomans, to the same market, contained one hundred and fifty-two, one hundred and sixty-one, one hundred and sixty-two, and one hundred and sixty-five pears respective- ly. The best eleven barrels sent off, were sold for over $300." The Glout Morceau Pear. On the grounds of Edward W. Herendeen, of Macedon, Wayne county, N. Y., a single dwarf tree of the Glout Morceau Pear, eight years planted, bore the past season one bar- rel of excellent fruit. It had received but moderate cultivation. The pears were large and fair, and ripened into a fine flavor on the approach of winter. Ellwanger & Barry, of Rochester, as we may have stated on a former occasion, have sent their crops of this pear to the New York market, where they have sold early in winter, when in fine eating condition, at three dollars per dozen. Broadcast Cultivation. S. G. Minkler, of Illinois, has found that well cultivated young apple trees, set out two rods apart, meet at the roots in eight years. Hence the importance of cultivating or ma- nuring the whole surface, instead of a small circle at the foot of the tree, as too often practiced. Apples in Wisconsin. The Northwestern Fruit Growers' Associa- tion have recommended the following varie- ties for general cultivation, in Wisconsin : — Red Astrachan, Sops of Wine, Carolina Red June, Duchess of Oldenburgh, St. Lawrence, Wagoner, Pomme Grise, and English Golden Russet. The last was very highly commend- ed for Western culture. Early Harvest, al- though not hardy, yet on a firm, dry soil, with a low top, was regarded as valuable. Early Joe had proved hardy and productive, and well adapted to amateur culture. Maidens' Blush was well esteemed, but somewhat ten- der. Fall Orange always did well. Jersey Sweet, Rambo, Domine and Vandevere Pip- pin had proved too tender. Fall Wine slight- ly so, and very productive. The Baldwin was found to be very tender, quite unproduc- tive, and of no value. The English Russet succeeded only on high and dry soils. The Red Romanite quite hardy, but the quality poor. Herefordshire Pearmain was highly recommended ; usually hardy on dry soils, but failed on low grounds. Rawles' Janet was found to lack vigor of tree. Northern Spy succeeded well. Blue Pearmain, although hardy and good, was very unproductive. Tallman Sweet and Fameuse were both high- ly recommended. Hardy and Tender Trees. Eli Nichols, an experienced fruit raiser, of Ohio, justly remarks: "Some, recently, have made a great mistake, in concluding that the cold winters kill or spare trees with- out rule or reason. A somewhat extensive observation shows me, that where trees are good, sound, healthy, they are not killed. On well drained ground, with manure enough to give healthy vigor, the tree has lived. Treated the same, on much richer land, or with water at the roots, it died. Manuring trees on ground already too rich, has proved fatal— on poor land, it has saved the tree. On thin lands, thorough cultivation cannot injure; on rich bottoms, or highly manured lands, it may, especially if late." Culture of the Blackberry. Procure plants which have been propagat- ed from cuttings of the roots, (suckers are apt to be one-sided, and destitute of small fibres,) of moderate or rather small size, as these succeed best. Plant them in a good rich soil, good enough for corn or cabbages, about four by six feet. Cultivate them well, if the plantation is extensive, by horse pow- er, and in summer, as soon as the shoots are three or four feet high, pinch off the top to induce a thicker growth, and to send out side 6hoots. These will bear another year. ©c^=- ©c^~ OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 215 Dwarf Apples. It is possible that the dwarf apple may become more popular than the dwarf pear. It is not liable to the accidents of the lat- ter. All sorts of apples grow freely on the dwarf stock, and it is not necessary to take that particular care in selection, founded on many years of experience— although some sorts of the apple form handsomer and better shaped heads when treated as dwarfs than others. The symmetrical growers should be selected, because they make the process of pruning simpler, and more easily give the desired shape. Common standard apple trees occupy too much room for gardens and small places. At the commonly recommended distance, 33 feet, only 40 can stand on an acre; and placed at the nearest distance admissible, 25 feet, an acre is required for 69 trees. A quarter-acre village garden can therefore have only 10 trees at the former, and 17 at the latter nam- ed distance, if apple trees occupy the whole ground. But dwarf apples may stand about four times nearer, giving sixteen times as many trees on the quarter-acre. If, there- fore, one-half the quarter-acre garden is oc- cupied with dwarf apples, 85 trees may be planted at eight feet apart, a suitable dis- tance for the Doucain dwarf, or 150 at six feet apart, the space for the smaller or Paradise dwarf. The best varieties for dwarf stocks, as a general rule, are those which naturally form a round or oval head. Such will need but little pruning. Among these are the Red Astrachan, Jersey Sweet, Porter, Baldwin, Dyer, Monmouth Pippin, Summer Rose, Be- noni, and Sweet Bough. There are others that incline to grow upright, and need some pruning to prevent their running upwards, and to induce spreading ; among these are the Northern Spy, Twenty Ounce, Lady Ap- ple, Wagoner, Early Strawberry, and Bailey Sweet, all of which make handsome dwarfs. There are again others, although not so hand- some growers, yet the ornamental appear- ance of the fruit renders them desirable dwarfs, as the Fameuse, Red Canada, Caro- lina Red June, Munson Sweet, &c. There are still others, which grow so irregular that some care would be required to make hand- some trees of them, such as Fall Pippin, Ca- nada Heinette, and Tompkins County King. Dwarf apples should be mostly confined to summer and autumn varieties, in order to furnish a fresh supply for the table of the most desirable sorts. Winter apples maybe most profitably rais- ed in orchards of large trees, or purchased in market by the barrel. Dwarfs are especially desirable for those who plant new places, and consequently de- sire an early return. The Paradise stock will give crops the third year; and the Doucain the fourth, in abundance. A fine young col- lection of dwarfs, now four years planted, and growing their fifth summer, bear much better this unfavorable season, than old or- chards. Some of the trees are loaded. A Hawthornden is so full that the branches densely set with apples, lie on the ground with their loads of fruit, now in the second year of such profuse bearing. The Doucain trees are about 7 feet high, and the Paradise 5 to 6 feet. The soil is fertile, and always well cultivated. Transplanting Strawberries. The best time for transplanting strawber- ries is early in the spring— the operation is then easily performed, and nearly all the plants will live and grow; and if they are of productive sorts, they will bear a small or moderate crop the same season. The next best is just after bearing, or about midsummer. But more care and labor is then required, and some of the plants are apt to die. All the large leaves must be tak- en off, leaving only the young or opening ones— the roots should be previously dipped in mud and and then spread well out at set- ting—the earth settled about them by pour- ing in some water, and the surface mulched with an inch or so of fine manure, being care- ful not to cover the crown of the plant. They will grow considerably, and bear the next year. Setting out in autumn succeeds well if the proper requisites are attended to ; but care- lessly done, usually fails. The earth should be well packed, or trodden hard, about the plants, or the freezing will lift them out and kill them. They should be of hardy sorts, to endure the winter; the Wilson is especially adapted to this purpose. And they should be protected by a covering that will not settle down compactly on the plants and smother and destroy them. Fresh moss is perhaps the very best thing for this purpose, or the leaves of evergreens, or rather the small shoots containing the leaves. With this care the plants will keep well and start early; without it they will very likely be thrown out and frozen to death. Varieties inclining to be tender, as the Hooker and Hovey, are not well adapted to autumn transplanting. The principal advantage of this season is for plants that have to be carried a long dis- tance, or from a remote nursery, a supply could not be obtained in spring. ed a long dis- y, from which M early enough //\\ 216 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER -=^^@ DOMESTIC ANIMALS. The best Doctor for Animals. We have seen a great deal of doctoring for sick animals— some successful, and a great deal of it unsuccessful— and we have long since come to the conclusion that the most skillful physician that we have ever met with is Doctor Nurse. If an animal, (as well as human being,) is not carefully taken care of, nursed, all the medicine in the world can do but little good. And, on the other hand, with good nursing, medicine is generally un- necessary. Our own observations lead to the opinion that in at least nine cases out of ten, as commonly administered, medicine does more harm than good. An eminent New-York physician said that taking medicine was always a choice of evils — that, being poisons in nearly all in- stances, they necessarily did harm to the system, and were never to be employed un- less there was a strong probability that they would benefit more than injure. This is not the rule adopted in doctoring horses, by most horse jockies and others having care of these animals, if we might judge from the way in which gunpowder, salts, red pepper, turpentine, whiskey, corrosive sublimate, and other violent remedies, are administer- ed at hap -hazard, increasing in nearly all cases the violence of the disease. It may be laid down as a general rule, that it is much safer to give too little than too much medi- cine ; and that none should be given unless we know distinctly how it is to operate, and what it is for. Some years ago. a valuable horse caught cold, and was troubled with a cough so severe that he might be heard half a mile, and which appeared to be rapidly reducing his flesh. We had an abundance of prescrip- tions from neighbors, of all kinds of frightful medicines, enough to have killed him had he been in perfect health. We concluded to discard all, and to place him under the atten- tion of Dr. Nurse. Great care was taken never to work him to perspiration— he was blanketed whenever the weather was chilly- he was fed regularly and moderately on suc- culent food, all such food partaking of the character of expectorants, and favoring a free discharge from the lungs— and all his other wants were observed as well as we were able to, and promptly supplied. In six weeks he was perfectly well. Had some nostrum been employed, it might have injured him, and prevented recovery; or if it had not, Dr. Nurse might not have been called in ; but if he had, and the medicine had not greatly retarded his recovery, and he had got well in six months, it would unquestionably have been regarded as an extraordinary cure. At another time, a valuable mare, eleven years old, was badly sweenied by hard work, the worst case of sweeny we ever met with. It was generally regarded as a hopeless case, but various remedies were proposed and of- fered, costing from $20 down to $3. We con- cluded that our old friend Dr. Nurse should be again called, to the exclusion of all these fellows, and the consequence is, that with simply careful, moderate treatment, the ani- mal is well, and the sweeny filled up. The majority of sick horses get well; every owner tries some remedy ; and that particu- lar medicine that he happened to be using at the time, gets all the credit — although, as a general thing, it retarded more or less bis recovery. We must make one exception in the gene- ral rejection of medicines— there is one, which if given moderately can scarcely ever injure, and may often do much good. This is powdered charcoal— a powerful antiseptic, and absorbent of bad matter, while, unlike most other medicines, it does not irritate— a most important advantage. A clear illustra- tion of this advantage recently occurred in the case of a fine calf five months old, which had become bloated by eating too many ap- ples, blown down by a violent gale. Its sides became distended by wind to an almost in- credible size; a solution of saleratus was poured down its throat repeatedly, and as often thrown out violently, on account of its irritating action on the throat of the young animal. It continued for eighteen hours, with little or no improvement, when a large tablespoonful of powdered charcoal mixed with half a pint of water, was given. The dose was swallowed without any difficulty, and in four hours the calf appeared to be perfectly well. Charcoal may be given in nearly all cases of derangement of the diges- tion, whether with men or beasts, with great advantage. One-half to a teaspoonful is a full dose for a man, and as much more for an animal as its food exceeds that of a man. We do not mean to say that there are not other medicines that do not occasionally prove eminently useful ; but unless they can be given understandingly, with a full compre- hension of their mode of action, and with an undoubted knowledge of the exact nature of the disease— and their use sanctioned by very clear and distinct previous success— it would be much safer to discard them- OF RURAL AFFAIRS. Shropshire Down Sheep. In former numbers of this work we have given portraits of most of the prominent breeds of sheep. The above engraving re- presents a breed— the Shropshire Downs— now rapidly coming into notice and repute in England. They are originally descended from a hardy mountain breed, through which they inherit an excellent constitution. This enables them to thrive on some of the most exposed districts ; while on more fertile pas- tures they evince a rapidity of growth, and natural tendency to a heavy weight at an early age, certainly not surpassed by any other breed. We have had the cut drawn and engraved from a fine plate in a recent number of the Farmers' Magazine— which speaks of the sheep themselves as admirable for "splendid quality of meat, broad chines, and full plaits, and wonderfully good loins and rumps." Wintering Sheep. The three great requisites for successfully wintering sheep are, 1, good and regular wa- ter and food; 2d, good, clean shelter; and 3d, keep them in small flocks. The following is the method adopted by Robert J. Swan, of Geneva, N. Y., one of our best farmers: I consider, for my fattening sheep, the best mode is to have good deep sheds, (34 feet,) racks to receive their straw or hay, and troughs to feed their meal in, and keep the yards well littered with straw. We feed, to fattening sheep, two bushels of corn or two bushels of oil cake meal, to the hundred sheep, with plenty of good bright wheat straw three times a day, till the 1st of March, at which time we give them hay, in their racks, three times a day, and one bushel of corn or oil meal per day per hundred. My store sheep we give plenty of bright oat or wheat straw in racks, three times a day, and one bush- el of corn or oil cake meal per day per hundred, till the 1st of March, at which time I give them hay and no grain, but always take good care to see that all my stock yards are well littered with straw. My lambs I feed hay three times a day, and three pecks of oil meal or corn meal to the hundred. All the yards well supplied with water. I never lose my sheep in winter, but more in summer, and those the fattest and the best — about two per cent. — Judging from what I have no- ticed, on Mr. Johnston's farm, I think the fine wooled sheep less subject to disease than the coarser breeds. Where small flocks of coarse wooled sheep are kept, I think them healthier than those kept in larger, or in mo- derate sized flocks. Having been a pupil of Mr. Johnston, I adopted his course of farm- ing, both in cultivating my farm, and fatten- ing my sheep. - Training Cattle to Jump. A western farmer says he makes it a rule that whenever cattle are made to pass a fence, whether through bars or "slip-gap," to leave one rail for them to pass under. This gives them a downward tendency, and lessens their inclination to jump or look up- wards, as they are sure to do when a lazy at- tendant throws down a part of the rails, and makes them vault the rest. Cattle may be learned to go over any fence, by the careful training they often get for this end, and per- formed as follows :— First starve them, or give them poor feed, which will make them light and restless. As soon as they go over the lowest part of the fence after better pro- vender, make them jump back again, and put on one more rail, saying, "I guess that will keep 'em out." Next day, (as of course they will be in mischief again,) repeat the process, adding another rail ; in a short time they will take care of themselves, and har- vest the crops without charge. and To make Horses Canter Slowly Gracefully. Col. Pratt, who has owned great numbers of horses, teaches them a slow and easy can- , ter, under the saddle, by riding them long // distances up hill. 218 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER Registering Sheep. The above cut illustrates the German mode of ear-marking and regularly numbering the sheep belonging to a flock, so that each indi- vidual can be distinctly registered: Each slit in the lower rim of the right ear represents 1 Each slit in the upper rim of the right ear represents 5 Each slit in the lower rim of the left ear represents 100 Each slit in the upper rim of the left ear represents 500 The central hole in the right ear repre- sents 25 The central hole in the left ear repre- sents 50 In the above figure : 7 slits in the upper rim of the left ear, 500 each 3,500 4 slits in the lower rim of the left ear, 100 each 400 The central hole in the left ear 50 4 slits in the lower rim of the right ear, 5 each 20 4 slits in the lower rim of the right ear, 1 each 4 The central hole in righht ear , 25 Number of the sheep 3,999 Bringing Sheep out of Winter. The Ohio Cultivator gives the following as Gen. Lahm's mode of preparing for spring— the most difficult season for sheep. It is well to feed animals well on the approach of such a season, but it is still better, easier, and safer, to give them good and regular food, and good management all the year round: Our lambs come from the 20th of April to the middle of May. and that the ewes maybe strong, and have an abundance of milk, we commence to feed a little bran and oats in March, and continue it until they get a suffi- ciency of grass. A ewe in good condition, and with a good flow of milk, seldom gives the shepherd any trouble, but the reverse with the sheep, the reverse with trouble. More than this, a lamb raised by a half- fed ewe, is not worth anything when raised. Ewes should not be fat, but in good condition ; and for several weeks before the lambs come, the ewes should be fed with a view to have a sufficient quantity of milk lor her lamb. There is nothing better for this purpose than oats and wheat bran, with good hay or corn fodder. To Prevent Horses Kicking. Having a horse that would kick every thing to pieces in the stable, that he could reach, and having found a remedy for it, (after trying many things, such as fetter- ing, whipping, hanging chains behind him for him to kick against, &c) I send it to you. It is simply fastening a short trace-chain, about two feet long, by a strap, to each hind foot, and let him do his own whipping if he cannot stand still without it, and he will not need to have boards nailed to his stall every day.— Country Gentleman. @c^~- How to make Cheap Beef. Many farmers are adopting the mode of disposing of their young animals for beef be- fore passing through the second winter, pro- vided they are fine, well grown animals, and in this way they have the growths of two summers and but one winter. The following is the mode adopted by a correspondent of the Country Gentleman : My stock for the last three years has con- sisted of good Durham grades, and I have just killed my first young bullock, aged 20X months, and fed as follows: For the first three weeks he got the mother's milk pure; for the next four months plenty of good skimmed milk, good clover pasture, and no- thing else. At the first approach of winter he was taken up, warmly housed, and fed good hay, and 100 bushels carrots and 12 bushels oats, ground, at 20 cents. This spring he was turned out to good pasture, and got nothing else till Nov. 18th, when he was fit for the butcher; but not wishing to kill him till the weather set in cold, I shut him up to the 11th inst., (Dec.,) and fed him hay and meal, at which date he was slaugh- tered and weighed, the four quarters. 683 lbs. The meat of a first rate quality, and very fat. I do not state this as being anything wonder- ful, (though it is here.) but I should like to learn if any of your readers can raise cheaper beef. By this plan of killing early beef, I get rid to a great extent of one great bugbear, the long winter, as I avail myself of two whole summers to one winter, and I find it cheaper to winter calves well, than grown / beasts. OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 219 Beginning Winter Bight. A correspondent of the Cultivator, allud- ing to the information he had derived from its pages, makes the following statement in relation to entering winter with animals in good condition: There is one change which I now regret that I had not made sooner than I have, as I would thus have had fewer deaths among my flock of sheep, more milk from my cows, and my working stock in better condition for spring's work. I had seen it stated on several occasions— probably more than once in every volume— that it was of great impor- tance to have sheep, and other stock, come to the yard or the stables on the approach of winter in good condition, and that it was bad management and poor economy to allow cows, sheep, or any other stock, in fact, to depend wholly on the dry, frozen pastures, as long as snow left them accessible. I had read more than once that it was almost im- possible to get an animal that is poor at the beginning of winter, into any better condi- tion while that season lasted. But though all these things seemed reasonable, and wor- thy of being attended to in practice, like some other of my neighbors, readers too of the same facts and admonitions, I neglected to conform my practice to what my judgment approved. This last autumn, however, I re- solved to have my stock in the very best con- dition before winter should set in. and by feeding cows and sheep a little before they were let out into the fields in the mornings, and a little after coming home at nights, and by other similar arrangements, I managed to have them all fat or in a fair condition when snow came. And though the fear of not hav- ing enough hay to carry my whole stock through the winter has made us feed rather scantily, they are all in first rate condition now. Begularity in Feeding. Every good farmer knows that any domes- tic animal is a good clock— that it knows, al- most to a minute, when the regular feeding time has arrived. If it has been accustomed to be fed with accuracy at the appointed pe- riod, it will not fret until that period arrives; after which it becomes very restless and un- easy till its food comes. If it has been fed irregularly, it will begin to fret when the ear- liest period arrives. Hence, this fretting may be entirely avoided, by strict punctual- ity ; but it cannot be otherwise. The very moment the animal begins to worry, that moment it begins to lose flesh ; but the rate of this loss has never been ascertained— it is certainly worthy of investigation— and can be only determined by trying the two modes, punctuality and irregularity, side by side, under similar circumstances, and with the same amount of food, for some weeks or months together. There is one precaution to be observed in connection with regular feeding, where some judgment is needed. Animals eat more in sharp or frosty, than in warm and damp weather. Hence, if the same amount by weight is given at every feeding, they will not have enough when the weather is cold, and and will be surfeited when it is warm and damp. Both of these evils must be avoided, while a little attention and observation will enable the farmer to do it. Profits of Sheep Raising. J. W. Worcester, of Pittsfield, Lorain co., 0., gives the following statement, showing how wool-growing pays those who manage it as it should be :— Last season I clipped 250 sheep ; the wool sold for $552. I have sold, within the year, 74 sheep, which is equal to the number of all the lambs raised, for $814, making $1,366. My sheep are of the Spanish Merino breed, and mostly ewes ; a few bucks and wethers. I have kept sheep the last 20 years, and consider it the most profitable business a farmer can engage in. A correspondent of the Ohio Farmer says that Messrs. J. &'E. W. Bingham, from their farm of 240 acres, (35 of which is woodland, and 40 under the plow,) have sold wool and sheep the past year to the amount of $1,200, and still retain their former number, 350, and these much improved in quality. They have also four horses and ten head of cattle on the farm. The sheep were originally from the Dickinson and Wells stock, but improved of late years by a cross with a pure bred Span- ish buck. Sheep husbandry, as carried out on this farm for the last 25 years, has always proved profitable, and adds yearly to the fer- tility and productiveness of its soil. Training Draft Animals. This cannot be commenced too early— at first by acts of kindness, by which they be- come tractable and confident, and all feeling of fear is dispelled. Colts and steers should be halter broken and yoked the first winter, and constantly handled, and this practice should never be discontinued. They must not, however, be worked hard while young, for many obvious reasons, but it is important that the training be done thoroughly, in which the art of backing is too much lost sight of. A well trained, orderly pair of cattle or horses, will always command nearly double the price of ordinary animals. ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER Swine Fed on Skim-Milk. We published a few years since a statement of the successful feeding and fattening of swine on skim-milk, as practiced by Joseph Greene, of Macedon, N. Y., a mode, how- ever, not entirely new. He fed spring pigs through the summer, and when six or seven months old, they usually averaged about 300 lbs. each. Three, at seven months, weighed in one histance, after being dressed, no less than 956 lbs. in the aggregate. Another ani- mal, at six months and ten days, weighed when dressed 298 pounds. He ascribed his success to feeding undiluted milk, or in its most concentrated state, without any water thrown in. This made them grow rapidly, with solid square bodies, and not like the flabby animals produced when much liquid and little nourishment are given. The fat- tening was completed on the ground meal of old corn. They did not thrive well on new corn, and failed on "nubbins." Several others have adopted a similar mode of treatment, with like success. One instance that has recently come to hand, is the following, reported in a late number of the Union Springs Herald:— " David Anthony killed, on Saturday last, a litter of eight spring pigs, about 8K months old, and the total weight of which were 2,350 lbs.— an average of 293 lbs. each— the lightest one weighing 280, and the heaviest 320 lbs. We call that hard to beat. If any one can do it, send on the figures." On inquiring personally of David Anthony as to the mode of feeding adopted, he in- forms us that these animals are chiefly in- debted for their rapid growth to the skim- milk that he gave them, of which he had a plentiful supply. He finished feeding them on 15 bushels of ground Canada corn, which was all the grain he gave them. He intends to plant a few acres of the Canada corn, for fattening his swine another year, as it is fully ripe before the first day of autumn, and is therefore found to be nearly equal to old corn for fall feeding. Relieving Choked Cattle. A Portland correspondent of the New Eng- land Farmer, gives the following easy and simple remedy:— "The instant a creature becomes choked, no matter what with, the throat becomes dry, and the longer the sub- stance remains, the drier the throat. The following is a sure remedy. Take some oil, no matter what kind, and hold the creature's head up and turn down about one gill of oil, and then let go of the head, and the creature will heave it out in two seconds ! I have tried it for years, and never knew it to fail." Treatment of Sows with Younc Pigs. A correspondent of the Maine Farmer, who has had thirty years successful experience in raising pigs, says: The hog goes with young sixteen weeks. They seldom vary twenty-four hours from that time. The feed should be gradually in- creased as much as eight weeks before they bring forth. For two days after, she should have no food except a little thin warm gruel, not to exceed half a pint a day of meal. She should have all the warm water she will take, which will sometimes be two pailfuls in a day. This is very essential, as it helps the flow of milk and prevents fever. You may now gradually increase the feed till the pigs are two weeks old, when she should be full fed. If you have no better feed, good In- dian meal, mixed with milk, will answer very well, if you give enough and feed regularly. The pigs should be taught to eat with their mother as young as two weeks, which maybe done by having a broad shallow trough, and gently putting them into it when the mother is eating. Weaning Lambs. Referring to this subject, W. H. Ladd of Jefferson co., O., (first rate authority on all sheep matters,) says :— My practice is to turn the lambs in with their mothers, after they have been separated some 12 hours, and as soon as they nurse, separate them again ; then, after 24 hours, allow them to nurse once more. Since I have adopted this plan, I have never had an ewe's udder injured. Lambs should have a very little salt frequently.when first weaned, as the herbage lacks the large proportion of salt which the mother's milk contains. But great care should be used not to give them much salt at once, or it will set them to purging; and if a lamb commences to purge soon after being taken from the mother, it seldom ever recovers from it. To Prevent Colts Gnawing Reins. Wash the reins in alcohol, in which aloes and assafcetida have been dissolved. One trial will usually effect a cure. The same re- sult has been produced when a few seeds of red pepper have been thrust into small inci- sions in leather, left purposely within their reach. Cattle Racks. A western farmer who feeds 150 head of cattle, estimates that the construction of good feeding racks saves him at least 5 tons of hay yearly— more than enough to pay an- nually for the racks. Judging from the amount of hay we have often seen trodden in the mud, or used as litter by the cattle, as many tons would be yearly saved by some who have not 50 head. ®C^£- OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 221 RURAL ECONOMY. Nail*, Nuts, Screws and Bolts. One of the component parts of a good far- mer is mechanical ingenuity. Some lose half a day's valuable time, for want of knowing how to repair a breakage, which an ingenious person could do in five minutes. A team and two or three men are sometimes stopped a whole day, at a critical season, for want of a little mechanical skill. It is well for every farmer to have at hand the facilities for repairing. In addition to the more common tools, he should keep a supply of nails of different sizes, screws, bolts, and nuts. Common cut-nails are too brittle for repairing implements, or for other similar purposes. Buy only the very best and anneal them, and they will answer all the ordinary purposes of the best wrought nails. To anneal them, all that is necessary is to heat them red hot in a common fire, and cool gradually. Let them cool, for instance, by remaining in the fire while it burns down and goes out. One such nail, well clinched, will be worth half a dozen unannealed. Nothing is more common than for a farmer to visit the blacksmith shop to get a broken or lost bolt or rivet inserted, and often a sin- gle nut on a bolt. This must be paid for, and much time is lost. By providing a supply of bolts, nuts and rivets, much time and trou- ble may be saved. They may be purchased wholesale at a low rate. These should all be kept in shallow boxes, with compartments made for the purpose, furnished with a bow-handle for convenience in carrying them. One box, with half a dozen divisions, may be appropriated to nails of different sizes; and another, with as many compartments, to screws, bolts, rivets, &c. Every farmer should keep on hand a sup- ply of copper wire, and small pieces of sheet copper or copper straps. Copper wire is bet- ter than anneaied iron wire; it is almost as flexible as twine, and may be bent and twist- ed as desired ; and it will not rust. Copper straps nailed across or around a fracture or split in any wooden article, will strengthen it in a thorough manner- Farmers' Tools. A certain number of tools and some skill in 'heir use, will often save the farmer much time in sending for a mechanic, and some ex- pense in paying him. Every farmer should be able to make small repairs on his wagons, gates, buildings, &c. A room, or a portion of a room, should be devoted to keeping these tools; a pin or nail should be inserted for each one to hang on, and the name of each tool written or painted under the pin, that it may be promptly returned to its place, and any missing one detected. Keep every tool in its place— do not wait for a more conve- nient season, but return every one to its pin the moment it is done with. If left out of place a minute, it will be likely to remain a week, and cause a loss of time in looking for it, a hundred times greater than in replacing it promptly. Keeping every thing in its place is a habit, costing nothing when formed. The tools should be, a hammer, saw, augers, brace and bits, gimlets, screw driver, wrench, two planes, chisels, mallet, files and rasp, saw- set, trowel, and a box with compartments for different sized nails, screws, nuts, bolts, Ac. Common farm implements and tools, such as hoes, spades, shovels, forks, rakes, scythes, &c, may be in the same room, on the oppo- site side, and the same precautions taken to keep every one in its place. The Union Washing Machine. This proves to be a valuable machine in families of moderate size. A full trial proves it capable of washing about twice as fast as the common methods. The work is done by rolling and pressing the clothes at the same time; and the water being kept hot under cover, obviates boiling. AVe have found the following advantages in this machine: 1. It is neat and compact, and occupies but little room. 2. It confines the hot water under oover, and does not steam the room. 3. It is very easily worked. 4. It obviates soaking and boiling. 5. It does not rub the garments. 6. It saves at least halt the labor required by other machines, or pounding barrels, wash- boards. &c. 7. It is simple in construction, cannot easily get out of order, is strongly made, and will probably last many years without repairs. ®c^=- 222 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER Hay and Graiu Racks. A correspondent in Indiana has requested directions for constructing a rack or frame for placing on an ordinary farm wagon, to draw hay and grain upon. There are many modes of construction, variously known and adopted in different localities, and possess- ing various advantages and defects. Among them we have selected two already well known to many of our readers, but doubtless new to others, and which, on the whole, are perhaps as good as any that are used. Fig. 1. Fig. 1 represents a strong frame, the only objection to which is its weight, and the con- sequent inconvenience of placing and re- moving it from the wagon. It consists, first, of a bottom frame, (forming the foundation or base,) just wide enough to fit within the stakes of the wagon, made of two side pieces 10 inches wide. 2 inches thick, and about 13 feet long; these are connected at the ends by cross-pieces morticed through them. On this frame rest three curved cross-timbers, about 4 inches square and 6K or 7 feet long- Fig. 2. the curve may be about 6 inches, or enough for the boards that rest on them to clear the wheels— if the curve is less, the bottom frame must be wider. These timbers support two boards on each side, each board an inch thick and 6 inches wide, and about 13 feet long, or as long as the rack. Stiff, curved iron straps span from one board to the other over the forward wheels, to prevent the hay from resting on the tire. This frame or rack may be modified by making the bottom frame five or six inches wider, and using straight instead of curved cross-timbers, but this will make it heavier, and the load will not rest so securely upon it. Fig. 2 exhibits a lighter and more perfect frame, but requiring more labor in construc- tion. The eight upright pins or standards, connecting a light foundation frame with a lighter one above, renders the whole so man- ageable that it may be very easily placed upon or removed from the wagon. The cross- timbers, (consisting of only one at each end,) need not be so much curved— a curvature of three inches is sufficient, and they will be large enough if 2K by 4 inches; their length may be about 6>£ feet, or, if the rack is large. 7 feet, The bottom frame may be made of 3 by 5 inch stuff, 12 feet 6 inches long, and the top frame 2 by 3 stuff. An inch board a foot wide goes all around the top, the extreme length of which is about 14 feet. In both these racks the bottom frame must be made just wide enough to fit within the upright stakes of the wagon, which is usually about 3 feet 2 or 3 inches. The short ladder placed at the for- ward end, to prevent the load from falling forward, and to fasten the reins to during the operation of loading, should be about four feet high. Another form of construction is first to make a foundation frame of side pieces about 2 by 8 inches, connected together by four cross-bars morticed into them, nearly as al- ready described, the cross bars being of white oak or other hard wood, into which ob- lique mortices are cut on each side, within the side pieces. These ob- lique mortices receive sloping side frames, which complete the rack— the feet of the side framesbeingthrust into the oblique mor- tices, and the frame resting against the top of the foundation frame. This rack is not so substantial as the preceding, but as the side frames are taken out and put in separately, one person may more easily place the whole on tne wagon. Preserving Shingles. Every farmer knows that the cost of the roofs of his buildings, as well as keeping them in repair, is a large item in his expenditures. Experiments should be made to lessen this cost. We observe the following in a late pa- per :— Dip the shingles in a tub of whitewash made of lime and salt. Line with red chalk. The carpenter may get a little lime on his hands and linen pantaloons, but this difhcul- -=s^2 OF RURAL AFFAIRS. 223 ty is not a very formidable one. The lime will harden the wood, and prevent its wear- ing away by rain and weather, and will effec- tually exclude moss, a common hastener of decay. It is said that shingle roofs will last twice as long when treated in this way, as without it. Whitewashing each successive layer of shingles after nailing down, is sometimes adopted, but is less effectual. Whitewash- ing the roof when completed, ia compara- tively useless, as the lime or but little of it can enter between the shingles, where the water lodges and hastens decay. Some one may object that this operation is "troublesome," but so is nearly everything that is done in a thorough and consequently economical manner. Facts for Poor Farmers. " Those farmers who have most difficulty to make ends meet, always plow most and keep most stock. Now these men take the true plan to keep themselves always poor, because their crops and stock are always poor and bring little." So writes John Johnston, in a letter to the Secretary of our State Society ; and he thus illustrates his statement:— "It is good profit to raise 300 bushels wheat from ten acres, but when it takes thirty acres to raise that amount it is raised at a loss. So it is with cattle and sheep. You will see the thinking farmer making four year old steers worth from $60 to $80 each, and his neighbors at the same age not worth over $25 to $40." His advice to the latter is, "if his land is exhausted he should plow no more than he can thoroughly manure. Seed with clover and grass and let it rest, and that field will not only pay well for tillage, but it will furnish manure (if rightly managed) to make another field of the same size rich also." And then keep it rich; do not run it with grain until again ex- hausted, or " the latter end of that land will be worse than the first." Time for Cutting Timber. We have been long satisfied that the best time to cut timber is in summer, provided it is not left in the log, but is immediately worked up into boards, rails, or whatever is intended. It dries rapidly, and becomes hard and sound. Cut and saw basswood in summer, and in a few weeks it will become thoroughly seasoned, and will finally harden so as to almost resemble horn. Cut it in winter, and it will be so long in seasoning as to become partly decayed before the process can be completed. No doubt the presence of the water or sap in great abundance in winter, and especially toward the latter part, hastens this incipient decay. Rails cut and split in summer, and the bark pealed to has- ten drying, have lasted twice as long as win- ter cut rails. A correspondent of the New- England Farmer says he cut and split a chest- nut tree early in summer, and "it dried the best and brightest wood he ever cut." It is the practice to cut nearly all timber in the comparative leisure of winter; but there is no doubt that it would be better to pay a higher price to have it done in summer. We would especially invite observation and at- tention to the subject. Durability of Posts. A correspondent of the New-England Far- mer reports an experiment on the durability of posts, which we re-arrange and condense. The timber used was "Yellow oak;" it was cut in winter, and each log was large enough to split into two bar-posts, which were set the following spring: 1st Pair.— Butt end down, one charred. Both rotted off the third year; the upper ends were then put in the ground, and they lasted seven years more. 2d Pair.— Butt end down, one salted by boring and plugging. Salted post gave out the second year; the unsalted the fourth year. The ends" were then reversed, and each lasted about eight years longer. 3d Pair.— One butt down, the other butt up. The butt rotted off the third year; the other the fourth. The ends were reversed, and the new butt rotted one year before the other, although the latter was set one year the soonest. 4th Pair.— Small ends down, one salted. Both rotted off the fourth year ; and being reversed, lasted four years more. It will be seen that the charring did no good, and salting a green post is useless if not injurious. All the experiments indicate de- cidedly that posts set reversed last longest ; and it appears that seasoned posts last longer than green— the seasoned small ends in the first experiment lasting about twice as long as the green small ends in the fourth. To Keep Plows Bright. The moment the plow comes from the field after use— for every good farmer brings his plow in after his job is done, and does not leave it in the field— grease the bright mould- board and other parts with any kind of cheap grease, which has no salt in it, or with lamp oil. The latter may be best where mice fre- quent, unless a little arsenic is worked in with the grease, which would soon settle all accounts with these vermin. S^^=- 224 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER. Sawing and Thrashing by Horses. S. E. Todd gives the following statement in the Country Gentleman of his success with an endless chain two-horse power:— I can saw three cords of wood per hour with two horses, with a circular saw ; and with a drag saw, with no help but a boy ten years old, I sawed off logs twenty-six inches in diameter in seventy-five seconds per log. including starting and stopping time; drive my grist- mill, clover machine and horse corn-sheller, with which we can shell, clean and deliver in the bag, ready for market, seventy bush- els of shelled corn per hour ; and by driving business a little, we could do more than this. But this is ordinary work, with an ordinary elevation of the power. Two years ago I had a good crop of barley, and could not get it half in the barn ; and so we would haul a load to the barn, and put the horses on the power, and thrash it about as quickly as we could pitch it up into the mow, and with the same help that was neces- sary to merely unload it. For several years past I have raised more or less buckwheat, and by having a horse power and thrasher of my own, I was enabled to get my buckwheat all thrashed before my neighbors had really thought of thrashing theirs. Last fall was a very unfavorable au- tumn for securing buckwheat ; but as soon as the buckwheat appeared at all dry, we could thrash; while my neighbors lost full one-half of their crop before they could pos- sibly get it thrashed. But this is not all. As my buckwheat was secured before it had be- come water-soaked, it would make much better flour, and millers were willing to pay from four to five cents more per bushel than they would pay for that which had been ex- posed to storms for several weeks. My thrasher stands on the second floor of the barn, and the grain falls on the first floor. Therefore, all the help that is needed is a boy to keep away the straw, which a very small boy does with ease, and one to feed, and one to pitch the grain off the wagon. As a general thing, I thrash my grain in the winter, when we have but little to do, and when we can use up the straw econo- mically. Provide Domestic Conveniences. Let the wood-house be level with and ad- join the kitchen, and be always supplied with good fuel and dry kindling wood ; let the well be provided with the best apparatus for drawing water easily— provide ample cis- terns, and connect them, by means of good pumps, with the kitchen— procure the best cook-stove, washing machine, easy churn, butter worker, clothes frames, carpet sweep- er—and, if needed, the family sewing ma- chine should not be overlooked. V>e have known the time when at least one active do- mestic was required to perform the extra labor of the various operations of building building fires of wet wood, working an awk- ward churn, washing on a rickety washboard, scrubbing the floor with a worn out broom, tying the clothes line to a peach tree, horse- post, barn corner, and smoke-house, borrow- ing water at a neighbor's, driving the pigs out of the yard, making sour bread for want of good wood, making rancid butter for want of a good dairy, and deficiencies in smaller domestic appliances. The Use of Rawhide. How few persons know the value of raw- hide. It seems almost strange to see them sell all of their "deacon" skins for the small sum of thirty or forty cents. Take a strip of well-tanned rawhide an inch wide, and a horse can hardly break it by pulling back — two of them he cannot break any way. Cut into narrow strips and shave the hair off with a sharp knife, to use for bag-strings ; the strings will out-last two sets of bags. Farmers know how perplexing it is to lend bags and have them returned minus strings. It will out-last hoop-iron (common) in any shape, and is stronger. It is good to wrap around a broken thill— better than iron. Two sets of rawhide halters will last a man's lifetime— (if he don't live too long.) In some places the Spaniards use rawhide log-chains to work cattle with, cut into nar- row strips and twisted together hawser fashion. It is good to tie in for a broken link in a trace chain. It can be tanned so it will be soft and pliable, like harness leather. Save a cow and "deacon's pelt," and try it.— Country Gentleman. How to Tan Rawhide. When the hide is first taken from the ani- mal, spread it flesh side up ; then put two parts of salt, two parts of saltpetre and alum combined— (or as much saltpetre and alum as salt)— make it fine ; sprinkle it evenly over the surface; roll it up, and let it lay a few days till dissolved. Then take off what flesh remains, and nail the skin to the side of a barn in the sun, or in dry weather stretch on the ground by driving pegs in the edges of the skin. It must be stretched tight, or there will be hard and ugly wrin- kles you cannot get out. After drying, and the flesh i9 sufficiently off, it is fit to cut up. But to make it " soft and pliable like harness leather," put neatsfoot oil on it — fasten it up again, and let it remain a day or two in the sun. Then take a stick about three inches 3=^»- OP RURAL AFFAIRS. 225 wide, and long enough to work with hoth hands, marie like a wedge on the end, and rub out all of the oil that can be, and it is tanned with the hair on. Some persons say a calf skin, (a deacon is better,) tanned in this way, and the hair tak- en off, and blackened, makes excellent boot leather, warranted not to crack. The only trouble is, it will last too long. Cow skins are stronger and heavier, and are sometimes only salted and stretched ; the flesh taken off, cut into strings, braided into halters or other useful things— the hair shav- ed off with a sharp knife. To make these strips soft they are oiled, buried in cow ma- nure for a few days, then rubbed and worked till dry. The skin of a white animnl is not No. 1, nor a red and white, nor a black and white. Avoid spotted skins of any kind. Red is good ; black is better. For an ox whip, cut these strings about one inch wide at the top, and about eight or ten feet long, running to a point, with a buckskin cracker one inch wide, and eight inches long. Hang it to a stick about the length of a walk- ing cane. The stick should be the top of a little pine or cedar. You can crack it so it can be heard as far as you can one of Col. Colt's pistols. It will last as long as the ave- rage county insurance companies.— Country Gentleman. Sap Pails. The best kind of pail we have met with is made of tin. These may be kept clean more easily than any other kind, and never impart any sourness to the sap. They may be a lit- tle larger at the top, so as to pack away in nests when not in use. Or, they may be made smaller and cheaper, if the sap is ga- thered frequently— which will be no detri- ment to its quality. Nine quart pails maybe procured for $35 per 100, and six quart for $30. They would soon pay for themselves in the increased value of the fine sugar and mo- lasses afforded by them. The top is wired, like a tin-pan, and a hole under this wire re- ceives the nail on which the pail hangs, thus securing it from swine or other animals, should they happen to stray into the woods; and being hung close to the spout, there is no danger of the wind blowing the dropping sap away. Old horse-shoe nails, straightened and sharpened, are best for this purpose. The best spouts are made of thick tinned iron, and for this mode of securing the ves- sels, they need not be more than two or three inches long, widest at the end which enters the tree, and made concave by placing the flat strips of metal between a convex and concave piece of wood, and giving them a blow with a mallet. While boiling, large quantities of sap should not be poured in at a time, as that will stop the boiling and make irregular work; but a reservoir should be placed above the boiler, into which a faucet should be inserted, and the sap allowed to run in a constant stream, which a little practice will enable the opera- tor to regulate to correspond exactly with the evaporation. A stop-cock should also be placed in the boiler to draw off the syrup. The Cost o Fences. The Maine State Agricultural Report -pre- sents some striking statistics in relation to the cost of fencing. The fences of the State have cost $25,000,000; the repairs require $2,500,000 annually; 6 per cent, interest is $1,500,000; and a renewal in 20 years would be $1,250,000 ; making the total yearly ex- pense $5,250,000— or two-thirds the original cost of the Erie canal. A strong argument in favor of soiling. Estimated costof road fences, supposed to be at least one-eighth part of the whole, $3,125,000. The interest and cost of annual repairs and renewing, would be $531,000— the tax paid annually by the farm- ers of Maine to make the highway a public pasture. To this sum is to be added $150,000, the yearly cost of breaking through snow drifts caused by such fences, and opening roads. These estim?tes will do to apply to other places besides Maine. The custom now is that every man shall fence out all intrud- ers ; the time may come when this will be among the things of the past, as much as that of walling towns to shut out human maraud- ers. Use of the Clod-Crusher. Sanford Howard states, in the Boston Cultivator, that the following course is suc- cessfully pursued in Scotland with the clod- crusher:— It is of course only used on heavy clay lands, which on plowing break up into large clods, and the land must be compara- tively free from stone. The soil having been plowed, and left in large clods, a grubber is passed over the whole, loosening up the clods and leaving them at the surface. The grub- ber, as our readers may be aware, is like a harrow or cultivator, with long hooked teeth, which loosen the soil as deep or deeper than the plow has run. The clod-crusher is next passed, which breaks the clods into frag- ments, at the same time it tends to press the soil too compactly together. An indispensa- ble part of the operation is now to follow with a grubber to loosen the crumbled soil. We have known a corn crop to be nearly doubled in product by the use of a one-horse clod-crusher between the rows, to reduce the lumps into mellow earth. On umlrained clay soils, its use would undoubtedly be often eminently advantageous. gc^=- (i ■-<=>© 226 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER * USEFUL TABLES. Value of Food for Domestic Animals. The figures giving the number of pounds of any one substance to be equal to the quanti- ty given of any other— the results of experi- ments : POUNDS. Good Hay 100 Good Clover Hay 9o Rye Straw 35o Oat Straw 220 Potatoes 19a Carrots 280 Beets 346 RutaBagas 262 "Wheat 43 Peas 44 Beans 4b Rye 4» Barley. 51 Indian Corn, 56 Oats, 59 Buckwheat, 64 Oil Cake 64 Weight of Grain. "Wheat is 60 lbs. to the bushel in all the States except Connecticut, where it is 56 lbs. Rye is 56 lbs. in nearly all the States ; Corn 56 in nearly all, but 58 in New-York ; Oats 32 lbs. ; Barley 43 lbs. ; Buckwheat 46 to 50, but mostly 48; Clover Seed mostly 60, but 64 in Ohio and New-Jersey; Timothy 44; Flax Seed 56 ; Potatoes 60 ; Beans mostly 60, but 62 in New York, and 56 in Ohio ; Blue-grass Seed 14 lbs.; Hemp Seed 44 lbs.; Dried Peaches 28 to 33 ; Dried apples, 22 to 28. Consumption of Hay. The hay consumed by different animals does not vary greatly from three pounds daily for each hundred pounds of the animals. The following table is the result of various expe- riments, by different persons, and will be useful for farmers who wish to determine by calculation beforehand how their hay will hold out for the winter, 500 cubic feet of Timothy hay, in a full bay, being about one ton: POUNDS. "Working horses, 3.08 "Working oxen 2.40 Milch cows, (Boussingault's.) 2.25 Milch cows. (Lincoln's,) 2.40 Young growing cattle, 3.08 Steers, 2.84 Dry cows 2.42 Pigs, (estimated.) 3.00 Sheep 3.00 Elephant, 3.12 To Measure Grain in the Granary, Divide the cubic feet by 56, and multiply by 45, and the result will be struck measure. To Measure Corn in the Crib, Multiply the length, breadth, and height to- gether, in feet, to obtain the cubic feet; mul- tiply this product by 4, and strike off the right figure, and the result will be shelled bushels, nearly. Uuited States Bushel and Gallon. The United States bushel, adopted now by the State of N. York, is 2150.40 cubic inches. The gallon, 231 cubic inches. The dry measure gallon, or one-eighth of the bushel, is 268.8 cubic inches. Measures of Length. Gunter's chain, used by surveyors, is 66 feet long, or 4 rods, and each link is 7.92 inches. The French metre is a ten millionth part of the arc of the meridian, extending from the equator to the pole, and is 39.37079 Eng- lish inches, or 3.28174 feet. The other French measures, founded upon this, increase or decrease regularly by ten, and are as conve- nient, therefore, for adding or subtracting as our dollars and cents. Measures of Weight. The French gramme is 15.44 grains, and the kilogramme, (1,000 grammes,) is 2 lbs. 3 oz. 5 drams. Weights of a Cubic Foot, Of various substances, from which the bulk of a load of one ton may be easily calculated : POUNDS. Cast Iron, 450 Water 62 White Pine, seasoned, about 30 "White Oak, seasoned, about 52 Loose earth, about 95 Common soil, compact, about 124 Clay, about 135 Clay with stones, aboui 160 Brick, about 125 Bulk of a Ton of Different Substances. 23 cubic feet of sand, 18 cubic feet of earth, or 17 cubic feet of clay, make a ton. 18 cubic feet of gravel or earth, before digging, make 27 cubic feet when dug; or the bulk is in- creased as three to two. Peat about 80 per cent, of water. Capacity of Soils for Water. The following substances are saturated when they contain, of their own weight: Sand, about 24 per cent, of water. Calcareous Sand.about 28 per cent, of water. Loamy soil about 38 per cent, of water. Clay Loam about 47 percent, of water. //^ OF RURAL AFFAIRS. Velocity of Water in Tile Drains. An acre of land, in a wet time, contains about 1,000 spare hogsheads of water. An underdrain will carry off from a strip of land about 2 rods wide, and one 80 rods long will drain an acre. The following table will show the size of the tile required to drain an acre in two days time, (the longest admissible,) at different rates of descent; or the size for any larger area: Velocity Hogsheads Diameter Rate of of current discharged of Bore. Descent, pr second, in 24 hrs. 2 inches. 1 foot in 100 22 inches. 400 2 inches. 1 foot in 50 32 inches. 560 2 inches. 1 foot in 20 51 inches. 900 2 inches. 1 foot in 10 73 inches. 1290 3 inches. 1 foot in 100 27 inches. 1170 3 inches. 1 foot in 50 38 inches. 1040 3 inches. 1 foot in 20 67 inches. 3100 3 inches. 1 foot in 10 84 inches. 3600 4 inches. 1 foot in 100 32 inches. 2500 4 inches, 1 foot in 50 45 inches. 3500 4 inches. 1 foot in 20 72 inches. 5600 4 inches. 1 foot in 10 100 inches. 7800 A deduction of one-third to one-half must be made for the roughness of the tile or im- perfection in laying. The drains must be of some length to give the water velocity, and these numbers do not. therefore, apply to very short drains. A Contents of Cisterns. The following gives the contents of circular cisterns, for each foot in depth : barrels. 5 feet diameter, 4.66 6 feet diameter 6.71 7 feet diameter, 9. 13 8 feet diameter 11.93 9 feet diameter 15.10 10 feet diameter 18.65 Distances for Planting Trees, dec. FEET. Apples, standard, 25 to 33 Apples, dwarf, 5 to 8 Pears, standard, 20 Pears, dwarf, 8 to 10 Peaches, headed back, 12 Cherries, standard 20 Cherries, dwarf, 8 to 10 Plums, standard, 15 Plums, dwarf, 8 to 10 Quinces, 6 to 8 Grapes 10 to 12 (Jooseberries and Currants, 4 Raspberries 4 Blackberries 6 to 8 For the above distances, the following is the number of trees required for an acre : At 4 feet apart each way, 2.720 At 5 feet apart each way 1,742 At 6 feet apart each way 1,200 At 8 feet apart each way 680 At 10 feet apart each way 430 At 12 feet apart each way, 325 At IS feet apart each way 200 At 1* feet apart each way, 135 At 20 feet apart each way, 110 At 25 feet apart each way, 70 At 30 feet apart each way 50 At 33 feet apart each way 40 Force of Windmills. The force exerted by windmills will vary greatly with the velocity of the wind. The following table shows the pressure against a fixed surface ; from the velocity given in this table, the average velocity of the sails must be deducted, and the remainder will show the real force exerted : Pressure in lbs. on square ft. Description. .005 Hardly perceptible. 045? Just PercePlible. Light breeze. Miles an hour. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 60 80 100 .080 i .125$ 320 f Gentle, pleasant wind. 1 125 [ P*easant' brisk wind. 1.125 1 Very brisk. 6 125 1 StronS' hi8Q wind« 1§S Very high. 12.500 Storm or tempest. Great storm. Hurricane. Tornado, tearing up trees and sweeping off build- ings. 18.000 32.000 50.000 Quantity of Seed required for an Acre. "Wheat, < IX to 2 bushels. Rye, IX bushels. Oats 3 bushels. Barley, 2 bushels. Peas 2 to 3 bushels. White Beans IX bushels. Buckwheat, X bushel. Corn, broadcast for fodder,. 4 bushels. Corn, in drills for fodder,. .. 2 to 3 bushels. Corn, in hills, 4 to 8 quarts. Broom Corn, X bushel. Potatoes, 10 to 15 bushels. Beets 3 pounds. Carrots 2 pounds. Ruta Baga, % pound. Millet X bushel. Clover, White, 4 quarts. Clover, Red, 8 quarts. Timothy 6 quarts. Orchard Grass, 2 bushels. Red Top 1 to 2 pecks. Kentucky lilue Grass 2 bushels. Mixed Lawn Grass, 1 to 2 bushels. Tobacco, 2 ounces. Quality of Different Kinds of Wood. The celebrated experiments of Marcus Bull, of Philadelphia, many years ago, gave the following results, showing the amount required to throw out a given quantity of heat: H ickory 4 cords. White Oak 4% cords. Hard Maple, 6% cords. Soft Maple 7 l-.'cnrds. Pitch I'ine 91-7cords. White Pine 91-5cords. Anthracite Coal 4 tons. 0 228 T ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER Gestation of Animals. o 5 *™.2 too cS 3 Uj o c a Period of the Power of Re- production. Number of Fe- rn ales for one Male. Period of Gestation and Incubation. Kinds of Animals. Shortest Period. Mean Period. Longest Period. 4 years. 5 years. 3 years. 3 years. 2 years. 2 years. 1 year. 1 year. 2 years. 2 years. 4 years. 5 years. YEARS. 10 to 12 12 to 15 10 5 6 7 6 6 6 5 10 to 12 12 to 15 20 to 30 DAYS. 322 240 146 109 150 365 281 55 48 20 24 19 28 27 16 DAYS. 347 283 154 115 156 380 308 60 50 28 26 21 30 30 18 DAYS. 419 Cow, 321 Bull 30 to 40 Ewe, 161 Tup 40 to 50 Sow, 143 6 to 10 She-Goat,... 163 He-Goat, 20 to 40 391 335 Bitch, 2 years. 2 years. 1 year. 1 year. 6 months. 6 months. 6 months. 8 to 9 8 to 9 5 to 6 9 to 10 5 to 6 5 to 6 5 to 6 63 Dog She-Cat, 56 He-Cat 5 to 6 30 12 to 15 Doe-Rabbit 35 Cock 30 Hen, 3 to 5 24 32 33 20 1 Quantity of Garden Seeds to Plant. Asparagus— One ounce produces one thou- sand plants; requires a seed bed of about 12 feet. Asparagus Roots— One thousand plants bed 4 feet wide and 225 feet long. Beans— One quart plants from one hundred to one hundred and fifty feet of row, or one hundred and fifty to two hundred hills. Beets— One ounce plants one hundred and fifty feet of row. Broccoli— One ounce gives 2,500 or 3.000 plants; requiring 40 square feet of ground. Brussels Sprouts— Same as Broccoli. Cabbage— Early sorts, the same as Broc- coli ; the later require 60 feet of ground. Cauliflower— The same as late Cabbage. Carrot— Three or four pounds to the acre ; one ounce to 150 feet of row. Celery— One ounce gives 7,000 or 8,000 plants ; requiring 80 feet of ground. Cucumber— One ounce for 150 hills. Cress— One ounce sows bed 16 feet square. Egg Plant— One ounce gives 2.000 plants. Endive— One ounce gives 3,500 plants ; re- quiring 80 feet of ground. Kale — Same as Broccoli. Leek— Oneounce gives 2, 000 plants; requir- ing 00 feet of ground. Lettuce— One ounce gives 7.000 plants ; re- quiring seed bed of one hundred and twenty feet. Melon— One ounce for one hundred and twenty hills. Nasturtions— One ounce sows twenty-five feet of row. Onion— Four or five pounds to the acre ; one ounce of seed sows two hundred feet of row. Okra— One ounce sows two hundred feet of row. Parsley— One ounce sows two hundred feet of row. Parsnip— One ounce sows two hundred and fifty feet of row. Peppers— One ounce gives 2,500 plants. Peas— One quart of smaller sorts sows one hundred and twenty feet of row; of larger, two hundred feet of row. Radish— One ounce to one hundred feet. Salsify — One ounce to one hundred and fifty feet of row. Spinage— One ounce to two hundred feet of row. Squash— One ounce to 75 hills. Tomato— One ounce gives 2,500 plants; re- quiring seed bed of 80 feet. Turnip— One and a half pounds to the acre one ounce to 2,000 feet Watermelon— One ounce to 50 hills. 'A ©c^=- OF RITUAL AFFAIRS. 229 THE DAIRY. On Cheese Making. Mrs. S. Johnson, of Schuyler Falls, N. Y., in a letter to the Country Gentleman, says : After twenty-five years' experience in the business of the dairy, we having always kept from twenty to twenty-five cows, I think I can give a very good receipt for new begin- ners. For ten pails of milk, as soon as milked, while warm, put in the rennet, according to the strength, enough to set it. If it does not set it in fifteen minutes, add a little more. When the curd has set, take a long wooden knife and cut through the curd, both ways, carefully. Let it stand about five minutes, then stir with the hand carefully. Place the strainer over the tub, and dip oft* the whey. Now dip in pans, and set in a cool place over night. In the morning run up your curd in the same way, and after cutting, put in last night's curd after draining, and squeeze very carefully with the hand. Dip off one pail of whey, and heat scalding hot ; if not scalded alike, heat more and stir continually. Then place a ladder over another tub with a strain- er and basket, and dip the curd and whey into the strainer. Do not let it settle toge- ther. Then remove it back to the tub, and mix one pint of best salt. If sage is wished, three tablespoonfuls is a plenty if dried and sifted. Then put in the hoop, and it is ready for the press. Turn in four or five hours, and let it remain until the next morning; then grease with lard. If the cheese is large, bandage when spread enough. Keep the cheese room dark days, and raise the win- dow nights. Butter Making. Our friend Hiram Mills, of Lewis county, who has frequently taken Butter prizes at our State Fairs, gives the following as his method, in the Transactions for 1858: Milk set in tin pans on rack or slat shelves (temperature of room 70 deg.,) and allowed to stand until it is sour, and sometimes until it thickens, but never should be allowed to stand until it turns spotted, as that injures the flavor of the butter. Cream taken from the milk and kept in tin cream-pail until enough is obtained for a churning; use crank churn, propelled by hand: churn from forty to fifty pounds at a time. After the butter has come, draw off the buttermilk and wash with cold water in the churn, unless the but- ter comes very hard, when the washing is omitted. Butter taken from the churn and worked thoroughly by hand until it is freed from the milk ; then apply one ounce Ashton salt to one pound of butter, which should be well worked in, to prevent the butter from being streaked ; it is then allowed to stand twenty four hours, after which it is worked with a butter-worker, being careful not to in- jure the grain. No other substance is used to preserve the butter. Have generally used this kind of salt in making butter; usually pack in eighty-pound tubs, and as soon as one is filled cover with a thin cloth and then a quantity of salt to exclude the air. Tubs are prepared by soaking in brine. To which may be added, that there is no doubt that every vessel used in the manufac- ture of the butter, is kept in a state of per- feet sweetness and cleanliness, and that no bad odors approach the dairy. Rules for Cheese Making. A correspondent of the Country Gentle- man gives the following two rules, which may be useful to young cheese manufactu- rers : 1st. TO ASCERTAIN HOW MUCH CHEESE YOU ought to Get from your Milk.— Multiply the number of pounds of milk by eleven — point off two figures for decimals, and the product is pounds and decimals ol a pound of cheese fresh from the press. Example.- -Given, 495 pounds milk— how many pounds of cheese ought it to get ? 495 by 11, equal to 54.45 pounds, or 54 45-100 pounds. This rule applies to the summer. In Octo- ber you may safely make your cheese a little heavier from the same milk, or perhaps the October milk has a little more cheese in it. The rule is founded on experience. Of course this green cheese must lose a great deal in curing, since both the butter and ca- sein constitute but about eight per cent, of milk. 2d. For ascertaining the Quantity of Salt for Cheese.— Multiply the number of pounds of milk by three — point off three places for decimals. Your answer is in pounds and decimals of a pound. Example.— How much salt for the curd of 495 lbs. of milk ? 495 by 3, equal to 1.385. or one pound and 385-1000 of a pound. Now re- duce this decimal to ounces, by multiplying by sixteen— point off three decimals as be- fore. Your answer is, 385 by 16, equal to 6 160-1000 ounces, or 1 lb. 6 1-16 oz., is the quantity of salt required for the cheese of , 495 pounds milk. 230 ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER Butter Dairies of Chenango and Dela- ware Counties. Chenango and Delaware are among the best butter producing counties in this State; and the following letters, from two of the best butter-makers in those counties, showing how they manage their butter dairies, cannot fail to be read with interest and profit :— I. From John Shattuck, of Chenango. 1. In the first place you ask in regard to churning. We use dog power, having the temperature in warm weather about 5a deg. Fahrenheit, which gives the butter a good solid consistency. 2. When the butter comes, it is removed and washed with cold ice-water until the but- termilk is all removed. 3. It is then salted— about one ounce of salt to a pound of butter, worked in thoroughly— and set in a cool place for twenty-four hours, when it is worked just sufficient to remove all the buttermilk. 4. It is then packed in the firkin, and cov- ered tight, so as to exclude the air. 5. When the firkin is filled, then you put a cloth over the butter, put on a good covering of salt, and then pour on water, which makes a brine. We keep it thus covered until it goes to market, (it being the only way we could ever keep a dairy perfectly sweet through the season.) These rules, strictly observed, I will war- rant never to fail, if the butter is properly made. We use g,ood white oak firkins. Manner of preparing them before putting in the but- ter—fill them with cold water, to soak three or four days; a handful of salt thrown in will make them all the better. When we get ready to put the butter in the firkin, we rub the in- side all over thoroughly with salt, which forms a brine between the firkin and butter. All the salt used about butter, in any form, should be good dairy salt, as there is more or less lime in other salt, which renders it unfit for butter. Good soft water is also essential, as hard limy water is very objectionable. II. From S. L. Wattles, of Delaware. 1. The cows are milked regularly at the same hour morning and evening. The milk is not allowed to stand long in the milk-pails after milking, but is immediately carried to the milk-rooms and strained into tin pans. Only about three quarts are put in a pan, so that the milk may never stand more than two inches deep, often less in very hot weather. 2. The milk-room is above ground, and in the summer time kept as cool as possible and well aired. The milk is left to stand in the pans from thirty to thirty-six hours— never more than thirty-six, and then the cream is taken off. 3. The cream is put in large tin pails with covers, and if the weather is warm the cream pails are set in the cellar to cool the cream. 4. The intention is, always to skim the milk before it gets much sour. Cream rises in pans set as above stated very quickly, and the sooner it is taken off after it has risen the better, both for the quality and quantity of the butter made from it. Cream will all rise, if the milk is very shallow in the pans, even in the hottest weather. And if it is taken off soon enough it will all be saved— while if the milk stands deep in the pans it will sour be- fore much of the cream rises, or if allowed to stand too long before skimming, the cream is wasted and injured in quality. 5. Our women have a way of taking off the cream without the use of the skimmer. They use a knife only. They run the knife around the milk in the pan to separate the cream from the sides of the pan. Then they set the bottom of the milk-pan at the edge, on the rim of the cream pan. then with the left hand elevate one side of the milk-pan so that the cream with the help of the knife in the right hand will run off into the cream pan. After a little practice it is done very quickly and saves both time and cream. 6. The churning is performed every day. The cream taken off one day is churned the next morning. The common crank churn is used, and is worked by dog power. This crank churn is used because it is easiest at- tached to, and worked by dog power, and be- cause it is more convenient to wash the but- ter in than the barrel or dash churn. The churning is done very slowly, requiring from two to three hours. The cream having been in the cellar all night, is always cool enough to commence the churning, but if the wea- ther is very hot, and the temperature of the cream is likely to get too high while churn- ing, cold water is put into the churn to keep it down— as very good butter cannot be made when the cream is warmer than 65 deg. when the butter is coming. 7. After the butter has come, the butter- milk is immediately drawn off through a hole in the end of the churn, and then about a half a pail of cold water is thrown into the churn on the butter. The crank of the churn is then turned around a few times and the water drawn off. After that a whole pail of water or more is thrown on the butter in the churn, and the crank again turned quickly a few times, and the water again drawn off, bringing with it every particle of buttermilk. The churn dasher is then taken out, and the remaining water is pressed out of the butter with a ladle. OP RURAL AFFAIRS. 231 8. The butter is then taken from the churn and put in the butter bowl and weighed, and it is then salted with one ounce of Ashton salt to a pound of butter. The salt is well worked through the butter with a ladle, and the butter is set in the cellar and stands about twenty-four hours for the salt to dis- solve, when it is again carefully worked, and the brine pressed out, and then immediately packed in tbe firkin. 9. The firkins are prepared for use by fill- ing them with water, and letting them soak eight or ten days. They are then scalded with hot water and rinsed, and after that the inside of the firkin is rubbed with a lump of salt, and it is ready for use, and filled with butter within an inch of the top. A cloth is then put on the butter and covered with salt half an inch deep, and then some brine pour- ed on. The firkin is then covered up with a flat stone. Nothing more is done to them or the butter, except an occasional renewal of the brine when it dries away. Dairies made in this way have frequently been kept at home, in the cellar, as late as March of the following season, before they were sold, and have stood all the tests of time and different markets and climates. We pack our butter for family use through the following winter and spring, early in the fall, while the grass is good. It often lasts until the next June, and is always preferred to fresh butter made on hay in the winter, or on hay and grass together, in the spring. THE APIARY. Management of Bees. One of the most successful managers of bees in Western New- York, on a moderate scale, and on the old system, is Curtis Coe, of Cayuga county. He has at present about a hundred and fifty hives, and de- rives an annual revenue from the sale of the honey, greater than most farmers raise from a hundred acres of good land. He has been in the business many years, and has derived most of his knowledge of bees and their management from his own close obser- vation and experience. He has an additional advantage— in not finding any particular in- convenience in being stung a dozen times or more in a day, should he chance to become mixed up with a pugnacious swarm. A brief noiice of his management may be interest- ing and useful to the inexperienced. He adopts a simple box-hive, with a door and pane of glass on one side, and vacancies for glass boxes above. Artificial as well as natural swarming is extensively employed. The present being an unfavorable year, the increase has been only about a dozen of each. He has employed the movable combs on a plan of his own, but has not adopted it ex- tensively, the crooked combs rendering it in- convenient. Guide combs being always placed in his hives before the swarm is introduced, so that the combs maybe made edgewise against the pane, he is enabled to inspect the operations to some extent at any time. This arrangement also enables him to se- cure young queens for artificial swarming, their cells being usually on the outer edges. A puff of smoke sends the bees off of these, when a long-bladed knife, reached up in the slightly raised hive from below, cuts them off, and they drop and are secured. In a few days, if taken at piping time, they come out the perfect queen. The hiving of natural swarms is easily done. A hiving-box, con- sisting simply of any box holding nearly a half bushel, with one side open, is attached to a pole, as shown in Fig. 1. When the swarm comes out, the operator takes this box by its handle, the box being held over his head, and walks slowly in the midst of the flying swarm. They often alight upon it, and enter its open side. As soon as they begin doing so, it is placed in a fixed position against a fence or tree, or a crowbar hole is made by an attendant, into which the handle is inserted. When the bees have all settled, it is carried to the hive. Fig. 1. which is standing in its proper place among the rest, and under which a temporary shelf has been placed, as shown Fig. 2. in fig. 2, and the bees are emptied by a slight jar upon this shelf. They immediately find ©<^=" 232 -^3® ILLUSTRATED ANNUAL REGISTER their way into the hive. It is test to empty out two or three successive portions at a time; and if they do not at once find the en- trance, a quill sweeps a pint or two within, when their call is sure to attract the rest. This slielf is made so as to raise the front of the hive about an inch or inch and a half high in front, and to keep the other sides closed; it consists simply of a board about twice as large as the bottom of the hive, with Fig, 3. a board, cizt a» shown in Fig. 3, nailed to each side. "When the bees have all entered, it is withdrawn. The whole process is usu- ally completed in a few minutes. When the swarm does not alight in the hiving-box, but on some adjacent tree, the box is held up against the spot, as soon as they begin to cluster, when they leave the tree and pass into the box; or if they do not, a few jars with the side of the box induces them to loosen their hold and enter it. The operation is easily performed, and only a minute or two is occupied in their cluster- ing. One or two boxes, with long poles for handles, are provided for such swarms as settle too high up for ordinary reach. The loss of a newly hived swarm, occa- sioned by their leaving the hive, which oc- casionally occurs to the owners of bees, has been prevented in this apiary, so that a sin- gle loss of the kind has not occurred in twenty years. It consists in simply placing the hive flat on the bottom board for a few days, instead of raising it at the corners the third of an inch, as is always practiced with established swarms. Four honey boxes are usually placed in each hive, in a chamber, entered by a door, in the upper part. These boxes are in the form of a cube, measuring about six or six and a half inches on each side. The top and bottom are made of half inch boards; the four sides of glass. Fig. 4. The edges of the boards are merely rabbeted to receive the panes, and they are held toge- ther by strips of tin on the corners, shielding the edges of the glass, and holding every part in its place. (Fig. 4.) The strips of tin are haK an h>ch wide and seven and a half long; they are folded longitudinally so that the two parts, each a quarter of an inch wide, stand at right angles, and thus form a corner edge of the box, and receive the edges of two panes. They are fastened to the top and Fig. 5. bottom board, as shown in Fig. 5, the tin having a short slit in each end, so that one part overlaps the other, and a single tack se- cures both to the wood. These boxes are quickly made, exhibit the honey handsome- ly for market, and are manufactured for 18 cents each. They will hold six or eight pounds of honey m comb. As soon as they are filled, which may be determined in a mo- ment by inspection, they are taken out and replaced by empty ones, to be filled ha turn. Three holes, each an inch in diameter, in the bottom board, are bored smoothly with a bit, so as to coincide with three boles in the top board of the hive; and when they are removed, two strips of tin are pushed in under the box, one to shut the bees down into the hive, and the other to secure such as are in the honey box. One strip is taken away with the box, and the other left on the hive. The bees are easily driven out, by placing the box on another box of wood of the same size, and open only on the top, of which the honey box forms the tight cover. A slight and frequent jarring motion on the knee drives all the bees down into the dark box, where they soon cluster, and they may be emptied back on the shelf of the hive from which they were taken, or of any other hive not sufficiently supplied with bees. The middle of the day is selected to remove ho- ney boxes, being then least occupied by bees, and especially by drones, which axe the most difficult to drive out. Guide combs are placed so that the combs may be made with the edge to the eye. and a narrow stick of comb is also placed so as to extend down through the middle hole. The honey being secured as soon as the boxes are full, and while the comb is yet per- leclly white, commands the highest price, and has sold in the New-York market at 30 cents a pound at wholesale. ©c^~- <^o( WHICH EVEET FAEMEE SHOULD HATE. American Farmer's Encyclopedia.. — As a Book of Reference for the Fanner or Gardener, this work is superior to any other. It contains Reliable Information for the Cultivation of every variety of Field and Garden crops, the Use of all kinds of Manures, Descriptions and Figures of American Insects; and is, indeed, an Agricultural Library in itself, containing 1,200 pages octavo, and is Illustrated by numerous Engravings of Grasses, Grains, Animals, Imple- ments, Insects, &c, &c. By Gocverneur Emerson, of Penn'a. Price, $4. American "Weeds and Useful Plants.— An Illustrated Edition of Agricultural Botany: an Enumeration and Description of Weeds and Useful Plants which merit the notice or require the attention of American Agricultur- ists. By Wm. Darlington, M. D. Revised, with Additions, by George Thur- ber, Prof, of Mat. Medica and Botany in the New- York College of Pharmacy. Illustrated with nearly 300 figures, drawn expressly for this work. Price, $1.50. Allen's (B. E.) American Farm Book— Or, a Com pend of American Agriculture; being a Practical Treatise on Soils, Manures, Draining, Irrigation, Grasses, Grain, Roots, Fruits, Cotton, Tobacco, Sugar Cane, Rice, and every Staple Product of the United States; with the Best Methods of Planting, Culti- vating and Preparation for Market. Illustrated with more than one hundred Engravings. Price, $1. Browne's Field Boole of manures— Or, American Muck Book; treat- ing of the Nature, Properties, 8ources, History and Operations of all the Prin- cipal Fertilizers and Manures in Common Use, with Specific Directions for their Preservation and Application to the Soil and to Crops; drawn from authentic sources, actual experience and personal observation, as combined with the Lead- ing Principles of Practical and Scientific Agriculture, Price, $1.25 Dana's Muck Manual, for the "Use of Farmers— A Treatise on the Physical and Chemical Properties of Soils and Chemistry of Manures; in- cluding, also, the subject of Composts, Artificial Manures and Irrigation. A new edition, with a Chapter on Bones and Superphosphates. Price, $1. Farm Drainage.- The Principles, Processes and Effects of Draining Land, with Stones, "Wood, Drain Plows, Open Ditches, and especially with Tiles; in- cluding Tables of Rainfall, Evaporation, Filtration, Excavation, Capacity of Pipes, co6tand number to the acre. With more than 100 illustrations. By the Hon. Henry F. French, of New-Hampshire. Price, $1. Flint on Grasses.— A Practical Treatise on Grasses and Forage Plants; com- prising their Natural History, Comparative Nutritive Value, Methods of Culti- vation, Cutting, Curing, and the Management of Grass Lands. By Charles L. Flint, A. M., Secretary of the Mass. State Board of Agriculture. Price, $1.25. Johnston's (James F. W.) Agricultural Chemistry.— Lectures on the Application of Chemistry and Geology to Agriculture. New edition, with an Appendix, containing the Author's Experiments in Practical Agricul- ture. Price, $1.25. Nash's (J. A.) Progressive Farmer— A Scientific Treatise on Agricul- tural Chemistry, the Geology of Agriculture, on Plants and Animals, Manures and Soils, applied to Practical Agriculture; with a Catechism of Scientific and Practical Agriculture. By J. A. Nash. Price, 60 cts. Norton's Elements of Scientific Agriculture— Or, the Connection between Science and the Art of Practical Farming. Prize Essay of the N. York State Agricultural Society. By John P. Norton, M. A., Prof, of Scientific Ag- riculture in Yale College. Adapted to the Use of Schools. Price, CO cts. The Young Farmer's Manual— Detailing the Manipulations of the Farm in a plain and intelligible manner; with Practical Directions for Laying Out a Farm, and Erecting Buildings, Fences and Farm Gates. Embracing also the Young Farmer's Workshop, giving Full Directions for the Selection of Good Farm and Shop Tools, their Use and Manufacture, with numerous Original Il- lustrations of Fences, Gates, Tools, etc., and for performing nearly every branch of Farming Operations. By S. Edwards Todd. Price, $1.25. |gy Either of the above works will be sent by mail, post paid, on. receipt of the price named. Address, LUTHER TUCKER & SON, Albany, N. Y. "The best of all the American Newspapers devoted to matters of Rural Eco- nomy."—Scottish Farmer and Horticulturist, Edinburgh, Aug. 7, 1861. The Country Gentleman. — , * — i — — This Journal was commenced in 1853. The Variety, Soundness, and Practical Nature of its Contents, not less than the strictly National character of its circulation, have rendered it the Favorite Authority of the Best Farmers, in all parts of the country, and the repository of the most valuable Results of their Experience. No expense or pains have been or will be spared, by its Editors and Publishers, to place it BEYOND COMPETITION" In the extent and interest of its Correspondence— Domestic and Foreign— in its Illustrations and general Typographical execution. It is Intended to elucidate the Economy and Practice of Field Husbandry, In all its branches, including Grain, Root and Grass Crops, and all the processes of Improved Farming, such as Draining, Rotation, and Irrigation. As a Stock Paper, it will give special attention to the interests of Breeders and Feed- ers—discussing the relative merits of the different Breeds, and the General Management and Care of Domestic Animals, the Prevention and Cure of their Diseases, &c. In Horticulture, including Fruits and Fruit Trees, Landscape Gardening, Arboriculture and Flower and Kitchen Gardening, it will have no superior as .A. .Practical and. Reliable Guide. Minor Departments are devoted to the Dairy, the Apiary, the Poultry Yard, Rural Archi- tecture, Entomology and Domestic Economy— including from week to week, more or less in each, and always from the best sources. All that pertains to the Embellishment, Comfort and Entertainment of the Rural Home, is considered within its appropriate sphere. Authentic Information is also presented, as to all that is progressing in the Agricultural world— the Proceedings and Shows of Societies, New Books, Implements and Manures— ever keeping an eye open to the real interests of the Agricultural Classes, and a pen ready to expose the humbugs of the day. The Country Gentleman contains 16 large pages every week— making two yearly vol- umes of over 400 pages each ! furnished at the low price of $2 a year, or $2.50 when not paid in advance. Subscriptions commence at any time. The Country Gentleman and the Annual Register for 1862. TERMS TO CLUBS.— The price of a single copy of each, to one person, is $2.25; two copies, $4 ; four copies, $7 ; eight copies, $13 : and any larger number at the same rate, which includes the Postage on the Register. Where, however, the subscribers are already sup- plied with the Register, or do not wish it, we will send the Country Gentleman alone as follows:— Three copies for $5; five copies, $8; ten copies, $15. New volumes begin with July and January, each year, the 19th commencing with January 1, 1862. tW Subscribers in the British Provinces will add twenty-six cents a year to the above terms, to cover United States Postage to the Canada Lines. LUTHER TUCKER & SON, Albany, IV. T. The Country Gentleman is the name of. without question, the Best AcRicr/i/rcnAL Paper in the United States. It is devoted to Practical Husbandry, Agricultural News, Ru- ral Architecture, Grazing, Horticulture, Fruit Culture, the Kitchen and Flower Gardens, Housewifery, The Dairy, Poultry Yard, Fireside, &c, &c. It is illustrated with superior engravings, and in fact combines, in one large sheet, an Agricultural, Horticultural and Family Journal.— Chicago Democrat. The Editors endeavor to render The Country Gentleman a Standard Autho- rity on all Rural Subjects. ©o^=~ =^o@ — ^© Whatever other Agricultural Journals the Farmer may take, the Cheapness and Value of The Cultivator render it indispensable. The Cultivator. This Periodical enters upon its twenty-ninth year, with 1862. It is now made up from the Country Gentleman— those articles being particularly selected which shall present in each number the greatest variety of brief, practical hints and suggestions, calculated to be of the widest interest and most general utility. It has long been the belief of the Editors, that what one Farmer has dune another can do— hence their aim is to transcribe, either them- selves or through their correspondents, the exact systems which the best and most success- ful of our farmers are now practically following, by which they have made money and enriched their soils— to explain the modus operandi, and set others in the way of following the example. We may assert without exaggeration, that it contains scarcely a page, from January to December, on which may not be found some Fact from the Actual Practice of the writer, of far greater real value to the careful reader than the year's subscription. The Cultivator is Published Monthly, All subscriptions beginning with the January number, and forms an annual volume of nearly four hundred large octavo pages. Single copies, Fifty Cents per Annum, Payment strictly in advance. Clubs are presented with the Annual Register of Rural Affairs, containing 144 pages and 150 Engravings, and thus obtain 528 Pages Beading Matter, and more than 200 Engravings, for 50 cts, TERMS FOIfc 1862. Ten copies of The Cultivator, and ten of the Rcral Register, (and one of each free to the sender of the Club,) $5.00 Eight copies of The Cultivator alone, (and one copy of the Rural Register as a Premium to the sender of the Club,) 3.00 Subscribers in the British Provinces will add Six Cents each to the above Terms, to oover United States Postage to the lines. Specimen Copies and Prospectuses of the Country Gentleman and the Cultivator will be sent to all who desire them, and Postmasters, and all persons interested in Rural pur- suits, are earnestly invited to act as Agents. Address letters of inquiry, or orders accompanied with the cash, to LUTHER TUCKER © CRANBERRY CULTURIST, A PEACTICAL TREATISE on the Culture of this Valuable Fruit SEND TWELVE CENTS IN STAMPS, AND RECEIVE A COPT BT RETURN MAIL, POST PAID. Address, "W. H. ST-AJfcR, East IVew-London Nurseries, IVew-London, Conn. POMONA GARDEN AND NURSERY, EIGHT MILES EAST OF PHILADELPHIA, Two Miles from Riverton Station. FRUIT AND ORNAMENTAL TREES, "VINES AJSnD PLANTS, OF THE MOST POPULAR AND CHOICE VARIETIES. 100,000 PEACH TREES, and Thirty Acres of Small Fruits. TRIUMPH D'GAND AND DOWNER'S PROLIFIC STRAWBERRY, In large quantities. tEF" Send for a Catalogue gratis. WILLIAM PARRY, Cinnaminson, IV. J. NEW AND RARE FLOWER SEEDS BY MAIL. McELWAIN BROTHERS, SEEDSMEN AND FLORISTS, HATE MADE ARRANGEMENTS FOR PROCURING A LARGE ASSORTMENT OF THE MOST Choice Varieties of American and Foreign Flower Seeds, COMPRISING EVERY DESIRABLE KIND NOW IN CULTIVATION, WITH MANY NEW AND RARE VARIETIES, AND ALL THE NOVELTIES OF THE SEASON. The following collections, containing those that are most 6howy and of easy cul- ture, will be sent by mail, post paid, to any part of the Union : No. COLLECTIONS. Price. 1. Contains twenty varieties of choice Annuals, $1 00 2. Twentv varieties of choice Biennials and Perennials, 1 00 3. Ten extra fine varieties of rare Annuals and Perennials, 1 00 4. Five choice varieties from prize flowers, of Trnffaut'6 French Asters, German, Carnation and Picotee Pinks, English Pansies, Verbenas and Hollyhocks, each of which is sold at twenty-five cents singly 1 00 5. Fifty varieties, (including Collection No. 4,) Annuals, Biennials and Peren- nials, 2 50 6. One hundred varieties, 5 00 A Descriptive Catalogue is issued annually, in February, which contains a full List of both Flower and Vegetable Seeds, with valuable directions for their cul- tivation, which will be forwarded to any address upon receiptof a three cent stamp. t Selections made from tlio Catalogue are subject to a discount proportionate to the AH quantity. For list of which see Catalogue. Address, McELWAIN BROTHERS, Springfield, Mass. ©eggs- * 1 LYONS NURSERY. WHOLESALE AND RETAIL. E. WARE SYLVESTER,, Proprietor. /^£urC.n.&, JlWcLU.n.E /fCLLLntU-, jJV*. jflj-. THE OPORTO, THE WINE GRAPE OF AMERICA. HARDY, VIGOROUS, PRODUCTIVE, AND MAKES A HIGH COLORED, RICH WINE. Strong Vines, $1 to $2 each. SW Send for a Descriptive Catalogue. B. K. Bliss, Seedsman and Florist, SPRINGFIELD, 2VEASS-, WHOLESALE AND RETAIL DEALER IN GARDEN, AGRICULTURAL AND FLOWER SEEDS, DUTCH BULBOUS ROOTS, FLOWERING SHRUBS, BEDDING, HERBACEOUS AND GREEN-HOUSE PLANTS. WT THE FOLLOWING CATALOGUES ARE PUBLISHED DURING THE TEAR, AND WILL BE FORWARDED TO ALL APPLICANTS ON RECEIPT OF A POSTAGE STAMP: No. 1.— SEED CATALOGUE.— Published the 1st of February. A Descriptive List of Flower, Vegetable and Agricultural Seeds. Also, of small fruits, viz: — Grapes, Strawberries, Raspberries, Currants, Blackberries, &c. No. 2.— GENERAL PLANT CATALOGUE.— Published April 1st. Containing a Descriptive List of Choice Dahlias, Gladiolus, Hollyhocks; English, Carnation and Picotee Pinks; Verbenas, Petunias, Geraniums, and many other Bedding and Gleen-House Plants. No. 3.— BULB CATALOGUE— Published September 1st. Containing a Choice Collection of Double and Single Hyacinths, arranged in their several colors; Tu- lips, in many varieties, both Double and single; Polyanthus Narcissus, Crown Imperials, Jonquils, Snow Drops, Lilies, &c, &c. BS- PLANTS AND SEEDS carefully packed for all climates. BS- VEGETABLE AND FLOWER SEEDS IN PACKETS, mailed to any address in the LTnion, free of postage. For particulars see Catalogue No. 1. WM. THORBURN, ALBANY SEED STORE, Nos. 490 and 492 Broadway, Albany, N, Y. o— SEEDS BY MAIL. POSTAGE ONE CENT PER OUNCE. SEJxriD -yotji*, o:r,:de:r,s_ B£P" Catalogues on Application. TEEES AT LOW PRICES. — - ■- » — - ■■ ■■ — — Mount Hope Nurseries, Rochester, New- York. ♦ - ■ ■ — ELLWAISTGEK & BARRY, Respectfullj" invite the attention of the public to their present immense Btock, covering upwards of Five Hundred Acres of Land, and embracing everything desirable in both Fruit and Ornamental Department, Grown in the very best manner, and offered either at wholesale or retail, at greatly reduced prices. Parties who contemplate planting should avail themselves of this opportunity, the like of which may not occur soon afrain. DESCRIPTIVE AND WHOLESALE CATALOGUES forwarded gratis, and all information as to prices, &c, promptly given on application. NEW SOUTHERN APPLES. -■ - ■ - ■♦ - CENTRAL NURSERIES, YORK, PEM. < — ■ — - We invite attention to our large collection of " Southern Seedling apples," gathered from the most reliable quarters, and embracing every variety of note. A full De- scriptive List on application. We also offer a general assortment of FKUIT AND OENAMENTAL TEEES AND SHRUBS, EMBRACING EVERYTHING DESIRABLE IN THE NURSERY LINE. H£F" Catalogues mailed on application. EDW. J. EVANS & CO., Central Nurseries, York, Penn. EVERGREENS. . . . — _ » . , . — — . . . C3-:FLE.A.T VA.LLEY NURSERIES, An immense stock of American Arbor Vitas, Balsam Fir, Norway and American Spruce, Hemlock ; Scotch, Austrian and White Pine ; European and American Mountain Ash, Larch, Maple, &c, &c. All fine well grown plants, by the dozen, 100, 1,000, or 10,000. very cheap, and put up without extra charge, so that they can be Bafely sent to any part of the country. BEST" Send for a Catalogue. S. T. KELSEY «fc CO., Great Valley Nurseries, Great Valley, IV. Y. OSIER WILLOW CUTTINGS. The bept variety for market and for Live Fence— price, $3 per 1,000. By mail, po6t paid, for experiment, $1 per 100. D. L. HALSEY, Victory, Cayuga Co., IV. Y. FKUIT AND ORNAMENTAL TREES. » ♦ « Wm. Adair, Detroit, Michigan, INVITES THE ATTENTION OF PLANTERS TO HIS LARGE AND VARIED STOCK, CONSISTING OP APPLES, PEARS AND CHEKRLES, (STANDAED ASD DWAEF.) ALSO, PEACHES, PLUMS, APRICOTS, &C. GRAPEVINES, TNative and Foreign, Isabella, Catawba, Concord, Diana, Delaware, Rebecca, Union Village, Hartford Prolific, Anna, Logan, Marion, &c. B3" RASPBERRIES, BLACKBERRIES AND STRAWBERRIES, OF ALL THE BEST LEADING SORTS. "Wilson's Albany Strawberry can be supplied in any quantity, at reduced rates. CURRANTS AND GOOSEBERRIES— All the best varieties. HARDY EVEIEta-IFtEEllXr TREES, A large stock and fine specimens of Norway, Black, White and Hemlock Spruce ; Scotch, Austrian and White Pines, Arborvitaes, Junipers, Thujiopsis, &c, &c. Deciduous Trees and Shrubs, in great variety. Horse Chestnut, Taxodium, Lin- dens, Elms, Ash, Tulip Trees. Willows, Catalpa, Mountain Ash, Cut-leaved Birch, Altheas, Lilacs, Flowering Almond, (Red and White,) Weigelias, Spireas, Pyrus Japonica. Forsythia, Snow Balls, Double-Flowering Thorns, and many others. ROSES — A 3plendid Collection and a large Stock, all on their own roots, except recently introduced varieties. Dahlias, Tulips, Hyacinths, Gladiolus and other BULBS. Hardy Herbaceous and Greenhouse Plants in great variety. Packing executed in the best possible manner. NANSEMOND SWEET POTATOES, FOR SEED. $2 a bu eh el, $5 a bar r el , 2£ bu sh el s. A selected article supplied in the spring of each year. PIj-A.3SrTS- 400, $1; 1,000, $2; 5,000, $9; 10,000, $15. Pack- ed to go safely, long distances, during May and June. Our Plants have for many years given sat- isfaction in the Northern States — producing good crops 44 deg. North. SPROUTING ON SHARES. "We will supply seed to responsible parties, to be sprouted on shares. We invite attention to this branch of our business. Please address us for particulars. Our work on the CULTURE AND PRE- SERVATION OF THE SWEET POTATO will be forwarded for one red stamp. C. B. MURRAY, (Successor to O. S. Murray &. Son,) Foster's Crossings, Warren Co., Ohio. OAKLAND IfTJESEKT, THKOG'S NECK, WESTOHESTEE COUNTY, N, Y., WIM. JLi. FERRIS, Proprietor. » W. L. FERRIS OFFERS FOR SALE A CHOICE COLLECTION 0* Pears, and other Fruit and Ornamental Trees, Shrubs, GEAPEVINES, az£i>€Z C/&&*/ '£?/ €># (04£&tfe4> ' &&t PROPERLY PAIRED, FOR SALE BY / J. R. PAGE, Sennett, N. Y. THOS. WOOD CONTINUES TO SHIP, TO ANY PART OF THE UNION AND PROVINCES, HIS CELEBRATED PKEMIUM CHESTEE CO. WHITE HOGS, IN PAIRS NOT AKIN, ON REASONABLE TERMS. Address. Penning'tonville, Chester Co., Pa. GBAY DOKKINGS. » ♦ « A LARGE LOT OF EARLY SPRING CHICKENS For sale. J. R. PAGE, Sennett, N. Y. ITALIAN BEES. ■-^=© A LARGE NUMBER OF THE SUPERIOR VARIETY OF ITALIAN BEES FOR SALE AT ALL TIMES. Queens sent, with or without the Colony. THE BEST PRACTICAL WORK ON BEE KEEPING TET PUBLISHED, SENT FOR ONE DOLLAR. «JEJ GKLASS HOHSTEY BOXES, HIVES, &cc. Circulars, with full particulars, sent to all applicants. Address M. (tUINBY, St. Jolinsville, N. Y. 1862. C. & W. McCAMMOFS 1862. ^^H>aiay I>rain Tile Works, COKNEE OF CLINTON AVENUE AND KNOX STREET, ALBANY, 1ST. Y. Per 1000 fket. 1| inches round, $8.00 2\ inches round, 12.00 3£ inches round, 40.00 Per 1000 feet. 2J inches rise, $10.00 3i inches rise, 15.00 4£ inches rise, 18.00 51 inches rise, 35.00 6Hnches rise, 55.00 7£ inches rise, 75.00 Per 1000 feet. 2 inches rise, $10.00 3 inches rise, 16.00 4 inches rise, 30 00 5 inches rise, 50.00 6 inches rise 80.00 9 inches rise, 200.00 Per 1000 Pieces. Collars for H inch R. T $4.00 Collars for 2^ inch R. T.,... -10.00 Saddles Saddles Saddlea Saddles S.iddk-B Saddles Per 1000 Pieces. for 2 in. Sole T., $4 00 for 3 in. Sole T., 6.00 for 4 in. Sole T.. 10 00 for 5 in. Sole T., 20 0J for 6 in. 8ole T., 30 00 for 9 in. Sole T., 75.00 ^ KF" ORDERS SOLICITED. TERMS CASH. Address, ) C. & W. McCAMMON, Albany, N. Y. ALBANY AGEICULTURAL WORKS, WAREHOUSE AND SEED STORE, EMEI&Y BROTHERS, Eos. 62 and 64 State Street, Albany, N. Yt, PATENTEES AND MANUFACTURERS OF EMERY'S PATENT CHANGEABLE RAILROAD HORSE POWER, ALSO, LEVER POWERS, FOR FOUR, SIX AND EIGHT HORSES, OF NEW AND SUPERIOR CONSTRUCTION, TOGETHER WITH A Great Variety of L.abor-Saviu§r Agricultural machinery, AND GENERAL DEALERS IN IMPLEMENTS AND SEEDS, HORSE POWERS. It has ever been the aim of the Proprietors to make none but the first class of work, and always to use the best materials. In the construction of their Horse Powers they have endea- vored to adapt them most readily and advantageously to the great variety of purposes re- quired by the Farmer and Mechanic. The same considerations have guided them in the construction and adaptation of the various Machines made and sold by them, and to be driven by the Power, in calculating their various velocities, forces, pulleys and gears, so as to enable them to operate to their maximum efficiency, which is the secret of their great success. Thrashing Machines, WITH SEPARATING AND CLEANING ATTACHMENT, Combined and adapted for all kinds and con- ditions of grain. &c. This machine is the greatest success in its line yet produced. It can be operated with two horses as easily, and with equal re- sults, as the ordinary thrashing machine with- out the cleaning attachment; while its capa- city adapts it equally well to the force of four or six horses. It will thrash perfectly clean from the straw, and clean the grain for mar- ket, without any wastage in any part of the process. It is complete in one frame. Very compact and simple— runs light, still, and without any concussion from its moving parts. It has been very extensively used during the past two harvests, and its superiority over any others in market established beyond question, and considering its capacity and cost of construction, it is at least 50 per cent. cheaper than any other similar machine in use. Cider Mills, For Power and Hand use, with and without Press attached. These Mills and Presses are of a superior style and utility to any others in use. Sawing Mills, With Circular Saws, for Cutting Firewood, Slitting Boards, Plank, &c, for fencing and building purposes; also, with Machine Cross- cut for Cutting Logs for Wood, Shingles, Staves. &c; also. Mills for making Shingles. Clover Mills and Cleaners. This is believed to be one of the best Ma- chines for the purpose ever made; can be driven by one, two or more horses, at a high or slow velocity, and do equally good work, and with wet and bad, as well as good condi- tion, of the clover chaff. It cleans the seed and delivers it fit for market at the same ope- ration. Stalk and Straw Cutters, For Horse Power— a strong and durable Ma- chine, and adjustable to any length of cut. Feed Mills, For Grinding all kinds of Grain for Feeding, as well as Corn in the Ear when desired. Se- veral sizes, and with or without Sieves and Bolts attached. Illuminated Catalogue. The Proprietors have completed their new Catalogue— the most complete and beautiful- ly illustrated work ever published by any manufacturer, embracing a great number and variety of finely executed and carefully pre- pared ILLUSTRATIONS AND DESCRIPTIONS. With ample references, as well as the Prices, Terms of Sale, Weight, Cubic Measurements, Capacity, Directions for Use, Durability and Warranty of their MACHINERY, IMPLEMENTS AND SEEDS. On receipt of three cents in stamps, to pre- pay postage, it will be sent to all applicants. ^3T Local Agencies solicited for the sale of the above Machines. EMERY BROTHERS, Nos. 62 and 64 State St., Albany, N. Y. -^=e STEEL PLOWS • ♦ » We are now manufacturing a superior Steel Plow, intended for general use. Some of the advantages it possesses over the Cast Iron Plow are, lightness of draught, durability, and freedom from clogging or sticking, in heavy, clayey, sticky, or tena- cious soils. The parts most exposed to wear are so constructed that they may he readily repaired by any blacksmith. We would refer to the following persons, who have them in use : John Johnston, Geneva, N. Y.; Wm. Summer, Pomaria, S. C; R. C. Ellis, Lyons, N". Y.; Col. A. J. Summer, Long Swamp, Florida; A. J. Bowman, Utica, N. Y.; A. Bradley, Mankato, Minnesota; A. L. Fish, Litchfield, N. Y.; Volney Owen, Union, 111.; John Slighter, French Creek, N. Y. "MOHAWK VALLEY CLIPPER," No. 1, full trimmed, all Steel, $15.00 "MOHAWK VALLEY CLIPPER," with Cast Point, 14.00 "EMPIRE," No. 1, with Cast Point, full trimmed, 15 00 For Three-Horse Plows, SI. 50 extra. For Adjustable Beams, $1 extra. We also manufacture SAYRE &. KL1STKS PATENT TUBULAR SHANK STEEL CULTIVATOR TEETH. These Teeth are intended to supersede the old stjle of Wedge Teeth, and Teeth with Cast Iron Heads. They are not liable to become loose in the frame, like the former, nor to break, like the latter. They are as readily attached to the frame as any form of Tooth. SAYRE'S PATENT HORSE HOE. This implement is considered to be superior to any other for cultivating Corn, Cotton, Tobacco, Potatoes, Hops, Broom Curn, Nurseries, and all crops planted iu rows or drills. Steel Shovel Blades and Cultivator Points made, and all kinds of Swaging and Plow work done to order. BS~ SEND FOR A CIRCULAR. E. Remington & Sons, ) REMOGTOSS, MARKHAM & CO., Benjamin P. Markham, V ' ' Geo. Tuckerman. ) Ilion, Herkimer Co., N. Y. SCHENECTADY AGEICULTURAL WORKS. • ■» « THE subscribers manufacture ENDLESS CHAIN POWERS, FOR 1, 2 AND 3 HORSES, Four to Ten Horse Lever Powers, Combined Threshers and Cleaners, Threshers and Vibrating Separators, CLOVER HULLERS, WOOD SAWS, <5cC- A full description of which may be found in their Illus- trated Circular, which will be mailed free to all appli- cants. The following is a copy of a letter received from a man who purchased, last sea- son, one of our Two-Horse Powers, Thresher and Clea- ner: Stonk Mills, N. Y., March 7th, 1861. G. Westinghouse 4* Co. — The Machine I bought of you last September worked ■well. I threshed, for one of my neighbors, one hundred bushels of wheat in two and a half hours. The wheat was extra good, and straw not very long. I think there will be quite a call for your Machines from this way next fall. The Cleaner is the best that ever was in this country. i Yours, ic, ISAAC MITCHEL. \ For Circulars or information relating to these Machines, address, ) G. WESTINGHOUSE &> CO., Schenectady, N. Y. @c^~ SMEW-YORK STATE AGRICULTURAL WORKS. WHEELER, MELICK & CO., Proprietors, ALBANY, IN". Y., X/C .A. 1ST XJ E -A. C T XT R E WHEELEE'S PATENT KAILWAY CHAIN TRf JOL ^ II? f u 1/ aM FOR ONE OR TWO HORSES, PLANTATION HORSE POWERS, (SIX HORSE LEVER,) Wheeler's Improyed Patent COMBINED THRESHER AND WINNOWER, (NOS. 1 AND 2—26 AND 30 INCH CYLINDERS.) OVERSHOT THRESHER -A.3STID SERA.R.A.TOR, AND OTHER FARMING MACHINES FOR HORSE POWER USE. The subscribers are Inventors of ali the above Machines, and give their entire atten- tion to the manufacture of them, and having had the longest and largest experience of any firm in this business, feel warranted in saying that their Machines are une- qualed. They call especial attention to their improved Thresher and Winnower, OF WHICH OVER FOUR HUNDRED WERE SOLD IN 1860. SATISFYING ALL PURCHASERS THAT THEY WERE FAR SUPERIOR TO ANY MACHINE IN USB FOR THRESHING, SEPARATING AND WINNOWING, AT ONE OPERATION. . > ♦ » WW CIRCULARS, containing List of Prices and full Descriptions and Cuts of each Machine, with statements of their capacity for work, will, on application, be sent hy mail, postage free. VFW Liberal Discounts are made to Dealers. Responsible Agents are wanted, in sections where we have none. Address, WHEELER, MELICK <& CO,, Albany, N. V. ^^^^^^€^^^€^£^£^£^^6£S^^£^€^^^^^^£^£^^^^ v/> I FOR COLLEGES, ACADEMIES, &c. § i, i IV. V. Yl. &c, the price is c . A 50 00 HOW PLAINTS GROW, 500 CUTS, $ 75 LESSONS IN BOTANY, 360 CUTS, 100 MANUAL OF BOTANY, 1 50 S MANUAL AND LESSONS, IN 1 VOL., 2 00 MANUAL OF BOTANY (ILLUSTRATED) WITH MOSSES, 2 STRUCTURAL AND SYSTEMATIC BOTANY, 2 In consequence of the greatly increased use of the MANUAL AND LESSONS, in one volume, in High Schools, Academies, REDUCED 0'\ TO TWO DOLLARS, Retail, with the usual discount by the dozen to Teachers and Dealers, and specially low rales $ flW^j^y f07" first introduction into classes. % (^S^MJ^W^'^ Testimonials from the First V) \^!/^vl'M Naturalists in the World are in our possession, enough to fill a volume ; suffice it to name Prof, jAgassiz of Cambridge Univer- sity, Dr. Lmdley of London, who\x stands among the first of living Botanists, and is controller of the Eoyal Gardens at Kew ; Dr. Hooker, the celebrated Botanist of London; Prof. Tuckerman, Amherst College; Prof. Holton, Middlebury College; Prof. Chadbourne. Williams College; Prof. John v|n Torrey of the United States Assay Office ; Dr. Wm. Darlington of Phila- $ delphia ; President Hitchcock of Amherst College ; Prof. Silliman, Yale ^ NP College ; Prof. Henry of the Smithsonian Institute ; Prof. Arnold Guyot Vn re of Princeton ; Dr. Schanck, Professor of Natural Sciences in the College $\ •* of Princeton, New Jersey ; Prof. Pearson of Union College ; Dr. Wm. SB Tully, late Professor of Materia Medica in Yale College ; Prof. Winchell, & University Michigan, &c. With recommendations of the North American ^ Review, Sillimau's Journal, &c.,and other leadiug journals of the country. V} re They are now in satisfactory use in hundreds of Colleges, Academies and Institutes $\ in this country, and also In the University of Cambridge, England, Trinity College, Dublin, and the University of Edinburgh, Scotland. Our descriptive Catalogue pre- 5« sents twelve large pages of recommendations, embracing nearly every Naturalist and Vi \ Literary and Scientific Journal of eminence in this country, with State School Super- vf\ intendents, and hundreds of successful Practical Teachers, who have tested their merits in the school-room. They are beautifully illustrated with over 2,500 ORIGINAL DRAWINGS from nature. Single copies of such as are used in classes sent at half price to Teachers for examina- tion with a view to introduction. Liberal terms for first supplies. Sold by Booksellers generally. Published by IVISOX, PHINNEY, ect. dignity, eelf-rellance, lude- PlBXNKaa. — Slaliility, perse veiance.decislon. pendence CoXSUIBXTIonSKKSft.— (Sense of tight, justice, duty, etc. Hops. — Expectation, anticipation, trust In the future. Si'ihiti'ai.ity. — Intuition, prescience, prophecy, failli. Vkvkkation. — Worahip.adoratliui .devotion, deference. Uk.nktoi.encb.— Sympathy, kindness, goodness. " When a man properly understands himself, mental- ly and physically, his road to happiness is smooth, and •ociety has a st-ong guaranty for his good conduct and use- fulness."—Box. T. J. Busk. NUMBERS OF THE ORGANS. 20. Constructivenkss.— Ingenuity, maiirmi skill, [ment. 21. Ideality.— Taste, love of beauty, poetry, and retine- Sublimity.— Love of the grand, vast, endless, and Imitation.— Copying, nilniickiiig.dolng like. [infinite. Mikth.— Fun, wi't, ridicule, facet ionsness, Joklug. IsmvioPAi.iTY.— Observation, desire to ttt and know. Form.— Memory of shape, looks, persons, and tilings. 2G. Sr/.K.— Measurement of quantity, distance, etc., by eyt. 27. Wkiuiit.— Control of motion, balancing, hurling, etc. 2s. Color— Discernment and love of colors. tints. hues. etc. 29. Okkkr.— Method. i*rstem going by rule, keeping tilings 30. Calculation— Mental a-"hmetlc. reckoning, [in place. 31. Locality.— Memoivof piaces, position, etc. [talis, etc. 32. Kvknti'ai.ity.— .Memory of facte, events, history, de- 33. Time.— Telling when, time of day, dates, how long, etc 3-t. Ti'nk.— Lots of music, singing and playing fey ear. 35. Lawbdaobi Bjprt—icm by words, acts, tones,look«.etc. 36. Causality.— Wanning, thinking, reasoning, adapting. 37. Comparison.— Analysis, Inferring, discrimination, etc. C. Human Nature.— Perception ofchaiacter,niotlves,et-i D. Suavity.— /'J«i«anfnes«, blsndness, persuasiveueBS. B. 22. 23. 24. 23. Phrenological Examinations and Advicf., with Charts and Written Descriptions of Char- acter, given when desired, by Fowlee and Wells, No. 808 Broadway, New lork. The American Phrenological Journal A Repository of Science, Literature, and Gen- eral Intelligence, devoted to Phrenology, Edu- cation, Mechanism. Architecture, and to all those Progressive Measures which are calcu lated to Pvcform. Elevate, and Improve Man- kind. Illustrated with numerous portraits and other encravings. A beautiful Quarto, suitable for binding. Monthly, at *1 a year in advance. The Water-Cure Journal. Devoted to Hydropathy, its Philosophy and Practice; to Physiology and Anatomy, with il- lustrative engravings; to Dietetics, Exercise, Clothing, Occupations, Amusements, and those Laws which govern Life and Health. Monthly, at One Dollar a year in advance. Life Illustrated.-a first-class weekly. A Journal of Entertainment, Improvement, and i Profit, and to encourage a spirit of Hoi>k, Ac- pSress Tc 11 i» Site Life in all its forms and tiv.tv. Ski f-kk.uanck, and Manunkss among aspfcts to dtorafSwtaSw Ideas of the day, the People are some of the objects aimed at m fecon al si "t s of Progress, to advocate the j We shall rest satisfied with nothing short of Poitici anil industrial iflght. of all classes, to | making it one of the very best fam. y newspa- point out all legitimate means of Economy and pers in the world. Weekly, at * t a j ear. For Three Dollars (|8) a copy of all three Journals will be sent a year to one address. Please address all letters to FOWLER AND WELLS, 808 Broadway, New York. *• A w= S^ s. ^1 , fc- ,= i> if • In ZSL - - ■ *1 2 * r « 2 0 S -§11 ?» b = - " s-.JB g ••>■=■* ■? - u « Sis? ' tad -~ ,= — ^ = „■ "S £■ *- " ££-*■« « *5 Xt^ = , M ~ i, - c _ r i*-" *"< «: OIj - x i* «* s— _ — u ~ ^> c- --? z - m es . 3 £* *'? =3 c ^ =J; * . * £ .4- r JS 5 m s_ c •- ~ a _ - — X •— &- c-bi > = . „ _ ^ 3 W '< S 2 j, r ? 1 M ^1 H