am r.-,T .- ,i~v. •*****+*.•*<. •St'J — -fey- HARVARD UNIVERSITY. LIBRARY OK THE MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOflT Hvm GIFT OF S/Q/rriUjJj L I >> ,, Regulator (Fig. 35) ” >> >> Egg Tray (Fig. 36) ,, Tomlinson’s Incubator (Fig. 37A, 37B) >> >. ,, Regulator (Fig. 38) Mr. Christy’s Thermostatic Incubator (Fig. 39) Mr. Hearson’s Incubator (Fig. 40) . Shed and Coop for Chickens (Fig. 41) Coop for Chickens (Fig. 42, 42A) Artificial Mother (Fig. 43) .... Funnel for Cramming Fowls (Fig. 44) Cramming by Machinery (Fig. 45) . Machine for Cramming Poultry (Fig. 46) Plan for Poultry Farm (Fig. 47) Cheap Portable Plouse (Fig. 48) Mode of Tying a Slipped Wing (Fig. 49) Poultry Basket (Fig. 50) . . . . Poultry Label (Fig. 51) Mode of Keeping Away Cats (Fig. 52) Simple Rat-trap (Fig. 53) .... Operation for Distended Crop (Fig. 54) . Gapes, Insect (Fig. 55) Operation for Wry-tail (Fig. 56) Principal Viscera of a Fowl (Fig. 57) Reference Diagram for Technical Terms (Fig. 58) Vulture Hock (Fig. 59) ..... Feathers of Partridge Cochin Hen for Breeding Cockerels (Fig. 60) 219 Feathers of Partridge Cochin Hen for Breeding Pullets (Fig. 61) 229 Langshans, Modern Type . ... to face 237 ,, Original Type 238 Modem Light Brahmas .... to Jace 260 Feathers from Neck of Light Brahma Hen (Fig. 64) . 263 Feathers of Standard Dark Brahma Hen (Fig. 65) . . 266 Feathers edged with White from Dark Brahma Hen (Fig. 66) 266 Feathers of Good Pullet-brseding Dark Brahma Cock (Fig. 67) 269 Modern Dark Brahmas . . ... to face 272 Ideal Contour of Malay Cock (Fig. 68) .... 281 Feathers of Black-red Game Hen (Fig. 69) . . . 288 Hackle-Feather of Brown-red Game Hen (Fig. 70) . . 290 Feathers of Lace-breasted Brown-red Game Cock (Fig. 71) 29i Feathers of Duck-winged Game Hen (Fig. 72) • • 292 ,, Silver-grey Duck wing Game Hen (Fig. 73) . 293 Old English Black-red Game Cock 303 '90 PAGE • 57 • 58 • 58 62 • 63 . 64 ■ 65 • 69 70 75 80 . '82 • 83 . 108 . 109 • i45 • i53 . 178 . 180 . 181 . 189 • i95 . 202 • 203 . 205 . 207 Feathers of Dark-coloured Dorking Hen (Fig. 74) . ,, Medium-coloured Dorking Hen (Fig. 75) Sussex Chicken Coop (Fig. 76) . . . . . Feathers of Silver-grey Dorking Hen (Fig. 77) Ideal Outline of Dorking Cock (Fig. 78) . . . . Saddle for Washing Spanish (or other) Fowls (Figs. 79, 80) Wire for Spanish Cock’s Comb (Fig. 81) . Feathers of Hen-tailed Silver Mooney Cock (Fig. 82) ,, Full-plumaged Silver-spangled Cock (Fig. 83) ,, Silver-spangled Hamburgh Hen (Fig. 84) Redcaps ......... Feathers of Silver-pencilled Hamburgh Cock (Fig. 85) ,, Silver-pencilled Hamburgh Pullet (Fig. 86) Skull of a Polish Fowl (Fig. 87) Head of a Polish Fowl (Fig. 88) Feathers of Spangled Polish Cock (Fig. 89) ,, Spanish Polish Hen (Fig. 90) Head of Crevecoeur Cock (Fig. 91) . „ Breda Cock (Fig. 92) . Courtes Pattes Fowls Mrs. Cheshire’s Artificial Mother Mr. Christy’s Artificial Mother Feathers of Plymouth Rock Cock (Fig. 93) „ „ Hen (Fig. 94) Early American Wyandottes Japanese Long-tailed Fowls Rose-combed Orpington Cock ,, ,, Hen Rumpless Fowls Scotch Greys . Part of Ordinary Feather Magnified (Fig. Feathers of Silky Fowls (Fig. 96) ,, Laced Bantams (Fig. 97) Tail-feather of Laced Bantam (Fig. 98) Sonnerat Jungle Fowl (Fig. 99) Head of Brahma Hen, with Single Wattle Ocellated Turkey Peacock .... Pekin Ducks . Grey Call Ducks White-faced Whistling Duck The Canada Goose . The Egyptian or Nile Goose Sebastopol and Gambian Geese Black Swan .... English-dressed Fowl, Breast-bone Crushed (Fig. 10 1) French-dressed Fowl, Breast-bone Uncrushed (Fig. 102) 95) (Fig 100 to face PAGE 320 321 323 326 337 348 350 367 368 37i 379 383 384 396 397 401 402 414 4i7 420 429 43° 433 433 437 447 450 451 455 457 458 459 475 476 497 505 517 529 542 548 552 564 567 569 573 578 579 THE ILLUSTRATED BOOK OF POULTRY. CHAPTER I. HOUSES AND ACCOMMODATION. UCCESS in poultry-keeping must obviously depend very much upon the character of the premises the fowls are to inhabit; they can- not, any more than human beings, retain health and condition in unhealthy dwellings. In former years this was not understood, and consequently roup and gapes decimated many poultry-yards ; now, neither disease is dreaded by the experienced fancier, and deaths from any natural cause are few and far between. The essentials to the health and well-being of poultry — so far as accommodation is concerned — are very few and very simple ; but it is essential to see that they really are provided, in proper proportion to the size and number of the birds. Pure air, and shelter from wind and weather, are all that is required, whether the establishment covers acres, or is confined to a few square feet. Pure air, of course, implies both proper cleanliness and proper ventilation ; and good shelter implies a retreat dry under foot as well as above, which must also be open to the light, or the fowls will not resort to it. But unless the whole establishment be on a considerable scale, large and expensive houses are neither necessary nor desirable ; and any amateur at all accustomed to the use of tools may do— as we and many others have done — the whole of the work of his fowl-house with his own hands. Indeed, we strongly advise this where possible ; for it will not only benefit both the health and the pocket of the proprietor but will give him a deep and lasting interest in the undertaking, which will of itself go a long way to command success. In the case of ladies, of course, such will rarely be possible, though we have known blooming damsels — well connected, too — who could perform incredible feats in this way. These it must be allowed were exceptions ; but in all cases we would urge a thorough superintendence and knowledge of every detail in construction, as it may save much future trouble and cost should it be needful to direct alterations, or to contrive accommodation for strange fowls on sudden emergencies. The house itself should, as a rule, be set apart exclusively for the inmates to roost and lay in, and should not be more than large enough to comfortably accommodate them. For a cock and five hens of the larger breeds, five or six feet square is ample for this purpose ; for the smaller breeds,. 9 The I illustrated Book of Poultry. four feet square will do ; and much more will only increase the liability to cold and roup in winter, on account of the difficulty in maintaining a proper temperature. For, while ventilation is all important, to secure it without either cold or draught is equally so ; and much harm has been done by writers who have advised that cracks and chinks should be deliberately left all about the walls for the purpose of securing “ pure air.” For the air supplied there should be but one well-defined source — the hole by which the birds enter — and their perches must then be so arranged that they are out of the draught there will always be between this and the ventilator, which should be as high above the perch. as possible. The ventilation may consist of anything except an unprotected aperture, which is bad. Louver boards answer well, but perhaps the simplest plan is to provide a sufficient hole in the wall, as near the roof as possible, and cover it with a piece of perforated zinc. The cost of this in England is generally sixpence pei square foot ; and it entirely prevents injurious draught, while providing ventilation perfectly. A window, however small, is also necessary. In the numerous cases where only a few fowls are required to provide a family with eggs and an occasional chicken for table, some brick or stone building is frequently available, and if so. i I 6I1H.D. HOUSE. : i OPEN YARD. Fig. I. should be turned to account in preference to erecting a slighter one. If the house has to be built, by far the cheapest (and on the whole the best) material will be wood ; and the simplest possible plan will be to erect a small square structure in any convenient corner — say five feet by six feet, extending the roof sideways to form an open shed, and either fencing in as much open yard as can be spared in addition (as in Fig. i) ; or, provided the shed be large enough, and the sun can reach it during a good part of the day, wiring-in that alone. For a very few fowls the shed is not absolutely necessary, provided the house be so well lighted that the fowls resort to it readily in wet weather. If the amateur erects the house for himself, he should employ boards an inch thick, using scantling three by four inches for the frame ; and, as planks are almost universally cut into twelve- feet lengths, the best size will be six feet high in front, and six feet from front to back, which will use it up without waste. The boards should either be tongued, which costs very little, or have a thin lath nailed over each junction to avoid draught from the cracks. The putting-up will be very simple. The two back uprights must be fastened to the wall with stay-nails or holdfasts, holes being first dug two feet in the ground for them. Another, but horizontal piece must also be fastened to the wall for the rafters to rest on, and the front uprights and door-post deeply sunk in the ground, truiy perpendicular, and in line with each other. A second horizontal piece being spiked to these for the eaves, all is ready for spiking-down the rafters, which completes the frame ready for Construction of House. 3 nailing on the planks which form the walls. The roof may either be of wood, covered with felt, tiles (which are best and cheapest), slates, or corrugated iron. In case tiles are employed, no other ventilation will be necessary, unless the delicacy of the breed kept should necessitate boarding or lath-and-plaster work underneath them. Wood alone, without felt, will do very well for a roof if laid perpendicularly, a strip nailed over each joint, and well tarred ; but laid horizontally we never found timber last very long. Where a choice is possible, a south or south-east aspect should be secured for the house and yard. But this is not of so very much consequence with hardy breeds ; and for years we have kept Brahmas most successfully in a range of houses fronting north-east, which is perhaps the worst aspect of all. If the house can be built at the back of or adjoining a stable, or behind a fireplace, it will have a most beneficial effect on the egg-basket in winter ; but we do not approve of warming the house by a stove in any ordinary English climate. Some authors have laid great stress on this, but we are satisfied that the effect, as a rule, is far from beneficial. In the severe weather of northern Scotland, or in North America, the case is somewhat different ; but where warming becomes necessary from the intense frost, the temperature should not be allowed to rise above forty or forty- five degrees Fahrenheit, or the birds will inevitably take cold in the day-time and probably perish. Even in situations where the cold is very severe, the necessity of artificial warmth may often be obviated by making the wooden walls double ; i.e., nailing planks on both sides of the uprights, with a few inches space between. This makes a very warm house ; and it can be easily arranged that the fresh air admitted shall have to pass all round the apartment before it is finally allowed to penetrate into the interior. For such a small house as we have been considering, all other arrangements will be very simple. Concrete, made with hydraulic lime, will make the best floor for the house itself, and, sprinkled with sand or earth, is easier kept clean than any other floor we know. We have often seen it condemned in poultry journals ; but after an experience of many years we adhere to our own opinion, that a hard, smooth concrete floor, well sanded every time the house is cleaned, is at once the cleanest, dryest, and every way the best. The perch should be near the back wall, as near as will not damage the tail of the cock when at roost, but the height and size will vary according to the breed. For Cochins, Brahmas, Creves, or Dorkings, the perch should be a fir pole, five or six inches in diameter, sawn down the middle to make two if worth the saving, and not more than one foot from the ground. Other fowls can roost higher, and the perches may be smaller in proportion: but as a rule they are much too high and small; for it should be remembered that in a small building a fowl has no chance to fly fairly down for want of space, and often descends with injurious violence from a high roost. The nests should be on the ground, except for small varieties, and may go in any convenient position where the manure cannot drop into them. A couple of bricks placed so as to confine a little straw will make as good a nest as anything. The flooring of the shed should be either loose fine gravel, sand, or earth sifted so as to take out all the large stones. As in most cases where there is a fowl-house there will also be a garden, the last will usually be the best material. It should be turned over to the depth of eight or ten inches once a fortnight, and once every year entirely renewed, the earth removed making excellent manure for the garden. Cleanliness in the house itself is very important. All the droppings should be taken away at least twice every week, which is easily done with a housemaid’s dust-pan and small scraper, or a board may be laid under each perch, and scraped at due intervals. A daily cleansing is best of all. The Canada Farmer , some years ago, gave an excellent arrangement for promoting cleanliness, which can be readily understood from the diagram. A broad shelf (a) is fixed at the back of the 4 The III us 'tea ted Book of Poultry house, and the perch placed four or five inches above it, a foot or more from the wall. The nests are conveniently placed on the ground underneath, and need no top, whilst they are peifcctly protected from defilement, and are also well shaded, to the great delight of the hen. 1 he shelf is scraped clean every morning with the greatest ease and comfort, on account of its convenient height, and slightly sanded afterwards ; whilst the floor of the house is never polluted at all by the roosting birds. For Cochins or Brahmas, the perch may be dispensed with, and the shelf or floor littered with straw, shaken up every night, and renewed weekly. This arrangement of house, allowing as it does of the nests being placed imme- diately under the perch, gives a greater amount of floor space than any other, and also keeps the . fowls from all upward draughts of air ; but daily attention becomes in this case absolutely necessary, to keep the shelf from becoming foul and infested with vermin. For enclosing the poultry-run, the cheapest material is ordinary two-inch galvanised wire netting, a yard wide. This will cost in England, retail, about fourpence per square yard ; in quantities it can be bought for less. It may be fastened to the supports either with broad- headed tacks, or preferably, and more durably, with small galvanised staples, which are sold for the purpose. For those who desire a more ornamental appearance, and no trouble in erecting supports, there are various poultry-fences manufactured. The cost of either of those represented will be about six shillings per yard, six feet high; and, being close at the bottom, these have the a Broad shelf, eighteen inches high. b Perch, four inches above. c Nests, open at top and in front. Fig- 3- Fig. 4. advantage of being proof against both chickens and rats. A much cheaper wire hurdle is made also close at the bottom, and six feet high, at 3s. 3d. per six-feet length. For Bantams and Hamburghs, this height is not sufficient, and the run must be either completely covered to confine them, or a ten-foot fence erected, unless the wings be cut. Brahmas and Cochins, on the contrary, will be easily confined within netting only three feet high, provided there be no top beyond the selvage of the netting. Quite sufficient support will be given to netting six feet high by posts one-and-a-half inches square, pointed at the ends, tarred, and driven two feet into the ground. Cleanliness and Drainage. 5 With regard to the minimum of space absolutely necessary to keep fowls in health, our experience has taught us that if the birds are of only moderate or small size, ten square feet of run for each bird may be made sufficient, adding half as much again for larger kinds. This is inde- pendent of the roosting-house, and supposes both the most scrupulous attention to cleanliness and a judicious diet. A shed so small will give least trouble if floored with clean fresh-water sandj as a rake with thin steel teeth, set a quarter-inch apart, will remove all offensive matter every morning, with the least possible labour. But if a grass-run can be given, it will be far better, giving higher condition with much less labour, as the shed floor will then only need turning over occasionally, and renewing once a year. For Spanish, or similar breeds, not quite one hundred square feet for each bird will be needed to preserve the grass : thus, a cock and four hens would require a grass-run of about twenty by twenty-five feet, which will remain pretty fresh and in capital order. Brahmas and Cochins require fully as much again, or the grass will soon become trodden and foul. In any poultry-yard there are some essentials, attention to which is necessary to health and prosperity ; and one of the first of these is that some retreat shall be perfectly dry under foot. This is especially to be secured in the early chicken-nursery, for if the young broods be put upon a flooring even a little damp, early in the year, it will be impossible to prevent cramp from making sad inroads even in the most hardy breeds. But in the shed for the adult fowls it is almost equally important. The grass-run may be a damp, cold clay, but if so, it is all the more essential that the shed to which the occupants resort in bad weather shall be perfectly dry ; and in erecting a yard, money spent in securing this end will save many times the amount in future. Even if the natural soil be very bad as regards cold and damp, there is no difficulty in accomplishing the desired object. Perhaps the simplest and best method of doing so is that adopted by Mr. Tudman, in the chicken-nursery of the yard presently described. The ground is dug out to the depth of three feet, the space being filled in with brick-ends and stones, rammed pretty solid, and levelled on the top ; and over this is put plenty of dry sand. In the case of a very bad, wet soil, the brick- ends should be raised nearly a foot in the sheds above the ground outside ; and the thorough drainage, through the loose bricks, will keep the floor beautifully dry in the very worst weather. Instead of brick-ends or stones, large cinders, clinkers from an engine-furnace, pieces of shale, or any- thing of the kind, will answer the purpose, the only object being to provide interstices for the moisture to drain away. In such circumstances, dry sand or fine sandy gravel will make the best top stratum, but sifted earth or ashes will answer the purpose almost equally well. If preferred — and, for ourselves, we should prefer it — a layer of concrete, or strong hydraulic mortar, may be laid over the stones or bricks, which will prevent the sand or earth from being shaken down and filling up the crevices ; and will also allow of the whole being periodically renewed with the least possible trouble. Hen-lice or other vermin should, from the very first, be guarded against, or they will be a great annoyance to both the fowls and their owner. Stone or brick houses should be regularly washed every year with a strong lime-wash, in which sulphate of iron has been also mixed, a pound to every three gallons; put on, if possible, hot from the slaking, and thoroughly worked into every cranny and crevice in the walls. So important is this thorough searching of the walls, that if they be built very rough or uneven, it is well worth while to give them a little plastering over, to make the surface more even. In building wood houses, a brush dipped in kerosene or paraffine should be passed along the tongued edges of all the boards, as they are nailed in their places, the effects of which will last some time ; but wooden 6 The Illustrated Book of Poultry. walls also should be regularly lime-washed, and if at any time vermin should get into them, they should be expelled by syringing all over, either with paraffine or a solution of caibolic acid. The last is certain death to nearly all insects, and is one of the most valuable additions, to the resources of the poultry-keeper. Supposing any variety of fancy poultry be kept to breed, or indeed, if any chickens be leaied at all, at least two runs of some kind become necessary, and we can confidently recommend some ELEVATION 0 . . ■ , $ 11° i 2,0 , 3.0 SCALE Fig- 5- A A Roosting and Laying Houses. a a Nests. B B Fenced-in Covered Runs. b b Perches. C C Shed and Run for Sitting Hens. c c Holes for Fowls to enter, • D D Grass Runs. such plan as shown in Fig. 5, which served ourselves for several years, until more extensive demand for our stock compelled enlargement. It is simple in plan, cheap, and most easily erected ; and if a good grass-run outside be also at command, is sufficient to rear any variety in great perfection though not, of course, in large numbers. The yards in front may be left in the natural earth but are better laid in sand or gravel, and raked clean every two days ; if not, they must be dug over now and then to keep them sweet. The same design may be increased in size, if space permit. In the plan as here given, the sheds are entirely fenced in with wire netting, and boarded up a foot Houses for Limited Space, Fig. 6. hi„h so that the fowls or chickens can be entirely confined during wet weather. But this is by no" means necessary, and they may be left open, like that allotted to the sitting hen with little injury It saves trouble to have all the holes by which the fowls enter furnished with trap-doors, that the birds may be kept either out or in while cleaning or any other operation ,s going on. The small run between two others is a great advantage, as it not only accommodates a sitting rcn, but will also prevent two cocks from fighting, without spoiling the appearance of a wire fence by b^On^T sommvha" similar plan are the ranges of iron-roofed poultry-houses and runs, manu- factured by many firms, and illustrated above. As represented in the view, each house and run is six feet7 wide7 a space sufficient for some breeds, but which for others would need to be extended The ’houses are raised from the ground about two feet, and the space under the floor thus forms a shed for bad weather, and economises room. It might be better ,f the floor !e“ raised to the height of four feet, as the ground under could then be inspected and kept Pr°PWher’esDace is valuable, or materials expensive, the principle adopted in the above houses, r l imr "floor space do double duty, may be carried out in other ways, as we saw during a recent "’t an old friend and fancier, Mr. John Stuart, of Helensburgh, N.B. We there found one 8 The Illustrated Tools of Poultry- MR. E. TU DM AN'S YARD. Various Plans for Yards. 9 ouse between tvvo seeds made to answer the purpose of two, by throwing' a wooden floor across, about half way up. The ground floor thus formed the house for the shed on one side, and the “first floor,” reached by an inclined hen-ladder, did duty for the other, both being littered with straw. A hen-ladder, as is pretty generally known, is formed by nailing strips of wood an inch square across a plank a foot wide, at intervals of about three inches. The top corners of the strips should be taken off, or the feet may be injured by the sharp edges. Still further accommodation will be required if great success in exhibiting be desired, and especially if there be any extensive demand for the proprietor’s eggs and stock. In planning such, regard must necessarily be had to the shape and amount of space at disposal, especially if grass be at command. Scarcely any two yards are alike in these circumstances, and hence no one can probably be exactly copied by the reader ; nevertheless, useful hints may be gathered from the plans adopted by others. Fig. 7 is a plan of the yard of the late Mr. E. Tudman (celebrated for his partridge Cochins), at Ashgrove, Whitchurch, Salop. A A are houses and yards for breeding-pens or other purposes, each house measuring ten by eleven feet, and containing a dusting-trough, thus answering the purpose of both house and shed ; the yards in front being laid in gravel, and measuring thirty by ten feet. These runs have all access at pleasure to a grass-run, twenty-four by fifty feet. B B are smaller houses and runs, a portion of these also having access to a grass-run, twenty by fifty feet. C C are houses for cockerels and pullets respectively, each sex having a large grass-run to itself. D is a large chicken-house with a glass front, measuring twenty-two by nine- teen feet, in which early broods can be reared, under the most favourable circumstances, in any weather. E is a house containing pens for feeding and preparing birds intended for exhibition. F is a house and pens devoted entirely to the sitting hens ; and G is devoted to miscellanies and stores. All the grass-runs open behind into a shrubbery thirty feet deep, bounded by a brick wall, which can be used for any of the pens at pleasure, or, by the use of portable houses, be employed independent of them. In this yard may be observed all the essentials for breeding and showing any single variety of poultry in the greatest perfection. There are pens of sufficient size to maintain the breeding stock in perfect health, with separate pens, and accessible grass-runs, for bringing any bird wanted for show into first-rate condition ; the sitting hens are well accommodated, and a spacious chicken nursery prepares the young progeny for the ample range that awaits them when ready to be turned out. There is also ample accommodation for any moderate amount of surplus stock till it can be disposed of. This last is often overlooked by beginners, and if so is an occasion of serious loss ; as cockerels must be either killed or provided for separately when the breeding-pens are mated for the ensuing year, and unless there is accommodation for them, birds must then be sacrificed which might otherwise realise considerable sums. The most extensive and well-appointed poultry-yard in the United Kingdom, or, indeed, in the world, was unquestionably that of the Right Hon. Lady Gwydyr, at Stoke Park, Ipswich* The kindness of Lord Gwydyr, in placing at our service the results of a special survey, and a fully detailed scale-plan by Mr. Butterworth, has enabled us to give a correct plan of all the arrangements, which we are sure will be valued by many readers. The nucleus of the Stoke Park establishment consisted of an extensive range of buildings adapted to the necessities of a home-farm, which placed at disposal an extent of wide and lofty shedding very rarely available for such purposes, but which has been greatly extended and modified as found necessary. The nursery (numbered 49) may be given as an instance, consisting * Lady Gwydyr retired from the poultry fancy in 1891. IO The Illustrated Book of Poultry 17 | 16 1 15 r~ 8 9 10 n 12 f 7 1 r 1 k 54 j jTJ Scale 40 feet to 1 inch. Fig. 8. No. Description. No. i3- ' I. Roadway. 2. Garden and Poultry X ard. 14. 3- Dusting Bin. J5- 4- Dog Kennel. 16. 5- O- 6. 1 18. 7- O- 8. Poultry Pens, each with 20 9- Roosting FTouse, Open 21. i 10. Shed, and Dusting Bin. 22. 11. 1 12. 2.3- REFERENCES TO ABOVE PLAN. Description. Poultry Pens, each with Roosting House, Open Shed, and Dusting Pin. Poultry Meadows into which Pens open. Chicken Meadow. 1 ,ow Shed, with Glass Fron t. No. Description. No. Description. 25- Chicken Run. 37- ) 25. Chicken Runs. 38./ Pens. 27. 39- Fatting House. 28. Open Shed. 4°. Dog Kennel. 29. ■ Poultry Sheds. 41. Yard. 3°- 42. Poultrvman’s Plouse. 31- Open Yard. 43- Corn Chamber. 32. Hatching House. 44. Egg Room. 33- Yards, with Roosts and 45- Office, with separate 34- Covered Pens. Entrance. 35- Roosting House. ; 46. Garden. 36- Pens. 47- Store Room. Lady Gwydyrs Yard i r REFERENCES— Continued. No. Description. No. Description. No. Description. 48. Cooking House. 60. 72. 49. Chicken Nursery. 61. Poultry Pens, each with 73- 5°- Roosting House. 62. ) Roosting House, Open 74- \ Duck Plouses. 51- Tank and Pump. 63- Shed, and Dusting Bin. 7> 52. Low Open Shed. 64. 76. 53- Enclosed Yard. 65- 77-/ 54- \ 66. House and Sheds, with 78. Enclosed Yard. sc. 67. enclosed Yards. 79- Pond. D D Poultry Pens, each with 68. Exhibition Pen Room. 80. Muck Pit. 1 Roosting House, Open 69. W. C. 81. Yard and Shed. 57- 58. Shed, and Dusting Bin. 70. Liquid Manure Tank. 82. Grass Yard. 59-' 1 7i. Duck Houses. 83- Low Open Shed. No. 84. 35- 86. 87. 8S. 89. 90. 91. 92. Pescription. Grass Yard, with Open Shed, and Roosting House. Yards, with Sheds ar.d Houses. Cart Shed. Dovecote. Carriage House. Stabies. Dairy, with Garden. Dairyman’s Cottage. Cow House. The Illustrated Book of Poultry. i 2 oi a noble shed sixty-five by twenty feet, floored with clean dry sand, and entirely devoted, in the early part of the year, to the raising of the younger chickens ; but the whole yard throughout offers the same ample accommodation, which was turned to the best account by her ladyship’s well- known superintendent, Mr. Frederick Wragg, formerly poultry-manager to Mr. R. Boyle. No other yard offers, even in proportion, nearly the same amount of shedding for the shelter of the fowls, and the result was seen in the magnificent condition which Lady Gwydyr’s birds always presented at shows, and which tells wonderfully in competition. The buildings alone at Stoke Park extend over a space about five hundred feet in length by a hundred and fifty feet in width. The portion of the plan shown on the left-hand page, in Fig. 8, is called the No. I, or “show ’ yard, being that to which Lady Gwydyr chiefly took her visitors ; and presents a very attractive appear- ance, honeysuckles and other climbers being trained over the front of many of the pens, and the grass-run which occupies the centre, and which is available for any of these pens, being decorated with ornamental shrubs, which also afford shelter to the fowls. The portion on the right Mr. Wragg considered more as his working yard, nearly all the young stock being confined to it ; but of course many of the “ crack ” birds were often to be found in the No. 2 yard, while much “ work ” was also done in the more showy portion of the establishment. No description can add much information to the copious index appended to the plans, and our explanations will therefore be very few. It will be seen that the entire buildings present nearly sixty separate pens of various sizes, of which the smaller are perhaps as useful as the others, for accommodating single cocks, sick fowls, or other purposes. The No. I yard consists mainly of a range of pens, surrounding a grass-plot ninety by seventy feet. Some of these pens are very large, and those numbered 8 to 12 inclusive have fully half their area covered by shedding. Scarcely any of the sheds at Stoke Park, it may here be remarked, are wired-in, but are open to the front, which is doubtless the best plan when furnished on the ample scale here found. The roosts to the pens numbered 15 to 19 are entered from the passage at the back, which also gives access to the small covered pens shown at 33 and 34. Each of these measures about eight by four feet, and is devoted to a single cock, whilst moulting, or at any time needing separate accommodation. The small grass-plots in front of these pens give each bird, if needful, a little more exercise. Passing to the No. 2 yard, the noble chicken nursery at 49 has already been alluded to ; adjoining are seen the store-room and cooking-house. Nos. 54 to 61 are nearly uniform pens, all shedded to the dotted line, or nearly two-thirds of their area, while 62 to 65, with the adjoining grass-plot, 53, are chiefly devoted to birds intended for show ; and at the time of our visit the sole tenant was the best dark Brahma cockerel we ever remember to have seen up to that time (represented in another part of this book), and which afterwards won all the honours of the year. The opposite side of this yard consists chiefly of duck-houses ; but the exhibition or pen-room will be noticed at 68. This is a room fifteen feet square, on two opposite sides of which are ranges of pens similar in size to those used at shows, the fronts beautifully made on the Birmingham model, of polished pine and wire. In these pens, as in Mr. Tudman’s yard, the selected birds are put for several days, both to accustom them to the confinement of exhibition, and also to see if, when penned, their matching and appearance is satisfactory, or if better can be done with the specimens at command. This room, and all the sheds and yards, except those portions which are in grass, are floored to the depth of about eight inches with fine dry sand, which is regularly raked and kept perfectly clean. In the dwelling-house, a room (numbered 44) was entirely devoted to the storage of eggs from the various pens, and decorated by a multitude of “ prize cards,” recording Lady Gwydyr’s triumphs at the various shows. Besides the formal pens, or yards, the meadows and shrubbery surrounding, and other out-door Various Plans for Varus. contrivances, were pressed into the service. For rearing chickens, Mr. Wragg is very partial to low, open sheds, about three feet in height, such as are shown in plan at 52, 83, and 84 ; and what was originally a “cow-yard” and shed, at 85, at our visit accommodated as promising a lot of chickens, about five months old, as could be seen anywhere. Small wooden coops, or houses, are also employed to harbour the chickens; and, as a rule, Mr. Wragg endeavours to keep all his ) oung stock at liberty till pretty full grown. During all this time they have unlimited grass-run, and lay the foundation of a constitution which shall be proof against all ordinary circumstances. In the establishment we have thus endeavoured to describe, the system of separate pens for accommodating surplus birds, which we have spoken of as so necessary in a “ fancier’s ” yard, is carried to a very great extent ; but the same object may be attained in very various ways, and as an example of quite different management, we may refer to a plan adopted for many years by Mr. Henry Beldon, at Goitstock, Bingley. This gentleman was, perhaps, the most extensive breeder and exhibitor in England ; but always had a great part of his stock reared at so much per head by the cottagers round, bringing them in as they were wanted for exhibition or sale. The breeding birds were sheltered in small detached houses in different parts, each lot having ample grass-run, the whole extent being about fifteen acres. Of course, a tolerable number of chickens were also reared at home, and so far all was plain ; but the visitor to Goitstock, in the old days, looked in vain for the numerous pens he expected to find, each containing one of the handsome Hamburgh cocks for which Mr. Beldon had so enviable a reputation, and which he knew were about the place sornezvhere. The truth is, Mr. Beldon had, undoubtedly, “ the largest poultry- house ” in England, in the shape of an old disused factory or mill, which showed no sign whatever outside of the novel use to which it was devoted. This immense building measured about one hundred and twenty by thirty feet in plan, and consisted of four floors, all of which were occupied by fowls, some of them being kept there, entirely under cover, for months together, excepting what time they might spend at various shows. One floor only was wood, but even this was kept in perfect health by cleanliness and sanding, and occasionally moving the birds to parts which had been unoccupied. Two floors were devoted entirely to rows of pens about ten feet square, down each side of the building, each pen having a window, and a wide passage being left down the centre between. The other floors were left more open, but also accommodated many birds ; and in this novel manner Mr. Beldon for years effectually secured the object we have been considering. Of course, chickens could not be reared in health under such circum- stances ; but when brought up out of doors, and fully matured, Mr. Beldon found no difficulty in keeping them in good condition, and the whitest plumage never became tanned by the sun. No precisely similar circumstances are likely to occur in any other case ; but the large building taken advantage of in this ingenious manner may perhaps furnish useful hints to many an amateur. Lastly, supposing an entirely new yard is to be erected, of great extent, and that the space is ample and unencumbered by large trees or other hindrances, some such plan as shown on the following page (Fig. 10) may be adopted with great advantage in many ways. It is eminently adapted"" for either breeding and rearing fancy fowls, or for producing eggs and poultry in large quantities for market. The plan provides for each pen its own permanent grass-run, which is here represented as forty-five by twenty feet, for a Cochin cock and four hens; but for Spanish, or similar breeds, eighteen by thirty-five feet would be sufficient. The pens for single birds may be added or omitted at discretion, the essentials of the plan being the covered passage between the rows of houses, which gives both shelter and the least possible amount of labour in attending to a large number of fowls. If the small pens be many, as the sheds will be longer and grass-runs wider, the length of the grass-plots may be reduced in proportion. Next c The Illustrated Book of Poultry. LA Fig. io. A A Houses for Roosting and Laying. bb Nests. c c Perches. 13 13 Sheds for Shelter. C C Grass Runs, U D Small Houses and Open Pens for Single Birds ot Sitters. E E Passage, preferably sky-lighted. /Flap to reach Nests from Passage. F F Pens for Fattening Birds. Various Plans for Yards. '5 the passage, the houses for roosting and the sheds should be boarded up about three feet, and the rest wired to the top, when the birds will be readily seen at roost ; and hinged flaps should also give means of access to the nests without entering the houses, though doors will, of course, be provided. The passage should be sky-lighted, though this is not absolutely needful, as light will come in over the low shed walls. At the outside, next the grass, the house will of course be boarded close up, and also at the sides, but the sheds may be left quite open, the three-feet boarding at the back giving shelter enough from the draught. The depth of the shedding from front to back is given as six feet, but may be increased with advantage ; or the front of the sheds may be boarded up for half their length, to give more shelter in very windy weather. And lastly, for an establishment intended to continue any time, apple, filbert, or other crop-bearing trees, should be planted in each run, to give both shade and shelter to the fowls. Such a yard, multiplied to the extent desired, and with as many of the small pens, D D, as may be necessary, will rear prize poultry to great perfection ; but besides a store-room, a certain length of the shed or some other covered building will be needed, to form an apartment where birds can be put up for exhibition, to clean themselves among dry straw. If a few exhibition pens can be found room for, as in Mr. Tudman’s and Lady Gwydyr’s yards, it will be a great advantage, and nothing more will be really required. One of the sheds, boarded up outside, and wired down to the bottom within, will make a capital chicken nursery for bad weather, and the birds will grow better , if put about fifteen together in runs of this moderate size, than if they have unlimited range, always providing they have the shade of trees in summer. The fences between the runs should be boarded up about two-and-a-half feet, and wired above to any height required. As the height of the roof will be greater in the passage than outside, pens for fattening birds intended to kill may be advantageously located at the top, as shown at F. These should have open bottoms made of bars, two inches square, but with sliding floors or drawers under, to prevent any of the droppings falling into the houses beneath. Doors will of course be placed from the passage into every house and shed, and also between run and run, so that entrance may be had from one part to any other by the shortest way. The holes by which the fowls enter the houses from the sheds should be next the passage, so as to keep all the draught on that side ; and as the nests will be the same, the perches will of course be placed as represented. Should artificial heat be wanted during any time of intense frost, such would be readily supplied in an establishment of this kind by having a double row of hot- water pipes the whole length of the passage, which would supply a temperature genial, but not injuriously warm. In any exhibition establishment, one great difficulty, as already hinted, is to provide for the cockerels. These are kept in flocks for awhile ; but after any are once exhibited they can rarely be restored to company, owing to their fighting. Of a good strain many are valuable, however ; and hence that great want in a breeder’s yard, of accommodation for such birds until of full age, or until they can be disposed of. Where the buildings are not extensive this is often done by erecting quite small wooden roosting-houses with limited wire runs in front, or a row of a few such, on some piece of grass. A few such small accom- modations are also most useful for sitting hens, hospitals, and all sorts of emergencies and occasional purposes. Such a small house, with a few dozen yards of netting, will even extem- porise an extra small breeding-pen if need arises. They are made for sale at a fairly cheap rate, of various sizes and patterns, but can be made by anybody with any experience of tools. ’ Perches we have already spoken of, and it is only needful to add that, for many reasons, i6 The Illustrated Book of Poultry. they should be fixed so as to be instantly removed when required, for cleaning the house. The simplest plan is to fix small wooden ledges to the walls, on which the ends may rest ; and these places must be specially looked after in searching for insect pests. Cochins and Brahmas, as a rule, do better without perches, upon soft straw. This should be allowed pretty freely, and, if shaken up every day with a fork, so that the droppings may fall to the bottom, will last a week, when the whole must be removed and clean straw substituted. Some few breeders still employ barred floors for Cochins, whieh formerly were very general, but are now little used. These are made of bars two inches square, placed about one-and-a-half inches apart, and are, or should be, fixed about six inches from the ground. As, however, all the droppings do not always fall through, these floors are very apt to damage the plumage of the breast, besides occasionally causing tender feet ; and we should advise either perches or straw in preference. In erecting any range of buildings for poultry, it will save much, both in time and money, if all the details are so planned as to cut up the standard lengths of timber without waste The most usual length is twelve feet, but sixteen feet is not uncommon, and occasionally twenty-four feet may be had in quartering (two by three inches) or scantling (four by three inches). The latter will be the proper size for the main uprights, while quartering will do well for door- posts and to support the partitions. But as short wood is generally cheaper than full lengths, if the width of a shed be six feet, for instance, it will save both money and the labour of sawing if all the boards for the cross partitions be ordered from the yard in six-feet lengths, when they are ready for nailing on without any preparation or loss of time. If the width of shed be eight feet, a board will still cut without waste, as the tonguing will keep two four- feet lengths in place between the long ones. Much money is often literally thrown away for want of considering these simple matters. In describing our “ model ” plan, we have already hinted that doors should be liberally provided. One door into a run may be all that is absolutely necessary ; but if made all to one pattern, doors cost scarcely any more than fence, and it saves much time and temper in attending to a large stock of poultry, to be able to get about in every possible way, without having to go a long way round. And, let the doors be wide ones. In our earlier years we suffered much inconvenience from having made many only two feet wide. As a rule, of course, chickens will be reared in the place devoted to their use, but many occasions may arise for taking a coop, or a large exhibition basket, or other matters, into any pen ; and it is most vexatious to find the door will not allow your burden to pass through. The allowance of grass-run we have given is such as we know to be sufficient to keep both it and the stock in good condition, but it will conduce greatly to success if now and then each pen can have a month or two’s rest. In such a uniform plan as we have last described this might easily be effected by devoting all the runs, in regular rotation, to chicken- rearing, when those which are used any given year will be left for a certain time unoccupied; other pens getting their rest or fallow next year, and so on. By adopting such a system^ somewhat smaller pens might be made to do ; but it is well to say, decidedly, that small grass-runs do not answer, and unless proper space can be given, the yards must be laid in sand or gravel, and the green food supplied artificially. We have known a contrary plan tried repeatedly, but it has always failed; and the only real use of a very small grass-plot is either to cut grass from for the fowls’ use, or to accommodate a few favourite birds for a few weeks only, whilst preparing for show. Prize poultry may however be kept, and exhibited most successfully, without any regular “yard” at all, if ample space be at command. No one ever had more unvarying success at ADVANTAGES OF A Gf.ass-Ru.v . n shows than the Viscountess Ilolmesdale, whose Dorkings, so long as she exhibited, rarely failed to carry all before them ; but scarcely any of her birds were ever penned in a yard. The whole stock, in fact, enjoyed as nearly perfect liberty as possible in Linton Park, each family or colony having to itself a portable wooden house, mounted on small wheels, which was moved a little every two or three days. Placed at wide distances apart, and hid from each other by abundant timber, the different families never mixed ; and, each house having an open window, the birds always breathed the pure air of heaven. Spanish were treated in the same way, and in fact many of the fowls even roosted in the trees. The remarkable fact was, that both breeds became in a great degree hardy under this natural treatment ; and where Nature can be thus fully followed, there is no doubt that freedom from wet and draught needs not to be so studied as we have insisted upon. We would, indeed, prefer such a plan to any other ; but it must be followed entirely, or it will fail. Keep fowls at perfect liberty, with unlimited grass and good shelter among noble trees, and they will thrive with very little housing ; but if confined in even such grass-runs as we have described, they will need the pro- tection we have there insisted on. It often happens that one large grass-run, perhaps fifty feet square, can be provided in the centre of a number of small gravelled pens. In this case perfect health may be secured, and the necessity for giving artificial green food avoided, by letting each lot of fowls out in succession, even for one hour each day. In such circumstances, the most will be made of the grass in this manner ; but unless the most exquisite cleanliness be observed in the yards, and especially in the sheds, it will not give that exquisite bloom which constant running on grass will alone impart. For mere health a grass-run is not in the least necessary. We have done without it for six years, and not only obtained abundance of eggs, but reared pullets which celebrated exhibitors have been glad to purchase at twenty guineas per pair, though the birds had never seen a natural blade of grass in their lives. But the proper management of poultry, under these varying circumstances, must be the subject of succeeding chapters. It demands both more time and care ; and a good supply of fine natural turf does more for the health and well-doing of poultry, and saves more time and trouble in their management, than an) other single condition which can be named. o 1 8 CHAPTER IL THE SELECTION O’F STOCK. Many persons who have every requisite for success, fail to keep poultry profitably, because their stock is not adapted to their circumstances, or to the purpose intended. Were all fowls alike in their characteristics, this of course could not occur ; but the very fact that so many breeds have been developed and perpetuated by the art of man, differing in every conceivable quality, as well as in every point of mere appearance, itself proves the necessity of considering somewhat the special requirements, before the fowls are chosen which are to supply them. There is a very popular error, to the effect that mongrels, or “ common fowls,” will surpass any pure breeds as regards useful qualities. The idea doubtless grew out of the ludicrous excesses of the “ poultry mania,” and has been perpetuated since. People spent large sums for Cochins, under the idea that they would lay two or three eggs every day ; and finding they did not, felt both injured and disappointed, and gave up the whole business in such disgust that for some time it was almost dangerous even to a man’s character to be thought a poultry-fancier. This is changed now, but to a great extent the impression as to the useless- ness of “ fancy fowls ” still remains, and has done much to hinder success in poultry-keeping. For, whatever point be desired in a stock fowl, it is to be considered that there is some one at least of the several varieties in which that point has been specially and eminently developed, to a far greater degree than can be found in any barn-door or common birds. It matters not whether the desired feature be in the shape of constant laying, larger size, fine quality of meat, early maturity for the market, hardihood, or anything else ; there is, at least, some one fowl in which that quality is the leading characteristic, and which is therefore the best for the purpose desired. When expense is an object, very valuable results are often obtained by putting a cock of a good breed to fine mongrel hens. There is very little doubt that the coloured Dorking was first produced in this way, by putting the white Dorking cock to those large coloured hens which Surrey and Sussex have always produced, and thus adding a better quality of meat and greater tendency to fatten to the larger-framed birds. And, similarly, a tolerably good Dorking cock, mated with any fine large-framed hens, will always produce much improvement in the table qualities and early maturity of the chickens ; whilst a Spanish or Minorca cock will generally increase considerably the number of eggs from his progeny. But when only one lot of fowls can be kept, the proper advantages to be derived from judicious first crosses can hardly be secured ; and we are convinced, from long and varied experience, that good and pure varieties will, in the end, prove better than mongrels. None of these lay so well as certain pure breeds ; none grow so large ; none are so hardy or such good eating ; hence, none are so likely to answer the purpose of even the purely commercial poultry-keeper. The chief breeds of poultry may, for economic purposes, be classified as follows, the order of naming representing as nearly as possible their average comparative value, though this will vary somewhat according to different circumstances. As layers : — Leghorns, Hamburghs, Comparison of Various Breeds. 19 Minorcas or Andalusians, Houdans, Langshans, Wyandottcs, Spanish, Brahmas, Plymouth Rocks, Polish, Game, Cochins, La Fleche. For quality of meat : — Game, La Fleche, Dorkings, Creve- cceurs, Houdans, Polish, Wyandottes, Langshans, Brahmas. For size and weight : — Brahmas, Cochins, Dorkings, Langshans, Plymouth Rocks, Crevecceurs, La Fleche, Malays. For hardiness : Leghorns, Houdans, Wyandottes, Brahmas, Langshans, Cochins, Minorcas and Andalusians. As sitters and mothers : — Dorkings, Game, Dumpies, Silkies, Brahmas, Cochins. We might perhaps add that for combination of useful qualities generally we would name Houdans, Plymouth Rocks, Langshans, and Minorcas, as most worthy of attention, or a Minorca-Langshan cross. Supposing only a single house and shed, or run, to be at the disposal of the fowls, it will be far better not to attempt to rear any chickens at all, but to purchase, every autumn, such young birds as may be required. Chickens can be reared, with care, in almost any conceivable circumstances ; but in those we are considering, the time and trouble involved would far outweigh the return. Non-sitting breeds, therefore, must be selected ; and either the Houdan, some one of the Spanish breeds, Polish, or the American Leghorn, will bear the confinement well, and yield a good supply of eggs. Hamburghs rarely do so well penned up ; but in some cases, where the shed is large and roomy, and scrupulous cleanliness has been observed, they have yielded very good results. Supposing there to be a fair-sized open yard or run besides, with the aid of a feeding-coop, chickens might be reared to a limited extent ; and if this be thought at all desirable, the most lucrative breed in ordinary circumstances will be the Plymouth Rock, Houdans being inadmissible for want of sitters, and Brahmas, on the contrary, sitting too often for the limited space. Perhaps rather more space can be given to the fowls, so that the breeding and laying stock can be divided into two or more runs, and a spare run devoted to chickens. In that case we are convinced that the most profitable single breed will be the Plymouth Rock, Langshan, or Brahma, and that if two breeds be chosen, they should be one of these, and Ploudan or Minorca. With such two breeds, properly managed, we are persuaded that greater returns can be obtained than from any other combination. We would never, in a limited space, choose the Dorking ; and are sure that a great part of the failures in poultry-keeping arise from the common belief in the supe- riority of that fowl, leading to its being adopted in circumstances not at all adapted to it. A bad layer, and very difficult to rear, it will never pay as a mere family provider ; and heavy losses will diminish what little there might otherwise be. On the contrary, where dead poultry for the market is the main object, the Dorking is invaluable. It fattens “ naturally " and grows early, while no fowl presents a more satisfactory appearance on. the table. No other fowl will realise such high prices in the London market ; and the well-known five claws are always a passport to the good opinion of the poulterer. But even when good markets and a demand for chickens make it desirable, this breed should not be attempted unless the situation be dry and sheltered ; if otherwise, the Houdan or Plymouth Rock should be substituted, or a Dorking cock crossed with Brahma hens. The largest birds ever known have been reared from this last cross, which can scarcely be distinguished on the table from pure Dorking. For the general run of a farm, Brahmas, Plymouth Rocks, Houdans, or Minorcas will still yield the best return : Brahmas and Plymouth Rocks, where many chickens are required, and Houdans or one of the Minorca varieties where eggs alone aic the end in view, d he Ameiican Plymouth Rock we regard as a generally most useful fowl, which only requires to be better known. It has the appearance and many edible qualities of the “cuckoo” Dorking, but differs from it in having yellow legs and a far hardier constitution, besides being an infinitely better 20 The Illustrated Book of Poultry. layer. From the preference shown by many poultry-maids and others to “cuckoo.” or blue- speckled hens, the Plymouth Rock will in many districts pave the way more easily than other pure breeds to an increased cultivation of fowls as a source of wealth, and is the very fowl for national use, where more fancy varieties will not be tolerated, or cannot be obtained. Sober and unobtrusive in its garb, it nevertheless always looks “ respectable ” and well ; and its plain, homespun suit is the very thing for a roadside cottage home and the wear and tear of every-day life. For the gentleman’s country house the choice will, probably, be different again. With a spacious paddock or orchard in which to range, the Silver-spangled or Pencilled Hamburgh will sustain its claim to be an unrivalled producer of delicate white eggs ; or if rather larger ones be desired, the Black variety will answer the call ; while any of the Hamburghs, in their matchless outlines, offer the very ideal of beauty in fowls. In such circumstances, also, the royal Game-fowl is an unrivalled layer, while it will always provide a pair of birds for the table when required, which surpass any other in flavour, and are often equal to the pheasant if not overfed. Or, if the owner prefer the gigantic Asiatics, in such happy circumstances the Brahma will borrow an added grace and a new lustre, and thrive and pay better than ever ; or the white Cochin will set off its pure and dazzling plumage by contrast with the grass ; or the delicate-looking Buff will appear at its very best while walking over the living green. Any of these will both pay for their keep and add to the attractions of the noblest country home. We have now mentioned the varieties which, as a rule, will yield the best return in the various circumstances referred to ; but it very often happens that some strong individual fancy of the proprietor will carry him altogether away from the choice we have made for him, to make a choice of his own. The result in such cases will usually depend upon the character of the management. If the owner simply buys the fowls, and then leaves them to the care of his domestics, the result cannot be satisfactory ; but if he has made his choice from real love of it, and having got his birds, proceeds himself to care for and study them, it may be very good : for it has been proved again and again that almost any fowl can be kept, and made to pay, in almost any circumstances, even the most unfavourable. In the days of the “poultry-mania,” first-class Cochins have been reared in a spare room, and Spanish have been kept in splendid condition on the flat roof of a house. A real love for the pursuit, in fact, will overcome the disadvantages of almost any breed for the* place in which it is to be kept. We should say, therefore, that where there is really a strong fancy for some particular fowl, it was best to gratify it ; — to go into the matter con amove , and make the best of it. It is always better to keep a breed you really care for than one you do not ; and if the feeling be genuine, and accompanied by ordinary intelligence, it will usually overcome all difficulties, and lead to a profitable result in the end. But of still more importance than a wise selection of breeds is the proper age of the birds themselves. Considered merely as a producer of stock, no hen should be allowed to see more than her third autumn. With valuable fowls the case is of course different, as apart even from prize-winning, a dozen fertile eggs from a proved first-class bird may be well worth the keep of a year ; but as regards the mere production of eatable product, the rule must be rigidly enforced of killing every hen at the age of tzvo-and-a-half years , at the first symptom of moult. In very many breeds, Brahmas particularly, the second season’s eggs are more numerous than the first, but after that all fowls show a great falling off, whilst they also become too tough to be eaten. On the other hand, by killing at the age stated, they may be either eaten or sold at a fair price, while the best part of their lives only is any expense to the corn-bin. Early Chickens to be Selected. 21 No iule is so imperative to profitable poultry-keeping, and none is so constantly neglected by all except the skilled breeders, who know it too well ever to neglect it. We have repeatedly been shown hens of very uncertain age, except that they were certainly over seven years, running in a narrow but ornamental gaol at the bottom of a garden ; and their fair owners wondered they did not lay ! Their laying was done, except for a stray egg once a month or so, just to keep up the sweet memories of the past, and awaken hopes never to be realised. For fowls to be profitable, they must be regularly killed at moulting time, when two-and-a-half years old. Of course, if they are pets it is hard to kill them, and the female members of the family especially will protest. That is another matter. A hen may be kept to be petted just as lawfully as a canary ; but the object then in view should be borne in mind, and nothing more in the shape of profit expected from one than from the other. Not less important is the time of year at which the birds were hatched. It has been often repeated in various works on poultry that a pullet, in whatever circumstances, mast begin to lay at a given age ; but this we have found, by special and systematic experiments, is by no means the case, a difference of months being caused by the time of hatching. If the age of five months finds a pullet belonging to one of the more prolific breeds in the midst of warm weather — say August — eggs may be expected about that time ; indeed, great care is needed if it is desired to prevent laying at such seasons. But birds hatched in May will complete their sixth month in October ; and in very few cases will eggs be procured before Christmas, if even then, unless the feeding be unusually good. Still later hatched — let us suppose late in May or early in June — it will be as late as next spring before most of the pullets are producing eggs, and ere this occurs many of them will be at least nine months old. The effect of mismanagement in the date of hatching upon the profit and loss account is hence readily seen. Supposing that the fair average time for a pullet to commence laying is at the age of six months, and that the cost of her food be (as in large breeds it is) about three halfpence per week, a late May pullet must be fed three months longer, at an additional outlay of one shilling and sixpence, before she yields any return. No fowl (we speak now of mere ordinary or market stock, not of “ fancy ” values) can be expected to recover such a cost ; and it is in this way that about half the failures in poultry-keeping are caused. Ordinary fowls become broody oftener in May than any other month, and the bright warm days tempt the proprietor to choose that time for hatching the chickens. The latter do well indeed — they enjoy themselves, and thrive, and grow; but they will not pay — whereas chickens hatched from the middle to the end of March, or early in April, will require more attention certainly, and call for much self-denial occasionally, in the shape of braving bad weather to see they are duly cared for ; but will often, if in reach of a town market, repay the whole of their cost even before New Year. Nearly all fowls, however mismanaged, and if not too old, will, so long as they are in tolerable health, lay freely in summer ; but eggs are then cheap, and it is the zvinter that chiefly decides which side of the balance-sheet shall preponderate. Eggs in winter mean profit ; the want of them as clearly means loss. Pullets hatched early will moult early also, not only getting better and quicker through the process, and having warmer weather for it, but getting ready to commence laying in good time again. To say, as some do, that no hens of any breed will lay in winter, is a mistake; we have often had Brahma hens re-commence laying in November. Regarded as laying stock, therefore, one-third should consist of pullets hatched in March, another third of hens hatched the March previous, and the remainder of birds a year older The Illustrated Book of Poultry . still, which will be killed at moulting time. Thus, every autumn, the hens at two years and a half will be killed, and replaced by pullets six months old, which will commence laying almost immediately, and be followed in succession by the hens as they moult out, so keeping up a regular supply. Late chickens should be either sold or killed for table. Even in the many cases where only half a dozen hens are kept for the supply of a small family, no other plan will be remunerative. Each autumn two March pullets should be bought and two hens killed ; when, if a non-sitting breed be selected, there will be no trouble, and an unfailing supply of eggs will be secured. W e have already expressed our preference for pure breeds, where possible ; but the cost will deter many from obtaining them, and common-bred fowls selected with judgment will also yield a good return for their keep. Small, weedy-looking birds should always be rejected, and those which show signs of good parentage and good feeding be alone chosen. Any fowls which have been starved while growing will never lay well in after life. The kind known as “ Cuckoo ” fowls (resembling the Plymouth Rock) almost always lay well, and so do most birds having much black in the plumage. Again, as a rule it will be found that yellow or black- legged birds are generally good layers ; but white-legged birds are mostly inferior, though excellent for the table. By attending to these particulars, and ascertaining carefully the date of hatching, very excellent and profitable stock may be secured by an outlay of only a few shillings. 23 CHAPTER III. FEEDING AND GENERAL TREATMENT OF FOWLS. Of the three essentials to successful poultry-keeping — -proper accommodation, proper selection and proper feeding — we have now considered the two first, and it remains to consider tht third. If it be remembered that the simple object to be attained is the conversion of so mucl grain or other food of one kind into eggs or meat, or so much food of another kind, it wil be obvious that a proper system of feeding must have more direct influence upon the resull than even the preceding points, though perhaps not more real. If treated rightly, the domestic fowl is the most profitable of all live stock ; but that it seldom is treated rightly we are more and more convinced by the experience and correspondence of every year. Thus it happens that any work on poultry, to be of real use, must almost of necessity be dogmatic. Unless many persons are told that they must treat their poultry in a certain way, they will not do it ; and hence it is necessary to be definite and imperative, even regarding some details which might be varied with actual benefit if done judiciously, or may not be the very best in some particular circumstances. Again and again have editors of poultry organs to give the same answers to the same questions ; again and again have we ourselves had the trouble of reading and answering letters complaining of want of success, addressed to us on account of our previous writings, only to find, on inquiry, that our very simplest and plainest directions had been utterly disregarded. Every real poultry authority we know makes the same complaint. People seem to think that if they only read sound directions, their fowls must thrive ; and the amount of ignorance regarding poultry and their proper treatment is amazing. Three-fourths of any town population, even yet, believe that if a citizen be so insane as to keep his own fowls, every egg he obtains will cost him sixpence ; whereas sixpence per dozen, under proper management, would be nearer the mark in England ; while in America, where grain is so much cheaper, the dozen should cost five cents. But, always supposing a proper house for the number of fowls, and fowls properly chosen year by year, as in our last chapter, such a result will altogether depend upon judicious feeding. The feeding of any live stock is a very simple, but at the same time by no means an easy problem. All food given represents cash expended, and this is easily enough calculated ; but the result is not so readily seen without thought. Food may be productive , yielding more than its own value; or it may be simply wasted, producing nothing whatever; or it may be actually injurious to the animal, every penny or cent expended producing so much actual loss. Thus, in the case of fowls, the food may either yield a return, part repairing the waste of the animal tissues, and part producing either extra growth and weight, or valuable eggs; or it may simply maintain the bird in the same state or condition it was before; or it may produce unhealthy fat, and thus be really injurious. And as every living creature requires some amount of food to support its life and energies, such amount obviously represents the minimum which can be given ; and the question really is, what result is obtained by all food 24 The Illustrated Book ol Poultry . given over and above it. It is that surplus which, in the way we have seen, may be either productive, simply inoperative, or actually prejudicial. These things may seem truisms, but then right understanding will greatly pave the way to success in practice. We need not stop to prove that as an egg contains animal food in its most concentrated natural form — a fact well known to all physicians — its regular production must demand a regular and sufficient supply of food adapted to produce it. There is an amazing difference between the appetites of hens which are not laying and those which are, or are about to commence. Hence, the starving system of feeding poultry can never afford any return ; and fowls which are only allowed to eat “ what they pick up,” will, in England at least, rarely produce anything worth speaking of. In America and the Colonies, where grain is little thought of, and abounds to some extent all over the farm, or in the English stack-yard at harvest seasons,, it may be different ; but as a rule, chance feeding will always result in very chance receipts, added to which, birds thus left to forage for themselves will in many cases lay away, where their eggs can never be found. But in general the mistake is the other way ; and with respect to adult fowls, we have not the slightest hesitation in saying that at least three-fourths of all kept by the middle classes, excepting those of experienced “ fanciers,” have far too much to eat. Farmers’ fowls get far too little, other people’s mostly the reverse. They get fat ; and a fat hen is never a good layer, while a pampered male bird is lazy, if not altogether useless for purposes of breeding. As regards the nature of the food to be given, also, there is little sound knowledge upon the subject amongst most who keep poultry. We can well remember our own school- boy experience, when we kept fowls in a small stone-paved yard, disposing of the eggs to our maternal parent, and paying for the food out of our own private exchequer. Our first idea was that grain was the only and the natural food of poultry, and we accordingly fed them three times daily with as much as they would eat of that commodity. Had any one then hinted that our fowls were not properly fed, we would have scorned the idea with indignation. But it was so, and it is so in the scores of similar cases. Our birds would not thrive; they did not lay well, and often died. By degrees we found out why, and eventually, in that same small yard, made our poultry speculation pay , acquiring there, on those stones and amongst those difficulties which surrounded us on all sides, much of that practical knowledge of fowls, their ways, their wants, and their habits, which has been most useful to us in after life. Grain is the natural food of fowls ; but so is grass, so are worms ; and it would be as reasonable to feed birds in confinement exclusively on either of these as on grain alone. Moreover, a fowl in its state of nature lives under altogether different conditions. It is only intended to lay some dozen or so eggs in a season, whereas we wish to get about ten times that number. The wild fowl, again, finds its food grain by grain ; and that everlasting mill called the gizzard, called into incessant action, always reduces the grain as swallowed, so that the crop is rarely, if ever, distended. The bird has literally to work, and work hard, for all it finds ; so that all its functions are kept in the most vigorous exercise. Under such conditions, with the grass and worms it also picks up, the grains or seeds which forms its principal food do maintain the creature in the highest health and condition ; though, as we have seen, the egg production is not such as would yield a profit to the poultry-keeper. These things again are truisms ; but we repeat them because we constantly find persons who are for “following nature;” and the theory has a certain plausibility if not exposed. If we “ follow nature,” we must follow her altogether, and we must be content with natural results, which in this case would be one nest of eggs per annum ; if we are to keep them in confinement, and to get many times the amount of eggs, we must change our diet Quantity of Food. 25 accordingly. In was in this respect that Mr. Geyelin, the originator of the now defunct “National Poultry Company, did good service, and which it would be ungrateful not to acknowledge, to poultry-culture. It was a necessity his idea should fail, because, in supposing it possible to rear cnickens in immense numbers and to profit, in sheds only six feet by twelve, he literally “worked it to death.” But he clearly demonstrated what could be done in a small space by soft food. He was not the first to find this out ; almost every fancier had done so before him : but he was the first who publicly drew attention to the necessity and advantage of employing food in the form of meal, and of deodorising all the manure by dry earth in confined runs. In spite of the absurdities with which his pamphlet abounded, many of the principles which he enunciated lie at the founda- tion of all successful poultry management. No fowls require, at most, more than three meals per day ; and as a rule, do far better with two. The first should, or in confinement must, consist of soft or pulpy food of some kind, and be given early in the morning. If the fowls be at liberty, or have large grass-runs, they should have nothing further until about half an hour before they go to roost, when they should have another feed of grain. In point of quantity no fixed scale can be given ; some breeds eat double the quantity of others, and even the same hen will require very different allowance, according as she is laying or not at the time. Nevertheless, there is a rule, simple and easily understood, which will unfailingly secure both health and eggs; and that is, to give the birds just as much as they will eat with an eager or ravenous appetite, and no more. We are speaking now of adult fowls, and such must on no account be allowed to have as much as they will eat : directly they cease to run , if the food is thrown to them, or commence “ picking it over,” if given in a trough or saucer, it should be stopped or taken away. On no account especially must any be left. While no absolute scale can be given, for the reasons stated, it will be generally found that hens of large breeds, when laying or moulting, require about as much meal or dough as would make a ball two and a half inches in diameter for their feed every morning, and a ivomans handful (we mean to be taken with the palm downwards) of grain at night. Indeed, for large breeds this “handful” system will generally be a safe one as regards the grain ; but smaller fowls, from Spanish downwards, should have rather less according to size. But the only real rule is that we have given above, and we would add the caution that many, on trial, will not think it enough. We often have had visitors remark that our own fowls “ must be half-starving,” as they saw them fly up in the air when their breakfast was taken out to them. They are, in fact, always ready for food; but we are certain, from long experience, that this system of feeding is the best, not only for profit, but for real healthy condition. In bad or cold weather, or when moulting, a very little more may be allowed ; but we never allow our own birds (we speak of adults only) to eat to repletion. Such will always destroy the profit of keeping poultry, at least in a confined space. Even in strict confinement, where every atom of food must be supplied, there should not be a third regular meal, but simply a small handful of grain among every two or three birds, according to their size, to afford them gratification and keep the appetite alive. Occasionally, in such circumstances, the diet may be varied by giving the handful each of grain in the middle of the day ; and then, instead of corn, giving a very scanty feed of soft food, not more than half the breakfast, the last thing at night. There are yet some regarded as authorities who advise the old-fashioned plan of giving grain in the morning and meal at night ; but we have tried and watched almost every mode of feeding, and, without hesitation, abide by what we have laid down, grain alone giving the needful support during the long night which has to pass before the next meal. In choosing food, either meal or grain, there is considerable variety to select from, and it is well now and then to give a change. In arranging this, the poultry keeper should be guided D 26 The Illustrated Book of Poultry. by the value in different ingredients of the various foods, for which purpose we reproduce the following table, which since its publication in the “ Poultry Diary ” has been frequently copied, but adding hempseed, buckwheat, and potatoes to the list, and re-arranging the various foods in the order of their richness in the nitrogenous or flesh-forming substances. * There is in every 100 parts by weight of Flesh-forming Material, viz., Gluten, &c. Warmth-giving and Fattening Material, viz. Bone-making Materials, or Mineral Substances. Husk or Fibre. Water. Fat or Oil. Starch. • Beans and Peas . 25 2 4S 2 8 *5 Oatmeal 18 6 63 2 2 9 Middlings, Thirds, or Fine Sharps . 18 6 53 5 4 14 Oats 15 6 47 2 20 10 Wheat .... 12 3 7° 2 1 12 Buckwheat . 12 6 58 G 1 1 ui Barley . . . . I 1 2 60 2 «4 11 Indian Corn . . 1 I 8 65 1 5 10 Hempseed . . . IO 21 45 2 14 8 Rice 7 A trace. 80 A trace. ... 13 Potatoes ... 6i ... 4i 2 ... 5°4 Milk 4i 3 5 5 ••• 862 It will be seen that there are several substances often used as food for poultry which by this table are shown to be comparatively worthless. Rice, for instance, contains less than half the flesh or egg-forming material of several other grains, and is useless, except when mixed with milk for the purpose of fattening fowls. Cheap as it is, we would warn every one that it never pays to use rice as the food of laying birds. It will also be seen that potatoes form very poor nourishment, and should never be given except combined with other food rich in flesh-formers. What, then, should be the staple ? First of all we would place ground oats ; not thin, husky horse-meat bruised, but good heavy white oats, such as weigh thirty-six to forty pounds per bushel, and ground up whole, husk and all, as they are ground in Sussex, so as to look almost like flour. The Sussex fowls are the finest, as a whole, in the world ; and this is what they are chiefly fed upon. The husk is not taken out at all, but is ground up so fine as scarcely to appear ; and fowls prefer this food to almost any other. There is often great difficulty in getting oats thus ground in any other locality, as the millstones require to be specially dressed for producing it ; but on several occasions we have been able to get our own grain ground up whole sufficiently fine to be liked, though not quite equal to the Sussex samples. Oatmeal, which is the same grain ground after the outer shell or husk has been taken out, is also a most valuable food, but is usually too dear for feeding mere stock poultry. If bought in quantities of five hundredweight at a time, however, it can often be procured from the Glasgow dealers, of very fair quality, so as not to cost above 14s. to 16s. per hundredweight, and is then a remunerative food. Fine sharps, middlings, or “thirds” (it bears all these names, and in Ireland is called “pollard”), which consists of the finer or inside bran of wheat, contains the same amount of gluten, when good, as oatmeal, and is much cheaper, but is by itself too dry and “ branny” to be relished by the birds. But mixed in equal quantities with barley-meal, it forms a cheap and most excellent food, and is also suitable for mixing with potatoes or boiled turnips when these are given. Indian meal is too fattening to * In the revised edition of his “Poultry Book,” published 1874, Mr. Tegetmeier states that the table in its original form was copied by the “Poultry Diary” from a paper prepared by him for a County Agricultural Society, Preparation of Soft Food. 27 be used for most poultry, except combined with other meals, and is also disliked. For laying birds it ought never to be used alone. S pratt's Poultry Meal is excellent, especially mixed with meal. Ground oats, then, will make the best economical soft food, if it can be obtained. If not, sharps and barley-meal, mixed in equal portions, will make an excellent food, varied very rarely by boiled potatoes well mashed, and mixed with at least an equal weight of sharps alone. Now and then turnips, beet, or mangel-wurzel, boiled in as small a quantity of water as possible, may be mashed and mixed with sharps, and given to great advantage, or may be used as a permanent diet. Oatmeal may be used at discretion if only cheap enough, or mixed with barley-meal ; and probably the very best material possible is a mixture of half ground-oats or coarse but sound oatmeal, with Spratt. We reared better birds on this than upon any other combination or single food we tried. The proper mixing of this soft food is important, and error in its preparation is another fruitful source of failures to make a satisfactory profit. By far the larger number of servants will mix it too wet and sloppy, to save a few seconds additional time ; and give it as a sticky, porridgy mass, which clings round the beaks of the fowls. Such feeding often causes diarrhoea, and in any case will rarely produce a proper egg-return. Again we shall be dogmatic, and lay down the universal rule that soft food must be so mixed that while none of the meal be left in powder or dry, the whole be so firm and “ short ” that a mass of it will break and crumble if thrown upon the ground ; not on any account sticking with a “ smack,” as when a boy throws his lump of clay against a wall. All meal can be mixed this way if properly done, which is by stirring the water first well in with a spoon or stick, all remaining apparently too dry to mix thoroughly, and then kneading and squeezing it together in the hands. Food so mixed does twice the good, for the simple reasons that it is both more wholesome in itself and more enjoyed. Meal com- bined with turnips or potatoes need not be mixed quite so dry ; but all soft food, rightly prepared, will be hard enough to be rolled out with a roller into a sheet, if required. Some good feeders prepare it thus, rolling it out and cutting the sheet into small finger-pieces, which are thrown to the fowls ; but when mixed “ short ” as we have directed, it will break up easily without this trouble. Where only a few fowls are kept, not exceeding say one bird for each member of the family, to supply eggs for the table occasionally, the morning food may be provided at very trifling expense by boiling daily the potato-peelings and all refuse vegetables, and mixing, as above, with fine sharps or middlings. The peelings and other vegetables must, however, be thoroughly boiled until quite soft, and a slight seasoning of salt, with in winter a very little pepper, should always be added. The want of egg-forming material, which we have already pointed out to be a fault in potatoes as a diet, is partly compensated by the sharps which are mixed with them ; but in the case we are considering, is still further and most perfectly supplemented by the bone-scrapings and other kitchen refuse, and miscellaneous scraps of every kind, which should always be given to the fowls, but never infringing the “universal rule” as to quantity which we have already laid down. Supposing there are more of such scraps and odds and ends than the stock can eat with the eager appetites we have insisted upon, the simple remedy is to get one or two more birds. The potatoes and sharps should always be given warm ; and whenever meal is prepared with water, we should advise its being mixed boiling hot. The warmth greatly promotes health and laying, especially in cold weather ; and the food being a little swelled, and in fact really half- cooked before it is eaten, it goes further and produces less excrement. The most celebrated and successful poultry superintendents we know always mix with boiling water; and where the contrary plan had been followed, and by their advice changed for this method, a marked improve- ment in the condition of the birds has invariably followed We are not now considering prize 28 The Illustrated Book of Poultry. poultry, it is true , but these men have spent their lives in studying the management of fowls, and what they find best for birds worth a score of pounds each will also be best for commoner towls, such as can be bought for a few shillings. Therefore, we repeat, let the breakfast be mixed with boiling water, and always given warm. How the soft meat is given will depend on circumstances. Supposing a yard to be tolerably ary and clean, and that the proprietor or his servant can spend a few minutes over the fowls, it will be best to scatter it freely over the ground. Properly mixed, very little dust or dirt will adhere to it, and every bird will get its share. But if the weather be very wet this will hardly do, neither will it if the birds are confined in the shed, floored as this is with loose dust or sand. In such cases any common dish will do to put the food in, the quantity which the fowls will eat with proper appetite having been found by previous observation. A large garden saucer will answer ; but if a dish can be procured with straight sides (as in the sketch Fig. u) it will be better, as the fowls cannot then turn it over when they step on the edges, as they are apt to do with a dish wider at the top than the bottom : they cannot also rake the food out so readily with their beaks. The feeding “ cages ” usually sold are too heavy, cumbersome, and expensive for general use ; but some years ago we gave in the “ Practical Poultry Keeper ” the annexed engraving of a loose, light cover we had contrived, of zinc or tin and wire, for preventing the fowls from walking upon or scratching earth into their food, which has since been manufactured for general use, Fig. II. Fig. 12. and will be found useful where they have to be altogether confined and fed upon a floor of dry rubbish, but for fowls fed with proper appetite in open yards, will not be needed. The front wires should be about eight inches in height. The best and most generally useful vessel for feeding poultry is one we first saw in the yard of Mr. E. Jones, the celebrated Spanish breeder of Bristol, England, and was, we believe, his own contrivance ; so that we have always found it had to be specially made (which is readily done in quantities of a dozen) at the nearest pottery. These dishes are circular in shape, and of the section represented, thus presenting a saucer at both top and bottom, the size being about eight inches Fig. 13. For Water. across, and five inches deep. If the wide face be placed on the ground, the saucer with upright sides contains the soft food (which cannot be scratched or raked out), stands perfectly firm and steady even if perched upon, and is sufficiently raised to prevent dirt being scattered into the food. When turned the other way it forms a water-vessel, also raised from the ground, and which, from the slanting sides, does not touch the combs of Spanish or other large-combed breeds, for which the ordinary poultry-fountain is not suitable on account of the size of that appendage. Various Kinds of Grain. 29 With regard to grain, we prefer heavy large buckwheat as a staple to any other. All fowls become very fond of it as soon as they get to recognise its strange colour ; and the fact that the French, who send such immense quantities of eggs and even poultry to the English market, use buckwheat almost exclusively both to feed and to fatten, is alone sufficient testimony to its cheap- ness and good qualities. Next to buckwheat in value stands good old wheat. This used to be too dear, but is now not so. It is capital food, but swells so easily that care must be taken not to give too much at a time, or the crop will be distended. Then we have good barley — such, we mean, as is used for malting — not inferior, husky, foreign samples. Then comes heavy white oats, thirty- six to forty pounds per bushel. Any of these may be changed for each other occasionally with advantage. Maize must be used, if at all, very sparingly indeed, on account of its tendency to make fat We lay great stress on this caution, because it is a cheap food, and the birds eat it greedily. Light-framed breeds, such as Spanish or Hamburghs, may have it in moderation, espe- cially if at large ; but Asiatic breeds, especially if kept in confinement, should not be regularly fed upon it, or fat and liver disease, instead of eggs, will be the almost invariable result. Another excellent grain, especially for chickens, is that known as dari, dourra, or Indian millet, a roundish white grain somewhat resembling pearl barley in appearance. All fowls eat it eagerly, and it never swells in the crop ; it is not very nourishing, but is most useful as part of the diet. Do not use “mixtures ” of grain, often so “ strongly recommended” by advertisers. If all the grains be mixed, no change of diet becomes at all possible ; therefore give each by itself, changing the sort at discretion. Sweepings or damaged corn, unless the damage be very slight indeed, will inevitably prove a losing speculation, besides occasionally poisoning the fowls ; but if really sound “ tail ” or small wheat can be procured, it is cheap and valuable food, and pro- motes laying much. Small white peas may be given occasionally with great benefit, provided the fowls will eat them, which they will generally but not always do. For an occasional change, barley may be steeped in water and left till it has sprouted a little, in which state it is greedily devoured by the fowls ; but this must not be continued very long. It is sometimes said that much barley may be saved by leaving it in water to swell : but water is not food ; and if the birds, as we insist, are only allowed the handful they really require— not as much as they will eat — to substitute water for part of their allowance is no economy. Brewers’ grains, if fresh and good, may be given with advantage once or twice a week in winter, rather sparingly, as a mid-day feed. Merely to keep adult fowls in health and good condition, they do not even in confinement require animal food ; but if a regular supply of eggs be desired, birds penned up must have this. It is not to be made a regular meal of, and in ordinary households the kitchen scraps will furnish ample supply, as already hinted. If this be not sufficient, bullock’s liver well boiled, chopped up and slightly seasoned with pepper and salt, will be the cheapest and best material generally, but in some localities sheep’s pluck, or other parts of various animals, may be obtained at a less rate. The quantity to each hen should be about a cubic inch daily, in winter; in summer less, or it may be even discontinued, with little loss, at that time. The broth obtained from boiling the meat should always be used, so far as it will go, in mixing the food. Some meat thus given even every other day will make a considerable difference to the number of eggs in winter time, and in getting birds through the moult. Tallow-makers’ greaves are often advertised, but we would give a caution never to use them in their entire state for fowls, as they cause loss of condition and a rank- taste to the flesh when killed.* Fowls with good range need no animal food whatever, except in * The proper use of greaves in getting fowls into “ condition ” for show will be mentioned in a subsequent chapter. 30 The 1 LLITSTRA TED BOOK OF POULTRY. auch severe weather that they cannot procure for themselves any of those insects or worms which form the most natural source of supply. The last requisite in the shape of diet is a regular supply of green food. Here, again, fowls kept on grass will need no attention ; but for birds penned up the daily provision of it is an absolute necessity, though most beginners are ignorant of it. We well remember, in our own early experience, how our fowls died, we could not at first tell why ; and one fine buff Cochin cock, whose only fault was a strong vulture-hock, was, in particular, greatly regretted. An experienced friend let us into the secret; and after that we had no difficulty in keeping fowls even where it is often said they cannot be kept in health — viz., in a yard paved with large flag- stones. We kept them so for years, with profit and success, when we had once learnt how to feed them. The best substitute for natural grass is a large fresh turf thrown in daily, or nearly so (green food must only be missed on rare and unavoidable occasions), to each four or five hens ; and even in towns it is often possible to procure this by giving children a few pence every week to keep up a regular supply. Where turf is not allowed to be taken, grass may be cut or pulled ; but in this case must be cut into green chaff with shears or a chaff machine. When cut, it may be thrown into the feeding-trough, but is better mixed in with and given with the soft food, when the birds must eat their regular portion. The latter plan is how we actually managed for years, in a yard only sixty-seven by thirty-five feet, divided into six pens ; paying some child a few pence to bring fresh-cut grass daily, cutting it up and mixing it with their soft meat. The more given the better, so that it be given regularly ; but a sudden increase of quantity should be guarded against, leading to disorder of the digestive system. Next to grass, cabbages or lettuces will be best ; and in a family where green vegetables are used daily, the refuse leaves will supply enough. But such leaves must be cut or minced up with a chopper, or they will not be all eaten ; and decaying cabbage-stumps in a pen are most offensive. If minced, nothing is usually left, stumps and all being eagerly devoured. Another capital plan is to hang up a whole cabbage in the shed by a string, about six inches from the ground, when picking at it will afford the fowls not only the food they need, but great amusement and occupation. A beet or mangel, cut in half, may be served in a similar manner, but in all these cases the refuse must be regularly cleared away. It is not a good plan to keep fowls and ducks in the same yard ; but, being sometimes unavoidable, it is well to know how to feed either class of poultry independent of the other. Fowls are very easily fed by laying a few boards about two feet high, on barrels or some other stand ; the ducks rarely attempting to fly up as the fowls do. In feeding the ducks, on the other hand, a large flat pan should be procured, and a couple of bricks laid in the middle to keep the food round the edges. Then a large box or tub should be turned over the pan, and supported by a brick at each corner. This method depends upon the flexibility of the duck’s neck, which enables it to pass its head under the tub and feed itself out of the pan, while the fowls can get nothing. This ingenious plan we take from the American Agriculturist. Except in certain cases of disease which require stinting, fowls must never be left without water; and this must be so provided and placed that it may be kept cool and clean. For this reason, when the fountain or trough has to be placed in a shed, it should be raised two or three inches above the sand or gravel. Our own plan is to have about two feet square of hard raised ground in every shed, on which the food and water are placed. In ordinary weather the water, if clean, need only be changed every two days, provided it lasts so long ; but in summer it must be filled up at least daily, and be kept in the shade. Stale, sun-warmed water is often fatal to fowls, leading to cholera and other diseases. The Ordinary poultry-fountain is so well known that description is needless; but there is a much superior construction in earthenware by various makers, of IV a ter Fountains. which Fig. 14 is a representation. It is made in two parts, as shown, and is filled by inverting the bell-shaped poition which is then filled with water, after w-hich the saucer is placed on and the whole turned oven when there will be a narrow channel of water all round. The advantage Fig. 14. of this construction is that the green slime which always collects by degrees, and all other offensive matter, can be perfectly cleaned out whenever necessary. Baily’s Patent Fountain, which is of metal, is also a good one ; but both are unfortunately much more expensive than the common kind, which answers sufficiently well for practical purposes. In winter, if it be cold, the fountain should be carefully emptied every night, to prevent frost, or if already frozen, be brought into the house to thaw, as fowls require to drink the first thing every morning. Snow must on no account be allowed to fall in the fountains, for in any quantity Fig. i5- it has the singular property of reducing the birds in flesh and condition, so that they become mere skeletons. The water should therefore be placed under shelter. In very severe climates, such as North America or Northern Scotland, there is often considerable difficulty in keeping water from freezing even in the day-time ; but the following ingenious plan (Fig. 15), for which we are again indebted to the American Agriculturist, answers the purpose perfectly. In a tub or half-barrel a large bottle is fixed slantwise, so that the mouth of the bottle is close to a notch cut in the rim of the tub The bottle is to be fixed in position by a few slips of wood nailed, and the tub then 32 The Illustrated Boor of Poultry. filled tightly with horse litter and manure, nailing more strips across the top of the tub to keep it in. When all is prepared, the bottle is filled with watei, and corked, after which the whole is inverted as shown in the engraving, a pan slipped under the mouth of the bottle, and the cork withdrawn. The heat of the manure will remain for days, and keep the water from freezing, especially if put in the sun, unless the thermometer is below zero. Of course, whenever the heat of the manure becomes exhausted, the tub must be emptied and fresh filled; and every night the bottle must be allowed to empty itself, being refilled in the morning. During ordinary frosty weather pans are better than fountains, as a slight greasing will entirely prevent the ice adhering to them, and save all trouble whatever beyond filling when required. In very cold or wet weather, it is well to add some iron to the water. Sulphate of iron alone becomes rusty, and disliked by the fowls, but a drop or two of sulphuric acid added will prevent this. A lump of sulphate of iron, the size of a filbert, and three drops of acid, will be enough for each gallon of water; or a teaspoonful of tincture of iron (the recognised pharmaceutical preparation known as “ tincture of steel ” by the chemists, and which consists chiefly of iron and muriatic acid), will answer as well. One or the other should always be used during moulting-time, as it helps the fowls greatly through what is the most critical period of the year. At that season, also, the food should be specially looked after, and a little hempseed given two or three times a week is very beneficial, though injurious as usual diet. A little extra meat is always beneficial at such seasons. But the greatest aid is a small half-teaspoonful of powdered sulphur twice a week to each fowl during moult. This is a recent discovery, and is proved to be of the greatest assistance in promoting the growth of the new plumage, and otherwise conducing to a successful moult. It only remains to add, under the head of food, that fowls require some regular supply of lime) and also of gravel or small stones. The one is needed to form the egg-shells, the other to assist the gizzard. Old mortar will answer both purposes, and burnt, pulverised oyster-shells are also good. The stones — which are really the teeth of fowls — they will get for themselves out of almost any large run. But if the supply is deficient it must be provided, for fowls cannot be healthy without grit, and it must be sharp grit. As good a plan as any is to bake some flints red-hot and throw them hot into water. They are then easily pounded into very sharp grit, which should be passed through a sieve so as to reject all pieces larger than small peas. It is a great help to digestion to scatter also some granulated charcoal among the grit and gravel. Fowls, as is well-known, clean themselves by rolling in dry earth or dust, and this must be afforded them, however confined the space. Supposing the shed to be floored with dry earth or sand as recommended, nothing further will be required ; but if the floor be hard, a shallow box of ashes, road dust, or dry earth must be put in some corner for them. In a larger run, any out-of- the-way corner will do ; and it is beneficial to mix a few pounds of black sulphur with the contents of the box. When this is properly attended to, and the house cleaned out every two days or so, there will usually be little trouble from vermin ; but if these do appear, carbolic acid (already recommended in our first chapter) is the best remedy. In washing the walls, the best strength will be three ounces of the acid in crystals, dissolved in three gallons of lime-water. This will be certain death to all insects in the house itself, and the fowls themselves are to be dipped in a solution of one part carbolic acid to sixty parts water, long enough to soak them, after which they should be put by the fire to dry. Another excellent preparation for use in poultry-houses is carbolate of lime (which is identical with “ Calvert’s disinfecting powder,” only much cheaper). This is both a powerful and pleasant disinfectant, whilst it will also destroy insects if dusted liberally on the floor and against the walls. Being a dry powder, it may also be dusted in nests among the straw, where a wash cannot be used, and employed in this way is far more effective Profit of Poultry. „ than sulPhur> or anything except “ Persian powder,” the price of which latter, its only objection to the poultry-keeper, has lately been reduced. We have said that the very rudest contrivances answer for nests , but these must be regularly attended to, for if they become offensive the hens will often diop theii eggs on the ground rather than resort to them. We have seen nests in which the stiaw had been left till nearly rotten, and swarming with vermin. Fern-leaves are disliked by insects, and make a good nest ; and sassafras is best of all in localities where it is indigenous ; but the staple filling will of course be straw in most instances. The manure from the fowls should be carefully saved, as it is of great value. We had two samples, collected from Mr. O. E. Cresswell’s yard, sent for analysis and valuation to the late Dr. Voelcker. The silver-grey Dorkings from which it was taken averaged 2 oz. per night, and our Brahmas averaged 3|-oz. °f fresh dung ; and Dr. Voelcker, valuing this in the same way as guano is valued — namely, by the ammonia contained — valued it at £2 per ton. The other sample had been stored for a few weeks in a cask, in the ordinary way — the form in which it would be usually sold : in this brief storage it lost much of its moisture, and Dr. Voelcker reported it to be worth £4 4s. per ton. For use, this well-known agricultural chemist advised that the manure should be mixed with twice its weight of dry earth, weed-ashes, or such matter, into a compost ; or with soot, which both dries it and adds ammonia ; or with a mixture of two parts burnt gypsum and one part superphosphate, keeping under cover and turning over once or twice, which both dries it and fixes the ammonia. In any of these ways he recommends it as a “good manure for most crops,” when used at the rate of 8 to iocwt. per acre. Generally poultry manure has been used far too strong and in too large quantity for good results. Feathers are not worth saving in small quantities, but where many fowls are kept they become of value. All may be used, the webs of the larger being stripped from the quills, and the small ones left as they are. The whole must then be placed in paper bags, quite loosely, and hung a few days in a warm place to dry. They should then be baked four times, for half an hour on each occasion, in a cool oven, drying for two days between each baking, when they will be perfectly cured. Half the cheaper feather-beds now sold are made of hen feathers ; and after they are once put in the bags the process is little trouble. Respecting the profit of poultry-keeping, opinions — and real experience too — will somewhat vary. Pamphlets written by those ignorant of the subject have achieved a momentary popularity, but done much real harm, caused much disappointment and disgust, and occasioned much doubt in many minds as to any profit at all, by the sensational statements that the profit is equal to 500 per cent. ; that eggs may be produced at one penny per dozen, and chickens at threepence per pound. We need hardly say that such statements are preposterous ; they are no doubt very popular, but they are also very inaccurate.* But we never knew poultry, kept judiciously, and systematically looked after, that did not yield a good return, varying perhaps from 25 to 100 per cent, according to the circumstances. These differ greatly, and will affect the amount of profit. Where a few fowls are half kept on the kitchen scraps, if these are not charged and no extra expense is incurred for attendance, the profit is very great, and may exceed even 200 per cent, on the actual outlay. On an average, where all the food has to be bought, a large hen will cost from five shillings to six shillings per annum, and she ought to lay 150 eggs in that time, supposing she is chosen, housed, fed, and managed as we have directed. At one penny per egg a very moderate price now — this would give rather over 100 per cent., not including * Thus a pamphlet now particularly in view stated the cost of keeping fowls at from one penny to three-halfpence per week, and even at the lower figure it will be seen that the bird must lay a dozen eggs per week to produce diem at the cost stated. 34 The Illustrated Book of Poultry. anything for attendance, repairs, and renewing utensils : as for the bird herself, she should be vvoith, when killed, as much as she cost till she began to lay. A large flock will need an attendant, and this will complicate the question considerably ; still more will the keeping of prize poultry, which may either add to the profit or cause actual loss, as it is conducted with judgment or otherwise. The importance of securing eggs in winter we have already hinted at. The early-hatched pullets will need no particular treatment as regards this, beyond giving them, as autumn ad- vances, a moderate allowance of animal food in cases where no grass-run is at hand to afford it naturally; but the laying of the last year’s hens will depend much upon judicious management. Hens which lay late into the autumn cannot be reasonably expected to recommence till late in the new year, especially if the moult has found them producing eggs, in which case several of the best-laying breeds will continue till the process is nearly completed, and by this double drain so exhaust the system that they literally cannot recommence production till February or March. The best way of preventing this is to allow each hen, as she becomes broody in the autumn, either to hatch and rear a brood, or sit on the nest for six weeks. Either plan will hasten the moult, and next year’s production of eggs as well ; and a young brood will give no trouble in rearing if ducklings be chosen, which may be made fit to kill in ten to twelve weeks, and thus save the loss of the hen’s time. Early eggs also depend much on early mating, for it will be found that as a general rule hens which are healthy, and have got well over the moult, will commence laying about three weeks after mating, if separated before. Hence the stock-pens should be arranged and put together as early after the 1st of November as possible. Another very material point is to see that eggs are not laid away or stolen. On several occasions we have been requested to examine into matters, and have found the poultry well chosen, well fed, and evidently in good laying condition, but very few eggs. Diligent search has then discovered whole nests laid away in shrubberies or under hayricks. Poultry on a farm are peculiarly liable to disappoint in this way unless very sharply looked after. In another instance we could detect nothing wrong, and as the poultry were in yards the eggs could not be thus accounted for. At length, in despair, we advised locks on all the house doors, but the suggestion was received with indignation. It was, however, adopted, and the immediate result was a plentiful supply of eggs. Dairy cows would not pay their expenses if the milk was regularly stolen, or suffered to run over the pails after these were filled ; and such matters require careful examination before it is said that poultry are unremunerative. Many people, otherwise fairly honest, appear to have no conscience at all as to stealing eggs ; and, while we would never be the first to subject faithful servants to what would probably be unjust suspicion, we would always advise, especially when considerable numbers of poultry are kept, that a watchful eye be kept by the proprietor himself over these matters. Want of such attention turns many a real profit into a loss. We need not say that it is far better if the whole concern — large or small — be conducted as a strict matter of business, and on ordinary business principles. One of the first of these will be to purchase the food wholesale and at the best prices, not always implicitly trusting the retail dealer, but examining the market-rates to see if more than a fair profit is superadded. Another will be the keeping of a fair account ; but we are no advocates, in ordinary cases, for those absurdly minute schemes of poultry accounts which are advised by some, putting down every egg, and tracing cost of each brood of chickens weekly, from the shell. It is, indeed, well to ascertain and record the cost of a brood at different ages ; but once done, no further object will be gained by repeating the experiment : and, looking at some of these elaborate schemes, we cannot help System of Accounts. 35 reflecting, with a very keen business man who was shown one, “That’s all very well ; but time , sir. time ! A simple cash account, divided into three or four heads on each side, thus, will answer every useful purpose and give very little trouble, while it may be balanced up as often as preferred, RECEIPTS. • EXPENDITURE. Date and Particulars. Eggs sold or used. Chickens sold or used. Old Stock sold. Total. Date and Particulars. Chicken Food. Stock Food. Stock bought. Utensils, Repairs, and Sundries, including Attendance, if any. Total, but every year at least. Where fancy poultry is bred, an additional column may be needed for show and other items ; but the simpler the whole be kept the better, so that the comparative profit of each branch of the concern can be ascertained. This is important, as any useless or losing department can often be discarded, to the saving of trouble, and at the same time improve- ment of the exchequer. In many cases a simple cash account, not subdivided at all. will be sufficient. We employed such for years, with an expenditure of from A8o to Aioo per annum ; and whenever we wished to investigate or analyse anything apparently wrong, simply went through the year’s record, and added up the expenditure under the head required, which takes less time by far than keeping an elaborate account throughout. But any account, fairly kept, and with judicious management, will prove conclusively that those who believe poultry cannot be made remunerative do a grievous wrong to the most profitable and productive of any live stock in the world. o 6 CHAPTER IV. EGGS AND INCUBATION. The motto “ omne animal ex ovo,” adopted by the New York State Poultry Society, aptly expresses a truth well known to all physiologists. All real animal life is developed from the egg- form ; the only difference consisting in the mode of development, which in some cases is entirely completed within the body of the female, whilst in others more or less of the process is carried on after separation from her. It is in these latter cases that some kind of hard case or shell becomes obviously necessary for the protection of the egg until the embryo is ready to commence its active existence ; and as in the case of birds we find the whole egg-structure in the most perfectly organised form, it may be proper to give a very short and popular description of its formation. Fig. 1 6. The ovary of a hen during or near her laying season presents an appearance much like that of a cluster of fruit, and is very accurately shown by the illustration (Fig. 16). There are more properly two such organs in every bird ; but one remains merely rudimentary and undeveloped, the fertile one being almost always that on the left of the spine, to which it is attached by means of the peritoneal membrane. By the ovary the essential part of the egg, which con- sists of the germ, and also the yolk, are formed, each egg being contained within a thin and transparent ovisac, connected by a narrow stem or pedicle with the ovary. These rudimentary Formation of the Egg. 37 eggs aie of different sizes, according to the different degree of development, and during the peiiod of laying are constantly coming to maturity in due succession, so as to keep up the supply of eggs with which we are so familiar. It is worthy of remark that from the germ of every egg a narrow passage or canal runs to a small chamber in the centre of the yolk, which can be readily seen if the yolk of a hard-boiled egg be cut across. As the yolk becomes fully matured, the enclosing membrane or ovisac becomes thinner and thinner, especially round its greatest diameter or equator, which then exhibits a pale zone or belt called the stigma. Finally fecundation takes place, the sac ruptures at the stigma, and the liberated yolk and germ, surrounded by a very thin and delicate membrane, is received by the funnel-shaped opening of the oviduct or egg-passage, whose office it is to convey it to the outer world, and on its way to clothe it with the other structures needful for its development and preser- vation. This organ, with its various convolutions a little modified for convenience of representation, is shown at Fig. 17, and in an ordinary hen is nearly two feet in length. It will easily be seen that not unfrequently two yolks may become detached and enter the oviduct at nearly the same time ; in which case they are very likely to be enveloped in the same white and shell, causing the “ double egg ” so well known to every poultry-keeper. Thus received into the oviduct, the yolk becomes enveloped hi a glairy fluid called the white, or by chemists albumen. This is secreted by the mucous membrane of the oviduct, and added layer by layer as the egg passes on. These different layers can be easily seen, and even peeled off in succession when an egg is hard-boiled. The uses of the white or albumen are manifold. It is eminently nutritious, forming, indeed, the chief nourishment of the chick during its growth in the shell ; as it becomes absorbed by the little animal, and forming as it does by far the greater part of the egg when laid, it gives the fast-growing little body the needed I7 increase of room ; it is a very bad conductor of heat, and hence guards the hatching egg against the fatal chills which would otherwise occur when the hen left the nest ; and finally, it preserves the still more delicate yolk and vital germ from concussion or other violent injury. The manner in which the last purpose is effected is very beautiful. Besides the ordinary white, two longitudinal cords or strings of much denser and even slightly fibrous albumen are formed, which are easily distinguished if an egg be broken into a basin. These cords are termed the chalazce, and are attached in a spiral form to the under side of the yolk, to which they therefore serve as ballast or weights, and always keep the germ uppermost, where it can best receive the heat from the sitting hen. At a still further point of the oviduct the egg becomes invested with the skin or parchment- like covering which is found inside the shell, and is called by physiologists the membraua putaminis. In reality this skin consists of two layers, which can easily be separated ; and in fact at the laree end of the egg they do separate entirely, forming what is commonly called the air-bubble, or by anatomists the vesicula asris. How formed is still a mystery ; but it is an ascertained fact that the air in this bubble or chamber contains a far larger portion of oxygen than the atmosphere. At first the chamber does not exceed a quarter of an inch in diameter, but as the egg gets stale it becomes larger and larger, so that even in eggs stored it fills E 38 The Illustrated Book of Poultry. at length a large portion of the space within the shell, the egg itself drying up in proportion. eggs on the point of hatching it usually occupies about one-fifth of the space. It has been conclusively proved by experiments that the perforation of this air-chamber, even by a needle- point, is an effectual prevention of successful hatching. In the last portion of the oviduct the egg becomes coated with that calcareous deposit which forms the shell, after which it passes into the cloaca and is ready for expulsion. In some breeds colouring matter is added to the solid ingredient, producing the deep-coloured eggs of the Cochin, and in other birds the splashed and spotted patterns so well known. In fowls which lay coloured eggs similar splashes often occur, and we have had Brahma hens which laid eggs with a white ground, covered thickly over by chocolate-coloured spots. We have had others, again, lay eggs covered apparently with a coat of whitewash, which on being rubbed off with a rough cloth revealed the usual buff-brown tint beneath. All these things obviously depend on some peculiar condition of the secreting organs, as does the shape of the egg of each bird when finally laid. Many occasional departures from the ordinary type of egg will now be readily understood. If the latter portion of the oviduct be in an unhealthy condition, or if yolks be matured by the ovary faster than shells can be formed by that organ, “ soft ” or unshelled eggs will be produced. If, on the contrary, the oviduct and its glands be active, while the supply of yolks is temporarily exhausted, the diminutive eggs, which consist only of white and shell, and which not unfrequently terminate the laying of a long batch, may be expected to occur. Any inflammation of the middle portion of the passage will result in eggs without even the membranous skin ; and if the entire canal be in an inflamed condition, yolks alone will probably be dropped without any addition whatever, even of white. This last occurrence therefore always denotes a very serious condition, and should be met at once by depletic medicines, or it will probably be followed by the loss of the bird. As we have already remarked, the white forms the principal nourishment of the chick whilst within the egg ; and we repeat this because it is the very opposite of the popular idea. Many writers who ought to know better have stated that the yolk furnishes the food of the chick, whereas the fact is that up to about twenty-four hours before hatching the yolk suffers hardly any diminution. At about that time it begins to be absorbed through the umbilicus or navel into the abdomen of the chicken, and is in fact a wonderful provision by which the newly-hatched little animal is supplied gradually with the most highly nutritious food during the earlier stages of its existence. Traces of the yolk may be found by dissection in the abdomen of the chicken even after ten days have elapsed ; and in chickens just hatched much is often net fully entered within the abdominal cavity, and can be plainly seen with the naked eye. We have no space to enter fully into the different stages of development of the chick during the period of incubation, but must confine ourselves to a description of the first, middle, and final stages of the process. When the egg has been sat upon or placed in an incubator for a few hours, the size of the germ can be seen to be sensibly enlarged ; and before the expiration of twenty-four hours small blood-vessels can be seen round it, which under the microscope present the most beautiful appearances which can be imagined. About the third day a membrane called the allantois, and the purpose of which is to supply to the blood of the chick the oxygen which it obtains through the shell from the external air, begins to envelop the entire organism, and the egg presents somewhat the appearance of Fig. 18. At this period the chicken appears as a small gelatinous mass, of a nearly blood-red colour ; but the rudiments of the head and limbs can be easily discovered by careful examination. By the end of the tenth day Development of the Chick „ 39 the eyes are clearly distinguishable, the leathers have begun to be formed, scales are perceptible on the legs, and the skeleton has assumed an evident bony consistence. About this time also movement is perceptible, and the allantois , or respiratory membrane, exhibits a very complex and beautiful series of blood-vessels, which draw air rapidly through the shell, and act as lungs to Fig. 1 8. Fig. 19. Fig. 20. the now fast-growing chicken. The development of the chick at the eleventh day is shown in Fig. 19. From this date the various organs mature steadily and rapidly: till about the nine- teenth day' the beak of the chick ruptures the air-bubble at the end of the egg, now become very much enlarged, and the chick for the first time breathes through the lungs. The immediate result of thus inhaling the air is a stimulation which produces very lively motion, so that the egg if now placed in warm water moves about in a most curious manner, as already stated. The development, as seen in Fig. 20, is now very perfect ; indeed, little difference can be observed between the present stage and the perfect chick, except that the yolk, shown in the figure, and more clearly represented in Fig. 21, is not yet drawn into the abdomen, where, as before observed, Fig. 21. — Chick two days before exclusion. it is destined for the food of the newly-hatched bird. This is however rapidly accomplished, when the chick is ready for entrance into the outside world. The chick breaks the shell by giving two or three smart taps every now and then with a sharp- 40 The Illustrated Book of Poultry . pointed scale, provided for that purpose by the Creator on the end of its beak, and which in about two days after falls off. The tapping of the chick in a lively egg can often be felt whilst holding it in the hand ; but the old notion that the constant tapping sound heard during the last two days proceeds from these blows, has been shown to be erroneous. Dr. Horner, in a paper read to the British Association, and given by Mr. Tegetmeier in his “ Poultry Book,” details experiments which clearly prove that the sounds in question arise entirely from respiratory action, and that the actual fracture arises from much more violent and spasmodic efforts made every five or six minutes. At length one of these blows results in a star-like crack ; this quickly becomes a tiny hole ; and as the chick works round, a line is gradually chipped, cutting off about one-third of the shell at the large end, in the manner shown in Fig. 22. At length a vigorous stretch thrusts the two sections asunder, and the chick is free. When newly hatched it is wet all over, and each tuft of down is enclosed in a very thin membranous sheath ; but as the chick dries with the warmth of the hen, and the down expands, these split and fall off ; and the little creature assumes that beautiful furry appearance so indescribably fascinating to young amateurs. After hatching, the two halves of the egg-shell are always found packed away one within the other, in the manner shown by Fig. 23, so as to occupy the least possible space within the nest. We may now pass on to the practical business of the poultry-yard. Whatever number of poultry be kept, it is important that the eggs should be regularly collected at least every day ; and if rearing chickens form any part of the plan of operations, the owner or his servant should learn to recognise the egg of every individual hen of value. This can always be done by watching the birds as opportunity offers, for a few days ; every egg in a pen, or generally so, having some individual character in colour, shape, or size, by which it may be known from others. So true is this that even in large yards of prize poultry the superintendent knows the eggs of all his best birds ; and even in the case of common fowls, by setting only from the finest and the best layers, great improvement may be made in the yard in the course of a few years. Hens of the better laying breeds, properly managed, should layabout 150 eggs per annum. Individuals will do much more than this, and have been known to exceed even 300 ; but some will hardly come up to it, and we speak of what can be done with a whole stock , if properly chosen and looked after. We have often known Hamburghs do more, when very favourably circumstanced, even on an average ; but not any other breed, save in individual cases. We believe, however, this average might be exceeded by selecting stock for some time only from the best layers. Even the best- laying breeds are bred by fanciers chiefly for their conventional standard of “ points and, as the best birds by this standard are very seldom the best layers, the laying powers are not developed as they might be ; but by setting eggs only from the most productive birds, and continuing the process steadily, wonderful results might be obtained. Indeed, as individual hens Method of Storing Eggs. 41 will lay even 250 eggs in a year, there is no reason why a race could not be established which should do the same. The best nest-eggs we are acquainted with are those made of white china, as they keep clean and are easily washed. Enamelled wood are not so good, and lumps of chalk become very dirty in a little time. Some people make a small hole in a natural egg, expel the contents, and refill the shell with plaster of Paris ; this also makes a good nest-egg. The furnishing of an egg of some sort to every nest is very important, even in seasons when the birds are not laying, as it tends greatly to prevent the hens from laying away. When a hen has once laid in a nest, she forms generally an attachment to it ; hence the importance of inducing her to lay at home from the first, if the run be large. Occasionally hens acquire the vicious habit of eating their eggs. They are often literally taught to do this, by the foolish practice of breaking up egg-shells and giving them to eat ; but the most usual occasion of commencing the vice is an accidental breakage in the nest. If, for instance, a hen breaks one egg whilst sitting, she will sometimes (fortunately not often) break and eat the whole clutch afterwards. When the habit is detected early it may sometimes be cured, by filling an egg-shell with the strongest mustard which can be obtained, mixed rather thick, and placing it in the nest. Cayenne, as some recommend, does not answer, not having the yellow appearance of a yolk. The hen will endeavour to eat it, and, we need not say, gets punished rather severely. We have known this to cure the hen in two cases out of three, where tried ; if not, we should kill her, unless of particular value or a special pet. In that case the only plan is to form all the nests with a false bottom (as shewn in Fig. 24), on a plan contrived by an ingenious correspondent of the Journal of Horticulture. The board A forms an inclined plane, down which the egg rolls, and is directed by the second plane, B, into the receptacle beneath, being of course beyond the hen’s reach before she can peck at it. Another advantage of the plan is that where several hens use the same nest the eggs are not soiled, however dirty the weather. When the eggs are only wanted for eating, the boards should be covered with smooth matting or carpet, as advised by the inventor; but if required for setting, the striking on the board B might injure vitality, and B should therefore consist only of canvas stretched on a frame, and some' hay or other padding be put in the bottom. The only disadvantage of this nest is the difficulty of using a nest-egg ; but by sinking this half through the top board, as at C, and fastening with some cement, the object will be easily accomplished, and valuable hens may thus be saved whose lives otherwise must be sacrificed. A piece of carpet with a hole will form a similar false bottom. For storing eggs, a very good plan is to have a large board pierced with holes, in regular rows. Many breeders keep them in bran ; and this latter method is perhaps best for those meant only to be eaten : but for setting hens the pierced board has many obvious conveniences. They should be always kept with the large end downwards. This direction being exactly contrary to that usually 42 The Illustrated Book of Poultry. given, we should state that our attention was first called specially to the subject by a most intelligent lady who advocated this plan, alleging as the probable reason of its superiority, “ Keeping eggs on the small end appears to me to cause the air-bubble to spread, detaching it from the shell, or, rather, from its membranous lining ; and after being so kept for a fortnight, the air-bubble will be found to be much spread, and the egg to have lost much vitality, though still very good for eating.” She then described her success the other way, adding, “ Owing to this method of storing, such a thing as a stale egg has never been known in my house ; and as regards success in hatching, for several seasons, when I was able to attend to my poultry myself, of many broods set, every egg produced a chick.” We were by no means hasty in adopting or recommending this plan ; but, after careful observation and comparison for two seasons, have proved indisputably that both for eating or setting, eggs do keep much better the large end down. There is after a week a marked difference in eggs kept in the two positions as regards the spreading of the air-bubble, which is well known to affect both the freshness for eating and vitality for setting of stored eggs, and after three weeks the difference can be discerned even by the taste alone. It will, of course, matter little which mode is adopted, provided the eggs are used for either purpose within a short time ; but the longer kept the more the difference from the two positions increases : and, while eggs stored with the small end down cannot be depended upon after a fortnight to produce more than a proportion of chickens, those kept in the way we now advocate will keep perfectly good for hatching a month or even more. We have sent thirty dark Brahma eggs to Ohio, U.S., which were twenty-two days on the road, yet they produced eighteen strong, lively chickens, or sixty per cent., though the eggs must have been nearly a month old. We ought however to add that, as already observed, we based our change of plan not on any single instance, however striking, but on systematic trial for two seasons. During each of these seasons we sent out about forty sittings (of ten each) dark Brahma eggs, and we satisfied ourselves most fully that with the ordinary age of eggs thus sold by English fanciers, say from three to thirteen days, the difference in favour of eggs stored the large end down amounted to nearly five per cent. This may not be much ; but, as already remarked, with age it increases : and we have proved as conclusively, by actual trial, that eggs may be set and successfully hatched with remarkable uniformity, at ages which, kept in the usual method, would be nearly hopeless. We have known eggs kept a month hatch fairly even on the old system ; but we are now speaking of usual and average results, and simply place at the service of fanciers in general the results of patient trial which have abundantly satisfied ourselves that there is a real difference in the product of the two positions.* With regard to packing, so far as actual injury is concerned, we believe there is no difference whatever in the two ways; but if the journey occupy any time the same position should be maintained for similar reasons. There is not the slightest difficulty in packing eggs for setting so as to go with perfect safety any ordinary journey, and various methods are preferred by different fanciers. One very commonly employed, on account of the little trouble it gives, is to bed the eggs in bran in a wooden box ; but this is not safe except for very short journeys, the bran settling down and often bringing the eggs to the sides or bottom of the box, where they get injured, even if not actually broken. This is easily prevented as follows : — Put a layer of bran an inch thick in the bottom, and cover with a sheet of paper, which will effectually prevent the eggs coming to * It is only fair to him to state that in his pamphlet on “ Poultry Keeping from a Commercial Point of View,” Mr. Geyelin advocated theoretically the same position for storing eggs ; but the numerous absurdities in the other parts of his brochure deterred every one from paying much attention to this recommendation : and it was only the positive statement as to actual comparative results sent us by the lady alluded to which led us to devote serious experiment to the subject, with the result we have stated. Preserving Eggs for Use. 43 the bottom. Screw each egg in paper, rather loosely, so that the paper may present edges and folds, which will keep them from moving much in the bran, and bed them so that there is a clear inch between them, and also to the sides of the box. Fill in bran level with the eggs, after which cover with a sheet of paper, and add an inch of bran as in the bottom. If a second layer of eggs is necessary, cover with a third sheet of paper and proceed as before. The bran must be bedded in rather tightly, or as it settles it will get very loose. The well-known biscuit tins, of the size which contain about a cubic foot, make capital boxes for eggs packed in this way, and the covers only need tightly cording down. Wooden boxes must be either corded or screwed, nails being on no account used for fastening the cover, as the jarring of the hammer is very injurious. Sawdust may be employed in the same manner as bran, and in an emergency oats may be used, but other grain is too solid. Bedding in moss is perhaps the best method of all where it can be be obtained ; and where it cannot, for fragile Bantam eggs cntton-wool or wadding should be employed. For other kinds, when moss cannot be had, we preferred to send our own eggs in small round baskets or hampers made for the purpose. The proper size for ten Brahma eggs is ten inches across and six inches deep. Two inches of soft hay are put in the bottom, and a circle of hay an inch thick round the circumference. The eggs are then to be loosely wrapped in paper, leaving the ends square and not tucking them round, and each one being separately wrapped in a good wisp of soft hay, they are bedded in, by no means tightly, but only solid enough to keep them in position. Some more hay on the top completes the packing, after which the cover is tied down with a packing-needle. For sending a long voyage we would pack the same way, only using a strong wooden box with a screw-down cover or slide instead of the basket, and allowing more hay round the sides ; we would also pack rather tighter. A package much recommended by some American fanciers consists of a wooden box, with a hay-cushion outside the bottom, formed by standing the box on a piece of canvas, then gathering the latter up at the edges, tacking it round the box an inch from the bottom, and stuffing with hay. A handle on the top is also added, and is a really good thing ; but we believe the cushion part of the arrange- ment to be bad. The only consignment from the States we ever received which was packed on this system failed ; and while we would build no conclusion on this alone, we would add that we made many and careful dynamical experiments on the empty box afterwards, which demonstrated beyond a doubt that, whatever might be the effect on the eggs, the mechanical effect of the outside cushion was greatly to increase the effect inside the box of any exterior concussion. The cushion in reality acts like the spring-board employed by acrobats, and the interior of the box is far more violently shaken than if none at all were employed. Hence we conclude unhesitatingly that whatever jars or concussions are to be encountered should be received by the rigid box itself, as “ dead ” as possible, and be neutralised by proper packing within. The most perfect way of transmitting by rail, beyond a doubt, would be to suspend by a string or from a handle ; but the authorities will very rarely take the trouble. The too common practice of packing in small « pottle” baskets eggs simply wrapped in paper, or loosely bedding in bran eggs almost touching each other, cannot be too strongly condemned. It may be done through ignorance, but with regard to eggs for which a high price is paid is really little better than a swindle. It is often worth while to preserve eggs for winter use, and there are several methods of doing so. One of the best, much used in France, is to smear them with olive oil, in which a little beeswax has been melted. Many persons use butter, but this is apt to turn rancid, which the oil and wax varnish never does. Another method is to pack them in brine ; and thus kept they answer for many purposes, but the yolks become too hard and the whites too salt to be palatable boiled. Packed tightly in dry, white salt, they do better, and are pretty good even for boiling after six or eight 44 The Illustrated Book of Poultry. months. A large proportion of the prizes for “ preserved eggs,” opened and examined after several months’ storage at the London Dairy Show and Birmingham Show, during recent years, have gone to eggs thus packed in dry salt, large end down. Such prizes have also gone to eggs placed in lime-water or lime-cream, after greasing, and also without it; care must, however, be taken to add water now and then, or the lime may set into a hard concrete. Some processes appear uncertain : thus, eggs wrapped in paper and dipped in wax, took second prize at Birmingham in 1883, but were rotten from the same exhibitor in 1884. Even bedding in good sweet bran has answered very well for several months, and taken prizes. Another good receipt is : To four gallons of boiling water add half a peck of quicklime, and stir well. When cold, pass through a fine sieve ; add ten ounces of salt and three ounces of cream of tartar ; dissolve and mix well, and leave to temper for a fortnight. Pour off the clear liquor, and imbed the eggs closely in this, keeping plenty of liquid over them. There is one important point : whatever method is used, the eggs should be treated the same day they are taken from the nest. More seems to depend upon this than upon the exact method adopted. The fertility of eggs must obviously depend much upon the number of hens allowed to each cock, which will vary according to the breed and other circumstances. In a wide run a cock may be allowed more hens than if penned in a small space. As a rule, the number of Dorkings, Cochins, or other large hens allowed a cock should on no account in confinement exceed four ; while, if at large, the number may be often doubled : but an old bird must have less than a vigorous cockerel. Indeed, much must depend, in all cases, on the individual bird himself; and if his hens appear nearly stripped of feathers on the back, the obvious remedy is to allow him more. Spanish also should seldom have more than three or four hens ; but Houdans and Hamburghs, Game, and in general all fowls of very lively habit, may be allowed from eight to twelve, if needful; further than that we would not go. Houdan cocks are generally the most vigorous of any. It has often been said that the sex of the future chick could be foretold from the egg. The opinion is as old at least as Horace, who affirms (Lib. ii., Sat. 4) that the long eggs “ would produce cocks,” and are sweeter than the round ! Columella, another old author, says the same. Others affirm that if the air-bubble at the large end of the egg be exactly in the centre, cocks will be produced, whereas those in which it is decidedly on one side will produce pullets. We can only say that we have altogether failed to succeed with any such test ; and we should not have noticed a theory so long exploded had not a popular work lately published again revived it as if a known and tested fact. The truth is, that each hen lays eggs almost exactly alike; and by this theory they should, therefore, produce all cockerels or all pullets, which is never the case. Any sound knowledge of the formation of the egg, as already described, would prevent such absurdities from being believed without absolute proof, which has never yet been obtained. We have known, it is true, singular coincidences. We have known of thirty eggs selected on this system to produce cocks, and they did so ; in consequence of which the experimenter and many others were quite convinced of the truth of the theory. But it unfortunately turned out that next year a nest selected on the same plan to produce pullets, produced nearly all cocks. Yet it would be reasonable to suppose that a theory which has survived two thousand years had lomethinv at the bottom of it ; and careful experiment and inquiry (forced upon us by many who had read the pamphlet in question) have satisfied us of the following facts : — 1. As a rule, the eggs of a pullet are longer in proportion and more pointed at the end than those of the same bird next year, or even later in the same season. 2. On an average, her early eggs produce cocks in about the proportion of six to four. (There will be numerous and startling exceptions both to this and the other rules : we are speaking of averages.) 3 The eggs laid by hens early Management of hie Sitting Hen. 45 in the season are aiso, as a rule, perceptibly longer and more pointed than those laid later ; and, 4. It is well known that cocks predominate on the average in early broods, but pullets in the later. Hence it is easy to see that in a decided majority of cases these coincidences might give a great preponderance of cocks ; and it is accordingly remarkable that in most of the successful “ guesses ” it has been cockerels which have been selected for, whilst cases in which a nest of eggs chosen to produce pullets, early in the season , has proved true to the theory are almost unknown. Later on, for the same obvious reasons, a majority of pullets might easily occur. Some may, perhaps, blame us for giving serious consideration and trial to such a theory ; but we never wish to shut our eyes to any new light whatever, and think mere ridicule a very sorry method for disposing of an alleged fact. We may add that the fewer hens be put with a cock, and the more vigorous the bird is, the more cockerels may be anticipated. This is taken advantage of by breeders of prize poultry, who want their cockerels hatched first on account of their slower fledging (contrary to the requirements of the commercial poultry-keeper, who wishes pullets first, for next winter’s laying), and by mating a strong young cock with not more than three hens, usually obtain a very large proportion. The first eggs laid of a batch also contain more cockerels than the later ones, in general ; but as we have already said, there will be startling exceptions to these rules or any others. All eggs selected for hatching should be of the fair ordinary size usually laid by the hen or pullet, rejecting not only the small ones, but also the very large. They should also be firm and smooth in the shell ; a very rough shell showing something wrong with the hen, and usually causing ill-success. Eggs unusually long, or, in fact, differing much in any way from the usual character of those laid by that particular bird, should also be rejected. That eggs be only saved from the best stock, even if the fowls are but common barn-door birds, is of course taken for granted. Sitting hens do best if each one can have a small pen entirely to herself, where she can be left unmolested. A space of six feet by three will answer very well if furnished with a dust-bath, but once a week or so the hen should be allowed to stretch her legs for about three minutes, driving her back simply into her pen, and leaving her to go on the eggs herself. If she is thus let out first of all, and then fed in the pen, she will not remain off longer than usual. Quiet hens do not need even this relaxation, but will simply come off, feed and dust themselves, and return ; in which case the eggs are far better left to them, only looking now and then to see none are broken. Several hens may be set in one larger pen, but in this case should be shut in and taken off one at a time in turn, else there will be danger of miscarriage, for hens in such circumstances have a perverse incli- nation to go on another’s nest instead of their own. The same must be done when the hens have to be set in the ordinary laying-house, which, for want of room, is constantly the case; they must be regularly taken off and let into the shed or some other part of the run, and if possible the other fowls be shut out till they have fed and returned, or they will not get their proper allowance, and may also be so driven about as to be too long in going back. If this cannot be done, the best plan is to take them off at such a time that they can get their share of the regular breakfast with the other fowls • but as a broody hen ought to have as much as she likes, and be, moreover, fed with grain only, this arrangement is not a good one, and she ought to be fed by herself however she is set. When let alone in a special pen, food and water must be always by her, and the excrements be regularly removed ; but some hens would never come off at all if thus left. Some people have thought such sitters best, and have even encouraged their maternal solicitude by feeding on the nest ° This practice is not only cruel, sometimes laming a bird for life, but actually injurious, the periodical cooling of the eggs while the hen is off acting an important part in causing an 46 The Illustrated Book of Poultry. ingress of fresh air through the shell, and thus invigorating the embryo chick. Every hen, therefore, is to be taken off if she will not come, lifting her up gently by the wings, and taking especial care that none of her eggs are tucked up by them and withdrawn along with her. Fig. 25. By far the most convenient nest for a sitting hen is that represented by Fig. 25. Each nest is made separate, open at the bottom for placing on the ground, and with a hinged flap in front, secured by any simple fastening. Holes three-quarters of an inch in diameter are bored near the bottom, in the sides, and also in the top, for ventilation, and the flap can be held up by a string and hook from any convenient point above, or be turned quite back. Such nests can be placed anywhere, and perfectly confine the hen without any trouble, so that she will not even try to come off till the flap is opened. Nests made in sets are not nearly so good ; they cannot be cleaned well till all the hatching is done, and generally they will only fit one spot, whereas single nests made on this plan can be used in any way. The nest should always, if possible, be on the ground, a wooden bottom being not so good, though chickens may be hatched in “ high-level stations” if needful. The making up of the nest will differ according to the season. Early in spring, when the weather is cold or wet, eggs are easily chilled, and the nest should be prepared in a perfectly dry place, putting at the bottom a large shovelful of fine dry ashes, over which a good thick bed of hay or straw is to be comfortably arranged. The eggs at such times should not be damped at all, but four days before hatching about a quart of boiling water should be poured close round the nest on the ground. This will to some extent penetrate the ashes, and give just the dampness desirable. In wet weather even this is better undone ; and in a severe winter every care will be needed to prevent the best eggs in the world being addled ; twenty minutes’ absence of the hen will do the mischief during intense frost, unless the nest is in a warm or very sheltered situation. In warm and dry weather, on the contrary, a damp and cool situation should be chosen, or means taken to make the nest so ; otherwise the moisture of the eggs will be all evaporated to the consistency of glue, and the chickens, being unable to move round so as to crack the shell in half, will perish unless assisted. In nature the hen always seeks a damp, cool nest ; and not only so, but her breast becomes saturated by the wet grass in which she feeds, and the eggs are thus moistened on her return. Attempting, then, to keep nest and eggs dry , however useful in winter, in summer loses many Management of the Sitting Hen. 47 a brood. Hence it is often advised to sprinkle the eggs daily with water in summer time ; and formeily we always adopted this practice, but finding occasionally bad results follow it, careful examination showed that in some circumstances (probably chiefly depending on the hay or straw) parasites so small as to be only distinguished by the microscope swarmed over the shells, and were probably the cause of failures. This effect is only found occasionally, but we now prefer to find a damp, cool spot, scoop a slight hollow in the ground, place the nest-box over it, and put in a moderate quantity of fresh-cut grass. This retains some dampness a long time, but must not be wet, and usually answers well. A few days before hatching the ground round the nest may be watered as advised for winter, but with cold water in this case ; and only two days before hatching would we take the hen off, and give the eggs either a good soak, as recommended further on, or a drenching with warm water. If we make a straw nest, our usual plan is to take the hen off about a week before hatching, and empty a full half-pint of warm water over the nest and eggs, repeating this the third day after, and once more before the eggs are chipped ; but all this only refers to dry weather : if not warm or dry, watering the ground is quite sufficient. Damping the eggs should always be done at night, in order that the hen may be immediately replaced on them. We only add that the corners of the sitting-box should be well filled up with the grass or straw, else eggs may be rolled into them and become addled. The proper size of a sitting-box for a Cochin, or other equally large bird, is fourteen or fifteen inches square ; others in proportion. The hen must have ample room, and will then be much less likely to break the eggs when stepping in. Should any get broken, the first night afterwards a bucket of water heated to 105° should be taken into the house, and the hen being lifted off to an adjoining nest, all the eggs be placed in the pail. Then remove all dirty straw, and re-make the nest clean and comfortable, after which clean every soiled egg (still in the water) with a sponge, and when all are done, replace the whole, and the hen too. If the hen’s breast be much soiled by the broken egg, that also must be cleansed thoroughly, or next time she comes off it will probably adhere to one or more eggs and repeat the accident. If a broken egg is neglected, probably no chicks will be obtained even should the others escape actual breakage, which they are very liable to. Only a moderate number of eggs should be set. For very early broods, seven are quite enough, and at regular seasons eleven are sufficient, except for very large hens. Setting too many often loses all, for the hen not being able to cover the outside ones, they get chilled ; and as she changes the position of the eggs every day, this happens to nearly all in turn. Besides, in setting eggs, it is not only needful to consider how many the hen can safely hatch, but how many she can brood when they begin to grow ; else the weaker ones will be unable to get proper shelter, and perish. In summer we can be less particular. Whatever be the number, every egg should be marked with ink, as some hens will lay eggs several days after beginning to sit, and these must be removed. In case of valuable eggs, we also want to know which have hatched. Rather small hens about six pounds weight — make the best sitters. Game, though smaller, stand in the very first class ; so do moderate-sized Dorkings. Dominiques, too. are excellent. Cochins and Brahmas make splendid sitters, from their tame and gentle disposition and ample feathering, and most barn-door fowls also sit well. Any hen must be well furnished with body- feathers, or the eggs will not be properly covered ; and she ought also to be tolerably tame and quiet. It is, however, often necessary to purchase broody hens, and the wildest may usually be managed with quietness and care, lifting them every day firmly, but quietly, off their nests, and putting them down to feed, and then leaving them by themselves. When a strange hen is bargained -for, a nest should be fully prepared for her beforehand, and at least two nest-eggs 48 The Illustrated Book of Poultry. provided. She should then be brought at night, in a comfortable basket, entirely shut in so as to be dark, with a nest-egg under her, and placed on the nest by candlelight ; or still better, put down in front where she can see the nest-eggs, and be allowed to walk in herself ; then shut in securely. Next morning, her food being provided before, she should be unfastened and allowed to come off herself, and to find her own way back. Not till she has thus found her own way twice should the eggs be trusted under her, when there will hardly ever be a failure. At the expiration of from six to eight days the eggs should be examined by candlelight, as the unfertile ones can then be easily detected, and if the greater part be sterile time is saved, as the same hen may be at once set again. A new-laid egg, as is well-known, appears clear and translucent when held between the eye and a candle. Barren eggs appear so still (as shown in Fig. 26), even after being sat upon for a week ; but the eggs which contain embryo chickens then Barren Egg. Fertile Egg. Fig. 26. have a dark shadow in the centre, shading off to more transparency at the edges. The amount of shadow will vary with the time of incubation and size of the eggs, and perfect opacity will not be found till nine or ten days have elapsed, even with good-sized eggs ; but after a few experiments, enclosing the egg between the thumb and forefinger, and turning the rest of the hand so as to shade the light as much as possible, no mistake will ever be made, and by degrees, even with the hand alone, the quality will be determined with certainty at the fifth day. By using a plate of tin or zinc, to shade the light, and holding the egg to an aperture in it, cut to the shape, Lhe light may be brought closer, and the difference known at the fourth day; and by employing a more perfect apparatus (shown at Fig. 27), where the light of the lamp A is strongly thrown by the reflector B and lens C full upon the egg at E, and all other light excluded, fertile eggs can be known even at the end of thirty-six hours (some say twenty-four), the minute blood-vessels which begin to form round the germ being clearly visible. The sterile eggs up to about eight days are perfectly good for culinary purposes ; and if withdrawn at the end of the second day will not Treatment near Hatciiing-time. 49 offend the palate when boiled, being indeed at that age quite unaffected. Hence in a large concern such an instrument becomes remunerative through the eggs it saves. Staler eggs may be either used for puddings, or boiled hard and chopped up for the chickens. The hen should not be absent from the nest more than half an hour, and in time of frost even twenty minutes will frequently addle the eggs, unless set in a very warm place. Eggs are much moie liable to this misfortune during the early stage than when they have been sat upon twelve or fouiteen days; of this fact we are certain, though it is contrary to the statements of some writers who have never devoted real observation to the subject. It may also save much heart-burning and groundless suspicion of egg-vendors, when a nest of purchased eggs fails, to say that if eggs at the end of the period, when broken explode, or are decomposed or changed in colour in any way, the eggs have been fertile and begun to hatch, but have been chilled or otherwise had their vitality destroyed during the process. Barren eggs remain a clear yellow to the last, and only emit a very strong musty smell. In ordinary weather, however, eggs will sometimes survive a very long absence, and really valuable eggs should never, therefore, be abandoned even after quite cold, till the hen has fairly sat her time out, and two or three days beyond. We have had a hen absent several hours in the middle of hatching, and still bring out a very fair number ; and on another occasion, on the very last day of incubation, the hen abandoned the eggs, which became really stone-cold, yet we saved the greater part. The treatment we adopted was to put the remaining eggs into a vessel of water heated to fully 105°, whilst another hen was being procured ; and, to our astonishment, in about ten minutes six of the eggs showed signs of life, and eventually hatched. We note this because in all cases of a decided chill at any period, this is the best plan that can be followed, the warm water getting the heat and life back into the eggs much more quickly and effectually than the hen can. The eggs of ordinary poultry require, as a rule, twenty-one days to hatch ; but this is by no means a universal rule. Cold weather, or a prevailing east wind, will lengthen the time a day or more, whilst warm weather and an attentive sitter will hasten it. Stale eggs also hatch later than fresh. Hamburghs generally hatch at the expiration of the twentieth day, and Game Bantams often even on the nineteenth. Turkey eggs require from twenty-six to twenty-nine days, guinea-fowl, twenty-five to twenty-six, and pea-fowl, twenty-eight to thirty days. Pheasants hatch on the twenty-fourth or twenty-fifth day, and partridges the same. Ducks hatch on the twenty-eighth day, and geese on the thirtieth. A day or two before the eggs are “ due,” all which will hatch can readily be known by taking a large bucket filled with water heated to 105°, and immersing them in it. In a few minutes — not always at first — the “live” eggs will commence bobbing about in a very curious manner from the efforts of the chick within. We formerly disliked this plan ; but if the hen be quiet, we now find it a good one, and the eggs may be left to soak in the warm water for ten minutes, with marked benefit to the hatching. They should be put under the hen whilst still wet. All eggs dead should be removed, as the hen can then take the better care of those left. If any valuable eggs are cracked, which evidently contain living chickens, the disaster may often be remedied by pasting a narrow slip of gummed paper over the crack, or, in the case of Bantam eggs, a small piece of goldbeater’s skin. Many eggs so treated have hatched in safety. Even thin-shelled eggs, however, may be kept from being cracked at all. In 1881 Mr. Nash brought to us a device, shown in Fig. 28, and which, at our suggestion, has since been made for sale by Messrs. Christy and Co., under the name of “Nash’s Egg Protector.” It is a shell of thin perforated metal in which an egg can lie, with plenty of room, protected from all F 50 The Illustrated Book of Poultry. external force. The thinnest eggs placed in these are perfectly safe ; or if a hen is known to crush her eggs when hatching, as some do, the protector will entirely prevent this. A few will even partially protect, by bearing the hen’s weight, the bare eggs between them. These protectors have, since their introduction, been used and highly approved of by several of the best-known exhibitois, and there is no doubt of their utility. It has also been found that a small bag of “Insect Powder” enclosed in one of these protectors, and placed with the eggs, ha^ a wronderful effect in keeping the hen and nest free from vermin. Fig. 28. Some breeders like to have two hens sitting at the same time, the advantage being that when half the eggs of both are hatched, all the chickens can be given to one, and all the eggs to the other. If there is much difference in the time the eggs chip, this is advisable ; but in ordinary cases, where the eggs are properly fresh, things will go on better by leaving the hen alone. It should be seen that she has a thoroughly good feed the last time she is off, after which she should be shut in, so as to be quite dark ; she will then stay quietly enough while hatching goes on. If all apparently be going on well, it is best so to leave her ; but if the eggs are known to contain living chickens, yet no apparent progress be made, or if eggs are “starred” and nothing further take place after some hours, the chicks are probably too weakly to get out without assistance, or may, perhaps, be glued to the shell. Examination should be made from time to time to see how matters stand, and if necessary the chicks must be assisted. Keep the egg in warm water (about ioo°) while assistance is being rendered, and success may be hoped for. The shell must be cracked very gently, and the inner membrane very tenderly peeled off till the chick be at liberty, keeping all but the beak under water till nearly clear. The operation must be performed in a warm place, and tenderly as if touching raw r flesh ; and it will be found that the water greatly facilitates matters, liberating the membrane, and enabling it to be separated without loss of blood. The nearly dead chick may then be put by the fire in flannel, or under the hen, if a quiet, good mother — under her at night in any case — and next day may probably be as well as the others. The treatment of the chickens when hatched will be the subject of a succeeding chapter. 5 r CHAPTER V. ARTIFICIAL INCUBATION. SINCE the earlier editions of this work were published, a revolution has taken place in the whole practical art of hatching eggs artificially. What was formerly an interesting experiment, only practically successful in the hands of a few who gave to it much time and attention, and possessed some sort of special gift, is now daily and successfully practised by hundreds of persons in this kingdom. While, therefore, reviewing as succinctly as possible both former inventions for hatching chickens and the more successful machines of the present day, it must also be our endeavour to indicate in the proper place what were those considerations which formed the practical turning- point, as regards general success, in regard to artificial incubation. It is not to be wondered at that much thought and labour should have been devoted to the subject of hatching by artificial means. Early chickens are important to all poultry-keepers, what- ever be the object they have in view ; and to the fancier, who desires to have birds fully matured and ready for exhibition in time for the autumn shows, they are absolutely essential to success. But hens rarely evince a desire to sit at such seasons, unless perhaps in the case of Cochin or Brahma pullets ; and as these seldom go long enough with their chickens for very cold weather, the obtaining of suitable mothers early in the year is one of the fancier’s most anxious cares. Often, indeed, all his efforts fail, and he is doomed to see such eggs as money could not purchase abso- lutely wasted for want of hens to sit upon them ; while at the same time he would be willing to give almost any price in reason for the means of turning them into those chickens which he has well- founded hopes would win him many a prize at next season’s shows. The commercial poultry- keeper is rather more fortunate. Having a large stock of birds, he has the greater chance of finding at least a few early sitters amongst them ; but even he would gladly set more if he could, remem- bering the high prices of the early markets, which well repay extra housing, feeding, and care. When, therefore, it is known that for hundreds if not thousands of years chickens have been hatched in immense numbers, both in Egypt and in China, with no apparent difficulty and certainly wiui very little failure, the only marvel would seem to be that in Europe, with all its resources both of science and mechanical skill in construction, similar attempts had not been made upon a larger scale and with a larger measure of success. It is, perhaps, possible that the apparent simplicity and certainty of the Oriental processes have caused the much more favourable conditions under which they are conducted to be forgotten. Both in China and in Egypt they are carried on, for instance, on a vast scale, under constant personal supervision, and in a temperature both warm and remarkably uniform. The eggs are not placed in confined drawers, but generally in roomy chambers : and comparing this with the process of nature, and with the conclusion to which various observers have gradually come, as observed further on, with regard to the necessity for ventilation, this fact has a significance which has pro- bably to a great extent been overlooked. The simplicity of the process, in Egypt at least, may also be more apparent than real. The profession of artificial hatching is there strictly hereditary, or confined to certain families and handed down from father to son, and all its details are kept most religiously secret, under solemn oaths not to divulge them. It is reported by nearly evety 52 The Illustrated Book of Poultry . traveller in Egypt who has noticed the subject in any way, that the professional hatchers can detect at a glance all fertile eggs provided they are fresh. To us this fact may seem almost in- credible ; but with the multiplied testimony to it, it would be most foolish and rash to pro- nounce it so, simply because we have at present no means by which we can pronounce such a decision ourselves. If it be a fact, then the long practice of the profession has given these children of nature a knowledge which may well have guided them to success in other particulars. From the very commencement of attempts in this direction there has been success sufficient to show that the thing coidd be done, and that the “how” was only a question of details. An “ Eccaleobion ” constructed in 1777 by M. Bonnemain was really to some extent used in a commercial way, and many chickens hatched in it were actually sold in the Paris market. Reaumur also obtained very fair results by surrounding wine-casks, in which the eggs were placed, with fermenting dung, renewed as often as the heat decreased. Cantelo appears to have been the first to consider that the heat should be applied from above, in imitation of the hen. We remarked in our last chapter that in the early stages of incubation, in whatever position the egg be placed, the yolk floats with the germ uppermost, and this is probably to bring it more under the influence of the warmth from the hen’s breast ; though the fact that both Chinese and Egyptians hatch in large apartments, where the air surrounding the egg is all of one temperature, proves that this arrange- ment can hardly be of the importance some have supposed. Be this as it may, Cantelo’s apparatus hatched a very fair number of chickens, but was too expensive ever to come into general use , and the same may be said of the elaborate incubator of M. Minasi, which it is unnecessary to describe. We shall confine our attention, as regards the earlier machines, to those which contained either some novelty, or some feature afterwards proved to be of real importance. For one of the most essential points of a good incubator, poultry-keepers are indebted to M. Vallee, Poultry Superintendent of the Paris Jardin des Plantes. About the year 1845 this gentleman constructed an incubator which succeeded very fairly, hatching considerable numbers, not only of hens’ eggs, but those of partridges, pheasants, and even reptiles. M. Vallee finally improved his machine by the addition of a self-acting valve, by which the temperature was to a certain extent self-regulated. This valve was by no means perfect in its action ; but the idea was most valuable, and has been adopted in all the best incubators of the present day. An incubator which contained several points still found essential was invented by Mr. F. Schroder, manager of the now defunct National Poultry Company, and which is illustrated in Fig. 29. It was circular in plan, and very compact. The hot-water tank, c, was connected with a separate boiler, not shown in the figure, by two pipes, B and D, one being the inlet pipe and the other the outlet ; and was furnished with an open pipe, I, in which is immersed a thermometer to show the temperature. Under the tank slid the egg-drawers E E, each of them the quadrant of a circle, all being open at the top, and the bottoms being formed of perforated zinc. A tube. H, which passed through the tank, afforded ventilation to all the drawers, the corners of which met under it. Under all again was a circular tank, F, of cold water; and over the hot-water tank was a circular receptacle bounded by perforated zinc all round the apparatus, and floored with sand, both to confine the heat and furnish a home for the chickens till strong enough for removal. Curtains were provided all round to preserve the heat, and guard in some measure against changes of temperature. The chief merits of this incubator were the ventilation, and the tank of cold water, which, by its evaporation under the heat above, percolated gradually through the chaff with which the egg-drawers were lined, and, preserving a moist atmosphere, rendered any damping of the eggs unnecessary. The principal defects were, the absence of a regulating-valve, and the ■S c hr Oder’s Incub a tor. 53 immersion of the thermometer in the tank, or source of heat, instead of being where it should be, in the drawer or chamber which is heated. In the light of recent experience, as seen further on, it will also be seen that the hot-water tank was far too small. In 1866 Colonel Stuart Wortley, at that time an enthusiastic fancier, constructed an incubator on another principle. A saddle-backed boiler, furnished with a dome to collect all steam, and a supply cistern by which the height of the water was kept uniform, kept water circulating at a boiling, and therefore almost uniform temperature, through the pipes which heated the egg-chamber. These pipes passed through holes furnished with spring-pads to keep them air-tight, and hence by pushing in more length of pipes there was greater heat given for cold weather, or by withdrawing them a little the temperature could be reduced. The difference between this plan of heating and others will readily be seen ; it gets rid of any variation so far as the lamp or other source of heat is concerned, as the laws of nature give a uniform temperature of 21 2° for boiling water at the Fig. 29. ordinary pressure of the atmosphere. This is a great point, and changes of temperature are then guarded against by giving more or less of heating surface. The difficulty of providing a regulating-valve will readily be seen by all skilled mechanics, but, we think, might be overcome; and it seems to us rather singular that the method should have been never carried any further. An incubator sold by Messrs. Jacob Graves and Co., of Boston, U.S., is shown in perspective in Fig. 30. At the bottom is a cold-water tank, as in Schroder’s machine, and above this is the hatching-chamber heated by the hot-water tank. Above this again is an air-chamber, for retaining or protecting the heat required ; and on the top of all a drying-loft or nursery, F, where the newly-hatched chicks are placed after birth until removal to the separate “mothers” provided for them. The mechanism of the incubator cannot be explained without constant reference to the diagram. The lamp G heats the boiler H, which latter communicates by tubes with the hot-water tank. J J in the perspective view are simply reservoirs which supply oil to the lamps. Under and in contact with the heating-tank run two glass tubes filled with alcohol, each of which at the outer end communicates by a bent tube, L, with a cylinder, M, con- taining mercury, and which is furnished with a piston-float and rod, N. When, therefore, the temperature ' of the tank rises above that for which the valve is adjusted, the expansion of the alcohol in the tubes, acting on the mercury in the cylinder M, forces up the piston-rod N. The upper end of this rod is attached to a lever, O, which is pivoted on the machine, but 54 The Illustrated Bools of Poultry. mo\ es freely at the outer end. Above, the free end of the lever is connected by a rod, R, with a valve, P, and below by a spiral spring, V, with the lamp G. When, therefore, the piston is raised, the valve P opens, and warm air rushes out to reduce the temperature ; while Q is a slide at the bottom of the machine to lower it still faster if necessary. At the same time this is being done, the lamp-flame is being lowered by other mechanism. All these parts are duplicate, there being a precisely similar lamp, boiler, valve, and other contrivances at each end ot the apparatus, one ot the tubes of alcohol communicating with each ; and these two sets of heating and regulating apparatus to some extent correct and compensate any sudden irregularities for each other, and make the total effect more perfect and uniform. Mr. Halsted’s automatic incubator is shown in Fig. 31. B is the boiler, heated by a lamp in Fig. 3°- the usual manner, oil for the lamp being supplied from the reservoir O. D is the egg-drawer or nest, above which is the square tank which supplies the heat, a space of two inches being left between the tank and top of the drawer to allow room for the regulator. The boiler, B, is connected with the heating-tank by the supply and return pipes F and R. The tank was identical with the preceding. Figs. 32 and 33 show the construction and connections of the boiler and heating-tank, which are usually followed still in the best machines of modern make. The conical flue S passes through the middle of the boiler, and completes the chimney, opening into the atmosphere. The space between -this flue and the outer case of the boiler is divided by a cylindrical partition or diaphragm, which reaches from the top to nearly the bottom ; the supply pipe F being conducted from the inner and the return pipe R to the outer portion of the boiler. The effect of this is to keep up a constant and rapid circulation of the water in the direction of the arrows (Fig. 32). The water from the tank passes first into the outer portion E, thence under the partition into the inner portion I, where it is rapidly heated, and passes off again by the tube F into the tank T (Fig. 33). The boiler is also furnished with a stop-cock to draw off the water when required. In Mr. Halsted’s machine the supply pipe F was made to branch in the tank, delivering Hals ted's Incubator . the hot water at the circumference, while the return pipe K came from the centre. This was to pi event the outer edges of the egg-drawer from being cooler than the middle, a very common fault with nearly all incubators then constructed, owing to the shallowness of the tanks. Recent improvements have made this ingenious provision of no practical importance. Fig- 3i- The egg-drawer or nest was constructed of strips of tin or zinc, bent like an inverted V and placed thus, AAAA. When using, a woollen blanket or cloth was laid on the strips, dropping down between each or every alternate strip, into or just touching the water with which the outer pan of the drawer was filled to the depth of a quarter of an inch. This construction was to provide moisture, and also to keep the bottom of the eggs cool ; the pan coming in direct contact with the outer air. In this manner Mr. Halstcd hoped to get as nearly as possible the same effect as when a hen forms her nest on the damp ground, in which case she is almost certain to hatch nine-tenths of her eggs ; the A strips also keeping the eggs in rows and preventing them from rolling about. In practice, however this actual wet contact was found to spoil and mildew the eggs , and aftci much time had been lost in finding out the cause of this, it had to be abandoned. The regulator was a glass tube of about three-eighths or half an inch in diameter and eight inches long, having at one end a bowl holding half a pound of mercury. As the mercury while only 12 replied in the affiimative. This proportion is about what might have been expected by such as have looked into that special question independently of its present connection. As it is interesting to trace these matters, it may be well to state that the affirmatives came from Llanrwst (the other four replies from Wales being in the opposite sense), Bath, Jersey, Bidborough (Kent), Tunbridge Wells, Newton Abbott, Beverley, Newcastle, Preston, Bakewell, Birmingham, and Hatfield. There was, however, a remarkable con tradiction of testimony on this point in one or two cases. Thus, two replies in opposite senses were received from Birmingham, and these from such thoroughly qualified sources as Mr. J B. Lythall (negative) and Mr. Joseph Birckley, Superintendent of Markets, St. Martins Lane, whose replies otherwise showed remarkable agreement. In such a case we must probably attubute the diffeience 96 The Illustrated Book of Poultry. to a knowledge of facts upon particular estates. The most remarkable variation appeared, however, in two leplies hom Tunbridge Wells, both from gentlemen who have given some attention to the subject gencially, and even taken high rank as poultry fanciers. One writes: “ I am happy to say there is no tendency towards smaller holdings, which are the curse both of landlords and tenants/’ and his negative is corroborated by two others. But another — a clergyman — writes that “smaller holdings are gradually gaining ground — they are much appreciated here.” Some clue to the wide diveigence may be found in a reply from Guildford in Surrey, not so very far off, and in many respects similarly situated, to the effect that “ small holdings are much sought after : many want them, but meet with little encouragement as yet.’’ Several replies, as in one from Warrington which are in the negative as to small holdings extending , remark that the land already is as a rule in small holdings, such as ioo acres and under ; and one or two remark that the smaller holdings, as a rule, rear most poultry, which is credible enough. Cornwall reports generally small holdings — probably on the average smaller than any other county in England ; and it is one of the few places which seem to export eggs to other localities, and occasionally to London. It is also noticeable that one or two of the negative replies to this question, also report that the large farms are at the date of reply (1887) “very largely now in the hands of owners.” 9. This and the two following questions were the most generally answered of any (many individual queries in some of the returns were left blank or answered indefinitely, which accounts for the differences in total replies that will be observed). There were 42 distinct negatives and only 22 affirmatives, the greater part of these being more or less qualified, as all in which any estimate of heads per acre was stated are here treated as affirmatives. Three of them estimated “ one per acre ; ” five, “one to every two acres two of them (in districts of smallish holdings both) “ two per acre ; ” and one, about one to every three acres. 10. There was the same strong negative preponderance in regard to this question, 44 dis- tinct negatives being received, and only 16 partial affirmatives. Five of these knew of one case in their neighbourhood, one of “two,” and another of “a few,” while another referred to 140 head on a farm of 400 acres. One or two references to so-called “ pouitry-farms ” are not included in either class of replies. 11. As to any tendency to increase per acre, there were 42 negatives and 20 affirmatives, besides one reply to the effect that there had been amongst the cottagers, but not the farmers. The most positive tones of affirmation came from the Midland and Northern districts, and from Lincoln a “very great ” increase was reported. What affirmative replies there were, were more distinct than to some of the questions ; but several are included in which a “ slight ” increase is reported. 12. This question appears to have been not sufficiently definite, for at least a dozen replies proved that it was entirely misunderstood, and it is possible that it may have been so in other cases also. There were only 4 unconditional affirmatives to it, proving that what was intended is known as a fact to at least some ; and 3 other replies were to the effect that it was known to some, but not generally. The negatives were 51, and among these n expressed personal dis- belief in the suggested fact. But this was, in all but two cases, on grounds which showed that the meaning was not at all understood. In several cases it was pointed out that the number possible was limited far below that mentioned by the “ number of separate premises ” available ; which is perfectly true, but which showed that the question was understood to refer to keeping at a profit ten to fifteen per acre for the whole farm, as a general question: whereas the sole meaning was, whether farmers knew that ten to fifteen fowls ranging over an acre (as in any one particular field, for instance) dui not foul the ground for grazing or hay purposes, and interfere in this particular 97 Poultry in Westmoreland . way with other stock. Only three questioned this, two of whom pointed out that different kinds ofland affected the number, which is true. No one questioned it from personal knowledge, whereas from personal knowledge several of the affirmatives corroborated it. The question itself will be refen ed to again , heie we are only giving the results of the replies. . . I3> As t0 Peking any distinct market for new-laid eggs as such, there were 41 uncon- ditionally negative replies, and only 18 affirmatives, mostly of a very qualified kind. Fully half of them were simply to the effect that “all farmers’ eggs ” sold in the markets were “ supposed to be new-laid. Only ten replies seemed to convey any idea of real attempt to sell new-laid eggs at special pi ices, and half of these referred to the writers’ own personal experience. 14. It was lathei surpiising, with 42 negatives, to find 13 affirmatives referring to “poultry- farming” of one sort or other. Half of these referred to “failures,” and most of the others were based on veiy indefinite notions, one mentioning as the example two farmers who each kept about 200 io\vls on their faims. These leplies were all followed up, but practically with no result, every- thing of the nature of a puiely poultry farm, except one on a very small scale, which will be refened to fuither on, having to do with pure-bred fowls, and nothing at all with this question. Seveial attempts were made to obtain something like a combined report from various parties, of districts wheie small holdings were known to prevail, as it was believed that poultry production in such distiicts would show a higher standard. In all but one case, however, such attempts were baffled by the apathy and indifference which have been already referred to. The sole exception was owing to the exertions ot the Countess of Bective, who collected seven or eight returns from the neighbourhood of Kendal and Kirkby Lonsdale, including one from Mr. Punchard, agent to the Underley Estate. The first five questions were answered in the negative by practically all, and there was also a general agreement amongst the farmers themselves that many eggs could be collected, but that there was no machinery for doing so. Some added that the tenants would be very glad indeed of any “ opening ” for the better sale of eggs, and that in such case the supply would be largely increased, but one or two referred to the market at Kendal as sufficient. There was a general disbelief that more than one fowl could be run on an acre of land without damaging the grass or crops ; but here, again, there was some misapprehension, as one or two referred to disease breaking out “ when large numbers are kept in proximity,” with which this question has nothing to do. The general opinion was that in spring and summer, when eggs were plentiful, they were too cheap to pay; and the same with chickens, which are sold in July and August at from is. 3d. to is. 6d. each. Regret was expressed that this should take place “at the time when the farmer or cottager must sell” apparently in utter ignorance of any possibility of breeding for a time when better prices are obtained. So far as regards the present, the increased production had brought new- laid eggs down in the spring of 1887 to from fourteen to eighteen for a shilling. Every farmer without exception regretted the want of a “ direct demand,” and of some agency for selling direct. All the returns without exception, however, agreed in reporting a “ large increase in the attention bestowed upon poultry in the district during late years, and that any London dealer who desired could easily arrange for a regular and considerable supply from it both of poultiy and eggs. The most noticeable feature is, that in the neighbourhood of Kendal faimeis aie placing fowl -houses about in different parts, and on some farms it is common foi each son and daughtei to have one of these houses with a dozen to fifteen fowls, taking the pioceeds as a peiquisite. Anothei fact appearing in one report is that while chickens sell generally low, as above stated, those nicely fatted and dressed for cooking “sell readily at about 9d. per lb-., but few know how to do it.” One report, however, states, “ I know one farm of eighty acres where 100 hens aie kept, and about 150 chickens reared with profitable results.” There is, moreover, a large import of eggs from Ireland. J Tiie Illustrated Bock of Poultry. 98 Mr. Punchard states a curious fact. About 1872 — 6 a great impetus was given to poultry keeping in the district by large numbers of pheasants being reared annually, in consequence of which there was a great demand for clucking hens, which realised 2s. 6d. and 3s. each. The bad times have checked this, but the low price of corn has continued the stimulus and maintained poultry-breeding The hotels of the Lake District are also a stimulus ; but it is worth noticing that some hotels have yards or small poultry farms of their own. These replies have not been included in the general summary, as they would have over-weighted it in some directions. Ireland also has been excepted from the general summary, because she stands alone in being really an exporting country (Scotland, on the other hand, notwithstanding her sparse population, does not supply her own wants, but imports largely). There is no doubt that the Irish export is chiefly dim to the predominance of small holdings, in consequence of which the number of poultry per acre far exceeds anything that can be cited from any single county in England. Search has been made in vain for any very recent statistics of value ; but going back no further than 1876, we have figures absolutely unimpeachable in Professor Baldwin’s report of that year in connection with the prizes offered by Earl Spencer for the best-cultivated small farms. With the undeniable improvement effected by these prizes we have here no concern, but simply extract from Professor Baldwin’s tables the columns giving acreages and stock of the farms in two districts. The “ draught animals” are asses in nearly every case. GRANGE DISTRICT. LOUGHLYNN DISTRICT c5 a O t C"1 o < 2 J. . <5 •- u e Q< > 0 CJ £ *3 V > rf U d V CJ c n in l /) £ ±j "5 0 Ph . 6 3 S’ c H c X -p TS - G d u d 2 — — — — 10 Dominick Fynan ... 5 3 3° — 2 — 1 — 4 40 Patrick Brien... 2 O 0 I — — •' — — 1 iS Thomas Molony ... 9 0 0 — 2 1 1 2 2 26 John O’Leary.. 9 2 0 I — — — 3 2 25 Martin Kelly .. 13 0 0 1 2 1 1 — 3 60 John Harty ... 4 o 0 I — — — 2 4 27 Martin Taplery 16 0 0 1 2 — 2 — n o 40 Widow Troy ... 3 2 0 I 3 — t — — 20 Patrick Ross ... . . . 2 I 0 — — — — 2 — 35 Peter Cuddy ... 3 2 0 I — — — — 2 20 Maurice Fitzgerald 6 2 0 I — — — 2 — 22 Declan Conners . . . 14 0 0 — — — — 5 — 26 I Patrick Gorman I 2 0 — — — — 4 1 26 1 James Burke ... 4 0 0 I — — — 3 1 29 I James Flynn ... 7 0 c l 1 ! — '5 — 30 1 Poultry Production in Ireland. 99 Only five returns to our questions were received from Ireland ; and it was noticeable that as regards the more considerable farmers, the report was the same mainly as in England — no system, no care of stock, no regarding poultry as stock. An “ increase,” however, is reported, and especially near what are recognised as regular markets ; and among the small tenants their poultry is of course regarded as of more importance. At Fiddown, on the Waterford and Limerick line, is a fortnightly market, where Waterford buyers attend to buy and ship fowls for London, and from which go every market about one hundred loaded cars. Generally the produce is, however, collected by dealers at the small towns on market days. The poultry are considered the property of the women, who complain that they are at the mercy of the dealers. On April 7th, 1887, the price paid to the producers by the dealers for eggs was 7d. per dozen. The dealers as a rule sell for 9d., some contracting direct with infirmaries and other places in different parts of England. This system is noticeable as an example of nearly direct trade through only one middle dealer to the consumer. A farmer near Fenagh rears large turkeys for Christmas, chiefly for the gentry round, who give him orders for one or two birds to send to England — any over he sends to market. : but his name is English, and it is noticeable that the same example of enterprise grows largely straw- berries and raspberries. Many eggs go to the shopkeepers in towns for small bills. One is not surprised to find it reported that poultry “trespassing ” from one small holding to another is a constant source of quarrelling and threats of legal proceedings. A “great improvement” is reported in the size and quality of the poultry wherever shows have been held, and regret is expressed that they have been mostly discontinued of late, owing to the disturbed state of the country. Owners of land, also, who were at one time largely giving better stock to their tenants, have discontinued such efforts. It is agreed that nothing would do so much for Ireland as the distribution through the country of the more improved breeds of all kinds of stock, and of proper methods of management. A very interesting letter was received from Mrs. F. C. Smith, Clogher, Ballaghaderine, respect- ing the district surrounding the Belfast market, a portion of the facts being supplied by one of the largest Belfast dealers, and from which the following paragraphs are chiefly compiled. The Belfast district is the most famous in Ireland for market poultry, which are reared in large numbers by small farmers, who prepare them for market, but without the aid of the fatter, a poisonage unknown in Ireland. These fowls are very similar to those of Sussex, but have moie perhaps of distinct Dorking blood and some a dash of the Brahma. They are nevei put up, but simply well fed fiom the shell, and sold as they become fit for table. There aie vaiious maiket towns in the distnct to which the farmers send, where the fowls are bought by dealcis, who sell again to the Belfast houses. Those exported to England are sent by Belfast firms to English salesmen, who sell them again, so that such birds are sold four times before they reach the consumer ; but a few London houses order direct from Belfast, in which case the London “salesman ” is dispensed with, and the fowls only sold three times. The' net prices paid to the raisers in July and August are from 24s. to 30s. per dozen, but that is the cheapest time of year. When the Belfast dealers have no orders, the surplus is generally mixed with a cheaper class of fowls, and sent to London on commission ; otherwise they are not sent to the open market or except on order. There are maikets daily in the distiict round Belfast commencing with Saintfield on Monday, Lisburn on Tuesday, and so on ; and this poultry is in reality as fine and good as can be found anywhere, and not at all to be classed with the small fowls shipped from other parts. They are in fact sometimes sold in London as Surrey and Sussex fowls to the consumer, and the fact that London salesmen seldom return other than “ Irish” prices to the senders, however good they may be, causes very strong feeling, and checks enterprise as regards the London market. Nevertheless, the Belfast market disposes of from lOO The Illustrated Book: of Poultry. one to three hundred dozen daily, and the trade is increasing and these fine fowls making way. While, however, admitting that when in good condition finer fowls really cannot be found, it is well to point out that for all such as demand a professionally fatted fowl — and the best London demand is for such — these Saintfield fowls will appear inferior to the Surrey, and more resemble the excellent natural birds sent from Lincolnshire. Irish complainants also appear largely ignorant of the tremendous difference condition makes in price, and how peculiarly difficult it is to get the better fowls in good condition to market across sea. We had not fully grasped this ourselves, until after repeated visits to Leadenhall Market in the hot weather of 1887, where we saw on various occasions the arrival of consignments of various qualities of “ Irish ” fowls. The small and cheap ones presently alluded to came over chiefly packed in ice, and though soiled and common-looking, were perfectly fresh and good. Besides these, there used to come over packages of comparatively. “ fine ” fowls from Carlow and other places. We never, however, saw these laid down in ice, and were told they did not “ come well ” that way ; as it was, we saw box after box opened, to reveal the fowls within already turning green, and only to be sold for just what they would fetch, though originally worth two or three times as much as the others. Difficulties of this kind have to be overcome before the best Irish poultry can compete on equal terms with that of Surrey and Sussex, which is raised close at hand. Nevertheless, progress is being made, and the marked improvement in Irish poultry has brought down the prices of English very seriously. The London so-called market “report” of August 19th, 1887, gave the following prices: — Surrey fowls, 4s. to 6s. 6d.; Sussex, 2s. 9d. to 3s. 6d.; Essex, is. 6d. to 2s. ; Irish, is. 9d. to 2s. 2d. ; Boston, 2s. 3d. to 3s., where it may be remarked that the “ Surrey ” fowl is the “ fatted ” fowl, and it will also be noticed that even the average “ Irish ” fowl quotes higher than the Essex district, even at the cheapest time of year. In all the west of Ireland there is not a single good market for poultry, and hardly any in the south. Generally, the small farmers rear as many chickens of some small breed as will keep up their stock, and no more; the surplus cockerels being sent to market at about three months old, where dealers buy them at 5s. to 8s. . per dozen. These are the common “Irish” fowls of the market, and this is what is paid for them ; in Leadenhall Market the same class of birds are sold for about is. 3d. each. They are small, simply because there is the same low price for eggs, be they large or small ; hence the cottager prefers small hens, as he can feed more for the same cost, and the small breeds are also the best layers as a rule. This accounts for the curious fact mentioned by Mrs. Smith as her own experience, and which we have had exactly corroborated by others, that while she and others have spread amongst the peasantry more or less of all the most desirable breeds, all in general soon disappear except Leghorns and Hamburghs, which are popular from their smallness and good laying. A reform in the egg trade would mend matters directly, and here and there, where butter factories buy up also eggs to send over, “ provided they are large enough,” the effect is seen very soon. The peasant is very quick to see all this, although he has not yet fully learnt the money value of mere cleanliness. The London dealers say that one reason of their preference (and their customers’ also) for foreign eggs over Irish, is that the former are clean and the latter “ dirty ” in comparison, which is simply owing to dirty nests. This point, however, rs mending, and Irish eggs are now much cleaner than they used to be. Eggs in Ulster (and many other parts) are mostly collected by women-dealers, who call weekly, each townland being visited on a certain day. Of course this means that many eggs are a week old while French are collected generally twice a week. These women sell to the dealers, who pack in large boxes for shipment. In England and Scotland (the latter taking largely) they go through “salesmen,” so that eggs, like fowls, are sold four times before consumed. The exporters prefer to P r ices of Home-grown Eggs. :oi buy of the women, rather than attend the markets, and say that the poor people “ buy better ” than they can- The boxes are usually returned to Ireland and used repeatedly. The prices in the winter of 1886— 7 were about is. per dozen, and in the spring of 1887 came down to 6d. per dozen, while for a little while later on they came down as low as 4s. per 120. These are the prices paid to the peasantry in inland districts in the south and west of Ireland. In Ulster, owing to the trade in fine table poultry, the eggs also were larger, and prices were higher, being is. 4d. to is. 6d. per dozen in winter and no lower than 7d. per dozen in summer. I his seems to show that with “good sort- ing the small egg objection might be removed. There are egg merchants in many inland towns who ship to England, and few go through Dublin or Belfast except those near there. The collectors generally take 4d. per 120 for collecting, but sometimes as little as half that, so that a cheaper collecting mechanism is difficult to imagine. Country shopkeepers also often buy eggs, and usually give within the same orthodox 4c!. per 120 of what they get for them in turn ; in fact it may be affirmed that, were it not for eggs, there would be very little money for the shopkeeper in most of the poor country districts in Ireland. It will be seen that directly we proceed to consider how far the money paid to foreigners for eggs could be retained by home producers, we come face to face with formidable practical diffi- culties. Many of the returns already summarised contain pertinent and valuable remarks upon this score, the chief of which we will endeavour to extract in course of reference to different points as they arise. The first question of all is that of prices ; — whether, if British farmers or cottagers did produce more eggs, they could get remunerative prices for them. The answer is not so clear as could be wished, so far as the general, or what may be called the “ provision or grocer’s shop ” egg-trade is concerned. This trade all depends upon a certain price, as we have seen ; and so far as such eggs, of fairly good if not first-class quality, satisfy a demand, it will not be replaced by even better eggs at appreciably higher prices, but must be met (if at all) on the same level. This is well brought out in some remarks appended to his return by Mr. Bernard Wilson, a farmer, who acts as agricultural editor to the Norfolk News. He writes : “ It seems to be assumed that although we cannot grow wheat at the price the foreigner is content to sell at, we can other articles. I don’t see any ground for this supposition. They (the foreigners) are equally content to send us butter, cheese, eggs, beef, mutton, as pork and wool — all at prices that leave no room for profit on our heavily-burdened land. Because we import flax and linseed, it is said we should grow it instead. Why is it assumed that we could grow it at a profit, any more than wheat ? The fact of our importing does not prove that the British farmer is neglecting any real opportunity; and the same of eggs.” Mr. Christy, who has given great attention to the subject, urges the same view, pointing out how profits have been diminished or destroyed in fruit, tomatoes, grapes, and other articles in succession, by foreign competition, and asking the very simple question, whether “ British farmers” arc to be expected to grow eggs at forty for one shilling, which, at the cheapest time of year, is all that reaches the peasantry of Italy and Sweden? This difficulty is only to be met by improved methods of collection on the one hand, or by catering foi a higher demand on the othci. We have a large amount of evidence showing the ease with which a better market can be secured by many producers, if they have the enterpiise and ingenuity to do it. At Bnghton, in the winter of 1SS6 — 7, many shops were gladly giving 2s. 6d. per dozen foi new-laid eggs, but could not get what they would have taken. ^ We always sold ouis icadily in Bristol at the same price years ago, not to private friends, but to a grocers shop ; and most large towns, espe- cially London, are in the same position as regards their residential portions. Theie aie abundant examples furnished us of how it is possible to secure this kind of market from the country. 102 The Illustrated Book of Poultry. Let us quote a few. The Rev. R. S. Woodgate, of Pembury, sends out neat cards, guaranteeing fresh butter and eggs at certain prices. For eggs his price is 2s. 6d. per dozen November to Pebruary, 2s. per dozen March and April, and September and October, and is. 6d. the rest of the year, paying carriage and sending labels for empties, all which have locks and keys. His carriage by express trains averages 2d. per dozen, large and small parcels. The trade, he says, “ paid me splendidly, and has so grown this year that I can hardly superintend it.” Another example is from a correspondent now in business, but who was previously a farmer. He sold all the spare eggs from about 160 hens to a small grocer, at from is. 4d. per score in summer to 2s. 6d. per score in winter, “as he could warrant them.” An occupant of a small dairy farm in Northumberland sells all her eggs at from twelve to sixteen for is. in summer, to six for is. in winter, “to milk customers and a few shops ” in Gateshead. In that neighbourhood, in fact, the farmers who have eggs to spare generally do send direct to shops in Newcastle or other towns, an example that might be widely followed in many places ; as also might the large local sales to the rural mining population at their doors. One farmer at Hatfield sends to private customers in London at id. to 2d. each, according to season ; and another at Stevenage sends his to two refreshment houses near King’s Cross. And in one case, already referred to, one producer sends 50,000 eggs per annum to London “ direct to consumers,” as prices offered him by others did not pay. These may serve as hints of what is possible with a little enterprise and ingenuity ; and they also show that progress really is being made to an extent little dreamt of by some who write upon the subject. One difficulty connected with this part of the question is, that in many places the shopkeepers “ candle ” the foreign eggs, and sell the best of them at higher prices as new-laid. We have traced this practice in several quarters, and unfortunately there is no means of checking this form of adultera- tion by Act of Parliament. It injures the farmer not only by keeping down prices of the genuine article, but by so deceiving the public, that more than half of that estimable body absolutely do not know what a really new-laid egg is or tastes like ! For the literal truth of this last fact we can vouch. But it leads to another point, by which some check could be maintained. Nearly all the foreign eggs are pure ivhite , while many British eggs are tinted, and these last have only to be bred in preference, to afford a ready means of distinction. Moreover, tinted eggs being generally richer in flavour and colour of yolk, are themselves preferred by the public, and command higher prices, so that we knew of one small raiser in Kent who obtained 2d. per dozen more than his neighbours on that account. All such points should have study in producing for market ; and a Minorca- Langshan cross may be strongly recommended from this point of view, as well as being a splendid layer. There is a still greater difficulty, however, in the fact that as a rule farmers have only eggs in spring and summer, whilst egg-merchants must have a constant supply, and will not discard those who serve them in the scarcest time, for mere summer producers. This was pointed out by several merchants who took part in a discussion of the question in The Times of March, 1887, and who also remarked that their imports came to them under well-known brands, which were a guarantee of quality. Moreover, in the summer, eggs are cheapest and least remunerative. We learn that the first foreign eggs come from Italy, owing to the climate ; then come French and Algerian, &c., and the last in the market are Swedish. Ireland also produces eggs in winter, one of the correspondents just referred to stating that he got 15,000 per week from one merchant in Ireland in summer, which quantity went down to 8,000 per week in winter. Such, however, is a very fair proportion, probably due to that “ warmth of the poor man’s cabin ” which was mentioned by Martin Doyle fifty years ago in this very connection. But all our evidence goes to show that the methods of the average British farmer concerning this matter are deplorable. On this one point Bad M an age men t on Farms. 103 every one of our correspondents who himself knows anything about poultry, is most emphatic. One who is at present largely in the duck-fattening business near Leighton Buzzard, and has from 8,000 to 10,000 ducklings in his pens at one time, writes : “ Farmers have little respect for poultry. In the first place, they keep them badly ; and secondly, they have bred them from the same stock for yeais, and had the hen-houses since their great-grandfather was a boy, sometimes only cleaned out once 01 twice since , and, as a lule, they only remove the dung once or twice a year, at turnip- sowing time. I used to do a bit of egg-collecting myself, and send to London, but gave it up, as I had too many other 110ns in the fire, and was afraid some of them would burn ; I used to supply the Langham Hotel, for one. I found farmers' eggs only came twice in the year, and that was when the grass began to grow in the spring, and when they had been harvesting. I used to find my winter eggs at cottages, where they kept from six to twenty hens and fed them pretty well.” Another correspondent at Liskeard writes : “ There is little consideration given to poultry. It is not regarded as a source of income, but as a mere household convenience, consequently little provision made for it. Poultry-houses are exceptions, the birds having generally to find their roosts in cart-sheds or trees, and they lay about in the cattle-sheds and hedges, where their eggs have to be hunted up. A large quantity die yearly from want of care, and foxes have more than their share owing to the exposed character of the roosts.” That is the evidence of a practical man, who adds, that amongst cottagers in the same district he finds fowls now generally kept in place of a pig, as formerly, as they have found them pay better. Another at Whitby writes : “ Poultry is left in the care of the women, the farmer looking vvith contempt on them. No care is taken of the strain, the birds run about anyhow, eggs are set indiscriminately, and winter eggs are almost unknown in consequence, while old birds are kept on to almost fabulous ages. I hardly know one farmer here who would spend five shillings in material or a day’s labour in any way to make a better start. Every one has eggs when they are so cheap, nobody has eggs or chickens when prices are good, and I fear the present generation is too old to be taught.” Another at Warring- ton says : “ The breeds are nondescript, the accommodation totally inadequate, the feeding generally nil. Until this year I never in this neighbourhood saw a brood of chickens in March.” \ et the cottagers do well, and this same correspondent reports one of them as making 10s. per week in 1886 out of his fowls ! The causes of all this are twofold. There is first the fact that, from a time when other things were far more profitable, a few fowls were simply kept for the house, and left to the women, so that the farmer never knew anything about them ; and secondly, the consequent looted belief that theie is “ no money in them.” We have many replies to the effect that poultiy aic believed to pay so long as only kept in numbers to eat what would otherwise be wasted, but not more.” Would any stock pay , treated as they have been? Would dairy cattle “pay if left to bleed togethci indiscriminately at any time of year, mating left to chance, half the milk lost or stolen, and no food but what was “ waste ” otherwise? On an average one-third of the eggs laid on a faim aie lost, and another third stolen, and because the hens do not “ pay ” so, they are condemned. Briefly, the main root of the mischief lies in the fact that farmers do not systematically either (1) breed, (2) feed, or (3) collect the produce of their fowls. Where this is done, poultry kept with judgment is, wherever the produce can be sold, the most profitable of all stock on the farm. 01 this there is abundant evidence of the most practical kind. . One of our correspondents, who in filling up one of the returns stated that poultry-farming in his district was “simply awful,” states of himself: “For the last five years I have been m business and have not room or time to keep much poultry; pnor to that tune I used to keep a large quantity on my farm, and found them to pay well with a little attention. I, had the i04 The Illustrated Tool’ of Poultry. money I should like to try poultry-farming in earnest, as I feel sure a great deal might be done in that way, with a little more trouble than most farmers give. One year I cleared something like £60 with poultry. I used to sell to a man in the town who came regularly every week for them.” In further correspondence he adds, “ I had about 160 to 200 head, keeping them principally for eggs. At the same time I raised a large quantity of chickens annually, besides ducks and guinea-fowl. A man must be fond of poultry-keeping, or I know they will not pay. . . . Had I kept on farming I should have gone into it as a regular scheme, and had houses built on wheels and taken to different parts every day ; mine were all kept in one house, and never had any disease in five years. I used to cull a certain number of hens every year to make room for pullets, and make about is. 6d. each of them, and found the earlier chickens are hatched in the year the better.” Current testimony also abounds. A Chew Magna correspondent mentions in his return two farmers in his neighbourhood who each keep about 200 hens “ with much success,” sending their eggs to Bristol market. Another at Alfreton gives his own experience on ninety acres. He keeps about 100 hens, besides some turkeys and ducks. In answer to further inquiry, he sends his balance-sheet for a year, showing a profit of about A30, and says: “From my own experience I am satisfied they pay the best of anything kept on the farm at the present time.” He reports several others as keeping about the same. In his case there was little outlay, most of the stock roosting under one roof of the farm buildings, but some wire-netting fences off the pure breeds, and a few are on the other side of the farm. He repeats that “ the profits on the poultry are greater than anything else upon the farm for the amount of capital invested,” but considers they might be greater with more care in feeding, as he found at one time of year that they had been distinctly overfed. He points out that on some farms a “ different stock” must be kept from that which will pay best on others (how many farmers would even give a thought to this ?), and, reckoning the eggs used in his household and the manure as fair set-off for the little labour involved, reckons that his poultry are worth half the rent to him. He marks the ages of his fowls by putting on a wire ring every year, and kills off accordingly. Another case is of a dairy farm, of 140 acres, at Lanesley, near Gateshead, keeping twenty milch cows besides young stock and sheep. Half the farm is in grass. Miss Robson, in writing her own experience, tells us that most of the other farmers round keep only 20 or 30 common hens, and hardly see an egg all the winter ; and that such Minorca eggs as she disposes of for sitting are nearly all to cottagers — an experience parallel to much already cited. She keeps three pure breeds, Minorca, Plymouth Rock, and Houdan, also crosses between these. She began systematic poultry-breeding five years ago, when there were on the farm 30 or 40 common hens’. In 1886 she reared 150 chickens, 50 ducks, and 14 geese; and her stock in May, 1887, ' consisted of 103 laying hens, 6 cocks, 7 ducks, 3 brood geese and a gander, 12 goslings, 3 hen turkeys (sitting on eggs), and 50 chickens (100 more being due shortly). She gets a shilling for twelve to sixteen eggs in summer, and for six in winter, and sells an occasional sitting at five shillings. The profits are between £20 and £30 in a year. She manages herself, with the help of a servant to carry food and water and clean the houses, one of these being on wheels, and moved from field to field, as it suits the crops, and she writes : “ I find this is a capital plan, and would go in for poultry on a large scale if I had accommodation. I want our landlord to build me a range of hen-houses, but do not know when I will get them. Poultry is thought little of in this part of the country, and people laugh at me when I talk about pure-bred hens laying better than mongrels.” Irr another report, from Hatfield, a different system is mentioned. “I know one large farmer 1 ^ c essful Farm M a.va gement. 103 w 10 sells all Ins eggs from two farms. Each year he sells every fowl off one farm, in autumn, and buys chlckens at about 9d. to is. 2d. each, and so never has any fowls over two years old, and docs not rear chicks. One week, when I met him, he had brought in sixty-eight score for the week, and I believe contracts all the year round at is. 4c!. per score.” In other words, his egg sales that week would amount to £ 4 10s. 8d. 1 he last example we shall quote is peculiarly interesting for two reasons : — (1) because it is that of quite a large farm— over 700 acres ; and (2) because it is often laid down as an axiom by ceitain ex cathedi a instructors, that fowls can never possibly pay if any fair charge is made for care or labour. For the details of his poultry we are indebted to Mr. J. Knox Lyal, of Pecpy Faim, near Stocksfield-on-Tyne, the acreage of which has already been stated, and poultry had been thus kept for some three or four years. An old man who was getting unfit for other work has their care as his sole duty, and his wage of is. 3d. per day and a house is entirely charged to them. No balance-sheet had been kept in strict form, but there were figures enough to show the real financial bearing of the concern : thus, it had been ascertained that the weekly expenditure (including wages) did not exceed at most £2, and that the receipts for 1886 were A130, showing a clear profit of A3°> besides the eggs and fowls used in the household, none of which were charged in the above receipts. All eggs were, however, counted, and amounted to 28,300 for the year. These were laid by a stock of 220 hens and 17 ducks ; and to replace a portion of these 80 pullets were reared, and a lot of ducklings, and 112 cockerels, 86 ducks, and 73 hens were sent off the farm during the year. Several kinds had been tried, but the preference was given to a cross between Langshan and either Leghorn, Andalusian, or Minorca, the Leghorn cross being most easily fattened. Such crosses have been recommended by us in previous pages, and account for the egg average, which it will be seen is pretty high for so large a number. Hens are never kept beyond three years old, hence about one-third the number of pullets are reared annually ; pure-bred cocks are always procured. The eggs are sent twice a week to provision and dairy-men in Newcastle and Gateshead, the price during the year ranging from seven to sixteen for a shilling. The stock is divided into three flocks, and the houses are all fixtures, two being of stone, and the other of wood with a felt roof. The hens are fed twice a day: in the morning with scalded meal (barleymeal preferred), the water being boiled in an outside boiler, and small potatoes and household fragments also going into the copper ; in the afternoon whole corn, fattening birds getting maize, and the laying stock wheat or barley. The chickens after hatching are put into coops in the stackyard or a field adjoining, the cockerels when feeding for market in a wired run, which has been previously used for mating hens. In the autumn the birds pick up a lot of food, when of course the hand-feeding is diminished to save expense, but at no time did the weekly outlay exceed that stated, including wages. The poultry are not made a “ hobby ” in any sense of the word, but “ only a part of our farm management,” to use the words of the writer. It is from this point of view that the example is so specially valuable. How many farmers would dream of expending £2 per week upon the poultry as a part of their farm manage- ment ? Most of them would consider any man who proposed to do so little better than a lunatic. But the poultry paid it all back, with a handsome profit besides. Other cases could be given, but space forbids the citation of more than these typical examples, given simply to prove from actual testimony that poultry pay upon a farm , though systematically fed with good food. It may now be well, before concluding this chapter, to make a few practical observations upon the best methods of extending poultry and egg production in this country. One of the points which has become most apparent is the fact, that a collecting mechanism is io6 The 1 LLUSTRA7 ED Book OF POULTRY. ui gently necessary if the produce of any district is to be increased, or even fairly utilised. This want offers a field for very useful effort on the part of some who desire to benefit their country neighbours, and whose local influence enables them to move in such matters with hope of success. It is not mere collection, however, that is needed ; it must be of a kind that enables produce to be quickly forwarded at very short intervals, well sorted in sizes and colours, and with fair regularity all the year round. Producers also require to be taught that winter production of eggs and spring production of chickens are entirely matters of method and management, and are the main factors in profit ; and further, that proper methods of dressing and preparation make all the difference in price as regards table fowls. This question of dressed poultry will, however, be specially discussed in the las-t chapter of this volume, and is not, therefore, further referred to here. Much may be done for the poorer class of our rural population in connection with the allot- ment movement now so rapidly extending. In the Allotments Act of 1887 it is specially provided that “ poultry-houses ” may be erected thereon and removed by the tenant ; and what we would desire here to point out is the fact that, since the recent revolution in agricultural prices, in many cases much better return may be realised by keeping poultry than by raising crops ; while, even if a good market cannot be secured, a certain number of poultry would at least give the tenant’s children nourishing food, and add interest to the occupier’s life. We say “ in many cases ” it would be so, because the capacity to understand and carry out sound methods of management is by no means universal, but is essential to success. This being granted, however, several advan- tages of thus employing an allotment may be pointed out. In the first place, valuable manure will be provided for other allotments, or for parts of the same still reserved for growing vegetables. Again, the growing and caring for live stock both demands and creates a higher kind of intelligence than the cultivation of ground, and would tend to encourage feelings of more humanity towards the lower animals than notoriously exist at present amongst the labouring class. And finally, while digging in a garden is exhausting toil, which, being of the same character as the long day’s work already over, tends to exhaust that strength which should be given to the regular employment on the following day, the attending to poultry would be both work of a light character, and a pleasant change, beneficial alike to the mind and body of the labourer. The much greater disposition of cottagers than of farmers to develop poultry culture, is one of the most curious facts which have been brought out in the course of our recent inquiry. In the cultivation of poultry upon such village or country allotments, the system may differ in several particulars from other management, on account of the special circumstances. It may be best to overstock the ground, as it would be called, keeping the fowls in small yards, say of about fifty square feet to each large bird, or thirty feet for smaller. The reasons are several, and will be seen as soon as stated. It is labour which in this case is sought to be utilised ; and by daily taking up as much as possible of the manure perfect health may be maintained. Sufficient green food can also be readily obtained from the refuse of neighbouring allotments, without the necessity of having pens large enough to keep in grass. Most important of all, making the wooden houses on sills, so as to be movable, every two or three years the whole should be removed to and exchanged with a portion of the allotment which has been cultivated, thus giving rich ground to the cultivator in exchange for fresh for the fowls. Or the allotment may be so divided that one-third in regular rotation be cultivated with the spade : in this way the largest possible return will be got from the ground. The other management will be as before stated, and friendly oversight will be needed at first to insure the three grand points of early hatching of the pullets, judicious feeding, and regular killing of the stock before getting old ; but by degrees knowledge of these essentials would spread, and self-interest would quickly find out their importance. As a rule, egg-production AT MBER of Poultry Possible per si CRE. 107 would be found the best department to cultivate ; and only when good markets arc at hand should the raising of chickens form part of the regular course of proceeding. Wire netting is now so cheap, that one gteat difficulty about this kind of poultry-keeping is largely obviated. .One of the leturns before referred to, is the most remarkable example of success in genuine poultry-farming upon almost allotment scale, which we have met with. The tenant, whose place is neai Chestei field, in Dei byshire, has about one acre and two roods of land, and the run in addition of about two acies of wood. On two roods fruit and vegetables arc cultivated, the rest of the land is divided into poultry runs, in which fruit trees are also planted, and one pig is kept in connection with the little concern. As already stated, from this acreage some 50,020 eggs are sent annually to London direct to consumers ; and the tenant writes : “ I find them to pay me very well, but of course I get a better price than my neighbours, and they are thoroughly looked after by my wife, who has had over twenty years’ experience. My experience tells me that an inexperienced hand would lose money ; but I am sure that a man who thoroughly understands the business can make it pay in egg production alone, provided he can get a fair market for his eggs.” This individual has made his market ; and that is another point in which friendly advice and co-operation on the part of clergymen and others may do much. I11 attempting to increase the production of eggs and poultry upon farms, the best arrange- ments will depend much upon the situation of the holding, its extent and nature, the intelligence of the tenant, nature of the markets, and other circumstances already referred to. And the one peculiar difficulty must ever be borne in mind. It will have appeared already, that in gross profit over food laying hens far surpass all other live stock ; but there is one drawback to this, and that one is tremendous. It is, that this profit has to be collected in a vast number of very small sums from small animals, which yet cannot be dealt with in one vast flock, like sheep. Hence the realisation of products demands much oversight comparatively, under penalty of countless small losses and wastes ; and the cost of accommodation and labour and marketing is relatively large. Hence the past neglect : the labour has been grudged, and any return for it disbelieved in ; and from personal investigation we know for a fact that on some farms the number of eggs supposed to be returned per hen does not exceed thirty-five per annum ! Some hens are poor layers enough ; but that the birds only laid that number of eggs, let him believe who can ! This makes so important the question, what number of fowls can be run upon land without interfering with other objects, and so costing rent. Now, while fowls require an acie pei bundled entirely to themselves if run upon the land exclusively (the better plan being to 11m them upon half of it alternately), we repeat that from ten to fifteen per acre can be run upon land, without in most cases injuring other objects. This has been questioned by seveial in the above letuins, but not on personal knowledge ; while it has been proved by experience. Several of our correspondents cor- roborate it from experience. One writes : “ Fowls to the extent you name do not foul the land. On the other hand, I have found that where fowls have run on grass land one year, you get a far better crop the next year, and you can see where every poultry-house has stood.” The late Mr. Mechi also wrote : “ It is a well-admitted fact by all my labourers that my best and thickest crops are in immediate proximity to the fowl-house, commencing at only ten yards distance. It is not, however, meant that ducks or geese can be run on land in this way ; or even that the very largest breeds, which are free grazers, can be kept to quite such a number. A little discount would have to be reckoned on account of such breeds, and some soil will stand less than others. Neither is it meant, as some seem to have supposed, that on a farm of 200 acres, 2,000 poultry can profitably be kept. As is acutely pointed out by Mr. Bernard Wilson, who has already been quoted, no doubt fowls can be kept up to the extent you say, but can it be done at a profit ? As a rule about 100 o 150 ioS The Illustrated Book of Poultry. can be kept at one set of premises, but when this number is exceeded, feeding at once becomes difficult and expensive. I think you may take it that it is not so much a question of heads per acre, as the number of different sets of premises on a farm. Say, for instance, that a farm of 400 acres has two sets of premises, double the number could be kept to what could be if there is but one set.” Other correspondents point out the same fact, and one further remarks, that many of the older farmsteads having been placed as near the church as possible, are rather on the edge of the holding than in its centre, which cramps operations, besides being liable to cause trespassing and ill-feeling with neighbours. This is all true ; but it never seems to have been perceived that such considerations are the very reason for pointing out what number the limited portion of land near the premises will bear, and were in fact our main reason for doing so. It is fencing rather than roofed buildings which, however, constitutes the real difficulty. Could fencing only be put up cheaply enough, one central block of buildings could easily be made to accommodate various sets of fowls on the principle shown in Fig. 47 ; and where existing hedges and other fencing lend themselves to anything of the kind, with a little help from cheap wire, much could often be done in that way. When a well-known writer in The Field states that “ the largest farm cannot accommodate more than another the tenth of its size,” because “ any attempt to rear a large number of fowls in one place is certain to be followed by disease,” he does not represent at all what is intended to be done, for it is a sinequd non on this system, that the fowls be fairly scattered over the ground allotted them. The limit of “ premises ” will, however, make itself felt, as pointed out by Mr. Wilson ; but it needs no proof that, were every farm of 700 acres to keep even such a head of poultry as that described in the interesting example just now cited from Northumberland, the increase in home production of eggs would be enormous, and put an entirely different face on the egg trade of this country. Much can be done in many places to scatter the stock, by the use of detached houses about the farm. Some successful farmers use them portable, moving them as convenient, the fowls readily following them from field to field. Several cases of this kind are reported to us, and this plan allows of free use of the natural fences or hedges, with perhaps a few feet of netting here and Portable Houses for Farm Use i 09 At all events, in some way or other separation into different flocks is essential if any quantity of fowls are to be kept on a large farm. It is necessary for health, and for securing the eggs. It is still more necessary to avoid fouling the land itself for other stock, especially pasture land, or injuring the crops. For fowls are grazing animals, and one object of their being on the land is that they may range over it, eat insects, and drop manure. Properly managed, the land is thus better for them * It may be necessary to keep them off shallow-sown seeds for two or three weeks, but as a rule, if seed is properly drilled, fowls well fed will not do it any harm. They will also crop green-meat if they have no other, but this may be almost entirely prevented by leaving them a strip of grass round their house, if permanently placed (and many prefer this plan). In any case, it will be little if they are not overstocked in any one field, which is part of the system. A few yards of surplus netting, used as required, will meet any special contingency. The separation here laid so much stress upon is, however, most of all necessary for that * The late Dr. Voelcker made for us in 18S0 a careful analysis of two samples of poultry manure, sent him at our request by Mr. O. E. Cress well. One sample was moist and fresh-gathered the morning sent ; the other was in no way dried artificially, but had simply been stored a few weeks in a cask : both were taken up along with any sand or earth used for cleanliness in the house. The analyses were as follows : Fresh moist manure contained moisture 61-63, organic matter f and salts ammonia 20' 19, tri-basic phosphate of lime 2-97, magnesia, alkaline salts, &c., 2-63, sand 12-58=100. Value £2 per ton. Stored manure contained moisture 41-06, organic matter % and salts ammonia 38-19, tri-basic phosphate of lime 5-13, magnesia and alkaline salts 3 13, sand 12-49 = 100. Value £4 4s. per ton. The mode of using Dr. Voelcker recommended is given at page 33, and he adds that such is « a much more concentrated fertiliser than the best descriptions of ordinary farmyard manure.” Mr. Cresswell found his Dorkings dropped about 2 oz. each of the fresh dung per night ; and it will hence be seen, on reference to page 33, that about a dozen fowls per acre, could they be kept over the whole farm, would, with a little gypsum and superphosphate, give the greater part of the manure required. That such is not mere theory is shown by a practical farmer, who wrote as follows to the Lire Stoc'e Journal in 1877 : “ There is still the most important item to mention -so far as farmers are concerned-the manure. I have this year fully tested its value both for corn and root crops. I dressed a ten-acre field of oats in four two-and-a-half-acre lots, alternately with artificial top dressing at ^9 per ton, and poultry manure, in equal quantities, and if there was any difference it was in favour of the poultry manure. The result was aboW fhe same with swedes and turnips, 8 cwt. of poultry manure proving much better than 6 cwt. of artificial manure costing £7 10s. per ton. This year my artificial manure bid amounts to less than one-third ofi n-hat it **» in 1876, and my thirty acres of swedes and turnips are better than I have had them for years. t Containing nitrogen V7z = ammonia 209. t Containing ntrogen 3-78 = ammonia V59- K iio The Illustrated Book of Poultry. selection of stock which lies at the very root of profits from poultry kept in any numbers. Where eggs are the chief thing — and, as a rule, they will pay best — a different stamp of fowl must be kept from those bred chiefly for chickens. For these last, birds are selected which tend to lay on flesh when well fed ; fine laying breeds, on the contrary, always tend towards a spare habit of body, like the best milkers amongst cows. Colour of egg is also to be studied. On most farms the very first thing will be a rigorous weeding-out of all the old stock. To replace it, laying breeds may be selected ; or if there is a prejudice against them, watch the neighbouring market, and find some one who brings in a good lot of eggs in winter. Buy his eggs in the spring and set them, and a fairly good stock will be secured to start with, while pure-bred cockerels can be purchased to cross on them. A cross for three years on really good dung-hill fowls, will thus in three years produce a breed seven-eighths pure, while the foundation will secure hardiness. But this is not enough either. The laying must be improved. Probably a hen which lays less than a hundred eggs per annum hardly pays a profit ; but it has been proved over and over again that an average of a hundred and fifty or more can be obtained by those who will breed for it. The great lesson of this volume is, that any property can be improved by careful selection for a few generations. It is thus the “fancier” develops his “ points,” which have their use in preserving the distinctive races ; but in seeking these, since his best are seldom the best layers also, fecundity may actually be diminished in his best strains, and undoubtedly has been so in most cases. But it only lies dormant, and can be developed like any other property ; and it is the farmer's business to develop it. He can understand all about it in a moment, for it is simple as ABC. He has simply to choose for sitting, to renew his stock, eggs from the best layers only. All practical breeders know that in this way cows .can be had which give sixty per cent, more milk than most farmers are content with ;* and it is the same with fowls : the average will steadily rise. We do not know any one who has yet carried it out on a farm, however, though it has been done repeatedly in small yards, which are less favourable to the birds. It involves not oniy the separation into manageable flocks — and hens never do so well if over fifty to sixty are kept together — but a somewhat close oversight, to select the right birds for setting eggs from.f We are convinced, on this account alone, that on many farms it would be best to keep enough fowls to occupy a man’s whole time in looking after them, with just a little superintendence of a more intelligent kind. This would need about 1,000 head, which means from A4° to £50 a year from the night manure alone, besides what is dropped over the farm. The fowls will pay for it, if the man understands his business, and can be made to feel that the master expects to make money out of his charges. Many agricultural labourers would be absolutely useless at it; but, on the other hand, this sort of responsibility will sometimes suit and bring out some intelligent big lad who does not shine in duller routine. We do not believe in any “ old man ” who can do nothing else, for we want quick observation as much as anything. On the other hand, to arrange that a labourer engaged in other things shall “just give an eye to the fowls ” never answers, and we have known it tried often. On such a system, the fewer kept the less the owner will lose by them, and rather than this, it will be better to go on in the old style, with a small number in the farmyard. Even then, by killing all the old fowls at once, and * A recent case is reported from New York, in which a farmer tested his cows by setting the milk of each separately. The labour was great, of course, for a while ; but he learnt by it that he had cows which did not pay their food, while others paid him a profit of over a dollar a week. By weeding out the worst and replacing with heifers from the best, he brought his average butter yield from 150 to 266 lbs. per cow per annum. f It can be done roughly by visiting the houses during a few selected days at intervals in November and December, two or three times each day, and shutting away into separate pens, until they can be marked at night, all found on the nests. Those thus picked out are the hens to breed from. Poultry A I an. a cement cn a Farm. i 1 1 thoieaftei killing all at two years, with judicious selection and systematic looking after eggs, some piofit may be got instead of the present general loss. But we arc here considering the cases in which it has been determined to make poultry a part of the regular business of the farm. Regarding arrangements, the general principle will almost suggest itself. As the mere laying stock will only need food twice a day, and (having free range) are better fed on grain only scattered very widely, they should be obviously planted in the more distant locations ; while the more substantial buildings near home will be devoted to the chickens and breeding-pens, which need more constant and special attention. Water may be provided at any spot in a range found convenient, as the fowls soon know it; and often a drain can be cut to form a small pool, or a brook utilised, so as to save all trouble in this respect. Supposing, then, that there are a number of houses about a farm, and chickens reared at the homestead, sufficient to occupy an attendant, his day will be something as follows : — He must be up early, and first clean out all coops and artificial mothers, and feed the young chickens ; also feed the breeding-pens, which, perhaps, may be penned, up in smaller ranges, and so need more early care. Then he will start on his first round, with sufficient grain to feed all, if necessary slung on a yoke. On his return journey he will scrape up the night manure at each house and store it in the covered tub kept on the spot, and bring back in his pails any eggs already laid, noticing if any hens are on the nest, and if any appear sickly. If necessary, the cleaning may be divided, only half being cleaned on alternate days. By this time the chickens will want another feed, after which will be the general clean-up of the breeding fowls’- houses and all round the homestead; indeed, a good number of chickens will always find duty for all spare time. A mid-day collection of eggs is desirable, if practicable, but is not always so ; but all through a general watch should be kept for the best-laying pullets, *in order to select these for next year’s breeding, which is very important. Towards evening another round must be taken tc feed the laying stock, at the same time gathering the rest of the day’s eggs ; the chickens having their last feed the last of all, and being then made snug for the night. As far as possible each flock of fifty fowls or so should be able to be dealt with as a unit— that is, the birds should be hatched nearly at the same time and of same parentage. The modern command of artificial hatching and rearing makes this easy, and its advantages are very great : when a few fowls stop laying, and prepare to moult, it will be known that the rest are likely to follow, and it the killing age has arrived for that lot they can be dealt with at once, without further loss of time. Where numbers are not sufficient for this, the ages should be clearly denoted by rings, in the way adopted by one of our correspondents already cited, so that all of the same age can at least be dealt with together. This one simple point is half the battle in managing large quantities of poultry. Kept on this system, the only rent fairly chargeable to the poultry consists of the interest upon any sums spent in houses, fencing, and utensils, or upon the capital specially invested. The land itself is better for them, and other stock no worse. The right kind of superintendence or labour will be the real difficulty, next to that of providing proper fencing for keeping flocks separate ; and this last, on many large farms, is not great, fowls having a very strong sense of locality, and keeping pretty readily in their own field, if the hedge or other fence is fairly good, and the house is not near that of the next nearest flock. Ordinary farm poultry are taught to wander by not being properly fed and having to search for their food ; and a feed twice a day will be found to make a wonderful difference in this roving disposition, and to solve half the difficulty. No attempt is here made to discuss what is generally known as “ poultry-farming,” or poultry kept on land solely devoted to their use ; because if such is ever successfully carried out, it will be by practical men who know what they are about, and gradually work up to the practical conditions; and it never can be done by such as have to write for “advice” or go by written The Illustrated Book of Poultry i 1 2 treatises. We cannot, however, follow those teachers who affirm it to be “ impossible.” Years ago the very same authorities were dead against artificial hatching, which is to-day a success in spite of them ; and as rent has declined 40 per cent., and corn 50 per cent., since they first taught us that poultry-farming “could” not pay, we fail to see any absolute “natural law” which should make it so in face of such changes in the figures. The most recent experience is rather the other way, In 1882, Mr. S. B. L. Druce, one of the Assistant-Commissioners of the Royal Commission on Agriculture, published an interesting account of an experiment by Mr. Carrington, of Kimbolton. who gave up his larger holding of 500 to 600 acres owing to the depression, and tried keeping a large number of poultry on one small holding of 100 acres alone. His stock in October, 1881, consisted of 1,800 head, but would be reduced in winter by 300 or more. He had nine yards near the homestead, and in the fields the fowls were divided into lots of about 150 each, all being Light Brahmas. A man and boy were employed, and their labour (£58) was all charged, also .£38 for rent, £18 10s. depreciation and renewal, and £15 interest on £300 capital. On the credit side was £a£>\ ns. eggs and poultry, for feathers, and £27 for manure, leaving a profit of £25. If the capital was taken as £400, then interest would be £20, and profit £20, altogether say 10 per cent. Another year gave about the same results, which are rightly described as not very satisfactory. But — 1. The fowls were not at all well selected in regard to breed. 2. They were fed three times a day — distinctly over-fed, in fact, with the result a previous correspondent has already pointed out. 3. The case was not pure poultry-farming at all, the fowls being on an average 18 per acre for the whole holding, which was worked still on the four-course system — too many fowls for “ poultry on the farm,” far too few for profitable “ poultry-farming reaping the special advantages of neither plan, in fact. We see the result of the over-feeding and faulty choice of breed, in the fact that while a previous correspondent gets a gross return of ^130 and profit of ^30 from only 240 birds, Mr. Carrington only got a return of ^460 from 1,800 birds, which should have returned pro rata say ^750 at least. His flocks were also far too large. Bearing all these things in mind, the results are distinctly encouraging ; and even as it is, were more so than any other branch of farming. The most remarkable development recently has been that of so-called “broiler-farms” in the United States : viz., establishments where chickens are hatched and reared to be sold as “broilers” at eight weeks, weighing 1^ to if lb. each. Several of these establishments have failed; but one in particular — the “Howe Broiler Farm,” at Hammonton, N. J. — has been a success for eighteen months at the date we write these lines (October, 1887). From this concern about 2,800 chickens are turned out every ten weeks, on about one-eighth of an acre of ground ! All is done artificially, the houses also being warmed in cold weather; but the marvellous thing is that each lot of 100 chicks only has a pen or yard about as large as a small parlour ! This is carefully cleaned, and dug over with a spade repeatedly ; but we confess we cannot understand success on such a system, and prefer not to describe it more in detail until further experience has put it to the test. There are, however, other such farms at Hammonton, N.J., and a Poultry Association there, of whose secretary further details can be obtained. On the whole, we shall still expect success in poultry-farming to be obtained rather in the direction of adequate run, which wide experience has shown to be one acre for every hundred fowls. Less than this will not suffice, though it is best by far to run each flock upon half its run only, grazing and making hay on the other half, and so getting each run perfectly sweet every year. As with poultry on the farm, the cost of fencing is the main difficulty, and next to this, that of labour. These difficulties are undoubtedly great ; and they will certainly never be solved by joint-stock companies. With several correspondents already quoted, we think they might be solved by a really practical man, working up to it by experience ; but more than this we cannot say. CHAPTER IX. ON THE UTILITY OF THE POULTRY FANCY. In the preceding part of this work we have treated of poultry and their management in the general way, or with a special view to the production of eatable food ; we now propose to devote a few chapters to the practical details of breeding fowls of the highest class in accordance with the recog- nised show standards. But it may be well first to say a few words as to the utility of having such standards at all. Many people doubt it ; and when we admit, as we have done in our last chapter, that certain breeds have perceptibly deteriorated since they were first known owing to the effects of show competition, it may be thought that the question is at once decided in the negative. Thus, some of the largest Dorkings exhibited lately have shown a coarseness of bone and a yellowness in the skin, neither of which would have been tolerated in bygone years. Similarly, Brahmas and Houdans have in many yards lost their former reputation as layers or as table fowls, though easy victors in competition ; and other instances could be given if needed, to say nothing of the too evident decline in its constitution often visible, and clearly traceable to close in-breeding, unnatural breeding seasons, and stimulating food. This is only a very small part of the real work of poultry competition ; but it is apt to seize upon the imagination of those ignorant of the subject, to the exclusion of all other sides of the question, and to suggest that the poultry “ fancy ” may, after all, be more an evil than a good. The strongest expression of this view which we have met with for many years, was contained in two letters published by Sir Henry Thompson in the spring of 1885, in which he recounted how he had begun to breed Brahmas in 1881, erecting one of the most elaborate yards for the purpose ever designed, but sold off the whole in the summer of 1884. In taking up the pursuit, he said, he “ naturally concluded that the most perfect birds were either those best adapted for the table and the most welcome when served there, or those which produced the largest number of the finest and richest eggs for the same purpose. For what other purpose were poultry wanted if not for these ? ” But he very soon discovered, he proceeds, that however it might be in France, in England the object was merely “ feathers,” and that, as a consequence, “ we produce races inferior to those of France, cannot supply the moderate wants of our population, and pay enormous sums every year for the poultry and eggs of that country.” To leave no possible doubt of his meaning, after again recounting how prizes are awarded according to the development of arbitrary charac- teristics, he says, “ hence our inferiority to France in the quality and abundance of poultry products,” and he even traces the effect of this “baneful system” to the farm and cottage, alleging the “ deterioration ” of “ even the farmyard mongrels ” by the cockerel purchased from some celebrated source. Finally, he pronounces that “no compromise is possible” between the two ends, of com- petitive breeding and economic objects : “cither infallibly neutralises the other,” and nothing can be done really to improve poultry production “ until the prize feather system is swept away.” This is pretty thorough language ; and coming as it did from the premier surgeon of England, it naturally aroused considerable attention. Those who moved in poultry-show society at the time (for the cult has its peculiar “society” like every other), and who knew details not known to the general public; who knew something of the sources and cost of Sir Henry’s stock, and the results The Illustrated Book of Poultry. ”4 of his breeding ; of the cost of the establishment, and the respective share taken by owner and man therein ; and who could intelligently compare his alleged objects with the plan of the yard built to carry them out,* smiled and shrugged their shoulders when they read his tirade. But we have nothing to do with such matters here; what really concerns us is to point out that his state- ments betray in themselves an ignorance of the whole subject, and a consequent ignorance and mis-statement of simple facts, which deserve to be called phenomenal, and are calculated to obscure the real force which did lie in part of the indictment, to say nothing of his denying any possibility of remedy, which it is desirable to seek. For every one of the great surgeon’s broader statements is simply a gross error — a sheer mis- take. The previous chapter will have made it clear that our importations from France have absolutely nothing to do with any inferiority in our races of poultry, but are due to quite other causes; while it is equally untrue to say that from the alleged (or any other) causes we “ produce races inferior to those of France.” Our fanciers have races, it is true, which are so (and which are also kept in France) ; but our races which are meant for eggs and flesh are as good as any in the world. The previous chapter will also have made it quite clear, from recorded experience, that the real hope for the farmer’s and cottager’s poultry does lie in those very “ pure breeds ” so abused by Sir Henry Thompson as detrimental to it ; and one of the most celebrated French feeders — Madame Ailleroit — informed us personally, after looking over the Dorkings at the Crystal Palace (just the regular class of exhibition Dorkings, remember), that they were “ perfection ! ” and that she would desire no better fowls to work upon. Again, if it is complained that English feeders do not equal the productions of the French feeders, one is constrained to ask how they should do so, in defmilt of French prices ? In France there is a demand for the choicest fatted poultry at from 12s. to 25s. each ; where and what is the demand for such in England ? Once insure our feeders even 10s. for a fatted fowl, and how long will the English production be inferior to the French, or classes for table fowls fail to fill ? The utter neglect of such considerations as these proves that a man may be pre-eminent as a surgeon, and yet write very foolishly as a food economist. It is just as much a pure mistake to suppose that any alleged superiority in French poultry is owing to any difference in “judging” at French shows. For years past the Paris exhibitions have been attended by skilled Fnglish reporters of various schools, and they all agree that the one thing which characterises the judging there is the neglect of any real standard of excel- lence at all, and the substitution for it of the most unblushing personal favouritism. French exhibitors have lamented to us the absence of any conscientious attempt, such as they see in England, to distinguish the best fozvls irrespective of their owners, or to make the awards real “judging” rather than distribution of favours. The simple fact is, as hinted in the last chapter, that in France poultry largely takes the place which in England is taken by beef and mutton, lamb and veal ; and has, consequently, that general attention from the fanning class which in England is confined to the latter only. And this fact brings out at once into strong relief the great and real good which has been done by that “ poultry fancy ” which Sir Henry Thompson would so foolishly seek to destroy, founded though it be throughout upon judging by characteristics which at first sight may appear arbitrary. It never can, indeed, be otherwise; for when he and others make the specious demand that prizes shall be given to the “best layers,” the simple reply is that it cannot be done : there is no way of doing it. You cannot see which is the best layer, out of a row of birds in pens ; and to go by testimony would open the door to all sorts of abuses. We must judge by visible points of * A plan of it is given in “ The Practical Poultry Keeper,” 20th edition. What the Poultry Fancy has Done. i i some kind. Whatever these are, they will appear arbitrary ; and, save in one or two points as men- tioned directly , we may as well have the present as any others. Fowls can compete in no other way from the very nature of the case. On the other hand, it is distinctly the business of the people who breed fowls as food-producers to care for the points named by the great surgeon. Nothing the fancieis ha\e done, has evei pi evented them from doing it, or even from breeding up whole races to the greatest perfection from that point of view. But— this is the point of the whole— these people have not done it. Save in one case somewhat parallel to that of France— that of the Surrey feeders, who from a steady but limited demand did perfect the Dorking fowl— they have utterly neglected poultry, and, as a body, do still. It is the “ fanciers ” who have preserved and perfected our best- laying breeds, importing many at large expense, and importing and acclimatising many foreign table breeds as well ; and all experience shows that only people who have such enthusiasm as the fanciers, will perform such a duty. It is, further, the “ fanciers ” who have throughout forced poultry more and more upon public attention ; and so far as farmers themselves have been in- duced to take more interest in such stock, and to grow it more largely, it is the “ fanciers ” who have done the work, and who have provided the breeds which, as the last chapter shows, have so often put a new face upon the farmer’s balance-sheet. Again' — and to put the matter in a still stronger light — there is no doubt that the French shows of dead poultry really have done something to promote breeding and feeding in France. They are, however, there kept up by the feeders and market breeders, whose proper business it is ; in England these have been perfectly stagnant in such matters. This being so, however, the despised “ fanciers,” anxious to promote these useful objects, have for years past established at their shows classes both for live table fowls and dead ones, often offering liberal prizes ; but as a rule the attempt, speaking broadly, has been a failure, so far as any general support has been concerned. The feeders have not exhibited in the classes meant to tempt them, and such entries as were made, were chiefly from “fanciers,” who thus tried their best to at least start such really useful competitions, but are naturally unable to turn out such specimens as professional fatters and dressers can produce. Even the judging of these classes was at first placed in the hands of poulterers, from anxiety to have it free from all “ fancy ” element ; and the result was the award of piizes to just such laige, coarse specimens as move Sir Ilenry Thompson s wrath ! On the other hand, when the classes have been judged, as they latterly often have been, by such individuals as Mi. Tegetmeier, who has had the training and experience of a fancier, the prizes really have gone, on the whole, to the best table fowls. There are, it is true, of late more signs of hope about these classes , but if evei they do come to be widely supported, that result will be due to the much-abused “ fanciers,” who have been working at it for years amid sore discouragement, and utterly without aid or support from the class on whose behalf they are foolishly attacked every few years, by people who know nothing about the work they have really done. In fine, the “fancy points” simply are the acknowledged marks of the races of poultiy ; breeding for standards in accordance with them has preserved those races to us ; and the enthusiasm of the fancier has been the sole means of their improvement and dissemination amongst There is onesimole illustration of this in the Dorking breed, of which one variety-the Cuckoo has never been taken up by fanciers generally, but simply left to the « useful ” breeders. Accord- to Sir Henry Thompson, such a variety should be now the “best” of all the colours. . On the contrary, it is about the worst, in all essential points; remains small, and often weedy and ,s almost on the verve of extinction ; while the « fancier's » Dorking, spite of all the abuse lav, shed on ,t by a few old people to whom-naturally-t* tastes quite so good as in their young days, when appetite was keen is pronounced by Madame Ailleroit to be “pcr-Jcc-twn ! The question has also another us. mg I he Illustrated Book of Poultry . 1 1 6 aspect. By thus keeping a high standard of artificial points, below which a bird is comparatively valueless, conventionally perfect specimens will always be few ; and we insure a large number of biids which in these particulars are below par, but which possess all the economic merits of the vanety to which they belong, and which are available for purely commercial purposes at a very model ate price. That celebrated breeders are often glad to dispose of such extra stock at only a few shillings over the price of ordinary fowls is notorious ; and as the hiring of a good ram at a high price is directly remunerative in the increased fleece and mutton produced, so the effect in the case of poultry is equally capable of being calculated, and has been clearly shown in the preceding pages, from a purely utilitarian point of view. It may, however, be asked, If in the fancier’s hands these breeds have lost some of the original economic value they had, how then ? The answer to this is very simple, and consists in the fact that however much these qualities have diminished, they usually reappear in all their original perfection in the first cross ; and as farmers or market-breeders usually employ such first crosses, which are better for nearly all purposes, every practical end is still secured. Even crossing two strains of the same great race usually has the same effect, and though it will influence plumage in a way the fancier does not desire, that does not matter to the food-producer. The latter thus obtains from the fancier fowls with all the capabilities of their race, and it is Jus business to further develop their economic qualities, in the way already indicated. The mere change from a fancier’s yard to the healthy, fresh, free range of a farm, usually works marvels in restoring the -primitive hardiness and fecundity of a race, and a farmer who buys with any judgment is very little troubled by these alleged, and some of them even real, evils. Lastly, however, there is, as already implied, some measure of truth in Sir Henry Thompson’s tirade, in so far that some of our standards are decidedly injudicious. Here again, however, the ultimate conclusion fundamentally differs, since he pronounces “ no compromise possible,” while it is obvious that certain definite changes in judging could easily enough be embodied in a standard, provided there be mutual consent. It has always been stated in this work that the standards for judging in subsequent pages do not in many points embody our own ideas of what judging should be, but represent judging as it actually has been and is. We do believe that certain points have been pushed to extremes. To reproduce words penned by ourselves before the strictures we are now considering : “ for instance, taking .the Creve, which is a crested fowl : the English tendency is to demand a crest as large as possible, and give that point far the greatest weight in judging. The French, on the other hand, while they look for a typical crest, are satisfied with that, and lay more stress upon a fine and well-shaped body. Of two fowls in competition, therefore, in France the finest fowl would win (i.e., so far as judging went by the fowls at all at a show : practically, as already explained, it is the country breeders make the breeds in France); in England, the finest crest on perhaps a much less fine fowl.” It hardly needs pointing out which is the sensible method ; but it is equally obvious that, so far from “compromise” being impossible, all desired could easily be embodied in a standard. In this case we should only have to deduct some of the points allotted for crest, and increase those allowed for size and symmetry, and the reform would be effected. There need be no upset of the system, and the best crest would still count more points than an inferior one ; but the judging would be altered in a certain definite direction. We hold this to be desirable ; but one evil of wholesale tirades is that they obscure and prevent what, if clearly pointed out, would be perfectly practicable reforms. Such reforms in judging, in the shape of greater stress upon the more useful points of many fowls, we certainly would urge upon all concerned. 1 17 CHAPTER X. COMMENCING A STRAIN. EVERY show “season” invariably produces a certain number of new fanciers, who come forward to take the place of the old, and to extend still further the knowledge and love of fowls. The success of these different individuals, however, varies very widely. Some few continue year after year to maintain and establish a prominent position ; but we have often been amused to observe the numbers who, having purchased the most successful birds of the season, appear to carry all before them for a few months, and then retire again into oblivion — ultimately, in all probability, to give up the pursuit altogether in disgust. The number of those who in this manner commence “ poultry- fancying,” and then retire from it with more or less loss, is very great, and has given rise to a very common opinion that the cultivation of fancy varieties must inevitably be a losing concern ; but we have no hesitation in saying that such an opinion is altogether groundless. In many cases, where all operations are carried on regardless of cost ; where the houses and yards are of a substantial, showy, and expensive character, and the whole is regarded rather as an amusement for the opulent than with any reference to pecuniary results, it may be regarded as a fair return for even first-rate breeding if the receipts and payments be found to balance at the end of the year : with any other pursuit, carried on in a similar manner, this is the best result which can be expected. But if management and economy be studied, as well as the stock, fancy poultry will yield a very fair profit, and there are not a few real amateurs who actually do reap a very considerable pecuniary return from it, even apart from the few well-known breeders who derive their entire income from the cultivation of fancy fowls. It is therefore worth while to consider the reason of so great a difference in the results of the same pursuit; for profit and loss do not depend upon accident or chance, but are necessary consequences of wise or unwise methods of procedure. And to put the matter as tersely and simply as possible, we are satisfied from long and careful observation that the losers and the gainers in the poultry-fancy might in almost every case be as correctly described by the terms of the buyers and the breeders ; or yet again as those persons who are merely exhibitors , or such as are fanciers in the true sense of that term. There is a large class of persons who buy and exhibit fowls merely from a feeling of pride in their possession ; not that they love or care for them in reality, but from the same feeling which leads a wealthy man with no love whatever for art to buy and hang on his walls the most expensive pictures. There may be at first a slight passing interest in the birds, but that is all ; and when the fowls which have been thus purchased regardless of expense die, or get out of condition from overshowino the interest conies to an end along with the success, for their progeny is in all probability “worthless. Disgust follows, and another so-called fancier “gives up” a pursuit which he never really entered into at all. We shall however suppose that from some cause or other a real mterest in and love for fowls has been awakened, and that the amateur desires to enter upon the cultivation of some one or two 1 18 The Illustrated Book of Poultry. of the many varieties which await his choice. We say one or two advisedly ; for to attempt at first to keep many is to fail almost of necessity. Each variety demands not only judgment and care, but to some extent a trained eye. It will be found, in fact, that one variety spoils or biasses the eye in judging another of a very different character ; and though long experience and the constant sight of birds will to some extent correct this, as is the case with a few large breeders and judges, we have heard one of the best judges in England say that he could never judge a Game class to his satisfaction if compelled to take it immediately after judging Dorkings. By attempting more than one or two varieties, also, all the practical difficulties of breeding, hatching, rearing, and selecting, are increased tremendously, and what might be a pleasure becomes really a painful anxiety, burdensome alike to mind and body. Even of the great breeders, who to a fair extent have succeeded in all the varieties they keep, scarcely any have succeeded in keeping a commanding position as regards more than one or two, and this lesson should be well regarded by the mere amateur. Well, our pupil having caught the “ hen-fever ” with more or less severity, his first and most natural idea, if in easy pecuniary circumstances, is to purchase the first-prize cock and pair of hens at some good show, and pen them up for breeding stock. We wish at once to say emphatically that this is not the way to begin , and that it will very seldom answer. Very rarely indeed will these birds be properly adapted for breeding together, and their progeny will therefore, in most cases, be mere trash from a fancier’s point of view. It is just possible the birds themselves, if claimed at a leading show, may be really the best of the year ; and, in that case, so long as the purchaser can keep them in good condition, he may win the remaining prizes, and realise the picture we have drawn of carrying all before him for a few months. But if he thinks this is any real credit to him he is much mistaken. Every breeder in the fancy knows where he got his fowls from , and that money alone has obtained him his dearly-purchased triumphs ; while the risks his precious birds run of dying or losing their fine condition through his ignorance how to treat them, or from overshowing, are very great. Supposing all this survived, and the fowls safely bred from, disappointment is almost sure to ensue, for the reason we have already stated, that they are very seldom such as should be mated ; and if the tyro should be so rash as to advertise and sell eggs from his treasures, very probably the autumn brings him sundry indignant letters, broadly hinting that the eggs he supplied must have been the produce of rubbish kept for the purpose of supplying his customers, so far are they from what they ought to be. It may happen even worse, that the specimens purchased are not of any special value, and that even the poor satisfaction of winning with them again is denied him : the competition may have been very poor (of which fact he is unable to judge), and hence he may have been deceived as to their value ; or a bad light may have misled the judge: in either case he is “done,” and in the first bitterness of his disappointment very likely meditates retiring from the fancy altogether, a sadder and a wiser man. These are no mere fancy sketches ; they are only what we have actually seen again and again. We by no means wish to affirm that the best birds are never to be purchased at high prices. On one occasion we ourselves offered twenty guineas ior a cockerel as he ran in the yard, which up to that time had never won a first prize. But it is not the beginner who should do this. In our case the young bird belonged to a breed we had studied for years, and he accordingly justified our estimate even as an exhibition specimen, by winning every prize and cup of value through the whole season. It is, however, not very often that experienced breeders will give such prices, and when they do it is for one of two reasons ; either they have a reputation to keep up, and prefer to buy a bird which they see would otherwise beat their own ; or — and this is the reason in most cases tJ-^y know the pedigree well, and what it will breed with their own stock, and are willing to pay c A' less Buying . Evils of Re i ig “y 1 M 5 a Va,UaWe pr0geny- But * knowledge and a trained eye thus to safely pronounce upon a fowl's real value, and for the tyro the risk is too great every way, espec.a ly when we consider the danger of losing the costly purchases afterwards improper treatment. * In some few cases we have known the reckless system of purchasing at any price to be kept up for years, and an apparent continuance of success thus procured. The merely personal pride which can find any gratification in this sort of thing is rather hard to understand, and would be diminished somewhat were it known that such success is always discounted at its true value by the initiated, and only imposes upon the ignorant or the outside public. We mention it thus because in several ways such “ poultry-fancying ” does harm. As we have already hinted, the usually inferior character of the progeny from even the best biids thus procured and mated haphazard brings the whole pursuit into contempt and disrepute amongst those who purchase eggs or chickens from such random stock, and are justly annoyed at the character of the produce. Another evil is caused in the opinion thus fostered that prizes are the sole or even the chief end of poultry- breeding , and still another perhaps the most serious of any — is the idea which such individuals help to spiead, that only peisons of wealth, who can afford such great outlay, can engage in the pursuit with any piospect of success, and which prevents many to whom it would be a benefit in every way, and who both could and would succeed, from attempting it at all. On the other hand, trying to obtain “ cheap ” birds will almost invariably cause loss and disappointment, for really good fowls being always in demand, and the supply never large, they can always command a fair price. For breeding purposes alone — apart from any idea of exhibiting the birds themselves, but looking only to the progeny — good, reliable, carefully-bred birds of what may be called the “ major” breeds, can rarely be obtained under two to five guineas each ; other breeds, such as Hamburghs, are not worth so much. A thorough judge can occasionally pick up a good bird for a small sum ; but for the beginner to attempt any such “ dead bargains ” in fowls is perfectly hopeless, for the simple reason that he knows nothing about them. For birds to be “ good breeding-stock ” (in these and following chapters we speak of breeding with a view to exhibiting the produce) implies a great deal, but chiefly, that whatever qualities they have be not accidental, but the result of careful breeding for generations. This will appear if we consider that every desired quality is simply the result of repeated and continuous selection year after year of those birds for breeding-stock which exhibit that particular point in the greatest perfection. Without this mere appearance is worthless. For instance — to borrow an illustration written by us many years ago* — “ the Grey Dorking is a breed which assumes within certain limits almost every variety of colour, and occasionally amongst others, that now known as Silver-Grey. By breeding from these birds, and selecting from the progeny only the Silver-Greys, that colour was established, as any other might be, as a permanent variety which breeds true to feather with very little variation. Now a pen of birds precisely similar in colour and appearance may, as at first, be produced from ordinary coloured Dorkings, and shown as Silver-Greys, and the most severe test may fail to discover any apparent difference between them and the purest-bred pen in the same show. But breeding would show the distinction instantly, for whilst one pen would breed true to itself, and produce silver-grey chickens, the accidental pen would chiefly produce ordinary Dorkings, with very few Silver-Greys amongst them j and though in time , by continuing to select these, a pure strain would be established, for immediate put poses the pen (as Silvcis) would be worthless.” It may seem strange that it should be possible for two birds to be similar in appearance, and for one to be of little value while the other is woith a large sum , but it is so, moie * “Practical Poultry Keeper,” p. 76, First Edition. 120 THE / LLUSTRATED BOOK OF POULTRY. or less, in many cases, though perhaps seldom in so full a degree as we have mentioned. For taking two birds — say Buff Cochin cocks — let us suppose one has been reared by an amateur with a small yard, and who can only keep and rear very few ; who, therefore, keeps only the best, and after years of care succeeds in getting his magnificent show specimens out of two dozen chickens. Let us suppose the other to have been bred by a man who has acres of ground, and to be the produce of very ordinary stock, but to be the “ chance” best of three hundred chickens. The first bird, well mated, will stamp his own character upon a large part of his progeny, and be therefore valuable, while the second bird may breed anything, because he has no fixed characters at all. If we have succeeded in making ourselves understood, it will now be seen that a thoroughly good strain of fowls can only be the result of art, care, study, and even of time. It cannot be attained all at once, except by adopting some one else’s ready-made ; and requires a real and steady interest and some perseverance. Without these qualifications it is impossible ever to arrive a't it ; but assuming the intending fancier to possess them, we will now say how in our opinion he ought to proceed. And first, if he have no friend on whose judgment he can rely, but be left entirely to his own resources, the great object for some little time must be, not to snatch any sudden success, but to acquire knowledge, and more particularly the special knowledge of the particular breed preferred. Such study of the breed is the first great essential to success, and should in all cases be commenced at once ; every possible show being visited, and particular attention being given to the variety in question. This study must be thorough and systematic ; for it is not only needful to know good birds when they are seen, but to know definitely what makes them superior to others. No breed can be thus “ learnt” all at once, though some require much less study than others. The descriptions should be carefully read and mastered, and compared point by point with the best specimens to be seen in the show-pen. Most amateurs are very courteous in imparting any information in their power to the beginner, and introduction should be sought to any such as opportunity offers, and all possible knowledge gathered from them. Very much can be learnt in this way where there is any natural aptitude for the knowledge ; and such intercourse thus begun not unfrequently lays the first foundation, as it has repeatedly in our own case, for lasting and valued friendships, which in their pleasant freemasonry and frank good-feeling have exemplified some of the best points of the poultry-fancy and its votaries. Before actually meddling with very expensive stock, it is most desirable to have attained some practical knowledge of fowls and success in their management by real experience with ordinary birds. Where both kinds of knowledge have to be acquired together, we should advise in most cases the purchase in the first instance of a few inferior specimens (as regards colour or other matters) from good stock, of the variety to which the preference inclines, which can generally be obtained of good breeders at a small sum. Thus the amateur will gain both the needful experience in management and some practical knowledge of the breed itself at the same time ; while such stock after a little may be made highly useful, by comparing first-class specimens with them, and training the eye to see where the great difference in show value between the two consists. Until some amount of this knowledge be in one way or another acquired, large sums should not be spent upon fowls, if it be desired to avoid serious mistakes and consequent loss. Such a course demands patience, which many perhaps may not feel inclined to bestow ; we can only say that very little time need be lost by it, while much useless expenditure may be saved. Supposing the taste to have been imbibed, as may probably be the case, at one of the great winter shows, and a few birds to have been thus purchased at a moderate price, we should expect that by March or April some real and discriminating knowledge of the breed had been attained. We The Proper ifrA v to Proceed. I21 would then advise that a few sittings of first-class eggs be procured from sources which can be depended upon, and if possible from more than one. The owner’s own inferior stock should also to some extent be bied from ; and in this way another kind of most valuable and necessary information will be obtained— that of the appearance of first-class chickens at different ages , and as compared with inferior ones of the same breed. It must not be assumed that all the chickens from the purchased eggs aie fiist-class, for this will not be the case. If birds could be thus bred their value would cease. The choice specimens are always comparatively few, and if even one-fourth of any biood ate more or less fit for competition it will be very good indeed. Neither will all hatch except in veiy raie cases. Highly-bred stock are not quite so fertile as a rule, and there is some risk in the railway journey. Many chances may even spoil the whole hatch ; and if chickens are found dead in the shell the vendor must not be blamed ; since they were there, it is not his fault that they did not come to maturity. To speak in this way will seem absurd to many ; but we have had a letter couched in the most insolent terms from a man because “ only ” six eggs had hatched out of ten sent to him, and demanding back the price of four. We can only say that even in ordinary seasons 60 per cent, of chickens from travelled eggs is a very fair average. The eggs of all large fowls are more uncertain than those of small. In the case of early eggs — say laid in January and February — even 40 per cent, must be called satisfactory, the eggs being naturally not so fertile as later on ; but as chickens at this season are proportionately more valuable, on an average purchasers get about the same return for their expenditure. Many more, occasionally even all, may be hatched later in the spring ; but the averages we have stated are pretty fair, and if the chickens be good are well worth paying a high price for. Out of several sittings, therefore, there ought to be at least a few really good birds ; and as it will be seen very early that the various little chickens differ greatly in their appearance, careful note should be taken of them, and observation made as to which of them turn out the best at six months old, when they will have assumed their adult plumage. To the fancier with limited space, no knowledge is more necessary than this, as it enables him to hatch about three times as many chickens as he can rear, and clear them off at an early period, so as to leave the ground at liberty for the best alone. In this way, and by thus judiciously employing one season only, any one who has a genuine interest in the subject ought by the approach of the next winter’s shows, to have acquired a very useful and sound knowledge of the variety he has adopted. He will have learnt practically its qualities and management, its points, its commonest defects from an exhibition point of view (this last is highly important), and also how these manifest themselves as the chickens grow. He can now with some correctness, therefore, estimate for himself the real value of a bird, and is accordingly ready to buy. He may very probably even have a first-class chicken or two of his own, which lie thinks may compete fairly with many others which he sees. In that case we should strongly advise the expenditure of an entrance-fee, not so much for the chance there may be of winning, as for the opportunity of comparison thus afforded between his own best chickens and those from other yards, which will add still more to the knowledge already possessed. The purchase of stock will now be proper, and if pecuniary resources correspond with inclination, really first-class specimens may be secured with some probability of the expenditure not being thrown away. But very good breeding-stock may often be secured at a very moderate cost, by the consideration of what points are indispensable in both sexes, and what faults, though fatal in a show-pen, are capable of being compensated by mating them with defects of an opposite character. We shall endeavour to enter into this in detail when treating of the different breeds, and will now only give one illustration. Supposing the breed be Buff Cochins, the necessary purity L 122 The Illustrated Book of Poultry. of colour must be secured in the birds purchased as the foundation of a strain ; but hens may be purchased nearly bare of leg-feather if required, and the deficiency counteracted by mating with a vulture-hocked cock. (This and other technical terms will be explained later on.) Where there are several good chickens at command the stock should be purchased to suit them, viz., mature hens to mate with a cockerel, and a two-year old cock for the pullets already in hand. Having delayed buying till he can buy with judgment, it will be desirable now to provide if possible at least two unrelated pens,* and even more if accommodation can be provided for them. By so doing the beginner provides for future crosses, and can keep his strain in his own hands without any further cross for some years, when it should be well established and its qualities defined ; and year by year, if he proceeds with judgment, he will come nearer to his wishes. Otherwise, if the plan recommended by some of buying a cockerel every year for “fresh blood” be followed, the breeder never knows what he is doing ; and may spoil all after years of labour by an unlucky cross, which brings with it some lurking fault not visible in the bought bird, and therefore never suspected, but which contaminates the whole yard for that year. The danger of this is all the greater from such constant crossing preventing the home strain from acquiring any strong individual character of its own which can withstand the foreign influence ; whereas if it be carefully bred for some years, the strains of which ii; was first composed will amalgamate, and it will develop more or less defined features of its own, by which “Mr. X’s strain” will by degrees become known to other breeders. It is in fact the ideal or standard of the breeder which becomes stamped upon it ; and as the eye becomes trained to perceive the finer shades of difference, these individual distinctions between various yards are easily recognised ; just as in the different herds of Short-horns, all of which arise simply from the different ideal standards of perfection as conceived by different breeders. The principle on which a strain is brought to perfection after commencing is very simple, and consists only in the careful selection of breeding-stock year after year, with a view either to banish defects or to develop beauties. This we must enter into more fully in the succeeding chapter ; we will only add here that too much must not be expected at once. The breeding must of necessity be somewhat uncertain the first year, owing to the different materials of which the yard is composed and the want of experience in mating them ; but each season will mend matters, and there is a pleasure not easily conceived of in seeing year after year the chief faults disappear in your birds, while their beauties become more and more developed, and the proportion of show chickens steadily increases, till you perhaps carry off the “blue riband” of the season with the produce of the very birds which most disappointed you at first. It is your work — the result, not of mere money, but of your patience and skill — and it is work of this kind we wish to encourage and see more of. Merely to win a prize with a bought bird is nothing; but to create a new strain better than all your predecessors is to be of some real benefit, and to be a real “ poultry-fancier.” We have known a poor man sell his best chickens to richer people at ten pounds apiece, and beat the purchasers next year with the produce of what was left ; for in this field there is no favour, and mere money cannot contend against knowledge and skill, which will always come to the front in the end. The delay and preliminary study we have been so anxious to inculcate may be dispensed with if the amateur can engage the services of a really first-rate practical poultry-man or manager. * When we say the pens should be “unrelated,” it is chiefly the absence of individual relationship which is meant. In many cases, for reasons more fully explained in the next chapter, much trouble and uncertainty in breeding may be avoided by selecting all from the same yard. It is chiefly a question of time ; birds from the same strain usually producing the best immediati fruit while a skilled breeder would probably sacrifice somewhat of this, and in time produce better results from selections which give him at starting a good supply of unrelated blood. Importance of Real Personal Knowledge. 123 These are never very numerous, and by no means easy to obtain. The employer in such a case should, in the first place, be thoroughly satisfied that his man has the knowledge he professes, and is of good character ; and then he should be left to his own judgment until the employer himself has learnt enough to take some real share in the proceedings of each year. Such a man will rarely seek very expensive birds, he will prefer to “breed them” himself ; and if he does wish to claim a twenty-guinea cup bird he may generally be trusted, as he may probably win back the amount in prizes. But even in this case, the proprietor should endeavour as soon as possible really to master the business for himself. There is twice the interest in a thing you understand, and every one naturally likes to have a voice in his own concerns. Moreover, few men excel in all departments ; and we have known a case where both employer and man were skilled breeders — more than usually so, in fact — but where the employer left it entirely to his man to mate up the birds for breeding cockerels, while, by common consent, the master superintended the arrangements for producing pullets. Each knew and respected the other’s superior judgment in that particular point. Something in these things depends on natural “ gift,” but, as a general rule, by seeking knowledge and experience first , success will assuredly follow, as in other things, and even the beginner may in a reasonable time obtain that silver cup or coveted “First Prize” which is the legitimate ambition of every amateur. CHAPTER XL MATING STOCK FOR BREEDING PRIZE BIRDS. HAVING ill our last treated more of the principles on which the amateur commencing a strain ought to proceed, we pass on now to explain more in detail the practical operations of a fancier’s yard. Many such have already been entered into in the earlier chapters of this work, being common to all poultry-keepers and breeders ; we now, therefore, have only to consider those cares which belong specially to the “ fancier ” as such, and to the production of chickens fit for exhibition ; the possession of a competent knowledge of the varieties themselves, stipulated for and acquired as in our last chapter, being now taken for granted. Considered either in order of time or of practical importance, the first care of the skilful breeder is the judicious mating of his birds for next season. It will be found by experience that in the case of fully mature pullets or of hens which have got well over the moult in good time, laying generally commences within three weeks to a month of pairing with the cock ; and therefore in all cases where early chickens are desired, the breeding-yards should be made up as soon after the end of November as possible. Weeks or even months before that, more or less thought will have been given to this important matter, and the experienced amateur will have begun to consider in his own mind “what he shall do.” His chickens will have been carefully scanned as they grow up, and he will have determined betimes whether he has all he requires among his own stock, or whether he is deficient in any department and must buy to supply the want. He will have half made up his mind that he will put certain birds together, and selected those he will not part with, unless perhaps tempted by the twenty guineas which — except in very rare cases — is now the orthodox “ top price” of the poultry fancy ; but all these resolutions will be liable to revision at the Birmingham, London, or other great winter show, which in his case represents the result or record of the year. Nothing is certain till then. He may have been somewhat disappointed with his own stock — no one can be best always , and some one must come to the front — so he visits the show intending to buy a better cockerel than the best he can pick from his own ; when he possibly finds that the falling back that season is general, and that his own despised best bird is as good or better than that of any one else. From some mysterious cause, a season not seldom does show such a general deterioration in some particular breed. Or the contrary may be the case, and he finds the bird on which his hopes rested so hopelessly and clearly beaten, that if he be pretty well off pecuniarily he determines to acquire the victor at any price ; or his best birds, which he had trusted to breed from, may be claimed ; and in many other ways all his plans are held in abeyance until he has seen for himself the chickens from his brother fanciers’ yards. All these he strives to appreciate fairly, even for his own sake ; for the man who can only see the “ twist in the tail ” of his own little porker, and who is alike blind to the real merits of other people’s fowls and the faults of his own, will never really succeed in the poultry fancy. Now comes the all-important business, and no study and pains are too great to devote to it; for the successful production of high-class birds may be said to depend exclusively on two things ; Unexpected A noma lies in Breeding. •25 first, proper mating of the parents ; and, secondly, the rearing to proper size and condition of the chickens ; of which we are now considering the first. Hours and hours are spent over this matter by the most successful breeders. Each hen is to be carefully looked over, point by point, both her merits and her defects being carefully taken into consideration, until sufficient for one pen presenting the same general characteristics can be grouped together, after which the cock has to be chosen to accompany them. Whatever faults the hens may have must in him be carefully compensated, or at least absent, or they will be sure to be aggravated by the double influence. When put together, the scrutiny is repeated again and again, and what will probably be produced by each bird thu? mated must be most carefully considered ; for everything must have a definite object in this business, and if any one thinks such study ridiculous he had better not attempt to breed prize poultry. Often, after many an inspection has taken place and only confirmed the first impression, some hitherto overlooked feature will suddenly strike the eye, and at once necessitate mating with quite another bird to that originally intended. In the case of adult birds, what they have already bred with the same or other mates must also be taken into consideration. A hen may have been matched up the previous year apparently with judgment, yet the produce may have been most grievously disappointing, for such mishaps may occur occasionally to any amateur. In such cases, by studying the character of the unforeseen result, and tracing the probable causes, success for next season with the same bird, but differently paired, may be almost ensured, and the loss thus more than repaid. Some of these unexpected disappointments are very curious, and for a long time were thought unaccountable. They usually occur at the commencement of a strain, or when a cock is purchased for fresh blood to recruit an old one. For instance, supposing a really first-class Spanish cock to be mated with some of the very best hens which can be procured ; if the two strains thus bred together are widely distinct, or have no blood already common to both, it may very possibly happen that nearly all the chickens are more or less red in the face, though both parents are unexceptionable. Again, we knew a good strain of Dark Brahmas some years ago, which usually bred beautiful pullets ; but when crossed into others, and into one other in particular, almost always produced chickens so splashed with great patches of pure white as to be totally worthless from a fancy point of view. In the same way, two alien strains of Buffi Cochins will occasionally breed pullets with a great deal of black in the hackle — far more than is always found in a portion of Buffi chickens — though both parents are perfectly pure in colour; and we could add other illustrations which have come within our knowledge, testifying to the same fact. These anomalous variations for a long time puzzled breeders, and were indeed mysterious, being apparently opposed to their fundamental axiom that “like produces like;” but the fact hinted at in our last chapter, as established by Mr. Darwin, has cleared up the mystery, and brought such apparently chance occurrences within the domain of law. Mr. Darwin has in fact shown them to be the effect of the tendency to reversion which is so well-known to every amateur, but shown in a manner not before understood, and exemplifying in rather a striking manner the services rendered from time to time to merely practical purposes by the purely scientific investigator. “ It has long been notorious,” says this eminent naturalist, “that hybrids and mongrels often revert to one or both of their parent forms, after an interval of from two to seven or eight, or, according to some authorities, even a greater number of generations. But that the act of crossing in itself gives an impulse towards^ reversion, as shown by the appearance of long-lost characters, has never I believe been hitherto proved. The proof lies in certain peculiarities which do not characterise the immediate parents, and therefore cannot have been derived from them, frequently appearing in the offspring of two breeds when crossed, which never appear, or appear with extreme rarity, in these breeds so long as they are precluded from crossing.” This fact Mr. Darwin then illustrates by many examples. I 20 The Illustrated Book of Poultry. Having shown that the common slaty-blue dovecot pigeon is almost certainly the ancestor of all the varieties, he shows that many breeds when crossed are continually producing pigeons coloured more or less like it, and often identical in colour, though the breeds themselves have been kept pure beyond the memory of man. Similarly, many breeds of fowl when crossed continually produce the reddish-brown plumage of the Gallus Bankiva, which is by most naturalists now regarded as the ancient progenitor of our domestic breeds. Again, the White Aylesbury drake and a Black Labrador duck produced a bird coloured like the mallard. Similar instances are quoted in regard to cattle ; and in regard to the horse, reason having been given for the opinion that the original of all the equine races was some one animal striped like the zebra, it is shown that the produce of the horse and ass when crossed, and so extensively bred in Spain and America, have a strong tendency to develop stripes, especially on the legs. “ It would appear,” adds Mr. Darwin, “that with crossed animals a similar tendency to the recovery of lost characters holds good even with instincts, since so many cases have been recorded of the crossed offspring from two races, neither of which are incubators, becoming first-rate sitters, that the reappearance of this instinct must be attributed to reversion from crossing.”* The extent to which hereditary peculiarities may lie dormant in a strain, and be therefore capable of revival under this or any other stimulus, is one of the most surprising facts in physio- logical science, and still more occult manifestations of it have been specially remarked upon by Mr. Darwin, under the name of “ latent characters.” That eminent naturalist mentions as one of the most remarkable instances of this the Sebright Bantam. In this breed the sickles of the male bird have long been lost, and that peculiarity has now become so strongly established that even repeated crosses with the Black Bantam have little impaired it. Yet on the rare occasions in which a Sebright hen becomes barren, and, as then usually happens, begins to crow and assume other peculiarities of the male bird, she generally acquires full sickle feathers , showing that however long and entirely lost, some tendency to that characteristic male feature yet remains latent in the breed. We have endeavoured to explain this principle fully, because its immediate bearing upon the operations of the breeding-yard is most important. This we shall readily see by a few illustrations. There is, for instance, a well-known strain of Buff Cochins, of marked excellence in every point, but which has a strong tendency to breed a white feather in the cock’s tail. Now it is perfectly possible by a judicious cross from some other strain, and careful selection afterwards, to get rid of this objectionable feature ; and we will suppose an individual yard in which this has been so far accomplished that in only a small proportion does the hated white feather appear. This desired result, with a little care, will now be easily maintained while such a yard is bred to itself, or with any other not too far removed from it in blood ; but if crossed from a strain thoroughly distinct and alien, or what poultry-men call too “sudden” a cross (for without knowing the reason, they have found the evil of such often, and know it well), the old white feather may very probably reappear in all its original strength, though the new blood contained no tendency tc? it whatever. It is simply the cross of strange blood which gives the impulse to reversion. In the same way, to take the case mentioned just now, the pure white Spanish Dee being simply the result of assiduous breeding, and the most extreme care being needed for its preservation, the simple fact of crossing two entirely distinct strains gives the impulse to revert to the red face which belonged to the Minorca — in all probability the original breed from which it was derived. We need not illustrate this point further, as the same principle will readily explain many other anomalies which have long puzzled amateurs. * In Chapter IX. we gave another illustration of the same fact in the recovery of economic characteristics, but not carr'ed so far back. 127 Importance of Knowing the Pedigree. The practical conclusions to be drawn from the tendency we have been discussing are no less mpor ant, and no less obvious. One of the first will be to modify very considerably what is said in various wor Gentian . Aniseed Pimento • • « • 4 .. 2 ,, Pimento . Sulphate of Iron Powder and mix. i >> Cayenne Powder and mix. 2. Cassia Bark . 14 OZ. 4. Cascarilla Bark . Ginger . . . . • 5 .. Aniseed . Gentian • • • « 4 Pimento Aniseed • • a • 2 99 Malt Dust . Carbonate of Iron Powder and mix. 24 t v Carbonate of Iron Powder and mix. 2 OZ. I „ 1 » 2 >• I * 2 oz. 3 ,, 1 ,, 2 ,* I .. The first powder is chiefly adapted for a sudden cold. The second will be found excellent as a tonic in wet or cold weather, or for young turkeys, being the recipe of Mr. Mills, a French apothecary, which has been well tested. The two last are also tonics ; the last, or one somewhat like it, being preferable for more continuous use when required, or in preparing fowls for exhibition. As a restorative after return from exhibition we would prefer No. 3. The No. 4 recipe may be mixed with sugar at discretion, in the proportion of three parts good sugar to one of powder; this addition will assist in making weight, and is liked by the fowls, but too raw a quality must not be used, or purging will be the result. In using either of these condiments otherwise, enoug should be added to the soft food to give a slight characteristic taste and no more ; except or special occasions, when it is better to mix about as much as will he on a sixpence o, ten-cent piece with a small bolus of meal and butter, and give as a large p i. Another most valuable tome s “Parrish’s Chemical Food,” or Syrup of Phosphates, prepared according to the formula of Mr. Edward Parrish, of Philadelphia, which is every day becoming more va uer amongs me for more serious purposes than that now considered ; and another still bette, in 142 The Illustrated Book of Poultry. is Fellowes’ Compound Syrup of Hypophosphites. Either may be given to weakly chickens continuously, in the proportions of a teaspoonful of the syrup well mixed in every pint of water. The parentage of each brood of chicks we need hardly say should be carefully noted down in the hatching book; and if that of every egg sold be also recorded, it may afterwards prove of the greatest service should it be wished to obtain a bird back from a particular strain. This is easily done as follows, which is our own manner of recording such matters. We will suppose we are breeding from three cocks called respectively “Uncle Sam,” “Goliath,” and “Sambo” (names are a real assistance in these matters, not merely freaks of fancy), and that out of many pullets and hens we have several of more than usual excellence or tried value as breeders. Then an entry in our egg-sales memorandum-book for any given year might read as follows, each entry being ruled off like those in a storekeeper’s day-book : — April io. May 2. Mr. John Smith, Blankville, Blankshire. 3 Goliath (i Princess), 4 Uncle Sam (2 Countess), 3 Sambo. Result — 7 ; (1 Uncle Sam and 2 Goliath were clear). 10* The result would be filled in when stated, as it almost always is, by purchasers in due time ; and if the eggs are marked with at least the name of the cock whose pen they come from, such particulars also are frequently reported. Then supposing we had bad luck with the chicks from the cock called “ Uncle Sam,” who is perhaps getting old, hatching hardly any from him ; and that our hen “ Countess” is either dead or sold ; on looking over the register of sales towards winter, we find that Mr. John Smith had at least one if not two chicks from the best hen in “Uncle Sam’s” pen; and if he reared them safely we stand a good chance of buying back at a fair price a bird which in our then circumstances may be invaluable. A little pains and method in these matters is always well repaid in the end. As the home chickens grow large enough to leave their mother, it is of equal importance that this knowledge of their origin be preserved. In many cases, where constant attention is given to the fowls, the memory alone may be trusted to ensure this, as every individual chicken out of even a hundred may be easily recognised by a real amateur who takes an interest in them ; but usually some kind of permanent mark becomes necessary. Some cut a small nick on the -bill, and others punch small holes through the web between the toes; but both these methods, if at all conspicuous, of course proportionately disfigure the bird, besides involving the danger of disquali- fication if noticed in the show-pen. A much better plan is to extend the wing of the chicken, when a triangular web of mere skin will be found between it and the shoulder, which can be pierced in an instant by a stout, red-hot knitting-needle. This method may be thought cruel ; but the pain really appears only momentary and the part almost devoid of feeling, for after the instant which it occupies the chick appears to take no notice whatever. The needle should go through and be withdrawn with a single, swift, “pecking” kind of movement; and by thus piercing one, two, or more holes, thus . ; 7 :: any desired distinction may be observed, especially as * After long experience, we always used to send out only ten eggs as a sitting. We have always found that on an average here is a larger production of fine birds from this number than more; and, indeed, a hen cannot cover more than about seven rioi.. tic chickens at a month old. In small breeds this limitation would not apply. r43 Sorting out the Chickens . t ey can e made in either the right or left wing. These marks are permanent ; but if desired to be more easily found, a small bit of coloured silk may be drawn through one of the holes to math the place. Another plan is to tie a bit of coloured worsted securely, but rather loosely, round the leg above the foot, or to sew a piece of coloured tape round in the same position. Perhaps the best method is to bend round the leg loosely a ring of tea-lead or soft tin wire. In small yaids the changing weather should be carefully studied. On very hot days che ground may be copiously watered with marked benefit, and shelter should be provided by propping up boards or hurdles about a foot from the ground, under which they can resort to avoid the sun. In very wet weather, should cramp appear to threaten, a few days’ removal indoors to a boarded floor well sanded will do wonders ; and while no floor is worse than wood for a continuance, no harm in such a case will result. As soon after they are ten weeks old as possible, the cockerels and pullets of large breeds at least ought to be separated. With small fowls it is not important so far as size is concerned, and three or four weeks longer need give no trouble or uneasiness even with Asiatics ; but after that the cockerels will begin to be turbulent unless separated, and this latter reason applies to small breeds as well. It is not so necessary where very wide range is at command, as the birds are not then brought so much in contact, but even then is highly advisable. At first the cockerels may run all together, but sooner or later, and especially after absence at a show, some at least must have separate accommodation. A grown bird will keep healthy in a quite small house and run, and such are made by several manufacturers of convenient size for this special purpose. The sexes of most breeds can be distinguished at a very early age. In some, especially Asiatics, the cocks may be known by the first wings being narrow and pointed, and of a more or less darker colour ; while the pullets’ wings are broader, rounder at the end, and either pencilled or of the self-colour of the breed. In most breeds we believe the pullets fledge the quickest, especially on the back and down the breast. In general the heads of the cockerels are also larger, the combs more prominent, and the carriage taller and more upright. The same period is convenient for “ weeding” the yard, or looking the chickens carefully over in order to pick out those which are only good enough for killing. Happy is the fancier who has but few of such ! — though with every year the proportion should decrease, and there are breeders who can produce chickens of which more than half are fit for exhibition. We have already spoken of the importance of being able to distinguish early between chickens which are likely to be first- class and those which are worthless ; and will only here add that after some study this can often be done in great measure at a very early age. By the time we are considering, the amateur who has had a little experience should be able to make the needful selection pretty easily, and the knife should be extensively used with a stern hand. Many young amateurs make a very great mistake here, by not killing off nearly enough of their stock. At commencing, the proportion of such “wasters” will almost inevitably be very large. Let us suppose that about thirty chickens can be reared, and that the preceding year our young fancier hatched forty and killed ten of the worst, finding probably that only ten out of the thirty left were up to exhibition or breeding standard. With the experience of that season, he will be able to do his weeding now more carefully, and may probably determine that he will hatch fifty and kill off twenty ; whereas it would be far better for him to hatch eighty or ninety, and only keep the thirty best. Later on he will not need, if he uses judgment, to hatch nearly so many to obtain his thirty good chickens; but many a young amateur would obtain a good position far earlier than he does, did he thus hatch and kill more liberally, so as to retain good chickens to the extent of his accommodation. Again, when chickens are being reared for exhibition, even supposing thirty can be kept, twenty would keep H4 The Illustrated Book of Poultry. in better condition and do altogether better in the same space and with less attention. Again, a run containing only pretty good birds has a wonderfully more pleasing effect to the eye of a fancier than another consisting partly of inferior specimens, and also assists in that training of the eye to perceive and demand excellence which is perhaps the real secret of permanent success. We would of course by no means advise killing until the power of distinguishing between good and bad has been acquired ; but after that, the more freely the chickens are eaten the better it will be for the yard in every way ; and they may be killed and got out of the way very young by using them for such “ chicken puddings ” as described at page 86. Some of the signs by which waste birds may be weeded out we shall point out in the proper places, when treating of the different breeds. We believe the very best results possible in chicken-rearing are obtained by keeping a compar- atively small number in a moderate-sized grass-run, nicely shaded with trees, and a spacious shed with a flooring of dry sand or gravel kept perfectly clean. Kept in large numbers, on unlimited grass, the birds grow up in beautiful condition, but often mature rather too rapidly and do not become so large ; whilst in small gravel yards, though size is easily obtained and good condition may be secured, the exquisite gloss so beautiful in grass-fed fowls is very difficult to produce, and large cockerels frequently become heavy and ungainly in carriage for want of exercise. We speak comparatively, of course ; for much depends on the skill and care brought to bear, and we often see the very best country yards beaten by people who only possess a few square feet in town ; but a dozen chickens in a grass-run of about twenty by fifty feet will take care of their condition for themselves with less real trouble than in any other circumstances. For exhibition, chickens of large breeds ought not to be allowed to roost for at least four months. The cause of crooked breasts, which so frequently occur in all large fowls, has often been discussed ; and it will be noticed that Mr. J. Martin, in his notes on Dorkings, quite dissents from the usual view that broad perches are preferable to small. We are bound to say that our own and general experience goes the other way; and many people have observed that pheasants commonly roost on the large branches, contrary to Mr. Martin’s remark on that bird. Our own observation, however, has led us to the conclusion that perhaps the preservation of good breasts in large chickens allowed to roost depends chiefly on the tone of the system : those which have wide range and are not overfed, if of good constitution, rarely suffering, while those bred in confinement are very apt to become crooked. At four months, therefore, birds reared on a good open run may generally roost on a broad perch without danger; but if bred up in confinement we would far prefer to roost them on straw. In this case, by far the easiest and cleanliest plan for an amateur who attends to his own fowls is to have a broad shelf of wood planed smooth, on the warmest side of the house, about a foot from the ground ; to slightly sprinkle this with sand to prevent the droppings adhering, and then litter pretty freely with well-broken straw. Every day this is to be well shaken up, and it will generally last about a week, when the whole is to be removed. A little paraffine, kerosene, or carbolic acid occasionally sprinkled on the wood will quite keep away vermin, and the advantages are, perfect dryness and freedom from draught, and the easy removal of all the droppings, &c., from the smooth hard surface, without the inconvenience of stooping. Chickens also prefer thus roosting on a slight elevation to a lodging on the floor. Instead ot straw, dry ashes or sand make a pretty good roosting bottom, but are neither so clean nor so warm for growing chickens, though superior in both respects for very young ones. At about six months old most chickens have assumed their adult appearance; but cockerels of the Asiatic varieties very often are not fully feathered or “ furnished ” till eight or even nine months, especially when bred from young parents. The chief danger during this period is leg- Treatment of Slipped Wings. H5 weakness , but as we shall tieat this in its place among diseases, we do not further discuss it here; the moie so as the bone-dust we have already recommended will greatly obviate any trouble in this way. Theie is however another misfortune to which many varieties are liable during the acquisition of the adult plumage, which will be better dealt with in this place. Asiatic breeds are the most fiequent suffcieis, though others are also liable to what frequently disappoints a fancier’s hopes from his finest birds. We allude to what poultry-men call “slipped” or “turned” wings: the primary feathers, or those which ought to be nicely tucked away out of sight when the wing is closed, protruding in more or less disorder outside the others. That this tendency is to some extent hereditary there can be no doubt ; and it mars the beauty of a bird completely, amounting almost to disqualification in a good competition. Pullets are far less liable to it than cockerels, and therefore when it occurs in the female sex it is proportionately far more serious in character. In the most aggravated form, the flight -feathers appear actually twisted round the quills, so that the proper inside of the feather becomes outside ; and in this form the affection is both strongly hereditary and we believe incurable. But when it merely amounts to a failing to tuck the flight- feathers in, without any great disorder among those feathers themselves, it may almost always be cured if taken in due time. The usual cause we believe to be the buffeting of cockerels by then stronger neighbours, which causes rapid flapping followed by imperfect return ; and after a few times this becomes habitual and the mischief is done: at least it more rarely occurs m aw.de run, or in the master-bird of the yard. . . , The treatment is very simple. As soon as any displacement of t ic new cat “is is o s > the wings should be carefully tucked up every night at roost, but nothing further can be done they are grown enough to hold a ligature, when one or both wings as required should be ca> y bound up with each feather in proper position. The manner in w id, tins - ° " in Fig. 49. the wing being bound round rather tightly as near the shoulder as pos sM ^a ter 1 « the cord fs carried from the knot at A, round the shoulder at B, to the inside p this is of course simply to be employed, is necessary, as if the retaining coid be too - . qnci distress. Patience it will cut and become embedded in the web of the wing, causing m r fiv£ or six and tact are also required, and we have had buds we wete ° ^ ^ ^ b to b t is * depends ; - the * - - » be ** [46 The Illustrated Book of Poultry. his wing or wings tied till it may be supposed all the feathers are properly set. The ligature may then be cut, when if the result is satisfactory all is of course over ; if not the wings are to be again confined. So much as two months’ of this watchful care may be required in some cases ; but there are few but may be thus cured if taken in due time. The ligature has a tendency to cut the feathers, but this may be avoided by using instead of a simple cord a diamond-shaped piece of calico with a string sewn on at each end, when the shorter diameter of the calico instead of the cord will go under the wing at D, and preserve the wings from injury. There is always some slight danger of Asiatic cocks acquiring the same fault during the moult. If the wings are seen properly tucked up every night at roost nothing further will commonly be needed ; but if the blemish should appear to be becoming habitual, it must be treated in the manner just described. It is very prejudicial to their chances of exhibition when pullets lay too early, besides hindering their ultimate size ; and much can be done to avoid this with a little care. After about four months, all stimulating food should be discontinued, except in the case of birds hatched very late, in which case no apprehension of too early laying need be felt, and they should rather be pushed on as fast as possible. But in ordinary cases, meat, milk, and especially any condiments which may have been used occasionally (we have already said it is injurious to use them except for special reasons) should be withheld, and every three or four weeks the pullets should, if possible, be removed to a strange run. This last can generally be done by exchanging, and has a great influence in retarding the commencement of laying ; but it should not be carried too far. After about seven months it is best to let things take their course. We have acted otherwise, and — partly as experiment — succeeded, by careful change of run as required, in keeping pullets from laying till past ten months old, but the result was not satisfactory, the birds never in fact laying as they should have done afterwards. Up to seven months or a little more, however, it is of great advantage to have the laying thus postponed, as going to the nest daily soon injures the plumage for close competition. A pullet never looks so well as just before she lays her first egg ; and in getting ready for the chief winter shows, a great point in management with successful breeders is thus to turn their chickens into the show-pen in “the very nick of time;” which is best done by keeping them back previously, and then “winding them up” by judicious treatment so as to arrive at their very best just when wanted. As to the ages which afford the greatest facilities for obtaining this result, we have often had occasion to observe that pullets have been hatched too soon, and by the time they have to be shown at — let us say Birmingham — have got long past their best condition. From six to eight months, in most breeds, will be the most promising ages in general ; but some breeds — as for instance Spanish — require much more. Cockerels, on the contrary, are generally best at from eight to nine months old, and as far as possible, therefore, cockerels should be bred in the earliest broods, that they may be mature enough for the pullets hatched later. The means by which this can to some extent be secured were mentioned in the last chapter. Which chickens are best for showing will depend much upon the time of year. For early shows the forward, “pretty” birds do best (we speak chiefly of cockerels; in pullets there is not so much difference), but such rarely make the largest and finest fowls ; these latter are almost always the big, raw, lanky-looking brutes, only half-fledged when others are nearly mature, and which an ignorant outsider would probably select as the very ugliest of the lot — yet these it is which make the giants of the show-pen, and in December or January carry all before them. Such cockerels, got out early in April, almost always make eventually finer birds than those hatched either later or before. P RESERVING l7 OWLS IN GOOD CONDITION. H7 We have now reared our chickens, and a few words on the preservation in good condition of either these or other fancy fowls may not be without service. The causes which tend to injure this are chiefly the sun, dirt or wet, and injury or wear; and to state these is, in a great measure, to imply the means of preservation. The very best possible arrangement will be, a dry house with a roomy shed at the side floored with clean yellow sand, and with a moderate grass-run in front well shaded with trees. The grass should, however, be kept short by mowing, or the plumage of feathered breeds especially will become draggled. The hole by which the fowls enter their house must be of good size, and all doors should be fastened zvide open when open at all, to avoid any injury to the tails. For the same reason, the perch must be fixed so far from the wall that the tail of the cock can in no circumstances touch it ; and if it rest at the ends on ledges fixed to the wall of the house, a bit of lath should be tacked slantwise upwards from a few inches off the end, thus, _\ A in houses inhabited by light-coloured fowls. The object, of course, is to prevent the birds — the cocks especially — from roosting with their wings against the wall, and thus getting them soiled. Examination should be made every night to see that each bird is properly accommodated, and none squatting in corners on the dirty ground. The fowls, again, should never be rashly driven about or frightened, which often causes the loss of tail or other feathers that can ill be spared. Whenever they are wanted, for show or otherwise, let them be quietly taken from their roost at night, when they will make no effort at escape or resistance. None of these things give trouble — they only require thoughtful remembrance ; but they make a wonderful difference in the condition of birds so cared for over that of others differently treated. In small yards greater pains are needed. A good dry shed will be still the chief point, floored, if possible, with clean sand in which a little powdered slaked lime has been mixed ; and in this the birds which it is wished to retain in good condition should be always confined in wet weather. The yard is better if sanded or gravelled too ; but earth will suffice if necessary, though in this case the birds must be confined except when it is quite dry. Some sort of shelter from the sun must be contrived for all white fowls if there are no trees in the run; for nearly all such biids when exposed to it turn rapidly more or less yellow. Some sort of awning can geneially be devised which will answer the purpose; and the expense is well bestowed on any really valuable pen of white-plumaged birds if occasional exhibition be at all in view. A little morning sun may be allowed, but it may be safely affirmed that nearly all the fowls which appeal at summer shows in such very beautiful white plumage have been kept either under cover or on deeply-shaded grass-runs. Feeding and general health will, of course, be carefully attended to , but on this head we need add nothing to what we have said in previous chapters of this work. We here only remark that when, as frequently happens, only two hens and a cock of first-rate quality can be afioided for one pen it will be well to put some additional hens of any common breed (not too difteient in colour, for reasons given in the last chapter) with the trio, in order to prevent damage to the plumage Indeed, as the summer advances, and the feathers become more brittle, if adult hens are waited for show it is better to keep them from the cock altogether, except for a very brief period morning and evening, and even this should be dispensed with as soon as the breeding season is over. Another point of some importance is that the birds be kept tame. The regular attendant-be he master or servant-should take every opportunity of petting them Without over-feed, ng, two or three odd grains of barley thrown every time of passing will estabhsh fnendly relations ; and. is also well to remain in the run close by the food while feeding By keeping perfectly still the fowls will by degrees come to be quite devoid of fear ; and when able to visit home m e m ) - • ■ , , . -j stroked down like a cat, and come of rhe day we have often had pullets which would stand to bi The Illustrated Book of Poultry . 14.8 crowding round like children if we stooped down to perform any trivial operation. This tame and confiding disposition not only gives a high degree of pleasure to the proprietor, but is of great advantage during exhibition, the birds not being afraid to come to the front of the pen and show themselves off. They should also be accustomed to be handled, by taking them from their perches at night, always quietly and gently however, giving a good look at them, and then putting them back again. By giving a grain or two of corn or some little delicacy after these things, most fowls may be brought to lose any dislike for being thus handled, and will stand to be taken up and put down again, even in their open runs, with the most perfect unconcern imaginable. Of course birds vary in their disposition, and those recently purchased are often painfully wild. Many people also have not time enough at home to establish such intimate relations as this, but some degree of mutual confidence is always possible, and should be established, between the owner and his pets. By attending to such matters as these, and always giving a liberal supply of green food to fowls which cannot obtain any for themselves, the birds will easily be kept in fairly good condition for the time of year. But when actual exhibition is determined on, some additional and special treatment will almost always be necessary, as it is necessary to show fowls with rather more flesh than is proper as a permanent condition. It is well, however, to be very clear on this point. Many birds are shown so fat as to be practically ruined for all other purposes ; and it is to be regretted that all judges do not follow the example set by one or two of the best, of disqualifying such birds, and thus checking a practice which renders practically sterile some of the “best blood” in the poultry -world. This condition is not what we would desire. But we have again and again urged the importance of keeping fowls in general with sharp and eager appetities, or, in plain words, thin ; and this condition is by no means that in which they should be shown, any more than the contrary. There is a proper amount of flesh which greatly sets off a bird in point of appearance, while it is consistent with the most perfect health, and allows the fowl to go back to the breeding-pen undeteriorated : such is the condition to be aimed at. Many fowls are fatter than this already as they run in the yard ; still more are fully as fat ; and some may naturally ask why this last condition at least should not rather be maintained, so as to save the trouble of “ getting the birds up” when wanted. The reasons are several. In the first place, birds cannot be continuously kept in the condition desired ; it is as in training men or animals, and the most perfect state can be produced and maintained for a given brief period, but not beyond. Again : birds so kept, being less eager for food, would take less exercise, and hence be more subject to disease, which risk it is desirable to prevent ; besides which, in attempting to maintain the condition supposed, there would be a continual risk of over-feeding, which is much less in a short course of special treatment, when special attention can be given to prevent it. And finally, as most of the ingredients which improve the condition of the plumage, and which would still be necessary, are also of a fattening nature, in fowls so kept there would be no room left for the regimen desired. On all accounts, therefore, it is far better and easier to keep the fowls only in fair stock condition of flesh, giving what care to the plumage is possible, and “ wind them up” to the best condition when wanted. We need scarcely say that the selection of the birds is very important. The most prevalent mistake amongst beginners, when they are led to suppose their birds are good enough for exhibition, is to send as many as possible ; many and many a mistake of this kind have we made ourselves, and almost impossible do we find it even now to resist the temptation. It is some trouble to send at all to a show ; and when the mind has been made up to do this, it seems hard to keep at home birds that we know are good, and fairly worth a high price. We are apt to forget that, besides a mob of chance breeders, any of whom may unexpectedly show specimens of commanding merit, there are probably at least half a dozen really careful breeders who will compete with us. In Selecting IJ/qds foe Show. 149 simple fact, the competition at good shows is now so severe that only the best birds oi any man have a reasonable probability of winning ; and hence the most experienced exhibitors usually show very few, except in the cases where they enter a number of cockerels for sale. To do otherwise is to lose much money in entrance fees ; and we would strongly advise the beginner to send only his best cockerel, and his best pair of pullets or hens, or of both. It may be hard to determine which these are ; and it is a great advantage in this respect to put the birds into the pens we have already recommended for other reasons, where they can be closely scrutinised. Under such an inspection, many hitherto unforeseen faults become apparent ; and it will moreover be found that those birds which appear best as they run in the yard are not always the best-looking when in the pen. Every extensive exhibitor uses such pens occasionally to make his final selections ; and for this purpose, for the close and deliberate study of their points apart from the bustle of a show, or for preparing as already described in view of actual exhibition, there can be nothing which will be of more vital service to an amateur. Any pairs of hens or pullets more especially should be scrutinised to see if they match ; and we may add that matching in the heads and breasts is perhaps the most important to secure, though any great difference in the colour of other parts would be also fatal in good company. English fanciers are far more particular in this respect than American, on account of the much keener competition ; and hence, when pairs were generally shown, a first-class “ matched ” pair of birds was worth perhaps four times as much as a single bird of equal quality. Thus, if a fine single pullet were worth £$, an exactly matched pair of equal merit would probably realise £ 20 . Since single birds have been in fashion, this is not so. In thus selecting birds, distinction must be drawn between faults which are nearly fatal, and others which are matters merely of comparison. Thus, a lopping comb would be fatal to a Hamburgh, and so would a white leg ; but marking is simply a matter of greater or less perfection. In Spanish, a red face would be fatal ; but the extent of the white face is matter for competition. It is of course necessary to go occasionally to such shows as are within reach, that it may be really known what quality of birds has a fair chance of winning ; and it may not be advisable always to send the best specimens to a small show, where the spare birds may be good enough to win, but rather to keep them back for a more important one some time after, when the very height of condition and appearance may be needed to give any reasonable chance of success. A very experienced breeder — no other, in fact, than Mr. F. Wragg— has often told us that he likes his favourite cockerels to be “ kept well under ” by larger or fiercer birds till some weeks before showing not of course to be regularly thrashed, but sufficiently driven about to keep them always hungry for their food and intent upon it. Then, some fortnight 01 three weeks befoie showing, he would put a bird by himself with a couple of old hens, and the effect was wonderful, “ making a man of him ” as if by magic. He would set himself up, and learn to show himself off, and assume airs and style which no other treatment would produce. To the truth of this we can personally testify, and the hint may be useful to others. Poultry kept in a well-shaded grass-run and good shed, and properly cared for, need only a somewhat special diet for a few weeks before the show for which they are required The breakfast of soft food should be somewhat increased ; and a moderate meal added at mid-day. Some good authorities advise toast soaked in old ale to give spirit ; but this is not always safe, especially in hot weather; and we could never satisfy ourselves that any marked effect came of it, while none of the best poultry-managers that we know ever use it for this purpose, though they may now and then employ it as a remedy or restorative. A piece of cooked meat the size of a walnut, chopped up daily for each fowl, will be a far better means of accomplishing the same object Two or three times weekly during the period of preparation, lmseed should be added The I llustrated Bock of Poultry. i qo to the soft food. The effect of this is sometimes extraordinary in giving lustre to the plumage ; but it must not be overdone, and twice or thrice weekly is as much as is safe. The linseed is to be stewed gently in a moderate quantity of water till it forms a jelly, and with this (using seeds and all), instead of hot water, the soft food is to be mixed cn the proper days ; using enough of it to bring the meal to a proper friable consistency, as so often spoken of by us, and no measure of quantity being needed. A little hempseed given in the evenings instead of a portion of the grain, and a little sulphate or citrate of iron in the water, will bring out the red in the combs and wattles, and make the birds all they ought to be. Over-fattening is most carefully to be avoided, a nice, plump, handsome condition being all that is allowed ; and to this end great pains should be bestowed in the feeding, the fowls never being given quite as much as they will eat, but allowed to leave off while some appetite is left, and particular care being taken that the crop is never distended with hard grain. Some rice, well boiled in milk, given twice during the week before exhibition, will be almost a sure preventive of purging. Nothing further will be required in the circumstances described, except to make the fowls tame if required by occasional penning, and to see that the heads and legs are properly cleaned before sending ; unless the birds should be very light in colour and require washing altogether. In cleansing the heads and legs, which should be done a day or two before sending off, the best implement is a good nail-brush, with which the parts are to be well scrubbed with soap and water till perfectly clean and bright, and then thoroughly rinsed. After this the birds are best turned into a room or pen littered with clean straw. A very large proportion of exhibition poultry, however, are kept in small yards, and are hence in a more soiled condition to start with than those which run on fresh grass. Their shed at least should be floored with sand if convenient ; but it is not always possible to do more. In this case the best plan is to provide a sufficient number of pens, resembling those used at exhibitions, but larger, in which the birds, after cleaning the heads and legs as before, can be confined for a week or two in order that the general plumage also may lose that soiled, or rather, as we might call it, dingy appearance, which birds kept in such yards generally acquire, and which can in fact only be avoided by having the whole j yard laid in sand or fine gravel kept scrupulously clean. The proper size for these pens will be about three feet square ; and if there be first of all scattered on the bottom some clean sharp grit to assist digestion, and over this some finely-cut clean chaff, the whole being scraped out and renewed every morning, the birds may be thus confined for weeks without detriment to health, and will almost daily improve in cleanliness and plumage upon a diet arranged as already hinted. Grit alone in the pens rapidly becomes dirty, and soils the plumage, while chaff only does not supply the needed material for digestion ; but by combining both as we have said each object will be secured. Another plan is to turn the birds intended for show into an empty room or spare compartment, well littered with clean straw ; the scratching in which for grains of wheat purposely thrown there helps in cleaning up the plumage considerably, and in the case of yellow-legged breeds has the merit of bringing out the colour of those parts as well. We should prefer this mode of treatment where possible, but when several cocks have to be shown it must be manifestly often impracticable for want of room ; and the system of penning as described will do nearly, if not quite as well, whilst it has the advantage of getting the birds used to confinement. In any case, indeed, fowls not previously accustomed to it should be occasionally penned before showing, in order to get rid of that shy and frightened air which otherwise is often very evident, and greatly diminishes the chances of winning. Of course, with fowls penned up as supposed for a fortnight or three weeks before a show, the greatest caution will be needed to avoid over-feeding. It must always be remembered that Washing Fowls for Exhibition. ^ the object is not to put on all the flesh possible, but simply to get the birds into clean and brilliant condition , adding, if needful, enough flesh, and no more, to make them “look their best.” The rule of always leaving a little appetite to spare will be a pretty safe one; and by attending to it, the judicious use of linseed, hempseed, iron tonic, and a little meat, will do all that can be desired. After our many cautions on that head, we need hardly repeat that fresh green food must also be regularly given ; without that all other treatment will be useless. Such a regimen as we have described would be improper for some breeds, as Game, which require to be shown in “ hard” condition. For the treatment of Game we would refer to the chapter on that breed. Hamburghs are generally kept on good grass-runs, and then require nothing beyond washing, and a little meat and iron tonic to make them lively in their appearance and brilliant about the heads and wattles. Hardness of leather is often improved materially by partly feeding the birds on small peas. The treatment we have now spoken of will be all that is needed for breeds of dark or medium- coloured plumage ; but with white or light buff fowls a thorough washing of the entire birds will be more or less frequently required, to attain the beautiful purity of colour which is essential to winning in good company. We have often seen the best pen of White Cochins at a show lose other- wise certain honours merely for want of a good washing ; and while such has often provoked strong remonstrance, we must say we think the penalty perfectly right. No doubt the stress on cleanness of appearance might be carried too far ; but as long as so considerable a number of points is given to “colour” in judging a fowl, the perfection in which that colour is presented cannot be a matter of indifference. It is in washing his birds that an amateur’s difficulties and discourage- ments often begin. He may know that his fowls are the best that are likely to be sent to a show ; he may have succeeded perfectly in keeping them in fine health and general condition ; they may in fact be such that a professional poultry-man would almost infallibly win with them ; and yet he may probably lose for want of experience in washing them. We were once much amused at hearing one of the most successful and “ knowing” men in the fancy — one who rarely shows for his employer now without winning— relate his first experience, when, as a youth of eighteen, he entered a “pen of Whites” on his own account for a neighbouring show. “You would hardly believe it, sir,” he said, “ but I stopped up all night washing ’em, and they was as black as sweeps when they was done.” We do not think any instructions will make a good washer without some practice ; but it is not difficult to describe how the operation ought to be performed, and it should be practised once or twice on second-rate fowls before the most valued specimens are subjected to the risk, for a white fowl badly washed will not stand so good a chance as if not washed at all. The great secret of good washing is to ensure the thorough drenching of the birds ; the most frequent cause of failure being an attempt to keep the under plumage dry. The following remarks are by Mr. Elijah Smith, well known to fanciers as one of the best breeders and most successful exhibitors of White Cochins. No one could be better qualified to give instruction ont his subject, and the following is his method of proceeding . “Take a wash-tub ten or twelve inches deep — oval shape is the best, on account of the bird’s tail ; let the tub be sufficiently large to hold the bird comfortably. Then take of clean soft warm water and fill the tub (or tin) about three parts full, so that the bird when pressed down by the hand in the water will be covered over its back, up to the neck. Then take white soap, and a sponge, and rub it in the water until it is well mixed, and you have good suds , and rub the bud well with soap on all the dirty parts, and keep sponging the bird well until you can see that it is quite clean, which you will be able to see very plain when wet. Do not be afiaid to lub the feathers, as it Mill *52 The Illustrated Book of Poultry. do them no harm, as long as you do not lay on so heavily as to break them. If the bird is rough in the water, as some that have never been washed before sometimes are, keep one hand across the bird s back and wings, by which means you will easily hold it quiet. Be sure and rub your hand well among the fluff and feathers about the breast. “To wash the head, take it between both hands, and rub it well backward and forward, as if you were washing something in the balls of your hands. Do not be afraid of the water going into its mouth, as the soap and water will do it no harm whatever, but the contrary, as it will tend to clear it out ; in fact I have often washed birds when I could not get anything else to cure them of disease, and it has answered remarkably well on many occasions. “ When you see the bird is quite clean, then take and rinse thoroughly with clean cold water : put plenty on it, until the soap is well out, for if you leave any soap in, the feathers will not come right in a reasonable time. When clear of soap, let them stand to drain a little, and don’t be afraid of their taking cold, as the cold water prevents that by closing all the pores of the body : then press as much water off the feathers with your hand as possible, and, as I said before, don’t be afraid of hurting the feathers, as they will come all right again as they begin to dry, and will begin to web again in the course of an hour. When this is done, take the bird and put it before a nice fire — not too hot, but what we should call a good fire — and keep turning them with the wet parts towards it, taking care not to have them so near as to blister their face and combs, as they soon blister after washing. When the birds are nearly dry, you may put them in baskets that have got lining in, such as we use for exhibition; and if night, you may put three or four together, if the basket is large enough for them to lie down in comfortably. By this means it will create a warm steam that will pass through the whole of the body-feathers, and cause them to web beautifully, and the bird will be quite ready for exhibition in twenty-four hours. “ If the bird is looking very ill after rinsing, keep it in motion as much as possible, by getting hold of it under the breast with one hand and lifting it up, when it will use its wings freely, and this will cause the blood to circulate ; also give one or two cayenne pods, which will warm it as well. This is when you see a bird that goes black in the comb, and looks as if it would die, which heavy birds sometimes do ; also handle them pretty freely, as it will do them good. Sometimes a bird will faint when put in warm water to wash ; in that case I always throw cold water on it, when the bird will recover at once, and after a minute or so you may put it in again, and finish washing it without its showing any symptoms of fainting again.’’ Most good washers prefer to dry the fowls after washing in a cage or box of ample size, littered with clean and well-broken straw. This box is to be wired in the front and top, but closed at back and sides to prevent draught, and placed with the open front at just such a distance from an ample fire that a genial warmth may fill the box ; but avoiding a scorching heat. We may add that it is in drying that judgment and experience are chiefly required, as too strong a heat withers up the plumage and makes it ragged, while too little causes it to hang together and appear draggled ; but if the right temperature be hit upon and the soap has been thoroughly washed out, by degrees the plumage fills out, and in a few hours the birds assume their “company clothes.” It is to assist this that Mr, E. Smith so strongly advises leaving the birds with a little dampness still in the plumage, the steam assisting the fresh webbing of the feathers. In summer time the cage may be put out in the sun if preferred ; but the glare seems to distress the birds much, and we should prefer a fire. Some poultry-men are unusually clever in drying fowls, and by holding them near the fire and carefully removing them for a little whenever they appear distressed with the heat, manage to avoid the scorching we have spoken of, and can dry a pen of Cochins Form of Hampers for Fowls Travelling. in about two hours ; but we cannot nrpt-pnri n-; <1 • , can only be successfully practised after great experie^lT be'en ‘ittL'ned" what may be done by an adent lmwwmr , example ot , , 1 ’ 0Wever’ we nmy rclate Within our own knowledge that the wnter of the preceding remarks on a certain occasion received back his birds atlbout o clock m the morning fed then,, washed them, returned them to the hampers all wet as they were, and got off with them by rail for another show at twelve ; taking them Lt and drying them first prirr. “ JimCt'°n °» his W ‘he exhibition, where he again carried off the The best hamper in which to send fowls to exhibitions is that shown in Fig. 50, or one made o S -C t on wicker, in a circular form, with a cover hinged in the middle. This is to be lined with Fig- 5°- coarse linen, canvas, or some other cheap material, and the cover may be secured with a small strap and buckle, or simply tied down with string. For Brahma, Cochin, or Dorking cocks, the proper size is about twenty-two inches diameter and twenty-six inches high ; and for pairs of pullets about eighteen inches each way. For other breeds the size will vary ; but it is good economy to have them rather too large than too small, for fear of damage to the plumage. Geese and turkeys are generally sent in oval baskets, the size of which must depend on the judgment of the exhibitor. Some use baskets made of close wicker ; but these are both heavier and more costly, and the general preference for the skeleton pattern, properly lined, is conclusive testimony to its being almost universally considered the best for such journeys as are necessary to any British show. For the longer distances of the American continent the same pattern will suffice, if an attendant accompany the fowls ; and even when this is impracticable will answer well (provided the journey does not exceed thirty-six hours) if a good fresh cabbage be tied to the inside of the hamper near the top, and half a loaf on the opposite side. This is best done by passing through [ 54 The Illustrated Book of Poultry. each a long packing-needle, with a stout cord. The bread should be arranged with the crumb facing the inside of the basket, and be moistened with water or diluted port wine, For longer journeys it will be needful to provide an aperture, in front of which are fixed food and water-tins, with a request to the express agents, as the persons in charge are called in America, to feed and water at due intervals. In this request bread and milk, or some other soft food, should be specified, as it is very injurious and even dangerous to feed poultry on hard grain whilst travelling. For some years past the great majority of shows have adopted a suggestion made by us, and allow two or more pens to be sent in one basket, which saves much in trouble and carriage. Baskets are accordingly made extensively in two or more divisions ; but the skeleton wicker is still the best known method of construction. The last thing before despatch, the heads should have a final wipe over, and be “ freshened up,” to bring out the red, and produce that beautiful coral-like appearance which so sets off a bird in the show-pen. Most breeders use a little salad-oil for this, putting it on with a sponge, but taking care to give a very slight greasing only, and to avoid soiling the plumage. This answers well with birds off grass-runs, but is apt to produce, after a few hours, a very dull appearance in fowls from small yards. For such it is better to use vinegar, either by itself or diluted with half its bulk of water. By carefully sponging with this, the colour is usually brightened considerably. Others, again, use an ointment composed of cocoa-nut oil and turmeric. We should advise com- parison, and adoption of the best of these, having found even our own experience by no means uniform ; but whatever the material, all surplus should be carefully removed with a squeezed sponge. Last of all, any bent or broken body-feathers should be removed, and a last smoothing over be given with a silk handkerchief before placing the birds in the baskets for sending off. We prefer always to put the birds in their baskets at night, when it can be done in peace and quietness ; and even if they do not leave till next morning, they can easily be fed in their hampers before departure. Fowls sometimes arrive at shows very much the worse for their journey. In this case, the best thing is to administer to each a table-spoonful of port wine, and a bolus containing some such restorative spice or condiment as given at page 141. After this a moderate quantity of food and water may be allowed ; and the fowls, if not too far gone, will “ pick themselves up ” rapidly. Sherry does not seem to suit fowls as a rule, and if we could not obtain port wine, we would substitute brandy or whisky diluted with water. In the majority of cases birds need no treatment after returning from a show ; but it is always best to feed them the first day on soft food alone, and to put them on an allowance of water. If they appear feverish, a little warm bread and ale should be given, followed by a tea-spoonful of castor-oil. If exhaustion and debility appear, some port wine, and half a thimbleful of condiment mixed in a bolus of meal, may be administered ; but these are exceptional cases. A brood cock may be put back after feeding to his usual run ; but we would give a special caution against returning cockerels sent to a show for the first time to their old walk with the others. If their absence has extended over three days, and often even when less, they will not again agree, but begin to fight with great determination ; and as the system is often unusually excited after exhibition, this involves considerable danger — cockerels thus fighting not very unfrequently dropping down dead from apoplexy. For this reason, as we stated in our chapter on Poultry- yards, a number of spare separate pens, in which unsold cockerels can be placed alone, become highly necessary where more than a very few exhibition birds are reared. When not overfed, some fowls will stand a wonderful amount of exhibition, especially if they can be freshened up on a grass-run in between ; but birds thus continually shown require a most Evils of Over-showing. J55 thorough and careful examination before each time of sending olf, to see that they are really fit to go, and are not suffering from the strain. If they do appear to be sinking in any degree, it will be far better to miss the chance of another cup in order not to risk the bird, to say nothing of such a small thing (to many people) as mere humanity. We have been often sickened and disgusted — plain words are just as well — to see noble birds make their appearance at show after show, all the time steadily sinking, until at last the once magnificent cock cannot stand in his pen. People who act thus are generally the reckless buyers we have already spoken of ; who buy their fowls, not because they care for them, but merely to win: and it is, perhaps, alike difficult and needless to conceal our contempt for any one who can thus consider a living creature simply as a machine for ministering to his purse-proud vanity. This is a very different spirit to that which impels another man, who acquires, or still rather breeds, the best birds possible, because he really appreciates them ; and who feels a just pride in showing these triumphs of the breeder’s art, because success is felt to be deserved. Such a one will care first of all for his birds ; he will treat them, and use them, and show them, fairly ; and he will be able to give a just and hearty congratulation to any friend who can show a better pen than his own. We well remember once hearing a poultry-man, who had sold his favourite cockerel for a great sum, bitterly regret it on seeing the poor bird almost hope- lessly broken down at the end of the season, and indignantly affirming that “ had he known how he would have been knocked about,” he would rather have given him away to a “ real fancier ” than have sold him to the actual purchaser for double the amount. To encourage the one spirit rather than the other is one object we have in writing these pages. CHAPTER XIII. SHOWS AND JUDGING. We have seen during the past few years so much mismanagement in connection with new poultry exhibitions, arising from ignorance of the manner in which such affairs should be managed, that a few hints on the subject may not be without service. The fact that the largest and best shows in England have by degrees all settled down into very nearly the same system of management, shows that this system has by experience been proved the best ; and that plain business-like simplicity of method is found in the long run better than the pet plans of any particular amateur. Regarding the getting up of a show, and the general composition of a Prize Schedule, we shall say scarcely anything, as the perusal of a few other schedules would impart information better than anything we could advance. When it is said that the support to be obtained in the neighbourhood, and the breeds most popular there, should be carefully studied, there is in fact little more to say ; and we would only add a caution against allowing any particularly enthusiastic fancier to over-persuade his committee into attempting to make a “ first-class ” show in a neighbourhood where it is impossible to support more than a small one. We have several times known this to result in a loss of from one to as much as three hundred pounds. The fair probabilities of success are what should be considered, though there is no doubt whatever that in a central locality where there is room for it, and a building large enough, it is quite possible for a first-class schedule, with £500 in prizes, to pay handsomely, where a more timid one of half the amount might involve a loss. The question of cups is also worth reconsidering among committees generally ; an opinion having been growing among fanciers of late, as we know from an extensive personal intercourse, that the system at present in vogue is very unsatisfactory. A lady of high rank, who had been unusually successful in prize- taking, quite lately pointed out to us her immense stand, crammed full of these useless appendages, and expressed her regret that so much useless plate should be forced upon her, adding that she had instructed her man always to take the money when the choice was offered him. No one could be more free from penuriousness of disposition than the titled lady who made this remark ; but the simple fact is that the amount of money annually zvasted in thus forcing plate upon people who do not want it is enormous. The expenses of first-class yards are very great, and money won in prizes forms quite a legitimate part of the return : but the usual system at present is, when a five or seven guinea cup is given among several classes, for the winner to lose his first prize in money (£3 at most good English shows) ; and we have repeatedly heard people say that “ but for the honour ” they would rather have had the £3 in money than the useless silver, presumed to be (though not always really so) of several pounds higher value. We have spoken to many members of committees on the matter, and there are signs of a change in this respect ; but however this may be, our own decided opinion is that it would be far better to announce, in lieu of cups, a certain amount “ in plate or money ” as preferred, to be given in addition to the usual prize. A small cup would be equally useful for those who wished it, to perpetuate the memory of their triumphs, and the prize in money would remove what has long been a very sore point with many exhibitors ; the working of the Form of Entry-Papers. I57 present system being that the most successful exhibitors receive the least amount of money prizes, being saddled instead with plate which they do not desire. A fourth prize is also very desirable wherever possible ; and when not, a “ certificate ” may often be made to answer for it at a small expense. The fine quality of many of the fifth or sixth prize birds at Birmingham shows con- clusively the need of more than the conventional three prizes at some other exhibitions. The form of the schedules matters little, though the increasing preference for an octavo pamphlet shape may be taken as proof of its superior convenience ; but the form of the entry- papers is of some importance to easy and certain tabulation in the catalogue. Birmingham Show at one time required a separate entry-paper for each pen of birds, but has abandoned the system now for some years ; and the addition of one or two columns “ for secretary’s use ” to forms con- taining several entries in one table, has in our opinion given the balance of advantage to the tabular form. The following is the best form of entry we are acquainted with ; it should contain ruled spaces for about a dozen pens of birds, and bear in conspicuous type the date the entries close, and any other needful particulars, besides the details at the bottom : — ON MONDAY, JANUARY 8, THE ENTRIES CLOSE FOR THE GREAT INTERNATIONAL POULTRY [AND PIGEON] SHOW, To be held January 19, 20, and 22, 1888. Entrance Fee, 5s. per pen [for Poultry, and 2s. 6d. per pen for Pigeons]. Catalogues will be sent post free for Thirteen Stamps. Post-office Orders to be made payable at the [Central] Office, to the Secretary. Stamps will [not] be taken in payment [if taken add rate]. All communi- cations to be addressed to the Secretary [add his address], and if requiring a reply must contain a stamp. For Secretary’s use only. Class. Breed. Age. Price. To the Secretary of the Great International Poultry Show. I beg to enclose Cash for Poultry Entries C - [Extra line for Pigeons, if required.] Catalogue and Postage (if desired) • • • • Total ... ••• ••• £ * . The above are entered subject to the Rules and in thC 3chcdule °f Issued by die Committee Signed, — o The Illustrated Book of Poultry. i^8 W At one time several important shows were conducted upon the system of “double numbering,” the number upon the label sent to the exhibitor being different from that actually upon the pen. The supposed advantage of this plan was the impossibility of the judge knowing the numbers of any favoured or ill-favoured exhibitor ; but it has long been recognised that the only real guarantee against spite or favouritism in judging must rest in the character of the judge himself, and such expedients are now abandoned. A more real and practical evil is hurry and carelessness in preparing the catalogue at many shows, often arising from the acceptance of entries long after the advertised date of closing. This may usually be suspected when there are many duplicate numbers, as no, iioa, iiob, and there can be no doubt that such practices are distinctly illegal, and that if it could be proved that a prize was won by an entry made after date, it could be recovered at law by the highest in rank of the legitimate entries. A much better and quite fair plan, now often used at large shows, is to have a date for closing ordinary entries, but to announce the acceptance of “ post-entries ” up to a later date for an extra fee. But this date also should allow fair time for catalogue purposes, and be adhered to as rigidly as the other. The unfortunate fact is that at present there are too many shows to be all adequately supported, and secretaries in most cases seem unable to exercise the Spartan virtue of refusing entries under any circumstances. Indeed, cases have been reported in the poultry papers of secretaries actually writing and soliciting entries from certain exhibitors after they are supposed to be closed, with the statement, as an inducement, that there were “ hardly any entries in the class,” and that their specimens were there- fore almost sure to win. A catalogue is easily and promptly prepared from such entry forms as described, if done in a proper manner and always kept up to date. The first entries received under every class should come first in the catalogue of that class, according to an understood rule in exhibition matters. The catalogue should therefore be commenced at once in blank with the heads and details of the classes filled in, and entered up as fast as entries are received. There will then be no press of work at all until the last day or two, when the post arrivals come thickly before closing ; and any arrear then is quickly made up a day or two after, if the rules are adhered to. This method also allows time to discover and write about any error that may be detected ; and further allows labels to be despatched a post or two after the last entries are received. It is but seldom business is conducted in this way ; but there is no question that it ought to be and easily might be, with actually less trouble to all concerned than the usual plan of leaving this work to nearly the last. One or two large shows adopt the arbitrary system of distributing the several entries from any large exhibitor amongst the class, which is preferred by some exhibitors, as being supposed to give them a “better chance.” It is more really useful to see the “ lot ” from one yard together ; but even such a system need not prevent the catalogue work being done, as several entries from one exhibitor may be written in at intervals down the blank page, or the whole catalogue may be written “ wide ” enough to leave 1 room for such insertions at convenient intervals. The best form of show label is one eyeletted at both ends, by each of which it can be secured to the basket. One side bears the address to the show in plain printed characters, with blanks for the numbers and mode of conveyance ; the other is chiefly occupied by a blank direction for return, which is to be fully filled in by the exhibitor. The line of railway, or other conveyance by which return is to be effected, should have a special blank provided for it, to avoid mistakes and delay. The advantage of a label fastened at both ends is, that once fastened or reversed it will remain right for the journey; whereas a label only affixed at one end gives no certainty in which direction the birds are to go at a midway junction, unless by looking at the date, which railway porters will not always do. Many delays have been distinctly traced to this cause. Details of Show M anagemf.nt. T59 Penning should be allotted with judgment, and be also done upon system. As many porters as are needed should be employed in simply putting each basket before its proper pen. If the committee of amateurs can do the penning themselves it will be best, for people unused to fowls often handle them as if they were pigs or sheep, not forgetting to swear at them either. Gentlemen who are accustomed to the large breeds should see to them , and vice versa ; for a man who keeps Cochins is uncommonly apt to let a nimble Game Bantam slip through his fingers and fly up to the roof, to the despair of the unlucky bungler; while, on the other hand, an amateur whose experience has been in small breeds only, will be apt to ruffle very unnecessarily the Brahmas and Cochins, being unable to get his hands round them.” Method is necessary even in penning, for few who have not tried it would suppose how very easy it is to put the birds safely in their pens, and then — forget to shut the door ! There is, of course, a right and a wrong way of handling poultry at exhibitions. The wrong way is to catch hold by the leg, the neck, or especially the tail, by which last process we have seen many a feather successfully extracted. The right way is to take hold with both hands, gently but firmly, the thumbs over the shoulders of the wings, and just meeting in the middle, while the fingers go under and embrace the body and thighs. It helps matters much if the exhibition hall be darkened so that the pen numbers can only be just seen, as the fowls are then much more quiet, and easily handled. If the pens can be arranged in single tiers only, it will add much to the attraction of the show. When double tiers are necessary, the lower one can hardly be seen for want of light ; and the great champion shows often suffer by comparison in this respect. In many cases, where double tiers cannot be avoided, something may be done by putting the bottom rows a foot apart, and the top ones back to back ; when even the six inches’ projection gives a great amount of additional light from the top to the lower pens. The proper sizes of pens, as furnished us by one of the largest manufacturers, are as follows : — For turkeys or geese, three feet square ; fowls and ducks, twenty- seven inches ; Bantams, twenty-one inches; pigeons, eighteen inches. They can usually be hired at the rate of about one shilling per pen, including cost of carriage ; and the large exhibitions are generally farmed on lower terms than this. Often the pen-hiring and feeding are undertaken by the same contractors. The proper management of fowls at shows is all-important to their return in good health and condition ; and we are sorry to say we have often observed treatment anything but what it ought to be in this respect. On this head we give some remarks furnished us by Mr. John Martin, so long known as poultry manager at Linton Park for the Viscountess Holmesdale, and the truth of which we have had forced upon us on many occasions : “ May I have a word to say on the management of poultry at our exhibitions, as 1 have been an exhibitor at all the leading shows through the country. I must say, I think myself that when exhibitors go to the expense of sending a servant along with their birds, these should be allowed to take charge of their own poultry ; for it is something shocking to see how birds are often treated. They get in the first place dreadfully knocked about by railway porters, as it is extra work for them which they don’t get paid for ; and at most shows the men that are engaged to look after the fowls know nothing whatever about them, and the birds are pitched into the pens in any way so that they are got out of hand. “ Birds after a long journey will drink a great quantity of water, and at most shows there is a tin full of water for them to drink their fill at. Then you will see them turn black in the comb, and put up their feathers all loose and rough, and they do not recover from this for some time, so i6o The Illustrated Book of Poultry. tnat when the judge comes round he passes them by as out of form ; but if he could see them next day very likely they would have a better fate. Get men who understand the management of poultry, and all this would be saved. In the first place, on the birds arriving at the show let them have but very little water, with a small lump of the best oatmeal. The birds should be rather underfed the whole of the show than overdone. I often see food enough in the pen to last them the whole of the show. There is nothing better for the bottom of the pens than some dry grit, with some chaff over this. Let the birds be fed on meal morning and evening, with a little corn in the day : this last thrown amongst the chaff will give the birds amusement in looking after it, and keep them lively. The fowls require different treatment at different times of year, and some buildings where shows are held are not so well adapted for exhibitions as others : at such the birds require extra care and different treatment. At some places you will see birds, after they have been there a day or two, scouring all through the show, through the place being too long lit up with gas, and overheated : such, an experienced manager would have avoided. Other places are too cold, and the birds need different treatment ; so that it would not be easy to lay down rules for feeding, &c., suitable to all shows and all seasons : but the pens should be well cleaned out every day, with a fresh supply of grit and chaff, the water- cans washed out clean, and supplied with clean water. The meal and corn should be of the best quality, and they should not be overdone with it ; and if all is not eaten directly after, let it be taken away. Each pen should have a small bit of turf or a slice of mangel-wurzel put in it daily.” We can fully subscribe to these remarks, having over and over again witnessed the evil effects of the unchecked drinking here spoken of. On the evening of arrival, the water-tins for single fowls should be only one-quarter, and for pairs one-half full, and no more be given till the birds have eaten something. The meal is almost invariably mixed “clammy;” and as the easiest to mix properly friable, we can recommend a mixture of two-thirds coarse oatmeal with one-third of Indian meal. Another fault we have observed, even at first-class shows, and which needs specially to be guarded against, is the giving similar rations to all the pens. We have seen at one of the great shows of the year precisely similar lumps of dough dealt out to cocks on one side of an alley, and pairs of hens on the other ; the consequence being that while the cocks had more than they would eat, the pullets had not nearly enough. Of the value of grit and chaff combined for the bottom of a pen we have already spoken ; and the great importance of a little fresh vegetable food of some kind in all shows extending over two days can hardly be exaggerated. We would only add that the infusion of a little tonic bitter (such as quassia) in the water, will not only tend to prevent the fowls drinking too much, but to remedy any tendency to looseness of the digestive system. Respecting the propriety of allowing the servants of exhibitors to pen their own birds, as Mr. Martin suggests, we fear there will be a great difference of opinion. When such permission has been given, it has often occasioned bitter complaints, caused by the suspicion of unfairness ; but this no doubt has arisen partly from the unauthorised nature of the permission. Were it distinctly understood that any one would be allowed, under charge of some authorised person, to pen his birds and do what he liked to them on the spot, being then conducted out of the building, and not allowed to remain in it or engage in any other proceeding, we imagine few would object : but we fear the trouble of the supervision needful to satisfy other parties that no unfair advantage was taken would be practically a fatal objection ; and without it any such permission would be flagrantly unjust, and has, in fact, led to notorious and serious evils. The engagement of really competent men by committees, or the doing of the work by experienced committee-men them- Details oe Show Management. 161 selves, would solve all difficulties, and prevent the complaint which Mr. Martin makes with only too much reason. Constant supei vision of each end of every main alley has of late been too plainly proved necessaiy, in order to prevent injury or mutilation of successful birds by disappointed rivals. Such occurrences always damage an exhibition, though if due care be taken, it is hard to see how a committee can be blamed in such cases, which no care can absolutely prevent if there be the determination to indulge in such meanness. The unbridled rivalry which can lead to this and similar rascality is the greatest curse of the poultry fancy ; but while it never has been and probably never can be altogether put down, wTe are glad to have remarked through many years that it is always confined to a wretched minority. All that can be done is to stamp upon it wherever it is found ; and while we would, as a rule, prefer legal means for the protection of society, we confess we should heartily rejoice to see the scoundrel who could for mere spite pull out the tail of a brother fancier’s bird, if caught in the act, receive any amount of “ lynching ” in the exhibition hall which did not involve actu-al personal injury. Regular removal and breakage of eggs laid during a show is of the greatest importance. If left in the pens, breakage is sure to occur, and the birds thus acquire the habit of egg-eating. Speaking for ourselves, we would rather even have valuable eggs stolen than this should happen ; but neither should be possible in a well-conducted show. The manner in which the awards are stated in the catalogue is of considerable importance to the pleasure and comfort of visitors. The best plan of all is to have them in the left-hand margin of the page, to the left of the pen numbers ; and if properly managed this plan is also t«he simplest and least troublesome. The printers should be directed to get up the catalogue with a “ three- em quad ” (a space known to them) at the beginning of every line, and to set up the various awards, abbreviated thus — Tst cup, 1st, 2nd, 3rd, K-com., and Com. — to this measure or width, before the awards are made. Then as the various instalments of the awards are forwarded (which they should be at frequent intervals) to the printing-office, the “ quadrat ” is withdrawn and the award dropped in its place, and the whole may thus be ready for press almost as soon as the judges have done. The next best plan is to publish at the end a list in full of the prizes in each class, the method till recently in vogue in Birmingham ; and the worst of all, perfectly disgusting in the trouble it gives, is to publish separately, and loosely slipped in the catalogue, a mere list of the pen numbers which have taken the prizes. One catalogue should be kept exclusively to mark off pens sold, as well as entering them in the sales book. Claiming pens entered below their value formerly occasioned much ill-feeling, when, as nearly always happened, several wanted them. This difficulty was obviated at Birmingham, and afterwards at several other shows, by putting all the prize pens up to auction, and dividing the excess over the catalogue price between the exhibition and the exhibitors. This expedient answers perfectly at the largest shows, but not at the smaller, for want of competition to pay its expenses ; but we may point out that all the advantages of it may be secured by a simple rule, providing that if after the sales office be opened more persons than one claim a pen simultaneously, it shall be sold to the one who will give the most for it, biddings being unrestricted, and excess divided as on the other plan. In this way delay over the many prize pens which are not wanted, and the expenses of a sale, are avoided, while the additional price over any great bargain is equally secured. But however this matter may be managed, notice of all sales made duiing any day should be dis- patched to the exhibitor of the pen by the night’s post. Neglect of this occasions needless , anxiety when the sold pens fail to arrive along with the others at the close of the exhibition. The last feed of corn before the show closes should be scantier than usual, and the last feed ot The Illustrated Book of Poultry. 162 all consist of meal dough, corn being, as we have said before, quite unfit for birds going a journey. Packing will then proceed as quickly as possible, the most convenient means of fastening down the hamper covers being either a long packing-needle and good string, or straight pieces of annealed soft iron or copper wire, about ten inches long, which are easily passed through basket and cover, and then fastened by twisting the ends together. Poultry-men are always anxious to get away with their birds the same night the show closes. This is often very unnecessarily objected to by committees, as a little management will generally allow of it without either danger or difficulty, while too elaborate a “system” will make it impossible. A cheque-book should be prepared, as simple as possible, something like the following : — Ho. 23. Jan. 22, 1872. Mr. Address, Pens, No. 23. Allow Bearer to pass with Pens No Jan. 22, 1872. (Signed) Secretary. Then supposing the show closes at nine o’clock ; from eight to nine those wishing to leave should obtain their forms duly filled up and signed. Sales rarely take place so late, and the counterfoil will enable any that may be effected to be “ stopped” at the door. The catalogue will have at the end an index of all names, with list of all the pens entered by each exhibitor ; and by referring to the sales catalogue to see if any of these have been sold, and adding at pleasure any pens bought (many secretaries insist on sending all “ sold” pens by rail), each form is quickly com- pleted. Then the first half-hour or hour may be devoted to getting these orders packed in regular rotation by the packers, and afterwards handed to the owner’s representative ; the packer calling out the number of the pass, when the man to whom it belongs will claim it and his hampers, and no other baskets being sent out of the hall till all the men who mean to take their birds with them have been dismissed. The door-keeper will see that no man takes out more than the pens on his order, and in this way all necessary objects are accomplished with little trouble to any one concerned. To allow any persons to pack their own birds, however, is not wise ; as several instances have been known to occur of individuals packing birds not their own, the most distant risk of which should be avoided. The remaining birds will then be packed and dispatched as speedily as possible, any which may unfortunately die during exhibition being returned for the inspection and satisfaction of the owners. Care and method are again needed to avoid mistakes, which are a disgrace and future injury to any exhibition where they occur. Should death or loss occur through proved neglect of a railway company, recent decisions have established that the company is liable, notwithstanding any printed announcement that they decline such responsibility, unless the sender has signed a document exempting them from such liability. For instance, so lately as July, 1872, a Mr. Yardley sued the London and North-Western Railway Company for £\o, the catalogue value of a pair of pigeons lost on their line. The Company pleaded that by a printed regulation they declined responsibility beyond a few shillings value, unless such value were declared and insurance paid I IMPORTANCE OF G OOD jf UD G1NG. I 6^ on it. But counsel for the plaintiff showed conclusively that by the “Railway and Canal Traffic Act (17 & 18 Viet., cap. 31) such liability continued to attach to the company, any disclaimer notwithstanding, unless by special contract signed by the sender they had been exempted. It was also held that fancy value should fairly be taken into consideration, but not to an exorbitant extent , and in this particular case the sum was assessed at £>\. Our own impression is that for poultiy damages might be recovered to the extent of about each for valuable birds, but not beyond ; and that in most cases, after the foregoing decision, no company would dispute such a demand, though they might refuse one for a larger sum. That all prize money should be paid, and other outstanding liabilities of any show should be settled promptly after closing, is so obvious as scarcely to need remark. Even the great Birmingham show only requires a month for these purposes, and in most cases a fortnight should be amply sufficient. Punctuality in this matter has a great influence on the confidence of exhibitors for the next occasion. And now we come to consider Judging — that crucial proceeding at every show, upon which so many anxieties and hopes depend. That good judging must be more than anything essential to the healthy condition of the poultry fancy, is so self-evident as almost to be a truism. Almost everything depends upon it, for let there once arise a well-founded conviction that judging is not at least fair and impartial, and the whole system must rapidly come to an end. That it does not, but that shows multiply in number and increase their entries on every hand, is conclusive proof that, on the whole, the judges chiefly employed deserve the confidence reposed in them by exhibitors. Mistakes cannot of course be always avoided, and we have ever found the most honoured judges in England the most ready to acknowledge such if fairly and courteously pointed out. Considering the hours of special study it sometimes requires for an amateur to decide which is the best of even his own birds, which he has himself reared from the shell, it is simply impossible that judges should in one day decide absolutely without error amongst such heavy classes as are now frequently subjected to their awards. The “ordinary run” of birds are often now superior to those which took prizes in the early days of the poultry fancy, and the difficulty of deciding between them is proportionately increased. When, therefore, an outcry is raised for “correct awards,” if it is meant that every award is to be beyond challenge, the demand is simply impossible of satisfaction : no system and no judges can ever satisfy it. What may be demanded are, the strictest integrity, the highest ability, recognised principles of arbitration, and fair time to bring these to bear ; and it is in relation to these that our few remarks will be directed. In regard to integrity, we have already remarked that the confidence which, as years pass on, continues to be reposed in the most valued English judges, is a very simple proof of character beyond corruption. We may add that we have taken the trouble to investigate personally some half-dozen definite charges against judges of repute, and we not only found in every case that they were utterly without foundation, but that in several cases the general conduct of the complainants would not bear examination. We have seen scores of times beginners in the fancy, who happened luckily to possess birds good enough, wrest the prizes of the year from all those veteran exhibitors who have been supposed to “rig the market” with the judges so effectually. Should it ever be * The words of the Act are, “ Notwithstanding any notice, condition, or declaration made and given by such company contrary thereto, or in anywise limiting such liability, every such notice, condition, or declaration being hereby declared null and void though special contracts, signed by the sender, are expressly admitted. In another case, decided in the Court of Common Pleas, in May, 1872, Mr. South recovered ^20 from the Lancashire and Vorkshire Railway Company, for the death of five pigeons caused by delay on that Company s line. 164 The Illustrated Book of Poultry ; otherwise — and when men of no character have been employed we have known cases ot giave suspicion — we would only remark that the fair and honest course is to make specific charges before the proper authority concerned, and not to make reckless insinuations which can neither be examined nor confuted. It is not from judges of doubtful integrity that the greatest dangers to the poultry fancy are likely to arise, but rather from the reckless and debasing rivalry which, without either honesty or courage, seeks to win as the sole object of keeping fowls, and sticks at no means to compass this paltry end. The combination of qualities required to make a good judge is very rare. Few men know many breeds well; and the difficulty of passing from one breed to another without the eye becoming biassed is very great to a beginner. The judge must have at least a competent knowledge of the classes he takes, both in their merits and their ordinary defects, from a show standard. He must be cool, and yet quick of eye; patient and deliberate, and yet decisive and able to make up his mind ; have an opinion of his own, and yet not be crochetty or fanciful ; be honest himself, and yet have a keen eye for the villanies of others. He ought, too, to be able properly to consider the circumstances of the day. This is a point little thought of by exhibitors, who seem to expect that decisions should always be alike ; but consideration of it would explain many otherwise puzzling decisions, and can never be omitted by a good judge. To put this matter plainly, it may be necessary to judge differently according to the different faults prevalent at the time; and we are not sure, when the time comes for a final review of the work done by such judges as the late Mr. Hewitt or Mr. Teebay, and for comparing fowls and the fancy as they left them with the standard of both when they began, if a large part of that work will not have to be credited to a judicious consideration of this point. For instance, supposing the case of a Cochin slightly poor in feather, but of marked merit otherwise. The proper standard of perfection no one doubts; but if vulture hocks were almost universal through too great a fear of this fault, such a bird as we suppose might with advantage have first prize, supposing him better than the rest in other respects ; whereas if bare shanks were becoming commonly shown, it might be equally desirable to pass him over, or only give him third or fourth place, in order to discourage the popular fault Other illustrations will readily occur to the reader. It will follow from the preceding paragraph that we do not consider judging rigidly by a printed Standard, “ book in hand,” as the highest ideal of judging ; and we think American fanciers especially have somewhat misunderstood the place of a “ Standard of Excellence ” in this respect. We were once much amused by reading how at a particular show in the United States, or Canada — we forget which — the judges were two days with their book before they could decide in a particular class ; and we cannot help saying that we would not have given much for their decision when the heavy task was done, taking into con- sideration the state of poultry knowledge in America at that day. Again, when it is proposed that judges shall actually add up the points of various pens, it must be remembered what time will be consumed in judging any large show, honestly, upon such a system. It is also, perhaps, a matter of doubt whether any absolutely perfect Standard — one which shall deal correctly with every case — can be devised ; so subtle are some of the features which mark off a first-class bird from all its competitors. Nevertheless, a correct “Standard of Excellence” may be of the highest use. It may on occasions help even a veteran judge ; it may be of incalculable assistance to the inexperienced, and with study and patience train a good judge ; it may maintain the fixed canons of a breed, and show the amateur what he has to aim at ; it can tell him exactly the real quality of his birds, and almost exactly his fair chance of winning ; and it can at least prevent the amateur public from being Value of a “Standard of Excellence:' i6 misled into breeding wrong through any glaring error in judging. Even beyond that, while we are not sure that “judging by Standard “ is advisable in England, where technical knowledge Is far more defined and general than in the United States, most of what is said about the "absolute impracticability of it, and which to a large extent has formerly been our own view as expressed in previous editions of this work, has long since been conclusively and simply set aside by American experience. All leading American shows were judged by Standard for years; and provided a' competent staff was employed, no difficulty was found in it, except that of time. The fact is universally admitted that the adoption of the system made judging infinitely better and more consistent than it previously was —there. It is remarkable, however, that during recent years the delay caused by “judging by Standard” has been felt a serious grievance, and that the popular demand is now for “ judging by judges as in England,” which has already been adopted by a few of the best American shows. Even so, however, for a Standard generally agreed to in convention, to have thus raised the standard of judging, as it must be and is admitted to have done, is saying very much in favour of the system. Much depends upon how a Standard is used, if it is used in judging at all. Too often the judge or amateur calculates the points for one bird, and then passes on to do the same for another. This is utterly useless, as he may unconsciously judge one specimen more severely in some given point than he did a previous one ; and our own belief is that most objections as to the “ impracticability” of Standard judging are due to this cause. The proper plan is, marking only the birds which are obviously in the race at all, to figure one point at a time throughout the whole. Taking, for instance, comb, that point should be estimated and figured for all the birds before any other point is looked at, and so on. In this way, taking one with the other instantly, a really fair comparison can be made, with far greater ease, and with no tax upon the memory. When all the points have been thus gone through, and not before, the sum totals should be added up. Then, lastly, if the best bird so determined fails to impress the eye, taken generally, as worthy to fill the place to which the figures prefer him, a careful scrutiny should be made to see if any tangible reason can be found for this. In a proportion of cases reason may be found, either in some accidental mistake in the comparative value of some point, or the overlooking of some defect which ought to have been deducted ; or even, it may be, in the “ Standard ” itself having overlooked some point which should be weighed. Figures should always be revised in this way before handing in awaids, though particular care must be taken lest some secret partiality may unawares sway the real judgment. We can affirm from experience that in this manner very satisfactoiy decisions may be arrived at, and such as will alone satisfy the mind in some close and doubtful cases. We still think, however, that the eye and judgment of the best judges will and must continue to be the final authority at English shows ; using “ Standards,” as the name implies, chiefly as permanent canons to which, if correct, it may be expected that awaids will in the main conform, and especially not expecting that a book, however perfect, will enable anybody to jud^e seems by some in both hemispheres to have been expected. Nothing, then, can ever make a judge’s task an easy one, and it is not too much to whatever may lighten the heavy burden of his responsibility shall be scrupulously stu may be done in many ways. Except in very small shows, a whole clear day shou t e a o e -or the task ; and when the public are admitted, as is the practice at some large shows, care should be taken that they are at least rigorously excluded from the alleys where judging ,s actually go,, on. It is impossible to judge calmly in a crowd. The birds should be rather sparingly fed be Hging begins, especially in the Game classes, or handling them will be of little assist The task should be begun with daylight, one or two steady men being in attendance, if possible, 1 66 The Illustrated Book of Poultry. take birds from their pens, and to weigh them if required. Judges can of course take out fowis for themselves; but the withdrawal of a lot of Game fowls is arm-aching work, which may just as well be saved, leaving only the actual handling of the birds to the gentlemen who have to decide upon them. It is better and gives more satisfaction if such assistants are paid men who can handle fowls, and if no members of the committee, unless non-exhibitors, and especially no poultry- men or other interested parties, are allowed in the hall with the judges at all. We have already said we think there is little real danger of corruption; but “people will talk,” and a judge, like Cossar’s wife, should be above even suspicion. Refreshment of some sort will generally be neces- sary before the work is over, and we would remark emphatically that it is far better to allow half-an-hour’s rest than to partake of it “ anyhow ” — a little real repose in a chair will do wonders, and the time is by no means lc»st even as regards the closing of the task. For the following remarks on judging we are indebted to one of the most experienced and valued judges in England, the late Mr. Richard Teebay : — “ With regard to judging poultry, it is a very great mistake for more than two judges to go together. With two judges, by far the best plan is for one to begin at the beginning of the class, and the other at the end, marking their books as they go through the class, and then compare the books, which will (if both are experienced judges) be often marked so much alike as to settle the prizes without further examination of the birds ; though they may in strong classes have to look over them again to settle the highly-commended and commended pens. It generally happens that where there are four prizes in a class the fourth prize will give the judges more trouble to decide on than the other three ; in fact, the third and fourth prizes take very far more — at least double the time in awarding them that the first or second prizes do. “With regard to the time generally allotted for judging at poultry exhibitions, if the rules were strictly adhered to as to the time the birds are to be ready for the judges, and the judges’ books are properly made out in time, the time for judging would generally be amply sufficient; but at nearly every English show, where birds are allowed to be taken in in the morning, at least two hours is generally taken up from the time the judges were to begin. Then again, at more than half the English shows the judges’ books are either not finished or in some other way delayed, so that more time is again lost: in either of the above cases the judges waiting, perhaps in no pleasant humour, to begin. It is remarkable that delays from either of the above causes very rarely occur in Scotland. “ It may be said that judges have a great deal larger number of pens to go through than formerly ; but, on the other hand, there is a great difference betwixt judging single birds or pairs of hens, than what it used to be when a pen consisted of a cock and two hens, which at many shows used to be put into such miserably small pens that the judge had to turn every bird about in the pen before he could see those behind. “ The pattern known as the ‘ Field Judging-books’ are a great boon to judges, and secretaries also : the plan was first tried at Whitehaven, but the books on that occasion were far too wide, large, and cumbersome. The plan saves the judge’s voice (where cocks are crowing you cannot speak in your ordinary voice) and time in giving in his awards. I cannot for the life of me see why secretaries cannot have the judges’ books ready in time ; but they appear to be the very last things often thought of, while they might be made out as soon as the entries close.” Generally speaking, there are not enough judges. We have gradually acquired the conviction that no one can properly judge more than from 300 to 500 pens in one day, according to the Difficulties of Judging. r 107 character of the competition, and that to give heavier work is unjust alike to the judges and the exh, tutors Two judges, ,f acting together, would require as much time; but our own opinion has long been t lat the best plan of all is to employ single judges, each being responsible for his own awards, and having no more than he can accomplish with credit and success. We have noticed many shows, and have almost always observed that individual judges, if not overworked, gave the most satisfaction by their awards. Thus, we have known a show of nearly 900 entries judged by two gentlemen in concert, a task far too heavy for the one day allowed ; whereas held each taken 450 pens, the work would have been done with promptitude and ease. A. judge can always call in his colleague to advise in any case of difficulty ; but by putting the real responsibility for every award on some one person’s shoulders, we believe the greatest likelihood is secured o.f attaining all that character and ability can give to the task ; while if only a fair amount of work be given them, most judges prefer this method, after trial. We say after trial, because we have known several who strongly objected beforehand to undivided responsibility, who afterwards were as strongly in favour of the plan we advocate. If one judge finally checks over the awards ol his colleague, remarking on any which to him appear erroneous, there will be little risk of errors escaping detection. Judging, however, is a thankless task at best. If all his awards are correct, the judge has only done his duty ; if not, he often reaps abuse in no measured terms. The least, then, that gentlemen who act in this capacity have a right to expect is that time and quiet be given them to perform their task with due deliberation and care. This is by no means the universal rule, however, as we have just seen ; and the neglect of it is the cause of many awards for which the judges are unjustly blamed. The way in which such matters are more usually managed, and his views on the whole subject, are well put in the following remarks by the late Mr. Edward Hewitt, the celebrated English judge, who during his lifetime officiated at far more shows than any other individual, and who in fact devoted almost the whole of his time for many years, gratuitously , to the service of amateurs in this manner : — “ I can endorse to the very echo the remarks of Mr. Teebay as to the arrangements most eligible in the appointment of judges to their customary duties. It is at agricultural shows moie especially it so frequently happens, that though the poultry judge (or judges) have twenty-fold the number of decisions to return that are required in any other division of the show, the poultry- tent arrangements are the last completed of any; and thus these awards are commenced, fiom lack of punctuality in getting the judging-books completed, the very last of an} on the show ground. It is in such cases the efficiency of the arbitrator becomes developed , or, on the other hand, his comparative unsuitability for the manifold duties of office is as painfully manifested. Limited time, coupled with the exigency of getting done by the hour for opening, brings into the strongest light these contradictions. If at such an unexpected juncture league of even an efficient judge proves simply a drag-chain on his own personal exe and relapses into anxiety, hesitation, and uncertainty, the tiial of the able arbitiato p portionately increased — far better at such a time wrould it be to act alone and on responsibility. . . “ I quite agree with judges having their appointed classes, and a sufficiency o . engaged to finish their own awards with comfort to themselves, and m tune or pu ica ion m printed catalogue. When thus allotted, no doubt each arbitrator will exerc.se especial care as o those classes exclusively assigned him ; but putting more than two judges together cons y retards, rather than promotes, active decisions, and not less frequently b«n^wi But quite the most urgent objection made by committees re Y 1 68 The Illustrated Book cf Poultry , expense of engaging many arbitrators ; as even in my own case, when requiring repayment simply of travelling expenses and bed, the cases are numerous where inability to pay even this slight amount is stated to arise from there being “ no funds to fall back upon this year,” on account of the miserably unfortunate weather, or some other like contingency. I have many such instances on hand, and do not myself see the way to improvement from any increased outlay by the managers of such meetings. “It is to be borne in mind I quite approve of a colleague, and think it decidedly best for each pair of judges to be answerable for their own decisions ; but I may confidently ask, where did it ever occur that more than two judges acting together did the work as promptly, or with improved accuracy of awards ? “ I cannot recommend more strongly than deserved the advantages of the so-called ‘ Field Judging-books,’ the principle of which, I may however add, I first enjoyed under the written award-books of Messrs. Jennison, of the Belle Vue Manchester show, some time previous to their introduction at Whitehaven, or being issued in a printed form from the Field office. In short, these books, by the aid of duplicate numbers, check themselves ; ensure accuracy of the returns made ; save much talking ; and, what is of still more value, save time.” When time is short, the quickest way of judging is, in a preliminary walk through the class, to mark off all pens possessing no particular claims to notice, and then more deliberately to consider the rest ; but the best plan is, as described by Mr. Teebay, to attach marks to the more deserving pens, deciding their rank by degrees. In doubtful cases the scales may help to decide, but as a rule the less these arbiters are used the better, though a good pair should always be at the service of the arbitrators. Judging-books should consist of numbers only, the headings of the classes and particulars as to cups, &c., being placed in proper positions. The pattern mentioned above, and sold as the Field books — though they were in use, as noted by both the able judges just quoted, long before thought of or issued from the Field office — are simply duplicate columns for such numbers, and also for the awards, with a perforation between for tearing one set off and handing to the committee, and space at the top for any needful particulars as to classes and other matters. They are still better prepared with rather narrower columns in triplicate , and perforated, when one set can be kept by the judge, one by the committee for reference and putting on prize cards, and the third sent at once to the printer without the delay of copying. It much facilitates the “ carding” business if some proofs of the catalogue in slip are provided, on which the awards can be copied in the margin, to serve as guides to those who perform this duty, which should always go on as fast as the awards are delivered. Besides deciding on the ordinary merits of the fowls, judges have to keep an eye upon attempts to deceive in the shape of fraudulent “trimming.” No one would wish to be hypercritical in these matters, and we would neither shrink ourselves nor seek to debar any one else from extracting any stray broken, bent, or foul feather which, left in, would disfigure an otherwise beautiful bird. Some have professed to be unable to see any line of demarcation between such and actual fraud ; but common sense and common honesty will draw such easily. To remove an accidental blemish is not fraud ; to remove so much as to alter the character of a bird, is fraud, and against all such attempts judges have to be constantly on their guard. The modes of fraud are legion. Yellow legs are imparted by tincture of iodine ; this is best tested with starch. The legs of Game and some other fowls are sometimes varnished to give them the proper appearance ; this can generally be detected by strong spirits. Feathers are also dyed, which can very often be detected, on suspicion, by a white handkerchief slightly moistened. The frauds most difficult of detection Ingenuity of Trimmers. 169 consist in the pulling out of feathers ; which is very hard to establish in some cases, such as the bi easts oi Hamburghs, though comparatively easy in others, such as abstracted vulture-hocks. The most cruel fraud practised is the sewing-up of, or insertion of needles or pins in combs, to hide defects, which we are sorry to say has been detected on several occasions. Other devices almost challenge admiration for their ingenuity ; and against the insertion of false sickles in particular the judge of Hamburghs and Bantams has especially to be on his guard, a good tail in these breeds being of special importance in competition. Such a tail as is shown in our plate of Silver-pencilled Hamburghs, for instance, would cause a bird to win almost anywhere if pretty good otherwise; and accordingly, more than one Hamburgh breeder, even when his best birds are dead, keeps their sickles “for use as required.” The old plan was to cut the faulty feathers down to about an inch long, and to affix the new ones with thread, or perhaps cobbler’s wax ; but such bungling as this would be laughed at now. The stump is cut down as before to a proper length, but the tube is cleaned out, the end of the “ show ” feather inserted, and fixed in with a strong transparent cement varnish, or otherwise, so as almost to defy detection. That it does in fact often escape punish- ment may be seen from the following, extracted from a racy address on poultry delivered to an agricultural meeting. We change names, and even initials, in order to prevent identification, and remove any objection to now republishing the painful details: — “A clever case of trimming was exposed at a poultry-show last winter. In this county there are two great rival poultry-keepers, more particularly rivals in Hamburgh breeding — Mr. X and Mr. Y. X generally takes the first rank, but last year Y almost invariably distanced his rival in Silver-pencilled Hamburghs. According to the ‘ Standard of Excellence,’ the sickle- feathers of the cock’s tail in this breed must be black, or very dark, with a fine edging of white, and in this particular the superiority of Y’s birds was conspicuous ; and at the show in question they were awarded the first prize. X has a poultry-man named Z, and Z was of course put out at his ill luck, and stood ruminating before Y’s prize pen. ‘ His birds are not so good as ours if it wasn’t for their sickles, but they’re stunning sickles, certainly. I can’t make it out how he manages to get them.’ Gaining the consent of the attendant, Z contrived to get hold of the bird with the wonderful sickles, and on blowing into the roots of the tail-feathers, lo ! the murder was out. ‘Well, I’m blow’d!’ said Z; ‘fetch Mr. H.’ Mr. H, who was the judge of the poultry at the show, was soon on the spot, when Z pointed out to him how the natural sickle-feathers of the bird had been cut down to the quill, and the beautiful artificial sickles neatly fitted into their place. Mr. H immediately cut off the borrowed plumes, and gibbeted Mr. Y by affixing a notice to the front of the pen. fully describing the fraudulent transaction.” Our opinions on this subject have long been known. Concerning such frauds as are never discovered nothing need be said ; but in every case of fraud actually detected, unflinching exposure is due to all honest exhibitors. We are sorry to have to add that most committees appear indifferent about the matter, and, in many cases where the judges have fearlessly done their duty by handing in their certificates of the imposture, have either neglected, or point-blank refused, to place the deserved and ignominious inscription of “ Disqualified for fraud ” upon the pen. Such moral cowardice trenches on the very verge of complicity , and we confess that 0111 gieatest fears for the future of the poultry-fancy lie in this marked unwillingness of the managers of many shows, and even of certain judges, to unite in sternly stamping out as much as can be discovered of this dishonest trickery. If a rule were generally adopted to disqualify at a show all the pens of any exhibitor found guilty of fraud, affixing to all such, and sternly maintaining from obliteration p The l illustrated Booh of Poultry . [ 70 some such notice as. “Disqualified on account of fraud in Pen — ,” vve should have a check on these practices which, though not total, would be very generally effective ; and every honest amateur should join in pressing this upon show committees and judges. Both these are in fault, and one of the best judges we have has gone so far as publicly to complain of the supineness of committees in cases actually discovered and exposed by his exertions. We have long ceased to hope for anything Utopian, and we ask for nothing unreasonable now; but it is not too much, surely, to demand that when fraud is detected, judges and committees should show more willingness to act than they generally do, and that some penalty should be enforced by those who are answerable for the conduct of a show. How far this is the case, the following statement by Mr. Hewitt will make plain. In this case a committee was in fault, and the judge had done his duty ; but in too many instances lately the judges also have shown a marked disinclination to interfere with glaring cases brought to their notice. “ After the issue by committees of the customary printed rules against ‘ trimming,’ and which are usually expressed in language so simple, uniform, and stringent, it might fairly be anticipated that where the judges have, in unpleasant fulfilment of their positive duty, disqualified pens for gross violation of the rules thus set forth, the arbitrators might at least confidently rely on the concurrence of the committee themselves in support of the decisions — the positive proof lying exclusively with the judges. As experience proves, this ofttimes is directly contrary to the fact : the committee do not consider their position even then as being obligatory ; they shrink from their duty, and thus the disqualification is after all not enforced, or even publicly exposed. “ Not long since, at one of the largest shows in the kingdom, my colleagues and myself disqualified nearly one-third of the entries in a large class for Dark Brahma pullets, and these disqualifications were duly announced by us, and recorded by the committee, at the time of giving in the awards. No note whatever was made of any of them in the printed prize list, nor by posting “disqualified cards” on the pens, although our especial attention had been, previously to judging, directed by the committee to the rule against trimming, and an hour of valuable daylight actually lost in the discovery and record of these malpractices. When asked the reason of this omission, it was coolly stated, ‘that the committee had just held a meeting on the subject, and it was resolved not to make it public, as it might injure future shows’ — adding they found ‘it would be far more sensible to bring forward some more modest proposal, than to commit themselves to so large and impracticable a scheme.’ A curious incident here followed worth* naming. A gentleman well-known for his fixed opposition to ‘trimming,’ in reporting on this very class, stated the best pen of pullets was unnoticed ; a remark in which he was fully justified, as these birds were the most cleverly though grossly trimmed in the hock-feathers (of both pullets) the judges had ever seen, but so well carried out as to be not apparent in the show-pen. “ I am quite aware that by some persons the opinion is entertained that if offenders as to trimming are dealt with too severely, it might estrange many amateurs who proposed exhibiting from entering on the pursuit ; but my own fixed impression is simply this, that if committees would be at the trouble of making a few unflinching examples of offenders, the raids of these ‘ trimmers ’ on the prize lists would no doubt be at the least very considerably controlled, if not ' held in check altogether. “I have always been averse (as now) to ‘trimming,’ as being injurious to the just rights of strictly conscientious exhibitors, and was myself the first party who publicly wrote against trimming. Having narrowly watched its progress, I can say its advance towards perfection is far greater than most persons accredit. Omitting the question of dyed plumage, pins in combs, and many other schemes that trimming gives rise to, I easily call to mind the very crude attempt Injury done with Impunity. at imposition made some years back of sticking on a Bantam’s tail with cobbler’s wax: but very recently was shown a Game cock, with one of the sickle-feathers so dextrously ‘ imped ’ on as to be only discoverable (even in a perfect light) after the closest scrutiny; although in perfect candour I was previously told cue of these feathers had been subjected to this treatment. In practised hands, it is really wonderful what can be done with the ‘ iinping-needle/ as it supersedes quick- drying varnish altogether. Several feathers from the wing of a trained falcon were as an illustration submitted to my inspection, that had been naturally ‘ moulted ’ after some months of actual hard wear during flight since they were ‘imped;' and yet the point of juncture even when handled remained as firm, and I had almost written as invisible, as when first replaced. As to trimmers and their suppression, my sympathy with half- measures is very slight, and I confidently suggest that rules should be either faithfully enforced, or expunged altogether from the printed regulations.” Being personally referred to in the foregoing paper, we may say that we perfectly remember the case mentioned by Mr. Hewitt, and making the remark stated by him in the course of a lengthy and veiy detailed report of the show in question, undertaken by us at the special request of the editors of the leading English poultry journal. We may add that at a later period — unfortunately too late for any correction — we were convinced beyond question by another of the judges who had officiated in that class of the gross fraud that had been perpetrated, which could not possibly have been discovered without actually withdrawing the birds for examination ; and we are justified in asking by what term should be designated the conduct of those who thus deliberately refused to protect the interests of honest exhibitors ? We have been amused at the persistence with which it has been attempted to get rid of this vital matter by urging the “ impossibility of detecting” every case. This is not the question — no man is responsible for not doing what cannot be done ! But when fraud has been detected — what then ? That is the point ; and committees and judges who wish to avoid the charge of complicity with swindling should study it. One of the committee of the show here referred to, in reply to private remonstrance from ourselves on the injury done to honest exhibitors by such wilful neglect of duty, made use of an argument which we have found curiously common in such cases; viz., that “as the guilty paity had taken no prize with the trimmed birds, no injury had arisen.” This is specious, but none the less false, as will be readily seen : for if duly punished, the fraudulent trimmer would probably be deterred from repeating his fraud, to the protection of the honest amateur , whereas by such disgi aceful impunity he is emboldened to renew his attempt on another occasion, when he may not be discovered as in this case ; and for the injury then done the committee which has neglected any deterrent measures cannot be held guiltless. Owing to the interest we have long taken in this question, we have been so often asked what practicable measures can be adopted, that we venture to frame a rule against the practice which can give no difficulty in working; which gives to the judge his proper responsibility, and to the committee theirs ; and which if carried out honestly would, as we have been assured by many known trimmers themselves , almost eradicate this evil. The last statement may astonish many, but it is simple fact! Several of the most frequent offenders in this way affirm that they are in a measure driven to it by the keen and unprincipled competition that prevails, and that if they could only be assured all would be sternly dealt with on discovery, no one would rejoice at the new state of things more than themselves. Being known, stiong as our opinions on this matter are, never to “ break confidence,” the number of private confessions thus poured into our ears has been astounding, and the social position of some thus compiomised few [72 The Illustrated Book of Poultry. would believe. One such was a clergyman ; and another — a justice of the peace (!) — openly urged that, while he would be rejoiced if it could be stopped, he “ did think there could be little or no harm” in doing what he affirmed “all committees openly recognised and winked at.” These things ar q facts ; and trusting that the statement of them may lead to a better state of things, the following is a rule which we would suggest, to be inserted in schedules, and carried out with temper, but with firmness, on all occasions. We may add that the late eminent judge already quoted pronounced the penalty here proposed to be “ A i ” for its intended purpose, and we venture to say that if it were carried out fairly, we should hear comparatively little more of trimming: — - “ The judges will be specially instructed to disqualify and mark any pens of birds which they may discover to be fraudulently trimmed or altered in character for the purposes of exhibition. In case of any such disqualification duly certified under the hand of the judges to the committee, all the pens of the same exhibitor throughout the show will be also disqualified on account of such fraud ; and both the penalty and the reasons for it will be stated in the prize list, and notice thereof legibly affixed to the front of the said pens. These notices will be maintained on the pens throughout the show, and any one found removing or defacing them will be given into the custody of the police.” After the foregoing matter was arranged for press, we received from the late Mr. Hewitt a third interesting paper on various points connected with the management of shows and the other subjects of this chapter, which we place before our readers with peculiar pleasure, as showing how closely our own recommendations coincided in all but one point with the conclusions of that veteran fancier and judge. The agreement is in truth remarkable, of which a curious proof maybe given. On receiving from Mr. Hewitt the gratifying announcement that such a statement of the results of his vast experience should be sent us if we desired, we thought it well to forward for his perusal, along with our note of acknowledgment, proof sheets of the preceding pages ; but in the meantime he had written his own MS. independently, and the package arrived by post while it was lying, completed, on the table. In a private note accompanying his MS. he states this, and adds, “ My wife, self, and two gentlemen who happened to call in for the evening, had a hearty laugh at the apparent impossibility of any two minds writing so perfectly in unison on any subject, unknown to each other; and, as one of them justly observed, ‘we must certainly be getting very close to the truth to do so.’ As your printed copy and my already written article lay side by side, nobody but some one who saw your package opened could credit that ‘footsteps could follow without previous arrangement in such perfect Indian file.’ ” It is in the hope of leading others also to the reflection that conclusions thus confirmed must be very close to the truth , and hence to the furthering as much as is in their power the interests which both this able judge and ourselves have alike at heart, that with Mr. Hewitt’s permission we mention these facts ; and now proceed to give his remarks without further preface : — “ I am myself, by long experience, perfectly convinced that the so-called ‘open judging’ is not the best adapted to promote the success of poultry-shows ; but that in order to obtain the most reliable awards the judges ought to be screened from constant ‘ touting,’ and from the un- seemly display of violence of temper sometimes ensuing when awards unfavourable to the interests of particular individual exhibitors then on the spot are recorded. Nor is this the worst light in which open judging can be viewed, as may be easily imagined from the following facts: — I have judged ‘openly,’ when exhibitors, after posting themselves on the opposite side of the pens then under examination, have said audibly enough for any one easily to hear, ‘ I bred all my best chickens this year from that hen ; ’ or, as in another instance, ‘ That’s the same cock I won with at show;’ or (as occurred since this has been put in type), when judging with Mr. John Martin, where Mr. Hewitt on Show Management. 1 73 an exhibitor actually came up to us and stated directly, ‘ Those are the best pens in the show, and win wherever they go. They were at the time not judged, and I am glad to say were fairly beaten. Another case quite as annoying to those on whose awards all the responsibility depended is worthy of mention. Since our largest show has adopted ‘open’ judging, a person who had obtained access by payment of the admission money for that especial day — a sum, by-the-bye, which, though large in amount, most probably injures as much one way as it improves in the other the general finances (so far as poultry is concerned) of the show — when civilly remonstrated with by the arbitrators, urged that he had just as much right there as we had , and purposely continued listening to every private remark that emanated from either of us. Finding it simply impossible to go on in this way, we courteously explained that ‘either he must go out, or we must.’ Although evidently a really well-educated man, and replete with aptly-chosen arguments in defence of his paid-for rights, he at length purposely turned his back against the fowls in the next class, to prevent our seeing them, and, in a way more conspicuous and offensive than ever, defied our legal right to remove him. On remonstrating with the committee, who concurred with us that he was not under the influence of liquor, but was most probably trying to provoke others to some show of temper, he was at length with his companion removed, but certainly more by coercion than by coaxing. I may confidently ask, can judges be equally cool and collected under such circumstances as though nothing of the kind had transpired ? “ I look upon ‘open judging’ as a grave and serious blunder, and I say it because, as in all other matters, so in the management of poultry exhibitions by committees, perfection can alone be obtained either by dearly-paid-for experience on the one hand, or by availing themselves of the recorded conclusions of those who have preceded them. My own impression is simply that, in every case where it is possible to carry out the plan (and excepting in an open field, this is easily managed), no person beyond a careful man accustomed to handle poultry should be admitted to the show at all, from the time the birds are all penned until the awards are fully completed. This one attendant (or one to each set of judges) should be a man well practised in taking birds in and out of the show-pens ; and should the judges require his assistance to ascertain beyond question, ‘ by handling,’ any dubious point that may arise, he should be always ready to take out any fowls selected for especial examination, and then withdraw a few yards, beyond earshot, during the time occupied in final consideration. “This leads me on to another item not less deserving of attention, viz., the wilful injury of prize birds at exhibitions. A brief anecdote will be my best explanation. Not long since I was waiting to begin judging at a show, where the arrangements, from a variety of mishaps, proved incomplete for more than two hours after the time originally fixed. I had walked about the field fully that time (or even more) ‘ doing nothing ,’ when it suddenly commenced raining with great violence. I was making off for shelter to the inn, about two hundred yards away, but a committee-man called out, ‘Mr. Hewitt, come into the tent, or you’ll get soaked to the skin.’ I complied, and sat myself down on an empty basket at the entrance. Shortly afterwards, an exhibitor’s man came into the tent, and spoke to me as he passed as to the weather , my ej e naturally wandered after him, as he took a basket he was carrying to a large class of Asiatic fowls, many pens containing specimens at once ponderous and characteristically pci feet. Aftei piomptl) penning the birds with which he was entrusted, he hastily glanced along the class, and seeing a pair he well knew must beat him, put his hand through the door, abruptly grasped the hen by one leg. and shook her violently. I was not long in leaving my seat ; and getting alongside, abruptly asked, ‘ What on earth did you do that for ? ’ His reply was a lie— for it is quite as well to call things by their proper names — ‘They were foighting.’ I rejoined, ‘ If you don t get off at once, I 11 fetch the >74 The Illustrated Book of Poultry. two policemen from the entrance-gate to foight you! The committee were desirous to hush it up, rather than expose the delinquent, for the sake of their show ; and consequently there was no present punishment : still, I am glad to state, the injured hen, though ‘ scarcely able to make a stand of it, to use the words of one of the committee, was eventually (with her companion) the recipient of the first prize. We all know tails of winning cocks have been purposely pulled out on their success being first known at shows, and ofttimes within even a few moments of the awards being announced, by whom, of course, it was next to impossible to establish. There stood the injured birds, as reliable data it had been done certainly by some one, and not as generally urged — by ‘ nobody ! “ I most willingly admit there are quite as honourable individuals among the poultry-men of those exhibitors who show extensively as in any other classes of society ; and I verily believe as strictly conscientious feeling is often displayed by the inmate of the cottage as of the castle : yet I cannot but urge that as these black sheep do occasionally intrude themselves, let the rule be, all out till opening time , and then, with such proviso, no hurt to any fowls can ensue from the spleen and disappointment of competitors, be they whom they may ; for when the show is well filled with visitors such practices will rarely if ever be attempted, conscience, as a general rule, making cowards of the guilty. “ Again, another point. Birds I am confident have at times been changed, prior to, during , and immediately upon the completion of the judging, to obtain surreptitiously some much- coveted premium. This, it appears to me, might also be checkmated to some extent by committees refusing any one admission until the awards are completed ; and to obtain this desirable object also leads to another suggestion against these corrupt practices, striking as they do at the very life-source of our poultry shows, and which in some hands I am really at a loss to characterise in words as strongly as deserved. It is this: — Independently altogether of the judges doing so, let one of the committee go round and mark down all the empty pens in a note-book before the judges commence their duties. It will always be expedient to leave this ‘ checking off’ to the last moment, even if he and the arbitrators both begin together ; but as he would have nothing to do whatever with the awards or relative excellence of the pens on exhibition, a minute or two would send the committee-man far ahead of the prize-giving officials, and would render any after-conflict of assertion as to empty pens impossible. “ Another circumstance that at intervals has given much pain to acting committee-men, has arisen from wilfully displacing the prize-cards; whether simply from that pure spirit of mischief for which there are individuals who hold an unenviable notoriety, or for baser purposes, it is always difficult to determine. Some of the north-country shows have been especially practised upon in this manner. This might readily be defeated by writing legibly on the different prize and commended cards, before attaching them to the show-pens, the number they hold in the printed catalogue. “ The return, along with the survivors, of fowls that unfortunately die during a show, for the satisfaction of owners as to the causes of death — the dispatch every evening by post of notice of birds ‘claimed’ at shows, to allay the anxiety of exhibitors as to their non-return with the other pens — and the rule to prevent committees being held responsible for unforeseen accidents at showrs — were suggestions of my own through the press many years back ; and time has not only confirmed their advisability from their general adoption by committees, but also added to my own first conviction of their utility. I hope some of the present hints may prove equally worthy of at least consideration, and if it is supposed any comments I have written are intentionally personal, I can only assure all parties I had no such motive in their compilation. 175 Pa yment of J ud ges. “ frhe,'e h°We^r’ °ne °ther feature 1 Pass silently, viz., the betting practices of some few would-be-called amateurs (which decidedly they cannot be) as to the deiions. When ,t ,s known that eight and a half guineas have been given simply for the loan of a pen to win a five guinea cup and other cases have occurred where thirty-five pounds have been lost and won by bets on a single award ; it is not difficult to conjecture what these contingencies may give rise to, to secure the attainment of a “win;" or what compromise of all that is honourable, straight- forward, and just may be wilfully accepted for the sake of obtaining such undeserved pecuniary success. General experience since this was written has been in favour of open judging, and so far proved Mr. Hewitt wrong. . A Poultry Club has also been established, which has made a sincere endeavour to put down trimming by a clause disqualitying for a given period all convicted of trimming from exhibiting at any shows held under Poultry Club rules. Undue hesitation in some cases, and undue severity in one 01 two otheis, have, however, prevented this body from having the influence desiiable ; and experience has, moreover, proved that this kind of penalty has, in itself, far less effect than stern retribution meted out in full publicity at the show where the wrong has been done. Something has been accomplished, however, though by no means all that could be desired. We would only add one more remark, relating to the payment of judges. One or two of the best in England act without fee or reward, and have long done so ; but the principle is not a sound one. Able service in this department, as in others, deserves remuneration without being open to any suspicion of being mercenary. Expense may perhaps be made an objection ; but in regard to this point, as with respect to the reprcnensible practice of holding shows in open fields without any protection whatever for the fowls, it is a fair question to ask, if support enough cannot be obtained to carry out such matters properly, whether any show should be held at all ? The multitude of petty shows in England has long been a serious evil ; and if several of these little starvelings were by the pressure of such considerations amalgamated into one, well supported and under better management, all parties would be benefited thereby CHAPTER XIV. BUYING, SELLING, AND EXPORTING. No amateur can get on without occasionally buying other stock ; and every fancier has generally some surplus which he wants to sell ; hence a very few words on these subjects may not be out of place. Our own experience is, that it is easier to sell first-class birds at very high prices than stock of a more moderate quality. It is within our personal knowledge that one poultry-man, at the close of 18S5, had sold four birds for the aggregate sum of ,£195 ! — hence we need hardly stop to prove that there is solid remunerative return for the judicious breeder ; and we need only add that the very best birds cannot be obtained at small sums. We make this remark because we have repeatedly received letters asking the prices of stock, describing what is wanted in words that exhaust all the perfections of any “ Standard of Excellence/’ only to find the remark at the end that it is useless to ask more than a moderate price, as such will not be paid ! To write in such terms is simply the presumption of ignorance ; and we speak the literal truth when we say that eminent breeders are in the constant habit of refusing such sums as £20 for their best cocks or pairs of hens, if they think they cannot spare them without injury to their own breeding prospects. To expect to get perfect birds for such sums as many people seem to imagine is ridiculous ; indeed, a quite perfect bird is perhaps never seen. Yet fanciers every now and then receive such letters as the following, which came to us personally, and which we preserved as a curious specimen of the class to which it belongs. The Italics are those of the writer: — “ Dear Sir, — Kindly let me know the lowest price you can send me a pen of Dark Brahmas to win the cup ai Dublin. They must be perfect in all points, and price must not be very high. “Yours truly, “ L. Wright, Esq. * * * “ P S. — They must be certam winners or of no use.” A breeder will always buy for some specific end ; and we have ere now been glad to give £5 for a heavily-hocked cock, and double that sum for a bird likely to prove valuable as stock, though not fit to show in good company. The best plan when the judgment can be trusted — and we have already advised that no one should buy to any extent before — is either to visit some first-class yard, and there pick out and ask the price of the bird wanted, or to examine the class at some large show where birds are extensively entered for sale. At such a show as Birmingham a good judge can almost always select a sound, valuable bird, at a very moderate price — such as meets his particular want, whatever it may be — but not a certain winner at the next show he sends him to, unless he will pay a corresoonding figure. The same can be done from a good yard ; but in the latter case no price can guarantee a purchaser’s getting the very best bird of the year, for the simple reason that, however good a vendor may know his bird to be, it cannot be known till after competition whether some one else may not have one a little better. We knew a curious case one year, in which a certain breeder sent a Buff Cochin cockerel to an early show, so clearly ahead of PoUL TR V- BREEDING IiEMUNERA TIVE. I 77 all competitors that he was quickly purchased, at the price of £20, by a wealthy amateur; who naturally thought he was about to claim the honours of the year. But it happened that the bird in question was only his breeder’s second best, and the seller accordingly “came out” next month with a bird which beat him easily, and was eventually sold at the high price of £30. One reason of our mentioning these things is to show from another point of view to that taken in Chap. X. how unsatisfactory it will often be to buy a bird merely for the sake of winning with him. Some definite object besides should always be sought, and it will often be found that bird' which really are the best for show are not what is required by the breeder for his particular needs. When the judgment cannot be depended upon, and patience will not hold out till the necessary knowledge has been acquired, we can only advise that some one of character should be applied to, who will give some personal guarantee that the birds he sells are mated as they should be, and will produce some proportion of good chickens. 1 hat proportion will of course vary with the pi ice ; all fanciers have in their own yards better and worse — some hens which hardly ever breed a bad chicken, and some which perhaps only yield ten per cent, of good ones That there are many who will state honestly what their birds may be expected to do, we know from personal experience ourselves when we knew a great deal less than we do now ; but we may add that such honesty does not always meet its due return from the applicants. For instance, we well remember a man once asking for a pen of Brahmas at a moderate price ; and we offered him at an average of two guineas per bird a hocked cock then only a year and a half old, for which we had ourselves given five guineas as a cockerel, and two hens going into their third laying season, short of feather. From this identical pen we had bred as good chickens as we ever wish to see ; and only sold them because it is a rule with us always to sell our hens while they are still good for something, and thus keep our stock young ; and we had no others to suit this cock. We received in reply a most insolent letter, saying the writer supposed we “ did not know he was aware that vulture-hocks were a disqualification,” and hence had tried to “ impose upon him ” with them ! We have had milder cases of the same gratuitous and insulting suspicion, simply because we have honestly specified all the faults our birds had ; and the experience of others has been the same as our own. Honourable feeling is due on one side as well as the other. Really good birds can almost always be sold at fair prices at good shows, especially if one of the entries wins a prize. Thus, if any exhibitor wins either of the first three prizes at Birmingham, any cockerels of fair quality which he may have entered at a price not exceeding £5 each in the major classes, are tolerably sure to be claimed. Highly-commended birds, also, at first-rate shows, will often realise £$ Per Pen 1 bad st°c^ we arc n°t speaking of. In spite of the crowd of exhibitors, the number of really skil'ed breeders in each class is so few, that any one who has the taste, and will give the time, for the stndy of the subject, can make his mark in the poultry world ; and once known as a man who really “ has a strain, he can sell piett} readily — until then it is difficult to do so except at very moderate prices, save for such individual birds as are good enough to make their own merits known. It is a notorious fact, that some ot the most frequent winners are rarely applied to for fowls. It is known that they did not breed their birds ; and the many who are in that secret prefer rather to resort to those carefully-bred yards which they know to have sold the fowls, although owing to the very fact of such sale they may be making just then less noise in the world. When a little solid reputation has in any way been established, it pays to advertise any surplus stock. If the reputation is very high this is often not needed, but every egg and bird Qlay be engaged weeks in advance of the time they can be spared. We know of no pursuit in The Illustrated Book of Poultry. r78 which steady perseverance and real study of the subject are more certain to be rewarded by success than the poultry-fancy, if honour and honesty be also preserved ; for a " character ” is absolutely necessary to continued success in this field, and rightly so. Fowls sold at a fair price ought to be sent away in a good poultry-basket. It is annoying and risky too, to receive valuable fowls in a dirty, broken-down hamper ; and this kind of mean- ness, by its very pettiness, produces an impression which may do lasting injury even to the vendor. The label should be distinctly written, in printed characters if possible, Fig. 51 being the best form with which we are acquainted. LIVE BIRDS-WITH CARE. Mr. John Smith, Blankville, Blankshire. Per Midland By. Sent from London, 8 a.m., Monday. Fig- S1- We can state from experience that writing the time of dispatch on the label is a wonderful stimulus to punctual delivery ; but as a rule live poultry, we are bound to say, are seldom delayed. The last thing before sending off, if in the morning, they should be fed with soft food in moderation ; if at night, they need nothing special except for very long journeys. We usually prefer to send off by the night mail trains, as such generally run through, and there is no loss of time at junctions. The export of prize poultry has lately developed to a very great extent, and the management of fowls on ship-board is much better understood than it was formerly. They are best sent in wooden coops, barred in the front only. These should have a stout canvas cover to draw over in rough weather, and the bottom should be raised by legs several inches above the deck, the top being tight and weather-proof. Handles should be provided at each end for convenience of moving Various plans may be adopted for the interior, and one much used by some American fanciers in sending fowls to England is to divide the coops by partitions into chambers just wide enough to hold one bird without turning round, like fatting-pens ; but on the whole, from all we can gather, we should prefer a moderate-sized coop for several fowls together. For three Asiatics we should use a coop about three feet square. A movable low perch, which can be fixed at night and removed in the day, adds much to the comfort of the birds. Plain directions for feeding should accompany the fowls, embracing the following particulars. A supply of grit or gravel should if possible be taken, and if so two or three handfuls should be thrown over the floor of the coop every morning after cleaning. In that case the fowls should be fed with a moderate quantity of friable dough morning and evening, and a very little wheat or maize at mid-day, water being constantly looked after. The food and water tins should be outside the coop, or injury may ensue, as in the case of a fine Brown Leghorn hen sent for portraiture in this work, whose head was so severely injured by the tin in some way that she died the evening of lrrival. If gravel cannot be had. the soft food should be mixed with a small portion of coarse Treatment of Fowls on Ship-board. 179 fresh-water sand daily, and less corn given. Some turnips, swedes, or mangolds should be also laid in, and a portion given daily minced up into small cubes ; this will effectually supply the place of fresh vegetable food, and by attending to these simple precautions, and only feeding to the extent of eager appetite, the fowls may in most cases be sent long voyages and maintained in good condition. Barley or oats are unfit for the food of sea-going birds, and should be discarded. Before putting the birds in the coop, this should be thoroughly sprinkled with dilute carbolic acid, which may be repeated (on any fine day) if insects appear, some one holding the fowls while this is done. If the coop has to pass the tropics, some kind of light framework should support an awning a little way up from the top, and the deck round the coop be pretty freely watered during great heats, to save the birds as far as possible. These things cannot always be done on ship- board ; but often an arrangement can be made with some one to look specially after the fowls ; and it is well worth a reasonable sum to ensure that such few and simple essentials for their safe delivery are punctually attended to. 1 80 CHAPTER XV. ENEMIES IN THE YARD. THE poultry-yard is subject to many depredators, and before passing from the more general portion of this work it may be well to devote a few paragraphs to the various modes in which these may be either captured or defied. Against thieves or foxes little can be done beyond making the roosting-house secure, and keeping a good watch-dog, or fixing some kind of alarum. Grown fowls have little to fear except from these two. Foxes might be shot, but that in many parts of England this would be regarded as almost equal to killing a man. Alarums which go off when a door is opened clandestinely are easily contrived, but need caution. We knew a case in which one was arranged so as to explode a fulminating compound unless the door were opened in a particular way ; and one day the lady proprietor herself, forgetting the elaborate contrivance, let it off unawares, and received a shock to her nervous system of rather a severe character. Cats are only enemies to small chickens, and when these are about a pound weight they are, as regards this animal, pretty much out of danger. For a few days a run in front of the coop, entirely covered with netting, will effectually protect them; but after a week or two such close confinement is by no means beneficial. The plan may however be extended by enclosing a large run with a Fir* ^2. fence about six feet high, made of netting, which very few cats will attempt to scale. In our own case we once enclosed a yard about fifty by thirty-five feet, and finding the cats jumped into this from the bottom of a lean-to roof at one end, we stretched a yard-wide piece of netting, upright, along this bottom edge, and found the animals completely baffled ; they walked along the roof and looked through the netting, but would not face the climb and consequent jump which they must overcome before they could e^nter the run. We had for the last six years always protected a chicken-run in this way, and would strongly advise the plan to others, as we never lost a chick after. A six-feet fence of netting is ample, with a strip along the home side of any roof or wall from which a cat can jump ; Cats and Rats. i 8 i the expense is very trifling, and there is no after anxiety. Another mode, when the run is sur- rounded by walls of moderate height, is to fix along the top a yard-wide netting, A A, as shown in Fig. 52, projecting over each side of the wall. Few cats will venture into a yard thus protected, and any which do cannot escape, and are then easily “ disposed of.” Killing them is not necessary ; a good garden-engine well handled for a quarter of an hour, the poor wretches vainly striving to escape the hated element, will give them such a taste of that yard that they will never enter it again. These simple methods of protection are better than destruction ; but should the latter be determined upon, a common box-trap, made large enough, and baited with meat, will catch numbers, cats being of a very unsuspicious disposition. Rats give more trouble and are more destructive, preying upon eggs as well as chickens. They may, however, generally be kept out of a house by well laying it in concrete and cement ; and as they almost always do their foraging in the night, keeping them out of the house is almost equivalent to defying them altogether. If they do get in, putting gas-tar, caustic soda, or chloride of lime down their holes will drive them away, and they cannot readily make more. It has been stated that nitrate of soda will also drive away rats, but this is doubtful. Another good plan is to clear out all the loose stuff of the house or shed floor, and lay down inch-mesh wire netting, carrying it also for a yard up the walls or sides. The sand or ashes may then be replaced over the netting, and if the door be shut at night no rats nor any other animal can enter. A good lively terrier is also an excellent safeguard. If necessary, traps may be set, and when the bait is anointed with oil of rhodium, few rats can withstand the temptation. It is best to use two at a time, baiting both for a week before setting. Then set one, adding the oil of rhodium, and use it as long as rats are caught, leaving the other open, but not baited or set. When the first is forsaken, leave it open, but unset and unbaited, and use the other ; and when they get shy of both, by covering over so as to appear hidden, the rats will often resort to them again. In this way, and by using the oil of rhodium, or valerian, for both of which rats appear to have an irresistible passion, they may be nearly exterminated. A simple but very effective rat-trap of another character may be formed out of a barrel, as shown in Fig. 53- Fit a loose cover, A, by a hinge at the side, so that it will drop unless held up by the spring-wire catch, B. A string from this wire must be earned through a small hole to the outside of the building in which the trap is set, and some water put in the bottom of the barrel. Then at every time of passing outside, pull the string, and directly after go in an re-set the trap. Often, of course, nothing will be caught, but if judicious bait be placed on the y , ... 1 4- 11 of oIa in thp Ion" run • and when one rat is thus nabbed, the noise lid, perseverance will surely tell a tale in tne ion& i , Q Tile Illustrated Book of Poultry. \ bz lie makes splashing about in the water appears to attract rather than warn the others. We would only employ poison when all other means failed, not merely for humanity, but to avoid any danger to the chickens. The best poison is the following, recommended by Dr. Ure to the Council of the Royal Agricultural Society: — “Melt hog’s lard in a bottle plunged in water heated to about 150 degrees of Fahrenheit ; introduce into it half an ounce of phosphorus for every pound of lard, then add a pint of proof spirit or whiskey ; cork the bottle firmly after its contents have been heated to [50 degrees, taking it at the same time out of the water, and agitate smartly till the phosphorus becomes uniformly diffused, forming a milky-looking liquid. This liquid, being cooled, will afford a white compound of phosphorus and lard, from which the spirit spontaneously separates, and may be poured off to be used again, for none of it enters into the combination ; but it merely serves to communite the phosphorus, and diffuse it in very fine particles through the lard. This compound, on being warmed very gently, may be poured out into a mixture of wheat flour and sugar, incorporated therewith, and then flavoured with oil of rhodium, or oil of aniseed, &c. This dough being made into pellets, is to be laid in rat-holes. By its luminousness in the dark it attracts their notice, and being agreeable to their palates and noses it is readily eaten, and proves certainly fatal.” Weasels and similar vermin only give trouble in very rural neighbourhoods. They generally come in a regular track, and may be caught in traps, baited with dead birds or chickens. They do not, like rats, care much for oil of rhodium ; but the whole tribe are fond of musk, and the bait may be scented with this to great advantage. Mice do no harm to chickens or eggs, though we have had houses so swarming with them that they would run out from under broody hens when examined at night. They however undermine the floor, and eat a great deal of the food. A good cat is the best preventive, and if brought up from kittenhood amongst the chickens may be left to pass the night with them with perfect safety. One of the best traps we know of is a plain sheet iron or tin vessel, about two feet deep, and open at the top. If one or two of these are put in the most over-run places, with some barley in the bottom, the mice will enter to feed, and are unable to jump or climb out of the smooth prison again. We have thus used one of the tins or iron barrels, holding about two bushels, in which paint is often sold, and caught seven or eight in one night. We confess, however, we never had the heart to be very hard upon mice, they have a knack of getting so tame. We have had them come out and feed within a yard of us in broad daylight ; and it is very hard to kill creatures that behave in such a confiding manner. Minks and Skunks are very destructive to poultry in America. The mink is pretty easily captured, as it is the nature of this animal always to return for its prey, and if missing to hunt about for it. If, therefore, a mink have left a chicken, and that be used for the bait of a trap set near the place, a capture is all but certain. The best trap is that known as the regular “mink-trap” in the United States. Skunks, on the contrary, after visiting a place may not again go near it for a long time, and the only effectual plan of trapping them is to set the trap near their burrows. Mr. Hungerford states, in the Rural New Yorker , that he has found one of the best skunk-traps to be a common barrel, nearly balancing it on its side in the middle, on a piece of wood about seven inches high, the mouth being inclined downwards. When the skunk goes in for his bait, which is put at the bottom of the barrel, as soon as he passes the centre it turns up, and he is caught. The only thing is to adjust the centre the proper height, so that the barrel may just have impetus to turn completely up on its bottom, without going over. Eggs half rotten, or a dead chick, are the best bait. Skunks are only troublesome at night, and by- housing the chicks in good sound wooden coops may be entirely checkmated. Insect Vermin. i33 hawks are only destructive in the country, or very open suburban districts. They usually visit a yard at about the same hour of the day, and hence are easily lain in wait for and killed by a good marksman. Failing this, it sometimes answers to turn loose a good sharp-fighting Game hen with her chickens, previously well heeling her with steel : unequal as the contest might be thought, such a mother has on more than one occasion proved victorious. Other birds are chiefly devourers of the grain or other food ; and there will be little of this if, as we have so often advised, the chickens or fowls are thrown it only as they eat it, with the owner or attendant standing by. Where the breeds kept are not much subject to over-fattening, another method of cheating the birds is to feed with maize or Indian corn, the grains of which are too large for them. Still another plan of contending with these little enemies is to employ a feeding-cage or pen entirely enclosed with wire, with the exception of one or two hanging swing doors. These the fowls soon learn to push up, and feed themselves without difficulty, while the little thieves are completely “done” out of any participation. Lice or other insect vermin will rarely give trouble if the houses be whitewashed twice a year with good hot lime. If some sulphate of iron be dissolved in the water, the power of the wash will be much increased. The dust or sand in the sheds must also be looked after, and cleansed by sifting, or else renewed altogether at due intervals. If, in spite of all, the tiny pests appear, the houses may be effectually cleared by syringing with diluted carbolic acid, watering the floor with the same mixture, or freely scattering about from a dredger some of M’Dougall’s or any other Carbolic Disinfecting Powder. The smell will last for days, and no vermin will withstand it long. The ordinary brown acid of commerce will dissolve in hot water, though not in cold ; but a clear preparation may also be purchased which wiil mix in cold water to any strength desired. By the judicious use of one or the other of the carbolic acid preparations, all insect pests whatever may be easily defied. 1 84 CHAPTER XVI. DISEASES OF POULTRY. Nearly all poultry diseases are caused by either cold, wet, want of cleanliness, or bad feeding ; in other words, by neglect somewhere. It is easier to guard against this than to cure birds when they are ill, which is almost always a very unsatisfactory speculation. The chief obstacle is that, being covered with feathers, there are few symptoms to observe ; and as the poor dumb things cannot tell what is the matter with them, we often have to prescribe very much in the dark. We see, for instance, a fowl evidently ill ; with feathers ruffled, comb dark and dull, appetite nearly gone, and listless and dull in manner ; but this may be the result of many different causes, and more special symptoms are hard to discover, seeing we can hardly feel its pulse, and its skin is difficult to examine. Common fowls hardly pay for the trouble they give in treatment ; but with valuable birds the case is different, and it is chiefly on their account we give what is yet known, so far as we have been able to discover, of poultry disease. There can be no doubt whatever that a certain per-centage of death amongst fowls is an actual benefit. Fowls, like everything else, must die some time ; and, again like everything else, it can but seldom happen that the cause of death will be mere old age. A certain proportion of loss, therefore, is not necessarily a proof of mismanagement, but is rather part of the economy of the great Superintendent of the universe, by which creatures no longer really capable of maintaining the vigour of the species are taken from a world in which they are of no further use. As is well put by a writer in one of the American poultry journals, “ the sure eye of Nature has picked out the very ones that you would be glad to be rid of could you detect them, and has left you the hardier individuals to breed from ; the weakness, moreover, often consisting in some profound fault that does not show itself.” It is cases of this nature, in which some extra trial of weather or circumstances has only developed latent weakness, issuing or not, as the case may be, in any well-marked complaint, which are difficult or even impossible of cure. There are however many cases in which exposure or other active cause has occasioned acute disease in the most healthy birds, presenting plainly-marked symptoms, the treatment of which is well understood. Such are mostly amenable to judicious treatment, and fowls of priceless value may thus be saved, which otherwise must be lost to the amateur. Between the small group of such plainly-marked diseases — as roup — and the many instances in which to all present knowledge the symptoms are utterly obscure, and recovery must be left to the natural powers of the bird, aided by such nursing and regimen as appear best, is a large class of cases in which partial ground for guidance is afforded by some one or more symptoms of a marked character. In these also treatment may be adopted with hope if the affection be of a sudden or acute character ; but chronic symptoms usually betray constitutional weakness, and are not only difficult to deal with, but even in the interests of the yard it is often better to let them run their natural course, or to anticipate their effect by a merciful execution. It will therefore be seen, that “cure” of a sick bird may be by no means an unmixed Diseases of Poultry. blessinfa. If peimanent weakness or delicacy remains, or if the illness be due to such — as from a cold wet season developing latent weakness into unmistakable symptoms of liver disease— lecoveiy may be the means of perpetuating a predisposition. It is undoubtedly better that many sick fowls should die 01 be killed; but concerning such matters each must judge for himself. For convenience of reference, we shall refer to the various diseases in alphabetical order Abortion. If violently driven about, hens sometimes suffer severely in this way ; dropping suddenly either a perfect or a soft egg, and afterwards moping about with every appearance of being seiiously ill. In such cases, which must not be confounded with the mere ordinary laying of soft eggs, the bird should be put by herself in rather a dark pen, with a nest in one corner. A little caibonate of soda may be put with advantage in the drinking water, and the diet should consist of soft food only, given sparingly. This is to be continued for a few days, unless sooner recovered. It is wisdom in all such cases to watch the yard closely ; it is quite possible, especially with Malays and Game, that there is a bully amongst the flock, which is a terror to the whole of the others. With this terror, if the yards are confined in area, abortion is very probable, and the termagant had better be removed, and if not very valuable, killed. We have known abortion also take place in circumstances which left no other conclusion possible than that the grass in the run was affected with ergot. Should this appear probable, besides treating the birds, the whole run must be mown as close as possible with a machine, and the cuttings carefully swept and removed. Fortunately this occurrence is very rare. Apoplexy — Paralysis. — These two affections are more or less connected. A true apoplectic fit would more probably arise from high feeding than any other cause, and maize or Indian corn is very injurious to some breeds on this very account. Apoplexy may give some warning symptoms. We should fear its attack if a bird walked unsteadily and as if it were giddy. To such cases, fasting and a brisk aperient — as fifteen grains of jalap and one grain of calomel — will be very useful. When a vessel has given way on the brain, or in its substance, there will be then a sudden attack of loss of power and consciousness, possibly only on one side. If a large quantity of blood has escaped the case will end fatally in a short time, and it may be instantaneous. If life does not appear extinct, the wing should be lifted, and the point of a lancet, or more probably penknife (for not a moment must be lost), plunged longitudinally into the large vein which will be seen under, and the bird allowed to bleed freely. If consciousness return, the flow of blood may be stopped by some strong styptic, such as burnt alum, diluted carbolic acid, solution of sulphate of zinc, powdered matico, or gallic acid ; or pressure may be kept up by the finger for some little time on the incision. In any case of operating on fowls, they must be carefully watched, as they will try to peck open the place, and life may be lost from hciemorrhage. The fowl must be kept on low diet for several days. Generally the immediate cause is some sudden excitement or bodily effort. We have known in our earlier days a highly-fed young cock drop down dead after being put back after show in his old run with three others, before receiving a peck, but in the very moment of placing himself in hostile position ; also when a young Cochin cock was taken up whilst fighting, he struggled so violently that he died “in arms .” Cochin hens, similarly, are sometimes seized while laying. We need hardly say that after a case of this sort, the condition of the other birds should be examined, and the diet reduced at once if necessary. True paralysis is the result of some pressure on the brain, it may be from effusion of blood, or 1 86 The Illustrated Book of Poultry. from other causes. “It is very improbable,” says Mr. Hinton, “that paralysis will be recovered from without detriment to the bird : if a cock, the carriage will certainly suffer, and there will assuiedly be an awkwardness of gait, making it eveiy way undesirable to retain the bird. If the paialysis be of the legs only, with the tail drooping, I should be inclined to think that the bird has received a blow on the back, injuring more or less the spinal cord.* Here the aperient and rest absolute rest — will be of service. Strychnia in doses of one-sixteenth of a grain, twice a day, may be useful after the first effects have passed away, but not in the first flush of the disease. The cure of these affections is certain to be tedious.” Black-rot. — This was a disease to which Spanish fowls particularly were once rather subject, owing in our opinion to the strains imported from Holland, in order to counteract the rough faces of the then English fanciers ; but lately the complaint has been far less common, though still occasionally met with, d he symptoms usually commence with blackening of the comb, followed by swelling in the legs and feet, accompanied with gradual emaciation. Treatment is only efficacious in the earlier stages, and consists of a dose of calomel or Epsom salts to commence with, followed by “ Parrish’s Chemical Food,” or any other simple tonic treat- ment, with warm and nourishing diet. Rub carbolated vaseline into comb and legs. BRONCHITIS. — This is not a common disease, and is denoted by the frequent coughing of the fowl, as distinguished from a cold in the head only, which last appears in a discharge from one or the other of the organs. The fowl must be removed to a dry and moderately warm place, and the water slightly acidulated with nitric acid, adding enough glycerine to make the whole slightly sweet and barely acid to the taste. Under this simple treatment, the fowl will usually improve rapidly. A little cayenne or ginger seasoning may be added to the food with advantage. BUMBLE-FOOT. — By this euphonious term is denoted the corn or abscess at the bottom of the foot, which is continually annoying the breeder of Dorkings. We formerly believed this to be caused by either narrow perches, or by descending or walking on sharp gravel, which irritated the feet ; but during some years we have collected so many proofs of the disorder occurring when the perches were not only low and broad, but where nothing but the softest turf was at command of the fowls, that we have been gradually forced to the conviction that the affection is in some way correlated to the abnormal structure of the Dorking foot, as shown by the fifth toe. As bearing upon this view, we have looked with much interest for signs of the affection in the Houdan breed, which was originally very prone to produce only four toes, but in which the fifth toe is now a nearly fixed character. Accordingly, as years have passed, we have seen more and more Houdans with “ bumble-foot,” though as it is possible they might have been recently crossed with Dorkings, even this evidence is not entirely conclusive. The fact that the equally heavy Brahma or Cochin is free from the affection, does however prove that the cause can hardly be that commonly supposed. Some cases appear incurable, but if taken in good time the daily application of lunar caustic in the ordinary manner will often effect a cure, or the pigment of iodine of the British Phar- macopoeia may be daily painted over the spot with a brush. Later on, actual excision becomes necessary. In cases when the tumour is soft and full of pus, or in the form of an abscess, a free puncture may be made, after which the matter is pressed out, the part fomented with warm water, and dressed regularly with Wright’s Liquor Carbonis Detergens. In other cases the tumour appears * The most frequent cause of such injury, and one we feel sure will account for many mysterious cases, is the bird rushing under a low perch after a hen. Diseases of Poultry. 187 hard, and the incision should be made in the form of a cross, when a sharp squeeze will generally expel the offending matter through the wound. In all cases, until a cure be effected, the perch should not exceed six inches from the ground, and be padded with carpet, so as to take off as much pressure as possible ; or it will be better still if the bird is compelled to sleep on straw. Other laige breeds occasionally suffer from abscess in the foot, but in these cases some injury or other special irritating cause can generally be detected. In such cases the matter formed is usually of the consistency of cheese, and as often as not the tumour extends through the upper side of the foot, sometimes forming a mass the size of a cherry in the web between the toes. These are easily exti acted, and usually heal without difficulty or showing any tendency to return. CANKER. — See Ulceration and Diphtheria, Catarrh. All fowls aie subject to a common cold, shown in the usual way by more or less discharge fiom the eyes or nostrils. It is not dangerous, but if neglected may issue in roup. Remove to a warm place, and drop ten drops of Fleming’s B.P. tincture of aconite, in a quarter of a pint of the drinking water, renewed twice a day. Feed moderately on soft food only, mixed warm, and seasoned with the No. 1 mixture given at page 14 1. If not better in a few days, and especially if worse, treat as for roup, the presence of which may then be suspected. CHOLERA. — During the last few years American and Continental yards have been devastated by a disease previously unknown, to which the name of Chicken Cholera has been generally given ; and of late some cases have occurred in England. In true chicken cholera there is a sudden and violent accession of thirst, accompanied with diarrhoea ; the droppings being at first of a greenish character, and by degrees becoming thin and whitish. Great weakness becomes rapidly manifested, the fowl “ falling about,” usually by the water-fountain ; and in some cases cramps also supervene. The bird also presents a peculiar “ anxious ” look about the face. As to causes, it will nearly always be found that there has been exposure to the sun without effectual shade, and that the drinking-water has become warm. In such circumstances the drop- pings have become offensive in smell, the grass in the runs has probably withered, and care has not been bestowed on supplying other and fresh green food. It must always be remembered that the regular supply of fresh green meat is the great preventive of diarrhoea in fowls. We never heard of a case of true cholera where cool shade was always accessible, fresh cool water provided, and green food looked after daily. At the same time, it has been clearly established, by the researches of Toussaint and Pasteur, that the disease is specific and contagious, being due to a well-marked organism which infests the blood ; and the above considerations only apply to the spread of the malady. The disease runs its course so rapidly — death resulting in most cases in from twelve to thirty- six hours — that treatment is generally too late : but if diagnosed at an early stage recovery may be expected in nearly half of the cases from the administration every three hours of Rhubarb 5 grains. Cayenne Pepper 2 „ Laudanum . . . . • • • • • .10 drops. administering midway between each dose a tea-spoonful of brandy diluted with rather less than its bulk of water, into which have been dropped five drops of M'Dougall’s Fluid Carbolate* or three grains of salicine. Recovery is generally as rapid as the attack. • The admirable preparation here referred to is a neutral solution of carbolate of lime, and sulphite of ma<;ne;ia. 1 88 The Illustrated Boor or Poultry. Whenever a case of true cholera occurs in a yard, twenty grains of salicylic acid should be added to every pint of water, the fountain kept cool, and plenty of shade provided. By these means, with the free use of green food, its progress may often be effectually checked. The miccrobe to which it owes its origin is, however, so active, that some epidemics appear to baffle all attempts at cure. M. Pasteur has fortunately discovered that by cultivating the organism or virus in chicken- broth exposed to the action of oxygen, its powers may be lessened, or the poison diluted, as it were ; and that if fowls are inoculated with this diluted virus, they contract a mild disease, which protects them from the more deadly, as vaccination does from small-pox. Should the disease ever become general in England, therefore, it is probable some veterinary authority would procure a supply of the diluted virus from France ; and in this way the malady would be checked. So far, fortunately, cases in England have only been occasional. Consumption. — This disease is not so very uncommon among highly-bred fowls. The causes are damp or cold, want of light, or constitutional debility. Whenever the cough of bronchitis appears to become chronic, with evident wasting and loss of strength, consumption may be suspected. Cure is hopeless when set in ; but when any danger of it is feared, from past experience with birds related, the regular administration of Fellowe’s Compound Syrup of the Hypophosphites will offer the most probable means of protection. It is also very advisable to add cod-liver oil to the meal food ; or cod-liver oil with quinine, in capsules, may be given, either alternately with or instead of the chemical food. Cramp. — The most frequent sufferers from this affection are early chickens, which, if confined during damp or cold weather, rarely escape altogether, however hardy the breed. The first symptoms may be anything not quite right in their walking ; but very soon there is an evident tendency to contract the toes ; till at last, if not checked, the poor little sufferers have to walk on the knuckles, or outside of the foot, in a manner painful to witness. The bird also squats on its hocks. The great preventives are dry lodging and liberty , as chickens reared in an absolutely dry shed with free run out are almost invariably free from it. The treatment is also simple. If detected at an early stage, it will usually be sufficient to remove the whole brood to some place with a dry boarded floor, thickly covered with earth and kept clean. No floor is so bad for a permanent lodging ; but in this case a few days’ change indoors will often work wonders, and when recovered the brood may be put out again. If the toes are much contracted, however, the affected chicks should be taken away from the hen, and put in a wooden cage well sanded, in a dry and warm place near the fire. Good food with a little tonic should be given — say the No. 3 page 1 41 — and several times daily the legs and feet must be bathed in water made comfortably warm, opening and expanding the toes well under the water, and working them gently backwards and forwards, afterwards drying them with a warm cloth and putting the birds back in the cage. The feet and legs may also be rubbed with turpentine, and we have known flannel bandages soaked in turpentine of great service, but this was probably in cases of rheumatism rather than cramp. At night they should be returned to the hen with the rest ; but every morning returned to the cage. Under this treatment improvement will generally be rapid ; indeed, we hardly ever had a case which did not yield to it unless of very long standing. Cramp in adult fowls can scarcely be distinguished from rheumatism, which see. Mr. Hinton adds that “opium in quarter-grain doses for a chick of three months old twice or thrice daily is a great addition to the treatment of this disease. In Malays I have noticed the cockerels only as subject to the complaint. When the bird is forced to walk, the feet are placed Diseases of Poultry. 189 very heavily on the ground, making in dry weather a very perceptible noise, which, without any other symptom being piesent, is suspicious, and always induces me to watch the bird anxiously. If, with this, the bird squats much, it should be separated at once, and the opium treatment commenced, meat being also given daily, and pepper added to the food. If the disease is not attended to, the bird ultimately acquires a most ungainly gait and attitude ; when standing, though lower in statuie, the neck and the body are very upright, and as the disease progresses the tail sweeps the ground, and may even come forward between the shanks of the lcms ” b Crop-bound. If the feeding be careless, the crop may become so distended with hard grain, that when swelled afterwards by the moist secretions intended to assist digestion, the outlet into the stomach is hopelessly closed by the pressure. With patience, an operation is seldom necessaiy ; but some warm water should be poured down the throat, after which the distended viscus is to be gently and patiently kneaded with the hands, for an hour or more if needful. However hard at first, it will generally yield and become soft after a time ; and when relaxed, a half tea-spoonful of Epsom salts should be given, and the bird left in an empty pen. Usually there will be no further difficulty, but the fowl so affected must be fed sparingly for several days, to alloiv the organ to contract , otherwise a permanent distention may result. If such palliative means fail, an incision must be made near the top of the crop. Select a spot for your incision free from any large vessels, which if cut through will cause troublesome bleeding and weaken the bird. The incision in most cases should be an inch lone. The handle or bowl of a very small tea-spoon is convenient to remove the contents ; and the best plan is to remove everything, and then to pass the finger (greased, and the nail pared smooth) into the crop, and to feel the outlet. It is quite possible that a bit of bone or other matter may be the cause of obstruction ; and if this is left, the operation will be useless. Then have what is called a glover’s needle ready, charged with horsehair , and put four or five stitches into the inner membrane, drawing it carefully and closely together, and at least three stitches in the outer skin. Place the stitches in the outer skin in such a position that they may be within the inner stitches, as shown in Fig. 54. Feed subsequently on sopped bread not very moist, and do not allow the bird water for twenty-four hours, as it is apt to find its way through the wound, and delay, if not prevent, the healing. There is not the slightest necessity to remove the horsehair subsequently. The operation should not be delayed if the other measures do not succeed in forty-eight hours, as delay adds to the danger ; and a sour horrible stench from the bird’s mouth is a plain indication in favour of operating at once. In cases of permanent distention, which is unhealthy as well as unsightly, the only remedy is to open the crop somewhat as above, but lower, and remove entirely a piece of bay-leaf shape, afterwards sewing up. This is quite effectual, and not dangerous. CROP, Sort or Swelled. — There is another form of distension of the same organ, in which the contents are of a soft or fluid character. The usual cause we believe to be excessive drinking after thirst, by which the inner coats lose their “tone” and are unable to contract properly on the food — so that in some cases the organ remains distended even with air. We have had only moderate success in treating this complaint when left for any time unnoticed ; but recent cases may generally be mastered with careful treatment. Put the bird by itself, and feed it three times a day with a very small portion of soft food thoroughly cooked ; allowing The Illustrated Book of Poultry. 190 it to drink moderately after each meal only water slightly acidulated with nitric acid, but not leaving the fountain in the pen. The food should be seasoned with some such mixture as the No. 4, page 141, and half a tea-spoonful of sal- volatile be given in double the quantity of water every morning. Chopped onions or garlic have been found to have a remedial effect, given as green food. Walton’s tonic paste made into a thick emulsion with brandy, is also beneficial. Debility. — It sometimes happens that fowls droop without any apparent positive disease ; evidently suffering from prostration or want of “ tone,” having little appetite, and getting more and more out of condition generally. The most usual cause is over-showing, causing a greater strain on the nervous energies than the bird can withstand ; but any severe “ shock ” may have the same effect, and we have known it produced in a fine bird by the excessive terror caused by the sudden appearance of a large mastiff in the yard. In some cases birds have been prostrated by exhibition past recovery, but are usually amenable to judicious treatment. Strong tonics are not advisable ; but the administration twice daily of half a tea-spoonful of “ Parrish’s Chemical Food/’ mixed with a whole spoonful of water, changed every alternate or third week for a tea-spoonful twice daily (also with a spoonful of water) of any ordinary quinine and iron, or salicine mixture, will be usually followed by rapid improvement, as will the use of Walton’s Tonic Paste, or the capsules of cod-liver oil with quinine already mentioned. A raw new-laid egg should also be “ slipped ” down the bird’s throat every day till the strength and appetite appear to be returning, when it is best to change it for a little cooked meat, and leave of) all tonic except the chemical food, or a little tincture of muriate of iron in the water. We knew a case in which a fancier was presented with a magnificent Dorking cock, but apparently gone past recovery somehow , though what was the matter nobody knew. His man at first literally had to “ keep the bird alive ” by breaking raw eggs down his throat, three or four daily. After a while he would eat small bits of flesh meat, and by degrees other food ; and ultimately carried off the honours in a class of more than forty entries. Of the great value of raw eggs thus used in cases of marked debility, we have had knowledge on many occasions. DlARRHCEA. — This affection may be caused by any sudden change in diet or even of weather, and hence is rather common. If the looseness be observed early, it can be checked at once in most cases by giving a meal or two of well-boiled rice dredged over with finely-powdered chalk. If this be ineffectual, six drops of camphorated spirit may be given thrice daily on a pill of barley-meal, restricting the diet to boiled rice, barley-meal, and barley alone, with only a little cut grass daily ; or a prescription may be administered, as given by Mr. Tegetmeier many years ago, of five grains chalk, five grains rhubarb, and three grains cayenne pepper, made into a bolus or pill. In very severe cases we would add half a grain of opium to the pill, giving one morning and evening, or would administer chlorodyne in doses of three to twelve drops every four hours : this medicine should not however be employed without serious reason. After an attack, care must be taken not to over feed, and a quinine or salicine tonic should be given. The bone-dust spoken of at page 139 is an excellent preventive of diarrhoea. DIPHTHERIA. — Diphtheric Roup. — About the year 1876 a new and formidable complaint, at first vaguely known as “ the new disease,” made its appearance in England, and committed dreadful rav?ges, being conveyed into hundreds of yards by fowls purchased or returned from exhibition ; and, although less prevalent since, it never appears to have entirely died out. Its marked characteristic is the appearance of ulcers or sores anywhere about the head or upper Diseases of Poultry. 19 1 neck, but especially about the face, tongue, and throat, also frequently attacking the comb. Far the most serious cases are those in which the throat or mouth is attacked. While the outside sores seem unlike it, the internal growth appears so strongly analogous to diphtheria in the human subject, that almost from the first we called the disease by that name; and it is rather remarkable that some recent German investigations go to show there is probably a real connection between the two. In very many instances such appearances are complicated with those ordinarily presented by roup, in which case the disease is still more serious. Be this as it may, so deadly was and is this disease, that many consider wholesale slaughter of a yard so attacked, with copious and repeated disinfection, the best and cheapest remedy. We certainly have known cases in which only about one-tenth of the fowls have recovered under treat- ment. Our treatment, based upon scientific analogies, has however saved two-thirds of the cases in the majority of instances where it has been followed ; and, as this kind of treatment has alone done so, it would seem to be well based, however experiment (which we recommend) may cause variation in details. The fowls attacked should at once be placed apart in hospital, free from draught, and a slight aperient given of from one-third to half a tea-spoonful of Epsom salts. Meantime obtain at once from the nearest chemist a bottle of ordinary chlorate of potass and perchloride of iron mixture — every chemist has his own, but any will do — and also a bottle of the following dressing : — Carbolic Acid . , Sulphurous Acid . Tinct. Perchloride of Iron Glycerine . I drachm. 3 »» J oz. i oz. With a camel-hair or sable pencil touch all the parts which show sores, morning and evening, with this latter dressing ; and six hours after the salts, begin to give one-quarter ordinary adult doses* of the chlorate and iron mixture, feeding meantime on the best soft food, unpeppered, but mixed with warm brandy-and-water : an occasional egg-and-brandy between two fowls is also of much service. Great care must be taken in anointing the throat; and occasionally a biid ma y be so irritated by a drop “ going the wrrong way ” as to choke and die. These cases cannot be helped, some such dressing being absolutely necessary ; but for bantams and chickens the lotion may be diluted with one-third water. If the mouth and throat appear healing, while there aie sores outside which make no progress, these may be treated with iodofoim ointment as an altci native. When the worst symptoms are alleviated, after-treatment must be guided by circumstances, accoid- ing as there may be diarrhoea or the reverse ; or roup may remain and have to be prescribed for. Professor Whalley has had great success by painting the diseased throat and mouth with strong solution of carbolic acid, adding that this energetic treatment really causes less distress than a diluted solution, the bird looking a little sick from pain for a little, and then salivating, but soon becoming as lively as before. The fungicide principle of treatment is the same. He also strongly advises some hyposulphite of soda and iron to be dissolved in the drinking water. DYSENTERY.— This disease is really diarrhoea developed to the “desperate” stage, as evidenced b the evacuations being mingled with blood. It is rarely cured; but promising results have attended the administration in any simple form of five drops of laudanum and five drops of M'Dougall’s Fluid Carbolate every three hours ; also of chlorodyne. . These and other quantities refer to .owls of good she and vigour, thirds down to one-third of the quant, ty. Smaller fowls and bantams may have from two (92 The I illustrated Book of Poultry Egg-BOUND. — The inability to lay, on account of unusual size of the egg, is of by no means rare occurrence. The most usual symptom is that the hen, after going as usual to the nest and remaining some time, comes off without having laid, and walks slowly about, often — especially in Polish — with the wings hanging down on the ground, and evidently in distress ; but sometimes they remain on the nest. Merely going to the nest, however regularly and repeatedly, without laying, is no proof whatever that a fowl is egg-bound. Generally a table-spoonful of warm treacle, mixed with chopped groundsel, given a few times at intervals of an hour, will give relief, especially if a small flexible syringe is also passed up the oviduct till it meets the egg (taking care not to fracture it), and an ounce of olive-oil injected. This is safer and more effectual than passing up an oiled feather, but the latter plan may be adopted if a syringe is not at hand. Fomentation of the vent with hot water before applying the oil is also beneficial, by relaxing the tissues. Care must be taken to handle the bird gently, as breakage of the egg is generally fatal, though by no means always so, as is sometimes stated. We have known the passage enclosing the egg to appear externally, have seen a rupture in it take place, and the egg pass through it ; this happened in a Minorca fowl. In case of such an accident — not necessarily fatal — egg production must be totally arrested. Give three to four pills containing one grain of calomel, one-twelfth of a grain of tartar emetic, and one-quarter of a grain of opium, one every four hours; the first pill having the calomel and opium doubled with advan- tage. Put the bird on soft unstimulating diet. ELEPHANTIASIS. — This name has been lately given to the disease known as “ scaly legs/’ or the development of a rough unsightly scurf on the shanks. It rarely occurs except in the case of Asiatic breeds, or those formed, as the Plymouth Rock, by crossing from them ; and the most subject of all to the affection are Silkies and White Cochins. In Buffs also it is not unfrequent ; in Partridge and Langshans more rare, and in Brahmas very rare indeed. Only fowls with large and coarse scales are attacked, specimens of the same breed with smaller close scales generally escaping, at least for a time. Without affirming that it is the only cause, we can safely say that diligent inquiry has demon- strated beyond a doubt a close connection between this disease and sudden exposure to cold wet, and most especially walking in snow. The disease itself has, however, been proved to be due to a parasitic insect, and is consequently very contagious, especially being communicated from a hen to her chickens. The disease is always capable of cure, if taken at a reasonably early stage. A dry and mode- rately warm domicile must be provided, after which the first thing will be a vigorous scrubbing with soap and tepid water, by means of a hard nail-brush. This will remove a great deal of the scurf, after which all the affected parts must be anointed with ordinary sulphur ointment, scrubbing with a brush and freshly anointing every day. A weak solution of sugar of lead may be used as a lotion in the morning with advantage, applying the ointment in the evening. Idalf a tea- spoonful of powdered sulphur may also be given internally, and cure is usually effected in from one to two weeks. In very slight cases, it is often sufficient to apply glycerine, especially when first observed in young chickens. Carbolatcd oil is also an excellent application, as is Foster’s ointment made for this disease specially. FRUITIONS. — Cochins especially, if not copiously supplied with green food, are liable to an eruption called “ white-comb,” consisting of a whitish scurf or efflorescence, which if not checked extends down the neck and causes the loss of feathers so far as it extends. Fowls kept in small or dirty yards may also acquire a s'urfy skin, partaking of the same character. The treatment of all Diseases op Poultry. 193 is similar. Green food must be supplied, and cleanliness attended to ; while the parts are dressed with tar and sulphur ointment, or with an unguent compound of cocoa-nut oil, one ounce, and tur- meric, in powder, quarter of an ounce. Carbolated vaseline is also a good dressing. The internal treatment will consist of a dose of Epsom salts at commencement, followed by a tea-spoonful oi powdered sulphur daily in the focd for ten days, by which time a cure will generally be effected. Should the sulphur cause irritation before a cure is obtained, as shown by the fowl constantly scratching its head, the parts may be dressed for a few days with M'Dougall’s Fluid Carbolate, diluted with three parts water. FEATHER-EATING. — Instances have always occurred of fowls contracting the unnatural vice of devouring each others’ plumage, even till the blood flows ; but the French and American breeds seem peculiarly subject to it, and since their introduction complaints have been constant. Malays also are predisposed to the unnatural appetite. No unfailing specific has hitherto been discovered. The most opposite remedies have answered in certain cases ; and this, joined to the fact that the vicious propensity is almost invariably confined to hens, would tend to prove that it is somewhat analogous to the strange fancies for unusual articles of diet frequently observed in the female sex generally. Giving raw meat daily has been known to stop it, and so has leaving off meat ; giving purgatives to deplete the system, and tonics to strengthen it, have both proved effective ; while other cases have baffled all means which have been tried, and tend to prove that there is some craving of the female system as yet unsatisfied. Cocks will stand still to be pecked at till they are covered with blood, without appearing to object in the least, and rarely if ever retaliating. On the other hand, a case was reported to us only a few weeks before writing these lines, in which eighteen Brahma cockerels — a breed rarely subject to this affection at all — in a grass-run measuring nineteen by nine yards, suddenly manifested the tendency in a very aggravated form, as well as the pullets in the same yard ; proving that the view we take cannot account for all cases. This instance was the more remarkable because the disease rarely breaks out in a run of that size, generally occurring in small yards, and especially if cleanliness be neglected. A bran and linseed mash twice a week has been known to afford marked benefit ; and in one case where no animal food had been given, we knew a perfect cure attained by giving daily fresh or raw bones crushed small ; in another case by the free use of bone meal in all the food given for some days. The most general success, however, appeared from all our inquiries to have attended the copious use of lettuces, especially if running to seed ; and the medical qualities of this plant led us to advise the trial of a sedative. Accordingly, we have lately prescribed one-eighth to one-fourth of a grain daily of acetate of morphia, with a grain of calomel in addition twice a week, and the addition of carbonate of potass to the drinking-water in proportion sufficient to give a decided alkaline taste, with more marked success than has attended any treatment we know ; so marked, in fact, that we have reason to believe it may be found generally effectual. In the case mentioned the vice was cured within a week, and in others, also, it has succeeded. External applications are, however, also necessary ; short stumps of feathers must be extracted, and all the parts attacked copiously anointed with carbolated vaseline, or a very stiff lather made from carbolic disinfecting soap, in order to nauseate the unnatural palate of the birds. We may add that we have become convinced, from repeated observation, that the immediate exciting cause of this most disgusting propensity, in nine cases out of ten, is thirst. We have again and again seen it commence when the fountain was empty or absent, or filled with sun- warmed water, and have verified this conclusion repeatedly by withholding water from a hen known R i94 The Illustrated Book of Poultry. to be addicted to it for a few hours in warm weather. The inference is obvious ; keep cool fresh water always in reach, and many cases at least would be avoided. Idleness is also a great cause, and we have known a whole yard cured by burying corn in the ground, so as to give the birds occupation in scratching. It is for this reason very useful to hang up a whole cabbage by a string just within reach of the birds ; by its bobbing about it gives occupation and green food at the same time. A simple temporary remedy, which may lead to a cure, is to file or pare away the edges at the tip of both mandibles of the offending bird, so that the beak will not meet at the tip. It can still pick up corn, but a feather slips through, and with persistent ill-success, the habit is often abandoned. FLEDGING. — We have already spoken of the ordinary care of chickens during this critical period. Where they appear to be suffering much, and the weather is bad, great benefit will be derived from seasoning the food with the No. 3 mixture (page 141), and the addition of tincture of iron to the water. Warm milk should also be given to drink. “ Parrish’s Chemical Food ” will also be of marked benefit, half a tea-spoonful daily to each chicken. FRACTURES. — We once saw an old hen — very old she was — with a wooden leg ; but in general fowls are too lively in their habits to bring any great credit to the surgeon, the bones almost always setting more or less out of position. The only exception, perhaps, is fracture of the shank, which, on account of its straight and accessible character, is “ set ” without difficulty, placing the bones in position, and securing with a splint formed of filtering or porous brown paper, saturated with white of egg, which hardens as it dries. Thigh-bones and wings must be bandaged the best way possible ; perhaps in the case of a broken wing it is best merely to tie all the feathers tightly together, after putting them in position, at about an inch from the end. We would always do our best with a valuable hen, as she might recover sufficiently for breeding, even if spoilt for the show-pen. FROST-BITE. — This seldom occurs in England, but in the more severe climate of North America large-combed breeds especially often suffer in those appendages. The best treatment is vigorous friction with snow or cold water, afterwards applying glycerine. Prevention is, howrever, better than cure, and in most cases can be ensured by oiling the combs and wattles with a sponge every morning. This treatment both protects the tissues, and entirely prevents water adhering and freezing on the wattles when the fowls drink. Gapes. — This is a disease of chickens or young fowls, and consists in the windpipe being infested with small reddish worms, causing the chicken to gape for breath, waste away, and finally die from suffocation. The worm is known as Sclerostorna syngamus ; and in a memoir upon the subject presented to the Linnaean Society by Dr. Cobbold, and which lies before us as we write, he states that it has been observed in the trachea of the turkey, fowl, pheasant, partridge, duck, lapwing, black stork, magpie, hooded crow, green woodpecker, starling, and swift. The probability however is that all birds are more or less subject to it. The worm is rather less than three-quarters of an inch long, of a pale reddish colour ; and the number in one chicken usually varies from two to a dozen. It is almost always found double ; a smaller worm being “forked” on about one-fourth from the upper end, like the letter Y ; which latter is the male, in this parasite -permanently attached to the female. Propagation is effected by eggs, which are about t2\-0 th of an inch in diameter. So much is perfectly simple and well ascertained ; but the mode in which these worms enter Diseases of Poultry. 195 the trachea, or in which the disease is propagated, for a long time remained mysterious. I he missing link was of course the history of the egg and its development, till the time when it is found, fully matured, in the infected chicken. M. Megnin states, in a prize essay on the subject, that the eggs never hatch within the living body of the parent, however mature ; but that after her death, or in any other circumstances where they have damp and a temperature of not less than 68° Fahr., they hatch. They will thus hatch in moderately tepid water, and will live for nearly a year in water, if kept at the requisite temperature. Hence he concludes that no host or bearer is necessary, and that all such have been unjustly suspected. It is, indeed, probable that pond water may be in numerous cases the medium of infection. But the statement that no intermediate host or bearer is concerned, as in so many other parasites, is disproved. Mr. A. M. Halsted, of Rye, New York, writes as follows — “ A number of years ago, in examining some young chicks just taken from the nest, 1 noticed on the head some large insects (Fig. 55). I found the head of the insect was embedded in the skin of the chick’s head, and so deeply that when I pulled them off the chick would cry out in pain. I have found from two to a dozen on a single chicken. I took the pains to pick all these insects off the heads of that brood, and examined them every few days until six weeks or more old, removing what few ticks made their appearance after the first operation. I did not follow it up in other broods, removing these more as an experiment, to see what would follow. As the season advanced our chickens commenced to die off with the gapes. Some entire broods died, others in part ; but of this brood I did not lose one chick. The next season I resolved to try it on a larger scale, but found the picking-off insects a tedious operation. I tried application of cold grease to the head, but it would not answer. Then tried mercurial ointment, and killed a good many of the little chicks ; then kerosene oil, with a like result ; next melted lard, and was partially successful with that ; still I had a few cases among those anointed. Finally, I compounded an ointment of : — Mercurial ointment (the weaker kind), 1 oz. ; pure lard, 1 'oz. ; flour of sulphur, oz. ; crude petroleum, 5 oz. This is applied to the head of the chick in a melted or semi-fluid state ; and now for six years I have not lost a chicken when the ointment has been applied at the time of taking the chickens from the nest. I have had friends try the same experiment in yards where they were troubled with the gapes, with nearly the same result. “ It is well known that on all animals that do not perspire the parasites that infest the body make their way to the nostrils to drink. And in some cases (sheep for one, it is stated) the parasite either penetrates the nostril and there deposits its egg, or deposits it at the opening of the nostril, and it is conveyed back by natural causes. This egg in time becomes a larva or worm, and causes disease. In the chicken the worm follows the nostril back until it reaches the opening of the trachea, and there makes a lodgment ; as they grow they gradually fill the opening, and thus produce the gasping for breath consequent upon partial suffocation, which is called the gapes. It seems possible that the disease is transmitted the same as the bot-flv; the ‘ tracheal-worm,’ on the death of the chicken, finding its way into the earth, and reproducing itself in the form of the tick, or perhaps fly.” Any such theory as this, in the precise form adopted by Mr. Halsted, is of course utterly untenable. The louse is a perfect insect, the egg and young of which are known : while the co-o- of the gape-worm is also known, and has been figured by microscopists. But it seems probable that the large insect or louse may serve as the host or vehicle for conveying either the ova or the The Illustrated Book of Poultry. 196 newly-hatched worm to the nostrils of the chicken. At all events, since Mr. Halsted’s method of pievention was published in former editions of this work, there has been an overwhelming amount of English evidence in its favour ; and particularly in 1880 and 1881, when there was an epidemic, one well-known breeder after another wrote to the Live Stock Journal to report that Mr. Halsted’s measures had banished gapes from yards previously infested. On the other hand, some have utterly failed with it. Since that date, microscopists have found the eggs of the gape-worm in the body of the common earth-worm, which therefore also acts as a host or bearer. Thus in three ways- — through drinking water, through lice or ticks, and by eating worms — it is probable the cycle of transmission is completed. The lesson from all alike is the absolute destruction of all worms, and bodies containing them, and the most thorough disinfection and cleanliness, after a yard has been contaminated. When the disease has actually entered a yard, there are various remedies more or less effectual. To add camphor, or even lime, to the drinking-water, has some effect, and may be enough in mild cases, or with a few chickens. The old-fashioned cure was to strip a small quill-feather, all but a small tuft at the point, and (moistening it in turpentine or not) to introduce it into the trachea, turn it round, and withdraw it with the worms. This is effectual, but requires much care to prevent lacerating the windpipe, or causing suffocation. In this way thirty worms have been successfully extracted from one chicken. A very much better method is that adopted by an anonymous Irish correspondent, who takes two straight hairs from a horse’s tail laid together, ties a knot on the end of the pair, and cuts off the ends close to the knot. This is passed straight ( i.e ., without twisting) down the windpipe as far as it will go without bending, then twisted between the finger and thumb and drawn out. A trial or two may miss, but usually five or six attempts will bring up four or five worms, and the hairs inserted in this way, without twisting, do not seem to hurt the chicks, and are used with the greatest facility. The bringing up of four to six worms, and the failure of more to come after a blank trial or two, may usually be reckoned as a cure. Another method of individual treatment is to get some carbolic acid (which must be of the clear or white quality), and placing some in an iron spoon or saucer, hold it over a candle or lamp. Dense white fumes will arise, in which the chicken’s head is to be immersed till nearly suffocated ; or if a number have to be treated, the whole may be confined in a box and fumigated at once, being, however, carefully watched through a hole in the box covered by a piece of glass. For while this treatment is absolutely unfailing, it is rather a ticklish operation, since the worms have to be killed without quite killing the chickens, which is very easily done beside. There are other methods of cure more generally applicable, as in an outbreak amongst pheasants, which could never be treated in the above manner. MM. Montagu and Megnin have proved repeatedly that to substitute an infusion of garlic for water, and add fine-chopped garlic in the food, will check the complaint and kill the worms. M. Megnin has also tried, with marked success, dissolving in the water (to kill all worms which may find their way there) one part in 100 of salicylate of soda, and dosing each pheasant with qb grains of yellow gentian and q\ grains of assafoetida — large fowls will need more. Only vermifuges which — like these — have a strong odour can be expected to kill parasites which inhabit the air-passages rather than the digestive canal ; but there is good evidence of the success of this treatment in pheasant preserves which had been all but exterminated by gapes. It is a curious coincidence, and confirms the soundness of it, that an English “patent” taken out by Mr. J. IT. Clark, a gamekeeper, is very similar. He takes and intimately compounds the following: — Powdered quicklime, 1 lb.; powdered sulphur, \ lb. ; tincture of assafoetida, 1 oz. ; arsenious acid (white arsenic), 1 drachm; oil of thyme, or oil of cummin, 1 oz. Diseases of Poultry. 197 This is to be kept in a closely-stopperecl bottle, to prevent slaking of the lime or evaporation of the volatile constituents. When required, two or three table-spoonfuls are placed in a depression in the centre of the coop, and then a sharp blast from the nose of a bellows blows it all up into the air, filling the coop and entering the nostrils of the birds. It is said that one application generally cures, but that if not, two, or at most three, at intervals of twenty-four hours, will surely do so. We cannot speak positively of this treatment, but it fairly corresponds with the preceding, and appears reasonable and promising. Several advertised remedies resemble the above. Giddiness. — A fowl will sometimes all of a sudden run round in a circle, or stagger about as if drunk, from congestion or some other pressure on the brain. The immediate remedy is to hold its head for a good while under a stream of water, such as a water-tap ; but the system should be immediately reduced by a dose of Epsom salts, or fifteen grains of jalap with one of calomel, and a sparer diet. Such cases occasionally appear to become chronic. All that can be done for them is to keep quiet, on rather low diet, with two or three doses daily of three to six grains of bromide of potassium. If recovery does not follow in a few weeks the bird should be killed. GOUT. — This is rather liable to be mistaken for leg- weakness ; but may be distinguished by the legs and feet feeling hot, with evident swelling, and a more or less inflamed appearance. It is chiefly found in Asiatic breeds. The bird should be removed to a warm, dry place, and given a dose of jalap or calomel to open the bowels, after which a half-grain pill of extract of colchicum should be administered twice a day. The legs and joints may be well rubbed with sweet oil daily with benefit. Sprains from jumping off a perch may be mistaken for gout, but should be treated by stimulating liniments and rest. LEG-WEAKNESS. — This is a very frequent affection in cockerels of the large breeds, being evidently caused by outgrowing the strength. It may arise either from muscular weakness or from a deficiency of bony matter ; and the symptoms usually manifest themselves between the ages of three and six months. The free use of bone-dust, as already recommended, is almost a preventive of this affection, and on that ground alone is strongly to be advised ; but cure is not difficult by the following prescription, for which we were indebted some years ago to Mr. Hinton: — Sulphate of iron, i grain; strychnine, x\ of a grain; phosphate of lime, 5 grains; sulphate of quinine, \ grain. To be made into a pill, and administered three times daily, morn- ing, noon, and night. Under this treatment strength will rapidly return, and after a week or two the prescription should be changed for “Parrish’s Chemical Food,” given in the water, say a table-spoon fill to each pint, or half a teaspoonful in twice its bulk of water, morning and evening. If observed early, we should commence with the Chemical Food, and use no other medicine. We have no hesitation in speaking of this as the most valuable tonic we know, where time can be given for its operation. It is very effective in invigorating the constitutions of weakly breeds, such as Spanish or Dorkings. Lice. — In other parts of this work we have stated how insect vermin may be kept from a yard generally ; but it may happen that individual birds, or especially broods of young chickens, are so infested that personal measures are necessary for relief. When small chickens droop without apparent cause, lice may be suspected. Relief can be given immediately. Put some oil in a saucer, and taking up every chicken in turn, put some with the tip of the finger on the poll, at the back of the neck, under the wings, and here and there about the body. Do the same with 198 The Illustrated Book of Poultry. the hen. Persian powder also gives immediate relief. The cooping-ground and sleeping-place should also be well sprinkled with carbolic disinfecting powder, and there will be no more trouble. The scattering of the powder from a dredger in the nest and about the sleeping-place will prevent any need for other measures. Liver Disease. — Of late years persistent in-breeding, combined with high feeding and want of exercise, and the injudicious use of condiments, have caused an alarming increase in cases of disordered liver amongst poultry. These vary much in symptoms, nature, and seriousness. Poultry in small yards, during summer, unless plentifully supplied with fresh green food, are very liable to enlargement or hypertrophy ot the liver. The symptoms are not very definite, consisting chiefly of sluggishness in motion and appetite, and a tendency to somewhat yellow evacuations. The condition cannot be cured, but may be kept in check by shade, a more spare diet, green food, and an occasional dose of salts or carbonate of potash. Congestion is due to very similar causes, and the symptoms are similar, but more severe, and more evidently bilious, sometimes reaching to a distinct yellow shade about the face. Maize causes many cases. The treatment is a course of saline purgatives, such as ten grains of potass- bicarbonate and six of Epsom salt twice a day for a few days, or alternated with six grains of rhubarb ; or if the attack seems sudden, a grain of calomel will be very useful. To the water add twenty drops of nitric acid per half-pint. Actual inflammation of the liver is a disease of the same class, but of the most acute kind, and is speedily followed by death unless the attack can be relieved. The causes may be as before, but in our experience exposure to ivet and cold, , in conjunction with other causes tending to congestion, produces inflammation more frequently than! heat does. There will be somewhat similar symptoms, but with evidently most severe suffering, and especially the bird will evidently show tenderness, or pain. The skin is almost always yellow, and the evacuations yellow or tinged with blood. The bird may seem too tender to move about much, and very often there is lameness, especially in the right leg : if lameness accompanies other symptoms, the disease is nearly certain. Only energetic treatment is of any avail. The bird is to be held frequently over boiling water, when the steam will relieve the pain and inflammation ; and half a grain each of calomel and opium must be at once given, repeated after four hours ; when ten drops of chlorodyne may be given every four hours for two days. All water to be acidulated with nitric acid as before, and the bird kept undisturbed, and only allowed a small quantity of bread and milk. If the urgent symptoms disappear, careful diet and small doses of salines will complete the cure. None of the preceding, though they may weaken the progeny, necessarily impart any constitutional disease. But the case is very different with scrofulous disease of the liver, the most common development in poultry of the strumous or tuberculous taint. This is shown post-mortem by deposits in the liver of nodules of cheesy matter, and in life by failure of appetite and gradual wasting. Early breeding, by its tax on the system, and in-breeding, have lately developed this constitutional disease to an alarming extent, and it sometimes bursts out so widely that it has been held to be contagious ; but of this in the proper sense we can find no evidence, and believe such cases to be due to common causes producing similar results. There is no doubt that, where some predisposition exists, healthy conditions may ward it off; and, on the other hand, where the disposition is really but slight, cold and wet, with injudicious food, especially maize, will develop it rapidly. To this extent the disease mg.y depend upon circumstances. But it is, broadly, a constitutional disease, and is spread chiefly by breeding from fancy stock, which by in-breeding or other causes has developed the taint. Such a stock may be protected and Diseases of Poultry. 199 strengthened to some extent by the use of iodide of iron, quinine, hypophosphitcs, ami such means; but if the disease occurs, death is really for the benefit of the poultry-yard. The flesh of fowls which die from this disease is unfit for food. Sometimes scrofulous deposit forms round the joints, or in other places ; such birds should never be bred from. Paralysis. — See Apoplexy. Peritonitis. — Inflammation of the lining membrane of the abdomen. Now and then caused by injuries, which cases are practically hopeless. More usually it is due to the escape of a ruptured ovum , or egg, into the abdominal cavity, and in a less acute degree by excessive straining, or over-stimulation of the reproductive organs, in which way many cases are directly due to the stimulating condiments so largely advertised. As to symptoms, peritonitis may usually be suspected whenever a hen in full laying, with bright red comb, and with no previous illness, shows evident pain and distress. Cases of the less severe type may often be treated successfully by perfect quiet and the administration of five drops of tincture of hyoscyamus three times a day for a few days, with a little brandy occasionally. Steaming over boiling water is also most useful, which can be done without disturbing the fowl much, by keeping her in an open basket, and holding this over the hot can or tub now and then. Pip. — We do not regard the hard and horny appearance which often appears at the end of a sick fowl’s tongue, and goes by this name, as any disease whatever. It either arises from obstruc- tion in the nostrils, causing the bird to breathe through its mouth, and thus drying the tongue ; or, where there is any real affection, is analogous to a “ foul tongue” in human beings. In the latter case a dose of aperient medicine may be given, and chlorinated soda applied to the part with benefit, removing any scale or crust which will come off without difficulty or pain. Pneumonia. — Inflammation of the lungs. Besides the cough, which might hardly be distinguished from that of bronchitis, there will be quickened and distressed breathing, like gasping or panting, and generally considerable matter coughed up. A good ear can detect “ crepitation ” if brought in contact with the back. The b:rd must be put in a warm place, and fed on a little bread and milk only. Rub in a little turpentine between the shoulders among the roots of the feathers, or paint on some iodine tincture, as a counter-irritant ; and if observed early, give half a drop of Fleming’s tincture of aconite in a spoonful of water every half-hour, or alternate it with half the ordinary adult dose of the solution of phosphorus often prescribed, which the chemist will supply. Later, or as another good alternative treatment, give two drops of antimonial wine or ipecacuanha wine, in water, every hour. If improvement sets in, give only half as often. If the bird is very weak, give brandy and egg. Very young chickens reared artificially often succumb to pneumonia, owing to coming from a far too hot and foul “ mother ” into cold air. The heat should at once be reduced if this occurs ; but for those affected, special care, counter-irritation, and a little aconite or medicated wine in their water, is about all the treatment such tiny creatures arc capable of undergoing. Rheumatism. — The symptoms of this disease arc an evident weakness of the legs, stiffness in the joints, or contraction of the toes. One or more of these may also be caused from cramp ; but as both demand similar treatment, it is not very necessary to be particular in the diagnosis. The disease is easily distinguished from leg-weakness by the fact that the latter occurs only in young birds, and presents no symptoms beyond mere want of muscular power. 200 The I i lustrated Book of Poultry. T. he bird must be put in a warm and dry place, and fed with warm and rather stimulating food. Internally, a little salicine in the water is the best remedy, and sometimes half a grain of opium twice daily is of marked benefit, the affected limbs are to be treated by rubbing in, morning and evening, some appropriate stimulating liniment, such as one part of turpentine to three of oil ; or the usual belladonna liniment; or Jacob’s Oil is very good for these cases. Chaulmoogra oil is another most valuable remedy, rubbing it in, and giving internally a drop of the oil three times a day. ROUP. — This formidable disease is now less dreaded than it was, in spite of the undoubted fact that it is most highly contagious. Of this there can be no doubt, the germs of the disease being communicated by drinking, or other contact, through the characteristic roupy discharge. The symptoms are at first those of catarrh or cold in a very aggravated form, with general feverishness, wasting, and a foetid, rather thick discharge from the nostrils. These last often become so clogged with it that it fills the eyes, and if neglected may entirely close those organs, and, then collecting, form a cheesy mass as large as a walnut. This swelling may require to be opened, and the cheesy matter extracted, but usually, bathing patiently with warm water will open the lids and allow of its removal without operation. The only disease which can be mistaken for roup is cold — which, if neglected, often indeed passes into roup, but is not difficult of distinction. Canker or ulceration we have already seen (see Diphtheria) really does appear to be very closely connected, if not due to the same virus. Whether mere cold can really develop into true roup, or whether roup is solely due to a specific virus , or, in other words, whether the general fever of severe catarrh can, independently of contagion, develop into the specific fever of roup, is at present unknown for certain. Roup is a protean disease, and this accounts for the great number of remedies. Nearly all such have been employed with great success in some cases, and hopelessly failed in others, according probably to the stage, or the particular symptoms, when the remedy is given : thus remedies of the copaiba class are useless at the early feverish stage, and febrifuges at a late period. It is only by considering these differences that success can be obtained with any uniformity. To be practical. Every fowl showing any symptoms of discharge from the nostrils or eyes should at once be isolated from the rest, and treated with aconite as under Catarrh. The usual homcepathic doses of aconite are totally inoperative (we speak from repeated trials of the system on fowls), but it is not too much to say that if every case could be treated with aconite in adequate doses on the first symptoms, a large proportion would be cut short. If roup contagion be suspected, it will be more certain not to medicate the water, but to drop ten drops of Fleming’s tincture in twenty teaspoonfuls of water, and give a spoonful every half-hour for the first day, and every hour the second. If successful, three or four times a day for a day or two longer, and some iron tonic, will complete the cure. While the discharge continues the head should be carefully sponged with diluted chlorinated soda solution, or in default of that with a teaspoonful of vinegar in a quarter-pint of warm water. Very probably, however, the discharge may gradually get thicker and more offensive, or may obstinately remain while the more feverish symptoms somewhat subside, and in any case aconite is only useful in the earlier stages of an attack. Then it will be best to give first a mild purge of half a teaspoonful of Epsom salts, followed by copaiba in some form. A capsule twice a day will do, but it is better to make up pills. Take, say, of balsam copaiba, one ounce ; liquorice in powder, half-ounce ; piperine, one drachm; magnesia, sufficient to make amass; and divide into sixty pills, giving one morning and evening. Mr. Vale’s pill, which has been very largely used, Diseases of Poultry . 201 consists ot sulphate of copper, half a grain ; cayenne pepper, one grain ; hydrastin, one-third grain ; copaiba, three drops ; Venetian turpentine and calcined magnesia, q.s. One to be given night and morning. Quinine and iron tonics may be given along with either of these, but about every third day there should be another small dose of salts. Under this treatment recovery is generally satisfactory. If ulcerations appear in the throat, treatment must be applied at discretion as under Diphtheria. Walton’s roup pill is founded largely upon opium, as are several others ; but this method of treatment, though often successful, is generally far inferior to the aconite and copaiba system. Almost every pill known has its triumphs to record, however; and in a wide epidemic may be tried where other remedies seem to fail. A convalescent fowl should be well washed with Condy’s fluid before return to the yard, after seclusion for a few days in a “ clean ” pen, and should not be turned out except on a mild day. SCALY Legs. — See Elephantiasis. SCROFULA. — See Liver Disease. Soft Eggs. — If these occur frequently it is almost always a sign of over-feeding. Where the egg is tolerably complete, all but the shell, it will be enough to miss one meal and thenceforth give less ; but if the outer membrane be absent, and still more if yolks only be dropped, one or two of the tartar emetic pills given under “ Egg-bound,” should be administered, and the bird fed very sparingly on plain food, in order to stop laying till the system be sufficiently reduced. In some cases soft eggs occur from the entire absence of any materials to form the shell. The remedy for such is of course obvious, and consists in the supply of old mortar, burnt oyster-shell pounded, or especially pounded raw shells, which have a peculiarly rapid effect. ULCERATION. — The ulcerations found about the head and throat, commonly known as “ canker,” have been described under the headings of Diphtheria and Roup , and it only remains to describe an irritating and obstinate ulceration sometimes found about the vent, generally of hens. The causes are obscure, and all cases may not be alike. It seems probable that some may follow inflammation of the oviduct ; while some, on the other hand, appear of a distinctly specific or contagious character. It is better, therefore, to seclude all affected birds from the opposite sex. Apparently simple ulceration or scab may usually be cured by the alternate application ol diluted ointment of white precipitate, and of carbolated vaseline, or of iodoform ointment and the vaseline, washing the parts every day between with diluted liquor carbonis, or McDougall’s Fluid Carbolate. Where there appears discharge from the passage, however, ointment is useless, and the part must be simply bathed or washed twice daily with the antiseptic dressing, while doses of copaiba in drops or capsules are given internally. The copaiba should not exceed a total of four drops per day. White Comb. — See Eruptions. WORMS. — Fowls are very often troubled with worms, and these are the cause of many undcfmable diseases. The excretions should be examined when their presence is suspected, and if discovered, a capsule of turpentine, followed by a dose of castor-oil, will usually affect a cure. Santonin has also been given with success, and areca nut might afford benefit in some cases. 202 The Illustrated Book oe Poultry. Fig. 56. Wry- Tail. — This deformity is in many cases owing to spinal causes, and in all such should be ruthlessly stamped out, being strongly hereditary and sure evidence of a weakly constitution, but instances occur in which it is more analogous to squinting in the human subject, being caused by a slight inequality of the muscles or tendons on each side ; and, like squinting, can often be cured by a simple operation, for the details of which we are indebted to Mr. Hinton. In very slight cases there seems little more than a constant habit of carrying the tail to one side, and in these, quoting the gentleman to whom we have already referred, “it is often sufficient to make a scar on the opposite side, either by snipping out a bit of skin with a pair of scissors, or destroying it by rubbing a wetted stick of nitrate of silver (lunar, caustic) over the part. The scar or eschar, whichever way produced, should be about half an inch in length by less than a quarter of an inch in width, the greatest length being in a downward direction ; and the position is at the junction of the projecting portion from which the tail springs with the body. In the annexed diagram (Fig. 56) the place is clearly shown at a or b. If the tail be moved from side to side the joint will be found, and it is there that the operation must be performed. ‘ The contraction of the scar or eschar will very probably effect a cure ; but if not, and it be still concluded the case is unconnected with spinal deformity — the knife in the neighbourhood of the throat, freely dividing the large vessels, is the only cure for this form ! — the finger should be placed in the angle on the affected side, while the tail is forcibly drawn in the opposite direction. If this is done several times, it is probable that under the finger a tight cord or tendon will be felt, and this will have to be divided. This operation must be performed with a sharp narrow-bladed knife, inserted under the cord without cutting the skin farther than just the point where the knife enters ; and should there be bleeding, pressure on the aperture with the finger will control it. After a week the tail should be moved daily to the opposite side, and manipulated till it assumes the proper position. “ A similar operation may be performed for ‘ squirrel-tail ’ (the tail pointing forward over the back), but in this case the cord to be cut will be found on the top instead of at the side.” This matter opens up, as Mr. Hinton very justly remarks, the whole question of how far it is justifiable to meddle with “ exhibition birds.” If we may thus surgically remove a tendency to wry -tail, why not manipulate a comb or excise an extra toe? Why not even paint a bird? We confess the point is not clear ; and while we endeavour in this work to give the fancier every assistance possible, we are not sure our conscience, any more than Mr. Hinton’s, would be quite at ease did we win a prize with a bird “ assisted ” in the manner we have described. Still, we think it can be shown that there is some difference between the case now supposed and the others named. They are actually wrong formations, whether of members or of plumage, and are hereditary ; whereas the fault in mere carriage of a member is more akin to some awkwardness in gait, and, as we can testify after breeding from such cases without even the attempt to remedy them, have no particular tendency, so far as we have observed, to perpetuate themselves. They seem to belong to the individual bird, and, once corrected, are “ permanent improvements.” It is often advisable to dissect fowls which have perished from disease, in order to ascertain if possible the cause of death. We have known so little in our own yard of such cases, in spite of the small space (sixty-seven by thirty-five feet) which clone for some years was at our command, that we confess our actual experience in this line has been very limited. We may, however, remark that the fowl should be entirely plucked before any extended dissection is attempted, and should also be entirely cold, or blood may flow and hinder observation as to the coloui Principal Viscera of a Young Cocr 2°3 REFERENCES. a The under beak. b Membrane of the mouth at the side ,of the tongue. c Muscles of the tongue (os hyoides ) and lower jaw. d A thin salivary gland, entering the mouth by several small orifices. s A small salivary gland, whose duct passes through the membrane of the mouth at the side of the tongue — the right one is turned outwards to show these ducts. / A small cartilage belonging to the os hyoides. g The fauces. h The oesophagus, above the crop. 2 The crop laid open. & The upper orifice into the crop. t The lower orifice. in The lower oesophagus. n The gizzard. o First turn of the duodenum. p Second turn of ditto. q The other intestines. ; The basis of the liver, the body of it being cut out to show the six orifices of the vena cava hcpatica and vena port arum, s The gall bladder. t The spleen. u The two testicles. v Attachment of the pericardium, within which is seen the heart, exposing the mouths of the vessels coming in and going out. w The vencc caver superiorcs. x The two carotids and subclavians. y The trachea. 3 Suspensory muscles of- the trachea. Fig- 57- 2°a The Illustrated Book op Poultry. of the tissues, which is in many cases a very important point in determining the natuie of the disease. The illustration on the last page (Fig. 57) has heen copied, by tlie kind permission of 1 lofessor Owen, from a plate in his “Descriptive and Illustrated Catalogue of the Physiological Series in the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons,” and accurately represents the relative position of the principal viscera in a young cock. We give it as affording useful assistance in dissection to amateurs. The proper references to the various organs are subjoined. We may remark, in conclusion, that the following will be a useful list of remedies to be kept on hand, and will furnish a tolerably complete MEDICINE CHEST, capable of treating most of the acute complaints usually met with : — Calomel, in one and two-grain pills ; opium, in half-grain and grain pills; the chalk and rhubarb pills as given at page 191, for diarrhoea; a small supply of cayenne pepper ; the same of Epsom salts and jalap ; and a bottle each of camphorated spirit, M'Dougall’s Fluid Carbolate, chlorinated soda (Labarraque’s formula), and Fleming’s tincture of aconite (for colds) ; a small phial of laudanum should also be added. The other remedies named in this chapter are chiefly needed for more chronic complaints, the nature of which gives ample time to procure them as required ; but the foregoing list may occasionally save precious time in treating cases which depend almost entirely on promptness in dealing with the first marked symptoms of the attack. Castor-oil we reserve for a special paragraph, to say that it ought to be banished from the list. In former editions we have prescribed it, according to universal custom, where purgatives were required ; but practical experience has gradually convinced us that it does not suit fowls, and that more have been killed by it than by any other medicine. They almost always appear sick and wretched long after it, losing all appetite; whereas after salts or jalap, which answer the same pur- pose, the appetite seems to improve, provided there is nothing serious the matter, and the birds recover without that general shock to the whole system which seems too often caused by the oil. Sick fowls should always be secluded, unless in very trifling ailments. By so doing, not only is danger of contagion avoided, but the birds have a much better chance of recovery, as if at large they are generally bullied by their companions ; moreover, special treatment cannot be adopted while birds are left in the run. Some persons use poultry-baskets as hospitals, and they will do, if rigidly confined to such purposes, but must never afterwards be used to transmit healthy fowls. At best they are too dark and confined, and a few pens about three feet square are much preferable in every way. They can also be readily disinfected after use, and thus be employed, when not wanted for hospital use, in preparing fowls for exhibition. The pens we have already advised foi the latter object, with this precaution, may thus be made available for both purposes. 205 CHAPTER XVII. TECHNICAL TERMS. BEFORE proceeding to the detailed description of the various breeds, and practical notes on theii breeding and management, it will be well to provide for the beginner a competent knowledge of the various technical terms as employed by fanciers. With the aid of the illustration on the following page, this will readily be acquired from the accompanying glossary. We have included a few words not perhaps absolutely necessary ; but for obvious reasons it is convenient to have collected together a list of the chief terms in constant use amongst poultry amateurs. Beard. — A bunch of feathers under the throat of some breeds, as Houdans or Polish. Breed. — Any variety of fowl presenting distinct characteristics. Brood. — The family of chickens under care of one hen. Broody. — Desiring to sit or incubate. Carriage. — The bearing, attitude, or “style ” of a bird. Carunculated. — Covered with fleshy protuberances, as on the neck of a turkey-cock. Chick. — A newly-hatched fowl. Used only till a few weeks old, Chicken. — This word is often applied to any age indefinitely until twelve months old. Clutch. — This term is applied both to the batch of eggs sat upon by a fowl, and also to the brood of chickens hatched there- from. Cockerel. — A young cock. Comb. — The red protuberance on the top of a fowl’s head. (No. i, see Plate). Condition. — The state of the fowl as regards health and beauty of plumage — the latter especially. Crest. — A crown or tuft of feathers on the head. The same as Top-knot. Crop. — The bag or receptacle in which food is stored before digestion. Can be easily felt in any fowl after feeding. Cushion. — The mass of feathers over the tail-end of a hen’s back, covering the tail ; chiefly developed in Cochins. Deaf -ears. — The folds of skin hanging from the true ears : same as Ear-lobes. They vary in colour, being blue, white, cream-coloured, or red. (No. 4.) Dubbing. — Cutting off the comb, wattles, &c., so as to leave the head smooth and clean. Ear-lobes. — Same as Deaf-ears. Face. — The bare skin round the eye. (No. 2.) Flights. — The primary feathers of the wing, used in flying, but tucked under the wing out of sight when at rest. (No. 16.) Fluff. — Soft downy feathers about the thighs, chiefly developed in Asiatics. Furnished. — Assumed the full characters. When a cockerel has obtained his full tail, comb, hackles, &c. , as if adult, he is said to be “furnished.” S Gills. — This term is often applied to the wattles, and sometimes more indefinitely to the whole region of the throat. Hackles. — The peculiar narrow feathers on the neck of fowls, also found in the saddle of the cock. In the latter case they are called “saddle” hackles or feathers ; hackles alone always referring to the neck-feathers. (No. 5.) Hen- feathered, or Henny. — Resembling a hen in the absence of sickles or hackle-feathers, and in plumage generally. Hock. — The knee or elbow-joint of the leg. (No. 19.) Keel. — A word sometimes used to denote the breast-bone. Leg. — In a live fowl this is the scaly part, or shank. In a bird dressed for table, on the contrary, the term refers, as is well known, to the joints above. Leg-feathers. — The feathers projecting from the outer side of the shanks in some breeds, as Cochins. Mossy. — Confused or indistinct in marking. Pea-comb. — A triple comb, resembling three small combs in one, the middle being the highest. Pencilling. — Small markings or stripes over a feather.. These may run either straight across, as in Ilamburghs, or in a crescentic form, as in Partridge Cochins. Poult. — A young turkey. Primaries. — The flight-feathers of the wings, hidden when the wing is closed, being tucked under the visible wing composed of the “secondary” feathers. Usually the primaries contain the deepest colour all over the body, except the tail, and great importance is attached to their colour by breeders. Pullet. — A young hen. The term is not properly applicable after December 3! of the year in which a bird is hatched, though often used during the early months of the next year. Rooster. — An American term for a cock. Saddle. — The posterior part ot the back, reaching to the tail, in a cock, answering to the cushion in a hen ; often, however, applied to both sexes, cushion being more restricted to a great development, as in Cochins, while “ saddle ” may be applied to any breed. (No. 8.) Secondaries. — The quill-feathers of the wing which show when the bird is at rest (No. 15.) 206 The Illustrated Book of Poultry . Fig. 58. 1. Comb. 2. Face. 3. Wattles. 4. Deaf-ear or Ear-lobe. 5. Hackle. 6. Breast. 7- Back. 8. Saddle REFERENCES. 9. Saddle-hacldes. 10. Sickles. 11. Tail-coverts. 12. True Tail-feathers. 13. Wing-bow. 14. Wing-coverts, forming the “bar.” 15. Secondaries, lower-ends forming the wing or lower butts. 16. Primaries, or flights, not seen when wing is clipped up. 1 7. Point of breast-bone. 18. Thighs. 19. Hocks. 20. Legs or Shanks. 21. Spur. 22. Toes or Claws. Technical Terms. 207 Self-colour. —A uniform tint over the feather. Shaft. — The stem or quill of a feather. Shank. — The scaly part of the leg. (No. 20.) Sickles. — The top curved feathers of a cock’s tail. Properly only applied to the top pair, but sometimes used for one or two pairs below which can hardly be called tail-coverts. (No. 10.) Spangling. — The marking produced by each leather having one large spot or splash of some colour different to the ground. Spur. — The sharp offensive weapon on the heel of a cock. (No. 21.) Squirrel-tailed. — The tail projecting in front of a perpendicular line, over the back. Stag. — Another term for a young cock, chiefly used by Game fanciers. Strain. — A race of fowls which, having been carefully bred by one breeder or his successors for years, has acquired an individual character of its own which can be more or less relied upon. Symmetry. — Perfection of proportion : often confounded with carriage, but quite distinct ; as a bird may be nearly perfect in proportion, and yet “carry” himself awkwardly. Tail-coverts. — The soft, glossy, curved feathers at the sides of j the bottom of the tail. Usually the same colour as the tail itself. (No. 11.) Tail-feathers. — The straight and stiff feathers of the tail only. The top pair are sometimes slightly curved, but they are always nearly if not quite straight, and are contained inside the sickles and tail-coverts. (No, 12.) Thighs. — The joint above the shanks; the first joint clothed with feathers. The same as the drumstick in dressed fowls. (No. 18.) 7'op-knot. — Same as Crest. Trio. — A cock or cockerel, and two hens or pullets. Under-colour. — The colour of the plumage seen when the surface has been lifted. It chiefly depends, on that of the down seen at the root of every feather Vulture-hock. — Stiff projecting feathers at the hock .joint. The feathers must be both stiff and projecting to be thus truly called and condemned. (See Fig. 59, drawn from a Brahma pullet. ) Wattles. — The red depending structures at each side of the base of the beak. Chiefly developed in the male sex. (No. 3.) Web. — This term is indefinite, expressing a flat and thin structure. The web of a feather is the flat or plume portion ; the web of the foot, the flat skin between the toes ; of the wing, the triangular skin seen when the member is extended. Wing-bar. — Any line of dark colour across the middle of the wing, caused by the colour or marking of the feathers known as the lower wing-coverts. (No. 14.) Wing-bozo. — The upper or shoulder part of the wing. (No 13.) Wing-butts. — The corners or ends of the wing. The upper ends are more properly called the shoulder-butts, and are thus termed by Game fanciers. The lower, similarly, are often called the lower butts. Wing-coverts. — The broad feathers covering the roots of the secondary quills. (No. 14.) 2o8 CHAPTER XV111 COCHINS. I r is often stated that the origin of this breed, and its first appearance in England, are alike to be traced to some fowls imported in 1843, and which subsequently passed into the possession of Her Majesty, under the name of Cochin China fowls; but from a drawing of these very birds which appeared in the Illustrated London News of that date, it is easy to see that they possessed no characters whatever which distinguish Cochins as we now know them, except the yellow legs and the large size. They were very long and bare on the leg ; the carriage of the head was backward instead of forward ; the tails were tolerably abundant (much more so than even the modern Brahma) and carried high ; and the back sloped down to the tail instead of rising to it. Add to this that the birds were both narrow and entirely destitute of fluff, and the plumage close and hard instead of soft and downy ; and it will be rather hard to conceive the grounds of such an amazing assertion as that 1843 “may be stated as being the period of the first introduction of these remarkable fowls into this country.” These early birds, in fact, while combining some of the blood of both, were evidently far more Malay than Cochin in their type, and probably came in reality from the region whose name they bore. They always retained the bare leg, and with hardly an exception had black, or nearly black, eyes. Later on Her Majesty possessed better specimens, and in 1846 exhibited at the Dublin Cattle Show some fowls which attracted great attention, but were still nearly as far from the true type. It was, in fact, not until 1847 that two English breeders introduced birds which exhibited at least the essentials of the Cochin variety as we now have it. All these birds came from China, and almost exclusively from the port of Shanghae ; and hence for some time a fruitless controversy was raised as to the proper name, and fruitless attempts made to change their popular designation for the undoubtedly more accurate one of Shanghaes. These attempts were continued later in America than in England ; and till a few years ago many United States fanciers were in the habit of calling all feather-legged Cochins by the name of Shanghaes ; but even there the attempt has failed, and the recent increased intercourse between the fanciers of the two nations has finally produced uniformity of nomenclature at the expense of accuracy. We not only need the space, but we have not the inclination to go at length, as some have done, into this now useless controversy ; the more especially as we have often remarked the curious uniformity with which, in any struggle of facts against a popular name, the name is sure to win. It is sufficient to observe that so it was in the case of these birds. Cochins they certainly were not ; but Cochins people would have them to be, Cochins they became, and Cochins they remain. The introduction of these fowls, as we have already hinted, was a memorable event in the history of poultry ; since they undoubtedly awakened that startling “ mania ” which was, calmly considered, one of the most curious phenomena of the nineteenth century, and which, after it died away, left behind it an enduring interest in poultry generally, which nothing has since been able to destroy. Scarcely any people at that time kept fowls ; and as for the few poultry-shows which Cassells Poultry Book ASncont Brooks Day &Sonlith BUFF COCHIN COCK General Points of Cochins. even then timidly endeavoured to attract the attention of a discerning public, they were regarded as the harmless craze of a few weak-minded individuals, looked upon in those days much as a man would be now who should devote his spare time and energies to the cultivation of white mice. But the Cochins came like giants upon the scene ; they were seen, and they conquered. The few people who were at first tempted into the shows went home and told with wonder that they had seen fowls “ as large as ostriches,” which nearly blew off the roof with their awful crow ; or, as some affirmed, “roared like the lions in the Zoological Gardens;” but were said withal to be of such a mild and peaceable disposition as never was known, and put the little birds which, according to good Dr. Watts, “ in their little nests agree,” utterly to shame. This sent in others to see the wonderful fowls, till the shows were crammed, and even the streets leading to them ; and still the excitement gathered and grew. The names of Sturgeon, Moody, Punchard, and Andrews, became famous in the land ; and Mrs. Herbert bred white bi-rds which have never been since surpassed. Poultry auctions came into fashion ; Punch himself began to point his jests with allusions to the famous fowls, and people really seemed going mad for Cochins : when, as suddenly as it began, the mania subsided, and people became cool again. But the work was done. It was indeed natural that after such unnatural excitement there should be unusual calm ; and for some years after this wonderful outburst of hobbyism poultry-shows rather languished and declined. But the recovery was rapid, though steady ; and it is a singular fact that at the present time, without any mania or excitement whatever, there are far more poultry-shows and poultry-keepers than in the hottest days of the “ hen-fever,” while higher average prices are realised than ever, and there never was a more steady and remunerative market for good birds. Well, therefore, does our Cochin — as we stand before him in his pen — merit at our hands some tribute of respect ; well does he deserve such honour as we can show him, by placing him first in our exposition of the various breeds. Besides his own merits and grand proportions, he is the father of the poultry fa7icy! May he never be worse “furnished ” than now, and may his shadow never grow less ! With these respectful wishes for his welfare, we proceed to the practical con- sideration of the Cochin as he exists at the present day. In doing so we shall endeavour not only to describe what high-class fowls should be, but how they may be bred; which, indeed, through- out these pages will be our aim, and that of the skilled breeders who have placed the results ol their experience at our disposal, with a generous confidence which it has been one of our greatest pleasures in preparing this work for the press to have awakened. The general characteristics of Cochins are so peculiar and distinct from other fowls, that a short general description will first of all be necessary. A Cochin cock ought not to weigh less than ten or eleven pounds, and very large specimens range from that weight to as high as fifteen pounds ; but the latter weight is very rare, and is generally, according to our observation, accompanied by a clumsy and ungainly carriage, though we have seen some exceptions to this rule. A good Cochin looks larger even than his actual weight, as the plumage is very loose and fluffy, a peculiarity which arises from the feathers being broader across the web, and thinner and weaker in the shaft or quill, than that of other varieties. The comb is single, and should be perfectly upright, free both from twist and any tendency to fall over, with a fine arched outline and neat handsome-looking spikes ; both comb, face, deaf-ears, and wattles being as fine in skin or texture as possible. This point is greatly valued by fanciers, a rough warty-looking skin being much disliked. The head, which should be carried slightly forward, is rather small and very intelligent-looking ; the neck rather short, and very thick and full in the hackle, which should be long enough to flow well over the shoulders and back ; the shoulders somewhat square, and very broad across; the breast rather high relatively, but should be prominent 210 T hp Illustrated Book of Poultry. full, and broad. The back so short as to have hardly any length at all, but wide and flat cross- ways, and running off almost at once into the saddle. This last is one of the most important points in a Cochin cock ; it should be nearly or quite as broad as the back, begin to rise almost from the very base of the neck, and rise more and more gradually towards the tail, forming no angle with the feathers of that member, but a nice, harmonious, continuous line. The body to be short but very deep, and the “ fluff” on the thighs standing out as much as possible in a globular form. This and abundant leg-feather form perhaps the second great point in a good Cochin. The hocks ought to be thoroughly well covered with soft curling feathers, but free from stiff projecting quills (vulture-hock) ; and the shank-feathering heavy, and standing out from the shanks well. The legs to be short, and as wide apart as possible. The tail and wings are also important : the tail of a good Cochin containing hardly any quill, but merely soft and curling feathers ; and the small and short wing being clipped close up to the sides, and the points almost buried between the saddle-feathers above and the fluff below. The breed, in common with Brahmas, is peculiarly subject to what is called a “slipped” wing, or the flight-feathers protruded outside the secondaries instead of being nicely tucked under ; this fault greatly diminishes both the value and beauty of a bird, and tells heavily in any good competition. The gait is slow, and the carriage quiet and dignified. The hen is of similar conformation as regards shortness, width, and depth of body, the short neck rather tending forward, the high-carried stern, &c. In her the saddle is exchanged, however, for a still more developed “cushion,” almost globular in its fulness of outline, and which, with a similarly developed fluff on thighs, are the chief points in a Cochin hen. The tail is very short, and should just peep through the feathers of the cushion. In other points the conformation is similar. In both sexes the toes should be large, straight, and well spread out. All the points described will be found well exemplified in the plates which illustrate this chapter. The colours bred in Cochins are various shades in Buff and Cinnamon, Partridge or Grouse, White, Black, and “Cuckoo” colour. There are also Silky Cochins. These we shall now consider in detail. BUFF COCHINS. — The Buff has always maintained its place as the most popular of the Cochin breeds. In describing its characteristics and breeding, we will give in the first place the full notes with which we have been favoured by Mr. Henry Tomlinson, beyond question the oldest fancier who has continued uninterruptedly the cultivation of this variety down to the present time : — “ In giving my experience in Buff Cochins, I will first give the different points required in a first-class bird. I am quite aware there exists much difference of opinion as to the points of this variety of fowl ; but as I still like to see the old style of bird, with the lumpy points that so many consider ugly, I shall endeavour to describe them as nearly as possible according to my own fancy, and perhaps crediting myself with the longest-continued experience, dating my first days among the Cochins twenty years back. It may be worth remark that seeing the first Cochins that ever were exhibited gives me the advantage of knowing what they were then, and what we have arrived at after twenty-three years careful breeding. “In colour we have several shades in the Buff Cochin cock, and perhaps the most attractive colour in an exhibition pen is what we call lemon; I will therefore give first the colour of the Lemon-Buff Cochin cock. The neck, saddle, hackle, and wing and tail-coverts should be as near as possible the colour of a new lemon ; the breast-feathers and fluff a pale buff or light cane- colour ; flight-feathers of wing also a pale buff or cane-colour, and perfectly free from any streaks or mealiness ; the tail-feathers should he light bronze, or buff, rather darker in colour than the I Colours or Buff Cocmys. 211 breast-feathers ; the foot and leg-feathering same colour as breast, and free from any white or discoloured feathers. “ The next most important colour of cock is the Buff. The neck, saddle, hackle, and wing and tail-coverts should be a bright dark orange; the breast and fluff rich yellow buff; the tail buff or dark bronze, free from any discoloured feathers ; the foot and leg-feathering same colour as breast, and free from any discoloured feathers. “The Silver-Buff cock — a colour much discarded by all judges, therefore very seldom seen, but yet when true in colour one of the handsomest birds bred — is as follows: — The neck, saddle, hackle, and wing and tail-coverts should be a light lemon ; the breast and fluff a French white; the tail-feathers light, tipped with orange or light bronze ; foot and leg-feathering same colour as breast ; flight-feathers of wing a pale buff or light cane-colour. “ These are the three only important colours in cocks. I will now give the colours of hens of each of these varieties. “ The Lemon-Buff hen should be a light cane-colour, uniform shade throughout ; feet and leg- feathers and tail should be same colour ; the hackle a light lemon. This is perhaps the most fashionable colour. “The Yellow-Buff hen should be a good rich buff throughout, with hackle rich orange. “ The Silver-Buff hen is a very beautiful bird when perfect in colour. The neck and hackle should be a light golden lemon ; the body French white ; the tail and wing-flights a light buff or very pale cane-colour ; leg and foot feathers same colour as body. “ I have thus briefly described the different colours in both cocks and hens, and will now give the different points required in a high-class bird of each sex. “In the cock bird size is a most important point to breed for. A full-grown cock bird, say twelve months old, should not be less than from ten to twelve pounds. A Cochin increases in weight till three or four years old, and old cocks from two to three years old will increase to the weight of fourteen or fifteen pounds each ; but I maintain that a cock bird weighing twelve or thirteen pounds when two years old is quite heavy enough, and shows in a pen to much greater advantage than a bird heavier. A very high-class bird, with great depth of feather (a great feature in a Cochin), is very deceptive in weight, and I have frequently seen cocks, thick heavy- looking birds, full of feather, weigh much lighter than a close-feathered bird that in a pen does not look so heavy by pounds. A close-feathered bird I very much object to. “ The head should be long, not too thick or coarse ; the beak rich yellow ; the comb perfectly upright, not too large, and evenly serrated ; the ear-lobes prominent and red ; the wattles deep ; the neck well arched, not too short, and not carried too much back ; the shoulders broad and square, and well carried up ; the breast full, and broad as possible ; the legs set well apart, the more bone and thickness the better, not too long, nor either too short ; feet large ; toes thick, long, and straight ; legs and feet well feathered, and free from any long hock-feathers ; the wing small, carried well up, and close, the ends of the flight-feathers closely clipping the sides, so as to be almost invisible. Twisted flight-feathers in the wing, or any of the long flight-feathers not carried well under, are very objectionable. The tail should be as small as possible, free from any loim sickle-feathers, and resembling much the style of a plume of feathers. It is rare now in an exhibition pen to see a genuine tail ; they are so artistically curled and twisted into shape, and so many feathers pulled out, that an exhibition pen very rarely contains a bird in its natural form. “ In the Cochin hen, also, size is a most important point ; for, however good in quality and colour, if under size they are of little use. Hens live to a greater age than cocks, and, as Cochins increase in weight every year, their weight is much heavier in proportion to the cocks. Hens at 212 The Illustrated Book of Poultry. one year old should not be less than from eight to nine pounds each ; at two years old they wiLi increase in weight to ten or eleven pounds each ; and at three or four years old I have had them to weigh nearly twelve pounds each : but hens ten pounds each at two years old are a good average weight, and quite heavy enough. The head should be long, not too thick or coarse ; the comb fine, upright, and not too large ; breast broad, prominent, and full ; shoulders broad and square ; the wing small, the under flight-feathers carried well under, and the outer flight-feathers closely clipping the sides ; the legs thick as possible, and a good bright yellow, well-feathered, and quite free from any long hock-feathers. The most important point in a Cochin hen is the cushion ; in a very high class hen the cushion should be very large and prominent, forming quite a ball on the rump, and hiding the whole of the tail with the exception of the ends of the longest feathers. “ In mating birds for breeding, the information I shall endeavour to give will be such as I have gained myself from many years’ practical experience ; and I may say — having made it a study how to produce colour, feather, form, and size — by following the few practical hints I shall give, those who wish to breed this most useful variety of fowls will not get very far wrong. “ In commencing to breed Cochins, inexperienced people are very apt to think that by purchasing very moderate birds from some good breeder of a noted strain they may breed as good a bird as if paying high or fancy prices for very high-class specimens. This is not my opinion. To produce high-class birds you must not have a fault in your stock birds ; little faults in parent birds develop themselves on a much larger scale in the young stock. I will give an important instance of this. Some years ago I had a very fine strain of cocks, that for quality could not be beaten ; but there was a great peculiarity in the comb — the two middle spikes were much shorter than the rest. This defect I never found show itself in the pullets by this cock ; but many of the cocks had the same defect as their sire — the combs being precisely like his. Cocks I have always found resemble their sire, and pullets the hen. We have found it very difficult to breed birds perfect in colour and quality from the very best stock that can be put together ; and I am quite sure imperfect birds cannot as a rule produce perfect stock. Amateurs who wish to breed Cochins I do not advise to be guided in their purchases by the awards at our different shows, and purchase the prize birds for stock purposes ; they must bear in mind that many of the highest class exhibition birds are of no other use than for an exhibition pen. If you can keep birds (Cochins) healthy and lively, the older they are the larger they get, and the more valuable for exhibition. I have had many large high-class exhibition hens that to my knowledge have never laid an egg for the last two or three seasons of their life. Choose your hens from one year old, and not over two years ; large, square, heavily-feathered birds, rich buff in colour, not too light, and quite free from any mixture of shades in the colour of feathers, but a decided colour throughout ; plenty of width between the legs is a very important point ; legs as thick as possible, and a good yellow. The larger your hen in cushion behind, and more prominent her good points, the better ; a flat-backed hen, with no rump , however beautiful in colour and good in other points, I would not run in my yard for breeding purposes. Be careful also the ear-lobes are not streaked with white ; comb as small, fine, and upright as possible ; feet large and well feathered ; toes thick, long, and straight. “The cock bird to run with these hens should also be a rich buff, a good sound colour through- out ; great care should be taken in not having the under flight-feathers of wing white or mealy. I do not object to their being black, but a good rich buff is to be preferred ; but if white or mealy it is sure to produce mealy-flighted cocks. The wing should be as small as possible, well carried up, and closely tucked into the side ; a large, long, loose-winged bird scarcely ever carries his wing close, and is very objectionable for stock purposes. Cassells Poultry Book. Vincent 13ro olcij ) ay & Son Titli I BUFF COCHIN HEN . . fui l>] i: ; - . M ANAGEMENT Of COCHINS. 21 3 £1 Do not choose your cock bird too large. If you have all the good points you require, a bird cen or eleven pounds at twelve months old is large enough, and I should not select one of two years old over eleven pounds ; but I much prefer breeding from hens two years old and cock one year old. “ There exists much greater difficulty in breeding high-class birds than what there was years ago. This is a great deal owing to the different fancies of our judges. Some fancy one colour and some another ; and they have given such a decided preference to the pale lemon buff that often lovely birds of very high-class merit are passed over in favour of very inferior specimens as to quality in other points, solely on account of their very delicate clear colour. In the early days of Cochins, when Sturgeon and Punchard, the earliest and greatest breeders of Buff Cochins, used to show such thick, square, fluffy, grand birds, such birds that we do not see nowadays, most of the hens had pencilled hackles ; now if a pencilled-hackled hen is shown, however good in quality, she is passed over by the judges. In trying to obtain that delicate clear colour we have greatly run out of the rich yellow buff, and the different breeders find now that they produce a much larger proportion of inferior-coloured birds, which are mottled in colour, and the cocks with mealy wings. I therefore strongly advise all who wish to breed Buff Cochins, to select their stock birds of a good sound rich buff, but not to approach a dark cinnamon. “ Even if you wish to breed the pale buff, you need not alter your selection in stock birds, for you will be sure to breed them light enough. The greatest difficulty is how to produce the rich yellow buff. “ As to breeding the silver cinnamon, or silver buff, I do not think any of the true strain of this colour exist. They used to be bred very true years ago. I bred them myself some ten years back, and bred till I could not get one in twenty the correct colour. They are very handsome, but most difficult to breed ; indeed, I believe it to be now a hopeless task, and, therefore, could not advise the shade of stock birds to produce this colour. “ The importation of Cochin China fowls into this country we have much to be thankful for, as it has been the means of enabling those who never could keep fowls before to do so, and to make their little hobbies remunerative. Cochins, I may say, will do anywhere. I have known wonderful birds bred in very wonderful places, where no other fowls could exist. I once bought some of the best pullets I ever saw that were bred and reared in a pig-sty, some fifteen years ago. I was then living close to the town of Birmingham, and my accommodation for Cochins was limited to a small garden at the back of my house. I bred many birds there, exhibited largely, and most successfully. My pens were arranged in rows. Roost-houses, about six feet by five feet, by five feet high ; yards about fourteen feet by five feet. My roost-house floors I made as follows : — Dig out about a foot of soil, fill up with ashes, well rammed down ; mix up some coarse gravel, well- slacked lime, and sand, with water ; lay this mixture over the ashes, and it will soon form into a hard surface, very far preferable to boards. Brick floors are very objectionable. The yards I make the same, sloping them from the pen, so that after a shower of rain the water runs off and cleanses the yards. They are easily swept out, and fresh rough sand riddled over gives them a freshness every day. I had a grass-run, about twenty yards square, and each pen of birds had the run of grass every alternate day. I was once paid a visit by a very noted Cochin breeder — one of the oldest Cochin men — and when he saw my place, and the quantity of birds I kept, he appeared to be very much astonished at my success, both in breeding and exhibiting. I noticed him stepping my ground very carefully, and, upon my inquiring his object in doing so, he said he ‘ was anxious to see the quantity of ground I had, and found, by his measurement, that I had only a little over one square yard of ground for each bird , upon calculation of measurement and the 214 The I LLUSTRA TED BOOK OF POULTRY. number of birds I then had. He did not understand,’ he said, ‘how I could keep them healthy. I explained to him the grand secret was cleanliness , with careful and regular feeding. My roost-houses were cleaned out every morning, and riddled over with fresh sand and slacked lime mixed ; the yards swept out, and fresh sand riddled over every morning, and fresh water every day. bor water utensils I always prefer cast iron, left in the rough state, not painted or galvanised. My birds were fed as follows : — The old birds twice a day : once with good sound malting barley, with occasionally a little Indian corn ; and once a day on scalded barley-meal, with any other little alteration of food the appearance of the birds would suggest. Green food once a day ; and in winter time, when green food cannot be got, a Swede turnip cut in two is a good substitute. The roost-houses were not over-crowded, and properly ventilated, for a quantity of birds shut up in a close house produce great heat ; therefore, however cold the weather may be, proper ventilation is most important. Proper shelter, in the shape of some kind of outhouse, should be provided. Birds do not like to go into their roost-houses out of rain, and frequently crouch under any imperfect shelter rather than do so ; and, consequently, get wet and cold, which is very injurious in any weather. Wet or fine, Cochins will make great use of good shelter, and there is nothing I know of more desirable. Young birds cannot grow if they suffer from cold , wet, or great heat of sun.” The following remarks by Mr. F. Wragg, whose success as a breeder of this beautiful variety has been conclusively proved in the show-pen for many years, will be also valuable as regards the choice of parents for breeding stock : — “ It is now eighteen years since my fancy for Buff Cochins began, and I have bred them more or less ever since ; and having had a fair amount of success as a breeder and exhibitor of this most beautiful variety of Cochin, a few remarks on their selection for breeding and for exhibition may not be out of place to those who are intending to make Buff Cochins their speciality. “ In selecting the cock I should look for the following points : — Comb of medium size, set firm on the head, fine in quality, being quite free from side sprigs, perfectly straight and evenly serrated, and flowing in a neat curve over the back of the head. Beak short and thick, and well curved, being what the fancy call parrot-billed. Wattles rather long, with the ear-lobe hanging on a level with the lower edge of the wattles, both being of very fine texture ; general appearance of head being very fine. Neck short and powerfully made, and finely curved. Body broad and deep; the saddle should be very broad, almost as wide as the shoulders, and from the centre of the back should gradually rise to the stern. Breast full and prominent. Thighs short and very strongly made ; shanks short and thick, set wide apart ; the body being set well down, and the general carriage of the bird being drooping forward gives it a most graceful appearance. When in motion and viewed from behind, where the widest view of the bird may be seen the appearance should be as round as a full moon. “ In selecting the hen, see that she resembles the cock in shape and carriage. She must have a small neat comb set low on the head, perfectly straight and evenly serrated ; wattles and ear-lobe to match, being very fine and thin ; general appearance of head small, with a knowing look about it ; neck short and well arched ; body very square and deep ; breast very full, and carried well forward. The cushion, which rises from the middle of the back, should present a beautiful dome-like appearance, curving right round the stern, and almost smothering the tail. Thighs short and well- formed; shanks short and thick, set wide apart; the body set well down to the hocks; the drooping carriage when in motion gives the bird a most captivating appearance. “In Buffs there are two shades of colour, one being of a pale delicate buff, the other a rich lemon- colour, the latter being the most fashionable. The lemon-coloured cocks, when true in colour, are Breeding Bufe Cochins. 215 most beautiful, the hackle being a bright lemon-colour, falling gracefully from the head and round the neck, spreading out until the two edges meet below the wattles ; then gradually opening out in beautiful curves, covering the shoulder-blades, and falling well on to the back. The flat of the wings and the saddle-hackle must be of the same bright colour as the neck-liackle, the saddle-hackle covering the wing-points and falling on to the side fluff, where it merges into the tail-coverts ; the tail gradually rising for two or three inches in a sloping direction, and then drooping over in a half circle. The tail-coverts should be long and soft, being broad at the base and tapering to a fine point ; both these and the streamers should be a deep copper-colour, the inside feathers of the tail, or what are called fan-feathers, will be more or less black in the cocks. The wings must be quite free from any approach to mealiness or checquered appearance ; the colour must be quite sound and unbroken, and match the hackle and saddle ; the flight-feathers must be pure buff, well clipped up, the points sinking in the soft projecting fluff, and overhung with the saddle-feathers, the shoulders of the wings being covered with the breast-feathers. The breast, thighs, and fluff must be pure lemon-colour. The thighs must be very thickly feathered, the hock-joint being completely covered with soft curling feathers ; the fluff on the sides must be densely thick and long, projecting over the thighs, the longest feathers being almost as deep in colour as the neck-hackle ; the fluff on the hind part must be very abundant, forming a complete circle of a lighter shade then the side fluff, and completely covering the back of the thighs ; the shank must be bright yellow, the inside of shank and toes being a deep flesh-colour, the outside of shank being profusely feathered from the hock-joint, with long buff feathers spreading farther out as they reach the foot, the feathers extending to the end of the middle toe. “ The hen to match must be one uniform lemon-colour throughout, being the exact colour of the cock’s breast ; the hackle must be a light lemon-colour, falling in a neat curve on the shoulder ; there must be no black or stained feathers in the hackle, and no signs of twist in the hackle. The cushion must be well developed, the wings folding tightly up, the joints being covered with the overhanging cushion and the side fluff, the latter very abundant, and of a soft silky texture ; the flight-feathers of the wings must be lemon-buff, free from black or white, the wings and rest of body must be one shade of colour quite free from mottling ; the shanks from the hock-joint to the end of middle toe must be profusely feathered. “ Having described the most fashionable winning colour, we will now endeavour to show how it may be bred. Mating lemon cocks with lemon hens will not do ; the cockerels from such parents would be much too light in colour, and mealy on the wing, while the pullets would also be very light and mottled. Of course I do not mean to assert that good chickens cannot be bred from such mating, but the number will be very small. Experience has taught me to select a rich deep orange-coloured cock, the front edges of the hackle being almost red, and the rest of hackle and saddle being a beautiful golden colour ; the back and flat of wings a shade or two deeper, and the streamers in the tail being a rich bronze ; the breast and thighs deep buff, and the side fluff under the edge of the saddle-feathers a shade darker in colour. Such a bird should be mated with pure lemon-coloured hens, and the result will prove the correctness of these remarks. “In breeding for size I would advise two-year old birds; at this age they are fully matured, and neither before nor after will they produce better stock. The chickens are no trouble to rear, and if properly fed grow amazingly fast, and invariably into large birds.” In Cinnamon Cochins the general body-colour is dark or cinnamon, the hackle of the hen being darker, and that of the cock, with his wings and saddle, being darker still. Silver-Cinnamons much resemble Silver-Buffs, and are often confounded, the only difference being a darker coloured hackle. At one show we remember, in which a special class for Silver-Buffs was provided, there The Illustrated Boor of Poultry. 2 1 6 was but one entry, and that was a pen of Silver Cinnamon. We may add the general remark, that in the classes for “ Cinnamon and Buff” Cochins, birds of any shade may be shown, provided the hackles be free from black, and the body and wing-feathers be sound in colour, and free from mealiness and mottling. The body-colour of the hen must in all cases be the same as that of the breast and under parts of the cock, whilst his upper parts will be several shades darker, and must be sound and even in colour. In the lighter colours the cock’s tail should not be deeper than a rich bronze or chestnut in colour ; in the darker Buffs black is not so objectionable, and in Cinnamons not at all so. We may, however, remark, that an uuplucked tail perfectly free from black is very rare. The eyes of all Cinnamon and Buff Cochins should be of a more or less defined yellow colour, to harmonise well with the colour of the plumage ; but red eyes are not objectionable. White or pearl eyes are met with, but are particularly apt to go blind. Yellow eyes are also a little subject to this, from which red eyes are most free of all. We can add little regarding the breeding of Buffs to what has been written by the eminent authorities who have already given their views at length. The essentials may be stated in brief to consist of perfect purity of colour all over the hen, while the cock must possess the same feature in his breast and lower parts, his “ upper works ” being of a rich, sound, and rather deep colour, rather deeper than the colour it is intended to breed. The fault it is perhaps most difficult to avoid in hens is a tendency to be lighter on the tips of the feathers than lower down, which gives a rather mottled look, very unpleasant to the eye of a fancier, and especially common in the lighter-coloured birds. Something of this, however, depends upon the season, and the amount of exposure to the sun, which will make birds look mealy, when with care they might have been kept sound in colour. However, the great point is for the colour to be pure and uniform throughout, up to the tips of the feathers. In the cock, the general fault is a “mealy” wing, or the colour broken up with patches of lighter tint, or even of white. Such a bird is almost hopeless to breed from, all Buffs as a rule breeding lighter and lighter. Even a Lemon cock with Lemon hens will almost always breed very washy chickens with mealy wings ; hence the importance attached by both the breeders we have quoted to choosing a cock whose hackle, wings, back, and saddle are a deep rich colour, tcnbroken by any lighter tint. The flights especially must be a very deep tint ; and, as remarked by Mr. Tomlinson, it is far better to select even black flights than such as have any mealiness in them. Black is not however a good colour, as such birds usually breed cockerels with black tails also, a feature the Buff breeder endeavours as far as possible to avoid. Nothing, however, can make up for any want of that grand and massive Cochin character , which our portraits are especially selected to convey. If the colour be only fair, this is the most impressive point of all, and occasionally fowls appear which dwell in the memory of all breeders for years. Very necessary to this is an ample supply of leg-feather, in good condition ; and the preservation of this often causes anxiety to the breeder, as it is easily worn off in stubbly grass. The only sure means of preserving it is to keep the grass-runs close mown, and have nothing but fine dust in the sheds. This remark will apply alike to all the Asiatic varieties. PARTRIDGE COCHINS. — These fowls have never been so universally popular in England as the brighter-looking Buffs ; but their more sober colour fits them especially for many amateurs, and they have never lacked enthusiastic admirers. Where small space and low fences necessitate one of the Asiatic breeds being kept, and even the Dark Brahma becomes yellow and dirty from the smoke of a town, the Partridge Cochin retains its beauty, and will do credit to the owner. In America it is a particularly esteemed variety, having been introduced more than twenty years Cassells Poultry Book. E tudman’s partridge cochin "T A L B 0 T” COCK FIRST PRIZE AT B I R M I N C H A M , 1870 & KENDAL 1871. ' Description of Partridge Cochins. 2 1 7 ago by the Rev. Mr. Marsh, of Massachusetts ; so good and pure, in fact, was his strain, that birds are still to be found descended from it, which it is believed have never been crossed. The Partridge Cochin cock should be a rich and rather orange red about the head, and hackle the same, with a black stripe down the middle of each feather, the saddle-feathers being similar. The back, shoulder-coverts, and wing-bow are rich red of a rather darker shade, the lower wing- coverts being glossy black, with blue or green reflections, forming a “ bar ” across the wing. The primary or flight quill-feathers should be black, with an edging of rich brown or bay on the lower edge ; secondaries, bay on outer edges, and black on the inner, each feather being metallic black on the end, so as to form a black edge about an inch wide on the upper side of the wing-butts, and forming a rich background under the tips of the saddle-hackles. The breast, thighs, under- parts, tail, and leg-feathers should be rich black in an exhibition bird ; white in the tail or brown in the breast or thighs being objectionable. The shanks should be dusky yellow, a shade of red between the scales being rather a recommendation than otherwise. The Partridge hen has a hackle of rich gold colour, densely striped down the middle with black, the remainder of the plumage being light brown, pencilled over with very dark brown (see feathers on page 221), the pencilling following the outline of the feather. According to the old “ Standard of Excellence,” the feathers on the wings and sides should show the shafts of a rich creamy-white, forming a white streak down the centre of each feather ; but both the judges and the best fanciers have for years shown a strong objection to this, and a decided preference for a solid pencilling all over the body, somewhat resembling that of the Dark Brahma. This colour was formerly known as “ grouse,” while the older style, with its finer pencilling and white shaft, is undoubtedly most like “partridge” marking. Some who still admire the partridge type, but object to the white shaft, have kept and bred for the old minute marking without that defect, and most of what may be called the old-style hens now shown are of this class. The most important point, however, is that the breast up to the very throat be solidly and densely pencilled over with crescent-shaped markings, a bare yellow or clayey breast being absolute disqualification if the competition be at all severe. In a high-class hen, the marking on the breast is very nearly like that on the back and sides. The purer the brown colour of the ground the better ; and any approach to a yellow ground is in exact proportion a decided fault, though we have sometimes seen it justly condoned for unusual accuracy or beauty of pencilling. Legs dusky yellow. With regard to the leg-feathering, a comparison with the original “ Standard of Excellence ” (the first ever prepared), drawn up for the first and long since defunct Poultry Club, shows a considerable change in breeding since it was prepared, Mr. Tegetmeier’s “ Standard ” stating that this feather should be “brown,” whereas in all good hens now the leg-feather should be brown pencilled over precisely as on the body. The fluff also exhibits distinct pencilling upon the majority of the best birds, but this is not so essential. Grouse Cochins are now merely darker Partridge (or rather, perhaps, the new style of Partridge is become lighter Grouse), though when the older style was bred in the Partridges there was a decided difference, the Grouse having always been bred with solid markings free from any streak. The colour of the hen’s hackle in Grouse birds is richer, approaching a reddish gold. In some hens lately shown, the pencillings have been so broad and black as to be quite a new type still, which we consider false to the breed, and do not admire. The following remarks upon Partridge Cochins are by the late Mr. E. Tudman, of Ashgrove, Whitchurch, Salop, formerly a regular prize-taker with this fine variety ; and are rather remark- able as showing the opinion of so long and experienced an admirer with regard to the great difficulty of breeding it to anything really like perfection T 218 I he Illustrated Book of Poultry. “ To breed any variety of fowls to feather I consider a very difficult undertaking, and, if attainable, must be the result of many years’ experience and close watchfulness. As an illustration, the cockerel which was the companion at the Bristol show of the hen portrayed, although as a cockerel he was a beautifully-coloured bird, in his second year became worthless, as he moulted perfectly brown in the thighs and breast. Again, the remarkable hen illustrated has during the past season bred pullets of a directly opposite colour to herself, and on the contrary I have had birds (cocks) which would never throw one not true to colour ; and the question has therefore often arisen in my mind, should there not be two classes of Dark Cochins, brown-breasted and black- breasted, as in Game? Mr. Punchard’s Dark Cochins which he used to exhibit were, I believe, brown-breasted ;* so that the black breast of the present day is of recent introduction, and is difficult to attain, the want of it frequently annihilating the chances of what may be otherwise a most valuable bird. “ At present there is much danger in breeding from cocks other than with breasts black well up to the throttle, black thighs, and bright red hackle well and darkly striped, and in fact I have never done so. Some breeders I believe breed from dark pullets to get the desired colour in cockerels, but I am of opinion that this is much of a lottery. “It is essential that fresh blood should be introduced from other yards in this as in other breeds ; but I consider this should be done with the greatest care and judgment, and the breed and pedigree of birds carefully ascertained. A stricter attention to this would, I think, not produce the frequent disappointments to which Partridge Cochin breeders are peculiarly subject. “Although our judges have of late I think sacrificed to some extent colour for size, colour has always been my ideal of beauty in Partridge Cochins. The white shaft of the feathers in pullets is now to a great extent condemned ; and birds covered all over with solid regular pencillings are desired, with the same brown colour over the whole of the body. Birds with yellow or clay breasts are objectionable, although we see birds of large size even with clay breasts sometimes awarded prizes. “ The hen cannot be too large in frame, with full cushion, neat head and comb, her hackle darkly striped, and the body wholly and distinctly pencilled with a dark brown or grouse-colour. Any approach to yellow or clay in the breast or throat is most objectionable.” The Partridge Cochin is in fact most difficult to breed to the recognised show standards in any large proportion of the chickens. In this all breeders are agreed , and we think it may be traced to the fact that the first Partridge Cochin cocks were undoubtedly more or less brown-breasted, a colour which has not for a long time been allowed in the show-pen. It has been stated, especially by one writer of much pretension, that the black breast so desired' was produced by a cross from the Black Cochin ; but for this assertion there is no ground. It might not be safe to deny that the cross was ever employed; but we do know that one at least of the best strains in England has never been so crossed, and the assertion is therefore unnecessary merely to account for the change, which is indeed far less than simple selection in the hands of skilled men is capable of accomplishing in any breed. The old brown-breasted cocks and streaky-marked hens were bred true to feather with comparative ease • but the change to black breasts in the cocks was made before that to solid marking in the hens, and hence the origin of the difficulty. The means of overcoming it appear to be understood as yet by only a very few breeders, and various amateurs of note proceed upon a somewhat * To a great extent we believe this remark to be incorrect, though it has been repeated in many quarters as if unquestionable. Mr. Hewitt wrote us that “ Mr Punchard’s best cocks, as judged so frequency in years far gone, were entirely black-breasted;” and no one can speak to this point with such authority. X'ig Go.— Plate showing Feathers from Partridge Cochin Hen for Breeding Cockerels. Neck Centre of Flat of the Centre of Centre of Shorter Secondary Hackle. Breast. Wing. .Back. Cushion. Quill. 220 The Illustrated Book of Poultry. -p!g gj Plate showing Feathers from Partridge Ccciiin IIen for Breeding Pullets. Ca;:sells Poultry Book Vincent Broote Day &. Son Lith PARTRIDGE COCHIN HEN. . ' . Breeding P artridge Cochins. 221 different system ; but the following rules embody the best and most successful experience we have been able to gather, besides conforming — so far as can be — to our own experience in the analogous case of the similarly pencilled Brahma. On the whole we are perhaps most indebted for the rules here given to information gathered from the strain of Mr. Crossley, of Halifax, and especially from Mr. J. Wadsworth, a gentleman under whose advice most of these birds have for years been mated, though he does not himself exhibit at shows. We have also obtained corroboration from other skilled breeders who do not wish their names to appear. In breeding cockerels, then (it is very necessary in this breed to match up separate pens for breeding the different sexes), a cock should be selected which, in addition to presenting the ordinary Cochin characters, has a really black breast, fluff, and leg-feather, with hackles of a rich red striped with dense black. The hackle behind the neck may approach to orange red, but towards the throat in front should be very dark. Saddle-hackles ought to be nearly the same colour, but need not be quite so dark. The shaft of the feather showing as a thin cream-coloured line in the hackle will not much matter, but the web of the hackle should be jet- black quite up to the stem or shaft. The hens to mate with such a cock should be of a very deep and rich brown ground-colour, almost the colour of roasted coffee, and with rich reddish-orange hackles, the markings on her feathers resembling those in the plate (Fig. 60), which represent very accurately the markings of a hen which has bred some of the best cockerels ever exhibited. The distinguishing characteristic of these feathers is that the pencilling, though very small and minute, is close, almost black in colour, and nearly covers the ground, making a very dark and rather dull-looking hen. In such hens the shaft of the feather usually shows slightly, as in the plate ; but this is of very little consequence in breeding cocks, though it will be so much the better if all streak be absent. The longer secondary quills, as shown in the plate, will be nearly black, and the cushion-feathers are often scarcely distinguishable from black ; but even in that case a lacing of the ground-colour (perhaps rather paler or nearly gold-colour in this part), should extend quite round the feather, as shown ; for if it does not there will be a want of brightness in the cockerels produced. From such mating, at least after a year or two’s breeding, a very large proportion of cockerels will be fit to show, though for a little while after commencing not much certainty can be expected. We should advise great care in commencing any strain of Partridge Cochins to avoid white in the cock’s tail, which in this breed is particularly difficult to breed out when once it has obtained a footing. For breeding pullets, on the contrary, quite a different type of bird will be necessary. The plate (Fig. 61) shows very accurately the markings to be sought in the hen ; the breast-feathers particularly being very solidly and accurately pencilled with several perfect semicircles or crescentic markings, so thickly as to nearly approach the general effect over the rest of the body. The other feathers will show much the same character, and the whole marking should be rather large and broad, and very intense in colour, the shaft of the feather showing if possible not at all. The hen’s hackle may vary : if she be a show bird, there should be a solid stripe down each feather ; but as far as breeding is concerned, some of the very best marked pullets are produced from birds whose hackles are somewhat pencilled , as in the second hackle-feather of Fig. 61. The ground or margin-colour of the hackle in either case should be a rich bright gold-colour, and the dark marking should reach well over the top of the head. The ground-colour over the rest of the body will be rather a light brown, approaching buff, but totally free from any bright yellow* , which is objectionable. The cock to mate with these hens should have a reddish orange, rather than red, hackle, densely striped with black ; and a few brown spots on his fluff or even breast will be little injury to him as a pullet-breeder. Many people would suppose that by mating such birds 222 The Illustrated Book of Poultry. as we have described pullets much too light would be produced ; but such is not the case if the strains can be at all depended upon. In all cases the pencilling on the hens must be very dark, almost if not quite black, and the breast especially zvcll covered with solid pencilling — this last being most important of all. Starting with such dissimilar pens for breeding the different sexes, it will be very desirable to amalgamate them into one, which shall breed both sexes in a satisfactory manner. This can certainly be done ; but it will take a few years to effect it. It will best be commenced by selecting well-marked pullets, very heavy and solid — indeed black, in the pencilling, but with a comparatively clear brown ground-colour, and mating them with those cocks from the cock-breeding strain which show a medium margin-colour but have the densest stripes in the hackles. Much will depend upon getting rid of any white in the shaft of the cock’s hackles, and upon choosing for stock-birds only those which are sharply marked in the lesser tail-coverts, with good dark-headed as well as dark- breasted hens ; but by carefully selecting these points a strain may at length be formed which will breed a large proportion of good pullets with a very fair number of exhibition cockerels, most of which last will have hackles of a very deep orange-red colour, approaching in front to a rich red. For the following remarks we are indebted to Mr. Hewitt, who wrote them in reply to a query. They will not only confirm what we have said as to the marking now approved by the best judges, but give valuable instruction of their own to those who attempt the breeding of this difficult variety of Cochins. It may be as well to add, for the sake of those who have lately entered the poultry- fancy, and therefore only knew Mr. Hewitt as its most valued judge, that he was for many years a skilled Cochin breeder. “ I certainly do not myself like the light-coloured shaft in the feather you speak of, as such marked hens very rarely produce cocks clearly listed (striped) on the hackle and saddle-feathers, or of a good solid black on either the throat or fluff-feathers. These hens are generally tawny or ‘ foxy-headed ; ’ that is, the crown of the head, and sometimes the uppermost throat-feathers, are mostly without pencilling, and of a ground-colour (whether it be marked a little, or net even at all) very similar to a fox or hare behind the ears. Hence such birds are well known in the fancy as ' foxy-headed hens.’ Whether or not they be streaked on their body-feathers, I am decidedly opposed to these birds ; for from a goodly number I bred many years back, and from constant attention to the result in the case of other breeders of many years’ experience, I know beyond any doubt that these tawny-headed hens always breed cocks ruddy-feathered on the thighs and throat, than which nothing can be more objectionable. Again, the cocks are usually quite light and plain- coloured in the hackles and saddle-feathers, whilst even the shoulders have no intensity of colour ; and of course such ‘ foxy’ hens breed ‘ chips of the old block’ as regards their otvn sex. Really good hens are alike to the wattles, and nearly so even over the head to the very nostrils ; that is, pencilled all over with dark colour as on the body, leg-feathers included. Such birds are very attractive in colour, and much admired even by persons who do not as a rule care for show fowls.” Really first-class Partridge Cochins are very beautiful in the show-pen. 1 he saddle-hackles of a first-rate cock, especially, show a hard and “waxy” lustre which only the Game fowl can surpass ; and were more good birds bred and shown, we doubt if any variety would surpass this in popularity. But unfortunately it has been, more than most, subject to “ crazes ” or caprices of fashion. For many years leg-feather was almost always short, and good shape very rare. Since then the rage for ample feather has invaded the variety, and enormous hocks are now more common than even in White Cochins. Last of all has come a mania for intense black pencil- ling, with a green lustre, on the hens. As we have already observed this marking is foreign to the breed ; and there has in fact been ample evidence, both in the shape of pea-combs and Description of White Cochins. 223 direct testimony, that it has been in at least some cases acquired by a cross with the Dark Brahma ; but it bids fair to remain the fashionable colour. With it has come an utter loss of shape and Cochin character, which will, however, be remedied by degrees, when the effect will be more pleasing : meantime, between this demand for black pencilling on the one hand, and long backs and tails on the other, judging has been, and is likely to be for some time, erratic and unsatisfactory ; and almost every visitor to a show remarks upon the fact that good shape and Cochin character are confined to the “old-fashioned ” hens. WHITE COCHINS. — The number of persons who can keep any breed of white fowls must always be limited, or no breed of Cochins would have more enthusiastic admirers than this. We have often wondered that it is not more kept, simply as an ornament , by the proprietors of country mansions, for nothing can be more indescribably beautiful than half a dozen White Cochins dotted over the rich green of a lawn; while they usually do little or no harm in the way of scratching, even to the flower beds, and easily become so tame that children may take them up in their arms. It is rather singular that whilst the White Cochin cock is rarely quite equal to his “ Buff brother” In the peculiar Cochin carriage and style, particularly as regards the saddle and tail, which last is generally too long, the hen not unfrequently surpasses all other varieties in the grand points of width, cushion, fluff, and feather. We think it is probable, however, that this is in some degree owing to the constant washing white fowls require, which has a natural tendency to puff out and make the most of any soft and fluffy plumage, such as distinguishes the Cochin varieties. The plumage of this variety may be simply and shortly described as a pure and perfect white all over, and breeding them is therefore comparatively a simple matter, though, owing to the purity of colour requisite to success, we cannot say it is more easy than in the case of other varieties, a yellow or straw-coloured shade being particularly difficult to avoid in all the male birds. This purity of colour, in fact, is the most difficult point ; besides which, White Cochins, if at all heavily feathered, are peculiarly liable to vulture-hocks. Owing to this tendency many almost bare legs used to be shown ; but so very bad and out of taste appears a bare-legged White Cochin, of all breeds, that we would infinitely rather see even heavy hocks in this case than such an unsightly type of bird. By mating heavily-hocked cocks with scantily-feathered hens, however, in a large number of cases good hocks may be secured ; but the heavy hocks now so general certainly look less out of place in White Cochins than in any other variety. Regarding other points, they will be found sufficiently treated of in the following notes, furnished at our request by Mr. Elijah Smith, who has few competitors as a breeder and exhibitor of this variety, and under whose care the birds we have portrayed achieved most of their well-earned triumphs : — “ In choosing your breeding stock, be very careful to select those that are the purest white. There are several shades of white in Cochins, so that it is very essential to select the richest white, and especially such birds as have retained their white plumage after they have moulted ; for there are a great many go yellow on the back and wings after moulting, and you will sometimes see this even in cockerels. You should avoid breeding from such birds if you have others to choose from — as to be successful in exhibiting White Cochins the rich and dear white plumage is the great point to be aimed at — or you will be disappointed, as the young stock will generally take after the parent in this respect. The hens are not so subject to this change of colour as the cock, but still you will see a difference even in them upon close examination; and always select the best and cleanest coloured ones, and you may depend upon it that it will repay you for the trouble in your young stock. “ Your male bird should have plenty of quality, viz., good straight comb, not too large, but smooth, well serrated, and very firm on the head ; good large deaf ears, quite red, and large wattles ; 22| The Illustrated Book of Poultry. strong yellow beak and legs, and a good sharp red eye. Those with a greyish eye are very subject to go blind, and this colour is an indication of a weak constitution, therefore should be avoided as breeding stock. Get plenty of feathers on the legs and feet; and avoid all flesh-coloured or white legs, or you will find that such are very apt to produce green and even black legs, which fault is a certain disqualification. Take also birds that are large, with good carriage and style. “ Hens should be large in frame, with a good neat head, strong yellow beak, good red eye, and brilliant wattles and deaf-ears ; broad body with plenty of fluff, and small tail, almost covered with the soft feathers that are round the tail, with a good cushion on the rump. “ I prefer to breed from birds that have moulted once ; but if obliged to breed from cockerels, should put hens with them two years old ; and if the other way, pullets with old cocks : and in selecting these should choose those with large frame and plenty of bone, so that we may expect to have good large chickens. This is another great point, when you have quality as well ; for to breed small birds, in Cochins, Brahmas, or Dorkings, is useless for exhibition ; therefore avoid breeding from small birds, and be very careful not to have those that are related in any way, if possible to avoid it. And as there is so much buying at exhibitions, it is as well to take the trouble to inquire in buying whose strain they are, for although you may think they cannot possibly be anything related to your own, they may have been bred from eggs purchased from the same source that your own stock or a portion of them have come from, or may have been claimed and resold several times ; so that it is sometimes very difficult to ascertain whether you are breeding from relations or not : and, if related, the progeny will, according to my experience, be sure to decrease in size, and in many cases, where you find birds small, if you could trace it out, you would find that relationship is the cause of it.* You will find that late hatching and overstocking your runs have just the same effect, and I would therefore strongly advise any one never to breed later than May, and never to overstock the ground ; as by breeding only a few, and attending well to them, you will in the end be far more successful, and will also get a better profit, with much less labour, besides keeping your stock free from disease. “Your next object, after you have reared your stock, is to keep them white ; and in order to accomplish this you must keep them as much from the powerful rays of the sun as possible, by providing shelter — either trees or covered runs. A good thickly-covered wood is very good ; but if you cannot avail yourself of this, you should run your cock birds under some kind of shelter, where the sun cannot get to them during the time that the rays are most powerful, after which you may let them out, and you will find that this will save your birds very much. The hens do not change colour so much as the cocks, so that you need not take the trouble with them. It is also necessary to take special care not to give the birds any substance for their dust-bath that is likely to soil their plumage to such an extent that washing will not restore it to its original whiteness, as there are some kinds of sand that are very red and will stain the plumage very much ; in fact so much that it scarcely ever gets to that beautiful clear white again that it originally was, even when you have washed the bird over and over again. I select therefore as white a sand, or small gravel * Regarding the evils of relationship, which are so insisted upon by the writer of these remarks, we have already expressed in the general portion of this work views which do not go to the same extent in condemning such breeding as those of Mr. Smith. But there is a reason for the condemnation here urged in the comparative fewness of White Cochin breeders, which causes all the stock in the country to be related more or less, and therefore aggravates the evils of any relationship so near as to amount to actual consanguinity. In the case of Malays this general relationship is still more true, and the evils of breeding from actually related birds are correspondingly still more directly felt by the breeder. Wherever the strains of a breed are limited, the arguments pressed oy Mr. Smith will more or less apply ; while in other cases their urgency is not so great, and may be modified by the other considerations to which we have before adverted. Cassells Poultry, Book. MR JULIUS SICHEL'S WHITE COCHINS. CHAMPION AND QUEEN. WINNERS OF |ST& 2nd AT BIRMINGHAM, & PT AT MANC HESTER 1871, CUP AT DUBLIN 1872 AND ABOUT SO OTHER PRIZES - ■ . Black Cochins. Cuckoo Cochins. Silky Cochins. 225 and sand, mixed with lime, as I can get, and by so doing find no difficulty in keeping them very clean and healthy. The sand should be pretty sharp, and if it has been washed it would be all the better ; while a little of the lime with it helps to keep the whole very dry and sound.” It is very questionable whether lime should be used in the dust-bath, as here advised. It undoubtedly promotes health to do so, but it injures the plumage, and we are certain turns even white birds perceptibly yellow. We may add, that there is a strain of White Cochins which shows a reddish tinge through the plumage independent of any coloured sand. Such birds should be either rejected or bred from with very great caution. BLACK COCHINS. — Cochins of this colour were shown in the very early days of the Cochin mania. Some of these were sports from White, and some the product of crossing White and Buff, which undoubtedly, curious as the fact is, produced Blacks in more than one known case. These did not breed very true; but there were other strains imported direct, which bred as satisfactorily as other Cochins. The colour was never plentiful, however, and the difficulty of keeping it up was increased by the fact that yellow legs were demanded, as in other Cochins, whereas all the imported Black Cochins (like all black fowls) tended strongly to breed black legs. Owing to this cause more than any other, Black Cochins became nearly extinct, and the few left were of very poor quality, when the Langshans were introduced by Major Croad in 1872. We believe this stock to have been essentially the same, or, rather, with additional Eastern blood in it, as described in the next chapter ; but however this may be, it was eagerly used as fresh blood by the few Black Cochin breeders. The result has been not only immediate and marked improve- ment in Black Cochins, but a change in the fashion to black legs, which has removed the greatest difficulty in breeding them, and they are now often seen as good as the other varieties. An infusion of the Langshan may still be employed whenever required ; but the Langshan type has now become distinctly differentiated from the Cochin type, and care needs to be taken that the Cochin style and shape and fluffy feather be well preserved. CUCKOO COCHINS. — This variety is occasionally shown, but has little to recommend it. The colour may be easily gathered from our Plate of Plymouth Rocks ; the shape and other points should be as near as possible to good Cochins. We believe this variety to have been produced by crossing, as we have never yet seen birds that showed the true Cochin characters in perfection. This fault may be easily remedied by judicious selection of stock, and the colour can be bred without any difficulty ; but the result is of no particular beauty, and perhaps scarcely worth the trouble. SILKY COCHINS. — Cochins are now and then met with in which the webs of the feathers having no adhesion, the whole plumage assumes a silky or flossy character, like that of the silky fowl. It usually occurs quite accidentally, and in every case we have met with the variety has been Buff. By careful breeding the character can be transmitted, but we have only known one case in which there had been this hereditary character. Such birds are sometimes called “ Emu ” fowls. Except as curiosities, they are not worth perpetuating. They are generally, when handled, small in the body, rarely exceeding six pounds. This loss of weight we believe to be owing to the want of protection from cold and wet which they have to contend with, and in consequence of which they are generally delicate. When quite clean and dry, there is something unmistakably attractive about them, which is enough to account for their having some few admirers. We arc not at present aware of any established strain of this vaiiety. 226 The Illustrated Book of Poultry. We add a few general remarks on the breeding and exhibition of Cochins generally. Not only the fancy value in many respects, but even the economic or utilitarian value of Cochins, can in a great degree be determined by the quality of the plumage, and especially of the “ fluff.” We do not mean colour, so much as texture. If this be coarse and wiry, the meat will almost invariably be found inferior and stringy, whereas a fine downy plumage is generally accompanied by delicacy of flesh and good laying qualities. Another very important point was first mentioned to us by Mr. Hewitt. “ I should like,” he says, “ to direct your attention to a fact at which, so far as I am aware, no one as yet has even hinted. It is, that when the ear-lobe of a Cochin has been brilliantly florid, very thin , and fine in texture , I never met with such a bird, in even all my experience, that did not possess many other remarkably well-developed Cochin characters. Just note for yourself such birds as do really possess these fine ear-lobes for the future, and you will be surprised how unbroken is the result as to fine ‘quality’ generally.” Picking out “ wasters ” from Cochin chickens is somewhat difficult; Buffi birds disfigured by black spots or splashes may, however, be safely condemned ; and so may bad combs, which last neyer become straight, though straight combs, as remarked in the next paragraph, often become crooked. Narrow birds often “ fill out ” and subsequently make fine show fowls, especially if the cushion appear pretty large in proportion. Partridge cocks, when young, often show a great deal of brown about the fluff and sides of the breast, which afterwards moults out to an unexceptionable black ; great caution should therefore be exercised before rejecting them for this fault. Mealiness in Buffs, especially in the cock’s wing, rarely or never improves with age, and may therefore be condemned. Pullets intended for show should be sedulously kept from company with the male bird, as the soft downy plumage is easily injured. Just before laying, anything more indescribably “ pretty ” than a well-bred Cochin’s head can scarcely be imagined, unless the preference be given to the head of a Brahma. There is another reason for not showing pullets earlier. Many persons have remarked on the frequency with which perfectly straight and fine combs become crooked or twisted as the birds become adult ; but we have perfectly satisfied ourselves, from personal observation, that the change frequently takes place during a single show, when birds are sent whose combs, owing to their youth, have not attained their full development. The heat of the gas and excitement of the crowd appears in such cases to “draw up” the combs with marvellous rapidity — they want tone and strength to bear their own weight — and the mischief is done ; whereas, in many cases, had they been kept at home till the combs were fully developed, the ordeal would be borne without injury. In some cases we have reason to believe that a comb relaxed in this or any other way may be restored by daily bathing with some strong astringent, such as a solution of sulphate of zinc, but this must be carefully kept from entering the eyes. To keep Cochins in health when confined they must — more than any other variety — be plentifully supplied with green food ; if not, their digestive system soon suffers, and the plumage becomes ragged and scurfy. Particular care must also be exercised to prevent over-feeding, as this breed has a special tendency to accumulate internal fat, causing sterility, disease, and even death. Indian corn is therefore not good food for them. In severe cases of this prejudicial fattening the hinder part of the body almost touches the ground, penguin-fashion, and rupture is a frequent result. The most beneficial course in such an event is to allow the bird to sit for as long as five or six weeks, feeding her very sparingly till the system is reduced, by which means a cure may often be effected. Cochins have great merits, the chief of which are their hardiness, their winter-laying qualities, their large size, and the extremely small space in which they may be kept. In illustration of the Qualities of Cochins. 22) last point we may refer to Mr. Tomlinson’s account of his own yard. If they are sparingly fed on everything except green food, this being given liberally, they are scarcely ever ill ; but these two conditions are essential. Perhaps the greatest drawback to these good qualities is the unearthly howl rather than crow of the cocks, which makes it in towns often impossible to keep them, where but for this they would be the very best fowls for the circumstances. Their rather coarse quality of meat and deficiency of breast are also faults, though for home use they are profitable, as the legs, which are very large, are in our opinion, and that of many others (and the same remark may be made of the Brahma), far superior to those of other breeds. We speak of course of young birds ; the leg of an old Cochin is certainly an unmanageable morsel. Next to the peculiar crow, the greatest objection to keeping Cochins is the frequent propensity to sit. It rarely answers to check the desire altogether. The bird should be taken from the nest at once on appearing broody, and put under a common wicker coop, on hard ground, with water always by her, but little food. If possible, the coop should be placed in some open and bustling locality, or in a strange run ; and if two have to be confined in one coop, all the better, as their quarrelling will mightily assist the process of forgetfulness. No words are too strong to condemn the various kinds of “ water treatment” which are sometimes advocated. Many cases of mysterious disease are thus originated, and in not a few instances direct death has resulted from such cruel proceedings. Tying a red rag round the tail is a more innocent and often effectual way of “breaking up ” a broody hen ; but where the extent of the inconvenience is the only objection, by far the best plan is to mitigate it by imposing on the maternal instincts, Cochins being very easily deceived. A few days before hatching, one or two of the eggs should be transferred to another hen just beginning to sit, and when all are out, and have been cooped a few days, the whole of the chickens may be transferred to her, and the other hen, which really hatched them, returned to the yard. Having had the care of living chickens for a day or two, she will not again resort to the nest ; and in this way, by employing one hen virtually to hatch the eggs, and a second hen to rear the chickens, each brood will give rest and occupation to two hens instead of one, and as each bird will lay again proportionately sooner, the annual production of eggs will be considerably increased. Such a plan would not answer with many breeds, but Cochins and Brahmas are very easily imposed upon in this way. They are so predisposed to the duties of maternity, and so good-tempered and lazy, that very often by simply putting the discarded chickens under a broody hen at night, she will take to them next day ; and many instances are also recorded of even Cochin cocks making exemplary foster-parents for orphan chickens, not only at night, but taking all the care of them in the day-time that a mother would have done. As a rule, in fact, Cochins seem of a really genuine affectionate disposition, which gives great pleasure in watching their ways and habits, and accounts in great part for the fondness with which they are nearly always regarded by their owners. Their large frame and hardy constitution make Cochins to some extent valuable as a cross ; but such experiments need judgment. To turn a Cochin cock into the ordinary stock of a farm- yard is to ensure certain deterioration, the progeny being invariably a race of coarse, weedy, long-legged brutes, which no poulterer would look at, and no one will eat if they can help it. There are, however, three good crosses, in all of which the Cochin hen and foreign cock should be employed to obtain the desired result. The first is with a compact Dorking, which produces very large and pretty hardy birds, which mature early, and make splendid table fowls for family use ; but being rather coarse in frame, and generally showing traces of feather on the legs, are not so well adapted for good town markets, though this prejudice may be and has been overcome. The next is with the Crevecceur, which produces really splendid table fowls, tolerably fine in bone, but of quick growth and of great weight. These, too, are tolerably hardy, but, so far as we can judge 228 The Illustrated Book of Poultry. from various reports, not quite so much so as the Dorking cross. The third is with the Houdan cock. The produce of this last is the best layer of all the crosses named, but is generally of a very “common” appearance so far as plumage goes. The carcase is not so large as either of the other crosses, but is of good quality and quickly matured ; it is perhaps somewhat inferior in breast-meat to the two others. The chickens of this cross cannot be surpassed in hardihood. We might add that the American breeds known as Plymouth Rocks have very evidently been produced originally by crossing Cochins with either Scotch Greys or Cuckoo Dorkings ; but the new race has been fixed by subsequent careful breeding. Wyandottes, Danvers Whites, and other American breeds, also owe much to a Cochin cross. JUDGING COCHINS. — We have already made some general remarks upon the real place and value of a “ Standard of Excellence,” with its scale of points. Every judge must have some notion in his mind of the comparative value of different features ; and a scale is, after all, the simplest and easiest way of expressing this. We have now and in the remaining chapters of this work to approach the difficult task of framing a set of schedules, which, if possible, shall represent correct judging, even according to the standard of merit of the present day. Those we shall give have been arrived at by degrees, and have at last assumed a shape so directly opposite to all which preceded them, that it may be well to state briefly how that form was adopted. In publishing some years ago a little work solely on “ The Brahma Fowl,” and in giving a scale of points for judging that breed, we stated a conviction even then arrived at from experience, that to form any reliable system at all, it was needful to value marked defects as well as points of merit. We arrived at this conclusion chiefly from the utter impossibility we had found of reconciling some evidently correct decisions of Messrs. Hewitt and Teebay, in a large Brahma class at Birmingham, in any other way, with any scale it was possible to frame ; and we accordingly gave a table of positive defects to be valued against a bird, as well as points of merit to be reckoned in its favour. All subsequent experience proved the truth of this principle so far as it went; all our scales were originally framed in that form; and by this means we succeeded in reconciling nine-tenths of the decisions we had been able to collate in most breeds, with the scales we had framed. But there still remained some marked exceptions. We became, however, finally convinced — chiefly through a remark of Mr. Hewitt’s that no proportion of points could fairly represent some degrees of defect, as, for instance, a total want of condition — that the whole system of tabulating excellencies was fundamentally wrong, and that a plan which had occurred to us some years before of valuing defects solely , offered the only sound basis for a table of points. Judging really is itself a question more of defects than of excel- lencies, since without some general approach to excellence no bird can have any place in a good class. Such a plan also meets another difficulty, which we had encountered again and again, and which consists in the fact that the number of points given to one feature, while as much as could be allotted consistently with the proportionate value of other individual points, were often not enough compared with the total value of a perfect bird. The difficulty arises from the necessity of not only making the values of various points proportionate with each other, but of keeping the total within the hundred points. On the other hand, by starting from one con- crete standard or highest value, and simply deducting ivhat may be proper , we are free from this necessity ; we are no longer obliged to keep the sum of the defects within our ideal or perfect number , but can give them what weight we find necessary as compared with that number , as well as compared with each other; and hence, ought to be able to meet nearly if not quite every case that can occur. Standards for Judging. 229 So much for theory. In practice, we found that when thus remodelled, nearly all the exceptions remaining in our note-book, and which we had regarded as irreconcilable with any fixed “standards” at all, now disappeared, falling within the rules. In fact, not one such exception remained in the breeds we best understood personally ; and hence it appeared probable that with further study even the few left might be resolved. We have not, therefore, shrunk from recasting the whole of our scales, and finally present them in the shape they now assume. Using no false mask of “ authority,” we present them avowedly as our own, on their own merits, with the remark that they do not in many points represent what we think ought to be the standard, but are simply an attempt to follow the best judges, and tabulate and trans- late their views, as shown by their decisions in actual classes. In many points we would wish values to be otherwise ; but have found the figures which would represent these wishes so constantly overruled that we have been forced to modify them. So different are “ideas” or “ committee ’’-work to the teaching of actual competition, that a really correct scale will, until tested, often appear actually absurd. But let the reader select from our schedules that for any breed which he thoroughly understands : let him take that schedule and that only, and, before a number of pens, test it by the awards of proved and skilful judges ; and we believe he will find that both their successes, and — if they have made any — equally their mistakes, will still give to our figures a practical endorsement which no others will be able to claim. We make this statement advisedly after due comparison. We make these remarks because since the publication of the scales which follow, the preparation of a “ Standard ” has been undertaken by the Poultry Club, and has been already published for a certain number of the principal breeds. On the one hand, the soundness of the views we have expressed has been recognised, and our own method followed, so far as concerns the adoption of scales for defects as the principle of tabulation. This is a great improvement on the older standards. On the other hand, all the points of defect are brought within a total of 100 points ; and however theoretically symmetrical this plan may appear, we are convinced that, for reasons explained above, neither such a rounded-off total, nor points reduced to even “ fives,” can ever practically represent actual judging so correctly as the freer handling we have adopted. A “standard” thus constructed, and determined on in conference, will in fact rather represent what a number of experts think ought to be judging, than what is ; and the difference we have endeavoured to point out. On the whole, therefore, what we have seen does not so far weaken our confidence in our own schedules, which have under- gone the necessary revision from time to time. This last process will always be necessary, we fear ; since judging itself changes, as we have already seen. The scales for this and some other breeds are accordingly altered considerably in some points since the first edition, not as being revised by us, but as following a judging which itself is manifestly altered. The chief alterations from this cause are specified at the end of the schedule. SCHEDULE FOR JUDGING COCHINS. General Characteristics of Cock.— Head an, l Neck— General appearance of head small and good-tempered; beak curved, rather short, and very stout at the base, resembling in shape a parrot’s bill ; comb single, upright, neatly arched, perfectly straight, free from excrescences, fine in texture, and symmetrically notched or serrated : wattles long, thin, and pendent ; deaf-ears sufficiently developed to hang nearly or quite as low as the wattles; neck rather short, and carried somewhat forward, thickly furnished with hackle, and handsomely curved, the hackle flowing gracefully over the shoulders. Body— General appearance large and deep ; the back broad but very short ; saddle very broad and large, with a gradual and decided rise towards the tail, forming a harmonious line with that member ; wings small and closely clipped up, the flights being neatly and entirely tucked under the U The Illustrated Book of Poultry, 230 secondaries , breast broad and full, rather high as compared with Brahmas, but coming as low down as possible. Legs and Ftet. Thighs large, and thickly covered with “fluffy” feathers standing out in a globular form; hocks nicely and entirely covered by soft cut ling feathers, but free from any stiff quills (vulture-hocks) as far as possible ; the shanks short and thick, set on wide apart, and heavily feathered down the outside, the feathering to start out well from the very hock, and continue to ends of >utei and middle toes ; toes large, straight, and well spread out. Tail-— Small and soft, with as little hard quill as possible, and carried low 01 nearly flat. Size Very large, ranging from ten pounds to thirteen pounds in cocks, and eight pounds to eleven pounds in cockerels. General Shape— Massive and deep. Carnage— Rather forward, high at the stern, and dignified. General Characteristics of IIen. — Head and Neck — General appearance of head very small, intelligent, and kindly ; the beak as in the cock ; comb and wattles also similar but as small as possible, the comb being uniformly serrated ; deaf-ears well developed, but smaller than in the cock ; neck as short as possible, carried well forward, and thickly furnished with hackle. Body — General appearance large, and more square than the cock’s, the shoulders being rather more prominent ; back very flat, wide, and short ; cushion exceedingly broad, full, and convex, rising from as far forward as possible and almost burying the tail; wings as in the cock, but smaller in proportion, the points being nearly buried ir. the abundant body-feathering ; breast full, the keel coming as low down as possible. Legs and Feet— As in the cock. Tail— Very small, carried almost horizontally, and nearly buried in the cushion. Size— Very large, ranging from nine pounds to eleven pounds in hens, and seven pounds to nine pounds in pullets. General Shape — “ Lumpy,” massive, and square. Carriage— Tending forward, high at the cushion, and with a very matronly appearance. Colour of Lemon-buff, Silver-buff, or Cinnamon Cochins. — In both Sexes — Beak a rich yellow. Comb, face, deaf-ears, and wattles brilliant red, with as few small spiky feathers as possible. Eyes should match the plumage as nearly as possible, but red eyes are not objectionable.* Legs a bright yellow, with a shade of red between the scales. Colour of Cock — Breast and under parts any shade of lemon-buff, silver-buff, or cinnamon, provided it be even, and free from mottling. Head, hackle, back, shoulders, wings, and saddle any shade of deeper and richer colour which harmonises well — lemon, gold, orange, or cinnamon — the wings to be perfectly sound in colour, and free from mealiness. Tail still darker in tint, but as free from black as possible, except in the darker Buffs and Cinnamons, in which black is not objectionable ; white in the tail very objectionable in any colour except Whites. Colour of Hen — Body all over of any even shade, free from mottled appearance. Hackle of r deeper colour to harmonise, free from black pencilling or cloudiness, cloudy hackles being especially objectionable. Tail as fm from black feathers as possible. Birds must match in the same pen, and in matching different sexes the hen’s body-colour mu» match that on the cock’s breast and lower parts. Colour of Partridge and Grouse Cochins. — In both Sexes — Beak yellow or horn-colour. Comb, wattles, &c., as in Buffs. Eyes bright red. Legs yellow, of a dusky shade. Colour of Cock — Hackle rich bright red or orange-red, with a dense black stripe ir each feather. Back, shoulder-coverts, and wing-bow rich red, of a more decided and darker shade than the hackle ; wing-coverts metallic green-black, forming a wide and sharply-cut bar across the wing. Secondaries rich bay on outside web, which is all tha( appears when wing is closed ; black on the inner web ; end of every feather black. Primaries very dark bay on outside, dark on inside web. Saddle rich red or orange-red, either same colour as, or one shade lighter than the hackle. Breast, under parts, thighs, and leg-feathers glossy black, as intense in colour as possible. Tail black, richly glossed ; white in the tail not a disqualification, but very objectionable. Colour of Hen — Hackle bright gold, rich gold, or orange-gold, with a broad black stripe in each feather, the marking extending well over the crown of the head. Rest of the plumage a brown ground-colour distinctly pencilled over in a crescentic form with rich dark brown or black, the pencilling being perfect and solid up to the throat. The leg-feather to be pencilled as the body. COLOUR of White Cochins. — In both Sexes — Beak rich bright yellow. Comb, face, 8a., as in Buffs. Eyes pearl or bright red. Legs brilliant yellow. Colour of plumage all over a pure and perfect white, free from any straw or reddish shade ; the cock will often show a straw tinge on upper parts, but this is to be avoided as far as possible. COLOUR of Black Cochins.— In both Sexes— Beak yellow, horn-colour, or black. Comb, face, & c., as in Buffs. (The comb in Black Cochins has a great tendency to be rough, but this is to be avoided.) Eyes bright red, dark red, hazel, or nearly black. Legs dusky yellow or black. Plumage all over in both sexes a rich black, well glossed, and free from golden or reddish feathers. COLOUR OF Cuckoo Cochins.—/;/ both Sexes— Beak a rich bright yellow; but horn-colour permissible. Comb, wattles, &c as in Buffs. Eyes bright red. Legs a brilliant yellow. Plumage all over a ground-colour of bluish grey, barred or pencilled across with bands of dark blue grey ; the cock’s hackle to be as free from a golden or reddish tinge as possible, and his tail free from either black or white feathers. * White or pearl eyes are much admired by many, but are very apt to become blind. We should ourselves prefer red to any colour, as it denotes greater vigour of constitution, and to our eye looks as well ; but red eyes in Buffs arc verv tare. Schedule for Judging Cochins. 231 VALUE OF DEFECTS IN JUDGING. Standard of Perfection. A bird ideally perfect 111 shape, size, colour, head and coinb, cushion or saddle, leg-feathers, tail, &c., and in perfect health and condition, to count in points . If of Extraordinary size, add on that account a a To add to an “ideal” number may seem absurd. In tae most points it would be so ; but as regards size, there is a fair standard which entitles a bird to be called perfect on that accoui yet any excess ought to count in its favour. Disqualifications. - Birds not at least tolerably 1 leg-feather in either one or more birds. Badly twisted or falling combs. Legs of any colour but yellow or dusky yellow, except in Blacks, which may be black. Black spots in Buffs. Brown mottling (if conspicuous) in Partridge cocks, or pale breasts destitute of pencilling in Partridge hens. White or black feathers in Cuckoos. Crooked backs, wry tails, or any uther actual deformity. Any fraudulent dyeing, dressing, or trimming. We have already explained that in using such a scale as this the judge should take the same point at one time through the whole class, or at least through all birds seriously “ in the running.” By this method only can he be fair, and avoid judging different birds differently through his “eye changing.” The chief alteration in the above since the first edition is in vulture-hocks. Once “dis- qualified,” a little later, when our scales were first published, they were then visited by what was fairly represented by as much as twenty points. That would be impossible now, and it is with some hesitation we allow as much as five points in the present edition. We regret this, being well assured that heavy hocks are no mere fancy point, but usually connected with deficient breast and coarse skin ; in this, however, as other cases, our personal judgment has been subordinated to analysis of the judgment of others. Want of leg-feather, on the contrary, is regarded as a much more serious defect than was the case some years ago. In America vulture-hocks arc a disqualification. Detects to be Deducted. 100 5 case o; average it, while Bad head and comb j Want of hackle „ ,, cushion . „ fluff I .» „ leg- feather I | Vulture-hocks Bad shape or carriage of tail ! White in tail (where objectionable) ; Primaries out of order t Curved toes . j Stain of white in deaf-ear I Faulty colour and marking Want of size . ,, ,, general symmetry ,, ,, condition ,, ,, , , (if total) IO r 0 8 7 12 5 6 6 IS 7 6 24 20 >5 12 35 * This refers to primaries merely “slipped” outside the wing. Fot primaries actually twisted on their axes, see list of disqualifications below. natched. Primary wing-feathers twisted on their axes. Utter absence of 232 CHAPTER XIX. LANGSHANS. The towib now known by this name (whether or not any previous importation had ever taken place mils'- remain undetermined) were first received in England by the late Major Croad in the early part of the year 1872, and were exhibited at the Crystal Palace Show following, in the class for “Any other New or Distinct Variety.” In reply to the request for opinions upon them, all the poultry authorities of the day gave it unanimously, as formed upon the fowls in the show-pen , that they were practically identical with Black Cochins ; and in deference to that opinion, the fowls were entered as “Black Cochins” at the following Crystal Palace Show of 1873. When thus shown, however, most of them (not all) were at once pronounced “bad” Black Cochins — bad, that is, from the “fancy” point of view of the modern Cochin standard, and without considering whether their very badness as Cochins might not ipso facto make them by so much better as fowls , at least in some points. In the early days Miss Watts had pointed out that Cochin breeders were selecting, when the matter was in their own hands, some of the worst points to breed to, especially deficient breast. Many of these fowls (not all) had good breasts, as some early Cochins also had ; many were much longer in the leg than modern Cochins, though early ones had been as long ; many were nearly bare-legged, as early Cochins also were ; and all had black legs, which, with black plumage, ensures white and delicate skin ; while Cochin breeders had been striving for a more or less dusky yellow, against the constant propensity to breed black which all black fowls strongly manifest. In fact, this difficulty of maintaining the yellow leg against strong natural tendencies the other way, had all but annihilated the Black Cochin classes. The position therefore was, that if the new fowls were shown in the Variety class, they were considered by all the authorities to be in the wrong class, wherever there was a class available for Black Cochins ; while if shown as Black Cochins, most of them were so inferior in what were considered “ Cochin points/" that they stood no chance there. The owners were advised to breed up to these points if they wanted to win, and Black Cochin breeders themselves resorted eagerly to the new blood, with a rapid and startling improvement as the result. The exhibitors of the new strain, which they had named Langshan, after the locality in North China from which the birds came, were naturally not so well satisfied with the anomalous position of their fowls, as above described. The “ authorities ” might consider them identical with Cochins — and we have no wish to disguise that we fully shared and ex- pressed that opinion — but those who bred them affirmed that there was about them, in nature and constitution, as well as external points, something altogether different and superior. Recent developments have proved them to have been in considerable measure correct in this, and some irritation was natural under such circumstances ; but nothing can excuse the course that was actually taken. What should have been done was to select, breed, and exhibit birds of the most distinctive type , which by their own evidence would very soon have con- quered disbelief, as afterwards amply appeared. Instead of this, what actually was done was Langshans. 233 to persistently exhibit birds of such types as made belief in their distinctiveness difficult or impossible ; to support a vehement assertion of their total distinctness from Cochins with arguments simply ridiculous ; and to attack all who could not see a distinction so urged with a variety of offensive imputations and reckless assertions, which had never been approached in poultry history, and which could but retard, as it did retard for years, the very object desired by those who indulged in it. We are obliged, however reluctantly, to make this clear, because it has been assiduously asserted for years past, even up to the time we write these lines, that zve were the “greatest opponent and enemy ” of the Langshan, though it is significant that the assertion was never made while the controversy was actually raging, quite other parties being accused then , as may be seen in the early pamphlets. The position we uniformly took up, and which was practically the general one amongst fanciers, may be shortly stated in the following words penned by us in the Live Stock Journal of March 22, 1878. It was very often so stated in nearly the same words, and it may be said at once that, as regards economic merit , wherever we placed Langshans in comparison with Cochins, we gave preference to the Langshans. The only question was as to being, or not being, essentially different fowls. In the first place, no one, we believe, now disputes, and we certainly never have disputed, that the Langshans qame from the part of China alleged, and that they come to us with all the usual marks of a pure race — i.e., a race which breeds fairly true to its characteristics. Neither do we dispute that, as thus reaching us, the fowl is a better layer and carries better flesh than the fowls now known among us as Cochins. What is contended is simply — i. That seeing them in pens by the side of Cochins, they present to the eye all the main points of that race, especially as earlier known to us, 'and not one point that can be said to distinguish them. 2. That as Cochins also reached us from North China, this conclusion is so far corroborated. 3. That the superiority alleged is the usual mark of an “ unimproved,” or, if preferred, unspoiled race (that is, one never bred to fixed points, which it is now admitted the Langshan does not possess), and the white skin and meat so much lauded being the usual accompani- ments of black plumage. On the other hand, our Langshan friends contend for distinctness of race , to which wre must beg that any further discussion be confined.” We must now see by what means the claim to distinctness was supported. The first, and throughout the chief weapon in the controversy, was the coarsest imputation of bad motives to all who differed. The following is a mild specimen The mere recital of its merits and a description of the bird, accompanied by illustrations, roused the ire of the so-called “ fancy,” and so powerful was and is the influence of this fraternity, and so great are the pecuniary interests that they have at stake in keeping out fresh claimants to popular favour, that the most unsparing and unqualified abuse was heaped alike upon the Langshan and its friends.* There was simply no justification for this, and it will only excite a smile when read in these pages ; but it must be remembered that it was not known till years afterwards that a great part ot these effusions were written by a lady. Had this been known at the time, much good-natured allowance would have been made for it by those attacked ; but people did not know it, and were little disposed to accept claims urged in this temper and without any obvious proofs. All arguments that we were able to find were as follows : — It was first said that the fowls were considered in their own locality distinct from all others, and to be “allied to the wild Turkey,” and it was remarked how the birds resembled these on the table. It was impossible that some people should not meet this theory with a little good-natured ridicule, when it was averred that such was given simply as the opinion of the Chinese themselves ! forgetting that, except as a rare European importation, the Turkey is an unknown bird in China. Again, it was written : t — There is in this breed perfect freedom from that essentially Cochin disease, “Elephantiasis,” or scrofula, which accumulates in such masses upon the legs of Cochin fowls as to make them, as they advance in years, perfectly loathsome. This merit of the Langshan is of itself a very conclusive answer to those who seek to confound the two breeds, and as a consequence none of our opponents have ventured to say anything about it. * “ The Langshan Fowl,” p. 6. t Ibid., p. 30. The Illustrated Book of Poultry. 234 The ignorance of Cochins, and of the disease, here displayed, needs no remark. It is sufficient to observe that immediately after this was published, some very bad cases of scaly leg appeared in Langshans, and many have been noticed since. It was further affirmed that the Black Cochin itself was a mere “ made” bird, a .mongrel, and that the adult cocks “ as a result ” always moulted out more or less red and yellow in the feathers. To this it was replied that Black Cochins had indubitably been imported in the “ mania ” days. This was at once stigmatised * as an “ impudently false assertion,” and “unscrupulous editorial canard.” Ample evidence that it was so has since been given, and the fact of direct importation has since been expressly admitted, as of his own knowledge, by Mr. Harrison Weir, one of the most pronounced of recent Langshan advocates. And as to the colour, it was admitted in the very same work, that even the Langshan cockerel will “ now and then ” show red or golden feathers, in hackle or saddle, or both. The black leg was also insisted upon; and in the light of more recent developments, and of the peculiar purple skin between the scales, we now know that there was really more in this point than we then could see reason for accepting. But in a black leg, as such, there was no distinction ; and the disputants further asserted that a Black Cochin if “pure” must also have yellow “ face and ear-lobes.” It suffices to refer to Mr. Tegetmeier’s (the oldest) “ standard ” for Cochins, which states that the face and lobes were to be “brilliant red,” and the legs “ dark with yellow tinge ; ” yet statements on this head were also coolly stigmatised as “effrontery” (“The Langshan Controversy”). In the same work Miss Croad also professed to “dispose of” the black leg and white skin theory by referring to the Spanish fowl, whereas it is notorious that this fowl has a white skin. And in regard to Black Cochins and this colour, so long ago as May 23, 1850, a correspondent of the Cottage Gardener reported that all the chickens he had obtained from a sitting of Cochin eggs were two, both “ black with black legs .” The large tail was also mentioned, but is only comparative, and any Cochin or Brahma breeder knows to his cost how soon he could exhibit that if allowed ! The earlier Cochins had much larger tails, the Blacks the largest of all ; and the illustration presently referred to will show how little larger the tail then really was. It was also said that the comb was larger, but Meall’s edition of “ Mowbray on Poultry ” states, as the opinion of the writer, that in black Cochins “ the comb and wattles are larger than in any other sub-varieties.” Finally it was urged with considerable bitterness, that the Langshan gloss, or “sheen,” was sui generis , and when Mr. Ludlow made the remark that it was surpassed by the gloss of Black Hamburghs and Black Malays, Miss Croad replied f that “those who know anything of the breeds here mentioned will at once see how utterly false are Mr. Ludlow’s statements.” All experienced breeders know very well, that in any black fowl the amount of gloss really depends chiefly upon the time of year, the condition, and tight- ness of plumage ; and that variations in leg-feather, and length of leg, tail, &c., are simply matters of selection for a few generations ; but it was attempted to found distinctions upon these, whilst at the same time exhibiting specimens from time to time which failed to show even such dis- tinctions at all, but were sometimes of a quite rusty colour, and occasionally even hocked, according to the standard of those days. It was stated in “ The Langshan Fowl ” itself that “ thev are not all cast in the same mould ; some stand high, others are closer to the ground ; some have a tolerable amount of leg-feathering, others again have little, and in rare instances are nearly bare-legged. In some the combs droop, in others they are erect, and with the edges fine and evenly serrated. Some have black eyes, others hazel ; and all these various types * “ The Langshan Fowl,” p. 34. t “The Langshan Controversy,” p. 27. Langshans. 235 (if we may so call them) were represented in our imported stock, so we look upon them as accidents and non-essentials.” At the Crystal Palace Show ol 1876 the Langshans (in separate classes) and Cochins were placed side by side, and Miss Croad herself states [Fowls, Aug. 9, 1888) that “many of the former bore so strong a resemblance to the latter, I was absolutely startled.” This was admittedly owing largely to the infusion of the new blood ; there was no disguise about that ; but there was no excuse for the wholesale charges of “cheating ” and “ fraud ” brought in consequence against many breeders. One specimen may be given of a great deal that went on. A pen of fowls won as Langshans at Weymouth in 1877, and were bought by Mr. H. Leys ; and a few months later were “disqualified” as Cochins — not merely “ passed,” but the card attached, and this reason given. This alone would not prove very much ; for judges are inconsistent enough at times. But after the Weymouth Show Miss Croad published a letter, complaining (on purely hearsay evidence) that her birds were “ robbed ” of the cup, and that the winners had “ yellow legs.” Mr. Leys, however, happened to be a believer in the Langshan, and bred Cochins also- and he stated that these birds were different altogether, and that moreover he had other birds hatched from “ Mr.” Croad’s own eggs, and that the two were alike , and all black-legged. Moreover, he had chickens from them, and they were utterly “unlike Cochins,” and had all the Langshan points, as he understood them. This went on everywhere, and the judges began to be abused whenever prizes went to any but certain parties, while no points were given them by which to distinguish ; until no judge would judge Langshans at all if he could help it, in sheer self-defence ; and then that, too, was put down to “ hostility.” Meantime skilled reporters of all schools described the birds in their reports as Cochins, or apparently Cochins ; and this brought upon ourselves threats couched in most insulting terms from Mr. Frank J. Nunn, one of the co- signatories to the first circular respecting a proposed Langshan Club, that the Club would “ at once action any editor" who should repeat what he was pleased to offensively but quite gratuitously interpret as “ false attacks upon the character” of any member. Even anonymous letters, under different signatures, but apparently in one handwriting, were about this time written on behalf of the Langshan to several individuals, attempting to injure the professional prospects of the writer of these lines.* The most wonderful thing about this wonderful bird, in fact, was the extraordinary effect it seemed to produce upon the tone and temper of all attracted within a certain magic circle. But we must now pass to the more recent history of these fowls. It will occur to many readers that a strain must have some exceedingly good qualities to ultimately live down such a suicidal policy as we have briefly delineated. Such the Langshan certainly has, and we now have to chronicle how the fowl gradually established its position. We believe that, after all, we ourselves were the destined instruments in working out this end. All the while the question of distinctness was being discussed, we were on the look-out to find something dis- tinctive if we could, and in the years 1877 anc^ 1S78 we noticed pens of Langshans shown at Birmingham by Mr. J. Thomson of Aberdeen, which seemed to us really to exhibit a type widely different from that of the Cochin, and also — more significant to us — to show the same type in all the pens. These birds were nearly featherless, had every one a very full breast, with moderate or rather short legs, and a full “flowing” tail and “sweeping” outline, which were compared by us to the symmetry of the Dorking, or more often of the Hamburgh. We “ spotted ” this at once * It ought to be stated that there is no intention whatever to connect Miss Croad with these letters. That lady would be utterly incapable of this kind of warfare, and we have a pretty good idea as to the real authorship, but as there is no proof must say no more. It is, however, time that it should be known to what an extreme partisanship and bitter feeling were carried. ?5.6 The Illustrated Book of Poultry. as a good and typical form, impossible to confound with the Cochin, and which could be bred to, and judged, with some uniformity. As above noticed, it reappeared after the first season ; our remarks upon it began to be borne out by the decisions of the judges ; and year by year its predominance became more marked. It is undoubtedly this type of bird which has “made” the Langshan, and obtained for it the recognition of a distinct breed. But the battle was not over with this discovery of a really distinctive and good type, by any means : on the contrary, a certain inner circle of Langshan breeders became more bitter than ever, and its commendation was charged against us as a fresh offence ! We were accused of “ suppressing ” the fact that Mr. Thomson had received eggs from Miss Croad, and she herself charged us * * * § that the selection was made “as an apple of discord thrown in,” and even went so far as to say that we had “ attacked her yard through his.”f It afterwards appeared that the birds were from an entirely distinct importation, and quite independent of the Croad strain ; but the simple fact is that we were ignorant of all that at the time, and had never seen, or exchanged a word, in speech or writing, with Mr. Thomson at any time. We simply remarked upon the first birds of this type which we had ever seen in a pen , and we noted such for several years wherever we found them, as markedly differing from the types Miss Croad elected to exhibit. A little later we noticed pens shown by Mr. Bush : these birds, it appeared, were actually from eggs supplied by Miss Croad, and again we were charged with “personal hostility” for not stating what we could not know, whilst we did publish the fact as soon as ever it reached us. This case was the first knowledge we had that Miss Croad’s strain ever produced this type, for we had never seen it exhibited by her direct, and for years afterwards she and her partisans persistently opposed it and tried to stamp it out. A widely different form, high on the leg, with upright and often “ squirrel-tail,” was per- sistently written up as the correct one, and drawn as the proper model ;” % even the “standard” of the Club was altered as regards the length of leg from “ medium length ” to “ rather long ; ” fowls of the type we had preferred were attacked as “ Cochiny ; ” and finally, when we at last began to notice birds of the same type as occasionally shown by Miss Croad herself, and accordingly said so, she wrote, § “This I emphatically deny .” She further wrote (June 4, 1886) that she had “rejected ” the birds hatched from eggs Mr. Thomson had sent her, “ because they were so different from my own.” She had previously to this written admitting that our advocacy of the Thomson type “ certainly for a short time had the effect intended,” but implied that the victory was not won yet. This antagonism as to type, which certainly did exist for a time, was therefore entirely of her own choice ; since it appeared that her own strain did breed at least occasionally the style which was steadily gaining ground, and only needed an easy selection. The opposition to it was, however, carried to the most extreme lengths. Soon after 1880, Mr. Henry Merton Onne began to be successful, mainly by selecting this type of bird ; and a very bitter personal attack was made upon us by Mrs. Freeman and others, because we had not given portraits of Mr. Orme’s fowls in a former edition of this work. (The simple fact is that we had endeavoured to do this, as Mr. Orme would readily bear witness ; unfortunately without success.) But the awards to the fowls so selected did not satisfy the limited circle referred to, and the birds of Mr. Orme and the Rev. A. C. Davies, in particular, were now attacked in the maimer we must show, confining ourselves, for brevity, to what happened in connection with the London Dairy Show of October, 1884. The Langshan prize list at the show in question was as follows : — * Live Stock Journal , June 27, 1884. + Poultry , June 4, 1886. j A sketch of such a bird by Mr. Harrison Weir may be referred to in the Live Stock Journal for May 2, 1884 ; and the same gentleman described the tail as “ large and full, and carried well over the back,” as characterising Miss Croad’s birds, as well as his own selected from hers. In another issue he describes the tail as “ carried well up, in a way that some call squirrel-tailed.” § Poultry , May 7, 1886. Langshans. From a Fair of Birds the property of Capt. Herbert D. Terry, Langs ha ns. 2 37 Langsiians. — Cockerels : I, 2, and Medal, H. M. Orme ; 3> S. Millard; vhc, C. T. Roe; he, Oliver Nunn, Rev. A. C. Davies, C. T. Roe. Pullets', i, 2, and Medal, H. M. Orme; 3, Rev. A. C. Davies; vhc, C. T. Roe; he, A. C. Croad (2), Reeves and Silk, W. Street. It may be remarked that the judge was the late Mr. Teebay, the very same judge who had “disqualified” as Cochins Mr. Leys’ birds at Dorchester as above related. The “ Langshan authority ” who reported on the above,* and whose identity we are ignorant of further than being informed that it was a Langshan authority, condemned the first-prize bird as “ of a decided Cochin type, very cushiony, but large — it had a Cochin head and tail,” and said the second was not according to the standard; the third was the best. In pullets, again, the first was “a decided Cochin type, short-legged, and if more prolific in feathers might have stood for a Black Cochin ; second pretty much of the same style,” third “ also Cochiny.” A few days later, f Mrs Freeman published a letter stating that “ the first four prizes were given to birds of so decided a Cochin type, that nobody but the merest tyro could have doubted that there has been at one time a large quantity of Cochin blood in that yard.” Considering what had been written ad nauseam about the “fraud” of that kind of thing, this was rather strong. And a little later, ^ Mr. Harrison Weir wrote that the winning cockerel “had none of the Langshan character- istics,” and “ would have passed muster in a Black Cochin class,” adding that “ Miss Croad'’ s two unnoticed pullets were the best.” Mr. Davies had been obliged to prove the perfect purity of his yard, as he did, by other attacks besides this ; but Mr. Orme’s case was peculiar. As he proved in answer, his yard was absolutely and entirely of the Croad strain, crossed solely by the purchase of the 1882 Birmingham cup cockerel of Mr. Bush, the very gentleman concerning whom we had been attacked for not stating the fact (unknown to us) that his birds were hatched from eggs received from Miss Croad ! Both the gentlemen whose birds were attacked are members of the Committee of the Langshan Society ! Their exhibits were of the type here described. The question is now practically settled, as shown by the plate illustrating this chapter. It is drawn from birds bred by the Honorary Secretary of the Langshan Society; and after all that has passed, we are very glad to be able to say that it has his “ entire approval in every respect.’’ The cock is of pure Croad strain (to secure which, if possible, we made a special point in our correspondence with Captain Terry, in face of the insinuations referred to above), being the son of a very well-known bird which had been previously illustrated in the columns of Poultry, and was hatched by Mr. R. F. Housman, from eggs received direct from Miss Croad, and which, being of precisely the type we desired, led us to apply to Captain Terry to help us in the matter. This latter, after breeding magnificent specimens for Captain Terry, including the one here pourtrayed, was purchased by Mrs. Dent. The hen, Captain Terry informs us, is of his own strain. If any- thing, these birds are a little more tall on the leg and upright in the tail than we most admire personally ; but that, too, may render them more acceptable representatives. On the other hand, the tail-piece to this chapter is an engraving which was prepared for and used by Miss Croad herself in 1888 to illustrate the advertisements of her stock in the Fancier s Gazette. This small engraving represents, we may say, our own ideal more precisely than Captain Terry’s, and is of the exact style we first saw exhibited at Birmingham by Mr. Thomson in 1877. The fine bird figured in Poultry may be said to lie between these two, both in leg and carriage of tail, and something or other between the two is the type which all the best judges unmistakably prefer. It may well be asked, How was it such a fowl could ever be confounded with the Cochin, or fail of almost instant recognition ? The answer is simply, that this type ivas not seen ; this is not the bird which judges had before them, but is of another type entirely in many respects. The * Live Stock Journal, Oct. io, 18S4. + Fid,, Oct. 24, 1884. t Ibid., Nov. 7, 1884. 238 The Illustrated Book of Poultry. proof of this is very simple. By the courtesy of Mr. C. W. Gedney, author of a portion of “ The Langshan Fowl,” we are enabled to reproduce the illustration of Langshans prepared for that work, published in 1877, and republished again subsequently.* That pamphlet states that “the accompanying illustration conveys a very accurate idea of the style and carriage,” and from memory we can vouch for its accuracy. The reader has only to see in it what the Langshan then was, and The First or Original Langshans. Reproduced, by permission of Mr. C. W. Gedney , from the Frontispiece to “ The Langshan Fowl," published 1877. what it now is, to see the vast difference which exists between the two has only to look upon this picture of the originals, to see at once ; and the breeder of Cochins that these birds were of the • The oermission deserves acknowledgment all the more because Mr. Gedney himself considered us as an nevertheless places the illustration at our disposal with the courtesy o a generous oppa c 1 adversary,” and Langshans. 239 Cochin type all over. They are better Cochins, in fact, according to modern ideas, than any of the portraits of Cochins in the original “ Poultry Book,” as drawn by Mr. Harrison Weir. The long-legged and squirrel-tailed type was also very characteristic, but there were weighty reasons for objecting to it as we persistently did. First, it spoilt the Langshan as a table-fowl, for long legs are a great blemish, and many of this type had also poor breasts in comparison. This type was also peculiarly subject to leg-weakness. Not only did more applications to us for advice on this complaint come from owners of this fowl than from all other breeds together, but in the early “standard” published in “The Langshan Fowl,” it was actually found necessary to put leg- weakness in the scale of defects , with a penalty of twenty points ; a fact which speaks volumes. The high tail was, moreover, peculiarly liable to wry tail, which we noted in the pens repeatedly. Last of all, it was very ugly. These are the chief reasons why we contended, since the day we first saw it, for the type which has now won the day. It will thus appear that at least three different, well-marked types have appeared, besides minor gradations. There was the decidedly Cochin type, with fluff, and wide stern, and Cochin carriage, shown in the original portraits ; there was the long-legged, tucked-up, squirrel-tailed type so persistently advocated, with an extra long pair of sickles in the tail ; and there was from 1878 gradually recognised the medium or short-legged type, with full but flowing tail, and “ Hamburgh “ symmetry. But even this by no means exhausts the marked variations observed. In a letter dated March 26, 1886, Miss Croad states that she had received twelve importations, in three of which came tufted hens ; in another came a rose-combed cock ; some were so small that Bantams could easily have been produced ; and two birds were bare-legged. Mr. Thomson’s importations presented practically the same features, except that in his the pro- portion of bare-legged was nearly one-fourth of the whole. It is impossible not to reconsider, in the face of these facts, the question of the real origin of the fowl ; and whereas we formerly considered Langshans a pure but not a distinct breed, we are now compelled to regard them as having real claims to distinctness, but these entirely depending upon selection of the most eligible of the features resulting from their being a made or cross breed, but probably so made accidentally and long ago. The Rev. C. W. Hamilton has done much to clear up this matter in some articles published in Poultry during the year 1886, though we do not coincide in quite all his conclusions. It is necessary to premise that the Cochin itself is clearly a mixture of races, and hence we find it bursting out continually into long legs, and when crossed to “improve” farm poultry, always doing so. Mr. Hamilton then notices that Temminck’s Gallus morio , or Negro Fowl, pro- bably of southern origin, was not the Silky as now known, though the Silky is its chief modern descendant. Its chief points were black legs, purple or dark combs, bluish skin, and dark periosteum, or membrane covering its small bones. Mr. Hamilton states — and his statements on this head were never controverted — that the Langshan very often has a bluish -white skin, and that he has frequently observed the characteristic dark periosteum on the bones ; while it is notorious that Langshans very often exhibit a distinctly purple tinge about the head and comb — not as the result of ill-health, but evidently as a tendency to colour in the fowl. But the most remarkable fact is the strange tendency to breed Silky fozvls which dis- tinguishes it. The same gentleman collects evidence that a Silky appeared about 1878 in Mr. Housman’s yard from a pair of birds hatched from eggs of Miss Croad’s, and Mr. Housman also observed several silky Langshans in a neighbour’s flock of undoubted purity. The Rev. A. C. Davies bred one in 1883, from Mr. Bush’s cup cockerel (Croad strain), and hens hatched from Croad eggs : the pedigree of this case was at first disputed, but afterwards admitted. Two years later Mr. Davies bred another from eggs of Mr. Orme’s (also Croad 240 Tiie Illustrated Book of Poultry. strain), and another gentleman bred a Silky in 1884. In 1885 Mr. Hamilton bred nine out of fifty : and Miss Croad herself reports Silkies bred in a yard she traces to Cochin blood. The Cochin, however, breeds this sport so much more rarely, that it appears certain they were due e\en in that case to the Langshan parentage rather than the other. The Silky also lays a pinkish egg ; and where not brown, that is the colour of the Langshards egg. That the Silky breeds single combs and bare legs, and that Langhans were imported with crest, and rose- combs, and bare legs, must also be taken into account. In connection with this matter must also be considered the peculiar colour of the shanks and feet, especially between the toes. In the standard it is described as a “ light vivid pink,” and said to be a “ quality rather than a colour, being the evidence of a thin skin.'” This is an error ; by which the advocates of the fowl really disguised or threw away a point that might have helped other people to see a distinction, which cannot be found in black legs alone. For many years we believed it on their authority, and could accordingly see no peculiar point about the leg. But more recently we have examined the legs of many other thin-skinned birds, through which the blood shows as vividly as in the Langshan, but it is of quite another colour — the usual colour of blood, as can be seen in the legs and feet of many Dorkings, for instance. The tint in the feet of the Langshan is a purplish or crimson pink ; and, having the curiosity to try the experiment, we found the colour gave a different spectrum from the usual colour of blood. It may be the colour of the Langshan blood, but it is none the less peculiar ; and, in our opinion, any bird destitute of it should be condemned. It is very interesting to notice that this colour is found in one other breed : the Houdan leg shows the same peculiar purple pink, which in this case is mottled with the black. It is most extraordinary, however, that the Houdan presents the same character of alert wildness, and is a fowl which also runs to two types, of rather loose , and very tight glossy plumage. Now bear in mind the occasional crest and rose-comb found in the Langshan occasionally, and we have a very strange collection of analogies, to which yet one more must be added. All black fowls breed occasionally both coloured, and stray white feathers ; but the Langshan has an unusual tendency to breed white, large splashes often appearing, and the wing-feathers being as often white at first as not. This startling analogy to the Houdan has struck not only ourselves, but also Mr. Gabb and the Rev. C. W. Hamilton, and in each case, we believe, quite independently of the others. Mr. Hamilton’s belief is that the Langshan was produced by a cross of the Negro Fowl or Gallus morio with Gallus census. We think all the facts point rather to the conclusion that it was a cross of some “ dark-blooded ” fowl * like the Negro Fowl with the Chinese or Shanghae race, itself a composite. In this way only can we understand how sometimes one type comes out, and now the other, largely governed by selection, and also by the crossing of unre- lated yards giving an impulse to reversion, as pointed out in preceding pages of this work. It is simply useless to deny that the Langshan originally bred and still breeds the much-abused Cochin type, apart from any “crossing” whatever. There are the portraits to begin with. Another proof is, that its breeders felt the necessity of breeding the fowl away from the original type most prevalent, and of altering their own standard accordingly. Thus, the legs were altered from “medium length ” in the 1877 standard to “ rather long” in 1888. The leg-feather was changed from running down the two outer toes, to the outer toe only. Most significant of all, the 1877 standard describes the wings as “well clipped-up,” while this was altered to “carried low.” The * Miss Croad has written maintaining that the Langshan was probably the progenitor of the Black Java fowl, which has a strange resemblance in some points to it. It is manifest this cannot be, since it is well ascertained that races spread rather from India to China, than from China to India, and Black Javas were well known in the United States in 1850, and undoubtedly came from somewhere near the locality named, and not from North China at all. Langshans. 241 meaning of this was made unmistakable by a statement of Mr. Harrison Weir, that, in his opinion, a heavily-feathered bird “shows at once its Cochin cross;” that the true bird was “never vulture- hocked,” and that “ the whole wing tucked up represents the Cochin character, and not the Langshan.”* Nevertheless, there are tucked-up wings and shorter legs both in the portraits and in the original “standard;” while Mr. Housman states, on the point of feather, and in his very argument for banishing it from the middle toe, which was done in response to his own appeal, that, after breeding Langshans for seven or eight years, he had only found feathers on the middle toes in “ one bird that had vulture-hocks? The same gentleman, in another letter ,f states, “I have had eggs from Mr. Croacl from time to time, and have found some of the chickens turn out the very type of the Cochin , while others are plain-shaped birds with long legs. Any breeder could with care and selection breed the Langshans to the Cochin type.” As Mr. Housman himself hatched from Miss Croad’s own eggs the magnificent bird whose portrait is here given, we have, on his testimony, each of the three types produced by her own yard. Such, then, is the Langshan, such, in our opinion, its probable origin, and such its history, which demonstrates clearly that it has steadily made way from the date of the appearance and gradual recognition of its truest and best model, and only been retarded by, first, the repulsive personalities, and, later, the hostility to this type of its professed champions. What is the fowl which has now thus finally emerged from the chaos of the controversy ? It is a most admirable fowl. The skin is not only white but very thin, and the meat extremely white and sapid, of exactly the same character as that of the Houdan — (this might have been expected from what has gone before). The chickens are very hardy as regards all conditions but damp ; they grow fast, and upon the whole fledge kindly, though not very quickly. They are not subject to leg-weakness if bred to the models here shown. They are good foragers if they have a chance, and remain about their runs actively searching to the last, there being the same difference from Cochins in this respect as in the Brahma. The Langshan has, however, a super- added alertness, almost wildness, which is its own, and is a most determined fighter, while its power- ful wings give it considerable powers of flight. It is one of the very best layers also of any breed known, though the eggs are perhaps rather small. Miss Croad has stated that “the average hovers close on either side of 200 ” eggs in a year ; a statement which rather reminds one of the school- boy’s definition that “ an average is a thing hens lay on,” and which, if only strictly true, would solve all the difficulties about poultry-farming. But there is really no doubt that many fowls have laid as many, and that it is very difficult to beat the Langshan in this respect. The tightest- plumaged birds are almost invariably the best layers. These qualities, combined with size, and a colour that gives the town breeder no trouble in caring for it, are rapidly extending its popularity on all sides ; and the general verdict is that it is one of the best, and for many localities the very best fowl we have. To have added such a fowl to our poultry-yards is a great and lasting service to the community, which is under a heavy debt of gratitude to Miss Croad in this respect. Her unwise methods in no way cancel this debt, nor should hinder the fullest acknowledgment of it. There was even a large element of excuse for the mistakes committed, which ought in justice to be pointed out and borne in mind. There was a time which we remember well, when there was danger of the bird being bred fixedly to that Cochin type already prevalent and useless, and which was one of its own pro- minent forms. The usual authorities — including ourselves — had no knowledge or insight 'which could or would have hindered such an absorption and consequent loss. In the absence of sufficient knowledge on the part of its early admirers to select the distinct type which has now conquered, * Live Stock Journal , May 23, 1884. + Ibid., November 14, 1SS4. 242 The Illustrated Book of Poultry. and would have convinced even then, they had little to fall back upon save that strong conscious- ness of utter difference in habit and character, which they had acquired in their own yards, and which they knew to exist, though they did not know how to show it in the pen as is now done. If this be considered, it explains much and excuses much ; and now tnat the conflict is practically over, it may be hoped that all parties will settle down in the united attempt to keep the good qualities of the splendid breed which Miss Croad introduced to us. If her mistakes have somewhat retarded its recognition, the work remains hers none the less ; and to her will always belong a dis- tinction which is at present unique, of having been the one absolutely known and indisputable source through whom has come to us one of the most valuable races of fowls. It is proper to mention another fact. If the more ardent Langshan advocates have been very bitter, they have in their own personal dealings maintained a standard of honour which we wish were universal. Our poultry correspondence and experience of these things has probably been unequalled ; and we may say that the Langshan is the only breed concerning which, taking a half-dozen of the best known of its breeders, we never heard a complaint of sharp practice in regard to eggs or other sales ; while we believe the “ Langshan Society ” to be the only one up to this date amongst special Clubs, which insists upon penalty of expulsion for any dishonourable conduct amongst its members. Except in the matter of strong language, and extraordinary jealousy of any other people winning prizes, there has usually been a sort of aristocratic, “ high-toned ” character about its principal supporters, which is rather attractive, and perhaps may account for the odd manner in which they “ backed ” each other in paper warfare. In breeding Langshans it is not desirable, in our opinion, to keep too near a dead level of uniformity ; to do this would necessitate in-breeding and other evils. Thus, there is a perceptible difference between Captain Terry’s bird and the outline of the tail-piece, though not a startling one. A fair medium average should however be sought, andean always be obtained by mating the more rangy fowls with the more compact, giving, however, birds not so long on the leg the preference. We are of course writing this for such as receive the views here expressed. All would, however, agree that the heavy fluff once seen, should now be stamped out uniformly, and so we think should be any deficiency in the breast, the last point being a sine qua non in our opinion, and doing more to keep the breed on a straight road than any other point. Size also, while fairly studied, ought not to be pushed to excess ; and the present model was chiefly the means of checking undue size, which is evidently a remnant of the Cochin or G alius giganteus ancestry.* Red and yellow feathers must always be rejected in breeding, or they will give trouble, not only in reproduction, but in body-colour also, so long as the present rejection of purple gloss is adhered to. While agreeing, however, that green is preferable, we think this is going too far. In Black Hamburghs we have a precisely similar case. Purple is a legitimate outcrop of extreme gloss, and sometimes its judicious employment is even advisable to keep this up ; but on this head we refer for further particulars to the valuable remarks of the Rev. W. Serjeantson on breeding Black Hamburghs. The chicks often cause disappointment to the beginner ; they frequently have such a lot of white in their first feathers, and are in other respects far from ornamental. The primaries are often as many white as black, but these generally moult out correct. The down is black on the * By a curious inadvertence, Miss Croad has recently written letters warning breeders against the “ present ” propensity to judge too much by size. The simple fact is that the movement has been all the other way. In the original “ Langshan Fowl ” 1877 “ Standard,” it was laid down that “ size must be the first consideration ,” and an adult cock should not weigh less than 10 lbs., and in the points for judging, size was given 50 points out of 100 ! Such a proportion was absolutely unheard of in any other breed of fowl, even in the Dorking, and would make any judging impossible. In the new standard, it will be seen, size is made only “one of the first” considerations, and the points are reduced to 20, and the weight to 9 lbs. We quite approve of that, so far as it goes, but it seems desirable to point out that the error was due to the first breeders, and not to the present. Langshaa/s. 243 back ; under parts are uncertain blending of white and light yellow as in other black fowls. One likes a black fowl to be black, naturally ; and other things being equal, it is desirable to select birds for breeding which have had the fewest white chicken feathers. But we would never sacrifice more valuable qualities for this. Of Langshan crosses, the only one worth noticing is that with the Minorca. This is a cross of real value, increasing the size of the egg, while generally retaining the colour. It seems of about equal value made either way ; but, on the whole, we prefer the Minorca father. This cross has always given satisfaction wherever we have known it tried, and, “ on the average,” is the very best layer we know, when a good type is chosen : it is reported on favourably from experience in our chapter on Poultry as National Food. The “ Orpington ” must also be regarded as a cross, but will be described elsewhere. WHITE LANGSHANS. — The propensity to white feathers, and occasionally splashes, has already been noticed. A hen so marked was recently found to produce occasionally a pure white pullet amongst the black ones; and by careful breeding from these with a black cock, Mr. R. J. Pope of Barcombe, near Lewes, a very successful exhibitor with the ordinary Langshan, has estab- lished, a white variety. At a visit we paid to his yard in 1888 he had about 70 white chickens and adults. The birds are not “ albinos,” not having the pink eye which is one characteristic of that curious variation ; but simply a white variety, in all respects similar to the black Langshan in conformation, and differing only in colour. It is, however, very interesting to observe that, according to what we have said as to connection between leg-colour and plumage, the shanks differ in colour as well as the feathers. The black scales have become a pale blue, as in White Spanish fowls, and even the peculiar pink colour has assumed a lighter shade, more resembling that, of the White Dorking, though still distinct from that colour. The beak has become white, as might be expected. Black fowls of the same parentage were the usual colour in all respects. For those who prefer a white fowl, as many in the country do, the white Langshan may be safely commended as likely to be more profitable than any other of the white breeds. It will be interesting to observe whether the difference in colour should be followed by any difference in laying, or other respects, in birds absolutely known (which is very seldom the case) to be of identical modern origin with one so well tested as the black Langshan. JUDGING LANGSHANS. — For many years the much-abused judges got no help whatever from the “standard” put forth by Langshan admirers. The flagrant earlier contradictions have been already indicated ; but up to even a very few years ago the revised standard described no fowl at all in particular, and whilst in one place it gave white feathers anywhere as a disqualifica- tion, stated in a note that in certain places they were permissible! It is very curious to note that since Miss Croad withdrew from the Langshan Society things have very greatly improved in this respect, and at last we are able to give, something like a definite standard for this fowl, as issued by the Society in 1892. Those who can compare it with earlier standards, as published in former editions of this work, will see that marked changes have been made, and that several hints we have given from time to time, both in this work and in other quarters, have been adopted. The points for size, which we always insisted were too many, are finally reduced again from 20 to 15 ; the tail is described as “ flowing,” and squirrel-tail made a disqualification ; fluff has now points ofiven to it as a defect, and so on. The legs are still “rather long,” a point belonging rather to a laying than a table fowl— otherwise we find little to question in the standard as now modified, which is also workably definite and comprehensible. 244 THE 1 PLUS PRATED BOOK OF POULTRY. STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE FOR LANGSHANS. (As issued by the Langshan Society in 1892.) Size. — In a breed of such value for table purposes size is an important consideration. A cock should weigh at least 9 lb., and a hen not less than 7 lb. Colour.— Beak. — Light to dark horn colour, the latter preferred. Comb, Face, Wattles, and Deaf-ears. — Brilliant red. Eye. — Light brown to dark hazel (the latter preferred) with black pupil. Legs and Feet. — Dark slate (turning lighter after the first year), with skin between the scales and toes showing a pink tinge. Under foot, white. Toe-nails. — White. Plumage. — Deep rich black throughout, glossed brilliantly with metallic green, the greener the better ; purple sheen is a great blemish. Skin. — White and thin. Cock. — General Description. — Tall, upright and alert, with head carried high ; deep well-rounded body, wide shoulders, prominent breast, fan-shaped flowing tail, with plenty of glossy side hangers and two long sickle feathers. LLead. — Small for the size of the bird, free from coarseness, and carried well back. Beak.— Slightly curved, strong, and well -proportioned. Comb. — Single, upright, of medium size, fine in texture, evenly serrated, and free from sidesprigo. Wattles. — Well rounded, medium size, and fine in quality. Deaf-ears. — Smooth, and well-proportioned. Neck. — Gracefully arched and reachy, covered with rich glossy hackle, broad at base, and tapering gradually to the head. Back. — Fairly long, saddle feathers rather short and close fitting. Breast. — Full and deep, a long breast bone with abundance of white meat. Wings. — Fairly large, carried somewhat low, and with very brilliant coverts. Tail. — Fan-shaped and full, carried fairly high, abundantly furnished with tail coverts, and distinct sickle feathers projecting beyond the rest several inches. Thighs. — Rather short, but well developed, covered with close-fitting feathers, especially close round the hocks. Shanks. — Wide apart, rather long, fine in bone, with a fringe of feathers on the out- side. Toes. — Long, straight, and well spread out; the outer toe only slightly feathered. Plumage. — Tight-feathered, and very little fluff. Hen. — General Description. — Gracefully rounded outline, body carried well off the ground, and free from lumpy or squat appearance ; smart and alert in carriage. Comb. — Very neat and erect. Back.— Fairly long, with scarcely any cushion. Tail. — Fan-shaped and full. (In other respects the hen is similar to the cock.) Scale for Jtidging. Points. .. Deductions . Points. Richness of Colour .... . 20 Want of Breast Meat . • ■ 15 Symmetry ...... • D Crooked Breast .... . • 15 Size • 15 Purple Sheen .... . • 15 Condition 10 Too much Fluff .... . • 15 Head and Comb .... 10 ILeavy Feathered Legs and Toes . • 15 Legs and Feet ..... 10 Faulty Comb .... . 10 Thin Skin and White Flesh 10 Short Shanks .... • 10 Fine Bone 10 Twisted Toes .... • . 10 100 ICO Disqualifications. — Judges are requested to pass birds with any of the following defects : — Yellow skin, shanks or feet shaded with yellow, yellow at base of beak or around the eye, vulture hocks, feathering on middle toes, clean legs, coloured feathers, wry tail, squirrel tail, permanent white in ear lobe, comb with sidesprigs or other than single. A Typical Langshan, As aiwertised by Miss Croad in i8S3. ?45 CHAPTER XX. BRAHMAS. The controversy which was carried on so long and so keenly regarding the original source of the Brahma fowl is chiefly interesting in so far as it bears upon the more general question of the origin of varieties or species ; which latter has, owing to the more recently developed views of Mr. Darwin and his disciples, become the important controversy amongst scientific men of the present day. To support the doctrine of the development or evolution of distinct varieties or species from pre- existing species, it is of much importance to collect any evidence which may be obtainable tending to authenticate actual examples of this process; and though the creation of a mere variety would not have the importance in a controversy of more specific differences, yet could it be established that even a variety so peculiarly distinct as the Brahma had actually been evolved by the art of man — not gradually or in course of time, but suddenly by a lucky cross — from pre-existing races of fowls, and had been bred for more than twenty years since without further change or deterioration, the fact would unquestionably be one of some weight. It was perhaps natural, therefore, that Mr. Darwin should have somewhat too eagerly seized upon it, and with a carelessness which should have been avoided by a scientific man, but which our knowledge of the facts of poultry-breeding enables us to assert is paralleled by other instances in the same work,* stated, without any authority whatever but the ipse dixit of Mr. Tegetmeier, that “ Dark Brahmas, which are believed by some fanciers to constitute a distinct breed, were undoubtedly formed in the United States within a recent period by a cross between Chittagongs and Cochins.” It is this rash acceptance by a really eminent man of an utterly unsupported assertion, that chiefly induces us to go at some length into the subject, and to insert here a short recapitulation of the facts. It is the more desirable to do this, because a direct challenge by Mr. Burnham of our former statements in this work, and the discussion which followed, while it has somewhat modified our earlier views, will enable us now to place the whole matter beyond any doubt. In a letter to Dr. Bennett, Mr. Virgil Cornish, of Connecticut, gave the following account of these birds : — In regard to the history of these fowls very little is known. A mechanic by the name of Chamberlain, in this city, first brought them here. Mr. Chamberlain was acquainted with a sailor, who informed him that there were three pairs of large imported fowls in New York ; and he dwelt so much upon the enormous size of these fowls that Mr. Chamberlain furnished him with money, and directed him to go to New York and purchase a pair of them for him, which he did. The sailor reported that he found one pair of light grey ones, which he purchased ; the second pair were dark-coloured, and the third pair were fed. The man in New York, whose name I have not got, gave no account of their origin, except that they had been brought there by some sailors in the India ships. The parties through whose hands the fowls came, so far as I have been able to trace them, are all obscure men. I obtained my stock from the original pair brought here by Mr. Chamberlain, and have never crossed them in the least. These fowls were named Chittagong by Mr. Chamberlain, on account of their resemblance, in some degree , to the fowls then in the country called by that name ; but it is certain that they never bred until they reached this town. * “ Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication.' 246 The Illustrated Book of Poultry. Further testimony oeing desirable, a valued American correspondent, Colonel Mason C. Weld, then associate-editor of the American Agriculturist , iorwarded to Mr. Cornish for us a series of questions on the subject, and transmitted to us Mr. Cornish’s reply, as follows : — New Britain, Connecticut, U.S., November gih, 1869. Mason C. Weld, Esq. Dear Sir, — I have your letter of 5th. I give below all the facts relating to the early history of the Brahma- Pootra fowls I can call to mind at this late day. At an earlier day I could have given a history of these fowls more satisfactory to myself, i.e., more fully than I can now ; nevertheless, so far as it goes, the truth of it cannot be questioned. I will at once answer your questions. 1st. — Mr. Chamberlain’s Christian name is Nelson H. 2nd. — The sailor’s name I never made note of, and cannot give it. 3rd.— The ship arrived in New York in September, 1846. The first brood came out in May, 1847. I purchased the most if that brood in August, and the old pair the April following. 4th. — The name of the port from which the ship sailed with the fowls on board is Luckipoor. This port is up from the mouth of the Brahma-Pootra river, in India. The name of the ship I cannot give, neither can I give the name of the captain. Did not at the time think it of importance, and made no record of it. 5th. — The Brahmas were first exhibited in Boston by Mr. Hatch, of Hampton, Conn., under the name of Grey Chittagongs, in 1850. I declined exhibiting mine at that time ; I believed them to be a breed different from the Chittagong, and preferred to accumulate stock and test them further before bringing them out publicly. 6th. — I attended the exhibition at Boston, and contended that they differed from the Chittagongs, and should pass under a different name. A committee was appointed, and the name Brahma-Pootra given ; it being the name of the great river from the banks of which they came. The name was then established. 7th. — Weight of cocks, full-sized, twelve to fourteen pounds ; cocks, six to seven months, nine to ten pounds. Hens when first introduced, nine to ten pounds. 8th. — I did notice the ‘pea-comb’ on the first birds. It was small. It was not so with all, and yet it appeared different from the comb of the Chittagong. 9th. — There was no degeneracy in the birds of my breeding. I had some specimens larger than the imported birds. I sold no birds until December, 1850. I sold at first at twelve dollars per pair, and soon after from fifteen dollars to fifty dollars per pair. The price went up as the fowls became better known, and recognised as a distinct breed. 10th. — I bred them eight years, when my health failed, and I was obliged to leave all care for a time. Ilth. — There was a tendency to throw dark chickens , but a greater tendency to become lighter, and yet not white like the White Dorking. All breeds of fowls having dark and light feathers can be varied either way, to darker or lighter, by choosing always the darkest or the lightest for breeders. If your stock of Brahmas are pure, and they are allowed to breed together promiscuously, the variation in colour will be slight. I never bred to either extreme. Yours truly, VIRGIL CORNISH. The most important point in relation to this testimony is, of course, the position and trust- worthiness of Mr. Cornish; and this we cannot show better than by quoting part of another lettei to ourselves from that gentleman. The letter is dated New Britain, Connecticut, April 12, 1870, and we ought to add that we carefully verified its statements from independent sources : — As my name has appeared in this country and in England in connection with the history of the Brahmas, I beg you to allow me a word for myself. My letters to Dr. Bennett and others, from which you make extracts, were called for, written, and published at an early day, when the parties who brought them (the Brahmas) from India to New York, and from thence to Hartford, Connecticut, were living and to be seen by all men. They were often seen and inquired of by parties interested, and their statements were never discredited, nor doubted by any one except Mr. Burnham, and by him only by falsely stating that he originated them in his own yard. At the time the original pair of Brahmas were brought to Hartford, Connecticut, I was an officer at the Retreat for the Insane in that city ; having in charge all the business of that Institution, except that which belonged strictly to the medical department. I had purchased a farm of fifty acres for the Institution, and thereon fitted up a large yard for the accommodation of rare animals, flowers, and birds ; and had placed in them more than sixty distinct breeds (of fowls and other animals), in which I took much interest and pleasure. This I had done for the amusement of our convalescent patients. I had no pecuniary interest in bringing out the Brahma fowls, but saw at once that they were a distinct breed, and worthy of a high place Mr. D urnham' s A c count. 247 Such is one account of the origin of these fowls. In regard to the other, it will be best, for teasons that will be very obvious presently, to quote word for word from the first edition of “The Brahma Fowl,” published in 1870, our own original statement : — And first, to quote by far the most able exponent of the Cochin theory, Mr. Tegetmeier says,* “There is not a particle of evidence to show that they came from India. The banks of the Brahma-Pootra have long been in the possession of the British, and no such fowls were ever seen in the locality. In fact, Brahmas originated not in India, but in America ; and the two varieties of the breed now known as Dark and Light had unquestionably very distinct origins.” lie then goes on to say that the Light birds “ undoubtedly originated in, or were identical with, those grey fowls that from the very first came over from Shanghae with the buff and partridge birds now universally known as Cochins,” and, as undoubted evidence of this, quotes Mr. Burnham’s “amusing and unscrupulous work,” entitled “A History of the Hen Fever,” published at Boston in 1855. In this work Mr. Burnham, who, it will be remembered, sent over some of the earliest so-called Brahmas as a present to her Majesty, which arrived in January, 1853, affirms in effect that he originated them , relating how, out of a hundred Cochin fowls “ of all colours, grades, and proportions,” brought over by an enterprising captain, he selected “ a few grey birds, that were very large and consequently very fine.” These he bred with other grey stock he had, and “soon had a fine lot of birds.” We have thus two very definite statements by Mr. Burnham : first, that he was the founder or original breeder of Brahmas ; and secondly, that the Light variety were pure, uncrossed grey Cocjiins. On the other hand, of the Dark breed, which Mr. Tegetmeier has already affirmed to be of “very distinct origin” from the Light, he writes simply, “ Mr. Burnham states that they were grey Chillagongs crossed with Cochins. ‘ Of this,’ he says, ‘no one now entertains a doubt.’ ” As a single line, however, by no means does justice to the illustrious authority quoted as decisive, we transcribe from “The Hen Fever” the entire passage. The material portion of the passage from the work just referred to is as follows : — When, in 1850 and ’51, the “ Bother ems" \ began to be brought into notice, I saw at once that, although this was bubble number two, it ought to have been number one decidedly. Never was a grosser hum perpetrated than this was, from beginning to end, even in the notorious hum of the hen-trade. There was absolutely nothing whatever in it, about it, or connected with it, that possessed the first shade of substance to recommend it, saving its name. And even this could not have saved it, but from the fact that nobody (not even the originator of the unpronounceable cognomen himself) was ever able to write or spell it twice in the same manner. The variety of fowl itself was the Grey Chittagong , to which allusion has already been made, and the first samples of which I obtained from “Asa Rugg” (Dr. Kerr), of Philadelphia, in 1850. Of this no one now entertains a doubt. They were the identical fowl all over — size, plumage, and characteristics. But my friend the Doctor wanted to put forth something that would take better than his “Plymouth Rocks,” and so he consulted me as to a name for a brace of grey fowls I saw in his yard. I always objected to the multiplying of titles ; but he insisted, and finally entered them at our Fitchburg Depot Show as “ Burrampooiers,” all the way from India. These three fowls were bred from Asa Rugg’s Grey Chittagong cock, with a yellow Shanghae hen, in Plymouth, Mass. They were an evident cross, all three of them having a top knot l But n' importe. They were then “ Burrampooters.” Subsequently these fowls came to be called “ Burampootras,” “ Barram Putras,” “ Bramapooters,” “Brahmas,” “Brama Puters,” “ Brama Poutras,” and at last “Brahma Pootras.” In the meantime they were advertised to be exhibited at various fairs in different parts of the country under the above changes of title, varied in certain instances as follows : “Burma Porters,” “Bahama Paduas,” “Bohemian Pudras,” “Bahama Pudras;” and for these three last named, prizes were actually offered at a Maryland fair in 1851 ! — pp. 90, 91, 92. After quoting the accounts of Mr. Cornish, and giving this summary of Mr. Burnham’s contra claim to have originated the Brahma, reasons were given in “ The Brahma Fowl ” and former editions of this work, for attaching no credence whatever to Mr. Burnham’s claims. Very little actual material was then available for forming a judgment upon ; we rather felt , than could give any very definite reason for the belief, that we were dealing with untruthful statements, and we had no means of knowing that any of the parties to the old dispute of 1850-55 were still alive. Mr. Burnham, however, made the fact that he was in existence very evident, by a series of letters published almost everywhere in 1874, and the * “The Poultry Book,” p. 55- f A page or two after, the word “ Bother cm Foot rums" is used. This is only mentioned to show that the word here is meant as a burlesque on the name of Brahma. 248 The I llvstratfd Book of Poultry. substance of which was reprinted in a book entitled “ The China Fowl.” To show the character of his statements a very few sentences will be sufficient : — I repeat it : I was utterly ignorant of the virulence, the total falsity, the bitter misrepresentations, the carping, silly, unwarrantable language you had adopted towards me in your two books [“The Brahma Fowl” and “The Illustrated Book of Poultry ” are here referred to] until the last few weeks, when I for the first time had access to these ignorantly composed and miserably spirited volumes ! Wherein have I ever offended you, that you should thus in your books blackguard, malign, vilify, and prate like a hen with a sore head about Burnham this, and Burnham that ? I am a gentleman, sir, by nature, education, fortune ; and never did a human being wrong, so help me God, to my knowledge, in my life. You misquote me, you interpolate your extracts from others, you put terms and phrases and sentences into my mouth in your book, and into others’ mouths, that we never wrote, or uttered, or contemplated. Thus you falsify, and garble, and misrepresent us all — for -what ? Simply to sustain your own sophistry and assumed theory, which is utterly baseless, as well as detestable. — American Fancier's Journal , Nov. 26, 1874. There is much of this kind of language, but it is unnecessary here to quote more of it than enough to show the necessity of now dealing with the whole question thoroughly, though we of course shall not attempt to imitate Mr. Burnham’s style of writing. As to what he was “ by nature, education, fortune,” we do not know that it matters much. All that is certain, and all that is very material, is that — in the small space of six years ending in 1855 — Burnham had, according to his own admission, amassed by his dealings in the “poultry mania,” a fortune of no less than thirty thousand dollars. The means by which he did this are not only admitted, but gloried in ; and the statements from such a quarter are naturally to be received with some caution. However, such as they are, those statements must now be considered. First of all, it should be stated that the above gross charges of misquotation, garbling, &c., are entirely founded upon one question of words. A few sentences will make this clear ; both paragraphs are from letters published by Burnham in the Fancier s Journal of America. And to sum up briefly, I will now say to Mr. Wright, you have entirely misapprehended this whole “ Brahma” origin matter, so far as / am concerned. You have assailed me and my fowls for no good reason under God’s heavens. I never had anything whatever to do with your “Brahma” fowls, about which you make such an ado ! I never wished to ; I never bred, bought, borrowed, kept, or had any “ Brahmas” during the first twenty years of the poultry mania, from 1848 forward. Mr. Cornish does not say a word about me ; and that gentleman and myself have never had any variance whatever, either written or verbal. In his letter he does not talk of Mr. Burnham or about “Brahmas.” He calls his fowls “ Chittagongs ” then, as Dr. Kerr and Mr. Chamberlin did. Afterwards, they called them “ Brahma-Pootras,” I believe, as they had the right to do, just as I had always called mine “ Grey Shanghais,” by the same right ; as they (and Mr. Wright ought to) very well know. In his next paragraph, page 12 [this refers to the first edition of “The Brahma Fowl”], he says, “Mr. Burnham states that the dark breed were Grey Chittagongs crossed with Cochins.” I never made any such statement, and you cannot find it on the record. It is you, Mr. Wright, who made every one of these statements (in this form) in your books, to help sustain your utterly erroneously conceived theory, regarding what you have written about so ignorantly. You have used the terms “Cochin,” and “Brahma,” and “Chittagong” in your books to suit your fancy, instead of the terms “ Shanghais,” “Grey Shanghais,” &c., as I used them. Now it is certainly true that we had in writing discarded the obsolete title of Shanghai, and substituted the modern one of Cochin, which has now taken its place. But then we were, as we supposed, writing about things, not about names. We had expressly said in the former edition of this work that “ the matter in dispute is not a question of name,” and only pretended to deal with the origin of the fowl ; and as to the name of Brahma, we had stated fairly and fully Burnham’s protest against it. More than this: Mr. Burnham, in his own “New Poultry Book,” published in 1871, expressly states that Mr. Tegetmeier has throughout given the correct account, and dealt with himself “but justly;” and he knew very well that the statement he says above was made by us to sustain our theory, was made, on the contrary, by Mr. Tegetmeier to sustain his theory, and is quoted by us as from that gentleman. But further still, whatever we have done has been done by Burnham himself. The first two paragraphs following are from his “Poultry Book” of 1871, and the second two from a letter he published in 1870 : — I never claimed aught but this, that my Grey Shanghais, or Brahmas, were the first bred in Massachusetts, and the first (of both Light and Dark) that were sent to England from America. — p. 160. What Mr. Burniiam Claimed. 249 At the head of this list [of Asiatics] we unhesitatingly place the justly famous Brahmas [the small capitals are Mr. Burnham’s, and not ours], a variety that has enjoyed an unexampled popularity for twenty years. — p. 149. I know something of this fowl (or ought to), and find myself justly credited by Mr. Tegetmeier, in his exhaustive and superb “Poultry Book,” with having introduced into England from this country the first Dark Brahmas. Previously (in 1852) I had sent to her Majesty Queen Victoria a flock of mature Light Brahmas. It is not true that Burnham had been the first to send Brahmas to England, Dr. Bennett having sent some to Mrs. Hosier Williams previously; but this will be enough to show that the alleged misrepresentations are no more and no less than a use of words precisely as Burnham has used them himself, in order to avoid outlandish and obsolete terms. Nay, in the same “ Poultry Book ” above alluded to, he quotes with approval a statement by a Mr. Pitman, that the Brahmas, dark and light, “ are the proditct of the union of the Buff Cochin hens with the Grey Chittagong cock ” (the italics are his own), though this is the very statement charged as false above when said to be made by us, though really by Mr. Tegetmeier. But there is another question related to the name which is more important, in the same letter, quoted on page 242, Burnham says : — “ I never had aught to do with praising the Brahma fowl /” and again — “Thus Mr. Wright is a good witness that the fowls I had (pre-supposing that 1 ever had any) were not of this Cornish-Chamberlain, Chittagong, or Brahmapootra strain. This settles one point clearly. But I had better ones. ” If any meaning can be gathered from these two assertions, it would be that Burnham admitted the strain just described did exist, and were the originals of the Brahmas, but that his were different, and never confounded, and were Shanghais (now called Cochins). This statement, explicit as it is, is, however, flatly contradicted by the others just quoted. In fact, it seems difficult to pin Mr. Burnham down to any state- ment whatever ; still this one statement that he never “ had any difference ” with Mr. Cornish, or “anything to say to him or his fowls,’’ he does repeat very strongly. Here is another quotation from the Fancier s Journal of July 30, 1874 : — My controversy is not [ and never has been ) with Messrs. Cornish or Chamberlain, Dr. Bennett or Colonel Weld. They have been allowed by me to tell their stories, in their own way, about their fowls, which never interfered with me or mine, until Mr. Wright tortured their accounts into some remote connection with what I had written and said about my own birds ; while I never alluded to this other stock , and did not claim ( but always denied !) that anybody's “ Brahmapootras" were my “ Grey Shanghais though I still believe, as Dr. Bennett stated to Dr. Gwynne in 1852, that my stock and the other “were precisely similar,” and that all were bred from the original Grey Shanghais. He again affirms, “I surely made no statement, oral or written, in which Mr. Cornish’s fowls were involved.” This is plain enough, and if it were only but true, we could accept our Brahmas as from Cornish, and let Burnham go his way with his. But that such is not the case — that Burnham was in hot and bitter controversy with Cornish and Dr. Bennett and others about this very thing, and that he did call their fowls “ Grey Shanghais,” and say they were the same as his own, the following extracts from scores of passages he himself wrote at the time and since will show : — The facts are, Dr. Bennett named these fowls, in my house, in presence of a third man now living, who stands ready to attest to it. He got up this sailor yarn about his finals, and others joined him. I never would, because I then had the lead on both sides of the Atlantic, and preferred my own stock to anybody’s. I have never regretted my course. Although Wright makes Cornish say that he got his fowls in 1849 first, and in 1846 afterwards, I knew when , where, and how this sailor “Brahmapootra” tale was concocted. — Turfi Field, and Farm, June 26, 1874. Dr. Bennett, of Great Falls, N.H., publishes a long article lately in The Northern Farmer , on the origin of the “Brahma- pootra” fowls. Now these fowls are Grey Shanghais ; that is to say, they originated in the city of Shanghai, China, and are grey in plumage The Chittagongs and these are perfectly identical, and all are of the great Chinese variety Still they are "beautiful specimens of poultry. But why not designate them correctly, and call them what they really are—" Grey Shanghais?” — New England Cultivator , June, 1852. For a time bubble number one, the Cochin Chinas, prevailed. . . Then came the Shanghais, ot different colours — as the yellow, the white, the buff, or the black — and took their turn. . . And, finally, came the Grey Shanghais, or “Chittagongs,” or “Brahmas,” as they were differently termed; and this proved bubble number two in earnest. . . No race of poultry ever had the run that did these Greys, under various names, both in this country and in England.— Hen Freer, 1855, pp. 161, 162. It is now, therefore, proved by abundant documentary evidence that Mr. Burnham did set up 7 he Illustrated Book of Foul, try. 250 his account in contradiction to Mr. Cornish and Dr. Bennett respecting the same fowls, as we had said he did, and that his statements to the contrary are untruthful. We also learn a little about the true value of his evidence, but we must now examine that point more directly. He avers that he “fought” the “Brahma nonsense ” as having no foundation, and because he “always objected to the needless multiplication of names.” We select now just one example of the many confessions in “The Hen Fever.” A gentleman, he says, wrote him in these words — I have read much on this subject of poultry, and I want to begin right, you perceive. I have made up my mind that there are not so many varieties of fowls extant as many breeders describe. I am satisfied that these domestic birds hail originally from China, and that all of them are of one blood. What is your opinion ? Write me your views, please, and let me know if you can furnish me with what I seel:, upon honour, bearing in mind that I am ready to pay your price, whatever it may be, but that I want only pure-blooded stock. — pp. 274, 275. And here is his own account of the sequel : — I informed my correspondent that I agreed with him in the ideas he had advanced precisely (I usually did agree with such gentlemen), and I entertained no doubt that he was entirely correct in his views as to the origin of domestic fowls, of which he evidently knew so much. (This helped me amazingly.) I pointed out to him the distinction that existed (without a difference) between a “Shanghae” and a “ Cochin China,” and finally concluded my learned and ««selfish appeal by hinting (barely hinting) to him that I felt certain he was the best judge of the facts in the case, and L would only suggest that, so far as my experience went, there were in reality but ten varieties of pure- bred fowls known to ornithologists (I was one of this latter class), and that these ten varieties were the Cochins , the White, Grey, Dominique, Buff, Yellow, Red, Brown, Bronze, and Black Shatighais — and these were the only kinds / ever bred. I sent this anxious purchaser sixty chickens, at ten dollars each (cheap enough, to be sure), in accordance with his directions, and he was delighted with them. I do not now entertain a shadow of doubt that every one of those ten “different varieties” was bred from white hens and a black cock, one of the ordinary “Shanghai” tribe. — p. 278. There is plenty more of the same sort, and really the man who wrote this might have swallowed the Brahma — name and all — and admitted eleven “ pure breeds.” Passing this point, however, we next deal very briefly with Mr. Burnham’s arguments and objections in reply to the Cornish story, and to various particulars given by us in former publications. First of all, he charges that we have “studiously ignored” a report of the Boston Poultry Show of 1852, in which the “committee” spoke of unnecessary “names,” and said, concerning these birds, that “ the majority of the committee have no idea that Brahmapootra is their correct title.” In “The China Fowl” (p. 75) he writes of this report as follows : — Dr. Wight [the chairman of the committee] was one of the oldest importers then known in America, and a very careful, conscientious man. He then bred no Grey fowls of any description. He could have had no possible object, save to do justice to all parties, in this report ; and his [!] language on this occasion was not only forcible and clear, but it was truthful, just, and reasonable, as well as unequivocal. He adds in a letter, dated July 2, 1874, that “not until the year 1852 (in September) had the proper name of this fine stocic been called in question. It was rightfully ‘Shanghae.’ But from and after this show began the contest that resulted in naming this much-maligned race ‘Brahmas.’” We may state that when we “ ignored ” that report we were not aware of it, not having then a copy of “ The Hen Fever,” in which it has been preserved to posterity. Now we have that remarkable publication, however, we find Burnham “ studiously ignores ” the fact that he wrote that report. We ask our readers to compare the following with the above intimation that the report was written by Dr. Wight : — I was chosen by somebody as one of the judges .... and my colleagues on this committee were Dr. J. C. Bennett and Messrs. Andrews, Balch, and Fussell. On the morning of the opening of this show the names of the judges were first announced to the contributors. Immediately there followed a “ hullabaloo.” . . . One prominent member announced publicly that the selection of the judges was an infamous imposition; .... moreover, that it had all “been contrived by that d d Burnham, who would rob a churchyard, or steal the cents off the eyes of his dead uncle, any time, for the price of a hen.” — p. 1 19. But the same power which had formed the committee of judges also provided that they must not be competitors. I was satisfied, however, because I saw that the framing of the report of this show would fall to my lot again. . . . Those who are acquainted with me know that I am constitutionally of a calm, retiring, meek, religious turn of mind. I “ love my neighbour (if he doesn’t permit his hens to get into my garden) as myself,” and “if a man smite me upon one cheek, I turn to him the other also” immediately, if not sooner. [We quote these words rather unwillingly, but they are necessary in their way.] I never retaliate upon an enemy or an opponent — until I make sure that L have him where the hair is short. ... I permitted the hen-men to gas to their heart’s content. When they got through .... I informed them that the “committee” had unanimously left to my charge the writing of the report of that exhibition. — nn. 12T. T22. Reports of Various Early Shows. 251 U7 1 1 rOITi m°7ent [ ie hour when the report was published I never suspected (before) that I had so many friends in this .cr., * . e eai ^at seemed to pervade every mind present was, that I should do precisely what they would have done under cucumstances to wit, take care of myself. I had no fowls in this exhibition, but there were present numerous specimens y,16- w °Ja- Ev^OC- ’ r ' * d ^lat^ 110 disposition, in the preparation of this document, to underrate the stock of any one else, ptovi ui it cud not interfere with me ! And, after carefully noting down whatever seemed of importance to my well-being there, I sat myself down to oblige the committee by writing the “report” of this show, which an ill-natured competitor subsequently declared was only in favour of Burnham and his stock, all over, underneath, in the middle, outside, overhead, on top, on all sides, and at both ends.” And 1 believe he was right ! — pp. 122, 123. Further, however, in relation to the date at which the name was given. Burnham says this 1852 show was the fifth held at Boston. It was in reality the seventh ; and there were two previous shows held in 1851, of which he takes no notice. Why he “studiously ignores” these will appear from some extracts we now give. At the first of those 1851 shows, the committee reported as follows — and it deserves notice that the committee is the very same whose report Burnham quotes as above, only in this case the writing of the report was in more impartial hands. The committee are unanimously of opinion that those marked Chittagongs are not of that breed. It is clearly a misnomer, and the only question is, whether they are Grey Shanghaes or Brahmapootras — from China or India ; anu as the arguments of Mr. Burnham, on the one side, and Dr. Bennett, on the other, are before the public, we submit the question. The Chittagong we shall consider shortly ; at present we go on to the report of the committee of the second 1851 show, held in November, upon the “Brahmapootra” fowls shown: — Some mammoth specimens of this variety were shown by Dr. Bennett, S. O. Hatch, and J. Parkinson, each possessing great merit. Mr. Hatch’s lot were entered under the head of Grey Chittagongs, but were really pure Brahmapootras, and decidedly better fowls than any Chittagongs in America. They are better layers, lighter in colour, have shorter legs, more compact forms, larger ear-lobes, and Smaller combs and wattles ; and in every respect are vastly superior to the Chittagongs. As the judges desire that every variety of fowl should be called by its right name, they cannot sanction the application of the title Chittagong to this excellent stock, when in reality they are perfect Brahmapootras. B. F. Beal, R. W. Fuller, and J. H. Penniman showed some very handsome fowls of the same variety. Dr. Bennett purchased Mr. Hatch’s lot at a very high price. Since Mr. Burnham was a member of all these committees (he acknowledges this in his “ Poultry Book,” dated 1871), he knew these facts, and their suppression is not accidental. In the same way and for the same purpose he cites a “report” of the New York Show held in 1S54, which again took his side, and stated that “ in our opinion, Shanghae and Cochin are convertible terms, but Brahmapootra unquestionably is a name for a sub-variety of Shanghae.” This is very plausible ; but after what we have seen of his manipulation of the report of Boston, our faith is somewhat shaken by the following extracts from Burnham’s own account in “The Hen Fever” of this New York Show, and what he was allowed to do there. It should be premised that the whole affair was got up by the well-known showman, Mr. P. T. Barnum : — The person whom I employed to look after my stock (for I had long since got to be a “gentleman,” and couldn’t attend to such trifling matters personally) .... was thoroughly posted up in his profession, and knew a hawk from a hand-saw, as well as a Shanghae from a Cochin China. And when he started for New York with my contributions, I enjoined it upon him to bear in mind, under all circumstances, that the gentleman he represented had the only pure- bred poultry in America, any way. * # * # # Gn the morning succeeding the opening I received from him the following brief but expressive telegraphic despatch : — “G. P. Burnham, Boston. “Arrived safe; thought we’d got ’em, sure. We have, over the left. You are nowhar ! — “B.” * # # # * This despatch reached me at noon, and on the following morning I was in New York. I looked about the several apartments Ln the Museum, and satisfied myself who had the best fowls there very quickly. As it happened, they were not inside of my cages, by a long mark ! . . . . There were not a few choice birds scattered about the rooms — under the benches, or in far-off corners— which my eye fell upon, which my agent subsequently purchased at very moderate prices, and which found their way, somehow into my coops [!]. The “people” now stared with more earnestness than ever. By the evening of the second day my “ pure-bred” stock did look remarkably well ! And when the “ committee ” came round at last I found myself the recipient of several of the leading premiums (pp. 200, 201). . . . And at the close of the exhibition my agent had taken nearly three thousand dollars. — p. 210. . I found it impossible to get within fifty feet of my show-cages, in consequence of the throng of purchasers that crowded around them ' There must have been some charm about those magical coops of mine. They were filled and refilled t-iunty times over [!] • but they were as often emptied, and at singularly gratifying prices, both to buyer and seller.— p. 219. 252 The Illustrated Book of Poultry. In the second place, Mr. Burnham states that Dr. Bennett’s “ Poultry Book ' was published in 1850 and 1851, and in another place that a second edition came out in 1851 ; and asks why Dr. Bennett did not mention Brahmas in it, if they were known ? It is sufficient, in reply, to state, that Dr. Bennett’s book was published in 1850 ; that there is no document or other information in it later than March of that year, when no one pretends he knew anything of Brahmas ; and that no second edition was ever published at all. This last fact we have seen stated in Dr. Bennett’s own handwriting to Miss Watts, and also in an old letter from Mr. Plaisted, then his partner, to the same lady. Mr. Burnham’s third argument, founded on an old letter by Dr. Gwynne, which we had never seen, it is best to give in his own words. Both paragraphs are from the same published letter : — “The fowls recently presented to her Majesty by Mr. Geo. P. Burnham, under the name of Grey Shanghaes, are admitted by Dr. Bennett to be precisely similar to his own, and Mr. Burnham assures me that the original stock from which the ‘ Grey Shanghaes’ presented to her Majesty were bred was imported by himself, through Dr. Kerr, of Philadelphia direct from Shanghae.” Did Mr. Lewis Wright find it coxrvenient or useful to place this square, clear evidence about me and my fowls (written by Dr. Gwynne in 1852) in his “Poultry Book?” Not much! Mr. Cornish first called his fowls Chittagong, as he himself states in his letter ; and Dr. Bennett (who called his fowls “ Brahma-Pootras ” then) finding my stock so popular, at once declares to Dr. Gwynne that his fowls and Mr. Burnham’s, of the United States ( not Cornish’s), are precisely similar ; a fact occurring at about the time when Mr. Cornish’s letter appears, which I think explains itself. It will be seen how the second paragraph improves on the first, and entirely misrepresents Dr. Bennett’s original statement. Dr. Bennett had not said that “ Mr. Burnham’s” stock and his were similar ; but simply that the stock sent to the Queen were similar to his own. And Dr. Bennett, we find, always gave as his reason for this statement, the fact as known to him and notorious in America, that the birds sent to the Oueen, were birds from the Cornish strain , purchased by Burnham from a Mr. Smith, of Rhode Island. From various letters of Dr. Bennett’s, kindly furnished us by Miss Watts, we take the following few extracts on this point : — Mr. George P. Burnham’s “Grey Shanghaes” are no more like your Brahmas than an owl is like a turkey. Those he sent to the Queen were Brahmas purchased by him of George Smith, of Rhode Island, and were not his Grey Shanghaes.— Nov. 8, 1853. I have taken the initiative to procure you the proof of the origin of the fowls sent to your Queen, for the benefit of English amateurs. If the men to whom I have written will reply (for they are generally afraid of Burnham’s blackguardism), I will furnish you with the most satisfactory evidence.- — Dec. 18, 1853. I think Burnham got Baily’s Brahmas of George Smith, and several of your stock came from him, Smith. Smith got his stock from Connecticut, and I got my stock in Connecticut, and Smith’s stock and mine are identical. They all came from Chahiberlin’s pair.— Feb. 13, 1854. The fowls sent to your Queen were from, the stock of George Smith, as stated in The Northern Farmer, which I sent you. This is certain; I know it, and so does Mr. Miner, Mr. Plaisted, and a hundred others.— Dec. 17, 1853. I had mine of Cornish and Hatch. George Smith had his of Hatch. And Burnham had his of Hatch and Smith.— Dec. 17, 1853. The evidence promised in the second extract followed at full length. All these particular letters were first published by us in November, 1874: but the same charges were published over and over again in an American paper called The Northern Farmer in 1855, and never denied by Burnham. Indeed, out of his own mouth the same thing can be proved by putting different statements together. Thus, he stated in the New England Cultivator that he had purchased two pairs of fowls from a friend in Rhode Island, which he sold to Lord Northby for 300 dollars. That this friend was George Smith is proved by a letter of the latter to Mr. Miner, stating that Mr. Burnham had bought the fowls of him, and their price. And, finally, Mr. Burnham again states in the Cultivator for February 5, 1853, that the Queen’s birds “ were from the same stock as those lately sent to Lord Northby, of Aldsborough.” Comment is superfluous. We would now ask the reader to compare the following statements, all from “ The China Fowl,” by Ml Burnham, concerning Dr. Bennett and Mr. Cornish : — Dr. Bennett and Mr. Cornish. 253 But John Bennetc is in his grave. He was my intimate friend ior more than twenty-five years. He never wrote or uttered one offensive word to or of me or mine, to my know- ledge. He possessed first-class natural talents, was liberally educated, and proved himself a genial, companionable man, though he was a sharp competitor in the chicken fancy, and oftentimes eccentric, reckless, and erratic in his business manage- ment. But I have nothing to offer derogatory to him ; and his memory will hereafter be no farther criticised by my pen. Were he alive to-day, he would cordially indorse what I have now stated — as I have the means of knowing. And here let him rest. — p. 162. I have no doubt that Mr. Cornish — who is a very respectable and veracious gentleman — believed what Mr. Chamberlin told him “the sailor reported” to Mr. Chamberlin, as having come “from the New York man, who knew nothing of the origin of the light Gray fowls ” thus “found ” there. And Mr. Chamber- lin, also, might have believed what this sailor said. The sailor probably believed what the man in New York (if there were any such man) said — to wit, that he “ knew nothing of their origin,” &c. And, though these New York parties are described by Mr. Cornish as being “all very obscure men,” it may be that “the man in New York, whose name he has not got,” believed the story he repeated to the sailor, about what the other sailors told him regarding these fowls coming there “in the Indian ships,” &c. But I don't. That is all the difference there is, or ever has been, between the theory of Mr. Cornish and Wright, and the facts that I have herein related. — p. 97. Dr. John C. Bennett coined this sailor’s yarn originally, and the others tacitly agreed to it. The fowls were from my yards, or out of my stock. And Bennett never denied this in America or England, for he couldn’t, had he wished to do so, while 1 lived ; and he knew this fact as / did, which accounts for the non-mention of me in all those days ! — p. 114. As to the first letter signed by Virgil Cornish, dated March 2, 1852, I will add here that I am ready to take oath that Dr. John C. Bennett came to my house and passed the night there, a few months previously to the date of that document, when he exhibited to me and to members of my family his ready prepared account of what was “shortly to be forthcoming as the true history of the origin and importation of the Brahmapootra fowls, from India,” which precious document (as nearly as I can now recollect it), in his handwriting, was almost word for word this very letter , published in 1852 as Mr. Cornish’s ! During the doctor’s visit to me that day and night, at Melrose, he informed me that this very statement was to be published, and that it would be approved by Mr. Cornish and Mr. Hatch of Con- necticut.-— p. 157. Dr. John C. Bennett, himself, prepared this sailor-story in the main, originally ; he alone invented the name of “ Brahma- pootra ” for the Gray-Shanghae fowls ; he also originated the title of the “ pea-comb.” The other parties in the Brahmapootra interest in 1852-53 joined the doctor in this story and the decep- tion about the “ importation of these fowls from India ” — under his lead — and subsequently told his tale so many times, that some of them (not all !) came at last to believe in its truth. — p. 162. All that is necessary here is to say that Burnham never dared to say of Dr. Bennett what he here says of him, while he lived. He fought him ; he ridiculed him ; but he never dared at the lime to accuse him or Cornish of forgery ; and that charge is now made by a man who can in the teeth of it say those who put the story forward “no doubt believed it,” and that one is a “veracious” and “very worthy man.” He has also been proved by numerous citations to be utterly unreliable in other statements he has made, and which have been likewise quoted, to the effect that he never had difference or dispute with either Dr. Bennett or Mr. Cornish. The following letters — one from each — which were published at the time , and the statements in neither of which did Burnham dare to deny, will show still more the character of that statement, and clear up some other points : — Mr. Miner: — In the New England Cultivator for June, is an article on “Grey Shanghae Fowls,” from the pen of George P. Burnham, Esq., confounding that breed with the Brahma Pootras, and as he has used my name most liberally, I beg leave to make a short reply. Mr. Burnham says: “Mr. Burnham was the first to introduce this large breed of grey fowls into Massachusetts in 18/19 and 1850. [Mr. B. is incog, editor, and writes of himself as of another person. — Ed., Northern Farmer .] They were called Chittagongs at that time.” Now, the Chittagongs to which Mr. Burnham refers, are grey Chittagongs ; I had some of the same stock. They were purchased of Dr. Kerr by Mr. Burnham and myself at the same time. Mr. Burnham admits that these fowls are Chittagongs, and so do I. They were, and now are, of a grey owl-colour ; not ■white , with black tails and pencilled ruck-hackles, like the Brahma Pootras. Mr. Burnham’s pair of Chittagongs, which he pretends are similar to Brahma Pootras, passed into the hands of Mr. G. W. George, of Haverhill, Mass. On the 28th of June, Mr. George visited Great Falls to see my Brahma Pootras. He was accompanied by Mr. \V. P. Neff, of Cincinnati, Ohio. I requested Mr. George to state in the presence of Mr. Neff, whether Mr. Burnham’s Chittagongs, which he owned, resembled my Brahma Pootras. lie replied, “Not in the least. The Chittagongs that I had of Mr. Burnham are owl-coloured, or grey, more like a Dominique fowl.” Now, Mr. Burnham’s “grey Chittagongs” have turned out to be “grey Shanghaes,” for he says they are “perfectly identical!” If this is true, there is nc such thing as Chittagong fowls ! ! They are all grey Shanghaes now ! That Mr. Burnham has some grey Shanghaes, I am not disposed to contradict, but that they are the original grey Chittagongs, I deny. But if they were the same, that circumstance would have nothing to do with their being Brahma Pootras, because neither of these breeds resemble the Brahma Footras in the least. That Mr. Burnham had no fowls in 1849 and 1850, resembling the Brahma Pootras in the least, I know to a certainly , and in confirmation of this statement I append a letter from Virgil Cornish, Esq., of Conn. J. C. Bennett. Sept. 1852. , July 19th, 1852. Dk T. C. Bennett: — Dear Sir. — A few weeks ago I received the Northern Farmer, and noticed your article on the Brahma Pootra fowls, with quotations from my letter to you, which are all correct. I have shown the article to Mr. Chamberlain, and he says that the description of the origin of these fowls, as there given by you, is perfectly correct. You have probably noticed the article in the New England Cultivator for June, under the head of “ Grey Shanghaes,” in which the author claims that the Brahma Pootras are identical with that breed, &c., telling us that Mr. Burnham knows all about them, and had them in iS in and 1850 &c. Now I happened to meet Mr. Burnham at the Poultry Fair in 1850, when he told me, after viewing a few vounut searching the registers; though after what has been shown (and which forms a very small part of what might be shown) we should scarcely scruple to question any statement whatever of his that clashed with other testimony. This brings us to the Chittagong, and Mr. Burnham’s mis-statements regarding that fowl. Mr. Burnham says they were Shanghaes, that they came from “ Shanghae,” and that he “imported” them from Shanghae! Thus in The Fancier's Journal for July, 1874, he says: — I imported from Shanghae, China, my first full-grown Light Greys, in 1849, through Dr. J. J. Kerr, Phila., and my second lot from Shanghae, five adult birds, through Wm. T. Porter, New York, in 1850. — [G. P. Burnham' s account from 1849 to 1874 continuously.) We have seen already that he never “ imported ” them at all, but that Dr. Kerr had them before, and sold him some. However, our present and only business is with their origin. Burnham says in “ The China Fowl ” that Dr. Kerr told him in a letter they came from “ Shanghae.” He says again and again, in the same work, that no progenitor of the Brahma “ ever saw India.” This is the only statement of his that really is from first to last consistent : he never seems to vary in this one point. But, alas ! it is as untrue as the rest, for in Dr. Bennett’s “Poultry Book,” published in 1851, is Dr. Kerr’s own authentic account of his Chittagongs. Having first described the Shanghaes as coming from North China, Dr. Kerr goes on to say that “ my Chittagongs and Cochin China, which come, the one from the vicinity of Calcutta , and the other from Southern China, are, as I shall show, considerably larger.” It is indeed evident on the face of it, that it was this fact got the fowls their name of “ Chittagong ; ” which is admitted, and which is unaccountable on Mr. Burnham’s theory. They were Indian fowls. Hence it appears, that taking Mr. Burnham’s own account of the origin of Brahmas, if we take Dr. Kerr’s own account of his own fowls , they still came from India, and not from China ! It further appears that from some strong personal reason Mr. Origin of the Dark Brahma. 257 Burnham was determined to have every fowl a “ Shanghae,” and no other. This fact once understood, the rest is perfectly clear. These later facts raise some interesting speculations as to the separate or similar origin of the Dark Brahma. We formerly thought that the Darks were from the same originals as the Lights, and we are still not sure about this ; for though Burnham denies it with indignation, and claims the Dark* as his particular “ patent,” he unluckily, in an unguarded moment (contradictory to the last), avers that “ both the Dark and Light were bred from the same originals, precisely, at first.” He is therefore in the same difficulty as we are on that point. Still, knowing from Mr. Teebay how nearly all the Darks for years came from near Boston, we are disposed to think he had something peculiar to do with these, and we think the method is not far to seek. We have seen that Dr. Bennett had bred from his Chittagongs some fine really grey birds, and called them first “ Burrampooters,” afterwards dropping them and giving that name to the Cornish stock. What more natural than that this should give Burnham the idea of breeding more himself, and putting them in competition with the new breed ? We willingly believe — seeing we now know the Chittagongs themselves had come from India, and that the new Cornish birds, though different in colour, are said to have “in some degree” resembled them — that there were great resemblances in all bat colour; and we would trust the man really believed in a common origin, though in the face of Dr. Kerr’s statement he must have known it was an Indian one. We think it likely, in fact, that these grey Chittagongs were of closely allied race to the lighter fowls ; and they may have been bred from the same pair even, since in Miner’s “Poultry Book” there is a remarkable letter from Mr. Moore stating that “ the Brahma Pootra fowls are very dark in many instances.” If so, this may answer Burnham’s sneer at the 1846 date, and his question (“China Fowl,” p. 95), “ Can either of this hopeful trio [Cornish, or Weld, or Wright] tell us where these remarkable birds were secreted from 1846 or 1847 up to 1850 and 1851, that nobody knew of or had ever seen them?” It may be the “Chittagongs” were offsets from them, crossed or not, and bred from the darker shades. It is worth notice that The Broad Arrow y a paper devoted to the Civil Services, and which has much Indian correspondence, in controversy with us attributes the Brahma to the “big fowls” found “around the port of Chittagong;” that an old Indian officer in writing us said, “ The fowl you make so much fuss about is the Chittagong fowl, of which I have seen hundreds in India;” and that several other letters in print, down from The Northern Farmer in 1855, state similar fowls exist in India still. If, then, Burnham later on purchased Cornish Brahmas and crossed them with his own really grey stock from Dr. Kerr — stock he says came from China, but which Dr. Kerr himself says came from India — he crossed them with birds any way from the same locality, and which “in some degree resembled ” them except in colour, as even Cornish says. He may have been crossing them — the purest and best-preserved descendants of the original stock — with darker offsets from the very same root bred with less care ; or it may have been another importation. But either way, we think that upon the whole, while both the Dark and Light probably came in the main from the very same Chamberlain stock, the origin of the Darks is in this way best accounted for. To sum up. Of the Chamberlain origin of the Light Brahmas there can be no doubt whatever. In all the disputes of that old time, Mr. Cornish is about the only one who seems to come out of the business quite clear. In all the others— Bennett, Miner, and Plaisted, as * The very fact that he does so is a curious proof of a consciousness he cannot get rid of, tbai he had nothing to do with the Light Brahmas. The Illustrated Book of Poultry . well as Burnham — we find more or less of strong personal rivalry and personal motive; Cornish alone, as Mr. Plaisted admits, never exhibited these fowls, and as a respectable public servant his testimony therefore, in our judgment, confirmed as we have seen it to be, outweighs all the rest put together. On the other hand, that the Dark Brahma may really, in the way above suggested, be credited to Burnham, is what we are upon the whole disposed to believe ; more than belief being impossible in consequence of the maze of contradiction by which he has obscured whatever did take place. It may be well to add that another almost conclusive proof of the original unity of the strain is found in the peculiar white lacing or border to the upper pair of feathers in the cock’s tail. The first to point this out as a characteristic of the best strains of Light Brahmas was undoubtedly Mr. F. Crook, but he appears (not being a Dark Brahma breeder) to have had no suspicion that the same peculiarity was often found in the Dark breed ; and this discovery was, we believe, first made by ourselves. It is not uncommon, and the beautiful Dark cockerel selected for portraiture in this work possessed this very peculiar feature in perfection, though “ as black as a coal ” in all the under parts of his body. The common possession of such a very characteristic and peculiar point as this is about as strong evidence of a common origin as could well be. The importance of this matter, as we noted at commencing, with regard to the whole subject of the origin of species, must be our apology for devoting so much space to it, though in this we have only followed the example of others. We may now proceed to consider the breed practically in detail. Both Dark and Light varieties of the Brahma should be precisely alike in size, shape, and carriage, as are the different varieties of Cochins, only differing in colour. Formerly the Light breed was far behind the Dark in these respects ; so far that it was even attempted by Light breeders to urge that their variety should be judged by a less stringent standard, but for this in either variety there is no ground whatever, and wisely. Light birds have been bred as fine, or even finer than the Darks. It only needs judgment in mating and care in rearing, to breed either as fine as ever ; and we have been glad to see several breeders of late have adopted our frequently published recommendation, and by obtaining a cross of the large though rather coarse American Light stock, have made great gain in point of size and vigour. A full-grown cock of either breed cannot be regarded as up to exhibition standard if he weighs less than twelve pounds, while hens should weigh eight to ten pounds. Cockerels six months old should weigh from seven to nine pounds, and pullets six to eight pounds. These are very good weights, and after long experience we have not the slightest hesitation in saying that for all practical purposes birds which reach these weights are to be preferred to heavier ; but they will very often be exceeded, and cocks have been known to us which have reached fifteen, sixteen, and in one case just over eighteen pounds, while many hens have been known to turn the scale on twelve pounds. Of course, if such birds are fine in their other points they are very valuable for exhibition, and there cannot be a doubt that the Brahma may easily be made to attain a greater weight than any other breed, not excepting the Cochin ; but as a rule we have found that moderate-sized birds are healthier, more prolific in eggs, keep their plumage in better order, and generally breed fner and larger stock than the very largest birds. We say as a rule, because there are occasionally found birds which have grown very large without any special feeding, and breed naturally a ,arge stock, with no apparent loss of fertility. Such are to be valued, and by their means a large strain may be established and perpetuated ; but forcing size in this breed is to be especially condemned. The effect is nearly always to make the plumage soft and slack-looking ; and as General Points of Brahmas. 259 the Brahma, unlike the Cochin, is a close-feathered breed, one of its great beauties is thus to ft great extent lost. The head of the cock cannot be too small in proportion to the body. This point is not easy to attain, and is of great value as a sign of high breeding, being generally accompanied by fineness of flesh. The top of the head should be rather wide, with a slight fulness over the eye, but not so much as to cause a cruel or Malay expression. The whole head should be rather short and well arched ; a long head looking mean, and disfiguring many otherwise fine American birds. The comb — known as a pea-comb — is peculiar, but is simply described as resembling three small combs joined into one, the centre one being higher than the two outside. It is very difficult, in the cock especially, to get this point to perfection until a strain has been bred for years. No pure strain ought to breed a solitary comb in which the peculiar triple character is not perfectly distinct ; but there is a constant tendency to grow too large, or crooked, or otherwise misshapen, which requires to be guarded against like any other fault, if even tolerable symmetry be desired. We would never press a merely fancy point too far ; but considering how highly typical the pea-comb is in this breed, we would never breed from such a bird, and would hesitate much to award a first prize to one, though combs far short of perfection must often be tolerated for the sake of more important points. In a perfect comb the centre ridge should be absolutely straight, and the whole so low as to be perfectly firm and free from shaking, however quickly the bird moves his head. We would prefer half-an-inch in height, but even three-quarters, if straight and well-shaped, makes a beautiful comb ; above that we should say there was a tendency to getting too large. With regard to the shape of the comb, some prefer a uniform rise from the front towards the back, ending in a peak something like that of the Hamburgh, though not so sharp or defined ; and this is the original, and, till lately, the usual American type. But we like far better to see the comb, after rising for half or two-thirds of its length, decrease again towards the back, thus forming a kind of arch ; and this form of comb not only, as we think, looks better to the eye, but is far more likely, according to our experience, to breed well than the other, which has a tendency to grow larger each successive generation. The arched comb is now almost everywhere preferred to the peaked. The comb should be handsomely set above neat and cleanly-cut nostrils, the beak being rather short, thick at the base, and with rather a decided curve : but too much curvature, or what is termed a hawk- bill, is a great blemish, giving a sinister aspect to the bird. In all the original Brahmas the deaf-ears fell below the wattles. It is often seen so still, and the perpetuation of this point should be carefully sought as far as possible ; but a prominent place cannot of course be given to so secondary a character. The neck of the cock should be unusually full in the hackle, and as much arched as possible, giving the appearance of stately pride. Just below the head, the hackle should start out with a very convex and clean sweep, making the junction of the head very distinct by an apparent hollow or depression. It should be long, and full enough to flow well over the back and shoulders ; and with its full and graceful curve, which is almost peculiar to this breed, and rather reminds an observer of the neck of a spirited horse, adds greatly to the noble carriage and appearance of the bird. The neck may be either rather long or rather short, according to the general style of the bird all over; each has its beauties and its admirers, and each has contended successfully in the show-pen. The short neck harmonises best with a square compact body, somewhat resembling the Cochin in character, and is well shown in our plate; while a somewhat long neck, well arched, and combined with the proper type of tail, gives, in our opinion, a more commanding and noble appearance. -6° The Illustrated Book of Poultry. The back should be wide, and flat across, but very short, the saddle appearing to take its rise almost from the base of the neck. A round back is of course a great deformity, and so is want of width, a narrow bird being of very little value. The saddle must be very broad, and rise well towards the tail, without which there cannot be true symmetry and proportion. We have seen cocks with the back and saddle actually sloping downwards to the tail, which looks especially bad, being contrary to the haughty carriage so conspicuous in this breed. The saddle-feathers should be long and abundant, so as to flow well over the points of the wings. The proper tail of the Brahma cock is very peculiar, though it is very rare to see it approaching perfection. It has been variously described, but usually by saying that it should open out laterally, the sickles especially, “ like a fan.” By Mr. Teebay’s kindness, we were enabled to give a clear description of the Brahma tail as it used to be ; and since then we have seen it approached on several occasions, and have bred it ourselves, though it is not easy to produce, having been for a time nearly lost. “ The true inside tail,” he says, “ I like closed, except the two highest feathers (sometimes four used to be so). These should be very broad, and lay nearly or quite flat, not too long, and the ends turning outwards each way, and pro- jecting on each side through the carved or sickle-feathers. Such feathers are never seen except in tails set much more upright than most exhibited now. They were very subject to be broken in the exhibition baskets or pens, on account of their projecting through the other feathers. The whole inside tail spreading out, as was also often seen, I do not like. I have frequently noticed the feathers crossing in the lower part and re-crossing again higher up. When there are two pairs the higher pair is generally rather smaller, and they do not actually cross, though there is always a similar peculiar bend, which is, I believe, caused by their being set into the rump so near to each other, and growing together while the young quill is hardening.” A tail thus formed is very characteristic ; and it is remarkable not only how this feature resembles the tail of the black-cock, but that the head and pencilling should also show such analogies to the grouse family. The breast of the cock should be deep, full, broad, and rather projecting, the breast-bone being set well down between the thighs. The shoulders should be somewhat prominent, so as to make the back a little hollow between them when the bird stoops, and give a handsome proportion. The wings ought to be of medium size, and well tucked up, so as to make the bird look neat and trim. Disordered flights are a great blemish, and birds with any feathers actually twisted should be disqualified. The thighs should be well covered with fluff, though not quite so loose and downy as in the case of Cochins, and the hocks ought to be entirely and neatly covered with soft curling feathers. We are glad to see that bare legs are now quite discarded by judges, and we would ourselves prefer vulture-hocks to such a disgusting fault. The vulture-hock is, however, a great blemish undoubtedly, and none but an unusually good bird should win any prize when thus disfigured ; but only stiff feathers projecting so as to form a spur on the limb are to be so regarded, and soft curling feathers, however plentiful, are only a beauty to be desired. The shanks should be of moderate length, and feathered as heavily as possible, down to the ends of both outer and middle toes. Too short shanks in the cock look decidedly bad, but it is rather hard to fail in this respect. The shank- feather should “ stand out ” well, not take a perpendicular direction, else it does not show properly. We have frequently seen both the inner and back toes feathered in the case of hocked birds, and we once ourselves bred a bird perfectly free from hock which was thus furnished, and have known pullets also present this peculiarity. On the other hand, some very heavily-feathered birds have the middle toe bare ; and while this is not desirable, 'they are not therefore to be discarded. We need scarcely say that the thicker the shanks are the better. Very large cocks are generally somewhat long in Modern Light Brahmas. Characteristics of Light Brahmas. 261 the leg, and if the length be not too great we do not object to it, provided it is not, as is frequently the case, associated with too long a back, or other defects in shape. The shape and carriage of the hen should correspond with that of the cock, allowing for the difference of sex. Her head should in particular be as small as possible, this point being of much greater moment in her case, with the same slight fulness over the eye, giving to the face an expression we can only describe as “arch,” but at the same time peculiarly sweet and gentle. We like the head short and well arched; in fact, almost exactly that of a grouse, with the beak also rather short and curved, but not too much so. The neck in her case should always be short, and with the hackle spreading out very full at the base, and flowing well over the back and shoulders ; the back flat, wide, and short, as in the cock, with a very broad and ample cushion, resembling somewhat that of the Cochin. There is, however, this difference, which is characteristic, that whereas the cushion of the Cochin rather droops at the extreme end, burying the tail, the cushion of the Brahma rises to the last, the short tail rising nearly upright out of the end, so that the lower feathers of the tail are further behind than the upper. What we mean is seen exactly in the portrait of the Dark pullet which illustrates this chapter. Many of the pullets shown are nearly destitute of cushion, and narrow in the stern almost like a Spanish fowl ; these birds occasionally win from excellence in pencilling, but we cannot consider them good Brahmas. The shoulders should not be too sharp, but very neat ; and the wings tightly held to the body, and well tucked into and nearly buried in the cushion above and the fluff of the thighs below. A “ slab-sided” bird is not to be tolerated. Breast as broad, deep, and full as possible, with the crop low down, and the breast- bone well down between the thighs. The fluff ought to be very abundant, and stand well out, covering the hock precisely as in the cock. A Brahma hen must be short on the leg: legginess may occasionally be tolerated in an otherwise good cockerel ; but a leggy hen is of little value either for show or for the breeding-yard. In both sexes the shanks should stand as wide apart as possible, any approach to knock-knees being instantly disqualified ; and the feet should be rather large, with straight well-spread toes. We have now to consider separately the distinctive markings and breeding of the two varieties of Brahmas. LIGHT BRAHMAS. — The head of the Light cock should be white, the hackle silvery white, with a distinct black stripe down the centre of each feather. The shoulder-coverts, back, breast, thighs, and under parts are white on the surface, but the fluff or under-part of the plumage down to the skin is dull grey. The secondaries or outside wing-feathers are white on the outer web, and black on the inner web, causing the wing to appear pure white when folded; the primaries or flights black. The saddle-feathers may be either white, or (and this is rather to be preferred) white slightly striped with black ; tail-coverts glossy green black, those next the saddle being silvered on the edges. The tail should be rich glossy green black, with the two top feathers finely edged with silvery white, the white line being sharp and even all round, and about one-sixteenth of an inch in width. This point when perfect is a very great beauty, and generally a sign of good and careful breeding, but it is now so rare that it cannot be insisted on. The shape of the tail is already described; in default of that conformation, what would be sickles in another breed should diverge laterally like the tail of the black-cock ; but in either case it should be nearly upright, and the tail of the Cochin is not to be sought after. The shanks should be bright yellow, the feathering being white slightly mottled with black. Perfectly white shank-feathering is, if possible, to be avoided. The hen should have a pure white head, the brilliant red of comb, deaf-ears, and wattles contrasting very distinctly. The neck-hackle should be the same clear white ; distinctly, darkly, 2 62 THE I LLUST RATED BOCK OF POULTRY. and broadly striped down each feather, the black stripe ending clear and sharp at the base, so as to form a kind of dark necklace. All the body-colour should be a clear white surface, with an under ground-colour of grey, the primary quills being black. The tail is also black, except the two top feathers, which ought, if possible, to be edged with white on the top edges ; but this is not to be too rigidly insisted on. The shanks, like the cock’s, should be a bright yellow colour ; and the feathers white, very slightly mixed with grey or black. Except the neck, tail, and the little black or grey on the leg, the general appearance of both sexes should be a clear white all over, any tendency to yellow being a great defect. The latter colour exists naturally in some strains, and is distinct from the sun-burn which hot weather will produce even in good white birds. The Light Brahma is so extensively bred in the United States — more generally, perhaps, than any other breed — that a few remarks on the American and English types as compared become almost necessary. The American birds are, as a rule, much longer in the leg and back, and therefore less compact in shape, than the English ; but (no doubt as a direct consequence of this) are bred to a far larger size. An imported cock was shown in 1872 which exceeded eighteen pounds’ weight, and twelve and thirteen pounds are not at all unusual weights for hens. Hence American birds make valuable crosses to gain size ; but we must confess our own predilection for the square and compact English form, when bred to a satisfactory size, which there is no real difficulty in doing. The American birds also differ somewhat in colour, being described by United States’ fanciers themselves as almost exactly the colour of new milk when drawn from the cow, not the bluish colour of milk when skimmed of the cream. In England, on the contrary, this very pearly or bluish-white colour is most preferred, as it is also by some American fanciers, being much less apt to run into deep straw-colour in the cocks. American birds are also very often too long in the head, which greatly detracts from their beauty of expression. Probably the most perfect standard of perfection would lie between the two extremes as regards shape ; and there is little doubt that overmuch seeking for short-legged cocks has seriously diminished in size several good English strains : but neither, on the other hand, can we admire the long, rangy, raw-boned look of some American importations we have seen. We should rather advise the mating of fine long-bodied American hens of ten or twelve pounds’ weight, with a broad-backed, short-bodied, and very short- legged English cockerel of a good pearly colour, taking especial care the male bird had a broad and rising saddle. From such a cross, if rightly chosen for breeding colour, valuable results may be secured. A long, rangy American cock may also be put with compactly-built hens for the same purpose ; but we would prefer the cross first mentioned. The chief difficulty in breeding Light Brahmas is to obtain a sufficient amount of black marking in the hackle, without producing colour where not wanted. The natural tendency of most poultry is to breed lighter and lighter ; but if, to counteract this, cocks be chosen with densely-striped hackles, and saddles also striped, and mated with dark-necked hens, the almost inevitable result will be pullets with backs and other parts spotted or splashed, and cockerels with black spots on the fluff, in the wing, and other undesirable places. The best plan, at all events at commencement, will be as follows : — To breed pullets, put a cock with narrow but tolerably distinct stripes in his hackle, saddle quite clear, and leg-feathering nearly white, with hens so darkly striped in the neck as to be unfit for exhibition, or if they can be got so dark, entirely black, even in the very fringe, as in one of the feathers shown in Fig. 64, which was plucked from a fine American hen. From such a cross, hackles resembling the other feather in Fig. 64 will be produced, and so far as regards colour nearly every pullet will be fit to show ; while a fair number of good cockerels may also be expected, but not marked enough to be considered really perfect birds. To breed cockerels for showing, on the contrary, a cock should be selected with VmcentBrociks.Day& Son .Lirti AMERICAN LIGHT BRAHMAS, BRED BY M R JOS. M WADE., WINNERS OF FIRSTS SPECIALPRIZE AT PHILADELPHIA ! 8 7 1 . AND FI RST AT PITTSB UR G 1872 THE HEN NOW IN THE POSSESSION OF G. W* PETTER ESQ. Breeding Light Br Air mas. 263 stripes in his hackle of a very solid character, and defined stripes in the saddle also, if possible ; and mated with hens too light and cloudy in the hackle, and entirely free from any colour on the back. From this mating hardly a cockerel will miss as regards colour, but most of the pullets will have backs more or less speckled ; except in rare cases, not to be counted on, when birds seem to “ breed well ” with no trouble at all. The colour of the grey under-fluff should also be carefully examined. It will be found that this varies, in some birds being of a very dark grey, and in others of a very light pearly grey. In many cases the dark grey under-colour goes with the darker surface-marking, but this rule is not by any means universal ; and if two birds be on the surface apparently both too dark to be mated with success, for fear of producing dark splashes or specks, yet supposing one — say the cock — be of a dark under-colour while the other is light, the experiment may often be made with success. We think, in fact, this rule will usually be found safe ; but as we once knew a marked exception, we do not like to state it too broadly. By attending to this Black Hackle for Breeding Pullets. Fig. 64. Correct Hackle for Light Brahma Pullet. qualifying point, in a few years it will be possible to breed from the same stock both cockerels and pullets of a beautifully-marked character, the cocks usually having white saddles with barely perceptible traces of black ; and by then always mating well-marked birds on both sides, but with under-colour rather dark and light respectively, this valuable quality may be perpetuated. The only cross that is likely to be met with in choosing Light Brahma stock is that with the White Cochin, which we are satisfied has contaminated more or less very many birds. As this has been denied by some experienced breeders, we think it right to state that we have the avowal in writing of a well-known winner at Birmingham, that some of his best birds “ were bred from a Dark Brahma cock and White Cochin hens and of course such a cross must not only affect his own strain, but would communicate the taint to any others which might be recruited from it. The evils of this experiment would be more apparent after two or three generations than at first, as chickens quite correct in marking are often produced by such a cross ; but the effect of reversion is always seen afterwards in loose feather, dark or sandy patches of colour, light hackle, and deficient breast. The latter is, on the whole, the best test of a cross, which may be also detected in many cases by the ground-colour of the plumage being white instead of grey ; and if the two defects be found together we should regard the evidence of a stain more or less remote as perfectly conclusive. Another very characteristic evidence of a Cochin cross is the shape of the cushion, which in Brahmas ascends more and more till it rises into the nearly upright tail, whilst in crossed birds it The Illustrated Book of Poultry. 264 frequently rather droops over; but as true Brahmas occasionally present this conformation, too much sticss must not be laid upon it. There can be no doubt, however, that the great increase of cushion and fluff favoured by most exhibitors and judges during the last few years> is quite false and foreign to the breed ; and as our frequent remarks to this effect in reports of shows have occasionally been denied with some coarseness, it may be well to state that a bird which won first prize as a white Cochin cockerel in 1883 was admittedly bred from so-called Light Brahma >} parentage upon both sides ! In fact, those most behind the scenes know best that Cochin crosses have produced the imitation of Cochin development some admire. Light Brahmas, like White Cochins, need plenty of shade, to keep the cocks from turning off to that objectionable straw-colour we have already referred to. To show them to perfection they also need a country grass-run ; and if in such circumstances, want no preparation for show whatever, beyond washing their heads and legs. They will however keep much cleaner than White Cochins in the smoke of a town, being harder-feathered birds. DARK BRAHMAS. — The head and neck of a Dark Brahma cock are very similar to the Light, the head being white and the hackle striped, but somewhat more so than in the Light breed. 1 he back is nearly white, a little black appearing here and there ; while between the shoulders the black ought to predominate, but is nearly hidden by the hackle flowing over it. The saddle- feathers are like the hackle, silvery white, striped with black. Many breeders prefer only a little stripe in the hackle and saddle-feathers,, and such are the most showy birds for exhibition, while they will often breed good pullets if other points are correct ; but, on the whole, we greatly prefer a good distinct dark stripe in every feather. As the feathers approach the tail the stripes get broader, till they merge into the tail-coverts, which are rich glossy green-black, with a margin or lacing of white. The effect of this is very beautiful, while a “ mossy” appearance of the coverts is not only unpleasant to the eye, but is inferior for breeding pullets. The tail itself is pure rich black with a green gloss, any white being a great blemish. This fault is hereditary in some otherwise good strains, and is, we believe, often caused by a remote cross with the Dorking ; for in many cases where we have noticed it, we have seen other undeniable signs of the Dorking taint : but this will not account for many cases, where the blood is undeniably pure. The objection to white in the tail does not, however, apply to a silver margin or edge to the top sickles, which we have already described as proper to the cock in the Light breed, and is frequently found also in the best specimens of the Dark. When perfect this is a very great beauty, and very frequently accompanied by a fair black-cock type of tail. Sometimes, instead of a green lustre to the black of the cock’s wings and tail, the feathers show purple reflections. As a rule such birds breed beautiful dark pullets, and the purple shade is not to be considered a fault. The wing-coverts are black, forming a distinct black bar across the middle of the wing, while the ends of the secondaries, or the feathers which appear when the wing is closed, have a large black spot on the end, making the top edge of the wing also appear black. The remainder of the secondaries are white on the lower half and black on the upper, but the black of course is not seen. The flights are all black except a narrow fringe of white on the lower edge. There is often a little brown or bronze towards the top of the “ bar,” and at the end of the secondaries. As hereafter explained, this is often very useful in breeding dark pullets, and if not too plentiful is not to be considered a great defect, but if very conspicuous is almost a disqualification. There is also often a portion of brown on the shoulders and back ; in such positions the colour should be condemned, being both unsightly and objectionable for breeding. The breast may be either black, or black very slightly and evenly mottled with white ; the Cassells Poultry Book. THE RIGHT H0N8LELADY GWYDYRS DARK BRAHMA COCKEREL "SULTAN” CUP AT MIODLETON 1871. ALSO WINNER AT CRYSTAL PALACE, BIRMINGHAM '& BRISTOL. . ■ Ml m I » I **»V- Characteristics of Dark Brahmas. 265 thighs and fluff either black, or black very slightly ticked or laced with white. The shank feathering should correspond with the breast, being black if the latter is, and slightly mottled with white if not. The proper colour for the shanks is deep yellow, inclining to orange ; but this can rarely be obtained except on a grass-run ; and many Brahmas being reared in confinement, if the leg be moderately yellow it is sufficient. The colour of the hen somewhat varies, according to the taste of each individual fancier. Mr. Boyle, for some years a very successful exhibitor, describes it in “The Practical Poultry Keeper as a “ dingy white ground, very much and closely pencilled with dark steel-grey.” The effect of this is very beautiful, giving the appearance of a frosted or silver-grey ; but there should be no appearance of pure white in the plumage except in the margins of the neck-hackles. Pullets of this colour are in perfection at about six to eight months old, but next season often acquire a very dingy tone which we much dislike. The hens also are of a dingy colour except for a month or two after moulting ; but we have bred a few birds of this colour which retained their clearness of tint to the last, proving that with care in breeding the objectionable dingy tone might be got rid of. A more serious fault is that this colour is very apt to breed pullets with necks almost white for some distance down ; and even below that very thin and uncertain in colour. These light-necked birds generally breed worse and worse ; but the evil can easily be checked by choosing birds for breeding whose heads are distinctly marked. A few years since some breeders, amongst whom were Mr. Lacy, preferred a decided brown colour for the hens ; a tint which breeds true with much less trouble than the clear. This tint is occasionally shown with success, but being in the opinion of most fanciers much inferior in beauty to the clear colour, has nearly if not quite gone out of fashion, and it has lately become an accepted axiom that a clear ground-colour is the proper one for a Brahma. Another colour is that wnich used to be shown by Mr. Teebay, and is generally much admired when seen in perfection, as it sometimes has been again of late years. The ground-colour in this case is itself a steel-grey, and the pencillings or markings a rich black, so intense as to show green reflections like the tails of the cocks. Sometimes there is a slight cast of chestnut in the ground, but the intense colour of the pencilling prevents this from looking the least dingy, even when the birds moult out as hens. The ground then often shows the chestnut tone, with a slight purple cast, but the birds look wonderfully rich even then. Other shades of marking also occur ; and on the whole what we prefer is a variety of the first or silver-grey colour, in which the grey of the ground is of a perceptible bluish cast, and the pencilling itself so dark as to be nearly black. This colour, which may be denominated the blue-grey, usually moults out tolerably clear, the bright blue only giving place to a slightly duller slaty cast, which makes the hens of this colour show better than any, unless the very dark pencilling may be an exception. The shape and character of the marking in Dark Brahma pullets also varies. In some birds the pattern is very thick and large, in others so small as to be barely distinguishable. We prefer a medium size, so that the pencillings can be clearly discerned at a distance of about twelve feet. The shape of marking, likewise, is found to differ, sometimes being nearly straight across the feather, as in pencilled Hamburghs, and in other cases being curved like a scries of lacings. A medium character looks best here too, in our own opinion ; and we append, by way of illustra- tion, a series of feathers from one of the best birds we ever bred, and one which was never shown without winning. She was of the blue-grey colour we have already spoken of, and the feathers were plucked at the age of twenty months. (Fig. 65.) A few American fanciers seem greatly to admire a feather for Dark Brahma pullets which, besides the regular pencilling, has a defined edge of dull white, considerably lighter than the rest of X P HE I LLUSTKA TED BOOK OF P OULTRY. the ground-colour. Two such feathers we have represented in Fig. 66, from specimens sent us some time since by Mr. E. C. Comcy, of Ouincy, Mass. The effect is rather peculiar, and gives Hackle. Breast. Flat of Wing. Cushion. Fig. 65. a sort of artificial appearance of gloss to the plumage, particularly on the cushion ; but it seems to us to destroy the uniform look which most fanciers seek, and we should prefer to have the feather coloured alike all over. There is no difficulty in breeding this white edge, if desired, as Breast. Flat of Wing. Fig. 66. traces of it are every now and then occurring in almost every yard, from which it can be easily perpetuated. The great point as regards colour and marking in Brahma pullets is, that whatever the colour be it should be uniform over the body, not patches of the clear grey in one place and brown Breeding Darn Brahmas. 267 in another ; and that the breast up to the throat be closely pencilled, so as to be nearly as dark as the sides or back. Whatever the colour be, the neck-hackle should be silvery white, heavily striped with rich black, and the shank-feathering be pencilled the same as the body. The tail-feathers in the hen or pullet are black, the top pair only being edged with grey, or pencilled, on the upper edges. The shanks should be deep yellow, with or without a dusky shade. In breeding Dark Brahmas, the constant tendency to breed lighter must be especially allowed for ; and, therefore, to maintain the character of any strain it is ever necessary to provide depth of colour on one side or the other : in fact either the cock or the hens should, if possible, be a shade darker than the colour desired. The selection of hens or pullets will be comparatively a simple matter. The fancier should consider what colour and character of pencilling he prefers out of all those to be observed at shows, and then procure birds as near to it as possible. If they be, as above remarked, a shade darker than the fancied colour, it will be all the better, provided the character of the pencilling be the same. It is necessary, however, to distinguish between pullets and hens ; in the case of silver-grey birds especially, which as hens often look so brown and dingy that it seems almost impossible to believe they were ever of that exquisite colour so admired by many in the young pullets. Such brown birds will often breed good stock ; never- theless, as the dingy colour is the great drawback and blemish of the silver-grey school, if hens can be obtained free from it so much the better. In any case the birds should be well pencilled over the breast, or it will be long and tedious work getting dark-breasted pullets from such a stock. There is very often a little tendency in Dark Brahma pullets to show the shaft of the feather white about the shoulders and front of the breast, causing a slight appearance of streakiness, as in the Silver-grey Dorking. This tendency will increase if not watched, and when allowed to develop causes an unsightly appearance, being most conspicuous, by contrast, in the darkest coloured birds. Hens or pullets very much disfigured in this way should therefore be discarded ; or, if employed for the sake of unusually fine shape or colour, must be most carefully mated with cocks quite free from streak : otherwise the produce will be nearly all thus marked, and the tendency may get so much developed that it may be almost impossible to breed it out again, the whole body showing the white streak down the centre of every feather in a most unsightly way. A little about the breast used to exist in nearly all pullets ; but the care of breeders has lately succeeded in banishing it from all good yards, and no bird with a streaky breast would now win in a strong class. Hens or pullets with veiy large coarse heads, of a “sour” expression, should in nearly every case be refused for breeding stock. Such a strain is very often crossed with the Dorking, and to get coarse heads is to lose one of the chief beauties of the Brahma breed. A hen with this defect has in most cases large coarse pencilling also, and only when the size, shape, and carriage were unusually fine, and pencilling also good, would we experiment with her, choosing for the purpose a particularly fine-headed male bird. It is the choice of the cock that is the chief difficulty in breeding Dark Brahmas, for those differences in colour and marking which in the hens are so apparent are in him only partially perceptible even to the most experienced eye, and to most persons not at all. There is nor a breeder who has never been disappointed in his expectations from some noble-looking bird ; the different strains being so crossed and blended that unexpected tendencies are often developed, and baffle all calculation. Still, there are some general principles which make success at least likely to reward him who will observe them. In breeding silver-grey or blue-grey pullets, the cock 268 The Illustrated Book of Poultry. ought, if possible, to be entirely free from brown, even in the wing-bar. Turple reflections in the tail are also improper, the right colour being a very bright greenish black, while the bar on the wing should appear positively green. The more black there is towards the front part of the back the better, and the hackle and saddle-feathers ought to be solidly and very distinctly striped. Supposing the bird perfect in these respects, almost all will depend on the colour of the under parts ; and Mr. F. Wragg, formerly manager of Mr. Boyle’s yard, lays great stress* on the breast, thighs, and fluff being pure black, which seems at first sight reasonable enough. We are, how- ever, satisfied from experience that it is to this rule, or more particularly to the principal stress being laid on the blackness of the fluff , that the white heads and pale breasts so frequently seen in silver-grey pullets are due. If a black-breasted cock can be procured, the fluff may be black with no ill result ; but while black fluff is common, an entirely black breast is more rare : and if the bird have the least white mottling on that part, while the fluff is black, the effect will almost invariably be that the pullets bred from him are very dark behind, but too light on the breast and head. On the other hand, we have always found that a cock with the fluff slightly mottled produced better pencilled birds than the pure black, provided the middle of every feather were quite black, and all the white confined to the edges. Very often, indeed, the shaft of the feather shows white in the fluff of the cock, with more or less white or grey about the centre of the feather also; these birds will almost invariablyf breed just such “streaky” pullets as described. But if the shafts and whole centre of the feathering be a rich black, with only a lacing of white at the tip and edges, no such result need be apprehended ; and all that has to be stipulated for a probable good result is, that the breast, whether mottled or black, be darker, or at least fully as dark, as the thighs; the hackle well striped ; and that his hens have good dark breasts. Two- thirds of the pullets bred will probably then be fit for exhibition, provided his mates have the requisite breast-pencilling. This last is after all the most important point, and without such mating the best cock in the world cannot be relied upon for pullet-breeding. A bird of first-class pullet-breeding blood may indeed breed various beautifully-marked birds, even from streaky- breasted hens ; but these will be exceptions, not the rule, and such is not good or scientific breeding. It is a singular fact, that by continually selecting cocks with wings perfectly clear from brown, a tendency was for a long time always developed to increase the brown, thus producing the very thing so carefully shunned. The brown so developed in the cockerels was however very different from that in darker strains, being of a dead or rusty tinge, and often stained or mingled with white. This fault also was, however, vanquished by the skill of the best breeders ; and there are several well-known yards which now breed clear-winged cocks of very intense colour and unex- ceptionable breeding qualities. * He speaks thus : “I wish to repeat that for breeding I select a cock with all the under parts perfectly black. I especially dislike to see the fluff on the cock’s thighs with white in it. Many of the chickens from such a parent would be very bad in colour, showing light streaky feathers on the breast.” — Practical Poultry Keeper , p. in. t We say almost ; for a few years ago, at the best show of the year, we were asked by a well-known breeder to give our opinion of a cock, which had taken the second prize. The bird was fine in shape, size, and colour, all but an unusual amount of streaky feathers about the thighs. While, therefore, commending him as a show bird, we remarked that he would breed very bad pullets, and were much surprised to hear in reply, “Why, he breeds pullets to perfection !” Some of his progeny at the same show were pointed out to us ; and though neither the judges nor ourselves admired them much, they were free from streak, and we “ owned up ” that we did not know quite all about breeding Brahmas yet. Since then we have had a very streaky bird of our own breeding which bred some of the best pullets we ever saw. In this case, however, it is worthy of remark that the hens put with him were first-class, such as we had refused £ 20 per pair for, and the bird 1 imself was descended from very solidly pencilled hens. Cass e ills Poultry Book. MRL WRIGHT’S DARK BRAHMA PULLET "psyche;1 FIRST PRiZE AT BIRMINGHAM 1871 - I ' . Breeding Dark Brahmas. 265 In breeding for the dense, very dark pencillings, a cock should be selected with the stripes at base of the hackle a particularly dense black, and the saddle also well striped, as in the feathers shown at Fig. 67, which are plucked from a bird of our own that hardly ever bred a bad chicken. Particular attention should be given to the shafts of the feathers, both in hackle and saddle, and if they be very white the bird should be rejected. Indeed, this precaution is necessary in breeding for any colour ; but most of all in this, because the dark colour of the pullets will make any streakiness more conspicuous. We do not think we ever saw a cock quite free from white streak somewhere in the shafts of the saddle or hackle, but there should not be much, or we have generally found the bird bred streaky chickens. As the saddle merges into the tail-coverts, the black stripes ought to become very broad, and beautifully sharp at the edges, with glossy reflec- tions ; such a bird will rarely disappoint. The fluff is best of the same brilliant black in the centre of the feathers, with a slight lacing of white ; and the breast may be either black or very slightly mottled. The best colour for pullet-breeding, according to our experience, is small round white spots about the size of pepper-corns, evenly distributed over glossy black ; but a black Fig. 67. Ilackle Feather. Saddle Feather. breast, with the fluff described above, will also breed good pullets, and for producing cockerels is much to be preferred. Particular attention should also be given to the front part of the back, where it is covered by the hackle. If there be plenty of black, dark pullets may be confidently anticipated, the other points mentioned above being correct ; but they will often be too dark, merging into almost solid black on the back, with dark blotches about the breast ; though this is not always the case, especially if the hens be of a lighter strain, when such dark cocks are the best. But if the hens also arc dark, a cock should, if possible, be selected in which these black feathers of the back are laced with white on the edges ; and he will in most cases, fluff and saddle being right, breed beautifully-pencilled birds. The wing may or may not have a very small amount of colour in it, but not so much brown, as a metallic, glossy, copper bronze. This should be situated towards the top of the wing-bar, and at the ends of the secondaries or quills of the wing, but not in so great a degree as to be very readily seen. The reflections of the tail and wing should be either green of a bluish cast, or of a purplish shade ; we have found both breed beautiful pullets, but there is always some difference between the tails of the dark cocks and of the preceding strains. The breast of the cock should in all cases be as dark, or rather darker, than the fluff ; and for breeding cockerels, perfectly black-breasted birds should, if possible, be chosen, that colour being much more valued in a show-pen. For breeding pullets, however, we repeat that all our experience (and it has been great) teaches that a slightly mottled breast is best, provided it be darker than the fluff, and the black be intense enough. The Illustrated Book of Poultry. 270 The brown colour once liked by a few breeders is scarcely ever bred now. Those who admire it should select a cock with a feiv brown feathers in the bar of the wing. The breast may be considerably mottled, and so may the thighs, if the hens be darkly pencilled on the breast. Many persons seem to consider that brown Brahmas must necessarily be crossed. We certainly have seen some such birds, whose coarse, cruel-looking heads, and other points, denoted a cross with the Dorking ; but many others present all the characteristics of pure-bred Brahmas, and in a few years, simply by selection, this colour may be bred from, the purest grey. It is, therefore, more a matter of fancy than anything else. With regard to the crossing of different colours, a cock of the dark strain may be mated with hens of either the brown or the silver-grey, and will only darken the pencilling. A cock of the brown strains, mated with hens of the two others, may give pretty tolerable results, giving, however, brown patches, or stray red feathers, or salmon breasts, to many of the pullets from silver-grey hens. A cock from a light silver-grey yard will breed very few good pullets at all with hens of other colours, unless unusually dark, but will sometimes produce very beautiful and clean-coloured cockerels. A cock from a really good dark blue-grey strain will breed well with almost anything. And as the shades of difference are so fine, in claiming a cock at any show the purchaser should akvays observe carefully the colour of the hens or pullets shown by the same exhibitor, and only complete the transaction if that nearly agrees either with his own, or at least with a permissible cross for the purpose desired. Small combs must be selected with especial care if this beautiful point be at all valued by the breeder ; being yet one of the rarest features in otherwise good birds — perhaps, indeed, rarest of all with the exception of the perfect “ black-cock ” tail. The breeder who wishes to revive this latter feature must choose his stock with reference to it, especially the hens. Probably all that can be done the first year will be to select a cock with some slight tendency to divergence in the top pair of tail-feathers, who should be mated with a hen or hens whose top pair of tail-feathers lie nearly or quite flat — i.e., flat laterally , or with their edges extending side to side, instead of from front to back ; by which means the tendency will be increased till the true tail be developed. Since we first published an engraving of it, some fanciers have very politely questioned whether such a tail as Mr. Teebay describes ever did or could exist. To such scepticism fact is the best answer : we succeeded in breeding it ourselves, in the third generation from the first selection of stock for that purpose ; and the beautiful bird, to which was awarded both the Crystal Palace Cup and the special extra prize at Birmingham in 1872, answered exactly and fully to the description we have given at page 260. The revival of this type of tail is therefore entirely a matter for individual choice and perseverance. Waste chickens can be picked out with tolerable ease at about ten to twelve weeks old, when the sexes are separated. The general “carriage” of the cockerels is in fact, in this breed, more like the ultimate or mature form then, than at a later or intermediate stage, when the bird becomes raw and “gawky,” and often so unutterably ugly that no one but a genuine Brahma fancier would retain any faith in him at all. We have often been interested to observe how, after this period of transition, the shape and very gait of the ten-weeks chick have been reproduced in the matured cock. But at four or five months old, Brahma cockerels, either Light or Dark, are — well, cer- tainly not handsome! and it is a singular fact that the rawest and ugliest bird of the lot generally turns out the best in the end. He is making frame while the others are looking “pretty,” and eventually, when his great body has filled out and “ settled ” a little, and his feathers — especially that tail which seemed as if it never would grow— are come at last, turns out a magnificent giant, perhaps “ the best bird you ever bred.” A young cock, therefore, should never be discarded for being leggy, which will, in nine cases out of ten, disappear with age. Economic Qualities of Brahmas. 2Jl Light Brahma chickens often show a considerable amount of black where not wanted, especially in the shape of spots on the backs of the pullets or fluff of the cockerels. As much of this will often moult out at from six to seven months old, they should not be discarded for this fault unless very prominent. Dark pullets with rather pale breasts will also frequently develop beautiful pencilling as the feathers change, though we certainly prefer to see them with perfect pencilling from the very first. Cockerels of the Dark breed, again, need not be rejected merely for brown on the wing, which often moults out by” the age of six months (though here again it is better if the bird be clear in colour from his first feathers) ; but very streaky Dark pullets, or such as show great splashes of white or brown, may be safely condemned, as may cockerels with nearly white breasts, a few of which may occur in any strain. Birds whose combs appear large and misshapen at an early age, are also rarely worth keeping. The economic merits of the true Brahma are very great. The size we have already spoken of ; and we will maintain our assertion that the quality of the meat is also good. We often see or hear it called coarse ; and there are strains, carelessly bred, which deserve the title, while the best are not so good as the very best table breeds. But this is not fair comparison ; to be a first-rate table breed, the breed must be bred for the table, as other breeds for years have, and as the Brahma never has been. But a young Brahma of a well-bred strain is at least better eating than nine- tenths of the chickens that can be bought at any but the very first London poulterers'. We venture to assert that a well-fed cockerel, of eight or ten pounds weight at six months old, dressed and served precisely as a turkey, will be found little inferior, either in appearance or eating, to the nobler bird. The legs are particularly juicy and tender, which is a great gain in such substantial parts. As an old fowl, undoubtedly, it cannot be compared with the Dorking, and should be either boiled, curried, or stewed. The constitution of the chicks, when bred from mature birds, is excellent, and the fecundity of the hens is very great. It is true the production of eggs is considerably interfered with by the propensity to sit ; but, in spite of this, there are many which will produce over 1 50 eggs per annum, which is a very high average. The tendency to incubate differs greatly in individuals. We have had hens which wished to sit when they had laid about twenty eggs, while others will lay from fifty to a hundred ; and we have known cases where a hen has laid through the whole year with hardly a stoppage. There is no doubt whatever, as we have hinted already in Chap. IX., that egg-production has been actually lessened in the Dark Brahma, by the keen competition of fanciers in breeding for “ feather ; ” besides which, exhibitors have actually sought to postpone the laying of their pullets as far as possible, in order to keep them in show condition. This, repeated for generations, has no doubt had a serious effect on egg-production ; but what the breed is capable of is well shown by the following communication from Mr. John Evans, of Keynsham, near Bristol, for the truth of which we can personally vouch : — “ My experience of Dark Brahmas commenced in the spring of 1870 ; and being desirous to ascertain the productiveness of this class of fowl, I kept an accurate account for twelve months, day by day, of the number of eggs laid by three pullets — not themselves exhibition birds, though descended from prize ancestors of Miss Watts’s strain. During the period named, the total egg- production of these three birds amounted in the aggregate to 629 : and although I regret that I did not keep a separate account for each one, I am morally certain, from attentive observations that were made, that two of these birds produced each a much larger number of eggs than the third, and I am sure I am substantially correct in assigning to the two so referred to a proportion of 500 eggs out of the total number laid ; thus showing a contribution to the egg-basket of 250 eggs each during the twelve months, as well as hatching and rearing a brood of chickens each within the 2 72 The Illustrated Book of Poultry. same time. Two pullets from one of these birds, hatched on the 7th of March, commenced to lay within a day of each other, on the 1 (5th and 17th of the August following, at the ages of five months and nine days and five months and ten days respectively, and continued to lay without intermission until the 11th of the following November, when I sold them. In the spring of 1872 I obtained from a gentleman to whom I had sold a pullet a granddaughter of one of the hens first named, and she commenced to lay early, producing an egg per day for five days ; ceased the succeeding three days, and then, with a faculty for egg-production at least equal to that possessed by her maternal ancestry, laid sixty eggs in sixty-two days. I then disposed of her to a gentleman who, on my meeting him some few weeks afterwards, told me that her laying continued to be of the same character. One more example will suffice. From a sitting of eggs purchased from yourself in the spring of 1871 I have one hen, beautifully pencilled, which may be fairly termed an exhibition bird, and which has laid most abundantly. I much regret not having had the opportunity of keeping an accurate memorandum of her individual egg-supply, but I am satisfied it is equal to either of the instances named. No matter what the condition of the weather, wet or dry, cold or hot, there has been scarcely any intermission to her daily produce, not even during her moulting season just passed ; indeed I have endeavoured, but without success, to prevent her laying so much. The feeding of my birds has been always of the most simple character.” It is deeply to be regretted that in great measure these economic merits of the true Brahma, as the fowl actually was, belong now to the past, and are not found in the same degree in the fowl of to-day. Probably in no case have the vagaries of judges done so much harm as in this breed. At one time the two most prominent arbitrators of the day (since deceased) gave prizes so entirely to a peculiar pencilling composed of very broad dark markings, quite foreign to the Brahma fowl, that pullets resembling in shape and size small Silver-grey Dorkings displaced the truer-bred birds. Then an excessively pure “silver” pencilling was encouraged by the same judges, and with the same result. These were temporary aberrations, and were both recovered from in due time, though not till a weak constitution and weedy habit had been introduced into many yards. But a more permanent mischief has been persistent judging and consequent breeding according to the Cochin type , and including the encouragement of profuse feather and vulture-hocks. The change in these respects has been enormous since the first edition of this work ; as may be seen by comparing the engraved plates representing Brahmas as shown to-day, with the coloured plates prepared for the original edition of this work in 1872. What we here desire to insist upon is the fact that these differences, which can be seen at a glance when thus represented, are not matters merely of personal preference, but have injured the fowl \ which is no longer what it once was. With heavy hocks have come deficient breast and loss of constitution ; the Cochin type itself has fostered the same want of breast ; with the looser and more fluffy plumage are associated a more or less yellow skin, coarse flesh, inferior laying powers, and sluggish temperament ; for it may be stated as a general truth, that no “ loose-feathered ” breed is ever a good table-fowl, or a first-rate layer. To a great extent, what was truly characteristic and best in the breed— its hardiness, its pink or white skin and good flesh, and its splendid laying powers— have vanished, and we have instead (in reality now, what was wrongly affirmed in the early days), simply Cochins of another colour. This is in no way inconsistent with our remarks in Chapter IX. It has been no unavoidable result of “ fancy ” judging, but a result long and persistently foretold by the present writer, of foolish and flagrantly wrong judging. So really is this the case, that present profit and satisfaction from the fowl will largely depend upon simply reversing the disastrous path which has been followed, and returning to the older and more tight-feathered model. In keeping the Brahma for profit, all this must be considered. It will generally be Modern Dark Brahmas. Judging Brahmas. 273 found, at present, that the Light variety is most valuable, both as a table bird and as a layer ; and if the Dark be chosen, the stock should be carefully bred and chosen by the owner himself , with reference to the neglected points, by which means a vast improvement may be rapidly effected. The chickens must be fed well, but the appetites of the adult birds should never be satisfied. If their food — all being bought — costs more than three-halfpence per week each, with barley at five shillings per bushel, they have too much ; and over-feeding is especially prejudicial to profit in this breed of fowls. The pullets should be instantly checked the first time or two they desire to incubate (unless sitters are actually wanted), when they will generally lay again in less than a fortnight ; and by doing this, and setting, as already advised, the eggs from those which show the propensity least, it can be so modified as not to be troublesome, and a very valuable strain of fowls secured. . The Brahma is very valuable as a cross. With the Dorking cock it produces a splendid market fowl, with generally white legs, and the largest that can perhaps be produced. We have seen this cross condemned again and again by unpractical writers ; but we abide by it, and have numerous letters speaking to its great value. One gentleman writes us just as these pages go to press that his Brahma-Dorkings “ are the admiration of the whole country,” and that many neighbouring farmers are going to follow his example ; and others send similar accounts of the result. The cross between a Brahma cock and Dorking hen is not, however, nearly so good, either in size, hardiness, fecundity, or quality of meat. With the Creve cock the Brahma hen produces a fowl not so large as the Dorking cross, but of whiter and still more juicy quality of meat. The La Fleche cock produces very similar results. The Houdan cock produces a smaller fowl than either, but of very early maturity, capital quality of meat, and a most excellent layer. And, finally, the cross with a Spanish or Minorca cock and Dark Brahma hens produces a fowl, generally almost or quite black excepting gold margins to the hackles, which as a layer can hardly be surpassed, of a tall, commanding appearance, and very good eating, with only a moderate propensity to crow. This last cross is one of the most satisfactory fowls possible to keep for eggs and a few chickens, in the smoke of a town ; the eggs being far superior to the pure Spanish in flavour, besides being yielded, as a rule, in greater numbers, and at seasons when the Spanish will hardly lay at all. JUDGING BRAHMAS. — The most common error in deciding the merits of Brahmas is that of confounding the Brahma type with the Cochin, from which it is quite distinct in various respects. It may be well to point out again the principal differences which characterise the two races. While the tail of the Cochin is as small, low, and soft as possible, that of the Brahma should be nearly upright, of a tolerable size, containing a fair amount of quilh and with the top feathers spreading out as before described. The Cochin plumage is of a loose or downy character, while the Brahma should be a hard-feathered breed, the plumage both in cocks and hens lying close and compact ; hence the Brahma, while well furnished, has less fluff than the Cochin, and while square, is not “ lumpy ” in make. The Cochin should appear quiet and solid; the Brahma sprightly and active. While the cushion of a Cochin hen is almost globular in form, that of a perfect Brahma hen or pullet should rise more and more, until it merges harmoniously into the nearly upright tail. And finally, the breast of a good Brahma is deep and full, with the crop low down, thus contrasting directly with the shape of the Cochin, in which breast is greatly wanting. What individual judges have done in the way of mischief, at least suggests how much intel- ligent awards may yet do in repairing it ; and to suggest this, and a return to the old canons in • ido-ino- this breed, is all that we can do. Meantime, as in the case of Cochins, the modern craze for heavy feather, and toleration of heavy hocks, has made necessary the revision of our scale of points in these respects, and it may be doubted whether some judges would even allow as much The Illustrated Boor of Poultry. 2 74 against \ ultm e-hocks as the five points we have retained. It ought to be at least fifteen points, in oui cm n opinion. In America this fault is still a disqualification, and much complaint has resulted regarding English shipments. SCHEDULE FOR JUDGING BRAHMAS. General Characteristics of Cock. — Head atid Neck — General appearance of head very short, small, and intelligent ; beak abort, curved, and stout at the base ; comb triple or in three ridges, resembling three small combs, the centre being the highest, and the whole small, low, and firm on the head, the centre ridge perfectly straight and neatly serrated ; wattles moderately long, thin, and pendant ; deaf-ears large, and hanging below the wattles ; neck well-proportioned and finely curved, as in a spirited horse, and very thickly furnished with long hackle, which should flow well over back and shoulders. Body— General shape large and deep, but tight and compact in make ; back broad and short ; saddle very broad and large, with a gradual and decided rise to the tail, so as to form no angle with that member ; wings larger than in Cochins, but still small and neatly tucked up, with secondaries carried well under the primaries ; breast full, prominent, and reaching well down. Legs and Feet — Thighs large and well-furnished with fluffy feathers, the hocks being entirely covered with soft curling feathers, but free from stiff quills (vulture-hock) which are particularly objectionable ; shanks rather but not too short, thick, wide apart, and heavily feathered down the outside, the feathering to start out well from the hock, and continue to ends of outer and middle toes ; toes large, straight, and well spread out. Tail — Much larger than in Cochins, but still small, carried nearly but not quite upright, and the top pair of feathers curving outwards as in the tail of the black-cock ; sickles veiy short, and not curving much downwards, but lesser sickles and tail-coverts very abundant, covering nearly the whole sides of the tail. Size — Very large, ranging from eleven pounds to fifteen pounds in cocks, and eight pounds to eleven pounds in cockerels. General Appearance — Very symmetrical and compact. Carriage — Noble and commanding, with the head carried very high. General Characteristics of Hen. — Head and Neck — General appearance ol head, very small, peculiarly arch, and intelligent, caused by a slight fulness over the eye, which should on no account tend to coarseness ; beak and head rather short, as in the cock; comb as small as possible, a large loose comb being particularly objectionable ; deaf-ears well developed ; wattles nicely rounded, neat, and free from any folds ; neck short, very full in hackle, and free from twist in the hackle. Body — General shape square and neat ; back wide, flat across, and short ; cushion broad and large, not convex or globular as in Cochins, but rising to the tail ; wings moderate in size, and well tucked into the fluff and cushion-feathering ; breast very prominent, low down, and full. Legs and Feet — As in the cock, but as short as possible. Tail — Rather shoit, so as not to rise much above the extremity of the cushion, and carried nearly upright. Size — Very large, ranging from eight pounds to thirteen pounds in hens, and six pounds to nine pounds in pullets. General Appearance — Massive and square, but neat and compact. Carriage — Matronly and dignified, both head and tail being well carried up. Colour of Light Brahmas. — Ln both Sexes — Beak a rich yellow, with or without a dark stripe. Comb, face, deaf-ears, and wattles brilliant red, with as few spiky feathers as possible. Eyes pearl or red, red being preferable. Shanks a brilliant orange- yellow. Colour of Cock — Head silvery white ; hackle white, striped with black as distinctly as possible ; saddle-feathers either white or white lightly striped with black ; tail and tail-coverts glossy green -black, except the two top feathers, which may or may not be laced with white. Rest of the body a pearly surface-colour, with grey under-fluff seen when plumage is ruffled ; the secondaries being white on lower edges and black on the inner, and primaries black. The shank-feathering white more or less mottled with black. Colour of Hen — Head silvery white ; hackle white, heavily striped with bright intense black ; tail black, except the top pair, which should be edged with white. Rest of the plumage white on the surface and grey in the under fluff, with wings and leg-feathers as in the cock. [American fanciers admit a creamy tinge to the white ; but perfect birds should be of a pure and pearly colour all over. ] Colour of Dark Brahmas — Ln both Sexes. — Beak yellow, yellow with a dark stripe, horn-colour, or black. Eyes pearl or red, the latter preferable. Comb, face, deaf-ears, and wattles brilliant red, as little obscured by feathers as possible, the beard, or feathers under throat, not to exceed moderation. Colour of Cock — Head silvery white ; hackle white, heavily and sharply striped with rich black, as free from white streak in centre as possible. Saddle-feathers the same. Back and shoulders silvery white, except between the shoulders, where the feathers should be black laced with white. Upper wing-butts black ; bow silvery white ; bar, or coverts, glossy black “ shot ” with green ; secondaries white on outside web, which is all that appears when wing is closed ; black on inside • the end of every feather black. Primaries black except a narrow white edge on outside web. Breast, under parts, and leg- feather glossy black, as intense as possible, or black evenly and sharply mottled with small spots of white. Fluff black, or black laced or tipped with white. [All black in the under parts preferable for exhibition.] Tail black, richly “ shot ” or glossed with colour- white not a disqualification, but very objectionable. Shanks a deep orange-yellow. Colour of Hen— Head and hackle silvery white, heavily and sharply striped with black, the marking to extend well over the head. Tail black, the top pair edged with grey. Rest of the plumage a silver-grey, dull grey, or steel-grey ground-colour, accurately pencilled over in a crescentic form with steel grey, blackish grey, or black ; the breast to be perfectly marked, and free from streaks up to the throat; a chestnut tinge not objectionable if of a rich and not dingy character. The leg-feather to be pencilled as the body. Shanks deep yellow, with or without a dusky tinge. Schedule for Judging Brahmas. 2 7 VALUE OF DEFECTS* IN JUDGING. Standard of Perfection. A bird ideally perfect in shape, size, colour, head and comb, cushion or saddle, leg-feathers, tail, &c., and in perfect health and condition, to count in points . 100 If of extraordinary size, add on that account a 5 Defects to be Deducted. Bad head and comb (comb to count 7 in cocks, and 5 in hens) ......... 12 Scanty hackle ...... . S Want of cushion ........ 7 ,, ,, fluff ......... 6 ,, ,, leg- feather 15 Vulture-hocks ........ 5 Bad shape or carriage of tail ...... 6 White in tail ....... 10 Primaries out of order t> ...... 15 Pale legs ......... 8 Curved toes ......... 10 Stain of white in deaf-ear ...... 5 Splashed or streaky breasts in Dark, or black specks in Light 15 Shank-feather (in Dark hens) not pencilled as the body . 4 Other faults of colour ....... 10 Want of size ......... 20 ,, ,, general symmetry . . . . . . 15 ,, ,, condition ....... 12 » >> „ (‘f total) 35 a See note to Cochins, p. 238. b This refers to primaries merely “slipped” outside the wing. For primaries actually twisted on their axes, see list of disqualifications below. Disqualifications. — Birds not tolerably matched. Primary feathers twisted on their axes. Utter absence of leg-feather. Pinky legs. Large red or white splashes in Dark birds, or conspicuous black spots in Light. Round or crooked backs, wry-tails, crooked bills, knock-knees, or any other bodily deformity. Any fraudulent dyeing, dressing, or trimming. I/O 276 CHAPTER XXI. MALAYS. A bird similar to the Malay in all essential characteristics is still the indigenous or common fowl of India, as well as the smaller peninsula whose name it bears, and so far its origin is not difficult to determine ; further back the problem is not so easy. Temminck, as is well known, considered the fowl to be the domesticated descendant of a wild G alius gigantens ; but it is the fashion now to sneer at this old naturalist, and to acknowledge no remote ancestor save Gallus Bankiva as the origin of all our poultry. It may perhaps be so, though we may be permitted to observe that little in the shape of real argument has yet been adduced for this view, and that the Malay type of bird is, if anything, far more diffused than the other throughout Eastern Asia. To say that a bird thus widely spread is only a domesticated breed, does not count for much with any practical breeder of fowls, who knows how surely and definitely reversion tells its tale on an artificial race, unless guarded against by a sedulous care which the Easterns never give ; and it is marvellous to us that Mr. Darwin, who so dwells on this tendency so far as it serves his own argument, does not appear even to see its force wherever it bears against him. It is, however, no part of our purpose to enter into a disquisition on a subject which, in our opinion, requires many more facts to be ascertained before it can be satisfactorily dealt with ; and with the simple remark that the Malay is, at all events, one of the most ancient and well-marked of all domesticated breeds, we therefore proceed at once to describe the breed itself as now known to fanciers. The Malay characteristics are very distinct and peculiar, consisting more in general points than any fixed standard of colour. The head of the cock is very broad and long, with heavy overhanging eyebrows, which give a most cruel expression to the face. The beak is stout at the base, and much more curved or hooked than in any other variety of poultry, still further adding to the fierceness of expression. The face is unusually bare of feathers, giving a red and skinny appearance to the whole, even the throat being left nearly exposed in most specimens. Wattles and deaf-ears are small, but the comb is very peculiar — in fact it is peculiar to this breed, being neither single, rose, nor triple, but more resembling the half of a very small walnut — a mere roundish convex lump, covered with very small projections. It should be small, even, and set well forward towards the beak. The neck is very long, and hackle short, hard, and scanty, making it appear longer still, the head being carried as high as possible. The general shape of the body is large at the shoulders, and tapering away to the tail, the shoulders being carried so high that the back slants downwards, and the tail also droops towards the ground. The thighs and legs are very long, and the wings strong and bony, the shoulders standing prominently and sharply out from the body, even when they are closed. All the plumage is very short, hard, and of extraordinary lustre. The hen resembles the cock in general characters, but in carriage does not droop so much behind, her tail being usually carried a very little above the horizontal position. In colour there are Whites, Blacks, and Piles ; but the generally shown type of late is either black, or resembling in colour Black-red Game cocks, with darkish Wheaten hens. The earlier CasseuIs Poultry Book VineentBrocks Day&Son, lith. THE REV? A C.BROOKE’S PAIR OF M A LAYS. FIRST PRIZES AT CRYSTAL PALACE & BIRMINGHAM 1871. & DUBLIN 1872. ' Management of Malays. *71 impoi tations varied a great deal, and partook rather more of a lightish brown-red character, the breasts of many of the cocks being brown or red ; but among the dark colours a pure black breast is now necessary to win at any good show. Many years ago, when Cochins were unknown, Malays were the only Asiatic breeds which could be used to give size by crossing to smaller fowls ; and being then freely imported, were large heavy birds. But of late the superiority of the Cochin in temper has so diminished Malay admirers, that there has been little demand for imported birds ; in-and-in breeding has been the necessary consequence ; and they now usually appear in the pens as actually small fowls, though their real weight is always greater than appears. The cocks used to stand thirty inches high, and weigh eleven to twelve pounds, the hens in proportion ; but now at the very least one-third must be taken off these figures. We believe, however, that much might be done to restore the old proportions by the judicious use of bone-dust and “ Parrish’s Chemical Food.” The following notes on Malays have been furnished us by the Rev. A. G. Brooke, so well known as an old (and still successful) admirer and breeder of this variety : — “ To say that Malays are favourites with the majority of poultry fanciers would be untrue, for hardly ever do I attend a show where the committee are kind enough to give them a separate .class, but I hear from one, ‘What horrid ugly-looking things!’ from another, ‘What is the use of those long-legged creatures?’ or, as I once heard an elderly gentleman observe, ‘I have no sympathy with Malays.’ They have been for some time past looked upon as a persecuted race ; for this and no other reason did I, fifteen years ago, purchase some in the neighbourhood of the London Docks, and to the present time have most pertinaciously adhered to them. It is true that I have met with many discouragements ; every one that comes to look at my poultry seems to make a point of abusing them, though they are candid enough to admit that the plumage of the cocks is magnificent. “ It is far more difficult now to obtain Malays from abroad than formerly ; and even then I have seen many imported birds with white feathers in their tails and wings. Experience has taught me to discard such, and never breed from them, as the white feathers mostly appear in their offspring. Oftentimes, too, brown patches appear on the breasts of imported cocks, which I look upon as a great disqualification ; the breast should be pure black. “ I am bound to admit that, for want of a thorough good cross, Malays are sadly deteriorating in size. I have heard of cocks weighing eleven pounds, and hens nine pounds ; but seldom have any of my own cocks weighing more than eight, or hens more than six. So fatal do I consider the breeding in-and-in, that some years I have set no eggs at all, because I could get no cross sufficiently good ; but was fortunate enough to be in possession of a foreign hen for last breeding season. “If I may so use the expression, Malays are getting too ‘Anglicised ;’ they are too genteel. Their necks are far shorter than they used to be, their shoulders not so high, their combs are much larger, they have too much neck-hackle : the cocks’ tails are mostly too full, and not drooping enough ; the hens are often fan-tailed. These are innovations which have gradually crept in, and I trust that admirers of the breed will spare no pains to try and stamp them out. About twelve years ago, I attended a poultry-show at Gloucester, and there had the privilege of seeing a grand pen of Malays belonging to a Mr. Leighton, of Cheltenham. I have never seen such since ; they were giants, but well-nigh perfect. “ Size is a great point, undoubtedly, in Malays ; but I have often pulled through at exhibitions with average-size birds, through style, condition, and tightness of plumage. At Birmingham, in 1864, I won first prize with a pen of chickens (cockerel and two pullets) hatched in June ; and one Y 2yS The Illustrated Book of Poultry. ot the poultry journals, in its report of the Malay classes, observed that ‘ the gem of the collection was the first prize pen of chickens, with plumage as close and hard as though they were clad in burnished metal.’ “ To ensure good plumage, Malays ought to be kept warm in cold weather. My houses are constructed of wood, and lined all round with matting during the winter months ; in the spring the mats are removed, and the interior of the houses well cleaned and lime-washed. They have plenty of dry earth, often renewed, and straw laid on the floor just on that part where they alight from their perch, as they come to the ground with great force, and are apt, like Dorkings, to become bumble-footed if they perch too high. The perch should just allow of the birds walking under it without injuring their plumage, and should be very broad, and bound round with carpet. To each house is attached a wire run about ten feet long and six feet broad, into which about nine o’clock during the winter the birds are let out ; the ground about three times a week being dug and raked over, and then mostly covered with straw, in which they have to scratch for their food. Each run has a small iron trough, standing on two bricks ; the water is emptied out every night, and renewed in the morning. In the summer time they are not shut in their houses at night, but have free access to their runs. By frequently adding fresh earth the fowls get their sand- bath, which is most essential to their health and comfort. “ The food I mostly give them is small round Indian corn and boiled rice, mixed with barley- meal ; occasionally bread sopped in ale, or potatoes mashed with gravy. Avoid meat and bones by all means : the meat is too heating, and, I believe, is conducive to feather-eating ; the bones cause quarrelling. I grow hundreds of cabbages and lettuces every year for them, and in the summer they often besides have a grass sod, which they much enjoy. They bear confinement uncommonly well, and I seldom have any suffering from illness, or find them look drooping, which is in a great measure attributable to the very clean way in which they are kept. “ It is advisable not to keep more than a cock and two hens in each run, and as they are naturally of a savage and irritable disposition, if possible avoid letting them see their neighbours. My runs are so constructed in the shrubberies and other parts of the garden that they cannot possibly see or be seen by the other fowls. When they are allowed to be restless and excited they will never get into exhibition trim. “ The chickens as a rule are hardy, and will stand a great deal of cold provided there are no draughts; but it is best not to hatch them before May, as they have but few feathers for the first three months. I never recommended a Malay hen as a rearer of chickens ; they sit very well, but are clumsy, and uncertain in temper with their progeny. The eggs they lay are very rich, but not so numerous as in many other breeds. The birds shown in the plate seem to be the favourite colour ; there are also Brown-reds, White, and Black ; there used to be Cuckoos, but these seem to be extinct. “As a cross in the farm-yard the Malay cock is very useful, imparting both size and quality. Game-breeders occasionally use them to get increased size, but whenever application is made to me for a Malay cock for that purpose, I decline complying with the request. Surely such a cross does much harm, and invariably shows itself most prominently. “ Now that Malays are being more recognised as a distinct breed, and poultry-show committees seem more inclined to give them a class to themselves, I trust there will henceforth be a greater number exhibited, and strongly advise any one desirous of giving them a trial to be sure and keep them by themselves.” The following remarks are added by Mr. Joseph' Hinton, cf Warminster, also a faithfui adherent of this much-abused race Former Characteristics of Malays. 279 “ I quite agree with all that Mr. Brooke has said about the white feathers in tail and wing of the Black-breasted Reds ; they are very objectionable, and are very likely to be transmitted ro their offspring. As regards the combs, my only objection to their smallness is that the small-combed cocks are very likely to throw pea-combed, chickens. This is certainly a very objectionable point, yet I have seen one of our best judges highly commend such birds. I have also known a single-combed hen awarded two prizes as a pullet. Both these faults in the comb are, or should be, disqualifica- tions ; both of them, I believe, come from narrow-combed birds. “Malays are exceedingly pugnacious; their cruel expression is really an index of their disposition. The hens especially fight vigorously, and the addition of a new bird to a yard is the signal for a ‘ free fight ’ all round. They should never be exhibited in pairs ; one is morally certain to be scalped. “ They sit well, but are dangerous mothers ; I have known one call her chickens and deliberately pluck out their feathers. To place two coops near together is certain death to some of the chickens ; they have no mercy on a stranger. Yet I had one instance this year in a Polish chick, a fortnight older than the rest of the brood, that I wanted to give to a fresh mother. The hen took to all except the Poland ; yet, after being well-nigh scalped, by dint of perseverance, watching its opportunity and darting behind the mother to sleep, this chicken contrived to ingratiate itself into her affections, and at six weeks old was received on the footing of a daughter. “ Last year I saw some birds brought from India by a friend. These birds he called Game , but in many respects they more resembled Malays. The cock’s comb and gills appeared to have been cut ; the shoulders were very prominent, and of extraordinary breadth for the size of the bird; the weight probably under six pounds, but the size and hardness of thighs something marvellous. The thickness of the neck was also another marked point ; the hackle was scanty, and the tail drooping ; whilst the general carriage was very Malay. The hens were even more Malay in character than the cocks, and the combs appeared warty. Of these birds my friend was remarkably proud. No strain could stand against them in fighting in India, and he had been offered fabulous sums for them. The hardness of these birds was something quite out of the common, and he tell-s me the same bird has fought four days following. The method of fighting there is a test of pluck and endurance, for they cut off the spur and bind tape over it, so that the battle is lengthened out ; yet, he says, these birds would fight day after day for the time I have stated. I cannot but think that this strain is a mixture of English Game and Malay.” Probably they were Aseels. The following additional notes by the late Mr. Plewitt contrast the modern Malay with the breed as formerly known : — “Taking a retrospect of the Malays, as they existed before poultry-shows were so common, it appears that the strong elastic feather, so hard and metallic, yet so scanty, and the extreme length of the thigh bone — so unsightly, yet so all-important characteristics — owners of late years have attempted to soften down, simply to ensure a better-looking and more compact fowl on the table. We thus have lost, in a great measure, the lovely, narrow, lustrous feather that once stamped this breed as standing far aloof from all others— a feature that in the Malays of the years 1S30 to 1835 was almost universal, the breast-feathers of birds of about that date being so narrow and free from clown as scarcely to cover the fowl’s body ; whilst the sickles and side coverts of the cock’s tail never exceeded a half-inch in width, were of the brightest iridescent hue, but slightly curved, and tapered very gradually indeed to an extremely fine point. Though carrying with them first impres- sions of being so barely supplied as to quantity of plumage, such birds when adult never appeared chilled, but, on the contrary, as though encased in whalebone-like armour from the effects of cold. “ Neither do we now see any close approach to the great weights customary in Malays of 28o The Illustrated Book of Poultry . bygone days. In 1833 I possessed a flock of Red Pile Malays, bred from a pen of three birds purchased for me from on shipboard at Liverpool : the old cock was nearly eleven pounds weight and the best hen a little over nine pounds. With the enthusiasm of youth, I weighed them scores of times, hoping to make this couple twenty-one pounds, which however, at their best, they never did attain by two or three ounces. I think we may look in vain for birds of that weight in the present hour. For the amusement of friends, I frequently tested this cock by putting a piece of bread on a table twenty-eight inches in height and four inches from the edge, and yet he was so lengthy and stilty as to easily appropriate the much-coveted morsel without jumping. These fowls bred well, and tolerably true to feather ; but among many chickens, I obtained two white pullets and a black-red cockerel, though for three years they bred exclusively Red Piles, the three ‘sports’ just named all occurring in one nest. Some few years back a pen of the same variety of Malays were successfully exhibited at several shows, by a member of the Council of the Birmingham Poultry Exhibition, under the name of ‘ Rangoons ; ’ they were identical with the breed I once had, and were much larger than our present Malays.” The number of Malay breeders in England could be counted on the fingers, and hence the evils of in-breeding must be especially avoided as far as possible. Every chance of procuring a good imported hen (cocks are usually too imperfect in colour to be of any use) should be secured ; and every means of giving tone and strength to the system, such as those we have already hinted at, diligently adopted. The colour usually gives little trouble, as the black-breasted cocks and dark cinnamon or wheaten hens usually breed tolerably true, and white or black must be bred as usual in those colours. The practical management has been sufficiently treated of in the preceding notes. In the East Indies Malays are often fought, and the great majority of fighting birds, in fact, contain more or less of Malay blood ; though it will be seen from the next chapter that the birds most esteemed are of a different type altogether. Of late many fowls have been shown as Indian Game ; and in Devonshire and Cornwall these latter birds have frequently special classes at the shows. At a Plymouth show we visited years ago there was a remarkably fine and numerous “ Indian Game ” class, of which we took special note. Every bird contained a large element of Malay blood ; but the tail was less drooping, the form more elegant, and the combs very small— indeed, we observed perfect pea-combs in no fewer than five cocks, or cockerels, though assured that all were bred perfectly pure. A few of these cocks were decidedly larger and heavier than the average Malay, and being so very near in general type, while of fresh blood, may be very useful as an occasional help. Some of these birds we handled were fully as hard in body as any game cock, and we were assured that they are often fought by Cornish cockers, and fight well ; but the true- bred Malay has more ferocity than real courage. As crosses, Malays are valuable for imparting large wings and breasts to varieties in which these points are wanting, and when thus used often breed very excellent and weighty birds. Mr. Hewitt strongly recommended to cross with Grey Dorking hens, as giving admirable table- fowls weighing, when fed for Christmas, eighteen pounds the couple, and having the choice portions — breast, merrythought, and wings — especially well developed, and the flesh of excellent flavour. This deserves notice in a yellow-legged breed. Crossed with the Spanish, the result is often (not always) a black fowl of most magnificent plumage and appearance, which one or two amateurs many years since appeared likely, by very careful breeding, to perpetuate and fix under the name of the Columbian Fowl ; but the effort was not persevered with, and all traces of the attempt have become lost. This is to be regretted, as the variety was of great size, magnificently glossed plumage, very hardy, and a good layer of enormous and well-flavoured eggs. Judging Malays. 281 Fig. 68. JUDGING MALAYS. — There are only a few judges who seem to understand the proper characteristics of Malays at all, and we have at different times seen the most flagrant errors on this account. Even at Birmingham, on one occasion, we observed the second prize given to a hen which, except that she was very “ shiny,” had hardly a single Malay point, being short-legged, flat-backed, with an upstanding and well-spread tail, and, to crown all, with a single comb ! Such a bird would not have been even commended by a good judge of the breed ; and the chief Malay points being very easily recognised, every one liable to be called upon to act as judge should have them clearly in his mind. The long neck, great comparative height, high carriage of head, and high and prominent shoulders, can easily be remembered, and should always be looked for. The back will always droop towards the tail, and the hen should also “ play ” her tail well, as a well- bred bird always will. In the cock, the outline of the hackle, back, and upper tail-feathers should resemble as nearly as possible the ideal line shown in Fig. 68, which is composed of three similar lines, combined at very nearly equal angles. Birds which meet this description, and are of average size, and in fair condition, will, at all events, be pretty good Malays, whatever shortcomings in colour they may have. As regards colour, white and black are of course definite enough. Brassy-winged birds are also admissible, and in Piles of course some latitude must be allowed, as must be the case with the various “ Reds ” which are most usually shown. Regarding these latter, all that should be required is, that the colours are such as evidently show true and careful breeding, and are not the result of blind chance. For example, if a cock be evidently of the Black-red type, brown feathers in his breast are regarded as a great blemish ; but if evidently a Brown-red bird, his general colour should harmonise with that school of feather. On the whole, black-red cocks with the cinnamon hens form the vast majority of the specimens seen at shows, and white birds are generally inferior in size and hardness of feather. Black are very rare. We have seen now and then some really magnificent Piles. In giving a scale of points for Malays, we have had to depend far more upon our own indi- vidual judgment than in most breeds. That in the earlier American “Standard of Excellence” is worthless ; and Mr. Tegetmeier’s is so erroneous in the very description as to be of little use even for comparison. It does not appear, in fact, to understand this breed at all ; for, in addition to mis- takes as to the proper plumage, it also states that the tail of the hen should be “ carried upright,” and that the eyes of both sexes must be “bright fiery red.” In point of fact, there never was a Malay with red eyes ; they are invariably pearl, yellow, or daw. While, therefore, we can answer for our descriptions, which are now followed in the American Standard, it will be understood that the scale of points is, from sheer necessity in this case, very largely the result of our own individual judgment. SCHEDULE FOR JUDGING MALAYS. General Characteristics of Cock.— Head and Neck — General appearance of head skinny, morose, and cruel; oeak heavy, strong, and hooked ; comb resembling a half strawberry or walnut, rather small, firm, and not falling over, placed well forward; wattles and deaf-cars scanty; face and throat bare of feathers; eyebrows heavy and projecting, adding to the sour expression. Neck long, very little curved, and carried very upright ; the hackle very short and scanty. Body— General shape rather long and thin, large at shoulders, and tapering to the tail ; back long, slanting, and rather convex in outline ; saddle narrow and very drooping, the feathers short and scanty like the hackle ; wings bony, very prominent at the shoulders, and rather long • breast hard, but very full, the breast-bone very deep and prominent. Legs and Fed— Thighs long, hard, and round ; the featherj very short, leaving the hock perfectly exposed ; shanks very long and bony, without a vestige of feather, and beautifully scaled . Y * 282 The Illustrated Tools of Poultry. toes long and straight, but not very thick, with very large and strong talons ; back toe to lie flat and well to the g'ound. Tail — Moderate in length, carried close and rather drooping ; the sickles sound and glossy, and not much curved. Size — Should be large, but at present is barely moderate, ranging from seven to nine pounds in cocks. General Appearance . — Long, thin, tall, and gaunt, hut with extraordinary hardness and gloss of plumage. Carriage — Very high and upstanding in front, drooping behind. General Characteristics of Hen. — In all respects similar to those of the cock, except that the tail is not carried quite so low, but slightly above the horizontal line, and well “ played,” as if flexible at the joint, or insertion. Size — Usually rather under moderate, averaging six pounds. General Appearance and Carriage — Resembling those of the cock. Colour of Black-red Malays. — Ln both Sexes — Beak yellow, or yellow striped with horn. Comb, face, deaf-ears, wattles, and throat brilliant red, sometimes of a darkish hue. Eyes pearl, yellow, or daw ; usually pearl with a yellow ground. Shanks a brilliant yellow. Colour of Cock — Breast and under parts glossy black. Hackle, saddle, back, wing-bow, &c., glossy dark red, varying to reddish maroon ; a glossy black bar across the wing, and secondaries reddish or rich bay. Flights usually black on inside web, and bay or red, or a narrow edging of either colour, on outside. Tail black, glossed with green. The whole resembling the darker Black-red Game cock. Colour of Hen — No absolute standard, but usually a tolerably uniform shade of reddish brown or cinnamon, sometimes wetted cinnamon, and not unfrequently partridge marked ; the last to be preferred, as nearer the Black-red type. Hackle darker, generally a rich dark purplish brown, or brown striped with black. Colour of Brown-red Malays. — Comb, face, shanks, &c., as in Black-reds. General plumage of cock any good resemblance to Brown-red or Ginger-breasted Game type. Colour of hen very dark, or almost black. Colour of White, Black, and Pile Malays.— Black and White need no description. In Piles, the cock should have hackle red or reddish brown, saddle-feathers ditto, wing-bow reddish brown, secondaries bay, coverts or wing-bar white, just touched with colour, and breast white, or slightly marbled ; tail white — in fact, resembling Pile Game. Hen white marbled, with reddish brown, as near to the Game standard as possible. In Pile and White Malays alone, a willowish tinge in the yellow of the shanks is permissible, but rather objectionable. VALUE OF DEFECTS IN JUDGING. Standard of Perfection. A bird ideally perfect in shape, size, height of leg, colour, head, and comb, peculiar Malay characters, gloss and hardness of plumage, and in perfect health and condition, to count .... 100 Defects to be Deducted. Bad head and comb ..... . 12 Plumage long, loose, or soft . 20 Want of “ shoulders” ..... • is Fanned or too erect tail .... . 10 Faulty colour or marking .... • 15 Willow tinge in shanks (of light birds) • 5 Want of size * ..... . 20 ,, ,, general symmetry or length of limb . . . 20 ,, ,, condition ..... • i5 Disqualifications. — Single combs. Knock-knees, or any other bodily deformity. Feather on the legs, or legs any other than yellow, or in Whites and Piles willowish yellow. * Size in Malays should be greatly judged by height, and it will be a tolerably correct rule to allow thirty inches high as an ideal standard for the cock, and deduct roughly about three points for every two inches deficiency. Most birds will need more or less deduction on that account. 283 CHAPTER XXII. GAME. The preceding breeds treated of, like many others, are named after the localities from which, rightly or wrongly, it is believed they sprang ; but the fowl now to be considered occupies in this respect a peculiar position. So long has it been identified with what is called “ sport,” while its real origin has become utterly lost in the vista of the past, that as, through the long centuries during which valour and virtue were almost synonymous terms (among the Romans quite so), one heroic bird after another has stood up to fight with the hereditary courage of his race for a meaner master’s stakes, he has not only acquired the distinctive title of the “Game Fowl,” but (sad irony on his sporting backers) has given to the very word itself a meaning of its own, so that in familiar speech we use it to express all that we are able to conceive of a dogged courage, brutal it may be, but which cannot fail, no matter what the hopeless odds against it, or the suffering to be endured. That all this has been unmitigated evil no wise or thoughtful man would pretend to say. The facts briefly stated in this chapter by the authorities who have at our request treated the breed, will show a passionate and wide-spread interest in cock-fighting during former times, which may be new to many who have not previously studied the subject, and which must have exerted a considerable influence on the national character. The very use of the word “game” to which we have just alluded proves this, as does the fact that, whether or not the Romans introduced the sport and the bird into Britain, Britain alone, of all the Roman colonies, retained either, so that Buffon actually calls this breed the “ English Fowl.” Rude times demand rude virtues ; and if all that has formed the training of the English nation could be accurately estimated, the singular extent to which courage and endurance now form part of the national character, and the old “ brutal ” sports of the people — which ever kept before them the highest embodiment of these qualities in the poor dumb creatures so shamefully abused — might be found to be in no small degree related. What can be said in favour of cock-fighting now is of course another matter. We have allowed all that can be urged to be fully and fairly put by an earnest defender; and we have endeavoured, not to meet it with a mere senseless sneer, but to show in what direction the great objections to it really lie, and which seem to us to have been hitherto greatly overlooked by the many good men who have hitherto assailed the pastime. The real origin of the Game fowl cannot now be determined. For many reasons, we do not believe it was introduced by the Romans. There were men in Britain even in Caesar’s days ; and the Romans got little beyond hard knocks from this quarter of the world. We had, in fact, an unhappy failing of “ not knowing when we were beaten ” even then ; and coupling this disposition with the allusions quoted from historians, and with the fact that the Romans undoubtedly brought from Britain the matchless fighting-dogs so esteemed in the arena, the strong probability is that they found cock-fighting in vogue when they arrived. On the whole, so far as Britain is concerned, an investigation, the details of which it is needless to give, has inclined us to the belief that the sport 284 The Illustrated Book of Poultry. and the bird together probably came to us from Persia ; the medium of introduction being most likely the Phoenician traders who visited the island for tin. To this theory we may frankly admit there are serious objections, the chief of which is the fact that no absolutely distinct and certain reference to cock-fighting can be found in English history (so far as we are aware) before the reign of Henry II.; but as it is really impossible to decide the matter definitely, further argument may well be spared. When we leave Britain, the ancestry of the Game fowl becomes still more uncertain. The ancient Lydians, as well as the Persians, fought cocks, and probably from them the Greeks and Romans borrowed the diversion. Bearing in mind the close connection in some other matters between the Indo-Persian nations, we are not surprised to find that both in the present Indian Empire, and throughout the whole adjacent archipelago, the people are not only still passionately attached to cock-fighting, but that their traditions carry it back to the remotest antiquity. Hence many naturalists have attributed to the present Gallus Bankiva , or wild jungle-fowl of India, both the origin of the Game fowl and of all other domesticated breeds, for which theory there are strong reasons besides the general resemblance of that bird to the present Black-breasted Red Game; but we confess that, although at one time much inclined to adopt this view, and familiar with the arguments by which it is supported, greater acquaintance with the actual facts of poultry-breeding, and with the accounts of trustworthy travellers in India, make us less and less satisfied with it as affording adequate explanations of either, even after the amplest weight has been given to every detail of the Darwinian argument. It is a singular fact that Mr, Darwin himself writes with much greater modesty on these subjects than some of his more ignorant followers ; certain ot whom have professed to settle the matter in an ex cathedra manner which, in either practical poultry-fanciers or really intelligent naturalists, will simply excite the ridicule it deserves, which- ever way the balance of actual argument (with which such writers as we allude to do not deal) may ultimately incline. There is much to be said for this view, no doubt ; and Mr. Darwin has ably said it ; but some of the arguments on the other side do not seem known to him. One of these is the fact that, while black is a conspicuous element in the colour of the Gallus Bankiva, the direction of that reversion on which he lays so great stress seems to be towards a red, rusty, or brown colour alone, with a distinct tendency to eliminate black altogether except in the tail. This fact is known to all who have much practical acquaintance with poultry-breeding and its followers, and, so far as it goes, it would point rather to a bird of the ginger-red type than the black-red, as the original of most races. Again, while such writers as we have referred to have sneered at the old Gallus giganteus of Temminck, many credible witnesses have of late, by repeated accounts, left very considerable doubt whether some bird at least intermediate in size between the Gallics Bankiva and the gigantic races does not, after all, inhabit the jungles of Eastern Asia ; while the resemblance of the ordinary fighting-cock of India to a small Malay, and the singular persist- ency of this type of bird throughout India and the Malay peninsula, notwithstanding the utter absence of any attempt to breed it “ to points ” as we do, with the extraordinary hardness of its plumage, so closely approaching the Game, may raise further doubts on the subject, which no mere ipse dixit is sufficient to decide. As we have observed in the last chapter, further investiga- tion is required, and more knowledge of facts must be obtained, before the question of the origin of the domestic fowl is even ripe for settlement ; and we have only mentioned it again here, because, as the most typical of all breeds, the royal Game has the most interest of any in its decision. To the practical consideration of this breed we must now proceed. That much change has taken place in the general style of Game fowls owing to the decline of cock-fighting, and the growth instead thereof of show competition, is unquestionable ; but these Persistency of “Blood” in Games. 28c differences have only been exaggerated of late years. In general, it may be said that the old style of bird was more compact and stout in make, with thicker bones and rather shorter neck, and tail somewhat more upright and spreading. Up to a certain point the change did not spoil the appear- ance, and it is the opinion of many of the best judges that nothing was lost in other points ; indeed, as many of the most successful exhibitors were still, “on tire sly,” enthusiastic fighters, they could not fail to detect any falling off in the old sturdy qualities of their fowls. There was at least no want of birds whose purity and “gameness” of blood were undeniable. The change has lately, however, been carried to such an extreme that this can no longer be said, and the good table and laying qualities of the old breed have vanished from the stilty, Malay-like competitors at recent shows. The opinion of their admirers as to their beauty is certainly not shared by the general public, and economic merit these delicate and weak-kneed birds have none. For our earlier notes on the breeding and exhibition of the modern Game Fowl, we are indebted to the kindness of Mr. John Douglas, whose knowledge of both the old and modern type of fowl is well known, and who has bred, both for the Duke of Newcastle and on his own account, many of the very best winning birds. His instructions were the first which had ever appeared in print respecting the breeding of this noble bird to exhibition standards, and they were fully up to the standard of twenty years ago. The transformation in all breeds during that period has, however, been shared by the Game fowl in a more marked degree, and has rendered necessary some revision, which has been kindly undertaken for us by Mr. W. F. Entwisle, of Bawtry, Yorkshire, whose authority and competence, both as a breeder and judge of the modern fowl, are well known. In a very few details it has been thought well to correct Mr. Douglas’ original text, to avoid mistakes ; otherwise Mr. Entwisle’s own remarks will show what difference exists in the more modern canons. “ The law that ‘ like produces like ’ is only true if the birds are of pure and known blood, and this is the great secret in breeding. For colour we chiefly look to the hen in Game, and to the cock for style and symmetry ; but the most wonderful point is the suddenness with which any change of cocks in a run will change the blood and apparently reverse this rule. I have proved this by setting the fourth egg after change, having put a Brown-red to Black-red hens, taking away the same evening the Black-red cock. The fourth egg produced a splendidly coloured Brown-red cockerel ; and wonderful to say, from one hen of pure Black- red blood I thus obtained nine Brown- reds, and not one Black-red. Nevertheless, the rule will generally hold good, of depending on the hen for colour. The self-same hen two years before, when a pullet, was left without a mate after the first two eggs were laid, and every egg of the batch produced a good Black-red. This is the mystery, how suddenly the influence of one cock seems destroyed by the introduc- tion of another in the run ; and there is no way of proving this so well as breeding the different colours in Game. “ As an instance of how birds with any admixture of blood will retain it and ‘ throw back,’ even after twenty years have passed, I may mention the following : — A short, very hard-feathered Spangled cock having been put to a Black-red hen, a cockerel from this cross, put to the mother, threw some of the finest Black-reds ever seen in England. A cockerel from this cross, put to the hens from the first cross, gave a second family, which were bred backwards and forwards as required, and kept the colour well for twelve years. At the end of this time a cockerel and pullets being mated of the same hatch, produced a few Spangles , which were shown and won the first prize in the ‘Any Variety’ class of Game, at Birmingham. Again, nine years later, by putting together a cockerel and pullets from the same hatch, and from the same bfood, I had a still greater number of 286 The Illustrated Book of Poultry, Spangles come out. This retention of the cross being so remarkable, I thought it worth mentioning, especially as the difference in colour being so great there was no mistaking it; and it shows how careful we ought to be, after putting together different colours, to keep it from re-appearing when not wanted. “ One very mistaken notion is the idea of most breeders as to the few hens they think ought to be put to a cock. Just keep in mind how many prolific eggs you will get from a hen after the cock has been taken away, and consider in that time, even if twenty hens had been running with the cock, whether during the length of time she would have been in laying trim — say while she laid eleven eggs — the cock would not have paid attention to each of those twenty, and the eggs be far more likely to produce strong chickens ? I have proof, and very strong proof, even in heavy birds ; for the most successful year I ever had in Dorkings I ran seventeen hens -with one cockerel, and never had I such heavy and strong-constitutioned birds. Feed well, and give a good run, and I should not be afraid to run twenty-five hens with one cock, though he must be a young healthy bird ; but even a two-year-old I should not fear to mate with eleven hens, and would expect to be successful. “ I am very sorry to see every now and then some novice or old antiquated breeder stating that the Game fowl has deteriorated within this last fifteen or twenty years. I myself have kept Game for about forty years ; and when lawful to fight cocks have carried my Game cock to school to fight, and many is the three days’ fighting I have seen in the town-hall, with magistrates for the principals ; and I have even myself, when a boy, had a cock-fight with the head magistrate’s cock, and won. Many is the main I have seen between one end of the town and the other ; also town against town, and two or three battles a week the whole winter through. At night, after a hunt day, I have seen many a battle for more money than I should like to name. In those days we studied nothing but the blood. So the cock was ‘ game,’ we neither looked for symmetry nor beauty of plumage ; but still, at the same time, when we did happen to get a nice symmetrical bird, we prided ourselves on him greatly, and seldom but he turned out a ‘clipper’ in the pit. The main point is a firmness of flesh and great muscular power, with the least lumber ; and many of our present exhibitors have often heard remarked from those who still often see birds in the pit, ‘What a nice, commanding, “reachey” cock ! — not one of the thick clumsy louts ; but nice and springy, and fit to fight for his life!’ Those who keep harping on the point that our Game fowls are not so good as they were, should tell us in what points they are not so good. They say they do not want them for the pit, and never saw a fight, nor do they want to see one ; what then do they want ? For my own part I consider there has been more improvement in the Game fowl than in any fowl we have within the last thirty years, if we place perfection in beauty, symmetry, purity of feather, more muscle, less but stronger bone, and more hardness of flesh. I consider we have discarded cumbersome flesh laid on where not wanted, got more muscle, more symmetry, purity of feather, and everything more pleasing to the eye. I cannot understand what people want. There is the ‘game’ in them now that will stand to be cut up if wanted ; though sorry should I be to have to witness a grand and beautiful bird disfigured for that purpose. In the fields or yards, however, the Game cock is just as vigilant and fearless as he was thirty years ago ,• and hens at the present day are just as demonstrative and careful of their broods. So where do they see the ‘want of game ?’ Those people, I am sure, are unsuccessful exhibitors ; but if they would follow the advice of those who are successful, there would be none of this ridiculous nonsense about Game deteriorating, when it is far otherwise. Get such birds as I describe, and breed them ; and if not successful in the second year, then complain : but you will not fail if you can or will educate the eye to beauty, symmetry, and purity of feather; nnd, giving up the idea of the old cart-horse Cassells Poultry Book BLACK-BREASTED RED GAME. BRED BY CAPTAIN HEATON. WINNERS OF THE TWO CHALLENGE CUPS AT BIRMINGHAM, 1886 Description of Black-breasted Red Game. 287 style, ‘ go in * for blood-looking animals, that are fit either to go the pace or stay, besides being all that you want in a show-pen. [This was written of the fowl as exhibited in 1872.] “ BLACK-BREASTED RED GAME. — I now give the points I consider a really good Black-red cock ought to have for a stock bird. Beak to be strong, slightly curved, and stout where set in the head. Head rather inclined to be long, and not round and bullet-shaped ; the least- possible indent over the eye gives a snake-like appearance which is much admired. Eyes bright red, rather prominent, with a fearless expression. Face a smooth fine skin ; the throat the same. Ears red, not inclined to white. Neck rather long, and a little arched ; short hackle, with the points just meeting between the shoulders, but reaching very little on the back. Back fiat, wide at shoulders, and narrowing to the tail. Breast round and full. Stern to be clear between the hocks, not let down, but a clear line. Saddle-feathers close and short, and not too many of them. Wings strong, and not over long, having a great substance at the shoulders ; not confined close at the breast, but to be seen a little detached, as if ready to fly at the first intruder — be he cat, dog, or cock — the points resting over the thighs, but under the saddle. Tail medium length, neither too long nor short, but nicely carried; neither ‘squirrel’ nor drooping, but between the two ; not much spread out, but nicely ‘ Venetianed,’ with about seven secondary sickle-feathers each side, the one nicely fitting just above the other; of course the two main sickles about four or five inches longer than the straight tail. Thighs round, stout, full of muscle, firm, rather long, but well carried in close to the body — not stilty, but so that you can distinguish their form and where set in when facing you. Shanks medium length, nicely rounded, neither flat nor quite round, with a nice clean joint in setting-on to the thigh-bone, well standing apart, and beautifully scaled. Spurs set low, and inclined to point back. Feet flat ; toes well spread out, and the hind toe to come straight and flat out from the foot ; not, as many do, drooping so as to put just the point to the ground. This latter form is nearly as objectionable as what is termed duck-footed, which is when the hind toe inclines to point forward the same way as the front toes. The toes should be a good length, and well spread out, with good strong nails. The colour of the legs should be willow or olive, to blend well with the colour of this cock. “ Plumage as follows : — Head and neck-hackles orange-red to the points ; back and shoulder- coverts and wing-bow rich crimson or claret, shading into orange on the saddle-hackles ; breast black, with a steel-blue shade all over the breast ; tail rich black, with a slight purple bronze shade in secondary sickles. There are different shades in the Black-reds, but none blends better, or is warmer, and nicer, and pleasanter to the eye, than the above colours, which we will call No. 1. I will, however, give the colour of another very successful shade of the Black-reds, which is easier bred, but I must own is not so beautiful, and which we will call No. 2. The cock is more of a red clay-colour in hackle ; deep rich r£d back ; and shoulder-coverts and wing-bow a little brighter red ; the saddle similar to hackle ; in fact, too much of a sameness all over to make the colour pleasant, but still they have the symmetry of the more favoured coloured ones. There is also another colour of Black-red, but it seldom proves successful unless a poor lot happens to be exhibited. The hackle is red, darkly striped, running off to a light straw ; back claret • shoulder-coverts red clay-colour ; saddle almost a red straw. These birds, which I will call No. 3, are in general soft to the touch for want of muscle, and far form firm in the hand. “ So far as the cocks in the Black-reds are concerned, I think enough might be gleaned from these remarks to assist a novice, as this is intended for such, as well as a reference to be compared by older hands, in breeding from what they may have. Now 1 will give the three colours and 288 The Illustrated Book of Poultry. style of hens that we find most useful in all our crossing to get what we want for the show-pens in colour, beginning with style and symmetry, which will do for all three useful colours, or, I may say, shades of colour, as all are really one. Beak to be stout where set on the head, curved slightly, and sharp at the point ; upper mandible same colour all over, viz., dark horn ; comb small, thin, straight, and evenly serrated ; head rather long, neat, and snake-like ; eyes red and prominent, with a fiery expression, as much as to say, ‘ I won’t easily submit’ (which we sometimes see in larger game of the same sex) ; face bright red and thin ; deaf-ear red and small ; wattles thin and neatly rounded ; neck inclined to be long, slightly curved, and short-feathered, the feathers meeting at a point between the shoulder when the neck is extended, and not so long as to form a sort of tippet ; back in shape similar to the cock, but in the old hen inclined to be rather more broad and flat, tapering off to the tail ; wings not inclined to be long, but to seem cut Hackle. Flat of Wing. Back. Saddle. Fig. 69. — Feathers of Black-red Hen. short in body, and powerfully made — as these are not birds meant for continual flight, they are not so long in comparison as in a bird of passage, but have very strong butts and rather short pinion or flight-feathers. The wings should be carried rather high, and close in to sides. Tail moderate in length, and nicely ‘Venetianed,’ that is, each feather lapping a little over the other, like a Venetian blind, to give it a nice, neat, compact form, not open and fan-shaped. The hen should carry it a little above the horizontal line. Breast broad and prominent ; thigh-bone inclined to be long, but well kept close along the body, and not stilty, with great muscle, feeling firm in the hand, so that when you have her in your hand she well fills it up. Shank clean, and scales smooth ; a moderate length of bone, finishing off with good, flat, wide-spread toes ; the hinder one coming out level from the foot. Carriage upright, neat, quick, and active. “ The colour of Black-red hens is as follows : — Head and neck golden, streaked with black, but not the gold and black run into each other ; body-colour partridge, or as near to a partridge- colour as possible, even to run up the outside or top-feathers of the tail ; salmon-red breast, commencing under the throat, running off to ashy colour on thighs, without any coarse or large pencilling on flight-feathers in the wing. This being the principal and proper exhibition colour. Breeding Black-Breasted Red Game. 289 we will call it No. 1. The partridge-marking ought on no account to run into any distinct bold or large pencilling , though it is sometimes described as such. It is a very small, wavy, irregular marking, just like that on the back of a partridge, and is shown in the engraving of feathers annexed, from a really pure-feathered Black-red hen (Fig. 69). We do often see real blotchy or large pencilling, and I know it is difficult to breed birds without ; but such marking is most objectionable, and so often a sign of a Duckwing or Pile cross that it ought to be more discouraged than it is. The true and proper marking is as figured here, just like a partridge, and should be so described. “The second colour of hen for breeding purposes is: — Hackle golden-yellow, streaked with black ; body — at least back and saddle — partridge-colour of a wheaten or slight creamy tinge, but still partridge ; the wings slightly ruddy ; breast a red salmon, running off to ashy colour on the thighs. This hen is of lighter shade, in fact, all over the body, a softer or yellow colour pervading; but the partridge-marking just the same in character as the No. I. “ The third colour for breeding is : — Head and hackle light gold, only slightly streaked with black ; back and wings a quite light partridge, with a more even shade of gold all over, but not of the wheaten colour ; breast a yellowish ash-colour ; tail black. “ Either of these colours having the style and symmetry named can be bred from, and with success ; but I don’t say the first cross. The way I should start would be to put No. 1 cock with a clear partridge -coloured (or No. 1) hen, clear in the wing, and with no pencilling whatever on the flights of the wing ; having a deep salmon-coloured breast, with rich golden hackle, with a deep streak of black in each feather. By thus mating you would get rare pullets, and sometimes a first-rate cockerel. “ Then again, put No. 1 cock to a rich partridge-backed hen, with ruddy wing, and rich golden hackle streaked with rich black, and a ruddy-ashy breast, described above as No. 2. Thence you get your bright-red, showy cockerels ; but seldom a good pullet, not being dark enough. “From No. 2 cock, being more a self-colour, and not that blending of different reds that is so pleasing in No. 1, you will get your rich partridge-coloured hens, with deep rich salmon breasts, and pretty free from pencilling, if mated with good partridge hens. Putting this cock to a red partridge (or No. 3) hen, inclined to Wheaten colour, you sometimes get a really beautiful bright red cockerel. “With regard to the No. 3 cock, the only thing I have seen his colour get good has been pullets from the clear partridge (or No. 1) hens; the cockerels in general are loose-feathered, and too dark. “ There is also what is termed the Wheaten-rcd hen — that is, a hen with buff breast ; back slightly partridge, marked with buffy-rcd ; hackle clear buff or very slightly striped with black ; and tail black, inclined to be tinged with buff. The name was given, as many think, from its resemblance to the skin of the red wheat. These hens are most valuable to a breeder for getting him a really pure bright-red cock, for which you put to them a cock of the Nos. 1 or 2 colours, the former preferred ; but this has to be carefully done, and the notion about the Wheaten hen being the best to breed cocks from has been harped rather too much upon. It is very well to use one cross, either with the bright-red, or No. 2 cock ; but if you cross with the Wheaten the second time you will get a blotchy breast and rusty fluff, the blood being too light to have too much of. These hens are also useful for breeding Piles and Duckwings, as mentioned farther on ; but the second cross, from hens bred from the Wheaten hen, has a certain softness of feather not desirable ; therefore, all Black-red hens bred from this cross ought to be cooked. It is from the second cross the softness comes, the Wheaten hen herself being hard-feathered, and generally throwing very sound-feathered cockerels. z 290 The Illustrated Book of Poultry. “ Black-reds being the purest-feathered of the Reds, I have given them the preference in describing them ; and by following out my advice I really think any one can breed and be successful in the show-pen.” [Generally speaking, and unless for very special reasons, the No. 3 dark cocks described by Mr. Douglas are not now worth breeding from, competition being more severe, and superior results being obtainable from Nos. 1 and 2. — W. F. E.] “ BROWN-BREASTED RED GAME. — The same description of style and symmetiy as the Black-reds will do for all Game, including Brown-breasted Red Game. There are several colours admissible for the show-pen, but I will begin with those at present most fashionable. In the streaky or starling-breasted cock, the head and hackle-feathers are deep orange-red, with a shade of dark in centre of feather; shoulder-coverts dark crimson; saddle a red maroon on centre, passing to a dark lemon and straw ; breast dark, with a bay streak in centre of every feather running of on the thighs, which are also streaked with bay ; tail black, sickles narrow and whip-like, and bronzed with a greenish gloss. Some like a dark smutty face, instead of the beautiful red-purple skin. Large brown or black eyes are necessary to this breed. In Brown-reds a little heavier build does not detract from the beauty of the bird, so more laxity may be taken in this Fig. 70. colour than the Black-red ; but the same rule as to style applies here as to Black-reds. The Brown- reds have a hardness of feather that few strains of the Black-reds possess. I have said that the colour of the face is a matter of taste ; but it is a certain fact that since the dark or gipsy faces predominated we have lost the beautiful bright colours in Brown-reds we used to have. “The colour of hen to match the streaky-breasted cock in the Brown-reds is as follows : — Head dusky brown ; comb and face bright purple-red or smutty, according to taste ; eyes black or dark brown ; neck brassy, striped with black ; the legs dark or willow ; body-feathers dark brown — or even in a dark hen almost black, with brassy hackle, would answer for the show-pen. “This is the most fashionable colour ; let us now see what they will breed. Some will come as near like the parents as possible in cockerels ; others will come black-breasted, and too dark in hackles ; others will be nearly crow-black, with only a dirty dark red on shoulder and back. Some pullets will come a nice colour, but some nearly brown ; and others nearly black, without the brassy hackle, but only a slight tinge of copper in the hackle. In Brown-reds it is very difficult to get above one or two in a brood fit for the show-pen, or even fit to breed from the following season ; in fact, nothing we get in the Game line bleeds so tiue to coloui as the Black-icd, which is easiest to breed of all the varieties. “Another very fashionable colour in Brown-reds, as frequently shown, and by many thought even more beautiful than the starling-breasted, is as follows. Head and hackle oiange-colour throughout, with little no streak in the feathers ; shoulder-coverts a shade lighter crimson than the streaky-breasted birds; saddle to match the hackle, or dark lemon, back a maioon stiaw> and breast an almost black ground-colour, but every feather beautifully laced with light bay — a mere slight lacing round the edges, not at all running into the feather. The hens to match these Cassell's Poultry Book Ymcer.t Broote.Day &. Son lilh. MRC. W. B R i E R LEY’S BROWN-BREASTED RED GAME. THE STATUE’.' WIN N ER OF CHALLENGE C U P AT BIRMINGHAM, 1886. ‘LITTLE QUEEN’,’ WINNER OF THE CUP AT LIVERPOOL, JANT 1887. . ■ ' ‘ Brown- red Game. 291 cocks are a brilliant black, with rich golden-striped hackle, as in Fig. 70. The feathers of the cock are of great beauty, and are well shown in the accompanying engraving (Fig. 71), The accuracy with which the back and saddle-feathers are striped in good birds is remarkable. “ From this we will go to the brick-breasted, which is the nearest approach to the laced- breasted Brown-reds. The cock is a similar colour in back to the last, but a little more crimson on shoulder and less orange in the hackle ; and in general, lighter in colour on the saddle, more a shade of orange pervading all over the body; black or brown eyes in general, and red in the face. I should cross this colour with a pure black-bodied hen, when you would get a portion of streaky- breasted cockerels, but few dark pullets, most of the pullets running light browns ; but being very Breast. Back. Big- 71- — Feathers of Brown-red Cock. Saddle. pretty and slightly pencilled, they are much admired, and make very good mates for ginger Brown- red cocks, their colours seeming to harmonise well. The ginger Brown-red cock is a most beautiful biid , head and hackle-feathers being a dark lemon; back and shoulders a blueish red, slightly ciimsoned , bieast a dun butt, mottled ; and tail jet-black. There have been few of them at our shows of late years. “The true Ginger-red, also a most beautiful fowl, was however at one time highly prized and much sought after by fly-fishers, being also noted for swiftness in the cockpit. “The colour of the Ginger-red cock is as follows Head and hackle rich clear blue-red ; eyes brown or reddish brown ; back, shoulder-coverts, and bows of wings, blue-red ; breast a ginger-blue —in fact, a blueish cast prevailing all throughout, even the tail showing a shade of blue^ The lems are bronzy yellow, or willow, and the style and shape light and springy. The hen to match is&a 292 The Illustrated Book of Poultry. brown blue, blue peivading all through as in the cock. They breed pretty true to colour, and sorry I am there are nevei now any shown, for they were really a pleasant variety to look upon, and the cock s hackles and saddles much sought after, as I have said, by fly-fishers. In the pit the cocks were wonderfully active, quick to attack, and quick to retire, and very difficult for the antagonist to lay hold of.” [The greatest change in fashion of all has, perhaps, taken place in Brown-reds. It will be found described in the sequel. — W. F. E.] “DUCK-WINGED GAME. — The Duckwing is one of our most beautiful breeds of Game; the bright gay colours are so beautifully contrasted that no one, not even a non-breeder, fails Hackle. Breast. Back. Flat of Wing. Saddle. Fig. 72, — Feathers of Yellow Duck-wing Hen. to admire this splendid bird. His face is well-defined crimson ; the head just covered with silver- white small fine feathers ; hackle almost white, only a tinge of straw pervading ; his back a maroon straw and claret ; saddle just a shade darker than the hackle, the feathers being very fine and short, just long enough to hide the points of the wings. The shoulders are a nice brass or brassy maroon right from the butts to the clear steel bar, and no light streaks, which will however appear, if not very carefully bred, just about one inch from where the brass-colour begins from the butts ; the shoulder-butts themselves black ; breast black ; tail black, with a shade of bronze pervading the sickles ; eyes red, legs willow ; weight from 5 J to lbs. “ The hen to match in the show-pen should have the head grey ; comb and face bright red ; hackle silver-grey, darkly striped ; breast a bright salmon-red ; back and shoulder- coverts ought to be a slaty-grey, free from any ruddiness or pencilling. The tail a dark grey, almost black ; inside fluff a steel grey ; legs willow. Fig. 72 represents the feathers of the hen very accurately, except that the colour of the breast cannot be given in an engraving. Cassells Poultry Book Vincent Brord^lJuy &. San. Iith DUCK-WINGED BRED BY M" JOHN GAME. GOODWIN. “SI MON’,’ WINNER OF THE CUP AT BIRMINGHAM, 1885. “MISS ETTY" FI RST PRIZE AT THE DA'RY SHOW, 1885. . I Silver-Grey Duckwing Game. 293 “To breed Duckwing cocks and hens, and to get the rich colours, you must frequently have a cross from the Black-red each way. Sometimes you may get them by breeding together, but rarely cocks ; hens you generally can. It is always best to put a pure-bred Duckwing hen to a really fine bright Black-red to get the cocks; all our best birds are bred this way, and the purer- feathered Black-red the cock is, the brighter you get your Duckwing. In breeding for hens, either Duckwing cock and Duckwing hens put together, or a very hard, good partridge-coloured Black- red hen, will bring what you want ; but if you get too much Duckwing by itself, you will have soft, mossy-feathered birds. The way to obviate this is every second year to breed a pure Duckwing hen or two, and put her to one of the clear bright Black-red cocks, and use the Duckwing cocks so bred as future stock birds. The reason we see so few really good Duckwings, either in hens or cocks, is that it takes so great an amount of care in the crossing to keep it up to the standard. Hackle. Breast. Flnt of Wing. Saddle. Fig. 73.— Feathers of Silver Birchen Grey Hen. “ A bright brass-winged Duckwing cock crossed with Wheaten hens will also throw grand cockerels, but no good pullets, these last being too light in the breast and with ruddy wings, with a mealy appearance in the back-feathers. But here again you must not cross too much, or you will get mealy and indistinct colours, as well as softness of feather ; hence it is bad for a novice to go too much into crossing, but he should buy the purest-feathered fowls he can get, and breed till he finds out a little by experience. “The Silver-grey Duckwing, or Silver Birchen grey [see remarks hereafter], is a most handsome fowl. At one time, say fifteen years ago, we used to have some pens of them exhibited, and they were very much admired by Game breeders : but, unfortunately, most shows of Game at that time were judged by men that reahy did not know Game, and believed they were a cross of Silver-grey Dorkings ; therefore they were passed over, and breeders got discouraged, and gave up the breed solely on that account. The face was red ; hackle right from the crown of the head a pure white, without the least dark streak ; back and shoulder-coverts a nice silvery white, running into a black, with bluish cast at butts of shoulders ; saddle the colour of hackle, with a beautiful well-defined bar 294 The Illustrated Book of Poultry. of steel-blue feathers on the wing, which gives the whole class of these fowls the name of Duckwing, being similar to the bar on the mallard’s wing. The under parts of the body were black, and breast black with a slight blue cast ; tail black, sickles sharp and fine, and secondary sickles short, and standing or carried just one touching the other, with a green bronzy-black appearance, very little tail-coverts being carried in this breed. They were in general a hard-fleshed fowl, short in feather, and carrying very little of what is termed offal, that is, any clumsy weight where not required ; they were also noted for their quickness and long endurance in fighting, and I have seen cocks of this breed kill four and five adversaries before leaving the pit. The hens to match are of a quiet colour, almost approaching to some coloured Brown-reds, being of a dark grey body, striped with silver slightly on most feathers, giving it more of a laced colour ; the breast being a little more starling-marked ; hackle dark, laced with silver ; tail black, the outer feathers slightly brown ; legs dark willow or black. These colours are different from what are sometimes given for the hen ; but the fact is the breed has not been shown for nine years, when Mr. Dixon showed the last pen of them at Preston ; hence they have been described by people who did not know them. They were, in fact, a true breed, which needed no crossing to get the colours, and so the hen was always darker and duller than the yellow Duckwing. Feathers from a Silver- grey Duckwing hen are shown in Fig. 73, and by comparing with the yellow Duckwing feathers on the preceding page, the difference will be readily seen. These feathers were plucked from a beautiful hen belonging to Mr. James Fletcher, of Stoneclough, near Manchester. “ What are termed Birchen Duckwings are merely birds bred from Duckwings on both sides, and sometimes will come from the cross of Brown-reds and Duckwings. This breed cannot be admired, for the simple reason that there is no purity of feather. The nearest description that can be given is as follows : — Head and hackle dark straw, mixed with rusty brown ; breast, creamy brown, a “ hodge-podge ” colour of cream and rusty brown straw ; saddle, straw and rusty brown ; wing-butts, dull brown ; bow, copper-brown ; coverts, mottled rusty brown and claret, with a dash of straw ; tail black, slightly bronzed ; legs willow or carp. Hen to match, a dirty dark grey, almost a brown — in fact, the Silver-grey hen in all points, only browner, and few distinguishing colours or markings, the shoulders being a little greyer than the back. They never had many admirers, not being bred for, but coming from crosses ; and not being tried for, and no one seeming to wish to keep the breed up, it is seldom now to be met with. [A few good Birchens have been shown at Birmingham and the Crystal Palace late shows, the colours being more clearly defined than the above description ; in fact, very near the modern Brown-red marking. — W. F. E.] “PILE GAME. — This is a breed very much admired, and always was. There are several varieties which merely vary in a few different-coloured feathers, such as the Worcester Piles and Cheshire Piles, having a few black feathers intermixed in body and tail ; whereas the Lancashire Pile is of pure colours, being white where a Black-red is black, and such we will describe, although a siightly-marbled breast is highly prized if not too heavy: — Symmetry a little lighter or more sprightly than a Black-red in general ; head a chestnut-red, hackle running a little lighter in colour than the head ; face a rather brighter red, and the chestnut carried right to the point of the hackle. Back, chestnut and claret colour ; shoulder-coverts and bow of the wings a rich claret red ; breast white, or each feather lightly laced with a pale chestnut ; wing-coverts white edged with red chestnut ; the tail white or merely a slight tick of black in the sickles, both in great and small sickles ; thighs white ; under part of body white ; eyes red ; legs yellow, white, or willow. The Pile Game hen’s head is a light golden chestnut ; hackle white, faced with yellow Cassells Poultry Book Yincen.tBTooks Lay kSonWh.. PILE GAME. BRED BY M ? JOSEPH COLGROVE. COCKEREL, FIRST PRIZE AT CRYSTAL PALACE AND BIRMINGHAM, 1086. HEN (MOTHER OF THE COCKER El) F I RST PRIZE AT THE DAIRY SHOW, 1885 AND FIVE OTHER FIRST PRIZES. I Pile and White Game. 295 chestnut ; the back a creamy white ground-colour, slightly laced, a shade of gold prevailing ; and salmon-coloured wing-coverts almost similar to back, but just a little heavier in the dark colour ; breast a rich chestnut right up to the throat, running off to a white, but not pure on the thighs ; tail almost a pure white ; eyes red ; legs yellow, white, or willow. “ Piles breed true to colour, but now and then a cross of the Black-red is thrown in to give hardness of feather ; but let me beg of all that cross in this way to destroy every Black-red pro- duced from this cross, for when it gets about the country it is most mischievous in the Black-red blood to those that are deceived with it, taking all the rich bright colours away, and producing those soft, mossy, mealy-coloured pullets and cockerels, with light reddish straw hackles and saddles, besides a softness of feather, which are sometimes seen. I have detected and pointed out the cross at shows to a few of our oldest breeders at times ; more especially once at Leeds, where a cockerel of this description gained a cup, and when inquired into my doubts were proved correct : hence the necessity of cooking all of the Reds which result from this cross, and only keeping the Piles. “You can also get a very rich Pile by putting a Wheaten hen to a White or Pile cock. “WHITE GAME is a beautiful variety. When in a nice grass-run a whole flock looks well, but when kept in confined spaces, and they get their feathers soiled, the beauty is gone, only symmetry left ; and it is strange to see how few really grand and symmetrical Whites you find, and fewer still with the closeness or hardness of feather that is desirable in Game fowls. Whites were always looked upon as delicate, and few came off victorious in the pit ; so no care was taken of them to improve either hardness of feather or style, which has been done in other breeds. There is no doubt but they can be improved in both qualities, and there is really a good opening at present for any one to go into the White Game breeding. I should select a really rich Red Game cock, as short and hard in feather as possible, to cross in with ; kill all the Red chickens ; select then a White cockerel from this cross, and put to the White hens had previously, and the White pullets from the cross to my pure White cocks. This is where Piles have gained so much on the Whites : by the benefit of the Black-red cross, the feather is shorter and harder ; better symmetry and hardier constitution are got, and altogether a much better bird. “To describe the White Game fowl, the one word White would do — head and hackle pure white, body white (a least shade of yellow not a disqualification), tail pure white, breast white, legs yellow or white, eyes red. The White Game hen everywhere white, but eyes, comb, and wattles- which are all coral red ; and legs yellow or white. The reason I put yellow first for legs is that 1 think it is a colour that harmonises better with the white than the same colour ; of course the beak must match the legs. “ BLACK GAME are not so greatly admired — only by the few that have kept them for any purpose — although at one time they used to be kept for the pit in some districts, but not being found so quick and active as most breeds, they were discarded, although ‘game’ to the death. The colour is a most splendid black, of metallic brilliancy, shades of green and purple pervading the whole body, with a coral-red face ; the legs dark willow or black. The hen also a pure glossy black, with a red coral comb and wattles. I have often thought a cross from a dark Brown-red hen would greatly improve this breed, both in style and hardness of feather, by acting on the same principle as in my advice on the White Game, killing all the Brown-reds, and reserving nothing but the Blacks. “ These are about all the varieties usually exhibited, but we have many other local 2gb The Illustrated Book of Poultry. breeds, though nothing self-coloured. There is Black with brassy wings, the hen to match being all black, mostly bred from birds a dirty black with a blue shade. Also the Spangles, almost every other feather being red and white, and tail black and white ; the hens to match this are nearly the colour of a Houdan hen, only brown instead of black, and not inclined to spangle so evenly. The Furness Game are a smoky blue, with brass wings, and almost a black hackle ; hens blue, speckled with black streaks, hackles dark, tail dark. Cuckoo Game is a very scarce variety, not much prized either for beauty of feather or style, being a smutty blue in body-colour, with light markings all over ; hackle a shade darker than body. This breed could be greatly improved with the cross of the short-feathered ginger Brown-reds. I think by picking the Brown-red to cross by with a shade of blue in him, there would not be so much chance of losing the cuckoo-markings as with any other cross. There are, as I have said, several other local breeds or colours ; but being never seen at our shows, and not at all attractive, it is hardly worth while giving them a place here. “ Game hens, on the whole, are good average layers, and there are no better mothers for protecting the chickens. I have seen a Game hen with chickens drive off all sorts of enemies, from a horse to a rat, and I have seen a Game hen actually kill a rat, a rook, and even a hawk ; nothing is so big or savage but that she will defend her brood from it. In general I put eleven eggs under each hen. Unless a few hens hatch off the same day, we are obliged to set the coops far apart, or destruction would be the result. The best time to get Game hatched is from the middle of March to the end of April. Get them to nice cottage-runs as early as possible after they leave the hens ; and, if this is not convenient, divide pullets and cockerels — it will save many a fight. Dub as you find walks for them. The age for dubbing is in general seventeen or eighteen weeks old. Dubbing, I need hardly say, is the removal of comb, wattles, and ear-lobes. To do this properly, so as to cause the least loss of blood, the cock should be held by an assistant by the thigh and shoulder of the wing, pressing the bird close to his breast with one hand, while with the other he lays hold of the comb, keeping the bird with his head and breast slightly turned up. The operator then lays hold of the wattle, inserting the point of his dubbing scissors at the lower mandible, and striking straight for the ear, leaving the old skin about half an inch, or hardly so much, between your cut and the eye. When you get to the ear commence again at the under side of the wattle, and run the point of scissors about half way down, then dissect gradually up to the ear. I have often taken the wattles off in this way without losing a salt-spoonful of blood from both wattles. When wattles and ears are off, the assistant takes the cockerel well in hand by the shoulders and thighs, when the operator inserts his left thumb across the inside of the beak, placing his forefinger at the back of head. Care must, however, be taken not to choke the bird. Then setting his scissors close and firmly on the head, straight up from the beak, with one cut, by keeping the scissors pressed well down as he cuts, he will take the comb clean off ; then merely a slight cut each side of the beak, to take off a small excrescence that would make the setting in at the beak heavy, and the operation is over, and, if convenient, the cock may be tossed up in the air, The blood usually stops at once, and nothing more is required. He will then be nice and red again in six weeks, and fit to exhibit. “It is a well-known fact that all our most successful strains of Black-breasted Red Game at the present day, and for the last fifteen years, sprang from close to Derby, and were bred by a gentleman that exhibits but seldom now ; but when he does exhibit there is always something to admire, and the pen is very soon claimed. All our different strains and yards of any note in the Brown-red Game, again, have sprung from and around Nantwich, in Cheshire, and at the present time I could not name a yard without Nantwich blood. In Pile Game, St. Helen’s, in Lancashire, Rearing Game Chickens. 297 has the best and most successful yards, and is where most of our present File breeders have had their blood from. In Duckwings, for many years back Staffordshire and Nottinghamshire have had the best, though Cambridgeshire has come to the fore lately. Of late years, I am sorry to say, Duckwings have gone back, both in hens and cocks ; but I believe from this date they will improve, for I am aware of several of the old hands going to do their best with this breed. “ A few hints as to rearing will not be out of place to those who may be about starting. Firstly, we never put more than eleven eggs under a Game hen. When hatched be in no hurry to take them from the nest, for they will want nothing for twenty-four hours, and very little then ; and as you should feed the first two or three days with egg custard and a few dry crumbs of bread mixed with the custard, they will require no zvater ; so put none near for them to dabble in. In a day or two take the hen from where she has hatched to a dry shed facing the south, or a dry bank sheltered from north and east winds, and coop them on the ground. If too wet, put some dry ashes under the coop, soft and free from lumps, and by no means put them on boards, for by this we get crooked toes ; and rough cinders or gravel sometimes indent the small gristle of the breast, and if it gets the least askew while with the hen, it soon goes worse and worse. I have heard some breeders say they have had them come straight, but I have always had reason to doubt their word. You may let your coop remain for four or five days at first, by merely drawing the hen’s droppings out. When you do shift, do so at midday, and if damp or wet put more dry ashes or dry earth at night. You will find fussing about this dry lodging pay for the trouble, by seeing your chickens come out quite frisky in the morning, and it conduces greatly to health. I always coop my hens for six or seven weeks with Game, feeding principally on egg custard, coarse oatmeal, and bruised wheat until about five weeks old, when I begin to give well-soaked whole wheat a few times daily, weaning them off to the common food by degrees. It is very useful, if there is no old hedge or low trees close by where your coops are placed, to drive four stakes in the ground, standing about a foot high, and place a hurdle on them, then lay a few loose boughs on it. This serves as a playground in a cold morning, as they soon commence to fly up and down after one another; then again, before the earth gets warm for their feet, they will cluster on the top of it when the sun comes out, and preen themselves. It makes a nice break between the coops, and is a protection as well, for if there should be any large bird on the wing they are under in a moment, which I have had many proofs of here, where the Swan, Wild Goose, and Heron are often on the wing. I do not let them roost until about three months old if I can help it, so that I have plenty of soft clean stuff to let them sleep on. I think they keep warmer in a heap, and grow stronger, and it establishes a stronger constitution. I always use the sulphate of iron in the water, and we never have the gapes or roup, and this I have proved for over seventeen years. The egg custard is made as follows : — Beat three eggs up in half a pint of new milk, put in a saucepan, and stir over the fire until it becomes a thick curd ; then press the whey out by squeezing in a cloth. This custard I give every morning, and as they get older we mix with oatmeal and ground rice, which forms a very nutritious food, and we find them grow and thrive on it wonderfully. I attribute the great effect of custard thus fed, to the chickens getting the rich and strengthening diet the first thing every morning, and it is digested quicker than any other I know. If sulphate of iron is in the water, it is not requisite to change it so often as it would be if pure water. a j must now say a little on the preparation necessary to make Game fowls fit for the show- pen. First of all, when taken off their walks to pen for a day or two, before sending off to show, gently sponge the head and face with some lukewarm water and soap, then their legs and feet When thoroughly dry, get your attendant to hold the cock firmly but gently, the hands round the thighs, and his thumbs on the shoulder-coverts, the thumb not pressed in, but to feel and be ready 298 The Illustrated Book of Poultry. to press if the cock should attempt to struggle ; the operation then commences, by putting the left hand swiftly round the cock’s head or neck, and running the scissors straight from the back oi comb to the beak, taking all the little spike-like feathers off close, which gives the head a much smoother and finer appearance ; then draw the skin sideways off the cheek, tight, with the thumb, and carry the scissors along the cheek in the same way, which will smooth all the little spiky feathers off there. Many draw them out with small pincers, but I do not approve of this, as it has to be repeated, but when close clipped it is done with. All that is left to be done previous to sending off is with a small nice clean sponge, and a very little salad oil, to sponge the fleshy parts of the head and face, but not leaving a lot of oil on ; this is what gives the nice bright coral-like appearance that most professional show-men’s Game have their first day in the show-pens. “ A Game cock, if well walked, requires no feeding to prepare for show ; but, if in low con- dition, about three or four days in a quite clean pen, feeding twice a day on a teacupful of nice boiled new milk and bread, with a handful of thoroughly good barley at night, will make a great difference, and throw a nice gloss on the feathers. This is all that is necessary, for it does not answer to train a cock for show as you would to fight. If living handy to his run, it is well to give a feed of split peas daily for a fortnight ; but a naturally hard-fleshed bird, taken off his walk, may be fed on almost what you like. A cock for fighting is got up to a certain pitch just by a certain day, after which he goes back fast ; but that would not do for a show. A cock should be shown as nearly in his natural condition as possible ; but if fed up for showing he will show it the second day. If it were not to get the birds used to the pens, I would never pen one up even for an hour, and I can always count all the trained birds in a show by their falling off the second or third day. “ To keep them right on returning from shows, give boiled milk and bread, but no hard food, for the first day or so ; then feed as usual, when, if of good constitution, they will be fit again in a week’s time. For several weeks they will keep this up without perceptible injury ; as, having no extra flesh to carry, like Cochins, they can stand it better.” Mr. Douglas’ remarks will be best followed by those prepared for the present edition by Mr. W. F. Entwisle : — “ After the lapse of so many years since the first edition of this work was issued, it will not be surprising to find that some revision has become necessary in order to bring the improved standards down to the present time ; and that, among others, ‘ Game fowls ’ require some few additions or alterations. In conformity to the anticipations expressed in the former editions, the standard for Brown-reds has improved more, perhaps, than that for any other colour. Poultry shows have mainly contributed towards the general improvement, and especially the valuable challenge cups and other prizes recently offered for Game fowls. The press has also in no small degree assisted in the matter. The result, as seen to-day in the exhibition pen, is a finer and noble-looking bird, averaging at least one or one and a half pounds heavier, standing fully an inch taller than formerly, and yet losing nothing in gracefulness, activity, or courage. As regards colour, a far greater uni- formity is observed in the winning pens than was the case even a few years back. This has been very greatly owing to the consistent judging of the late Mr. J. H. Smith. Exhibitors know what to breed for in order to be successful, and that is a point gained ; and it is seldo-m we now see birds shown with such evident signs of the Malay cross, as a few years ago were frequently met with even in the prize lists. It may be worth noting that within half-a-dozen years, at least four or five Black-red cocks have been claimed at shows at prices of £ 100 and £101, and that as much as £150 was refused for a bird in December, 1883. Modern Game Fowls . 299 “ Referring now to the colours, the desired plumage of the Black-red Game cock should be described as follows : — Head and neck-hackle bright orange-red, free from black or dark stripes ; back, wing - bow, and shoulder coverts rich crimson, or bright claret, shading into orange on the saddle hackles ; shoulder butts, breast, and thighs, rich black, with steel shading ; wing bars, or coverts, steel blue, free from rustv colour ; secondaries, clear bay, the end of each feather tipped with black ; tail, black ; sickles and secondary sickles, either blue-black or with greenish shading, the former preferred ; the under parts of body and fluff, dense black, quite free from rust. This is the most perfect and fashionable colour, which we will call, with Mr. Douglas, No. 1. The great difficulty is to find this bright colour free from red in the fluff or under feather of the breast, thighs, and hocks. “ The next best colour, and which is generally more reliable for pullet breeding, is as follows : — The head and neck-hackle is a darker red, almost a bay ; back, a deep rich red ; wing-bow and shoulder coverts, rather a brighter shade than the back ; saddle similar to hackle ; in other points similar to No. 1. The black is generally very sound in this shade of bird ; and it is equally useful, with No. 1, for breeding purposes. There are other shades frequently seen in Black-reds, but they are not to be encouraged, and therefore need no description, further than to say that in the darker Reds a few slight stripes of black in the lower part of the hackle are of no disadvantage in pullet breeding, but rather otherwise. “ The colour of the Black-red hen should be as follows : — Head and neck-hackle, golden in the shaft and margin of each feather, with a black stripe on each side of the shaft, as represented in Fig. 69 ; back and wings, and outer top feathers of tail, partridge brown, the markings being very fine and small, and even throughout, any coarse pencilling being highly objectionable ; the rest of the tail black, slightly marked with partridge brown ; breast, salmon-red or red fawn colour, shading off to ashy grey on the thighs. In a perfect specimen, when the wings are open, the same shade should be observed right across wings and back, no foxy or rusty feathers showing. This is the standard or Ai colour. More frequently, however, we find shown at present birds with rather less of the black stripes in the hackle, and more or less of the foxy or clay shade on the wing-bow, otherwise closely resembling No. 1. These usually are the closest and hardest- feathered birds, and consequently show the best style, and they are the best breeders of the bright- coloured cockerels. They are as successful as the more perfect coloured birds, owing to their hard, stylish appearance ; but No. 1 should have the preference when the birds are otherwise equal in merit. A third shade, and still very useful for breeding bright cocks — in fact, the most useful colour to mate with a cock of the dark shade in order to breed winning cockerels — is, head and neck- hackle golden yellow only, slightly striped with black ; back and wings, very light partridge, and breast almost creamy white, though showing a slight greyish or ashy shade towards the thighs ; the outer top tail feathers very light partridge, like back, and rest of tail black. “ The red Wheaten hens, so called from the resemblance of their colour to red wheat, are very scarce now, and not so highly prized as formerly, although they can be depended upon to breed the brightest colours both of Black-red and Duckwing cocks. The colour should be as follows, although seldom now so seen except in Game Bantams, owing to the frequent crossing with the partridge-feathered Reds, by which the old wheaten type is almost lost : — Head and neck, clear cinnamon or buff, or very slightly striped with black towards shoulders ; back and wing, light cinnamon, or red wheat colour; breast and thighs, creamy white; tail, black, the top outer feathers edged with buff. There are intermediate shades between this and the light Partridge Reds, which are generally termed wheatens, but they are seldom so hard-feathered as the pure Wheaten, nor are they so good looking. Two or three good specimens were exhibited at Birmingham and else- where recently. The legs of the Wheatens are usually a very bright but light willow. 3°° The Illustrated Book of Poultry. “ Mr. Douglas’ advice as to the mating of Black-reds is so very sound and practical, that nothing further need be added on that breed. Brown-reds the fashion has quite changed from the dark shades described on pages 290-1 in favour of the laced-breasted lemons. We will therefore describe the more modern bird, which we certainly think a great improvement on the old style. In the laced-breasted lemon Brown-reds, then, the cock should be as follows : — Beak, black ; face, the darkest gipsy, i.e., purplish-black ; eyes, the darkest shade of brown, in fact, the more nearly black the better ; feet and shanks, the darkest olive, or nearly black ; head and neck-hackle, bright lemon, striped with black (see illustrations, Fig. 71, which are not only life-like, but as perfect to-day as when they were drawn); back and saddle-hackles, wing-bow and shoulder coverts, all bright lemon, with black fluff and centre, as in Fig. 71 ; breast, rich black, distinctly and evenly laced with gold all round the feather down to the fluff, and with a golden shaft to each feather. This lacing should extend from the throat well down to the thighs ; the rest of the under feathers black ; tail, greenish-black ; shoulder butts and flight coverts and secondaries, greenish-black. “ The hen to match the above must correspond with him in colour of face, eyes, beak, legs, and feet, and must have the greenest-black body colour, back, wings, and tail, with a green-black breast, lightly and evenly laced with gold generally preferred (although birds without the lacing on breast sometimes win) ; hackle, rich black, each feather well edged with bright lemon, the colour extending well over the head, giving it a golden or brassy appearance. “ The birds above described breed cockerels and pullets very true to feather, although there will be some pullets with the addition of a fine golden edge to the feathers on back and wing-bow. These laced pullets generally breed the brightest and best coloured cocks. “ The next most fashionable colour of Brown-reds corresponds exactly with the above descrip- tion, only substituting rich orange for the lemon. These orange-coloured Brown-reds are frequently rather shorter and harder-feathered than the lemons, which, as a rule, have rather too much feather. After them come the colours described by Mr. Douglas, reversing the order of his Nos. 1 and 2 favourites, which are still to be seen, and frequently beating the lemons by their size and hardness. “ Red faces in Brown-reds are now considered quite old-fashioned, the dark gipsy face giving a harder appearance. This shade varies in the same bird just as he varies in condition from time to time ; and sometimes a bird in low condition looks only purplish-red, which, when in high condition, has a very dark purple face inclining to black, and quite without artificial assistance. “ In Duckwing Game there has also been a ehange or modification in the fashion, and an improvement, as predicted by Mr. Douglas. A Golden Duckwing cock must now, in order to be called first-class, have a clear golden-coloured back and wing-bow and shoulder coverts, instead of the maroon straw and claret described by Mr. Douglas ; and he must have willow legs, as any other colour would not now pass muster. Greater stress, too, is now placed on the colour of the Duckwing hen’s head ; it must be a light silver-grey, and correspond with the hackles ; a brownish cap on the hen is a great blemish, though often seen, from the too free use of Black-red crosses. “ Mr. Douglas’ remarks about the breeding of Duckwings are still sound and excellent, although many breeders do not now approve of the Black-red cross so frequently for producing Duckwing pullets. My own opinion is, that once in six years is quite sufficient to keep up hardness of feather, and more than sufficient for retaining standard colours. “Mr. Douglas’ description of the Silver-grey Duckwing, or S.lver Birchen Grey, applies to a variety almost extinct even at the time of his writing (as hinted editorially in a former edition), and not to the bird generally known as the Silver Duckwing, which is a pure breed, as proved by its breeding true to feather without any cross whatever, even for twenty years or more. It is the founda- Cassaells Poultry Book. Vincent Brooks Da/ 8*. San. lath. HEN NY GA M E ■ ■ 0 ' Hen-Feathered Game Fowls . 3°i tion on the grey side, of the Yellow or Golden Duckwing, as may be proved by any one in the first ci oss with Black-reds. The colour of the Silver Duckwing cock is exactly that of the Silver-grey Dorking, only the Game cock’s legs are willow, and beak dark horn colour ; his hackles, saddle, and wing-bow are silvery white ; breast, thighs, wing bars, and tail, blue-black. “The hen closely resembles the purest feathered Duckwings bred from the Yellow Duckwing cock, or, more correctly speaking, the case should be reversed, as the Yellow Duckwings are only the offshoots of the Silvers ; but in the original Silver Duckwing hen, the back and wings are of a beautiful French grey or light steel grey, with very fine markings of a darker grey, the edges of the feathers very silvery ; the hackle is light grey (black and white, but the white predomi- nating), and the breast a pale or cream fawn colour. No colour of Game fowls will breed truer to feather than the above-described Silver Duckwings ; and all successful breeders know the value of a Silver Duckwing cock to bring back the lovely colour of the pullets, when too much Black-red blood has crept into their strain, and so spoiled the delicate grey shade. “ There has been a corresponding improvement in Birchen Greys lately, owing to the cross with the laced-breasted Lemon-reds having given clearer markings ; and some capital specimens were shown at Birmingham, the Crystal Palace, and other shows in 1883 and since. “ In Pile Game the general favourite is what was formerly known as the Lancashire Pile, a bright and pure-coloured bird, the fac-simile of the Black-red cock, only substituting white in the place of black. With ordinary care these may be bred with milky white breasts quite free from lacing or marbling, and with the colours of hackle and back forming a rich contrast. The colour of the cock should be as follows : — Head and neck-hackle, rich orange-red, nearly if not quite free from white stripes ; back, wing-bow, and shoulder coverts, rich crimson or bright claret, shading off to rich orange on the saddle hackles ; flight secondaries, deep bay, all the rest of the plumage milky or creamy white ; the wing bars or coverts as white — i.e., free from any rusty shade — as the Black-red cocks are clear steel blue. Very few judges or breeders object to a few slight ticks or specks of black in the breast or tail feathers, and it is the fact, that birds so ticked are usually the hardest feathered, probably owing to the Black-red cross. The Pile Game hen should have golden yellow head ; golden and white hackle, the more gold the better ; salmon red breast ; and the body colour, back, wing, and tail, a clear creamy white, though some prefer to see a little rusty or foxy marking on the wing-bow. As this marking or colouring is, however, a fault in the Black-red (except for cock breeding), why should it not also be such in the Pile ? or, if not, why should we not encourage the corresponding thing in the Duckwing or the Brown-red ? The fact is, that the exhibition standard for the hens is hardly that which breeds the best cocks, any more than in most other breeds of poultry. I fully endorse Mr. Douglas’ advice to kill all the Black-red chickens bred from Piles, unless they have yellow legs, when no one will be misled as to their origin. Even then it is seldom advisable to retain them, as the first cross with pure Black-reds is far the best. “ Yellow legs are everywhere now preferred for Piles, and light willow legs are to be preferred before white. Ruby red eyes are the best for Piles, as they are for Black-reds.” HENNY GAME. — Besides the varieties described or hinted at by Mr. Douglas, there is a well-marked and singular variety in which the cock is feathered like the hens. This breed is a great favourite in Devonshire and Cornwall, where it is often fought, and has been bred for generations back ; but the origin of the variety is still more difficult to determine than that of other breeds of Game. Many years ago there were strains of it in the North of England, but for some time past it has become extinct in those regions. Some American writers, Dr. Cooper and other cock-fighters especially, have denied the breed to be “true 2 A The Illustrated Book of Poultry. 302 Game ; ” but this arises simply from ignorance. If fighting be the criterion, no Game fowl will fight in a more hard and stubborn manner than the Henny, as evidenced by the report of a fight which disgraced the columns of the New York Weekly Herald in January, 1873, and by the constant experience of those who still fight birds in Cornwall ; whilst, if purity of blood and constantly breeding true to points be the arguments relied upon, the proof is equally clear, as the Henny strain never breeds a long-tailed cock unless crossed. The contrary has been stated by many persons, but the mistake has arisen from various birds which have not been true-bred Henny, but only the product of some cross, which will, of course, breed both kinds of plumage; but the true-bred Henny never does. On the whole, the probability is that the breed is descended from some very ancient progenitor, which accidentally exhibited the peculiar hen-plumage, and struck the fancy of its proprietor. In laced Bantams, which are known to have derived their hen-tailed character from a single cock which attracted Sir John Sebright’s preference (and which was very probably itself descended from hen-tailed Game), we see how apt the feature is to transmit itself with a little care ; and that our supposition is correct, and that the strain once formed was preserved sedulously apart, from a period now impossible to determine, is rendered further probable by the different colours and style of birds, which are very different from the standard breeds of Game. In style they are larger and heavier, occasionally reaching as much as nine pounds, and approaching the kind of bird formerly bred by cock-fighters much more than those now bred by fanciers. The most usual colour is perhaps Red, but not the “ standard ” Reds. There are also Blacks, Greys, and other colours, besides mixtures arising from crossing them. The Reds, and, in fact, most other colours of Hennies, have white or pinky-white legs, and, of course, white skins. These points, with their large size and hardiness, make them decidedly the best for table of any breed of Game ; their hardiness being also a recommendation to those who only wish fowls for table purposes but who share our own opinion that the Game fowl is the finest eating of all varieties of poultry. OLD ENGLISH GAME. — The persistent breeding for greater length of limb, and shorter and scantier feather, has very much modified favourable opinions of modern Game, as expressed by Mr. Douglas in 1872, and led to a very marked revolt It is not only that cock-fighters discard the modern bird : it is far inferior to the old model for the table, either pure or as a cross ; is generally a far worse layer ; and to other than a trained eye, is far more ugly. We have personally noticed, that the Game classes at a show are now quite neglected, compared with what they used to be, and remarks are common upon “ those ugly birds.” We do not wish, however, to disparage them or their admirers ; but simply have to chronicle that this state of things led to a strong reaction, and to the wide expression of wishes for the old model, which was supposed to be nearly extinct. It is probable that its preservation was really due to the cock-fighters ; at all events, the birds reappeared at first in localities connected with the pit, the first class for them being at a show at Clcator Moor, in Cumberland. Aspatria was the next show to give a class ; and in 1883, Wigton show gave the first of classes which have been annually increased since, and have made Wigton a sort of head- quarters of the breed. This may partly be owing to the fact, that at the other shows the usual judges officiated, whereas at Wigton a special judge has always been appointed. Most of the Northern shows now have classes for Old English Game, and in 1888, the revival was recognised by classes for them at Birmingham and Liverpool ; while in 1889 four classes were offered for them at the exhibition of the Royal Agricultural Society. Old English Game Fowls. 303 The illustration will show at a glance the broad distinctions between this old English model, and the modern exhibition Game shown in our other plates. It is drawn from a white-legged black-red cock, which has won several prizes, lent for the purpose by Mr. J. W. Simpson, to whom we are also indebted for the historical material of these notes. The legs are shorter and stouter, the body more massive, the neck stronger, and the feathering more full and flowing — the bird is, in fact, a contrast at nearly all points. Of comparative beauty each must judge for himself, but there is no question as to which is the better table fowl, layer, and sitter. The old Game fowl is also the hardier bird. It should be noted that these points of differ- ence are most accented in the northern birds, and that in the south of England many are shorter in feather, not having such long wings and tail, and being less different from the modern Game. The revival of this old type of bird has been attended by many difficulties. Those who had fowls were unwilling to part with them, and it was very difficult to get either birds or eggs. The demand, however, has gradually induced breeders to meet it, and it is still in- creasing. Mr. Simpson thinks that at the date of this there arc fully ten times as many of these fowls in Cumberland alone, as could have been found only two years before ; and there can be no doubt that size and quality will soon show an improve- ment— a real improvement we mean, and not in the direction of the modern Game. For the pit breeders ignored all but courage and stamina ; and as birds over middle weight could hardly get “ matched,” they actually bred from the smaller ones, to keep down the size. There is no reason why people with better objects should do this, and hence the size will almost certainly increase, unless actually checked by the judges. On July 9, 1887, the Old English Game Fowl Club was formed, to encourage this noble breed of fowl, the secretary being Mr. J. W. Simpson, Abbey Town, Silloth, Cumberland. We give in our schedules the description as regards form, and the table of points agreed upon ; only remarking that the “ lay-back ” is a crest, often extending back in the cock, but standing up (the difference is omitted in the Club’s schedule) in the hen, and in some also of the male birds. This was called a “ tassel ” in old times. There are the usual colours, with some little variation, and generally with more latitude in the legs, which in a black-red may be white, yellow, or willow. As a table-fowl the white-legged is one of the best varieties, but is rather Old English Black-Red Game Cock. 304 The Illustrated Book of Poultry. apt to show white in the tail, as seen in the illustration. This is not desirable ; but if the good qualities of the breed are to be kept up, we sincerely hope too much stress may not be laid upon such points in the exhibition pen. There are also some other colours recognised, as “bright” red, and “blue” red, and spangles; but as these points may alter somewhat, we need not give them here. The really important distinctions, we hope these few words and our illustration may make clear, taken with the particulars given in the schedule. The Old English Game is a most valuable fowl for crossing, especially with Dorking. The varieties or colours known to and described by the old cock-fighters were almost endless. Caring, as they did, very little for colour merely, they bred all sorts ; and some of these were known by names which could not be mentioned in a work of this description. As specimens, however, of the names by which some of the colours were known, we may mention Blue Duns, Red Duns, Mealy Greys, Polecats, Treacle-breasted Marigold Duckwings, Ginger-breasted Orange Blues, Dark Birchens or Birchen-greys, &c. Others, such as the Tassels, furnished with a tuft or crest of long feathers ; Muffs, having a lot of feathers about the throat ; Rose-combs, from the low, spiked comb ; Round-polls, showing clear indications of crossing with the Asiatic ; and the Hennies, described above, seem to have been really distinct breeds, but, except the Henny, do not require further mention. In America, where cock-fighting is still carried on to a very large extent, though in most States prohibited as in England, the same system of breeding is still carried on ; indeed, the various strains are yet more confounded, American breeders of Game being as a rule vehemently opposed to all in-breeding. Dr. Cooper, in his work of 300 pages on “ Game Fowls,” which is written entirely from the cock-pit point of view, and which lies before us as we write, is very strongly against the practice, and in favour of crosses, contrary to the belief of the best English breeders of all kinds of stock. He gives description by name of over sixty distinct strains ; most of which, however, seem to derive their appellatives from the breeders, or other qualities than blood or colour. As a choice sample, we may quote the names of Counterfeits, Clippers, Tartars, Claibornes, Old Nicks, Strychnines, Bob Mace Shufflers, Billy Beards, Gee Dominies, Susquehanna Reds, Jersey Nub-combs, Wild Irish, Baker White-legs, Conkeys, &c. He gives, besides, a list of more than thirty approved crosses between these supposed distinct strains ; and bitterly inveighs against any in-breeding as ruinous to vigour and all other qualities valued by the cocker, a con- clusion in which he will be opposed by universal British experience, as even the old fighting strains of English Game fowls had been perfected by the closest in-breeding in many cases. Dr. Cooper seems to give the preference to the so-called “ Tartar ” strain, of which, indeed, he seems from his work to be the special proprietor ; and describes even the pure stock as breeding alike Black-reds, Reds with black breasts, Blue-reds, and Brown-reds, and either green (willow), blue, or yellow legs. They are very large, ranging as high even as eight pounds, a weight which would make English cockers stare; but there is no doubt they are hard and stubborn fighters. Of late, however, as we know from reliable and independent sources, the most highly-prized breeds for fighting in the States are those known as Claibornes (sometimes called Mobiles), and Heathwoods. The Clai- bornes were formed, it is said, by crossing the English breed known as Lord Sefton’s (a Black-red), with Spanish-bred hens, and are remarkable for the hens almost always having long and sharp spurs, while the weapons of the cock are so keen that the birds are often fought naturally, instead of being armed with steel. Mr. Heathcott’s strain is described by a notorious American cocker of the present day as the best he knows ; but these, again, are said to be “ bred in all the usual colours,” showing great mixture of blood. Cassells Poultry Book. THE. FINEST BREED OF MALAY GAMECOCK DRAWN FROM LIFE BY A NATIVE CHINESE ARTIST . Indian Game Fowls . 305 INDIAN GAME. — The Game fowls known in India have been already alluded to as very generally resembling somewhat the Malay type ; but it is not meant to be asserted that they are really identical with the Malay. The best breeds possess the true “ Game ” courage, in which the Malay is always deficient, and have moreover a “ style ” about them which no Malay ever had. The question of their origin is beset with difficulties which forbid, as we have before said, any attempt to discuss it here; and we shall only add a few particulars as to the various kinds of Indian Game. The birds known by this name in Devon and Cornwall are undoubtedly bred from Indian importations, and, as we have stated in the last chapter, present the Malay type in some points very strongly, being chiefly wanting in the peculiar “ sharp ” shoulders so characteristic of that breed. They are, however, harder in flesh as well as in feather, and some of them are of un- doubted courage. They probably owe their origin to more or less of the variety next to be mentioned, grafted on the Malay stock. To Mr. Montressor’s importations and efforts we chiefly owe the introduction and recognition in England of the Aseel, the best type of the really “ Indian ” Game fowls. They have some apparently Malay points in a pea-comb (inclined to be rather knobby), a drooping tail, and rather prominent shoulders. These latter are, however, rounder than in the Malay, and there the resemblance ends, the bird being lower on the leg, of much greater symmetry all over, and of the most indomitable courage. These birds are most esteemed for fighting in Bengal, are of great endurance as well as pluck, and noted champions have sold in India for as much as 700 rupees {£60). We have never handled any fowls which weigh apparently so heavy, and whose muscle felt so amazingly hard, as we have found in good Aseels. There was a special Aseel Club formed at one time ; but in spite of this, we have noticed that the variety generally has less than a dozen possessors. The fact is that the breed is the most quarrelsome known, as well as most courageous. It is difficult to keep even two hens with one cock ; and as eggs are exceedingly rare likewise, there are obvious practical difficulties in breeding them. We have noticed, in fact, that Aseels are rather apt to be given away every now and then! Nevertheless, they have staunch admirers, and may be recommended to such as seek for a fowl which, at all events, never becomes common. In Malay proper, where we might expect to find the Malay type more strongly marked, the most esteemed kind of Game cock is, on the contrary, of a quite distinct character, differing alike from both the Aseels and English breeds of Game, and evidently partaking more of the character of the true jungle-fowls. They have more feather than the Aseel, but much of the same indefinable “style,” and somewhat resemble the birds known in the United States as “ Sumatra" Game fowls. By the kindness of a retired officer who was stationed some years in the Straits, we were furnished with a drawing of the finest breed of Malay Game cock (using the word Malay in this case to express locality, and not the breed now so-called), made with all the slavish fidelity of a native Chinese artist, and given us with several others, and many drawings illustrating the native spurs and other details, which he had made with the intention (subsequently abandoned) of publishing a work on Indian fowls and fighting. The following notes are also supplied by the same authority, and may be relied upon as the personal experience of one who has mingled actively in the scenes here briefly depicted. « The word ayam in Malay simply signifies a fowl ; jalak , pronounced ‘ jalla / and sometimes called ayam ejou , or green fowl, signifies the colour and style here shown. Malay fowls are found good in all colours, for they are nearly all Game , and no doubt spring largely from the jungle- 3°6 The Illustrated Book of Poultry. fowl, which abounds in the Malay peninsula, and also in Sumatra. The picture is the true colour, with all the minute accuracy of a Chinese artist’s brush — an exact likeness of a true jalla. But I don’t believe there is what you call a pure breed in India anywhere. The Bugis (pronounced ‘Buggeese’), natives of Celebes, Borneo, Sumatra, and in fact all the Eastern Archipelago, fight cocks, and they all have their favourite colours, but few breeders or breeds as such exist — it is the colour, shape, &c., that gives the name. “ Malays rarely if ever cut combs, and never the feathers. There is no comb peculiar ; they are both tall and rose-shaped, though the best birds have generally high and singie combs. [This shows plainly its distinctness from the ‘ Malay’ breed.] “ Some birds live for years and win many matches, for generally one escapes altogether. Malay cock-fighting is really much less cruel than English ; a few minutes and the longest fight is over. The spurs vary in outline, some being straight, some curved, and some waved ; but all have edges as sharp as razors, and are in fact like blades of penknives fastened on. This makes the fighting so quick. It takes yards and yards of soft cotton thread, wrapped round and round in all sorts of ways, to keep the spur firm in loco ; and this is the first art of a Malay. The golok (a straight spur) is generally fastened under foot, close to the ground; the crooked spur in the natural position. They take a long time to heel the birds, and lots of people (friends) look at the position, and give their advice. All this time the money is collected on the mats — piles of dollars on either side — for they are very clannish, and if one side puts down a thousand dollars, the other must do so, or no fight ; that is, unless a quarrel ensue, and they strike each other. Many of the birds are care- fully trained. I have seen a man throw down a bird and hold out one finger two or three yards off, and the bird would fly at it and strike it ! The birds know their owners, and they handle them most dexterously. “Very few English engaged in the pursuit — I did not know above half-a-dozen that ever did ; there was some danger of rows, and few liked to have to do with it, though nothing like so bad as an English cockpit. I once went into the pit at Westminster, and was so disgusted with a main I never repeated my visit. I never saw a fight at Malacca ; they fight there sometimes, but it is the purely native states that make such a business of it. The Rajah of Siak, the first cock-fighter of his day (1825-6), once sent a deputation to me of five boats-full of officers, and about thirty cocks , with a pedigree to each bird ; they were various colours and various names, and fine birds all. It was quite a grand ceremonial. “ The birds are generally put out of hand on the ground by the competitors at say eight or nine yards apart ; but each man seeks to put his bird down at advantage, and there is manoeuvring. The result depends much on training. Some run under and others fly high ; it matters not how they meet, but meet they do, and strike home ! They often meet together high up in the air. I have seen — at different times, of course, and different birds — two cuts from Malay spurs, which, if they could have been done at once, and in one bird, would have quite cut the fowl in two pieces ; one cut going clean through the back deep into the breast, and the other through the breast deep into the back — so keen are the edges of these deadly weapons, and so dreadful are the wounds. Generally one cock at once falls dead or next door to it, so that the other has only to give just one peck and rise, and it is over ; but sometimes the dying bird lays hold of the unwounded one, and by a well-directed blow kills his assailant at once, and wins the battle. They are seldom touched after once let go, because, as I said, one is hors de combat. “ When the Bugis come to trade in the Straits the betting is very heavy ; and sometimes when a man loses all he has he becomes desperate — in Malay language, ‘ meng-a-mok ’ (Anglice, ‘runs a muck’), and perhaps kills many. It is quite a royal affair when Bugis chiefs and Malay C OCK- FIGHTING. 30; rajahs meet, and most intensely exciting, as they all have weapons ready for the least affiont, and no man can offer another a greater insult than saying to him ‘ Eteeh ber taji (i.e., ‘ Duck-spurred ’) — the contrast is between the duck and, to their minds, the noblest of birds, a Game-cock ! I have seen hundreds, and even thousands, of dollars lost and won on one fight of a few minutes’ duration ; and they go on most of the daylight after they once begin, about noon.” Some little must be added respecting cock-fighting as formerly and still carried on at home for this cruel sport, though now popularly supposed to be suppressed, and, indeed, happily no longer permitted in public, is nevertheless occasionally practised in secret to an extent, and often by a class of individuals, which, if known, would make many of our readers and some (not all) of the “ authorities” open their eyes in surprise. We have never witnessed a fight, and never intend doing so ; but we heard of one some years ago being fought out at the country seat of an earl’s son, and could name more than one highly-respected gentleman who is known to be addicted to the forbidden “ diversion.” We shall, however, confine ourselves to a few brief historical particulars We have already seen that cock-fighting took root in England at a very early age ; but it is some consolation to reflect that from a very early age, also, there have not been wanting those high in station who deemed it an unfit pursuit to be allowed to Englishmen. It was prohibited by both Edward III., and Henry VIII. (though the less said about the humanity of the last the better) ; and since then many succeeding edicts were passed against it, including one from Oliver Cromwell. On the other hand, many British monarchs (including King James) have been partial to cocking,* and a century ago the pit at Westminster was allowed to claim the title of “ Royal;” and its rules, though they can now only be understood by cockers themselves, and with the aid of other more modern regulations, which act as commentaries, still serve as the legal or acknowledged rules of such fighting as still takes place in England. This celebrated pit is now entirely suppressed. We may add, as showing how openly recognised the pursuit under discussion at one time was, that a regular treatise upon it formed part of all the older editions of “ Hoyle’s Games.” Previous to fighting, the cocks were always subjected to a regular course of training 01 preparation, just as in the case of pugilists, or competitors in more innocent athletic sports ; the object in this case, as in those, being to reduce the weight by eliminating all superfluous flesh, and leave the bird in the height of mere muscular power, spirit, and endurance. Every “cock-feeder” or trainer, almost, had his secret ; and some of these secrets were highly valued. Aperient medicine was almost always given, followed by a spare diet of the most curious compounds ; and the birds were regularly “sparred ” or sweated, by having their spurs muffled, and being allowed then to peck and fly at each other, care being of course taken that they inflicted no serious injury. This treatment was carried on for a period varying from a week to a fortnight : but in some cases, where the time was very short, the poor birds were “ reduced ” very fast by being swung vigorously upon a clothes-line; their efforts to “hold on” causing them to perspire freely. Modern “ authorities ” skilled in these matters, doubt much if such severe treatment did not often cause more harm than good ; but into this question we have no motive for entering. Before fighting, the cock was “cut out of feather,” as it was called ; that is, the hackles and saddle-feathers were cut short, the sickles and tail-feathers were “docked” like the tail of a race-horse, the wing and other feathers also trimmed. This was to prevent the opposing bird * Amongst cock-fighters, the pursuit is always called “cocking,” and those addicted to it “cockers.” 3c8 The Illustrated Book cf Poultry. having so much by which to take hold, as the Game cock fights with his spurs , and usually requires a hold with the beak to strike a deadly blow. The natural spurs were sawn off to about half an inch long, and over the stumps were affixed by hollow sockets artificial and more deadly weapons of steel or silver. These varied in length from one and a quarter to about three inches. We must in fairness concede that to describe metal spurs as cruelty is simply a mistake ; on the contrary, they actually lessened — because they shortened — the sufferings of the combatants ; though there is little doubt that individual blows are more sharply felt, since it is constantly found that cocks which will fight unflinchingly in their natural condition “ will not stand steel ; ” and even some which will fight well thus, flinch under a long battle in silver. Hence it is probable that to enhance the “ effect ” of the courage of the birds was the original cause of their being thus armed with metal weapons, which were gradually brought to perfection by ingenuity, observation, and long practice, by which the most advantageous curves and other details were gradually discovered. Besides silver spurs, spurs were also made of steel, plated with silver ; but neither of these gave such wounds as the steel spurs. Some spur-makers became much celebrated for the excellence and toughness of their productions, as well as the trueness of their curves, which last were obtained by mathematical calculation. The force with which a Game cock strikes is fearful, and none but the most exquisite temper of metal will stand the strain. Various kinds of “ mains ” were fought, into all the details of which we need not enter. The ordinary or “short” main consisted of twenty-one pairs of cocks, which were fought for so much per battle, and so much the odd battle, or main. Sometimes sixty-one pairs were fought, which was called a long main. There was always an odd battle, to prevent the contingency of a “draw,” but sometimes this happened by the odd battle itself being drawn (as by both cocks being struck dead at the same moment), and on one occasion, at Edinburgh, a “long” main was fought which lasted twelve days, and was finally drawn. The severest test of all was considered to be the Welsh main. In this sixteen cocks were first fought in pairs, then the eight winners were fought in four pairs, next the four winners in two pairs, and finally the two winners fought for the main ; so that the ultimate conqueror had to fight four consecutive battles. The “ battle-royal ” has become almost a proverbial expression. In this mode of fighting each man tossed in his cock ; there was a general fight, and the last living cock won all the money staked. In all regular mains, the nearest weights were matched together. There were other modes of fighting which we need not occupy space in describing. The rules of cock-fighting we shall not give in detail. We have already said that in England the Westminster Rules are in force ; in America there are various rules, such as the New York Rules, the Boston Union Club Rules, the Southern Rules, &c. ; but fighting is more usually conducted under the New York Rules. These go more into detail, and in some respects differ considerably from the English Rules; the size of the pit, the position of the score-lines in centre of it, &c., being all laid down; but we need not state more than that at a revision of the New York Rules, made very recently (we believe in 1872), it was enacted that spurs should in future be uniformly one and a quarter inches in length. The effect of this provision, though apparently merciful to a thoughtless reader, is simply to prolong the battle by lessening the fatal character of the wounds, and thus really adds to the torture of the birds. We will only add that by all the rules we have seen, regular legal provision is made for birds being struck blind ; and what is to be done in such cases is clearly laid down. Cocks, also, which have lost one eye in previous fighting (usually termed “ blinkers ”) are provided for, and allowed certain advantages, which are supposed to counterbalance the defect in sight. It may be urged, and truly so, that other sports are cruel ; and we have little respect for the Brutalising Effect of Cock-fighting. 30 9 man who, after declaiming against cock-fighting, will go down to his “ gun-club ” to maim and torture defenceless pigeons by the dozen — nay, so far as cruelty to the animal goes, he is the most cruel ; for the Game cock fights on equal terms, while the pigeon has little chance against the central-fire breech-loader of our aristocratic “ sportsman.” Still, the suffering inflicted by cock-fighting is far more than cock-fighters usually admit. In Dr. Cooper’s work on the Game fowl is quoted at length, with high commendation, an account of the “Great New York Main against the Daffodil Cocking Club of Porchester,” won by the “ Daffodils, ” with birds of his own favourite “Tartar” strain. The main consisted of seven battles, which were won respectively as follows: — First, eight minutes; second, forty minutes; third, thirty minutes (drawn) ; time of fourth and fifth not stated ; sixth, forty-three minutes ; seventh, thirty- three minutes. In spite, therefore, of the deadly weapons with which they were armed, nearly all these birds suffered far more than the “ very few minutes ” carelessly spoken of by various apologists. Of the nature of that suffering, we find it rather difficult to give a good idea without actually quoting the account of the battles : but we may state that one poor bird fought on with a broken wing for forty minutes; while in another battle “ an unlucky coup blinded ” the Daffodil cock, which nevertheless kept on, till at last he managed to get hold of the other, and “ finished ” him. This bird is accordingly compared enthusiastically with the “ Old Jacksons,” of which the almost incredible explanatory remark is made that this strain “ had the reputation of fighting better after losing their eyesight /” In an account of a main at New Jersey so late as January, 1873, it is stated that ten battles were fought, and in four of these blinding occurred; such expressions as “New York had both eyes torn out” being employed to describe this result. Further details would but sicken the reader; and we will only add of this main that, while some of the battles were very quickly over, we find also the time of twenty-three minutes, twelve minutes, thirty-two minutes, twenty-eight minutes, and fourteen minutes recorded. But it is no part of our purpose to estimate the greater or less amount of suffering involved in all this ; and no doubt other sports cause as great or greater to individual animals. What we desire to point out clearly — because hitherto we have never seen the distinction recognised — is that even the worst of these sports stands on a radically different footing to that now being considered. The cruelty involved in them is a cruelty of thoughtlessness. The sportsman gives pain for which his own diversion may possibly be held to be no excuse ; but this pain in no degree enters into or forms part of his pleasure ; he simply forgets and overlooks it. In cock- fighting it is otherwise The poor birds are there before all eyes, and every stroke is eagerly canvassed, “ telling ” directly in the shape of changes in the betting, as shown in any account of a match. Hence cock-fighting as a rule steadily brutalises those who take part in it, and causes ultimately a disregard of animal suffering in some individuals almost beyond belief. Only the other day an earnest American champion of the diversion boasted that he could take one of his cocks and cut off both legs and wings, and the bird would fight then ! and in certain quarters of England the shocking tale is still whispered about of how the wicked Ardesoif, being angered by a bird on which he had betted heavily turning tail at the last, after winning many battles, tied the recreant cock to a spit,* and deliberately roasted him alive , refusing, with deep and * Several accounts were published of the circumstances attending this horrid piece of cruelty ; but the only one we can find room for is the bare statement of the facts contained in the obituary of the Gentleman's Magazine for April, 1789, and quoted by Cowper in a note to some verses (of no particular merit) founded upon the incident. “ Mr. A. [John Ardesoif, Esq., of Tottenham] was very fond of cock-fighting, and had a favourite cock, upon which he had won many profitable matches. The last bet he laid upon this cock he lost, which so enraged him that he had the bird tied to a spit and roasted alive before a large fire. The screams Tiie Illustrated Book of Poultry . o rc bitter curses, the entreaties which the poor bird’s horrid screams forced even his fellow-sportsmen to urge for a merciful death. These things are not accidents, but natural results of such a sport. The quarrelsome disposition of true-bred Game fowls makes this breed altogether unadapted to the pui poses of the ordinary poultry-keeper. The young cock chickens have been known to fight for two whole days consecutively, only leaving off with daylight, and resuming hostilities as soon as there was a glimmer to see by ; and this disposition is sadly in the way of many who would otherwise be glad to keep them. Their light and active grace, the singular beauty of colour, their free step and undaunted spirit, always secure admirers ; and at most poultry-shows the Game classes are the most thronged of any. Many of the hens are excellent layers, averaging as high as 200 eggs per annum on a good range ; but other varieties fall far short of this. All Game fowls, however, if killed moderately young, are the choicest eating possible. They will not bear fattening ; but if taken up just as they are, after good feeding, are almost like the pheasant in quality of flesh. Merely as a table fowl, the larger strains of hen-feathered Game would be preferable, as cocks may easily be bred reaching nearly eight pounds, and by breeding young birds together the highest quality of meat may be obtained ; but the want of the sweeping sickles sadly detracts from their beauty in most eyes. All Game fowls are very deceiving as to the weight of meat they carry. Compared with most other poultry they look small ; but on taking them up it is found that they are larger than they look, and that they feel almost “ like lead ” in the hand. When, therefore, they can be allowed free range round the country house, with space sufficient to prevent much fighting, they are sometimes an advantageous breed to keep, though, as a rule, more adapted to the purposes of the genuine fancier or exhibitor. By these they will always be prized ; though there is no doubt the great improvement during late years in the quality of their chief rivals, the Game Bantams, has to some degree thinned the ranks of breeders of the true Game. Game chickens are certainly very tiresome to manage. The quarrelsome disposition shows itself at a very early age ; and we have known a bird fight till its windpipe was torn open, long before it was fully fledged. Even the little pullets will often fight freely, but their quarrels rarely produce much harm. As they will generally live peacefully enough after the mastery is once thoroughly decided, many breeders get over the difficulty by buffeting with a bag or handkerchief what seem to be the weaker birds, thus hastening the victory of the stronger ones ; after which, for a time at least, the trouble is over. Temporary separation is not of the slightest use, only making the fighting worse than ever when the little sinners are allowed to meet again ; once the quarrelling begins, it must be decided before peace can be re-established. Later on, when the chicks are old enough to be separated and live apart from the hen, there is much less difficulty ; as the cockerels may be put up together with a strong old cock, who will keep order. It is very strange that this should be the case with so combative a breed ; but it has been proved again and again that a good old Game ,cock will not allow young ones to fight in his presence, but will walk up and stop them, administering severe punishment if his commands be disregarded. In this way the walk may be preserved in peace for a considerable of the miserable animal were so affecting, that some gentlemen who were present attempted to interfere, which so enraged Mr. A. that he seized a poker, and, with the most furious vehemence, declared that he would kill the first man who interposed ; but in the midst of his passionate asseverations he fell down dead upon the spot.” Such a crime, followed so swiftly by such an awful judgment, could not fail to produce a most profound impression ; and there is not the slightest doubt that it did much to awaken public attention to the cruelty of cock-fighting, and produce an opinion against it which ultimately became strong enough to put all open practice of it entirely down. Judging Game. 3 1 1 time, so long as any sign of hen or pullet be sedulously guarded against : but that event is invariably followed by an obstinate fight, in which most of the birds will be killed ; and harmony can never afterwards be re-established. It is also necessary to separate each stag as he is dubbed ; otherwise he is always attacked, his companions not appearing to recognise him when shorn of the appendages thus removed. A word may be said, in conclusion, as to the number of hens allowed by Mr. Douglas to one cock. It is quite certain that amongst the old cock-fighters it was an accepted rule not to place more than three or four hens with one cock, and they always considered that, for their special purposes, a greater number led to deterioration ; and in those days such anxious attention was bestowed on every detail, that many will be slow to accept so total a reversal of all their ideas. Much must depend upon the biids, and much upon the range ; for it is a well-proved fact that with unlimited range double the number of hens may be allowed, with even more vigour than the smaller number in a close yard. Different stock-birds, also, differ totally in their vigour and disposition ; and we have not the slightest doubt that in many cases the produce has been actually weakened, and hens even rendered entirely barren, by want of sufficient mates for a very lively bird ; but on the other hand our own experience has certainly not taught us to expect much size and vigour, or even fertility, from large fowls (in our case Brahmas) when mated with more than from four to eight hens. Mr. Douglas would not utter such an opinion unadvisedly, however ; and all we can say is, that soil, food, range, individual character, and age of the bird, with other circum- stances, should be carefully weighed. JUDGING GAME. — “ In judging Game,” says Mr. Douglas, “ activity and liveliness are taken into consideration, as well as condition and other points. It is very seldom, however, that first impressions are wrong, unless competition is very close. I know the public often wonder how the birds were judged, and I must say often not without cause; but then it must be remembered that the judges see the birds privately and while quiet, and that many are ‘made up,’ as I have already observed, just to stand the test of passing the judge on the required day, and after that they are out of form. In Game it is generally needful really to put the ‘ points ’ together; and hens and cocks should be judged by the same scale.” We may add that in judging Game it is needful to be watchful against evident traces of the Malay cross. Without going into the question of whether such a cross may or may not in certain cases impro\ e a strain, there can be no doubt that if it be employed, it should be entirely “ bred out ” again before showing, and that no bird showing plain signs of it has any right to take a prize as true Game. That cross-bred birds exist, almost any class at a good show will testify for itself; but, at the same time, we must say that in our own opinion its prevalence has been greatly exaggerated, especially by those who can admire nothing but the old, fighting, “ cart-horse ” style of bird. A real Malay cross can generally be detected by the head being too broad, with rather heavy eyebrows, or the neck being too long, or, failing these, by a sort of undefined stiffness or awkwardness of gait, which is as distinct from the elastic tread of the Game as can well be. If a bird shows none of these faults, to assert that he is “ half-bred Malay ” is mere reckless jealousy. Certain perceptible changes in the accepted Standards for Game since the earlier editions of this work were published have already been made clear. We only need add that, in our opinion, the average length of limb has increased nearly an inch during the very moderate interval from 1872 to 1888; and it is remarkable that along with this (sometimes called a “ Malay ” point) there has been a most obvious decline in more truly Malay characteristics, showing that the change is due to selection and preference, and not to crossing. In the following descriptions we have had the The Illustrated Book of Poultry. 312 assistance in revision of Mr. Douglas, of the late Mr. J. H. Smith, and finally of Mr. Entvvislc ; and they may be relied upon as representing the birds as now demanded for the show-pen. Since the decline of cock-fighting, some of the sub-colours have so nearly gone out, and can so seldom be shown with any chance of success, that we shall only describe the standard colours, with the addition of a few from the American “ Standard,” leaving the descriptions in the text to answer for the remainder. Should any of them ever be exalted to exhibition rank — and there have been some signs lately of an attempt to revive the Blue Dun, a most magnificent fowl — fanciers would speedily frame standards of feather far more precise than any which could be given now, and any minute description would, therefore, not only be at present useless, but whenever it became of any use, almost certainly erroneous. SCHEDULE FOR JUDGING GAME. General Characteristics of Cock. — Head and Neck — General appearance of head rather long, thin, and keen : beak strong, slightly curved, and stout where set on ; whole face smooth and fine in texture, including deaf-ears and throat. [In undubbed birds the combs should be upright, thin, straight, and evenly serrated ; deaf-ears and wattles also very thin, red, and smooth in texture.] Eyebrows free from “lowering” expression, which denotes Malay blood. Neck somewhat long and slightly arched; hackle short, so as just to reach between the shoulders, but not to flow over the back. Body — General shape rather slight, largest at shoulders, and tapering to the tail somewhat like the shape of a fir-cone ; back flat, widest at shoulders, and tapering towards saddle, and somewhat slanting ; breast hard and full, but not deep or turkey-breasted ; saddle narrow, the feathers short and scanty ; wings powerful and of moderate length ; the points nicely carried under the saddle feathers. Legs and Feet — Thighs rather long, but well carried along the body, not perpendicularly, or so as to appear long, very round and hard ; shanks in just proportion, with smooth, handsome scales, the spurs set on rather low ; toes long, straight, and thin, with well-shaped nails, and the back toe low and nearly flat on the ground. Tail —A nice medium length, neither too close nor too spread, but only moderately raised, and each sickle-feather as nearly as possible just clearing the next one and no more ; the sickles and whole plumage sound, hard, and glossy. Size — Rather small, ranging from five pounds and a half to seven pounds and a half. General Appearance — Rather slim, but showing much agility, strength, “elasticity,” and vigour, with great hardness of flesh or plumage. Carriage — Very upright, alert, and courageous. General Characteristics of Hen. — In all respects similar to those of the cock, except that the tail is carried not much above the horizontal line, and her comb should be thin, upright, quite straight, and neatly serrated. Size — Rather small, averaging about four pounds and a half, or a little more. General Appearance — Very neat and trim. Carriage — Alert, quick, and active. Colour of Black-Red Game. — In both Sexes — Beak horn-colour ; whole face, including comb and deaf-ear, brilliant scarlet-red. Eyes brilliant red. Shanks, willow or olive preferable, but white permissible [yellow legs show the Pile cross, and are therefore not now allowed in show Black-reds ; white legs rarely now win anywhere]. Colour of Cock — Head and hackle bright orange-red. Back, shoulder-coverts, and wing-bow rich crimsom or claret-red. Wing-coverts, forming the bar across the wing, a rich green-black. Secondaries rich bay on outer web, which is all that appears when the wing is closed ; black on inner web, with a black end to each feather, forming a black edge to corner of the wing. Primaries black, with a bay edge on outside web. Saddle, bright orange-red. Breast and under parts rich deep black, of a bluish shade. Tail black, glossed with green or purple. Darker colours than the above are permissible, but inferior in both beauty and exhibition value. Colour of Hen — Hackle rich golden yellow, striped with black. Breast a salmon-red at the throat, running into ashy colour towards the thighs, which are a brownish ash-colour. Rest of the plumage a rich brown partridge marking, which should on no account run into distinct stripes or pencilling, except on the larger tail-feathers, in which some approach to bars is generally perceptible. Colour of Brown-red Game. — In both. Sexes — Beak nearly or quite black. Face and head a deep rich purple-red, or even almost a purple-black [there are judges who prefer each]. Eyes a very dark brown or black. Legs dark or willow. Colour of Cock — Head and hackles lemon or orange, with a faint trace of black streak in the feathers. Back and shoulders, wing-bow and saddle-feathers, lemon or orange, with a rich black stripe in each feather. Wing-coverts glossy greenish-black ; primaries and secondaries also green-black. Breast-feathers black, laced with bay or lemon, with a little streak in centre of each feather. Tail black, the sickles richly glossed. Thighs and all under parts black. [Other shades are permissible, such as darker orange.] Colour of Hen — Hackle bright lemon, rich gold, or deep gold striped with black. Breast lightly laced. Rest of body brilliant greenish- black, The brilliant black-bodied hens should go with the laced-breasted and brightest coloured cocks to look well. In Ginger-breasted Brown-reds some latitude is allowed, and- also in other sub-varieties of the Brown-reds. In all these, what is chiefly looked for is a general harmony of colour, with signs of careful breeding, combined with symmetry and hardness of flesh and feather. Schedule for Judging Game. 3*3 Colour of Yellow Duckwing Game. — In both Sexes — Head, face, &c., brilliant scarlet-red. Eyes bright red. Legs willow. Colour of Cock — Hackle a light straw yellow or yellowish-white. Back, shoulder-coverts, and wing-bow a bright brassy or golden. Wing-coverts a bright steel-blue, forming a bar across the wing as usual ; secondaries white on under web and black on inner web, with a black end, appearing white with a black upper edge at corner when wing is closed ; primaries black, with a white edging on outer web. Back gold, as clear as possible, the saddle shading off to straw a shade darker than the hackle. Shoulder- butts, breast, and under parts a deep black. Tail black, the sickles richly glossed. Colour of Hen — Head light grey'. Hackle silvery-grey, striped with black. Breast a bright salmon-red, verging to fawn-colour, shading off on lower parts to ashy grey. Back, wings, sides, and saddle a silver grey, covered with a small wavy marking of darker grey, not running, however, into distinct bars or pencilling, and showing shaft of feather white ; to be quite free from any red or brown tinge. Tail a darker grey, almost black. Colour of Silver-grey Duckwing Game.— In bo'h Sexes — Face, comb, &c., as in the Yellow Duckwing. Legs dark willow, or black. Colour of Cock — Head and hackle silvery white, free from both straw shade or dark streak. Back, shoulder- coverts, and wing-bow silvery white. Shoulder-butts a bluish-black. Wing-coverts or bar a brilliant steel-blue ; and secondaries a pure white on outer web, black on inner web, a spot of blue-black on end of each feather, giving a black upper edge to the lower corner when wing is closed. Saddle-feathers silvery white, as the hackle. Breast a deep blue-black, and all under parts black. Tail black, with all the sickles very brilliantly glossed. Colour of Hen — Hackle silver, striped with black. Breast-feathers very pale fawn. Rest of body light silvery grey, with very fine markings of darker grey, very faintly edged with white, the shaft of feather showing slightly, giving the whole a very light appearance. Tail grey and black. Colour of Birchen Yellow Game. — In both Sexes — Face dull red. Eyes red. Beak horn-colour. Legs dark willow. Colour of Cock — Hackle and saddle cream-colour. Back and shoulder-coverts cream and rusty brown. Butts of wings dark brown and rusty-black ; wing-bows cream ; coverts and secondaries brown ; primaries black. Tail and sickles black, coverts bronzed. Colour of Hen — Head and neck dark grey. Breast dark bronzy-grey. Back and sides very dark grey, sometimes almost or quite black ; primaries of wing black. Tail black. Thighs black or dark grey. The deaf-ears in the hen often have a bluish tinge. Coiour of Pile Game.— In both Sexes — Face, Sec., brilliant scarlet-red. Legs yellow, willow, or white. Eyes bright red. Colour of ' ock — Hackle orange-red or chestnut-red, free from white or mealiness. Back a deep chestnut-red. Shoulder-coverts and wing-bow crimson or violet-red (the last, giving an agreeable variety, is much admired). Wing-coverts or bar, white ; second- aries, chestnut or bay on outside or lower web, and white on the inner web, appearing bay when wmg is closed ; with a white spot on the end of each feather. Breast white, or the upper part faintly laced with chestnut; all under parts white. Tail white, as free from black mai king as possible. Colour of Hen — Hackle light chestnut, with a little white in centre of feathers. Breast chestnut in upper part, shading to nearly white on thighs. Rest of the body white, more or less marbled or laced with chestnut, some latitude being allowed. Tail white. It will be seen that the colour of the cock is almost exactly that of the Black-red Game, substituting white for black. This is, indeed, considered the ideal of a true Pile, except that, instead of pure white on breast and wing-bar, a faint but precise marbling or lacing is considered a beauty. Colour of White Game. — In both Sexes— Head, face, and comb (in hen), &c., brilliant scarlet-red. Eyes bright red. Legs yellow or white. Colour of plumage brilliant white all over Beak to match legs in colour Colour of Black Game. — In both Sexes — Face, head, comb (in hen), & c., coral-red. Eyes black, dark brown, or red. Beak black, or horn colour. Legs dark willow, or black. Colour all over a rich glossy black, free from golden, reddish, or smoky feathers. Brassy-winged Game only differ from the above in a little dark lemon, brass, or copper-colour on the shoulders of the cock. Colour of Spangled Game. — In both Sexes— Head, face, &c., rich bright red. Legs yellow, willow, or black. Colour of plumage may be either black, red, blue, or buff, spangled with white ; the spangling to be as even as possible. Whatever the colour be, the tail of the cock is usually black and white. Colour of Cuckoo OR Dominique Game. — In both Sexes — Head, face, &c., brilliant red. Beak yellow. Legs yellow. Eyes bright red. Colour of plumage light bluish-grey, pencilled or barred, as in Pencilled Hamburghs, with darker blue-grey or slate-colour. The cock’s hackle and saddle may be shaded with gold. This variety is scarce and of doubtful purity, the cock’s sickles bein5 Imperfect feet . . . . . • • • 12 Eyes wrong colour 8 Other faults in colour . . . . . • • 1 5 Want of symmetry . . . . . • . . l8 ,, condition and hardness ..... 20 Disqualifications. — Crooked backs, crooked breasts, duck-feet, or any other evident weakness or deformity. Colour of legs not matching in a pen. Any other than single combs. Any fraudulent dyeing, dressing, or trimming, beyond the recognised dubbing and dressing of the head. OLD ENGLISH GAME. General Characteristics of Cock. — Head — Narrow, of medium length; beak slightly curved and strong at the base; eyes prominent and bright, with quick and confident expression, and alike in colour. Mujf—{ If any) to be short and thickly feathered. Lay-back — (If any) to lie close to head and extend straight back. Neck — Rather long, and very strong at junction with body ; the hackle composed of long feathers, covering the shoulders. Back — Medium length, broad across the shoulders, tapering towards the tail, the saddle feathers long and flowing. Breast and Body — Breast broad, full, and straight ; body medium length, firm, and muscular, convex on the sides, broad at the shoulders, and tapering towards the tail. Wings — Long, strong, and inclining to meet under the tail. Tail — Nearly upright, full and expanded; sickle feathers abundant, broad, and well curved; main tail feathers abundant, broad, with hard and strong quills. Legs and Feel — Thighs short and stout, shanks rather long, of medium bone, flat and clean ; scales smooth and close ; toes long and spreading, the back toe standing well backward, and flat on the ground. The whole body to appear symmetrical and muscular, and about an even balance when handled by the sides with the fingers round the thighs. General Characteristics of Hen. — The hen to be similar to the cock in all points of symmetry, &c. Head Beak Eyes Neck Back Breast and body .. SCALE OF 8 4 4 io io 15 POINTS. Wings Tail Legs and feet Closeness of feather Colour Handling ... io 5 12 6 IO 6 IOO CHAPTER XXIII. DORKINGS. Even the Game fowl can hardly be regarded as a more thoroughly English breed than the Dorking, though the latter was raised for far other objects, and to a far different standard of perfection. If the one has typified the national quality of hard fighting, the other may equally and fitly symbolise the decided penchant for “good living” which distinguishes John Bull all over the world. It has been well said of him, that he can fight on an empty stomach, but he much prefers to fill it first ; and our Dorking is a contribution to the process which no one need despise. Before the poultry-fancy had been heard or thought of, the Dorking had been bred to a high standard of perfection, simply as a fowl for the table ; and after all competitors have tried their best, even the vaunted French fowls have not displaced it, and it still remains — take it all in all — the favourite table breed of those best of all judges, the London poulterers. As in the case of the Game fowl, it is very difficult to determine the origin of Dorkings ; indeed, really to settle the point may safely be pronounced impossible. Conjectures, supported by more or less of probability, are all that can be offered ; and we must say that of such probabilities almost all, in our opinion, point to the conclusion that much of the breed in question, at least, was introduced by the Romans. In the well-known passage, where the old writer Columella gives the then accepted ideas as to the “ points ” which should be sought in selecting stock, it is quite true that he differs seriously from the present Dorking, not only in colour, which he describes as “red,” but also in comb, which he says should be both small and erect, differing thus from either type of comb which is now accepted. But he speaks so distinctly of the “ square frame,” large and broad breast, large head, and, above all, of the “ five claws” which mark the Dorking more strongly than any other point, that these, in our opinion, far outweigh all minor differences, and prove that the breed now to be considered, in all its main essentials, was known ever so many centuries ago to the gourmands of the Roman world. That it should be an indigenous British fowl, when it was unlawful to eat fowl at all in Britain, is scarcely likely of so pre-eminently a table breed ; and hence we come to the conclusion that the Dorking — as we know it now — is the more or less direct descendant of those birds which in old Columella’s days were most prized by the poultry- keepers of Rome. The intermediate stages of descent are of course impossible to determine ; but it is certain that the Coloured or Grey Dorking of a quarter of a century since, just before the poultry mania burst upon the astonished public, was not the Dorking of the present day, which could not be called grey by any stretch of the imagination. But the Dorking of those days zuas grey, the plumage of the hens being of a very neat grey speckle, rarely seen now, occasionally running very nearly into that now called silver-grey by fanciers. The size was also smaller, and the shape of body somewhat shorter and more compact. The White Dorking with rose comb was also well known ; and as this last always bred true, while the grey-speckled birds varied much in comb, and were very uncertain about the fifth claw, it is most probable that the genuine Dorking stock — 3 1 6 The Illustrated Book: of Poultry. whatever that was — had been by this time chiefly merged into the White bieed, while the Coioure > variety had retained it in less degree, or had perhaps been even formed by crossing the V\ hite Dorking with those large speckled fowls which for many generations have been indigenous to the counties of Surrey and Sussex, being probably produced by the fine dry soil of that pait of England more than by any special causes ; though for years lately the demand for the London market has caused them to be largely cultivated, with peculiar care, and on a scale which brings in yearly no small share of the income of those counties. COLOURED DORKINGS. — The change from the old Speckled or really Grey Dorkings just described, to the larger and darker fowl now shown was undoubtedly effected by Mr. John Douelas, and by means of a cross. This cross has been often alluded to, but very vaguely, by previous writers on the Dorking fowl ; some saying that the Cochin was employed, whilst recently the statement has been made that the alien stock used were Indian birds of the “ Malayan” type. Mr. Douglas himself, however, must obviously be the very best authority upon this point, and has at our request kindly given the following interesting account of the process. We may add, that in seeking these details we were not only desirous of clearing up the matter as regards the Dorking fowl itself, but of publishing a valuable “ lesson in crossing” for the benefit of breeders generally ; this being a branch of the art which is as yet little cultivated, and by which we believe very valuable results might be secured. “ Dorkings, in 1857,” says Mr. Douglas, “were considered of a good show weight if the cocks attained nine pounds and a half, and the hens seven pounds and a half. The hens were then either of a grey or brown ruddy colour, and the cocks always showed a great deal of white in the tail, with breasts inclined to be speckled of various colours ; not any standard colour, as shown at the present day. “ The first and only time I made a cross was with a dark grey cock, which had come from India, weighing thirteen pounds. This bird was a model single-combed Dorking in all but the fifth toe, which was absent ; and it is quite wrong to say he was of the Malayan type, for there was not the least type of Malay about him — he had white legs and all the characters of the Dorking, except, as before stated, the fifth toe. I firmly believe he must have been a cross from a bird of the Dorking tribe taken out before to India, with what cross I could not say, but certainly not the Malay. I put to this bird seven hens eighteen months old, and the produce turned out fai beyond my expectations — all were decidedly of the Dorking type, and very few but what had the Dorking toe. Some of the pullets when seven months old weighed nine pounds, and cockerels ten pounds and a half ; while at eighteen months several hens reached ten pounds and upwards, cocks coming up to thirteen pounds ; and one bird in particular, when two years and six months old, weighed as much as fourteen pounds and a half, which was the heaviest weight I ever obtained in the Dorking fowl. “ So much for the first cross. The following season I mated one of the cockerels thus produced to thirteen of the old hens, and the imported cock to seven of his own cross-bred pullets Erom the cockerel with the hens I chiefly obtained my uniformity of colour in the pullets, and also my very dark cockerels ; but I also found I had obtained a much stronger constitution. From this year’s breeding many yards obtained the new blood, both by eggs and birds bought of me ; and from that date (1858) we began to find at our shows a steadily increasing number of the Dark Greys, and heavier weights began to be shown. “ After the second year I lost the imported cock, and had then to work with the two yards r had formed, but which I found no difficulty in doing. The stronger constitution thus introduced 'i MR JOHN MARTINS ROSE-COMBED DORKING COCK "C H A M.P I 0 N" CUPS AT STROUD AND N EWPORT, 1870 CH ELTEN H AM SOUTH AM PTON A N D CRYSTAL PA LACE, 1871, DU BLI N , 1872 . Breeding Coloured Dorkings. 3^7 continues to the present time, breeding also up to this very day far more uniiormity in colour. Whole yards of Dorkings may now be found which run as true to colour as Brahmas or Cochins ; whereas before this time almost every hen was different in colour, so much so that out of a hundred hens in a yard it was a difficult matter to get three out of the lot to match. We have also thus obtained longer bodies, greater width in shoulders, more length of breast, and greater depth in the keel or breast-bone, where a proportionately greater amount of flesh can of course be put upon the birds ; in fact the fowl is now heavier-fleshed all over, with no more addition of offal in proportion. With regard to the improvement in constitution, young Dorkings previous to the cross could hardly be shown at more than two shows running, when they were either attacked with roup or became black about the head ; often also becoming crop-bound, or dropping down with leg- weakness — in fact, had constitutions not at all adapted for show purposes. Now it is well known they will travel from show to show all the season through, equal to almost any other breed, while upon an average every first-class bird carries about three pounds more flesh than formerly.” We are not sure that the gain as regards constitution, referred to in the foregoing notes, is not somewhat exaggerated ; as a reference to any old files of poultry papers will show that years ago all poultry sent to shows were far more subject to various diseases than now, owing chiefly to want of sound knowledge as to their proper treatment. “Exhibition fever” was in those days quite a common and well-understood term, and the majority of fowls suffered more or less from it. The gain in size is however beyond dispute ; and that to a perceptible degree vigour has been likewise improved, must also be granted ; for both of which fanciers have to thank the efforts of Mr. Douglas. The following notes on Dorkings — their breeding, management, &c., have been furnished by Mr. John Martin, formerly poultry-breeder and manager to Viscountess Holmesdale, of Linton Park, Kent, whose constant succession of triumphs as a Dorking exhibitor is still well remembered by poultry-fanciers ; and who, since her ladyship retired from “ the fancy,” has won, with the same stock, many prizes on his own account. “ In choosing my breeding-stock of Dorkings,” says Mr. Martin, “ I am always careful to select birds with good, sound feathers — that is, with feathers looking as though they had been glued down, and not such soft-feathered birds as we often see in all poultry, and perhaps oftener in this breed than any other. I choose birds possessing great length and depth of body, with good broad shoulders and backs ; and especially I think it very important to get birds with great length of breast-bone — not a short breast-bone like Cochins and Brahmas. Short-breasted birds may look well in a pen to a novice, appearing round and plump ; but they are not good Dorkings, and would be condemned by a judge who understands the breed. “ 1 like the head to be large, but not coarse, and I like also to see good large feet, with a fair but not excessive amount of bone. The fourth and fifth toes (that is, the back toes) should be low on the leg, and separate — not one toe growing out from the other — and it is best for the lowest of them to stand out straight, and not point to the ground ; for when they do so one or both often get injured, and this mishap has not seldom prevented an otherwise good pen of birds from winning But, above all, I would select birds of good constitution, and in the best of health ; for if you breed from either weak or sickly stock, what can you expect but weakly chickens ? I prefer breeding from adult birds, for I consider a bird at two years old is in its prime as regards strength and vigour, whereas one only a year old has not arrived at its best — at least, it is so in Dorkings. I always found, as a rule, that when I put a two-year old cock with pullets, the pullets preponderated whereas a young cockerel mated with hens produced more cockerels ;* but I prefer full-grown * It will be seen that this corroborates our own opinion expressed on p. 133. CO The Illustrated Book of Poultry. :8 birds on both sides, and the best plan I know of is to select the breeding-stock, and put them on a good walk till they are nearly two years old, both cocks and hens to be of the same age. Then I can safely say you have the birds at their very best as regards all the objects of successful breeding-. “ The colour of birds I prefer are those of dark feather, but to show a bright shaft nearly the whole length of feather. The male bird should be descended from the same coloured birds as the females, for if not no one can possibly tell what colour the chickens will turn out. I do not mean to say but what a first-rate strain put to an inferior will very much improve the inferior one ; but then the next season you must cross back again only to the better one, and by this means you will improve ; but if you select another cross again next year, it is probable you will be as far off your aim as ever. For my own part, I prefer to keep breeding from my own stock, and then 1 know what I am about ; for I know, to my cost, the ill effects of crossing with birds from bad strains, even although they had every appearance of being good birds. In any case, the breeder should be careful to select birds only from stocks that have shown good points for years. While I was poultry-manager for Lady Holmesdale, at Linton Park, I once had the misfortune to purchase a first-class Spanish cock in every respect (as far as regards looks) for a breeding bird ; but, to my disgust, there was. not a single chick from him worth the food it had eaten, although the bird was mated with the very best hens I ever bred* I once made the very same mistake in breeding Silver-pencilled Hamburghs ; and he is a fortunate man who can breed first-class birds by picking up his stock anywhere, however good the birds may be. On the whole, I should persuade any one starting afresh to get at first all his birds from one strain, unless it is a class of birds that requires to be bred two ways, one for cockerels and the other for pullets ; though I believe, with care and perseverance, all classes of birds might be bred from one stock. I have bred my Dorkings now for some years together without a cross, and the strain has shown no deterioration. “I mate my breeding-stock about January, so that the birds may be well settled together; and if I get my first chickens out by the end of March, I find by the time the hen leaves them the weather is generally warm enough net to stop them from growing. I find seven or eight eggs plenty to put under a hen early in the season, and eleven is plenty at any time. I take great care to obtain really safe and good sitting hens ; for there is many a guinea paid for eggs utterly thrown away through a bad sitter. I like to set my Dorking eggs if possible under Dorking hens, as it gives the hens a rest from laying; besides which, I do not like to have light-coloured birds running about with or near the breeding-stock, having every reason to think the very sight of them has a great effect upon the progeny. The sitting hens should be very clean, and free from vermin, which is one of the great secrets of successful poultry-rearing. It is impossible for a hen to sit well if she is tormented in this way, and the little chicks get infested with them and cannot thrive, sometimes dying off by whole broods. As a proof of this being the cause, Cochins or Brahmas rarely die off in this manner, because the young chicks have not feathers enough to harbour vermin. I have also been very often asked to call and see a lot of chickens that have been doing badly, though fed upon the best food money could buy ; and on taking them up have generally found them covered with lice, which all quickly- feathering breeds are subject to. The best thing I know of in such a case is to mix a very few drops of carbolic acid with powdered brimstone, mixing or rubbing * In Chaptei XI., we have shown that the ill results here spoken of do not necessarily prove that the purchased bird was really of a “bad strain,” but may have been produced solely by the sudden cross causing a tendency to revert to the older and less perfect form of face. Cassells Poultry Book. ■V v of v V Vk j wy s/ iCvww W1 EC009 JapcPW g?&6 mK'iv y Vincent Brooks Day 5c Son Lrtli HN MARTINS S I N G LE -C 0 M B E D D FIRST PRIZE AT WARRINGTON k ! r' IN U HEN Rearing Dorkings. 3 r9 well together, and putting no more of the acid than will mix up dry with the brimstone — give them a few dustings of this, and you will not see any more of the little plagues for some time, while the chicks will recover as if by magic. I also find it a good plan to water the house all over with water in which a little of the acid has been mixed, which purifies it as well as destroys all insect life. “ I prefer to set my own hens out of doors, in the same covered coop I mean the bird with her chickens to occupy after hatching, and allow her to come off at pleasure. I do not believe in their needing to come off every day, as many people make a practice of taking them off — the food they eat lasts much longer than when they are taking plenty of exercise, and if Dorking hens at least be left to their own will, they will only come off once in two or three days, If you put a feeding-hopper, there will always be food ready for them. If the weather is very dry, do not forget to sprinkle the eggs a few times, and pour plenty of water round the nest when the hen is hatching. I never take the chickens away, not being partial to chickens roasted on the hob or before the fire at that tender age. As soon, however, as all the chickens are out of the shell and are quite dry, they should be put into a clean nest, though this is still better done the day before hatching ; but they are better for not being fed till twenty-four hours old. “ As regards chopped egg, spice, and similar things — not for my chickens ! I have left them all off for many years. I get the best oatmeal and the best sharps, and mix together until it will break up almost like bread. I feed them upon this, with a few groats about twice a day, while they are small. As they get larger give them a little of the best wheat instead of groats ; but I never pamper them in any way with dainties, but bring them up on good sound meal and grain. I must say a little hempseed and buckwheat ground up with the meal and added at times is very beneficial ; but after all possible niceties have been got for them, I never find them do so well as on good plain meal and grain. I feed them all through life as above, with a little barley and Indian corn at times, and I find they will grow upon it to large-framed birds, never get too fat, and will stand showing well — quite as well as other people’s birds. “My experience as regards perches is just the contrary to what I generally see stated, and I much prefer to have them so small that the birds can easily grasp them with their feet. I never found that wild pheasants chose the largest limbs of trees to roost on, as I have seen remarked, but just the reverse ; and I remember well one case of my own, when I had a fine lot of Dorking pullets, which had grown up on my ordinary perches with breasts perfectly straight. Seeing so much in a poultry paper about broad perches, I thought I would change them, which I did ; but on feeling them again a month or two after I was disgusted to find they had all gone crooked, and I have never used large perches since.* “ I will only add that overcrowding is a very frequent cause of chickens not turning out well, and Dorkings suffer from it more than most breeds, especially when about two or three months old. If you wish to succeed at exhibitions, do not spare the knife when you see one that certainly will not make a prize bird ; for by keeping it the chick not only ' eats its head off,’ but is taking up the room a better bird should have, and actually helping to spoil that also.” Both rose and single combs may be shown in Coloured Dorkings, but of course all the * Our own experience has certainly been different from this, as we found on changing from small perches to larger a decided change for the better. There is, however, probably a “happy medium and the shape of the fowl’s foot should also be studied. 320 1 he Illustrated Bools of Poultry. Utds in any pen must match. The two strains have been so inter-bred, that often both rose and single combs have been known to proceed from the very same parents; but it is in the power of any breeder very speedily to correct this irregularity, and fix either feature in his own strain. The rose-combed birds have a great tendency to become very coarse about the head in their second year, which detracts greatly from their good looks as exhibition birds ; tnis, too, however, may be eradicated by careful attention to fine “quality” of head and face, and we have seen several very “ old stagers which, after several years of successful competition, still looked high-bred and aristocratic fowls. The geneial points to be sought in breeding stock have been well described by Mr. Martin. VVe append in Fig. /4 a repiesentation of the dark plumage he alludes to as preferred by himself Hackle. (and also by the judges) for Dorking hens. The breast is salmon-red, each feather tipped with dark grey or black ; the wing-feathers black round the edges, with a rich brown centre, pencilled or shaded with black, and the back and saddle almost black ; all the feathers except the breast showing the white shaft very distinctly. With regard to breeding for this or any other colour, it is impossible to put the matter in a better or more simple manner than he has done, viz., to take care that the cock is descended from the same coloured stock as the hens you have selected. It is said, indeed, in all the older works on poultry that Grey Dorkings are not “birds of colour,” but judged solely by size, weight, shape, condition, &c. It used to be so; but of late there has been such a marked preference shown by judges for the “dark” colour described by Mr. Martin, and figured above, or failing that, for the richest and most hand- some appearance, that colour can no longer be ignored. To breed the dark colour in question, cocks with very black hackles will be found necessary ; and we may add that white in the tail Breast Flat of Wing;. Saddle. Fig. 74.— Feathers of Dark-coloured Dorking Hen. Colour of Dorking He nr. n n T 1 should be avoided as far as possible, as we have several times seen that blemish, though it would not weigh in most cases, give the “ casting vote ” in a close competition. Almost the only other colour of hens which can be shown with success against the very dark just described, is a plumage which resembles all over that of the feather from flat . of wing in Fig. 74, but of a still lighter brownish-grey in the centre, and showing the dark lacing round the edges rather more sharply. This latter colour is very rich and pleasing to the eye, and not long since was rather a favourite type, while it still competes successfully, and we Flat of Wing. Wing Covert. Hackle. Fig. 75. — Feathers of Medium-coloured Dorking Hen. are inclined to think sometimes produces quite as heavy weights. The cocks of this coloured strain have generally rather clearer coloured hackles than the last, though with a much more brilliant black stripe in each feather, and are not quite so subject to white in the tail, hence they make very handsome and striking-looking birds ; but it is a singular fact, that while, as we have just remarked, we have often observed very large hens of this coloured strain, most of the cocks, according to our observation, are hardly equal in size to the darker birds. In Fig. 75 are carefully represented feathers from a splendid hen of this variety which has won numerous prizes, and often competed successfully with the darker colour. We have occasionally seen birds win of a lighter colour; the feathers still resembling in character those shown in Fig. 75, but of a yet paler shade, and the black lacing much narrower, or on some birds scarcely discernible. This colour approaches very nearly to the Silver-grey 322 The Illustrated Book of Poultry. presently described, and is also like it in the breast-feathers being usually free from black or grey at the tips ; in fact, it is evidently from this class of birds the Silver-greys have been derived. These hens are very handsome in colour ; but as a rule are not equal to either of the preceding in either real or apparent size, and being thus unable to win except unusually large, have gone out of fashion ; a fancy we own to personally for this feather being also not shared generall) by breeders and judges. It is in fact too near the Silver-grey to be favoured by breeders of what is always understood to be the darker variety of the two. The still lighter uniform grey speckle from which the old Grey Dorking undoubtedly took its name is never now seen in show-birds ; or if it is, only to be beaten hopelessly by the superior weight and size of the darker usurpers. About the country, however, it is still occasionally met with ; and many experienced housekeepers have expressed to us a most decided opinion that while it cannot be compared as regards size with the modern bird, it is more delicate and juicy in flesh. Coloured Dorkings do well on any dry soil, especially if the aspect of their run be somewhat warm ; but they are very rarely good layers. As sitters they are perhaps the best of all fowls, going long with their chickens, and brooding them more than either of the Asiatic races. It is, however, as a table fowl, or when birds are chiefly required for market, that this breed shows to advantage — on that ground it will beat all others. It “makes its weight” early— a very great advantage ; and has a natural aptitude for getting and keeping fat — the fruit of long and sedulous breeding for that object — which scarcely even the French breeds possess. Chalk or gravel runs suit the breed best ; and upon such a soil, if not hatched too early, there is no difficulty whatever in rearing them, if proper care be given to cleanliness and the ground be not overstocked. These precautions they require, being more subject than most fowls to roup, gapes, and other diseases which have any connection with foul ground. It is worthy of note, that when brought up under more natural circumstances, the Dorking appears to become at least moderately hardy. At Linton Park, Mr. Martin had yards enough at his command; but at a visit we paid (we think in 1866) we found the whole of Lady Holmesdale’s far-famed stock at perfect liberty in the park. A number of portable wooden houses mounted on wheels were provided, and dotted about on the extensive sward at distances sufficient to avoid any danger of the different families mixing, the more so as they were hidden one from the other by intervening trees. These houses were moved a little every two or three days, to avoid any necessity for cleaning; and open windows were provided at each end, whicn were only covered by a coarse linen curtain in the very severest weather. Under this treatment, as we remarked in Chapter I., the fowls gradually improved most wonderfully in constitution ; and we did not observe even a single old bird but what exhibited the close, “glued-down” appearance just now described, and which can never be attained but with the most perfect health and condition. They fairly shone like the richest velvet; and while the very closeness of feather prevented their looking so large as far inferior specimens which we have seen, the real weight of a few we picked up (and it amused us to find them almost as tame as pet cats) was enormous. These birds always showed well, going to show after show with little apparent injury, on account of the splendid constitution with which they began. Such results point to the conclusion that were the Dorking thus bred and reared, on a good drained grass-range, to a greater extent, it might probably be transformed into a hardy breed. Mr. Martin’s experience of interbreeding with Dorkings does not appear to have been different from that of other fanciers with more vigorous stocks ; but we must admit that in the case of this variety we should be far more anxious to obtain occasional “fresh blood” than with other breeds; Rearing Chickens in Sussex. 323 the natural weakness of constitution having to be prudently allowed for. In the case of farm or market stock, colour is of no importance, and crosses may be freely used, only taking care that every cock purchased be a massive and thoroughly healthy bird ; but in breeding for exhibition we would take all practicable means of rather repurchasing distantly-related scions of the home strain, descended from similarly-coloured parents to the birds it was desired to recruit, than having recourse to thoroughly alien blood. We have also good practical reason to believe that the judicious use of “ Parrish's Chemical Food,” already so strongly recommended by us, would often work wonders in this breed, by imparting both size and stamina. We have often been asked to describe the large “Surrey” or “Sussex” fowls which are so largely reared for the London market ; but the truth is it is utterly impossible to do so. They are of no standard of colour, and even no fixed type of breed, except that a strong dash of Dorking blood can be traced in them all, the fifth toe being often observable ; but this and all other features vary considerably. They appear in fact to be simply a fine race of barn-door poultry, improved by long and careful breeding for the London markets, which are to a large extent supplied by Fig. 76. these southern metropolitan counties. They are all much like Dorkings in squareness of form, and perhaps a colour as general as any may be described to be a whitish ground, freely but irregularly covered with black and brown, or other dark-coloured feathers ; some white or nearly white colour being observable in a very large proportion of the birds. Very often Dorking cocks or Dorking hens are purchased to cross with, which accounts for the strong Dorking type presented ; but a proportion of the “ Sussex” blood is always much preferred to pure Dorking, as being hardier and less expensive. The mortality among these Sussex chickens is usually very small indeed, but this arises in great measure from the natural and hardy manner in which they have been reared for generations, and strongly corroborates what has been already advanced as to the advantages of keeping the birds — young and old — in a natural way* This is the more worthy of remark, as hatching is carried on very nearly all the year round, but more especially from January to September ; chickens in the latter month being greatly valued for the Christmas markets, but even these having frequently no better shelter than a cart-shed. The coop used in Sussex is almost invariably that represented in Fig. 76, measuring about thirty inches wide by twenty-four inches in depth and height. It is boarded close at the sides and back, and about half-way down the sloping top, so as to give a * Another strong testimony to the same fact will be found in Mr. Teebay’s notes on his Spanish, in the next chapter. 324 The Illustrated Book of Poultry. partial shelter during rain. These coops, in some parishes, may be seen about everywhere — on the strips of grass at the sides of the roads, in odd corners, in front of cottages, and in the fields. The whole district abounds in what are called small farms ; and as every occupant of one of these farms, almost without exception, is a chicken-breeder, the connection we have already pointed out in Chapter VIII. between the small occupations usual in France and the enormous poultry products of that country receives what may be almost said to be actual demonstration from the connection between similar causes and effects in the chief chicken-raising district of England. The cottagers also breed chickens, however, some of them producing 200 annually ; and the thriving condition of many engaged in this business is certainly worthy the attention of all interested in the “ small occupation” question which has recently attracted so much notice. Except at very late and early seasons, the coops are left out all night (they must be honest folk in Sussex), but are moved sufficiently often to prevent the ground smelling offensively. Here is the secret of the success, for deaths are almost unknown. While young they are fed very often, and afterwards three or four times a day, the food being the ground oats we have already spoken of, made into a thick paste with water ; milk is not used till the fattening commences. The treatment is found to answer, and the birds to thrive, even in parishes where the soil is of a clayey character, though undoubtedly the chalk districts do the best. This shows that cir- cumstances (such as a large and intelligent cottage population, with small allotments) tending to good management , have far more effect on poultry production than mere advantages of climate or situation. Usually the fattening of the chickens is a distinct business from both the raising and the selling. The fatters collect from the raisers ; fatten, kill, and dress the birds all ready on stated days for the “higglers,” who pack and send them to the London market; some higglers, in the busy season, being known to send over 1,500 birds to market in one week. The fattening is generally completed in about ten days, the birds being always in very good condition to start with, and the food given is almost always the same ground oats the chickens have been fed upon before, but now made with milk into a thick gruel. This is given twice daily, the birds being allowed to feed themselves. Of late, however, a somewhat different system has been inaugurated, and at the close of 1870 there was published in a weekly journal an interesting account of a visit to the establishment of Mr. Olliver, of Warbleton, in which the birds are crammed by machines similar to that described by us in page 83. Warbleton is very near Heathfield, which is a very active centre of the chicken- raising district, and in fact the very locality to which most of the preceding description* more especially applies. Heathfield is itself, by the way, a clay soil ; but this, as already remarked, does not seem to interfere much with its production of poultry, which we have seen to depend upon other reasons. At Mr. Olliver’s establishment Mr. Crook (the writer of the article in question) found the chickens fattening in “ very long thatched sheds, the sides of which were constructed of alternate uprights of rough-hewn timber, the intervening spaces being filled up with bundles of faggots. These sheds were about eighty feet long by about six feet wide, and along either side were continuous rows of coops full of chickens. The coops were capable of holding about one dozen in each, and were entirely composed of wooden bars or rails, so that there were no offensive accumulations. The object of making the sides of the sheds of faggots was stated to be for the purpose of securing plenty of fresh air, but which did not enter in upon the birds like a draught, but percolated through the faggots : thus the birds were kept in health.” In three of these sheds # It is only right to state that for many details in that description we have been indebted to some notes of a visit to Heathfield published in the Journal of Horticulture of October 7th, 1869. Cassell's Poultry Book rnmmm : mSfeMMmk £ <*,'fl^&°,l,'lt'/ '• « •»** A\*. <“l'" x-/ '» C&flS «* v » ■ '/.fc mmm ggsigi oks rrt ay & Son lath MR OF. CRESSWELL’S SILVER-GREY DORKING HEN I ST PRIZE PRIZE AT BIRMINGHAM 1872. AT ASHFORD 2ND . ■ S/L VER- GRE V D OR KINGS. 325 the birds were fed out of troughs, as already described ; but in other and yet longer sheds, still however constructed at the sides of bushes and faggots, they were finished off by the cramming machine, of which we have given a figure ; the food thus given being composed of the thin ground oats and milk as before, but with the addition of some mutton suet chopped very fine. All the coops were raised a considerable height from the ground ; and loose, dry mould being placed undei to receive the droppings, which are regularly removed, the place was entirely free from any unwholesome smell. The cramming machine was found a great success, cramming on an average about twenty dozen birds per hour, with the aid of two persons. The establishment was stated to turn out regularly, “in the season,” from 700 to 1,000 fatted birds per week, and the collecting-staff alone numbered some twenty men and boys, with horses and carts, whose business it was to go round the district and collect chickens of an age suitable for the fattening coops. All these, Mr. Crook was informed, “had regular districts allotted to them, in which every man knew where he was likely to have chickens ready for him, the distance they travelled being about thirty miles , and these neighbourhoods had to be regularly looked up, or else the men employed by other fatters were likely to call and pick up any produce that might be ready.” Perhaps nothing could show better than this last remark the systematic manner in which the chicken-raising and fattening business is carried on in the Sussex and Surrey district, to an extent few people have the remotest conception of, and which will be ample reason for giving these particulars of a branch of national production so closely connected with the Dorking fowl, and which, if carried on in the same thorough manner, might be introduced into other parts of England with the greatest advantage to all parties concerned. SILVER-GREY DORKINGS. — When the somewhat lighter-coloured hens whose plumage was represented in Fig. 75 were generally bred, and even the old grey colour of the original Dorking was not unfrequently seen, very beautiful clear-grey hens were often produced ; and by judiciously selecting these the breed was finally established which is now termed Silver-grey, and breeds fairly true to colour. Something of the massiveness of the Coloured Dorking is no doubt wanting in this beautiful fowl ; but if it be remembered how much of this has been owing to the foreign blood introduced by Mr. Douglas, it will be evident that the Silver-grey has not been really degraded in size through “ breeding for colour,” as some writers through want of consideration have remarked, but has simply lacked the help which the other has received from a more massive cross. The following notes on this beautiful variety of the Dorking were furnished us by Mr. O. E. Cresswell, then of Early Wood, Bagshot, Surrey, well known as a careful breeder and successful exhibitor of Silver-greys : — “ Silver-grey Dorkings have now a class or classes to themselves at almost every noteworthy show. The Grey Dorking of ten years ago was often what would now be called a bad Silver-grey, the so-called ‘Coloured’ and Silver-grey having both sprung from the same ancestry of the old Grey Dorking. In the one case it has been the fashion to breed for the darkest, in the other for the lightest shades of colour. “ The chief distinctive exhibition-points of Silver-greys are as follows : — The cock should have a pure silvery-white neck-hackle, back, saddle-hackle, and upper wing-coverts ; the black under feathering of the back being entirely covered by the silvery-white feathers of the neck, and the wing-coverts entirely free from chestnut patches. The tail, thighs, and breast, on the contrary should be perfectly black. Perfection in the latter point is becoming very difficult of attainment, the extremely light shades now sought in the hen having in my opinion injuriously affected that great beauty in a cock — a pure glossy black breast After the second or third moult the best 2 C 3 2(d The Illustrated Book of Poultry. cocks will show some grizzling on the thighs, but will not on that account breed any worse chickens. The hen should have body, back, and wings of a soft silvery-grey, perfectly free from red or reddish tinge ; breast of a robin-red or salmon colour ; and neck-hackle as silvery as possible, with a fine distinct black stripe down the centre of the longer feathers. The most common faults in the hen are, either distinctly reddish feathers in the wing, or a slight brownish tinge ail over the body. It may be observed that the latter of these faults seems to increase with age, while the former, on the contrary, decreases ; and I have had birds very faulty in this respect as pullets, which in the second moult entirely lost the reddish feathers, and became perfectly silvery. The breast-colour of the hen may vary from robin-red to pale salmon-colour ; the latter is generally found with the most silvery general colouring, but I believe that the largest birds are Hackle. Fig. 77. Wing. — Feathers of Silver-grey Back. Dorking Hen. almost always of the deeper colour. The colour of the hen whose portrait is given is between the two ; she is a very large-framed bird, hatched rather late in 1871, and was never shown till she won second prize at Birmingham in 1872. “ The mating of Silver-greys for breeding requires great care, and knowledge of the pedigree of both cocks and hens. In all sub-varieties purity of blood is only a question of degree, and hence there is always danger of ‘breeding back’ to some points distinguishing the common ancestor of more than one stock. Never buy chance Silver-greys for breeding* but select from a stock which has long been bred with care. A cock to all appearance correct in every point will often produce pullets with red wings, or even sandy-coloured all over ; while, on the other hand, good-looking hens will breed cockerels with speckled breasts and tails. For the most part, it is true, both parents in these cases will produce birds of their own sex like themselves; but the penning of separate * See our remarks on this very point at p. 1 19- Breeding Silver-grey Dorkings. o27 families for the production of cockerels and pullets, now unfortunately so general in the case of some varieties, is a clumsy and disappointing method by no means to be encouraged. I would select a cock as silvery as possible, with pure black breast, and mate him with hens of medium colour ; not too pale, or many of the cockerels will have grizzled breasts. But in any case scan very critically the birds of the opposite sex in the yards from which your breeders come; and if size has to be dispensed with on one side, let it be on that of the male bird. These precautions in the selection of stock-birds should secure a meritorious progeny.” The colour of Silver-grey Dorking hens, when anywhere near perfection, is of very great beauty. The light grey ground is closely covered over by a minute pencilling of darker grey, which gives that peculiar “silvery” appearance so attractive, both in this case and in that of the Duckwing Game hen. Fig. 77 represents the plumage, as far as engraving can do so ; being carefully drawn from feathers supplied by Mr. Cresswell, and plucked from the very perfect hen we have selected for portraiture. Every feather on the sides and back should show the white shaft distinctly ; and the plumage generally becomes very slightly darker as it approaches the tail, which latter is dark grey, the inner feathers almost black. The shades of grey vary, ranging from a soft and perhaps slightly dull grey (which should, however, remain perfectly pure and free from red or brown) to a very pale, bright, silvery grey. This last is peculiarly beautiful, and a celebrated Irish strain is noted for producing it in perfection : but such hens have the fault Mr. Cresswell has already hinted at, of producing very few cockerels which possess really black breasts ; white specks appearing towards the sides and thighs, and often to a very conspicuous degree. We are not sure if this difficulty can be overcome. It is quite true that many apparent impossibilities in regard to the relative colour of the two sexes have been vanquished by the skill and perseverance of breeders, but we doubt if any case strictly analogous has ever been really mastered. We have seen in the last chapter that the attempt to mate light silvery hens with Silver Duckwing cocks, the colour of which is precisely similar to those now in question, has nearly exterminated that beautiful breed ; but the remarkable fact is that the perseverance of breeders, which has been tested longer in the Game fowl than any other, seems conclusively to have proved that the only possible colour of hen to breed in purity the Silver-grey cock is a dark , soft grey. It is almost impossible to over-estimate the weight of this lengthened experience ; and fully admitting the possibility that our views may be proved erroneous, our full conviction still is, that in breeding and showing Silver-grey Dorkings there are only two possible alternatives : — Firstly, that the judges give the preference to the deep robin breasts and darker and softer greys in judging hens, instead of the brightest and lightest colours ; or, secondly, that cockerels and pullets be bred, as deprecated by Mr. Cresswell, from separate pens, breeding the cockerels from black-breasted cocks with the darkest hens that can be procured, and the pullets from the lighter hens with speckled-breasted cocks. The following pregnant remarks by Mr. Hewitt will entirely confirm the former of these as thoroughly answering the purpose : — “The great difficulty at the present time in judging Silver-grey D01 kings,” says this eminent judge, “is to find any pen even in classes of considerable numbers that are true to feather; and this is the more to be regretted, as some ten or twelve years back they were not by any means uncommon. The fact is that at that date many strains of the Silver-greys could hold their own even as to weight, when entered in strong classes of Grey Dorkings ; and to my own knowledge, from properly selected stock, chickens were bred as true to colour as any other variety of poultry. Mr. William Bromley, of Birmingham, had a few years back a stock of Silver-grey hens that were worth going miles to inspect. They were invariably deep ‘robin-breasted,’ but without even the suspicion of ruddiness on the wing-butts. I have seen from twenty to thirty hens at a time at this The Illustrated Book of Poultry. 32S farmstead, that it was difficult to distinguish from each other. All the hens were remarkably short in the leg, and purely white-footed ; yet, strange to say, the cocks bred from these hens were always too lengthy in the legs to be covetable as exhibition birds, but were perfectly clear silver in the hackle, and the breasts and tails iridescent black. These birds always bred true to colour among themselves ; but when crossed with other strains, in the hope to obtain shorter-legged cockerels, invariably ‘sported’ in feather. It was this leg difficulty as to the cocks (striven hardly and unsuccessfully against for many years) that, I believe, made Mr. Bromley a few years back abandon the breed altogether, a matter of regret to many amateurs, who knew the stock as seen when kept in large numbers on extensive runs, and which proved to me that Silver-grey Dorkings can be continuously bred true to feather from high-coloured parents ; whilst as to weight, even among the two-year-old hens, nine and ten pounds each was a general average.” A third expedient might perhaps be suggested. We believe that by allowing a clear black stripe in the cock’s hackle, while still maintaining the silvery white of the margins, the balance of colour between the sexes might probably be restored, without perhaps injuring the beauty of the male bird, and might enable black-breasted cocks to be bred from pale-breasted and light silvery hens. This, however, would be a decided innovation on the pure white hackle now demanded, and we only mention it as what our own experience teaches us might be a possible solution of the difficulty, without advising it in any way. As it is, we think the present state of things gives rise to more serious faults than a little clear stripe in the hackle would be. Recently, at the great shows of the year, we have observed prizes given to cocks which were not Silver-greys at all, the breasts not only being speckled and the thighs heavily grizzled, but tlie hackles a deep yellow ; and compared with such a fault as this last, we should consider even a striped hackle, if clear in colour, very venial. This, however, is a subject on which opinion may legiti- mately differ, and we simply place the suggestion at the service of breeders ; with the remark that by far the best way both to keep colour and attain weight, would be to recognise and prefer the darker hens so regretted by Mr. Hewitt, who in this matter it will be seen corroborates Mr. Cresswell exactly. No sacrifice in the purity of the grey need be made; it is simply the darker greys and deeper-coloured breasts that should be selected, when the cocks will be all that can be desired. The extreme difficulty of satisfying the stringent conditions just discussed is no doubt the reason of the comparatively small number of Silver-grey breeders ; as in all main qualities this variety is in no way inferior to the preceding, unless it be in size. In this respect it cannot certainly compare with the gigantic Coloured birds; but is fully as hardy, and by some judges, keener than we are in gastronomic matters, is thought to be even more juicy and tender in flesh. Of its great beauty there can be no doubt ; and size might very easily be improved by a little judicious crossing. Putting a fine large cockerel to the lightest Coloured Dorking hens which could be obtained, of the greyer type represented in Fig. 75, by far the greater portion of the progeny would present more or less of the Silver-grey character ; and by crossing these again back to the male parent, and proceeding afterwards with ordinary judgment, the improvement might readily be maintained without losing the colour. The two strains having been so many years bred apart, the strong probability is that constitution and vigour would be also improved by the same treatment. WHITE DORKINGS. — No more beautiful birds than these can well be imagined upon a country lawn. In symmetry the White variety surpasses, according to our judgment, all others of the Dorking breed, this fowl combining with the size of the Dorking much of the grace and grand sweeping outlines of the Hamburgh. In Dorking “blood” it is also probably the purest of them Cassells Poultry Book Vm.centBrooks,Day& Sen ,Lith MISS FAIR HURSTS PAIR OF WHITE DORKINGS FIRST PRIZE AT COLCHESTER 1873 BESIDES OTHER PRIZES SEPARATELY White Dorkings. 329 all, as we have already seen that years ago it was the only variety which invariably bred the fifth toe, while there is strong reason for believing that the Coloured Dorking owes more or less to a cross with the large Sussex or Surrey fowl. This may account to some extent for the very perceptible difference in general outline between the White and Coloured races. The following notes on this beautiful breed were kindly furnished us by Miss Fairhurst, of Woodlands, Ormskirk, whose long attachment to it, and success both as a breeder and exhibitor, need no further endorsement at our hands : — “ White Dorkings,” writes Miss Fairhurst, “ are certainly my favourite breed, and I look upon them as quite amongst the aristocracy of fowls. The elegance of their carriage, the gloss and purity of their plumage, and a certain indescribable something in the way they advance to meet those in whom they have confidence, seems at once to say, ‘I belong to the upper rank;’ and their dress of pure white satin, with its red coral ornaments, is a regal court suit in which they are fit for presentation to their sovereign any day, on the grassy banks of whose mansion no more lovely ornament could be placed. They are equally to be desired for the country villa, wherever a green run can be secured in front of the garden, protected by wire or a sunk fence, so that they can be seen along with the flowers, giving life and beauty to the scene. Their natural disposition seems more tame than that of other fowls, and they soon learn to eat from the hand ; indeed, I wish any lady would notice, as I have often done, the peculiar grace and dignity with which a White Dorking pullet will advance toward her to be fed from her hand. They are of all things essentially fit to be considered as ‘ ladies’ pets.’ “ With all this, they are often quite ignored at poultry-shows ; only a few give a class for them, and the breeding of them is thus discouraged. Why this should be I cannot say. Of all ornamental fowls they are the largest on the table ; they are good layers, if generously fed, and kept in dry, clean houses ; and even continue to lay in the winter better than the Coloured Dorkings. Their eggs are peculiarly delicate, the shells being of a pinky or French white shade, and of a good size, fully half as large again as any of the Hamburghs — indeed, excepting Spanish, I do not know any finer, if the hens are eighteen months or two years old. “ A dry soil is indispensable to these birds ; and to do them justice they require, like all Dorkings, an extensive range. In a confined space their plumage would become dirty, and I never find them healthy when such is the case. In a well-ordered, clean farmyard they do very well, and in such circumstances never soil themselves more than a bath of clean white sand will put right. Of course before showing they must be washed, and I think the bath does them good. Some common soda melted, and a little nice white soap, is all I ever have used to cleanse their feathers, after which they are rinsed from it most thoroughly in tepid water from a spring. Some use ammonia, but on several occasions when I have tried this it has made the birds quite a canary colour; it may have been used too strong, but I find soda better without it. A clean, airy room, littered with straw and with a low perch at one side, will enable them to plume their feathers in a day or two, but long confinement would not improve them in any way for exhibition. “ With regard to size, I can see no reason why White Dorkings should not be brought up to as high a standard as the Coloured ones, if the same encouragement were given at poultry-shows, to cause equal emulation amongst breeders of them to bring to perfection every point. Instead of this being the case, when on several occasions I have tried White ones in a class where no colour was specified, but only Dorkings, invariably the birds have had no notice. This has not been the case, as might be supposed, for want of size or quality ; for on one occasion I remember, at the Kendal show, in 1869, I had two pens of young birds — one White Dorkings, the other Coloured — both of the same age ; but though the White cock was nearly one pound heavier than the Coloured, he had no notice, The Illustrated Book of Poultry. 330 while the Coloured one took second prize. The White bird, thus overlooked because he was white, took first prizes that same year at Birmingham, Bristol, Bath and West of England, and Manchester shows ; he went also to the Crystal Palace, but there — I presume before the judges saw him — had his tail so broken and his whole plumage spoiled that he only took third prize, and returned home to die in a short time. I mention these things only to show that it could not have been for want of either size or quality that he was beaten by the really inferior bird at Kendal, as White birds almost invariably are when brought into open competition with the Coloured. “ I find White Dorking chickens no more delicate to rear than others. They must be dryly and warmly housed at night, have plenty of clean water to drink, with bread-crumbs and ground oats as general food. Small broken wheat from a thrashing-machine I also find they like and thrive well upon. For a change I take a teacupful of rice, and putting it into a saucepan of boiling water, let it boil very fast for twenty minutes, till the water is absorbed and the rice loose as for curry. Then in a large bowl I have kitchen scraps of meat, &c., with dry bread, all cut in small pieces not much larger than rice, add a little spice and sometimes herbs, and a little either egg or oyster-shell pounded. When this is all mixed together dry, put the hot rice over the whole, with a little dry oatmeal, if required, to keep it crumbly ; mix with a fork, and there is a bowl full of nice loose food. Sufficient of this to feed a large number for two days can be made at once without fear of becoming sour. If every lady would insist that her cook should collect the frag- ments, so that nothing should be lost, how many chickens could be fed on what is now thrown away ! — and even how many poor children might have a good dinner if such a course were more generally adopted. Let the scraps from the dishes, with the left potatoes, be made into a tasty “ hot-pot” for the children, and the bits from the plates go to the chickens ; the hearts of both would rejoice, and the careful housekeeper would be no poorer — indeed, expense would often be saved, as sinks and drains would not be nearly so often stopped up if fat and other scraps were strictly kept out of them. “ The points in perfect White Dorkings are in a great degree the same as for Coloured ones, viz., deep square bodies, with the tail inclining backwards, thus showing greater length of back than those breeds in which head and tail approach each other. The rose comb should not hang over the eyes, but stand firmly up like rock coral, with the spike at the back long and straight. The legs should be quite white, and the extra toe well defined, springing clearly from the leg and turning up. The weights I have obtained as yet have been, in cocks from eight to ten pounds, and in hens from six and a half to eight pounds — what other ornamental poultry can equal that ? — and I hope yet to see the day when my favourites shall increase to the size the Coloured have become.” In reference to the case at Kendal mentioned by Miss Fairhurst, we may remark that we have frequently noticed at shows the curious fact, that if two fowls are really of equal weight and size, and one be white while the other is dark-coloured, the white bird invariably looks tke smallest. By the courtesy of various show officials, we have been enabled to test this fact by direct experiment on several occasions, and it should be carefully remembered by judges or other parties, when comparing white and dark birds of this or any other breed. There is no doubt whatever, as Miss Fairhurst remarks, that the size of White Dorkings mio-ht and probably would be increased by careful breeding alone, were breeders more numerous and emulation more general ; but much help might be obtained by means of a cross with the more massive Coloured variety. The advisability of such a proceeding struck us years ago ; and, as we then mentioned,* on a visit to Linton Park we saw the process commenced with every apparent * “Practical Poultry Keeper,” p. 128. Cuckoo Dorkings. 33* prospect ot success ; several White Dorkings of unusual size and merit being very conspicuous, besides the famous Coloured stock. Unfortunately, that particular experiment was terminated by Lady Holmesdale’s retirement from “the fancy” soon after; but at the public sale by auction of her celebrated strain its success was fully demonstrated, several White Dorkings of very unusual size being brought to the hammer. One fine bird in particular, Mr. Martin informs us, weighed slightly over twelve pounds, and not being at all fat, might easily have been made to weigh thirteen. This bird won at very nearly all the great winter shows following, standing clearly out far above his competitors ; and probably the influence of even the few birds then sold has had something to do with the perceptible increase of size during late years. In the cross at Linton Park we are informed that “the method employed was to put a massive Coloured cock, the darkest that could be spared, to White Dorking hens. The first cross from this is cuckoo-colour ; and these birds were crossed again into the White, when many White birds appeared, and after that there is no difficulty.” The reason for choosing the darkest cock possible was, that in all changes of colour the transition from black to white is invariably made with greater ease than any other, just as crossing Black-red and White Game produces a Pile, the red being unchanged, but the black converted into white. Some years later we learnt from Mr. Martin that he carried out the same experiment again, using for the purpose his celebrated Crystal Palace rose-combed prize bird ; and amongst the results soon attained was a fine cockerel, which at eight months old scaled ten pounds and a half without any “ feeding up ” whatever. Such fruits as these point out a legitimate field for the skill and enterprise of White Dorking breeders. The result of many inquiries we have made would tend to show that White Dorkings are somewhat hardier than the Coloured, besides being far better layers. A contrary opinion has, however, led to their being crossed in various cases with the White Game ; and there is not the slightest doubt that it is this cross which has produced some at least of the weedy birds so often seen at shows. Such stocks not seldom breed single combs, and are apt to prove uncertain about the fifth toe ; indeed, whenever we see very narrow, slim-looking birds, with the fifth toe imperfectly developed, we feel pretty sure the strain has been contaminated in the manner described. The motive has no doubt been to improve the constitution ; but the Game Fowl does not possess a single quality adapting it for improving the Dorking breed ; and if the chicks be brought up in a natural and hardy manner they will be as robust as any Game-crossed stock. The cross just described, however, will be found to improve the constitution as well as size. The greatest difficulty in breeding White Dorkings for show consists in the tendency of the cocks to become yellow or dirty straw-colour in the upper plumage, which they share in common with nearly all white fowls. As in the case of White Cochins, it is necessary to breed only from the birds which show the richest and clearest white ; and to provide shade during the summer, if even the best birds are to be kept in show condition. We have, however, occasionally seen cocks whose dazzling purity of colour left nothing to be desired ; and though we must admit that we have found such specimens very rare, they prove the possibility of attaining a perfect standard with patience and care. CUCKOO DORKINGS. — There is a fourth variety of Dorkings, in which the plumage is what is called in England “ Cuckoo-colour,” but in America “ Dominique,” and which may be exactly seen in the plate of Dominiques which illustrates the chapter on American breeds. The marking consists of bars or pencillings of dark blue-grey over a ground of lighter grey. The precise shade of marking may vary considerably, the ground-colour ranging from almost white to bluish-grey, and the bars or pencilling from bluish-grey to nearly black. This variety is generally 1 OO" The Illustrated Book of Poultry. midway in size between the White and Coloured Dorkings, is very hardy, and a fair layer ; and, though comparatively very little known, is, from its hardiness, best adapted of all the Dorking bieeds for general farm purposes. Various attempts have been made to encourage this breed, a special class being provided at the Crystal Palace shows in 1871 and 1872, but the result was only four entries the first year and eleven the second. In other instances similar efforts have been tewarded by no better success; and hence, in spite of the considerable increase on the second occasion, it appears as if the variety were more likely to be valued by producers than by fanciers. It is our firm conviction that the origin of this variety was the crossing of the White and Coloured breeds, which Mr. Martin has already stated to produce in the first instance the identical colour ; and the truth of this hypothesis is rendered almost certain by the superior hardiness of the fowl under discussion, which is constantly proved to result from the crossing of distinct or long-separated races. Were it not so, in fact, the small number of breeders and stocks would almost inevitably cause unusual delicacy of constitution, as in other similar cases. It is true that colours which owe their origin to crossing usually give extreme trouble to preserve them ; but Mr. Darwin has conclusively proved the marking in question to have a strong, or, as he calls it, “ prepotent,” tendency to transmit itself, as well as to be produced by crossing, which strongly tends tc show that it belonged formerly to some progenitor of the poultry races, and entirely removes such a difficulty in the present instance. In breeding Cuckoo Dorkings for show, the chief fault to guard against is the occurrence of reddish or golden feathers in the hackle or saddle of the cock. The cuckoo colour should be pure all over. White in the tail is also rather apt to occur, and must be avoided with equal care. Birds thus bred are not by any means destitute of attraction for the show-pen, and fashion changes so much even in poultry, that we should not be surprised to see them yet becoming popular. It will be seen further on how closely allied this breed is both to the Scotch Greys and to the American Dominique. On one occasion, in fact, we observed a prize given at Birmingham for “ Dorkings ” to a pen which, on inspection, proved to be Scotch Greys ; almost the only difference between that variety and the present being the absence of the fifth toe. It is somewhat singular that in three different quarters a fowl should have been produced, in each case of the same cuckoo colour, and evidently of nearly-related blood ; and in each case also highly valued by homely producers for its good qualities, while little prized by mere “fanciers” of fowls. In exhibiting any variety of Dorkings, it is particularly needful to guard against both over- feeding and over-showing, as this breed succumbs to either much sooner than most others. The temptation to “feed up ” is of course great, Dorkings being, even now, so greatly judged by size or weight ; but the invariable result is to make the plumage “ loose ” and ragged, and give the birds a peculiar “ knocked-about ” appearance, which no fowl can so ill bear. We could number up at least a dozen pens of Coloured Dorkings we have seen ticketed with honours at various shows, and which we have known from various sources to have died within short periods after, from the combined effects of over-feeding and over-work ; and this still occurs occasionally, though it gives us pleasure to acknowledge that the best judges have for some years past shown themselves thoroughly alive to the evil, and, by passing over pens of birds whose lives could evidently be accepted by no insurance company, fine as they undoubtedly were, done much to check the fattening which used to prevail, and, even when it was not fatal, rendered practically useless some of the best birds which have ever been bred. Another caution must however be given, against breeding from birds which are being exhibited. We would not of course affirm that a fine cock and hen may not be picked up off their run, if in perfect health, and shown on any single occasion Qualities and Management of Dorkings. without detriment to the vigour of the progeny ; but we do mean to say most emphatically, that while a pen of birds is being shown from time to time, it is hopeless to expect chickens of any value even from such eggs as may chance to hatch. This truth applies more or less to all breeds of poultry, but to Dorkings peculiarly so ; and it is therefore most desirable, after the breeding stock is once mated and put on the proper runs, to leave them undisturbed till the season is over. Even birds that have been from show to show through the winter, unless great care has been taken to prevent evil results, will rarely produce a strong and vigorous progeny. Mr. Hewitt adds a few general remarks as these pages go to press, which we insert with much pleasure. The first paragraph describes a peculiar characteristic of the breed generally ; the second will be read with interest as relating to now almost extinct varieties. The first-mentioned of these appears to be the grey feather already described by us — the description, though in different terms, applying exactly. “ In hunting districts, where foxes are generally abundant, Dorking fowls are not the most advisable breed, as they then entail constant anxiety and frequently-repeated vexations. This arises from their perfect inability, when suddenly surprised or excited, to save themselves by vigorous or well-sustained flight ; whilst their futile attempts at running in grass of only two or three inches in height renders them an easy capture. For the like reason, Dorkings are often known to be absent without leave after the visits of the itinerant scissors-gnnder, or such-like occasional wanderers round the homestead. “For my own part, as an arbitrator, I deeply regret we no longer see specimens of the old-fashioned Grey Dorkings, such as were, twenty or more years back, regularly exhibited at Hitchin by the Rev. Mr. Boyes and others. They were of beautiful feather, very similar in colour to the lichen moss we so frequently find on old park palings ; and what renders their disappearance the more remarkable is, that they were at that time great favourites in the sur- rounding districts, and were frequently ‘claimed’ at very high prices; in fact, I once remember three pens changed hands at a single show, at ^50 per pen of three birds. Another most useful, though I admit not a very taking variety to those who wish to please the eye rather than the palate, is now only very rarely to be seen, viz. : — the Red-speckled Dorking, a variety of great frame, exceedingly clear and white in the leg and foot, and of the most hardy constitution. True it is, these fowls were wont to be marked somewhat irregularly, the feather being a deep chestnut, with a white crescent-shaped tip ; but for hardihood they could not be outdone, besides which, the quality of flesh was unsurpassable and most abundant. A regular, well-directed attention might soon have supplied perfectly-matched pens of even this erratic variety.” We have already seen that Dorkings, after long-continued and judicious training, may be considered fairly hardy ; but any given strain can only be thus “ acclimatised ” gradually, and with the resources most poultry-keepers have at command the chicks should not be hatched early. Very late in March is quite early enough to have broods out, and April or May chickens do still better. Totally different in this respect to the Brahma, the Dorking grows very fast and early ; so that while both the newly-hatched chicks and the adult fowls are not very different in size, at the age say of three months a Dorking chicken will appear nearly double the size of a Brahma. This is one of the most valuable points in a table breed, and also diminishes the need of early hatching for the autumn and winter shows ; for while Brahmas or Cochins hatched in May will generally be too small and immature, even for Birmingham, the young Dorking of the same date is in its full bloom and beauty. We should regard early in May as generally the best time of all for hatching this breed ; and at that season, in most years, the young stock may be used to a hardy out-door life without any danger. Iron in the water, or some other simple tonic, should always be given, and The Illustrated Book of Poultr j. wiH serve to ward off gapes and roup ; which, if they once enter a Dorking yard, are particularly difficult to stamp out again. The “ bumble-foot ” to which Dorkings are so subject, has often puzzled breeders. The affection has been almost always ascribed to high and small perches, the feet being supposed to be injured by the weight of the bird when flying to the ground, or by stepping on some sharp stone. Such may very possibly be the immediate exciting cause of many cases, just as a slight blow or strain may be said to be the exciting cause of a severe case of cancer ; but in both cases other and more deeply-seated causes of disease must be sought for, since we have known many instances of the worst form of bumble-foot in yards where the birds had only turf to walk upon, and were not allowed to roost at all, but bedded upon straw. Again, the equally heavy Brahma or Cochin does not suffer in this way, being only subject to abscess in the foot in the case of some actual irritation, such as the entrance of a thorn or small piece of glass ; on the removal of which, and proper treatment, the tumour speedily disappears. We have, therefore, years ago been forced to the conclusion that the cause of this tiresome disease must be sought in the law long since discovered by physiologists, that any abnormal excess in the structure of any part of the body is frequently accompanied by what may be called weakness of function ; and that when the abnormal excess, by breeding or otherwise, becomes constant, the tendency to weakness almost invariably becomes constant too. We shall have occasion to mention a confirmation of this view in the case of Houdans ; and hence it would appear that the difficulty is inseparably connected with the fifth toe which is so dear to the heart of Dorking breeders. If they will have it, they must take the consequences. The absurdity of insisting upon a feature which has such actually injurious results is singularly aggravated in the present case by the fact that Dorkings were, till very lately, always strongly affirmed not to be birds “ of colour,” but the sole breed of poultry which was not only bred for exclusively table or practical purposes, but even judged in the same way. Yet here is a point which is more arbitrary than any standard of mere feather can be ; can be shown to produce inevitable evils ; and yet retains its place in this par excellence “practical” breed ! We are, of course, perfectly aware of the utter impossibility of changing views now so deeply rooted as that of “ the fancy” upon this point ; but it is none the less a duty to point out the simple state of the case, having done which both our duty and responsibility ceases. The most useful crosses of the Dorking fowl have been already treated of in discussing Brahmas and Cochins, and we need not go over the same ground again. The cross with the Game is perhaps the next most frequently employed, and produces very excellent table chickens, with large breast and merrythought, and of fair weight. They are not, however, so generally profitable, requiring a good run to rear them successfully : in fact, they have the same main character as laige Game chickens themselves. The only other cross calling for special mention is that with the Houdan cock. This cross possesses no beauty to make it desirable, and the plumage varies greatly ; but the chickens produced are very hardy, almost always lay well, and in early matuiity surpass the Dorking itself, while the flesh is of most excellent quality. To those who wish to inciease the haidi- ness of the Dorking, but object to Asiatic crosses on account of the feathered legs and yellow skin, or who wish to preserve the “ five claws ” which are such a passport to the good opinion of a London salesman, this cross may be safely recommended as likely to answer the puipose. JUDGING DORKINGS. — The need of special watchfulness against prejudicial or unhealthy fat in judging this breed — the Coloured variety more especially — will have been gatheied fiom our preceding remarks. Time was when the scales often decided which were the piize-winneis , but these aids to critical observation are now rarely used by good judges, except in the case of water- Judging Dorkings. fowl and turkeys, or to give a casting vote between two pens whose comparative merits it appears impossible to decide otherwise. The feet also need attention; birds “possessed of a sound understanding ” always being given preference to others suffering from bumble-foot : though we have seen a class in which not one sound-footed old cock was to be found. Perhaps the most difficult point in judging Dorkings, however, is to watch against malformations of the feet which have been fraudulently removed ; for in obedience to a law of nature well understood by florists and pigeon-fanciers (whose experience in variation from normal types is greater than that of perhaps any other classes), that when any structure is once got to vary, there is practically no limit to the extent of the variability — a law well expounded and illustrated by Mr. Darwin — the abnormal structure of the Dorking foot is very apt to run into still more abnormal forms, which disqualify otherwise fine birds for the show-pen. Birds are not unfrequently produced which possess three back toes, or have an extra toe high up the leg ; or, in the case of the cock, with supernumerary spurs, which have been known to grow in every possible direction ; and these abnormal structures are not unfrequently amputated by fraudulent exhibitors. We cannot pretend to any great skill ourselves in detecting such matters, actual experience alone being capable of imparting it ; but we have on two occasions seen prizes awarded to birds which showed unquestionable traces of such amputation, and every judge should give to this point such attention as time and opportunity may allow him ; though we must acknowledge that both are often so scanty as to render detection of any skilful fraud almost impossible. As regards the combs of the various breeds, our opinion has always coincided with those of Mr. Hewitt, as kindly expressed in the following remarks. We may add, however, that nearly all judges we are acquainted with consider the rose comb the only proper comb for a White Dorking ; and that our placing single combs in that variety amongst the List of Disqualifications will be found practically borne out by the judging at all important shows. “The author of the present work,” says Mr. Hewitt, “having requested me to give my opinion as regards the combs of the Dorking families, I comply, but admit willingly they are not entirely concurrent with those of some of the highly-esteemed colleagues with whom I have officiated ; I therefore append my reasons for holding them. In the general class of Grey Dorkings, I consider single or rose-combs equally admissible. In the Silver-grey Dorkings, I myself decidedly prefer the single comb, from the fact that rose-combed birds of either kind usually present a coarseness of character when compared with the others, that except in occasional instances is very conspicuous. In the Silver-grey hens the rose comb deprives them also of that jaunty appearance and high quality for which they are so generally admired. It is but rarely Silver-grey Dorkings with rose combs are now met with ; but a truly-feathered pen of this character took a number of prizes v some years back, alike under the decisions of several of our principal poultry -judges, and my own arbitration. In the White Dorkings, I confess, though opposed to the convictions of some whose opinions I highly value, I am not friendly to the single comb, simply because I never yet saw a pen possessing this characteristic that were not at the same time too agile and elastic in their gait and weedy in general conformation to accord with my notions of Dorking character.” Only one further general remark on judging Dorkings need be made. The Coloured variety has often been stated not to be a “ bird of colour,” and in Mr. Tegetmeier’s “ Standard ” many years ago none for colour were allowed. Later, when the earlier editions of this work were published, the dark colour had become almost imperative, and carried off most of the prizes. So far as colour alone had caused this preference, we always regretted it. It would be a distinct gain if even one breed could be judged, not by fancy points, but purely by table value, could such a standard only be maintained. But the history of the judging of Dorkings furnishes a somewhat curious comment The Illustrated Book of Poll try. ^ f\ 00° upon the views we have already advanced as to the absolute necessity for arbitrary standards of some kind in judging fowls or other animals. At first they were very greatly judged by weight, and the evils of that system were plainly seen in those over-fattened birds we have already alluded to. By degrees these evils were discovered ; but as soon as “ condition ” began to have more import- ance allowed it in comparison with mere weight, the appearance of the bird came into the scale, and the handsome appearance of the dark birds gave them a sensible advantage over the grey pens, besides the fact of Mr. Douglas’s new dark stock being almost always really larger than the old.* Thus by degrees, no doubt, the eyes of the judges became accustomed to prefer the darker strains, which has now made it rather difficult for lighter birds to win, and nearly impossible for hens irregularly splashed or coloured, or which otherwise present an unpleasing appearance. Within the last few years, however, the natural result of this preference for dark colour in one direction has led to yet another reaction. The dark colour gradually led to dark legs, and this fault, after being treated for a time with greater and greater leniency, at last evoked an angry protest. It is to be regretted that too much of this bore something of the aspect of a personal attack upon one or two prominent and successful exhibitors, and accusations both against them and the judges were made with a wantonness and bitterness of feeling for which there was and is no warrant. As in nearly all cases where any such feeling is displayed, the cause of it was in the present case an invincible ignorance of historic facts. It was said, on the one hand, that the old Coloured Dorking was “ pure,” whereas it is as certain as can be that it owes its origin to a cross of the white upon the fowls of Surrey and Sussex, and bred (as late as the “ mania” of 1851) with the most charming uncertainty. It was also said that its flesh was always “ white,” whereas the oldest testimony is that it resembled “ ivory.” On the other hand, the dark legs were affirmed to be due to Cochin “crosses ;” whereas it is well known that Asiatic crosses do not particularly tend to dark legs, and we have seen that Mr. Douglas’s cross was by no means of the Asiatic type. The simple fact is, that dark legs attend dark plumage, and as long as this is selected the legs will always trouble the breeder. After many gastronomic experiments, we have been utterly unable to find that dark-footed birds are any way inferior in flesh to those vaunted as so much more “ pure.” But we have no wish to dispute this particular matter ; fully agreeing that a dark foot or leg does look, at all events, out of place in a Dorking. We have here, however, only to consider judging ; and, on this point, steadily refraining from any tabulation of what we think it ought to be, its recent state will be best represented by reducing the points for colour (in the Coloured breed) from 12 to 10, and by retaining legs “ any colour but white or pinky-white ” among our list of disqualifications. In several years since the last edition was published this would not have represented actual judging, nor would stained feet be regarded as a fatal fault in all cases now — in fact, the atmosphere has hardly settled after the storm. As our own judgment, however, goes with the old standard and the renewed attempt to enforce it, such doubt as exists — and some doubt does exist — regarding present and future practice, we decide in favour of the white leg. Dorkings should always be weighed when Whites are exhibited in the same class. * Mr. Hewitt wrote us on this point : “My own experience is, that as an almost invariable rule the dark-feathered Dorkings of the present day really are the most weighty and thick-set birds if taken in hand. I do not allude to purposely fatted fowls, which afterwards are frequently unprolific ; but birds in proper breeding condition as stock fowls.” We can corroborate this from experiment ; and very naturally the almost invariable nature of the rule would lead a judge, unless he actually weighed the birds, to conclude that, even in case of what might be an occasional exception, the dark pen was still the heaviest, and to decide accordingly. I Schedule for Judging Dorkings. 337 \ SCHEDULE FOR JUDGING DORKINGS. General Characteristics of Cock. — Head and Neck — General appearance of head rather large, but dignified, and tree from coarseness; beak stout and well-proportioned [not “short ’as in the “Standard ]; comb, if single, laige, upiight, evenly serrated, and free from excrescent growths — if rose, square or upright on the head, wide in front, and narrowing to a peak pointing backwards with a slight upward inclination behind, and the tops of the points presenting an even suiface fiee fiom hollow in the middle ; wattles very large and pendent; deaf-ears moderately developed, hanging as nearly as possible about one-third the depth of the wattles ; neck rather short, and very full of hackle, making it appear extremely broad at the base, and tapering rapidly to the head. Body— General appearance deep and square ; the outline, when viewed sideways, presenting almost the appearance of a short rectangle (see Fig. 78) ; back broad and rather long ; saddle broad, but inclining downward to the tail, which springs out at nearly a right angle ; breast very deep, prominent, and full ; wings larg_- and broad. Legs and Fed — Thighs large and well-developed, but carried “along” the body so as not to be conspicuous; shanks short, moderately stout, fine in texture, perfectly free from any sign of leg-feather, and set on well to the body — the spur in the proper position, pointing rather inside ; toes large and well-spread, the hinder toe being double, and the extra toe well-formed — viz., the normal toe as nearly as possible in the natural position, and the extra one placed above, starting from close to the other, but perfectly distinct, and pointing rather upwards (see Plate). Tail — Full and ample, carried nearly erect, but not squirrel-fashion, and the sickles very broad and sweeping. Size — Very large, ranging from ten to thirteen and occa- sionally even fourteen pounds in adults, and eight to eleven pounds in cockerels. General Shape — Square and plump. Carriage — Rather quiet but stately, with the breast carried well forward. General Characteristics of Hen. — Head and Neck— General appearance of head neat and matronly ; comb resembling the cock’s if rose, but if single falling over to one side of the face ; wattles and deaf- ears as in the cock, but proportionately smaller ; neck short and neat. Body St ry similar in general appearance to the cock’s, but longer in proportion. Legs and Feet — Tike the cock’s in all points, with the exception of spurs. Tail— Well-developed and the feathers very broad, but carried rather closely if the bird is in healthy condition. Size-Very large, ranging from eight to ten pounds, or even more. General Shape— Plump and deep, but rather long compared with the Asiatics. Carriage — Staid and matronly. Colour of Grey Dorkings. In both Sexes- — Comb, deaf-ears,* and wattles brilliant red. Legs a delicate white, with a pinky shade. Colour of tock Hackle white or straw, more or less striped with black. Saddle resembling hackle ; back various shades of white, black and white, or grey, mixed with maroon or red. Wing-bow white, or white mixed with black or grey ; wing-coverts or bar black glossed with green ; secondaries white on outer web, black on inner web. Breast and under-parts black, or black mottled with white, and occasionally with red. Tail black, richly glossed, often however mingled with white. Colour of Hen— Hackle white or pile straw, striped with black or greyish black. Breast a salmon red, each feather tipped with dark grey verging on black. Rest of body nearly black, the shaft of feather showing cream-white, and each feather being slightly paler on the edges; except on wings, where the centre of the feather is a brownish-grey ground, covered with a small rich marking, surrounded by a thick lacing of the black. Tail also nearly black, the outer feathers slightly pencilled. Another successful colour is, every feather over the body pencilled a brownish grey in the centre, with a black lacing round, breast being as just described. In a very few cases hens have won with a colour approaching silver-grey, the black lacing being almost absent, and the pencilling lighter ; but this is never the case unless very large and fine birds. Colour of Silver-grey Dorkings. In both Sexes — Comb, face, deaf-ears,* and wattles brilliant red. Legs white, or pmky-white [in this breed the legs are much more pinky than either of the others, usually showing a very strong reddish tinge between the scales]. Colour of Cock— Hackle and saddle pure silvery white, free from both straw-colour or marking of any kind. Back, shoulder-coverts, and wing-bow silvery white ; wing-coverts, or “bar,” lustrous black glossed with green or blue. Secondaries * The colour of deaf-ears is not of great importance even in Silver-greys ; but there can be no doubt that red is the correct colour, and that white is some little disadvantage in competition. 2 D 338 The Illustrated Book of Poultry. white on outei web, black on inner web, with a black spot at end of each feather ; corner of wing appearing clear white with a black upper edge when wing is closed ; primaries black, with a white edge on outer web. Breast and all under parts deep black ; but some grizzling with white on the thighs of old cocks not objectionable. Tail deep black, the sickles brilliantly glossed. Colo:ir of Hen Hackle silvery white striped with black. Breast robin-red or salmon-red, ranging to almost fawn-coiour, shading off to ashy giey on thighs. Body and wings a clear silvery grey, finely pencilled over with darker grey, and free from any red or brown tinge, but may vaiy in effect from soft dull grey to bright silvery grey. Tail darker grey, inside feathers black. Colour of White Dorkings. — In both Sexes — Comb, face, deaf-ears, and wattles brilliant coral-red. Legs white, or white with a very pale pinky shade. Plumage all over a pure snowy white ; the cock’s upper plumage as free from any shade ot straw as possible. Colour of Cuckoo Dorkings. — In both Sexes — Face, comb, deaf-ears, and wattles brilliant red. Legs white, or pinky white. Plumage all over a grey or blue-grey ground, pencilled across as in Pencilled Hamburghs with bars cl a darker grey or blue -grey. VALUE OF DEFECTS IN JUDGING, i. Coloured Dorkings. Standard of Perfection. A bird ideally perfect in size, shape, condition, &c., and of good colour, to count in points . .100 If of extraordinary size, add on that account a . 5 Defects to be Deducted. Coarse head ....... 6 Faulty comb . 5 Fifth toe not perfect in form and development . 10 Tenderness on the feet • . • • 8 Colour not good • • • • 10 Crooked breast • • • • 10 Want of size • • • • 28 ,, „ general symmetry • • • • 10 „ ,, condition . 14 11 n 11 (if total, or gross over-fattening) 30 a See note to Table for Cochins. Disqualifications. Wry-tails, or any other actual deformity. Total absence of the fifth toe. Legs any colour but white 01 pinky-white, or with any vestige of feather. Combs or colour of two hens not matching in the pen. 2. Silver-grey Dorkings. Standard of Perfection. Defects to be Deducted. A bird ideally perfect in size, shape, condition, Coarse head • • • • • 8 &c., and of good colour, to count in points . 100 Faulty comb . . 8 If of extraordinary size, add on that account « . 5 Fifth toe not perfect in form and development 10 Tenderness on the feet . .... 8 Faulty colour • • • • • 24 Crooked breast . • • • • • 10 White in deaf-ear^ • • • • • 4 Want of size • “* • • • 18 ,, ,, symmetry • « 1 • • 12 ,, ,, condition • . 15 n Sec note to Table for Cochins. 1 b See note on last page. Disqualifications. — Same as for Coloured Dorkings, adding only, presence of white in cock’s breast or tail,* and any fraudulent plucking or trimming of foul feathers. * It is not without some hesitation we retain “white in cock’s breast” in the List of Disqualifications. It is understood to be so, but we have recently seen many prizes given to birds much speckled on the breast, and which in other points also could not be called good Silver-greys. Considering, however, that such awards have always been bitterly complained of by the best breeders, who wish the requirements of colour retained ; that such disqualification is according to old and well-established usage ; that the ’test judges wish it retained ; and that to give prizes to birds thus disfigured is, in our own personal opinion, a decided error ; we have thought it best to throw whatever weight of authority this work may possess into the scale of the higher standard, especially as we have seen that it can be easily bred by a proper selection of stock. Schedule for Judging Dorkings. 339 VALUE OF DEFECTS IN JUDGING. 3. White Dorkings. Standard of fcrfection. j Defects to be Deducted. A bird ideally perfect in size, shape, condition, Coarse head « • • 8 &c. , and of good colour, to count in points . 100 Faulty comb • • • 10 If of extraordinary size, add on that account a 5 Fifth toe not perfect in form and development . 10 Tenderness on feet . . • 8 Bad colour • . 0 16 Crooked breast . . • • 9 9 10 White in deaf-ear • • • • • 4 Want of size . « 0 0 • 18 ,, ,, symmetry . 0 • • 15 a See note to Table for Cochins. ,, ,, condition 0 ® • 15 Disqualifications. — Wry-tails, or any other deformity. Total absence of fifth toe. Legs any other colour but white, or pinky-white, or with any sign of feather. Other than rose-combs in either sex. Any coloured feathers in plumage. Any fraudulent dressing or trimming of combs or plumage. 4. Cuckoo Dorkings. This breed is not sufficiently shown to form any reliable scale : but so far as our observation has extended, it may be judged with great accuracy by the scale for White Dorkings, except that either form of comb is permissible ; and substituting for coloured feathers in the List of Disqualifications, “occurrence of white, black, or red feathers anywhere in the plumage.” 340 CHAPTER XXIV. SPANISH. Tiik Spanish fowl is entitled to be regarded as one of our oldest-established breeds, and is even now perhaps more generally known by report amongst the non-fancying portion of the English public than any other. Talk to any man who does not himself keep fowls about your own individual craze in that line, whatever it may be, and it is about ten chances to one he speedily breaks in with the remark that “the Black Spanish is a fine fowl, sir” — that bird is his idea of excellence in this direction. In the tenth case it will be the Dorking that is named, and these two breeds represent all that is good in poultry to the average British mind ; the splendid large eggs of the one, and the majestic trussed proportions of the other, appealing alike to his “ finer feelings,” while their antiquity ministers to that respect for hereditary descent which is well known to be one of his favourite weaknesses. Let it be so ; both are good fowls, and can stand under the weight of all the honours which may be paid them. Long before the modern Cochin, or its congener the Brahma, had crossed the waters of the Indian seas, both breeds were bred and valued by English poultry-keepers, though poultry-shows in the present acceptation of the term were not even in existence. Still, however, many private or “club” shows even then took place, being chiefly held in the large rooms of taverns, and mostly confined to some one breed, of which the various amateurs in a neighbourhood thus met to compare their respective achievements, and contend for the pre-eminence in friendly rivalry. By such means the Spanish fowl was raised many years ago to a very high degree of excellence, though differing in several important particulars from the present accepted standards. London was by far the chief home of the Spanish “fancy” in those days; and it is singular to observe how the immense preponderance of black fowls in and around the metropolis at the present time still testifies to the extensive though quiet influence exerted by these unobtrusive amateurs of by-gone days. With regard to the origin of Spanish fowls, they very probably did actually come to us from Spain. The names of all the sub-varieties — Andalusians, Minorcas, Anconas — point to an origin either Spanish or in the immediate neighbourhood ; and there can be little doubt, as Mr Tegetmeier has justly pointed out, that the cultivation of this breed by the Dutch followed, and was consequent upon, the Spanish occupation of the Low Countries. All about the Mediterranean, in fact, a fowl decidedly of the Spanish type is that indigenous to the country. Minor differences are observable, the legs for instance being found black, white, or (as in the Leghorn) yellow ; and the colour of the plumage varies too ; but the large comb, the sprightly shaoe and carriage, the large egg, and the absence of the incubating instinct — those grand points which mark the Spanish type — are found in nearly all, and prove that such well-defined characteristics, however derived, have an antiquity beyond the reach of any attempt at investigation. Even in Algiers, Egypt, and, in fact, all along the northern coast of Africa, the same type of bird extensively prevails, and points almost conclusively to the “Great Sea” of the ancients as the native home of the Spanish fowl. Cassells Poultry Book "VinceittBrooks Day &S f°r the best pen of Spanish in the exhibition. This bird was the winner of a gieat number of prizes, being successfully exhibited till over four years old; he was stated by Mr. Hewitt and other judges to be tne best Spanish cockerel ever exhibited up to that time, and I have never seen his equal since. I kept him till seven years old, and his eyesight was perfectly clem to die last , but, as just observed, in this case there was no fault to find with his services as a stock-bird, in spite of his exhibition triumphs. “ The chickens, to make large birds, should not as a rule be hatched earlier than the middle of A pi 4 , those hatched earlier may win a few prizes at the summer shows, but are worthless and appear stunted later on in the season, when the April hatched birds go past them, and make much finer specimens. “ Spanish chickens are generally put in warm, close houses, and fed principally on soft food for eight or ten days before they are sent to an exhibition, and generally before being sent off have the small hairs on the white face drawn with a small pair of tweezers. The face, comb, and wattles are then washed with common brown soap and slightly warmed soft water, using a very soft sponge. 1 his is all young birds require. Old Spanish for exhibition require to be kept in small yards, and the less sun or wind reaches them the better. When old birds have their free liberty, and are exposed to the sun or to dry cold winds, especially in the spring of the year, the white faces of even the best birds will become streaked with red, and some cocks will turn quite pink on the upper part of the face ; yet if these very birds are penned in small yards where there is little wind or sun, their faces will keep beautifully white. Old birds that have had their free liberty require to be put up in a close and rather warm house for at least three weeks before exhibition, to bleach their faces and soften the white, as well as to clear their faces from any ‘ yellow’ they may happen to have on them. Some exhibitors prefer to put them up in a rather dark place, which certainly will clear the faces sooner ; but it often bleaches the comb and wattles as well, so as to make them look quite sickly ; and by taking a little more time there is no need for it. I may here ask again, What other variety of fowls could bear the above treatment, repeated time after time, without becoming tender ? nay, would any other bear it without becoming diseased ? — yet even this is not all that exhibition Spanish sometimes have to bear. “ Some of the largest-faced Spanish have their faces very much disfigured with hair-like feathers ; and these are drawn out by tweezers, leaving an arch above the eye near the comb. Sometimes they are drawn out so close up to the comb as to make the bird look quite ridiculous. Though these feathery-faced birds, especially the hens, have often very large faces, there are many objections to them ; for even when trimmed by an expert, the feathers left near the comb are so large as to make the bird look unnatural. Again, every feather drawn from the face leaves a black mark in the hole the feather has been drawn from, and these make the face look very dark, and quite unlike the pure kid-like white face so much admired. Many years ago I tried, by breeding from the naturally clearest-faced birds I could get, to produce Spanish as free as possible from hairs on the face. I found that it could only be done by repeated in-breeding ; but by so breeding I ultimately procured many birds as clean and apparently free from hairs as could be wished for. These neat-faced birds, had, however, always the smallest faces, and consequently were of little use Characteristics of S rakish. 345 to exhibit ; but the cockerels were exceedingly useful to breed from with the larger-faced hens of other strains. “ The combs of the cocks as now generally exhibited are very much too large. Nearly all these large combs have to be supported by cardboard, wire, or some other apparatus, put on to keep them upright. Such overgrown combs may occasionally be seen at exhibitions with very small holes through them, showing where a thread has been through to fasten the cardboard or whatever else has been used to keep them straight and upright. The worst of these large combs is, that during the confinement before a show, or even during the exhibition itself, they become larger and softer, and fall over; entailing almost continual punishment on the bird by his having to wear a head-gear he does not like, and endless trouble and disappointment to the owner, besides vexation to the judge — for the latter occasionally finds he has given perhaps the first prize to a bird which, though he carried his comb as straight and upright as possible when he awarded the prize to him, only a few hours after carries it entirely on one side. “ The face of the cock should be entirely free from coarseness ; for in the very coarse, lumpy- faced birds, the white as they get older will close up the eye so as to prevent a bird from seeing. When this arises from the white under the eye getting so puffed out as to prevent the lids from opening, a piece of the white may be cut out, so as to allow the eye to open freely. Cockerels with the white over the eye running to an angle towards the back part of the face, have very often the sight destroyed in the second year by the white over the eye growing down. As this part cannot be cut without disfiguring the bird, a piece of thread is put through a small portion of the white above the eye, passed close to the back of the comb over the top of the head to the other side, and through a corresponding portion of the eye there ; this is then tied so as to raise the white on both sides, and leave the sight unobstructed. “ The Spanish cock’s beak should be long and stout, and of a deep horn-colour. The comb should be bright red, single, firm, and well set on the head, so as not to shake about — thick at the base, and so gradually thinner to the edge ; perfectly erect, straight, and free from twist either in front or any other part. It should rise from the beak between the fore-part of the nostrils, and extend in an arched form over the back part of the head, the under part at the back almost touching the top of the neck. It should be deeply serrated, the serrations beginning about an inch from the beak, and being small in front, gradually increasing in size until they reach the higher part. The head should be large altogether, being both long, broad, and very deep-sided ; the eyes large, perfectly free, and open. The face and ear-lobe should be of the purest white, and the texture soft and delicate, like the finest white kid ; smooth, and free from ridges or folds, the sight being perfectly free, and not obstructed by the white. The white should reach well on to the beak in front, and rise over the eye close to the base of the comb in an arched form, and extend well towards the back of the head, the further over and behind the ear the better, and continuing to extend, without any break in the line, towards the back of the upper part of the neck. The ear-lobe also should be as long, broad, and open as possible, spreading out on the neck perfectly free from folds, and hanging down very low ; not in any degree narrowing to a point, but preserving its width well until neatly rounded on the bottom ; coming up again in front of the neck, and joining the wattles, which last should be bright red, long, and thin ; the inside of the upper part and the skin betwixt, or throat, white. “ A good Spanish cock is something to be proud of ; in shape and carriage there is no fowl except the Game that can equal him. The neck is rather long and gracefully arched, with the hackle abundant, and reaching well on to his shoulders. The breast is prominent and most beauti- fully rounded, and the body neatly narrowing to the tail, with the wings close up to the body. He 346 The Illustrated Book of Poultry, carries himself proudly and rather upright, giving the back a neat even slant to the tail, which is amply adorned with fine curved sickle-feathers, and is carried rather upright. The thighs and legs are long and neat, the latter being of a dark leaden blue ; and the whole plumage is of the richest and most glossy black, with a beautiful metallic lustre on the higher parts. “ In the Spanish hen the beak is also of a deep horn-colour, or nearly black ; but the comb though large, single, and deeply serrated, falls entirely over one side of the face. The face resembles that of the cock, but is smaller ; and the wattles in the female sex are preferred small and thin. The larger the face is the better, if fine and free from ridges or coarseness ; and there should be no apparent division between face and ear-lobe. The shape of the hen is very graceful, and much the same as in the cock, allowing for the usual difference in the two sexes. “ Spanish sometimes moult with the feathers on the head and thighs tipped with white. This is generally owing to the birds being too fat. No bird will moult well if too fat ; and even old Spanish will go through the moult as quickly as any other breed of fowls, if they are made to procure most of their own food for a few weeks before moulting-time. “ Old Spanish cocks during the exhibition season are best fed almost entirely upon soft food.” Mr. Teebay’s recipe for “keeping Spanish in good condition” will make many of the best known exhibitors hold up their hands in horror; but Mr. Martin kept his at Linton Park exactly in the same way, many of them roosting in the trees ; and we can testify from personal observation that the results were precisely as here stated. We by no means, however, advise that every amateur who has convenience for doing so should turn all his birds out of doors forthwith ; the result of such rash procedure would of course in all probability be the death of the whole lot from roup and other pulmonary complaints. All such changes in treatment, whenever made, should be made gradually , and such out-door treatment as here described rarely answers except the birds have very wide range. On these conditions, there is no doubt whatever that it will surpass all other methods of keeping poultry in condition, though it generally impairs white face. One great merit of the Spanish fowl, however, is the ease with which it may be kept in confine- ment ; and in such circumstances the treatment will necessarily be somewhat different. We have seen magnificent specimens which had rarely been out of a pen only a few feet square ; though it is by no means true that birds will do as well with such accommodation as if allowed better. When bred in anything approaching confinement, the chickens are unquestionably very delicate, and require special care. We have seen many which at six weeks old were perfectly bare of feathers, yet were in perfect health, and likely to make valuable birds. Dorking hens are to be preferred for hatching them, as they remain with them longer and brood them better ; but if such cannot be had, the simple “artificial mothers” described at page 75 will give valuable aid, and are soon resorted to by the little naked and shivering fledglings as often as the desirability of “ a warm” makes itself painfully felt. In very early broods a moderate amount of artificial warmth is desirable, though a perceptible stove-heat, such as we have felt ere now on visiting a Spanish chicken-house, is in our opinion more injurious in the long run than even an entirely unaided temperature would be. It is often found that good old ale to drink, and meat given pretty regularly, are great helps to the fledging of Spanish chickens which have to be reared in confinement, though we are not partial to such regimen as a general rule. Living as we did for many years at the very head-quarters* of the Spanish “ fancy,” we had * The city of Bristol was for many years known amongst poultry-fanciers for its fine strains of Spanish fowls, a result which very remarkably shows the great influence which may be exerted by a single successful amateur ; being almost entirely owing to the sound judgment and perseverance displayed many years ago by Mr. Rake. This gentleman spared no pains or expense in collecting the best stock that could be procured, and was for a time perfectly invincible. Ocher amateurs in Treatment of Spanish before Exhibition. 34 7 many opportunities of seeing the fowls under all circumstances, and of observing how they were managed. A grass-run was always preferred where it could be had, but the majority of the birds were kept in confinement, and generally under cover during severe weather, the houses being boarded up for two or three feet in front, so as to keep off cold winds. In these circumstances they were nearly always in tolerable show condition, except when moulting, which was a very slow process ; but all the Bristol fanciers we were acquainted with used to keep their birds in a “ dark house ” for about a week before showing. These places were not absolutely dark, but enough of what might be called “ twilight ” was allowed through a small window to enable the birds to see their food and water, walk about, and fly up to their roosts. In the best of these dark houses there were pens about seven feet from front to back, by four feet wide, the partitions being boarded up about four feet high, and netted thence to the roof, so that the whole was well-ventilated and airy. Con- finement in such dark pens has a great effect, not only upon the faces, but also on the plumage of the birds, making it clean and glossy ; and we never remember seeing the combs blanched as described by Mr. Teebay, unless the darkening had been much too long continued, or overdone, or the birds had been so closely penned as to be unable to move about. Occasionally they would be let out for half-an-hour on a grass-plot if the weather was dull and mild, but never in the sun “ while a show was on.” Heat was rarely used except in really cold weather, being found to cause flabbiness in the comb, and to endanger the health of the birds on their journey afterwards. Few exhibitors showed their birds in better condition than Mr. Roue (who has since died, but whose stock founded one of the best of the last Bristol strains), and wo found no difficulty in obtaining from him at any time such information as we desired. He always found it best to feed for exhibitions chiefly on barley-meal and bread and milk, with only a small portion of whole corn, the bread and milk being found to “ suit the faces ” well ; and he always made a great point of accustoming the birds to small pens, such as those in which they would have to be shown. We have already treated generally of this matter ; but in the case of Spanish it is peculiarly necessary, as birds unused to the confinement are always poking their heads between the bars or wires when penned, and, by getting rust or dirt on their faces, spoiling their chances in a close competition, the least dirt showing very disadvantageous^ on the pure white of the face. The faces have in the main to be “ bred up to but in every fowl it is necessary to go over the whole carefully, and pluck out with fine tweezers all the “ fluff,” or small hairy feathers, which are more or less dotted over the surface. This is done by seizing each hair as close to the skin as possible, and plucking it out with a sudden jerk. The white then shows up well, and when the operation is completed the whole is carefully and gently washed with soap and lukewarm water, using for the purpose a very soft sponge. Every man washed his birds in his own way ; but Mr. Roue himself constructed a saddle on which the birds were strapped down, and which is likely to be so generally useful in the case of many other varieties beside Spanish, that we have much pleasure in giving the following description and representation of it, from notes and drawings which the inventor has kindly sent us. the neighbourhood followed his example, and when Mr. Rake finally retired his stock was eagerly bought, the best portion of it remaining in the city. After him Mr. Roue bred birds which perhaps have never been excelled ; and the names of Messrs. Lane, Parsley, Jones, Hyde, and others, are or have been all well-known as winners in Spanish classes. At the Bristol Show in 1867, the judges distinguished four pens in the catalogue (all exhibited by different Bristol amateurs) as “the four best pens of Spanish ever seen together .” The foundation of all these Bristol strains, however, was in the excellent stock already referred to ; and we were interested to observe that only a few years ago, at the sale on retirement of another breeder (we think in 1869), “an old Rake hen ” — if we may apply such a term to the gentler sex — was bought apparently for the egg or two she might possibly lay, since there could be little probability of such an event in the case of a fowl which could hardly have been less than ten or twelve years old. Since 1871 Bristol has not stood so high, and at present hardly any are exhibited from the old city. 348 The Illustrated Booic of Poultry. Its invention, lie says, “ occurred in this wise. Being obliged, for exhibition purposes, to wash and trim my biids faces pretty often, which entailed the time and expense of a boy or other assistant, who not only witnessed all that took place, exporting all my little secrets to quarters they weie nevei intended to reach, but whose interest in the performance would often make him forget he w as holding a living thing, till a sudden flap and kick gave notice of freedom, and off the bird w ent, to be re-caught before the operation could be finished ; I found all this a great annoyance and loss of time, and determined, if possible, to stop it. I then tried the bird in my lap, with the breast bone between my knees and the legs down between my own; but this at first was an utter failure, foi off it went at a bound, upsetting all my little apparatus of cups, basins, sponges, &c. I thought that was not much improvement, and would not do ; so I re-caught the young gentleman and quietly put him back as before, but this time passing my handkerchief over his back and round my own thighs, tying the two ends underneath. This was a perfect success ; the bird was comfortable, and never once evinced a desire to move ; and all went on swimmingly until his toilet was just completed, and only wanted the finishing touch of the powder-puff, \ which I had left out of reach ; when my attempt to obtain it proved with some force that I was as helpless as the bird, both of us being bound together. “ Thus I was led to invent what I called a cock-saddle, of which a side view with the bird on if is shown in Fig. 79, and a plan in Fig. 80. It is simply made as follows : — Take a piece of inch deal, five inches wide and about two feet long. About the middle of each edge cut with a saw at right angles, to the depth of one inch and a half ; and five inches from this direct the saw diagonally to the bottom of your preceding cuts, thus taking out of each edge the triangular notches A B in Fig. 80, which are for the bird’s legs to hang down in, similar to a saddle without stirrups. Immediately behind the rectangular cuts, and entirely across the board, nail an oval pad — • horsehair in leather or calico will do — about three inches in height, four or five inches in width, and Saddle lor Washing Fowls. 349 about seven or eight inches across the board, bringing it carefully, with part of the padding, over the rough-cut board. From the front of this pad, C, measure the average length in the body of the breed you keep, and nail two other pads or rolls, D, of this length, tapering from four inches wide backwards to about two inches at the other pad, nailing on the edges and centre of the board, so as to represent, as near as may be, your thighs put close together. “ To put the bird on the saddle, take him under the breast with the right hand, and stretching out his legs horizontally behind with the left, drop him quietly on to the saddle, so that the breast- bone comes between the two rolls or pads, and slipping your right hand away in the direction of the feathers (i.e., towards the thighs), bring it quickly on the bird’s back. When you have him thus, release one of the legs from your left hand, placing them one at a time in the notches prepared to receive them, and taking care to keep the bird well back against the cross pad C, so that it has no room to slip back from the straps. These straps should be two in number, one passing over the pinions of the wings, and the other over the short flights and rump. The buckled ends should be brought to the top, and be connected by a short strap, say three or four inches long, to prevent them parting too far asunder, and so slipping off altogether ; and to prevent them slipping in the same way under the board, screw on the under side for each strap to pass through the guide of a common thumb-latch. Draw the straps so that the bird shall be at ease and have plenty of room to breathe, but no loose space to slip about in, drawing the one over the pinions first. If properly done the bird will be in a most comfortable position, and can remain so for hours without the slightest distress. My saddle had no stand. I used to draw out one of the drawers of a dresser about three inches, and insert the tail end of the saddle as shown in Fig. 79 ; then it could be easily moved from side to side, or by pulling the drawer in or out, could be set higher or lower as required. “ Some may think that this arrangement would distress the birds, but I can assure them that after the first two or three times they seldom make any attempt at movement ; finding the use of their legs gone, they appear perfectly tame and helpless in your hands, which are therefore free for use. In fact, after my old birds got used to it; I found I had hardly ever to use the straps at all, but when put on the saddle they would keep quiet of themselves. Finding such ease and comfort in the plan, I took to giving my best birds a daily washing of face, head, and feet ; and they became so tame and used to it that they would allow me to pick them up in the yard at any time except when feeding. One old cock in particular — a great pet of mine — which had been used to the saddle for two or three years, on my projecting it for use from the old dresser in my stable, used to jump on the dresser top, and give a lusty crow and flap of the wings, as much as to say, ‘ Now for a good wash.’ He would then eye me inquiringly, which I took to mean, ‘ Are you going to put me on ? ’ and if I still hesitated would step on to the saddle and then wait a few minutes in a sort of forlorn mood, till at length he brightened up and called to me jus*- as if to his hens, at the same time making sham pecks at the pad, as if thereon lay a most delicious morsel if I would but come and see. I waited one day to see how he would conclude the ceremony without a wash. After various marchings up and down the old dresser, off and on to the saddle, calling, crewing, &c., it terminated in his attempt to mount or rather descend to the saddle without assistance. The attempt I m ist say was a very sorry affair, for after trying first to put down one leg and then the other for a score of times, he made an indescribable attempt to slip down both at once, which brought him quickly to the floor. He was on his feet in a moment, looking round wrathfully indignant ; when his eye caught the saddle and he flew at it as if at another cock, with his spurs in the air. Being too high, he did not reach his aim, but found himself on his tail again ; when he rose in a rather stately but subdued style, and slunk off the scene, looking thoroughly disgusted with me, the saddle, and himself.” 2 E 350 The Illustrated Book of Poultry. Bred in confinement as they were, many of the best birds often showed a tendency to fall over in the comb, and needed artificial help. Mr. Roue invented a mode of fastening the “wire” which is still employed by Spanish fanciers, who would now consider such a hole in the comb as men- tioned by Mr. Teebay a regular piece of “ bungling,” irritating the bird, as well as being very appa- rent to a critical eye. Mr. Roue’s support is represented in Fig. 81. The wire is all made in one piece, the centre of which is at A, at the back of the base of the comb. The part from A to B is shaped to fit the base of the comb and top of the skull, when drawn forward as far as the comb will permit ; then the corners B must exactly reach the nostrils, whence the wire curves upward and back on each side, at a height which just reaches to the base of the spikes in the comb, and not quite to the back, where it opens a little, so as not to chafe the comb. The wire is bound round with red worsted to prevent sores. In putting on, the cartilage between the cock’s nostrils is pierced with a needle, which does not appear to give any pain whatever, the part seeming devoid of feeling, and being in fact little more than a thin horny plate. The base, A B, of the wire being then firmly bedded on the head, and drawn forward as far as it will go, a bit of twine is passed through the nostrils and corners B, and tied in a firm knot over the nostrils, but not binding them too tightly. The ends should be cut off close, and the cock kept away from the hens, or they will peck the knot loose and get off the apparatus. A wire thus put on does not appear to distress or even annoy a bird in the least, while it is quite as secure as one fastened through the comb itself, if carefully fitted and adjusted. The wire was invented originally for use during sickness or moulting, when the comb often shrivels up and falls over, and sometimes never recovers its original beauty. It was kept a secret for some time, but somehow leaked out and became the property of others, being often abused to an extent never contemplated by Mr. Roue, and largely used to support combs which would have been hopeless without such assistance. Many birds required it pretty frequently, especially when returning from a show ; and we can remember one cock in particular, which won almost everywhere some years since, and which rarely had the wire off except when at exhibitions, or got ready for the inspection of some other amateur: his comb “would stand about a week” — just long enough for a show — and no more. This bird was an example of the fault referred to by Mr. Teebay, the comb being too large for just proportion, to which no doubt the weakness was attributable. Used as designed by the inventor, for temporary support during critical periods, we can testify from personal observation that such a wire as figured above is of the greatest utility — but we have long since been equally convinced, from what we have seen in various yards, that the extensive use of such artificial helps — or rather, we should say, the abuse of them — to assist naturally flabby combs, rather than the careful attention to breeding good ones, always reaps its legitimate reward in the perpetuation Combs of Spanish Fowls . of a weak combed race of birds. We are sorry to say it came within our personal knowledge that on one occasion an exhibitor, having a fine cock with a comb very much too large for any legitimate treatment, cut off the edge and deliberately act fresh spikes in the mutilated member ; but we ought to add that this piece of barbarity was indignantly censured by every one to whose knowledge it came : and — what is perhaps more to the purpose, should these pages fall into the hands of any more such gentry — the “ experiment ” itself was a decided failure, the new serrations being, on account of the natural thickening of the comb towards the bottom, too clumsy to appear in the show-pen with any chance of success. Besides this fault of being too large, the most frequent blemish in a Spanish comb is a slight twist or curve low down the front, returning at once to the true middle line, and the main part of the comb being perfectly true and upright. This fault often appears during growth, to disgust and disappoint the hopes of the amateur ; and one form of it is well known under the name of a “ thumb-mark.” As birds with this blemish often have beautiful faces, they are not unfrequentlv employed for breeding pullets ; but the result of such a proceeding is invariably to give much future trouble, as nearly all the cockerels bred afterwards from hens of such a strain will probably show the fatal defect. Slight cases may sometimes be cured if treated early, by folding a piece of stiff cardboard, and fixing it with any very strong adhesive plaister, so as to enclose the front of th.e comb between the two leaves of the card ; also by the wire just described. It was formerly the fashion for the cock to carry his comb over on one side, somewhat like that of the hen ; and the remains of this tendency no doubt add to the difficulty of breeding combs perfectly straight and upright now. This point is another good illustration both of the “ changes of fashion” in poultry attire, and of the power man possesses over these and other circumstances. The mandate went forth that “combs were to be worn” upright in future, and forthwith breeders produced birds answering the required conditions; so that the difference in the carriage of combs is now fixed as a sexual distinction. We have seen very singular misapprehensions on this point, and once in particular observed an advertisement of an upright — or “prick-combed,” as it is called- Spanish hen, which on account of this well-known blemish was stated to be “ invaluable for breeding cockerels whereas very careful experiment years ago has conclusively proved that while breeding from such hens ruins a strain entirely for breeding pullets, it is not a whit better for breeding good combs in the cockerels, or rather is decidedly worse, almost always producing combs which are not only so much smaller as to be often too small, but generally very ugly in contour, wanting that fine arch which is so great a beauty. Were it understood that the different carriage of combs is now become a sexual mark, just as the difference in tails, such absurd mistakes would not be made. It is, however, quite possible to influence the character of the future combs much by a really judicious selection of stock. In the male parent a moderate size should be chosen, combined with as thick a base as possible, but tapering off to a fine or thin edge. In the hen the same points of a thick base and thin edge should be sought ; and it will be found that such combs often seem to stand up a little from the head at the base, as if intending to grow upright, but quickly fall over with a clean arch or sweep, the front edge presenting one smooth curve, free from duplicature or waviness. Such are the combs to be chosen as likely to produce what is wanted in the cockerels, avoiding both those very large, weak, and flabby combs which fall “ dead over,” forming almost a sharp angle with the skull, and such as seem to have so much front edge as to be waved or twisted in the outline ; the first of these being likely to breed large and falling combs, and the second twists or thumb-marks in the front. During the moult the combs of Spanish fowls shrivel and shrink to an extraordinary degree. 352 1 he Illustrated Book of Poultry. At such times the combs of first-class hens will often assume a small and upright or “pricked'’ character, and must not be condemned on that account, as a return to good condition will make them all that can be desired. The white face and ear-lobe are rather apt to become disfigured by a dirty yellowish eruption or scab, which greatly diminishes the chances of birds in competition, and is also somewhat dangerous, as it occasionally tempts birds to peck at each other’s faces. We have known this occur in several instances, and, though we are not sure, believe that in all, with but one exception, there had been signs of eruption previously. In the exceptional case the best cockerel of the year at Birmingham was shown afterwards with a first-prize pair of pullets, we think at Manchester, when the pullets, or one of them, devoured one of the cock’s ear-lobes entirely, and the other partially, spoiling the bird entirely for show purposes. In this case the face was in faultless condition, and the mishap could only be attributed to impatience under confinement with a strange mate, the pen having only been put together a day previously. The eruption now referred to is usually a consequence of over-feeding. Incipient cases may sometimes be checked and cured by reducing the diet and bathing the affected parts gently twice a day with milk and water ; but generally, and especially if birds have to be “got right” for a show, it is better to treat it regularly, by giving a tea-spoonful of castor-oil every three days for three or four times, and bathing the faces with sulphurous acid (pharmacopoeia strength) diluted with its own bulk of water. The use of this preparation, though known to very few, has probably given rise to the opinion we have heard expressed as to the “atrocious cruelty” to which Spanish are subjected by having their faces prepared with “strong acids.” We can only reply that the acid in question is the very same which is used to cure colds by injection into the throat in the form of spray, and is absolutely tasteless. Its effect, if patiently persevered with, is very marked on the eruption referred to ; but the faces must be carefully and gently dried after each application. Dryness of the face is, in fact, a very great point, and the dusting of a little violet-powder, or what is much better, finely-powdered oxide of zinc, between the folds, is of much advantage, helping also to bring out the white of the face nicely. The advantage of the zinc is that it never clogs or cakes with the moisture of the skin, as violet-powder is rather apt to do. We have known exhibitors actually paint faces, especially if an otherwise good face has a reddish place over the eye ; but such frauds are generally discovered if the judge has proper time allowed him, by the harsh and rough look of the skin thus treated. We need scarcely say that all dishonourable practices of this kind should be visited with ignominious disqualification, and all white powder should be wiped off before showing It was formerly considered fraudulent even to “trim” the faces of Spanish fowls, by plucking out the hairs as described, and birds so treated were disqualified ; but by degrees the plan became so openly recognised and acknowledged, both by exhibitors and judges, that any pretence of fraud is perfectly ridiculous. We believe the reason in this case to have been, not that exhibitors desired an unfair advantage, but that the full beauty of by far the greater number of Spanish faces cannot be seen without such trimming. Some years after the general recognition of the practice in England, one or two breeders kept up an unavailing protest against it, and refused to trim their birds, with the result that they were always hopelessly beaten. At length one of the most prominent objectors, Mr. Alfred Heath, publicly announced that, being convinced the case was hopeless, he should henceforth himself adopt a practice he found to be general, on the under- standing it was not to be considered fraudulent ; and we believe on the very next occasion of his exhibiting he won a cup. Some time after he wrote to us saying that after trial of the new plan he prefers it ; that he had never seen the full beauty of his own birds before, and does not think it can be seen without ; whilst with the present clear and open understanding the objection Trimming Spanish Faces. 353 he formerly entertained is entirely removed. We have thought it well to state these facts, in order to remove any misapprehension which may still prevail, and to make it perfectly clear that no breeder, exhibitor, or judge now considers the faintest semblance of fraud to attach to the practice referred to. It is only necessary to state thsrt a proper fringe of feathers, which is always found naturally in the very best birds, should be left at the top of the face, between it and the comb. To trim this away is to impart a very unnatural appearance, which, as Mr. Teebay says, is “perfectly ridiculous;” and which on this ground, and not on that of fraud, is still occasionally visited with the penalty of disqualification. Mr. Teebay has already alluded to the difference in “quality” of faces. Various yards have very marked peculiarities in this point, and the celebrated strain of the late Mr. Lane, of Bristol, which at one period won more prizes than any other, was of the rough or “ cauliflower ” type of face, though the surface of white was extraordinarily large. There can be no doubt, however, of the superior beauty of the soft and smooth faces, and Mr. Lane himself, for a year or two before his death, had been transforming his old strain to this character by judicious crosses, and had to a considerable extent succeeded when his death dispersed the yard. There appears little doubt that all the older English strains were of the rough-faced type, and that we owe the smooth faces to subsequent importation from the Dutch fanciers. These Dutch birds, however, had faces much smaller than the English, singularly corroborating Mr. Teebay’s experience of the effect in diminishing face of in-breeding to get smoothness ; and very much careful breeding was required before the quality of the one was to some extent engrafted upon the size of the other. This was the great secret of Mr. Rake’s success, his sound judgment in crossing enabling him to show smooth faces of greater size, or large faces of finer quality (whichever view be preferred) than all his competitors. We may add that the ear-lobes' shown of late have been by no means equal to those seen formerly. We have frequently seen them in former years all that could be desired, being perfectly open, flat, and free from folds ; but for years we were scarcely able to find a bird anywhere whose lobes were free from folds, wrinkles, or duplicature. Lately things have somewhat improved again. In breeding Spanish, and especially in crossing different strains, the most satisfactory results will usually be found to follow by putting the smoother-faced cockerels (even if the face be small) to the large and rough-faced hens, than by adopting the contrary plan. Perhaps no breed, how- ever, bears crossing so ill as the Spanish ; the result of crossing even first-rate strains, if very alien in blood, being, as we have elsewhere seen, often the apparently unaccountable but most disheartening deterioration of face in every point. Recrossing back to one of the parent strains will generally remedy this in the second generation ; but still it is very desirable, by preserving distinct families and noting pedigrees, to avoid, as far as possible, crossing from an entirely alien yard. It is very difficult to foresee the ultimate quality of the young chickens. The very best are often the longest in showing their good points ; and indeed, as a general rule, those which show very white in face at an early age rarely turn out first-rate specimens. One of the most experienced breeders we ever knew had on one occasion actually given orders in October for a cockerel to be “potted;” but his “ man ” thought differently, and kept him on a little longer, chiefly however on account of an uncommonly beautiful comb. This very bird during the next two months picked up “ hand over hand,” making ultimately the champion cockerel of his year ! Birds which show a plain blush or red as chickens, however, may be discarded without hesitation ; and in general, those which present a dark, dirty blue appearance when young, with a very slow but steady change to white as they grow older, make the best specimens. Very promising chickens will, however, often show the fatal red over the eye as time draws on ; and only the most careful 354 2 he Illustrated Book of Poultry. selection of stock, rejecting every bird for breeding which shows the faintest trace of red, will keep a yard up to a high standard. Spanish fowls, as they become old, not unfrequently moult out with many or all of then feathers tipped with white, presenting a curious “ magpie ” appearance, not unlike some strains of Houdans. This is no evidence whatever of any impurity of blood, but seems strictly analogous to the advent of grey or white hair in the human species. Such birds will produce chickens (so long as their prolific power lasts) quite as perfect as those which remain quite black. Occasionally they will moult entirely white instead of pied ; and even young white birds are sometimes produced. Some of these are what physiologists term “albinoes,” having the pink eyes of that peculiar physical disposition ; but others merely show the frequent change from white to black and black to white which all the feathered tribes often present, and by breeding these carefully the White Spanish has been produced. The only other variation in plumage necessary to notice is the occurrence of red or reddish- golden feathers, more particularly in the cock’s hackles. We have always noticed that birds thus disfigured were of the richest and most glossy colour in the yard,* and we never knew a yard at all noted for rich and glossy plumage in which such birds were not every now and then produced, This is, in fact, the case with every black breed of poultry, the least-established (such as Black Cochins) of course suffering most from it, and varieties so long and carefully bred as the Spanish being to a great extent free ; but the tendency still exists in all, and is always manifesting itsell more or less. We mention the matter partly because Mr. Darwin has on this point made another of the mistakes regarding the facts of poultry-breeding to which we have already referred, stating f that “ all who know anything of the breeding of poultry will admit that tens of thousands of pure Spanish .... have been reared without the appearance of a red feather whereas, all “ who know anything” are aware that the fact is precisely opposite, and that these red feathers are just what are frequently observed. Of course, tens of thousands of birds free from them are bred, and only such are preserved and shown ; but out of the whole “ tens of thousands ” bred by any number of fanciers many birds with red feathers may be seen. Such should not be bred from, if it be possible ; and by insisting on this rule they may and ought to be reduced to a mere per-centage. By adopting a contrary rule, a race of red Spanish might probably be produced without much difficulty, if such were desired. Coming, as they generally do, from close confinement, Spanish require specially good protection on. their journey to and from any show. Even the coarse unbleached linen or canvas generally employed to line poultry-baskets is scarcely sufficient if the weather is at all bad ; and most Spanish fanciers of our acquaintance prefer to use flannel. This should be well shrunk before being employed, which swells the fibres, and affords very efficient protection from cold and draught, whilst still giving efficient ventilation. It is also necessary to have the basket sufficiently high to prevent the cock by any possibility knocking his comb against the top, which would probably cause damage to one or more of the spikes. The laying qualities of Spanish are well known. Close breeding has within the last twenty years perceptibly diminished the good qualities of many strains, but enough still remains to justify a very high character as layers, about 130 eggs per annum being an average many birds will attain, if properly fed and managed. The egg is very large, with a smooth white shell, both of which qualities cause it to command a good market ; but it must be admitted that to most palates * The Rev. W. Serjeantson’s notes on Black Hamburghs will be found to corroborate this exactly, from his experience of another breed. f “Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication.’ Black Minorcas. 355 the flavour is far inferior to Cochin or Brahma eggs, the yolk being smaller in proportion, and rather insipid, the chief bulk being made up of albumen or white. On the other hand, this very absence of flavour causes their eggs to be preferred by many invalids and other persons of delicate appetite. The pullets usually lay at or before six months old, and will continue through the winter, but the hens rarely begin till January ; after which, however, they rarely stop more than a day or two until the autumnal moult. The appetite being only moderate, and the birds bearing confinement well, and never giving trouble by any sitting propensities, when not spoilt by in- breeding for exhibition they make a very useful and profitable variety for urban or suburban poultry-keepers. Of late, owing to the cause here hinted at, the place of the Spanish as a useful fowl has been largely taken by the Minorca. Though non-sitters, instances occasionally happen, when kept at large so that hens can “ steal their nests,” of Spanish hens brooding steadily, and bringing off good clutches of chickens ; but we never knew this occur under any other circumstances. It is by no means uncommon for Spanish hens to remain on the nest for a day or two, with an occasional cluck, and other signs of uneasi- ness ; but even for the few days it lasts the sitting is usually unsteady, and the inclination soon passes off. The great majority never show any inclination to sit at all. Spanish fowls are pretty fair eating, but the flesh generally eats rather dry. They are not handsome on the table, the breast-bone almost always projecting sharply, so as to make the fowl appear thin, and the black legs being also an objection. This breed does not, in fact, lay on meat readily upon the breast ; and for table purposes must therefore be regarded as only a second-rate fowl, by no means equal to either the Dorking, the French breeds, or the Asiatic races. BLACK MINORCAS. — This admirable breed of fowls was known and valued for many years in the West of England, before attracting any attention elsewhere. It has a general outward resemblance to the Spanish fowl ; the most conspicuous difference being that the face is red instead of white ; the ear-lobe still being pure white. Hence some have thought that the Minorca strain may have been the original progenitor of the Spanish race, and the tendency of that race to revert to red in the face would lend some probability to this view, so far as the ultimate origin of the breed is concerned ; but there can be no reasonable doubt that the Spanish is much the older race of the two in this country, and was bred to a considerable degree of perfection both here and in the Low Countries, before the Minorca was known. The Minorca must at all events be regarded as one of the varieties, and apparently a distinct and original variety, of that great Mediterranean race whose general type, as already stated, is found all round the margin of the Great Sea. Of all these varieties, perhaps none equals the Minorca in solid and real value ; and it has always been a mystery to us that such a fowl should have been so long confined to the West of England. Our own persistent advocacy of its merits for some years had little effect ; but all of a sudden the breed did begin to “ move,” and its growth in popularity during recent years has been enormous. In 1883, several years after the movement had begun, the Crystal Palace Show contained but two classes and 32 entries ; in 1888 there were six classes and 140 entries. This was the Minorca Club’s first show at the Palace : the following year the club drew together 157 entries in the six classes ; and in 1892 the Palace still attracted 120 entries. This popularity is amply warranted bv useful and hardy qualities. Not only is the fowl a splendid layer, but its eggs are probably the largest laid by any breed, so that it is generally possible to pick out an exhibition dish averaging three ounces each. As a rule, it cannot be classed amongst the distinctly winter layers, though well-hatched pullets may generally be depended upon ; but the average for the year is extremely 356 The Illustrated Book of Poultry. high. Mr. Hopkins puts it at 226 each, counting four pens ; Mr. Physick at 184, counting seven pens , Mr. Amesbury at 180, and a few birds 200 ; the latter realised 200 in twelve months from one hen four years old. In addition to this the fowl is hardy, and a fair bird on the table, being more full in the breast than the Spanish, and considerably larger. Birds with slate-coloured legs are generally finer in flesh than the verv dark-lep,°'ed ones The oiiginal source of this fine breed appears to be correctly represented in its name, but it seems to have been derived from more than one importation. Mr. Leworthy told us that a Mr. \\ illis, whom he knew well, had known the fowl in Minorca, and of importations from thence long ago. 1 he Rev. Thomas Cox, of Castle Cary, was personally informed by Sir Thomas Acland that his fathei, the former baronet, brought some from Minorca to England direct in cither 1834 or *^35) an<3 that from this importation the strain had been kept up at Holnicote many years, and a gieat deal distributed ; in fact, the Acland family generally believed that the introduction of the fowl into the West was due to this importation. There is no doubt that many strains did diverge thence ; but we think there is evidence that the breed was known years before, and there are certainly differences in certain strains, which bear out the supposition of distinct importations. One of the earliest breeders whom we came across was the late Mr. Leworthy, of Barnstaple, who gave us in 1872 the following short description of the Minorca fowl : — 1 he comb of the cock is very large, straight, and upright, the spikes being very wide at the base and tapering to the points. The wattles are very large and pendulous ; the ear-lobe long, and as purely white and soft as a Spanish ; but the face is red, with a purple tinge under- neath the eye, the cheeks being very thin. The eye should be a very dark colour, and the beak dark horn. The shoulders are wide, legs short, and carriage rather low. The tail is very large and flowing. “ The comb of the hen falls over one side of the face, so as almost to conceal the whole of it and even the bill ; otherwise she corresponds closely with the cock, allowing for the difference of sex. The plumage both of cock and hen must resemble that of a rook, being a sooty kind of black. * The weight of the cock averages about five and a half pounds, and of hens four and a half pounds.” It will be obvious at once to every more modern breeder, that the standard of weight here given by Mr. Leworthy, to begin with, is very low. Cocks are now expected to weigh from five and a half pounds to eight pounds, and hens from five pounds to six and a half pounds. There was also a type of bird once often seen, more slender in make, and higher upon the leg, more after the proportions of the Spanish fowl. There is reason to think some birds of this type may have originated in a cross with coarse wasters from the Spanish race ; but many we knew never showed any apparent sign of such a cross at all. These tall birds were usually close-feathered and glossy, with green reflections ; and modern breeding has favoured considerably more gloss than indicated in the above description. On the whole, however, it may still be said that the Minorca is a black , as distinguished from a green fowl ; and the rather short leg, and deep and rather massive body, is recognised still as the true type. According to the standard agreed upon by the Minorca Club, the breed should now be characterised as follows : — The head of the cock is very large and broad, without which the large comb cannot be carried firmly ; beak dark horn colour ; comb single, large, upright, and straight, reaching well back, and rather rough in texture but free from sprigs, the spikes large and well defined ; wattles long and rounded at ends ; ear-lobes white, smooth, and flat, medium in size, and almond-shaped ; face fine and as free from feathers as possible, but quite free from white ; eye full and dark. The neck is long and arched, with flowing hackle ; body wide at the shoulders, square Cassell's Poultry Book "Vincenl Brooks JJav &. Son Irlh MR A. G. PITTS PAIR OF Ml N 0 R C A S. WINNERS OF MANY CUPS AND PRIZES IN 1886 AND 1887. . Black Minorcas. 35 7 and compact, the back being', however, rather long as well as broad ; wings moderate in size and neat ; the breast is full. The plumage is black, and glossy as possible — largely a question of condition. Thighs, legs, and feet medium length and rather stout, with four toes only, and black or dark slate in colour. Tail full, with good sickles carried well back, and whole carriage upright and graceful. The hen will correspond in most points, but her ear-lobes are rather more rounded than in the cock, and her comb is carried over one side of the face, dropping well down, but well arched, tip evenly serrated, and large, also slightly rough in texture like the cock’s. The weights of each sex as above stated. This description, which is simply the Club’s definition standard rendered in descriptive style, is undoubtedly a good one, and well calculated to preserve the valuable qualities of this fowl, so far as a standard can do so. Thus to preserve the breed, however, will require care, for the attempt to breed exaggerated points has several times done perceptible mischief. The first tendency was to breed exaggerated combs and wattles ; and the late Mr. Hewitt once pointed out to us a pen of Minorcas, to which he had given first prize in a variety class as “ the best he had ever seen,” because of the immense combs and wattles, the latter being in the cock over six inches long. We consider it beyond doubt that large combs and wattles have an intimate connection with laying powers ; but such exaggerated appendages are a severe tax upon the bird’s nervous and muscular energy, hinder proper feeding, and are peculiarly liable both to frost-bite, and to a specially obstinate kind of indolent ulceration in the creases. We are glad to see, not only in the standard, but in the judging of the classes, that this evil seems checked, and that only large combs and wattles, but in moderation, are now sought. The next mistake, and one still not abandoned, was to enlarge and broaden the white ear- lobe, and to lay far too much stress in competition upon its size and smoothness. To get this, Spanish crosses were sometimes employed, and either from that, or even from natural tendencies accompanying such a line of action, most evident signs of white face became apparent on every side. The evil thus done to the breed was very great. The necessity of selecting birds with large white lobes and yet without white face, so narrowed selection as to produce perceptibly more deli- cacy of constitution from in-breeding, and a less supply of eggs. To remedy these evils, probably, the Minorca has latterly been crossed with the Langshan ; in fact, amongst exhibitors this cross has been almost universal, though in most cases it is probably unknown, and introduced from other supposed pure-bred Minorca stock. We carefully examined the large classes at the Crystal Palace Show of 1892, and found undeniable evidence of Langshan blood in rather more than half the pens. It may be seen in stature to some extent ; but more specifically in size of shank, in the scaling of the shank, and in not a few cases even in the peculiar crimson Langshan colour between the scales ; also in the character of the head and comb. In some cases we know that the Orpington rather than the pure Langshan has been the medium of the cross. It has undoubtedly done good upon the whole, and prevented much evil from in-breeding that would otherwise have followed mischief already done ; yet it is not desirable to carry on such crossing ad infinitum , and we enter a strong appeal for a fowl we have known from childhood, and one of the best we have, that it may be preserved as it is by judicious breeding and judging. The lobe is now described as “almond-shaped.” That will do very well, and can be bred ; but we are sorry to say it does not fairly represent the prize birds very often seen even to-day. There is an obvious tendency still to breed and judge for the broad and rounded lobe of the Spanish, which will be fatal if indulged in. There has been a further tendency at times to be too particular about combs, and breeders have advocated that neither more nor less than “ five spikes” should prevail. We cannot stigmatise this too strongly, and it is not only absurd, but would have condemned half the best male birds at 353 The Illustrated Bock of Poultry. the last Palace show. The spikes should be large and few, rather than narrow and many ; beyond that, all asked for should be a handsome contour, combined with straightness. The hen’s should “ arch ” well, before falling, to breed stiff ones in the cocks. Comb is, indeed, one of the chief difficulties in breeding Minorca cockerels, and unless the hen’s is selected in this way, and care taken to choose breeding cockerels whose skulls are very broad on the top, and whose combs are thick at the bottom, it is rapidly lost. The combs are very ticklish in frosty weather, and to keep them from frost-bite the tips especially, and the wattles, should be greased every now and then ; moisture will then be repelled. The ear-lobes of Minorcas require care, and at times shelter, to bring them to perfection of smoothness and whiteness, like the Spanish, but in less degree. A little shutting-up generally makes great improvement in the ears of good birds just off a run. Those kept in yards, with walls high enough to keep off the wind, are, however, generally reasonably fit, unless the feeding is very injudicious. They are gently cleaned for exhibition as in the Spanish fowl. The following is the club’s scale of points for judging (1892) : — Defects in face — bloated red, coarseness, or too hairy . . . . . 15 Comb bad shape or twisted .......... 15 Lobe wrinkled, folded, or stained ......... 10 Want of size ............. 15 Derects in colour ............ 10 Want of condition ............ 10 Want of style and symmetry .......... 10 Too light legs, eyes, or beak .......... 8 Crooked breast-bone ........... 7 loo We consider that this would be a very much better standard to judge the fowl by than the one we have ourselves given on page 363. It lays less stress on ear-lobes, and makes white face disqualify. We shall be very glad if it be really adopted ; but having gone very carefully into the matter, we have little hesitation in saying that the actual judging cannot be squared by that standard, and is as yet more truly represented by our own. Plain traces of white face do not disqualify, and lobe is given the full weight we have allotted ; and so of other points, so far as we can gather from recent careful analysis at the Palace shows. We state these facts, not to justify our own tables again, but simply in hopes that the statement may cause the really sounder scale, as we consider, to actually prevail. The best cross of the Minorca is with the Langshan, choosing the shorter-legged type. There is no better all-round layer on earth than this cross, and the fowl on the table is very good if the birds have “ hit ” well. The Minorca itself, if of the massive type (which we consider the correct one) is far from a bad fowl, and much better than the Spanish, though the flesh is a trifle dry. The shape is pretty plump, and in this particular case larding a bird before roasting makes almost a magical difference in the product. WHITE SPANISH AND MINORCAS. — There are white varieties of both the preceding breeds, probably formed in each case by breeding from the occasional “ sports to which we have already referred. The White Spanish is not by any means a nice-looking fowl, the plumage affording- no contrast to the white face, but, on the contrary, giving it a sickly or ghastly cast, which is only less conspicuous when high health makes the colour of the combs and wattles as bright as possible. White Minorcas are much handsomer birds, the red face presenting the contrast which the Cassell’s Poultry Book .’Vincent Brooks Bay ScSocn J.rth M R H LE. WORTHY'S PAIR OF ANDALUSIANS. COCK Ist PRIZE At BARNSTAPLE 1 871 . H E N I *7 PR I Z E B A R N ST A PLE 1872 Points and Qualities of Andalusians. 359 plumage seems to require. Mr. Leworthy writes of them that, according to his experience, they are larger birds than the Black, taller, closer-feathered, and fuller on the breast ; the cocks averaging seven and hens five and a half to six pounds. He found them more delicate than the black variety, and not such good layers, especially in the winter. The plumage should be a pure and spotless white all over, beak and legs being white also. Recent breeders, however, report the White Minorca as equal to the Black in hardihood and prolificacy. Some go off to a pale slate colour. White Minorcas are by no means destitute of attractions ; and a fine pen in the possession of a relative of our own were as hardy as could be desired, and moulted easily enough, but were not good layers. They must, however, be pronounced inferior to the newly-introduced American Leghorns, the yellow legs of the latter giving a much better contrast to the plumage, and the lively carriage also appearing to advantage, while as layers and in hardiness these are also far superior. For further particulars of this nearly-allied variety we must refer to the chapter on American breeds. ANDALUSIANS. — The variety known by this name is another which can be highly recommended for its laying qualities. Mr. Leworthy writes of these fowls as follows : — “ I have possessed birds of this variety ever since January, 1856, and I know that some at least of the first specimens were imported from the province of Andalusia, in Spain. I obtained my own first stock of the late Mr. Coles, Farham, Hants, who, I have been given to understand, purchased them from Mr. Richardson, an importer of foreign cage and other birds at Portsmouth. The latter obtained them in the first place from a Spanish trader, who landed at Portsmouth in 1851. This information I obtained by letter from Mr. Richardson himself, who afterwards sold the imported fowls to Mr. Coles. These two gentlemen crossed them with the White-faced Black Spanish, in order to improve the variety, as many of the original hens had small stand-up combs like Game hens ; and I fear it will be some years yet before the effect of the cross disappears, and we get a really settled original type, many of the chickens at present coming black. Mr. Taylor, of Shepherd’s Bush, also had some imported birds of this variety. “ They are excellent table fowls, the cocks weighing about seven pounds and hens five to six pounds each. They are very precocious, feathering fast and kindly, and very prolific indeed as layers. Mine average five eggs per week each, and I find the eggs larger than those of any other fowl, even Spanish not excepted. In fact, taking weight as well as number of eggs to be a criterion, I think them the most productive birds of any I know. One of my first hens commenced laying in January, 1856, and up to the end of the year she had laid 220 eggs. I may also mention that their eggs are of an exquisitely delicate flavour. “ The comb of the cock resembles that of the undubbed Game fowl, but is rather larger ; the hen’s comb lies over on one side of the face, as in the Spanish, though many hens even yet are bred with comb erect, as in the original birds. The wattles are in proportion to the comb. The face is red, but ear-lobes pure white, and showing up very distinctly from the face, very much as in the Minorcas. The head should be taper, with as little red skin as possible over the eye. “ The cock’s neck is long, and hackle rather short ; the breast full and round ; tail large, and carried very high. The legs are long. The general plumage is a blueish shade or slate- colour, clear all over the ground-colour, laced round the edges with black. The hackle-feathers of the cock are a very good blue for the artificial flies used in trout-fishing. The plumage of both sexes is alike, except the hackle and upper-feathers of the cock, which are many shades darker. 3 6° The Illustrated Book of Poultry. “ There is also a Pile Andalusian, in which the ground-colour is silver, thinly covered with light blue, which forms the pile. These are very beautiful birds, but are rarely seen.“ \\ e have had much personal experience of Andalusian fowls, a friend in whose poultry-yard we took considerable interest having kept a large stock for some years. She possessed the advantages of a good country run, and from first to last gave a most favourable account of their good qualities in everyway. They were very moderate eaters, perfectly hardy, and their eggs never failed. One peculiarity, however, always struck us, and that was their extreme precocity. Mr. Leworthy has remarked upon this feature himself; but his general statement conveys little idea of the extreme “fastness” of the chickens. It was really absurd to see (as we often have seen) little beggars of no more than six or seven weeks old stand up and crow with all the impudence that could be imagined. They were also pugnacious, more so than any other of the Spanish breeds, but not enough to give much real trouble. The lady whose stock we refer to found the hens occasionally, though rarely, desire to sit ; and when they did so they made very good mothers. The same uncertainty as to colour of the chickens was found with this stock, many coming black, and with upright combs, so that much care was required to keep the yard at all true to feather ; but as a safe, useful, and profitable fowl to keep, they could hardly be surpassed. We may add that we obtained from this yard a draft to stock a confined run constructed for a children’s hospital, in order to supply the little inmates with the much-needed luxury of really new-laid eggs ; and in these altered circumstances, also, the birds maintained their character as good and reliable layers. Some little latitude is allowed in the colour of Andalusians for exhibition. It may vary from a pale dove-colour to a deep slaty blue, and the lacing may be black, or dark blue, or purple. The cock’s hackle and upper plumage should, however, always be very dark in colour to look well, the rich contrast of colour being required. We have seen this portion of his plumage nearly if not quite black, which looks handsome ; but the best colour for beauty, and certainly that which harmonises best with the general type of plumage altogether, is a very deep and lustrous purple. A fine bird thus coloured always graces a pen, and if worthily mated, rarely fails to obtain honourable notice. In breeding, hens well laced must be selected if that quality is to be perpetuated. A medium colour is at present most popular. With respect to the origin of Andalusians, we confess to being puzzled. There can be no doubt that the original birds of this colour were imported from Spain, but the exceeding difficulty, after more than twenty years’ breeding, of even now obtaining a stock true to points, makes it very doubtful if these birds had any claim to the title of a distinct variety, but were not rather the produce of some recent cross. It has come within our knowledge that in several instances the crossing of white and black fowls, and even of black with black of different races, or white with white, has produced stray birds very similar in colour to the slaty blue of the Andalusian ; and hence it has struck us as most probable that the latter may have originated by a cross between Black and White Spanish, or rather Minorca, since nearly all the birds found in Spain have red faces with white ears. The hardiness, the quick feathering, and the prolificacy, would all be in favour of such a view ; and we may add that we have seen many chickens produced which were of such a very pale dove-colour as to appear more a dirty white than anything else. However this may be, there is no doubt that the Andalusian has often been quite bred out, and re-bred or re-formed again. As now exhibited, it closely resembles the Minorca in all but. colour, but is generally more hardy. It is such a very useful fowl that we regret exceedingly to state, what however a wider experience has quite convinced us of, that the present race is, in con- finement, especially prone to the vice of feather-eating. Ancon as, or Mottled Spanish. 36j ANCONAS. — This variety resembles the preceding in the general shape which marks all the Spanish tribes, the large comb, upright in the cock and falling over in the hen, and the large wattles and ear-lobes. The face is red, approximating it to the Minorca rather than the Spanish type ; but the plumage is “ Cuckoo” or Dominique in colour, the general effect of which, and the marking of individual feathers, are accurately represented in the chapter on American breeds. We entertain scarcely any doubt that the origin of Anconas is to be found in accidental “sports” of this colour from crossing Black and White Minorcas. Black and white being readily interchanged, and White Minorcas being rather scarce, the latter have to our knowledge been often crossed with Black, most of the produce being Black or White. The result of crossing any very dark fowl with White is, however, often productive of a certain number of this “ Cuckoo” marking, (we have seen this already in crossing the Dark-grey with White Dorkings), and the “ prepotency,” as Mr. Darwin calls it, of this colour, when once produced, makes its transmission even from a recent cross comparatively easy. Anconas are always scarce ; but we generally see a pen every two or three years, and they could be easily perpetuated if desired. They are generally “good for a prize” in the “Any Variety” class, and look decidedly attractive in a pen if of at all good points and quality. In the only case where we were able to make personal inquiry, the owner — an innkeeper, whose hostelry rejoiced in a name which must surely have conveyed the idea of Paradise to these lucky birds, being no other than “ The Wheat sheaf ” — informed us they were hardy, and “ no end at laying.” Of course! how could they help it in such happy circumstances ? These qualities, taken in conjunction with their scarcity, would be almost conclusive in favour of their origin in some cross ; and a further corroborative argument may be found in the fact that all the specimens we can remember to have seen have had shorter legs than any other variety or sub-variety of Spanish. Birds have been exhibited under the name of Anconas of other colours than that described, We have known birds splashed black and white called by that name, and even brown and red birds, almost the colour of Black-red Game. Such have, however, in every case, presented the general characteristics of mongrels, and have no claim whatever to the title of a distinct breed, though the latter colour named suggests some inquiry as to the origin of Brown Leghorns. LEGHORNS. — We have already remarked that these birds present nearly all the characteristics of the Spanish race ; but as they differ in some important respects, shall defer the consideration of them to our special chapter upon American breeds. It will have been seen that all the Spanish varieties agree in the principal characteristics of general shape, large combs, absence of the incubating instinct, and the abundant laying of large white eggs. These point conclusively to a common origin, while the various differences are obviously owing to the art of man, as in other varieties of fowls. The facts would seem to show that in this district the most extensive, if not the earliest, cultivation of fowls primarily for eggs took place ; and it is remarkable that this should have been in the most central portions of the Roman empire. Egg-laying has further been specially cultivated in Catholic countries, for obvious reasons, France being another instance in point. At all events, all the breeds in this chapter, and the Leghorns, are obviously only varieties of one great Mediterranean race of poultry. Most of the crosses make capital layers, the best in our opinion being that between the Minorca and the Langshan, bred either way, which is very hardy and an enormous layer. Both this cross and that with the Cochin or Brahma make capital sitters. The cross with the IToudan produces a nondescript bird which often lays enormously, but usually sits at least once a year. In 2 F The II lustrated Book of Poultry. 362 fact, as already remarked, good laying qualities distinguish nearly all the cross breeds. The Columbian fowl, to which we have referred on a previous occasion, was the most promising for beauty of all the Spanish crosses, and might be made into a new and attractive variety with com- paratively little trouble, this cross appearing to “ hit” well. JUDGING SPANISH. — Though certainly the chief, the face is not the only point which requires to be taken into consideration in judging Spanish. Handsome proportion and carriage are of great moment, and so is a good condition of the plumage. A bird well shown as regards these, and with a moderately good face, should decidedly have the preference over any bird in which an extraordinary face is the only point of excellence. The squirrel-tail ailuded to by Mr. Hewitt is always to be considered a grave fault, and treated accordingly. The face, however, as the principal point, demands the most careful consideration, and various points about it have to be considered, viz., its size or area, its shape, and its quality. Some faces are very long, but narrow ; others are wide, but short ; and a symmetrically proportioned, though rather small face, on a bird nicely got up, will often tell better and win, in preference to more surface less elegantly shaped. Folds in the ear-lobes, as we have already remarked, are a serious fault, more prevalent now than formerly. The comb of the cock, if the judge values his reputation, should have his special attention, with a view to see if it is likely to “ fall over ” after judging — a fact which can in many cases be detected by handling — and the small holes Mr. Teebay has mentioned, or marks of other “ treatment,” should always be looked upon with more or less suspicion of such a result. For the rest we must refer to our schedules. SCHEDULE FOR JUDGING SPANISH. General Characteristics of Cock. — Head and Neck — General appearance of head very large and deep, though aristocratic. Skull large every way, but especially deep in the cheeks ; beak rather long, but not thin ; comb very large, single, perfectly straight and upright, of a handsome outside arch or curve, and with the serrations symmetrically formed and disposed ; wattles very long, fine, and thin in texture ; face large, bare of feathers, and fine in quality ; deaf-ears very long and pendulous, but free from folds, duplicature, or wrinkles, broad and rounded on lower edge ; neck long, carried high or well back, and with flowing hackle. BoJ v— General appearance light and active, large at shoulders, and tapering to tail somewhat like the Game fowl ; back rather round and slanting to the tail ; wings long and well-developed, but carried tightly to the body ; breast rounded and carried very forward. Legs and Feet — Both legs and thighs long and slender, the hocks perfectly clear ; toes long and thin. Tail — Large, the sickles very arched and carried high, but not so high as to be squirrel-fashion. Size — Medium, averaging about six pounds to occasionally seven pounds. General Shape — Rather slender-looking, as if thin. Carriage — Very upright and strutting, with much movement of the head and neck. General Characteristics of Hen. — In all respects resembling those of the cock, except that her comb falls over to the side, almost or quite hiding one side of the lace. Colour of White-faced Black Spanish. — In both Sexes — Beak dark horn-colour; comb and wattles brilliant red, except the inside of upper part of the wattles and across the throat, which are white. Face or cheeks pure white, resembling the finest dressing and quality of white kid, the white to extend high over the eye in an arched form, reaching far back, clearly behind (or so as to encircle) the true ear, which appears as a black spot on it, and thence turning down, merges into the ear-lobe, which is of the same pure and brilliant white. The lace should be as free from folds or projections as possible, and leave the sight perfectly free. Legs and feet a dark leaden blue or almost black. Plumage all over pure deep black, with as much green gloss as possible, especially in the cock (when the gloss is very high it often assumes a purple tinge, especially in the cock’s hackles). Colour of Black Minorcas. — The same in all points as the above, except that the face or cheeks are a deep crimson red instead of white ; the ear-lobes, however, being white, but almond-shaped, not so large as in Spanish fowls. Colour of White Spanish. — The same as for the White-faced Black Spanish, except that the plumage is a pure spotless white, instead of glossy black ; the beak and legs generally remaining dark in this variety. Colour of White Minorcas.— In both sexes— Beak white ; comb, face, and wattles a brilliant red (the face in this variety Schedule for Judging Spanish. 363 being a bright scarlet red, instead of the deep crimson of the Black breed). Ear-lobes a pure and spotless white. Eegs and feet white. Plumage all over a pure and spotless white, free from yellow or reddish tinge. Colour of Andalusians. — Resembling in all points that of Black Minorcas, except that the plumage, instead of black, is of a blueish grey, ranging from a pale dove-colour to deep slaty blue. A lacing of darker colour or even black on each feather is preferable ; and the hackle and saddle of cock should be black or dark purple, with a rich gloss. Colour of Anconas. — Resembling in all but plumage Black Minorcas. Plumage Cuckoo ot Dominique, each feather in both sexes being a grey or blueish-grey ground, barred or pencilled across with darker blue-grey. Plumage to be free from yellow, red, or white. VALUE OF DEFECTS IN JUDGING, i. White-faced Spanish. Points of Merit. A bird perfect in shape, style, colour, face, and condition, to count in points . . .100 Defects to be deducted. Bad shaped comb . . . . . • !5 Deficiency in size of face . . . . • x5 Roughness or want of quality in face . . .12 Sight obstructed . . . . . .11 Ear-lobe folded, wrinkled, or duplicated . . 10 Scabs or blemishes in the white .... 3 Too scanty hackle ...... 6 Faults in plumage . . . . . .12 Squirrel-tail ....... 9 Want of size ....... 8 ,, ,, general symmetry . . . .12 ,, ,, condition . . . . . .15 Any decided red on the face. Plumage Legs of any colour but dark lead-colour, Trimming away of the feathers Disqualifications.— Cock’s comb falling over, or twisted in front ; or hen’s erect, of any other colour than pure black in the Black breed, or pure white in the White, blue, or black. Crooked backs, or any bodily deformity. Combs in any way trimmed or pierced, between top of the face and base of the comb, or any painting on the face. 2. Minorcas, Andalusians, and Anconas. Points of Merit. A bird perfect in shape, style, colour, and condition to count in points . . . 100 Defects to be deducted. Bad shaped comb . . . . . .15 Ear-lobe folded, wrinkled, cr duplicated . . 8 White on face . . . . . . .15 Stain of red on ear-lobe . . . . .12 Scabs or blemishes cn ditto .... 8 Want of hackle ...... 6 Squirrel-tail . . . . . . .12 Faults in plumage . . . . . .12 Want of size . . . . . . .15 ,, ,, symmetry . .... 20 ,, ,, condition . . . . . . 1; Disqualifications.— In all Varieties— Cock’s comb falling over to one side, or hen’s not doing so. Combs trimmed, cut, or pierced. Crooked backs or tails, or any other deformity. Any fraudulent trimming, dyeing, or dressing whatever. In Black and White Minorcas— Legs of any colour but dark-leaden or black, or white, respectively, or the occurrence of any coloured feathers in the plumage. In Andalusians— Birds not matching in the pen. White feathers in the plumage, or black, except as a lacing or on cock’s hackles. White legs. In Anconas— Birds not matching in the pen; occurrence of white, red, yellow, or black in the plumage. We formerly included white in face amongst disqualifications in Minorcas, and the Poultry Club’s Standard does so still. We have removed it to the table of defects, simply because dis- qualification is no longer carried out in practice. We wish it were, as just now remarked. 36 4 CHAPTER XX V. HAMBURGHS. The fowls known at the present day under the general name of Hamburghs, and which present the common characteristics of rather small size, slender clean legs, neat rose combs, moderate-sized white ear-lobes, light but sweeping and graceful outlines, and the absence of the incubating instinct, had certainly two distinct origins. There is very little doubt that the two varieties known as Pencilled Hamburghs were really imported from Holland, having been, for years previously to the present name, well known under the title of Dutch Everyday Layers or Everlasting Layers, and having been largely imported both at a comparatively recent date, and on many former occasions of which there is historical evidence. The Spangled and Black varieties, on the contrary, are as evidently a native English breed of considerable antiquity, having been kept and shown at village exhibitions beyond the memory of man ; and the Spangled breeds, besides the difference in marking, presenting differences of shape, being larger, plumper, and somewhat coarser in make, besides a greater width across the skull. These latter varieties were always known under the name of the Lancashire Mooneys and Yorkshire Pheasant fowls, while the Blacks were called Black Pheasant fowls ; until almost immediately after the establishment of the Great Birmingham Show the authorities there — chiefly, we believe, owing to the influence of the Rev. E. S. Dixon — grouped all under the general name of Hamburghs, and the paramount authority of that great gathering was sufficient to make the new nomenclature general. We confess we cannot see the evils some have pedantically professed to find in this ; the new name is not, so far as we have found, at all misunderstood in a geographical sense, and it answers at least the useful purpose of forming into one compact group fowls which in their main characteristics are very similar. We are not sure but that the argument may be carried further, and that the old Birmingham authorities whose work has been so much villified in some quarters may not have been guided by a sounder instinct than at first sight appears. Fully admitting that for a long period the Spangled and Pencilled races have been thoroughly distinct, and can be traced back only to distinct origins, it is still impossible to stand before the pens at a good show and compare the Gold-pencilled with the Gold-spangled, and similarly the two Silver classes, noting thus practically the striking analogy not only in heads, deaf-ears, size, and shape, but in the common property of a distinct lustrous black marking on one or the other ground-colour, and remembering also the equal similarity as regards absence of any incubating instinct, without the question almost irresistibly arising of whether there was not some still more ancient common progenitor of both ; and this question is by no means dismissed by the difference in the shape and character of the present markings. Once started, the arguments in favour of such a hypothesis will be found very strong indeed ; for not only, as we shall see further on, are Spangled chickens frequently pencilled in their first feathers, but later in life the black spangles or moons are frequently surmounted by a light tip beyond them, thus again approaching to the pencilled character ; while conversely it will be seen that if Pencilled birds be bred too dark, the last bar has a strong tendency to become much too wide, thus Cassells Poultry Book. MR HENRY BELDON’S PAIR OF SILVER SPANGLED HAMBURGHS, CUP AT ALLERTON 1871. HEN FIRST AT BIRMINGHAM 1871 & CUP AT BRISTOL, 1872. ■ * ■ . Qualities of Hamburghs . 365 approaching a spangled character. Perhaps, indeed, the evidence of these facts is about as strong as could be possibly anticipated at such a late date in favour of this view, if we consider the utter want of interest in poultry, and consequent absence of observations at any distance back ; and the same reasons make it exceedingly difficult even to conjecture what the common progenitor — if there was one— may have been. Bearing in mind, however, that old Aldrovandus calls a fowl which bears a very plain general resemblance to the Silver-Pencilled breed Gallina Turcica , or the Turkish Fowl, it is rather interesting to notice how this very name alone suggests an Eastern and therefore probably more ancient origin than either the Dutch or English we have been considering; and it may be that here we have either the parent or a near descendant from the parent stock of each. These are, however, mere speculations ; they may be legitimate, or they may not, and we mention them chiefly as another instance of the fascinating problems that constantly present themselves for solution to the poultry-fancier of a philosophic or inquiring turn of mind. In proceeding to the consideration of the different varieties of Hamburghs, we have the greatest pleasure in being able to give the views and experience of Mr. Henry Beldon, who when living at Goitstock, Bingley, Yorkshire, was never approached in his general and continuous success as an exhibitor of the Hamburgh varieties. It has long been known that the rules of breeding followed by him and others at the present day differed considerably from those formerly pursued and re- commended by fanciers of good standing ; but no account of the present methods was ever pub- lished before those written by him for this work. All breeders will therefore feel indebted to him for them ; while naturalists will feel interested in the light thrown upon various questions by the amalgamation of races which only a very few years back were pronounced by high authorities incapable of such real union, though crossed as separate varieties for the production of show birds. “Hamburghs,” says Mr. Beldon, “are without doubt the most beautiful breed of poultry we possess, as well as one of the most useful. In their different varieties they give plenty of scope to the fancier to indulge his tastes ; but whether he choose Pencilled or Spangled, Gold, Silver, or Black, all are without doubt elegant and beautiful. The dweller in the country will generally prefer the Silver, while the citizen will take the Golden or the Black ; but all of them, in their matchless variety of marking and colour, will delight the eye with the utmost degree which is perhaps possible of beauty in fowls. “ Hamburghs, however, require free range. They are of little or no use penned up, in which state they pine and mope for liberty, that bright cheerfulness which is common to them disappears, and from being the happiest they become the most wretched of birds. If your convenience will not allow you to give them a grass-run of moderate size, my advice is to keep some other kind ; but if you have a good run no class of poultry will pay so well. They are small eaters and wonderful egg-producers, a single hen laying in a twelvemonth, under favourable circumstances, from 200 to 220 eggs. They are also capital foragers, and when in health will always be seen at work, especially in the early morning, rummaging the pastures. Their quick eye at once espies their prey, and woe to the poor worm that happens on that particular morning to have got up a little too early; its early hours are suddenly put a stop to, and in this case the early riser finds it is not always well to be up too soon. Another good quality is that they are generally non-sitters, and there is not so much trouble with tnem as with the sitting varieties, though there are exceptions to the rule. I know that some people look upon any Hamburgh sitting as an evidence of taint in the blood, but I am quite sure this is an erroneous notion ; for the best Silver-spangled hen I ever possessed (in fact, the very same bird Mr. Teebay mentions in another work as one of the best he ever saw, and as moulting without change up to seven years old), without doubt the most successful winner of cups and prizes during the present generation, wished to sit. In this case, however, the fit only came upon her in old age, The Illustrated Book of Poultry. 366 being no less than eight years old. She clucked and sat steadily upon any eggs she could get at, but I thought she was too old to take the charge of a family with all its cares and troubles, and therefore checked her, though with considerable difficulty. The poor old lady died in the winter of the same year (1870), and I only mention her as showing that the very best birds will sit occasionally. “ As a rule Hamburghs are a healthy breed, and for the farmer I think they are the fowl of fowls. On a good homestead they will almost keep themselves, and if well attended to will pay as well as any other part of his stock. The chickens, too, are easy to rear. Of course, they will not rear themselves, but with moderate care no difficulty will be found in getting them to maturity. They need good coops, which should be placed on a nice grass-run, as far as convenient from the old birds, as I always find chickens do much better quite away from adults ; otherwise the old fowls pick up the food the chickens should have, not only robbing them, but getting far too much for their own welfare. They should be fed often, giving only a little at a time, just what they will eat. In the first five or six weeks, I should advise feeding every two or three hours, after that less often will do ; but the better the chicks are looked after the finer they will be, and there is nothing lost by a little extra care. The best staple food I have found to be oatmeal and thirds mixed, and made up into a stiff crumbly mass. As they get older I mix more of the thirds and put less oatmeal, and by degrees give a little wheat, but soft food should be the chief of the diet. The great thing is to feed often, beginning early and leaving off late. The coops I prefer are simply made of wood, about two feet square, with sloping roof and sliding front, to admit of letting out the chickens without the hen if you think proper, but with a movable bar to let out the hen also. The coop should be without bottom, so that you can change on to fresh ground as the other gets tainted, and if possible I change on to fresh ground daily. The chickens reach maturity eariy if well cared for and not stopped in their growth. I have often had pullets laying at five months old, especially of the Pencilled varieties ; the Spangled do not generally lay quite so early. SILVER - SPANGLED HAMBURGHS. — “The Silver-spangled Hamburgh, or Silver Pheasant as it is commonly called in Yorkshire, is a breed that has for generations been known in this country, and for its cultivation to the present state of perfection owes everything to the counties of Lancashire and Yorkshire. In Lancashire this variety had been brought to a very high standard of excellence years before ever poultry-shows were thought of, and as regards feather, all our modern skill and careful breeding has been unable to improve upon the old breed ; indeed, I don’t think it would be possible to improve it, for some of the old Mooneys, as they were called, were absolute perfection in this point of feather ; the spangling, so large, round, and rich in colour, was really something to be wondered at, and shows a skill and enthusiasm in breeding which, in the absence of pub-ic shows in those days, has about it something of the marvellous. “ This careful and extreme breeding for feather in the old Lancashire Mooney fowls it was, in my opinion, which resulted in producing hen-feathered cocks — that is, cocks feathered similarly to the hens, with spangling on back, sides, neck, &c., and with a square or hen-tail (Fig. 82). Be this as it may, it was to this variety at the beginning of the poultry-showing era, a good many years since, that all the prizes were given; but after they had enjoyed a year or twos popularity, the judges at Birmingham all at once announced that this hen-feathering of the cocks was not the ‘correct thing,’ and also stated that such birds were unprolific. In this latter charge there was some truth, as many of these cocks will not breed, though some others are prolific enough ; but as a result the hen-tailed cocks were thrown out, and their reign as show birds was over, though they are still kept by a few ardent fanciers for breeding purposes solely. ttj rt Feathers of Silver Mooney Cock. Feathers of Hen-tatled Silver Mooney Cock 368 The Illustrated Book of Poultry. j$ack Saddle Hackle. Wing-bow or Shoulder, above the Bars. 83. Feathers of Full-plumaged Silver-spangled Cock. Breeding of Silver-spangled Hamburghs. 369 “In Yorkshire, on the other hand, we possessed another Silver-spangled breed which had the desired cock-feathering, the cock being indeed a fine full-plumaged bird ; but the colour and size of the spangling was much inferior to the Lancashire variety. I feel morally certain myself that this was the breed the Lancashire people had to commence with, and which was bred up to such perfection by them as stated above, losing in ear-lobe and developing the hen-tail through continued breeding for feather only. This cock-feathered, or Yorkshire Pheasant breed as it was called, lacked not only the size, but the roundness and glossy greenness in the spangles of the Lancashire variety, but were decidedly smarter in appearance, and possessed whiter ear-lobes. The hen-feathered Lancashire Mooney breed has reddish ear-lobes, and even the Yorkshire Pheasants had not much to boast of in this respect; still they were whitish, and a few years’ careful breeding soon brought this point to perfection. The Yorkshire cocks had, moreover, nice clear tails, while the hen-feathered cocks often had smutty tails ; but, on the other hand, they much lacked colour on the back and wings. “At first these Yorkshire cocks were shown alongside the Lancashire Mooney hens, and of course to breed prize-winners the two varieties had to be kept and bred separately. Each variety, however, possessed great defects : in the hen-feathered Mooney the combs were coarse and the ear-lobes red ; while in the Yorkshire cocks the back, saddle-hackles, and shoulders were white. The two were therefore bred together, at first chiefly for the production of better cockerels ; but by degrees an amalgamation of the two breeds was brought about, and by careful and judicious crossing a bird was at last produced that contained all the required characteristics. Some noted fanciers yet breed from two sets for cockerels and pullets, taking for pullets the old hen-feathered breed ; but when this is done great care must be taken that the strain is pure hen-feathered on both sides. The disadvantage of this plan is, that the surplus cocks from this strain are worth absolutely nothing for exhibition, and very frequently will not breed \i.e., are unprolific], so of course such surplus birds have to be killed off, or sold for breeding purposes only. P'or cock- breeding, of course, such fanciers choose birds likely to produce the required points ; seldom now using the pure Yorkshire, but selecting a bird with fine smart comb, good ear-lobes, good bars, well spangled breast, and as clear a tail as possible, with of course good back and saddle spangling (never found in the Yorkshire pure), and putting him with hens well spangled throughout, and having good combs and ear-lobes. It will, no doubt, be thought by many to be but a clumsy way of breeding, to have to breed from what are really two sorts ; and in fact it is now not really necessary to do so, as the cocks now suited for the most successful competition are also such as breed the best pullets ; the chief requirements necessary to success in the pen being now that the bffd possess as much marking as possible without being hen-feathered, which is also what we want for pullet-breeding. This has taken much time and patience to effect, but it is unquestionably a very great gain. “ I therefore, taking the Silver-spangled breed as it has been formed by the skill of fanciers, and now actually exists, advise the beginner to proceed as follows. Let him get from some well- known breeder such a bird as I have just described — that is, possessing good comb and ear-lobes, with as much spangling on back and saddle as possible, good bars, and clear tail, but not hen- feathered ; in fact, a good deep-coloured show cock ; and simply put him to the very best hens he can get, avoiding carefully any great faults on either side, such as a coarse comb or smudgy markings, and then try what he can do. If he thus produces a fair proportion of good chickens, let him stick to this set as long as they will breed, for it is not every lot that hits well. If the produce is not to his mind let him change the cock, getting one from some other strain, and so on till he gets what he desires ; for the different strains and the two breeds I have described are now 370 The Illustrated Book of Poultry. 30 mingled that it is difficult to proceed in any other way. In all varieties of fowls there are found some strains which produce better cockerels than pullets, and vice versa. Of course, it is so in Hamburghs also ; and if the fancier has sufficient room no doubt he will find it to his advantage to breed from two sets. For instance, if he finds a pen breed capital cocks but only middling pullets, it will be better to keep this set of birds as they are, it being far better, and perhaps hardei, to breed really good birds of even one sex, than middling birds of both. It is therefore well worth a little patience, and when you have once got a set of birds together that produces first-class chickens, then stick to that set. All experience will confirm this ; and with all my own, taking Hamburghs as they are at the present day, I do not know that I can give any other rule, which is that by which I breed my own fowls. We never now breed from the Yorkshire Pheasant if we can possibly help it. “ I will now state what is my idea of a perfect Silver-spangled cock, beginning with colour, as that is of the most importance. The ground-colour must be a clear silvery white, perfectly free from yellow tinge. I speak, of course, concerning birds in full and perfect plumage ; as very many birds at the end of the season, if they have been exposed to the weather and sun, will become yellow. The spangles should be a rich satiny green-black, and their form (on all those parts of the body of the cock which show the full size, as, for instance, the breast ^.nd tail) as round as possible. The disposition of the markings is as follows : breast well and boldly spangled from the throat down to the thighs and fluff, black fluff being an especial abomination. The larger the spangles are the better, provided only that a sufficiency of white is shown, that is, if, looking at the breast, both black and white appear distinctly. In some the spangles are so large that they overlap, and give the breast the appearance of being black ; this, of course, is a fault ; the spots should be as large and round as possible, but so as to show the white between. The neck-hackle is white, but if spotted at the bottom all the better. Back and saddle-hackles should be well spotted with black. The bars on the wing, formed by the large spangles on the end of the primary and secondary wing-coverts, are two in number, and should be bold and regular ; these bars are one ol the most cardinal points. Above the bars, or the wing-bow as it is called, should also be well spotted ; it can scarcely be called spangling, as the feathers in this part of the cock are different to the hen’s, being long and narrow. This remark also applies to the back and saddle ; I therefore use the word spot to express the marking, instead of spangle (see Fig. 83). The ‘ stepping ’ on the wing secondaries should also be well defined — that is, each feather should have a very bold crescentic spangle at the end, which gives an appearance of black steps. The tail to be clear white, with a large bold spangle at the tips of the feathers ; though a little colour in the hanging or side-feathers is not objectionable, provided the sickles and secondaries are clear. The comb should be even, firmly set on the head, long, and moderately broad, full of ‘ work ’ or points, free from hollow in the centre, and ending in a long pike slightly pointing upwards. The beak should be horn-colour, ear-lobes a clear white, smooth, and as nearly round as possible ; face red, quite free from white ; and eyes, in this variety, a dark hazel. The legs are slaty blue. As regards shape and carriage, the neck should be nicely arched, with very full hackle falling well on to the shoulders ; the breast full, broad, and prominent ; back a moderate length, broad and level across, not round or up at one side ; tail full, the sickles Jong, broad, and well arched, and the side or furnishing feathers nicely arched also, the whole to be gracefully carried, not squirrel-fashion, but very slightly drooping behind the perpendicular line, and to be evenly set on, not carried on either side. The whole carriage to be graceful, jaunty, and cheerful. Size, say about five pounds, but this is not of great moment, provided he is not very small. “ The hen should be boldly and evenly spangled throughout, the spangles being round and Feathers of Silver-Spangled Hen. 37 1 Hackle Hackle at Head. Half-way Down. Hackle at Shoulder. Middle of Back. Tail- covert. Half-mooned Feather, as formerly seen in the Y orkshire Pheasant — marking to be avoided. Wing-bow or Shoulder. Fig. 84. — Feathers of Silver-spangled Hen. 372 The Illustrated Book of Poultry. large, but not of such a size as to overlap each other and give the bird a patchy appearance : on the contrary, the white should show between each feather, though a bird perfect in this respect is ^-carcely ever seen. The colour of the black spangles is a very great point ; it must be a very rich satiny green-black, the spangles having almost a raised appearance ; in fact, I have taken hold of some hens on which I have almost fancied that I could actually feel the spangles. The ground- colour is a perfectly clear silvery white, and the marking as follows : The neck to be well spotted from the head downwards ; back well and evenly spangled (I like a hen with a broad back, as there is then more room for the spangling, which appears to better advantage); wings well spangled with bold spangles above the bars, which bars are double as in the cock, and must be bold and well defined ; breast spangled from throat down to fluff ; tail clear white — no pepperiness in it — and with a good bold spangle at end of each feather. The comb should be smart, full of ‘ work ’ or points, with a long spike behind, evenly and firmly set on the head ; the ear-lobes white, beak horn-colour, legs slaty blue, and eyes hazel as in the cock. For size say about four pounds, though this is not of importance if they look a pretty fair average. “ For use I consider this variety of fowls to stand in the very first rank. No breed can excel them in laying properties, and many birds lay eggs of a pretty fair average size, while the food they consume bears favourable comparison with that required by other breeds. They need a good grass-range to fully bring out their best qualities, though I have known this variety do pretty well in a confined yard ; still it seems really a pity to pen them up, and I do not advise any one to keep them who has not a wide run. For beauty no fowl can excel them, in my opinion. They are very prolific, the eggs hardly ever failing to hatch, and the chickens are very lively from the first, and easy to rear. They reach maturity pretty early, and if well housed will lay at from five to six months old.” When the Yorkshire Pheasant and Lancashire Mooney were bred together to produce exhibition cocks, the practice was to mate Mooney cocks with Pheasant hens, and some breeders still pursue this plan, breeding the Mooneys pure for their pullets. We may, however, remark that though old fanciers can distinguish pure Mooneys from crossed birds, it is almost impossible for a beginner to do so, and the pure breeds are now very difficult to obtain, except by the inhabitants of their native counties, who know where to lay their hands upon them.* Should any of our readers, however, be able to obtain a pure Mooney strain, and be desirous of breeding from it for the sake of the pullets, while yet wishful to breed cockerels also for exhibition, and only having one run, they must proceed upon the following plan, which has been followed under Mr. Beldon’s advice with success. Get a pure Mooney cock (if whitish in the ear-lobes all the better), and of course pure Mooney hens also for the pullets. Then add a couple of hens for cock-breeding, with very smart combs and good ear-lobes, and very clearly marked, especially about the tail, but somewhat lighter in the spangling. From such hens and the Mooney cock it is * In a note received since the above was written, Mr. Beldon added, “ Nearly all the so-called pure Mooneys now have white ear-lobes, showing they have been modified by breeding. Hen-feathering is no sign of absolutely pure blood, being very easily produced. In Yorkshire also, though I live there, I should have some difficulty now in finding a pure-bred Pheasant, our Mooney hens having a dash of the Pheasant, and our so-called Pheasants a lot of the Mooney. At the last Birmingham Show (1S72) there was not one absolutely pure Mooney hen, though there were some splendid birds. Some ten or twelve years ago I came into possession of a lot of Silver Mooney hens, the really pure old stamp, picked up from all parts of Lancashire by old Jack Andrews [referred to on next page]. These hens were much larger than those we have at present, and were certainly coarse; but for spangling it was perfection ! Still, I think among the amalgamated strains we have as good, and tnat moult as true. I inquired of old Jack, a very short time ago, if he thought any of this ‘old sort’ could be found still ; he said he had looked the whole county through, but could find none.” Cassells Poultry Book. •>; tVv> oncent MR HENRY BELDONS PAIR OF GOLDEN-SPANGLED HAMBURGHS. ' COCK CUP AT BIRMINGHAM 1870, HEN CUP AT KEN DAL, WH ITEHOUSE & SPALDING 1871. . Golden-Spangled Hamburghs. 373 very likely good show cockerels may be produced ; but the mode of breeding recommended by Mr. Beldon is preferable in many ways, and will very speedily be the only method practicable. From feathers kindly supplied by the same authority we add representations which will make clear the difference in the strains, and especially in the marking of the hen-feathered Mooney cocks. None of these feathers, or any others in this work, are in the least idealised, but faithfully drawn just as they appear upon the birds.* The clear spots on the hackles of the hen-feathered cocks will be noticed, and also the substitution of round black spangles on the shoulders and back, instead of the pointed character of the plumage in the full-feathered cocks. We also include amongst the hen-feathers a figure of the old pheasant marking, which, on account of its crescentic character, is now carefully avoided by all good breeders. GOLDEN-SPANGLED HAMBURGHS. — “In the early part of the poultry-showing era,” continues Mr. Beldon, “ as in the case of the Silver Spangles, there were two varieties also of the Golden-Spangled Hamburgh, the one most common at the poultry-shows being however in this case the Yorkshire breed, known as the Golden Pheasant. These were fine large birds, and the cocks as a rule hen-feathered ; in fact, at this time the hen-feathered birds were all the fashion, so that, although there did not lack full-plumaged birds of the same variety, only the hen-feathered were retained. This Yorkshire Pheasant breed generally produced capital layers. The spangling was bold and of a glossy green black, but the ground-colour was of a light dull bay, and generally there was a good deal of what I may call pepperiness in the ground-colour, so that the spangling was often not clear and sharp-looking, especially in the tail-coverts. As a rule this variety had whitish ear-lobes — not of course so white as we have since bred them by judicious crossing, but still whitish, and besides being, as already stated, a good layer, was a pretty hardy breed. “In Lancashire there was another variety, cultivated chiefly by the weavers and colliers. This was called the Golden Mooney ; it was a much smaller bird, but for colour and marking threw the Yorkshire Pheasant entirely into the shade. I shall never forget my feeling of pleasure on first seeing the Golden Mooney hen : she struck me as something wonderful. The ground- colour of the plumage in these fowls is of the very richest bay, the spangling very bold and clear, and of a green satin-looking black ; in fact, the plumage was so rich and glossy that the full beauty of it could not be seen except in the sunshine, but when it was seen formed a picture never to be forgotten. I am here speaking of the hen. The cocks’ plumage was also of the very richest description ; but their great drawback was their red ear-lobes and black breasts — in fact, they had no ear-lobes at all to speak of, but merely a bit of red skin like a Game cock. These cocks were never shown, but merely kept for breeding purposes. Shows were held in many of the village public- houses in Lancashire, the competitors being mostly colliers and weavers of the district, to whom is entirely due the credit of bringing the celebrated Mooney marking to such perfection. At these shows hens only were shown, of both Golden and Silver Mooneys and Black Pheasants, but far the most usually it would be one of the Mooney breeds. The birds were judged by a Scale of Points brought out by members of these village clubs, and the points were so well understood by all that any disagreement about the judging scarcely ever took place. These village shows are now things of the past, the poultry-shows held in almost every town in Lancashire making them unnecessary ; but they did work it is very difficult to estimate now. One of the foremost men at these village clubs was old Jack Andrews, or, as they call him in Lancashire, ‘ The Ould Poo’t,’ meaning ‘ The Old * We make this remark because letters have reached us complaining that some of the figures of feathers wo have given repre- sent an unattainable standard. Such is not the case ; in no instance have we permitted the least exaggeration. 2 G 374 The Illustrated Book of Poultry . pullet. What precise meaning attaches to this soubriquet I never inquired, though it is evidently connected somehow with the old man’s triumphs at these shows where only hens and pullets were shown ; but he always takes it in good part. The old fellow is a rare breeder still ; but the Hamburghs — Gold and Silver — are the only varieties he cares about, and I much doubt if he could tell even the names of many other fowls. Another fine old fancier and breeder is old Nathan Marlor ; and I must say that breeders and fanciers of both the Spangled varieties are much indebted to these two men, who have been greatly instrumental in bringing the Mooney to such a state of excellence. “ Both the breeds thus described being in existence at the early time we have been speaking of, the Lancashire Mooney hens were first shown with the Yorkshire hen-feathered cocks; but when the judges began to set their faces against the hen-feathered birds (and their reign was very short), the Yorkshire Pheasant’s career, as an exhibition bird, was over. After that the cocks shown with the Mooney hens were of the full-feathered Yorkshire breed ; but neither variety then possessed the points of excellence required by the judges. The Yorkshire Pheasant was too dull in ground-colour and not distinct enough in the Spangling ; while the Mooneys, especially the cocks, had black breasts and red ear-lobes, and if anything (especially in a room) were almost too deep and rich in the ground-colour. The necessary change began first with the cocks. As the Yorkshire birds were found to be too dull in colour, and it was out of the question exhibiting Mooney cocks, the Yorkshire cock was put to the Mooney hens, and thus by careful and judicious crossing a bird was produced having somewhat of the richness in plumage of the Mooney, at the same time retaining the spangled breast and whitish ear-lobes of the Pheasant. These were the cocks for some time shown with Mooney hens. After a time, however, as the competition became keener, and richness of plumage became one of the chief points requisite to success, a little more of the Mooney blood was introduced ; and at the present day we possess cocks which leave little to be desired either in that point or in ear-lobes, which have been by careful breeding brought to a perfection neither breed originally had. The hens also were operated upon, the red ears of the pure Mooney being found an eyesore. To remedy this a dash of the Yorkshire Pheasant blood was introduced, which also had the good effect of giving a very slightly lighter tint to the ground- colour; and now, by this crossing and judicious selection, we possess a breed of hens also that combine all the richness of the Mooney with a slightly lighter ground-colour and the desired white ear-lobe. Both sexes thus containing some mixture of blood, are gradually approximating ; and though I am bound to confess that the most successful breeders still use two pens to breed from, the distinction will gradually lessen, and we are rapidly approaching in this variety also to a strain which will breed both sexes without more difference than all varieties usually exhibit in point of excellence. “As in the preceding variety, breeding from the pure Yorkshire Pheasant is now almost dis- carded. For breeding pullets I advise the beginner to get the very best hens from an exhibition point of view that he can lay his hands upon ; there is not much need to inquire about the strain, as in a hen this will speak for itself. Then let him get a cock from some good breeder out of a well- known pullet strain, and if possible of the very same strain as the hens or pullets he is breeding from ; for I always find that birds bred akin produce by far the most perfect specimens. Then if you find these birds produce first-class chickens, keep them together and breed trom them as long as ever you can, and do not on any account attempt to improve them by a cross, or you may improve them the wrong way. If the produce is not satisfactory, try again ; but this simple method of selection will rarely fail, and is about the only one which can be given at the present day. “ For cockerels pursue a similar plan. Get the very best exhibition cock you can procure, Golden-Spangled Hamburghs. 375 and put him to a hen or hens obtained from some good breeder ; but in choosing tnem you must select birds with the necessary points, viz., with smart, even combs, and pure white well- shaped ear-lobes. Here, as before, if the produce is good stick to it so long as the pen will breed ; but if you do not succeed at first you must change the birds until you get what you require. Any one without such patience and perseverance will never make a fancier ; and while we use our very best judgment of course, it is greatly by this experimental method the best of us make up our Hamburgh pens, until we have got a strain of our own, when of course we know its qualities, and can make up our pens with something like certainty of success. “ I will now describe what Golden-spangled Hamburghs ought to be, beginning with the cock. It will be understood that in choosing stock as above described for breeding either sex, the most important sex in each case is to be chosen as nearly approaching the following description as possible. “ The cock’s hackle should be a rich golden bay, each feather striped down the centre with rich deep black ; the back a deeper bay, approaching maroon, and each feather having a green- black spot, these spots getting more elongated as they get down the back, till on the saddle the hackles become striped down the centre. The red or maroon should be very rich in colour. The breast is golden bay, each feather well spangled with a rich black moon ; this spangling to be very uniform, and not to overlap, but to show both black and bay ; the breast to be thus spangled from the throat to the thighs, the spangling becoming bolder as it goes downwards. A laced breast is objectionable (although many of such birds win simply for want of better), but a black breast is now out of the question. The tail should be black, very full and long, and as rich in colour or green gloss as possible. The bars on the wing should be double, bold, and regular, as in the Silver- spangled breed, thin and imperfect barring being a great fault ; the stepping on the wing, caused by the black crescentic spots on the ends of the secondaries, should also be good. The outer webs of both secondaries and primaries to be a deep golden bay, but the inner webs ought always to be black. The wing-bow, or part above the bars, should be rich maroon, with each feather spotted with black if you can get them so ; this, however, is very seldom the case, still the wing-bow should at least be very rich, and the ends of the feathers darker, approaching to black. The comb resembles that of the preceding breed, and should be smart, full of ‘work’ or points, with a long spike behind slightly pointing upwards, set evenly and firmly on the head, and quite level on the top ; any hollow in the middle being a great fault, as the comb is one of the first points which catches a judge’s eye. The ear-lobes should be not only a clear white, but of a nice shape — as round or circular as possible, and not long or pendent, but nicely put on the face. The face is red, beak a dark horn-colour, eyes bright red, legs a dark slaty blue. The carriage is easy and graceful. Size is not of much consequence if not very small. “ The ground-colour of the hen is a rich golden bay. The neck-hackle is of the same colour, each feather striped down the centre with deep green-black. The breast from the throat to the thighs should have each feather spangled with a bold, rich, round, black moon. The tail is black, the coverts being spangled. The back should be broad, and richly spangled, and the shoulders or bows of the wings above the bars should especially be well spangled. The bars themselves are, however, the chief point, and should show plainly as two bold and regular lines of spangling, the want of which is a most serious fault, and mars altogether any other beauty in marking. The comb, face, eyes, &c., resemble the cock’s ; and, as in his case, size is not material provided the bird be not too small. “ Golden-spangled Hamburghs are only moderate layers in comparison to the other varieties, the pure Golden Mooney on which they have been founded being very indifferent in this respect. 7"' The Illustrated Book of Poultry. Spangled Hamburgh chickens vary in colour, the Silvers particularly so, according to tne different strains, or even sometimes in the same strain. Some hatch out a light grey, others a daik smudgy grey, and striped black and grey down the back and sides; while of the Golden some are dark brown striped with black, and others very light, almost yellow. In the first feathering they also vary much in colour, some being very light — that is, the white predominating — and others dark or almost black. However this may be, in the first feather it is a blotchy black and white, without any true spangling. Many have their wing-feathers pencilled, others not, this being not an invariable rule. There is, however, never any true spangling in the first feathers, and as a rule the darkest birds in their chicken dress prove the best ; but there are exceptions to this too, so that if the strain can be depended on it is best to wait for the second or adult plumage. Then it is that the true character of the bird is developed, the difference being wonderful. Now all becomes distinct and well-defined ; and as the new feathers grow it can soon be seen whether the chicken possesses the requisites of an exhibition bird or otherwise.” As a rule, it will be found that the cocks referred to by Mr. Beldon, to be selected from a good pullet-breeding strain for breeding pullets, are somewhat darker in ground-colour and coarser about the head than good exhibition birds. If possible, own brothers to winning pullets should be selected , and as soon as a good strain has been formed the amateur will of course select cockerels from his own pullet-breeding strain, and vice versa. In no variety, therefore, is it so necessary as in either of the Spangled Hamburghs to form as soon as possible a strain of one’s own. Originals of the Scales of Points for judging Golden Mooney hens, referred to as in use at the old village shows, are now very difficult to obtain, though they were printed for reference. They have, however, been fortunately preserved in the original “ Poultry Book,” now rather scarce, published in 1853 by Messrs. Wingfield and Johnson, from which (by permission) we copy them, as most interesting to all fanciers even of the present day. The same table applied to the Silver Mooneys, substituting a white for the red ground. POINTS. 1st. — Comb 2nd. — Ears 3rd. — Neck . 4th. — Breast . 5th. — Back 6th. — Rump 7th.— Wing gth— Tail 9th. — Legs 10th. — General Appearance MARKS OF FEATHERS, ETC., CONSIDERED BEST. . Best double ; best square ; the most erect and best piked behind. . The largest and most white. [White, and a medium size. N. M.] . The best streaked with green-black in the middle of the feathers ; and best fringed with gold at the edges. . The largest moons ; best and brightest green-black, most free from being tipped with white or red [omit “or red.” N. M.] at the end of the moon, and the clearest and best red from the moon to the bottom-colour. . The largest moons ; best and brightest green-black, least tipped with white or red [omit “or red.” N. M.] at the edges of the moon, and the best and clearest red from the moon to the bottom-colour. . The largest moons ; best and brightest green-black, least tipped with white or red [omit “or red.” N. M.] at the edges of the moon, and the best and clearest red from the moon to the bottom-colour. , This is divided into four parts : — 1st, Bow. Best and brightest green-black, and best and clearest red. — 2nd, Bars. To have two distinct bars, composed of the largest, clearest, brightest, and best green-black moons, and the clearest and best red from the moon to the bottom-colour. —3rd, Flight. The clearest and best red [quill of the feather to be same colour as the web. N. M.]. — 4th, The Lacing, or top of the wing', above the flight (now called “stepping” of the wing. Largest, clearest, brightest, and best green-black spots on the end of the feathers, and the best and clearest red from the spot to the bottom-colour. . The brightest, darkest, and best green-black. To be full-feathered. . Best and clearest blue. The best-feathered hen. Redcaps. 377 In both varieties hens only were shown, the cocks being so inferior in appearance as to be only valued for breeding. The spangling was really marvellous in its gloss, as we can testify from feathers kindly sent us by Mr. Nathan Marlor, the breeder referred to by Mr. Beldon, and who also states that the corrections within brackets bearing his initials should be made in the scale as given by the “ Poultry Book” to make it accord with the views of the best old village breeders. The tendency to which we adverted at the commencement of this chapter towards a white or red tip beyond the moon, thus showing a distinct approach to pencilling in character, will not fail to be noted as clearly pointed out by these old rules. Golden Mooney hens as they become aged not unfrequently show this slight white tip on the ends of their feathers beyond the moons. Occasionally the tip is bay ; but in neither case is such necessarily an indication of impure blood. A laced character, on the contrary, especially on the wing-bars, shows not only too much Pheasant blood, but that it has not been properly amalgamated — in fact, that birds showing it, if adult (chickens of very good quality sometimes do show a little lacing, but afterwards moult out correctly) are in reality badly-bred birds, and have not been produced with the care which should have been observed, as described by Mr. Beldon. The amalgamation is still going on, having made perceptible progress during late years ; and so far as can be foreseen, in a very few more we may expect to see a thoroughly established and improved strain, which shall breed both cockerels and pullets alike with all the points desired, though no doubt to the very end certain families will produce better of one sex than the other, as is generally the case with every other breed. Even this, however, is in the hands of fanciers ; just as we have made already a large approximation towards amalgamating the black breast now demanded for Dark Brahma cocks with the necessary pullet-breeding qualities in which that kind of cock was formerly deficient, and which therefore were and are often still sought in speckled-breasted birds. With the exception of the tail-feathers, which in Golden-spangled birds are black, and the hackles, which are striped, the plumage is so similar to the Silvers that representations of the feathers need not be repeated. The Yorkshire Golden Pheasant fowl* is now we believe nearly extinct, and even the Mooney hens are not nearly so often shown pure-bred as formerly, the somewhat lighter colour of what we may call the new or amalgamated strain being preferred. The showing of both has given rise to some controversy at times between the advocates of what have been called the red and the golden ground-colour. We think the truth lies entirely on neither side. Under cover, or the conditions of the show-pen, there can be no doubt of the superior effect of the lighter tint, which was deliberately sought by the best breeders for this very reason ; but out of doors, especially in the sun, these birds are not in our opinion to be compared with the true-bred Mooney in point of feather, though the smarter heads and white ear-lobes give a great superiority in those respects. REDCAPS.— Nearly all the older works on poultry describe among the Hamburghs a breed called the Redcap, for which, years ago, there was a special class at the Sheffield shows. They appeared to be a kind of mongrel Golden-spangled, larger in size, and with immensely large rose- combs, often hanging over at the sides. They were reputed to be hardy fowls and good layers. The late Mr. Hewitt entertained the very highest opinion of them as “general utility” fowls, as the following interesting notes, furnished by him to the first edition of this work, will show : “ Of the * It will of course be understood that the Yorkshire Pheasant breeds so frequently referred to have no connection with the pheasant itself, but that the term is merely a local name. Hybrids between the pheasant and fowl are common enou-h, but like other hybrids, are almost always sterile, and quite incapable of founding a breed. The name was evidently given' from the similarity of marking of the breeds in question to those of the pheasants. 378 The Illustrated Boor of Poultry. Redcaps,’ he says, “ I can without hesitation speak most favourably, both as regards the production of eggs and also their value as a table fowl. I never kept them myself, but have been intimate with several parties who esteemed them most highly, long before the time that poultry exhibitions were instituted in the Midland Counties. To a poultry amateur, whose eye has been previously tutored to the most important traits of character in Hamburghs generally, the Redcap at first sight presents nothing less than a mass of general disqualifications, as such parties very unjustly form their opinions by comparison with the code of rules by which the value of other varieties of Ham- burghs are estimated. Although the very profuse rose-comb, lounging in a very ugly manner, the partially pendulous and very red ear-lobe, the just barely crescented feather, in lieu of a spangle, and the want of sprightly motion, so characteristic of all the Hamburghs, are far from ornamental, added to which the ground-colour is anything but as sound as could be desired by the party whose search is exclusively for beauty of exterior, the compensations for these shortcomings are profuse ; for they aie really a weighty and thick-bodied fowl (cocks reaching seven pounds and a half), of good flavour on the dish, and if the eggs are weighed, as well as counted, I believe them to be the most abundant egg-producers of all our domestic poultry. In reference to their eggs, I will mention a fact to which my attention was first directed by one of the oldest and most practical Birmingham confectioners. If after being broken the same weight of eggs is used from Redcaps and Spanish fowls, the consistency in custards and so forth obtained from the first-named breed proves nearly one-third greater than from those of the Spanish. To such parties as use considerable quantities of eggs for confectionery purposes, this peculiarity of the Redcap’s makes them much sought after ; and, I may add, each individual egg, when the fowls are well attended, is as fine and noble-looking a specimen as could be desired.” The publication of this high commendation by the late veteran judge perceptibly stimulated the demand for the fowl. It gradually became more inquired after, and now and then a class appeared at a show, which never failed to awaken considerable interest amongst the visitors. Occasional articles appeared in the poultry papers, and it was no longer difficult to procure stock Mr. A. E. Wragg, of Edensor, Bakewell, was especially prominent in drawing attention to the breed by articles and letters contributed to various poultry publications. To the efforts of this gentleman its growth in popularity has been greatly due ; and we are glad to be able to give the following notes from his pen : — “ Of all breeds of poultry perhaps not one has been more misrepresented or has received less encouragement than the Redcap. Only recently have its merits obtained general recog- nition, but it now promises to become one of our most popular varieties. Many have written disparagingly of Redcaps who have never seen a pair of well-bred birds, describing them as simply mongrels with a cross of the Golden-spangled Hamburgh in them. A writer in one of our weekly periodicals, some years ago, declared that they might easily be bred by simply crossing almost any kind of common barn-door hens with a Golden-spangled cock, and no doubt many people believed him. “ Although one of the oldest of British breeds, until lately very little was known of it except in Yorkshire and Derbyshire. It is generally supposed to have originated in Yorkshire, many believing it to have been produced from the Old English Game and Golden-spangled Hamburgh. There is little doubt that Game blood does enter into its composition, for there is a large amount of Game spirit in the breed, and, in fact, a Redcap cock when dubbed might almost be taken for a Game cock. The breed has gone under many different names, such as Pheasant Fowls, Moss Pheasants, Crammers, Copper Fowls, Yorkshire and Derbyshire Redcaps. My present strain has been produced from the two latter varieties. Points of the Redcap. 379 1 am informed that it was in Nottinghamshire that the name of Crammers came into use. With regard to its origin, my own opinion is that the Redcap is the original of the Golden-spangled Hamburgh, and this opinion is shared by many of the modern poultry writers. “The Redcap cock is a fine-bodied bird of noble and commanding appearance, the ‘crowned’ king, as it were, of all poultry. Nothing could possibly be more ornamental than his large symmetrically-shaped comb, full of a great number of fine, long spikes, with leader behind. It should be well carried — firm, straight, and standing well up from the eyes. For Redcaps. years Redcaps were bred with very ugly combs ; and to this fact may be attributed much of the unpopularity of the breed. The improvement in the Redcap comb during the last ten years is something wonderful ; an ugly comb being now very rarely met with. With regard to its size, it should be as large as can be comfortably carried by the bird. The comb of an exhibition bird which I measured was 51 inches in length, and 3f inches in breadth, but I have had birds with even larger combs than this. The weight of this cock was lbs. I exported a cock two years old to Australia in March, 1889, which weighed just 9 lbs. “The principal faults found in combs are— size ; want of spikes; being badly spiked behind; having a hollow in the middle; unsymmetrical shape; being too heavy in front falling to one side, or hanging over too near the eyes. A cock which is very faulty in any 1 lie Illustrated Book of Poultry. 380 ot these points will stand scarcely any chance of winning in good competition, if well judged. The comb should be very red, and this redness cannot be obtained unless the bird be in fhst-class condition. In no other breed is condition of more importance than in this. We often see biids of other varieties winning when in bad condition ; but I have never yet seen Redcaps, shrunken in comb and rough in feather, in the prize list. On the other hand, the very best birds in poor condition are often beaten by the most worthless specimens, red in comb and glossy in plumage. Some would-be fanciers advocate that smaller combs should be bred, but I cannot think that any true Redcap fancier would care to see them with Hamburgh combs. The large comb is, and always has been, for the last hundred years, the distinguishing feature of the breed, and must on no account be done away with. If they are to be bred with small combs, then let another name be found, for they will no longer be Redcaps. The large comb is not the creation of to-day, as many appear to think; they have always been bred with such combs. The large comb does not look out of proportion to the size of the body, and there is not one bird in a thousand that cannot eat, fly to its perch, and carry its comb as comfortably as a Minorca. “ 1 he ear-lobes are red, neck and saddle rich red, striped with black. Many cocks are too black in neck hackle; others are spoiled by being too yellow. The back of the cock should be red, spangled with large half-moon black spangles, breast and tail black, legs slate- coloured, strong, and of good length. “ In general appearance the Redcap cock is much like the Hamburgh, being smart and lively; the breast full and round ; tail ample and well furnished ; and shape symmetrical and pleasing to the eye. “The Redcap hen is a large, round, comfortable-looking bird, weighing about 6 lbs. on the average. Good exhibition specimens often weigh considerably more than this. Two hens 1 have just weighed turn the scale at 6J lbs. and 6 lbs. 10 oz. respectively. The ground-coloui of breast, back, and wings is a deep, rich, reddish brown ; each feather being tipped with a half-moon spangle of bluish-black, and these spangles should appear as regular and uniform as possible. Redcap hens are, many of them, too light in ground-colour, and, instead of being spangled, are laced with a thin edging of black. These birds have been produced by mating with cocks having yellow neck hackles. The comb of a good exhibition hen should be like that of the cock in everything but size. The comb of one of my best hens is 2f inches by 2 inches when she is in full condition. “ There is no breed that can surpass the Redcap for laying qualities. As a rule, they will average about 180 eggs in the year, without exercising any particular care in the selection of the best layers, and many hens in their second year will lay more than 200 eggs. I have now a breeding pen of four hens, one five years old, two four years, and another two years old. Some of them are exhibition birds. The first began laying this year (1889) on January 27, the remainder in February, and up to the present time (June 26) they have laid 413 eggs, showing an average for the five months of 103. Hens of two, three, and even fours years of age will generally lay quite as well as pullets, and no hen should be killed until she is three years old, unless she has been proved to be a bad layer. “In my opinion the Redcap egg is the richest laid by any variety. The average weight of each egg is about 2 oz., and the colour white or slightly tinted. From a box containing about a score, I selected six of the largest, and found the weight to be exactly 13 oz., showing an average of 2 oz. 5 dr. for each egg. I have kept Redcaps for the last ten years, and, far Qualities of the Redcap. 3^ 1 from having noticed any deterioration in their laying powers, am quite certain that my birds now are far better layers than the stock I possessed at the commencement. “ The chickens are hardy, easy to rear, and feather fast. With a good grass run, and plenty of good sound grain twice a day, they come on very fast, and scarcely ever ail any- thing. My birds are reared on very cold exposed runs ; and some generally roost in a plantation all through the winter, just like pheasants. As a rule, pullets are not very precocious, and do not usually commence to lay before they are seven or eight months old. Those hatched in March and early in April, if well fed, will lay in October and November, but if hatched from May to July, will generally begin in February. “ The general improvement in the Redcap has been frequently noticed in reports of shows held during the past two or three years. A show was lately reported of as follows : — ‘ The winning cock is especially good in comb and shape, and the first prize hen is as good in spangling as a Flamburgh ; the classes were both very fine, and the breed is certainly improving.’ “ It is a pity the breed is not more encouraged by show committees, and I could never make out why it is not, as a class is almost invariably well filled, and constitutes one of the principal attractions of the show.” Information from other sources has brought to light other curious synonyms for this breed besides those mentioned above. They have been known as “ Manchester, ” and also as “Poland Pheasants.” We have been informed that many who kept them in old days were so jealous of their egg-laying capacities becoming known, that they pricked the eggs sold, lest purchasers should obtain any of the stock so highly valued. We have traced this practice to several quarters, and the remarkable jealousy thus displayed is worth recording, as it easily accounts for the otherwise strange fact, that over and over again Redcaps have disappeared from districts where they were once kept. But wherever the fowl was known it was highly valued. Quite lately one farmer has reported a cross between a Redcap and a Partridge Cochin as a fine table fowl— “ the best he had seen in his life and the same farmer averred that one hen he had, now in her eighth year, has laid more eggs during the last twelve months than at any previous period. This testimony amply confirms that borne by Mr. Wragg to the capacity of the breed for laying on late in life , in which respect we believe no other breed is known to equal it. No doubt the somewhat late com- mencement has a great deal to do with this continuance of laying powers. Perhaps the points chiefly to be questioned are concerning that very “ improvement ” men- tioned in the above sentences from a poultry journal. Undoubtedly the Redcap can be bred up to a beautiful spangling, and a neat straight comb, and the process has been carried already to a certain point, while judges are evidently awarding prizes very much for such points. But the question arises, What will the Redcap be when the process is finished ? Will it be the hardy fowl and magnificent layer which was known before ? We very gravely doubt it. The breed does not seem to have suffered yet, but the process has gone on only a very few years : it will be different when in-breeding and selection for exhibition points have done their work for another ten years, and the fowl has become to all intents and purposes a large Golden-spangled Hamburgh. A large comb, in particular, seems to have some connection with laying properties; and we may be allowed to express an earnest wish that a most valuable fowl may not be spoilt by insisting in the show- pen upon qualities which do not belong to it. No Club being yet formed, no standard has been adopted for the Redcap fowl ; but our own -trong opinion is that symmetry, size of body, and size of comb, ought to be the chief points, if the useful qualities of the breed are to be kept up. 382 The Illustrated Book of Poultry. SILVER-PENCILLED HAMBURGHS. — “This breed and the following,” observes the same authority already quoted, “are somewhat smaller and lighter in make than the Spangled varieties. In Yorkshire it is often known by the name of Chittiprat, and in Lancashire by that of Bolton Greys, but these and all other names are gradually giving way to that of Silver-pencilled Hamburghs. I will first describe the proper markings of the breed, as formerly sought. “ In the cock, the head, hackle, back, saddle-hackle, breast, and thighs should be a clear silvery white, the yellow tinge which is so often seen being a very grave fault. The tail proper is black, the sickles and side or furnishing feathers being a rich green black edged with a fine whiL fringe, the finer and more sharply defined the better. Many birds have a sort of marbled tail, which is very objectionable ; others have the sickle-feathers splashed with white, which is also a grave fault, the only white which should be in the tail being the fine white edging merely, which is clearly shown, with the other important markings of the cock, in the plate (Fig. 85) — the sickle is drawn more bent than usual, in order to get it within the plate. The wing appears almost white when closed ; but the inner webs of the wing-coverts should be very darkly pencilled when examined (for which again see Fig. 85), and a fine black edging should be observable on the wing-coverts, caused by the ends of the outer webs being also slightly tipped with black, and giving the appearance of a slight and indistinct bar on the wing. If this point is not observable it is a great fault, and such birds should never be bred from ; on the other hand, this barring should not be too distinct or heavy, as such gives the bird an appearance (very often correct) of being crossed with a coarsely-pencilled strain. The colour of the secondary quills is also important. On the outer webs they are white, except a narrow strip of black next the quill, which is of course only discernible when the wing is opened out, the white only being seen when closed ; the inner web is black, all but a narrow white or greyish edging. In some birds the colour is a sort of black and white mixture or marbly appearance, and not nearly deep enough, especially on the inner web. Such birds have been bred from indifferently or lightly-pencilled hens, and are of no use at all to breed from, at least if you expect to breed pullets as well as cockerels. On the fluff of the thighs are some black spots or pencillings ; but with this exception and those already stated, the entire plumage should be white. The comb, ear-lobes, legs, &c., should be much the same as described for the Spangled, but somewhat smarter in appearance. The eyes to be a bright red. “ The neck-hackle of the hen also should be pure white, free from spots or pencilling, though hackles somewhat marked are very common. The rest of the body should have each feather distinctly marked or pencilled across with bars of black, as clear and distinct as possible on the white ground, and in particular as straight across the feather as possible. The ‘ finer’ this pencilling, that is, the more numerous the bars across, the better. This pencilling should extend from the throat to the very end of the tail. A tail well-pencilled is a very great point, as there is a special tendency in the long feathers to lose the straightness across of the marking ; but tails pencilled squarely across to the very tip can be and are bred, though never common. A very usual fault is a light breast, or if not light only covered with large horse-shoe markings, both being grave faults. The birds best marked on the breast are often a little inclined to be spotted on the hackle, and this latter fault is certainly to be much preferred to a bad breast. The best marking on the breast is never however quite equal to that on other parts of the body. The proper marking of the pullets is shown in Fig. 86, which is drawn carefully and without any exaggeration, from actual feathers. “The pencilling or marking, as said before, should be as fine and as straight across the leather as possible ; and especially, the rows of pencilling on one feather falling on to the rows on Cassells Poultry Book. FIT Iff/*' * AfiaceatBrookBDay&So) Jith MR H . PI C K L E'S PAIR OF SILVER PENCILLED HAMBURGHS. COCK WAS PT AND CUP AT BIRMINGHAM 1871. HEN Ist AT * » KENDAL Feathers of Silver- pencilled Cock. gickle Wing-covert Secondary Feather. or Bar. Quill. Fig. 85. — Feathers of Silver-pencilled Cock 3^4 The Illustrated Book of Poultry. the next, so as to give the bird a ruled or lined appearance, which has a very pretty effect. Of late years the pencilling of Silver Pencils has failed in being much too coarse. “ The pencilling is generally much the best the first year, or as pullets. Afterwards, as a rule it becomes somewhat mossy, cloudy, or indistinct, and often coarse. Some birds, however, will moult out well the second season, and such should be specially valued, and by all means retained for breeding. “ In breeding this variety, when cocks were selected as described at page 382 and figured on page 383 the same pen would produce both sexes of good quality. Of course there were always some families that produced better of one sex than of the other, as there are in all varieties occasionally, and hence some breeders always used two yards ; but others preferred to breed from one set only, and there was no difficulty in it while the judges gave the preference in the show-pen to those cockerels with the points which were likely to produce good pullets. These points were — for the tail to be black, the sickles jet-black all but the edging, and the wing properly barred, with the secondaries also properly edged. But of late years all this is changed, owing to a rage for pure white bodies in the cocks, till the Silver-pencilled Hamburgh now practically consists of two varieties, bred as follows : — “ For breeding cockerels, hens now have to be used as nearly destitute of marking as possible except on the tail — many, indeed, are nearly white. These hens have to be procured from a reliable source, as with the exception of comb and ear-lobes there is really little to distinguish Breast. Shoulder. Saddle. Tail-covert. Fig. 86. — Feathers of Silver-pencilled Hamburgh Pullet. Cassells Poultry Book i MR HENRY BELDONS PAIR OF GOLDEN-PENCILLED HAMBURGH S CUP AT CRYSTAL PALACE, 1871. * Golden-Pencilled Hamburghs. 33 5 about them. To purchase merely the whitest birds will not answer, as they may breed very bad tails. All depends upon the strain. Such hens or pullets are mated with exhibition cockerels ; and these now have to be as free as possible from any marking whatever all over the body, the only black desired being in the tail. “ For pullet-breeding, on the contrary, the breeding a strain distinct for marking has resulted in the production of hen-feathered cocks marked very nearly like the hens, witii short, henny tails. This is a perfectly natural result, and has followed the constant selection of cocks with the most pencilling on the wing. One advantage of these birds is that the quality of thc-ir pencilling can at once be seen ; and hence the mating is a comparatively simple affair.” We cannot say that the pencilling of Silver-pencilled Hamburghs has been in our opinion at all improved by the change in the mode of breeding, but rather the contrary. The numbers lately exhibited also show a most significant decline, and we think it a matter to be deeply deplored that the judges so unadvisedly discouraged birds suitable for pullet-breeding. It is not the first occasion, however, on which the exaggerated demands of judges have worked mischief. We may, perhaps, remark that the production of hen-feathered cocks is a strong corroboration of our views respecting the original unity of the Hamburgh race, and shows conclusively how the hen-feathered Spangled cock was produced : it also explains how the hen-tail arose in the Sebright Bantam. First-rate Silver-pencilled cocks will sometimes, as they get old, show a chestnut patch upon the wing. We remember one of the very best show birds we ever saw moulting out thus after winning thirty-seven prizes, and the fault used to be common in aged birds ; but by rigorously excluding such from breeding, it is now seldom seen. Birds which do show the chestnut patch should never be bred from. GOLDEN-PENCILLED HAMBURGHS. — “This variety,” continues Mr. Beldon, “is in every respect save ground-colour similar to the Silver-pencilled breed. The ground-colour in the hens should be about the colour of gold, as rich and bright as possible ; the pencilling being exactly like the preceding variety, as distinct and yet as fine as can be got ; that is, as many bars as possible across each feather, provided they are distinct and of a good rich black colour. The neck-hackle, like the Silver birds', should be clear. The cock is of a deeper tint, his colour being somewhat between that of his own hens and of a Red Game cock ; it must be neither too red nor too pale, but what might be called very rich in effect. His proper tail-feathers are black, the sickles and hangers rich black edged with brown or bronze, the edging being rather wider than in the Silver-pencilled bird. To have sickles all black is a great fault, and so is a tail bronzed all over, or with scarcely any black in it, but bronzed almost all over the sickles. This last kind of tail is very showy, and used to be rather a favourite with some judges who did not understand I lamburghs ; but experience proves that birds possessing it produce very indifferently pencilled pullets, and the judges on that account now throw them out. “ Besides the quality of the black pencilling, which resembles the Silver-pencilled, one of the great points in this variety is the evenness and richness of the ground-colour. Some birds, otherwise good, are very uneven in this point, the ends of the feathers being a lighter gold than the other parts. Such birds, as the season advances, are apt to get still more faded and washed-out in appearance, and, indeed, most birds fade in colour from the effects of the sun ; but some hens of a good rich colour retain this much better than others, which, is of course, a great point in their favour. In the cccks the same fault is commonly seen, appearing in the shape of a lighter shade 2 I-I 3S6 The Illustrated Book of Poultry , on the ends or tips of the feathers on the breast and under parts of the body; this is to be avoided as far as possible — the more uniform the colour the better. The breeding of Golden-pencilled Hamb-rghs is in all respects the same as that first described for Silver-pencilled, allowing for the difference in ground-colour. The same markings on the feathers of the cock described at page 378 are to be sought exactly. "'When hatched, Golden-pencilled chickens are a buff colour, darker than the Silvers, with a few black spots about the head. The Silvers are a pale buff. They show the pencilling in their first feathers, the cockerels being pencilled nearly like the pullets. Some breeders prefer to select a cockerel for breeding in either variety at this stage, and no doubt the character of the pencilling he will breed with good hens can be readily seen in this way. The full beauty of the marking does not however show itself till the second or adult plumage makes its appearance. “ Both varieties of Pencilled Hamburghs are delicate, and should not therefore be hatched before April. In the case of the Silver variety there is another reason for not hatching early, in the fact that if earlier they often moult out like old hens at the time they ought to be laying, and thereby lose that sharp and rich pencilling for which the pullets are almost always superior. It is rather rare, for the same reason, to see females of the pencilled varieties shown beyond the first year, and those good enough must be of unusual excellence. BLACK HAMBURGHS. — “This variety,” Mr. Beldon writes, “had long been known in Lancashire previously to the poultry-showing era, but the fowl we possess at present without doubt has some Spanish blood in its composition. This cross was introduced to obtain the white ear-lobe, which was, and is, so very desirable ; but the drawback was the white face introduced with it, and which would show itself for a long time. By careful breeding, however, this has been to a great extent bred out, and the majority of the birds shown at the present day have red faces. Of course, the white face will now and then crop up, even now, but it is a blemish, and one the judges wall not tolerate. “ This variety is, perhaps, one of the most useful fowls we have. It lays as frequently as the other Hamburghs, but the egg is much larger, probably on account of its relation to the Spanish. Being a black fowl, it can also be kept in the neighbourhood of towns, provided only there be the good-sized grass-run which is needed to do justice to this as to all the other varieties of Hamburghs. In size it is larger than the others, although different birds vary, and size is not very essential if of fair average and symmetrical in make. In shape they should resemble the Spangled Hamburghs, and not be thin and stilty like the Spanish, a point which always shows a bad descent. The legs are a dark leaden blue the first year, which gradually becomes a slaty blue ; the comb, face, ear-lobes, and eyes should resemble the Spangled Hamburghs. The colour is a rich satiny green black, the greener and richer the colour the better; and this green gloss should be uniform, and not showing on the end of the feather only, but throughout the plumage. This beautiful gloss shows itself more in the hens than in the cock, which is contrary to the usual rule. To be seen to advantage they should be viewed in a good light, or when the sun is upon them ; you then see that beautiful sheen in which they surpass all other black fowls. Some are purple or raven black, but the colour required is the green black. “ The chickens when hatched are white from the tnroat downwards to the under part of the body, the rest black. As a rule, they do not become thoroughly black till they get into their second plumage.” Other breeders exceedingly dislike the Spanish cross, though we must say that half the birds exhibited show evident traces of it. The Rev. W. Serjeantson has long been known as a special Cassells Poultry Book. THE REV.? W. SERJEANTS ON'S PAIR OF BLACK HAMBURGHS. COCK OR HEN FIRST PRIZES AT BIRM I NGHAM.EDI N BURGH & MANCHESTER, 1871. ANO BRISTOL I87Z. . • . * Black Hamburghs. 387 cultivator of this breed in its purity, having never we believe crossed his birds ; and as none have been more successful with it in the show-pen, it proves that careful and judicious breeding can do all that is necessary. At our request he has added the following very full notes on his favourite variety, which will fully convey to the reader the means by which his great success has been attained. “It is only within the last few years that Black Hamburghs have come into fashion. Indeed, ten years ago they were scarcely known out of Lancashire and the West Riding; but for all that they are by no means the ‘ recent invention ’ which the editors of some of our poultry periodicals would have us believe. I must confess to ignorance myself as to the origin and early history of the breed, but I am glad to be able to supply my deficiency with the following information which Mr. Teebay has very kindly sent me. He says : — “‘I have known the Black Hamburghs ever since I was quite a boy. I do not exactly recollect whether the Silver Mooneys or the Blacks were the first fowls I possessed, but I believe the Black Pheasants, as they were called here. Both kinds, and also the Golden Mooneys, I have been told by reliable persons were exhibited for prizes, such as copper kettles, & c., more than a hundred years before my time. I have yet somewhere in the attics of my house about a dozen prize copper kettles, and many others have been given away to friends. “ ‘ The Black Pheasants were not formerly so elegant in shape as they are now. Little regard was paid to symmetry, but the most weight was given to the resplendent green shade ; the ear-lobe was smaller than it is now, and the face a brilliant red. I have known Silver Mooneys produce chickens almost black, and as the old Blacks were exactly of the same shape as the old true Silver Mooney, I always thought one had sprung from the other. The true Silver Mooney chicken is almost black in one stage of its chicken plumage. The Black Pheasant formerly was much shorter in the leg, in fact, shorter in all its parts than the birds we now see. “‘I do not think that crossing with Spanish has caused this alteration; but that it has arisen in most cases from breeders paying more attention to shape than the old fanciers used to do. There is no doubt some strains have a little Spanish blood in them, but these are generally very coarse in comb, with dark faces, inclined to white below the eye, a drooping ear-lobe, and are not nearly so elegant a bird as the true kind.’ “As Mr. Teebay is admitted to be one of the best authorities upon all the varieties of Hamburghs, his most interesting letter is a conclusive answer to those who say that they are a cross between Golden-spangled Hamburghs and Spanish. No doubt some Black Hamburghs, or rather imitations of them, have been concocted in this way ; but the unfortunates who get any of these ‘ cross-breeds’ into their yards will not be long in discovering, in single combs and a general want of fixed characteristics, that they have not got the pure breed. “ It will be seen that Mr. Teebay considers them to be closely connected with the Silver Mooneys, and I think myself that that is very probable. However, as they can show a pedigree of considerably more than a hundred years, it is not of great importance from a practical point of view what was their origin in the first instance ; it is enough to know that they are now a firmly established breed, of great beauty and undoubted excellence. “ In shape they should be what their name implies — Hamburghs, and not rose-combed Spanish or Black Dorkings. They often appear at exhibitions in the guise of heavy, square, loose-feathered, Dorking-like birds, with coarse heads and combs ; or, on the other hand, long-legged, narrow- bodied, and squirrel-tailed, so that one is not surprised to hear the unitiated spectator remark, ‘ Why, they are very like Spanish.’ They should be real Hamburghs in shape, with prominent breasts, legs small-boned, taper, and short, though not so short as to give a dumpy look ; they should also 3SS The Illustrated Book of Poultry, stand up well upon their legs, but yet without showing the whole of the thigh, like Game. The head should be small and neat. Judges do not seem to care about the colour of the eyes, but I myself much prefer a full dark eye to a lighter-coloured one. The neck-hackles should be long, flowing well over the shoulders and back. The tail should be long, full, and sound-feathered, cairied well up, but not too forward, a squirrel-tail being very objectionable. ‘ Mr. Tegetmeier has stated that their combs are better formed than those of any other double-combed breed ; but that, I think, is an opinion which will not be endorsed by Black Hamburgh breeders, who all find the comb one of their difficulties. The combs of pullets especially are apt to ‘go over,' as they approach the period of laying ; but still, with care in the selection of stock-birds, this is a difficulty which may with certainty be surmounted. “ The ear-lobe is a very striking feature in a Black Hamburgh. It is allowed to be a little larger than in the other breeds ; but it must be pure white, round, smooth, like a piece of a white kid glove, lying close to the head, not long and pendent, not puffy, not wrinkled, nor edged with red. “ The face should be brilliant crimson, almost scarlet, or deep carmine ; a dark gipsy-face being a great blemish, and a white face altogether a disqualification. Both Spangled and Pencilled Hamburghs are subject to white face, as well as the Blacks, but in the latter it is much more common ; white patches under the eye and near the ear-lobe frequently making their appearance, especially when a bird is out of condition or old. Indeed, it is rare to find a two or three- year-old cock quite free from it. But this is another fault, which may be obviated entirely by careful breeding. “ The legs should be of a dark leaden hue ; they get lighter with age, but in a young bird a light-coloured leg is to be avoided. “A Black Hamburgh, if a good specimen, is a most attractive bird. The bright crimson comb and face, the snowy ear-lobe, and the lustrous green of the plumage, form altogether a tout ensemble such as no one can see without admiring. Indeed, I have often been surprised to hear lady visitors, when looking through my yards, express greater admiration for the Blacks than the Silver-spangled Hamburghs ; these latter being, to my mind, the most striking of all fowls at first glance. “ In a Black Hamburgh cock the breast, back, shoulders, and tail should be of a rich green, the brighter the better ; the wing-coverts (which form the bar of the Spangled Hamburghs), exceedingly brilliant ; and the outer web of the secondaries — i.e., the whole of the lower part of the closed wing — almost as bright ; the lesser tail-coverts are also very rich in colour. “ There are two distinct shades of colour. Some strains are of a deep blue green, almost a steel- blue — these have green tails ; other strains are of a lighter green — 'these have bronze green tails. I much prefer these latter myself ; but anyway, the purer the green, and the less admixture of purple or any other tint, the better. Many birds are more or less pencilled with bluish purple, or, as the Lancashire fanciers call it, ‘mazarine hens chiefly on the back, and cocks on the flights and tail. I believe it is sometimes caused by weakness or ill-health at the time of the growth of the feather, as I have known birds, which as chickens were quite free from this defect, show it after a late or protracted moult ; but more often it is hereditary, and I should not care to breed from a bird which showed it to any extent. The hackle and saddle should be deep black, the longest feathers having the centre or main part bright green, and the outer edges or ‘hackly’ part of the feather (so to speak) black ; the thighs and under parts also black. I think I ought to add that it is rare to find a cock as richly coloured as I have described, very few showing much colour on the breast or hackle. The hen should be of a bright glossy green throughout, especially on the wings Breeding Black .Hamburghs. 3S9 and back. Mr. Tegetmeier speaks of spangling being visible; all I can say is that I have examined birds in all lights, and I have never been able to see on a good bird anything of the sort* The whole of the feather, except the fluffy part, should be uniform in colour ; the green cannot be too pure, and the less of blue, or purple, or plum, or mazarine, the better. « As regards breeding for exhibition, it is one great advantage of this variety that prize birds of both sexes can be bred from the same parents ; at the same time, wherever there is convenience for doing so, it is advantageous to have the breeding-stock divided into two or more separate yards. You have more strings to your bow; you are more independent of your neighbours as regards fresh blood ; and moreover, it is very difficult to find a cock in which are united all the qualifications for breeding both sexes. “ In the selection of breeding-stock the faults to which Black Hamburghs are most liable should be kept in mind. These are ill-shapen combs, white faces, legginess, red hackles and saddles. I believe all black fowls are subject to this last defect, but Black Hamburghs are so especially, and the richer colour the bird, the more likely the red is to show itself. Now at an exhibition, colour does not seem to be looked for by the judges, in cocks especially, so much as the other points ; not nearly so much in my opinion as it ought to be, though, of course, cceteris paribus , colour will carry the day ; therefore, for cockerel breeding, parents should be chosen with perfect combs, good red faces free from white, round white ear-lobes free from red, hackle and saddle perfectly free from red, short legs, broad back and chest (narrow-bodied birds too often being squirrel-tailed, which is most objectionable, and generally hereditary). Want of colour is not of so much consequence. “ On the other hand, for breeding pullets, a cock must be sought for with as many of the above qualifications as can be found united with very brilliant colour. As I have already said, it is difficult to find a very rich cock quite free from red ; but colour you must have for breeding pullets, and I would much rather choose for the purpose a red-hackled cock, if good in other respects, than a dull-coloured one. I have often bred beautiful lustrous pullets from hens with very little colour, when mated with a bright cock ; but never from a dull-coloured cock, however lustrous the hens with him might be. “I am sorry that I cannot give any statistics as to the laying powers of Black Hamburghs; I have never kept any written records. But there can be no question as to their excellence in this respect. I have given away many to neighbours and friends, and they have almost all expressed astonishment at the numbers of eggs produced by them. The pullet which is so faithfully represented by Mr. Ludlow in his excellent picture, began to lay in the beginning of November. She was exhibited several times during the winter, which of course stopped her laying for the time, but she commenced again as soon as she was left in peace, and continued laying until the end of the following November, never having shown any inclination to sit. Most poultry-books say that Hamburghs never sit ; but according to my experience that is quite a mistake, at all events as regards fowls which have unrestricted liberty. I have kept Spangled, Pencilled, and Black Hamburghs, the purest strains of each, and every year I have had more or less hens of each variety broody. Some individuals, like the pullet mentioned above, never attempt to sit ; others will be broody two or three times in a season. I have not often allowed them to sit, wanting * Mr. Tegetmeier’s mistake evidently arose from examining birds bred by crossing Spangled Hamburghs with Spanish. Many so-called Black Hamburghs are thus produced, and v/e have even seen such breeding recommended and described in poultry- journals as the correct procedure. Such cross-bred birds will show the iridescent green spangle Mr. Tegetmeier describes, but which can never be distinguished on good birds of a pure strain. 390 The Illustrated Book of Poultry . them for other purposes, but whenever I have done so I have found them quite as steady, and quite as good mothers, as the regular sitting breeds, though this again is contrary to the generally received opinion. “ As a rule all my fowls enjoy perfect liberty, but during the breeding season I am obliged to keep some confined, and these I have found to lay well, remain healthy, and apparently quite contented, in yards about sixty feet long and ten feet wide. “There is no trouble in preparing Black Hamburghs for exhibition; they require no washing; the smoke of a town does not spoil their good looks. If they have a good grass-run, and are not injured by over-feeding or over-showing, they are always ready at a minute’s notice to be put into their travelling hampers. They are also less subject to roup than other Hamburghs, and when they do bring it home with them from a show, they seem to recover more quickly. “ They are, of course, subject to the same drawback as other Hamburghs ; i.e., the cocks are never so good for showing after their first year. The ear-lobe loses its smoothness, and, to some extent, its purity of colour. Mr. Beldon seems to have the knack of bringing out old birds in better condition than any one else can do ; and I fancy it may be due to his birds being kept more under cover, and therefore less exposed to be scorched by the summer sun. “In conclusion, I will only say that in my judgment there does not exist a more useful, handsome, or profitable breed of fowls. They are undeniably good layers of fair-sized eggs. They are very good upon the table. It is true they are not so la.rge as some breeds, but neither is their appetite; and I believe, if the quantity of food consumed is taken into consideration, they will show a better balance-sheet at the end of the year than some of their bigger brethren.” Besides the standard breeds of Hamburghs and the Redcaps already mentioned, various other kinds of marking have appeared from time to time at particular shows, or have been seen by individuals at different times. Amongst these have been a Silver Hamburgh beautifully laced, which has been seen by Miss Watts ; but as these birds were described as being very small, and have never appeared since, it seems to us very probable they were either a cross from the Silver-laced Bantam, or perhaps even a large pen of that variety with a full-feathered cock. There would, how- ever, be not much difficulty in producing a real laced Hamburgh if such were desired, by choosing and developing the crescentic marking of the old Yorkshire pheasant, till it was brought up to the required standard, as in the Polish fowl. A Black Hamburgh laced with white has also been spoken of, but its authenticity is doubtful, as there is no certain record of such a marking having ever been seen in any variety of fowl whatever. All buff, without any pencilling or spangling at all, has also been seen, but never, we believe, shown. A variety the colour of which was buff pencilled with white appeared on several occasions at shows many years since, but was never encouraged, the effect not being pleasing. It was very probably formed by crossing Golden-pencilled with White, as in the case of Chamois Polish fowls. Pure White Hamburghs have not unfrequently been seen, and Mr. Beldon informs us were formerly bred true to feather, but of late years have died out ; their points were the same as other Hamburghs, except being pure white all over. They used to be rather wanting in whiteness of deaf-ear, but this could easily have been corrected. They were rather pretty, and could readily be bred at any time by selecting the lightest Silver-pencils. The most worthy of preservation of all the extraneous varieties is, however, the Cuckoo Hamburgh, described in the following notes by Mr. Beldon : — “ I used,” he says, “ to have a breed of Hamburghs that were very handsome, of a cuckoo colour. They had all the characteristics of Hamburghs except the colour being cuckoo, both i_ocks and hens being alike. As usual in any variety of this marking, some of the cocks had red in Exhibiting Ha mb ur giis. 39* their saddles, while others were free from it. [This is a common fault in all cuckoo or Dominique varieties.] They were capital layers, and in my opinion a very pretty breed, but found no favour at the shows, and therefore have nearly died out. They bred very true to colour, indeed the cuckoo ts very easy to breed if you once get it on one side, and by a cross with some other variety the points might have been worked up well.” We are inclined to think a cuckoo-colour might meet with more favour now than formerly, some other varieties having made it rather more familiar and popular than in old times. Silver-pencilled Hamburghs were formerly termed Creoles or Creels in some localities (evidently from the mingling of black and white in the plumage) ; and an American poultry magazine published in 1873, gave a short description and engraving of a pair of birds under this name. In this case, however, the fowls were evidently bad or ill-bred Spangled Hamburghs — i.e., bred larger and coarser by the sacrifice of feather. Such birds, like the Redcaps, are often extraordinary layers. Mr. Serjeantson has already stated that Black Hamburghs will do well in runs of only moderate size, and we have also known Silver-spangles maintain their high qualities in small yards, provided they were on a dry soil and kept rigidly clean, which is absolutely essential to them under such circumstances. The other varieties are only adapted to a grass-run, and lose much of their prolificacy if penned up, being also then subject to roup and other diseases, though when at large the Spangles at least are tolerably hardy fowls. Their great merit of course is as layers, though the meat is excellent so far as it goes. As a layer and table fowl combined the Redcap is probably one of the most profitable that can possibly be, though it lacks those charms of beauty which render the other varieties so attractive. Crossing is not to be recommended in these breeds; but if resorted to, the best is that between a Silver-spangled cock and a Light Brahma hen, which often produces spangled fowls of considerable size and very great beauty. We have sometimes thought a large and handsome spangled fowl might in this way be produced and perpetuated. Chickens of this cross are excellent layers. Hamburghs require very little to prepare them for exhibition, neither looking well when fattened, nor submitting to the process. They need nothing more than to be in brilliant condition as regards plumage and ear-lobes. Confinement under cover will make a great deal of difference to the ear-lobes of the cock, which become rough and tinged if exposed ; and is almost necessary if old cocks are to be shown, as the deaf-ears of old birds left at large generally become rough and coarse. The pens should not be less than six or eight feet square, and of ample height, so that the birds may be able to fly up to the perch for exercise. Darkness is not intended, but only to screen them from the wind and sun, which will rapidly improve their appearance ; and all cocks, Mr. Beldon says, should be thus put up for about a fortnight, to get them to look bright, as well as used to the pens. The hens should not be put up, as they cannot stand it, but go back in condition ; but those which are to be shown should always run together first, and be first tried in a pen to see if they agree. Hamburghs are not generally a pugnacious breed ; but it is a singular fact that of the many cases of injury from fighting during exhibition, and particularly of one hen or pullet being scalped by the other, more have been observed by us in the Hamburgh classes than any others ; though it must be remembered that Malays and Game are rarely now shown in pairs at all. We may remark that the purest strains of Hamburghs will occasionally produce birds with single combs, particularly if the smallest and best combs be bred from. This is evidently a case of reversion to the type of some ancient progenitor of the family, and is no proof whatever of a cross in the strain. Such birds will generally breed the proper type of comb ; but, for obvious reasons, they should not be bred from, or the tendency will of course increase. 392 The Illustrated Bools of Poultry. JUDGING HAMBURGHS. — The points to which a judge has to give attention in judging Hamburghs maybe ranged into four great divisions, viz., i, Marking; 2, Combs; 3, Ear-lobes; 4, Symmetry. All of these are important ; and symmetry in particular should by no means be overlooked, since it is one of the chief beauties of all the Hamburgh breeds Tastes differ, and we know many who consider the Game the type of beauty as regards form ; but for our own part we must admit that a perfectly-shaped Hamburgh cock, particularly of the Pencilled breeds, is to our own eye far superior — indeed, a very ideal of beautiful contour. Of the other three divisions, all are more or less frequently made the subjects of deceptive practices, and in no breed does “trimming” require such lynx-eyed vigilance on the part of the judge. Ear-lobes are painted white ; combs are cut and otherwise maltreated ; false tails are fastened in ; and in the case of the Spangled breeds we have seen a pretty good basketful of feathers abstracted from one pen of prize birds, which were too heavily spangled, and needed “ thinning-out ” in order to show sufficient of the ground-colour between. This last fraud is very difficult of detection indeed, and, in fact, almost impossible of absolute proof ; and even the fastening in of false sickles cannot be detected in every case without manipulation such as a judge hardly feels justified in using, for fear of injuring the plumage of a really honest fowl. The Silver-pencilled cocks are most frequently subject to this latter fraud, a perfectly edged tail being by no means easy to produce, and not unfrequently, when it is, combined with a bad comb, with somewhat too dark body-colour, or other faults. When, therefore, an unusually fine pair of sickles are produced, whether on a good bird or a bad one, they are, by unscrupulous exhibitors, frequently transferred or preserved — as the case may be — “ for other uses.” The fraud is generally detected in the end, either by the fastening “ coming loose,” or a little want of freshness, or some other cause arousing the suspicion of the judge ; but we have known a man boast when thus discovered that the false tail “ had done pretty well after all, for he had won with it eleven times.” A very dark, glossy, sharply-edged tail, if found on a cock with very slight bars and little under-colour, or perhaps with no bars at all, should always excite suspicion ; and this is perhaps the only hint which can be given ; though if the sickles look dull and dead in colour while the rest of the plumage is brilliant and glossy, attentive curiosity may also be occasionally rewarded by unexpected discoveries. It is, however, in the combs that Hamburghs are subjected to the most extensive manipulation, and some of the practices which have actually been detected are of the most cruel nature. In one notorious case the judges took from a comb two large needles, which had been inserted longitudinally to keep it from falling over. These needles were so rusted in that they were removed with difficulty, and were only detected by the end of one protruding, so that the duration of the torture inflicted on the unfortunate bird cannot be known. Pins, temporarily inserted, have been found in plenty. A very common fault is a hollow or depression in the centre of the comb ; and this has been known to be treated by cutting a wedge-shaped piece out of the middle, and stitching the outside portions tightly up together till joined and healed. Stitches put in for one purpose or other are often found, and, we regret to add, are employed far oftener than found, being withdrawn just before sending the bird in — indeed, our impression is that it is to simple forgetfulness of this neces- sary precaution discovery is often due. It is to be regretted that combs merely carved have been for years admitted by the judges to pass with practical impunity. Very recently only have some judges appeared to view the matter differently ; but owing to energetic remonstrances on the part of the press, some recent cases have been visited with disqualification, and it may be hoped that comb-cutting will be in future discouraged, if not stopped. Owing to recent changes, combs have been allotted more points in judging in the following schedules, than in the earlier editions of this work. Schedule for Judging Hamburghs . 393 SCHEDULE FOR JUDGING HAMBURGHS. General Characteristics of Cock. — Head and Neck — General appearance of head neat, lively, and smart, rather short than otherwise ; beak rather short and small ; comb double or rose, wide and square in front, and tapering into a long spike pointing backwards and slightly upwards behind, to be flat on top, and full of “work” or points, and set firmly and upright on the head ; deaf-ear flat, and as nearly circular as possible ; wattles thin, neat, and rounded ; neck rather long, much arched or curved, carried well back, and full of long sweeping hackles, flowing well over shoulders. Body — General appearance neat and symmetrical, not tapering to the tail as in the Game fowl ; the back a fair moderate length, but appearing rather short from the hackle flowing over it ; saddle broad, and amply furnished ; wings large, but neatly carried ; breast lull, round, and carried well forward. Legs and Feet — Thighs slender, short, and neat ; shanks rather short, thin, and clean ; toes very slender, and nicely spread. Tad — Very ample, with long and broad sickle-feathers, and plenty of secondary sickles or furnishing-feathers ; the sickles much curved and carried high, but not squirrel-fashion or over the back. Size — Small, averaging in Spangles about five pounds, but larger develop- ment no disadvantage if gained without sacrifice of points. General Shape — Light and graceful. Carriage — Lively, jaunty, and graceful, but not strutting, as in the Spanish cock. [Note. — The shape of the Pencilled varieties is somewhat more light and slender, with less width of body, and the weight less, than the Spangled and Black.] General Characteristics of Hen. — The general characteristics of the cock apply to the hen, with only the usual sexual differences. The same note as to the difference of shape in the Pencilled varieties also applies in her case. Colour of Silver-Spangled Hamburghs. — In both Sexes — Beak a dark horn-colour. Comb, face, and wattles, brilliant red. Deaf-ears pure white. Eyes dark hazel. Legs dark leaden blue. Colour of Cock — Hackle silvery white, free from yellow, spotted at the bottom as much as possible. Back, shoulder-coverts, and wing-bow white, spotted with black, the spots being long and narrow, owing to the pointed shape of the tips of the feathers. Wing-coverts, each feather white, with a heavy round black spangle at the tip, forming two even bars across the wing. Secondaries white, spangled at the tips, the spangles forming what is called the “stepping” of the wing. Primaries also to be spangled on the ends. Saddle-feathers white, spotted on the ends with black. Breast, under parts, and thighs, white spangled with black, every feather having a rich, round, black spangle at the tip, the larger the better, and so arranged as just barely to show the white between. Tail white on the outside, greyish on the inside, each feather spangled at the tip ; the sickles and secondary sickles clear white, with a large distinct spangle at the end of each. Colour of Hen — Hackle silvery white, each feather spotted with black on the end, the spots towards the bottom becoming larger and rounder. Back, shoulders, saddle, tail-coverts, breast, under parts, and thighs white, each/eather tipped with a large, round, black moon or spangle, not arranged so close as to overlap and appear solid black, but so that the white can just be seen between. Tail- feathers white, with a spangle at the end, which is however soldom perfectly round. Wing-coverts tipped with very large spangles, so as to form two regular bars across the wing ; and secondary quills to be white, tipped with a heavy crescentic spangle, so arranged as to appear like “steps ” on the end of the wing when it is closed. Primaries also white, tipped with black. The marking to be as uniform all over body as possible ; and the hens in a pen must match, not only in this, but in combs and other characteristics. Colour of Golden-spangled Hamburghs. — In both Sexes — Beak horn-colour. Comb, face, and wattles brilliant red. Deaf- ears pure white. Eyes red. Legs dark leaden-blue. Colour of Cock — Ground-colour rich reddish-golden bay, marked as follows : — Hackle and saddle striped with black, the stripes to be sharp and clear. Back, shoulder-coverts, and wing-bow spotted with black at the tips of the feathers. Wing-coverts heavily spangled with large round spangles, forming two bars across the wing. Secondaries and primaries also spangled on the ends. Breast, under parts, and thighs, heavily spangled with rich round spangles. Tail rich green-black. Colour of Hen — A rich reddish-golden bay ground-colour, but in other respects similar to the Silver- spangled, except that the hackle is striped instead of spotted with black, and the tail is black. Except in these respects, in fact, the similarity extends to both sexes. Coi.our of Silver-pencilled Hamburghs. — In both Sexes — Beak horn-colour. Comb, face, and wattles bright scarlet- red. Deaf-ears pure white. Eyes bright red. Legs dark leaden blue. Colour of Cock — Hackle pure silvery white. Back, saddle, shoukler-coverts, and wing-bow pure silvery white. Wing-coverts used to be sought heavily-pencilled across upper web, so as to form a slight bar, but a white wing is now preferred by most judges, making the whole body pure white. Secondaries white on lower web, except a strip of black next the quills, and black on inner web except a little grey or white on extreme edge ; primaries white on outer web and black on inner web. Breast, under parts, and thighs white, except a few black spots behind the thighs. Tail black in the true feathers ; sickles and secondaries rich glossy green-black, with a narrow lacing or edging of pure white all round. Colour of Hen — Hackle silvery white. Remainder of plumage, except wing-quills, a pure silvery white ground-colour, each feather pencilled across with black ; the pencilling to be as fine or frequent as possible, to go as straight and squarely across as possible, and to be nearly as possible equal in width to the white spaces left between. The secondary quills should also be pencilled, 1 ut this has rarely or never been yet attained ; and white on the outer -webs, with a little undefined marking, is the rule. The tail- feathers should be, and often are, perfectly pencilled. The pencilling to “fall in line,” as if continuous lines had been drawn round the bird, as far as possible. 394 The Illustrated Book of Poultry. Colour of Golden-pencilled Hamburghs. — In both Sexes — Plumage precisely resembles that of the preceding variety, substituting in the cock a ground-colour of reddish-golden bay, and in the hen a rich gold-colour or orange-gold ; the black marking being similar. Colour of Black Hamburghs. — In both Sexes — Beak black or dark horn-colour. Comb, face, and wattles deep rich red. Deaf-ears br iliiant white. Eyes bright red. Legs a deep leaden blue, approaching black. Plumage a deep rich black, brilliantly glossed with metallic green, or sometimes bluish purple — the more gloss, and the greener, the better. VALUE OE DEFECTS IN JUDGING. i. Spangled Hamburghs. Standard of Perfection. A bird ideally perfect in shape, carriage, colour, markings, &c., and in perfect health and condition, to count in points . . . ioo Defects to be Deducted. Bad head and comb . Bad carriage of tail . . . Stained deaf-ear . . . Deficiency in bars ,, ,, marking of tail (of Silver-spangled) Spangling too thick, so as to appear black . , , too thin and small, so as to appear spotted ,, irregular, or want of clearness in ground, or any other faults of colour and marking Want of general symmetry .... ,, ,, condition ...... 20 S IO 12 s 4 12 IO 12 15 DISQUALIFICATIONS. — Single or lopping combs. Hen-feathered cocks. Actually red deaf-ears. Absence of bars on wings. Legs any colour but blue or dark leaden-blue. Wry-tails, or any bodily deformity. Trimmed combs, or any other fraudulen' dyeing, dressing, or trimming. 2. Pencilled Hamburghs. Standard of Perfection. A bird ideally perfect in shape, carriage, colour, markings, &c., and in perfect health and condition, to count in points . . . ioo Defects to be Deducted. Bad head and comb Stained deaf-ear ...... Tail not properly marked . . . . . Hackle marked or spotted . Other faults of colour (chiefly of pencilling in hen) Want of general symmetry . . . . ,, ,, condition ...... 20 IO 12 9 H 12 15 Disqualifications. — Single or lopping combs. Hen-feathered cocks. Red deaf-ears. Rusty patch on cock’s wing in Silvers, or feathers tipped with white in Gold. Legs any colour but blue or leaden-blue. Wry-tails, or any other deformity. Trimmed combs, or any other fraudulent dyeing, dressing, or trimming. 3. Black Hamburghs. Standard of Perfection. A bird ideally perfect in shape, carriage, colour, &c., and in perfect health and condition, to count in points 100 Defects to be Deducted. Bad head and comb ...... 20 Stained deaf-ear .... , , 12 Too long ditto ....... 6 White face (signs of) . . . . . . 8 Want of “ colour” or gloss . . . .12 Too long legs and thighs ..... 8 Squirrel-tail ....... 10 Want of general symmetry . . . .12 ,, ,, condition ...... 18 Disqualifications. — Single or lopping combs. Red deaf-ears. Red feathers. Legs any colour but blue or dark leaden-blue Decided white face. Wry-tails, or any other deformity. Trimmed combs, or any other fraudulent dyeing, dressing, or trimming. Cassells Poultry Book. M R HENRY BELDON’S PAIR OF SILVER SPANGLED POLISH. FIRST PRIZE AT CRYSTAL PALACE 1871 & DUBLIN, 1872. 395 CHAPTER XXVI. POLISH FOWLS. We believe ever}' writer on poultry, without exception, agrees in the opinion that the name given to the varieties of fowls which are grouped under the general title of Poland or Polish has no possible connection with Poland, and that the birds in question are not specially known there more than in other localities, though crested fowls are extensively spread over all the con- tinent of Europe ami Southern Asia. Dr. Horner’s suggestion, that the name probably had reference rather to the peculiar poll or crest of these birds, is most probably the correct solution of the problem. We have what is known as a “ polled ” breed of cattle at the present day ; and Dr. Horner’s view of the matter has at least so far found acceptance that the name of Polands — once very common for these fowls — is now nearly abolished, and Birmingham and most other shows have adopted that of Polish as preferable. If the name of Polled fowls could be substituted, it would perhaps be better still, and the change would involve no practical difficulty whatever, as in the case of Hamburghs ; but as no real inconvenience arises from the present designation, there is no occasion to press even so trifling a change upon reluctant fanciers. The most conspicuous characteristic of Polish fowls is of course the crest, but there are also craniological differences which, though not so evident to mere cursory examination, are still more remarkable and distinct — such, in fa^t, as would many years ago have been considered sufficient to mark distinct species. That they were not so regarded was evidently owing to the uncertainty which then prevailed among comparative anatomists as to the constant character of these cranio- logical features ; Blumenbach affirming* that “ very small indications ” of them are found in the cocks, and even those slight indications very seldom ; and Pallas inclining to the idea that they were produced by a cross with the Guinea fowl; whilst even Professor Owen’s Osteological Catalogue of the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons (Vol. I., p. 272) describes a Polish skull (No. 1,414) in the collection as “the skull of a variety of the Common Fowl ( Gallus doincsticus), having a spherical bony cyst above the orbits. Whether this peculiarity of the skull should properly constitute a variety is uncertain, being apparently the result of disease alone ; the latter opinion is supported by the authority of Pallas.” The question is thus here left open as to the nature of the peculiarities referred to, and their true character seems to have been first pointed out by the “Poultry Book” published in 1853 by Messrs. Wingfield and Johnson, where the facts are stated (pp. 165-6), on the authority of the late Dr. Horner, one of the most scientific fanciers who ever lived, in clear and accurate terms. “The chickens of this family,” it is there said, “are no sooner hatched than peculiarities may be noticed, by which they may be at once distinguished from those of any other fowls, viz., the elevated roof of the nostrils, the round and prominent appearance of the head, and, in the bearded varieties, the peculiar thick-looking neck Much misconception has existed as to the nature and structure of this round appearance on the * “ De Anomalis,” &c. Gottingen, 1813. 396 The Illustrated Book of Poultry. ik ad of the Poland chicken previous to the growth of the feathers of the top-knot. It has sometimes been supposed to consist of a thickened state of the skin, or of a fibrous structure beneath it, as also of a fatty substance, forming a nidus or cushion from which the future top-knot glows. Dissection, however, demonstrates its true nature, and proves that the head of the Poland is altogether of unique conformation. The globular appearance is thus shown to be the result of the elev ated form of the skull-cap itself, laying like a round marble on the top of the head. According to the extent and development of this globular prominence of the skull may the size of the futuie top-knot be accurately foretold ; hence, in the best specimens it is large, and seems to include the whole upper part of the head ; in inferior breeds with small top-knots it is but indistinctly developed. This test, says Dr. Horner, “ is so accurate, that whenever it is considered desirable to rear only the finest birds, all those which are found wanting in this respect may be safely discarded ; it is, in fact, the very shibboleth of Polands.” Fig. 87 is carefully drawn from the skull in the museum already alluded to, and shows the peculiarities plainly. Had their constant character been formerly known, and anatomists not been Fig. 87. — Skui.l of a Polish Fowl, showing Bony Cyst above the Orbits, and Chasm in the Bones supporting the Nostrils. led off the scent by the comparative uncertainty which we have seen to prevail, and which none but fanciers could be expected to dispel, we entertain very little doubt that in days when specific differences were less understood than they are now, the Polish would have been elected to the rank of a distinct species ; but at the present day there would be considered no ground for such a conclusion, as not only does the Polish fowl breed indiscriminately with other varieties, the progeny being perfectly fertile, but the peculiar formation of the skull, and with it the crest itself, with which it is vitally connected, can be “ bred out ” by crossing with the greatest facility. Such facts furnish a striking example of the essential difference between apparently trifling, yet real, specific distinctions, and other distinctive marks of seemingly far greater magnitude and moment, but which experience shows to be merely characteristic of varieties. So regarded, they furnish arguments of the strongest nature against the Darwinian theory of development, so far as that theory applies to the origin of real species ; though if attention be confined to the mere amount of external change effected, their tendency may appear the other way. No naturalist would consider mere crest as a specific distinction, since it has been developed in many families of birds, amongst others on the canary, which do not usually possess it. A small amount of crest docs not appear to involve necessarily any change in the skull ; but by selecting and breeding from birds with the largest crests, and thus developing that feature till it obtains the magnitude seen in the Polish fowl, we undesignedly influence the cranium also, till it assumes the character of the skull figured above. Striking peculiarities will be observed in two points. First, there is a Peculiarities of Polish Fowls. 397 most singular protuberance towards the front of the top of the head, from which protuberance the crest grows ; and, secondly, by virtue of the law that excess of growth in one part is frequently accompanied by defect in some other part, there is a chasm in the intermaxillary bones, which in ordinary fowls extend over and support the roof of the nostrils, but in Polish leave the superior edges entirely unsupported. Owing to this deficiency in bony structure, the nostrils of a Polish fowl appear flattened, depressed, and yet cavernous in character, as shown in Fig. 88. These differences are marked enough, and the advocates of development would appear at first sight to have a strong point in their favour ; but the teaching of experience demolishes any theory which may be built upon them by the simple fact that both distinctions are of the most transitory kind, or the introduction of a single cross and careful breeding afterwards, speedily eradicating the whole, and the crest with them, as if they had never been. Fig-. 88. — Head op a Common Polish Fowl, showing the Cavernous Nostrils. o The varieties of Polish known to fanciers are rather numerous, but only three are generally seen at shows ; the White-crested Black, which has wattles but no beard, and the Gold and Silver- Spangled varieties, which are now shown without wattles, the vacancy being supplied with a full beard or muff under the throat. This latter point used to occasion some debate in poultry circles ; but the bearded birds have long since carried the day, and can alone be shown with success in England, being in almost every case also superior in size of crest. In America beardless Spangled Polish are still occasionally shown, all varieties of this fowl being somewhat scarce ; but as breeders procure more stock and attain a higher standard, there can be no doubt that the much finer appearance of the bearded birds will there also give them the preference over those destitute of this appendage. Mr. Beldon has kindly furnished the following notes on Spangled Polish fowls : — “ There used to be varieties without beards both of Golden and Silver Polish. These had long been known in England, but were deficient in size of crest, which was much smaller than in the The Illustrated Book of Poultry. 398 breeds we now possess. The bearded birds, I believe, were first imported by the great dealeis, Messrs. Baily and Baker — I fancy from France, but cannot say.* The White-crested Black breed never possessed the beard, and has also been long known in England, but no one knows whence any of them originally came. The Polands are, however, beyond question of very ancient origin , for in many of the pictures by the old masters — and especially those by Dutch and Flemish painteis — the fowls depicted in their rural scenes are birds which, though not bred to feather as we breed them now, are unquestionably Polish fowls in all essential respects. This testimony, unde- signed as it is, I regard as of great value respecting the antiquity of the breed. “ All the varieties of Polish are remarkably handsome, and at poultry-shows they seem marked favourites with the ladies. They are especially adapted for a gentleman’s residence, as they bear confinement well, provided only their place is clean, and that they are provided with a dry covered- in run ; for they must be kept from the wet. With these stipulations, I think no poultry do so well and look so well in confinement. Of course, if there is not a small grass-run they must be supplied with green food. Their water should be given in fountains of such a shape that the birds cannot get their crests into it ; Polish being apt to get the crest very wet, in which case it becomes draggled over the eyes, they pick the feathers out of the middle of each other’s top-knot, and, of course, get completely spoilt. The use of the covered-in run is to prevent this, and the birds should always be driven into it when it rains. By observing carefully this one and simple precaution, Polish can always be kept so as to look handsome. “ When moulting, great care should be taken that the birds do not peck each other’s crests, which they are very apt to do when in quill. The cock is especially liable to this treatment, appearing rather to like it than otherwise; at least he will stand still for the hens to pick all the quills out. The safest and best plan, if it can be done, is to put him in a separate pen alone until his crest is grown. “SILVER-SPANGLED POLISH. — The Silver-spangled cock is in size somewhat larger than a Silver-spangled Hamburgh, but, as already observed, very similar in shape. The neck should be very curved and well thrown back, somewhat like a fan-tailed pigeon’s ; the tail also being carried very erect, but by no means squirrel-fashion or over the back. The crest, which is the chief fancy point in all Polish fowls, is composed of long thin feathers (the longer the better), and should be as full as possible. Its shape is a very great point, it should rise well up in the front, and fail down towards the sides and back, with no division in the middle, but all regular. The crests of many birds fall over the front of the face, which is a great drawback, as these birds when drinking get their crests in the water, and look most wretched. The larger the crest is the better, provided it is of a good shape, but shape is most important. The colour of the cock’s crest should be black * After the above was in type we received the following interesting particulars from Mr. John Baily concerning the early Polish fowls, about which no one can speak with such authority. “ I was, I believe,1' he says, “the firs': importer of fowls on a large scale from Holland ; all our early importations were from that country. The Polands were for some years confined to the Black and Blue with white top-knots. After a time we also received some Golden and Silver-spangled ; all the early importations were destitute of beard, and had small combs in front of the top-knots, and ample gills. Then came one or two pens of bearded birds (I speak of nearly thirty years ago), and they were much admired. Poultry-shows were in their infancy, and it was a case of Montague and Capulet, Guelph and Ghibelline, which should have the supremacy. The unbearded made a good fight, but the hirsute increased in numbers and influence. The originals made stout resistance, and tried at least for separate classes, but they lost ground, and gave up the contest. Still the bearded had combs and gills, but the fiat went forth, and these were voted disquali- fications; they have remained so to this day. The first Poland fowls I imported were in 1S35. I believe the first bearded birds were imported some years later by Mr. Baker. The first great breeder of them in this country was Mr. Graham Vivian, M.P., 0 Swansea, and one of the best pens ever shown belonged to Mrs. BruneL” M? HENRY B ELD ONS PAIR OF GOLDEN SPANGLED POLISH. CUP AT CRYSTAL PALACE, AND FIRST PRIZES AT BIRMINGHAM 1871 . ' ' Marking of Spangled Polish. 399 at the bottom of the feathers, white in the middle, and tipped with black at the end ; but as they get older the crest becomes whiter, till it is nearly all white. “ The beard should be full and ample, and very dark ; the neck-hackle also very full, and every feather from the head downwards tipped with black ; but the hackle also generally gets lighter after the first moult. The breast should be well and evenly spangled with half-mooned or crescentic spangles, the back, wing-bow, and saddle-hackles well spotted with black ; the wing- coverts heavily laced, so as to form two laced bars across the wing, and the secondary quill-feathers also well laced. The tail-feathers may be either white or grey, with a good moon at the ends of the sickle and side-feathers ; these side-feathers being also well laced with black. I say the tail grey (besides the black marking upon it), finding from all my experience that these darker-tailed birds always breed better marked chickens, the white-tailed often producing birds too light in the lacing; I believe that on this account our best judges also like the dark-tailed birds the best. The legs should be slaty-blue. The beak is horn-colour. The colour of the ear-lobes is of no consequence, as they cannot be seen, but they are generally white. “The crest of the hen should be full and globular ; the larger, of course, the better, provided it is of good shape. It should be round as a ball, with no split or parting whatever in the middle. The colour of the crest when the pullet has got her first year’s feathers is usually black at the base and up the middle of the feathers, edged with white, the width of the edging varying ; but after the first year this rule is precisely reversed, the bottom and centre of the feathers becoming white, with a black edge or lacing — that is, such feathers as are black — but after the first year many feathers become wholly white, and the crest, as a rule, becomes lighter as the bird gets older. The beard should be full and ample, well mottled with black and white ; the neck-hackle white, well striped, or rather laced, with black ; back, wings, and other parts, every feather a sort of half-moon spangle at end, well laced up the sides (i.e., a lacing all round, but much thicker at tip of feather), and bars heavily and regularly laced, as in the cock. The tail is white, well marked at the end, and laced up the sides. The breast runs more towards a heavy crescentic spangling. “ The laced marking thus described is now the recognised style of marking. We used to have a really spangled breed, or rather it would be more correct to call it semi-spangled ; but these birds now find no favour, the laced marking being considered the only correct thing. It certainly is far superior in beauty. “GOLDEN-SPANGLED POLISH. — In this variety the marking is the same in every respect as that just described, except in the ground-colour. In the cock this should be of a bright red on the crest, hackle, back, saddle, and wings ; while the breast, under parts, and tail are a reddish brown ; but the black markings are exactly the same as in the Silvers. The ground- colour of the hen is a golden brown ; I would describe it as midway between the colour of a Golden-spangled and Golden-pencilled Hamburgh — not quite so red as the one nor so yellow as the other. The marking is, however, the chief thing ; and if this be heavy and deep any rich golden ground-colour will do. This black marking, like the cock’s, precisely resembles that of the Silver- spangled. “ The breeding of the two varieties is also similar. In putting the birds together, those with the largest and best crests should be chosen ; this being the chief point, and any deficiency here being surely transmitted. However good a bird may be in lacing, if short of crest it is no use for exhibition ; crest, therefore, must be secured to produce high-class specimens. Birds should also be chosen without any sign of comb, as this undesirable point is rather apt to appear when not wished. Formerly most Polish fowls showed a small two-horned comb, but by degrees the 400 The Illustrated Book of Poultry. obnoxious part has been pretty nearly banished, and care should be taken to keep it so. I also like them with good full beards ; and find as a very general rule that if birds with good full crests and beards are bred from, the progeny are the same. Regarding fea-ther, the more darkly-marked birds should be chosen for the stock-pen, as there is always a tendency to breed a little lighter, and if lightly-marked ones are bred from, the progeny is generally too light to be of any good. The style of marking should be that described above, and should be very heavy and deep in character, but sharp and cleanly cut. It is not at all necessary to breed from two sets, as good birds of both sexes can be bred from one pen ; in fact, I would say again, that I look upon the plan of breeding from two sets — one for cockerels and another for pellets — to be altogether wrong in any breed. Care must, of course, be taken to choose birds free from any deformities, such as crooked beaks, or round or crooked backs, &c. Polands are particularly liable to these blemishes, and readily perpetuate them, probably from weakness of constitution or in-breeding. Fine, healthy, moderately perfect birds on both sides will almost always breed well. I prefer to breed a young cock with hens in this as all other varieties. “ April is a good month to hatch Polands, as they have then all the fine weather before them. At that time, if on dry soil, they are as easy to rear as most chickens, with proper care. They are no use hatched late, as they never then grow their proper exhibition feathers. I may observe that the difference in the feathering of a healthy strong chicken and a weak one is something wonderful. It is, therefore, necessary to keep the chickens in vigorous health throughout to obtain the full development of the crest, for a badly-kept chicken of the very best blood will never grow a good crest. In fact, they will often keep on their chicken-crest for a great length of time after their other plumage has been changed, so that it is most essential to keep them well up to the mark from hatching, and above all things to keep them dry, as above stated. “ The chicks look very pretty when hatched, and so far as the size of the crest goes, their quality can at once be pretty accurately known, for the size of the little projecting fluffy poll differs very much, as the crests will do in the full-grown birds ; that is, if the crest is properly grown and not stunted, as mentioned above. The beard also is well developed, or otherwise. In the Golden, the colour when hatched is a smudgy black-and-brown mixture ; in the Silvers a smudgy grey ; and the darkest chicks generally make the best-laced fowls. In the first feather the marking is very indistinct and patchy, and it is only in the second feathering that the quality of the plumage can be ascertained ; the marking then becomes distinct, and the crest also shows a lacing ot black and white or black and brown, as the case may be. “ All Polish are pretty good layers, and as a rule do not sit.” Figs. 89, 90, representing feathers of Silver-spangled Polish, and which are carefully drawn from specimens supplied from Mr. Beldon, will serve all necessary purposes for both varieties. The accuracy of marking in really fine specimens is extraordinary, and far superior in effect to the old- fashioned spangling. That a really spangled breed — that is, a breed spangled rather than laced — did at one time exist, is certain, but diligent search for many years has not rewarded us by bringing to light a single specimen. Even the old descriptions quoted in various works state that these spangled birds were laced on the wings ; and hence it appears highly probable that the superior beauty of this marking led to its being increasingly cultivated by fanciers, until the spots or spangles had entirely disappeared, except at the ends of the sickles. None but laced Polish are ever shown at the present day, and only the moons at the ends of the cock’s sickles now remain to show the original type of the variety. The spangling in these old Polands was never perfectly round like that of the Lancashire Mooneys, but more resembled the crescentic character of the marking in the Yorkshire Pheasant fowls. 401 Feathers of Silver-Spangled Polish Fowls. Fig. 89. — Feathers of Silver-spangled Polish Cock. The Illustrated Book of Poultry. IT. D P O o und, full, and carried very forward. Legs and Feet — Thighs short, shanks rather short, perfectly clean, and slender ; toes medium length and thin. Tail — Very ample, both in size and furnishing, carried nearly but not quite upright, and on no account squirrel-fashion or over the back. Size. — Rather small, averaging about six pounds. General Shape — Rather slight, but compact and neat. Carriage — Very strutting and vain. General Characteristics of Hen. — Crest ■ — In her case very compact and well filled up, giving a kind of “solid” appearance. Tail — Carried rather fanned or spread, so as to show the spangling well. In other respects same as in the cock, with the usual sexual differences. Size — Rather small, averaging four pounds and a half. General Shape — Very neat and pretty. Carriage — Very coquettish, and as if inquisitive. Schedule for Judging Polish. 409 Colour of Silver-spangled Polish. — In both Sexes — Eyes bright red ; beak dark hom-colour ; face red ; legs slaty-blue. Colour of Cock — Crest- feathers black at roots, white in middle, and spotted with black at tips (mingled with white feathers in old birds); hackle white, spotted with black at tips ; back, shoulder-coverts, and wing-bow, white spotted wich black, similar to but broader than hackle and saddle-feathers ; wing-coverts white, laced all round with black, the lacing broader or thicker at the ends of feathers, forming two symmetrically laced bars across the wings ; secondary quills finely laced all round, the lacing broader at tips, with this exception, the outer web is white, the inner web white with more or less grey or greyish-black mingled, but still clearly lighter than the black lacing ; primaries very similar to secondaries ; saddle-feathers white tipped with black, and glossy black at their bases ; breast white, with a heavy crescentic spangle at tips of feathers, often running up the sides so as to form a lacing (the marking must be distinct, and not so heavy as to appear black) ; tail white or grey, spangled with black at tips of feathers ; sickles the same ; tail-coverts or side-feathers, white with more or less grey in centre, heavily laced with very resplendent green black. Colour of Hen — Crest black, finely laced with white the first year, afterwards white laced with black ; hackle white, laced at tips with black ; breast white, spangled with crescentic spangles, running up almost into a lacing ; remainder of plumage white, laced entirely round every feather with black, even in the secondary quills ; the lacing being rather thicker or heavier at tips of the feathers Colour of Golden-spangled Polish. — In all respects similar in both sexes to the preceding as regards marking, only substituting the golden for the silver ground-colour. Colour of White-crested Llack Polish. — In both Sexes— Beak black, or dark horn-colour. Face and wattles red. Deaf ears white. Eyes red. Crest pure white, with a few black feathers in the front (the fewer the better). Rest of plumage a deep rich black. Legs a very dark slate colour, approaching black. Colour of Chamois or Buff Polish. — Ground-colour a rich buff or yellow, spangled with white. The white spangling generally approaches a more truly spangled rather than the laced character of the Gold-spangled breed. The colours of other varieties, such as White-crested Whites, Black-crested Blacks, Blue or Grey Polish (resembling Andalusians in colour), and Cuckoo Polish, are sufficiently described by their names. They are rarely shown, and we cannot therefore construct any tables for them. As a rule, they are bearded ; but not being exhibited often enough to be brought within a rigid type, this point is not in their case imperative, and they should be judged as they are — on their general merits. VALUE OF DEFECTS IN JUDGING. 1. Spangled Polish. Points of Merit. Defects to be Deane tea . A bird ideally perfect in shape, style, colour, crest, Want of size in crest • • 9 muffling, and condition, to count in points . 100 ,, fullness in ditto . • 12 Presence of more than merest rudiments of comb 10 Dark breast ..... • 8 Wings badly laced .... . 10 Tail ,, ,, . . . • 6 Other faults of colour or marking • • 10 Want of size ..... • • 10 „ ,, symmetry .... • • 18 ,, „ condition .... • • 15 2. White-crested Black Polish. Points of Merit. Defects to be Deducted. A bird ideally perfect in shape, style, colour, crest, Want of size in crest .... • • 8 and condition, to count in points , .100 ,, ,, fullness in ditto . . . • • ■4 Too much comb .... • • 10 Red deaf-ear ..... » • 4 Too much black in crest . . . • • 8 Bad white in ditto .... • • 6 Want of gloss or richness of plumage • • 8 Want of size • • 8 0 » ,, symmetry .... • • 15 » „ condition .... • • *5 Disqualifications. - Distinct two-horned comb. Crooked backs, wry-tails, or any other deformity. Presence of foul- coloured fealhers in any part. Amputated combs, plucked crests, or any other fraudulent treatment Legs of any colour but blue, or black, or bluish-black ; which may, however, be lighter in tint from age. 2 J 4- TO CHAPTER XXVII. FRENCH BREEDS OF POULTRY. The enormous production of eggs and poultry in France, to which allusion has already been made, and the fact that the breeds most esteemed by the French were very distinct from those varieties which were formerly known to poultry-keepers, might naturally lead at first to the conclusion that to the breeds in question was the great production due. This idea seems to have been in fact entertained by the managers of the National Poultry Company mentioned in the earlier portion of this work, who devoted much time, money, and energy to the dissemination in this country of the French breeds of poultry, which, though already known, were previously to the Company’s existence very little kept. To a great extent these exertions succeeded ; but subsequent expe- rience of the French breeds has not shown any such general or conclusive good qualities in them as can account for the immense poultry crops of France, which appear rather, as we have already said in the proper place, to be owing to the immense number of small proprietors , who for many reasons — especially with a fine climate in their favour — are in the most favourable position for poultry-keeping of any individuals in the world. All expectation that “ French fowls ” would give French success has long since vanished; but, nevertheless, some of the French races have been found to possess truly valuable qualities, and one of them in particular — the Houdan — has formed a most useful addition to our poultry-yards. The French breeds have all one point in common — every one of them is most delicious eating. They, moreover, show in a very suggestive manner what may be done by a judicious system of crossing, and subsequent selection, in the way of founding new breeds; since they are evidently built upon the Polish fowl as a foundation, obtaining from this race the juicy flesh, excellent laying properties, and absence of incubating instinct, whilst size has been added from foreign sources. The Crevecoeur, as we remarked in our last chapter, is in fact a Polish fowl to all intents and purposes, but increased in size ; and the same ancestry is shown by the delicate constitution which characterises nearly all of the varieties. This fault, which is of little consequence in a climate like that of France, becomes of serious importance in less favoured localities, and has probably inter- fered with the extensive popularity of any French variety save the Houdan ; though the Creve appears to have manifested of late symptoms of more satisfactory acclimatisation than at one time appeared probable. Without further remark on these points, however, we will proceed to consider the breeds themselves in detail. HOUDANS. — This breed was vaguely described by Messrs. Wingfield and Johnson in 1853, but the first authentic description of it in English was published in 1865 by Mr. Geyelin, in a pamphlet embodying certain views on wholesale poultry-keeping which, as is well known, signally failed. As it is always interesting to compare the earlier impressions of recently-introduced varieties with the conclusions of more recent experience, we quote his description entire. Of Houdans he writes : — Cassells Poultry Book. Mr. ROBT B. WOOD'S PAIR OF HOUDANS YOUNG CHAMPION” AND “LADY THE COCK FIRST PRIZE AT BIRMINGHAM. CRYSTAL PALACE & MANCHESTER 1870. BESIDES NUMEROUS OTHER PRIZES IN COMPANY. ' - - ■ . Qualities of Houdans. 4ir “ Whatever has been said to the contrary, this breed, when pure, is most characteristic ; but it must be admitted that most of the farmers near Houdan know as little of the pure Houdan breed as those of La Fleche and Crevecceur know of theirs ; and, if you were to order some first- class birds of them, irrespective of price, they would with good conscience forward fowls of a large size — but, from a want of knowledge, some cross breeds. To illustrate this, I may mention that I could have purchased, at the markets in those respective localities, splendid thorough-bred specimens for about three shillings, the price of common fowls, but which were worth, even in France, one pound each. There are, however, in each locality some persons who take an interest in their pure breeds, particularly since they have been encouraged by the reward of prizes from poultry exhibitions. “ The Houdan fowl has a very bulky appearance, its plumage invariably black and white spangled, a crest of the same colour ; comb triple, the outsides opening like two leaves of a book, and the centre having the appearance of an ill-shaped long strawberry. With the cock the comb is very large, whilst with the hen it ought to be scarcely perceptible. The legs are strong and of a lead colour, with five claws, the two hind ones one above the other. Strongly-developed whiskers and beards both in cocks and hens. This is one of the finest races of fowls, but its qualities surpass even its beauty. Besides the smallness of their bones and the fineness of their flesh, they are of an extraordinary precocity and fecundity ; they lay large and white eggs, and the chickens are fit for the table at four months old. It is, however, observed that they are very indifferent for hatching. The weight of adults is from seven to eight pounds, in which the bones figure for one-eighth. The chicken when four months old weighs, without the intestines, about four pounds and a half.” Further experience of Houdans has proved them to be extraordinarily hardy, and when the stock has been selected and bred with judgment, excellent layers ; while they fully keep up the character for precocity and fine quality on the table which Mr. Geyelin gives them. We never reared any ourselves but once some years ago, when we hatched a sitting of eggs sent by rail. We found these chicks hardier even than our Brahmas, and they appeared to feather as if by magic ; but, being from a small and recently-imported strain, did not make much weight by the time they were killed. English breeders have, however, somewhat increased the size of the fowl, without so far apparently injuring its other valuable qualities, and also made some approach to more uniformity of colour. We are, however, glad to see that there has been no attempt as yet to “breed to feather;” all that has been done being the attainment of a tolerably uniform dark mottled or splashed plumage of black and white; and until exaggerated stress came to be laid upon crest and comb, no harm appeared to be done. Of the modern or English Houdan, as thus improved simply by careful breeding, Mr. R. B. Wood, of Uttoxeter, used to be one of the most successful cultivators ; and to his kindness we are indebted for the following notes on the variety : — “ I have now kept Houdans for nearly seven years, and can safely say that I have not found them fall off in any way, but quite the contrary. I find them good layers of fine eggs, and as table fowls not, in my opinion, to be surpassed. They are veiy hardy as chickens, feathering and maturing in a much shorter time than either Brahmas or Cochins. I consider them a very valuable breed for any one to keep when non-sitters are required, as it is very rare for them to show the least tendency to incubate. It is also worth remark that though good foragers when at liberty, they are easily kept in bounds, being very different to Hamburghs or Game in this respect ; and they will bear confinement as well as most breeds. “ My idea of a good Houdan cock is as follows : — He should be as large as possible, and carry himself well. The comb should be good and characteristic ; not of the Crevecoeur type, but flat 412 The Illustrated Book of Poultry. at the sides, with something like a bunch of coral in the centre : it is, however, very difficult, if not impossible at present, to breed to any exact standard in this particular point. The wattles should be long , the crest large, composed of feathers similar to those of the hackle, and inclining rather backwards so as not to hide the comb ; the muffling full, so as to hide the face. The colour should be a rich black and white, as evenly marked as possible, especially on the breast ; but most birds have more or less straw-coloured feathers in crest, hackle, and saddle, and I do not consider them an> great drawback, although I would prefer pure black and white if the bird were equal in other points. 1 he tail should be dark in colour, well sickled, and carried erect. The legs are light in colour, or black and white [we should describe the colour ourselves as pinky white, mottled with black], with fifth toe well developed. “ The hen should be large, with a small coral-like comb ; crest and muffling large, and as full as possible ; colour pure black and white, as evenly broken as can be, the markings being rather small. The legs are similar to those of the cock. Red feathers are inadmissible in both sexes. “ The cock whose portrait appears weighed, when in fair condition, nine pounds and a half and the hen six pounds and a half. The heaviest hen I ever possessed weighed as much as eight pounds and a half ; but I have some doubt if she was pure-bred, though I purchased her of a well- known breeder. “ To breed Houdans, if the hens are light in colour, a dark cock or cockerel should be selected ; but I prefer to mate dark hens with a cock or cockerel rather lighter, and from birds so mated I have bred beautiful birds of both sexes. I am inclined to think crest comes from the hen, and would therefore be more particular in choosing large-crested hens than cocks. “ The little cockerels may soon be distinguished from the pullets by their combs, which are much more prominent, the pullets often showing scarcely any until they assume their adult plumage ; the crests of the cockerels are also composed of differently-shaped feathers, being similar in kind to the hackles. In the pullets the crest should be fuller and more round in shape. If the chicks are bred from birds of a known good dark strain, I would caution breeders not to condemn them for being too light in colour, as if they are well bred they will in all probability get dark enough afterwards — at least I have found it so with my birds. Pullets and cockerels must be very dark to make good-coloured birds in after years, so that fine young birds, though too dark, if good in other points may be kept to show later in life, as well as to breed. “ They make excellent birds for the table at an early age, and for market are preferable to the Crevecceurs, on account of the lighter colour of the legs. When early hatched the pullets make capital winter layers.” When first imported the fifth toe of the Houdan was very uncertain, and many birds brought from France were also deficient in muffs or beards. The requirements of English shows have led to fixture of both points, but in the case of the fifth toe, at least, we are far from sure the decision was a wise one. We ventured at the time to predict that sooner or later we should acquire with the positive fixture of this point the inevitable “bumble-foot” which so troubles Dorking breeders, and we were interested to observe isolated cases almost immediately afterwards. That was several years ago ; and since then we have seen many. The breed is yet far from being as subject to the complaint as the Dorking, which is partly owing to its being naturally a lighter-made and more active fowl, and partly to the fact that the toe has not been “bred in” so long and so thoroughly, being evidently derived from the Dorking cross employed to fashion the breed ; but it is decidedly on the increase, and we cannot but again express our regret at unnatural peculiarities being thus perpetuated in what profess to be table fowls. It is worth remarking that Houdan cocks are in general the most vigorous of any, and should Cassells Poultry Book A,'irLcenlBroo'ks.Day k Saa.Lith MR R. B. WOODS PAIR OF CREVE-CCEURS, 1ST PRIZES AT WOLVERHAMPTON BIRMINGHAM (SUMMER SHOW) SPALDING & CH ESTER FI ELD, 1872. ' Cr&vecceurs. 413 have a proportionate number of mates. Hardly an egg will prove unprolific, and the chickens generally hatch some hours before their time. Scarcely any, perhaps, give so little trouble rearing. The breed bears confinement well, unless the fowls contract the vice of feather-eating, which all the French breeds are rather apt to do when penned up. We are much inclined to think this to be owing in part to the crest , which we have already seen in the case of Polish offers strong tempta- tions at certain seasons, or even when wet. As a farmer’s fowl the Houdan can hardly be surpassed, provided Brahmas or some other breed can be kept separate for hatching ; as the fecundity will rapidly fill the egg-basket, while the juicy flesh is not only all that can be wished, but the pinky and five-toed legs make the fowl very saleable. To keep up these valuable qualities, however, it is necessary to pay attention, as we have already so many times remarked, to selecting eggs for sitting from fine vigorous birds which are good layers, as well as to the points desired by exhibitors. For want of such precautions, and from continuous breeding during many successive generations for crest alone, the majority of exhibition strains of Houdans in England have of late greatly deteriorated in laying powers, according to a rigorous law we have already explained. As the Houdan can never be a first-class fowl merely from the fancier’s point of view, to lose these practical advantages is really to lose ail that makes the fowl worth having. We have already hinted at various Houdan crosses. Those with Brahmas or Cochins make capital fowls both as layers and for the table, maturing remarkably early. Some breeders have crossed Houdans with Dorkings to gain size, and we feel pretty certain that a Crystal Palace prize bird we once saw was so bred. The size, however, is usually gained at the expense of prolificacy, and the birds thus produced have a heavy and coarse appearance, which is entirely foreign to the Houdan when pure. A CREVECCEURS. — This breed has been tne longest known in England of all the French varieties, having been described by Messrs. Wingfield and Johnson many years ago. In confor- mation it is not so very different to the Houdan, but the comb consists of two horns rather than leaves, the crest and beard are fuller, and the whole make heavier ; in fact, the general appearance somewhat resembles a combination of the Polish with the full development of the Cochin. The head of the Crevecceur as bred in France is shown in Fig. 91 ; English breeders have bred the crest some- what fuller and more compact, but the general aspect of the head and the comb remains the same. Our first notes on Crevecoeurs are by Mr. W. Blinkhorn, who was, some years ago, the most successful breeder of this variety. “ Crevecoeurs have been described as black or black and white variegated. This variegation, sometimes white and sometimes golden, is most noticeable in the crest, and after that tn the hackles and saddles, but I have never seen it in other parts of the birds. I scarcely remember a bird that did not show it more or less the second year, and as they grow older it increases. I have seen good combs of both varieties-two-horned and antlered— and think both are common to the breed ; but the former are more general and I think preferable. “They are decidedly late in beginning to lay ; their eggs are large, but I have not found them by any means frequent layers. As to their sitting properties I should pronounce them to be decidedly non-sitters. I have had a large number through my hands, but had only one that showed the slightest inclination to sit. “ My experience with Crevecoeurs has been somewhat unsatisfactory. My poultry-ground is situated in the moist climate of south-west Lancashire, and it is on clay. It may therefore be particularly ill-suited for this breed of fowls, though Game fowl, Hamburghs, and Brahmas do well 4H The Illustrated Book of Poultry. on it. But it has throughout been my ill-fortune, out of many imported pens of a cock and two huis each, to lose one, generally a hen, within a week or two of their arrival, and the others have had a severe illness from the same sickness, apparently severe cold and roup. Once over this attack, impoited birds have proved perfectly hardy in every way. I have generally found them to be larger-fiamed birds than I could produce here, but not showing nearly so much breeding in form, feather, crest, or comb as the birds produced from my original stock that had been carefully matched for years, with an occasional admixture of imported stock. I found, too, that imported biids were very much more liable to variegation of white and golden feathers than English-bred birds, and, as a rule, after their second season they were useless for exhibition purposes. “The chickens reared here I have never found so precocious as has been stated. In this Fig. 91. — Head cf Crevecceur Cock. district they are especially difficult to rear, and suffer to an unusual extent from cold and roup, to which they fall easy victims. As compared with any of the hardy breeds, say Brahmas or Cochins, I should not expect to rear one Crevecceur for three of the others. In all varieties of fowls a really fine specimen is a rarity, but a fairly good average quality is generally attainable ; but in Creve- coeurs, from the most carefully selected parents, I have found a very large proportion of most inferior birds, bad in feather, form, crest, or comb, and that birds at all approaching a quality fit for exhibition have been especially difficult to obtain.” These notes were written in 1871, and at that period all the accounts we were able to obtain from other breeders were pretty much to the same effect. But we were much interested to observe even then that there were evident signs of “ better days ” to come for the poor Creves, and that, although known and bred for many years without apparent improvement in constitution, there appeared some probability of their becoming, to a fair extent, “acclimatised” after all. We ventured to express a belief to this effect on various occasions, and were the more confirmed in it by hearing, on unimpeachable authority, that certain strains imported into the United States from France were found very fairly hardy, which would go far to prove that much depended on the Breeding Cre recce urs. 4i5 original stock. However this may be, the fowl has become since decidedly more hardy and easier to rear ; and the fact is worthy of special record, as holding out hopes of successful acclimatisation in similar or future cases, even after many years of apparent failure. The following notes by Mr. R. B. Wood, of Uttoxeter, will fully corroboiate the facts we have stated : — “ My experience of Crevecceurs,” he says, “ does not altogether agree with Mr. Blinkhorn s as to the cock’s throwing led or golden feathers with age. I have never been troubled in this way, but I do find a great tendency in both cocks and hens to throw out more or less white feathers in the crests after the first moult, and, though objectionable, I would not discard an otherwise good bird on this account. I fancy by care the fault may be bred out. “ In the cock I should look for good size, lustrous greenish-black colour, sprightly carriage, and good two-horned comb (if free from tynes so much the better), and also a good crest and muffling, although I am of opinion it is the hen we must chiefly look to for producing chickens good in these respects. Therefore, one of the first points I should look for in the hen would be a large globular crest, with a comb rather small for pullet- breeding, but the larger-combed birds are the best to breed cockerels from. I would also like the hen of a good greenish-black colour, not brownish, which looks bad. “ Crevecoeurs have, without doubt, wonderfully improved in hardiness during the last few years so much so, that I now find them very nearly as hardy as Houdans. I may also say, as a breeder of both, that I find them easier to breed good than that variety, that is, if really good specimens be selected for the breeding-pens. As layers I consider them good. I have found them produce more eggs, and those exceedingly fine ones too, than either my Houdans or Dark Brahmas. For the table they are excellent, and, like the Houdan, are ready for the spit at a very early age. They are of a very sociable disposition, and easily kept within bounds ; although, if given their liberty, they are by no means bad foragers.” Other accounts differ occasionally, but so late as 1889 Mr. S. W. Thomas has written bearing the same testimony to their hardiness, and laying in the midst of snow, when there was not an egg from his Houdans. It is beyond doubt that at a certain point there was a marked and apparently unaccountable change in the constitution of the breed, or else hardier stock was imported. We do not think this improvement is generally known ; for otherwise we can hardly account for a breed so large and handsome and useful being so seldom kept. It is probable that the old tradition of delicacy remains, and repels admirers. The Creve is the bulkiest in appearance of all the French races ; indeed, we have often thought that it must have had a cross with the Cochin, which is to some extent borne out by its enormous appetite. It is the favourite market-fowl of Normandy, and the flesh is both of good colour and most delicate flavour. No fowl could perhaps better show the absurdity of the pre- judice against dark legs in poultry for the table, which still lingers in many quarters. It bears close confinement admirably if not allowed to get too fat ; but, like the Houdan, is somewhat liable to feather-eating under these circumstances. In breeding, it is desirable to choose the green-black colour, with which, of course, are to be sought full-sized and solid-looking crests, and the fine frame and square development which always mark good specimens. It is also better to choose a moderate amount of wattle. Many of the finest birds first imported had golden hackles, but little difficulty should now be found in obtaining perfectly black specimens. The perfectly black crest is by no means secured yet, white appearing almost constantly in the second year. Nothing could plainer show the relationship with the White-crested Black Polish fowl ; but the white is still to be considered a fault, and bred out as 4[6 The Illustrated Book of Poultry. fai and as soon as possible. It is very desirable, for the sake of constitution, to breed only from mature birds. Besides the Black breed, Blue Crevecceurs are occasionally seen, but are of inferior beauty. Of late, however, some very handsome White specimens have been shown. These were originally produced as mere “ sports ” from the Black, but have been bred from with fair success, and there seems every probability of our speedily possessing a well-established and very beautiful White breed. Crevecceurs make capital crosses for the table with either Langshans, Brahmas, Cochins, Indian Game, or Dorkings, and, we believe, also with the Malay. The pure-bred fowl is, however, so large, and matures so early, besides being so good a layer, that little beyond a greater degree of hardiness is gained by the experiment. Every characteristic of Crevecceurs is shown to the life in Mr. Ludlow’s excellent portraits. LA FLECHE. — This breed differs considerably from both the preceding. The latter are compact and neat in frame, while the La Fleche is high and rather gaunt-looking, the whole frame and the character of the plumage denoting, evidently, a preponderating portion of Spanish blood. That a Polish cross was also employed is, however, conclusively proved by the facts that nearly all the specimens first imported had a small crest, while the signs of the cross are still apparent in the small two-horned comb. English exhibition standards have required the total eradication of crest, and the La Fleche is now a very tall Spauish-looking fowl, with red face, brilliant white ear-lobe, and glossy green-back plumage. The fowl as now bred is scarcely so upright as the earlier specimens, but the bird is still taller than the Spanish, and often attains very great weight. The flesh of this fowl is, in our opinion, more delicate and juicy than that of any other variety except the Game ; yet, strange to say, though valued above all others in France for this quality, it would be despised by English dealers in dead poultry on account of the black legs , showing that others besides “ fanciers ” do harm by insisting too much upon “ mere arbitrary standards.” It is a moderate layer of very large white eggs, but by no means so good as the Spanish in this respect, and it is as a table-fowd its claims stand highest. It does not mature early — not nearly so early as the Houdan or the Creve, and hence the fat chickens come on for the French markets when the others are nearly over, and fetch very high prices, being worth even in July, according to Mr. Geyelin, as much as five shillings each. With all these merits, the breed appears likely never to be either popular or profitable in England, being so exceedingly delicate as to counterbalance all valuable qualities. The Hon. C. W. Fitzwilliam, who has persevered longer with them than any one else, describes them as “ laying well and early, the eggs being large, solid, and of good flavour,” but adds that “ the cockerels are very liable to weakness in the hocks,’-’ and that “ dull and damp springs expose them to rheumatic affections.-” They are, in fact .peculiarly liable to suffer from any but the very best weather ; and in addition to this defined source of danger, which can to some extent be guarded against, or the ailments treated when they arise, the cocks especially, and sometimes the hens also, are continually appearing as if suddenly attacked with fatal illness. It is difficult to say “what is the matter with them,” only they look as if they were just going to die ! The curious thing is that, after coddling up for a day or two by the fire, they will not unfrequently recover as suddenly as they became ill, and equally mysteriously ; but, unfortunately, sometimes they don t, and this fact makes such seizures productive of feelings more interesting than pleasant to the proprietor. It is rather remarkable that Creves too are a little liable to these sudden and strange attacks, but not nearly so much as the fowl in question, which may not uncommonly be found apparently well at mid- day, almost certainly (to all appearance) dying the Cassells Poultry Book flc/ainE sill ilJI m m # a® VinceirJL THE HON. WCW FITZWILLIAMS PAIR OF LA FLECH E, I ST PRIZE AT WOLVERHAMPTON, 2nd BIRMINGHAM & BRISTOL 1871 La Fleciie. Bee das. 4i 7 same night, and perhaps well again next morning — perhaps dead. The ease of the Creves just mentioned should keep us from rashly concluding that this singularly unsatisfactory constitution is incapable of improvement. It is possible that in this instance also time and care may acclimatise the fowl, and within the last year or two we think more La Fleche have been shown than for some years before ; but we must confess the last accounts we have been able to obtain are not encouraging, and we cannot recommend this breed as a profitable one, or to be kept under any circumstances, except under the favourable conditions of a warm aspect, and dry, gravelly, or chalky soil. In breeding La Fleche, pure white ear-lobes, absence of crest, neat and small combs, and hard glossy plumage should be chosen, as regards the more “ fancy ” points ; but it will be particularly needful also to select birds which present fine sturdy frames, and as strong a constitution as possible, choosing a cock, if it can be done, which was free from leg-weakness as a chicken, and Fig. 92. — Head of Breda Cock. especially only breeding from fully-matured birds. All means should be used to strengthen the constitution of the chicks by good nourishing food, especially supplying plenty of phosphates, for which nothing can equal the ground bones or bone-dust we have already recommended. We have also good reason to believe that the regular use in the water of the syrup of phosphates described by us at page 188, or of syrup of hypophosphite of soda, might have in this case very remarkable results, all the faults in constitution to which the breed is liable presenting marked symptoms of a deficiency of phosphatic elements in the blood. The La Fleche is so seldom shown that we have had some difficulty in framing a standard from actual results. To a considerable extent, therefore, the table of points must be regarded as our personal views ; but we have done our best, from the few pens shown, and a careful comparison of the scales in breeds somewhat analogous (which afford valuable aid in cases of this kind), to frame one such as shall afford the materials for a sound judgment. BREDAS, OR GUELDRES. — This cannot be called a fancy breed in any sense of the word, but is a good useful fowl nevertheless ; and the only reason it has not been popular in England is probably that it is inferior in size to the Houdan, which in general qualities it much resembles. It is a fairly good layer, though not quite so good as the Houdan perhaps, and very 418 The Illustrated Book of Poultry. hardy, rarely sits; has a round and prominent breast, and is consequently a good table fowl. As an exhibition variety it is inferior, and only occasionally takes prizes in the “Any Variety” class. The breed is really one, but of various colours ; the name Gueldres being applied to that of a cuckoo o.r Dominique marking, while another variety, all black, is termed Breda. White fowls are also, but rarely, seen, which are probably sports from the black, and are also called Bredas. The general shape is Polish, but the crest, though just perceptible, is only so, being nearly absent ; whai. there is of it is the same colour as the body-feathers. The greatest peculiarity is however in the comb, which is absent altogether, only a depression in the red skin being visible, just over the cavernous nostrils, which thus become peculiarly conspicuous, and show, in spite of the deficient crest, the close relationship to the Polish family. Fig. 92, copied from M. Jacques’ drawing in Le Ponlailler , shows these points and the entire head of the Breda cock with great fidelity, and will spare the necessity for further description. The shanks are (rather scantily) feathered, the birds being, in addition, vulture-hocked. In America this breed is more extensively kept and widely known than in England, and, we have some reason to think, may have entered into the composition of some of Brother Jonathan’s new creations. We can thoroughly recommend it as a good and useful fowl, but have not seen a good specimen now for some years ; in fact, not since the dissolution of the National Poultry Com- pany, with whose last manager the Cuckoo or Gueldres variety was rather a favourite. We cannot in this case even attempt a Scale of Points, since there is not a sufficiently definite opinion as to the characteristics to which the fowl should be bred. We need only add, in addition to the remarks already made, and the cut of the head which we have given, that the legs, as in the other varieties, should be dark or slaty blue. LA BRESSE. — These fowls also were imported largely by the National Poultry Company, and are very highly spoken of by M. Lavergne in the paper from which we have already quoted at page 93. They appear, however, to have no distinguishing characteristics whatever, but to be simply a fine, large, and delicate-fleshed race of barn-door or mongrel fowls formed by judicious breeding. Large and fine they certainly are* but they vary in colour, combs, and many other points. At our last visit to the Company’s establishment at Bromley, not very long before its final winding-up, Mr. Schroder pointed out to us with pride a fine pen of La Bresse fowls, of which we took special note on account of all we had heard. We have never but once since seen as good. The cock weighed just on ten pounds as he ran in the pen, but we do not remember the weight of the hen. The cock exactly resembled a single-combed, red-breasted Dorking, with four toes, and * We are aware Mr. Tegetmeier affirms the La Bresse to be “ much smaller ” fowls than the preceding; and in a very hostile review of the first edition of “The Practical Poultry Keeper,” in the Field (of the poultry department of which Mr. Teget- meier publicly announces that he is editor), it was argued, as proof of our gross “ignorance of French fowls,” that we had termed these birds large, whereas they were really “the smallest” of the French breeds. It may therefore be well to point out, in addition to the proof afforded by the birds mentioned above, that in both editions of Mr. Tegetmeier’s own “ Poultry Book ” there is printed a table of the average weights of chickens of the various breeds, shown at the exhibition of dead poultry at Paris in 1S64, to which we have before alluded. These weights, then, are given by Mr. Tegetmeier himself as follows : — Unprepared • •• • •• La Bresse lb. oz. ... 6 12 Houdan. lb. oz. 5 4 Crevecoeur. lb. oz ... 4 11 Prepared for the cook ... • •• • • ... 5 5s ••• 4 3 ... 3 *4 Cooked ... • • V • •• ... 3 3* ••• 2 i5j 2 123 Hence it appears that, on an average of five specimens each, the La Bresse were much the heaviest ; and a reference to his own figures, which we had not seen when the “Practical Poultry Keeper” was written, might have otherwise directed the charge so recklessly brought against that work. From various specimens seen since, we adhere deliberately to our description of these lowls. Le Mans and Courtes Pattes. 419 the hen was a grey-speckled bird, showing very plainly that some old importation of the Dorking fowl (which is well known in France) had had much to do with it, though, as already remarked, it appears nothing more than a fine and well-fed barn-yard race, improved by any promising cross as occasion offered. We have seen also black-breasted and speckled-breasted cocks ; but though all the birds were much of the Dorking type — and the finest we remember (the cock weighing ten pounds and a half) was in almost all points a Dorking — we never saw one with the fifth toe. No scale even of descriptive points can be given for the La Bresse fowls, further than to say that the larger they are and the nearer they come to the Dorking type, except the fifth toe, the better. Some of the black ones shown at the Paris Show of 1878 strongly resembled Minorcas in general appearance, except being a little more massive in frame. Besides the breeds named above, many crosses or sub-races aie known throughout various districts in France. Some of them have attained to some uniformity of type, but all. with one exception, are evidently derived from one or the other of the preceding breeds, and as evidently partake of the strong Polish ancestry. We must confine ourselves to a brief notice of two of these races. The Le Mans fowl is described by M. Perre de Roo in L' A cclimatat ion as a mere sub-variety of the Creve, without crest and with a cup comb. This description is quite corroborated by the English reporter of the Live Stock Journal, who, in describing the Paris Show alluded to above, states that he can best describe them as “ rose-combed Black Dorkings.” The type is not yet fixed, beyond being heavy and rather short-legged black fowls with little or no crest ; but they have of late perceptibly increased in France, and very possibly the crest may ere long be entirely bred out and the combs become uniform. Another variety, called “ Courtes Pattes ” (short-legs), has recently been described. The first mention we can find of them is by the reporter of the same Paris Show first alluded to, who states that they are “ black as coals,” and that a Scotch visitor told him they closely resembled Scotch Dumpies. Some months later some of these fowls were imported by Mr. T. Christy, of Fenchurch Street, from a pair of which the illustration was drawn. The account sent with these birds was, that the breeders of the long-legged and non-sitting La Fleche had found the need of an incubating, short-legged variety to hatch the eggs, and had therefore produced the Courtes Pattes. They are stated to be very hardy, excellent in flesh, good layers, small eaters, and to be either indisposed or incapable of scratching in a garden. This last point would be valuable ; but other accounts we have received do not bear it out. Neither do we think, from all that has reached us, that the breed can be depended on as yet for breeding very true. We should say by the appearance there was Dorking blood in them, and we hear that there is much variety in colour and combs. The same might, however, have been said some years ago of other French varieties which have since become established. And if the breed shall become fixed, it is probable that a hardy and well- fleshed black fowl, with the short legs of the Dumpy, might find many uses and much popular favour. The whole opens up two general questions of some importance. The first is, the great merits of the Polish race in respect of egg-production and quality of flesh, and the perfect possibility of grafting these upon increased size and hardiness, or, as in the case of the Crevecoeur, of adding to the size while preserving the Polish blood nearly, if not quite, pure ; the second is, the power of man, by judicious crosses, to create and fix new types of very different appearance and qualities from the same primeval ancestry. Little has been done in the way of crosses as yet by English fanciers ; and the results already obtained by both French and American experimentalists in this 420 The Illustrated Book of Poultry. cnterprise are sufficient to cause some feeling of regret that the most scientific and skilful ef all bieecleis have not yet set their hands to similar work, at least as regards the larger varieties. clLat’on °f Game Bantams, and the marvellous truth of form and feather obtained in these beautiful bieeds, would warrant the expectation of “something good ” if scientific breeding of this desciiption weie systematically attempted with regard to the more useful races of fowls. JUDGING FRENCH FOWLS. — In deciding the relative merits of these birds, it is never to be foi gotten that they are chiefly to be regarded as useful races; hence good size, symmetry, and evident vigour of constitution, should always be allowed great weight in judging, and be ahvays allowed to carry the day in doubtful cases. There are, perhaps, few classes in which the special gifts of “ a quick eye ” and “ common sense ” are so much required. In Houdans especially, considerable latitude as to shade must be allowed ; and it is our emphatic opinion that far less stress should be laid upon crest both in Houdans and Crevcs. For the rest we must refer to our Schedules. SCHEDULES FOR JUDGING FRENCH FOWLS. General Characteristics of Houdan Cock. — Head and Heck — General appearance of head brisk and lively ; beak medium-sized ; comb large and branched, somewhat like two leaves of a book opened, with a bunch of coral in the middle : wattles rather long, but neatly rounded ; deaf-ears rather small, and nearly hidden by the muffling ; crest large and full, pointing rather backward, away from the comb ; beard or muffling full and thick, both under throat and at sides ; neck medium length, carried very upright, well arched, and full of hackle. Body — General appearance full and square, the back very wide and slightly drooping; saddle also w'ide ; wings wrell developed, but carried closely and tightly ; breast very broad, prominent, and full. Legs and Feel — Thighs and shanks short, the latter perfectly free from feathers, and moderately stout ; toes w'ell developed and straight, with a double or fifth toe behind, to be distinctly formed, and turned rather upwards, as in Dorkings. Tail — Ample, with broad COURTES PATTES. Judging French Fowls. 421 sweeping sickles, and carried rather upright. Size — Large, ranging in adults from eight to nine pounds. General Shape Square and deep. Carriage — Upright and lively, somewhat between that of a Dorking and a Poland. General Characteristics of Houdan Hen. — Resembling those of the cock, except that the comb and wattles are small, and the crest round and compact, owing to the difference of sex. Average weight six to seven pounds. Colour of Houdans. — In both Sexes— Beak horn-colour ; comb and wattles brilliant red ; eyes bright red (this is not imperative). Legs white, or pinky-white, mottled or spotted with lead-colour or black. Plumage black and white, as evenly mingled as possible all over the birds ; straw-coloured feathers objectionable, but not a disqualification. In the cock the colour goes in larger masses, and his tail is generally chiefly black, which looks best. General Characteristics of Crevecceur Cock. — Head and Neck — General appearance of head must be like that of the Polish, but more grand and stately ; beak medium size ; comb two-horned, and as free from tynes or small branchlets as possible, but of good size ; wattles moderate and well-rounded ; deaf-ears to be small and hidden by the muffling ; muffling very full and thick, hiding both throat and cheeks ; neck medium length, carried very upright, and full of sweeping hackles. Body General appearance neat, but very massive, with much fulness of “ build ” and development, somewhat as in the Cochins ; back being very wide and rather flat across, slightly drooping ; wings closely tucked in ; breast very deep, prominent, and full. Legs and Feet — Thighs short, shanks as short as possible, perfectly free from feathers, toes large and straight. Tad — Very large, with broad sweeping sickles, carried high. Size — Large, ranging in adults from seven to eight and a half pounds. General Shape — Wide and deep. Carriage — Lively, but noble and grand. General Characteristics of Hen. — Similar to the cock, with the usual sexual differences. Her general appearance and carriage almost exactly like that of a Polish fowl, but somewhat more dignified. Colour of Crevecceurs. — In both Sexes— Beak black, or very dark horn-colour ; comb and wattles brilliant red ; eyes red (not imperative, but red denotes the best constitution) ; legs dark slate or black ; plumage a deep brilliant black all over, including crest, with as much gloss as possible. In White Creves the plumage is, of course, as denoted by the name. General Characteristics of La Fleche Cock. — Head and Neck — General appearance of head long, slightly coarse and cruel, but not very much so ; beak large and strong, with cavernous Polish nostrils ; comb a double spike, standing nearly upright, with very small spikes in front ; head to be quite free from crest ; wattles long and pendulous ; deaf-ears large ; neck long, and carried very upright, but not backward, with as much hackle as possible. Body — General appearance large, powerful, and rather hard, from the close plumage ; back wide, rather long, and slanting to the tail ; wings very powerful, and tightly carried ; breast full and very prominent ; plumage all over very close and hard. Legs and Feet — Thighs and shanks long and powerful, the latter being perfectly clean ; toes large and straight. Tail — Moderate in size, and carried at a medium height, neither upright nor yet low ; the sickles to be sound and glossy. Size — Very large in frame, but not looking so heavy as the bird really is ; adults averaging about eight to nine pounds. General Shape— “ Rangy” and long ; and with the carriage , which is bold and upstanding, presenting an appearance somewhat between Spanish and Malay. General Characteristics of La Fleche Hen. — Strictly analagous to the cock ; the comb, wattles, and deaf-ears being of course smaller. Size — Averaging say about seven pounds. General Appearance — Rather more compact than the cock’s, more resembling that of a Spanish hen. Carriage— The same remark applies. Colour of La Fleche. — Beak black or very dark horn-colour; comb and wattles deep bright red; deaf-ears a brilliant white ; face red ; eyes bright red or black, but generally red ; legs very dark slate-colour or leaden-black ; plumage glossy black all over, with bright green reflections. General Characteristics of Breda or Gueldres Cock. — Head and Neck — General appearance of head outrl and strange, caused by the (in this variety) excessively cavernous nostrils and depression over them ; beak rather small ; comb absent, except that the skin is red over the nostrils, just above which is a slight hollow or depression, as if cut out rather concave by a penknife held transversely; nostrils cavernous; wattles long and pendulous ; deaf-ears also pendulous ; a small and rudimentary crest on the top of the head ; neck medium length and well furnished, not carried back, as in other Polish Fowls. Body — General appearance neat, as in Polands ; back wide at shoulders and tapering to the tail ; wings medium size ; breast full and broad. Legs and Feet — Thighs rather short and vulture-hocked ; shanks short and feathered (rather slightly) down outside, but rarely to end of the toes ; toes medium-size and well spread. Size — Medium, averaging in adults say seven pounds. General Shape — Resembling Polish fowls. Carriage — Plain and “business-like.” The general characteristics of the hen correspond. Her weight averages about six to six and a half pounds. Colour of Bredas or Gueldres. — In the Bredas or Black variety, the whole plumage is black, with generally little gloss, though this should be sought as in all black fowls. The beak is black or horn-colour ; comb, or where comb would be, red ; face red ; wattles brilliant red ; deaf-ears sometimes white and sometimes red, but white is decidedly to be preferred ; legs dark slate or black. In the Gueldres the plumage of both sexes resembles that of the Dominique fowl. There are also White Bredas. General Characteristics of La Bresse. — In all respects resembling those of the Dorking as far as possible, with the exception of the fifth toe. The size should average eight to tew pounds in the cocks, and six to eight pounds in the hens. No standard can be given for colour. 2 K 422 Points of Merit. A bird perfect in shape, carriage, and colour, and in perfect health and condition, to count in points . . P EOO The Illustrated Book of Poultry. VALUE OF DEFECTS IN JUDGING. I. IioUDANS. Defects to be Deducted. Bad comb ........ Deficiency in crest or muffling . ° 12 Straw-coloured feathers ..... 9 Plumage too light, or too dark, or unevenly broken 8 Want of size ....... 20 ,, ,, symmetry . . . . . .12 ,, ,, condition . . . . . .15 Disqualifications. Absence of fifth toe. Absence of muffling, of beard, or of crest. Red or brown feathers in plumage, or totai absence of black or white, \ellow or feathered shanks. Wry-tails, or any other bodily deformity. Any fraudulent dyeing, dressing, or trimming. 2. Crevecceurs. Points of Merit. A bird perfect in shape, carriage, and colour, and in perfect health and condition, to count in points ....... 100 Defects to be Deducted. Bad comb . . . . . . . .12 Deficiency in crest or muffling . . . .12 White in crest in Blacks, or black in crest in Whites* . . . . . o . 15 Want of size ....... 20 ,, ,, symmetry ...... 15 ,, ,, condition . . . . . .15 Disqualifications.— Absence of muffling, beard, or crest. Red, brown, or straw-coloui'ed feathers in plumage. Feathered shanks, or any colour but black or leaden-black. Presence of fifth toe. Wry-tails, or any other deformity. Any fraudulent dyeing, dressing, or trimming. 3. La Fleche. Points of Merit. \ Defects to be Deducted, A bird perfect in shape, carriage, and colour, and in perfect health and condition, to count in points ....... 100 Bad comb . Stained deaf-ear White face Want of size „ „ symmetry condition 9 9 9 9 7 8 8 20 15 20 Disqualifications. — Presence of crest. Entirely red ear lobes. Shanks feathered, or any other colour but black or leaden- black. Coloured feathers in plumage. W ry-tails, or any bodily deformity. Any fraudulent treatment * This would practically be disqualification in good classes. CasseliIs Poultry Book Vmcent Brooks]) ay & Son,lit-h WHITE LEGHORNS. FROM BIRDS SENT OVER SPECIALLY FOR PORTRAITURE BY MR SIMPSON. TREASURER OF THE NEW YORK STATE POULTRY SOCIETY. . . 42 5 CHAPTER XXVIII. AMERICAN BREEDS OF POULTRY. In the days when the controversy as to the origin of Brahmas was still “ hot and strong,” a noted English amateur penned the fervent wish, “ If Brother Jonathan made these fowls, I wish he would make us something else.” We have in an earlier chapter shown reasons for believing that B. J. did not make the Brahma fowl; but “something else” he has made undoubtedly, there being several very distinct American varieties well worthy the attention of English poultry-keepers. These we have now to attempt to describe. There our difficulty commences, for the names of American “breeds” are legion. Land is plentiful and corn is cheap, and accordingly the American runs and breeds his fowls on a magnificent scale which is enough to make an English fancier’s heart burst with envy, and himself to abandon the “rotten old country” in disgust. Where the one rears his few dozens of chickens the other rears his hundreds ; and these chickens are mostly brought up with a noble contempt for fences and other unjustifiable restrictions upon the liberty of the subject, which befits even the feathered denizens of such a vast, free, and enlightened country The consequence of such a state of things, before the extension of the “fancy” caused attention to be paid to scientific breeding, was innumerable crosses, and not a few of these seem at one time or other to have settled into more or less fixed types. Thus the curious investigator into American poultry-keeping meets with fowls rejoicing under such names as Danvers Whites, Bucks County Fowls, Jersey Blues, the Ostrich Fowl, the “Big Breed” (whatever this last was we have been utterly unable to discover), and other names of like nature. Most of these have now died out, and some no doubt were mere first crosses, which could not possibly be preserved ; though others, such as the Jersey Blue, which was at one time much esteemed, evidently possessed certain well-marked and permanent characters. But as time went on, some few breeds have not only preserved their points and reputation, but even perceptibly gained ground ; and there are at least four American varieties known and bred at the present day which are valuable acquisitions to the poultry-yard. Two of these at all events — the Plymouth Rock and Wyandotte — were admittedly made by crossing ; and the fact gives another occasion for expression of the regret that so little has been done in this direction by the skilled breeders of Britain, seeing that without any special care such results have been obtained in both the Eastern and Western Continents. The importations that have taken place, even of the most marked and fixed American varieties, have by no means bred so true to feather and points as English fanciers are accustomed to expect. The cause of this, we believe, is to be found in the large resources to which we have just alluded. Where a man breeds hundreds of chickens, he has in the first place to set eggs from many hens, which cannot be selected of equal quality to a very few. Out of such a large supply, however, it is very hard if he cannot select a few good pens ; and hence there is not the necessity for that extreme care in breeding which is forced upon an English amateur, who can perhaps only afford room for a score of chickens in all, and to make his heavy expenses pay must produce out of that The Illustrated Book ol Foultry. 424 small number at least half that are fit for exhibition. Just as the great natural disadvantages he has to fight against make the Scotch agriculturist the best in the world, so his small yard forces the English fancier, if he breeds his birds and does not buy them, to breed well ; while the unlimited space and food- supply of the American tempt him to a profusion and carelessness of procedure which greatly hinder fixity of type, and have hence caused some cross-breeds, which, though originally accidental, were evidently novel and valuable, and might with care have been preserved, to die out and become lost in either the parent varieties or a mongrel crowd. Without further preface, however, we will proceed to consider the principal American breeds of poultry. LEGHORNS. — Of the existing American varieties, this has been the longest known in England, though not perhaps as long as some others in America. The first specimens imported into the United Kingdom, so far as we are aware, were of the White breed ; Mr. Tegetmeier, who received them, breeding from them one season and then parting with the whole stock, which has since become tolerably diffused. Many other importations have since taken place, but many of these birds were somewhat too short on the leg and pale in the shanks to please the taste of the best American judges. Those represented, however, which were sent over specially for portraiture in this work, were excellent specimens, having the rather long and brilliant yellow legs, with the general “ high-bred ” look, so much sought by American fanciers The American Agriculturist for March, 1869, contains an article on White Leghorns, with an illustration, in which the editor states that his own knowledge of the breed “does not antedate ten years and that the earliest stock to which his attention was then directed “ generally ” had yellow legs, single combs, and white ear-lobes, and were principally bred from freshly-imported stock. As to the character of the fowls, he confesses himself rather puzzled, stating that while they had been called “White Spanish,” they knew of “no proper White Spanish” in the United States, and “ no true breed ” of them had been established, concluding with the opinion that they more resembled Hamburghs. Now we have already seen that there have been in England for many years true breeds, both of White Spanish and White Minorcas, though both of these breeds have either white, pinky, or dark legs. It is, therefore, somewhat remarkable to read in the same article that “ pink or white legs are of constant occurrence in the yards of the very best breeders, so far as we are aware, and to throw out either class of birds would clearly be doing injustice to their other good points.” We say it is remarkable to read this, because if the reader turn to the beautiful plate of White Leghorns which illustrates this chapter, and supposes white shanks in place of the yellow, it will be seen at once that the birds are White Minorcas in every point, and beyond a doubt belong to the Spanish family. This family, we have already seen, abounds all round the Mediterranean ; and there is no reason whatever to doubt, therefore, that the early birds were received, as it is stated many late American importations have been, from Italy, rather than from Spain ; indeed, it is rather probable than otherwise, for whilst it is evident enough that the birds are essentially Spanish or Minorca in all their external characteristics, as also in their non-sitting, it is fully as evident that they belong to a distinct strain or race of these birds ; for while most Spanish breeds are delicate, the Leghorns are extra- ordinarily hardy, besides being much superior as layers. That American breeders have improved one of these qualities, and the American climate the other, is very probable ; but however this may be, few who have kept the breed will feel inclined to dispute our conclusion, that in the Leghorns our American friends have given us a fowl essentially Spanish in every character, but which in hardiness and prolificacy is far superior to any of the older Spanish varieties, unless Andalusians may be an exception. Cassell's Poultry Book Vincent. Brooks Day Son lath BROWN LEGHORNS. FRO M A PAIR SENT A. M. OVER SPECIALLY FOR PORTRAITURE HALSTED, OF RYE, NEW YORK. BY MR " American Breeds. Leghorns. 425 Of the trio of White Leghorns sent over for portraiture to us, one hen unfortunately died just after receipt (appearing to have been injured in some way) ; but the other laid the very next day, and continued to do so. We note this fact as showing the adaptability to confine- ment, as the birds had been in a small coop for some fourteen days. The surviving pair were kept some time by a relative, during which time the hen fully maintained her character as a good layer. We should note that there is a difference of opinion among American fanciers as to the tail of the White Leghorn cock. One school holds that it should be carried very high over the back, or “ squirrel-tailed ” as we should call it, whilst others maintain that it should have the free and sweeping carriage of the Spanish fowl. The tail of the cock sent to us was rather inclined to be high, though not so much so as many American specimens of which portraits have been forwarded to us ; but coming to us with a note to the above effect, we exercised our own individual judg- ment in the matter, and represented him with the tail as we considered it should be carried. In this decision we have since been followed by all who breed Leghorns in England. The White Leghorn fowl has now been bred with care for a number of years by man) breeders, and is at present a medium-sized fowl with large comb (upright in the cocks, and falling over in the hens, just as in Spanish), pure white ear-lobes, red face, white plumage, and brilliant yellow legs. The character of the head and shape of body is decidedly Spanish in appearance. The comb and wattle should not be so large in proportion, however, as those of the Minorca fowl, and great care should be taken, by choosing strong stiff combs in the cocks, and those which spring well up before falling over in the hens, to keep the stock from any tendency to flabbiness or falling over. Some fanciers demand five spikes, but such artificial distinctions should be strongly resisted. The other chief points needing attention in breeding will be to keep up the size while avoiding the straw tinge which troubles the breeder of all white fowls, and to keep in perfection the rather long and brilliant yellow leg, together with the smooth creamy-white ear-lobe which so much sets off this attractive breed. A variety still more esteemed is the Brown Leghorn , which appears to have been bred for some time in the United States, but little known ; and the description in the earlier editions of the “ American Standard of Excellence ” was grossly inaccurate and incomplete, evidently owing to ignorance of the fowl. From an article by Mr. A. M. Halstead, in the New York Poultry Bulletin of May, 1873, we make the following extract: — “ The earliest knowledge we have of them is from Mr. F. J. Kinney, of Worcester, Mass., who writes : — ‘ The first I ever owned I bought on board a ship in Boston Harbour, in the spring of 1853. This was the first trio I ever saw, and I believe them to have been the first ever brought to America. I have since had two other small lots direct from the City of Leghorn, in Italy, and expect more soon from the same place. The first trio weighed nine pounds and three- quarters, and were yearlings. Their combs and wattles were very large and coarse ; ear-lobes entirely red , same as face, comb, and wattles. They were not Black-red Games, nor Black-red Leghorns, but Brown red , i.e ., the cock’s breast was dark brown, spotted with lighter brown, the dark brown running up the under side of the neck ; his hackle was light brown, striped with black ; the hens were feathered and coloured the same as the good ones are now, the colours being very distinct, and the pencilling the most beautiful of any fowl I ever saw, and the most distinct.’ ” We have seen that there is some doubt as to the origin ot the White breed ; but besides the above importation, many others from Leghorn have been maae since of the Browns, so that in 4.26 The I llustrated Book of Poultry. their ^ase at least the name is appropriate enough. Of this fact we have not the slightest question, having had it confirmed from numerous American correspondents, who testify to having seen birds recently imported either from Leghorn or other ports in Italy ; but as to another point named b^ ^■r’ Kinney, the original colour of the ear-lobe, there seems to be a great difference of opinion among American fanciers — Mr. Halsted and some others believing that the deaf-ears on the earlier importations were red, while Mr. A. Beard, Mr. W. E. Bonney, and other breeders, say the early birds had white ears. The natural supposition would be that both were imported. The first Brown Leghorns ever received in England were sent to ourselves, by the kind- ness of Mr. A. M. Halsted, then prominent in poultry circles. They arrived on June 17th, 1872, one hen again being unfortunately injured in some way, bleeding profusely from the beak, and dying a few hours after receipt. The other hen laid next morning, and continued for a few days, when she stopped ; this fact, as in the White birds sent us, showing well the laying qualities of the breed. We might describe the birds very briefly as combining the Spanish comb and type of head and body, with the colour or plumage of Black-red Game of a rather darkish type ; the cock being a black-breasted bird, with hackles orange-red striped with black, and the hen salmon- breasted, with rest of the plumage partridge-marked, or brown finely pencilled over with dark markings. They were then somewhat larger than White Leghorns, and rather shorter on the leg averaging about half a pound heavier in the opinion of American breeders. Being anxious to test the stock, and having some suspicion the birds might have been created by crossing White Leghorns with Game, we hatched a brood of chicks on the 1st August. Except one or two broken, every egg hatched, and not a chick died. We know no fowls which feather so quickly, except Houdans and Andalusians. Being very short of room and accommodation, owing to a recent removal, the chicks had an open shed to roost in, but grew up perfectly hardy, and with no care whatever, in spite of the very late date of hatching. They were very uniform in colour in their first feathers, but in their second or adult plumage two of the cockerels moulted black, all but some reddish feathers on the hackle and wfings. The pullets varied little, two being just like the mother, and the rest of the same type, but darker, somewhat like darkish grey Dorkings. One cockerel was just like the father, and a fourth brown- breasted. On the whole, and considering the want of what English fanciers consider careful breeding in nearly all American stock, we were surprised by the degree of uniformity thus apparent, and fully convinced that the breed was genuine, or a really distinct race. We shortly afterwards disposed of the whole to Mr. R. J. Walker, of Edgworth, Bolton, who unfortunately lost the hen a month or two after, through her swallowing a sharp-pointed piece of glass, but who gave the following account of the progeny (dated May 28th, 1873) : — “ As regards laying, I find that, taking the five pullets together, I have had an average of five and a quarter eggs per bird per week. No. 1 began to lay on February 17th, No. 2 on February 19th, No. 3 on March 6th, No. 4 on March nth, and No. 5 on March 27th. No. 5 is not so good as the others in number of eggs, but lays far larger ones. I find the eggs average about eight to the pound from the pullets ; those I got from the old hen were larger. They do not seem much influenced by change of weather in regard to laying, keeping on much as usual through the bitter east winds we had. I have only nine chicks from them, three of which were hatched March 26th (two of which were from eggs of the old hen) and six on May 6th. They are as hardy as it is possible for chicks to be ; I have not lost one, and have had no trouble with them. They feather very rapidly. Mine have always been under a coop open to the south, and have had free range at all times. 1 may add that the three earlier ones were left by the hen when five weeks old, but they did not seem any the worse for it.” Since this letter we heard from Qualities of Brown Leghorns. 427 the same gentleman that one of the pullets attempted to sit. If it be remembered that the birds here spoken of were hatched on August 1st, it will be seen that they laid unusually early. They would also be smaller than usual, for the same reason. Our decided opinion is that in intrinsic value the Brown Leghorn is the best of all the American breeds, especially if size as well as number of eggs be taken into consideration ; and as a layer we consider it the best fowl we ever met with for moderate confinement, d he con- stitution is hardy ; the shape and carriage sprightly ; the flesh very good ; the growth quick ; and the eggs both large and numerous. It also struck us as a very neat and attractive fowl even in appearance, and we were much disappointed to find that when the stock spread a little, and it began to be exhibited, the judges for a good while seemed determined, from motives which were well known, resolutely to ignore it in the Any Other Variety class. They, in fact, treated it with open ridicule, though often giving a prize to the White. The fowl, however, steadily made its way ; a Club was formed to cultivate both varieties ; and at present the Brown Leghorn outnumbers the White considerably, and has classes at nearly all the large shows. The following notes on the breed are from Mr. S. L. Bradbury, formerly secretary and treasurer to the Leghorn Club : — “ My experience with Brown Leghorns commenced about two years after their first intro- duction into this country, and jointly with my brother, I have bred them largely ever since. After long experience and close observation, both with imported and English-bred stock, I can fully endorse all that has been said of their hardiness and laying qualities. This useful and beautiful fowl has now become exceedingly popular in this country, and will assuredly, in a few years, rank with some of our oldest breeds in the number of its admirers. It breeds very true to colour, much more so than four years ago ; in fact, one of my earliest importations produced several black chickens and a grey one ; but I attribute that to indiscriminate crossing of speculative American breeders. I have found no such thing occur with English stock. “ For several years after their first importation into England, the ear-lobe was a weak point and difficult to produce, but it has now become tblerably well fixed ; though I fear that breeders, in their anxiety to produce the white lobe, have neglected colour somewhat ; for I do not consider that there has been such a large proportion of good coloured birds shown during the last two years as previously. I would, therefore, urge upon breeders to endeavour to improve the colour as much as possible ; for it is a more difficult point to obtain in perfection than the white lobe. It is very desirable to breed good birds of both sexes from the same parents ; but I doubt if there is any breed of fancy poultry (of colour and marking) in which this can be done. While this problem remains to be solved in the future, we must do the best we can with the present. I would say, therefore, for cockerel breeding, take a clear, bright-coloured cock, having good ear-lobes, and that has been bred from a hen whose sire had good lobes (this is important, as good lobes are more difficult to obtain in cocks than hens) ; mate him with sound coloured hens having evenly serrated combs, and which carry their tails rather low. This mating will be found to produce beautifully- coloured cockerels, with good ears and comb, and free from “ squirrel-tail.” For pullet breeding, take a darker cock, with heavily-striped hackle, comb and wattles fine in texture ; mate him with well-pencilled, partridge-coloured hens (rather ashy than warm in colour), having good lobes, comb and wattles fine in texture, and face as clean as possible from hair or feathers. This mating will produce pullets very even in colour, not dark, free from rust on wing, and good in head. “ The colour that I recommend in the cock for cockerel breeding is the colour for the show- pen ; but when I say bright, I do not mean washy in hackle and bricky on wing. The hackle should be clear of striping, and wing-bow clear bright crimson. The cock recommended for pullet breeding is rather too dull in colour for the show-pen.” 428 The Illustrated Booh of Poultry. Similar directions for matching have since been published in “ The Leghorn Fowl,” by Mr. L. C. Verrey, subsequently secretary of the Club. Mr. Verrey also points out, with justice, that the colour of the Leghorn ear-lobe is properly of a creamy white rather than the brilliant white of the Spanish fowl, which is not natural to any bird with bright yellow legs, and that both breeds have been injured by crossing with Minorcas to get ear-lobe, and the Brown further injured by crossing with the Game to get brighter plumage. Owing to the latter cause, the Brown Leghorn became perceptibly smaller, and the eggs lost in size still more ; but this is now being recovered from, and the true shape, also partially lost by injudicious crossing, is being regained. CUCKOO LEGHORNS. — There is very little doubt that this variety is the result of a cross. Mr. Verrey contests this view on the ground that it is found in Italy, and that it breeds true ; but all colours are crossed alike in Italy, and it is just under such circumstances that Cuckoo fowls originate ; whilst this colour generally does breed true, as Darwin points out, when once it has appeared. Moreover, the stronger propensity to white in tail shows the Cuckoo Leghorn to be even less established than most other Cuckoo varieties. The plumage will be dealt with more fully a page or two later on, in connection with other American breeds ; and we only need say here that it will require the usual precautions, never mating two dark or two light birds together, and rigorously rejecting parents with white, black, or straw-coloured or red feathers. BLACK LEGHORNS. — These only differ in the black plumage. They must not be con- founded with Minorcas, with which some appear to be crossed, but from which a true Leghorn should be distinguished by its smaller comb and wattles, creamy and broader deaf-ear, brilliant yellow legs and beaks, and slimmer proportions. There is, however, great difficulty in getting yellow legs with the black plumage, and for this extra difficulty we see no compensating advan- tage, especially with the powerful competition of the Black Minorca. PILE LEGHORNS. — Pile Game being known to be a combination of White and Black- red, and Leghorns possessing the same colours in White and the so-called Browns, it was a natural idea to produce Piles in them also, and the task was accomplished by Mr. G. Payne, whose specimens have taken prizes at the Crystal Palace on many occasions. No other cross was employed, so that the breed is a pure Leghorn, though an artificial production. DUCKWING LEGHORNS. — This variety was admittedly produced by crossing with Duck- winged Game and Silver-grey Dorking, and the foreign blood is still to be seen in the shape of most of the specimens exhibited. BUFF LEGHORNS. — This is the most popular and beautiful, and appears to us likely to be the most useful, of recent varieties, though the latest. Its origin is uncertain, but it began to appear in 1889, and in 1892 the entries exceeded Browns at the Crystal Palace Show. The proper colour is that of the richer or deeper lemon-buff Cochins, which seems to suit the Leg- horn type particularly well, while the size of this variety appears also slightly larger. Breeders are at present troubled, as early Cochin breeders were, by black ticking in the hackles and else- where, white splashes, and mottled colour ; and the even colour is to be bred by similar rules, when we anticipate that it will soon settle down. The Buffs lay extremely well, and we believe will extend the popularity and usefulness of the Leghorn family. Artificial Rearing of Chickens. 429 On the Continent fawn-coloured or “ chamois ” Leghorns are exhibited ; also mottled and splashed birds somewhat resembling the plumage of a Houdan. Continental “ Browns ” are also divided into two colours, one much like our own black-red, while the other is a sort of golden partridge-pencilled colour. In America they have had a rose-combcd Leghorn, but this was con- fessedly a cross. On the whole, we consider a multiplicity of varieties, in such a breed as this, a distinct evil. It was as a hardy bird and first-rate layer that the breed made its way. To main- tain these qualities, no artificial difficulties should be raised up ; but, as we have seen, while the black has a difficulty of its own, most of the others, being the results of crossing, interpose special difficulties in breeding for feather, which result in in-breeding and all the evils this brings in its train. These evils have already become manifest in most of what we shall thus dismiss as minor varieties, and many strains even of the Brown and White varieties, are by no means what they used to be. It is not too late to preserve them ; but the way to do it is neither by multiplying artificial varieties, nor by laying stress upon purely arbitrary points like a spike in the comb. A cross between the White Leghorn cock and Plymouth Rock hens has been proved, by Mr. Annett and others, to be about the best forager on a farm, and zvinter layer, of any fowl tried in comparison, while a large number lay dark eggs. The average lay of fifty hens for a whole year was 152. The greatest difficulty in keeping any non-sitting races of poultry, like Leghorns, is the necessity of obtaining hens from other sources to hatch and rear the broods. Much can be done to remedy the inconvenience, even without incubators, by bringing up the chickens without a hen, leaving her to hatch a second brood. Americans have long adopted this practice, and it seems desirable to add something more in this place relating to the artificial rearing of chickens without a hen, and whether artificially hatched or not. The first great stimulus to artificial rearing in England was undoubtedly given by an “artificial mother ” brought out about 1873 by Mrs. Frank Cheshire, of Acton, Middlesex. The cross section and plan will show its leading features. The apparatus is heated by a zinc tank, shown at A B in the section, and C D in the plan, about one inch deep all over, and hermetically closed, with the exception of one aperture, H, for filling and for safety. It is fixed on the top of the mother in rather a sloping position, like a roof, and along the lower edge runs a flue, shown at E and E F, the flue being surrounded by water, and heated by a small lamp. The flue only extends to F on the plan, in order to cause circulation in the water of the tank, which is divided by a vertical partition, C D, from end to end, in the ends only of which are several holes. Hence the tank being heated along one end only of one side, the water circulates in the direction of the arrows. G G are chimneys. The lamp consisted of a simple tube coming horizontally from a vessel of benzine, up which was passed a wick, which was lighted at the end. The end of this tube is at J. Such being the heating apparatus, under the slightly sloping tank was made to slide 430 The Illustrated Book of P oultry. from the front a framework of wood, roofed with strong canvas, on which are sewn numerous anne strips, K, about three-quarters of an inch wide. Under these the chicks nestled, and could never c caught or strangled, as is sometimes the case with a fleece of wool. The whole k°aic^ ccnciccl w^th diy eaith, which was removed every morning, and the flannel part of the apparatus was to be reversed and deodorised, by dry earth being shaken into it and out again, at similar periods. With this larger apparatus was used a small temporary mother, consisting of the canvas top and flannel strips only, placed in one end of a tray or small box floored with dry earth or ashes, and covered by an india-rubber bag filled with warm water, and wrapped in flannel. In this, the newly-hatched chickens were placed the first day, to familiarise them with the habit of running in and out from under the flannel ; and on first placing them in the larger mother, a small park of wi rework was fixed m front to keep them from wandering too far until they had got to know theii way about. Beyond that, very little trouble was necessary. Christy’s “hydro” rearing mother. We reared all our chickens with this apparatus the whole of one season, with no failure or difficulty ; and several breeders of our acquaintance were fully as successful. But during our own second season, when pressure of work made it necessary to turn over all management to a servant, there was considerable mortality, and very few chickens really thrived. This experience also we found to be extensively paralleled by others. We gradually traced their comparative failure chiefly to two causes ; the first being sheer neglect to attend to the necessary daily deodorisation of the apparatus, and the second, too high a temperature. When care was taken as regards these points, the earlier success was repeated. It is, however, very difficult to prevent the Cheshire form of apparatus from becoming too hot for health, and the close sides confine the air to an extent only controllable by constant watchful- ness. Of late, therefore, it has been practically superseded, either by apparatus worked on the « Hydro ” plan, already described in its application to incubators by Mr. Christy, or by somewhat similar forms with a deep tank heated by a small lamp. We give a figure of Mr. Christy’s “ Hydro ” form of rearer, to be periodically filled with hot water ; and on the whole this is the most convenient plan for many people* The greater volume of water, kept stagnant, enables a * The inconvenience of providing hot water for renewal is not felt to nearly the same extent as with an incubator, the temperature required being much lower, and much less quantity being therefore required. Artificial Rearing of Chickens. 43i more moderate heat to be kept up with facility.* Even with these forms of apparatus, however, much mortality was at first found, which was discussed for some time with little amendment. By the kind assistance of many friends, however, we were able to make something like an exhaustive investigation into the matter, and the results were remarkable. In searching for the best returns, we gradually found we almost always came at the same time upon the lowest temperatures employed. We found that a heat under the mother which seemed only nicely warm to the hand, and was in fact only that of a hen, was simply murder to the chickens ; and with this discovery the difficulties were cleared away, and artificial rearing became a general success One cause of the great difference in result between the heat of a hen’s breast, and the same heat in an artificial mother, it appeared, consisted in the closed sides of most mothers as at first constructed. The heated and foul air escapes on all sides from under a hen, whereas in the Cheshire and other early machines, it was confined by close ends of board. It will, accordingly, be seen that the apparatus figured above, as in most others now constructed, is open upon three sides for the passage of chickens and the admission of air. We also found that cramp and weakness in the feet — the usual precursors of loss under this method of rearing — were general accompaniments of too much confinement and coddling, often combined with too little earth on the floor. The chickens which had free run in any weather did better than those kept under cover, and very often liberty would restore even many of those which had developed the unlucky symptoms. After these explanations, the secret of successful rearing under machines may readily be summed up in a few sentences. In the first place, the heat must be carefully kept down to a point much less than any one would believe , who has not either learnt by experience, or is not content to accept it on authority. When the mother is packed with chickens the heat rapidly accumulates. A temperature of yo° Fahr. at the bottom of the tank will be found quite sufficient in any weather but the severest frost, and in warm weather the usual temperature of 6o° is sufficient, the water still acting beneficially by keeping that degree up during the night. At least half an inch of clean earth must be placed on the floor every night ; and every day dry earth must be well shaken into the flannel strips, and left exposed to the air for an hour or two ; it is, in fact, very much the best plan, and good economy, to use one mother for the night and another for the day. For the first day under the nursery or hand mother, for which a hot water bag is very con- venient, a little more heat may be allowed ; but it should not exceed 8o°, and the chickens should after that be transferred to the larger apparatus. If that has glass covers to a small yard, as shown above, these must be removed in all dry weather, and always kept freely raised for ventilation. After the first day or two, the chickens must not be confined, but allowed to run out freely — in fact, an open front to the park then answers better than a small door. It will be found that a series of small mothers answer much better than very large ones, as a number of chickens foul the air underneath it to an injurious extent. The expense need not be great, since, after a very few weeks, no artificial heat whatever is required, and the mere covering apparatus will be sufficient. Finally, it ought to be mentioned that it never answers to rear chickens partially upon this system. If they are allowed to get used to the hen’s call, they fret and pine for days, and some of them never recover. Or if there are even hens with their broods in the same run, they will run to them and get pecked, and fret in the same way. But if either hatched in an incubator, or taken from the nest before the hen has called them to food, they thrive at least as well as with the natural parent. * Another convenient rearer is the “Simplex,” whose top has a metal drawer, into which is inserted a “briquet,” which burns slowly for many hours. This rearer is slung from above, and open on all sides. 432 The Illustrated Book of Poultry. DOMINIQUES. — This is perhaps the oldest of the distinctive American breeds, being mentioned in the earliest poultry-books as an indigenous and valued variety. In general chaiacteristics it closely resembles a rose-combed Cuckoo Dorking with four toes, or rather the Scotch Grey, but with brilliant yellow legs, which the Americans seem to admire in all their fowls. The comb should be a neat rose, resembling that of the Hamburghs ; face, wattles, and deaf-ears red ; legs bright yellow ; and the plumage what English fanciers call cuckoo-colour, which is composed oi a light bluish-grey ground, crossed with bands of a darker grey or blue. The shape is Dorking, and the size medium, averaging perhaps seven to eight pounds in adult cocks and six pounds in hens. Americans call this colour Dominique, hence the name. Figs. 93 and 94 represent the feathers of Dominique cock and hen, and will also represent those of Plymouth Rocks. The shade of colour varies, the darker bands in some specimens being nearly black ; but a medium colour is preferable. Whatever the shade, however, the hackles and shoulders of the cocks should partake of the same character, and be free from reddish or golden feathers, which are blemishes very apt to occur, but which may be guarded against by careful breeding. These remarks, the drawings of the feathers, and the description of the plumage will apply to a large class of poultry, called by the French, as by ourselves, Coiicou, from its resemblance to the plumage on the breast of that bird. Cuckoo Dorkings, Cuckoo Cochins, Anconas or Cuckoo Spanish, Cuckoo Polish, Gueldres or Cuckoo Bredas, Scotch Greys, &c., all have this plumage ; which differs from that of Pencilled Hamburghs, to which it bears some resemblance in the transverse character of the markings, in that the pencillings or bars are much larger or coarser ; and more essentially (since mere size of marking could soon be modified by breeding) in the bands being in this case shaded gradually dark into light, instead of presenting the sharp contrast of marking and ground shown by what are called Pencilled birds. This breed was at one time popular in America, and had many plain, useful qualities ; but both there and here it has since been practically superseded by that next mentioned. PLYMOUTH ROCKS. — The variety now known by this name has not been correctly described in previous works on poultry ; all hitherto published, both in England and America, confounding it with a creation of Dr. Bennett’s some twenty years ago, and described by him in his well-known American work on fowls. This description is highly curious, and well illustrates our opening remarks on some American so-called “breeds.” “I have given this name,” he says, “to a very extra breed of fowls, which I produced by crossing a Cochin China cockerel with a hen that was herself a cross between the Fawn-coloured Dorking, the Great Malay, and the Wild India. Her weight is six pounds seven ounces. The Plymouth Rock fowl, then, is in reality one-half Cochin China, one-fourth Fawn-coloured Dorking, one-eighth Great Malay, and one-eighth Wild India. Their plumage is rich and variegated, the cocks usually red and speckled, and the pullets darkish brown. They are very fine fleshed, and early fit for the table. Their legs are very large, and usually blue or green, but occasionally yellow or white, generally having five toes upon each foot ; some have the legs feathered, but this is not usual.” It is only necessary to read the above description to see that this very extra breed of fowls, which bred legs yellow, white, blue, or green, feathered or clean, five-toed or four-toed, could not possibly last long. It was too “extra” for this world, and even the inventor could not “run the machine” long, so complicated was it in its various parts. This Plymouth Rock, then, naturally and inevitably disappeared from simple disintegration of its heterogeneous materials, and though Dr. Bennett’s old description has been copied by all poultry authors who have noticed the fowl at all up to the present date, this has arisen simply from ignorance, first of the fowl itself, and, secondly, CasseliIs Poultry Booh. "VraceTit Bro ciks,Day &.Son lith. Ainsworth’s PLYMOUTH ROCKS. “sir thomas” and irene. |ST AND 2N.n BIR M I NG-HAM, I8B6. * ‘ Feathers of Dominiques , 433 Hackle. Breast. Wing-bow. Fig- 93-— Feathers of Dominique or Plymouth Rock Cock. Saddle. Hackle. Breast. Wing-bow. Saddle. Fig. 94. — Feathers of Dominique or Plymouth Rock Hen. 2 L 434 The Illustrated Book of Poultry. of the accounts given by its breeders and producers. So completely had the old Plymouth Rock disappeared that, in the first poultry journal ever published in America, The New York Poultry Bulletin , no notice whatever is taken of any fowl under that name during the first two years of its issue. The first authentic account we were able to obtain of the modern Plymouth Rock came to us in answer to a special inquiry, in a letter from Mr. W. Simpson, Jun., of West Farms, N.Y., dated August 12, 1871. In this letter he says of them, “If bred with care they will make a fine variety. They are an improved Dominique , being just like them except in comb and size ; they have a single comb and are larger, as they have a touch of Asiatic in them.” He adds, “ They do not breed very straight yet.” In another letter, dated April 26, 1873, enclosing the American corrected “Standard of Excellence” for the variety, the same gentleman added the following particulars, first premising that the “ already printed Standard is very incorrect, particularly in colour of plumage and tail.” He then proceeds as follows : — “ After a little careful breeding I think the Plymouth Rock will be a grand fowl, and second to none for all purposes. As yet they do not breed quite true always, and their eggs are all colours and sizes. They are handsome, good sitters, and good for table, and I intend myself to stick to them and try and get them right. They were produced from single-combed Dominiques crossed with Asiatics. Dominique fowls are the same in colour, and are a useful variety ; but twenty years ago, when the Shanghaes made their appearance, these took their place in the estimation of the public, and the Dominiques were much neglected by fanciers, so that they do not breed any straighter now than the Plymouth Rocks.” We have made inquiries of other American sources ; and while some affirm the Cochin, and others the Black Java, cross to have been employed, every correspondent without exception states that one of the parents was the Dominique fowl. Our own strong opinion is, that the Dominique and also the Asiatic races being very common in America, many cases of crossing have occurred, and that thus the same fowl — half Asiatic and half Dominique — has probably been produced in various quarters, and not in any one alone ; but however this may be, the facts of Dr. Bennett’s birds being extinct, and that the modern fowl was originally a half-bred Dominique, are absolutely certain. It is nearly as certain that the Black Java was one of the components. Previous to former editions of this work only one or two importations of Plymouth Rocks had reached this country, the first, from the Mr. W. Simpson above quoted, taking honours at Birming- ham in 1872 in the Variety class. Since that time several have been made, sufficient to produce a strong stock ; and at most large shows at the present time the Rocks are some of the largest and most popular classes, those at the Crystal Palace Show in 1889 comprising 164 entries. For this popularity there are substantial reasons, in the good all-round qualities of the fowl. The plumage is a plain and useful homespun which looks well in almost any circumstances ; the laying is rather above the average, and the hen sits well, without getting broody so often as to be troublesome, once a year sufficing her. It is as a table-fowl, however, that it comes out strongest. The meat is not of what would be considered in England first-rate quality, such as that of Game, or Houdan, or Dorking ; but is very good and juicy, with plenty of it in the good parts (provided a good model is selected). The strongest point, however, is that hardly any fowl equals it in early growth, except, perhaps, various Houdan and Dorking crosses. Some experiments made in Canada on the Government Experimental Farm in 1888, in which Rocks, Wyandottes, Cochins, and Houdans were compared, with different systems of feeding, showed the Rocks to be much the heaviest fowls at all ages. The breed is very hardy, with one rather singular exception. Mr. Simpson wrote us privately in our very earliest correspondence about these birds in 1873, that they were then “ very subject to Breeding Plymouth Rocks. 435 gout in the feet.” Whatever the ailment meant may have been, the fact is indisputable that, to the present day, many strains of Rocks — we cannot say whether or not it is so with all — are peculiarly subject to obscure ailments of the feet or legs, causing lameness. Such affections not being usually characteristic of breeds originated by crossing — which, on the contrary, tends generally towards a hardy constitution — the probability is that a rheumatic or gouty diathesis has been inherited from some one of the original progenitors, whose influence has been most marked upon the race. The general appearance of the ordinary Plymouth Rock is much like that of a smooth-legged Cuckoo Cochin, but with tighter plumage and a better shape. The average comb is smaller than that of the average Cochin ; the tail is much larger, and carried more upright ; and the breast should be deep and full, with legs of only moderate length. In breeding the fowl, we are strongly of opinion that the first object should be to maintain the useful and true Rock characteristics, and we have observed in many cases, with great regret, terrible loss of these, and some disposition to ignore points which belong to the fowl as the Americans made it and sent it to us. A Plymouth Rock not fairly typical in character, and not a good table-bird, has no motive or justification for existence as such, but becomes a mere cuckoo-coloured mongrel ; and many such birds have we seen. Legs far too long, breasts far deficient, and narrow bodies — all such faults simply bring out the deficiencies due to Cochin ancestry, and such ought to be killed at once, certainly never to take prizes. Yet we have seen them do so, while the same judge passed over far better birds for a slight stain on the beak. Of late these vagaries have been less frequent. The colour of the ordinary Plymouth Rock presents some special difficulties in breeding. The cuckoo colour in general is common to many breeds. Whether or not it is an original natural colour is uncertain — indeed, who is to define what an “ original ” colour really is ? However this may be, Mr. Darwin has collected abundant evidence for a fact established by many occurrences recorded since — that generally it occurs as a composite or crossed colour, but with a strong tendency to perpetuate itself when once formed. It is established that the crossing of black and white fowls (occasionally even of different whites or blacks together), while usually producing either the parent whole colours, or pies or splashes, sometimes produces either the blue colour of the Andalusian fowl or this cuckoo marking. Mr. Darwin has further established that any cross of poultry has some tendency to produce the reddish colour, which probably marked the original of all poultry races. There is, therefore, a more or less constant tendency for black, white, and yellow or red to occur in all cuckoo-coloured varieties ; but in the case of the Rocks, there is more than usual difficulty in breeding, owing to their recent origin and the strong infusion of Black Java blood in their composition. The tendency to breed dark is, upon the whole, the greatest difficulty in breeding Plymouth Rocks. The mixture of races is also shown by the varying colours of the nestling chickens. Even of those which will one day be of cuckoo colour, some will be nearly black in the down, with only a patch of white on the head, and perhaps a couple of stripes on neck and shoulders ; while others will have white and black on the back. The first wins'- feathers of young cocks are generally barred on a light ground (almost a white ground), while young pullets’ wing-feathers are dark. Generally speaking, the lightest birds in a brood will prove cockerels. The birds which show the best yellow legs and beaks when mature, are mostly rather dusky yellow than clear yellow as chicks, the clear yellow chicks often becoming very pale as they grow up. This brings us to the difficulties of breeding for colour, which we have already seen to be, for the reasons stated, greater than in most other cuckoo breeds of fowls. What the plumage should be has been described on page 432, and will be fully understood from Figs. 93 and 94. But in breeding, the dark blood of the Java seems to tend especially to the hens , so that in an ordinary 436 The Illustrated Book of Poultry. ya^ the pullets are several shades darker than the cockerels, whilst among them the black sports aie almost exclusively found. These dark hens have also often dusky or sooty or spotted legs and beaks. The bands are much broader in the hens, and, as a rule, duller as well as darker. The cockeiels are more prone to run into white or straw-coloured feathers, especially in tail and hackle. This being the natural tendency, it does little to correct it to mate light cockerels with dark hens that is the natural production of Nature, and simply perpetuates itself. Our own strong opinion is, that it should be recognised in a useful breed like this, and sexes not required in one pen of the same colour, as they certainly are not when fowls are shown on the single bird system. More attention could then be paid to the character and beaicty of the marking, which are often lost in the pullets, whose dark, dull, indistinct marking would not, we are given to understand, be tolerated in America. There can be no question that the narrower and more distinct the bands, with some adequate contrast between band and ground, the handsomer the marking ; and this is the kind the American breeders seek. They describe the desirable colour as “ greyish white barred with bluish black.” By greyish is to be understood blue-grey ; still, this is undoubtedly lighter than would apply to the colours usually shown in England, which might more correctly be described as blackish blue bars on a bluish grey ground. The English is undoubtedly a duller- looking bird than the American ; but the American cock is probably too light ever to be popular here. On the other hand we are convinced, from very careful observation, that the attempt in England to breed cocks down to the dark colour of the hens has been a mistake, and has lost marking, breasts being clouded and legs sooty ; whereas were the pullets to be in preference bred up to the average colour of English cockerels, the result would be better every way. It will always, however, be most difficult to breed both sexes from the same pen, unless the fact be recognised that the male is lighter than the female in this breed, by several shades. And prizes should, by no means, be confined to one shade, but darker and lighter birds be allowed to win, provided only the marking be good and even all over. Meanwhile, the mating to aim at in breeding Plymouth Rocks — in this all the breeders we have been able to consult practically agree — is to choose hens or pullets lighter than the average, with as fine and clear and uniform marking as possible ; and a cockerel somewhat darker than average, but sound in marking and colour. The barring should be visible on the cock’s fluff, and be solid in colour throughout. Such a slightly dark cock must not, however, be mated with an ordinary-coloured hen, or the result would be still darker, and perhaps some black birds. On the other hand, with a really light hen, an occasional black tail-covert might perhaps be risked in an otherwise fine bird. Pea-combed Plymouth Rocks are bred in America. They were admittedly due to a further cross with the Brahma ; and, as in Leghorns, we deem the multiplication of such crossed varieties as a decided misfortune. In America the danger of frost-bite in winter may be some excuse. White Plymouth Rocks originated in a sport, or reversion to one of the parent colours. They are said to have arisen in the yard of a Mr. Frost, of Maine. They occasionally breed cuckoo birds, so that three-fourths white is considered a good average. Otherwise they, of course, present much fewer difficulties in breeding than the Dominique birds, save, perhaps, the old one of turning a straw colour if exposed to too much sun. In all constitutional and economic qualities they appear identical with the original Plymouth Rocks. The cross between Plymouth Rocks and Leghorn, for winter laying, has been already men- tioned on p. 429. WYANDOTTES. — This name has been given to the last imported of the American breeds, the first specimens of which were imported into England, as far as we can learn, by Mr. J. Pilling, Points and Qualities of Wyandottes. 437 of Woodside Farm, Ashton, near Chester, several years ago. The first English-bred specimens appear to have been exhibited at the Staffordshire Agricultural Show in 1884, by Mr. T. C. Heath. Since then the stock has spread into many various hands. They appear to have been mentioned in American poultry journals, however, as far back as about 1873, under the name of American Sebrights, or Sebright Cochins ; at least the birds then figured, and described, appear nearly the same as those now in question. Much unprofitable speculation as to the origin of these fowls is practically set at rest by the early nomenclature. That they were based upon Asiatics is proved both by their early name, and by the tell-tale yellow leg ; but it is believed that the modern birds were produced from Light Brahmas. For the rest, it has been said the lacing was got from the Sebright Bantam ! It is far more likely the Polish was employed, to which it is known the Sebright itself owes its marking, and which has evidently imparted the tender flesh and plump breast. The general appearance of the original silver -laced Wyandottes is shown in the illustration. Apart from the plumage, the breed has a decided character different from all others, though some of the points do not seem as yet fully understood by English breeders. Thus, the comb has often been described as that of a Ham- burgh ; but this is not so. It is a rose- comb, ending in a spike ; but it should be much smaller, and specially narrower, than a Hamburgh comb, and the back end and spike should curve downwards parallel to the curve of the top of the head. This comb is as typical of the breed as that of early American wyandottes. a Brahma. The general shape is nearest that of a Brahma, but with more rotundity and fulness of breast than usual in that breed, and the whole form very compact, with shortish medium, bright yellow, clean legs. The tail is longer and more full than in modern Brahmas, though some of our own original Brahmas pos- sessed as much ; it is glossy black, and carried flowing, neither squirrel-fashion nor low, and the saddle should fill up a handsome curve in both sexes, as in the Langshan : saddle not nearly so full as in other Asiatics. In regard to colour, there is one general ideal— as clear as possible white in ground colour, every feather laced as evenly as possible with black, as in a Sebright Bantam (see feathers of that breed). The cock’s hackles are white, striped with black. The ear-lobes should be bright red, and any white or yellow is deemed a serious fault. Economically, all experience places the Wyandotte very high, at least at present. It has the hardiness of all recently “made” breeds, lays very early and well, feathers and matures quickly, and is a fairly good table-fowl ; we say “fairly ” good, because many people will not admire a bird with yellow skin, while this identical yellow skin is in America considered besc of all. It has good breast and wings, and not large drumsticks, any way. The hen is a capital sitter and mother, usually content with once a year. The eggs are tinted, from the Brahma descent. The pullets often lay at five months old. According to the American standard, cocks should not be less than eight and a half pounds and hens six and a half pounds ; young birds a pound less. A breed like this has supplied a distinct gap in existing poultry classes, giving a large 438 The Illustrated Book of Poultry. fowl with admirably useful qualities, combined with the beautiful laced marking, and a handsome shape. It very rapidly became popular, and a club for it was formed ; but it was found, and is still found, a very difficult fowl to breed fairly true. We have seen many yards, and can only describe the average produce of nearly all, before weeding, as awful — sooty, smutty, cloudy, splashea and mottled birds, which looked the veriest mongrels, and fairly laced birds being few and far between. Only a very few did better in the earlier stages, and even the first classes were poor spectacles. For this there were several reasons. Good lacing is difficult to breed at the best ; even old-established Sebrights being only kept up by skilful selection. The Wyandottes were so recently compounded that this difficulty was felt ten-fold. Then, again, many yards were undoubtedly crossed with Hamburgh blood, as shown by Hamburgh combs and white eggs and more slender make ; and all such birds made it worse. Still again, many did not know exactly what to breed for ; and still more had no idea at all of the general laws according to which the special laced marking always has to be bred. And, last of all, breeders and judges both gene- rally went for a false standard, quite upsetting that established by American experience, and leading to altogether wrong mating. A few years have made a considerable difference in all these things, and it is now possible to find yards which breed a respectable number of laced specimens, and to point out the direc- tion in which breeding should be directed for this to be done. There is still a great tendency towards spangled bars in the cockerels, and spangled or crescent-feathered pullets ; all such must be rejected in breeding, also all hens pencilled, or spotted, or “ sooted ” in the centre of the feather. These measures are obvious ; but the proper means of combating the constant and general tendency to breed too light, and to produce spangled pullets with light fluff, do not seem so generally known ; and here again harm has been done by the stupid English method of “ matching ” for a pen. Hence cockerels have been selected with breasts laced as much like pullet-lacing as possible. Such birds may be exhibited, but they are not fit for breed- ing ; and if this matching be persisted in, the sexes will have to be bred from different pens, which is a great pity with such a breed as this. The American matching is quite different, and follows the true breeding requirements. In that standard the cock’s breast is not laced like the hen’s, but is much darker, being defined as black, with only medium-sized white centre, tapering to a point , in other words, the lacing is so broad and large as to cover all but the centre of the feather. It is these darker-breasted cockerels which breed good chickens, of course seeing that the white ground is as sharp and clear as possible, the boundary of black and white being sharp, and not clouded or shaded together. But besides this, birds must be selected which are dark in the hinder fluff, which should be only slightly powdered with grey, not a silvery colour. And finally, the under-fluff of the plumage must be studied, and breeders selected from those which are a slaty-grey, and not white in the under-colour. This peculiarity of breeding is doubtless derived from the Brahma descent, and is very important. A great deal of English breeding, and even the first adopted “standard,” is further wrong in selecting hens with back, and even cushion, laced the same as on the breast. This leads to white in tail on the one hand, and breasts only crescent-marked or spangled on the other. The back and saddle should be laced considerably heavier, particularly the latter. This being the true method of breeding, other difficulties will still have to be encountered • for this proper selection of what we may call “ dark ” blood will bring out its own tendencies to spots and splashes and peppering over the body of the feather. These must be guarded against by steadfastly rejecting as breeders all but clear-grounded birds. But not only is this a com- paratively simple and clear task, but this particular difficulty in breeding is much the least of the Gold ex Wyandottes. 439 two. As long as solid lacing is kept up, though the ground may tend to be spotted or sooty, the breeder has something to work upon ; but once lose the lacing itself, and the marking is gone. This latter result is what much of the prevalent breeding of Wyandottes constantly tends to do ; and whilst it is continued no real progress can be made. We have laid stress on these points, because they seem little understood in England, and, if they are not attended to, the difficulty of breeding Wyandottes will be vastly increased, and there will be great danger of losing all its useful qualities in keeping up the marking. That danger must be considerable in any case. The hardiness and prolificacy of the fowl are largely due to the recent crossing which created it, and which is also the cause of its erratic breeding. To overcome this, and produce some uniformity in the most difficult marking of all to breed, will in any case demand severe selection, which will more and more tend to be made for marking alone, irrespective of useful qualities. We have seen the result already in many strains of Leghorns, which are now worthless compared with what this breed originally was as a laying fowl ; and by the time the Wyandotte is made as definite in marking as a Sebright, even by legitimate breeding, we shall feel veiy great anxiety as to what will have become of its hardiness and prolificacy. But these difficulties will be enormously increased if a false standard of matching be allowed to prevail. We make these statements and give this advice with the greatest deliberation and con- fidence, and after attentive consideration of the largest Wyandotte classes. We have, of course, no experience of Wyandottes themselves to set against that of breeders who have acted or who still think differently ; but we have to guide us an amount of attention to the subject of poultry marking in the two sexes, and careful comparative study of it, which has probably never been bestowed by any one else ; and in the case of lacing, all our experience goes to establish what we have here insisted on, as a general law. It is the case in Polish, the best and most established other laced breed we have, and in which the cock’s breast has to be more heavily laced than the hen’s ; and the tendency also appears in Sebrights, and has to be kept down by contra-selection for the show-pen. As Sebrights have nothing but marking to recommend them, it does not much matter in their case ; but in a breed which has really good qualities, defiance of Nature’s general laws would be lamentable ; and it is because we think the Wyandotte worth preserving, that we emphasise these remarks. It does not follow that the dark breast need to be quite the character or degree of the American standard, or that the white spot, for instance, should end in a point. On such a question we do not pro- nounce. But heavier lacing on the cock's breast , so that the black predominates, especially at the top and throat ; and also heavier lacing on the cushion of the hen— this we would strono-lv uro-e upon the practice of breeders and the consideration of judges. Golden Wyandottes were, we believe, first imported by M. Geffcken, about three years after the Silvers. For the following remarks upon them we are indebted to Mr. J. Penfold Field, one of their most enthusiastic admirers : — “ The general characteristics and markings of a standard Gold should be, with the exception of ground colour, identically the same as that of a Silver. But in England this is not the case, for it is rare indeed to see a really standard Silver female, and next to impossible to find a Silver male at any one of our exhibitions that is anything approaching standard form. Now, in comparing the two varieties it would be palpably unfair to take selections from all the Silvers in England in order to compare them against the Goldens ; for I do not think I am far out when I say the proportion of Silvers to Golds in this country cannot be far short of a thousand to one. But a fair comparison I suggest would be to take a mating from the best strain of Silvers, and likewise one from the best strain of Goldens ; breed them ; and the result, I will 440 The Illustrated Book of Poultry. confidently say, will be in favour of the Golds, and they will be found to produce a much larger proportion of both males and females of full standard form. Of course we get a very large number of faulty Goldens, but considering the short existence they have had, they will very favourably compare with many an older breed. Taking the two varieties as they ought to be, the only difference is in ground colour, which in the Golden variety must be of a bright rich gold. Bay is not the correct colour, and however much some breeders may admire the bay, it is clearly not golden , and therefore wrong. Gold has only one colour, and the nearer we can approach to that the better should we be pleased. To judge this ground colour properly we must of course take the breasts of the respective sexes, this being the only section they have in common. The markings or lacing are black as in the Silvers; the fluff being powdered with gold instead of grey. In the males, perhaps the only section in colour which needs special notice is the wing-bow. This, in most of the specimens yet seen, is found to be of a dark claret colour. This may be, and is undoubtedly, a very handsome shade, but is hardly consistent with a perfect ‘ Golden ’ male. The best male bird I have ever seen has a bright golden-red wing-bow, which is undoubtedly the correct colour. So long as markings are good, the brighter the gold the better the bird must be considered. White in tail is a failing of Golden Wyandottes equally as with Silvers. “This is all I need say as to colour ; but although the two varieties should be similar in other respects, they unfortunately are not ; the differences being very noticeable in comb and symmetry. In these sections the comparison is greatly in favour of the newer variety. We find them with smaller, neater, and altogether more typical combs — most of them (however faulty) showing a natural tendency to follow the bend of the head and neck ; the combs of the Silvers, in marked contrast, following the Dorking or Hamburgh type, full of deep, coarse work ; heavy, cumbersome, and ugly. I say this generally, and not in respect of individual specimens. In shape the ‘ Golds ’ take an easy lead, there being very little amiss in this point ; but in Silvers we frequently see loose, long-backed, long-necked, long-legged, unwieldy birds winning at first-class shows. A truly sym- metrical Wyandotte should be blocky, round and deep, with short, broad, and flat back ; whereas the general run of them are long, narrow, and round in this last section. “ The laws for mating Silvers also apply to Goldens, the correct mating being ‘ like to like,’ that is, medium males to medium females, allowing for difference in sexes.” We have already said, that many of the Silver Wyandottes in England are obviously crossed with the Hamburgh ; whether done here or not we cannot tell. To this cause is owing, in all pro- bability, the inferiority of general type above spoken of, in comparison with the Golds. We have only one further remark to make respecting Mr. Field’s notes, and that is as regards selection for breeding. It was our first impression on reading them, that he differed from our views on mating as expressed on p. 438, and intended to imply that both sexes should be selected of similar marking. We were very glad to discover that this was not so ; and that in the final words he meant to imply precisely the heavier lacing in the cock which we have pointed out as necessary ; and entirely agrees, on seeing it in type, with all we have said on the subject. In Golds also, therefore, it is to be understood that the same rules apply, and that much deeper lacing will have to be chosen for the breast of the cock, and also the cushion of the hen, if anything like uniform breeding is to be maintained. This is for the same reason, that such is natural to the marking , and is the real “ like to like” of Nature herself. White Wyandottes. — Every pen of this breed we have ever seen in England, betrayed only too plainly its origin in a cross with the White Dorking: pale legs, comb, shape — all were there. But there are said to be true birds ; and, indeed, true white sports are quite possible. The comb and Black J a vas. 441 carriage will be the chief preservatives against the imposition of mere crosses, and the variety should, in all but colour, conform to the ordinary Wyandotte standards. Of course, the difficulty of marking will not be encountered in this breed, which is to be regarded as simply a white fowl with the economic qualities of the Wyandotte. In this case the under-fluff also should be white. At the date on our title-page there cannot be said to be any “accepted” standard for judging Wyandottes. That first adopted by the English club is seriously faulty in several respects, as is now known to all the best breeders of the fowl, and as will be seen from the foregoing remarks. That given presently is therefore drawn up by ourselves, from our own study and judgment, and after careful examination of the classes for several years, being chiefly based upon the American standard. It at least describes what the fowl ought to be, if it is to be preserved to us ; and we have some hope, judging from the results of our taking a similar course in regard to Leghorns and some other cases, that this schedule may do good service for a time, and effect some im- provement in breeding and judging. If it shall then pave the way for something more definite and authoritative, we shall gladly adopt the latter in its place into future editions of these pages. BLACK JAVAS. — It is in many respects very strange that so attractive and useful a fowl as the Black Java should have been known in America from such an early date, and yet only lately have attracted any particular attention. It is described in Dr. Bennett’s and other American poultry books from 1850 onwards, and some eighteen or twenty years later, undoubtedly shared in the production of the Plymouth Rock ; but we cannot hear of any being imported into England before 1885. In that year pens were obtained by Mr. Pettipher and several other fanciers ; but for several years later the breed was hardly to be seen at any of the shows, and even up to the date of this, is rarely met with in exhibition. We know the stock to be making way, however, in many quarters, and growing in popularity ; and as the fowl appears a very distinct and useful one, peculiarly adapted for many individuals whose opportunities are limited, we hope it may become popular and widely spread. The Black Java is a handsome and very “distinctive” fowl. ' It is of the large type, the cocks reaching 10 lbs. and the hens 8 lbs., but good average weights in this country (so far) have been a pound less than this. The plumage is close, of a very glossy black all over, with green reflections. The legs are black also, with generally a yellow shade under the feet, and a tendency to get rather willow with age ; but black throughout is to be preferred, and is often found. The deaf-ears are red, and there are distinctive points about both the eye and the comb ; in our own opinion, these are the most truly characteristic points of the fowl. The latter is single, rather small, but somewhat thick at the base, and in the main evenly serrated ; but the serrations commence farther behind the beak than usual, leaving a kind of smooth edge first. The desire for “ even serration ” may, perhaps, tend to breed this out ; but we have found it so often, in different strains, and so characteristic, that we sincerely hope it may be recognised as the typical and proper “Java comb,” and so preserved. The eye stands alone, so far as we have observed, except in a few Langshans. It is brown, very large and full, and of a peculiarly soft ani yet sprightly expression, difficult to describe. The body of the fowl should be full and deep the legs only medium in length, the cock’s tail rather full and flowing, but not squirrel-fashion the accompanying illustration of a pair of chickens, from the Fancier's Gazette , shows a tail not fully matured, or else not quite so full as in other specimens we have met with. There are, however, some with tails even smaller, and the point is one we have some doubt about. Asiatics as a class undoubtedly have tails which, however they vary, are smaller than those of Western breeds, 44 1 The Illustrated Book of Poultry. SUCh as Spanish, Ilamburghs, or Dorkings, and the proportion here shown may perhaps be taken as a handsome medium. I he carriage is upright, sprightly, and graceful. Economically, the Java is very hardy, and a good layer, the eggs being coloured. The meat is \ei) white and juicy, exactly resembling that of the Langshan. There is, in fact, an obvious P.I.ACK JAVAS. similarity in many respects between the two breeds, and the extreme Langshan advocates have often averred that the Langshan was probably “ one of the ancestors ” of the Black Java. It is as certain as anything can be, that if they be connected (and the occasional occurrence of the peculiar eye in Langshans is very suggestive, as also the fine bone and white meat) the exact converse is the case. We have already seen that the one fowl tends towards all sorts of types, whilst the Java appears distinct and permanent in characters; and, moreover, all inves- tigations go to show with more or less probability, that the region of India and the Archipelago was the centre from which races of poultry diverged, and not that to which they came. It is J* FAS AND OTHER AMERICAN A REEDS. 443 easy also to see how the Java might very probably have been an ancestor of the Langshan ; whilst it is impossible to see how the Langshan could have come from North China and produced the Black Java. Very probably the real progenitor of both, which produced the Langshan by alliance with the Chinese Shanghae and some other race which imparted the pink skin between the toes, is older than the Java also, which may be another of its descendants ; but it was almost certainly a clean-legged fowl, with black and not crimson legs, and with the characteristic brown eye. The peculiar front edge of the comb is a modification of the same Eastern tendency which has developed somewhat differently in the peacomb of the Indian Game and the Brahma, and sometimes of the Malay ; while it is developed still further in this direction in the scarcely ser- . rated comb of the Sonnerat jungle-fowl, and the absolutely unserrated comb of the Gallns furcatus , or wild jungle-fowl, of Java itself (see Chap, xxxii.). For the many who want a large and hardy black fowl, but prefer clean legs to the nonde- script kind of feather now affected by Langshan breeders, the Java will be suitable, and will breed more truly than the recently made Orpingtons. There is not a great deal to guard against in breeding, the combs not being liable to go twisted. Some birds will be found of an awkward carriage, sloping downwards from the shoulders — these should be discarded, and that kind of car- riage, so displeasing to English eyes, bred out. There will be also the usual tendency in black fowls not very long carefully bred, to reddish or golden hackles, the more so as the Java cock’s hackle is particularly abundant and glossy. In many of the earlier notices of the Java (the period of “the fifties” we are especially here referring to) the fowl is described as having much red in it, and only breeding has extinguished this. Beyond these points, and selecting good layers and good combs and ears, there is very little for the breeder to trouble himself about. The hens are clever sitters and good mothers, not being so heavy and clumsy as Cochins and Brahmas, and the clean legs being less apt to do mischief than the absurdly furnished shanks of the present day. Like all other black fowls, the Java “sports” occasionally into white. From some of these sports a white Java has been produced in the United States ; and from others, or by crossing these whites with the black, a mottled colour, much resembling the black-and-white of the Houdan. In economic qualities these fowls resemble the blacks ; but in our opinion such colours lose all that combination of points and tout ensemble which makes the Black Java really attractive. The peculiar gloss, especially, which the reader of Chap, xxxii. will have no difficulty in tracing to the green plumage so remarkable in the wild Gallus furcatus of Java, and which it has imparted to the Langshan (the true worshippers at whose shrine religiously call it “sheen”), is entirely lost in the white and mottled varieties. Of other breeds we can learn little that is definite, except that they are admittedly inferior to the foregoing. The Danvers White was a breed formed by crossing Buff Cochins with White Dorkings, and had a white body with yellow bare legs. It had the reputation of being a good fowl for laying and hardiness, but is little known now, the White Leghorn having superseded it. The Jersey Blues resembled Andalusians in colour, and were described as having a Dorking-shaped body, but being much hardier. We have a strong suspicion that it may have been the Andalusian fowl itself, though some stray notices we have hunted up seem rather to denote a Malay character ; the Malay, indeed, seems to have attained a general distribution and popularity in the States under various names, very different to the English estimate of this breed. The name is derived from New Jersey ; indeed, we may remark that the local names of all American breeds, except Dominiques and Leghorns, are strong testimony to their local and ephemeral character. The 444 The Illustrated Book of Poultry. Bucks County fowl, so far as we can make out, must have been very similar to, if not identical with, the Jersey Blue. That Americans should have produced so many breeds which have stood the test of time is somewhat remarkable. That in all cases they should have deliberately chosen yellow legs is also very remarkable, and in singular contrast to average British views on the points of a table fowl. We can, however, testify that many yellow-legged fowls (not all by any means) are most delicious eating ; and many ot the remarks made on the point by certain Dorking and Langshan authorities betray very slight knowdedge of the subject. In America the yellow leg xs preferred on the poulterer’s shop-table ; and we mention the matter for various practical reasons. It is not even the fact, as so often alleged, that all Cochins have yellow skins. Years ago we have partaken of white Cochins from Mrs. Heibei t s strain, which had pinky-white skins, though some of these became yellow after a few hours ; others, however, did not. The yellow-legged Brahma of the pure type possessed a pinky- white skin ; and all acquainted with the subject know that the yellow-legged Malay is frequently a very fine table fowl, as was the old-fashioned short-legged Game with yellow legs. So far as we have observed, the most general rule seems to be, that tight plumage goes with a thin and fine skin, and loose fluffy plumage with coarse skin. Hence the evil done by breeding the close-feathered Brahma to the Cochin type ; hence the benefit of breeding a black Asiatic stock to the Langshan iype. And hence we see how the Americans have, by breeding carefully for close-feathered models, founded very good table fowls even upon Cochin crosses. SCHEDULE FOR JUDGING LEGHORNS. General Characteristics of Cock. — Head and Keck — General appearance of head resembling Spanish. Beak rather long and stoat, but not heavy ; comb very large, single, perfectly straight and upright, of a handsome outside arch or curve, with serrations symmetrically formed and disposed, and free from excrescences ; wattles long, thin, and fine in texture ; face fine in texture, and nearly free from feathers ; deaf-ears well-developed and pendent, but not excessively so ; thin, smooth, free from folds, and close to the head ; neck long, well furnished with hackles, and carried upright. Body — General appearance light and active, large at shoulders, and tapering towards the tail ; back rather round, and slanting to the tail ; wings large, but tightly carried ; breast full, round, and carried forward. Legs atid Feet — Legs and thighs rather long ; shanks slender, perfectly free from feathers ; hocks clear ; toes thin and well spread. Tad — Large, with full and sweeping sickles, carried high. [Some American breeders consider the tail should be upright, or even squirrel fashion ; but we consider this spoils the fowl completely.] Size Medium, averaging about six to seven pounds. General Shape — Rather light and slender, otherwise like Spanish. Carriage— Very alert and sprightly. General Characteristics of Hen. — In all respects resembling those of the cock, with the usual sexual differences, excepting that her comb falls over to one side, hiding one side of the face. Colour of White Leghorns. — In both Sexes — Beak a bright yellow. Comb, face, and wattles, brilliant scarlet red. Deaf- ears pure soft white, resembling white kid. Eyes red or pearl (red preferable, being a better constitution, and brighter looking). Legs a brilliant yellow. Plumage all over a pure and perfect white, the straw-colour allowed in the cock by the American Standard being very objectionable. Colour of Brown Leghorns. — In both Sexes — Beak, comb, face, wattles, deaf-ears, and shanks as in White Leghorns. Eyes bright red. Colour of Cock — Head and hackle rich red, which may be striped with black towards the bottom. Back, shoulder-coverts, and wing-bow deep violet or crimson-red, occasionally with a shade of orange. Wing-coverts a rich green black, forming a bar across the wing. Primaries black, with a bay edging to lower web. Secondaries deep bay on outer web, which is all that appears when wing is closed, and black on inner web ; end of every feather black, forming a black edge to corner of the wing on upper side. Saddle red, ranging from bright red to rich deep red, with black stripes in the feathers — these not imperative. (See our previous opinion on this point.) Breast and under-parts rich deep black, free from brown splashes. Tail black, glossed with green or purple ; coverts black edged with brown. Colour of Hen — Hackle rich golden yellow striped with black, but not quite solidly. Breast a salmon-red in upper part, running off into a brownish ashy colour at the thighs. Rest of plumage a rich brown partridge-marking, or light brown covered over with minute dark marking, except the true tail-feathers, which are black (The nearer the whole colour of the hen to the proper exhibition-colour of Black-red Game the better.) Colour of Dominique Leghorns. — Ln both Sexes — Beak, comb, face, wattles, deaf-ears, eyes, and shanks same as in Brown Leghorns. Colour all over a ground of bluish -grey, each feather barred or pencilled across with bands of darker bluish - grey, approaching black. To be free from pure black, white, red, or golden feathers. Cassells Poultry Book Vmcent Brooks Day &. Son i.ith MR J W LU DLOWS PAIR OF BLACK 3rd PRIZE I N 'A N Y FRIZZLED VAR I ETY"C LASS FOWLS. AT OXFORD 1872. . . . . ■ ■ ■ ■ CHAPTER XXIX. UNCLASSED VARIETIES OF POULTRY. At nearly all poultry-shows of any standing, there is, in addition to the classes for the recognised standard breeds, one for “ Any Other New or Distinct Variety.” Many of the fowls already treated of usually appear in it, and many more did appear in it before they had won their right to have classes of their own. Brahmas first made their debut in this class ; so did French fowls ; and so do all new breeds, such as those treated of in our last chapter, which have all won prizes in this class. Cuckoo Cochins, Andalusians, Minorcas, and in general all the less known and little- prized colours of even standard breeds, have to content themselves with this “ refuge for the destitute;” but, besides these and such as these, there are several varieties more or less marked, which cannot be classed under any of the great races. Some of these are well known, appearing at nearly every show ; others are more seldom seen : out all have special characteristics more or less marked, some of them, indeed, possessing points the most peculiar and characteristic of any. Such unclassed varieties, so far as known to us, we propose to consider in the present chapter. DUMPIES. — This breed, also called Bakies, Go-laighs, and some other local names, was formerly rather a favourite in Scotland. The peculiarity of the fowl is the extreme shortness of the shanks, often not exceeding an inch and a half. The breed appears to us to be rapidly dying out, and Mr. T. Raines, of Stirling, writes us to the same effect, saying that “ they are scarcely ever seen now, though I know one or two parties that have them. They are,” he continues, “ very profitable birds, and very good for table, having, in spite of their very short legs, a large body. They have a fine single upright comb, a rather large tail with good sickles; and the colour much resembles that of the Scotch Grey, only the cock is rather lighter in colour.” We have only seen two pens of these birds for several years, both of which were very poor. In one case there were evident traces of feather on the legs, and in both the colour was more of a common brown speckle than the colour described by Mr. Raines, which is that of the Dominique or other Cuckoo fowls. The weight of the Dumpy hen should be about six pounds. It will be a pity should the breed become extinct, since its short legs and plump body, with its hardy constitution, give it evident value, even as a cross with more stilty breeds. FRIZZLED FOWLS. — These fowls are properly called by the name here given, which graphically describes the appearance of the plumage; the name ot “Friesland” fowls which is often applied to them having no foundation whatever beyond the ridiculous attempt to put the proper nomenclature into a more “ genteel” form. If any local name at all be given, that suggested by Mr. Tollemache would have decidedly the best claim, though the Frizzled fowl is found in nearly every part of the world. 2 M 446 The Illustrated Book of Poultry. In the course of many years’ experience in breeding, and intercourse with other amateurs, we have frequently met with birds, of all the Asiatic races especially, in which the neck-hackles had a tendency to twist out of the true sweeping line, towards the back of the neck, a defect well known among Cochin breeders, and less so among Brahma fanciers, as a “twisted hackle.” The fault has a strong disposition to be hereditary ; and the tendency to it is very plainly the same which, exaggerated and developed, produces the Frizzled fowl. Indeed, by selecting specimens with such twisted hackles, and breeding them together, birds partially frizzled would almost certainly be produced. Frizzled fowls occasionally vary in other characteristics, though usually presenting neat rose- combs and short dark legs. The peculiarity is in the plumage, every feather being curled back in the wrong direction, as if the bird had been roughly stroked the wrong way, and presenting a most grotesque appearance. The tail-feathers are not, of course, thus re-curved, but the webs are loose and disconnected. The most usual colour shown in this country is white, but we have seen very handsome brown or rather partridge-coloured specimens, and also black. The last colour is to our fancy the handsomest of all, and we have accordingly selected it for illustration in the plate, which renders the birds to the life, all previous illustrations of this breed which we have seen being the merest caricatures. Frizzled fowls have the general reputation of being delicate and rather susceptible to cold or wet, but it is singular that most people who have actually kept and bred the fowl for any length of time are of a different opinion, as are persons who reside where it is indigenous. Mrs. Taylor, of Ardgillan Castle, Balbriggan, Ireland, who has kept this breed for many years, has kindly sent the following : — “ I have kept White Frizzled fowls now for seven or eight years, and think them a most useful and profitable variety. They are always the first to lay in the autumn, which I attribute to their early moulting — my poultry-woman writes me from home that they are all featherless already (June ioth). They are also excellent mothers, and from their feathers being nothing but fluff, they always seem to keep their eggs warmer than other hens when sitting. “ They have a very marked power to reproduce their peculiarities — the turned-back feather and rose-comb — even when several times crossed with other breeds I have also remarked that although the parent birds in my pure-bred runs are all white, a jet-black chicken has often been produced ; which fact, and the observations of Captain Tollemache in the Mauritius, lead me to believe that the Black is not ar. original variety. “ The first I ever possessed came from a farmer in Westmeath, and at that time they were common both in that county and in Cavan. I have since tried to obtain some from that locality, but they are nearly extinct, and I could not meet with any true-bred specimens. My first birds were not pure white, but each feather had a very delicate pencilling of grey, which Captain Tollemache states is the general colour of the Mozambique fowl in the Mauritius. By always selecting the whitest birds, my stock is now pure white, but a black chick still occasionally appears. “ I consider them the most valuable fowls I possess. They are excellent for the table, and even a hen two years old gives very white meat, and much more tender than that of any other variety. The smallness of their bones also makes them desirable for the table. They seldom or never want to sit, and are, to my taste, very ornamental. They are very hardy, and the chicks easily reared. They are slow in feathering, and therefore require to run along with the hen, but, on the other hand, there is no harbour for vermin.” Temminck states that the Frizzled fowl is found throughout Southern Asia, Java, Sumatra, 447 Japanese Long-Tailed Fowls. and the Philippines. It is also common in Ceylon (where it is said, however, to have been brought from Batavia), and we have heard of it in the West Indies, to which it is scarcely likely to have been exported. In some old descriptions it is evidently confounded with the Silky fowl, with which it has, however, no connection whatever. In breeding these fowls perfection and neatness in the frizzled plumage must of couise be the chief point in choosing stock birds, colour being preserved or modified in the ordinary way. JAPANESE LONG-TAILED FOWLS. — About the year 1878 there appeared in Germany, and a year or two later in England, fovds imported from Japan, whose principal peculiarity YOKOHAMA FOWLS. consisted in an immense length of tail and hackle feathers. Some of these were exhibited as Yokohamas ; others, said to be superior in these points, were called “Phoenix” fovds. Herr Hugo du Roi, in Brunswick, Herr Wichmann, in Hamburgh, and the Baroness Ulm-Erbach, appear to have received distinct importations, offshoots from which came into the possession of M. Pierre de Roo, in Paris, and of Messrs. Fowler and others, in England ; but careful comparison of the representations published, and of numerous photographs and drawings which reached us direct from the Continent, failed to show any real distinction, beyond greater or less development of the peculiar plumage. The tails of these specimens averaged about a yard in length, and the general appearance was not only that of a Game fowl, but all the colours were Game colours — Whites, Piles, Duckwings, and later a few Black-reels. The long plumage was, however, unique, and a fair idea of it may be gathered from the illustration. Correspondence in the poultry journals brought out the fact that such birds had been occasionally exhibited as Japanese Game so far back as about 1872. But it further appeared that 448 The Illustrated Book of Poultry. in the Japanese Great National Museum at Tokio there were preserved two specimens of an allied race, in which the tail-feathers measure thirteen and a half feet and seventeen feet respectively ! and a feather has been actually sent to France which measures two metres eighty-five centimetres in length. In 1884, Mr. Gerald Waller, of Twywell, imported a pen of these birds ; and from his statements we gather that they are known in Japan as Shinowaratao, Shirifuzi, or Sakawatao fowls, and other various names. He says the very long-tailed ones are kept in high narrow cages, always sitting on a perch covered with straw rope, with no room to turn or get down, but with a food and water tin at each end of the perch. Three times daily they are lifted down for a few minutes’ exercise, their tails being care- fully rolled up in paper cases to keep them from injury! The Japanese state that a tail has been measured twenty-three feet in length, and that the birds only moult the tail once in three years. This last statement is highly interesting. It is obvious that if a tail twenty-three feet long were grown in one year, it must be at the rate of nearly three-quarters of an inch per day ; and though Madame Bodinus states that she could see the tails “grow daily,” it is difficult to realise this ; but experience will soon decide the point. The birds which have reached Europe have never yet exceeded five or six feet in length of feather, which is not beyond the possibility of a single season, though it appears of an enormous length. The saddle-hackles of Mr. Waller’s birds are sixteen inches in length ; but it is manifest that such enormous feathers as reported from Japan could never be preserved under the ordinary conditions of an English poultry-yard. The feathers are not only long, but extremely narrow and flexible, trailing low after the birds. Our own conviction is, that there is really but one race of these fowls, which in its purity and perfection is difficult to procure, but of which inferior or crossed specimens are less rare, and have thus been imported from time to time. Mr. Waller was told that even in Japan tails over six feet in length were very rare. We believe that if cultivated successfully in Europe, judging will have to be decided almost entirely by the development of the tail and hackle plumage, and would accordingly argue strongly for simplicity and unity of nomenclature. “ Phoenix ” is vague and meaningless ; and as nearly all the birds came from the port of Yokohama, we do not know that a much better name than Yokohamas could be found. But in any case, we would urge one name only. Much of the Continental stock has been raised from a cross with English Game ; but even this stock may have to be used if the strain is to be kept from perishing. For these fowls appear to be very delicate, especially as chickens, and the eggs are far from fertile at present. This is hardly to be wondered at in any stock kept under such extraordinarily unnatural conditions as we have seen. NAKED NECKS. — By this name is known a curious variety imported from Austria, and in which the feathers are entirely absent from the neck, the head being feathered as usual. The effect is peculiar, but most unpleasant. There is nothing fixed about the birds otherwise, the last pair we saw having the cock feathered and the hen bare-legged, and the plumage that of the commonest barn-door mongrel type. An amateur who had travelled in Transylvania (the home of these fowls) told us there was a tradition their origin had been from a bird injured by a severe scald on the neck, which had caused utter loss of plumage, which was afterwards transmitted. We only give the legend for what it is worth. ORPINGTONS. — In the preceding chapter several instances have been given of new and useful races of poultry produced in America, expressly and avowedly by breeding from the produce of crosses between pre-existing races. The fowl known under the present name SlNGL E- C OMB ED ORPINGTONS. 449 is noteworthy, in addition to whatever good qualities it may possess, as being the only example so far. of any such attempt in England, with perhaps one partial exception. Some years ago Mr. Howard exhibited for two years in succession at Birmingham the results of an attempt to establish what he called a “farmyard” breed, under the name of “ Tankervilles.” These birds were founded on a cross between black-red Game and Partridge Cochins, and the plumage was of remarkable beauty ; but though hardy, the birds were not specially good from an economic point of view, and have since died out. Mr. Gabb also exhibited a few years since, in the Any Variety class, some Langshan cross-breds ; but these were too obviously merely raw crosses, and nothing further appeared to have been done with them. The Orpington remains the only new race which has been sufficiently bred to fix its properties in some degree, as well as produce them in the first place. The breed has been named from the little Kentish town which was at the time the residence of Mr. W. Cook, its originator, now of Orpington House, St. Mary Cray. The following notes are from his pen, and we are also indebted to him for the illustrations. It only seems desirable to preface to his own remarks that, according to other articles in various journals, the method employed by him in producing the Orpington was first to breed crosses between large Minorca cocks and black sports of the Plymouth Rocks (generally hens, as already observed). Selected pullets thus produced were bred with clean-legged Langshan cockerels ; and subsequent breeding was directed to selection, provision of unrelated strains, and fixing. “ These birds,” writes Mr. Cook, “ have become very popular during the three and a half years they have been before the public, and classes are now provided for them at all the leading shows : the Crystal Palace, Dairy, Birmingham, &c. They are the result of crossing the three best breeds which we possess : viz., the Plymouth Rock, Langshan, and Black Minorcas. My endeavour was to produce a breed which combines all the good qualities found in these several breeds. The Plymouth Rock have yellow skins; unless the stock are selected to avoid this. A yellow cast on the skin is only natural to them. They lay brown or tinted eggs, and are winter layers ; but it is somewhat difficult to produce true specimens from them, even when the greatest care is be- stowed. To breed good-coloured birds it is necessary to have two breeding pens, one for pullet and the other for cockerel breeding ;* and this is also the case with several other varieties if well- marked fowls are desired, to be fit for exhibition. This makes it very difficult for those who can- not afford to keep more than one pen. A fowl which has more than one colour in it is much more difficult to breed true than a self-coloured bird. The Black Orpington fills up the vacancy there has been in the poultry world. The Plymouth Rock has come the nearest to all-round requirements ; but this breed has several disadvantages where the Orpingtons have the advan- tage. They have white skin and flesh, the latter being very fine ; they eat much the same as the Dorking ; feather and grow faster the first six weeks, and are easier to breed true to colour ; are shorter on the legs, lay rather more eggs, and are not so liable to become fat internally ; neither are they such inveterate sitters as the Rocks. I have been asked by many to bring out a breed which would make a good table fowl and lay brown or tinted eggs, free from feathers on the legs, and plumage a colour that will not show the dirt, for town use : one that will stand confinement and lay through the winter months. The Orpingtons possess these qualities, and they have been found to answer my description in every detail by all who have tried them. “ The Americans have been well repaid for their trouble in producing new breeds • the sums * Some remarks on this head have been made on p. 436, where it has been shown that this is veiy much the result oi English methods. The Illustrated Book or Poultry. 45o chat have been paid by English fanciers to them having been enormous. I have done what is unusual with poultry-breeders : always made known how I have made the breed. They must commend themselves to anyone who has studied the qualities of the various breeds. The Minorcas are noted for their excellent spring and summer laying ; but if they have good attention and are well sheltered from the cold winds, they will frequently surpass the other so-called hardier breeds when the snow is on the ground. Their combs are large, and occasionally get frost-bitten. The ROSE-COMBED ORPINGTON COCK. Plymouth Rocks are good fowls, especially the black ones, although these should not be used to produce the Grey Rock ; if so, it brings them a smutty colour, although they are usually the best layers. Then there are the Langshans. These have such a splendid gloss upon their plumage, and they are extraordinary layers, especially in autumn and winter. They will often lay while going through their moult, which is unusual for any birds to do. “ It is always much easier to breed good pullets than cockerels in any new breed ; but being black in colour, Orpingtons are easy to breed. They are very hardy as chickens, feather well, and grow fast ; they can be reared in confined spaces, and do well in an open run ; they answer every purpose. If kept for show purposes, they will pay well, as they are such good winter layers; or if required for table purposes, they are very satisfactory, being of an excellent flavour, and the breast-meat white. The eggs are brown and tinted, not large, but a good average size — eggs saleable in town or country. The birds fatten up very quickly for table when young. Rose-Combed Orpingtons. 45i “A few of the cockerels may come a little splashed in the hackles and saddle feathers, dl liable to appear in all black breeds, more or less, and especially in a newly-raised breed. Some- times there is not one chicken in a brood which shows a coloured feather. The plumage is ve y glossy in both sexes, but more particularly in the cock. The sheen should be much the sam colour as that of a good Langshan ; single combs, evenly serrated in both sexes, standing erect in the cock, not large but neat ; red face and ear-lobes, black or dark legs, not too long, white toe ROSE-COMBED ORPINGTON HEN. nails, four toes on each foot, well spread out from each other. The hen’s comb may fall a little to one side if it is evenly serrated and without folds in it. “ The Rose-combed Orpingtons are very much like the single-combed Orpingtons in shape and colour, but have a rose comb ; I do not hesitate to say that this variety stands right away from all other breeds in appearance. It is the only breed out which is black in colour, that has a rose comb, except the Black Hamburgh, this latter being a small bird with white ear-lobes. The Rose-combed Orpingtons are free from white in the ear-lobes, and, being large birds with rose combs, the demand for them is very great. There are always a number of people to take up a fresh variety of fowls, more especially if it is likely to be a profitable one. This variety I have brought out will well repay those fanciers who speculate in it. It is my wish to be plain in writing of this breed, and not to lead people astray, and, as I have referred to their good 452 The Illustrated Book of Poultry. qualities, I will point out their failings. The question which will be asked by most of my readers is — Is this variety really any better than the Orpington, and if so, where does the advantage come in ? Firstly, a fancier or lover of fowls usually likes something different from his neighbour, more especially if eggs can be collected daily during the winter months for breakfast ; and this can be done by those who keep the Rose-combed Orpingtons, for they stand far before other varieties as winter layers. Their eggs are somewhat small, but are brown in colour. “ I have told my readers how I raised the single-combed Orpingtons, so that those who felt inclined might set to work and breed them ; and I will now show how the rose-combed variety was formed. Many years ago there were some Langshans with a rose comb imported into this country ; their having a rose comb was merely a sport of nature in the first place. I very much admired them, and began to breed from them. Whenever there was one imported I bought it, if possible. In a few cases our English breeders of Langshans have produced the same sports of nature, and these have usually fallen into my hands, and I used them in forming this new breed. I mated them with the same two breeds in the same way as I did by the single-combed Orping- ton, only I used the Langshans that came with the rose comb. These birds were not a recognised breed, and, had I not utilised them, would have had their heads cut off. I have five strains ; so that fresh blood is obtainable to go on with for some years. The pullets breed very true to colour : I have not had more than two mismarked in every hundred the last two years ; but occasionally one may come with feathered legs. The cockerels do not breed so true, as they often throw coloured feathers in the neck, hackles, and saddle. Therefore, good coloured cocks are valuable. Sometimes not one cock or pullet in three or four broods will come without the rose comb, and then you may get two with single combs in one brood. I mention this, so that those who go in for them may not be disappointed if all the birds do not come like the illustrations given. “ Although the eggs are rather small, they are very saleable on account of their brown colour. The birds are not non-sitters. They make excellent sitters and mothers ; at the same time they are easily put off from broodiness if shut from the nest, and come on laying again in a few days. As chickens they are very hardy, and can be brought up in cold and damp places, and many of them will lay when they are six months old. They fledge well, and rapidly grow into good table birds, their flesh and skin being whiter than that of any other breed of fowls. They stand confinement well, both as chicks and grown-up birds, and they cannot be put in the wrong place. As layers, they have beaten all other breeds in the autumn and winter months. Their colour is right for a town, as they are black, and they always look nice, as they do not show the dirt. I can strongly recommend them as the best all-round fowl in regard to the number of eggs laid, whether they are kept in a confined town run or a grass field, and at the same time one of the handsomest fowls in existence. “ It is not necessary for me to dwell long on the different points. Their plumage should be black throughout, both cock and hen ; both with rose combs set close to the head, with a small peak at the back, and the neater it is the better ; red face, red ear-lobes, black or hazel eyes, black nicely-curved beak, black legs, and white toe-nails. The cock’s tail should be made up with very fine hanging feathers on each side, with a brilliant metallic green on them. The tail should be carried fairly well back ; carried too near the neck is a fault. A brilliant gloss should always be aimed at in mating these birds. If a cock have a large comb, mate him with hens that are deficient in size of combs, and if the hens lack gloss, mate them with a cock that has a few red feathers in his hackles, as this will bring the gloss up very much in the pullets produced. When first hatched the chickens should be black on the back and white underneath, and are usually pale in the legs, which darken as the birds grow and fledge.” Orpingtons and Langshans. 453 It will be seen that the Orpington, whilst of similarly complex origin to the Plymouth Rock and Wyandotte, is of much later date ; and its establishment is therefore still a question to some extent speculative. Its economic qualities are readily obtained by suitable crosses ; but the fixity of external characters is less easy, and, it will be seen above, is by no means accomplished as yet. There are some special difficulties in the way. Our experience has almost always been that in any Asiatic crosses the Asiatic tends to predominate ; and hence no doubt the rapid reversion to the smaller, tinted egg, in all Langshan-Minorca crosses. But in this case, we have the double cross ; and we have already seen that while it is certain the Black Java was a progenitor of the Plymouth Rock, it probably was also of the Langshan. In choosing black Rocks, Mr. Cook was choosing the strongest reversions to the Java type ; and what with this, and the Langshan, the Orpington could hardly do otherwise than revert most strongly to the Asiatic element, as shown by the smaller combs, lustre, and smaller tinted egg. In many Orpington classes we have seen fowls barely distinguishable from clean-legged Langshans. Even so, such birds stood very clearly apart whilst the persistent attempt was made to maintain the stilty, squirrel-tailed type of Langshan ; but since the shorter-legged and fuller-breasted type has won the day, the distinction has greatly lessened between the two, apart from clean legs, which could be bred in Langshans easily. We have no doubt whatever that the Orpington has had its share in bringing about the acceptance of a medium-shanked type of Langshan. These facts make careful breeding all the more necessary if the breed is be preserved, and finally added to the recognisea distinct varieties of poultry. For this reason chiefly, and also according to views already expressed in the last chapter, as to the inadvisability of multiplying mere trivial or fancy varieties, in races whose claims rest chiefly on economic qualities, we would strongly urge the concentration of Orpington breeding into the rose-combed variety, as most dis- tinctive. However this may be, there can be no question that the points in which the fowl is superior to the average run of Langshans should be carefully cultivated ; we refer chiefly to the shorter legs, and broader and more prominent breast. As we remarked of the Rocks, an Orpington without these points has absolutely no justification for existence. There is no fear but that red feathers will practically disappear in time ; there is far more fear that the type may be lost in the Langshan as regards points like these, and it is also very desirable that the size of the egg should be kept up. The difficulty as regards both is connected with the adoption of the smaller comb, the breeding out of which has a strong tendency to breed out the larger egg and other Minorca elements, in favour of the Asiatic type generally. Proper care may perhaps prevent this, and it is also probable that judicious selection for a few generations from the hens which lay the largest eggs, in the largest batches, might improve that point materially. On the whole, however, we are disposed to think that the strength of the double Asiatic cross may need to be counteracted by a greater portion of Minorca blood than has generally been employed. An Orpington cock of the type represented is a most noble-looking fowl, and all that can be desired as a table fowl, barring the prejudice against black legs. We may remark that the sweep and general outline closely resemble that of Mr. Thomson’s type of Langshan as first noticed by us at Birmingham, and referred to in a previous chapter ; but those birds had less breast ; indeed, so prominent a breast would only be seen in an adult Orpington, fed up for exhibi- tion or the table. PTARMIGANS, rather commonly shown some years ago, but scarcely ever seen now, were degenerate descendants from some former importation of Sultans. Like them, they were pure white, crested, bearded, feather-legged, and vulture-hocked ; but, unlike them, stood remarkably 454 T he Illustrated Bools of Poultry. hi^h on the leg, which gave them a different carriage and appearance altogether. They were small in bod) if anything, rather smaller than Sultans — and very delicate in constitution. It is probably to this cause their disappearance is due. RUMP LESS FOWLS. — A race of fowls without tails, and which breeds thus with great certainty, has been known for some hundreds of years. Messrs. Wingfield and Johnson’s original edition of the “ Poultry Book,” published in 1853, gives the following excellent summary of the accounts by the older naturalists : — This is the Gallns ecaudatus , or Tailless Fowl, of the naturalist Temminck, and the Gallina canda seu uropygio carens, or Fowl without a Tail or Rump, of Linnaeus. It is the Rumpless or Persian Cock of Latham, and the Rumpkin of others. This variety was known to Aldrovandus two centuries and a half ago, and he calls it the Persian fowl. PPis specimens only appear to have differed from those which we have seen in having a black plumage variously marked with yellow. Sonini and Temminck state that it is a native of the Ceylon forests, and is called by the natives ll allikikilh , or Cock of the Woods. This however is denied by Mr. E. L. Layard, brother of the explorer of Nineveh. Writing from Ceylon in 1850, he says, ‘The Rumpless fowl is not a wild inhabitant of this island, in spite of Temminck. It is a rather rare tame introduction from China, I am told. It may appear like boasting, but I can confidently say I am more acquainted with the Ceylon fauna than any man living, and that if the bird had existed wild I must have seen it. Waliikikidi is the name for the female of G alius Stauleyi, meaning literally, Walli, “jungle,” and kikilli , hen. The name of the Rumpkin is Choci-kukullo , literally Cochin fowls’ ( Gardeners' Chronicle , 1851, page 619). The Rev. J. Clayton, in the Philosophical Transactions for 1693, page 992, says that he observed in Virginia that the hens and cocks were for the most part without tails; adding that he was assured that our English hens after some time lose their rumps. Buffon inconsiderately accepted this as truth, and even Dr. Latham seems not to have felt certain of its being untrue.” I he illustration on the next page represents a pair of Rumpless birds which were exhibited under the name of Wallikiki fowls (evidently a corruption of the Ceylon word mentioned above), at the Zoological Gardens of Paris some years ago. It is somewhat strange that certain localities should have become marked for the abundance of fowls thus singularly distinguished. Absurd as Mr. Clayton’s tale was of English fowls losing their appendages after a while, there is no reason whatever to doubt that he was correct in his account so far as regarded the mere abundance of Rumpless fowls in Virginia, and we met ourselves very recently with strikingly similar testimony ; for returning from the Crystal Palace Poultry Show of 1872, in company with a West Indian gentleman who had been down to see it, he informed us that the greater number of the fowls in his neighbourhood had no tails. The tailless feline race of the Isle of Man is well known, and furnishes a strikingly analogous case in point. Rumpless fowls are not only destitute of tail-feathers, but it is found on plucking that the caudal projection, irreverently denominated by many carvers “the parson’s nose,” and from which the tail grows, is utterly wanting ; while on still further investigation by dissection it is discovered that even the spine itself is deficient in the final vertebrae. These peculiarities have become so strongly fixed by long descent, that a Rumpless fowl crossed with any other almost always produces a vast majority of Rumpless chickens. Hence, given a purely-bred Rumpless fowl, and it is easy to establish a Rumpless breed of any character which may be desired ; and by this means Rumpless Polish, Rumpless Bantams, &c., have been produced. These cross-bred birds, however, are far less certain to reproduce their kind. WALLIKIKI FOWLS IN THE PARIS ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS, 456 The Illustrated Book of Poultry . 1 he true Rumpless fowl itself, however, does not appear to have any fixed type beyond the peculiarity from which it takes its name. Both rose and single combs are met with, and all colours. 1 he size is generally rather small, averaging perhaps some five pounds in the cocks and four pounds in the hens, but still smaller are very common. The cocks possess true hackles both in neck and saddle, the saddle-feathers in both sexes being curled over downwards, giving a most peculiar appearance. Owing to this peculiar formation of the saddle, the eggs of the Rumpless fowls are frequently unprolific, but by “ moulting ” some of the saddle-feathers of the hen this drawback can be removed, and the produce will be found as satisfactory as usual. As a rule the birds are hardy. The handsomest Rumpless fowls ever seen in England were exhibited by Mr. Henry Higgs, of Lewes, under the name of Gondooks, at the Birmingham Show many years back, being purchased by Miss Bush, of Clifton. Mr. Hewitt has kindly given the following description of these remarkable fowls, which he states to have made an indelible impression upon his mind : — “ They were,” he says, “ small fowls, not larger than a Pencilled Hamburgh, but thoroughly black ; Dorking-toed, black- legged, booted, falcon-hocked, rumpless, crested like Creves, and bearded. These fowls stood as upright as the Penguin duck, in fact as erect as a hawk, yet were singularly lively in their motions, and though strictly rumpless, were as opposed in their gait to all other rumpless fowls as could well be imagined. It was their constant restlessness, combined with remarkably iridescent plumage, that marked them as being one of the most distinct varieties of poultry I ever saw. I have not any doubt, could three like them be shown nowadays, they would quickly be claimed at almost any price.” Rumpless fowls are always stared at, but rarely take prizes. We are much inclined to think that a Rumpless Black Bantam, which could easily be produced, would have the best chance of acceptance at exhibitions. This and any other variety of the fowl can be bred with such facility that the only reason which can be given for their want of popularity is the very simple one that fowls look much better with a tail than without one. RUSSIAN FOWLS. — This breed used to be kept in Scotland, but we are not aware of any having been shown in this country for some years. The originals, so far from being Russian, appear to have been imported by Mr. Vivian from Bengal. The characteristics were a full beard under the chin, and tufts of feathers on each jaw, but unaccompanied with crest. Mr. Vivian’s birds were chiefly buff, but white, black, and spangled specimens were also seen. The fowl was of medium size (cocks weighing about six pounds), and had the reputation of being hardy, a good layer, and small eater. We may remark that a beard, without a crest, is very easy of production. Dark Brahmas are peculiarly apt to produce pullets with a very perceptible beard, and we have seen birds in which this feature was pretty conspicuous. By selecting these, in three years a Brahma might be produced with a beard as large as could be desired. We also, some years ago, while residing in Bristol, came into the possession of two fowls of a very remarkable character, which took our fancy as we passed an ordinary bird-dealer’s window. He called them “French Dorkings,’ and stated that they had been sold him by a gentleman who was giving up his fowls, and who had brought them from France, a statement we found was perfectly correct. They were really fine and good Dorking hens in all points, with single combs, and five toes (the fifth as perfect as we ever saw) on each foot, but had each tremendous muffs and beards, with no sign of crest. The colour of one was the orthodox dark marking, or nearly so, and of the other, the old-fashioned “ red-speckle ; the size large and fine, each bird weighing nearly eight pounds. The cock had been killed, and the efforts we then made failed in getting another, so that nothing came of the speculation. m i3 Scotch Greys Scotch Greys. 457 SCOTCH GREYS.— This is a very useful breed of fowls, closely resembling the American Dominique in shape and plumage, and, in fact, only differing from it in having an upright single comb instead of rose, and mottled pinky-white instead of yellow legs. It is hardly so good a layer, perhaps, as the American fowl, but very satisfactory and hardy. The average weights may betaken as about eight to nine pounds for the cocks and six or seven pounds for the hens. The breed is often called the “ Scotch Dorking,” resembling the Cuckoo Dorking in all but the fifth toe. It can be thoroughly recommended as a most useful breed, being exceedingly hardy, laying well, sitting closely about once in a season, and the meat being good. When comparing this fowl with the Dorking, however, a trained eye will see clear differences in formation. While the Dorking is heavy and massive, the Scotch Grey is of much more light and sprightly contour, with something of the (old-fashioned) Gamey style about it. Scotch fanciers attach much importance to the preservation of this, the “ true type,” as distinguished from the Dorking model, and state that such birds are always much hardier, which is likely. The plumage of the Scotch Grey should resemble that already described of the Plymouth Rock, and with the same remarks as to evenness of marking all over, the tail of the cock especially being free from white, brassy, and black feathers. There is a similar tendency to run rather more dark and cloudy in the hens, though not to the same extent, owing to the absence of any recent black blood ; and owing to this, we think, on the whole, that the plumage of some Scotch Greys we have seen approaches nearer to the ideal. The cock’s comb is large and single, the hen’s usually falls over; the deaf-ears should be brilliant red, no exception being allowed. The legs are white, more or less mottled with dark colour, somewhat as in a Houdan. There have been some attempts to insist on the legs being all white as in Dorkings, but this is not really natural to the breed, and has been so far successfully resisted. Plumage, size, and symmetry are the main points in judging. Considerable improvement has taken place in all these points of late years. At one time white feathers were frequently seen in birds exhibited at Scotch shows, but these would be discarded now, while the birds have also gained perceptibly in size and symmetry. The Scotch Grey is a most useful fowl, especially for cold situations, being extremely hardy. It does not rank amongst the first-rate layers in point of numbers, its average being probably about ioo eggs per annum, at least in its cold northern home ; these eggs are, however, of decidedly above the average size. It is a very moderate eater, and altogether a good and profitable fowl for the farm in exposed situations. It is not at all adapted for confinement, and when penned up is rather addicted to feather-eating. For its own circumstances, and where both eggs and chickens are desired, the Scotch Grey is probably unrivalled. SILKY FOWLS. — The peculiar appearance of the Silky fowl would naturally attract attention from a very early date, and we accordingly find various old naturalists, besides our never-failing Aldrovandus, who describe fowls which, instead of feathers, are covered with wool, or, as others express it, " with hair like cats.” Later on these accounts were thought fictitious, and Willoughby and Ray expressly declare them to be unworthy of credence ; but it is somewhat singular to remark how many of the so-called “incredible” tales of old travellers and naturalists have been vindicated by a Little more knowledge from the supercilious aspersions of even the most learned men, who have taken upon them to reject all alleged facts which did not fall within their own limited experience, or were contrary to their pet theories. Such a remark may have its moral even in the present day. Yet truly the Silky is a strange fowl. The soft and flossy appearance of the plumage, which fudy justifies the oid descriptions which have come down to us, are not the only points of difference. 2 N 458 Silky Fowls. ic s vin itself is uncanny, being ot a deep violet colour, almost black, and the surface of the les is the same, making the bird rather a queer-looking dish to partake of, though excellent eatin^ to those vho can cany out the maxim, “Handsome is that handsome does.” As Mr, Layard writes from Ceylon, “ On table it is a revolting-looking dish. But taste it ! ” The comb, face, and wattles aie of a deep bluish or livid colour — the comb being more of a dark purple, while the deaf-ears are a brighter blue ; and the legs— five-toed and feathered, but not vulture- hocked— are also of a deep bluish-black. With the exception of the white plumage, there is a “very black look about it altogether.” The nature and cause of the silky plumage can best be shown by Fig. 95, which is a magnified representation of a portion of an ordinary feather. It will be seen that from the stem proceed stiong and elastic fibres, which form the vane of the feather, and which are furnished on each side with minute fibrils. On one side of each fibre these fibrils are branched, and bent downwards, while on the other side they are single, and bent upwards. The two sets thus interlace and hold each othei when the main fibres are in position j and this is the reason why the vane of a feather, though its fibies be separated, reunites if “smoothed” with the fingers, as every one knows. The feather of the Silky fowl differs from this arrangement in several respects. In the first place, both the stem and the fibres which proceed from it are very thin, weak, and non- elastic, so that the fibres have no tendency to assume a position opposite each other, but hang about in a lax and indetermined manner ; and, secondly, the fibrils are also very weak and thin, besides being so sparse that they can be seen and counted with the naked eye or a very low magnifier ; while in an ordinary feather many hundreds occupy the length of one inch. The fibrils of the Silky also extend from the main fibres at nearly equal angles, being thus destitute of that interlocking power we have just described. The consequence of these variations in structure is the loose and flossy character represented in Fig. 96, which shows very accurately feathers from the hackle of a Silky cock and the body of a Silky hen, with which we have been kindly furnished by Mr. R. S. S. Woodgate. The Silky fowl is generally said to be a native of India ; but Mr. Blyth, Curator of the Asiatic Society’s Museum at Calcutta, stated that the only specimens he had seen “were from China, Malacca, or Singapore.” Some had single combs, and in these the colour of the combs more resembled the ordinary red of other fowls ; while the others had double black combs.* These differences are met with in English stocks at the present day. Feathered and clean legs are also met with ; but the accepted type of bird for exhibition is now generally understood to have a * See Wingfield and Johnson’s “ Poultry Book,” 1853, p. 210. CasselLs Poultry Book THE RIGHT HON B.L.E LADY GWYDYR’S PAIR OF SILKIES. FIRST PRIZE 1N"ANY VA R I ETY” CL ASS AT BRISTOL 1871. The Illustrated Book of Poultry. 459 double comb of a livid or dark purple colour, bluish face and deaf-ears, a crest as full as possible, and feathered dark legs with five toes. The birds are, of course, free from vulture-hocks, and the tail of the cock should be rather short, and with a nice rise from the saddle, very much resembling the Cochin type. The following notes are from Mr. F. Wragg, who showed Silkies for Lady Gwydyr with considerable success for several seasons : — “ Silkies may be classed as purely fancy poultry, having little but their unique appearance to Hackle of Cock. Body of Hen. Fig. 96. — Feathers of Silky Fowls. recommend them. Instead of feathers, they are covered with an abundance of white silky hair ; the wing and tail-quills also being hung with long silky fringe. The skin and legs are blue, the face and comb a deep purple colour, ear-lobes being slightly tinged with white. The best specimens have five toes and are feathered on the legs. The plumage should be pure white. “ The cock should have a full prominent breast ; neck medium size ; hackle very full, flowing well round the shoulders and on the back ; saddle square, and rising upwards to the tail, which should gradually rise a few inches and then droop over. The comb is double, but is wider than long, having a lumpy appearance, with scarcely any points on the top. It should be well on the front of the head, and behind it should be a spur or crest of feathers projecting straight out, about two inches in length. The weight of the cock averages about four pounds. The hen is rather small in proportion, weighing only about two and a half pounds. She is very square and compactly built, breast being full and round, neck rather short, saddle square and well cushioned, tail almost 460 Silky Fowls. buiied in fluff, which is very abundant, and a fine small head. From the top of the head should rise a small globular crest. The general style and shape are very attractive. I consider Silkies hardy. The chickens are easily reared, and generally very true to their parents. They are very moderate layers, but capital sitters. In hatching and rearing Bantams, pheasants, or partridges, they are unequalled.” The most successful exhibitor of Silkies of late has been Mr. R. S. S. Woodgate, of Tunbridge Wells. By the exertions of this gentleman separate classes for Silkies have been established at several shows, which have been filled to an extent that astonished even the most sanguine, and proving this singular fowl to have been bred to an extent little suspected. He has kindly supplied the following remarks and practical notes on Silky fowls : — “White Silkies should be great favourites, and are daily becoming such. Every one who has had to do with them cannot help speaking highly of them. They are birds which will do well in an enclosed run, and will always be cheerful and contented, and this is a great thing, for nothing can be more unhappy-looking than a bird moping about with its head sunk almost into its breast, as we so often see in the case of a confined bird. But not so with Silkies : they are always on the scratch, always looking cheerful and bright, and keep themselves much cleaner than the generality of light- coloured birds ; and consequently I can especially recommend this breed to those who only want to keep a few birds, and have only a limited space. “ But to rearers of pheasants and the more delicate breeds of poultry are Silkies pre-eminently useful : first, because they are such admirable sitters ; and, secondly, because they make such good mothers, take such care of their chickens, and run so long with them. Certainly they can only cover a moderate number of eggs, on account of their small size, and this is why I think it no good to breed these birds too small. I should be sorry to see them become mere Bantams, which is what many seem to think they should be, for they are essentially a breed adapted for sitting and rearing purposes. They generally lay about thirteen or fourteen eggs before desiring to sit ; very rarely more, and frequently only ten or eleven. This is another reason which makes them so valuable for early sitting purposes ; as pullets if moderately early hatched will always lay in the next January. If not wanted to sit, a change of place for two or three days will soon make them forget the propensity, and they will speedily lay again. “As regards their points, it now seems definitely settled that for exhibition they should be quite white, crested — a nice round compact crest, and not a cockatoo-shaped one as we sometimes see — five-clawed, feather-legged, but no trace of vulture-hocks, mulberry-shaped double comb, of a bluish-purple colour, and blue ear-lobes. Many birds, however perfect they may be, are apt to throw single-combed or four-clawed chickens, but when this appears a cross may be generally suspected. I am told there is a single-combed breed in India much resembling our Silkies, but distinct from them, and possibly this may have been used at some time or other as a cross, though there is no proof of it ; in fact, I believe no case is really known of this breed having been introduced into England. As an example of how Silkies are apt to breed birds differing from themselves in certain show points, I myself last year bred some of my best double-combed feather-legged birds from clean-legged single-combed ones ; and again this year some of my best double-combed birds are throwing single-combed chickens. To stamp this out we can only keep picking out the perfect ones and breeding from them to perpetuate these points. One thing about Silkies is, they never want any tail-plucking or comb-carving, which some breeds do, and therefore they are quite within the power of all to prepare for exhibition. The turquoise-blue ear-lobes are certainly the prettiest, but after the first year they get discoloured and patchy, which is a great drawback ; consequently the grey-coloured ones, though not so pretty, are perhaps the best, as being the most durable. The Illustrated Book op Poultry. 461 “ Silkies make a good cross for sitting purposes. My friend Mr. O. E. Cresswell last season crossed a Silky cock with a White Game hen, from which cross he saved all the pullets — pile- coloured small-crested birds — and they have turned out exemplary sitters and mothers, beginning to lay in the early year, and after laying ten or twelve eggs sitting well. This is really a valuable thing to know, for who is not hard up for sitting hens in January and February ? — I know I always am. Silkies themselves are good layers, and begin to lay about seven months old ; the eggs are a pretty cream-colour, but of course rather small. l< To get Silkies up for exhibition they want to be washed much in the same way as Mr. Elijah Smith recommends for White Cochins, only they need great care, for they soon become so saturated in the water that their strength seems to fail, and they hang down their heads in a convulsive kind of way ; when this happens I have often quite saved them by putting them suddenly into very cold water. This may seem a dangerous remedy, but I have saved lives often by it. In drying them they must not be put too near a fire, as their ear-lobes will blister easily. “ This breed is subject, perhaps more than any other, to scaly legs — that horrid disease known as elephantiasis. I have seen birds with great lumps of this right up their legs. It is, I believe, an infectious disease, as some birds which were running with a brood of Silkies last year caught it, and there had been no trace of it before. The birds were Dorkings, and I believe this breed is not at all prone to the disease, which originates from a small insect. A bird once affected will sometimes get so bad as hardly to be able to walk without inconvenience, and I have seen a judge at a show pick off a piece as big as a walnut. When the bird is thus badly affected the legs must be steeped in hot water several times, till the matter becomes soft, when it is easily picked off ; and on its again appearing an application of compound sulphur ointment soon cures it. It makes great havoc with the leg-feathering when once it appears, and a bird which once has it is seldom fit for show again afterwards, as it seems quite to stop the feathers growing. “ Silkies are really very easily reared. They require no care ; once hatched, they do well with only ordinary care. Their eggs should be kept well moistened the last week of incubation, as the inner membrane of the shell is apt to become very dry, and the shell of the egg entirely peels off in some cases. Great care should be taken to allow Silkies in no way to have intercourse with other breeds, as the violet skin is very difficult to breed out when once got, and consequently spoils birds for the table. Recently I saw a pair of true-bred Silkies sent up with a snow-white sauce, and the effect was most peculiar ; their flesh is really as tender and nice as any other, when once the violet skin is cut through. The illustrations of the Silky feathers (see Fig. 97) are taken from very good specimens. Sometimes we see birds only silky in part of their feathers, the rest being like an ordinary white feather ; but when this is so a cross may generally be suspected, for of course from their very name they should be as Silky as possible. “ I hope to see the shows taking up this breed and giving them a class. On their ‘ opening- day’ at Oxford last year a class was seen which my most sanguine hopes on first making it never expected to realise ; and again this was followed with the same results at the Crystal Palace Show. Any one who will give them a trial, simply for their sitting and rearing virtues, will never repent it, even when looking at them quite apart from fancy fowls ; and being such small eaters, it would pay much better to keep a quantity for sitting purposes instead of the bigger birds which have such huge appetites, especially as in the early year we only put a small number of eggs under a hen in any case.” Silkies are sometimes called Negro fowls, from the black colour of the head and skin ; but this term appears to have been applied by Temminck to a breed possessing these points, with black plumage, but without the silky character — whether produced by a cross with the Silky fowl or not 462 Sultans. is uncertain. It is certainly a fact that when crossed with other varieties the peculiar plumage is generally lost, while the black or violet skin and bones remain for several generations. Hence the breed is one which should never be crossed. Black Silkies have been mentioned, and would certainly take prizes if shown, but we never yet heard of any birds being actually seen, at least for many years past. The peculiar formation of the plumage is occasionally met with in Cochins, which are then also called Silky, and sometimes Emu fowls. By breeding these together a permanent variety may be established, but it is far inferior in beauty to the real Silky fowl. It is, however, worth remark that the Cochin plumage is, as it were, half-way towards the character of the Silky, the feathers having much less strength, elasticity, and power of adhesion than other fowls’, and being on any part of the body far easier bent or broken ; hence the difficulty of keeping the plumage in what is called “ good condition.” This is well seen in the small and soft feathers of the Cochin cock’s tail, and still more so in the characteristic “ fluff,” which presents an almost silky character in the best birds. Hence we are not surprised either that the Silky fowl itself should present marked Cochin characters in the feathered legs, tail, and saddle or cushion ; or that, on the other hand, the Cochin should be the variety which most frequently exhibits as a sport the silky character. We have heard of Spanish fowls throwing occasional Silky “ sports,” but the authenticity of such cases is very doubtful. SULTANS. — These pretty fowls were introduced by Miss Watts, to whom poultry-fanciers are in many other respects indebted, and who gives the following account of their importation : — “They were sent to us by a friend living at Constantinople, in January, 1854. A year before, we had sent him some Cochin China fowls, with which he was very much pleased ; and when his son soon after came to England, he said he could send from Turkey some fowls with which we should be pleased. Scraps of information about muffs, and divers beauties and decorations, arrived before the fowls, and led to expectations of something much prettier than the pretty Ptarmigan, in which we had always noticed a certain uncertainty in tuft and comb. In January they arrived in a steamer chiefly manned by Turks. The voyage had been long and rough ; and poor fowls so rolled over and glued into one mass with filth were never seen. “ We at once saw enough to make us very unwilling to be entirely dependent for the breed on the one sad-looking gentleman with his tuft heavy with dirt, dirt for a mantle, and his long clogged tail hanging round on one side ; and we wrote directly for another importation, especially for a cock, and to ask the name they had at home. In answer to the first request, we found that good fowls of the kind are difficult to get there ; our friend has ever since been trying to get us two or three more, but cannot succeed either in Constantinople or other parts of Turkey : the first he can meet with will be sent. With regard to the name, he told us they are called Serai-Taook. Serai, as is known by every reader of Eastern lore, is the name of the Sultan’s palace ; Taook is Turkish for fowl ; the simplest translation of this is, “Sultan’s fowls,” or “fowls of the Sultan a name which has the double advantage of being the nearest to be found to that by which they have been known in their own country, and of designating the country from which they came. “ They rather resemble our White Polands, but with more abundant furnishing, and shorter legs, which are vulture-hocked and feathered to the toes. In general habits they are brisk and happy-tempered ; but not kept in as easily as Cochin Chinas. They are very good layers ; their eggs are large and white ; they are non-sitters and small eaters. A grass-run with them will remain green long after the crop would have been cleared by either Brahmas or Cochins ; and with scattered food they soon become satisfied and walk away Cassells Poultry Book F 0 W L S U L T A N ' ' Sultans. 4*3 “ They are the size of our English Poland fowls. Their plumage is white and flowing , they have a full-sized, compact Poland tuft on the head, are muffed, have a good flowing tail, short well- feathered legs, and five toes upon each foot. The comb is merely two little points, and the wattles very small. We have never seen fowls more fully decorated — -full tail, abundant furnishing, in hackle almost touching the ground, boots, vulture-hocks, beards, whiskers, and full round Poland crests. Their colour is pure white ; and they are so very beautiful that it is to be hoped amateurs will procure fresh importations before they disappear from among existing kinds. ’ Many attempts have been made to procure a fresh stock of Sultans, but with the exception of another imported hen procured by Mr. F. Zurhorst, and which proved of the greatest use in recruiting the strain, none have been successful. This difficulty in obtaining fresh blood makes it very desirable that there should be more breeders of this beautiful variety, since it is a well- ascertained fact that by rearing many birds in different localities, even from the same stock, the evils of in-breeding can be avoided, different soil and feeding appearing to “ change the blood sufficiently for practical purposes. They eat very little, and are good layers, while it must be allowed that no more fascinating fowls exist. They have the quaint little ways and habits of Bantams, with their brisk yet tame disposition, and appear to take to “ petting ” with a quiet confidence even greater than that of Polish fowls, which in several respects they much resemble. In breeding Sultans a chief point is to select full crests, that feature being particularly close and round in this breed. The hocked and feathered legs must also be looked after ; and so should the muffling, which was for a while somewhat uncertain, owing, in our opinion, to a cross with the White Polish. Of late, however, several fresh amateurs have taken up Sultans, and by their exertions the muffs have been quite restored. With regard to the fifth toe, however, public opinion has been different. That is now an unimportant point, and will ere long be probably abandoned. The average weight now is about four to five pounds for the cocks, and three and a half pounds for the hens ; and so long as other points are not sacrificed, it is very desirable to increase this by good breeding, feeding, and the use of phosphates in the manner we have already recommended. By such means we feel sure considerable gain might be made both in size and hardihood. The cock’s spurs are peculiarly liable to grow very long when the bird gets old, and so much curved that the point enters the leg and causes much pain. This should be watched against, and if necessary the spur shortened sufficiently to prevent such consequences. The operation, of course, gives no pain whatever. We have not seen this in any other breed, except on one occasion, when we met with a very old White Cochin cock suffering from this cause. We are not aware of any other fowls which could fairly claim a place in this chapter. If a new variety is successful, the tendency is for it to make good a claim to a class of its own ; and several comparatively recent introductions have been thus treated in preceding chapters of this work. Many years ago, we were informed by the late Mr. Hewitt, a pair of fowls were shown at Bristol somewhat resembling very heavily feathered Partridge Cochins, but with extremely short legs like Dumpies, and long flowing tails. They, however, totally disappeared. We have also seen mentioned in a poultry journal some small white fowls imported from Ashantee, with rose combs, very pugnacious, and both sexes possessing a hackle which they extend when irritated. It is not improbable that the opening up of Africa may introduce some other breeds of poultry from the hitherto dark Continent ; but meanwhile we must conclude our list with this vague notice. 464 The Illustrated Book of Poultry. JUDGING THE VARIOUS CLASSES. — In judging the various fowls we have now been considering, much thoughtful consideration is demanded at the hands of the judge. It is not to be lorgotten that the class in which these, and at most shows some other varieties considered by us under their specific heads, are usually shown, has two distinct objects. One of these is to allow of birds which are not bred sufficiently to claim a class of their own, to be shown with the chance of a prize ; the other, to encourage the introduction, or what may be called the “ publication,” of new or unknown varieties. It can hardly be questioned that this last object is the most important, and that a really bona fide new variety, presenting any promise of utility or any distinctive points of beauty, should as a rule have the preference over older varieties, which, having been long tried and known, have failed to make their way in the poultry world sufficiently to have a class of their own. It cannot be said that no such new varieties are likely to be now met with ; considering how very lately Japan has been opened to Europeans, and how very partially China is open even at the present day ; whilst even “ made ” breeds of permanent value may yet be produced. A good look-out should therefore be kept for all such novelties, which, if apparently pure-bred, should by all means be encouraged till it begins to be seen “ what they have to say for themselves.” Besides this, the judge has to review a number of elements, some of them almost contradictory. He has to consider the scarcity of a breed ; its practical or intrinsic utility, and therefore desert of encouragement on that ground ; its beauty, and consequent desert on that ground ; and, lastly, the perfection of the specimen itself as regards breeding and condition. This last alone is often difficult to decide, since most of these fowls are so seldom shown that fixed canons respecting them scarcely exist, and we can only attempt to give scales for Sultans and Silkies. They have as a rule to be judged “ on their merits ” as appreciated by the judge ; and to compare one breed with another is, under the most favourable circumstances, an invidious and thankless task. We may make one suggestion on this point which would help judges materially ; namely, that the list of prizes in this class should be in all cases greatly extended. Instead of the usual three, there should be at least six ; and instead of having them to range from first to sixth, it is far better — both easier for the judge and fairer to competitors — to arrange them as two first prizes, two seconds, and two thirds. By this means the arbitrator will find his task much facilitated, since he has not to decide six nice gradations, but can bracket pens which seem of nearly equal merit together instead of deciding which is the absolute best — always, as we have seen, a disputable point — and in this way, at small expense, substantial justice may be done, and breeds which now languish might receive more remunerative support. No additional expense at all would be incurred where the sexes as a rule are shown separately, if complete pens containing both sexes were made up in this class ; which for such breeds is a far better plan. We should then be spared the anomaly, now forced upon the judges at many shows, of seeing a cock of a given breed awarded first prize in his class, while hens of the same variety, of equal merit, are passed over in the hen class from the sheer necessity of giving equal honour to some other breed ; the prizes being thus divided as equitably as such a bungling system renders possible. SCHEDULE FOR JUDGING SILKIES. General Characteristics of Cock. — Head, and Neck — General appearance of head bright and lively, in spite of the dark colour ; beak rather small ; comb double, as neat as possible ; crest behind the comb usually pointing back, but preferable il approaching a Polish character ; wattles rather long and pendent ; deaf-ears pendulous ; neck moderate length, full of hackle, and carried a little forward compared with many other breeds. Body — General appearance neat and pretty ; the back broad and short ; saddle wide, and rising to the tail ; wings rather small and carried low ; breast full, and shoulders neatly rounded. Legs and Feet Thighs well furnished with silky fluff, hanging down over the hocks, shanks rather short and feathered ; toes thin, with an Schedule for Judging Sultans. 4-65 additional or Dorking toe behind. Tail — Rather small and soft, much resembling that of the Cochin. Size — Averaging four pounds, but looking larger than it is, owing to the loose feathering. General Shape — Rather short and deep. Carriage Rather forward. General Characteristics of Hen. — Generally resembling those of the cock, but her crest is more compact and globular. Size — About two and a half to three pounds’ weight. Colour of White Silkies. — In both Sexes — Comb, face, and wattles dark purple or ripe mulberry colour. Ear-lobes blue or greyish blue. Eyes generally black or very dark hazel, but sometimes red. Legs and feet deep blue, approaching black. Plumage all over white, as pure as possible, a straw tinge being objectionable, though very rarely quite absent. Black Silkies, if ever shown, should be admissible in a Silky class. VALUE OF DEFECTS IN JUDGING. Points of Merit. A bird ideally perfect in shape, colour, style, plumage, carriage, and condition, to count in points 100 Defects to be Deducted Bad head and comb . Bad crest ..... Want of crest .... Yellow tinge in plumage . Shortness of plumage Want of feather on legs Want of symmetry ,, ,, condition IO 8 16 12 20 14 15 15 Disqualifications. — Any feathers not truly “silky” in any part of the body. Foul-coloured feathers. Vulture-hocks. Absence of crest, of fifth toe, or of feather on the legs. SCHEDULE FOR JUDGING SULTANS. General Characteristics of Cock. — Head and Neck — General appearance of head piquant and vain ; beak short, curved, and with Polish nostrils ; comb very small, consisting of two almost imperceptible spikes ; crest very full and neatly arched over ; wattles small ; face covered with thick muffling, reaching under the throat and forming a beard ; deaf-ears small and hidden by the muffling ; neck moderate in length, well-furnished with hackle, and carried very upright and arched. Body — General appearance compact and deep ; breast deep and carried very forward ; wings rather large and carried very low, or with the points down ; back straight, and rather drooping towards the tail. Legs and Feet — Thighs rather short, well-furnished with feathers, forming long vulture-hocks, covering the joint ; shanks short and heavily feathered to the ends of the outer and middle toes ; toes straight and thin, with or without an extra toe behind. Tail — Full and large, with fine sweeping sickles. Size — Rather smaller than Polish, averaging five pounds. General Shape — Deep, but neat and compact. Carriage — Resembling that of the White- crested Black Polish cock, but lower on the leg. General Characteristics of Hen. — Resembling those of the cock, allowing for the difference of sex. Average weight three and a half pounds. Colour of Sultans. — In both Sexes — Beak white. Comb and wattles brilliant red. Deaf-ears immaterial, being covered by the muffling. Eyes red. Legs dark blue or black. Plumage all over a spotless white. VALUE OF DEFECTS IN JUDGING. Points of Merit. A bird ideally perfect in shape, style, colour, and condition, to count in points . . . 100 Defects to be Deducted. Deficiency in size or fullness of crest . • . ia Comb too large ..... • 8 Faulty colour ..... • . 12 Deficient muffling .... • • 15 ,, leg-feather . . . • . 12 Want of symmetry .... • • 15 ,, ,, condition .... • • U Disqualifications. — Crooked backs, wry-tails, or any bodily deformity. Foul-coloured feathers. Absence of crest. Legs without feather, or any colour but white or pinky white. Some consider that absence of fifth toe or of muffling ought to be disqualifications ; but they certainly are not so with many judges. 466 CHAPTER XXX. BANTAMS (EXCEPT GAME). The diminutive breeds denominated Bantams, from some totally erroneous supposition that they had been derived from the place bearing that name, have always been popular amongst poultry- keepers, and the space before their pens is nearly always thronged at a good show. Many of them have their good points as layers, and for the food they cost are by no means unprofitable poultry; but all have one conspicuous merit at least — they can be kept in small places, and in neighbour- hoods where no large variety of fowls could be kept at all. They are content with small space as well as small meals ; and even their little crow does not annoy neighbours who would quickly repeat the teapot storm of the celebrated “great peacock case,” did the amateur keep a sonorous rooster of the orthodox persuasions. Nearly all of them — even the Game — are naturally tame and familiar in disposition ; and for all such reasons and more, these little minnikin fowls afford an amount of happiness it is difficult to estimate, and place the highest pleasures of poultry-keeping within the reach of hundreds who otherwise must go without them altogether. Many a lady, tired of having nothing to pet but a tom-cat, has wondered longingly whether she might not keep a few fowls ; but looking at her garden with regretful eyes, has decided that half of it would be needed, and that she could not spare that ; when the happy thought has crossed her mind, “Why not keep Bantams ?” A little space — just that strip which can so easily be spared — will content them ; and as to crowing, who in the world would mind the voice of a little fellow no bigger than a pigeon ? She is made happy ; and even the tom-cat, ousted at first from his olden place, but who has provided for him a never-ending subject of interest in the perpetually intense speculation as to the possibility of some peculiarly tiny chicken coming some day through to the wrong side of the wire — even he is made happy too. Decidedly Bantams have their place in the world. Even more than this may be said for them. They eat next to nothing, and may often be kept going entirely on bread-crumbs and such like rejectamenta from a small household ; while we have already remarked that some of them are really good layers. And if their eggs are small — well, most delicious things are small. We have often wondered why peas were not made as large as beans ; but they are very good as peas nevertheless, and we could ill spare them. And Bantams lay delicious, delicate, fairy eggs, to be tenderly ransacked by fairy fingers with a fairy spoon ; or, if there be a very little child, who so delighted as she either to eat herself, or to see her mother eat, the little egg from “her little hen?” We have heard, too, of delicate invalids, who on “bad days” could touch nothing but those same Bantam eggs laid by the pet hen — the first morsel that had passed the thin white lips when the life and strength so nearly lost began to come struggling back, and still relished at times when everything else was turned from with disgust — brought in on bright green moss, to be welcomed with a smile, and cooked there and then (as Bantam eggs should be), by simply pouring boiling water upon them in sight of the invalid, so as to awaken interest and appetite together. Yes, they have even their uses. Pretty, interesting, useful, lovable — we pity the hard-headed man who can’t admire a Bantam. What if the airs of the little rooster do Black Bantams. 467 seem a bit ridiculous ? — he can at least fly over a fence which would puzzle many of us to clear as well ; and “ Sartor Resartus ” might have taught us long ago how much we owe to the tailor. Let him roost, then, as high as he likes, while we proceed to consider some of the varieties of his race. For convenience, we shall take the characteristic breeds of Bantams as known to us alphabeti- cally, reserving the large and important division of Game Bantams for a separate chapter, and giving special attention to the breeds which are most largely bred and exhibited, and therefore demand unusual skill and care from the amateur. BLACK BANTAMS. — This is one of the oldest and still most popular Bantam classes, though no breed shows more distinctly the increased skill and knowledge of the breeders of the present day : for while all the older poultry writers speak of the uncertainty of colour in Black Bantam cocks, most of them being described as moulting red or straw-coloured hackles in the second or third season, the present strains of these birds, as we know from frequent inspection of one of the best, moult as true to colour as any variety whatever. The bird has also been improved in shape and carriage, marked advance in these last respects having been made within the last six years. In some cases an expedient we have often suggested, of crossing with the Brown-red Game Bantam hen, has been employed, to the great gain in several respects ; but latterly we have observed almost too evident signs of the cross. Much more, however, has been done by careful selection in breeding, and perhaps few have had more to do with the history and improve- ment of this variety than Mr. E. Hutton, of Pudsey, Leeds, who has at our request, besides general notes on the breed and its characteristics, supplied the following particulars concerning the history of his strain, which has been the parent of many others. “ I had Black Bantams,” he says, “ more than thirty years ago ; not, however, the breed of the present day, nor in some respects even approaching it, for one of the most desirable points then was, as in all other Bantams, that the head and tail of the cock should touch when the bird was showing himself off, while rose, single, or cup combs were equally valuable, those with single combs being termed Game Dandies. From that date up to 1854 I had Bantams of all varieties, never, however, losing sight of the Blacks, which were always my special favourites ; and since then I have never been without them. Some of the blood of these early birds runs in the veins of those I at present possess. They were good in colour and well feathered, with red faces and ear-lobes. “ For several seasons I tried by various crosses to improve the breed in style and ear-lobe, but with only partial success ; as in nearly all cases, when the ear-lobe was secured, the cockerels were more or less spangled on the back and hackle with red or brassy feathers. At last I got what I wanted in the White Bantam. White Bantams, with sound white ear-lobes, which were at that time plentiful in Yorkshire, have been in fact the most useful agents in the improvement of the Blacks, though the White birds produced from the cross have almost always proved useless for the production of Whites. “ In 1858, for the first time, I ventured upon the introduction of the White blood, by putting a good White cock, out of a strain that was at that time very successful at the shows, to several Black hens with gipsy faces, combs, and ear-lobes. The chickens from this cross varied much in appearance on hatching, some being pure white, and on attaining their adult plumage remaining so ; others were smutty grey, turning out ultimately white, with blue legs ; while some were perfectly black, but on getting their last feathers came red on the saddle. Others, on hatching, were black on the upper parts, but white on the lower jaws, throats, bellies, and ends of the wings. These last were the best birds of all when full grown and fledged, remaining sound in colour while most of the cockerels had from the cross pretty good ear-lobes. 468 Tiif. Illustrated Book oe Poultry. The following year I bred from the best of these Black cockerels with the choicest red-faced pullets, the result being pretty much the same as from the original White cross ; but as I now had some idea of what the various coloured chickens would turn out, I destroyed at once all that hatched entirely black, so that I had no birds grow up with red saddles. The strain of Whites to which I refer was splendid in style, carriage, and feather, but rather strong in bone ; and the consequence was that the chickens took after them, many being very large, so that some of the cockerels might almost have been mistaken for small Black Hamburghs. I had, therefore, to reduce the size, which I effected by careful feeding on diet specially adapted for the purpose,* and by hatching them late in the season, allowing them to run with the hen the whole of the winter, or, in case of failure on her part, supplying artificial heat. So successful was this process that it never had to be repeated, and two of my smallest hens, which won me many first prizes and were never beaten, were hatched from a hen that weighed more than two pounds. “ During the following winter my best cockerel was beaten (as a single cock) at a good show by a rather short-feathered bird, which was small, and had moderate ear-lobes. This bird I was therefore tempted to purchase as a cross. As to the cockerels this was a great mistake, as I had not a single really black one from him out of over seventy chickens that I reared ; but many of the pullets were little gems. With some of these I had recourse again, and for the last time, to the White cross, using a nice blue-legged bird ; and by carefully selecting the best birds for about three seasons, I succeeded in establishing my present strain of Black Bantams, which I think cannot be surpassed, breeding as they do so true to points, that out of several hundred chickens I have not had a dozen birds faulty in feather or with single combs. I may however add that three years ago one of the most perfect White cocks ever produced, and which won its owner many laurels, was bred from a sitting of Black Bantam eggs of my strain. For several seasons, of course, I have been glad to avail myself of birds for stock from yards which have been established from my own ; by which means, without crossing, I have been able to keep up the stamina of my stock to such an extent that some birds two and three years old carry as much and as good feather as usually carried by early-bred cockerels. “This is one of the most beautiful of the fancy varieties of poultry; and though generally looked upon as a strictly ornamental breed, yet I claim for it a place second to none (the Hamburgh excepted) for egg-producing properties, and for the returns they will give for the outlay in food ; as most of them are almost incessant layers of comparatively good-sized eggs, except during the coldest winter months, when few varieties can be relied upon for that purpose. Some of the hens are very keen sitters, and these always prove the best of nurses, defending their young most pluckily against all enemies ; though many never become broody, and I have at present several hens nine or ten years old that have never evinced the least desire to rear a family. “ Adult birds are very hardy and the chickens pretty easily reared, although during the attainment of the first feathers they require much care, for if neglected at that time many of them droop and die. At an early age they are very pugnacious, the cockerels often commencing to fight most determinedly at the age of five or six weeks. The whole of a brood generally presents a most disreputable and pitiable appearance at the end of a day’s campaign — some dying and others being scalped or otherwise permanently injured — though when about twelve weeks old they will settle down and agree much better, chickens of different broods seldom attacking each other, even if kept together long after they are full grown. The pullets also are very precocious, and if bred in the spring months, and well fed, they will often commence laying at from fifteen to seventeen weeks old. * See remarks on rearing Bantams, p. 484. Mr. Cambridge on Black Bantams. 469 “ In size the cocks vary from about fourteen to twenty-four ounces, most of the best birds being eighteen to twenty ounces. The hens vary from twelve to twenty ounces when in laying condition, though 1 have often had them lay when not more than ten ounces ; but mere weight would never influence me when judging the variety, for many birds are actually smaller in appearance at twenty-four than others at eighteen or twenty ounces. “The standard to which I incline for this variety, and which as regards style has been most thoroughly endorsed by our leading judges ever since the improvement of the breed was com- menced, I will give as briefly as possible ; and I would here remark that no one has had more to do with the establishment of the breed than Mr. Hewitt, who at the time to which I refer was judging the main bulk of the shows, from which time to this I have never know that gentleman deviate from the style of bird which he selected as the recipients of the leading honours. The beak should be short and slightly curved, black or a deep horn-colour ; the face, comb, and wattles, bright red or vermilion ; and the eye deep red or hazel. The comb should be double, or what is known as ‘rose;’ broad in front, tapering to the back, and ending in a well-defined spike, which should incline slightly upward, the surface being level and well serrated, and the whole should sit firmly and closely upon the head. The ear-lobe should be pure white, round, smooth, flat, and substantial, and about the size of a fourpenny-bit in the average-sized cocks. The legs of the young birds are generally black, and those of the adults dark blue or slate-colour, and should be rather short than otherwise. For shape and style I would take that of the Hamburgh in all respects, except that if the wings be a little more drooping it adds greatly to the character and beauty of the bird. The chest should be broad and prominent ; the neck curved and full of feather, or what is known as ‘ bull-necked the hackle flowing well over the back, which should also be broad and deep ; the saddle-hackle forming a good fringe over the sides of the wings. The tail should be open and the sickles long ; the sides of the tail being well-furnished with half-sickles or side hangers, and the whole carried well backward — a squirrel-tail being an abomination I would not tolerate. In fact, the whole contour of this miniature Hamburgh should be quite distinct from the Game, and I would as soon disqualify the Black Bantam for a whip-tail, tucked-up wings, and long legs, as a Game Bantam for drooping wings and open tail. “ The colour is generally a rich metallic black ; but I prefer the rich olive of the Black Hamburgh, to which there is at present a tendency, and in my opinion the latter breed will have to be used for the attainment thereof. At all events, all other crosses for the purpose have failed with me; though last year I succeeded in breeding a few cockerels with the desirable tinge, containing an eighth of the Black Hamburgh cross.” The Black Bantam, as brought to perfection, is in fact a perfect miniature of the Black Hamburgh, having not only the neat rose-comb and white ear-lobes, but the same free and sweeping outlines, quite distinct from the old “stumpy” pattern Mr. Hutton describes. In regard to the practical breeding and management of this beautiful little bird, we have been kindly furnished with the following full and practical notes by Mr. E. Cambridge, of Cotham, Bristol, who was for some years one of the most successful exhibitors : — “ Black Bantams are one of the most beautiful of the many varieties of these miniature pets we now possess ; the brilliant black plumage, coral-red comb, and snow-white ear-lobes form such a contrast as no other rival can boast of. Having kept them without intermission for nine years, during which time I have also kept every other variety of Bantam, I can also testify that they are unsurpassed in their laying qualities, and are very good mothers. Many people despise Bantams, and consider them useless on account of their small size. This is quite a delusion. Independent of this quality rendering them particularly suited for confined places, and to be kept in aviaries as 2 O 470 The Illustrated Book of Poultry. pets, where large fowls could not be thought of, they make quite as good a return for the food they consume, which is very little, as their larger brethren. Their eggs are exceedingly rich and nutritious, having a very large yolk in proportion to the white. The flavour is not so strong as that of ordinary eggs, and for this reason especially suited for invalids, and for making custards, &c. “ I commenced my Bantam career in 1863, by purchasing a pen for thirty shillings, and won a prize at a small show the first time I exhibited them. For the first three years, however, I was not very successful either in breeding good birds or winning prizes. I committed the common mistake of most amateur beginners, viz., continually buying second or third-rate birds, which could never win in a good show or breed good stock, at a cost sufficient to make my hobby a serious loss, but not expensive enough to make it pay. I was afraid to invest a good sum in really good birds, and my experience has taught me that, whether a poultry-yard is started with the idea of making it pay, or from a mere desire of the honour of winning cups and prizes, it must be done well and without stint. “ The points necessary to constitute a good Black Bantam cock, whether for breeding purposes or exhibition, are as follow : — A perfectly white ear-lobe of moderate size, round, substantially thick, and with an enamel-looking glaze on it. Comb neat, flat, a bright coral-red, well spiked on the top, and terminating at the back in a well-developed pike, inclining a little up rather than down on the head. Plumage abundant, and a good black, with a metallic green or blue lustre, the former preferred. Legs black, or deep slate-colour, small, and taper. There is some difference of opinion as to shape and style, some people thinking a Black Bantam should be drooping in the wing, and carry the tail over the back, like Sebrights. My ideas, however, and those which predominate at most shows now are, that they should be tight in feather, wings well up and close, sickles long, well arched, and rather drooping, the whole carriage being smart and gamey. The hens I prefer moderately long in leg, as they show off better. “ In selecting birds for breeding, great care should be taken to secure those most nearly approaching perfection, but never choose one with a glaring defect because it happens to have one or two other points very good. Three hens, or four at most, are enough for one cock ; and here let me remark that, in opposition to the common idea that birds related to each other should never be mated together, I have proved, and am therefore convinced, that to a moderate extent, and with judgment, the system can be carried out with much benefit. The chickens come better in all points, and have much more quality about them, than when they are bred from the first cross of a cock from a different strain, introduced for fresh blood. This system can be followed to a greater extent in breeding Bantams than the large breeds, as size, which is the point in which they mostly deteriorate under the system, is not required. “ To get them as small as possible, Bantams are generally hatched very late in the season. Birds so hatched, however, are always deficient in plumage and style, and I prefer to set my hens in April or May, and stand the chance of the chicks growing large. They are rather delicate when about six weeks or two months old, as they grow their feathers very fast at that period, and are almost in full plumage at three months. They do not require a large run, and will do well on a lawn or in a kitchen garden, the hen being cooped. A farm-yard would be a ready-made grave- yard for them. Egg and bread-crumbs, and barley or oatmeal is the best food for them at first ; afterwards grits occasionally, which they are very fond of. Any artificial or forcing food I consider bad for any fowl, but especially Bantams. When about four months old, I separate the cockerels and pullets. By this means several of the former can be kept together, whereas, even at that early age, being very fussy and pugnacious, they would fight and disfigure one another if left with the pullets. Points of the Black Bantam. 47' “ The car-lobes being one of the principal points in this breed, great care is necessary to get and keep them perfectly white. Of course you cannot expect to get good lobes unless the bitd is well bred, but the very best lobes will be soon spoiled by neglect, that is, by allowing the bird full liberty in all weathers. The sun, cold cutting winds, or frost will all tend to discolour or shrivel up the lobe. On the other hand, by keeping a bird up in a sheltered pen, an indifferent lobe can be greatly improved. “ In selecting birds for exhibition, judgment and experience are required. If I had two cocks ; one with very good lobes, plumage, and style, but with an indifferent comb, and one with good comb and lobes, but inferior plumage and style, I should select the former. Nothing can compensate for any one point being very bad ; but, on the other hand, a perfect bird is very rare (I have never seen one to come up to my idea of perfection), and those must be chosen which show the greatest general excellence, and look best in a pen. “ The legs of all the birds in a pen must of course match in colour, and if the pen consist of two hens, comb, size, &c., in the pair must be as near alike as possible. The lobes, comb, legs, and plumage, if dirty, must be carefully washed, and the birds fed on some soft food before sending off to a show. Good-sized round baskets, well lined with calico or other material, are requisite : the plumage is often spoiled by the baskets being too small or square. In conclusion, I would say to beginners, Do not expect to carry everything before you at the commencement, and do not be disappointed or disgusted at non-success. Great judgment, experience, patience, and perseverance, are the elements of, and the lack of either fatal to, success.” A difference of opinion will not fail to be observed between Mr. Hutton and Mr. Cambridge on the question of the proper shape for Black Bantams, one preferring the identical “ gamey ” style which the other dislikes. This difference is undoubtedly real, and the point is one on which, like many others, various opinions may be legitimately held ; but we must also remark that it is not so great as might at first sight appear. What Mr. Hutton chiefly means to object to are evidently the long leg and whip-tail of the Game. What Mr. Cambridge chiefly dislikes is the wring pointed nearly to the ground, and an immense fanned tail carried upright or over the back. We have seen birds which we know to have been greatly admired by both breeders ; and the type presented by Mr. Serjeantson’s beautiful pair of Black Hamburghs, shown in Plate X, with wings carried as there shown, legs of harmonious medium length, and a sweeping, but not heavy, sickled tail, would certainly meet with the approbation of all parties. For ourselves, we consider this Hamburgh o type in all points the most pleasing, and in our view the most correct ; and this opinion does not greatly differ from that of Mr. Hewitt, who has already so kindly given his views on various kindred points of judging as well as in the present case. “ A really good Black Bantam,” he writes, “ should possess, size only excepted, the general characteristics of the Black Hamburgh. This Bantam, however, has its own peculiar pertness and expression of determined familiarity. The calm, reliant courage of the Game Bantam is out of place in the Black one, the latter being the very embodiment of foppery, self-esteem, and an unconquerable desire to make friends at all hazards. Pride and vanity are its marked characters ; and it is this impudence, combined with its natty mincing gait, that causes it to be generally an object of interest to lovers of poultry. A long, well-drooping sickle-feather, as in the Hamburghs, is a most important desideratum.” Besides the breed described in the foregoing pages, there is a totally distinct variety of quite different characteristics, known as the Black Booted Bantam, of squat shape, and adorned with very long feather on the shanks. These Bantams are probably more or less remotely allied to the subjects of the next section, which have a great deal in common with them, in general shape as well as leg-feather. They resemble in all but colour the White Booted Bantams described on 472 The Illustrated Book of Poultry. page 481, where this variety will be more fully treated. Mottled and Splashed Booted Bantams are also bred, of similar characteristics. We need only add that the Black Bantam is perhaps brought to the greatest perfection of any, unless we except the Game, wonderfully faultless birds being now required to win. At a recent large show we counted no less than twenty-eight pens of these exquisite birds, at least two-thirds of which would have been sure winners a few years back. These facts make most careful and skilful breeding necessary, while everything possible should be done to show the birds in the very height of condition. COCHIN OR PEKIN BANTAMS. — This pretty Bantam, as might be supposed, was at first a “heathen Chinee,” being part of the “ loot” when the Summer Palace at Pekin was sacked during the Anglo-French Expedition of i860. It is a diminutive Buff Cochin, but still shorter on the legs than the large variety which it so much resembles. The cock’s upper plumage is usually a very rich and deep orange ; and the chicks breed remarkably true to feather and other points, which is very fortunate, since the extremely limited stock makes any very strict selection impossible. Mr. Beldon, who kept them several years, writes of them as follows : — “ The gentleman from whom I get them had the first pair seen in England ; and he has had the breed ever since, and bred a number every year, and has never crossed them, so that they are as pure as when they first came over. The chickens of the pure strain are always alike, breeding as true as sparrows ; from which I believe the variety must have been in existence a number of years. It is in fact cultivated as a fancy variety in China ; for I had a gentleman visiting me a few years ago who had a friend that brought over some more from there, but, very unfortunately, they were all killed by a cat. The Chinese, as is well known, have a great fancy for dwarfing different animals, and even plants. “ The cocks do not get fully furnished until the second year, and the shape also is only fully seen then ; indeed, I often think these two-year old cocks are even better shaped in all Cochin characteristics than their larger brethren. In colour the hens are a light buff, and the cocks a dark chestnut buff. In disposition they are very quiet and gentle, and with care the chicks thrive and feather well, and very early, being generally fully fledged at two months old. At this age they are very pretty. They are best kept to themselves, as they appear very shy of other breeds, though much attached to each other.” Mr. H. B. Smith, of Brooklands, Broughton, near Preston, whose birds are represented in the plate, writes of them : “ I am sorry I cannot give many particulars about them, as we have only kept them a short time. I consider them a delicate breed, and susceptible to cold. They are contented in confinement, and very tame ; but seem to thrive much the best when they can run out to get worms and grubs. They seem very fond of picking at a bone, but too much meat must be avoided.” It has been stated that the eggs are generally sterile, unless a cross of some other breed be employed ; and there is no doubt whatever that the birds shown by one noted exhibitor were thus cross-bred * but, although unquestionably delicate, neither the experience of Mr. Beldon, or the gentleman to whom he refers as having had the original stock, and both of whom have bred them largely, at all bears out the assertion of sterility, until last season. The gentleman in question, Mr. Edward Kerrick, of Arnolds, near Dorking, Surrey, writes us as follows, under date of July 2nd, 1873 : — “ The Pekin Bantams were given to me by a friend, who himself received them direct from an officer in the army which took part in the Chinese War, and took possession of the Emperor of * Cassells Poultry book. VmcentBrodks Day&borLiitho. M R E BLACK CUP AT- B R I STO L M?? WOODCOCK'S JAPANESE BANTAMS, • FIRST PRIZE AT CRYSTAL PALACE 1872. CAMBRIDGE'S MR H.B. SMITH'S BANTAMS. . PEKIN BANTAMS. 1873. FIRST PRIZE AT WOLVERHAMPTON, 1873 S. » \ Cochin , Cuckoo , Japanese Bantams. 473 China’s Summer Palace, from which place he sent them along with some other things. I have had them ever since that time, and have never had any trouble in breeding them until last year, when I had many bad eggs. This year, I am sorry to say, I have had worse luck still, as two hens died on their nests while sitting, and I cannot discover the cause. The eggs of the third were all bad, so that my stock is much reduced. I begin to think it must be from want of a cross, as I have never from the first had one of any sort, though never till now with any apparent ill effect. I have only treated them the same as my other poultry.” Nearly if not quite all the original stock above described ultimately died out from the reasons stated ; but other stock was subsequently obtained from China by Messrs. Baily and Son. A fine importation of Blacks was made in 1884, and other birds have been imported since. These have been crossed by Mr. W. F. Entwisle, and perhaps others, with actual Cochins (in that gentleman’s case bred down from Lady Gwydyr’s strain), and we are very glad to say that the result of all this mixture of blood has been a very strong stock, now spread pretty well over the kingdom. Buffs and Blacks are still the strongest strains, but the other colours have also been bred down and crossed ; and at the Crystal Palace Show of 1889, Cochin Bantams were shown of all the standard colours. As many of them have little to do with Pekin, it seems better to drop that name in future, and call them Cochin Bantams simply. These Bantams, as a rule, are still larger than the average, and need careful feeding and breeding down to keep the tendency in check. The “ points ” of many of them, however, are now very good indeed, and the Partridges are especially pretty and quaint-looking. Feather-breeding will be as in the large varieties, and the variety of blood now obtainable makes breeding them comparatively easy, without any of those dangers from enforced in-breeding formerly encountered. The chief difficulty is to keep down the size. Hints on feeding Bantams with a view to small size will be found on pp. 484 and 485, from the pen of Mr. Hutton. CUCKOO BANTAMS. — A rather pretty breed of Bantams is known by this name, of a Cuckoo or Dominique colour. They have been stated to have been introduced by a gentleman in Yorkshire, and there is very little doubt that his stock was really produced quite independently; but they were known in Scotland for some time previously, having been sent out by Mr. Mitchell, of Paisley, at least as early as 1866, when Mr. Beldon received a pair , from him. They are miniature Scotch Greys in every point, having white legs and single combs, and hence are known in Scotland as the Scotch Grey Bantam. Another variety of Cuckoo Bantam is shown occasionally with rose-combs. These have, in our opinion, been probably produced by crossing the Black rose-combed Bantam with the White ; the cross of these colours usually producing, as we have often remarked, a certain proportion of each colour pure, a certain proportion of a slaty blue or Andalusian colour, and a certain proportion with the Cuckoo marking in question. JAPANESE BANTAMS. — Since intercourse was freely opened between Europe and Japan several striking breeds of Bantams have been introduced from that country, all having the common features of single combs, and very short legs, with thick “dumpy-looking” bodies. The most popular variety at present seems to be one with white bodies and black tails ; the tail of the cock being of a. very peculiar character. The sickles are very long,- and carried upright or over the back, but being little curved, present a very strange sword-like character. This and * ■» ' \ • other general characters may be seen in the plate, which represents well-known birds of this variety exhibited by Mrs. Woodcock, of Rearsby House, Leicester. The same lady has kindly supplied the following practical remarks : — The Illustrated Book of Poultry . 47J On_ gicat difficulty in judiciously breeding Japanese Bantams has hitherto been that of obtaining biids to select fiom for the purpose of crossing; both imported and home-bred birds havinfa been scarce. Hence little choice is often possible ; but when an opportunity occurs so that the breeder is fortunate enough to have birds to select from, he should choose a cock of good carriage, with shoit, clear, yellow legs, drooping wings with black flights, body white, tail erect, with long black sickle-feathers, showing white shafts, comb large and upright, with moderate serrations, and wattles long and red. As very short yellow legs are an essential characteristic of the Japanese Bantam, the hen should be very carefully chosen in that respect, with drooping wings, black flights, white body, and tail large, erect, and fan-shaped. The hen’s comb is crinkled. The chickens of these Bantams are less faulty and truer to their parents than most other breeds. Barly chickens are to be avoided, as they cannot bear cold or damp when young. June and July are, therefore, the best months for hatching these somewhat delicate little pets. The time most fatal to the chickens is when they are shooting their tails and combs. At that period warmth and stimulating food are of great advantage. “ I have bred them more than ten years. The first I bought was a cock, imported by Messrs. Baily and Son, being unable at that time to procure a pair. I afterwards bought a hen from the same importers, but not being then acclimatised, I had considerable disappointment, and was at one time inclined to give them up, as at first they would hardly breed. Perseverance has, however, repaid all my trouble, and I am now able to look upon a large family of handsome Japanese Bantams. “ I may add that they are very quiet and domesticated, and less pugnacious than other Bantams. The hens are careful and good mothers, and very good layers.” There is another variety of the White Japanese Bantam, in which the cock’s tail flows in a fine sweeping semicircle. In perfect specimens, the centre of these feathers is of the deepest glossy black, finely edged or laced with white, like the tail of a Silver-pencilled Hamburgh, but with even greater contrast and definition of the two colours, the gloss on the black in good specimens being marvellous. Such birds rarely fail to take prizes, but are very scarce, cloudy or mossy tails being more the rule. A third variety of Japanese Bantam has been very successful wherever exhibited, especially in the hands of the Rev. W. Serjeantson. In general shape it resembles the White Japanese with sickled tail, but is of a cuckoo colour ; or rather, perhaps, a kind of irregular speckle, somewhat resembling Houdans. These are stated to be fairly hardy and to breed freely. It is believed that the progenitors of this variety originally “sported” from the White; and, accordingly, the chickens are far from being as true to colour as could be wished. LACED BANTAMS. — 'The beautiful Gold and Silver Laced Bantams, also very commonly called Sebright Bantams, are perhaps the most extraordinary proof of what can be done by careful breeding which could be found within the pages of this work. So entirely is every feature the result of art, and so well did Sir John Sebright (known as a skilful breeder of shorthorns and other animals, as well as of poultry) keep his secret as to the process of manufacture, that for a long period the most erroneous and contradictory accounts were current as to the origin of these beautiful birds, some affirming that they had been imported from the East. After the death of the right honourable baronet, however, truer accounts, obtained from various members of the family, began to appear; and in the Journal of Horticulture for 1865 was published the fullest and most detailed account of the matter we have yet seen, as follows : — “It was about the year 1800 that the late Sir John Sebright first began to fashion the Sebright L a ced Da nta ms. 475 Bantam. The cross was between some common Bantams and the Polish fowl. These were bred in-and-in until the required marking and size were secured. Sir John then accidentally found a short-tailed Bantam cock in the country when he was travelling. This short-tailed bird he in-bred with his newly-manufactured Bantams, thereby giving their progeny the present form of the short tail. “ In the Poultry Chronicle it is stated that Sir John obtained a buff-coloured Bantam hen at Norwich ; she was very small indeed, with clear slate-coloured legs. On the same journey he purchased a cock rather inclined to red in colour, destitute of sickle-feathers, with a hen-like hackle ; and also, at Watford, a small hen resembling a Golden Hamburgh. He afterwards had a Hackle Hackle near Head. near Shoulder. Back. Saddle. Wing-covert. Fig. 97. white cockerel from the Zoological Gardens, by which he made his Silvers. This description of the origin refers back before the laced marking was achieved. They were then known as Pheasant Bantams “ Sir John also established a club for the fostering and improvement of his pets. It is thus mentioned in the Poultry Chronicle of 1855. ‘The Sebright Bantam Club was formed some forty years ago by the late Sir John S. Sebright and several other fanciers, who endeavoured, if possible, to obtain the beautiful plumage of the Polish fowl on as small specimens as could be. They (the late Sir John, the late Mr. Stevens, the late Mr. Hollingsworth, and Mr. Garle, who still survives) began their labours by selecting the best kinds for their purpose of the Polish, and, by judiciously crossing them with Bantams, gradually obtained their end. They had to work out the top-knots, get rid of the hackles and long tail-feathers, and reduce the size ; retaining as much as possible the truly impertinent character of the Bantam. This has been most successfully accomplished, but not without the occasional recrossing with the Black Bantam, for the constant breeding in-and-in has often brought the birds to a stand-still. The club thus formed met annually, on the first 476 The Illustrated Book of Poultry. 1 uesday in February, in Brick Lane, but has been of late years transferred to the Gray’s Inn Coftee House, Holborn, where it has always been the custom to admit strangers, on application, after the award of the judges. The club is essentially private, and all members must be proposed and seconded by a member, and afterwards ballotted for. The annual subscription for the Golden is two guineas, and the same for the Silvers, which forms the amount of prizes. Each bird must be the bona-fide property of the exhibitor, bred by him, and under a year old. The cocks are allowed twenty-two ounces, the hens eighteen ounces. The cocks must have no long hackles, no saddle-leathers, no streamers in the tail ; they must have rose-combs, short backs, heads and tails approximating ; their ground colour, whether Gold or Silver, must be clear, and every feather delicately laced (never spotted) with pure black. The tail-feathers should form no exception in their lacing (but this will be very seldom seen), and the bars on the wings should be black and distinct. The same rule applies to the hens.’ ” The Laced Bantam is of two varieties, called respectively Gold and Silver, from the ground colour of the plumage, which should be a golden-bay in one case and clear white in the other. In perfect specimens every feather , including the neck-hackles (or rather feathers, for the cock has no true hackles), the wing-secondaries, the tail-feathers, in fact with no exceptions whatever except Fig. 98. — Tail-feather of Laced Bantam. the primary quills or flights, which are not seen, is laced or margined all round with black, as shown in Fig. 9 7. The accuracy of this marking in good birds is extraordinary and produces a most beautiful effect. The flights in Golden birds are usually of a darker shade in the ground colour, with sometimes a little grey shading on the inner web, and almost always a little lacing towards the end, but rarely more. In Silvers, the primaries usually show rather more black or grey. The feathers most apt to fail in lacing are those of the tail. We have seen birds laced perfectly even here, but almost always the lacing of the tail-feathers is rather thin up the sides, as in the tail- feather shown in Fig. 98, which is plucked, as were the others, from one of Mr. Leno’s birds. Such a tail as here drawn would be considered very good indeed ; and it is regarded as allowable for an otherwise excellent bird to have the tail-feathers only nicely tipped, but the farther the marking extends up the sides of the feather the better. The Sebright Bantam has a rose-comb, which should be as neat as possible, though this is always a difficult point. The comb, wattles, and face are of a purple or livid colour, and the deaf- ears are supposed to be white, but it is more than doubtful if such were ever yet seen on good speci- mens. So long ago as 1853, Mr. Hewitt, at that time a celebrated breeder of Sebright Bantams, wrote on this point in Messrs. Wingfield and Johnson’s “ Poultry Book : “ In the Sebright Laced Bantams, I have yet to see a specimen in which the ear-lobe is perfectly white ; for although so many have been bred by myself in the last twenty years, all that I have yet had were blushed , and many perfectly red in the ear-lobe. I freely admit that I should prefer the white, but feel confident that it is not to be generally, if ever, obtained. I have also invariably noticed that any Cassell’s Poultry Book i , Vincent Brooks,!*0 y St Son lith MR MATTHEW LEN o’s GOLD & S 1 LV E R -LA C E D B A NTAMS, FIRST PRIZES AT CRYSTAL PALACE AND BIRM INGHAM, 1871 ' ■ I Breeding Laced Bantams . 4 77 unusual whiteness in the ear-lobe is accompanied by a sad falling-off in the lacing ; and, therefore, if attainable only at so great a cost, it must not be insisted on. Twenty years more of experience has only confirmed this, and even made the ear-lobes redder than ever; since, when Mr. Hewitt wrote, bluish ears were perhaps the rule rather than the exception, whereas now those of many prize birds are perfectly red. This does not arise from any necessary connection between white ears and bad lacing, but from the extreme barrenness of Sebright stock making the number reared so very small that in the vast majority of cases, when the few well-laced birds have been selected, there are among them no good lobes to1 choose from ; and hence, as lacing mtist be had, the ear-lobe has to be sacrificed. • *' * The Sebright cock must be perfectly hen-tailed, and indeed hen-feathered in every respect, his neck and saddle-feathers precisely resembling those of the hen, and being laced, not on any account striped, with black. His carriage is the extreme of self-importance, strutting as he does on tip-toe, with the head thrown back and tail cocked up, so as often to meet together, the wings being carried low, so that the points in some birds almost touch the ground. The legs are dark leaden blue, and perfectly clean. Another very peculiar characteristic of highly-bred Sebright Bantams appears to have been hitherto overlooked by all writers on poultry. We are indebted for it, as for so many other valuable contributions to this work, to Mr. Hewitt ; and it is worth especial notice, as a most singular additional instance of what Mr. Darwin has called “ analagous variation,” or the tendency to develop similar characteristics among species widely distinct — in this case so wide apart as poultry and pigeons. “ In the Sebright Bantams exhibited by myself and others at all our earliest Birmingham shows,” says Mr. Hewitt, “ a very pleasing peculiarity existed, that is seen but rarely among those of the present day. When under alarm, closely-bred Sebrights possess a characteristic never seen in other poultry. The head is thrown far back, and the tail being at the same moment greatly raised, they all but touch each other. The wings drop suddenly, so far as to show distinctly every marking below the saddle-feather, which markings are never found perfect, except in decidedly good birds of this description. The greatest peculiarity is, however, yet to be stated. When so startled, not only do they thus assume much of the shape, for the time being, of the fan-tail pigeon, but also the singular tremulous motion of the neck and head , so characteristic in that variety of pigeon, becomes perfectly developed in the Sebright, and aids greatly to expose the all-important feature of well-laced neck-hackle, for which laced Bantams are so highly prized.” The great difficulty in breeding Sebright Bantams is their extreme sterility, to which we have already alluded. This has not only often threatened the actual extinction of the breed (for it has more than once happened that not one chick has hatched out of several hundreds of eggs set), but makes it very difficult, as just remarked, to attain a high standard, since there are not adequate numbers from which to make that selection of stock which is the very foundation of the breeder’s art. Hence many strains have “ run out” of lacing, as it is called; that is, the lacing has in successive generations faded away, till nothing was left but buff-coloured birds with a few indistinct markings here and there. The cause of such sterility has been differently stated, though the differences are found more apparent than real, and on further examination come practically to one point. Thus, Mr. Hewitt attributes it to the hen-tailed character, and states that he has found even so much departure from this as the elongation by half an inch of the upper feathers of the cock’s tail improve matters much. That this can scarcely be the ultimate cause however, is almost proved by an exception he himself mentions, that of a cock perfect in tail which was as prolific as any ; moreover, we have before seen that hen-feathering in other breeds 47* The Illustrated Book of Poultry. does not necessarily involve this consequence, though it is remarkable that in the most closely-bred variety — the Lancashire Mooney — which Mr. Beldon has stated to have been in his opinion perfected by close breeding out of the Yorkshire Pheasant, many sterile cocks were found. This in fact seems the real clue, and if we regard the hen-tail in this case as one of the signs of close breeding, all seems accounted for. The origin of the Laced Bantam we have already seen to have been almost as complex as that of Dr. Bennett’s “ Plymouth Rocks,” for the truth of the account we have quoted is manifest on its very face ; and, indeed, a simple comparison c>f the drawings of Sebright feathers with those of the Polish fowls previously given would of itself show conclusively where the lacing came from. Now a breed formed by such complex crosses can only be preserved by close in-breeding of the most severe character — far more severe than anything we have advised in other parts of this work — and there are few opportunities to get fresh blood. Add to this that the smallest and therefore weakest birds were selected, and the progress of sterility is only too satisfactorily accounted for. We have seen that long ago a cross with the Black Bantam was employed to remedy these growing evils, and it has been more than suspected that modern breeders have used the same expedient, though in some quarters it has been denied. The following interesting notes on Sebright Bantams, from the most successful breeder of the present day, Mr. Matthew Leno, of Dunstable, will however remove all doubt on this point. “ The breeding of the beautiful Gold and Silver Sebright (or Laced) Bantam, has from my youth greatly engrossed my attention. My commencement with the above was a present from the late Sir Thomas G. S. Sebright, Bart., of a trio of very beautiful birds ; this was about two years after the decease of the original producer of the Laced Bantam, viz., Sir John Sebright, Bart., and I assure you it was no small pleasure to find on my arrival at home one day such an unlooked-for present. Poultry-shows shortly after becoming very popular, I tried my hand at exhibiting them, and was successful in my first attempt, which prompted me to give my first fancy poultry every attention ; and I think I may be excused a little boasting in saying that 1 have successfully exhibited the Laced Bantam ever since at most of the principal poultry exhibitions in the kingdom. “ It is a well-known fact that the lacing of the Sebright Bantam is very difficult to keep together ; I find on breeding them with clear tails, that the lacing on the breast and shoulders is mostly very indifferent. I have bred some of my best for evenness of lacing by introducing occasionally a Black Bantam cock to Laced hens, and in succeeding years breeding from the best cross-bred cockerel with Laced hens having no such stain amongst them. It takes several years to get the lacing good afterwards, but some of my best exhibition birds have been bred in the manner described ; the Black Bantam causes the tails to come rather dark, but the lacing otherwise most perfect ; the cross is also most useful in tending to make the Sebright Bantam more fertile. I have, in my earlier experience, had in some seasons only two or three chicks hatch out of as many hundred eggs, but since I have introduced the cross named I get plenty of fertile eggs; and although the cross produces the cloudy tail, I am recompensed by the superior lacing obtained. The breeding of Gold and Silver separately should not always be followed, as the Gold birds1 colouring becomes too red. The breeding of the two colours together generally yields some splendid birds ; the produce will be both Gold and Silver, and not one in fifty will be half-and-half colour. “ They lay a large number of eggs, and are easily reared. It is a fact well-known to me that many chickens are killed by what I term ‘too great kindness many commence to stuff them with too large a quantity of egg food. I use nothing but barley-meal, a sprinkling of oatmeal, and Breeding Laced Bantams. 479 Dear’s Game and Poultry Food, and a very small portion of custard, mixed together in a crumbly paste. The custard is made of new milk and eggs, in proportion five or six eggs to half a pint of milk; the milk should be boiled in a kettle something after the fashion of a glue-pot. The milk being surrounded by water prevents it burning, which would prove very injurious to the chicks ; the eggs, after being beaten up, should be added when the milk is boiling, and frequently stirred. In a short time a nice thick custard is formed, which, after a slow boiling, should be turned out into a hair sieve to thoroughly drain the whey out before using. I never use more than four or five eggs daily to every hundred chicks ; clean well-water always by them. “ Just a hint as regards Laced Bantams for breeding purposes : the cockerels should have a very slightly sickle-feathered tail, perfectly hen-tailed birds being often very unprolific.” It will be observed that Mr. Leno, like Mr. Hewitt, remarks on the frequently sterile character of perfectly hen-tailed birds; though we must add that we have heard from other breeders of cocks perfect in this respect, which were as prolific as could be desired. Much depends on the run, the general management, and the degree to which the birds are exhibited, specimens frequently shown almost always proving sterile in this breed. With regard to breeding Sebrights, very little can be added to the preceding remarks. In the old “ Poultry Book”* to which we have already referred, Mr. Hewitt makes three observations which we have every reason, from inquiry, to believe are still true. The first is, that in their third year many birds become grizzled with white, and consequently unfitted for exhibition. “Fre- quently, however,” he says, “ have I found that in this state they produce stock far superior to those that have been reared from these same birds in their pristine beauty.” The second is, that the best chickens are generally produced when the parents are over-sized , which will be found probable enough when the superior vigour of such parents is considered. The third is, that he generally found his best-laced birds were bred from parents one of which was very heavily laced, while the other was scarcely sufficiently so. “ Why this should be,” he says, “ I know not, but I am confi- dent that those that are best laced frequently produce offspring that are far from perfect in their markings ; while those exhibited by myself, which have so often proved successful, were bred as before stated.” We may add that it is desirable to choose a breeding cock whose comb is as bright as possible. We are not aware, in fact, that the livid comb is considered a particular merit in any case, and if dark-coloured birds on both sides be bred from, it is apt to become almost black. A neat comb is a great point, but rather rare of late, most of the combs now shown being low behind, instead of the pike pointing rather upwards as in Hamburghs, which it should do. As to breeding the two varieties together, we have no doubt that it improves hardiness and fertility, and is of occasional benefit to the Gold ; but we feel equally little doubt that it was what ruined the Silvers. Until 1872 we had not seen a pen of real Silvers for years, those so-called being simply bad-coloured pale gold ; and in one case we actually saw two pens side by side, one of which was called Silver and the other Golden, with scarcely a shade between them. We had began to think the beautiful Silver-laced Bantam was altogether lost, when we heard from an old friend that two splendid pens had been sent to a Scotch show ; and at the Bristol show soon after we saw two pens, the ground-colour of which was as white and clear as the paper on which this work is printed. We learnt on inquiry that the Scotch birds had been re-made , or bred over again ; and since that time the new strain of Silvers has so increased that this colour is now far the most plentiful of the two. The colour is still clear, and we trust may be kept so. That crossing such birds with Golden often produces at first pure-coloured chicks of both varieties we quite * “The Poultry Book,” by Messrs. Wingfield and Johnson, 1853, pp. 200, 20?. 4 So i he Illustrated Book of Poultry. but tli.. suuin gradually works in,” and ultimately the Silver is lost. Sad experience this, and hence, while it is admissible to cross from the Silver occasionally to improve olden, the Silver biids thus produced, though they may be exhibited, should not be allowed to breed with any pure Silver strain. NANKIN BANTAMS. — This is one of the most ancient breeds of Bantams, and probably the parent, or rather one of the parents, of many other breeds, formed by crossing it with different rav.es of large poultry. It is still sometimes seen at shows (two fine hens were shown at Biimingham a few years back), but rarely takes prizes, being almost always larger than other vaiieties, which of course is a great disadvantage. We kept a hen of this variety when at schooL and she proved a first-rate layer, quite equal in number of eggs to any barn-door fowl. In this variety of Bantam the colour of the hen closely resembles that of the Buff Cochin, the hackle being darker, and sometimes spotted with black, and the tail usually tipped with black. The cock’s general colour is more of a chestnut on the upper parts, or rather very dark orange gold, like a very dark Buff Cochin, the tail being glossy black, and of a good full sweeping character. The legs are dark and smooth. The combs are met with both single and rose. Mr. Oliver E. Cresswell brought this Bantam again into notice by a beautiful pen exhibited at the Crystal Palace “Bantam” Show of 1872, and has at present a fine yard of them. He has at our request kindly added the following more detailed description : — “ This lovely breed of Bantams has been sorely neglected of late, but I do not think any catalogue of Bantams complete without mention of them. There are those, though not among the class of exhibitors, who, knowing their beauty and merits, have kept and bred them carefullv through a long series of years ; and excellent specimens may sometimes be seen at gamekeepers’ cottages in remote districts, where they have long been kept as foster-parents to partridges. The remembrance of a lovely little hen I possessed years ago, and the desire, common to most enthusiastic fanciers, to keep some breed different to one’s neighbours, induced me to hunt for them. I obtained my first stock from two distant counties, and from their union bred the birds which took first prize at the Crystal Palace Bantam Show, and I shall be only too pleased if fanciers can be persuaded to follow my example, and, hunting up good birds where they are little cared for, will attempt to breed them to a definite standard of beauty. “Their points, subject to correction from more competent judges, I consider to be, first — size as small as possible ; second, combs single or double (I prefer the latter, but am told that the best Nankins of thirty years ago had single combs) ; third, legs blue or white. The former are preferable, but I find them difficult to obtain, as the birds of one of my original stocks were white- legged. As long as all the birds in a pen match in colour of legs I do not consider the colour itself an essential point. “The cock has an amusing and conceited gait, with flowing sickle-tail, and wings almost sweeping the ground. His breast and body are of a deep ginger-colour ; the back, wing- coverts, neck and saddle-hackles a rich orange or chestnut ; the tail chestnut or copper, shading into black. “ The hen’s general colour is a clear buff, like that of a Buff Cochin. In some birds it is of a ginger, in others of a canary hue, with neck-hackles as free as possible from dark lacing. The tail is brown, shading into black towards the end. The unseen half of the primary wing-feathers is often, as well as in the cock, black. “Nankins are the most tameable and engaging of Bantams, excellent layers of large eggs for their size, and the most careful mothers,” White and Booted Bantams. 481 This variety breeds pretty true with little trouble, but it is so little kept that we can give no detailed instructions. Indeed, it will be seen that some points can scarcely be regaided as fixed. The name is supposed to have been given from the resemblance of the colour to that of nankeen piece goods. We have often thought that by crossing this variety with Gold-pencilled Hamburghs, a very pretty and very small Pencilled Bantam might be produced with little difficulty. WHITE AND BOOTED BANTAMS.— The White Bantam usually shown exactly re- sembles the rose-combed Black breed in all but plumage, having dark legs, red face, and white ear- lobes ; at least this is the accepted standard of English breeders. But we repeat a remark made by us many years ago, that the white ear-lobe is far inferior in appearance to red, the white plumage seeming to require this contrast, and the white deaf-ear looking sickly in comparison. In America the red deaf-ear is considered the correct colour, our Transatlantic brother-fanciers showing in this particular a sounder appreciation of aesthetic beauty. In all other respects, allowing for the dif- ference in plumage, our remarks upon Black Bantams will apply to this breed. There is another beautiful breed — one of the oldest known — which we wish to see more cultivated. We refer to the exquisite White Booted Bantam. This quaint little fowl only requires to be known to be loved. The following notes on this variety are from Mr. R. S. S. Woodgate, of Tunbridge Wells, who informs us that he was led to cultivate the breed by a casual remark of our own to the above effect in a poultry periodical, and finds our praise (we kept them when at school) more than borne out in every particular. “ White Booted Bantams,’'’ he says, “ are perhaps the tamest and hardiest of all our Bantams. An erroneous idea is afloat that all white breeds are delicate, but as I have devoted myself to breeds of this colour for many years I can distinctly deny it. To any one who has a garden, with the smallest possible bit of green, and wants a few birds for amusement only, and prefers even a smaller breed than Silkies, I recommend this little variety ; they are very tame, very hardy, and so happy in their dispositions. Then they are the gamest little fellows imaginable ; pick up a cock from the yard, and he will crow in your very hands in the most defiant way. “ This variety is very prolific, though the eggs are not much larger than pigeons’ eggs ; and the hens make admirable sitters and mothers ; but sometimes the length of their hocks makes them roll the eggs from the nest when leaving it. Three little hens I now have with their chickens are making the most exemplary mothers. “ White Booted Bantams should be as small as possible, though we do not at present see them so small as the generality of Bantams as a rule. They should have white legs and bills, and be heavily booted and hocked ; the more feathering on their legs and feet the better. The cocks should have nice full-sickled tails, and be firmly and closely made. There are both single and double combs, but personally I much prefer the single, and believe that to be correct, they lose so much of their peculiar appearance with the double comb. The single comb is, however, difficult to get good, so many have “ thumb-marks,” as they are called — a kind of wave in the front of the comb ; but I would never be too quick at discarding a bird for this failing, as sometimes the comb comes right when the bird gets older. The hen’s comb should be nicely serrated, upright, and not too large ; those lopping over are most objectionable. “ This breed has one drawback to which all white breeds are liable, namely, getting sunburnt. When kept in an exposed sunny place the hackles turn yellow, like White Cochins, which is a great impediment to successful exhibition. I can only recommend the shade of living underwood and trees to ward off this, which does not generally appear the first summer. “ This is a very oid-fashioned breed of Bantams, though we do not see many of them 2 P now 482 The Illustrated Book of Poultry. but they only want hunting up, and a class or two offered for them, to appear in the same numbers as the other varieties. For exhibition they only want to be sent out quite clean, but in washing them great care must be taken, or they will be overcome by their bath, and soon die. Their heads should never be put under water under any circumstances.” W e need only add that the Booted Bantam does little injury in the garden at any time of the year. We doubt, in fact, if it does any ; the long feather on the legs appearing almost, if not altogether, to prevent its scratching. This point may be a strong recommendation to some, who dislike keeping their pets confined ; cannot afford a good open run ; like to see their gardens tidy ; and yet — inconsistent mortals — want to keep fowls. These are the very birds for them : and no prettier sight can be imagined than half a dozen of these little snowballs walking about among the flower-beds, and when called, standing still to cock their heads at their owner just like pet canaries. Black Booted Bantams resemble the Whites in all but colour, but we never saw any with other than single combs ; which is, indeed, now accepted as correct for both colours. The longer the shank-feather is, the better ; in good specimens it will reach or exceed six inches, and is of course accompanied by vulture-hock. Great care is necessary, as described for Cochins, to preserve the feather when these birds are kept for exhibition ; grass being kept carefully mown close, and all rough stones and gravel being kept out of the dusting-places. Wet also must be carefully guarded against. Splashes or mottles are also seen ; and all the varieties with muffs and whiskers, as well as without. The first of this latter class we ever saw were at Mr. Beldon’s, in 1871. They were imported from Germany, and in addition to the vulture-hocks and feathered legs, had good muffs or whiskers, which gave a very quaint appearance. The combs were of a small and neat Cochin shape, while the short legs, fluff, broad saddles, and small tails, all partook of the Cochin or Pekin Bantam type, to which they no doubt belonged. VARIOUS NEW BANTAMS. — During the last few years there has been a strange out- burst of “new” varieties of Bantams, which now embrace nearly, if not quite, all the large breeds of poultry. One of the most prolific creators of this class of fowls has been Mr. W. F. Entwisle, from whose yards have come Dark and Light Brahmas, all colours in Cochins, Malays, Indian Game, Polish of all varieties, and Sultans. These were obtained in most cases by “breeding down” from the parent breeds — i.e., choosing for stock the smallest specimens obtained by late breeding — with an occasional Bantam cross. From a kind of Burmese Bantams crossed with Phoenix or Japanese Loner-tailed fowls, Mr. Entwisle produced the crested and bearded, short-legged and feathered long-tailed Bantams, which have won at several shows as “ improved Burmese.” Minorcas, Andalusians, Leghorns, and several kinds of Hamburghs have also been shown as Bantams, and we have seen tolerable Silver-grey Dorkings and White Creves. Rumpless laced Bantams were also shown by Mr. Garnett at the Crystal Palace Show of 1889. As regards feather and other properties, these Bantams will have to be selected upon similar principles to their larger relatives ; but owing to their recent origin, special care will need to be taken to prevent natural reversion to the original larger size. So far as any Bantam crosses have been employed, a propensity to mis-marking will also trouble the breeder. These two difficulties constantly baffle the fancier for many generations, and make any certainty in breeding these varieties true to points a very dubious matter indeed, though a single pen fit for exhibition may be obtained after perhaps two or three crosses. For these reasons it is perhaps doubtful whether the further multiplication of such Bantam varieties is much to be desired, though no doubt it can Rearing Bantams . 4^3 be carried to any extent, given the necessary skill and perseverance. The general procedure would be that followed in the case of the Malay Bantams described in the following chapter. Our own opinion is that some want of judgment has been shown in the production of a portion of these varieties, some of the major breeds not being, as it were, at all appropriate to miniature representation. There is nothing about Dorkings or Brahmas, for instance, at all appropriate, in our opinion ; and the attractiveness of Leghorns and Minorcas is also doubtful ; Brown Leghorns, moreover, resembling in plumage the Black-red Game. On the other hand, Polish, and Pencilled Hamburghs, of really good quality, are exquisite gems in Bantam size, and, owing to the smaller size of the parent races, one would think should be easier to produce a strain of, which would breed really true to points, than some of the above breeds. Attention to considerations of this kind, and to the natural fitness of things, is, we think, very desirable in this branch of breeding ; else the plentifulness of mediocre representations of every breed under the sun may injure the popularity of Bantams altogether. In rearing Bantams, the main point is, of course, to keep them small , and this is by no means easy. The difficulty is, that many Bantam breeds are somewhat delicate, and therefore the poor regimen that naturally occurs as the readiest means of accomplishing the desired object, is rather apt to kill them off on a more wholesale scale than is satisfactory either to the humanity or pecuniary prospects of the owner. Hence late hatching has been generally resorted to ; but even this, besides having a somewhat similar effect, has been found in many cases to injure the development of the plumage in cockerels, especially stunting the tails, which spoils the look of a Bantam completely. By the ingenuity and experience of breeders, however, all these difficulties have been overcome. It has been found possible to contrive really good feeding, which can be given freely, and which shall yet afford very little bone-making material ; and that on the quantity of the latter, size chiefly depends. So much, in fact, would be inferred from former pages of this work, where we have pointed out the great effect of a judicious use of phosphates and of lime in increasing size ; and the fact that “ good feeding,” as it is called, does not necessarily contain these elements may be demonstrated with equal readiness. To use only one apt illustration — the average Englishman is always held to feed “better” than the Scotchman, using as he does the best white flour and a large quantity of animal food; yet the Scotchman, as a rule, attains a larger stature, because his national food contains a good proportion of bone-forming substances. In this way, therefore, breeders have accomplished the desired object ; and it has also been found that upon such nourishing, though not bone-making, food, even late-hatched birds will feather well and fully. Different breeders have their various food recipes to accomplish these ends, which are often kept as secrets, and most jealously guarded ; but Mr. E. Hutton, of Pudsey, Leeds, whose remarks on Black Bantams we have already given, has most kindly and fully placed his own method and experience at our disposal. It will have been noticed that in his previous notes he speaks of reducing the size of his birds by “ feeding on diet specially adapted for that purpose and the extreme smallness of many of the birds shown by him, notwithstanding the well-known and apparently contradictory hardiness of his strain, are conclusive proofs of the success of his method. We may give this very shortly in his own words : — “ In reducing the size of my Bantams, the special food I have referred to as used by me is as follows : For hard grain I employ good sound wheat, with a little canary seed about twice a week, by way of a change. For soft food the first meal was invariably boiled milk-sops, and during the remainder of the day a preparation made as follows : Rice, most thoroughly boiled in water, had a 4s4 The Illustrated Book of Poultry. little dripping added to it, and was spiced with pimento, and when quite cold I added a small portion of finely-ground oatmeal, the rice forming nice pellets, to which the oatmeal adhered when it was thrown on the ground. This, although very high feeding, supplied little bone-forming subsiance , and though the chicks remained small, they feathered well, and I have often had early- bred pullets laying at the age of sixteen weeks.” The regimen here described may of course be applied to any breed of Bantams. Stimulating and nourishing as it is, Mr. Hutton is quite correct in stating that upon the whole it contains little bone-forming substance, the only ingredient at all rich in this being the little oatmeal which adheres to the rice ; rice itself being practically destitute of such ingredients, and also the bread and milk, except what the milk contains — an almost infinitesimal quantity. Yet, while possessing these desirable qualities, it is rich and stimulating enough to carry the most delicate breed through either late or early seasons without difficulty. The best mothers for Bantam chicks are either birds of their own breeds or Silky hens. JUDGING BANTAMS. — In most breeds of Bantams there are certain points, such as the ear-lobes in Blacks, or the lacing and hen-tail in Sebrights, which are regarded as essential, and require primary attention at the hands, or rather the eyes, of the judge ; but beyond these a ge7ieral neatness and smartness of carriage and “ make-up ” are especially to be considered. The reason for this is very manifest. Bantams being — whatever their practical merits may be — regarded exclusively as ornamental poultry, the general effect to the eye, so far as compatible with what may be the conventional standard of the particular breed itself, has perhaps more weight than in any other variety of fowl. In connection with this point, and to avoid serious mistakes and consequent disappointment on the part of many amateurs, it is absolutely necessary to state that the old * “Standard of Excel- lence ” is, as regards Bantams, utterly unreliable and worthless. In all the scales for Bantam breeds treated of in that work there is a limit of weight given for each sex, beyond which the birds are stated to be “ disqualified,” that is, ipso facto thrown out even of competition. In the case of cocks, the limit is fixed as follows : Game Bantams, twenty-four ounces ; Sebrights, twenty ounces ; Black or White Bantams, twenty ounces ; excess over these weights being “ disqualification.” We have not the slightest hesitation in affirming that not only is this not the case, but that it has never been so amongst recognised English judges, and would disqualify more than half of the most celebrated winners. Nothing could more strongly show the absurdity we have before pointed out of merely empirical scales. So palpably true is what we state, that in the American “ Standard,” which usually follows the work named most closely, the limit of weight has perforce been extended — in the case of Sebright cocks no less than four ounces ; but even that, or any other absolute limit whatever, cannot be maintained. We ought to state that we are not expressing a mere opinion on this matter, which might differ from that of one holding different views ; it is a simple matter of fact, and we speak from actual test — as applied to awards by every judge at all recognised in the poultry world. Bantams are never actually weighed now in competition ; but by the courtesy of committees we have been allowed to ascertain and compare actual weights after some awards ; we have been allowed to weigh other well-known birds in “their native home and in countless other cases we have estimated the weights by hand (and our hand has been acknowledged to be pretty accurate) ; and the result is, that the exceptions to the stated limit of weight are considerably more than the cases which fall within it ; and not only so, but as a rule comprise the very best birds. The rule is wrong even in principle ; for it is apparent size and not mere weight the * As this edition goes to press, the “ Poultry Club” is still engaged upon a new “ Standard.” Schedule eor Judging Santa ms. 4*5 judge has to consider, and a really small and small-looking bird, if in hard condition and health, will weigh more, for that very reason, than a far larger bird in poor health and loose feather. Especially is this the case with Game Bantams, as we have proved by experiment. We have taken an exquisite cup bird from his pen and found him weigh twenty-six ounces, while his next-door neighbour weighed only twenty-one and a half; yet the last bird was half as large again as the legitimate winner, and bad every way. By such an empirical scale the winning bird — all but perfect, and a gem even of smallness in spite of his weight — must have been disqualified in favour of the great loose-feathered brute which yet came within the scales. Weight is, in fact, no criterion whatever ; and even size, which is, is only one of the points to be considered, and no absolute limit can be laid down for it. So important is this subject — we should not have written so strongly upon it else — that we think it right to state that we submitted our views upon it to the late Mr. Hewitt ; and that most eminent judge — who had far more experience than all others put together — permitted us to say that he fully agreed with the views we have expressed. Our own schedules have been drav/n up with care ; and Bantams being shown much more than formerly, are more accurate than could have been the case some few years ago. SCHEDULE FOR JUDGING BLACK AND WHITE (CLEAN-LEGGED) BANTAMS. General Characteristics. — Precisely resembling the Hamburgh fowl, but on a diminutive scale. Weight of cocks sixteen to twenty-two ounces ; of hens, twelve to eighteen ounces. Colour of Black Bantams. — hi both Sexes— Beak black, or dark horn-colour; comb, face, and wattles, deep rich red; deaf-ears brilliant white ; eyes bright red ; legs a deep leaden- blue, approaching black ; plumage a deep rich black, brilliantly glossed with green. Colour of White Bantams. — In both Sexes — Beak white ; comb, face, and wattles, brilliant scarlet red ; deaf-ears white for English shows, but red for American shows [red preferable for appearance] ; eyes bright red ; legs white, or pinky white ; plumage a pure and spotless white, as free from sun-burn as possible. [Some consider black legs admissible, but most judges consider either black or yellow tantamount to disqualification]. VALUE OF DEFECTS IN JUDGING. Points of Merit. A bird, perfect in shape, style, colour, and con- dition, and not too large, to count in points . too For an extra small bird, otherwise good, see Note “. Defects to be Deducted. Bad comb ..... . 14 Deaf-ear faulty in colour . . 16 ( in black . bad colour plumage 1 f ,, white . . . 12 . 18 Squirrel-tail .... • '5 Too great size. .... See Note a Want of general symmetry . . 15 ,, ,, condition. • 15 « We have found, with birds in average condition, that eighteen ounces in cockerels and fifteen ounces in hens are what will fairly entitle birds to be called “perfect ;” and about one point should be deducted for the first ounce over this, two points the second ounce, three points the third ounce, and so on, the deductions for every ounce to be reckoned collectively, or added together, while two points per ounce may be credited for less weights. But, as already observed, individual birds differ much, and it is the apparent size usually denoted by these weights, and not the weights themselves, that are to be considered by the judge. Disqualifications. — Single combs ; wry-tails or any other deformity ; legs feathered, or any other colour than dark leaden-blue, black, or white, respectively ; deaf-ears entirely of the colour excluded by the Schedule. Any fraudulent dj-eing, dressing, or trimming. SCHEDULE FOR JUDGING LACED BANTAMS. General Characteristics of both Sexes. — General appearance of head brisk and jaunty ; beak rather short ■ comb double or rose, as neat as possible (most birds now shown have a clumsy comb, with the peak tending downward, which is very objectionable) ; wattles medium size, and well rounded ; deaf-ears medium, and flat or free from folds ; neck taper, and in the 4-86 The Illustrated Booh or Poultry. cock carried very far back, or arched, but the plumage resembling the hen’s, and quite free from true hackle-feathers. Body — General appearance compact, the back being very short, and the breast very full and prominent ; the wings carried very low, those of the cock almost touching the ground. The cock’s saddle-feathers resemble the hen’s. Legs and Feet — Thighs and legs short, the shanks being slender, and perfectly free from feather. Tail — Rather large, that of the cock being perfectly square, or hen- shaped, but rather larger, and carried very high, so as nearly (often quite) to touch the back of his head. Size — The smaller the better, but cocks under twenty-two ounces and hens under sixteen ounces are now seldom seen. Formerly birds were shown much smaller than this, but the cocks have increased in size more than the hens. General Shape — Short and deep. Carriage — Extra- ordinarily vain and strutting in the cock ; pert and inquisitive in the hen. VALUE OF DEFECTS IN JUDGING. Points of Merit. Defect; to be Deducted. A bird, perfect in shape, style, colour, lacing, and Bad comb ...... • • 10 condition, and not too large, to count in Imperfect lacing ..... • • 25 points . IOO Ground-colour imperfect in uniformity or purity, F or an extra small bird, otherwise good, see or sullied with grey • • 18 Note a. Tail grey, or imperfectly laced . . • • 10 Cock’s tail not perfectly square b . • • 10 Too great size ..... See Note 8 Want of general symmetry . % % 15 ,, ,, condition .... • • 15 a With birds in average condition, cocks weighing eighteen ounces and hens sixteen ounces to be considered perfect ; over that weight, one point to be deducted for the first ounce, two points (in addition) for the second, &c., as in the previous scale. Under that weight, three points per ounce to be credited. t This refers only to such slight elongation or curvature of the upper feathers as will not disqualify a bird from competition. Disqualifications. — Sickles or hackles in the cock. Single combs. Legs any ether colour than slaty-blue or black. Ground- colour conspicuously spotted, or entire absence of lacing on any visible feather. Wry-tails, or any other deformity. Any fraudulent dyeing, dressing, or trimming. We had proceeded to frame other scales, but found on comparison that they resolved them- selves into the same general elements ; which is not to be wondered at, when it is considered that in most cases all other Bantams are shown together. The following general scale, then, will be found to judge all other Bantams with sufficient accuracy. The characteristics have been sufficiently described in the text, and in most cases, in fact, can scarcely be given with the minute accuracy possible in the Black, White, or Laced breeds. VALUE OF DEFECTS IN JUDGING OTHER BANTAMS. Points of Merit. A bird, perfect in shape, style, colour, and con- dition, and not too large, to count in points . ioo For an extra small bird, otherwise good, see Note a- Defects to be Deducted. Faults in head and comb „ deaf-ear (where important) . „ colour of plumage . Want of leg-feather (where required) Bad shape or carriage of tail . Other faults in general symmetry . Too great size . . . . . Want of condition . . . . 12 . 8 . 21 • 7 • 15 - i5 See Note 3 . . 15 - a Birds in average condition, not exceeding twenty-two ounces in cocks or eighteen ounces in hens, to be considered “perfect.” Above that weight, deducting one point for the first ounce, two for the second (in addition), three for the third, See. Under that weight, credit two points per ounce. It is, however, as in all cases, to be the apparent sizes of birds of such weights, in average condition, which are considered, and not merely absolute weight. Disqualifications. Wry-tails, or any other deformity. Foul-coloured feathers in black or white breeds, or white or black feathers in coloured breeds. Deaf-ears, combs, or legs not fairly in accordance with the accepted standard of the variety. Any fraudulent dyeing, dressing, or trimming. Cassells Poultry Book Afincertt Brooks Dav &.SonLrth. BROWN REDS. FIRST PRIZE AT LEEDS 1886 DUCKWING S. CUP AT WINDSOR 1885. &C &C BLACK REDS. CUP AT WINDSOR 1886 & c.&c. MR W F . ENTW IS LE’S GAME BANTAMS. P I LES. CUP AT BIRMINGHAM 1885 &c &c . 487 CHAPTER XXXI. GAME AND MALAY BANTAMS. The creation of Game Bantams is one of the most striking triumphs of the breeder’s art, and the popularity of these graceful little birds has of late been somewhat extraordinary. This is no doubt owing in part to the much better quality of the specimens exhibited of late years, which are as different to those formerly shown as possible, presenting the fine outlines and plumage of the Game fowl in faultless perfection, with the diminutive size of the Bantam. This took a long time to acquire, and for many years stout stocky birds, with wings carried low, and spreading tails, had to be awarded prizes for want of better ; but such specimens would stand no chance whatever now ; the neat, light, whip-like figure of the true Game bird being quite indispensable to any chance of success. Most careful breeding is needful to secure this, with the necessary points in plumage and other respects ; but we have been fortunate in obtaining such very full notes on these beautiful birds as leave no point untreated of on which information is needed by the fancier. The gentleman to whom Bantam breeders and ourselves alike are so much indebted, is Mr. W. F. Entwisle, of Westfield, near Bradford, Yorkshire, who writes as follows : — “Game Bantams rank amongst the most beautiful of our ornamental fowls, and they are by no means unprofitable either as layers or for table use ; for though small their flesh is most delicious, and they very early arrive at maturity. They are undoubtedly of English production, having been bred by crossing the English Game fowl with the Bantam, and selecting for future stock-birds those chickens which most closely resembled their Game parents, and by breeding in and in till the size was reduced to the desired point. Their good properties have rendered them such general favourites that they have become very plentiful throughout the United Kingdom, as weii as on the Continent and the United States, to which they have been exported in considerable numbers. “ We have four leading varieties of Game Bantams, viz., Black-breasted Reds, Brown-breasted Reds, Duckwings, and Piles, or White-breasted Reds; and besides these there are White, Black, and Wheaten Game Bantams, the last-named being almost indispensable for the breeding of Black-breasted Reds and Duckwings. All Game Bantams should resemble the lar always giving some duck-weed in the same ; this duck-weed should be collected in the evening, when numerous small molluscs will be secured with it, which is of wonderful assistance in rearing them. “ They should never be allowed to get old enough to fly before they are pinioned, which may be done very easily with a sharp pair of strong scissors, getting the scissors nearly close up to the first joint of wing, when a quick action will sever the part, taking care not to cut away the little projecting point with about three feathers, near to the elbow of wing, as this serves to protect the part where amputated. After having carefully performed the operation, let them have some clean cold water to dabble in ; the blood will then very soon cease to flow. Bring them on gradually to same food as for adults ; not forgetting to look well after their safety as well as feeding, for rats are terrible enemies to them.” It will be seen that the great point in endeavouring to breed these beautiful birds is to imitate nature as far as possible. A pond with a small island well screened with shrubs is capital for this purpose, and is one great cause of the success at the Zoological Gardens, in Regent’s Park, where both Mandarins and Carolinas have bred repeatedly. A small house something' like a pigeon- house, fixed on a pole standing in the water, with a little hen-ladder reaching to it out of the water, and shaded with boughs or brambles, is also a good plan ; and in such circumstances, if perfectly secured from rats, the ducks may be left to hatch and rear their own young, though hens are to be preferred. It is to be remarked that the smaller kinds of ducks hatch in less time than the larger. Mandarins and Carolinas usually hatch in about twenty-five days ; but something depends upon whether the eggs are set under hens, which, owing to the greater heat of their bodies (at least we suppose so, reasoning generally), hatch from one to two days earlier than if the same eggs are set under their natural parent. JUDGING DUCKS. — After a comparison of many awards, we have arrived at the conclusion that to embody the judging of ducks in a reliable table is neither possible nor necessary. The larger varieties are practically judged chiefly by weight ; it being very rarely that there are not plenty of specimens correct in bill and other fancy points. Black East Indians do not seem to us to be judged at all uniformly, some judges appearing to lay far the most stress on smallness, and others on “colour.” In our own opinion, out of a total of a hundred points, “colour” should be allowed about forty-five, symmetry twenty-five, and smallness and condition together forty ; but there is no uniform practice, and we give this expressly as our own view. Mandarins and Carolinas should be judged almost entirely by the perfection, precision, and brilliancy of their plumage, in which condition will of course have a large share. In the case of many varieties competing together, everything must obviously be left to the judge, who will be guided partly by his views as to encouraging anything new, partly by the merit of the specimens themselves, and partly by his own opinion as to the appearance of each specimen. For this there is no remedy, unjust as it is both to judge and exhibitor ; except in the few cases where the liberality of committees allows a judge in such open classes to award “ extra” prizes wherever he thinks rare specimens have a fair claim to such a distinction ; but we must add that a few pounds spent in this way would prevent much heart-burning, and be well-bestowed. 557 CHAPTER XXXVII. GEESE. THERE are at least three breeds of wild geese known in Europe, the Grey-lag (probably a cot ruption of grey-legged) Goose, the Bean Goose, and the Pink-footed Goose ; but there is very little doubt entertained by any one that the origin of our English domestic bird is to be sought solely in the Grey-lag Goose. The Bean Goose closely resembles this species, it is true ; so very closely, indeed, that it is only distinguishable on careful examination, and chiefly by the lesser length of the bill and somewhat greater length of the wings ; but though it hence becomes exceedingly probable that both varieties, and possibly the Pink-footed Goose as well, had one common but still more ancient wild progenitor, it scarcely admits of question that through the Grey-lag only have our domestic breeds been developed. The Grey-lag alone breeds freely with the domestic goose, and produces thoroughly fertile progeny ; and is, moreover, of larger size than the Bean Goose, which is the only one of the other varieties that could possibly lay any claim to the honour. The conclusion thus come to, as we have said, by every competent naturalist, is the more remarkable from the fact that the Grey-lag is now comparatively rare in Britain, the smaller Bean Goose being far more common: indeed, nearly all the so-called “wild geese” now brought to market are of the latter variety ; the Grey-lag being chiefly found in Europe at the present day in the Orkney and Shetland Islands and on the coasts of Norway, though not so common in Europe alone. It is, however, perhaps more generally distributed than even the wild duck, ranging not only over Northern, or rather temperate Europe (since it is rarely found further north than 55 degrees), but even in Northern Africa, Asia Minor, and Asia itself, being a regular visitor to Northern India. Mr. Blyth states that the regular domestic goose throughout India is in fact an evident hybrid between the Grey-lag (Anser cinereus) and the Chinese Goose ( Anser cygnoides), and that the progeny is fertile and breeds true. In the migrations of wild geese, the V-shaped phalanx is even more marked than in the case of the ducks, the ranks being rarely broken, whereas a flight of ducks frequently breaks up for a while into a confused mass, and continues thus for some time before the line is reformed. With geese, on the contrary, the line is generally kept till the flock is lost to sight in the distance. They also differ from ducks in seeking an almost exclusively vegetable diet, and passing accordingly much more time upon the land than most ducks do. Most wild breeds lay from eight to ten eggs, and the period of incubation is believed to be thirty days. With these few remarks upon the wild species, we may proceed at once to the two chief domestic varieties, respecting which we have again to express our obligations to Mr. j. K. Fowler for the following practical notes : — EMBDEN GEESE.— “ It is difficult to say which should stand first in point of merit of the two varieties of geese which we now possess, but I will commence with the White Embden Goose, named from Embden, in Westphalia. This bird should be a pure and spotless white in 55S The l i. lustrated Book of Poultry . plumage throughout, with dark flesh-coloured bill and deep orange-coloured legs and feet ; the eyes being bright blue. In carriage they should be very tall and erect, with fine square bodies, which in fat specimens touch the ground. They come to enormous size, as may be judged from the weights of my prize birds at the Birmingham Show of 1872. They were weighed a few days before the show with the following results : the gander (three years old) weighed just thirty-two and a half pounds, and his mate (a goose of the same age) pulled down very nearly twenty-six pounds ; the goslings weighed twenty-seven and a half pounds and twenty-four pounds. Weight is naturally lost when they are sent a journey, owing to excitement and change of diet ; and the more a bird is fattened the more likely it is to lose weight ; hence the weights recorded at Birmingham and other shows are often excelled by the same specimens when at home. A good bird of any breed weighing twenty pounds is considered very fine, and I may observe that for breeding purposes such weight is more than sufficient to ensure good stock. “ It is seldom that a goose lays till after a year old ; and I mention this because beginners are sometimes needlessly alarmed about the fecundity of their stock, from having purchased goslings and found no produce from them the first year. The eggs of the Embden Geese are white in colour, very large, and rough in the shell, which is extremely thick. It is customary here to set the eggs under large Cochin or Dorking hens, which can well cover and take care of three or four of them ; and it is very rarely regular goose breeders allow the geese themselves to sit. A turkey- hen also makes a capital mother. The eggs should be well and regularly sprinkled with lukewarm water, to prevent the shell becoming so hard as to check the egress of the young. Geese sometimes lay two sittings of eggs in a season, but this is decidedly an exception to the rule. The period of incubation is thirty days. 11 The young are easily reared on the same food as ducklings, but they want green food as well, for which I strongly recommend young green onions, as also what are called clivers or burrs, pulled from the hedgerows, of which goslings are particularly fond. When once fully fledged the goslings will thrive well with no other food than they can find, grazing the fields or orchards till November, when the keep gets short. If they are then shut up for a few weeks, and fed on meal and some oats, they will quickly fatten to great weight, and come in excellently for Christmas, when they sell at great prices in London and other markets. “ Another source of the profit derived from geese is the soft down on the breasts, which is sold at a good price. In many places where numbers of geese are kept, the down is plucked from the living birds at various seasons of the year ; but this practice, though profitable, must give a great deal of pain to the goose, and should be strongly condemned. “ A large extent of water is not at all necessary for geese ; they can do very well with only a large tub to bathe themselves in, but of course to look well the pure White Embden Goose requires a large pond or brook.” TOULOUSE GEESE. — “The Toulouse Geese take their name, rightly or wrongly, from the important city in Southern France, where they are at least largely reared. They do not, perhaps, stand quite so tall as the Embdens, but are more compact in shape, whence they are by many preferred to them. They are light grey on their bodies and breasts ; the neck dark grey, which shades off rather lighter towards the back, and the wings are of the same colour, shading off again lighter to the belly, where it becomes gradually white. The bill I can only describe as the colour of sunburnt flesh, and the feet are a deep reddish orange. “ In weight the Toulouse have generally surpassed the white geese ; but in 1872 my Embdens stood first in this respect at the Birmingham Exhibition, where weight is supposed to gain the day; Toulouse Geese. 559 whilst, on the other hand, my Toulouse took first honours at the great London Show, where the birds are not taken from their pens, but judged more on the merits of their good looks, condition, and symmetry, and the two breeds compete in one open class. Before Birmingham Show my old Toulouse Geese that won first prize weighed fifty-four and a half pounds the pair, and the goslings forty-eight and a half pounds the pair, which showed a falling off on the former and a slight gain on the latter as compared with the previous year, when the weights of my old birds at the show itself were, old birds sixty pounds, and goslings forty-seven pounds. This weight for a pair is believed to be the heaviest ever attained at any exhibition. I account for the decrease in weight since the previous year by the fact of having in the interim lost my finest old gander, which, just previous to departing this life, had weighed no less than thirty-eight pounds. “ Some time ago I bought for a change of blood a fine gander from a celebrated fancier, which differed from my own strain in colour, being of a beautiful silver-grey instead of dark like my own, though otherwise the markings were exactly similar. I bred from him that year some splendid stock, which all took after their maternal relatives in colour with one exception, consisting of a gander, which came of exactly the same hue as his sire. Since that time, in each succeeding year, I find one or two — seldom more — come silver-grey ; and strange to say, they are always ganders , and generally remarkably fine, and superior to their brothers. I have never yet bred a single goose of this lighter shade. “Nothing as to the treatment and feeding of Toulouse Geese need be added to what I have already said on the rearing of the Embden variety. But I may add that there is one particular use to which the Toulouse Geese are put, as it is to this variety exclusively the fashionable world owe that favourite delicacy of the luncheon and supper-table, the famous Perigord pies, or pate de foie gras. For this purpose the geese are shut up in a very hot chamber, and there fed well. They are so kept until their livers swell to an enormous size, when they are killed, and the diseased organs being taken from them are potted with truffles, and the epicurean dish of foie gras aux trnjfes is thus made. “ I cannot help here noticing the very poor encouragement held out to breeders of geese by most of our poultry societies, many of which seem to almost ignore their existence, or if they do deign to give them a place in the prize sheet, the amount offered as a premium is usually so small that the exhibitor does not care to send his heavy and valuable specimens, at great cost for carriage, for the chance of gaining a sum so paltry, that when fees, carriage, &c., are paid, the balance stands on the wrong side, even if the birds are successful. Surely these useful birds are deserving of more attention than they get, when we look to their advantages of size, and other qualities which render them pre-eminently important as an article of food for the people. “ The number of breeding-stock for geese is stated by Mrs. Blair to be one male to four females ; but my experience has caused me to rather differ from this, and I should advise not more than two geese to be put to one gander. And I would also say, that though I would always recommend a pure breed to any one, still I am aware that a cross between the two sorts produces first-rate birds for table purposes only. “ It is well-known that geese are excellent guards to a poultry-yard ; for should any intruder come to the pens at night from evil (or any other) motives, or should a fox be prowling about, their clamour is sure to arouse the poultry-man, giving timely warning that something is amiss. We cannot but remember that it was to this quality Rome owed its preservation from the onslaught of the Gauls, the cackling of some geese confined in the Capitol putting the Romans on their guard in time to repulse the attack of the invaders ; for which good service the geese of the Capitol were declared to be sacred, and ever afterwards treated with profound respect. No goose- The Illustrated Book of Poultry. *60 breeder would at all doubt this story, his own experience corroborating it in every essential point. Mrs. Seamons, formerly so celebrated as an exhibitor, has kindly added the following notes on the breeding and rearing of geese : — “ Geese require little trouble or expense, as they will support themselves roaming about the fields. They generally commence laying about February, and will lay from thirteen to fifteen eggs each, when they will feather the nest for sitting. After the goose has sat a day or two thirteen eggs only should be put under her, that quantity being quite as many as she can cover. Thirty days is the usual time a goose will sit, but if the weather is very hot she will hatch a day or two earlier. Keep the goslings warm, and well fed, at first with hard-boiled egg, bread-crumbs, and weed ; and when strong let them out on a good grass-run, with the goose under a coop, or she would lead them too far away. They grow very fast, and will require very little feeding or care after they take to the fields, a great many every year being killed at Michaelmas just as they are taken out of the fields, and hence called “green geese.” Those which are kept on for Christmas will, however, require feeding for about six weeks, which should be done in rather a dark place, where they are kept very quiet. I have always fed on the best barley-meal with a little whole barley put in the water, and have thus made some splendid birds ; in fact, my geese were always sought after as very superior, and few could beat my exhibition specimens in weight. The heaviest single bird I ever had weighed thirty-six pounds, and gained many prizes ; and a pair of Toulouse weighed sixty pounds by the scales of the judges at Darlington, after travelling the long distance from Aylesbury. My exhibition birds were always fed the same as the others, only were not allowed to run out so much, or to sit, as this quite spoils the plumage for exhibition. “Toulouse Geese are not good sitters, and their eggs are generally set under hens ; but these must be large and heavy, or they do not do well.” The goose, when set upon her own eggs, will not brook much interference, nor is such necessary, as she is almost invariably (except the Toulouse, which has already been stated to sit badly) a patient and steady mother. When leaving the nest, she covers her eggs like the duck, though not so perfectly. Neither is it needful to take any precautions with the gander, who takes the greatest interest in the process of incubation, and if the sitter happens to be his favourite mate, will often go and sit by her for an hour or more. We say if it be his favourite wife, because the wild goose is monogamous ; and though the domestic bird will mate with three, four, and even more wives, there is generally a marked favourite among them. The best ready- made coop for a goose is one of the large square crates used for packing earthenware; but as soon as the goslings are strong, if the grass-run be good and not too large, it is as well to turn all loose, when the gander will protect them, and assist in bringing up the family. If from any cause, such as bad weather, they cannot be put out when hatched, plenty of fresh turf must be provided daily, grass being the natural food of the goose, without which it cannot thrive. The goose lives, lays, and produces strong and healthy progeny to a very advanced age, many cases being recorded of birds .being in full breeding to at least forty years old. Whether the ganders would remain equally vigorous is somewhat uncertain, as their temper generally becomes very bad at a comparatively early period, when their great power (the blow of a gander’s wing has been known to break a man’s leg) makes it by no means safe to keep them, especially if there are many children about. There are exceptions, no doubt ; but bad temper in an old gander is certainly the rule, as we have divers most vivid recollections of in our childish days. In olden times, when the commons then so abundant really belonged to the people around them, instead of being enclosed by rapacious landowners in the neighbourhood, vast flocks of geese were kept. Wiltshire was then a great goose-rearing county, each flock on a common having its Cassells Poultry Book Vincet-itBrodks.I'.'v % Smulith. MR JAMES WATTS’ PAIR OP TOULOUSE GEESE WINNERS OF FIVE FIRST PRIZES, Rearing Geese for Market. 56i owner’s mark punched in the web between the toes, and being attended by a “gozzard ” or goose- herd, who drove them home at night and locked them up in their proper domicile. This trade is now greatly circumscribed, though still carried on to some extent, particularly in Surrey, and we believe in Lincolnshire. Most of these geese are plucked alive several times a year ; and we may here remark that the feathers of the Embden are much more valuable than those of the Toulouse or other grey geese, which gives the breed a higher value in this respect. It is not only that white feathers are always most valuable in the market, but the Embden feathers are also found to “ curl ” better, and the skins of the geese themselves, after being plucked, “ positively for the last time only,” are whiter or dearer in appearance, which sometimes finds the birds a more ready sale. It is however in Norfolk and Suffolk that the goose trade is now carried on upon the largest scale ; and a few particulars of its organisation and management may accordingly be acceptable. Such we accordingly extract from a paper by Mr. Henry H. Dixon, in the “Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England.” “ The goose trade of the great Norfolk dealers resolves itself into two branches — the green geese, and the Michaelmas. In March and April they begin to get in their gosling supplies from farmers or cottagers near the commons in both those counties. Most of these goslings are about five weeks old, and many of them in very poor plight ; but six or seven weeks of feeding under stages, on barley-meal, maize, wheat-tailings, and brewers’ grains mixed, make them all ripe for the green goose market. The Michaelmas geese take their places under the stages in August, and Norfolk and Suffolk are pretty well scoured before the dealers fall back upon the Irish and the Dutch supplies. The Dutch, which are principally grey, come from Rotterdam, and one of the largest Norwich dealers imported seventeen tons’ weight of live birds last year. They come over by steamers and sailing vessels, packed in big flat baskets, but not to any great extent after the 1st of October. In the dealers’ hands they are fed on the same principle as ducks — low fare to begin with, and then on a gradually ascending scale. On turnips they are capital substitutes for sheep, and when a dealer has a turnip field, he not unfrequently hurdles off a portion of it and eats it off with them. They first clear the tops and then the bulbs of the softer turnips ; but when they have a field of Swedes to deal with, the man in attendance gives each turnip a chop. With this aid they eat far cleaner than sheep, and, in fact, leave nothing but their “ taith,” which answers admirably as a preparation for the next wheat crop. Mangels are not so much to their taste as turnips, but they eat the tops with a special relish. While they are busy with these green crops they require nothing but large troughs of water ; and the finishing process consists in putting them under stages for a month, and feeding them on brewers’ grains and meal. “ On the western moors of Cornwall every one keeps geese, and they are bought up by jobbers in thousands for the stubbles. Summer Court, on September 25th, is the goose fair of the county; but they are only eaten there, and bargains are struck under their savoury influence for draft ewes and wethers. Farmers all over England are supplied very largely both from Holland and Ireland.. Geese are extensively bred in Moravia ; and the hilly districts in Germany and Holland are peopled by a lot of goose farmers, who get their living entirely by them. The Hussenheim goose market is a very large one, and of great antiquity ; and, according to local tradition, the town owes its name to the bird of its choice. The Dutch hucksters buy goslings from the cotters — who, like the burghers, are remarkable for turning the penny the right way — at prices varying from one shilling and sixpence to two shillings. They are driven to Rotterdam, where they are packed up in crates, which are capable of holding about fifty or sixty each. Their voyage to Hull by the steamers is charged at eighteen shillings per hundredweight, or about £ 5 for 300 or 400 birds; and thev are 562 The Illustrated Book of Poultry. not fed until they are landed, and then with oats. From Hull they are forwarded to central market towns in railway trucks, each of which is capable of holding 230 birds. A small per-centage of the more weakly ones die from being trampled on ; and these casualties, with the expense of transit and sale attendants, bring up the price to about three shillings and ninepence, when they are pitched in the market during August and September. The Irish collections are managed on a similar principle. If the goslings are purchased within reasonable distance of Dublin or Dundalk they are driven to those ports, and if not, they are sent by rail. Liverpool, like Hull, is quite a ‘ board of supply ’ for English dealers during the season.” Little more can be said regarding the management of the domestic goose. We have already remarked that the large size and strength of the bird make interference out of place during incubation, such being almost certain to endanger the offspring; and the important part played by simple grazing in the diet, with the hardy character of the young, make any minute directions equally needless for rearing. Give them the very few essentials described, and they can hardly go wrong ; though we must add, that we would always supplement the grass feed by a handful or two of corn at night, when they are, of course, shut up in a house or pen for safety. In choosing stock for breeding, most good breeders select the longest-bodied birds, such being found by experience to produce the largest and heaviest offspring. As in the case of turkeys, very much depends upon keeping up and breeding from a large, fine, matured stock. With regard, however, to producing birds for market purposes solely, we would direct special attention to the following remarks by the late Mr. Hewitt, who at one time devoted particular attention to this subject: — “It will be pretty generally admitted that, with the exception of some few breeds of highly- plumaged foreign and two or three varieties of native wild geese, all other geese are usually kept more with the view of profit than as being strictly ornamental. It may therefore here benefit others to make a few suggestions, the result of experience gained long prior to poultry-shows being in vogue, and when the matter of breeding geese was pursued simply from rivalry and its utility. I am convinced beyond question, after many trials, that the finest geese are those procurable from a ‘ cross ’ between the Embden and Toulouse; and I much prefer the whole of the geese to be thorough-bred Embdens, and the gander an equally pure Toulouse. “ By this first cross birds of great frame are procurable, and, under constant high feeding, of weights very far beyond those of either of the parents producing them. I have as a rule, between Michaelmas and Christmas, killed birds of the same year thus bred, the geese being from seventeen to twenty pounds each, and the ganders from twenty-two to twenty-six pounds. It must be kept in mind such goslings were not excessively fatted, as the weights might suggest to some persons, but rather like Shropshire sheep, more remarkable for the immense quantity of flesh they carried than their obesity. The flavour of these cross-breds is remarkably mild and fine. These first-cross goslings must, however, not be retained as future stock birds, for they themselves produce young of very inferior size, by throwing back. “ Geese are prolific for numbers of years ; and I believe ganders would prove equally so, were it not that their irritable temper, as age creeps on, generally compels their owners ‘ to do away with the old gander,’ as having become an intolerable nuisance, more especially when teased whilst young. This obstacle, however, is of little moment ; the rule to be observed is, breed continuously (year after year) from the old stock, which are purely descended, and kill off annually all the cross produce for table or market purposes. If the old birds are truly bred of their respective kinds, the goslings almost without exception will be ‘ saddle-backed ’ in the feather, with the head and upper portion of the neck grey, and a patch of the same colour on the thighs, the whole of the remainder of the plumage being white. Singularly enough, the majority of the young ganders Geese for Market Purposes. 563 and a fair proportion of the geese thus bred are slightly crested, though this peculiarity is not possessed by either parent. It will be found much preferable for the gander to be a Toulouse and the geese Embdens, than reversing the sexes, as they breed larger framed and heavier fleshed birds, which is a most important feature. “It may not in this place be amiss to make a suggestion on feeding. If kept in a quiet, partially-darkened place, barley-meal mixed with brewers’ grains fattens them very rapidly ; and they will more quickly become reconciled to their new position if a little sweet hay is fastened up tightly for them to nibble at, but carefully arranged so as not to get trampled under foot. To make the best of such geese, however, they must be well treated from the first, as they when thus managed, out of the same gross weight, produce more flesh and a less superabundance of ‘ goose-oil ’ than when very suddenly fattened ; indeed, this is the case with all water-fowl.” These practical remarks are also useful as showing the great utility of pure races, even when cross-bred birds are found preferable for immediate market purposes ; for without such pure races these valuable crosses cannot be had ; while it is also seen that the produce of cross-bred birds rapidly deteriorates. We have discussed the subject before ; but this additional proof of the truth of what we have said, drawn from birds bred for such peculiarly commercial purposes as geese, is especially valuable. Mr. Robert Fowler informs us that the fecundity of geese has during recent years, owing to careful selection of breeding stock and more generous feeding, shown distinct signs of improve- ment. Many more geese lay now at the age of twelve months than was the case in 1870, though no owner should be disappointed even now should purchased goslings fail to lay the following spring. The average number of eggs is about fifteen before sitting ; but geese which begin to lay in February, which is by no means unusual, will often lay another batch of fifteen after the first are hatched. Toulouse geese are still the most popular, and, on the whole, the average weight is increased : Mr. Fowler had a goose hatched on April 3rd, which on the January 6th following had reached the enormous weight of 34 lbs. Embdens have been comparatively neglected of late, which is to be regretted, as many people think the flesh finest in quality of all. Some attempt has been made to create a demand for what is called “ Italian” geese, said to possess extraordinary prolificacy. Mr. Fowler has found no superiority in this respect ; and as they breed to no fixed standard of colour, and are only about as large as the smallest Irish geese, they cannot be recommended. The Italian goose we believe to be, in fact, only a degenerate Continental mongrel, of no specific character whatever, and far inferior to either of the two following. THE CANADA GOOSE. — Besides the ordinary domestic breeds of geese, there are several others deserving notice, some' of which have been domesticated, and all of which are often seen at poultry shows. The first of these is the well-known Canada Goose, or aboriginal goose of North America. The most obvious peculiarity of this beautiful bird is the long and slender neck, which gives it an appearance midway between that of the goose and the swan. Hence naturalists have given it the name of the Cygnopsis Canadensis. Buffon states that at Versailles a number of domesticated Canada Geese bred familiarly with the swans kept there, and the fact is very probable; but the real affinities of the bird are certainly with the Anseres, or goose family. The head, bill, and greater part of the neck of the Canada Goose are black, with a white “ cravat ” at the throat, which gives it rather a peculiar appearance. The feathers on the upper part of the body are a brownish-grey, with light edges. The dark upper plumage passes though grey 5^4 The Illustrated Book of Poultry. to nearly white on the belly ; and the wing-quills and tail are almost black. The eye is gieyish brown, and the legs and feet blackish grey, or almost black. The legs are rather long, and the carriage noble and commanding. On the water the swan-like outline is very conspicuous. The common English breeds are by no means uncommon in the United States, but the Canada Goose is generally said to do much better. It is not such a continuous grazer as the THE CANADA GOOSE. English Goose, being more fond of marshes and aquatic plants. The flesh is excellent, and the breed most easily domesticated, while the management need not differ from that of other kinds. As an ornamental water- fowl it has long been kept in many places, but there appears no reason whatever why it should not be regarded as part of the regular stock of the farm-yard. There are, perhaps, hardly enough data to warrant such a conclusion ; but we have heard it stated by good authorities that the Canada Goose, after a little breeding in confinement, is found to produce much more delicate flesh than either of the common breeds, and at least as economically so far as The Canada Goose. 565 regards food— -some think more so. As the rich and somewhat gross character of the flesh of geese is an objection to many persons, the Canada Goose may be recommended to all such as well worth a trial. If the wide distribution of the Grey-lag and Bean Goose is remarkable, that of the Canada Goose is almost equally so. It has often been shot in Britain, proving its powers of flight to be very great. In Cambridgeshire large flocks have been seen ; and in the more northern parts of England small colonies have been known to settle and to breed. In sagacity and courage the gander appears to surpass the common goose, though even this bird is the very opposite in character to the reputation it popularly bears, being pre-eminent among the poultry tribes for both intelligence, and faithful courage in defending his family. Audubon gives various instances of similar qualities in the Canada Goose. “ I knew a male,” he says, “that appeared larger than usual, and of which all the lower parts were of a rich cream-colour. It returned three years in succession to a large pond a few miles from the mouth of the Green River, in Kentucky, and whenever I visited the nest it seemed to look upon me with utter contempt. It would stand in a stately attitude until it reached within a few yards of the nest, when, suddenly lowering its head and shaking it, as if it were dislocated from the neck, it would open its wings and launch into the air, flying directly at me. So daring was this fine fellow, that in two instances he struck me a blow with one of his wings on the right arm, which for an instant I thought was broken. I observed that immediately after such an effort to defend his nest and mate, he would run swiftly towards them, pass his head and neck several times over and around the female, and again assume his attitude of defiance. Should danger be imminent, the brave gander urges his mate to fly off, and resolutely remains near the nest till he is assured of her safety, when he betakes himself to flight, mocking as it were by his notes his disappointed enemy.” As an instance of the creature’s sagacity take the following, also from Audubon : — “ They are able to distinguish the different sounds or footsteps of their foes with astonishing accuracy. Thus, the breaking of a stick by a deer is distinguished from the same accident occasioned by a man. If a dozen large turtles drop into the water, making a great noise in their fall, or if the same effect has been produced by an alligator, the wild [Canada] goose pays no regard to it ; but however faint and distant may be the sound of an Indian’s paddle that may by accident have struck the side of his canoe, it is at once marked ; every individual raises its head, and looks intently towards the place from which the noise has proceeded ; and in silence all watch the movements of their enemy. I was much surprised one day, while on the coast of Labrador, to see how cunningly one of these birds, which in consequence of the moult was quite unable to fly, managed for awhile to elude our pursuit. It was first perceived at some distance from the shore, when the boat was rowed towards it, and it swam before us with great speed, making directly towards the land ; but when we came within a few yards of it, it dived, and nothing could be seen of it for a long time. Every one of the party stood on tip-toe, to mark the spot where it should rise, but all in vain ; when the man at the rudder accidentally looked down over the stern, and then saw the goose, its body immersed, the point of its bill alone above water, and its feet busily engaged in propelling it so as to keep pace with the movements of the boat. The sailor attempted to catch it while within a foot or two of him, but with the swiftness of thought it shifted from side to side, fore and aft, until, delighted at having witnessed so much sagacity in a goose, I begged the party to suffer the poor bird to escape.” The Canada Goose has been seen within the Arctic Circle in summer, and even then was winging its way farther north. Captain Phipps found them in Spitzbergen ; and through the whole of the Hudson’s Bay Territory they form a most important part of the season’s food. The 2 W 566 The Illustrated Book of Poultry . arrival of the flocks is anxiously looked for both by Indians and trappers, and the destruction enormous. While the supply lasted, one goose, which commonly weighed about nine pounds, was usually reckoned as the daily ration of one of the Company’s servants, and, according to Dr. Richardson, was considered equal to eight pounds of buffalo or moose meat, or two pounds of “ pemmican.” In domestication this weight is far exceeded, and it is worth noting that the weight of the wild bird is at least equal to that of the Grey-lag. The cry is said by some naturalists to resemble the syllable “ hone , hone,” while others call it “ hawk, hawk." Upon the whole, this variety appears to possess every quality useful in a goose ; and it is greatly to be desired that it should be more kept as farm stock, and not merely, as is now the case, among the ornamental water-fowl. THE CHINESE GOOSE. — This goose ( Anser cygnoides ), called also the Hong-Kong Goose, the Knobbed Goose (from the protuberance at the base of the bill), and even the Spanish Goose, occupies, like the preceding, a somewhat debatable position between the geese and the swans, both the protuberance just mentioned, and its long neck, giving it a somewhat intermediate character. Like the varieties already spoken of, it is very widely distributed, ranging over China, great part of Asia, and it is believed even of Africa. It has been already stated, upon the authority of Mr. Blyth, that the common domestic goose of India is a hybrid between this goose and the Grey-lag, and it is very remarkable that these hybrids appear perfectly prolific, and perpetuate the cross with a little care ; not, as is usual with crosses, reverting to either of the parent races. It appears to be domesticated with the utmost facility, and to be as hardy and easily reared as any other variety. Of its extremely ornamental appearance we need say nothing to those who have observed any of the specimens usually to be found in the Zoological Society’s collection at Regent’s Park. In size it is midway between the common goose and the swan, whence it might probably be bred with care to very great weight ; and in one point it has a most decided advantage over all other breeds of geese — viz., in prolificacy. While other geese lay rarely over fifteen eggs, and as a rule once a year, though some will lay twice, the Chinese Goose usually lays about thirty eggs before desiring to sit, and will lay three or even four litters in one season. The eggs are not so large as those of the common goose, not exceeding about two-thirds of the size; but this still leaves a great deal to the credit of the Chinese; and as in other respects— such as size, aptitude to fatten, and ease of management— it appears in no respect inferior, while the quality of flesh is, if anything, decidedly superior, it is surprising to us that this beautiful breed has not long since been widely distributed amongst farmers and goose-breeders. The cry is harsh and peculiar when hungry, and the bird is said to be fond of swimming at night ; but both these failings are very easily remedied by giving a feed of corn the last thing, and then shutting them up till morning. This goose is found to vary somewhat in colour. The most usual colour, perhaps, is a greyish brown on the back and upper parts, passing to white or whitish grey on the abdomen ; fore part of the neck and breast a yellowish grey, and a very dark brown stripe running down the entire back of the neck from the head to the back. The bill and legs are orange in this variety, and the protuberance at the base of the upper bill dark or almost black. Other birds are white, all but a pale stripe down the back of the neck ; this peculiar stripe appearing to characterise all colours in the pure Chinese Goose. And we have seen specimens in which the bill and legs were black ; but the purity of these is not, perhaps, quite certain. Another distinguishing character of the Chinese Goose is a dewlap, or kind of feathered wattle under the throat. T.HE EGYPTIAN GOOSE, also called the Nile Goose ( Chenalopcx Aigyptiacus') is a most The Egyptian Goose. 56? beautiful bird, and is often seen at shows wherever a class for “ any other variety ” of geese gives it an opening. It is perhaps the most ornamental of all the geese, its tall and somewhat slender form giving it an elegance of appearance no other variety can boast of ; and it has the merit, not very common in ornamental water-fowl, of breeding pretty freely in confinement. Notwithstanding these advantages, it has one great drawback ; the truth must be told, that the male at least is a most quarrelsome bird. With other males of the same species he will fight to the death, and is generally a dreadful tyrant and persecutor even to other inmates of the pond. Some individuals, however, manifest somewhat better morals, and it is possible that more perfect domestication might modify this inconvenient disposition. The general colour of the Egyptian Goose is grey and black upon the upper parts of the body, and pale buff or yellow, beautifully pencilled with black lines underneath ; a patch round the eye and another on the centre of the breast being of a chestnut colour ; the shoulders of the wings white, with a narrow black stripe or bar of beautiful metallic lustre ; and the wing-quills and tail- feathers glossy black. The eye is orange-colour, the bill purple or bluish red ; the feet and legs reddish yellow. The wings of this goose, like those of the Gambian or Spur-winged Goose, have on the bend of the wing or wrist-joint a strong white horny spur about five-eighths of an inch long, instead of the hard knob which belongs to most of the goose tribe. The female closely resembles the male, but is somewhat smaller. The number of eggs varies from six to twelve, more than six being rarely obtained in captivity, though ten or twelve is believed to be the usual number laid by the wild bird. The Egyptian Goose, like the other principal tribes, has a wide range. It is known to extend from Alexandria to the Cape of Good Hope, and has been frequently shot in England. In some 568 The Illustrated Book of Poultry. cases, no doubt, such specimens may have been escaped birds from parks or menageries ; but this could hardly be the case with a flock of nine seen at the Isle of Man in 1838, and another flock, estimated at no less than eighty, seen in Hampshire, after a tremendous gale. In the southern parts of Europe it is common enough, no doubt crossing the Mediterranean from Africa, its native home. Its place in history is well marked — perhaps more so than that of any other variety. It is clearly alluded to by Aristotle, Aristophanes, Athenseus, and other writers ; and Herodotus makes special mention of it among the sacred birds of Egypt ; while Mr. Salt states that wherever the goose is represented on the walls of temples, this variety is clearly recognisable. In the Regent’s Park Gardens, in 1838, Mr. Yarrell states, a female Egyptian Goose paired with a male of the Penguin variety of ducks, and the eggs were fertile. This occurred during two successive seasons. The Penguin being a mere artificial variety of the common duck, this would appear to give the Nile Goose a somewhat intermediate position between the duck and goose tribes, and its affinity to the Shieldrakes is indeed evident to any observer. THE GAMBIAN GOOSE, called also the Spur-winged Goose (. P lectropterus Gambensis ), has been rarely seen at shows. Like the Nile Goose, it has a spur instead of a knob on the wrist- joint of the wing, but in this bird the spur is more developed and very powerful. The beak has at the base a large excrescence, as in the Swans or Chinese Goose, and the toes are somewhat long. The plumage is black and white ; the cheeks, throat, under parts, and shoulders of wing being generally white, and other parts bright green black. The eyes are reddish brown, the bill and legs dull red. The carriage is very upright and tall. This goose is shy in confinement, but has been known to breed. THE SEBASTOPOL GOOSE. — This singular variety appears to be not uncommon on the Danube, and has been called the Danubian Goose, though generally known by the name first mentioned. It appears to be a variety of the common goose, breeding freely with it, and the progeny being perfectly fertile ; the shape also resembling it, and the sole peculiarity being in the plumage, which somewhat resembles in character that of the Frizzled Fowl. Mr. Fowler makes the following remarks upon this breed: — “They are of the same colour as the Embdens, pure white ; their peculiarity being that their feathers appear to grow the wrong way, and from the tail and saddle they have long trailing feathers, beautifully curved like the sickle-feathers of a Dorking cock, but so thin in Tie quill that the least breeze blows them about. Altogether they are most curious in appearance, and they once brought forth from an American friend the remark that ‘ they must surely have been hatched in a gale of wind.’ They seem to be rare in this country, though they certainly deserve more attention, being a very great addition to our ornamental varieties of water-fowl.’’ We have already compared the plumage of Sebastopol Geese to that of the Frizzled Fowl ; and it will be noticed as a curious coincidence, that both alike have been described — one by Mr. Tollemache and the other by Mr. Fowler — as resembling birds ruffled by a gale of wind. But on closer examination the comparison only partially holds ; for while the feathers of the frizzled birds have considerable strength, and are as a rule properly webbed, those of the Sebastopol Geese are very weak, and partially destitute of adhesion in the barbules, thus resembling in a considerable degree those of the Silky Fowl, and being, in fact, midway in character between the Silky and the Frizzled. There is, however, a special peculiarity in these feathers, as already quoted from Mr. Darwin at page 503, in that the stems of the feathers are in many places themselves split up into narrow filaments, which are furnished with barbules, and for the time resemble, therefore, the barbs SEBASTOPOL AND GAMBIAN GEESE- The Illustrated Book oe Poultry. 570 rather than the stem. Farther up these barbs often unite again to form a proper stem, thus presenting a variation from the normal type of stem precisely opposite in character to that of the Sonnerat Jungle Fowl. The engraving represents a beautiful pair of Sebastopol Geese kept some years ago in the gardens of the Acclimatisation Society at Paris. The third is a Gambian or Spur-winged Goose. The average weight of Sebastopol Geese is about ten pounds each. The first specimens were imported from the Black Sea, whence the name is perfectly appropriate. They breed freely with common geese, the progeny generally showing the peculiar plumage in a modified or inferior degree. It is worth notice, as showing the analogous character of the plumage to that of Frizzled Fowls, that in some specimens the feathers on the neck also are actually recurved, though this is not usually the case. THE CEREOPSIS GOOSE, a native of New Holland, is a handsome bird ; but the gander is even worse in temper than the Egyptian, which makes it almost impossible to keep this variety in company with any other water-fowl. OTHER FANCY GEESE. — Of late years several other varieties of geese have occasionally been shown as Fancy Waterfowl. The Indian Bar-headed Goose is often seen, and is distinguish- able by three black bands across the back of a white head. The Magellan Goose, and another allied species sometimes called Magellan and sometimes Chilian, are also favourites, the latter especially so for the pretty stripes on breast and back, and because it is gentle with other water- fowl. The same good character may be given to the Sandwich Island Goose, which is hardy and breeds freely, and is regularly bred and sold as a fancy bird by Belgian amateurs. JUDGING GEESE. — Our attempts to frame a scale for judging geese from the awards at various shows, have produced very similar results to those in the case of ducks. With regard to Birmingham and most other shows, it is practically weight which decides the prizes. It is quite true that Embden Geese with coloured feathers, or birds grievously out of condition, would be disqualified either nominally or practically ; but there are always birds so free from such faults as these, that the rule practically holds good. And at other shows, where the scales are not employed, but general appearance, symmetry, &c., are taken into consideration, still no rules can be given, but the awards must be left to the “ general impression ” formed by an intelligent judge. The competition is not enough for reliable scales to be formed, and we have throughout this work stedfastly refused to present any tables which should give simply our own views, empirical as these or any other “views” must necessarily be. We will only state that comparison of the awards at all the Crystal Palace Shows, at which the competition has been the keenest of any where geese are thus judged as a whole, proves that size (measured by the eye) on the one hand, and the points of colour, plumage, symmetry, and condition taken together on the other, are given as nearly as possible equal weight in judging ; from other shows we have found it quite impossible to obtain any reliable average ; but the above may probably be taken as a rule embodying as much of accuracy as the case is capable of. In judging “fancy” geese, it is impossible to give any rule at all, cases where these are shown being so comparatively rare. 57i CHAPTER XXXVIII. SWANS. The Swans, like the Wild Geese and Ducks, have a very wide range, being found in all but actually equatorial regions. Two species at least are common to both Europe and America, besides others more local in their character ; but Australia, as might have been expected from its isolated position, has a well-marked species of its own. Every race (we believe without exception) is naturally migratory in its habits, though many individuals will remain, especially in the more temperate regions, in the same localities throughout the year, only taking short flights to and fro. In emigration they assume more or less constantly the V-shaped phalanx, which thus seems common to all the aquatic birds. Their powers of flight are considerable when once fairly raised in the air, but the rising appears to be difficult and awkward. They almost always, if not invariably, rise from the water, striking down with both wings and feet, and thus proceeding, half flying and half splashing, for some twenty or thirty yards before they can fairly raise themselves ; after which, however, they frequently attain a great height, Franklin stating that he has seen them in the Polar regions several thousand feet above the earth. They always descend also into the water, approaching it in a slanting direction, and stretching out their broad webbed feet to check their speed at the moment they enter the familiar element. Swans generally pair for life, their whole behaviour offering a beautiful example of conjugal fidelity. The two birds show the greatest affection for each other, always swimming in company, and caressing one another with their bills and necks in the most interesting manner ; and should either be attacked, the other will show fight in the most vigorous manner, though, of course, the male is the most powerful and courageous. Both birds help to prepare the nest, the male chiefly gathering the materials, while the female seems to take the chief part in the actual construction. A swan’s nest is an enormous affair, being built up of a large mass of coarse water-plants as a foundation, which is lined with finer grasses. In this six to nine eggs are generally laid, which are, of course, very thick in the shell, and generally of a dirty white colour, sometimes dirty pale green. The time of incubation has been differently stated, but we believe Bechstein to be right in fixing it at thirty-five days, though some have said forty-two. The young when hatched are very thickly covered with down, and are generally taken to the water by the mother when only a day or two old. There they are watched over by both parents with the greatest care until grown enough to provide for themselves. A brief description of the principal varieties of swans will be sufficient. THE MUTE SWAN. — This species ( Cygnus olor) is that so well-known upon our lakes and other waters as an ornamental bird, and is a native of Northern Asia and Europe. It is at once the largest and most graceful in outlines of all the swans, the neck being very long and slender. The bill of this swan is red, and the large protuberance at the base black ; the eye brown, the legs and feet brownish or blackish-grey, and the plumage all over a pure and spotless white. Its voice 572 The Illustrated Book of Poultry . is very soft and low, with a somewhat pleasing, melancholy tone about it ; but it is not mute, as the name would imply. The cygnets when hatched, and for a good while after, are grey, and may often be seen on the back of one of the parents when swimming in the water. The flesh is excellent when moderately young, and was formerly highly esteemed. There is another large white swan closely resembling Cygnus olor, imported from the Baltic, under the name of the Polish Swan. Mr. Yarrell, however, considers it distinct, the cranium being different, and the young never hatching grey, like cygnets of the Mute Swan, but being white from the very shell. From this last characteristic he has given it the name of Cygnus immutabilis. THE WHISTLING SWAN is called by naturalists Cygnus musicus ; and certainly the name of Musical Swan would be far more appropriate. The bill wants the protuberance of the preceding species, and is yellow ; it is also somewhat smaller, and the neck is considerably shorter and thicker in comparison than that of the Mute Swan. It is only a winter visitor to England in the wild state, but has several times been kept in confinement ; and its beautiful voice is alone enough to make its thorough domestication worth a little trouble. This feature has been described by many naturalists and other observers. Olaf says, “ When a company of these birds passes through the air, their song is truly delightful, equal to the notes of a violin.” Faber says, “ Their tuneful, melancholy voices sound like trumpets heard at a distance.” Another authority tells us that “ the voice of a Singing Swan has a more silvery tone than that of any other creature.” The notes of this swan, it is true, are given forth at all times ; but it is not unlikely that when wounded or in distress they might be even louder and more prolonged than usual, and thus give rise to the beautiful legend of the sweet song of the dying bird. BEWICK’S SWAN is a still smaller white bird. The neck is very slender, but not long. It is said to be shy and timid in captivity, and we believe has never bred in such circumstances ; it is, indeed, very difficult to obtain any of the rarer swans in pairs, the specimens captured being generally odd birds which have been wounded. THE BLACK SWAN is the best known next to the Mute Swan, having been imported frbrn Australia many years back. The eyes are scarlet, the legs black, the bill red tipped with white ; the plumage a rather sooty black, shading on the edges of many feathers into a very dark grey. In the long and slender neck, and general outline, it resembles the Mute Swan, but it is not quite so large. The Black Swan breeds freely — quite as freely as the Mute Swan — and the young are hardy. These swans are now established favourites on our ornamental waters and in the Zoological Gardens. It is, however, necessary to remark that they are apt to be more overbearing and tyrannical, towards smaller water-fowl than the White Swans. THE BLACK-NECKED SWAN (Cygnus nigricollis), sometimes called the Chilian Swan, is a most beautiful bird, imported from South America. The eyes are brown, the bill lead-colour, with the protuberance (which is strongly marked in this species) red ; the legs reddish-orange. The plumage is pure white, except the head and neck, which are jet black, all but a narrow streak of white across the eye. In swimming the neck is held nearly straight, like that of a goose, not curved, as in most other swans. The young are said to grow with immense rapidity, which is worthy of note, with a view to domestication. The late Earl of Derby was the first to possess these beautiful birds, which for some time would not breed ; but for several years past broods have now been reared annually in the Zoological Gardens at Regent’s Park. The Black-necked Swan. 573 Very little can be said upon the management of swans. They are so large and powerful, and so intolerant of interference, or even the presence of man during the process of incubation, that any attempt at “management” is for the most part not only impossible, but positively dangerous. It is, however, very probable that more complete domestication would remedy this, not only making the birds more amenable to reason, but increasing the number of eggs ; and considering the size of the birds, the hardiness of the young, and their excellent quality, it is much to be wished that THE BLACK SWAN. some serious attempt should be made to breed them more extensively for market purposes. As a rule, all that can be done is to give the old birds a little grain, and see that their privacy is not disturbed whilst sitting. When hatched, if very wild, the cygnets can be fed by throwing- coarse oatmeal or grits upon the water ; or soaked ground biscuit, such as Spratt’s Poultry Food, may be given in the same manner ; but if the old birds are tame and familiar, they will often bring the brood to feed from a trough placed at the edge of the water, in which the food should be placed, always in water, as in feeding grain to ducks. Mr. Fowler informs us that he has known swans’ eggs hatched under geese, and brought up tame like ducks. This experiment is well worth repeating. 574 CHAPTER XXXIX. TABLE POULTRY. The years which have passed since the first edition of this work was .published, have seen an immense development of what is called the “ Poultry fancy The number of shows has multiplied ten-fold, and the number of pens exhibited at the two chief exhibitions of the year has at least quadrupled ; and with this vast increase in the amount and severity of competition, rules of feather and form have tended to become even more rigid than they formerly were. But what the effect of this keen competition has been upon Poultry considered merely as food is, of course, a different question. Broadly speaking, however, even here also the result has been good ; and of late there has been a most marked amount of attention devoted at shows to Table Poultry, pure and simple, which must in the end lead to still further improvement. We are aware that this opinion differs widely from one often avowed ; but those who point to higher prices, and the great difficulty of getting a fine fowl, forget the general rise in prices of everything, and the enormous increase in the demand for fowls. The best quality of poultry is, however, lower in price than it has been for years. This is possibly due to the very great improvement in Irish poultry, which has lowered the value of Surrey and other English-bred fowls. We have also satisfied ourselves, upon ample grounds, that the number of really fine table fowls now supplied in England would have been simply unapproachable years ago, and that the stock upon average farms is of very much better type than it was then, except in the special districts of Lincolnshire, Kent, Surrey, and Sussex, which for generations have reared fine birds. The fowls there are no better, for the simple reason that they hardly could be ; but almost everywhere else they certainly are. Thus, a later examination of the matter has given us no cause to modify the general conclusions expressed in Chapter VI. It is inevitable, as there pointed out, that fancy breeding must often issue in a lessening of laying properties, and even of hardihood; but the injury thus done is always recover- able when stock is needed for useful purposes, and is far outweighed by the benefits conferred. The truth of this is well shown by the Dorking fowl. There is just one variety of this — the Cuckoo — which never has been taken up by fanciers ; and the result is that, though there is no reason why it should not be as fine a fowl as other colours, it remains both scarce, and fai inferior in size and every useful point to other varieties. During recent years, however, prizes have been more and more offered for eggs and for table fowls purely as such ; and this movement, which itself grew out of the poultry fancy and its shows, there is reason to hope may further improve the general quality of market fowls especially, by teaching farmers and country growers the practical effect of various crosses. Prizes are offered at some shows for dead fowls ; at others for live birds singly or in pairs ; at others for live birds, of which the most promising are to be killed, and judgment finally pronounced upon their merits dead. In one shape or the other, the general adoption of such classes, with adequate prizes, is much to be desired, and either will do great good. It is respecting such classes, and the kind of Various Qualities of Table Poultry. 575 fowls which ought to win in them, or to be bred and raised for a good market, that it seems desirable to add a few pages at the close of such a work as this. In the first place, it needs to be borne in mind that “fine table fowls” — fowls really deserving to be called such — are of at least two distinct classes. There are a certain number who demand the very best quality and flavour, irrespective of cost. Readers of the preceding pages will hardly need to be told that from this point of view no fowl can equal the Game, to most British tastes ; and at one time there was a decided tendency in writers, and judges of table classes, to confine their commendation to fowls of this description — fine in flavour, good in breast, and small in bone, but also small in size. Later on, the mistake of this was seen, and Game were extensively crossed with Dorking ; the best fowls of this description being of a cross first recommended by Mr. Tegetmeier, of Dorkings upon an old-fashioned race of short-legged Brown-red Game. Crosses of this kind produced fowls of admirable quality, and of very good size, some reaching as much as eight or even ten pounds when fully grown ; and such have won a great proportion of the prizes at recent shows, where there were classes for table poultry. But it needs to be remembered that Game crosses are not profitable to rear in many places or in large numbers. They require free range to do them justice. Wherever a few have this, perfection is the product ; but if large numbers are reared systematically in moderate space, they seldom thrive, and lose some of their fine flavour. Hence there is need and demand for table poultry of a quite different class, combining large size and capability for being extensively reared, with fine form and development. If the welcome by families, of the large size and easy rearing of even the early Cochins, had been borne in mind, the importance of these points would never have been forgotten. Of this sort of fowls, the best class of Brahma-Dorkings may be taken as the type; and it is very significant that wherever poulterers have been the judges, fowls of this description have taken far more prizes than under amateurs. The object of such crosses is, of course, to get the size, hardihood, and easy rearing of the Asiatic with the better frame of the Dorking or other fowl employed in the cross ; or where both fowls are good and a fair size, it is to obtain more size, greater hardihood, and often better laying. Thus the Dorking-Houdan makes an admirable cross, keeping the poulterer’s favourite five claws well developed. The best crosses shown of this kind have been Houdan-Dorking, Dorking-Houdan, Brahma-Dorking, Dorking-Brahma, Houdan-Brahma. Cochin crosses with the same fowls are somewhat similar, but not so good. Langshan crosses, of a good type , are about the same quality as with good Brahmas. On soils where they can be reared with success, however, and eggs are not so important, the pure Dorking is as good as anything that can be bred. Much has been said about its deterioration ; but when, in 1880, Madame Aillerot, con- sidered the best feeder and dresser of La Fleche fowls in France, and who has repeatedly taken the first prizes at the Paris exhibitions of dead poultry, was brought over to London by Mr. T. Christy, during the Crystal Palace Show, to demonstrate the French method of dressing to as many as were desirous of learning* that was not her opinion. In reply to our question of what she thought of the Dorkings at the show — the despised “fancy fowls,” remember — she elevated eyes and hands in the most emphatic French manner, and ejaculated, “ Per-FEC-tion ! ” It was but one word ; but it said as much as need be desired. The finest class of French poultry — the La Fleche particularly — are different again, so far as regards edible qualities, though it is probable this greatly depends upon the feeding. The flesh may be described as excessively tender and delicate, appearing almost to melt away in the mouth, * Only six responded to the invitation, and these were chiefly from the aristocratic landlord class, desirous of affording aid to tenants who were conspicuous by their absence 1 576 The I llustrated Book of Poultry. and with a great freedom from that “dryness” which distinguishes infeiior English poultry. But the liking for this kind of meat seems an acquired taste, and it is certainly not so much liked by average English palates as the better class of native poultry, having been again and again pronounced in our hearing to be “ insipid ” or with “ no flavour.” We believe national habit has much to do with this. The English are a meat-eating people ; and accordingly prefer their poultry with a certain amount of both firmness and distinguishable flavour. The French, on the other hand, eat much less meat, and much of that made excessively tender in stews and made dishes. 1 hey accordingly seek somewhat of the same delicate tenderness in their fowls. Such at least is our theory ; but whether it be true or not, it is quite certain that such prices as 20s. and 30s. each would never be given in England, in other than a few cases, for such fatted La Fleche fowls as readily return that sum in Paris. On the whole, therefore, we believe that the fowl to be aimed at for general purposes will be of the accepted English type, reared for so many generations in Surrey and Sussex \ the best being found in pure Dorking or Houdan, or the “ Dorkingized ” barn-door kind known as Surrey fowls, which have by degrees almost assumed the character of a distinct breed (much more so than the La Bresse fowls of France), strengthened in less favoured localities by Asiatic crosses, at some slight sacrifice of quality. The chief thing in this class of breeding is to ensure that such sacrifice is slight, and this can only be done by carefully selecting the best types of both Brahmas and Langshans, which are far the best of the Asiatic crosses, on account of their depth of breast and white skins. It has already been pointed out that Brahmas have been of late too much bred to the Cochin model, and this should be avoided, both as regards want of breast and looseness of plumage ; and in regard to Langshans, the scanty breast and long scraggy legs favoured by some writers, must be carefully eschewed if good table fowls are desired. So important is a good breast on a table fowl, that if Malays can be obtained of the old-fashioned sort, which had a heavier body and shorter legs than is now usual, it may often be employed with great benefit as the Asiatic component, giving great size of breast and merry-thought. This fowl has only been mentioned last, because the average modern exhibition bird is far less suitable in these respects. The recently-manufactured Plymouth Rocks and Wyandottes are good fowls if bred to a judicious model ; but we have seen some with no more breast than a Cochin. It may, indeed, be affirmed that, although not quite all, a good breast is the chief point in a table fowl. And it may be well to point out in what a good breast consists ; for this does not always seem well understood, embracing as it does at least three distinct qualities. 1. A good breast must be deep , especially in front. On this depends the breadth of the slices cut from it. Internally, this quality depends upon depth of the keel of the breast-bone ; externally, it is marked by the fowl appearing, when looked at sideways, as deep through the body at the shoulders as behind. This is true, although the contour may be widely different. For instance, referring to Fig. 78, representing the ideal contour of a Dorking, the equal depth at shoulders is seen at once, in the general contour of a parallelogram. No such square form can be seen in a Game fowl, whose breast shows a beautiful curve. But it will be seen that a well- shaped Game fowPs body is much like a fir-cone in figure, the thick end representing the shoulders ; hence the greatest depth is still through the shoulders and breast. The same is true of the pheasant, and of every good table fozvl ; and an application of this simple rule will show the serious deficiency of many Langshans upheld as the “true type” by some injudicious writers. 2. The breast must be broad. On this depends the number of slices it will yield. Internally, this depends upon the width of the flat parts of the breast-bone. Externally, it is seen on looking at the front of the fowl. The true type of the Brahma, when it is not bred to Cochin models, How to Select Table Poultry. 577 most often fails heie. The bieast is deep, and often long ; but it is apt to be narrow. Hence the need of caiefully choosing biids selected as a cross j or the need of a cross to correct the fault. 3. The bieast must be long. On this depends the length of the slices cut from it. Here Cochins aie very apt to fail , veiy few Langshans we have seen had this fault ; it has been lately more and more common in Cochin-bred Brahmas. Some turkeys are particularly bad in this respect , a fact showing that careful selection has the matter in perfect control. Stock of the vaiieties chosen always can be found, except perhaps amongst Cochins, sufficiently free fiom the faults here pointed out ; and by thus using judgment, a good table model can be secured. The ideal model is seen in the breast of a well-reared pheasant ; and next to that, perhaps, in that of a fine Dorking or old-fashioned Game fowl. Having bred the stock, nothing need be added on details of feeding to the contents of previous chapters, except, perhaps, to remark that at the prices since 1882, wheat has become one of the cheapest of foods, and when given with judgment, and always as whole meal when ground, is found to be one of the very best for putting on flesh. But it should be added that what may be called even feeding throughout is of the greatest importance, as the want of it is the cause of a most common defect. If an ordinary English fowl badly fed is examined, there will be found to be hardly any meat on the back ; indeed, many people have an idea there never is any meat there ! Now the effect of even several weeks’ good feeding upon a thin chicken is to deposit either flesh or fat in places , but not to produce even clothing with meat all over , which is the perfection of chicken-rearing. Moreover, fat so deposited is gross and disagreeable, whereas even feeding deposits it rather infiltrated amongst the muscle, giving tenderness and juiciness to the whole, as is seen on a larger scale in well-marbled beef. So well understood is this in France, that it is usual, as Mr. T. Christy has again and again pointed out, to expose the poultry there with the backs uppermost, the exact contrary of English practice, though the representations of this gentleman have lately caused some imitation of French practice at the better West-End shops. If the back is well and evenly covered with flesh, the breast must carry as much meat as the build of the fowl admits of; but the converse is by no means the case. Whether or not better knowledge shall lead to a general reform in the matter of shop display, this method of judging cannot be too widely known by purchasers ; and the laisei should never be satisfied till he can produce chickens with the back nicely covered to a smooth surface. This is to be done by an ample supply of good food constantly changed, including wheat and boiled rice (the latter tends to make white flesh); and the French prefer to “ finish off” with buckwheat and milk. The fowl having been properly bred, properly fed, and killed, the next question is that of dressing for market ; and here again English custom stands much in need of improvement, and is against the true interest both of producer and consumer, since it tends to make poor fowls look as nearly as possible like good ones. It is usual to smash down the keel of the breast-bone with a round roller or handle of the knife, making the breast look broad and plump, which is then exposed upwards to tempt the purchaser. It will be obvious, however, that this process cannot mace meat ; and the splinters effectually prevent the carver from getting a nice even slice, even bom a good fowl. So inveterate is this custom among poulterers, that even a good raise, may n . impolitic to run counter to it all at once-it is never wise to be too rash in any reform, bu ct e.y purchaser of a fowl should, for his or her own sake, insist on an unbroken breast and . even the clubs and gentry of London were to refuse any poultry that has been mutilated, ic om i gradually spread. It is here especially that the exhibition in classes of dead fowls may do great good; for it all such classes broken-down breasts are •‘disqualified," and thus the eyes of the 2 X 57» The Illustrated Book of Poultry. public are educated to judge of the specimens in an unmutilated state. From this point o view, good classes of dead poultry are even more valuable than those of live biids. Breaking the breast-bone is, moreover, quite unnecessary, for art can do as much which is quite legitimate, in regard to this very point. Mr. Christy, who has devoted gieat attention to the subject, and several times gone to the expense of bringing over French fowls, and even French operators, has pointed out how these latter obtain the same object of imparting a good breast ; and with the aid of his diagrams it can be made clear to the reader. The effect of the smashed breast-bone need not be further explained than will be found on Fig. ioi ; its object being to produce a false appearance of more meat over the breast. As far as the raiser finds it absolutely needful to still follow this barbarous fashion, it may, however, be well to remark that the bone must be crushed while the bird is still warm, or there will probably be bruising and discoloration. Fig. ioi. — english-dressed fowl, with breast-bone crushed down. A, Keel crushed down into B, breast-bone, showing apparently more meat above A and B; C, bladebone ; Dy cross-bone; E, lower ribs ; F, upper ribs ; G, side of breast-bone ; H, merry-thought. Mr. Christy’s diagram in Fig. 102 will make clear the French method, which is totally different. The fowl being plucked, the hairs carefully singed off with lighted paper, and the gut washed (not drawn), the presser places his knee against the back, and forcibly compresses the body held in hand at G. Sufficient padding must be used to prevent bruising of the back, if the ordinary clothing is insufficient. This forces the back and upper ribs towards the breast, the ribs bending or giving way in the middle ; and it will be readily understood that the process, carrying with it the contents of the body, forces up the meat at the sides of the breast. The breast is thus also made to look flatter than it was ; but it is done by really bringing more meat there , where the carver wants to get as many slices as he can, and is therefore a gain to all parties. The body would go back again if allowed, but it is not allowed. The hocks are at once tied together with a piece of string over the breast, the pinions drawn through them, and the bird then placed on a shaping-board, modelled to receive it. In reality this is like a long trough, in which many fowls are closely packed side by side. Wet cloths are then laid on the back, and the fowl is pressed again. More cloths are then applied, cold water is poured over all, and the fowl is kept so twenty-four hours or more, till it is set quite stiff in the shape desired. Another plan adopted is to place the bird on its back upon cloths, and press the breast firmly down with the flat of the right hand, which causes 579 Dressing of Table Poultry. the ribs to give way, and squeezes up the meat in virtually the same manner. In some localities the pressed b.rds are sewn up tightly in wet cloths after being pressed together as described, the design and effect in both cases being the same. . Dead P°lllhy are aImost always exhibited “trussed, but not drawn,” and should be prepared with absolute simplicity, but with the utmost neatness. Such tricks as gilding the comb and legs (which we have actually seen done) only entail defeat. Success rather depends, if the judge knows his business, upon a breast and back really covered with meat, evenly laid on ; a nice, delicate, well-finished skin ; and not too great a size of bone compared with the size of the fowl. The “ trussing ” cannot be too simple ; as much as will keep the hocks back, and the wings in shape, is all that should be attempted ; and this is easily accomplished if the bird has been moulded into shape, and allowed to “set” cold in the French manner. Actual trussing/^ the spit is not the FlG. 102.— FRENCH-DRESSED FOWL, WITH BREAST-BONE INTACT. Farts lettered as before. The upper ribs, F, are squeezed up against lower ribs, E, bending in the angle and reducing the depth of the bird, and squeezing meat up towards the breast. business of the raiser, since it involves piercing the skin and flesh, and such wounds promote decomposition. This process should, therefore, be deferred till the fowl is on the eve of consump- tion ; moreover, the precise method differs in different localities, and according to whether the bird is to be roasted or boiled. The usual way of preparing a fowl for roasting is as follows : — A slit is cut through the back of the neck into the crop, through which the latter is emptied. The vent is also opened, and the entrails removed, taking special care not to break the gall-bladder, which would impart a nauseous bitter taste. The gizzard and liver are separated from the entrails and cleaned in cold water. The skin of the neck is then drawn back to the shoulders, and the neck cut off, when the skin, drawn forward again, forms a flap to wrap over ; but before fastening it over, the fowl is carefully wiped out with a cloth, or washed by pouring cold water through from end to end. Some now break the bones supporting the wings on each side. The feet are chopped off just above the spurs (practice differs as to what is cut off, considerably), the legs are bent down towards the vent, and fastened by pressing a small skewer through them and the whole body from side to side. Another small skewer is passed through the joints of the wings in the same way, first folding the wings into a triangle. In many places, it is customary to place the liver under one wing, and the gizzard under The Illustrated Book of Poultry. 580 the other ; but few people care for either, and the practice is just as well omitted, especially as the livers make the finest curry. Some people, instead of using skewers, pass a strong thread through the body with a packing-needle, and tie the legs and wings down, tying the string in a slip-bow which can be readily undone, for the string to be removed before sending to table. A string may be thus used in any convenient manner, and makes a very compact-looking dish for table ; but we think a skewered fowl is rather more easy to carve. The French cover the fowl with paper while roasting, in order to get the fat into the meat instead of being burnt off ; by this method the fowl will bear more roasting, and when done the skin is found brown, but the meat beautifully white and tender. In trussing fowls for boiling, the legs are invariably chopped off at the hock-joint; then a cross- cut is made through the thigh above the hock, and the skin being carefully worked loose and lifted, with the aid of the finger operating through the vent, the end of the leg is coaxed under the skin or apron, without any further injury to it. This is a somewhat difficult operation, requiring practice and skill. The fowl is then neatly tied as required, some needing a string passed through them, and others not. It will be readily understood how undesirable it is that such lesions as any form of cook’s trussing necessitates, should be inflicted upon the body of the bird until it reaches its final destination ; but there is yet room for considerable improvement as regards English practice in “ marketing ” poultry. The ordinary crushed breast-bone is itself distinctly against “ keeping ” properties. Whatever may be possible in view of present prejudices, it cannot be doubted that the ideal to be arrived at would be the sending up to market of well-fed fowls simply plucked and singed, the lower intestine washed, “ shaped ” as already described, and finally tightly packed in linen or cotton cloths. The prejudice against dark legs for roasting (for boiling they certainly do look very unsightly) also needs to be overcome. It is not so inveterate now as formerly, the increasing number of people who have been to Paris having gradually spread some knowledge that the very best fowls there have black legs ; but there are plenty of places yet where dark-legged birds are at a great disadvantage. However desirable on some grounds is the preservation of pure pinky-white legs in the Dorking, the unmeasured terms in which controversy on that point was carried on some time ago has distinctly retarded this improvement, and confirmed stupid prejudice in this respect, an effect to be deeply regretted. Even the desire for white skin and flesh may be carried too far ; for the Malay is usually excellent eating, and the earliest descriptions of the purest strain of Dorkings — the white Dorking— years before shows were heard of, state that the flesh resembled “ ivory,” a term distinctly implying a perceptible tinge. Thus we see that almost every would-be authority has carried some pet notion too far, in insisting upon his own ideal of table poultry. One will have nothing but extremely delicate, small-boned fowls ; which can never supply the family table in a cool, humid, and densely-populated country. Another must have white legs ; which shuts out some of the best poultry in the world. Another rejects every fowl which shows any trace of yellow skin or “ yellow flesh.” Some poulterer, so long as he is allowed to break down his breast-bones, cares for little but mere size, if the bird is decently fat. Every one of these, in his own circle, judges according to his ideas ; and every one has much to say for his own view which deserves consideration, as we have tried to show. But no one point — not even white meat — is the sine qud non of a good fowl ; and one result we hope for from the recent development of competition in table poultry, as such, is the gradual dissemination of a sounder knowledge among the consuming public themselves, which shall check the vagaries of individual judges, and take a broader and more intelligent view of what is desirable. 1 INDEX ■o+- Abnormal Structure, Singular Propagation of Abortion in Hens Accommodation for Poultry ... Accounts, Keeping ... Acre, Fowls per Addled Egg's ... oo *" ••• Africa, Fowls from ... Age at which Pullets Lay Age of Fowls for Breeding Stock ,, Exhibition... ,, Profit Aged Poultry for Table Aillerot, Madame, on English Market Poultry „ „ English Dorkings Air-bubble of an Egg Alarm, Deaths from ... Ale for Fowls ... Alliances, Duration of Effect Allotments, Poultry on American Breeds of Poultry ... ,, ,, ,, Danvers Whites ,, ,, ,, Dominiques ,, ,, ,, Javas „ „ „ Jersey Blues ... ,, ,, „ Judging „ ,, ,, Leghorns ,, ,, ,, Plymouth Rocks ,, ,, ,, Wyandottes ,, ,, ,, Yellow Legs in ,, Broiler ’’-farming ... „ Bronze Turkeys ... ,, Light Brahmas Anconas Andalusians Andrews, Mr. W., on Wild Turkeys Animal Food ... Apoplexy Appetite, Importance of Arbitrary Standards ... Artificial Platching „ Rearing Ashantee, Fowls from Aspect of Poultry House PAGE ... 404 ... 185 1, 108 - 35 96, 107 ... 49 ... 463 21 ••• i33 ... 146 20 ... 86 ... 114 ' ••• 575 ••• 37 ... 404 32, 149 ... 129 ... 106 ... 423 ... 441 ... 432 ... 441 ... 441 ... 442 ... 424 432 ... 436 ... 442 ... 112 ... 52° ... 262 ... 361 - 359 ... 512 29, 72, 135 ... 1S5 ... 25 ... 115 ... 51 74, 429 ... 463 3 Aylesbury Ducks ,, ,, Bills of Back, Meat on the Bahama Ducks Baily, Mr. J., on Polish Bakies or Dumpies ... Bantams ,, Black ,, ,, Types of ,, Booted ,, Cochin or Pekin ,, Cuckoo ,, Game ,, Japanese „ Judging ,, Laced, or Sebright . , Limit of Weight in ,, Nankin „ Rearing ,, Various New ,, White ,, White-booted Barley as Food Barndoor Fowls Barred Floors for Roosting . Baskets for Fowls Beards on Fowls ,, Polish Fowl Beldon, Mr., on Hamburghs ,, ,, Polish Bennett, Dr., and Brahmas . Best Breeds Betting on Awards Black East India Ducks Black-rot in Spanish Blinkhorn, Mr. W., on Creves Blumenbach on Polish Skulls Bolton Greys ... Bone-dust for Chickens Books for J udging Poultry . . . Booted Bantams PAGB - 534 - 538 ••• 577 ••• 553 ... 398 ••• 445 ... 466 ... 467 ... 471 471, 481 ... 472 ••• 473 ... 487 473 ... 484 ... 474 ... 484 . . . 480 ... 483 ... 4S2 ... 481 ... 4S1 ... 29 iS, 22 ... 16 ••• 153 ... 456 - 397 ••• 365 ••• 397 ... 249 18, 19 - 175 - 545 .. 1S6 ... 413 ••• 395 ... 382 139, 197 ... 168 471, 481 582 Index. PAGE PAGE Boyle’s Incubator ... 57 Carriage of Eggs • • • • ... 95 Bradbury, Mr. S. L., on Leghorns ... . . . 427 Castor Oil unfit for Fowls ... . . . 204 Brahmas 245 Catalogues ... 158, 161 ,, Burnham’s Claim to Origination of 247 Catarrh... ... ... 187 ,, Changes in Modern ... 272 Catholic Religion, Eggs and the ... ... 91 ,, Characteristics of ... . . . 258 Cats in the Chicken-yard ... ... 180 ,, Cornish, Mr. V., on Origin of 245, 246, 253 Cayuga Ducks ... ... • •• 543 ,, Dark 264 Chalybeate Water ... ... 32 ,, ,, Breeding 267 Chamois Polish ... 406 ,, Deterioration of 272 Chance Alliances ... 128 „ Judging 273 Charcoal, Granulated ... ... 32 ,, ,, Schedule for 274 Cheshire’s, Mrs. F. , Artificial Rearing Apparatus... ... 429 ». Light 261 Chick, Development of the, in the Egg ... 38 ,, ,, American 262 Chicken Pudding ... 86 ,, Breeding 262 Chickens, Advantage of Cooping ... 70 ,, Qualities of 271 ,, Artificial Mothers for ... 75» 429 ,, Tail of ... 260 ,, Bedding for 73, 144 ,, The Queen’s 252 ,, Cooping out ... 69 Breast, A Good 576 ,, Coops ... 70 Breast-bone, Crooked . . . 144 ,, ,, for Feeding Chickens among Poultry ... 73 „ Crushing 577 ,, Custard for... 72, 136 „ in Turkeys 523 ,, Diet for 7L 137 Bredas or Gueldres ... 4i7 ,, Dryness, Importance of, in Rearing ... 72 Breeders and Buyers ... 11 7 ,, Evils of Early Roosting for ... 73, 144 Breeding : Ages of Breeding Stock ... 133 ,, ,, Over-feeding 72, 148 „ Commencing the Strain ... 120 ,, Fattening ... ... 77 ,, Duration of Cock’s Influence . . . ... 129 ,, Feeding, Times for 72, 137 ,, Fresh Blood, its Dangers ... . . . 127 ,, First Food for ... 68 ,, In-and-in 127,295 ,, Green Food for 70, 138 „ Influence of Sexes in 131 ,, in Small Space ... 74 „ Influences on the Hen 131 ,, Management of ... ... 68 „ Mating Birds for ... 124 , , not to be taken from Hen ... 68 ,, Prize Birds ... 124 ,, Older, not to be Neglected ••• 73 ,, Prize Poultry Remunerative 177 ,, Prize, Rearing of ... ... 136 „ Stock, Care of ... 147 ,, Rearing Artificially 74, 429 „ „ Feeding ... 135 ,, Shelter when Abandoned by Hen ••• 73 „ Table Poultry ... 575 ,, very Young, How to Cook ... 86 „ the Sexes from different Pens ... 132 Chilled Eggs, Treatment of ... 49 „ Varieties [see Names of Breeds). Chittagongs and Brahmas ... 256 Breeds, Classified ... ... .... ... 18 Chittiprats ... 382 Bristol and Spanish Fowls ... 346 Cholera in Fowls ... 187 Britain, Poultry in 88 Cleanliness . . . 3 Bronchitis ... 186 ,, of Eggs, and Price ... IOO Brooke, Rev. A. G., on Malays ... 277 Clift, Mr. W., on Breeding Turkeys . . . ... 521 Buckwheat for Poultry ... 29, 78 Club, The Poultry - 175 Bumble-foot ... ... 186, 334, 412 Clubs in Lancashire ••• 373 Burnham, Mr., and Brahmas ... 247 Cochin Bantams ... 472 Buyers and Breeders ... ... ... 117 Cochins , . , ... 208 Buying and Selling ... 176 ,, and Langshans 237, 240 C. ,, Black... ... 225 a „ Buff • « « ... 210 Call Ducks ... 548 ,, Cuckoo ... ... 225 Cambridge, Mr. E., on Black Bantams 469 ,, Judging ... ... 228 Canker... ... 187 ,, ,, Schedule for ... 229 Capons... ... 00 00 ,, Partridge ... 216 Carolina Ducks ... 550 Silky • • . 225, 462 Index. 583 Cochins, White PAGE ... 223 Debility PAGE 190 Cockerel Pens... 9, 15 Defects, Choosing between in Breeding 128 Cock-fighting ... ... 306 Despatch of Fowls after Exhibition... • . • ... 162 Cocks, Age of, for Breeding ••• 133 Deterioration of Fowls, Alleged ... ... 113 ,, Duration of Influence of ... 128 „ Occasional, Seasonal ... 124 ,, Turning Sulky ... 134 Determination of Sex ... . . . 133 Cold Weather, Treatment in ... . 32 Diarrhoea ... ... 190 Collection of Eggs in Britain ... 94 Diphtheria and Diphtheritic Roup ... • . ■ 190 Columbian Fowls ... 280 Disappointments in Breeding, Study of . . . ... 125 Combs, Redness of ... 150, 154 Diseases of Poultry ... . . . ... ... I84 Commencing a Strain ... 1 17 Disinfectants ... 32, 183, 191 Common Fowls ... 22 Dissection of Fowls ... ... ... ... 202 Condiments i35» 140 Dixon, Mr. ID, on Geese . . * ... 561 Condition for Exhibition ... 148 » ,, Turkeys ... 518 Consumption ... ... 188 Domestic Fowl, Origin of 495 Consumption of Eggs per Head of Population ... 89 Dominiques 432 Cook, Mr. W., on Orpingtons ... 449 Dorkings ... ... 3i5 Cooper, Dr., on American Game ... 302, 308 ,, Bumble-foot in ... 334 Coops for Chickens ... 69 ,, Coloured or Grey 316 ,, ,, in Sussex ... 323 ,, Cuckoo 331 „ Fattening ... ... 77 , , Dark Legs 336 Cornish, Mr., and Brahmas ... 245. 253 ,, General Management of ... 333 Courtes Pattes ... 419 , , Rearing in Sussex 323 Cracked Eggs in Hatching ... ... 49 ,, Schedule for Judging ... 337 Cramming Poultry ... 78 ,, Silver-grey ... 325 Cramp in Chickens ... JO OO 00 „ White 328 Creels ... ... 391 ,, „ Improvement of 33i Cresswell, Mr. 0., on Nankin Bantams ... 480 Douglas, Mr., on Custard ... 136 „ ,, Silver-Grey Dorkings ... 325 ,, Dorkings ... ... ... 316 Crested Turkeys ... 525 ,, Game 285 Crests of Polish, &c. ... ... ... ... 396, 403, 408 Draughts, Evils of 2 Crevecoeurs ... 413 Dressing Poultry for Market ... 86, 577 Croad, Miss, and Langshans ... ... 234, 236, 241 Drinking, Excessive, Evils of 159 Crook, Mr. F., on Fattening Poultry in Sussex ... ... 324 Druce, Mr., on Poultry Farming ... ... 112 Crooked Breasts ... 144 Dryness in Sheds 5 Crop-bound Fowls ... ... 189 Dubbing Game 296 Crossing and Reversion ... 125 „ „ Bantams 490 Crushing the Breastbone ... 577 Ducks ... ... 533 Cuckoo Breeds ( see Bantams, Cochins, Dominiques, Ply- ,, Aylesbury 534 mouth Rocks, &c.). ,, Bahama 553 Cups and Money Prizes ... 156 ,, Bills of Aylesburys ... 538 Curd for Chickens ... 72 ,, Black East India 545 Cure not always Wise ... 184 „ Call 548 Custard for Chickens 72, 136 ,, Carolina ... ... 55o Cycling and Eggs ... 93 ,, Cayuga ... 543 D. ,, Cramming at Shows ... ,, Duclair 538 54i Damaged Grain as Food ... 29 ,, Fancy, Breeding in Confinement ... 554 Danvers Whites ... ... 44i , , Hook-billed ... 543 Dari as Food ... ... 29 ,, Japanese Teal 553 Dark Brahmas, Origin of ... 257 ,, Judging ... 556 Darwin, Mr., and Brahmas ... ... 245 , , Mallard ... 533 ,, on Reversion ... 125 ,, Mandarin ... . 548 ,, Origin of Fowls ... ... 501 , , Muscovy ... 542 Dead Poultry Classes 115, 574 ,, Pekin ... .. 54i Deaths at Exhibitions ... 174 ,, Penguin .*■ ... ... 543 5^4 Index. Ducks, Rearing for Market PAGE 534, 536 Eggs, To Distinguish Fertile ,, ,, Show Purposes ... ••• 537 ,, to tell which will Hatch ,, Rouen ... ••• 539 Elephantiasis ... ,, Spotted-Bill ••• 554 Emu Fowls ,, to Feed Distinct from Fowls ... 30 Enemies in the Yard ,, Whistling . . . ••• 552 Entries, Late ,, Wild British 533, 553 Entry Forms ... Dumpies or Bakies • •• 445 Entwisle, Mr. W. F., on Game Duration of Fertility after Copulation ... 128 ,, ,, Game Bantams Dust-baths ... 32 Eruptions Dutch Every-day Layers . . . ... 364 Estimates of Profit Dysentery * . . ... 191 Evans, Mr., on Brahmas E. Early Chickens, Shelter for • • • 70, 136 Even Feeding Exhibition, Best Age for ,, Breeding for ,, Eggs, Securing ... 21, 34, 135 ,, Care of Birds for East India Ducks ••• 545 ,, Evils of Over-showing ... Egg, All Life from the ... ... ... . . . ... 36 ,, Feeding for ,, Formation of the . . . ... 36 ,, Final Touches before ... Egg-bound Fowls ... 192 ,, Hampers for Egg-eating Flens, Nest for ... ... 41 , , Penning Previous to Egg-organs, Derangements of 38, 201 ,, Preparation for ... Egg-production may be Increased 40, no ,, Selection of Birds for ... ,, ,, of Various Breeds ... ... 40 ,, Washing Birds for Egg-protectors in Hatching ... ... 49 Exhibition Pens, Sizes Egg-tester, Description and Diagram of .. ... 48 Exporting Poultry Eggs, Barren, To Distinguish ... 48 ,, Broken during Incubation ... 47 F. ,, Carriage of, to Market ••• 95 Faces of Spanish ,, Chilled, Treatment for ... 49 Failures in Hatching ,, Cleanliness of, and Price ... 100 Fairhurst, Miss, on White Dorkings ,, Consumption per Head of Population ... 89 Falcated Duck ,, Cracked while Platching, to Treat ... ... 50 Fancy Poultry, Utility of ,, Early for Breeding . . . ••• 135 Farmers and Poultry... ,, Easily Addled in Spring . . 0 ... 49 Farms, Alleged Poultry ,, Fertility of 44, 48, 66 ,, Poultry on ,, Foreign ... 89, 102 Fattening Chickens „ Foretelling Sex in ... 44 ,, in Sussex ,, Importation of, from Abroad... ... 89 Faults for Exhibition... „ Incubation of, in Different Birds ... 49 ,, Choosing between ,, Instrument for Testing Fertility of ... ... 48 Feather-eating ,, in Winter 21, 34 ,, in Ploudans ... ,, Moderate Number to be Set ... . . . ... 47 Feathers, Value of ,, Moistening during Incubation ... 47 Feeding and Food ,, New-laid 97, 102 Feeding at Shows ,, often Stolen ... 34 ,, Breeding Stock ,, Packages for 93 ,, Even, for Table Fowls ,, Packing for Journeys . . . ... 42 ,, for Exhibition ,, Position for Storing ... . . . ... 41 ,, on Shipboard ,, Preserving for Winter . . . 43, 44 ,, Vessels ,, Purchased • • • ... 121 Female Labour, Poultry and ,, Selection of, for Hatching 45 Fencing Difficulty of, on Farms ,, Set, to be Marked ... ... 47 ,, for Poultry Yards ,, sold, Pedigree Notes of ... 142 Fertility after Separation from Cock ,, Storing ... 41 „ of Eggs • ,, to be Regularly Collected ... 40 Field, Mr. J. P., on Wyandottes PAGE 43 49 192 225 180 158 157 298 487 192 33 271 577 146 124 147 i55 149 i54 i53 149 148 148 151 159 178 - 352 ... 121 ••• 329 553 ... 113 92, 94, 103 9i, 97 93, 96, 108 ... 77 ... 324 ... 149 ... 128 ... 193 ... 413 - 33 ... 23 ••• 159 ••• 135 ••• 577 ... 149 ... 178 ... 28 ... 91 ... xo8 4 ... 128 44, 43, 66 ••• 439 Index. 585 Fifth Toe in Dorkings ,, ,, Houdans First Union, Effects of Fledging, Bad ... Flooring for Houses ... Foreign Eggs ... Fountains for Poultry Fowler, Mr. J. K., on Ducks ,, ,, Geese ,, Mr. R., on Ducks .. ,, „ Turkeys .. Foxes Fractures France, Poultry in Freeman, Mrs., and Langshans French Breeds of Poultry, Bredas or Gueldres ,, ,, Courtes Pattes ,, ,, Crevecceurs .. ,, ,, Ploudans ,, ,, Judging, and Schedule ,, ,, La Bresse ,, ,, La Fleche ,, ,, Le Mans ,, ,, not the Cause of French Success Methods of Fattening Poultry Shows Fresh Blood, Dangers of Fright, Chickens Dying from Frizzled Fowls Frost-bite 99 99 G. Gallus bankiva or ferrugineus ,, Sonneratii ,, Stanleyii ,, Varius or furcatus „ ,, and Brahmas ... Game Bantams „ „ Judging Game Fowls ... American Birchen Duckwings Black Black-breasted Red Brown-breasted Red ... Change of Type in Duckwings „ Silver-grey Dubbing Henny ... Indian ... Judging Malay ... Old English Piles Preparing for Exhibition >> >) ,, > > 99 99 99 5 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 99 9 9 9 9 99 99 J> 5 t 99 9 9 99 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 M 99 PAGE PAGE 315, 334 Game Fowls, Qualities of • • . • , 3IQ • • t 412 ,, ,, Rearing . . . • •4 297 ... 128 ,, ,, Wheaten Hens 289, 299 ... 194 ,, ,, White • • • • • • 295 ... 3 Gapes ... ... 194 00 vp 102 Geese 557 ... 30 ,, Canada 563 534, 539 ,, Chinese ... ... 566 ... 557 ,, Danubian • • . • • • 568 ... 537 -, Egyptian . . . 566 • • • 525 ,, Ernbden 557 ... 180 „ Fancy • . . 57o ... 194 „ Gambian . . . 568 90, 410 „ General Management of 558, 560 238, 239 „ Rearing for Market 561, 562 ... 4i7 „ Sebastopol ... ... 568 419 ,, Spur-winged ... . . . 568 ... 4i3 „ Toulouse ... ... 558 ... 410 „ Wild 557 • • • 420 Geyelin, Mr., on Hatching under Turkeys 67 ... 418 „ „ Houdans 410 ... 416 ,, „ Poultry Farms 91 419 Giddiness 197 ... 410 Gloss on the Plumage ... .. . 150 ... 78 „ Breeding for :. ... 389 ... 114 Go-laighs 445 122, 127 Gondooks 456 . • • 404 Gout in Fowls ... ... 197 • • • 445 Grain, Kinds of ... ... 29 ... 194 Grass Cut Small for Chickens ... ... 30 Grass Run ... 16, 17, 144 ,, Area Needed for ... ... 5 ... 495 Greaves as Food ... ... 29 497, 502 Green Food ... 30, 226 • • • 496 ,, for Chickens ... ... 70 • • • 500 Greys, Scotch ... ... 457 ... 504 Grit or Gravel ... ... 32 ... 487 Gueldres or Bredas ... ... 4i7 492, 494 Guinea Fowls ... ... 50S ... 283 H. ... 304 ... 294 Halsted, Mr. A. M., on Artificial Rearing ... ... 74 ... 295 ,, „ Gapes ... ... 195 00 299 Hamburghs ... ... 364 290, 300 „ Black ... 386 2S4, 298 „ Gold-pencilled 3S5 ... 292 ,, Gold-spangled ... ... 373 293, 301 „ Judging ... ... 392 296 „ Lancashire Mooneys ... 366, 373 301 ,, Old Scale of Points for Judging ... ... 376 305 ,, Pheasant Fowls 369, 372, 373 3” ,, Redcaps ... ... 377 305 ,, Silver-pencilled • • ... 382 302 „ Silver-spangled .., 366 294 ,, Spangled, Various Strains of ... ... 369, 373 297 „ Trimming in ... 392 586 Index. PAGE Llamburghs, Various less-known Breeds of ... 390 In-breeding Hamilton, Rev. C. W., and Langshans ... 239 Incubation, Artificial ... Hampers • i • ••• 153 ,, Moisture in Hatching 49, 68 ,, Stages of JJ Artificial ... ... ... ... 51 ,, Time of, in Various Species J J ,, Revolution in - 59 ,, Variations in Instinct of JJ Assistance in ... 50 Incubators, Boyle’s ... ... Jj Failures in ... ... 121 ,, Cantelo’s JJ Time of Year for ... 21 ,, Christy’s Hydro-pattern J J under Turkeys 66 ,, ,, Thermostatic... Hawks ... ... 183 ,, Colonel S. Wortley’s ... Heat, Evils of too much, in Rearing 431 ,, Graves and Co.’s ,, in Incubators ... 52 ,, Plalsted’s... Hempseed as Food ... 32 ,, Hearson’s Hens, Age for Laying 20 ,, Hillier’s „ Mental Impressions upon ... 131 ,, Minasi’s ,, Number for one Cock 44, 311 ,, Renwick’s Henny Game Fowls ... 301 ,, Roullier and Arnoult’s ... Hewitt, Mr. E., on Black Bantams • • 471 ,, Schroder’s jj „ Carolina and Mandarin Ducks ... 551 ,, Tomlinson’s JJ „ Dorkings ••• 333 ,, Vallee’s JJ „ „ Combs of ••• 335 ,, Wren’s J J „ „ Silver-grey ... ••• 327 Indian Corn as Food JJ „ Geese ... 562 Indian Game ... JJ ,, Guinea Fowls ... 510 Influence of the Cock, Duration of JJ „ Judging at Shows ... 167 Inoculation for Cholera J J „ Malays ... ... 279 Insect Vermin ... JJ „ Management of Shows . . . ... 172 Insecticides > J ,, Mandarin Ducks ••• 55i Insolence of Purchasers J J „ Partridge Cochins ... 222 Ireland, Poultry in J J ,, Polish Fowls ... 403 Irish and Surrey Fowls JJ „ “ Quality in Cochins ”... ... 226 Iron in Water JJ „ Rearing Geese for Table ... 562 JJ ,, Redcaps ... ••• 377 J- jj „ Sebright Bantams 477, 479 Jacque, M., on Fattening jj ,, Spanish Faces, Trimming 353 Japanese Long-tails jj „ Trimming Fowls for Show 170, 172 ,, Teal jj „ Turkeys ... ... ... ... 522 Javas jj ,, Weight of Rouen Ducks 539 ,, and Langshans ... jj „ White-crested Polish ... ... 403 Jersey Blues ... Hinton, Mr. J., on Malays ... ... 279 Journeys, Sending Fowls on Home Trade in Eggs... ... 94 Judges, Payment of ... Horner, Dr., on Polish Fowls ••• 395 Judging J) Sonnerat Flybrids 503 Jungle Fowls ... Houdans ... 410 J J and Langshans . . . 240 K. Houses, Detached, on Farms ... 108 Kerr, Dr., on his Chittagongs JJ for Poultry 1 Kerrick, Mr. E., on Pekin Bantams Flutton, Mr. E., on Black Bantams ... 467 Killing Poultry J J ,, Rearing Bantams ... 483 Kinney, Mr. F. J., on Brown Leghorns Hydro-incubators ••• 59 Knox-Lyal, Mr., on Farm Poultry ... Hydro-rearers... ... 430 T I. Ju« Labels for Poultry Imagination, Effects of, in Breeding ... ... 131 La Bresse Fowls Importation of Eggs •• ... 89 Laced Bantams PAGE ... 127 ... 51 ... 46 ... 33 ... 49 356, 389 ... 57 ... 52 ... 59 63 ... 53 - 53 ... 54 ... 65 ... 66 ... 52 ... 56 ... 59 ... 53 ... 62 ... 52 ... 56 26, 29 - 305 ... 128 ... 188 5, 32, 183 32, 183 ... 177 ... 98 ... 99 ... 32 ... 80 ... 447 - 553 ... 44i ... 240 ... 441 153. 178 ••• 175 ... 163 ... 495 256 472 85 425 105 158, 178 ... 418 ... 474 IiVDEX. 587 PAGE PAGE La Fleche Fowls ... 416 Maize as Food 29 Lancashire Mooneys ... ... 366, 373 Malay Bantams ... ... .... 493 Langshans ... ... 232 Malays, Characters of 276 ,, Alterations in ... 238, 240 ,, Degeneracy of 277 ,, and Cochins 237, 240 .. Judging 281 ,, Capt. Terry’s ... 237 ,, Management of 2 77 ,, Contrasted with original ... 238 ,, Relation of, to Indian Game 280 ,, Houdans and ... 240 Malicious Injury at Shows ... 161, 173 ,, Legs of 234, 240 Mallard or Wild'Duck 535 ,, Miss Croad and ... 234, 241 Management of Shows 161, 172 ,, Modern Type of .. 235, 237 Manchesters ... 381 ,, Mr. Orme’s, Attacks on ... 236 Mandarin Ducks 548 ,, Mr. Thomson and 235 Manure, Value of 33. !09 ,, Origin of... ... 239 Market, Dressing for 86, 577 ,, Original Type of 238 Markets, Home 94. 96 ,, Personalities connected with ... 233, 235 Marking Chickens 142 ,, Qualities of 241 Marlor, N., on Hamburghs ... 376 ,, Shank-colour of ... 240 Martin, M., on Fattening 82 ,, Silkies and 239 Martin, Mr. J., on Dorkings 3i7 Size in ... ... ... ... 242 ,, ,, Show Management 159 ,, The Real Obstacles to Recognition 233, 241 Mating Stock ... 124 ,, Three Types of ... 239 ,, ,, Influence on Time of Laying ’ 34 ,, Variations in 234, 239 Meals per day ... ... - 25, 72, 137 „ White 243 Meat as Food 29 Large End Down, Storing Eggs 42 Medicine Chest for Fowls ... 204 Late Entries at Shows’ 158 Megnin, M., on Gapes 195, 196 Latent Characters .. 126 Mental Impressions in Breeding 131 Lavergne, Mr., on French Poultry ... 90 Mice and Poultry ... ■ ... 182 Layers, Various Breeds as ... 18 Middlings as Food 26 Laying: to Improve ... no Milk for Chickens 7 1, 139 ,, Postponing in Pullets 146 Millet-Robinet, Madame, on Fattening Fowls 78 ,, Winter 21 Minorcas 357 Leghorns ... 424 Moisture in Incubation 46 ,, Deterioration in ... 429 Mongrel Fowls 18 Legs, Scaly, Cause and Cure 192 Mooneys, Lancashire... 366, 3 73 Leg-weakness, Prevention and Cure . . . 197 Mothers, Artificial 74. 429 Le Mans Fowls ... 4i9 Moulting, Treatment in 32 Leno, Mr. M., on Fancy Ducks 5So. 552 Muscovy Ducks 542 ,, ,, Sebright Bantams ... 478 Leworthy, Mr., on Andalusians 359 N. ,, ,, Minorcas . . . 357 Liberty, Fowls at 16, 322 Naked Necks ... ... ... • 448 Lice 5. 183, 197, 318 Nankin Bantams 480 Lime, Effects of, on Legs 225 Nash’s Egg-protector 49 Lime or Mortar 32 National Food, Poultry as 88 Linseed for giving Gloss 150 Nature, Following 24 Liver Disease ... 198 Negro Fowls ... 239, 461 Long-tailed Fowls . • . 447 Nests ... 3, 33 Loss on Railways 162 „ for Sitters 46 Luckipoor, Port of, and Brahmas ... ... 255 Netting, Wire, To Fasten 4 Lungs, Inflammation of ... 199 Neville, Mr. 0., on Sonnerat Fowls 498 Lustre on Black Fowls ... 389 New-laid Eggs and Stale 102 Night Feeding for Early Chicks 146 M. Norfolk, Turkeys in 5i8 Machines for Cramming ... 81 Nostrils of Polish Fowls 397 Mains in Cock-fighting ... 308 Numbering at Shows... 158 588 Index. o. PAGE PAGE Polish Fowls, Blue or Grey ... ... 407 Oats as Food ... ... 29 ,, ,, Chamois 406 ,, Ground, and Oatmeal ... ... 26, 27 ,, ,, Cuckoo 407 Oliver, Mr., Fattening Establishment in Sussex 324 ,, ,, Gold-spangled... 399 Open Judging ... ... 173 ,, „ Judging, and Schedule 408 Origin of the Domestic Fowl ... 495 ,, ,, Nostrils of the 397 Orme, Mr., and Langshans ... 236 ,, ,, Pencilled 407 Orpingtons ... 448 ,, „ Qualities of 407 ,, Rose-combed 45i ,, ,, Silver-spangled 398 Ovary of a Fowl 36 ,, ,, Skull of the 395 Over-fattening 25, 148, 332, 538 ,, ,, Trimming Crests of ... 403 Over-showing ... ... 134, 155. 332 Post-entries at Shows 158 Poulardes ... 85 P. Poultry Club, The ... 175 Packing Eggs for Sitting ... 42 Poultry-farming on Small Scale 107 ,, Poultry . . . 86 Poultry Farms, Alleged 9i Paralysis ... 1S5 Poultry Houses 1, 108 Paris, Consumption of Eggs in 90 Poultry-men ... 122 Park, Poultry in a 16, 322 Preparing Fowls for Exhibition 149 Parr, Mr. J. C., on Sonnerat Fowls 498 Preserving Eggs for Winter ... 43 Parrish’s Chemical Food . . . 141 Prices of Eggs... 92, 100 Pasteur’s Cholera Inoculation . . . 188 ,, Market Poultry 100, 114 Payment of Judges ... i75 ,, Prize Birds ... ... ... 124, i49> 177, 298, 492 Pea-comb, The ... 259 ,, Stock Birds ... ... 1 19 Peafowl, Black- winged ... 53i Prize Poultry, Accommodation for ... 9 ,, Common ... 527 ,, ,', Age for Showing 146 ,, Japanese ... 530 ,, ,, Bone-dust for... ... 139 ,, Management of ... 532 ,, „ Commencing a Strain of 117 Pedigree Notes ... 142 ,, „ Exhibiting 154 Pekin Bantams ... 472 ,, ,, Hampers for Sending off ... . ... 153 ,, Ducks ... 54i „ „ Keeping in Condition 147 Penalties for Trimming 170 ,, ,, Marking Various Strains 142 Penning at Shows 159 ,, ,, Mating Birds for Breeding ... ... 124 ,, before Exhibition ... 9, 12, 15, 149 ,, ,, Prevention of Laying in ... 146 Pens for Training I3> 15 ,, ,, Rearing Chickens from 136 Perches .. . 3, 15, 144, 319 „ ,, Registering Broods ... ... 142 Peritonitis 199 „ ,, Separating the Sexes ... 143 Personalities of Langshan Breeders... ••• 233, 235 ,, ,, Treatment before Showing ... 149 Pheasant Fowls 369, 372, 373 ,, ,, Washing for Exhibition I5i Pheasants and Poultry-keeping 98 „ „ Weeding the Chickens 143 Phoenix Fowls 447 Profit from Poultry ... 33 Pip 199 Protectors for Eggs 49 Plaisted, Mr., and Brahmas 255 Ptarmigans 453 Plans of Yards ... 6 Pudding, Chicken 86 Plucking Poultry ... 86 Purchasing Brood Stock ... 176 Plymouth Rocks ... 432 Pure Varieties v. Mongrels ... ••• 18 ,, ,, Breeding ... 435 ,, ,, Origin of 434 Q. ,, „ Qualities of 434 Quality of Food ... 25 ,, ,, White 436 Queen, The, and Brahmas ... ... 252 Pneumonia 199 Poland Pheasants 381 R. Polish Fowls .,. 395 Railways, Liability of ... 162 ,, ,, Black ... 407 „ Sending Fowls by ... ... 17S ,, ,, Black-crested White ... 406 Rake, Mr., as a Spanish Breeder ... ,, ,, Black with White Crests ... 405 Rats and Poultry ... ... 1S1 Index. 5S9 PAGE 1 PAGE Rearing Bantams 483 Sexes, Influence of, in Breeding 131 ,, Chickens 72 ,, Pens to Breed Cockerels and Puliets ... 132 ,, ,, Artificially... 74> 429 ,, Separating ... 143 ,, ,, in Sussex ... 323 Sharps as Food ... ... 26 „ Prize Birds ... 135 Sheds for Poultry 5, 13 Reaumur’s Experiments in Incubation 52 ,, Rearing Chickens 13, 7o, 137 Redcaps 377 Shelf in Fowl-house ... 4 Redness of Combs 150, 154 Shinowaratao Fowls ... ... 450 Regulating Heat in Incubators 54, 57, 63, 64 Shows in France ... 1 14 Resemblance of Progeny to Parents 133 Shows, Poultry ... ... ... 156 Resting Travelled Eggs before Hatching ... 66 ,, ,, Care of Fowls at • •• 159 Restoratives after a Journey ... 154 ,, Catalogues of ... 161 Reversion Due to Crossing ... 125 ,, ,, Double Numbering of Pens at ... 158 Rheumatism ... 199 ,, ,, Entry Forms for .. 157 Rice as Food for Poultry 26 „ ,, Judging ... 163 Robinet, Madame, on Caponising ... 84 ,, ,, Malicious Injuries at 161, 173 ,, ,, Fattening Poultry 78 ,, ,, Sales of Birds at • • • ... 161 Robson, Miss, on Farm Poultry 104 ,, ,, Trimming at ... ... 168 Rocks, Plymouth 432 Silky Cochins . • • ... 225 Roof of Poultry-house or Shed 3, 15 Silky Fowls • • • • •• 459 Roosting, Barred Floors for ... 16 ,, as Sitters ... 461 ,, Evils of too Early... 72, 144 , , and Langshans ... ... 239 ,, Perches for 15, 144 Simpson, Mr. W., on Plymouth Rocks . . • — 434 ,, on Straw ... 16 ,, ,, Turkeys ... 518 Rouen Ducks ... 539 Sitting, Eggs for a ... 142 Roue, Mr. W., on Preparing Spanish for Exhibition ... 347 ,, Hens - 45 Roup ... ... ... 200 ,, ,, Nests for 46 Rumpless Fowls 456 Sizes of Pens ... ... 159 Russian Fowls... 458 Skull of Polish Fowls - 395 Skunks and Minks ... 1S2 S. Slipped Wings ... 145 Saddle for Washing Spanish 348 Small Holdings, Poultry Specially Suitable for 91, 95, 106 Sales at Shows 161, 177 Small Yard, Plan for a . . . 2 ,, of Surplus Stock 177 Smith, Mr., on Washing Fowls ... 151 Scale of Points, Use of 164 „ White Cochins ... 223 ,, ,, Theory of ... 228 Snow, Effect of, on Fowls ... 31 Scaly Leg ... 192 Soft Eggs ... 201 Schedules i57 ,, Food 24. 27, 71 Scotch Greys ... 459 Solomon, First Importer of Fancy Poultry... .. ... 528 Scrofula 198 Sonnerat’s Jungle Fowl ... 497 Seamons, Mrs., on Ducks ... 536 Space, Economising, in House 7 ,, ,, Geese 560 ,, for Grass Run 13, 16 Sebright Bantams 474 ,, Smallest Possible 5 ,, ,, Sterility of .. 477 Spanish Fowls ... 340 Selecting Birds for Exhibition 148 ,, ,, Breeding for Exhibition ••• 344 Selling Market Poultry 94 ,, ,, Care of the Faces 344, 347, 352 „ Surplus Prize Stock ... .... 177 ,, ,, Combs of 345, 350 Separating Sexes 143 ,, ,, Cuckoo ... 361 Separation of Mated Birds, Evils of 134 ,, ,, Dark Houses for ••• 343 Serjeantson, Rev. W. , on Black Hamburghs 386 ,, ,, Delicacy in ••• 343 ,, ,, East India Ducks 545 ,, ,, Ear-lobes of ... 354 ,, ,, Fancy Ducks ... 554 ,, ,, Effects of Hardy Treatment on ... 342 Setting Hens ... 45,46 ,, „ Judging ... 362 Sexes, Control of 133 ,, ,, Origin of ... 340 ,, Distinguishing 143 ,, ,, Preparing for Exhibition 344, 347 ,. Foretelling - 44 ,, ,, Qualities of ... - 355 2 Y 590 Index. PAGE TAOK Spanish Fowls, Saddle for Washing , . . 348 Tomlinson, Mr., on Buff Cochins ... ... 210 ,, ,, Trimming Faces of... 344.352 Tonics ... 32, 135, 140 „ ,, White 358 Training Birds for Showing 147 ,, ,, Wire for Combs of ... 35° Travelled Eggs, Resting 66 Spangled Hamburghs 366 Treatment after Exhibition ... 154 ,, Polish 39s ,, before ,, 150 Spiced Foods ... 140 ,, of Diseases 184 Spotted Bill Ducks 554 Trimming at Shows ... 168,392 Spurs, Artificial, for Cock-fighting ... 308 ,, Spanish 344,352 Standard of Excellence 164. 22S Trussing Table Fowls 579 „ Errors in 116 Tuberculosis ... ... 198 ,, Judging by 164, 22S Tudman, Mr. E., on Partridge Cochins 218 Statistics of Eggs Imported ... 89,90 Turkeys ... 512 Sterility, A Common Cause of 134 ,, American Bronze 518 Stock, Selection of 18, no ,, as Foster Mothers ... 67 ,, ,, for Exhibition breeding 124 ,, Breeding and Rearing 516,523 Stoke Park, Lady Gwydyr’s Yard at 9 ,, Crested 524 Stolen Eggs ... 34, 107 ,, Domestication of Wild 512 Strain, Commencing a 117 ,, Hatching under, in France 66 ,, Nature of a 1 19 ,, Honduras or Ocellated 516 Straw for Chickens Roosting 144 ., Mexican 516 Study Bestowed by^Good Breeders 125 ,, Rearing in Norfolk and Cambridge 516 Sulky, Cocks turning 134 ,, Wild ... ... 512 Sulphur in Moulting ... 32 ,, ,, Colour of ... ... ... 5i4 Sulphurous Acid, for Spanish Faces 352 Sultans... 462 U. Surplus Stock, Accommodation for 9 Ulceration 2CI „ „ Selling 177 Unsworth, Mr., on Polish ... 406 Surrey and Sussex, Fowls in... 78, 323. 576 Utility and Fancy Points 113 Swans ... 57i Swelled Crop ... 189 V. Value of Foods 26 T. Variations in Breeding, their Causes ... 125 Table Poultry ... ... • • • 574 Varieties, Unclassed ... 447 ,, ,, Dressing for Market ... 577 Various Classes, Judging ... 464 ,, ,, Even Feeding for 577 Ventilation in Poultry Houses 2 ,, „ Points of 576 Vermin . . . l8o ,, ,, Trussing for the Spit .. 579 Vertigo or Giddiness ... 197 Tail of Brahmas, Peculiar 25S, 260, 270 Vessels for Feeding ... 28 Tameness for Exhibition 147 ,, Water... . . . 31 Taylor, Mrs., on Frizzles 448 Village Clubs in Lancashire ... 373 Teal, Chinese ... 548 Viscera of a Fowl 203 „ Common 554 Vulture Hock, Described 207 ,, Japanese... 553 „ in Judging ... 231 Technical Terms, Glossary of 205 Teebay, Mr., on Black Hamburghs... 38 7 W. „ ,, Judging at Shows 166 Walker, Mr. R. J., on Brown Leghorns ... 426 „ ,, Spanish 34i Wallikiki Fowls . . . 456 Tegetmeier, Mr., on Capons 84 Warm Food ... 27 ,, „ French Fowls ... • .i 418 Washing Fowls 151 ,, ,, Turkeys 512 Water Fowl, Fancy ... 545 Testing Eggs Hatching 48 ,, ,, Treatment of ... 554 Thieves ... 180 Water Vessels ... . . • 30 Thompson, Sir Henry, on Fowls n 3 ,, ,, in Frost 3i Thomson, Mr., and Langshans 235 Wattle, Single 5°4 Time of Hatching for Profit .. . 21 Watts, Miss E., on Sultans ... ... 462 Weasels, &c. ... Weather and Chickens Weeding Chickens Wheat as Food Wheaten Game White Bantams White Comb ... Wight, Dr., and Brahmas Wild Breeds of Poultry Wild Ducks Wilson, Mr., on Prices Wings, Slipped Winter Laying Wire for Spanish Combs Wire Netting, Fastening Wood, Mr. R. B., on Creves ,, ,, Houdans Woodcock, Mrs., on Japanese Bantams W'oodgate, Rev. R. S., on Selling Eggs ... Index. PAGE l82 ... I43 ... 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