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1869
THE LIBRARY

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ILLUSTRATED MANUAL OV BRITISH BIRDS.

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^ AN ILLUSTRATED MANUAL

BRITISH BIRDS

BY

HOWARD SAUNDERS, F.L.S., F.Z.S, &c.

EDITOR OF THE THIRD AND FOURTH VOLUMES OF " VARRELL'S HISTORY OF
BRITISH BIRDS," FOURTH EDITION'.

WITH 384 ILLUSTRATIONS AND 3 COLOURED MAPS.

SECOND EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED.

LONDON :
GURNEY AND JACKSON, i, PATERNOSTER ROW,

(Successors to Mr. Van Voorst.)
iSqq.

PRINTED BY

WOODFALL AND KINDER, LONG ACRE

LONDON

"Z^ r Z. t r". ■ ■— • •

AMD k'2 ?v_-vj--

BATICS

PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION.

The First Edition, consisting of rather more than 3,000 copies,
was completed in November 1889, and exhausted early in 1897.
The species which were then considered as British numbered 367,
but in this Second Edition the total has been raised to 384; the
additions (with illustrations) being the Subalpine Warbler, Pallas's
Willow-Warbler, Greenish WiUow-Warbler, Radde's Bush-Warbler,
Melodious \\'arbler, Siberian Meadow-Bunting, Gyr-Falcon, Caspian
Plover, Spotted Sandpiper, Madeiran Fork-tailed Petrel, Frigate-
Petrel, Collared Petrel, and Black-browed Albatross ; a new cut and
description of the Little Dusky Shearwater are substituted for those of
Piiffinus obscurus ; and the Rufous Turtle-Dove, Siberian Pectoral
Sandpiper, Yellow-legged Herring-Gull, and Levantine Shearwater are
also added, although they are not figured, because of their close re-
semblance to species already illustrated. In the case of many of the
species named in the first list, the identical British specimens have
been portrayed by Mr. G. E. Lodge, who has also furnished new
illustrations of the Yellow-browed Warbler, Icterine ^V■arbler, Reed-
Warbler and nest, Marsh-Warbler and nest. Red-throated Pipit,
Short-eared Owl, Tawny Owl, Little Owl, Golden Eagle, Honey-
Buzzard, Peregrine Falcon, Hobby, Red-footed Falcon, Osprey,
Little Bittern, Mallard, Black-headed Gull, White-billed Northern
Diver, Black-throated Diver and Red-throated Diver.

Of the 384 species now described, those which have bred within
the United Kingdom during the present century may be taken as
199 (if the extinct Great Auk is included); about 74 non-
breeding wanderers have occurred fewer than six times, and 66
others are more or less infrequent visitors ; while 45 species
annually make their appearance on migration or during the colder
months, in some portion of our long, narrow group of islands or upon
the surrounding waters.

It is hoped that the three coloured ]Maps will be useful for
reference, especially to the traveller. The first of these shows the

VI PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION.

comparative elevation of the land in the United Kingdom and the
depth of the surrounding seas ; while, although on a small scale, it will
serve as a guide to the relative positions of the various groups of
islands. It may also remind the reader that, owing to the indenta-
tions of our coast, very few places in the British Islands are fifty
miles distant in a straight line from tidal or brackish water : a cir-
cumstance which exercises a modifying influence on our climate —
and consequently on our bird-life — during the winter months, and is
in strong contrast with the extreme conditions prevalent over
compact Continental areas, even further to the south. The North
Polar Chart embodies the latest discoveries by Dr. Nansen and
others, and it is hoped that it will be of assistance in estimating
the range of the birds which breed in the Arctic regions.

The letter-press has required considerable alteration, owing to the
large amount of information rendered accessible during the last
nine years by such works as the ' Faunas of the Inner Hebrides and
Argyll,' of the 'Orkneys,' and of the 'Moray Basin,' all three by
Messrs. Harvie-Brown and T. E. Buckley; the 'Birds of Devon,' by
Messrs. D'Urban and Mathew ; the 'Birds of Pembrokeshire,' by
the Rev. M. A. Mathew ; the ' Fauna of Lakeland,' by the Rev.
H. A. Macpherson ; the ' Birds of Northamptonshire,' by the much-
regretted Lord Lilford, and other works ; not to mention various
compilations, in which there is material of value. In 1896 appeared
Mr. W. Eagle Clarke's digest of the ' Observations on the Migra-
tions of Birds at Light-houses and Light-vessels from 1 880-1 887,'
a marvel of condensed facts ; and some of these observations are
very destructive of former beliefs. For instance, it used to be
supposed that the regular east-to-west migration which reached
Heligoland in autumn would be in some degree continued to the
British Islands, and that a reflex movement would take place in
spring ; but the abstract shows that such intermigrations are the
rare exception and not the rule. It is proved, however, that there
is much movement from the south-east and east towards the north-
west and west in autumn — and reversely in spring — across the
narrowest portion of the North Sea. Another former fancy was that
the migration of many species of birds depended upon the direc-
tion of the wind ; but this, again, is only true to a very limited
extent, and it has been demonstrated that certain meteorological con-
ditions at the point of departure are the prime factors controlling
the seasonal movements. Practically the wind is not of great im-
portance, for although birds cannot fly in the teeth of an absolute
gale, they can sail uncommonly close to any reasonable wind.

PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. Vll

The grant from the British Association in aid of these observations is
no longer given, but the light-keepers continue to take an interest in
the subject of migration, and excellent reports are still received
privately from many localities, especially in Scotland and Ireland.
Mr. R. M. Barrington has kindly placed the schedules for Ireland
at my disposal, and many valuable facts, expressed perhaps in this
book in only two or three words, are derived from these records.
As regards foreign countries, the geographical distribution of many
species has been re-written, owing to increase of knovvledge ; but
the inexorable limits of space will not permit of the enumeration of
the authors nor the titles of their communications. As bearing
upon general ornithology, one recent master-piece may be men-
tioned— Professor Newton's ' Dictionary of Birds.'

One of the most pleasing circumstances connected with the
progress of this Edition has been the generous manner in which
information and assistance have been absolutely pressed upon me.
I cannot give the names of all who have placed me under obliga-
tions, but I should like to mention Col. H. W. Feilden, Lieut.-
Col. H. L. Irby, the Rev. H. A. Macpherson, Professor Newton,
Dr. R. B. Sharpe, the Rev. H. H. Slater, Messrs. O. V. Aplin, R. M.
Barrington, E. Bidwell, F. E. Blaauw, G. Bolam, T. E. Buckley,
Abel Chapman, J. Cordeaux, H. S. Davenport, W. H. Dobie,
H. E. Dresser, E. A. S. Elliot, Henry Evans (Derby), W. R. Ogilvie
Grant, J. H. Gurney, G. H. Caton Haigh, J. E. Harting, J. A.
Harvie-Brovvn, R. J. Howard, Reginald Lodge, E. C. Phillips,
H. L. Popham, Thomas Southwell, and Robert Warren. There
are four more who deserve special thanks : — namely, Mr. R. J.
Ussher, who has taken great pains to furnish me with the latest
information respecting Irish birds ; Messrs. W. Eagle Clarke and
William Evans, who have not only sent valuable notes and criticisms,
but have also read a large portion of the proofs ; and Mr. A. H.
Evans of Cambridge, who has gone over every proof-sheet, as he did
in the First Edition. And in thanking all my correspondents, I
express the hope that our joint labours may be of service to the
student of ornithology.

H. S.

7, Radnor Place, Hyde Park, W.
nth April, 1899.

INTRODUCTION.

The scientific arrangement followed in this work is mainly in
accordance with that of ' The List of British Birds compiled by a
Committee of the British Ornithologists' Union.' There are, of
course, differences of opinion respecting the relative position of
some of the Families which make up the Order Passeres, such as
the Corvidae ; but nearly all modern systematists are agreed that
the highest avian development is attained in that Order. The
Passeres therefore, as being the most specialized of birds, should
occupy either the first place in a descending arrangement (such
as that set forth by Mr. P. L. Sclater in 'The Ibis' for 1880 and
widely adopted in the Old World), or else the last in a scheme of
ascent from the lowest and most reptilian birds. Nearly fifteen
years ago, the latter found favour, even in a somewhat crude form,
in the United States; and it has received increasing acceptance
in Europe, owing to its elaboration by Professor Bronn, Dr. Hans
Gadow and Professor Fiirbringer, while it has been adopted by Mr.
A. H. Evans in his new volume ' Birds,' of the Cambridge Natural
History. There is much to be said in its favour, but such a
complete change would hardly commend itself to the readers of
a work which has been playfully named ' The Boy's Yarrell ' ;
and it therefore seems preferable to adhere to the highly-sanctioned
scheme of commencing with the Passeres. To attain some
approach to uniformity, my own views have been subordinated to
those of the majority of the Committee of the B.O.U. as regards
the positions of the Corvidte and the Alaudidae, as well as on some
other unessential points.

It must be remembered that this work is merely a Manual,
intended to convey as much information ?// to date as may be
practicable in o>ie volume ; and it would be foreign to my purpose
to increase its bulk by a treatise on the Orders and Families of
Birds ; yet a brief outline has been given of the characteristics
of the Genera, although even this forms no essential part of the
scheme of the work. The beginner will do well to bear in mind
that, although systematists may be fairly agreed as regards the com-

X INTRODUCTION.

ponents of the Orders and Families, much diversity of opinion
exists respecting the validity of many of the Genera which have
been proposed and even adopted ; nor is this surprising, for, after
all, a generic name is mainly — and often purely — a matter of con-
venience. According to the Rules for Nomenclature which are
known as the Stricklandian Code, a genus should be based upon
some structural character ; but pattern of coloration and even general
habits have often been allowed to carry weight when anatomical
distinctions would have proved insufficient by themselves to attain
the desired end — namely, generic separation. On the other hand,
important structural characters have often been passed over when
these were not apparent in preserved skins ; and finally, there are
many genera which are highly artificial.

Order PASSERES.

Family TURDID.E.

Subfamily TuRDix.?;.

Young in first plumage differ from the adults in having the upper and under
parts spotted. Only one moult, in autumn.

TuRDUS, Liuiuzus. — Bill moderate, straight, convex above ; point of the upper
mandible compressed, notched, and slightly decurved ; gape furnished with a
few hairs. Nostrils basal, lateral, oval, partly closed by a membrane.
Wings with the first or ' bastard ' quill very short ; the second shorter than
the third or the fourth, one of which is generally the longest of all. Tail
rather long. Tarsus longer than the middle toe ; outer toe connected with
the middle toe at the base (p. i).

MOXTICOLA, Boie. — Bill stout, straight, 'the ridge arched towards the point ;
gape almost hairless. Nostrils basal, round, partly covered with hairs.
Wings moderate ; the first quill short, the second a little shorter than the
third, which is longest. Feet moderately stout. Tail short and even (p. 17).

Saxicola, Bechstein. — Bill straight, broad at the base ; the upper mandible
receding towards the forehead, compressed towards the tip, which is decurved
and more or less indented. Nostrils basal, supernal and oval. Gape with
a few hairs. Wings with the first quill very short, the third or fourth the
longest ; coverts and scapulars short. Tarsus long, covered in front by one
long scale, to which succeed two or three shorter scutellse ; the outer toe
partly united to the middle toe ; hind claw short, strong and curved (p. 19).

Pratincola, K. L. Koch. — Bill shorter and broader than in Saxicola ; bristles
at the gape strongly developed. Wings and tail rather short (p. 27).

RUTICILI.A, C. L. Brehni. — Bill slender, compressed towards the point, a little
deflected and very slightly emarginated ; gape with tolerably large bristles.

INTRODUCTION. XI

Nostrils Ijasal, supernal and nearly round. Wings moderate ; the first quill
short ; the second equal to the sixth ; the third, fourth and fifth nearly equal,
and one of them the longest. Legs slender, the tarsus longer than the middle
toe, and covered in front by a single scale and three inferior scutellte (p. 31).

Cyanecula, C. L. BrehiH. — Differs from the above in having few and very small
bristles at the gape, four inferior scutellse on the tarsus, and a short middle toe.
Practically, this genus is based on the blue colour of the throat, and a desire
to separate the members of this little group from the Redstarts (p. 35).

Erithacus, Ciivier. — Bill narrow and depressed at the base, inflected towards
the point, the upper mandible slightly notched. Nostrils basal, lateral and
oval. Gape beset with bristles. Wings rounded ; the first quill only half as
long as the second, which is shorter than the third ; the fourth, fifth and
sixth nearly equal, and longest. Legs long and slender ; the tarsus with a
single scale in front and three inferior scutellas ; the outer toe a little longer
than the inner, and united at its base to the middle toe ; the hind toe longer
and stronger than the others. Plumage generally soft (p. 37).

DAtJLiAS, Boie. — Bill moderate, straight ; the tip slightly deflected and emar-
ginated. Nostrils basal, supernal and round. Wings moderate ; the first
quill very short, the second longer than the fifth, the third the longest. Tail
rounded. Tarsus long and slender, covered in front by a single scale and
four inferior scutellte ; toes long ; claws rather short (p. 39).

Subfamily Sylviin.*:.

Young on leaving the nest differ very slightly in colour from the adults.

Sylvia, ScopoU. — Bill rather stout, short, not very broad at the base ; uj^per
mandible decurved from the middle towards the point, which is slightly
emarginated ; nostrils basal, lateral, oval and exposed ; gape furnished with
bristles. Wings moderate ; the first quill very short. Tail of twelve feathers,
generally rounded. Tarsus scaled in front and longer than the middle toe ;
toes and claws short (p. 41 J.

Regulus, Ciivier. — Bill slender, straight, the edges dilated at the base, com-
23ressed towards the point, which is notched. Nostrils basal, supernal and
oval, covered by a single bristly feather directed forwards ; the internasal
ridge stout ; the gape beset with hairs. Wings rather long ; the first quill
nearly half the length of the second, the fourth the longest. Tail of twelve
pointed feathers, slightly forked. Tarsus slender and rather long, covered
in front by a single scale ; toes moderate, the outer and middle toes joined at
their base ; claws much curved (p. 57).

Phylloscopi's, i>o/t?.— Bill slender, rather short, upper mandible decurved from
the middle and compressed towards the slightly notched tip ; nostrils basal,
lateral, oblong and partly operculate, the membrane clothed with small
bristle-tipped feathers, the internasal ridge very thin ; gape beset with hairs.
W^ings rather long ; the first quill comparatively large, the third or fourth
the longest. Tail slightly forked. Tarsus scaled in front and rather long, as
are also the toes ; claws curved (p. 61).

AeDON, Boie. — Bill long and strong, with the culmen curved and much com-
pressed at the tip, hardly notched ; nostrils supernal, small and oval ; the

XU INTRODUCTION.

gape without bristles. Wings with the first quill short, the second nearly
equal to the third and fourth, which are longest. Tail long and rounded.
Tarsus long, with broad scales in front ; the inner toe nearly as long as the
outer (p. 73).

LusciNlOLA, G. R. Gray. — Bill stout, rictal bristles strong, supplementary
feathers do not cover the nostrils as in Phylloscopiis ; bastard primary about
half the length of the second, third to fifth about equal and longest (p. 73*).

Hypolais, C. Z. Brehni. — Bill stout, very wide at the base, the edges straight,
somewhat compressed towards the tip, which is slightly emarginated. Nostrils
basal, oblique, oval and exposed. Wings rather long and pointed, the first
quill very short, the third usually the longest. Tail slightly rounded. Tarsus
short ; toes small ; the claws short but much curved (p. 75).

ACROCEl'HALUS, J. A. Naiiiiiaun. — Bill more or less straight, with the culmen
elevated, wide and flattened at the base, compressed towards the tip, and
slightly emarginated ; nostrils as above ; bristles at the gape moderately
developed, f'orehead narrow and depressed. Wings rather short ; the first
quill minute, the third generally the longest. Tail rounded and rather long.
Legs long ; toes large and stout, the hind toe strong ; claws long and
moderately curved (p. 79).

LOCUSTELLA, Kaitp. — Diff'ers from the above chiefly in having the bristles at the
gape very small, a more rounded call, and longer under tail-coverts. Prof.
Newton states that the tendons of the tibial muscles are - strongly ossified in
this genus (p. 89).

Subfamily AccENTORlN^.

Accentor, Bcchsteiu. — Bill strong, broad at the base, rather conical ; the upper
mandible overlapping the lower and slightly notched near the tip. Nostrils
basal, oblique and linear. Wings moderate, more or less rounded ; the first
quill very short, the third generally the longest. Legs strong ; the tarsus
feathered at the upper end, and covered in front with several broad scales ;
the outer toe joined at its base to the middle toe ; the claw of the hind toe
much the longest (p. 93).

Family CINCLID.E.

ClNCLtrs, Bechstein. — Bill moderate, slightly ascending, angular, and higher than
broad at the base ; straight, compressed and rounded near the tip ; the upper
mandible slightly decurving at the point. Nostrils basal, lateral, placed in
a depression, cleft longitudinally, and partly covered by a membrane. Gape
very narrow, and without bristles. Wings short, broad and convex ; the first
quill very short ; the second not so long as the third or fourth, which are
nearly equal. Tail short. Legs feathered to the tibio-tarsal joint ; tarsus
longer than the middle toe ; the lateral toes equal in length, the outer toe
slightly connected with the middle toe. The whole body closely covered
with down. Sternum with the posterior margin entire (p. 97).

Family PANURID.E.

Panurus, K. L. Koch. — Bill short, subconical, upper mandible convex above,
decurved from the base, broader and considerably longer than the lower,

INTRODUCTION. Xlll

which is almost straight ; the edges of both somewhat inflected and not
notched. Nostrils basal, oval, pointed in front, and partly covered by re-
flexed bristly feathers. Wings with ten quills, the first almost obsolete, the
third longest, but the fourth and fifth nearly equal to it. Tail very long and
graduated. Tarsus long and scutellated in front ; claws not much hooked
(P- 99)-

Family PARID.E.

ACP.EDULA, K. L. Koch. — Bill very short, strong, much compressed, both man-
dibles curved, the upper considerably longer than the lower. Nostrils basal,
round, concealed by the plumage. Eyelids with broad bare margins. Wings
with ten quills, gradually increasing in length from the iirst to the fourth and
fifth, which are the longest. Tail very long, narrow and graduated, the
outer feathers being only about one-third of the length of the middle pair.
Tarsus long and scutellated ; toes moderate ; the anterior toes united so far
as the second joint, the outer toe longer than the inner, the hind toe stout and
armed with a long hooked claw (p. loi).

Farits, Liuiuius. — Bill strong, straight, rather conical, slightly compressed, upper
mandible hardly longer than the lower and not notched. Nostrils basal,
round, covered with reflexed bristly feathers. Wings with ten quills, the
first short, the fourth or fifth the longes'. Tail moderate, even or slightly
rounded. Tarsus moderate and scutellated ; toes as in preceding genus
(p. 103).

Family SITTID/E.

SiTTA, Linnatts. — Bill moderate, strong, and slightly conical, the lower mandible
ascending from the angle to the point. Tongue short and horny, the tip
abrupt and furnished with strong bristles. Nostrils basal, rounded, placed
in a deep hollow, covered by hairs and short feathers. ^Vings rather long ;
the first quill much^horter than the second, the fourth or- fifth the longest.
Tail short, flexible, broad, and nearly square. Legs short and stout, the
tarsus scutellated ; toes long and strong — the hind toe especially, the outer toe
joined at its base to the middle toe ; claws large and much hooked (p. II3).

Family TROCLODVTID.E.

Troglodytes, Vieillot. — Bill moderate, compressed, slightly curved, without
any notch, and pointed. Nostrils basal, oval, partly covered by a membrane.
Wings very short, concave, rounded ; the first quill rather short, the fourth
or fifth the longest. Tail generally short ; its feathers soft and rounded.
Tarsus rather long and strong ; the middle toe united at the base to the
outer toe, but not to the inner toe ; hind toe rather long ; claws long, stout
and curved. Plumage long and soft (p. 115).

Family CFRTHIID.E.

Certhia, Linn(cus.—Wi\ rather long, slender, compressed, curved downwards
and pointed ; nostrils basal, lateral, elongated and partly covered by a mem-
brane. Wings moderate and rounded ; the first feather short, the fourth and
fifth the longest. Tail of twelve feathers, long, stiff, pointed, and slightly
curved downwards. Feet large, the tarsus slender ; the fore toes long and

xiv INTRODUCTION.

united at the base as far as the first joint, their claws moderate but much
curved ; the hind toe short, but with a long curved claw. Plumage soft
and thick, especially on the upper parts (p. 117).

TiCHOUROMA, Illiger. — Bill long, slender, slightly decurved and pointed ; nostrils
elongated. Wings long and broad. Tail of twelve rounded feathers and
sfjuare in shape. Tarsus rather slender ; toes long ; claws much curved,
especially the long hind claw (p. 119).

Family MOTACILLID.E.

(Wings with only nine clearly visilile primaries).

MOTACILLA, Linmvus.—WA slender, nearly straight, very slightly notched at
the tip ; the mandibles nearly equal in length and their edges slightly com-
pressed inwards. Nostrils basal, lateral, oval, and partly concealed by a
membrane. Wings moderate ; the first quill acuminate and nearly obsolete,
the second, third and fourth nearly equal and one of them the longest, the
fifth considerably shorter ; inner secondaries very long, one of them about
equal to the fifth primary. Tail of twelve feathers, long and nearly even.
Tarsus scutellated in front, much longer than the middle toe, which is joined
to the outer toe at its base ; toes moderate ; claws short, except that of the
hind toe which is somewhat elongated (p. 121).

Anthus, Bechsteiii. — Bill and nostrils as in the above genus. Wings moderate :
the first primary acuminate and nearly obsolete, the second, third and fourth
nearly equal and one of them the longest, the fifth in some species almost
as long ; outer secondaries short, inner secondaries very long, equal to or
occasionally exceeding the fifth primary. Tail of twelve feathers, moderate
and slightly forked. Tarsus scutellated in front, about as long as the middle
toe, which is joined to the outer toe at its base ; toes rather long ; claws
moderate, except that of the hind toe which in some species is very much
elongated (p. 131).

Family ORIOLID.^.

Oriolus, Linmsns. — Bill moderately long, conical, and decurving to the point,
near which it is notched ; nostrils basal, lateral, naked, pierced horizontally in
an extended membrane. Wings long ; the first quill much shorter than the
second, the third the longest. Tail moderate, slightly rounded. Tarsus
covered in front with broad plates ; toes with large scutellK ; claws arched,
and laterally grooved (p. 145).

Family LANIID.E.

Lanius, LiniucHs. — Bill short, thick and straight at the base, compressed ; upper
mandible hooked at the point, with a prominent tooth ; base of the bill beset
with hairs directed forwards. Nostrils basal, lateral, oval. Wings of
moderate size ; the first quill shorter than the second, the third usually the
longest. Tarsus longer than the middle toe, which is united at its base to
the outer toe (p. 147).

Family AMPELID.F:.

Amtelis, Linii<€iis. — Bill strong, short and straight ; broad at the base ; both
mandibles slightly hooked at the tip, and the upper one notched. Gape

INTRODUCTION. XV

wide, without bristles. Nostrils basal, oval and large, partly concealed by
closely-set feathers directed forwards. Feathers of the head forming an
elongated erectile crest. Wings long, with ten primaries, the first very
minute, the second the longest, but the third nearly equal to it. Tail short
and almost even. Tarsus scutellated in front, and shorter than the middle
toe with its claw ; toes stout. Plumage very soft (p. 155).

Family MUSCICAPID.F:.

MusciCAl'A, Linuicus. — Bill of moderate length, broad and depressed at the
base ; compressed and slightly curved towards the point. Nostrils basal,
lateral, and partly concealed by the frontal plumes. Gape beset with bristles.
Wings long and pointed ; the first primary very short, the second rather
shorter than the third, fourth and fifth, which are the longest. Tarsus about
the same length as the middle toe, which is much longer than the lateral
toes ; all the toes small (p. 157).

Family HIRUNDINID.^.

(Wings with nine clearly visible primaries, long and pointed).

HiRUNDO, Liiuuviis. — Bill short, depressed, and very wide at the Ijase, com-
missure straight. Nostrils basal, oval, partly closed by a membrane. Tail
deeply forked, of twelve feathers, the outermost greatly elongated and
abruptly attenuated. Tarsus slender and bare ; toes rather long, three in
front, one behind ; claws moderate (p. 163).

Chelidon, Boie. — Bill short, depressed, and very wide at the base, commissure
slightly decurved. Nostrils basal, oval, partly closed by a memlirane and
opening laterally. Tail forked, of twelve feathers, the outermost not
abruptly attenuated. Tarsus slender, closely feathered above the toes, which
are rather long, three in front, one behind ; claws moderate, sharp (p. 165).

COTILE, Boie. — Bill short, depressed, and very wide at the base, commissure
straight. Nostrils, wings and tail as above. Tarsus slender and bare,
except a tuft of feathers on the tarsus just above the hallux ; toes moderate,
three in front, one behind ; claws strong (p. 167).

Family FRINGILLID^.

(Wings with nine clearly visible primaries).

Subfamily Fringillix.^^..

Bill strong, the outline of the commissures even.

LiGURiNUS, K. L. Koch. — Bill hard, short, conical, compressed towards the tip,
with a scarcely perceptible notch at the point ; nostrils basal, concealed by
stiff feathers directed forwards. Wings rather pointed, the first quill obsolete,
the second, third and fourth nearly equal and longest. Tail rather short,
slightly forked. Tarsus scutellated in front ; toes moderate ; claws arched
and laterally grooved (p. 169).

COCCOTHRAUSTES, Brissoii. — Bill nearly conical, very thick at the base, tapering
rapidly to the point ; culmen more or less rounded ; the mandibles nearly
equal, edges inflected and slightly indented. Nostrils basal, lateral, oval.

XVI INTRODUCTION.

nearly hidden by projecting and recurved frontal plumes. Wings with the
first quill obsolete, the third and fourth primaries nearly equal, the sixth,
seventh, and eighth curved outwards. Tail short, and nearly square.
Tarsus scutellated in front, covered at the sides with a single plate, stout and
short ; claws moderately curved, rather short and strong (p. 171).

Carduelis, Brisso;!.—'Bi\\ nearly conical but slightly compressed, the point
slender and sharp. Nostrils basal, lateral, round, and hidden by projecting
and recurved plumes. Wings rather long and pointed ; the first primary
obsolete ; the second, third, and fourth nearly equal, but the second the
longest. Tail more or less moderate, and forked. Tarsus short and rather
stout, scutellated in front, covered at the sides by a single plate ; claws
moderate (p. 173).

Serin'US, A'. L. KocIi.— '&lW strong, short, somewhat conical, but very broad at
the base and with the distal half suddenly diminishing to the tip ; mandibles
nearly equal in size, but the upper a little longer than the lower ; edges
plain. Nostrils basal, supernal, round, and hidden by projecting and re-
curved frontal plumes. Gape straight. Wings with the first primary so
small as to seem wanting ; the second, third, and fourth nearly equal, but the
third a trifle the longest. Tail moderate, rather deeply forked. Tarsus
slender, and shorter than the middle toe, scutellated in front, covered at the
sides by a single plate ; claws small and rather weak (p. 177).

Passer, Brisson. — Bill somewhat conical, but bulging above and below, longer
than deep ; upper mandible larger than the lower, edges nearly plain. Nostrils
basal, lateral, rounded, almost hidden by projecting and recurved frontal
plumes. Gape straight. Wings with the first primary small and attenuated
but distinctly developed, the third or fourth rather the longest, but the
second, third and fourth - sometimes even the fifth -not very unequal.
Tail moderate or short, and nearly square. Tarsus stout, nearly as long
as the middle toe, scutellated in front, covered at the sides by a single plate ;
claws moderately curved, rather short (p. 179).

PRINGILLA, Linnaits.—'WA hard, straight, somewhat long, nearly conical, but
bulging slightly, and pointed ; mandibles nearly equal, edges plain. Nostrils
basal, lateral, oval, partly hidden by projecting and recurved frontal plumes.
Gape straight. Wings with the first primary obsolete, the second always
shorter than the third, which, or the fourth, is longest in the wing. Tail
moderately long and decidedly forked. Tarsus stout, rather short, scutellated
in front, covered at the sides with a single plate ; claws moderately curved,
rather short (p. 183).

LiNOTA, Zz;/ ;/«-/«. — Bill hard, nearly conical, but slightly swollen ; the point
slender and sharp. Nostrils basal, round, and hidden more or less by pro-
jecting and recurved plumes. Gape nearly straight. Wings long^ somewhat
pointed ; the first primary obsolete, the second, third, and fourth nearly
equal, and either the second or third the longest in the wing. Tail rather
long and forked. Tarsus short, scutellated in front, covered at the sides by a
single plate ; toes stout ; claws moderate, the hind claw rather large (p. 1S7).

Pyrrhula, Brisson. — Bill hard, short, broad, and thick at the base, bulging at
the sides ; culmen rounded ; upper mandible considerably longer than the
lower, and overhanging its point. Nostrils basal, round, hidden by plume-
lets. Gape slightly arched. Wings rather short ; the first primary obsolete,

INTRODUCTION. XVU

the third or fifth the longest in the wing. Tail moderate, square or forked.
Tarsus scutellated in front, covered at the sides by a single plate ; toes stout ;
claws moderately curved, rather short (p. 195).

LoxiA, Linmtus. — Bill hard, strong, thick at the base, much compressed towards
the tip, the lower mandible curving upwards and its point crossing that of
the upper mandible. Nostrils round, basal, hidden by thick projecting
bristly plumes. Wings long, pointed ; the first primary very small but
visible, the second generally the longest. Tail short, forked. Tarsus short
and stout, scutellated in front ; toes short ; claws moderately curved (p. 201).

Subfamily Emberizin.i^.

Angle of the lower mandible strongly marked, and a distinct gap in the outline
of the closed bill.

Emeeriza, Linnaus. — -Bill hard, conical and short ; the upper mandible not
wider than the lower, the edges of both inflected and those of the latter
gradually cut away ; the palate generally furnished with a projecting bony
knob. Nostrils oval, basal, and placed somewhat near the culmen, partly
hidden by small feathers. Gape angular. Wings moderate ; first primary
minute, second, third and fourth nearly equal. Tail rather long and slightly
forked. Tarsus scutellated in front, covered at the sides with an undivided
plate forming a sharp ridge behind, almost as long as the middle toe ; claws
considerably curved, that of the hind toe of moderate length (p. 205).

Calcarius, Bechstein. — Bill with considerably inflected cutting edges ; claws of
the front toes short and slightly curved ; hind claw nearly straight and
elongated ; other characters much as in the previous genus (p. 223).

Pi.ECTROPHENAX, Stejneger. — Bill with the upper mandible narrower than the
lower, the edges of both inflected and those of the latter sinuated ; the
palate furnished with a projecting bony knob. Nostrils as in Einberiza.
Wings long and pointed ; the first primary minute, second and third nearly
equal and the longest in the wing, but the fourth considerably longer than
the fifth. Tail moderate and slightly forked. Tarsus about as long as the
middle toe. Front claws rather long and curved ; hind claw considerably
curved and elongated (p. 225).

Family STURNID^.

Sturnus, Liniiitus. — Bill as long as the head, almost straight, blunt at the tip,
depressed so as to be wider than high ; edges of the upper mandible extend-
ing over those of the lower, and both quite smooth. Nostrils basal and partly
covered by an operculum. Gape angular and free from bristles. Feathers
of the head and anterior part of the body pointed and elongated. Wings
long, pointed, with ten primaries ; the first minute and attenuated, the second
and third nearly equal and the longest. Tail short, the feathers diverging at
the tip. Tarsus scutellated in front, covered at the sides by an undivided
plate, forming a sharp ridge behind ; claws short and moderately curved
(p. 227).

Pastor, Teminimk. — Bill moderate, convex above, straight beneath, compressed,
the upper mandible notched and slightly decurved. Nostrils basal, partly
closed by a membrane covered with small feathers. Feathers on the crown

b

XVlll INTRODUCTION.

pointed and elongated, forming a crest. Wings as in Sfiirnits. Tail moderate,
the feathers mostly rounded at the tips. Tarsus scutellated in front, covered
at the sides by an indistinctly divided plate, forming a sharp ridge behind ;
claws rather more curved than in Slitrnits (p. 229).

Family CORVID.^i.

Pyrrhocorax, TitnstaU. — Beak slender, compressed, arched and pointed.
Nostrils basal, hidden by small, closely-set feathers. Wings long and
graduated ; the first primary much shorter than the second, and about half as
long as the third, the fourth the longest. Tail nearly even. Tarsus longer
than the middle toe, to which the outer toe is united as far as its first joint ;
claws strong and much curved (p. 231).

NuciFRAGA, Brisson. — Beak alDout as long as the head, hard, stout and straight,
dilated at the base ; both mandibles terminating obtusely. Nostrils basal,
round, hidden by stiff feathers directed forwards, leathers of the crown
short. Wings graduated, the fifth primary being the longest. Tail slightly
rounded. Tarsus longer than the middle toe, to which the outer toe is
united at the base (p. 233).

Garrulus, Brisson. — Beak shorter than the head, hard, stout and compressed,
straight at the base, sharp at the edges, commissure straight. Nostrils basal,
hidden by stiff feathers directed forwards. Feathers of the crown long and
erectile. Wings moderate, rounded ; the first primary short and not
attenuated, the fourth, fifth and sixth nearly equal, and one of them the
longest in the wing. Tail moderately long and rounded. Nostrils, tarsi
and toes much as in Niicifraga (p. 235).

Pica, Brisson. — Beak stout and compressed, straight at the base, arched towards
the point, and slightly notched near the tip of the upper mandible. Nostrils
as in Niicifraga. Wings short and rounded ; the first primary attenuated
for two-thirds of its length and very short, the fourth or fifth the longest.
Tail very long and graduated. Tarsus longer than the middle toe, to which
the outer toe is united as far as its first joint (p. 237).

CORVUS, Linndiis. — Beak more or less stout, compressed, straight at the base,
arched towards the point and sharp at the edges. Nostrils basal, generally
hidden by stiff feathers directed forwards. Wings long and graduated ; the
first primary much shorter than the second, the fourth the longest. Tail
more or less graduated. Tarsus longer than the middle toe, to which the
outer toe is united as far as its first joint (p. 239).

Family ALAUDID.E.

Tarsus scutellated behind as well as before.

Alauda, Linnceiis. — Bill moderate to stout, slightly compressed at the edges ;
upper mandible more or less arched from the middle and without notch.
Nostrils basal, oval, covered by bristly feathers directed forward. Gape
straight. Wings long : the first primary usually short but sometimes well
developed ; second, third and fourth nearly equal, but the third generally
the longest. Tail moderate and slightly forked. Tarsus longer than the
middle toe ; claws slightly curved and moderate, except that of the hind toe,
which is often elongated and nearly straight (p. 249).

INTRODUCTION. XIX

Otocorys, Bonaparte. — Bill rather short, subconic ; upper mandible slightly
arched. Head — in the adult male — with a tuft of long, erectile feathers on
either side of the occiput. Wings long ; the first primary infinitesimal, the
second the longest, the fourth decidedly shorter ; outer secondaries short and
emarginate at the tip. Tail rather long, slightly forked. Tarsus shorter
than the middle toe ; claws moderate and very slightly curved, that of the
hind toe being comparatively straight (p. 259).

Order PICARIiE.

Family C Y P S E L I D .E.

Cypselus, Illiger. — Bill very short, wide, triangular at its base and depressed ;
culmen and commissure much decurved ; gape extending behind the eyes.
Nostrils longitudinal, the edges raised and furnished with small feathers.
Wings with ten curved primaries, very long and pointed, the first shorter
than the second, but a little longer than the third. Tail of ten feathers,
somewhat deeply forked. Tarsus very short, feathered in front ; toes four,
all ordinarily directed forwards, the middle and outer with three phalanges
only ; claws short, large, and much curved (p. 261).

ACANTHYLLIS, Boie. — Wings very long, narrow and pointed. Tail short,- even ;
the feathers terminated by long sharp spines. Tarsus bare in front and not
scutellated ; one toe directed backwards. Otherwise much as in preceding
genus (p. 265).

Family CAPRIMULGID.^.

Cai'RIMULGUS, Linnatis. — Bill very short, flexible, broad at the base, much
compressed at the point ; gape very wide ; upper mandible decurved at the
tip, and beset on each side with a row of moveable bristles directed forward ;
lower mandible upturned at the tip, so as to meet the upper at the point,
leaving an open space further back. Nostrils basal, with a prominent
membranaceous rim, clothed with very small feathers. Wings long, with
ten primaries, the second the longest. Tail of ten feathers, long and
slightly rounded. Tarsus short, feathered in front for two-thirds of its
length ; feet with three toes before and one behind, the anterior united as far
as the first joint, the posterior turned inwards at right angles, inner and outer
toes equal, the latter with but four phalanges ; claws short, except that of
the middle toe, which is long and pectinated on the inner edge (p. 267).

Family PICID.E.
Subfamily Iyngin^.

Iynx, Liniuviis. — Bill shorter than the head, straight, nearly conical, sharp at
the tip. Nostrils basal, linear, partly closed by a membrane. Tongue
capable of protrusion, the tip horny and smooth. Wings moderate ; the first
primary minute, the third or fourth the longest. Tail rounded, of twelve
feathers, the outer pair minute, with straight shafts and webs of ordinary
character. Tarsus strong, slightly feathered above in front ; toes, two before
and two behind, the fourth — which is turned backwards — about as long as
the third ; a peculiar heel-pad ; claws hooked, grooved and sharp (p. 271).

b 2

XX INTRODUCTION.

Subfamily PiciN^..
Gecinus, Boie. — Bill about as long as the head, hard, broad at the base, com-
pressed at the tip ; upper mandible slightly arched, ending abruptly, with a
shallow groove on each side running parallel to and near the culmen, and
longer than the lower mandible, which is pointed, and has the gonys nearer
the tip than the base, and the tomia rounded. Nostrils basal, oval, covered
with hair-like feathers directed forwards. Tongue capable of great protru-
sion, beset at the tip with horny barbs. Wings moderate ; the first primary
very short, the fourth longest, but the fifth nearly equal to it. Tail of twelve
graduated feathers ; the outer pair very short and overlying the next, which,
with the rest, are pointed and have stiff, decurved shafts with hard webs.
Tarsus strong, slightly feathered above in front ; toes, two before and two
behind, the fourth — which is turned backwards — equal to the third ; claws
strongly hooked, grooved and very sharp. Prevailing colour of the plumage
greenish (p. 273).

Dendrocopus, K. L. Koch. — Bill pyramidal, laterally bevelled at the tip. The
fourth toe much longer than the third. Otherwise much as in preceding
genus. Prevailing colours, black, white and red (p. 275).

Family ALCEDINID^.

Alcedo, Liiinmts. — Bill long, hard, straight, quadrangular and acute. Nostrils
basal, oblique, nearly closed by a bare membrane. Wings short and rounded,
of ten primaries ; the second or third the longest, but the first nearly equal
to them and longer than the fourth. Tail very short, of twelve feathers.
Tarsus short ; toes, three before and one behind, the middle united to the outer
toe as far as the second joint and to the inner as far as the first joint, hind
toe not much shorter than the inner (p. 279).

Family CORACIID.-E.

CORACIAS, LinniTiis. — Bill stout, hard, compressed, with cutting edges slightly
inflected ; upper mandible decurved at the tip ; gape wide. Nostrils lateral,
linear and oblique, partly hidden by a plumose membrane. Lores beset in
front by a row of stiff bristles. Post-ocular space bare. Wings long, of ten
primaries ; the first a little shorter than the second or third — which are the
longest — but rather longer than the fourth. Tail of twelve feathers, rather
long. Tarsus short, broadly scutellated in front ; toes free, three before and
one behind ; claws stout (p. 281).

Merops, Linmviis. — 'S\\\ rather long, slightly decurved, and tapering to a point,
the culmen elevated. Nostrils basal, lateral, oval, covered by hairs directed
forwards. Wings long, of ten primaries ; the second and third the longest.
Tail rather long, of twelve feathers, the central pair elongated and pointed.
Tarsus short ; toes small, three before and one behind, the middle united to
the outer toe as far as the second joint, and to the inner as far as the first
joint (p. 283).

Family UPUPID^.

Upupa, Linnaiis.—l^xW long, slender, slightly arched, sharp, and much com-
pressed. Nostrils basal, oval, partly concealed by feathers. Tongue very
short and heart-shaped. Head with an erectile crest of oblong feathers set

INTRODUCTION. XXI

regularly in pairs for the whole length. Wings moderately long and very
broad, with ten primaries ; the first about half as long as the second, which
is nearly an inch shorter than the third, the fourth or fifth the longest. Tail of
ten feathers, almost square at the end. Tarsus scutellated behind as well as
in front ; three toes before and one behind, the outer and middle united as
far as the first joint (p. 285).

Family CUCUI.ID.E.

CucuLUS, LinncTus. — Bill short and sub-cylindrical, culmen somewhat decurved,
upper mandible slightly notched near the tip, lower mandible nearly straight
beneath ; gape wide. Nostrils basal, circular, with a prominent membrana-
ceous rim. Wings with ten primaries ; the third longest, the innermost
three shorter than the first. Tail of ten feathers ; the outer three pairs
graduated, the middle two nearly equal. Tarsus short and feathered for
nearly half the length ; toes, two before and two behind (p. 2S7).

CoccYSTES, Glogcr. — Bill moderate, compressed towards the tip, culmen decurved,
cutting edges smooth ; lower mandible slightly decurved beneath ; gape
moderate. Nostrils basal, oval, the upper part closed by a membrane.
Head crested. Wings with ten primaries ; the third longest, but the fourth
nearly its equal, the ninth as long as — and the tenth shorter than — the first.
Tail of ten feathers, long and graduated. Tarsus strong and long, bare
behind, slightly feathered above in front ; toes, two before and two behind
(p. 289).

Order STRIDES.

Family STRIGID.F.

Strix, Linmeies. — Bill straight at the base, decurved only towards the point ;
cutting-margins of the upper mandible nearly straight, under mandible
notched. Nostrils oval, oblique. Facial disk large and complete, narrowing
rapidly below the eyes towards the beak. Auditory opening square, large,
and furnished with a large and nearly rectangular operculum, stiffened with
the shafts of small feathers. Head smooth, not furnished with tufts. Wings
long and ample ; the first and third quills equal and nearly as long as the
second, which is the longest. Tail short. Legs long and slender, clothed
with downy feathers to the origin of the toes, which are furnished only on
the upper surface with a few bristle-like feathers ; hind toe reversible ; claws
long and grooved underneath, that of the middle toe pectinated on the inner
edge (p. 291).

Asio, Brisson. — Bill decurved from the base ; cere large ; under mandible
notched. Nostrils oval, oblique. Facial disk complete. Conch of the ear
extremely large, with a semicircular operculum running the whole length in
front, and a raised margin behind ; auditory openings asymmetrical. Wings
long, the second quill generally the longest. Legs and toes feathered to the
claws. Head furnished with two tufts, more or less elongated (p. 293).

Syrnium, Savigiiy. — Bill decurved from the base. Nostrils large. Facial disk
large and complete ; auditory openings large and symmetrical, furnished in
front with a large crescentic operculum. Wings short and rounded ; the first
quill very short, the fourth the longest. Tail long, concave beneath. Legs
and toes feathered. Head large, round and without tufts (p. 297).

XXn INTRODUCTION.

Nyctala, C. L. Brehm. — Bill short, decurved from the base ; cere rudimentary ;
nostrils nearly circular ; under mandible notched. Ear-conches large, asym-
metrical, and furnished in front with a well-developed operculum. Head
large, the asymmetry of the aural region extending to the skull. Facial
disk large and nearly complete. Wings long, rounded. Tail short. Tarsus
and toes thickly feathered (p. 299).

Athene, Bote. — Bill decurved from the base ; cere short and swollen ; nostrils
oval ; lower mandible sinuated. Auditory conch large, the orifice small and
without an operculum. Facial disk not well defined. Wings large, the third
and fourth quills nearly equal in length. Tarsus long, covered with short
feathers ; toes above with bristles only, instead of feathers. Head round,
large, and without tufts (p. 301).

Nyctea, Stephens. — ^Bill decurved from the base ; nostrils large, oval ; cere
short ; upper mandible smooth, lower mandible notched. Facial disk
incomplete. Orifice of the ears moderate, without operculum. Wings of
moderate size ; the third quill the longest, second and fourth nearly equal.
Tail rounded and of moderate length. Tarsus and toes thickly covered with
feathers. Head large, round, not furnished with tufts of feathers (p. 303).

SURNIA, DumtSril. — Bill decurved from the base and much hidden by feathers ;
no.strils small and rounded ; cere short ; upper mandible slightly undulated ;
lower mandible notched. Facial disk nearly obsolete. Orifice of the ears
small, without operculum. Wings short ; first quill equal to seventh, second
longer than fifth, third and fourth longest and nearly equal. Tarsus rather
short and — with the toes — thickly feathered. Tail long and graduated.
Head flat and without tufts (p. 305).

Scors, Savigity. — Bill much decurved from the base, cere small, under mandible
notched. Nostrils round. Facial disk incomplete above the eyes ; auditory
conch small, and without an operculum. Wings long, reaching to the end
of the tail. Tarsus rather long, feathered in front ; the toes naked. Head
furnished with two tufts of feathers (p. 307).

Bubo, Dunu'ril. — Bill short, strong, curved, compressed at the point. Nostrils
pierced in the cere, large, oval or rounded. Facial disk incomplete.
Auditory opening small, oval, without an operculum. Wings rather short.
.Tarsus and toes covered with feathers ; claws long. Head furnished with two
tufts of feathers (p. 309).

Order ACCIPITRES.

Family \'ULTURID.E.

Gyps, Savigiiy. — Bill strong, thick, and deep, with a short cere, culmen some-
what abruptly hooked. Nostrils naked and oval. Head slender and covered
with short down, as is most part of the neck ; above the shoulders a rufl'of
elongated feathers. Wings long ; the first quill short, the fourth the longest.
Tail of twelve or fourteen feathers. Legs and feet strong ; claws slightly
hooked ; toes long, the middle toe rather exceeding the tarsus and united
at its base to the outer toe by a membrane (p. 311).

Neophron, Savigny. — Bill straight, slender, elongated, rounded above, encircled
at the base by a long naked cere ; upper mandible with straight edges.

INTRODUCTION. XXlll

hooked at the tip ; under mandible blunt, and shorter than the upper.
Nostrils near the middle of the beak, elongated, longitudinal. Head and
neck partly bare of feathers. Wings rather pointed, the third quill the
longest. Tail of fourteen feathers. Tarsus reticulated ; three toes before,
one behind ; anterior toes united at the Ijase (p. 313).

Family FALCONID.i:,

Circus, Lac^pMe. — Bill small, bending from the base, compressed and elevated ;
cutting-edges of the upper mandible with a slight festoon. Cere large.
Nostrils oval, partly concealed by the hairs radiating from the lores. Lower
part of the head surrounded by a ruff of small thick-set feathers. Wings
long ; the first quill very short, the third and fourth the longest. Tail long.
Tarsus long, slender, and naked ; toes rather short, and not very unequal ;
claws slightly curved, and very sharp (p. 315).

BuTEO, Lacdpede. — Bill rather small and weak, bending from the base, part of
the cutting edges of the upper mandible slightly projecting ; cere large ;
nostrils oval. Wings with the first quill short, about equal in length to the
seventh, the fourth the longest ; the first four feathers with the inner edge
deeply notched. Tarsus short, strong, usually scaled, but occasionally
feathered and reticulated ; toes short, claws strong (p. 321).

Aquila, Bi'isson. — Bill strong, of moderate length, curved from the cere,
pointed, the cutting edges nearly straight. Nostrils oval, lateral, directed
obliquely downward and backward, or sometimes circular. Wings large and
long, the fourth quill the longest. Tarsus feathered to the junction of the
toes, hind surface reticulated ; toes strong, the last phalanx of each toe
covered by large scales ; claws hooked (p. 325).

Haliaetus, Savigny. — Bill elongated, strong, straight at the base, curving in a
regular arc in advance of the cere to the tip and forming a deep hook, upper
ridge broad and rather flattened. Nostrils oval, perpendicular. Wings
ample, the fourth quill the longest. Tarsus feathered to the joint ; the front
of the naked part scutellated, and the sides and back reticulated. Toes
divided to their origin ; claws strong and hooked, grooved beneath ; the claw
of the hind toe larger than that of the inner, which again exceeds either
of the others (p. 329).

AsTUR, Lact'pede. — Bill short, bending from the base ; cutting edge of the upper
mandible forming a festoon. Nostrils oval. Wings short, reaching only to
the middle of the tail-feathers, the fourth quill the longest. Tarsus stout,
covered in front with broad scales. Toes moderate : the middle toe some-
what the longest, the lateral toes nearly equal, but the inner claws consider-
ably larger than the outer claw (p. 331).

ACCIPITER, Brissoii. — Bill bending from the base, short, compressed, superior
ridge rounded and narrow, cutting margin of the upper mandible with a
distinct festoon. Nostrils oval. Wings short ; the fourth and fifth quill-
feathers nearly equal in length, and the longest. Tarsus long, slender, and
smooth. Toes long and slender, particularly the middle toe ; clav/s curved
and sharp (p. 333).

MiLVUS, Ladpcde. — Bill straight at the base, curved from the cere to the point,
cutting margin with a slight festoon. Nostrils oval, oblique. Wings long,
the third or fourth quill the longest. Tail long and forked. Tarsus short.

XXIV INTRODUCTION.

Toes short and strong ; the outer toe united at its base to the middle toe, but
slightly reversible. Claws moderately long and curved (p. 335).

Pernis, Citvier. — Bill slender, rather weak, curved from the base, the cutting
edges of the upper mandible nearly straight ; cere large ; nostrils elongated,
placed obliquely ; lores closely covered with small scale-like feathers.
Wings long and large ; the first quill short, the third and fourth the longest ;
inner webs of the first four deeply notched. Tail long. Tarsus short, half
of it plumed, the rest reticulated ; toes of moderate length and strength ;
claws slender and only slightly curved (p. 339).

Palco, Liniucits. — Bill short, curved from its base ; a strong projecting tooth on
each cutting edge of the upper mandible. Wings long and pointed ; the
first and third quills of equal length, the second longest. Tarsus short,
robust, reticulated ; toes long, strong, armed with curved and sharp claws
(P- 341)-

Pandion, Savigny. — Bill short, strong, rounded and broad ; cutting edges nearly
straight. Nostrils oblong-oval, oblique. Wings long, second and third
quills longest. Legs strong and muscular ; tarsus short, reticulated. Toes
free, nearly equal, the outer toe reversible ; all armed with strong, curved,
and sharp claws ; under surface of the toes rough and covered with small
pointed scales. Feathers wanting the aftershaft (p. 359).

Order STEGANOPODES.

Family PELECANID/E.

Phai.acrocorax, Brissoii. — Bill moderate or long, straight, compressed, culmen
rounded ; upper mandible much curved at the point, hooked ; the base
connected with a membrane which extends to the throat. Face and throat
naked. Nostrils basal, linear, hidden. Wings moderate, the third quill the
longest. Tail of twelve or fourteen stiff and rigid feathers. Legs strong,
short, placed far back ; three toes in front, and a hind toe articulated on the
inner surface of the tarsus, all four united together by membranes ; claw of
the middle toe serrated on the inner edge (p. 361).

SlTLA, Brisson. — Bill strong, long, forming an elongated cone, very large at its
base, compressed towards the point, which is slightly curved ; edges of the
mandibles serrated ; angle of the gape behind the line of the eyes. Face
and throat naked. Nostrils basal, obliterated. Wings long, first quill the
longest. Tail wedge-shape. Legs strong, short, placed rather far back ;
three toes in front, and a hind toe articulated to the inner surface of the
tarsus, all four united by membranes ; claw of the middle toe pectinated
(P- 365).

Order HERODIONES.

Family ARDEID.F.

Ardea, Brisson. — Bill long, strong, straight, compressed in a lengthened cone ;
upper mandible slightly grooved on each side ; nostrils lateral, basal,
pierced longitudinally in the groove, and half closed by a membrane. Wings
moderate, the second quill the longest. Tail of twelve feathers, short, nearly
even. Legs long, slender, naked above the tarsal joint ; tarsus scutellated in

INTRODUCTION. XXV

front ; three toes in front, the outer united to the middle one by a distinct
membrane, one toe behind, directed inwards ; claws long, compressed,
sharp, the middle claw pectinated on the inside (p. 367).

Nycticorax, Stephens. — Bill about the same length as the head, bulky, strong,
broad, and dilated at the base ; upper mandible with the culmen curved, and
notched near the tip ; under mandible straight. Nostrils longitudinal,
lateral, but little in advance of the base of the beak, placed in a groove,
and partly covered by a membrane ; lore and orbits naked. Tail of twelve
broad and moderately hard feathers. Legs of moderate length, bare for a
short distance above the tarsal joint ; tarsus longer than the middle toe, with
hexagonal scutellre in front ; the outer and middle toe united by a membrane ;
claws short, that of the middle toe pectinated (p. 379)-

Ardetta, G. R. Gray. — Bill longer than the head, slender, pointed, serrated.
Nostrils basal, linear, longitudinal ; space in front of the eye bare. Wings
broad, rather rounded ; the second quill barely longer than the first, and a
little longer than the third. Tail of ten soft feathers, short and rounded.
Legs rather short, the tibia feathered nearly to the joint ; tarsus anteriorly
scutellated ; the middle toe and claw about the length of the tarsus, and its
claw pectinated on the inner edge (p. 381).

BOTAURUS, Stephens. — Bill rather longer than the head, strong, higher than broad,
the mandibles of equal length, upper mandible curved downwards. Nostrils
basal, linear, longitudinal, lodged in a furrow, and partly covered by a naked
membrane. Wing long, rather rounded, the first three quills the longest and
nearly equal. Tail of ten soft feathers. Legs of moderate length ; tarsi
scutellated ; toes long and slender, all unequal, the middle toe and claw
longer than the tarsus ; hind toe long, articulated with the inner toe and
on the same plane ; claws long, especially the hind claw, that of the middle
toe pectinated (p. 383).

Family CICONIID.-E.

CicoxiA, Brisson. — Bill longer than the head, straight, strong, and pointed.
Nostrils pierced longitudinally in the horny substance. Eyes surrounded by
a naked skin. Wings rather large, the first quill shorter than the second, the
third and fourth quills the longest in the wing. Plumage without powder-
down tracts. Tail short and slightly rounded. Legs long ; feet with four
rather short toes, the three in front united by a membrane as far as the first
joint, the hind toe elevated ; claws short, broad, obtuse, the middle claw not
pectinated (p. 387).

Family IBIDID.E.

Plegadis, Kaup. — Bill long, slender, decurved, large at the base, the point
depressed, obtuse, rounded ; upper mandible deeply grooved throughout its
length. Nostrils on the upper surface and near the base of the beak, oblong,
narrow, pierced in the membrane which covers part of the aperture. Face
and lores without feathers. Wings moderate ; the first quill shorter than
the second and third, which are the longest. Tail of twelve feathers,
moderate, even. Legs rather long, naked above the tarsal joint ; tarsus
plated in front ; three toes in front, one behind ; the anterior toes united by
a membrane, hind toe long and resting its length on the ground. Plumage
more or less Stork-like, wanting the powder-down tracts of the Herons
(p. 391)- ■ ■

INTRODUCTION.

Family PLATALEIU.E.

Platalea, Linnaus. — Bill long, and much flattened, dilated at the point and
rounded in the form of a spoon ; upper mandible channelled and transversely
grooved at the base. Nostrils on the upper surface of the beak, near
together, oblong, open, bordered by a membrane. Forehead, lores, orbits
and chin naked. Wings rather large ; the third quill nearly as long as the
second, which is the longest. Legs long and robust ; three toes in front,
united as far as the second articulation by a membrane, the marginal edge of
which is deeply incised ; hind toe long (p. 393).

Order ODONTOGLOSS-SJ.

Family PHCENICOPTERID.E.

Phcexicopterus, Brisson. — Bill longer than the head, abruptly bent in the
middle ; edges of both mandibles furnished with fine transverse plates
(lamellos). Nostrils, linear, sub-basal. Neck very long and slender. Wings
moderately long, the first quill slightly the longest ; the inner secondaries
longer than, and folding over, the closed primaries. Tail short, even. Legs
very long and slender ; the chief portion of the tibia bare ; tarsus broadly
scutellated ; toes short, the three anterior ones palmated, with incised webs ;
hind toe elevated, free, and small ; claws flattened and obtuse (p. 395).

Order ANSERES.

Family ANATID.E.

AnseR; Brisson. — Bill nearly as long as the head, sub-conical, elevated at the
basal portion, which is covered with a cere or skin ; a conspicuous nail
(unguis) at the tip ; under mandible smaller than the upper. Nostrils lateral,
placed towards the middle of the beak. Wings large, the second quill
longest. Tail of sixteen feathers. Tursus moderately long ; the hind toe
free, without a lobe, articulated upon the tarsus ; the three anterior toe
united by a membrane. Sexes alike in plumage (p. 397).

Chen, Boie. — Bill shorter than the head, very robust, and higher than broad
at the base ; culmen slightly convex, the outline of the lower mandible
decidedly so, leaving an elliptical space displaying the lamellje. Nostrils
sub-basal. Feathers on the neck less conspicuously furrowed than in true
Anse): Wings long, full, the second quill the longest. Tail rather short
and rounded. Tibia feathered to the joint ; tarsus moderately long, reticu-
lated ; three anterior toes connected by a membrane ; hind toe short and
elevated. Sexes alike in plumage (p. 405).

Bermcla, Boie. — Bill much shorter than the head, sub-conical, higher than
broad at the base, narrowing to the tip ; nail broadly ovate ; edges of the
bill nearly straight, scarcely showing the margins of the lamellse. Nostrils
oval, placed in the anterior portion of the nasal depression, near the centre
of the bill. Feathers on the neck narrow, blended. Wings large, the second
quill usually the longest. Tail short, rounded. I^egs short and stout, the
tarsus reticulated ; the three anterior toes long, united by a membrane ; hind

INTRODUCTION. XXVll

toe small and elevated ; claws small, that on the middle toe broadly rounded.
Sexes alike in plumage (p. 407).

Cygnits, Beclistei)!. — Bill of equal breadth throughout its length, higher than
wide at the base, depressed at the point ; both mandibles furnished along the
sides with transverse lamellae. Lores chiefly naked. Nostrils oblong,
lateral, near the middle of the beak. Neck slender and very long. Legs
short, the tarsus reticulated ; the three front toes fully webbed ; the hind toe
small, free, and without lobe. Sexes alike in plumage (p. 413).

Tadorna, Fleming. — Bill about the length of the head, higher than broad at the
base, depressed or concave in the middle, breadth nearly equal throughout ;
under mandible much narrower than the upper, and the latter grooved near
the tip ; nail decurved, forming a hook ; both mandibles furnished with thin
transverse lamella;. Nasal groove near the base of the beak ; nostrils oval,
lateral, pervious. Wings of moderate length, the second quill the longest.
Legs moderate ; the tibiae naked for a short space above the tarsal joint ; three
toes entirely webbed in front, and one behind free. Sexes nearly alike in
plumage (p. 419).

Anas, Brisson. — Bill about as long as the head, broad, depressed, sides parallel,
sometimes partially dilated ; both mandibles furnished on the inner edges with
transverse lamellffi. Nostrils small, oval, lateral. Wings rather long, pointed.
Tail wedge-shaped. Legs rather short, placed under the centre of the body ;
tarsus somewhat rounded ; three toes in front, connected by membranes ;
hind toe free, without pendant lobe or membrane. The sexes differ in
plumage (p. 423).

Spatula, Boie. — Bill much longer than the head, compressed at the base, widen-
ing towards the end ; lamellte projecting conspicuously from the base to near
the broadest part. Wing pointed, the first and second quills the longest.
Tail short, graduated, of fourteen pointed feathers. Legs very short ; hind
toe small, free, without a lobe. The sexes differ in plumage (p. 427).

Dafila, Stephens. — Bill about as long as the head, the edges nearly parallel, but
widening a trifle towards the end ; lamellae not very strongly defined. Neck
long and slender. Wings long and pointed, the first and second quills sub-
equal and longest, the rest rapidly graduated. Tail sharply pointed, the central
feathers considerably elongated in the male. Legs rather short ; hind toe
small ; margin of web to anterior toes slightly emarginate. The sexes differ
in plumage (p. 429),

Nettion, Kaiip. — Bill moderate ; not gradually tapering towards the tip, where
it is somewhat broad and rounded, no crest, nor any falcate inner secondaries.
Otherwise similar to Qnerqueditla.

QuERQUEDULA, Stephens.— 'Wi], about as long as the head, wider towards the
end ; nail broad and large. Nostrils small and oblong. Wings rather long,
pointed, the first and second quills sub-equal and longer than the rest ;
scapulars and inner secondaries elongated and pointed. Tail of sixteen
feathers, short and rounded. Legs short ; tarsus compressed, anteriorly
scutellated ; hind toe very small, outer toe much shorter than the third,
middle toe rather long ; interdigital membrane emarginated ; claws small,
somewhat curved. The sexes differ in plumage (p. 434).

XXVlll INTRODUCTION.

Mareca, Stephens. — Bill considerably shorter than the head, higher than broad
at the base, gradually depressed and narrowed towards the point ; culmen
slightly concave ; lamella: only just visible. Wings rather long and pointed ;
the first and second quills longer than the rest. Tail short and pointed.
Legs short, the lower part of the tibia bare ; hind toe with a very narrow
lobe ; feet rather small. Sexes differ in plumage (p. 437).

Netta, Kaiip. — Bill long, tapering ; the upper mandible indentated ; lamellce
broad, prominent and distant. Nostrils about one-third of the distance from
the base to the tip. Wings of moderate length, pointed. Male with a well-
developed occipital crest. Otherwise as in Fiiligitla (p. 441).

Fuligula, Stephens.— WA not longer than the head, luit slightly elevated at the
base, depressed towards the tip, sides parallel ; both mandibles laminated,
lateral edges of the upper mandible enclosing the edges of the under one.
Nostrils at a short distance from the base. Wings rather short, pointed.
Legs with the middle and outer toes longer than the tarsus, which is
flattened laterally ; feet large, webbed ; the hind toe with a broad lobe.
Sexes differ in plumage (p. 443).

Clangula, Leach. — Bill much shorter than the head, higher than broad at the
base, depressed towards the nail, which is elliptical and decurved at the tip ;
lamella hidden by the overhanging edge of the upper mandible. Nostrils
near the middle of the bill. Wings rather short, pointed ; the first quill the
longest. Tail of sixteen feathers, moderately long, rounded. I^egs short,
placed far back ; tarsi scutellated in front ; hind toe small, slender, broadly
lobed ; webs full. Sexes differ in plumage (p. 451).

Harelda, Stephens. — Bill much shorter than the head, its outlines tapering
rapidly to the tip, which has a broad, prominently decurved nail ; lamellce
slightly exposed along the gape-line. Nostrils oblong, sub-basal. Feather-
ing at the base of the bill forming an oblique line, advancing furthest
forward on the forehead, and scarcely interrupted by the re-entrant angle so
prominent in most Ducks. Wings rather short, pointed ; scapulars much
elongated and lanceolate in the adult male. Tail of fourteen feathers, short
and graduated, except the two central feathers, which are very long and
tapering in the adult male. Legs short, placed far back ; hind toe small
but broadly lobed. Sexes differ in plumage (p. 455).

CosMONETTA, Kaiip. — Bill rather short, narrowing rapidly to the tip, which is
occupied by a large decurved nail ; a small lobe on each side at the base of
the upper mandible; lamella; concealed. Nostrils oblong, median. Wing
short, pointed, the first and second quills nearly equal in length. Tail of
fourteen rather pointed feathers, much graduated. Legs short and placed
far back ; hind toe slender, with a large lobe ; anterior toes fully webbed.
Sexes differ in plumage (p. 457).

SOMATERIA, Leach. — Bill swollen and elevated at the base, which extends far up the
forehead, where it is divided by an elongated, descending, angular projection
of feathers down the surface. Nostrils lateral, oval, smaH. Wings moderate,
with the first and second quills sub-equal. Tail short, of fourteen feathers.
Legs short ; three anterior toes broadly webbed ; hind toe with a deeply
lobated membrane. Sexes differ in plumage (p. 459).

INTRODUCTION. XXIX

CEdemia, Fkj>niig.— 'B\\\ swollen or tuberculated at the base, large, elevated,
and strong ; the tip much depressed, and terminated by a large flat nail,
rounded and slightly deflexed at the extremity ; lamella; broad, strong, and
widely set. Nostrils lateral, elevated, oval, placed near the middle of the
bill. Wings rather short, pointed. Tail short, graduated, acute. Legs far
back ; tarsus short ; three toes in front and one behind ; the outer toe as
long as the middle one and much longer than the tarsus ; hind toe with a
large lobed membrane. Sexes differ in plumage (p. 465).

Mergtjs, Linnceiis. — Bill about as long or longer than the head, straight, slender,
rather pointed, the base large, forming an elongated and almost cylindrical
cone ; point of the upper mandible curved and, with the horny nail, forming
a hook ; edges of both mandibles furnished with saw-like teeth, the points
directed backwards. Nostrils lateral, longitudinally elliptic. Wings moder-
ate, the first and second quills nearly equal. Legs short, placed rather far
back ; three toes in front weighed, hind toe with a pendant lobe. Sexes
differ in plumage (p. 471).

Order COLUMBJE.

Family COLUMBID.E.

COLUMBA, Linnaus.— WiX moderate, straight at the base, compressed, the point
deflexed. Base of the upper mandible covered with a soft skin, in which
the nostrils are pierced. Wings long, broad, rather pointed ; the second
quill-feather longest. Tail of twelve feathers, nearly even. Tarsus short,
anteriorly scutellated ; three toes in front, entirely divided from one another,
one toe behind (p. 479).

TuRTUR, .S'(7/;i'.— Bill rather slender, the tip of the upper mandible gently
deflexed, that of the lower scarcely exhibiting the appearance of an angle ;
base of the upper mandible covered with two soft, tumid, bare swellings
over the nostrils. Tail of twelve feathers, rather long and considerably
rounded or graduated. Wings rather long and pointed, the first quill a little
shorter than the second, which is the longest. Tarsus rather shorter than the
middle toe ; inner toe longer than the outer (p. 485).

Order PTEROCLETES.

Family PTKROCLID.E.

Syrrhaptes, Illiger. — Bill small, gradually decurved from the base to the point.
Nostrils basal, hidden in the feathers. Wings very long, pointed, the first
primary the longest. Tail of sixteen feathers, cuneate, the two central
rectrices long and tapering. Tarsus very short and strong, covered with
downy feathers to the three anterior toes, which are united by a membrane
as far as the claws ; hind toe obsolete ; soles rugose ; claws broad and obtuse
(p. 488).

XXX INTRODUCTION.

Order GALLINJE.

Family T E T R A O N I D .E.

Tetrao, Limtceiis. — Bill short, strong ; upper mandible convex, and arched from
the base to the tip. Nostrils basal, lateral, partly closed by an arched scale,
and hidden from view by small closely-set feathers. Space above the eye naked,
the skin covered with red i^apilla;, and fringed. Wings short and rounded ;
the fifth quill the longest. Tail of eighteen feathers. Tarsi feathered to the
junction of the toes, which are naked ; the three in front united as far as the
first joint ; one toe behind, short ; the edges of all pectinated (p. 491).

Lagopus, Brisson. — Bill very short, clothed at the base with feathers ; the upper
mandible convex, and bent down at the point. Nostrils basal, lateral, partly
closed by an arched membrane, and nearly hidden by the small closely-set
feathers at the base of the bill. Eyebrows naked, as in Tetrao. Wings
short, concave, with the third and fourth quills the longest. Tail of sixteen
feathers, generally square at the end. Tarsi and toes completely feathered ;
hind toe very short and barely touching the ground with the tip of the nail ;
claws long and nearly straight (p. 495).

Family PHASIANID.'E.

Phasianus, Brisson. — Bill of moderate length, strong ; upper mandible convex,
naked at the base, and with the tip bent downwards. Nostrils basal,
lateral, covered with a cartilaginous scale ; cheeks and the skin surrounding
the ejes destitute of feathers, and with a verrucose red covering in the male.
Wings short ; the first quill narrow towards the tip, the fourth and fifth
feathers the longest in the wing. Tail of eighteen feathers, long, wedge-
shaped, graduated. Feet with three anterior toes united by a membrane as
far as the first joint ; the hind toe articulated upon the tarsus, which is
furnished with a horny, conical, and sharp sjnir, in the male (p. 499).

Perdix, Brisson. — Bill short, strong, naked at the base ; upper mandible convex,
deflected towards the tip. Nostrils basal, lateral, the orifice partly con-
cealed by an arched naked scale. Wings short, concave, rounded in form ;
the first three quills shorter than the fourth or fifth, which are the longest
in the wing. Tail with sixteen feathers in the same plane, short, rounded.
Feet with three toes in front and one behind, those in front united by a
membrane as far as the first joint (p. 501).

Caccabis, Kaup.-V^iW short, stout, naked at the base; upper mandible de-
curved to the tip. Nostrils basal, lateral, partly covered by an oblong
horny scale. Wings short, rounded ; the first three feathers shorter than
the fourth and fifth, which are the longest. Tail of fourteen feathers,
short, rounded. Tarsus anteriorly scutellated, and — in the male- armed with
blunt spurs ; three toes in front united at their bases by a membrane ; one
toe behind (p. 503).

COTIIRNIX, Boiutaterre. — Bill strong, shorter than the head, upper mandible
curved. Nostrils basal, lateral, half closed by an arched membrane. Wings
moderate, the first quill the longest. Tail short, rounded, almost hidden
by the tail-coverts. Tarsus without a spur. Feet with four toes, those
anterior connected by a membrane as far as the first joint (p. 505).

INTRODUCTION. XXXI

Order GRALLiE.

Suborder FULICARLE.

Family RALLID.F..

Crex, Bechstei>i.—V,\\\ shorter than the head, thick at the base, compressetl ;
the culmen gradually deflexed from the forehead to the point of the bill ;
lateral furrow of the upper mandible broad, and occupying more than half its
length ; angle of the under mandible bending upwards ; both mandibles of
an equal length. Nostrils concave, lateral, linear, ovoid, pierced in a mem-
brane occupying the furrow in the middle of the bill. Wings armed with a
spine, and having the second and third quills the longest. Legs strong,
of moderate length, with the lower part of the tibia naked ; the three
anterior toes long, slender, and without any lateral membrane as far as
the base ; the hind toe resting almost wholly on the ground ; claws arcuate,
compressed and sharp (p. 507).

POKZANA, rieiHot. — lViW shorter than the head, slightly higher than broad at the
base, compressed, tapering towards the point. Nostrils linear and oblong, the
nasal groove reaching to the middle of the bill. Wings shorter than in Crex ;
the second quill the longest. Tail short, rounded, the feathers narrow, weak,
and slightly curved. Tibiae bare on the lower part ; tarsi short, scutellated
in front ; toes long and slender ; claws long and acutely tapering (p. 509).

Rali.us, Brisson. — Bill longer than the head, slender, slightly decurved, com-
pressed at the base, cylindrical at the point ; upper mandible grooved at
the sides. Nostrils pierced longitudinally in the lateral groove, partly
covered by a membrane. Wings moderate, rounded ; the first quill much
shorter than the second, the third and fourth the longest. Legs long and
robust, with a small naked space above the tarsal joint ; the three anterior
toes divided to their origin, the hind toe articulated upon the tarsus (p. S^S)-

Gallinui.A, Brisson. — Bill thick at the base, compressed, slightly swollen
towards the tip, subconic, as short as the head. Upper mandible convex,
with the culmen extended and dilated, to form a naked, oblong frontal plate
or shield ; lateral furrow wide ; mandibles nearly equal in length ; angle of
the lower one ascending. Nostrils lateral, pervious, pierced in the mem-
brane of the furrow in the middle of the bill, longitudinal and linear.
Wings short, concave, rounded, armed with a small, sharp, recumbent spine.
Legs long, naked for a short space above the tarsal joint ; tarsi scutellated in
front, reticulated behind. Toes, three before and one behind, long, divided
and bordered along their whole length by a narrow membrane (p. 517).

FULICA, Brisson. — Bill and frontal plate much as in Galliniila. Wings of
moderate size ; the first quill shorter than the second or third, which are the
longest in the wing. Tail short. Legs rather long, naked above the tarsal
joint ; three toes in front, one behind ; all the toes long, united at the base,
and furnished laterally with lobed membranes (p. 519).

Suborder GRUES.

Family GRUID/F.

Grus, Bechstein. — ^\\\ longer than the head, straight, strong, compressed and
pointed. Nostrils placed longitudinally in a furrow, large, pervious, closed
posteriorly by a membrane. Wings moderate and rounded ; the first quill

XXXU INTRODUCTION.

shorter than the second, the third the longest in the wing. Legs very long,
robust, naked above the joint ; three toes in front, middle toe united to the
outer toe by a membrane, hind toe articulated high up on the tarsus (p. 521).

Suborder OXIDES.
Family OTIDID.^.

Otis, Linnivus. — Bill moderate, straight, depressed at the base, the point of the
upper mandible curved. Nostrils a little removed from the base, lateral,
oval and open. Wings of moderate length, rather rounded in form ; the
third quill the longest. Legs long, naked above the tarsal joint. Toes
three ; all directed forward, short, united at the base, and edged with
membranes (p. 523).

Order LIMICOLJE.

Family CEDICNEMID.F;.

CEdicxemus, Temmiiick. — Bill stout, strong, and straight, a little depressed at
the base ; ridge of the upper mandible elevated, under mandible with a sharp
angle at the gonys. Nostrils in the middle of the beak, extending longi-
tudinally as far forward as the horny portion, open in front, pervious. Wings
moderate, the second quill longest. Tail much graduated. Legs long,
slender ; three developed toes, directed forwards, united by a membrane as
far as the second joint (p. 529).

Family GLAREOLID.^.

Glareola, Brisson. — Bill short, convex, compressed towards the point, the
upper mandible curved throughout the distal half of its length. Nostrils
basal, lateral, pierced obliquely. Wings very long, the first quill the longest.
Tail forked. I^egs bare for a short space above the tarsal joint, long and
rather slender ; three toes in front, one behind ; the middle toe united by a
short membrane to the outer toe ; the inner toe free ; the hind toe articulated
upon the tarsus ; claws long and subulate (p. 531).

'CuRSORiUS, Latham. — Bill rather shorter than the head, straight to the end of
the nasal furrow, then decurved to the tip, which is pointed. Nostrils oval.
Wings long, rather pointed ; the first and second quills the longest in the
wing. Tail rounded. I^'gs long and slender ; three toes only, all in front,
the middle toe almost as long again as the lateral toes (p. 533).

Family CHARADRIID.E.

EUDROMIAS, C. L. Brehjn. — V>\\\ rather slender, compressed, shorter than the
head, nasal furrow extending about half the length of the upper mandible,
which is horny and slightly decurved towards the tip. Nostrils sub-basal,
lateral, linear. Tail rather long, slightly rounded. Wings of moderate length,
pointed, the first quill the longest ; inner secondaries very nearly as long
as the primaries. Legs of moderate length, scutellated, rather slender, naked
for a short distance above the tarsal joint. Toes three only, all directed for-
wards, the outer and middle toes connected at the base by a slight web ;
■claws short, curved, slender (p. 535).

INTRODUCTION. XXXIU

^OIAI.ITIS, Boie. — Bill much shorter than the head, rather slender ; straight to
the end of the nasal furrow, which extends beyond the middle of the bill, then
slightly raised, but bent downwards at the tip. Nostrils small and linear.
Wings long, pointed, the first quill the longest ; the inner secondaries
reaching to the tip of the third primary. Tail broad, slightly rounded. Legs
moderately long, slender, bare for a short distance above the tarsal joint ;
tarsus reticulated. Toes three only, slightly webbed at the base (p. 537).

Charadrius, Lifiii(Cits. — Bill shorter than the head, straight, rather slender, the
upper mandible straight to the end of the nasal furrow, then slightly raised,
and decurved to the pointed tip. Nostrils sub-basal and linear. Wings long
and pointed, the first quill the longest ; inner secondaries much shorter than
in Eudrornias and somewhat shorter than in yEgialitis. Legs of moderate
length, slender, bare for a short distance above the tarsal joint ; tarsus reticu-
lated. Toes three only, all directed forwards, slightly webbed at the base
(p. 547).

Squatarola, Leach. — Bill nearly as long as the head, rather strong, upper
mandible straight to the end of the nasal groove, which is long and wide,
then raised and decurved to the tip. Nostrils sub-basal, linear. Wings long,
pointed, the first quill the longest. Legs moderate, slender ; lower part of
the tibia naked, tarsus reticulated. Toes four in number ; three directed
forward and slightly webbed at their base, the fourth behind, and minute, but
distinct and elevated (p. 551).

V.A.N'ELLUS, Brissoii. — Bill shorter than the head, straight, slightly compressed ;
the points of both mandibles horny and hard. Nasal groove wide, and
reaching as far as the horny tip. Nostrils basal, linear, pierced in the
membrane of the nasal groove. Wings large, tuberculated or spurred in
front of the carpal joint ; the first and second quill-feathers shorter than the
third and fourth, which are about equal, and the longest in the wing. Legs
slender, with the lower part of the tibia; naked ; tarsi reticulated behind,
scutellated in front ; the three anterior toes united at the base by a membrane ;
hind toe short, articulated upon the tarsus (p. 553).

Strepsilas, Illiger. — 'RiW as short as the head, strong, thick at the base, tapering
gradually to the point, forming an elongated cone ; the upper mandible the
longer, rather blunt at the end. Nostrils basal, lateral, linear, pervious,
partly covered by a membrane. Wings long, pointed, the first quill-feather
the longest. Three toes in front, united by a membrane at the base and
furnished with narrow rudimentary interdigital membranes ; a hind toe
articulated upon the tarsus and just reaching the ground (p. 557).

H.^MATOrus, Liinhriis. —'QiW longer than the head, straight, strong, the point
much compressed, forming a wedge ; culmen of the anterior part slightly
convex ; upper mandible with a broad lateralg roove on each side for half the
length of the bill ; mandibles nearly equal in size and length, with the thin
ends truncated. Nostrils basal, lateral, linear, pierced in the membrane of
the mandilxdar groove. Legs of moderate length, naked for a short space
above the tarsal joint ; tarsi strong. Three toes only, all directed forward,
united at their base by a membrane ; claws broad (p. 559).

Recurvirostra, Liiiiiteiis.—BWX very long, slender, weak, depressed for nearly
its whole length, flexible, pointed, and curving upwards ; the upper mandible

C

XXXIV INTRODUCTION.

grooved aloni; the upper surface, under mandible grooved along the sides.
Nostrils near the base of the upper surface of the beak, linear, long. Wings
pointed, the first quill the longest. Legs long and slender, a great portion of
the tibia naked ; three toes in front, united as far as the second joint by a
membrane, the margin of which is incised ; hind toe minute, articulated
high up on the tarsus (p. 561).

HiMANTOPUS, Brisso/!. — B\]\ long, slender, slightly recurved at the tip, cylindrical,
flattened at the base, compressed at the point, both mandibles grooved on
the sides along the basal half of their length. Nostrils lateral, linear,
elongated. Wings very long, the first quill considerably the longest. Legs
very long and slender ; three toes only, all in front, the middle united to the
outer toe by a membrane of considerable size and to the interior toe by a
smaller membrane ; claws small and flat (p. 563)-

Phai.AROPUS, Brisson. — Bill rather long, weak, straight, depressed, and blunt ;
both mandibles grooved throughout their whole length ; the upper mandible
slightly curved at the point. Nostrils basal, lateral, oval, with an elevated
margin. Wings long and pointed, the first quill the longest. Legs rather
short, slender ; tarsus compressed ; three toes in front, furnished with
extensions of the membrane laterally, forming lobes slightly serrated at the
edges ; a small hind toe articulated on the inner side of the tarsus (p. 565).

ScOLOPAX, Bi-isson. — Bill long, straight, compresssd, slender, soft, slightly
curved at the point ; both mandibles grooved along the basal half of their
length ; point of the upper mandible extending beyond that of the lower
mandible, the curved part forming a slight crook ; superior ridge elevated at
the base, prominent. Nostrils lateral, basal, pierced longitudinally near the
edges of the mandible, covered by a membrane. Wings moderate, the first
quill the longest. Tail short, rounded. Legs rather short, the tibia feathered
nearly to the tarsal joint ; three toes before and one behind, the anterior toes
almost entirely divided (p. 569).

Gallinago, Leach. — Bill very long, straight, slender, flexible, slightly elevated
towards the tip of the upper mandible, which is decurved at the point and
projects beyond the lower ; both mandibles grooved along the basal half of
their length. Nostrils lateral, linear, basal, covered by a membrane. Tail
slightly rounded. Wings moderate, pointed, the first quill the longest ;
inner secondaries very long. Legs rather long and slender ; naked space on
the tibia short ; tarsus scutellated ; three toes before, long, slender, divided to
the base ; hind toe slender, elevated ; claws slender, acute (p. 571).

LiMicOLA, K. L. Koch. — Bill much longer than the head, nearly as broad as high
at the base, very flat and wide up to the tip, where it is gradually rounded
obtusely, with the terminal portion slightly decurved ; nostrils oval,
oblique, placed in a depressed membrane. Wings long, pointed, the first
quill the longest ; inner secondaries long and pointed. Tail moderate,
doubly emarginated. Legs rather short, slender, bare on the lower part of
the tibia ; tarsus scutellated ; the three anterior toes long and slender, slightly
webbed at the base ; the hind toe moderate (p. 577).

Tringa, Brisson. — YaW rather longer than the head, sometimes decurved, rather
flexible, compressed at the base, depressed, dilated, and blunt towards the
point, both mandibles grooved along the sides. Nostrils lateral, placed in
the membrane of the groove. Wings moderately long, pointed, the first

INTRODUCTION. XXXV

quill the longest. Legs moderately long, slender, lower part of tibia naked ;
three toes in front, divided to their origin ; one toe behind, small, and articu-
lated upon the tarsus (p. 579).

Caliuris, Illiger. — Bill as long as the head, straight, slender, flexible, com-
pressed at the base, with the point dilated and smooth. Nostrils basal,
lateral, narrow, longitudinally cleft in the nasal furrow, which extends to the
smooth point of the beak. Wings of moderate length, pointed, the first
quill the longest. Tail of twelve feathers, short, doubly emarginated. Legs
rather short, naked for some distance above the tarsal joint. Three toes
only ; all directed forwards, with a very small connecting membrane at
their base (p. 597).

Machetes, Cuvier. — Bill straight, rather slender, as long as the head, with the
tip dilated and smooth ; upper mandible laterally sulcated for four-fifths of
its length ; culmen rounded. Nostrils basal, lateral, linear, placed in the
commencement of the groove. Wings long and pointed, the first quill the
longest. Legs moderate, the tibia naked for a considerable space above the
tarsal joint. Toes, three before and one behind ; the outer toe united to the
middle one by a small web ; hind toe short, barely touching the ground.
During the breeding-season the head and neck of the male are adorned with
long plumes, which, when raised, form a large ruff around the head, and the
face is covered with small fleshy warts or papilla; (p. 599).

Tringites, Cabanis. — Bill shorter than the head, slender, straight, decurved,
acute and hardened at the tip ; nasal groove long ; nostrils basal, linear,
rather large. Gape extensive. Wings pointed, the first quill the longest.
Tail rounded, with projecting central feathers. Legs moderate, slender, the
tibia bare for a considerable distance ; tarsus compressed, slender, scutellated,
anterior toes free nearly to their bases ; hind toe small, elevated ; claws small,
arched, slender, slightly acute (p. 601).

Bartramia, Lesson. — Bill scarcely longer than the head, moderately slender,
straight, the nasal groove extending nearly to the tip, which is narrowed but
obtuse ; nostrils linear, basal. Gape very wide and deep. Wings not
reaching to the end of the tail, pointed ; the first quill the longest, the inner
secondaries rather elongated. Tail of twelve feathers, long, much rounded.
Legs rather long and slender, the tibia bare for a considerable distance ;
tarsus scutellated ; toes, three in front, long and slender, a slight web between
the outer and the middle ; hind toe elevated (p. 603).

ToTANUS, Becksteiii. — Bill longer than the head, straight or very slightly recurved,
soft at the base, hard, solid at the point, compressed throughout the whole
length, ending in a sharp point; both mandibles grooved at the base,
the extreme end of the upper mandible slightly bent towards the under
one. Nostrils lateral, linear, pierced longitudinally in a groove. Wings
moderate ; the first quill the longest ; inner secondaries elongated. Tail
rather short ; somewhat rounded. Legs moderate or long, slender, naked
above the tarsal joint ; three toes in front, one behind ; the middle toe united
to the outer toe by a membrane (p. 605).

Macrorhami'HUS, Ixach. — Bill long, straight, rounded, rather slender in the
middle, the tip dilated, slightly incurved and rugose. Nostrils lateral, basal.
Wings long and pointed. Tail of twelve feathers. Lower part of the tibia

XXXVl INTRODUCTION.

naked ; toes four in number, the third and fourth connected at their base by
a membrane ; the hind toe touching the ground at the tip (p. 621).

LlMOSA, Brisson. — Bill very long, rather thick at the base, compressed, slightly
curved upwards ; both mandibles grooved laterally to within a short distance
of the point, which is somewhat dilated and blunt ; tip of the upper
mandible projecting beyond the lower one. Nostrils basal, placed in the
lateral groove, narrow and longitudinal. Wings pointed, of moderate length,
the first quill the longest. Tail short and even. Legs long and slender, a
great part of the tibia naked. Three toes in front, one behind ; outer
and middle toes united at the base by a membrane, the inner toe nearly
free ; middle claw dilated, recurved, and pectinated ; hind toe short, and
articulated fairly high upon the tarsus (p. 623).

NuMENius, Brisson. — Bill long, slender, and decurved to the point, which is
hard ; upper mandible rather longer than the lower, rounded near the end
and grooved along three-fourths of its whole length. Nostrils lateral, linear,
pierced in the groove. Wings moderate, the first quill the longest. Legs
rather long, slender ; tibia partly naked ; three toes in front, united by a
membrane as far as the first joint ; one toe behind, articulated low upon the
tarsus and touching the ground (p. 627).

Order GAVI.^.

Family LARID.F:.

Bill without a cere ; sternum with two notches on each side of the posterior
margin ; toes partially or fully webbed ; claws feeble or moderate.

Subfamily Sterxi.n'^.

Hydrochelidon, Boie. — Bill about as long as the head, nearly straight, tapering.
Wings long and pointed, the first quill the longest. Tail short, very slightly
forked. Legs short ; the tibia bare for some distance ; the tarsus compressed,
anteriorly scutellated ; three toes in fiont connected by deeply scalloped webs ;
hind toe small and elevated ; claws long, slender, curved (p. 633).

Sterna, Brisson. — Bill longer than the head, nearly straight, compressed.
Wings long, pointed, the first quill-feather the longest. Tail distinctly forked
in varying degrees. Legs slender, naked for a short space above the tarsal
joint ; the three toes in front united by membranes which are concave in
front or semi-palmated ; hind toe free ; claws curved (p. 639).

Angus, Stephens. — Tail moderately long, rounded, slightly emarginated. Three
anterior toes united by a very full web, hind toe small ; claws strong and
curved. Otherwise much as in Sterna (p. 655).

Subfamily LARI^■.^•:.

Xema, Leach. — Bill rather shorter than the head, moderately stout ; the upper
mandible decurved from beyond the nostrils to the tip, the gonys angular
and advancing upwards. Nostrils basal, lateral, linear. Wings long, the
first quill the longest. Tail distinctly forked. Legs moderately long ; the

INTRODUCTION. XXXVII

lower part of the tibia bare for some distance ; tarsi tolerably strong ; three
toes in front entirely webbed, hind toe small, elevated (p. 657).

Rhodostethia, Mac gill iv ray. — Bill very short, rather slender ; the upper man-
dible decurved towards the tip, the lower mandible narrow. Wings long and
pointed, the first quill the longest. Tail cuneate, the central feathers much
longer than the lateral. Legs rather short, the tibia bare for a short distance ;
tarsus anteriorly scutellated, rough posteriorly ; hind toe very distinct, with
a large curved claw ; the three anterior toes entirely webbed ; claws rather
large, and curved (p. 659).

Larus, Liuimus.—V^\\\ of moderate length, strong, hard, compressed, cutting,
slightly decurved towards the point, lower mandible shorter than the upper,
the symphysis angular and prominent. Nostrils lateral, near the middle of the
beak, pierced longitudinally, pervious. Wings long, the first and second
quills varying slightly in their relative length, but nearly equal. Tail square
at the end. Legs moderately slender, lower part of the tibite naked, tarsus
rather long ; three toes in front entirely palmated, the hind toe free, short,
but not rudimentary, articulated high upon the tarsus above the line of the
other toes (p. 661).

RiSSA, Stephens.— ^\\\ rather short and stout, the upper mandible considerably
decurved to the tip, the lower mandible compressed. Nostrils median, linear,
oblong. Wings long, pointed, the first primary slightly exceeding the second.
Tail slightly but perceptibly forked in the young, nearly square in the adult;
tarsus very short in proportion to the foot ; hind toe minute and usually
obsolete ; claws rather small, slightly curved (p. 683).

Pagophila, Kaitp. — Bill shorter than the head, robust, compressed, straight, the
upper mandible decurved towards the tip, lower mandible narrower. Nostrils
basal, linear, oblong, wider in front, covered above and behind with a sloping
thin-edged plate. Wings long, pointed, the first quill longest. Tail rather
long, slightly graduated. Legs short, bare for a short distance above the
tibia ; tarsi broadly scutellated in front, and minutely at the sides and back ;
interdigital membranes emarginated and serrated ; claws strong and curved ;
hind toe furnished with a large claw, and connected on the inside with the
tarsus by a well-defined web (p. 6S5).

Family STERCORARIID.E.

Bill with a cere ; tip of the upper mandible hooked ; sternum with only one
notch on each side of the posterior margin ; creca much larger than in Laridce ;
toes fully webbed, furnished with large, strong, hooked and sharp claws.

Megalestrls, Bonapa7-te. — Size larger, form robust ; length of the bill at the
exposed base nearly equal to the length of the cere ; tail short, the central
pair of feathers projecting about half an inch (p. 687).

Stercorarius, Bi-isson. — Size smaller, form more slender ; depth of the bill at
the exposed base decidedly less than the length of the cere ; the central pair
of tail-feathers projecting three inches or more in adults (p. 689).

XXXVIU INTRODUCTION.

Order A L C ^.

Family ALCID.E.
Subfamily Alcin^.

Alca, Liniuciis. — Bill straight, large, compressed, very much decurved towards
the point, basal half of both mandibles covered with feathers, grooved towards
the point, the superior mandible hooked, the under one forming with it a
salient angle. Nostrils lateral, marginal, linear, near the middle of the beak,
the aperture almost entirely closed by a membrane covered with feathers.
Wings short. Tail pointed. Legs short, very far back ; only three toes, all
in front and entirely webbed ; claws slightly curved (p. 695).

Uria, Brisson. — Bill of moderate length, strong, straight, pointed, compressed ;
upper mandible slightly curved near the point, with a small indentation or
notch in the edge on each side. Nostrils basal, lateral, concave, pierced
longitudinally, partly closed by membrane, which is also partly covered with
feathers. Wings short, first quill the longest. Tail shorter than in Aha.
Legs short, slender, placed behind the centre of gravity in the body ; only
three toes, all in front and entirely webbed (p. 699).

MERGtiLUS, Vieillot. — Bill shorter than the head, thick, broader than high at the
base ; ciilmen arched ; upper mandible indistinctly grooved, under mandible
with the symphysis very short and oblique ; the tips of both notched ; com-
missure arched. Nostrils lateral, round, situated at the base of the bill, and
partly covered with small feathers. Wings and tail short. Legs far back,
short ; three toes, all directed forward and united by a membrane (p. 705).

Subfamily Fraterculin.^.

Fratercula, Brisson. — Bill higher than long, much compressed ; both mandibles
arched, transversely grooved, notched towards the point. Nostrils lateral,
naked, almost closed by a membrane. Wings and tail short. Legs far back ;
feet with three toes, all in front and fully webbed ; claws curved (p. 707).

Order PYGOPODES.

Family COLYMBID.E.

CoLVMBUS, Linnceits. — Bill about as long as the head ; strong, straight, rather
compressed, pointed. Nostrils basal, lateral, linear, perforated. W'ings
short, the first quill the longest. Tail short and rounded. Legs thin,
compressed, placed very far backwards, and closely attached to the posterior
part of the body ; three toes in front united by membranes, one toe behind
with a small membrane, articulated upon the tarsus ; claws flat (p. 709).

Family PODICIPEDID.E.

PODiciPES, Latham. — Bill of n\oderate length, straight, hard, slightly com-
pressed, pointed, forming an elongated cone. Nostrils lateral, concave,
oblong, open in front and perforated, closed behind by a membrane. No true
tail. Wings short, first three primaries nearly equal and the longest in the

INTRODUCTION. XXXIX

wintr. Legs and feet long, attached behind the centre of gravity ; tarsi very
much compressed ; three toes in front, one behind ; anterior toes very much
flattened, united at the base, surrounded by a lobated membrane ; hind toe
also flattened, articulated on the inner surface of the tarsus ; claws large,
flat (p. 717).

Order TUBINARES.

Family PROCELLARIID.K.

Nostrils united externally above the culmen ; margin of the sternum even ;
manubrium of furcula long ; coracoids long, comparatively narrow across the Imse
and slightly divergent ; second primary the longest (Salvin).

Proceli.aria, Liniuviis. — Bill small, robust, much shorter than the head, straight
to the nail, which is decurved ; nostrils dorsal. Wings long, narrow ; the
second quill-feather slightly exceeding the third ; the first quill shorter
than the fourth. Tail of moderate length, slightly rounded. Legs
moderate, the tarsi anteriorly reticulate, and a little longer than the feet ;
webs emarginated ; claws rather short (p. 727).

OcEANODROMA, Reicheuhach. — Bill shorter than the head, moderately stout,
compressed, rising slightly at the nail, then decurved ; nostrils dorsal.
Wings long and narrow ; the first quill-feather shorter than the second
and also than the third, and about equal to the fourth. Tail long and
deeply forked. Legs short, slender ; tarsi anteriorly reticulated ; hind toe
minute, front toes long and slender with webs slightly emarginated (p. 729).

OcEANiTES, Keyserling d~' Blasiiis. — Bill small and weak, the nail gradually
decurved ; nasal tubes perfectly horizontal. Wings exceedingly long, the
second quill much the longest, the first quill being shorter than the fourth,
and slightly exceeding the fifth. Tail almost square. Legs long and slender,
bare for a considerable distance above the tarsal joint ; feet nearly as long as
the tarsi, membranes emarginated, hind toe absent ; claws sharp, spatulated,
not much flattened (p. 733).

Pelagodroma, Reicheuhach. — Much as in Oceain'tes, but claws flattened and
wide ; first primary decidedly shorter than the third (p. 735).

Family PUFFIN I D^.

Nostrils united externally, or nearly so, above the culmen ; margin of the
sternum uneven ; distinct pterygoid processes ; manubrium of furcula very short ;
coracoids short, wide at the base and divergent ; first primary the longest, or
not shorter than the second (Salvin).

PUFFINUS, Brissoii.—WA rather longer than the head, slender ; mandibles com-
pressed and decurved. Nostrils tubular, with two separate orifices. Wings
long and pointed, the first quill slightly the longest. Tail graduated. Tarsi
compressed laterally ; three toes in front, rather long, webbed throughout ;
hind toe rudimentary (p. 737).

CEstrelata, Bonafaiie. — B\\\ rather'shorter than the head, stout, compressed,
straight for some distance, then ascending at the commencement of the unguis,

xl INTRODUCTION.

which is sharply decurved, with an acute tip ; nasal tubes moderately long,
elevated, conspicuous, the dorsal outline straight, the orifice subcircular.
Wings long and pointed, extending beyond the tail when folded ; the first
quill a trifle longer than the second. Tail moderately long and graduated.
Tarsi reticulated ; feet and front toes of moderate size ; hind toe small and
elevated (p. 745).

Bui.WERiA, Bonaparte. — Bill about as long as the head, stout at the base, com-
pressed, rising at the nail, which is large ; nostrils tubular, dorsal, rather
short. Wings long, pointed, the first quill slightly the longest. Tail long
and cuneate. Legs slender ; the tibiae bare for a short distance above the
joint, the tarsi reticulated ; hind toe minute, elevated ; feet fully webbed, the
inner toe shorter than the middle and outer toes, which are about equal ; claws
curved (p. 749).

FULMARI-TS, Stephens. — Bill not so long as the head ; the upper mandible com-
posed of four portions, divided by lines or indentations, the whole together
large and strong, curving suddenly towards the point ; the under mandible
grooved along each side, bent at the end, with a prominent angle beneath ;
the edges of both mandibles sharp ; those of the lower mandible shutting
just within those above. Nostrils prominent along the upper ridge of the
upper mandible, but united, enclosed, and somewhat hidden within a tube
with a single external orifice, within which the division between the two
nasal openings is visible. Wings rather long, the first quill the longest in
the wing. Tarsi compressed ; feet moderate, three toes in front united Iiy
membranes, hind toe rudimentary with a conical claw (p. 751).

Family DIOMEDEID.E.

Nostrils lateral, separated by the wide culmen, each in a separate horny sheath
opening forwards ; margin of the sternum uneven, the sternum itself short com-
pared with its width ; no pterygoid processes ; manubrium of furcula short, very
wide at the base and widely divergent ; first i)rimary the longest (Salvin).

DiOMEDEA, Linntviis.— Sides of the mandible without longitudinal sulcus ; base
of the culminicorn wide, joining the proximal end of the dorsal edge of the
latericorn : tail short, rounded (p. 753).

Remarks. — In this Edition, the length of a liird is measured from the point of
the bill to the end of the tail ; and in all cases average measurements are to l)e
understood.

The upper mandible is often called the maxilla, and the tarsus is strictly the
tarso-metatarsus ; but I have adhered to old-fashioned terms.

GURNEY &. JACKSON, 1 P

Jo}m. B artlLolomew & Co.XcBil^

NOSTER ROW, LONDON.

"S^L A Jf

25 20 IB 10 6 o 6 10 16

GURNEY & JACKSON, 1 PA

25 50 56 40 46 60 S5

.yrr\-\\.^

JOSTER ROW, LONDON.

Jolm B artlioloine^w & Co.-Hilin?

GURNEY &, JACKSON, 1

Jolm B anioloinew & CcEditil^

OSTER ROW, LONDON,

BRITISH BIRDS

THE MISTLE-THRUSH.

TuRDUs viscivoRUS, Linnasus.

Owing perhaps to the increase of plantations during the present
century, the Mistle-Thrush, the largest resident species of the genus,
has extended its breeding-range northward to Caithness, Suther-
land and West Ross, as well as to some of the Hebrides ; but to
the Orkneys it is chiefly a wanderer, very rarely breeding, and has
seldom been recorded from the Shetlands. Until about the year
1800 it was unknown in Ireland, where it is now sedentary and
increasing ; while in England and Wales it is of general distri-
bution, though commoner in the wooded districts. Emigration
takes place from the colder portions of our islands in autumn and
winter, when, on the other hand, large flocks arrive froni the
Continent.

This species breeds from Bod5 in Norway southward, throughout
suitable portions of temperate Europe to the extremity of the

B

2 MISTLE-THRUSH.

Spanish Peninsula, and e\cn in Northern Africa; eastward, in
Turkey, the Caucasus, and the mountain forests of Asia down "to
the north-western Himalayas, and up to 9,000 feet ; attaining in the
last its palest colour and largest dimensions. In temperate Siberia
it is found eastward to Lake Baikal; migrating in winter to
Northern India, Persia, and Africa north of the Sahara.

In the south of England the Mistle-Thrush sometimes begins to
lay in February, while even in the north it often has eggs in March.
The nest, which when placed in a wide fork of a tree has a
considerable foundation of mud, is lined with dry grasses and
composed externally of bents and lichens, but although the colour
of the latter may resemble that of the branch on which the structure
is placed — bushes being seldom resorted to — there is often no
attempt at concealment. Exceptionally the nest has been found on
the ground or in a hole of a wall. The 4-5 eggs are greenish- to
tawny-white, blotched with reddish-brown and lilac : measurements
I '2 5 in. by '85 in. In the south two broods are generally produced
annually, but in the north the fine weather is too short for more
than one. From its habit of singing early in the year in defiance of
rough weather, the Mistle-Thrush is often called the ' Storm-cock ' ;
also ' Holm-screech,' from its partiality to the berries of the Holm
or Holly, and its harsh churr-\x\g note. Its trivial name is a
contraction of Mistletoe-Thrush, owing to the fact that it eats the
berries of that parasite ; but in Great Britain it seems to prefer those
of the yew, holly, mountain-ash, hawthorn, ivy, &c., fruit when
obtainable, worms, snails and insects. Although shy of man,
except when its nest is approached, the Mistle-Thrush is a bold
bird, fearlessly attacking Magpies, Jays, and other species superior
to it in size. Its flight is rapid but jerky, and on the wing its large
size, greyish tint, and white tips to the outer tail-feathers serve to
distinguish it from any other Thrushes.

The adult male has the upper parts ash-brown ; under parts
buffish-white, with bold fan-shaped spots, smaller and more acute
on the throat ; under wing and axillaries white ; bill horn-brown,
yellowish at the base ; legs pale brown. Total length 1 1 in. ; wing
6 in. The female is slightly paler than the male. In the young
the arrow-shaped markings on the throat and breast are more
pronounced ; the upper wing-coverts broadly tipped with white, and
the under parts, especially the flanks, suffused with golden-buff.
In this plumage it has been mistaken for the rare A\'hite's Thrush,
but its hvelve tail-feathers distinguish it : White's Thrush having
fourteen.

TURDIN^.

THE SONG-THRUSH.

TuRDUS Musicus, Linn?£us.

The Song-Thrush — known in the North as the Throstle or the
Mavis — is generally distributed throughout the British Islands,
being equally at home in summer in the cultivated regions of the
south, or amongst the storm-swept, surf-lashed rocks of the Outer
Hebrides (where the birds are small and dark, like the Hebridean
Lepidopterd). In the Shetlands, however, it is of rare occurrence,
and has seldom been known to nest. Especially in the north, a
migratory movement takes place among our native birds in autumn,
when considerable numbers visit us from the Continent.

Northward the Song-Thrush has wandered to the desolate island
of Jan Mayen (between Iceland and Spitsbergen, about 70° N. lat.).
From Norway it breeds (chiefly in the forest region) across Europe
and Asia to Lake Baikal ; sparingly and at increasing elevations in the
south of Europe, down to the Pyrenean chain, the north of Italy,
and the Caucasus ; while in winter it visits Madeira, the Canaries,
Northern Africa, Nubia, Asia Minor, and Persia.

The Song-Thrush is an early breeder, and young birds may some-
times be found by the end of March. The well-known nest, with
its smooth water-tight lining of rotten wood and dung, is generally

1! 2

4 SONG-THRUSH.

placed in the middle of a thick bush or among ivy, and not un-
frequently in a moss-covered bank ; occasionally, but rarely, on
level ground. The 4-6 eggs are of a shining greenish-blue,
blotched with black or rusty-brown ; spotless varieties being not
uncommon : measurements i in. by 78 in. The female sits very
closely, and is assisted to some extent by the male in the task of
incubation, which lasts about a fortnight ; two and sometimes three
broods being produced in the season, and the young, presumably of
the fast, aiding in rearing the second. I have known a pair of
Thrushes take possession of a Blackbird's nest, and hold it in
despite of the owners. The much-admired song, characterized by
a distinct repetition of its three or four component notes, may be
heard on a warm bright day very early in the year, continues
until the moulting season, and is often resumed in autumn ; it is
frequently uttered on fine nights. The Song-Thrush also readily
adopts the notes of other birds. For nine months of the year it
feeds on wild berries, insects, worms, and snails, the shells of the
latter being broken against some convenient stone ; but when fruit
is ripe, the bird varies its diet, and in the vine-countries it feeds
largely on grapes ; while on the sea-coast whelks and other " shell-
fish " are eaten, and this may have something to do with the dark
colour of the Hebridean birds. Migration takes place at night,
when flocks of this species drop suddenly and almost perpendicularly
into wooded places, where numbers are frequently snared for the
table, especially in Belgium, and also on Heligoland. It may be
mentioned that although the Song-Thrush is called " Mavis " in
Scotland, yet the French Maiivis is the Redwing. Mr. J- H-
Gurney informs me that Mr. Bilham of Cromer, kept a Song-Thrush
alive about fifteen years.

The adult male has the upper parts olive-brown, the wing-coverts
with buff tips which form two bars ; under parts whitish, and tawny
on the breast and sides, which, with the ear-coverts and cheeks, are
streaked and spotted with dark brown ; axillaries and under wing
golden-buff; bill horn-brown, yellowish at lower base; legs pale
brown. Length 9 in. ; wing 4"6 in. The female is rather smaller
and paler on the under parts. The young before the first moult are
mottled above with buff; afterwards like the parents, but more
golden-tinted. Varieties with more or less white in their plumage
are not uncommon.

TURDIN.B.

THE REDWING.

TuRDus iLiACUS, Linnaeus.

The Redwing resembles a small Song-Thrush, but it may easily
be distinguished by the broad whitish streak over the eye, and by
the rich orange-red of the flanks and under-feathers of the wing :
whence the bird's trivial name. The Redwing has been obtained
in the British Islands on striking against lighthouses, from the
beginning of August onwards, but large flocks seldom arrive before
the middle of October. Although the most delicate of the
European Thrushes, the Redwing can resist a considerable amount
of frost, but should this be followed by a heavy fall of snow, such a
combination of hardships proves very destructive. In winter, there-
fore, though the species is generally distributed, and even abundant
in the Midlands, large numbers go past our shores, while com-
paratively few return by the same route on the spring migration.
Not many remain in the south after the early part of April, but in
the Shetlands they pass up to May, and though individuals are said
to have lingered occasionally through the summer, there is no proof
that the Redwing has ever bred in any part of our islands.

The nest of the Redwing has been found by Herr Miiller in the
Faeroes, which are on the line of migration to and from Iceland.
This is the only Thrush that breeds on that island, and it is gener-
ally distributed there during the short summer ; while wanderers

6 REDWING.

have been obtained in Jan Mayen and Greenland. The bird nests
freely in Norway, Sweden, and the northern part of Russia ;
sparingly in East Russia, and perhaps in Poland, Austrian Gahzia,
and even Anhalt, near the Hartz Mountains ; while eastward the
breeding-range extends across Siberia to the Yenesei. In winter
the Redwing reaches Madeira, the Canaries, North Africa, and Asia
as far south as North-western India and eastward to Lake Baikal.

Owing to the Gulf stream the climate is comparatively warm in
Norwa)', and there the Redwing sometimes breeds early in ]May, but
elsewhere later. In the forest-region the nest is placed on bushes
or low trees, and a colony of Fieldfares will frequently have a nest
or two of Redwings on the outskirts ; but in the barren districts,
sloping banks, hollows between stones, and low fences are selected.
The structure is composed of twigs and earth, lined with dried
grasses, and is frequently ornamented externally with lichens,
especially reindeer-moss. The eggs, generally 6, are of a peculiar
and evanescent green, closely streaked with reddish-brown, resem-
bling small varieties of the eggs of the Blackbird, but without the
bold markings of those of the Fieldfare : measurements -98 in. by
•75 in. Two broods are frequently reared in the season. The
parents show great anxiety when the nest with young is approached,
snapping their bills angrily as they flutter round the head of the
intruder. The song, which has been unduly eulogized, consists of
several clear flute-like notes which may be syllabled as trui, fnii,
trui, tritritri ; the call is see-iou. The food consists of insects,
small snails, and berries, but the Redwing seems to be less partial
to the last than are its congeners. Its flight is remarkably rapid.

The adult male has the upper parts olive-brown ; wing-feathers
rather darker, with paler edges ; a broad whitish streak over the
eye ; under parts dull white, closely streaked with dark brown
on the throat, breast, and part of the flanks, the inner portion of
the last being of a rich chestnut-red ; under wing and axillaries
somewhat paler ; bill dark brown above, lighter at the lower base ;
legs pale brown. Length 875 ; wing 4-4 in. The female has the
plumage slightly duller than the male. The young bird is spotted
on both upper and under parts, and, after the first autumn moult,
it has well-defined pale tips to the wingcoverts.

TURDIN.t.

THE FIELDFARE.

TURDUS PILARIS, LinilffiUS.

The Fieldfare is one of the regular visitors to our islands, the
date of its arrival depending upon the autumnal temperature in
those northern regions of Europe which form its principal breeding-
ground. Its appearance in Scotland and in eastern England has
been recorded from the middle of September onwards, but on the
west side, in Wales and in Ireland, it is usually about the middle of
October. Every one must be familiar with the large flocks of Felts,
" Blue Felts," or " Felfers," which during the winter are generally
distributed throughout the United Kingdom, seeking their food
over the fields and pasture-lands during open weather, and resorting
to the berry-producing hedges when frost hardens or snow covers
the ground. In backward springs the Fieldfare remains until the
middle of May, and, exceptionally, till the beginning of June ; but
there is no proof that it has ever nested in this country.

An irregular visitor to the Fceroes, this species has wandered to
Iceland, and once to the island of Jan Mayen. It breeds abun-
dantly in Scandinavia, Finland, Northern Russia, and Siberia as far
as the Yenesei, beyond which it becomes rarer : in smaller numbers
in Central Russia, the Baltic provinces. East Prussia, and Poland ;
and of late in Moravia, Bohemia, and Bavaria ; while increasing
colonies have established themselves in Central Germany, especially

8 FIELDKARE.

near Halle on the Saale. Its line of migration is more easterly
than that of the Redwing, the Fieldfare being rare in Spain and in
the Canaries, but it winters in North Africa, and in Western Asia
to Northern India.

In Northern Europe Fieldfares often breed in colonies — and in
such assemblages the late Mr. A. C. Chapman and others have
found old nests with eggs of the Merlin. Especially in birch,
but also in fir woods, gardens and orchards the nest is in a fork
between the trunk and a large branch ; further north, where the
birds become less gregarious, heaps of firewood, fences, shepherds'
huts, (Sec, are utilized ; while on the treeless tundras of Siberia the
nest is placed on the ground, on the edge of a rock or a bank. In
Poland breeding commences in April, but northward hardly before
the middle of May. The 4-6, and even 7, eggs resemble very hand-
some Blackbird's, but they vary greatly, some being boldly blotched
with reddish-brown like Ring-Ouzel's, while others have a light blue
ground colour: dimensions i'2 by "85 in. Two broods are gene-
rally produced in the season. The old birds are very noisy when
the breeding-place is approached, uttering their harsh cries of tsak,
tsak ; the call-note or love song, uttered by the male when on the
wing, is a softer warbling qui, qui. The food of the young consists
principally of insects until the wild strawberries and other fruits are
ripe, and owing to its fondness for the juniper, this species is known
in Germany as the ' "Wachholder-drossel ' ; in fact it is a great eater
of berries. It generally roosts in trees, and sometimes in reed-beds,
or on the ground in stubble-fields.

The young Fieldfare on leaving the nest is spotted on the back
like the young of other Thrushes, moulting again, as do the parents,
before migration. The birds arrive in this country with light mar-
gins to the feathers of the lower parts, but by the following spring
these edges have disappeared and the spots become more clearly
defined, leaving the bird in its nuptial dress. The head is then slate-
grey, streaked with black ; mantle chestnut-brown ; rump con-
spicuously grey; wings and tail dark brown ; tljroat and breast golden
brown streaked with black, the flanks boldly marked with very dark
brown ; centre of the belly white ; under wing and axillaries pure
white ; the bill (which was darker in winter) is now yellow ; the legs
and toes are dark brown. The female is somewhat duller in colour
than the male. Length 10 in. ; wing 5*5 in. I^ike many of its
congeners, this Thrush exhibits a few slender hair-like filaments
on the nape, and to the accident of these being noticed in this species
the ndiiwe fii/aris is probably due.

TURDIN^..

THE BLACK-THROATED THRUSH.

TuRDUS ATRiGULARis, Temminck.

The first recorded occurrence of this eastern species in Britain
was a young male, obtained in the flesh by Mr. T. J. Monk of
Lewes, shot near that town on December 23rd, 1868. Subse-
quently, in 'The Ibis' for October 1889, the late Lt.-Col. H. M.
Drummond-Hay stated that he had identified an example of this
species, shot by Mr. Robert Gloag after a prolonged snowstorm,
on the banks of the Tay, in February 1879, when it was in company
with another bird of the same kind ; it has been presented to the
Museum at Perth.

It is not improbable that other stragglers to this country may
have been overlooked, for the species has several times occurred at
no great distance from our shores. In December 1S86 an example
was obtained in Norway ; one has been taken in Denmark, several
in Northern Germany, Belgium, and France, and at least three in
Tyrol and Northern Italy. In Central and Eastern Europe its
occurrences, as might naturally be expected, become more frequent
in proportion as its Siberian home is approached ; nevertheless it
has only once been obtained in the Caucasian district, near Len-
koran. Beyond the Ural Mountains the species becomes more
abundant, breeding in Eastern Turkestan up to an elevation of

lO BLACK-THROATED THRUSH.

4,000 feet, and probably in the valley of the Ob ; and although
too late for eggs, the late Mr. Seebohni obtained three young not
fully-fledged in the valley of the Yenesei between 60° and 63° N.
lat., early in August. Herr Tancre's collectors have obtained a
series of eggs in the Altai Mountains which "exhibit the same
variation in colour as the eggs of the Blackbird, and measure from
1-2 to 1-15 in. in length, and from -S to 75 in. in breadth" (See-
bohni). This Thrush winters in Northern Persia, Afghanistan,
Turkestan, Baluchistan, and India, as far south as Assam ; its range
extending eastward to Lake Baikal. There it meets with the Red-
throated Thrush, T. ritficollis, a species which has wandered to
Heligoland and Saxony.

The food of this species is stated by Dr. Scully to consist in
winter chiefly, of the berries of Eleagnus, a diet varied with
insects and worms. Favourite haunts in the cold season are sand-
hills, low scrub, and trees bordering watercourses ; while Seebohm
found that in summer a marked preference was shown for pine-
trees, and the neighbourhood of the banks of the river where the
forest had been cut down for fuel. The song of this species is
undescribed.

The adult male in breeding-plumage has the throat and breast
black ; belly white, turning to greyish-brown on the sides and flanks ;
upper parts olive-brown, darker on the wings and tail. In winter
the throat-feathers have light margins, and the general plumage is
duller. The young male resembles the adult female, in which the
feathers of the throat and breast are not completely black, but have
merely dark centres, forming a streaked gorget ; under parts dull
creamy-white. In both sexes the under-wing and axillaries are
golden buff. Bill dark brown above, pale below \ legs and feet pale
brown. Length about 975 in., wing 5-45 in.

Turdus migratoriits, commonly called in North America ' the
Robin,' owing to its ruddy breast, has been obtained at Dover ;
but, like the Wydah-bird and other exotic species obtained in that
locality, it had probably escaped from some ship passing through
the narrow seas. An example taken near Dublin in May 1891, and
another from Leitrim, Dec. 1894, are both in the Dublin Museum,
while one was obtained alive near Leicester in Oct. 1893. The
species has occurred once at Heligoland, on the high road of vessels
for Bremen and Hamburg ; and it is not unfrequently brought to
Europe as a cage-bird.

TURDIN.^.

WHITE'S THRUSH.

TuRDUS VARius, Pallas.

This boldly-marked species, rather larger than the Mistle-Thrush,
belongs to a group known as the 'Ground' Thrushes {Geockhla),
characterized by a partiality for woodland glades, where insects,
which constitute their principal food, are obtained among the dead
leaves. Owing to this habit, the large size, mottled plumage,
and low undulating flight, several of the White's Thrushes obtained
in this country have at first been mistaken for AVoodcocks. The
earliest recorded British example was shot in January, 1828, in
Hampshire ; receiving a scientific as well as a trivial name in
honour of White of Selborne, from Eyton, who supposed the
species to be undescribed. Other individuals have since been
obtained in Cornwall, Devon, Somerset, Gloucestershire, Shrop-
shire, Suffolk, Norfolk, Yorkshire, and Durham ; once in Berwick-
shire ; and in Ireland in counties Cork, Longford, and INIayo.
Most of these occurrences have been in the winter, and only one in
October.

On Heligoland more than a dozen have been taken in September
and October, and on the return migration up to the 23rd of April.

12 WHITES THRUSH.

Many stragglers have been obtained, mostly in autumn, from
Norway and Sweden southwards to Italy and the Pyrenees. Dr.
Menzbier thinks that White's Thrush breeds no further off than the
Ural, as three specimens have been obtained there in summer; and
eastward this species, which might be more appropriately called
the " Golden " Thrush, extends through Siberia from about the line
of Krasnoiarsk on the Yenesei to Lake Baikal and Northern China ;
the winter migrations reaching to Southern China, the Philippines,
and even Sumatra. In Japan it is common in Yokohama market in
winter, and having been obtained in July on the volcano of Fuji, it
was probably breeding there. A nest built on a pine-branch, close
to which a pair of birds were seen, was obtained by Swinhoe near
Ningpo, and one of the eggs figured by Seebohm ('British Birds,'
pi. S) has a greenish-white ground with minute reddish spots :
measurements 12 by '9 in. White's Thrush is mostly insectivorous,
but in China banyan and other berries are consumed. Its note is a
soft plaintive see, audible at a long distance.

In the adult the bill is brownish ; legs and feet yellowish-brown ;
upper plumage yellowish-brown tipped with black, darker on the
wings ; under parts white tinged with buff, and boldly marked with
black crescentic spots ; a distinct light-coloured patch in the middle of
the underside of the wing; tail oi fourteen feathers, the central four
yellowish-brown and the rest dark brown, all tipped with white.
Length 12 in.; wing 6"45 in. An Australian species, T. lunulatus,
with only tivelve tail-feathers, has not unfrequently been passed off
as White's Thrush.

An example of the Siberian Thrush {T. sibirieus, Pallas), said to
have been shot in Surrey in the winter o( 1S60-61, and originally
supposed to be a melanism of the Redwing, was in the collection of
the late Mr. F. Bond, who bequeathed it to the British Museum :
while I fully believe that another was picked up exhausted at Bon-
church, I. of Wight, in the winter of 1S74 ; but the evidence as yet
is not sufficient to warrant the introduction of this species into the
British list. Like White's Thrush, it has the light-coloured patch
on the underside of the wing. The adult male is dark slate-grey,
with a conspicuous white eye-streak, and white abdomen ; the
female is olive-brown above, and whitish-buff barred with brown
beneath ; both sexes having white patches at the tips of t'he tail-
feathers. ^^'anderers have occurred as near our shores as France,
Belgium and (icrmanv.

TURDIN.t:.

13

''^..

THE BLACKBIRD.

TuRDUS MERULA, Linnseus.

The Blackbird, "' the Ouzel-cock so black of hue " of Shakespeare,
is of general distribution throughout the British Islands, where it
ma)' be considered as a resident, excepting in some of the bleaker
islands ; but even in the Outer Hebrides it is increasing as a breeding-
species, and it now nests in Orkney, and is said to have done so in
Shetland, to which it is chiefly an autumn and winter visitor. Like
the Mistle-Thrush, and probably for the same reasons, the Blackbird
has spread northward and westward of late years ; in several places
supplanting the Ring-Ouzel : Avhile in addition to our native-bred
birds, some of which are partially migrator}-, large numbers visit
us in autumn and winter.

In the Faroes the Blackbird has occurred in spring , it un-
doubtedly wandered to Iceland in the winter of 1877, and it has
been recorded from the island of Jan INIayen. About 67° N. lat. in
Norway appears to be its highest breeding-range ; south of which it
is found nesting down to the Azores, Madeira, the Canaries, both
sides of the Mediterranean, Asia Minor, and even in the sultr}-
depths of the Ghor in Palestine. In Russia it does not appear to

14 BLACKBIRD.

range further north or east than the valley of the Volga ; being
represented in Turkestan, Afghanistan, and Kashmir by a larger
resident species or form, which Seebohm named Mcriila maxima.
In winter its numbers in southern countries are considerably increased
by migrants from the north.

The usual nesting-places selected by the Blackbird are bushes,
especially evergreens and hedge-rows ; occasionally the ground ; but
the nest differs from that of the Thrush in being lined with dry
grasses. The 4-6 eggs are of a greenish-blue, spotted and streaked
with reddish-brown : measurements i"i by '85 in. Blue varieties
resembUng eggs of the Starling are sometimes met with, but
Mr. R. M. Christie has brought forward (Tr. Norw. Soc, iii, p. 588,
and iv, p. 582) some evidence indicating that the Blackbird and the
Song-Thrush may occasionally inter-breed, and it has been suggested
that these blue eggs may be the result of such a union. Several
broods are hatched during the season, the first often by the end of
March. The old birds are much more shy during the breeding-
season than is the Song-Thrush, but the cock, especially at pairing-
time, is very quarrelsome. The food consists of worms, insects and
their larvae, slugs and snails, with seeds, hawthorn- and other berries
m winter, and fruit in summer. The Blackbird's powerful song —
heard at its best after an April shower — makes it a favourite for the
cage, and it is further gifted with a considerable power of mimicry ;
while its noisy, rattling alarm-note, as it flits from the hedge-rows or
copses to which it is partial, must be familiar to every one. A
peculiarity by which the Blackbird may be recognized, even in a bad
light, is its habit of sharply raising its tail the moment it perches.
As in the case of the Song-Thrush, the young of this species some-
times assist the parents in feeding the second brood.

The adult male has the entire plumage glossy-black ; bill and
edges of the eyelids orange-yellow ; legs and feet brownish-black.
Length lo'i in. ; wing 5 in. The female is umber-brown, paler
and more rufous on the throat and breast, with darker streaks — some
mountain forms being exceptionally light-coloured ; bill and legs
brownish. The young male can be distinguished in the nest by its
stouter bill and darker hue, especially along the carpal joint ; and if
a few of the first brown feathers of the breast be pulled out, these
will be reproduced of a black colour. Later, the plumage is
blackish-brown above, with pale shaft-streaks ; under parts lighter.
Even after assuming the adult plumage, young males of the year
have blackish bills until their second year. Pied varieties and
albinisms are by no means uncommon.

TURDIX.^.

15

THE RING-OUZEL.

T URDUS TORQUATUS, Linna;us.

The Ring-Ouzel is the only one of our breeding Thrushes which
is absent as a rule from our islands during the winter. It is true that
individuals have been known to remain till after Christmas in
England, Scotland, and Ireland, but the majority leave, m September
and October, the wilder and more elevated districts in which they
have passed the summer ; and, after a comparatively short stay in
the lowlands to feed upon the autumnal berries, they depart for the
south. In April the Ring-Ouzel returns, and pairs are said to have
nested occasionally in Hampshire, Suffolk, Norfolk, Warwickshire,
and similar counties, but as a rule its breeding-places are in the wild
and hilly districts of Cornwall, Devon, Somersetshire, the Pennine
backbone of England and its spurs; in Wales; and in the greater part
of Scotland, including the Orkneys, and most of those islands which
present suitable features ; to the Shetlands it is comparatively a
rare visitor. In Ireland it frequents the mountainous districts in
varying numbers during the summer.

There are two races of Ring-Ouzel. Our rather dark form also
breeds in Scandinavia from about 58° to 70° N. lat., and thence east-
ward in suitable localities as far as portions of the Ural Mountains,
beyond which the steppes appear to act as a barrier ; and it is said to

1 6 RING-OUZEL.

nest sparingly in the south of Holland and Belgium. This form is
found on migration over the whole of Europe, going down to North
Africa and Egypt, Syria and Persia. In, and south of the mountains
of Central Europe, the birds which breed have more or less white
centres (as well as edges) to the feathers of the breast and under tail-
coverts, and their appearance is decidedly spangled ; but inter-
mediate forms are frequent. This race also migrates southward to
some extent, and it makes its nest in fir-trees ; it has been named
T. alpestris by C. L. Brehm.

On our moors the Ring-Ouzel begins to breed in the latter part of
April, making its nest, similar to that of a Blackbird, in tall ling
and heather, on the ledges of rocks, or in broken banks ; sometimes
at a moderate distance underneath fallen rocks ; while the sides of
streams or watercourses are favourite localities ; and occasionally
stunted bushes are selected. The 4, seldom 5, eggs are greenish-blue,
flecked and spotted with reddish brown ; bolder and handsomer as
a rule than those of the Blackbird, and more like those of the P'ield-
fare : average measurements I'l by "85 in. Not unfrequently a
second brood is produced in July. Few birds are bolder when their
young are approached, the parents flying round the intruder, uttering
their sharp alarm note of iac-tac-tac, tac-tac-iac ; but the song is some-
what monotonous, and derives its principal charm from the scenery
in which it is heard. The food consists of worms, slugs, and
insects ; the bird being also partial to moorland berries and
those of the rowan or mountain-ash. The Ring-Ouzel frequently
descends to gardens in the vicinity of its haunts, and is extremely
bold in its attacks upon fruit : while in the vine-countries it feeds
largely on grapes.

The adult male has the upper parts brownish-black, the outer
margins of the wing-feathers grey ; under parts blackish, except a
broad white gorget ; under wing and axillaries mottled with grey
and white ; bill black at the tip, the rest yellowish ; legs and feet
brownish black. Length 10 in. ; wing 5*5 in. The adult female is
lighter and browner, with a narrower and duller gorget, which is
scarcely perceptible in young females. A cock, little more than a
nestling, in the British Museum, shot in Nairnshire on ist September,
is blacker than any adult. In autumn both sexes have the feathers
conspicuously margined with grey.

TURDIN.E.

n

THE ROCK-THRUSH.

MoNTicoLA SAXATiLis (Litinajus).

The claim of the Rock-Thrush to a place in the British list rests
upon an example shot on the 19th May, 1843, at Therfield, in Hert-
fordshire, and figured as above by the late Mr. Yarrell, who examined
it before it was skinned ; the bird is now in the collection of Mr. F.
d'Arcy Newcome. Some other occurrences are recorded, but are
not authenticated.

The individual in question had no doubt deviated on its spring
migration to the westward of its usual course, but some of the
regular haunts of this species are at no great distance from our
shores ; the central and side valleys of the Rhine, Moselle, Upper
Meuse, and some portions of Alsace being visited every summer.
The bird also breeds sparingly in the Hartz Mountains, Thuringia,
and other suitable situations in Germany ; while it has occurred
several times in Normandy, Belgium, and Heligoland. In Switzer-
land and southwards it is generally distributed throughout suitable
rocky districts, although often local ; and where, as in Southern
Spain and Northern Africa, its congener the Blue Rock-Thrush
{Monticoia cyanus) predominates, it retires to higher ground. From

c

l8 ROCK-THRUSH.

the Carpathians eastward it breeds in Greece, Turkey, Southern
Russia, Asia Minor, Persia, Turkestan, Southern Siberia, MongoHa,
and North China ; its migrations extending to the Gambia on the
west coast of Africa, Egypt, Nubia, Abyssinia, and Southern Arabia ;
also to Tibet, Northern India, and Upper Burma.

The nest is placed in a hole among rocks, vineyard-walls, forti-
fications or ruins, and occasionally in a tree-stump. Moss, roots,
and dried grass — without any clay — with a finer lining of bents, are
the materials employed ; and the 4-5 eggs are pale greenish-blue,
sometimes slightly speckled with light brown : measurements i in.
by 75 in. Two broods are often reared in the year, incubation com-
mencing early in May ; and the parents display considerable anxiety
when the nest is approached. The Rock-Thrush has a sweet and
varied song, and, being also an excellent mimic, is highly esteemed
as a cage-bird. During courtship the male from time to time rises
singing into the air, then drops down almost vertically, and travels
for some distance along the rocks. In fact all the Rock-Thrushes
in their mode of nesting and in many of their actions resemble the
Wheatears or Chats, thus forming a link between these and the true
Thrushes, from which they differ in the comparative shortness of the
leg and tail. The food consists of earth-worms, snails, insects and
their larvce, and wild berries.

The adult male has the head, neck, and throat greyish blue,
passing into blackish-blue on the upper back ; a white patch covers
the centre of the back and dorsal scapulars ; wings dark brown ;
lower back bluish-slate, mottled with grey ; tail-feathers chestnut,
the two centre ones chiefly brown ; under parts bright chestnut ;
bill black ; legs and feet brown. Length 7*5 in.; wing to end of
the third and longest primary 475 in., the bastard primary being
very small. In winter the white patch is less conspicuous, and the
feathers have lighter margins. The young male, late in September,
is much mottled with light brown and slate-grey on the upper parts,
and has no white patch on the back ; wing-feathers and coverts
broadly tipped with buffish-white ; breast and abdomen chestnut,
barred with black, and with broad whitish edges which gradually
wear off The female is mottled ash-brown above, with but little grey
about the head and back ; chin and throat whitish ; lower parts
orange-buff marbled with brown ; tail chestnut.

The Blue Rock-Thrush {MoiUicoIa cyaiius) has been erroneously
recorded as having occurred at Westmeath in Ireland ; for complete
refutation of the statement, see 'The Zoologist,' 1880, p. 67.

TURBINE.

19

THE WHEATEAR.

Saxicola (ENanthe (Linnreus).

The Wheatear, one of the first of our spring-visitors, usually
arrives in the second week in March ; any birds seen earlier being
probably those which, as exceptions, have wintered in mild portions
of our islands. From early spring onwards the Wheatear is to be
seen in suitable localities, jerking its white tail as it flits along,
uttering its sharp chack, chack, on open downs, warrens, and poor
land generally, while it ascends our mountains almost to their
summits. Numbers still frequent the Soi:th Downs, especially on
migration in August ; but by the beginning of October nearly all
have left us.

In summer this species is very widely distributed, ranging to the
Faeroes, Iceland, Jan Maycn, and Greenland ; while it has been

c 2

20 WHEATEAR.

recorded from 80'^ N. lat. (Feilden), Boothia Felix, and Point
Barrow. Greenland appears to be the breeding-place of a large
race which passes through our islands from the middle of April
onwards, and seems to be somewhat addicted to perching on trees.
Our ordinary form breeds throughout Europe, Siberia, Mongolia,
and, at suitable elevations, in Asia INIinor and North Africa ; it visits
the Canaries, and has of late years established itself in the Azores.
The smallest examples are those found in Syria. In winter
it migrates to a little south of the Equator. Crossing Bering
Sea it visits Alaska ; and accidentally it has occurred in Colorado,
the eastern portions of the United States and Canada, and the
Bermudas.

About the middle of April a loose nest of dry grass, lined with
rabbits' fur, hair, and feathers, is placed in rabbit-burrows, crevices of
stone walls, and peat-stacks on the moors, or under rocks and fallow-
clods, in discarded tins and kettles, and even in old artillery-shells.
The 5-6, often 7, eggs are very pale blue, sometimes minutely
dotted with purple : measurements "8 by "6 in. Two broods are
produced in the season. The old birds are wary and do not easily
betray the situation of their treasure. The song of the male, often
uttered on the wing, is rather pretty ; and the bird also displays
considerable powers of imitating other species. Its food consists of
small spiders, insects — often captured flying — and their larvje. The
name has no connection with wheat, but is a corruption of white,
and of the Anglo-Saxon cers, for which the modern equivalent is
'rump'; and in fact as " white rumps " this species and its
congeners are known in most of the European language.

Adult male in summer : forehead and eye-streak white ; lores and
ear-coverts black ; head, neck and back grey ; wings nearly black ;
rump white ; the two central tail-feathers black nearly to the base,
the others white with broad black tips ; under parts white, with only
a faint tinge of buff on the throat in old birds ; under wing-coverts
and axillaries mottled with dark grey and white ; bill, legs and
feet black. In autumn the new feathers are so broadly margined
with rufous-brown that the male much resembles the female ; and
even on the spring arrival many of the upper feathers still retain
buff margins. Length 6 in. ; wing to tip of third and longest quill,
375 in. The female differs in having the ear-coverts dark brown ;
upper parts hair-brown ; under parts buff, not unlike the south-
eastern S. isabellina, in which, however, the under wiiig-coverfs are
white. The young are slightly spotted above and below, with buff
tips and margins to the tail- and wing-feathers.

TURDIN.t.

^^■'^

THE ISABELLINE WHEATEAR.

Saxicola isabellina, Riippell.

My friend the Rev. H. A. iNIacpherson brought to me in the
flesh for identification a bird shot by Mr. Thomas Mann, on a
ploughed field and quite alone, at x\llonby, Cumberland, on nth
November 1887 ; it proved to be the Isabelline Wheatear, and was
exhibited at a meeting of the Zoological Society on December 6th.
This south-eastern bird had not previously been recorded from
Heligoland or any part of Western Europe, but it so closely re-
sembles the female of the previous species that it might easily
escape notice. The specimen, a female, is figured above, and Mr.
Macpherson subsequently presented it to the British Museum.

The Isabelline Wheatear is an early spnng-visitor to South-eastern
Russia, especially the province of Astrachan and the arid plains of
the Caspian, and to Asia Minor. From the above, after breeding,
it takes its departure in autumn ; but in Palestine, Egypt, Eastern
Africa down to Somali- and Masai-land, Abyssinia, and Arabia, it
appears to be a resident. Eastward it is found in summer across
Asia — south of 56° N. and up to 10,000 feet above sea-level — to

2 2 ISABELLINE WHEATKAR.

Northern China and the Upper Amur ; migrating to Northern
India, &€.

The nest is generally placed in burrows ; those of such rodents
as Lagomys ogotona and Spermophilus eversvianni being utilized on
the steppes of Daiiria ; while near Smyrna the extensive tunnels
formed by the Asiatic mole-rat [Spalax typhhis) afford a convenient
retreat. The eggs are pale blue, similar to those of the Common
Wheatear, but a trifle larger: measurements "82 by •65 m. Breed-
ing commences in February in Abyssinia ; while by the middle of
May young are to be found nearly fledged in Asia Minor. Two
broods are probably reared in the season, as Canon Tristram obtained
eggs in Palestine in June. ]\Ir. Danford observed this Wheatear
frequenting barren ground, bushy hillsides, and even fir-woods in
Asia Minor, where it arrived on March gth ; and he describes its
notes as very peculiar, " the most striking being a cry resembling
that of a Sandpiper, which is uttered as the bird descends, after its
hovering flight and lark-like song." The call-note is zri^ zri, zri.

Adult male : upper parts pale sandy-brown ; a buffish-white streak
from the base of the bill upwards to the back of the eye ; lores
black ; ear-coverts pale-brown ; upper tail-coverts white ; the two
central tail-feathers blackish-brown almost to their bases, which are
white ; the remainder white for the basal third, and blackish-
brown, narrowly tipped and margined with buff, on the lower
two-thirds ; wings brown, edged with buff, especially on the
secondaries and coverts ; under parts bufiish-white, deeper on the
neck and breast ; under iving-coverts and axillaries ivhite ; the ufider-
side of the qjiills being also conspicuously paler than in the Com-
mon Wheatear. Bill and legs black. Length 6*5 in. ; wing to the
tip of the third and longest quill, 3-9 in. ; tarsus i"2 in. Female:
duller in plumage and slightly smaller than the male. Young :
streaked with dark brown on the head, neck and breast ; wings and
tail broadly margined with rufous-buff. In autumn, as with other
Wheatears, the buff margins to the wing-feathers are very pro-
nounced.

The distinguishing characteristics of the Isabelline Wheatear may
be thus summed up : — it is larger, more tawny, and has more black
in its comparatively short tail than any Common Wheatear ; the
colour of the under-wing is much lighter, and the bill and tarsi are
longer.

TURDIN.E.

23

ff/»

THE BLACK-THROATED WHEATEAR.

Saxicola stapazina, Vieillot.

A male in adult plumage of this handsome South-European
species was shot about the 8th of May 1875, near Bury in Lanca-
shire, and subsequently recorded by Mr. R. Davenport, who, as
should always be done in the case of such rare visitors, sent the
specimen for exhibition at a meeting of the Zoological Society
(P. Z. S. 1878, pp. 881, 977). A bird, probably of this species, was
seen and sketched by Mr. H. B. Hewetson near Spurn, Yorkshire,
on September i8th 1892 (Zool. 1892, p. 424, and 1895, p. 57).

Although some occurrences formerly recorded under this name in
Heligoland were really those of the Desert-Wheatear, yet the
present species seems to have been obtained there once ; while
Schlegel records it from Haarlem, Holland. It breeds regularly
about as far north as the line of the Loire in France ; southward, in
the Spanish Peninsula, Morocco, Algeria and Italy. In the latter
country it meets with S. inelanoleiica, Giildenstadt : a form which
some ornithologists consider to be specifically distinct, characterized
by a whiter back and larger amount of black on the throat. This
form occupies Greece, South Russia, Asia Minor, Palestine and
Persia ; both races migrating wholly or partially to more southern

24 ELACK-THROATED WHEATEAR.

regions in winter, and meeting in Tunisia. The extremes of each
are distinguishable in adult males, but there appear to be numerous
intergradations, and I have therefore treated the bird under one
heading.

The Black-throated Wheatear is very common in Southern
Europe from the middle of March ; making a loose nest of bents
and grass in holes and crevices, especially in old ruins ; and the late
Mr. Seebohm found it breeding in the Parnassus up to an elevation
of 3,000 feet. The eggs, rather elliptical-ovate in shape, are of a pale
sea-green colour, freckled with brown: measurements, 75 by "6 in.
In song, habits and food, this species resembles the Common Wheat-
ear. The name stapazina refers to its noisy scolding note.

The adult male in spring has the forehead white, the crown and
upper back golden-buff, becoming paler as the season advances ;
throat, lores and ear-coverts black ; wings nearly black ; lower back
white ; the two central tail-feathers black almost to their bases, the
rest white, margined with an amount of black which is subject to
great diminution and partial disappearance with age ; under parts
buffish-white ; under wi/igcoverts black ; bill, legs and feet black.
In July and August, when the autumn moult takes place, the crown,
nape, upper back and breast are rich buff; the wing-coverts and
secondaries broadly margined with pale buff. Length 5 "6 in. ; wing
3*5 in. The female differs in having the throat merely mottled with
black ; the head streaked with hair-brown ; upper back sandy-
brown ; wings dark brown ; under parts dirty buff. The young
resemble the female in general, but are rather more rufous ; and
they have less white on the tail than the adults of the respective
sexes.

To obviate the perpetuation of confusion, it must be remarked
that the species here described is the one which Mr. Dresser in his
'Birds of Europe' called "^'c/avV^/^ r/(/(Z (Russet Chat)" ; but the
bird was re-instated under its old and well-known name by the
Committee of the British Ornithologists' Union. Unfortunately
Mr. Dresser transferred the specific name stapazina to the Eared
Wheatear, S.albicollis (Vieill.), S. aiirita (Temm.), another southern
species, which has not yet visited our islands.

TURDIN.t.

5 l-C^d^z

THE DESERT-WHEATEAR.

SaxIcola deserti, Riippell.

Although the Desert-Wheatear has a still more southern habitat
than the preceding species, it has undoubtedly been obtained on
three occasions in Great Britain. The first example, a male in
autumn plumage, shot on the 26th November 1880, near Alloa in
Clackmannanshire, was sent for exhibition at a meeting of the
Zoological Society (P. Z. S. 18S1, p. 453), by its owner, Mr. J- J-
Dalgleish. The second, a bird in female plumage, obtained on
the Holderness coast, Yorkshire, October 17th 1885, was sent for
exhibition by Mr. W. Eagle Clarke (P. Z. S. 1885, p. 835),
and is in the collection of Mr. J- H. Gurney. A third — apparently
a young male — was shot near Arbroath on December 28th

1887, and was exhibited at a meeting of tne Zoological Society
of London on March 6th 18S8, on behalf of the late Lt.-Col.
H. M. Drummond-Hay, who published details in 'The Ibis,'

1888, p. 283.

Three wanderers of this species have been obtained on Heligo-
land : a male on October 26th 1856 ; a female on October 4th
1857 (these being originally and erroneously recorded as ^. siapa-

2 6 DESERT-WHEATEAR.

ziun) ; and an adult male in full breeding-plumage, June 23rd
1880. The above appear to be the only notices of the occurrence
of the Desert-Wheatear in Europe.

As the name implies, this species is to be found in dry, sandy
regions, such as North Africa, Egypt, Nubia, Arabia, Palestine,
Persia, Afghanistan, the plains of Turkestan up to an elevation of
over 12,000 feet, and the mountain ranges to the north of Kashmir.
In winter the bird occurs in North-western India, Scind, Baluchistan,
Southern Persia, Somali-land and Abyssinia. Mr. J. H. Gurney
describes it as the most universally distributed member of the genus
in the Algerian Sahara.

The nest of the Desert-Wheatear is placed in crevices of rocks,
walls of wells, in burrows, or under bushes. The eggs are of a
greenish-blue, paler than those of the Black-throated Wheatear, with
liver-coloured spots round the larger end : measurements 75 by
•5 in. The food appears to be ants and other insects ; the stomach
of the bird shot at Alloa contained small flies. In its movements this
species is even more restless than the Common Wheatear ; and its
song is said to be short and pleasing. The individuals observed by
Mr. J. H. Gurney were estimated by him as being in the proportion
of about eight in male plumage to one in female dress.

The male in spring has the crown sandy-grey, shading into buff on
the back and lower wing-coverts ; secondaries, brown in the centre,
with pale margins ; primaries blackish, with light margins to the
inner webs, very conspicuous on the underside ; under wing-coverts
and axillaries black tipped with white ; tail-coverts white ; tail black,
almost to the base ; under parts white, washed with buff on the
breast ; throat and sides of neck to the shoulders black ; a whitish
streak above and behind the eye. Bill, legs and feet black ; the
latter small for the size of the bird. Length 5*6 in. ; wing to the tip
of 3rd and longest quill 3 "6 in. The female is duller and greyer on
the upper parts ; the wings are brown, the under surface is buff, and
the black throat is absent ; but the large amount of black in the tail
is always a feature. The young is like that of S. stapazina, except
for its characteristic blackish-brown tail.

The members of this group are frequently denominated ' Chats,'
but I have used the term ' Wheatear ' to emphasize the difference
between the longer-tailed, white-rumped species, and the shorter-
tailed, streaked-rumped ' Bush-chats ' of the genus Pratincola.

TURDIN.'E.

■i«^

THE WHINCHAT.

Pratincola rubetra (Linnreus).

The Whinchat generally arrives in the south of England rather
before the middle of April, but seldom reaches the north of its
range before the beginning of May ; after which, until its departure
in the early part of October, it is fairly distributed throughout
England and Wales. It is, however, somewhat local in the west,
becoming rare in Cornwall, and only occurring in the Scilly Islands
during the autumnal passage. In Scotland, although absent in some
districts, it may be said to range from the border counties to
Caithness, and is very common in Sutherlandshire and the Moray
basin ; while it breeds sparingly in the Outer Hebrides and the
Orkneys; and Mr. A. H. Evans identified it in the summer of 1887
in the Shetlands. In Ireland it is a summer visitor to the northern
half and Kilkenny, visiting the south on migration.

A very rare straggler to the Fteroes, the Whinchat breeds from
about 70° N. lat. in Scandinavia southwards, in many parts of
Northern and Central Europe ; and, seeking in the mountains
appropriate climatic conditions, it nests down to Sicily. In the
countries bordering the Mediterranean it is, however, principally a
migrant ; wintering in Africa, down to Fantee on the west side and
Abyssinia on the east, as well as in Arabia, Asia Minor, and Northern
India. The Ural Mountains appear to form its eastern boundary in
European Russia.

The breeding-season is from the beginning of May : the nest is

28 WHINCHAT.

on the ground, or at most a few inches above it, among the stems
of a small bush, or in coarse herbage and thick meadow-grass.
It is a loose structure of dry grass and moss, with a lining of finer
materials ; the eggs, usually 6 in number, being greenish-blue,
sometimes dotted or zoned with rust-colour: measurements, 72 by
•6 in. Two broods are reared in the season. The call note is a
sharp ii-tick^ and the bird has also an agreeable song, uttered on the
wing or while sitting on some low branch, accompanied by a
fanning movement of the tail. Although, like the Stonechat, it
frequents heaths and commons, the two species are seldom abundant
in the same neighbourhood ; and the Whinchat exhibits a partiality
for pastures, whence the bird's local name of ' Grass-chat.' Its
food consists of beetles, flies, and other insects — often sought for
late in the evening ; worms, especially the wire-worm, and small
mollusks. It roosts on the ground.

The adult male has the lores, ear- coverts and cheeks dark brown ;
a clear white streak above the eye ; crown and upper parts mottled
with about equal proportions of sandy-buff and dark brown, more
rufous on tail-coverts ; base of tail white (except the two central
feathers, which are dark brown), terminal-half dark brown, tipped
and margined with buff; wing brown, the upper part showing a con-
spicuous white patch contrasted against a nearly black outer portion
of the coverts ; a smaller white patch on spurious wing ; bastard
primary smaller than in the Stonechat ; under parts buff, turning to
bright fawn-colour on the breast and throat ; chin white, with a streak
of the same running below the blackish cheeks to the sides of the
neck. Bill black (stouter than in the Stonechat), legs and feet
black. Length 5-25 in. ; wing to the end of the 3rd and longest
primary 3 in.

The female is duller in colour ; the speculum smaller ; the eye-
streak buff ; the upper breast slightly spotted. The young have the
feathers margined with rufous and bufT; the breast much more spotted
than in the female, which otherwise they resemble. By September
the young males have the wing-patches well defined.

In autumn the Whinchat assumes a duller plumage, leading to
confusion with the Stonechat ; and to this, perhaps, may be ascribed
the records of the occurrence of the former in winter in the British
Islands. In spring, according to Meves and other observers, it
not only loses the paler tips of the feathers by abrasion, but has a
distinct moult : an exception to the rule among the Turdince. White
and pied varieties of this bird have been obtained.

TURDIX.t.

29

THE STONECHAT.

PratIncola rubicola (Linngeus).

Unlike the preceding migratory species, the Stonechat is a
resident in the greater part of our islands, although a partial
movement takes place from the colder to the more sheltered
situations in winter ; at which season there is an influx of visitors
from those parts of the Continent where the climate is too severe to
allow of a stay. The Stonechat is somewhat local in its distribution
and also erratic ; frequenting a place for a few seasons, and then
suddenly abandoning it. It breeds sparingly in the Orkneys, and is
only a visitor to the Shetlands, but it is found to the extreme
western limits of the Outer Hebrides, for I observed it on St. Kilda
in August 1 886. In Ireland it is common and resident.

The northern range of the Stonechat in Europe is no:: neaily so
extensive as that of the Whinchat, and scarcely reaches to the south
of Sweden ; while in the north of Germany the bird is uncommon
beyond the Elbe and unknown beyond theWeser,as well as of irregular
distribution. In Central Europe it is unaccountably local ; but in
the south it is common, breeding in Spain even in the hot plains
below Seville. Migrants from the north go down in winter to the
shores and islands of the Mediterranean, North Africa, Asia Minor,
and Palestine ; and examples have been obtained to the south of
Senegal. In South Africa the representative species is P. torquata,
with white rump and deeper chestnut on the breast ; North-eastern

STONECHAT.

Africa is inhabited by P. heniprichi, with more white than black in
the tail ; while east of the valley of the Volga the place of our
species is taken by F. niaiira, characterized by a white rump and a
predominance of black in the under wing-coverts and axillaries.

The nest, constructed very early in April, is concealed amongst
the herbage on broken ground, or at the foot of some thick furze or
other bush, and is composed of dry grass and moss with a lining of
bents, hair, and feathers. The 5 or 6 eggs are of a bluish-green
(greener than those of the Whinchat), spotted and zoned with pale
reddish-brown : average measurements 7 by '58 in. The parent
birds display considerable anxiety when the nest is approached,
flitting from bush to bush and uttering a sharp chack, but it
requires great patience to eye the female to her nest. Two broods
are produced during the season. The song, commenced early in
the spring, continues until the latter part of June, and, although
short, is rather pleasing ; but the scolding note, h-weef, Jiir, jnr,
uttered by the male as — -conspicuous by his black head, white neck,
and ruddy breast — he darts from spray to spray on some furze-
covered moor, is the most familiar indication of the presence of
this sprightly bird. The insect-prey of the Stonechat, including
small moths and butterflies, is often taken on the wing ; grubs,
worms and beetles forming its principal diet, with the addition of a
few seeds.

Adult male in May : — the head, throat, nape and back, black ;
the feathers of the latter edged with brown ; tail coverts white,
spotted with dark brown ; tail and wings dark brown ; a conspicuous
white patch on the wing-coverts ; sides of the neck white ; breast
bright rufous, lighter on the abdomen ; under wing coverts and
axillaries mottled black and white ; bill, legs and feet black. In
autumn the under parts are paler, and the upper feathers are
margined with reddish-brown. Length 5 in. ; wing to the end of
the fourth and longest primary 2-55 in. ; bastard primary much
longer than in the Whinchat. In young males the crown of the
head is brown streaked with black. Female : — striped brown upper
parts ; throat merely mottled with black ; rump reddish-brown ; the
white wing-patch smaller than in the male and under parts much
duller. Young : — throat bufifish-white ; feathers of the upper parts
much tinged and margined with rufous-brown ; otherwise as in the
female.

TURDIN.f;.

31

THE REDSTART.

RUTICILLA PHCENICURUS (LinncCUs).

The date of the arrival of the Redstart is to some extent in-
fluenced by the prevaihng temperature in the early spring : in
1893 I watched a male on March 31st, while several were recorded
by other observers on ist April. As a rule, however, it is not until
the middle of April that the males attract attention by their bright
plumage, as they flit, with lateral movements of the tail, from one
low branch to another, along the skirts of the English woodlands.
Although generally diffused throughout Great Britain, especially in the
south, the Redstart is often unaccountably partial in its distribution ;
being uncommon to the west of Exeter, an unusual breeder in
Cornwall, only an autumn visitor to the Scilly Islands, and rare in
Pembrokeshire, though fairly plentiful in other parts of Wales.
In Scotland it has of late years spread northwards ; now breeding
freely in the Moray basin, and only less so in Sutherland, Caithness
and West Ross ; but its visits to the Orkneys and Shetlands are chiefly
autumnal, and in the Hebrides it is as yet unrecorded. In Ireland
several pairs are now known to nest annually in co. Wicklow, and
the bird has recently been found breeding in co. Tyrone.

On the Continent the Redstart is found in summer from the
North Cape to the wooded regions of Central, and even Southern
Europe, although better known in the latter on its spring and

32 REDSTART.

autumn migrations. Eastward it stretches in summer as far as
Lake Bailcal ; in winter it migrates to Madeira, the Canaries,
the northern half of Africa, Arabia, and Persia; and INIr. E.
Lort PhilHps recently found it breeding on the high ground of
North Somali-land. In Cyprus, Asia Minor, Persia, and the
Caucasus— wandering to Turkey and Greece — the representative
species is R. jnesoleuca, the male of which has a white patch on the
wing, like the Black Redstart ; from the Lebanon eastward pre-
dominates the Indian Redstart, i?. mfivenfris, with black throat
and mantle and chestnut underwing ; in the Caucasus and Armenia,
R. ochrunes, with a diack underwing, prevails.

The nest is generally placed in hollow trees or in the holes of
walls ; exceptionally in such localities as the inside of an inverted
flower-pot, or in the gable ends of inhabited buildings. It is rather
loosely constructed of moss, dry grass, and fine roots, with a lining
of hair and feathers ; the eggs, usually 6, being of a light blue-
paler than those of the Hedge Sparrow — occasionally speckled with
reddish : measurements 7 by '55 in. Nesting commences early in
May, and while the female is sitting the male is conspicuous in the
vicinity, uttering his slight but pleasant song, or, when alarmed, a
plaintive wheet. The food consists of flies, gnats, small butterflies,
and other insects, spiders, &c. ; the young being fed largely on
caterpillars. Departure for the south takes place in September. In
many parts of England this bird is known as the ' Firetail ' ; the
second syllable of the name Redstart being derived from the Anglo-
Saxon steort, a tail.

Adult male : forehead and eye streak white ; crown, nape and
upper back slate-grey ; wings brown, with pale outer edges ; rump
and tail chestnut, except the two central feathers, which are brown ;
chin, throat and cheeks jet black ; breast and axillaries chestnut ;
abdomen buff; bill black ; legs and feet dark brown. Total length
5*4 in; wing to the end of the third and longest primary 3'i in.
The female has no bright colours on the head, being greyish-brown
above, and lighter on the under parts, while the chestnut of the tail
is less brilliant. Occasionally, however, a plumage resembling that
of the male is assumed, and a bird exemplifying this was caught on
her eggs in June 1882 (Tr. Norw. Soc. iv. p. 182). Birds of the
year resemble the female. The nestlings are spotted above and
below, and, but for the chestnut tail, are rather like young Red-
breasts. In autumn the new feathers of both sexes are broadly
tipped with white, producing a greyish appearance, but these edges
disappear by the following spring.

TURDIN/E.

33

THE BLACK REDSTART,

RUTICILLA TITVS (Scopoli).

The Black Redstart, formerly considered a rare bird, is now a
well-known visitor to many parts of the English coasts in autumn
and winter, being, in fact, tolerably common at those seasons in the
southern counties, especially in Devon and Cornwall, and remaining
till March or April. In the Humber district, and at Flamborough,
it is sometimes numerous on both migrations (J. Cordeaux). It
has also occurred later in spring, and I saw an adult male at Erping-
ham, Norfolk, on May 15th, 1872; but as yet (1897) there is no
really satisfactory evidence that the species has bred in this country.
In Wales, it occurs irregularly in Pembrokeshire, but rarely else-
where. In Scotland it is seldom noticed, the most northerly
instance being on the Pentland Skerries, March 31st, 1884, and,
perhaps, Kirkwall, Orkney. To Ireland it is not an unfrequent
winter-visitor, and seventeen individuals were obtained at the light-
houses on the south and south-east coast from 1884-1895 (R. M.
Barrington).

As a straggler the Black Redstart has been recorded in Iceland
(once), the Faeroes, Southern Scandinavia, and Denmark. It is
common in Western Germany, where it arrives about the middle of
March, but is not plentiful in the north-eastern districts. From
Holland southward it is, however, abundant in summer, migrating
from the countries on the north of the Alps in winter, but becoming

D

34 BLACK REDSTART.

more or less sedentary in Southern Europe, and even in the
mountains of North Africa, where it breeds at a considerable
elevation. Eastward its range appears to extend to the Southern
Ural, Asia Minor, and Palestine ; in winter, to Nubia.

Breeding begins early in May ; the nest, composed of dried grass,
moss, and fine roots, with a lining of hair and feathers, being placed,
with little attempt at concealment, in sheds, holes of walls, chalets,
or clefts of rocks, up to 7,500 feet. The 5-6 eggs are of a pure
shining white, sometimes with a very faint tinge of blue, and
occasionally speckled with brown : measurements 75 by "58 in.
Two broods are usually produced in the season. The call-note is a
soft sit or fitz, and the male has a rather rich song, which he
commences very early in the morning. In Belgium he begins to
sing again in October. From his familiar habits the Black Red-
start is one of the most conspicuous species on the Continent, as,
jerking his tail, he flits along the sides of ravines in the country or
the roofs of houses in cities ; even in London one frequented the
grounds of the Natural History Museum, South Kensington, from
November, 1885, until the snow-fall of January 6th, 1886. Refuse,
manure-heaps and sea-tangle seem to have great attractions for
this bird. Its food consists principally of insects, caterpillars, and,
on our sea-coasts, of small crustaceans.

Adult male : frontal band and lores black ; crown, nape and back
dark slate-grey ; wings brownish, with a conspicuous white patch
formed by the broad white margins to the secondaries ; rump and
tail, except the two brown central-feathers, bright bay ; chin, throat,
cheeks and breast black, passing into grey on the belly; vent buff;
bill, legs and feet black. In younger males the wing-patch is less
pronounced. After the autumn moult the black feathers of the
under parts have grey margins, which so soon wear off that in Spain
I have seen old males in splendid black plumage by the end of
November. Length 575 in. ; wing, to the tip of the fourth and
longest primary, 3-4 in. Female: greyer on both upper and lower
parts than the female Common Redstart, and her axillaries and
under wing-coverts grey instead of buff The young resemble the
female. Young males often breed in their immature grey plumage ;
and owing to this, a supposed distinct psecies, since withdrawn, was
described by Gerbe under the name of R. cairii. The full black
plumage is not attained by the male until the second autumnal
moult, and even then the intensity of the dark colour is considerably
modified by the long grey margins of the feathers.

TURDIN.-E.

35

^7 ^"^ ' >?r^--^^ -^^

\r

THE BLUETHROAT.

Cyanecula suecia (Linnreus).

There are two, and perhaps three, forms of the Bluethroat. The
first, which has its breeding-grounds in Arctic and sub- Arctic Europe
and Asia, exhibits a red spot in the centre of the blue gorget of the
adult male ; the second form, which breeds south of the Baltic, has
the spot ivhite ; in the third and rarer form, the gorget is unspotted
blue, but as the feathers, on being raised, show white at their bases,
it seems probable that this last is an intensified development of the
white-spotted form, with which alone it is associated as regards its
geographical distribution. I am not aware of any distinctive
characters by which the females and young of these forms may be
separated.

The Red-spotted form is the only one which has been proved to
visit this country ; for although an entirely blue-throated bird is
said to have been observed by the late Capt. Hadfield in the Isle of
Wight, it was not obtained. Since 1826 this Arctic race has been
recorded in England at irregular intervals, generally on the
autumnal migration, and sparingly in spring ; sometimes on the
southern, but more often on the eastern, coasts. In September, 1S83,
considerable numbers were observed on our east coast, especially in
Norfolk, where a much larger flock dropped in the same month of
1884. ]Most of these visitors are immature, and they merely stay to

36 BLUETHROAT.

rest themselves after their flight from Scandinavia. Five are
recorded from Scotland, one of these from the Monach Island light-
house, Outer Hebrides, in October : another Pentland Skerries,
Orkney, on May 12th, 1890. Not yet obtained in Ireland.

The Red-spotted Bluethroat breeds in the northern portions of
Scandinavia and Russia, the elevated Pamir region, and Siberia as
far as Kamchatka, and has even crossed to Alaska ; migrating to
China, India, Arabia and North-eastern Africa. On the spring
passage this form does not pass along the west coast of Norway,
but enters that country from the east. From Egypt westward the
White-spotted Bluethroat appears, and predominates in North-
western Africa and South-western Europe ; breeding in France,
Belgium, Holland, Germany, Western Russia, and as far south and
east as Armenia and Afghanistan.

The nest, similar to that of the Redbreast, is placed in the side of
a hummock among swampy thickets ; the 5-6 eggs, laid about the
middle of June, are pale olive with minute rufous spots : measure-
ments "75 by "55 in. The food consists of insects — especially
mosquitoes — and their larvae, earthworms and small seeds. The
song, as heard during the nightless summer of the Arctic regions,
is described as rivalling that of the Nightingale in richness, ending
with a metallic ting ting. The cock is frequently bold and con-
spicuous, while the female skulks among the undergrowth, and is
very seldom seen. In its habits the Bluethroat resembles the
Redbreast rather than the Redstart.

Adult male, Arctic form : lores dark brown ; a white stripe above
the eye ; upper parts clove-brown ; bright bay tail-coverts and basal
part of tail-feathers, except the two central ones, which are dark brown,
like the lower half of the tail ; chin, throat and gorget ultramarine-
blue, with a large central spot of red bay ; below the blue successive
bands of black, white and bay ; remaining under parts buffish-white ;
wing-coverts and axillaries golden-buff; bill black; legs and feet
brown. Length 5-3 in. ; wings to end of 3rd-4th, and longest
primaries, 2-85 in. Female: differs in having the whole of the
under parts tawny-white, except a dark brown band across the
chest ; but old examples show some blue and bay feathers there.
Young : like the female ; the nestling streaked with black, similar to
a young Redbreast, but with the base of the tail bay. In autumn
the new feathers have grey tips, which are shed by the following
spring.

TURDIN.B.

37

THE REDBREAST.

Erithacus rubecula (Linnsus).

The Redbreast, familiarly known as the Robin, is probably the
most characteristic of our British species ; for, in addition to the
early and legendary associations which combine to render it a
favourite, it is also a resident species, conspicuous from its bright
plumage. Generally distributed throughout the British Islands, it
has undoubtedly increased in the north with the spread of planta-
tions, and it is now found breeding in some of the Hebrides and
sparingly in the Orkneys, although as yet only a migrant in the Shet-
lands. In autumn the young are, to some extent, driven away and
forced to emigrate by their parents, who, in their turn, when pressed
for food in winter, resort to the vicinity of our dwellings, where
they are almost universally welcome. At this season numbers arrive
from the Continent : shunning the cold of the northern regions where
they have passed the summer, even within the Arctic circle.

38 REDBREAST.

The Redbreast has been observed in May on the island of Jan
Mayen, but it has not yet been recorded in Iceland, though it visits
the Faeroes in autumn. Southwards it breeds throughout Europe
down to the South of Spain (where it is very local), North-western
Africa, the Canaries, Madeira and the Azores ; eastward, across
Russia — where it is not abundant — to the Ural Mountains. Its
winter migrations extend to the Sahara, Egypt, Palestine, Asia
Minor, North-western Turkestan and Persia ; but in the last-named
country we also find E. hyrcajius : a somewhat larger form — of
doubtful specific validity — with ruddier breast, and chestnut margins
to the upper tail-coverts. On migration the Redbreast is by no
means treated with the same consideration as with us, being snared
in large numbers for the table on the Continent, where, perhaps
in consequence, it frequents woodlands and mountains, and is less
familiar.

The nest, made of dead leaves and moss, lined with hair and a
few feathers, is placed in banks, holes of walls, amongst ivy, and in
hollow trees ; but pages might be filled with details of the extra-
ordinary sites sometimes selected. The 5-6, often 7 eggs, are
usually white with light reddish blotches, but sometimes they are
pure white : measurements, "8 by "6 in. Nesting begins in March,
and two, or even three broods are produced in the year. The song,
musical but of little compass, is resumed after the moult. The
food is mostly insects and worms, but berries and fruit are by no
means despised, and in winter, as is well known, bread-crumbs,
meat, &c. are acceptable. A more pugnacious and domineering
species than the Redbreast it would be difficult to find.

In the adult male the upper parts are olive-brown ; frontal band,
lores, chin, throat and upper breast reddish-orange, bordered with
bluish-grey on the sides of the neck and shoulders ; lower breast
and belly dull white ; flanks and lower tail-coverts pale brown ;
bill black ; legs and feet brown. Length 575 in. ; wing to the end
of the 5th and longest quill 3 in. The female is usually duller
than the male, but I have seen carefully sexed examples which were
quite undistinguishable. The nesding — shown in the figure in the
background — has a spotted appearance, the smaller feathers of the
upper and under parts being yellowish-brown in their centres with
blackish tips ; but after the first moult, in August or early Septem-
ber, the young bird is like the adult, except that the orange-red of
the breast is paler. Albino, grey, and mottled varieties of the
Redbreast are on record.

TURDIN.^i.

39

THE NIGHTINGALE.
Daulias luscinia (Linngeus).

This noted songster comes to us in the first or second week in
April ; the males preceding the females by several days. Although
generally distributed over the greater part of England, it becomes
rarer in the west, until in Devonshire a line is reached beyond
which the bird is absolutely unknown ; and, although it visits
Herefordshire occasionally, the same may be said of Wales, except
Glamorganshire and Brecon. A straggler to Cheshire, of question-
able occurrence in Lancashire, and unknown in Westmoreland or
Cumberland, it has bred more than once near Scarborough, and it
has probably visited the valley of the Derwent, in Yorkshire ; while
in the exceptionally hot spring of 1893 Mr. G. Bolam saw and heard
a male in the north of Northumberland. As regards Ireland, a
specimen, said to have been shot near the Old Head of Kinsale, is
in the museum of Queen's College, Cork.

On the Continent, Northern Germany appears to be the highest
authenticated latitude for our Nightingale ; south of which it is
generally distributed throughout Central Europe. In such southern
countries as Portugal, Spain, Italy, Greece and Turkey, it abounds
in suitable localities ; while it breeds also in North Africa, Palestine
and Asia Minor. Its north-eastern limit in Europe appears to be
the valley of the Vistula ; and in Russia it is confined to the

40 NIGHTINGALE.

southern provinces. From the Caucasus eastward to Turkestan and
Persia, is found a closely allied form, D. golzii — rather more olive-
coloured, with longer bill and tail ; while in Scandinavia, Denmark,
and Eastern Europe our bird is replaced by the rather larger
" Sprosser," D. philomela : — a distinct species, less russet in hue,
slightly spotted on the breast, and with a viimile bastard primary.
In autumn our Nightingale leaves Europe and even Asia Minor :
wintering as far south as Abyssinia and the Gold Coast.

The nest, commenced early in May, is composed of dead leaves
of the oak and other trees, and is usually placed on or near the
ground in low underwood and close hedgerow bottoms — always on
the warmer side. In Spain I have found it fully five feet from the
ground, in the tops of broad hedges and the sides of clipped
cypress and myrtle trees. The 4-6 eggs are mostly of an olive-
brown, but some birds, which often return to the same place, lay
eggs of a blue-green mottled with reddish-brown, somewhat
resembling those of the Bluethroat : measurements "8 by "6 in.
The young are hatched in June ; after which the male discontinues
his melodious song — uttered hitherto by day as well as by night in
genial weather — and merely retains a harsh croak. Spiders, ants,
and small green caterpillars are the food of the nestlings, and in
July and August the young frequent fields planted with peas and
beans ; the adults live on worms, insects, ants' eggs, fruit and
berries, especially those of the elder. Favourite resorts are small
woods at no great distance from water and the coppices bordering
damp meadows. The Nightingale does not bear captivity well, yet
birds have been kept through the winter, and have even reared
young in confinement. The well-known song needs no description ;
the alarm-note being a wate, ivate, cur-cur. In August the young
take their departure, the old birds remaining till September to com-
plete their moult. Migration is supposed to be performed singly
and not in flocks; but Mr. T. J. Monk states that on April 13th,
1872, Nightingales were resting in numbers under the bathing-
machines along the whole length of the shore at Brighton.

In the adult the upper parts are russet-brown shading into reddish-
chestnut on the tail-coverts and tail, the colour of the latter being
very noticeable in flight ; under parts greyish-white, turning to buff
on the flanks and breast ; bill, legs and feet brown. The sexes are
alike in plumage. Length 6-5 in. ; wing to tip of 3rd and longest
primary 3-35 in. The young in first plumage are darker, with
yellowish-brown shaft-streaks to the upper feathers and greyish-
brown bars on the under parts.

SYLVIIN.^^;.

41

THE \\' H I T E T H R O A T.

SvLviA ciXEREA, Bechstcin.

The Whitethroat arrives about the second week in April,
remaining until the beginning of September. Throughout England,
Wales and Ireland, it is the most generally distributed and plentiful
of the Warblers ; while in Scotland it is also common, and has
extended its breeding range to the Dornoch Firth and West Ross.
In the Outer Hebrides it is now known to nest near Stornaway,
and its autumnal occurrence in the Orkneys has recently been
authenticated, but its appearance in the Shetlands is exceptional.

The Whitethroat breeds up to about 65° N., in Scandinavia, and
southwards throughout Europe down to the Mediterranean. In
Asia Minor it is only found in summer, although said to be resident
in Palestine. It frequents the Canaries and Northern Africa in
winter, and its migrations extend down the west coast to Damara-
land. Eastward, it breeds in Turkestan and South-western Siberia,
wintering in Egypt, Abyssinia, and Arabia ; its place being taken in
the Altai and Tian-Shan Mountains, and North-western India, by
a larger, darker, and greyer form, distinguished as .S". fuscipilea. To
the north of the Caspian, the arid steppes beyond the Ural
Mountains appear to form the eastern boundary of our Whitethroat.

E

42

WHITETHROAT.

Hedge-rows and thickets overgrown with brambles are favourite
resorts of this lively bird, and owing to its predilection for beds of
nettles it is commonly known by the name of " Nettle-creeper." In
May the slight but rather deep nest, made of fine grass-stems and
lined with bents and horsehair, is usually placed low down in almost
any kind of coarse vegetation, or in straggling hedges ; the 4-6
eggs are greenish-white or stone-colour, blotched and sometimes
zoned with violet-grey and light brown : measurements 7 by "55 in.
The food consists largely of Tipuhe and other insects ; also fruit
and berries during the season. The alarm-note is harsh and scold-
ing : the male showing considerable annoyance at the presence of
an intruder on his domain, and often following the pedestrian for
some distance along a hedge-row, flitting from branch to branch
with every feather on the throat and crest extended, agitating the
outspread tail, and anon shooting almost perpendicularly into the
air. The female is less demonstrative, and generally skulks amongst
the herbage. The sweet but somewhat monotonous song of the
male, uttered in snatches with great energy, is frequently to be heard
by night as well as by day in May and June.

Adult male in spring : head and neck smoke-grey ; mantle and
wings brown, with broad rufous margins to the secondaries ; tail-
feathers brown, except the outer pair, which are mostly dull white,
the next pair having broad white tips ; chin and throat white,
passing into vinous-buff on the breast ; abdomen brownish-white,
darker on the flanks ; under wing smoke grey ; bill brown, lighter on
lower mandible ; legs and feet pale brown. Length 5-5 in.; wing
to end of 3rd and longest quill 2 '8 in. The female is duller, and
has the head brown like the back, while the vinous tint of the breast
is absent. The young are rather more tawny-brown and rufous.

Those Whitethroats which breed in the south of Europe, and
which migrate only a short distance southwards, are rather small in
size and brilliant in the contrast of their colours. A further step in
the process of evolution has produced a perfectly recognizable
species in the shape of Sylvia conspicillaia ; much smaller, with
more conspicuous ear-coverts, and far brighter colours ; but other-
wise, in habits, colour of eggs, t\:c., a miniature reproduction of
our bird. Everyone of ornithological tastes who has visited
Gibraltar, Malta, or almost any place in the Mediterranean basin,
will remember the Spectacled U'arbler, and appreciate the force of
the comparison.

SYLVIIN.E.

43

THE LESSER WHITETHROAT.

Sylvia curruca (Linnaeus).

The Lesser Whitethroat, as its name implies, is a smaller bird
than its congener ; and although it arrives in England about the
same time, or a trifle later, its distribution in our islands is decidedly
less extensive. Tolerably abundant in the southern, eastern and
midland counties, it becomes rarer in the west, and though it nests
in Somerset and Devon, it only visits Cornwall on migration. It
breeds regularly in Brecon, and its nest has been taken near
Cardigan Bay. To Cheshire and Lancashire it is a well-known
though not very numerous summer-visitor, and it is generally dis-
tributed in Yorkshire ; but it is local in the Lake district ; very rare
in Durham ; while, as regards Northumberland, Mr. G. Bolam has
recorded two examples in September, i88r, near Berwick-on Tweed.
In Scotland Mr. R. Service informs me that it is seldom met with
in Kirkcudbrightshire, although better known in the eastern part of
Dumfriesshire and down by the Borders, and he has only twice
found its nest ; it is said to breed sparingly and locally as far as
Stirlingshire ; but to the northern counties and in the outlying
islands it is at most a rare visitor. One is stated in the ' Scottish
Naturalist ' to have been shot by Mr. G. Sim in Aberdeenshire, on
November 4th, 1880, and Mr. Allan Briggs has recently recorded
two obtained on North Ronaldshay, Orkneys, in autumn. In

44 LESSER WHITETHROAT.

Ireland the first and only recorded example was taken at the
Tearaght lighthouse on October ist, 1S90.

In Scandinavia the Lesser Whitethroat breeds up to about 65°
N. lat ; while southward it is found in summer over the greater part
of temperate Europe. It is, however, rare in the south-west, though
I recently saw an individual in the Western Pyrenees, but a few pass
the winter to the east of Malaga, and in some years the species is
fairly common on migration about Valencia and Murcia. In Italy
it is very local ; but eastward it becomes more abundant, and in
Transylvania its numbers far exceed those of its relative. Beyond
the valley of the Lower Volga the doubtfully distinct Siberian form
^. affinis, replaces it ; in Kashmir, the Himalayas and the north-
west of India comes 6". althea ; while the Afghan S. miniiscula, Hume,
makes yet a fourth. Our typical bird winters in Northern and
Central Africa, Arabia, Palestine and Persia.

The nest is a shallow structure of dried grasses, lined with hair,
and is frequently placed in brambles or small bushes ; a predilection
being shown for hazel and thorn-hedges, whence the bird's Lan-
cashire name of ' Hazel-Linnet.' The 5-6 eggs, laid in May, are
creamy-white, blotched with brown, and with under-spots of grey :
measurements "65 by "5 in. The female sits very closely. The song
of the male is continued very late into the summer, and has been
syllabled as sip, sip, sip, frequently uttered in sultry weather ; the
alarm-note is check, check. The food consists of insects and their
larvK, and fruit in the season. The autumn departure generally
takes place in the latter part of September, but exceptional captures
up to November are on record.

Adult male : crown smoke-grey ; lores and ear-coverts dark
brown ; nape, back and tail-coverts brownish-grey ; wing-feathers
ash-brown, with paler tips and margins, but without the rufous
edgings to the secondaries, which are so conspicuous in the larger
species ; outer tail-feathers greyish brown with white outer webs ;
the rest of the feathers dark brown ; under parts white, with a faint
rosy tinge, fading into buff on the flanks ; bill blackish ; legs, which
are short and stout, slate-colour; iris white. Length 5-25 in. ; wing
to the tip of the 3rd and longest primary 2-6 in. The female is
rather smaller and generally duller in colour. The young are like
the female, except that the pale margins of the wing-feathers are
more pronounced, and the irides are reddish-brown.

Sundevall states that this species, the Greater Whitethroat, and
the Barred AVarbler, all have a spring moult. Mr. J. Young, who
has kept the Lesser Whitethroat for several years, confirms this as
regards some of the quill-feathers, but not all.

SYLVIIN^.

45

THE ORPHEAN WARBLER.

Sylvia 6rphea, Temminck.

According to the late Sir William M. E. Milner a female Orphean
Warbler was shot, and her mate observed, on July 6th, 1848, in a
small plantation near Wetherby, Yorkshire ; and from the state of
her plumage she was believed to have been incubating. Virtually,
however, the authority for this statement was Graham of York, a
bird-stufifer and purveyor of rarities ; but the bird is correctly named.
In June, 1866, as recorded by Mr. J. E. Harting, a young bird
unable to fly was caught near Holloway, in Middlesex, and having
been kept alive by Sergeant-major Hanley for nearly six months,
it was identified as an Orphean Warbler by the late Mr. E. Blyth.
Nests and eggs erroneously supposed to be those of this species
have been taken, but no other birds have as yet been identified.

In France the Orphean Warbler breeds sparingly in the Brenne
district, beyond the Loire ; more frequently in Poitou ; and com-
monly in the south-eastern provinces. In Portugal and Spain it is
abundant wherever the olive grows, and also among woods of
conifers. It is local on the mainland of Italy, and very rare in the
islands ; visits Savoy in summer, and is said to pass annually up the
valley of the Rhone to the Vosges, the vicinity of Metz, and
Luxembourg. It has never been obtained, though said to have
been seen, in Heligoland, Belgium, or Normandy. Rare in Tyrol,

46 ORPHEAN WARBLER.

it occurs regularly in Dalmatia, Greece, Southern Russia, Turkey,
Asia Minor and Palestine; while a form known as S. Jerdoni, with
a somewhat larger bill and brighter colouration, is found in Persia,
Turkestan and Northern India. South of the ^Mediterranean the
Orphean Warbler breeds in Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia ; visiting
Egypt, and pushing its winter migrations as far south as Nubia.
None remain in Europe during the winter.

The nest, a tolerably compact structure of dry grass, lined with
finer bents, thistle-down and the down of the cotton-grass, is
generally placed in bushes, such as tamarisks, or in young cork-
trees, about twelve feet from the ground. The eggs, usually five,
are greyish-white, blotched and slightly scrolled with various shades
of brown ; much resembling those of the Lesser Whitethroat, but
as large as those of the Garden-Warbler : measurements 78 by "6 in.
Nests which I obtained near Malaga often contained one, and
sometimes two eggs differing from the others in their abnormal size,
and microscopic examination of the texture of their shell by Mr.
Sorby, F.R.S., subsequently proved these to be eggs of the Cuckoo.
Incubation begins late in April, and while the female is sitting the
cock utters his song, louder and harsher than that of the Blackcap,
from some neighbouring branch. The food consists principally of
insects, varied by fruit in the season.

Adult male : head to below the eyes black, paler on the nape ;
upper parts dark brownish grey, with paler margins and tips to the
secondaries ; the outside pair of tail-feathers white on the outer
half ; the second and third pairs spotted with white at the tips ; the
remainder of all the feathers blackish-brown ; throat white ; breast
and flanks buffish-white ; under-tail coverts buff; bill nearly black,
paler at the base ; legs and feet dark brown ; iris straw-yellow. The
female differs merely in having less contrasted and browner tints.
The above descriptions are taken from a pair of birds obtained, with
their nest, at Malaga on May 23rd, 1869. Young birds resemble
the female. Length 6 in. ; wing, to the tips of the 3rd-4th and
longest primaries 3T in. The white on the outer tail-feathers will
always serve as a distinction between this species and the Blackcap.

Mr. W. D'Urban has stated that on April i6th, 1S90, he watched
in his garden at Exmouth a Warbler smaller than a Blackcap (which
was close by), with jet black head and pure white breast and under-
parts. The description suits Sylvia nielanocephala, a species which
is common in the South of France and the Peninsula, and which
might easily be swept up with the tide of migration.

SYLVIIN^.

47

THE BLACKCAP.

Sylvia atricapilla (Linn^us).

The principal arrival of this songster, hardly inferior to the
Nightingale, takes place in England about the middle of April ;
but occasionally some Blackcaps remain with us through the winter,
not only in the mild south-west, but even as far north as Berwick.
Even after a severe winter I once watched a male at a very short
distance, in Surrey, on March 5th, and Mr. Borrer has several times
heard its note as early as the ist of that month. The majority
depart for the south in September. Although somewhat local, the
Blackcap appears to be of tolerably general distribution throughout
England and Wales. In Scotland it becomes scarce as a breeder
beyond the Firths of Clyde and Forth, but its nest has been found
as far north as Ross shire ; while a pair attempted to establish
themselves in a garden in Unst, in the Shetlands, to which group,
as well as to the Orkneys, Caithness, Sutherland, and the Outer
Hebrides the bird is a visitor, chiefly on the autumn migration. In
the mild, moist climate of the south-west it remains until late in the
year, and Mr. R. Service captured one near Dumfries on November
29th, 1881 ; while Mr. H. Evans informs me that it is found in
Jura till December, and he believes it to be a resident. In Ireland
it occurs sparingly in summer, the nest having been found in the
counties of Dublin, Kildare, Wicklow, Carlow, Kilkenny, Tipperary,

48 ' BLACKCAP.

and Mayo ; while in winter its presence has been recorded several
times, especially in the south.

From Scandinavia below 66° N. lat., the Blackcap is found breed-
ing in every country of Europe, as well as in North Africa and
Palestine ; in fact, allowing for migration of individuals, the Black
cap appears to be a resident species in the basin of the Medi-
terranean. In the Cape Verd Islands a form breeds in January,
but later in the Canaries. In Madeira and the Azores, where it
appears to be resident, a variety with much more black on the
head and shoulders of the male bird is not unfrequent. Its winter
migrations have been traced to the Gambia, Abyssinia, and the Red
Sea ; Omsk in Siberia being its somewhat doubtful eastern limit.

The small but tolerably compact nest, built of dry grasses and
lined with horsehair, is generally placed a few feet from the ground
among bushes; a privet hedge being rather a favourite site. The
4-5 eggs, laid from May 9th onwards, are sometimes light yellowish-
brown blotched with a darker shade (like those of the Garden-
Warbler, though a little smaller ; ) in another variety the ground-
colour and the blotches are suffused with a beautiful reddish hue :
measurements 73 by "58 in. Two broods are reared in the season,
and the male takes his turn at incubation, chiefly in the daytime.
The food consists of insects, often taken on the wing ; berries of
the rowan, elder, &c. ; and fruit, especially raspberries and red-
currants, for the sake of which the nest is often placed in or near
orchards and gardens. In the south the bird also pecks figs and
oranges, and eats the berries of the pepper-tree.

Adult male: upper part of the head jet-black; nape ash grey ;
back, wings and tail ash-brown ; chin greyish-white ; throat, breast
and flanks ash grey ; belly white ; bill horn-brown ; legs and feet
lead-colour. Length 575 : wing to the end of the third and
longest quill 275 in. The female, which is somewhat larger,
has the top of the head bright reddish-brown, and the rest of
the plumage is browner than in the male. The young at first
resemble the female, but the males acquire the black head, with
merely brownish margins, during the first autumn.

It has been stated that in winter adult males assume the plumage
of the females ; but I have seen hundreds of birds with black heads
in the markets of Southern Europe at that season ; and Mr. John
Young, who kept a pair of Blackcaps alive for four years, assures
me that the male never changes colour after the first autumn moult.
In spring some, if not all, of the tail-feathers are said to be renewed,
but Mr. Young states that this is not his experience.

s^•LVII^■.T"..

49

THE GARDEN-WARBLER.

Sylvia hortensis, Bechstein.

Later in its arrival than the Blackcap, the Garden- Warbler seldom
comes to us before the end of April or beginning of May, and is
far more local than that species, although generally distributed over
the greater part of England. It is not known to breed in the
western portion of Cornwall, nor in Pembrokeshire, though it does
so in other counties of Wales, especially Merioneth, Cardigan and
Brecon. In Scotland, although it does not appear to be generally
distributed, Mr. R. Service informs me that it is more abundant in
the Solway district than the Blackcap ; it has been recorded as
nesting in Perthshire ; an example was obtained on Barra, Outer
Hebrides, on November 25th; and several have been taken on
North Ronaldshay, in the Orkneys, in autumn. In Ireland the
Garden-Warbler breeds in Fermanagh, Sligo, Roscommon, along
the Shannon Valley, and probably in other districts (Ussher). The
majority leave our islands about the end of September.

The Garden- Warbler is only a wanderer to the Faeroes ; but south
of 70° N. in Norway and about 65° N. in Finland and Russia, it
is found breeding through Europe down to the shores of the

F

50 GARDEN-WARr,LER.

]\Iediterranean ; it is, however, locally distributed, and although
common in Southern Spain, is not known to breed in Sicily or
Greece, yet it does so in Palestine. On migration it leaves Europe
by the middle of October, and, passing through Asia Minor and
Northern Africa, is found in winter down to Cape Colony. East-
ward its range appears to be bounded by the Caspian and the Ural
Mountains ; but possibly it may extend as far as Omsk, on the
Irtisch, in Siberia.

The nest, rather loosely made of grass stems externally, but with
a well-shaped inner cup of finer materials, is generally placed in low
brambles, shrubs and ferns ; sometimes among peas or in goose-
berry-bushes in a garden. The 4-5 eggs, laid from May 14th
onward, are white, marbled and blotched with shades of greenish-
and buffish-brown ; a good deal like one variety of those of the
Blackcap, but never, as in that species, suffused with a reddish tint :
they are also on the average a trifle larger and the shell is less
glossy : measurements 75 by "6 in. Incubation lasts 13 days, and
only one brood is, as a rule, reared in the season. The nestlings
are fed largely on insects, particularly on the caterpillar of the white
cabbage-butterfly ; but later, peas, fruit of all kinds and berries, are
largely consumed. From its partiality to figs this bird has acquired
the Italian name of Beccafico, which is, however, used as a compre-
hensive term for many other small species. Its song is continuous
and mellow, though softer and less rich than that of the Blackcap ;
the alarm-note being a harsh teck, resembling the sound made by
knocking two small pebbles together. In its habits the Garden-
Warbler is rather more shy and skulking than most of its congeners;
and it appears to be intolerant of rivalry, for it is often scarce in
those districts where the Blackcap abounds, and common where that
bird is scarce.

Adult male in May : entire upper parts olive-brown, with a paler
eye-streak ; quill-feathers darker brown with narrow whitish tips and
margins ; under parts mostly buffish-white, purer in the centre of
the belly, and darker on the flanks ; bill brown, paler at the base ;
legs and feet lead-colour with yellowish soles to the latter ; irides
hazel; eyelids white. Length 575 in. ; wing to the tip of the 3rd
and longest quill 3 in. The female is slightly paler. The young
are rather more greenish-olive than the adults, and have well-defined
pale margins to the secondaries.

SYLVIIN.t.

51

THE BARRED WARBLER.

Sylvia nisoria (Bechstein^

On ]March 4th, 1879, Professor Newton exhibited at a meeting
of the Zoological Society a specimen of the Barred Warbler which
had been shot many years previously in a garden near Queen's
College, Cambridge. Since attention was thus drawn to this species
as a visitor, eleven more examples have been obtained in the British
Islands. Between 1884 and 1896, four occurred in East Yorkshire
at dates varying from August 28th to November 13th, and three
near Blakeney, Norfolk, from August 31st to September loth. In
Scotland, one was shot at Broadford, Isle of Skye, on August i6th,
1884, and another was taken at Dhuheartach light, Argyll, on

F 2

52 BARRED WARBLER.

September Sth, 1S96. In Ireland, the late Dr. Birkett obtained one
at Belmullet, co. Mayo, on September 24th, 1884, and another,
taken at Rockabill light on September 25th, 1896, was sent to
Mr. R. M. Barrington in the flesh.

The Barred Warbler is a summer visitor to suitable localities in
the south of Sweden, Denmark, Germany east of the Rhine valley
— especially East Prussia, and Central Europe generally ; while in
the Mediterranean Nice is its western limit on migration, and in
Italy it appears to be restricted to the northern and north-eastern
provinces. It also nests in Bulgaria, Turkey, Southern Russia,
Persia and Turkestan ; in the latter at an altitude of 6,000 and
even up to 10,000 feet. In October or November it leaves Europe,
and probably winters in Central and North-Eastern Africa, having
been met with in Nubia and Northern Sennaar, among thorn-hedges
and thickets along the Nile.

Towards the end of May the nest, which is more neatly and
firmly constructed than is usual among the Warblers, is placed in a
bush, or on the branch of a tree near the ground, in a plantation ;
occasionally, however, at the height of some twenty-five feet. The
eggs, generally 5 in number, are buffishwhite marbled with grey,
not unlike those of the Grey Wagtail : measurements "85 by '62 in.
Only one brood is reared in the season. The food is principally
insects, but in summer and autumn fruit and wild berries are freely
eaten. The song is said to be little inferior to that of the Garden-
Warbler ; the call is a sharp chek and the alarm-note a rattling rhar.
Plantations, thickets and thorn-growth are favourite resorts.

Adult male in spring : upper parts ashy-grey, brighter on the head
and rump, browner on the wings ; upper tail-coverts barred with
dark slate and white ; upper wing-coverts slightly barred and tipped
witn white ; inner secondaries with broad white tips ; tail-feathers
tipped and margined on the inner webs with white, except the two
central ones, which are ashy grey with faint darker bars ; under
parts greyish-white with numerous grey transverse bars, deeper on
the flanks ; axillaries, under wing- and under tail-coverts mottled
white and grey ; bill brown, paler at the base ; legs and feet
brownish; iris pale yellow. Length 6-5 in. ; wing 3-4 in. Female :
browner and less barred. At first the young bird is hardly barred
at all, and much resembles a large Garden-Warbler with unusually
pale tips to the flight-feathers ; but subsequendy bars appear on the
buffish flanks and under tail-coverts, as well as on the rump, the
breast remaining dull white till the spring.

SYLVIIN.t:.

53

■J^'

SUBALPINE WARBLER.

Sylvia subalpina, Bonelli.

At a meeting of the British Ornithologists' Club on December
19th, 1894, Dr. R. Bowdler Sharpe exhibited a specimen of this
Warbler, forwarded to him by Mr. J. Steele Elliott of Dudley, who
had shot it on the island of St. Kilda, in the Outer Hebrides, in
June of the same year. In 'The Zoologist,' 1895, p. 282,
Mr. Elliott says : — " I first noticed it haunting the Minister's garden
on June 13th, busily employing itself searching for food along a row
of young peas ; and it frequently flew to a parsnip in seed that grew
in one corner of the garden, and which seemed to attract a greater
number of insects. This little bird allowed people to approach
quite close to it; and remained throughout Sunday until the
following day, when I shot it in the presence of Mr. Fiddles and
Mr. McKenzie, the factor. It was at once placed in spirits and
forwarded direct to Mr. J. Cullingford, of Durham, for preservation.
Its sex could not be ascertained with certainty. Its presence was
probably caused by the great gale that blew across the island on
June 12th, from the south-west."

The Subalpine Warbler, as its name implies, is a southern species ;
its nearest breeding-places being in the south-eastern districts of
France and in Savoy, where it arrives regularly about the middle of
April ; while it occasionally reaches Geneva and even Neuchatel.
In Spain I observed it in Murcia, and obtained birds, with nests
and eggs, from Malaga, as well as from the vicinity of Madrid ;
Col. Irby saw a small party at Cadiz on INIarch 27th, and the late

54 SUBALPINE WARBLER.

Lord Lilford took the nest south of Seville early in May. On the
African side of the IMediterranean this species is found from
Tangier to Egypt : it is local in Italy, chiefly haunting the western
slope of the Apennines ; common in Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily, and
other islands ; abundant in Greece and the Archipelago ; and
extends to Asia Minor and Palestine. Its winter quarters seem to
be in Northern Arabia, Kordofan and Senegambia ; but its reported
occurrence in the Canaries seems to be erroneous, and due to a
confusion with the Spectacled Warbler, to which allusion has been
made on p. 42.

The nest, of dry grass with a finer lining, is placed in a low bush ;
the 4-5 eggs vary from greenish-white with brown spots, to reddish-
white with violet-brown spots and streaks ; measurements "55 by
•48 in. In Savoy only one brood is reared in the season, but I
think that further south the bird is double-brooded, many nests
being found in June. The male ceases to sing in July, when
moulting begins. The bird is very active, working its way through
low bushes like a mouse, then suddenly appearing and as rapidly
dropping into cover again.

The mature male has a red ring round the eye ; crown, ear-
coverts and back dull grey ; wings browner ; tail-feathers greyish-
brown, with a good deal of white at the tips of the outer pair ; a
broad white moustache-like streak stretching from the base of the
bill backward ; throat and breast warm chestnut-red, flanks paler^
centre of belly whitish. Less mature birds have paler underparts.
Length 47 in., wing 2 '3 in. The female is less grey and more
inclined to brown on the upper parts ; there is little sign of ruddy
colour on the throat, and the flanks are nearly buff. The young
birds resemble the female at first, but the males begin to show red
on the throat before emiairatino;.

SYLVIIN.S.

55

THE DARTFORD WARBLER.

Sylvia undata (Boddaert).

This Warbler derives its trivial name from the fact that it was first
obtained near Dartford in 1773, by Latham; but subsequent
research has shown that, although local, it is more generally distri-
buted in England than was for a long time supposed. Allowing for
a little wandering, it may be described as a resident species in the
south, chiefly frequenting furze covered commons ; and, apparently,
extending its range both westward and northward of late years. It
is known to breed in nearly all the southern counties from Corn-
wall to Kent inclusive, especially in Hampshire (and the Isle of
Wight), Surrey and Sussex ; sparingly in the valley of the Thames,
and perhaps in some of the ]\Iidland counties ; while it has been
observed in Cambridgeshire and undoubtedly nests in Suffolk and
Norfolk. It is a skulking little bird, especially in dull rainy weather ;
and a patch of gorse holding two or three pairs may be easily passed
over, even by a careful observer, as untenanted. In Ireland it has
never been seen.

It is possible that our stock of Dartford Warblers may be
replenished from Normandy and the Channel Islands, though the
bird is rather rare in the latter ; but as a rule it migrates little, and
no specimens exist to prove that it occurs in Belgium, Llolland,
Germany, or Heligoland. It is found throughout France in suitable
localities, especially from the foot of the Western Pyrenees eastward ;

56 DARTFORD WARULER.

in many parts of Portugal and Spain it is common, and I have
watched it singing among the orange-gardens of Murcia, while it
nests in the sierras of the south at elevations of from 1,000 to
3,000 feet. In Morocco and Algeria it is also resident, and it has
been recorded from Lower Egypt and Palestine ; but in Europe its
eastern range is hardly known to extend beyond Italy and Sicily,
the bird seldom reaching Malta. In Liguria, Corsica, Sardinia, and
the Balearic Islands, it is to a great extent replaced by a close ally,
S. sarda, of a nearly uniform grey tint.

The nest in this country is placed among the branches of the
thickest furze ; but on the Continent, especially in the south,
broom and heather are selected. The materials are principally
goose-grass and the softer shoots of furze, with a little wool and
moss ; the second nest of the season being generally more flimsy
than the first, though on the whole the structure is tolerably com-
pact. The 4-5 eggs are greenish-white, with olive or reddish-brown
markings — bolder than on those of the Whitethroat : measure-
ments "68 by "5 in. The first nest is built about the middle of
April ; the second in June or July. The food of both old and young
consists principally of moths and other insects ; but in autumn wild
fruits are added. In its habits the Dartford Warbler is a restless
bird, flitting from the top of one furze bush to another, with a quick
and very undulating flight, and alighting in an abrupt manner as if
the action were the result of an after-thought ; the long meagre tail
being spread for an instant, as if to aid the bird in an effort to
retain its balance. On the wing the adult looks very dark : like a
black long-tailed AVren. The usual note is a pit-it-chou, whence the
French name Pitchou ; but a scolding cha-cha is emitted when the
bird is irritated. In severe winters its numbers are liable to be
greatly reduced.

Adult male : upper parts dark slate-grey ; wings dark: brown with
paler margins to the secondaries \ the long dark fan-shaped tail with
white outer margins and tips to the two exterior feathers ; chin,
throat, breast and flanks rufous-chestnut in spring, but streaked and
spotted with white in autumn ; lower breast and belly dull white ;
bill horn-brown at the tip, yellowish at the base ; legs and feet pale
brown ; irides and eyelids orange-yellow. Length 5-1 in. ; wing to
the tip of the 4th and longest quill, 2-2 in. The female is rather
smaller, browner, and shows less chestnut on the breast. The young
are still paler, and whiter on the lower parts ; irides brown.

Owing to its short, rounded wing, and comparatively long tail, this
species has been made the type of a genus, Melizophilus, Leach.

SYLVIIN.t. 57

THE GOLDEN-CRESTED WREN.

Regulus cristatus, K. L. Koch.

This tiniest of British, and indeed of European birds, is generally
distributed throughout our islands; breeding, as a rule, wherever it is
found, except in the Outer Hebrides, Orkneys and Shetlands, which
it visits, but in which there are few plantations of conifers to invite
its residence. On the mainland of Scotland there has been a marked
increase in its numbers of late years, owing to the cultivation of firs
and larches. It has been noticed since 1822 that in autumn immense
flocks sometimes arrive on our east coast, extending quite across
England and St. George's Channel into Ireland; in 1882 a migration-
wave of this description, commencing on August 6th and lasting 92
days, reached from the Channel to the Faeroes; in 1883 the migration
lasted 82 days ; and again, in 1884, for a period of 87 days. Similar
'waves' passed over Heligoland, with the exception of the last year,
when, strange to say, the numbers were below the average. An
unusual spring 'rush' took place in March and April, 1882. On
such occasions bushes in gardens on the coast are covered with birds
as with a swarm of bees ; crowds flutter round the lanterns of light-
houses, and the rigging of fishing-smacks in the North Sea is
thronged with weary travellers. In April a return migration ensues.

58 GOLDEN-CRESTED WREN.

From about 67° N. lat., the limit of the fir-woods in Scandinavia,
and from Archangel and the Ural Mountains in Russia, the Golden-
crest is generally distributed over Europe down to the Mediterranean
and Black Seas ; it is also a regular migrant to INIalta in spring and
autumn, on its way to and from North Africa. Eastward, it stretches
across Asia to the Amur ; examples from Asia Minor, Turkestan
and the Himalayas being intermediate between our form and
R. cristatus var. japo?iicus, with a greyish-brown nape, resident in
Japan. At the other extremity of its range, a local race named by
Seebohm R. cristatus var. azoricus, distinguished by its much larger
bill, stouter legs, and longer tail, is found in the Azores ; but the
Canaries appear to be frequented by the typical form.

The beautiful nest of the Golden-crested Wren is generally placed
beneath the extremity of a branch of a fir, yew, cedar, or other
evergreen ; the almost spherical structure being upheld by the
lateral twigs. Occasionally it has been found upon the upper sur-
face of a branch, or against ivy-covered trees, and even in a low
bush. Built of the softest moss, felted with spiders' webs, wool,
and a few lichens, and having a lining of small feathers, it is
frequently ready for eggs by the latter part of March. These, 5-8
and even 10 in number, are buff-white, minutely freckled, especially
at the larger end, with reddish-brown : measurements '52 by '4 in.
The female sits very close. The sweet, but rather weak song of the
male, uttered almost incessantly in fine weather, is often commenced
in February ; the call note is a rather shrill si-si-si. Insects seem to
form the chief food of this sociable little bird, which may often be
seen in winter searching for the means of subsistence in the woods
and groves, together with Tits and Tree-Creepers.

Adult male : forehead to above the eye, greyish-white, surmounted
by a dark brown frontal streak, deepening into a black line below
each side of the crest, which is bright yellow in front and rich
orange further back ; neck and back yellowish olive-green ; tail-
feathers ash-brown, with yellowish margins ; wings ash-brown, with
white spot-like tips to the secondaries, and a black bar across the
upper part, contrasting with the white margins of the median and
greater wing-coverts ; under parts greenish-buff, whiter on the belly ;
bill very dark brown ; legs and feet brown : irides hazel. Length
3*6 in. ; wing to the tip of the 5th and longest primary 2-1 in. The
female is duller than the male, with narrower black streaks below
the crest, which is only lemon-yellow. The young bird has no
crest, but the crown is rather darker in colour than the back.

SVLVIIN.t. 59

THE FIRE-CRESTED WREN.
Regulus ignicapillus (C. L. Brehm).

The Fire-crested Wren can only be considered an irregular
visitor to our shores, and Mr. J. H. Gurney, in an excellent analysis
of its supposed occurrences ('Zoologist,' 1889, p. 172) throws
justifiable doubt on the correctness of some of the identifications,
notably the first, near Cambridge in 1S32, on the strength of which
the species was admitted to the British list. However, between the
months of October and April in various years, many genuine
examples have been obtained on our southern and eastern coasts,
chiefly in Cornwall and the Scilly Islands ; more than twenty in
Sussex ; and some in every littoral county up to Yorkshire ; a few in
Berkshire, Oxfordshire, and Shropshire ; and one (coll. E. Bidwell)
near Pwllheli, North Wales, on March 24th, 1878. There are no
authenticated records for Scotland or Ireland.

The Fire-crested AVren has a much less extended range northward
than its congener ; it is unknown in Scandinavia ; barely reaches
Denmark, though often visiting Heligoland ; and does not occur to
the north-east of the Baltic Provinces of Germany. It is rather
partial to some parts of the Rhine district in summer ; and, although
local in its distribution, breeds in France, Spain, Italy, Switzerland,
Central and Southern Germany, Greece, Turkey, and Southern
Russia ; while in the Taurus range of Asia Minor it is more abundant
than the Golden-crest. In the mountain-forests of Algeria, and in
some parts of Southern Europe, the Fire-crest is resident throughout

6o FIRE-CRESTED WREN.

the year ; its numbers being augmented in winter by migrants
from the north. In Madeira it is represented by R. maderensis,
with dull-gold crest, dark grey nape, and no black streak behind the
eye ; while a form with greyish-white lores found in the Canaries
was distinguished by Seebohm as -R. teneriffce.

The nest of the Fire-crest is similar to that of the Golden-crest ;
but the 7-10 eggs may always be recognized by the much redder
tinge of their ground-colour and spots : measurements '52 by "42 in.
In Germany the branches of a fir-tree are almost invariably selected,
the nest being seldom found in larches ; and the same trees are
frequented year after year. In the above country nesting does
not begin before May ; but in the south of Spain the young are
able to fly by the middle of that month. Insects and spiders
constitute the food. In the Pyrenees, with excellent opportunities
for observing the habits of both species, I noticed that the Fire-
crest was much more restless and erratic in its movements, darting
away suddenly after a very short stay upon the gorse-bush or tree
where it was feeding, and being often seen alone or in parties of two
or three at most ; whereas the Golden-crests, five or six together,
would work steadily round the same bush, and, if I remained quiet,
would stop there for many minutes. The note of the Fire-crest is
a soft s/V, zit.

The adult male has a golden frontal band, which unites on each
side with a white streak passing above and behind the eye, and
separating a parallel black line from the broader and blacker upper
bands which enclose the rich orange yellow crest. This black line
through the eye is one of the principal features which distinguish
the Fire-crest from the Golden-crest; another important characteristic
being the sulphur-green tint on the sides of the neck and shoulders.
From the gape runs a third and smaller black streak. Mantle olive-
green ; wings and tail brown, margined with yellowish-green ; the
former doubly barred on the upper parts with brown and white ;
under parts dull buffish-white ; bill black ; legs and feet brown.
Length 37 in.; wing 2\ in. The female differs in having a paler
crest. The young bird has no crest until after the first moult, but
the characteristic triple band is always indicated.

An example of the American Ruby-crowned Wren, R, calendula,
now in the British Museum, is said to have been shot near Loch
Lomond in 1852, by the late Dr. Dewar, in whose cabinet this very
conspicuous bird lay unrecorded for six years, when it was recognized
by the late R. Gray !

SYLVIIN.1-:. 6l

THE YELLOW-BROWED WARBLER.
Phylloscopus superciliosus (J. F. Gmelin).

This wanderer from Asia was introduced to the British list by the
late John Hancock, who shot an example, now in the Newcastle
Museum, on September 26th, 1838, on the sea-banks near Hartley,
Northumberland, about four miles north of the Tyne. A second
example, recorded by Gould as having been obtained near Chelten-
ham on October nth, 1867, by Mr. J. T. White, passed into the
collection of the late Sir John Harpur Crewe, while in the same
month and year Mr. Pechell shot two in Scilly. On Septem-
ber 25th, 1886, the first Scottish specimen was taken at the lantern
of Sumburgh Head lighthouse, Shetland, by Mr. James Young-
clause, as recorded by Mr. Harvie-Brown, to whom it was sent in the
flesh ; on October 14th, 1890, the first Irish example was recorded
from the Tearaght light by Mr. R. M. Barrington ; on October 7th,
1892, Mr. G. H. Caton Haigh shot the bird now figured near Great
Cotes, Lincolnshire ; three appear to have been taken near Beverley,
Yorkshire, and one in Norfolk, in October, 1894 ; others are said
to have been seen in Holderness, as well as in South Devon.

On the Continent identified examples have been obtained, at
intervals, near Berlin, A-^ienna, the Hague, Leyden, Hjelm in Den-
mark, and on the Riviera ; while on Heligoland the Yellow-browed
Warbler has been taken or seen more than eighty times between
1846 and the end of 1887 — on its autumn migrations, with the
exception of two in April and May (Gatke). Its summer home
appears to be in the pine-forests of North-eastern Siberia, from the
valley of the Yenesei eastward to the Pacific, and from the moun-

62 YELLOW-F.ROWED WARBLER.

tains of Lake Baikal northward to the .Vrctic circle. The bird
passes through Mongolia and North China on migration, and winters
in South China, Assam, Burma and North-eastern India (Seebohm).
Canon Tristram obtained it at Jericho ; and Severtzoff found it
nesting in Turkestan up to about 8,500 feet.

The account of the finding in Kashmir of a nest and eggs supposed
to belong to this species, was given by Mr. W. E. Brooks in ' The
Ibis' for 1872; and reproduced in the 4th Edition of ' Yarrell's
British Birds,' as well as in Mr. Dresser's ' Birds of Europe ' ; but
the parent bird was subsequently distinguished by Mr. Brooks
himself as P. hwnii. Seebohm obtained the first authenticated nest
of the typical Yellow-browed Warbler, on June 26th, 1877, in the
forest between the Kurayika and the Yenesei. It was built in a
slight tuft of moss and bilberry, domed, exactly like the nest of
our Willow-Wren, and composed of dry grass and moss, with a
lining of reindeer-hair. The eggs, 6 in number, are pure white,
thickly spotted at the larger end with reddish-brown ; measurements
•6 in. by '45 in., one of them being figured by Seebohm on PL 10
of his ' British Birds,' a work which contains the best account
extant of this Warbler. In its habits, says Gatke, this bird has little
affinity with the restless Golden-crests, which it only resembles in
size and the double bar across the wings ; and in Heligoland it is
universally known by a name equivalent to ' Barred AVillow-AVarbler.'
When it alights on a tree, it begins at the lower branches and works
steadily up to the top, searching for its insect food. Gatke describes
the note as hyiif^ a little drawn out.

The bird in autumn has the crown olive-brown, with a very pale
ill-defined line down the centre ; a strong yellowish-white stripe
over the eye from the base of the bill to the nape ; a short streak of
the same colour beneath the eye, and a narrow dusky band passing
through the eye to the ear-coverts ; neck, back and rump olive-
green ; ridge of the wing bright lemon-colour ; wing-feathers dusky,
with pale yellow edges which become broader and whiter on the
secondaries ; two conspicuous bands of lemon-colour across the
coverts (in the Golden-crest these markings are spot-like) ; tail
brown, the inner web of the outer feathers edged with white ; under
parts pale yellow on the flanks, whiter on the belly, bill brown, paler
at the base ; legs and toes brown, with the under surface of the toes
inclining to yellow. In summer the green and yellow of the plumage
have largely suffered from abrasion, and the general tints are olive-
grey. Length 3-8 in. ; wing 2 "15 in.

SYLVIIX.^L.

PALLAS'S WILLOW-WARBLER.

Phylloscopus proregulus (Pallas).

On October 31st, 1896, a specimen of this small Warbler was shot
by Mr. Ramm, amongst the long grass by the sea-wall at Cley-next-
the-Sea, Norfolk, and proved on dissection to be a female, probably
adult. It was recorded by Mr. T. Southwell ('Zoologist,' 1896,
p. 467), exhibited by Mr. Dresser at a meeting of the Zoological
Society of London on December ist, and full details have since
appeared in 'The Zoologist' for 1S97, pp. 5-12; as well as in the
Tr. Norw. Soc, vi. pp. 210-290, from Mr. Dresser, who has added
valuable notes on other rare Warblers.

Pallas's Warbler was for some time known to us by Gould's trivial
name of " Dalmatian Regulus," commemorative of the reported
place of capture of the first European example, in 1829. Hancock's
A^ellow-browed Warbler, shot near Newcastle in 1838, was supposed
to be this species until 1S63, when Swinhoe pointed out the error,
and Hancock subsequently rectified his identification (' Ibis ' 1867,
p. 252). On October 6th, 1845, Glaus Aeuckens, of Heligoland
(then a lad), killed a small Warbler with a stone, completely
crushing it, but he brought an undamaged wing and " a portion of
the lower back with part of the lemon-yellow plumage still adhering to
it" to the late H. Giitke, and in 1879 comparison with a Siberian
skin of Pallas's Warbler showed that the wanderer to Heligoland
was that species. Another was watched at short distance by
Aeuckens and his nephew, on October 2gth, 1875, but the bird was
sheltering under the edge of the cliff from a violent east wind, and

SYLVIIN^,. 65

THE GREENISH WHXOW-WARBLER.
Phylloscopus viridanus, Blyth.

On September 5th 1896 IMr. G. H. Caton Haigh shot a female
of this Warbler at North Cotes, Lincolnshire, and this specimen,
having been exhibited at the Meeting of the British Ornithologists'
Club on October 21st, forms the subject of the present illustration.
Mr. Haigh has remarked that " the weather prevailing at the time
of its appearance was such as usually results in a great immi-
gration of small birds ; the wind backing to the east on the night
of September 3rd, and blowing from that quarter on the 4th and
5th, with heavy rain commencing to fall on the afternoon of the
4th, and continuing without intermission for twenty-four hours."
Ornithologists who deliberately go out to search for birds under such
circumstances richly deserve the success which may reward one
excursion out of a hundred.

On Heligoland the Greenish Willow-Warbler was obtained on
September 25th 1878, May 30th 1879, ^"d June 3rd 1880. No
other occurrences are known as yet in the Western half of Europe,
but in Russia the species is found no farther off than the Olonetz
department — a trifle to the north-east of St. Petersburg, Jaroslav
and Kazan. Its true summer home is, however, more to the east-
ward, on the wooded slopes of the Ural Mountains and the banks
of the river of the same name, in Transcaspia, Turkestan, the
Tian Shan Mountains (probably the Altai), and the Himalayas;
while in winter the bird visits the greater part of the peninsula of
India, and Ceylon.

A newly-made nest, found by Mr. W. E. Brooks in Kashmir, at

G

66 GREENISH WILLOW-WARBLER.

an elevation of about ii,ooo feet, is described as domed and placed
on the steep side of a ravine full of small birch trees ; but it was
empty, and the eggs are still undescribed. According to Dr. Scully,
Blyth, and other observers, this Warbler frequents small bushes and
is of restless habits ; its note is said by them to be weak and
resembles tiss-yip, tiss-yipp, often repeated ; while Sabanaeff says
that — in the breeding-season — its note is a very shrill psi, psi. The
bird is the Greenish Tree-Warbler of Jerdon.

The adult is similar to our Willow- AVren (p. 70), but is greener
on the upper parts and decidedly less yellow below, the under edge
of the wing being nearly white ; the tips of the greater wing-coverts
are yellowish-white, and form a conspicuous single bar; bill brown
above, yellowish-brown below; tarsi dark olive. Length, 4'25 in. ;
wing 2*25 in.

SYLVIIN.tE.

67

THE CHIFFCHAFF.

Phylloscopus rufus (Bechstein).

The Chiffchaff is the earUest visitor among our spring migrants ;
the familiar note, from which its name is derived, being some-
times heard at the beginning of March, while a few birds often
pass the winter in various sheltered portions of our islands,
especially in Devon and Cornwall. Tolerably abundant in summer
in our southern counties, and particularly so in the south-west and
midlands, the Chiffchaff is somewhat rare, or local, in Norfolk,
Lancashire and the north-west of Yorkshire ; but more frequent in
Cumberland, Westmorland, Durham and Northumberland. In
Scotland it is everywhere much scarcer than the Willow-Wren, and
very rare to the north-west of the Great Glen, while merely a
straggler to the Outer Hebrides and Orkneys. In Ireland it breeds
in every wooded district.

In Northern Europe the Chiffchaff ranges in summer to a little
above the Arctic circle and as far east as the valley of the Volga,
beyond which it is replaced by the Siberian Chiffchaff, Phylloscopus
tristis, a rather smaller bird, browner and duller in coloration. South-
ward, our Chiffchaff is generally distributed in suitable localities
as far as the shores and islands of the Mediterranean, and is
more or less resident south of the Pyrenees and the Alps ; while
its numbers are largely augmented at the times of migration and in
winter. At the latter season it is abundant in some parts of Africa
down to Abyssinia ; also in Arabia, Palestine, Asia Minor and

G 2

68 CHIFFCHAFF.

Persia. In the Canary Islands a smaller form, P. foriunatus of
Canon Tristram, is resident.

The nest of the Chiffchaff is usually placed near to, but a little
above the ground, in rank vegetation or ferns ; occasionally in ivy
against a wall, at an elevation of a couple of feet or so, while
instances are on record in England of the nest having been found
from three to nine feet up, in laurel, holly, bramble, and other
bushes. In this country nidification begins about the end of April ;
the oval domed nest, with a hole rather nearer the top than the
middle, being composed of dry grass, leaves and moss, with an
abundance of feathers as a lining. The eggs, commonly 6 in num-
ber, are of a pure or creamy-white, spotted with purplish-brown,
and sometimes with underlying blotches of violet-grey ; occasionally
they are spotted with pale red : average measurements "6 by '45 in.
A second brood is produced in June. The song, if such it may
be called, ends in May, to begin again in September, and by
it the presence of the bird is often betrayed while the owner of the
voice is invisible, for the Chiffchaff frequents the branches of loftier
trees than the Willow-Wren does ; groves of tall elms and larches
being peculiarly attractive. Its food consists of insects and their
larvffi. By October the autumn migration from our islands may be
said to have terminated, except for those individuals which, as
already stated, remain till December or even through the winter,
and these, if severe weather sets in, pay the penalty for running
such a risk.

Adult in spring : — olive-green on the upper parts, rather yellower
on the rump ; a pale yellow streak above the eye, passing into
white behind the ear-coverts ; wing-coverts, quills and tail-feathers
dull brown, edged with olive-green ; chin, throat, breast, belly and
lower tail-coverts dull white, tinged with greenish-buff; under wing-
coverts pale yellow ; bill brown ; iris hazel ; legs and feet very dark
brown. Length 4-6 in. ; wing 2-35 in. ; tarsus '6 in. The plumage
is alike in both sexes. The young are slightly greener than the
adults and the eye-streak is fainter. After the autumn moult the
yellow tint in the plumage is much more pronounced.

The Chiffchaff may be distinguished from the Willow- Wren by its
smaller size, duller hue, darker legs, and more rounded wing. The
2nd quill is equal in length to the 7th, and the outer webs are
emarginated near their tips up to the 6th inclusive. In the Willow-
Wren thisemargination only reaches to the 5th, and the 2nd is equal
in length to the 6th quill.

SYLVIIN.T.

69

THE WILLOW-WREN.

Phylloscopus trochilus (Linnaeus).

The Willow-Wren makes its appearance in the southern portions
of this country about the first week in April, and from that time
until the middle of September it is by far the most abundant of
the three species of small greenish-yellow Warblers which annually
visit us. In England it is generally distributed, although somewhat
local in Cornwall ; and it is common in suitable parts of Wales.
To the mainland of Scotland it is a regular and abundant summer-
visitor, and in the northern districts its numbers have considerably
increased of late years ; but to the Outer Hebrides, Orkneys and
Shetlands (as well as the Faeroes) it appears to be only a wanderer,
chiefly in autumn. In Ireland it is very common. Occurrences of
this bird in winter, in the milder districts of our islands, have often
been recorded.

The Willow-Wren ranges nearly as far as the northern extremity of
the Continent in summer, while southward it breeds throughout the
greater part of Europe down to the Straits of Gibraltar, and eastward
to the Caucasus ; in Siberia to as far as the valley of the Yenesei.
Its winter-quarters may be said to begin in the south of France, and
extend throughout the basin of the Mediterranean ; but the majority

70 WILLOW-WREN.

of birds pass on to the oases of Africa, and some even to Cape
Colony. It is not improbable that a limited number pass the
summer in suitable localities in Northern Africa.

The domed nest, loosely constructed of dry grass, and always
lined with feathers, is generally placed among long herbage on the
ground, but sometimes at the foot of a bush; exceptionally up to four
feet from the ground, or even in a hole in a wall. The shape of the
nest has procured for this species and its congeners the name of
"Oven-birds"; while in many places the Willow- Wren is also known
as the " Hay-bird," from the dry materials employed, or perhaps
from the fact that the nest is often found in the corner of a hay-field.
The 6-8 eggs are white, blotched and speckled with much lighter
red than is the case with the eggs of the Chiffchaff, but exceptionally
they are pure white: average measurements '62 by 46 in. In
England the first brood is hatched about the middle of May, a second
being often produced in June. The merry song of the Willow-
Wren, consisting of a few often-repeated notes, may be heard during
the season in nearly every coppice ; and sometimes calls attention
in our London parks to a begrimed songster which would otherwise
be almost unrecognizable. When the bird is aware that its nest is
approached, or when calling its young together, its usual note is a
plaintive wJdt or tewy, and at such times great solicitude and dis-
regard of danger are displayed. Inasmuch as its food consists
chiefly of flies, aphides^ and other insects, this species is useful to
the gardener, although it pecks and damages currants and other fruit
to an unimportant extent.

The adult male in spring has the upper parts olive-green, yellower
on the rump ; a yellowish streak over the eye and ear-coverts ;
wings and tail olive-brown, margined with greenish-yellow ; under
parts yellowish-white, more sulphur-coloured on the flanks ; under
wing-coverts brimstone-yellow ; bill, legs and feet brown. Length
4*9 in. ; wing 27 in. ; tarsus 7 in. The sexes are alike in plumage.
In autumn the general tint is yellower, especially in young birds.

Varieties of the Willow- Wren are uncommon ; but in May 1861
a primrose-coloured bird was shot in Surrey (Harting), and in
August of the same year a similar example was shot in Suffolk
(Stevenson).

The Willow-Wren may be distinguished from the Chiffchaff by its
larger size, generally yellower tinge, paler tarsi, and by having the
outer edges of the primaries emarginated as far only as the 5th
inclusive ; whereas in the Chiffchaff the 6th is also emarginated.

sylviina:.

71

THE WOOD-WREN.
Phylloscopus sibilatrix (Bechstein).

The Wood- Wren, the largest of the three members of the genus
which habitually visit us, is the latest to arrive, seldom appearing
even in the south of England before the middle of April ; while in
September it departs for the winter. Owing to its marked prefer-
ence for woods — especially of beech and of oak — it is more local
in its distribution than the two preceding species ; for example,
although very common in some of the eastern parts of Cornwall, it
is of rare occurrence in the west of that county. It is to be found
in suitable localities throughout England, and, locally, in Wales (abun-
dantly in Merioneth) ; while in St. Leonard's and Tilgate Forests
in Sussex, the New Forest, Sherwood Forest, and the woodlands of
Cumberland, Westmorland, Yorkshire, Durham and Northumberland
it may be called numerous. In Scotland it is fairly distributed,
and has apparently spread northward of late years, being recorded
by Messrs. Harvie-Brown and Buckley as breeding in the south-east
of Sutherlandshire, and as having been identified at Dunbeath in
Caithness, and in West Ross. The late Mr. A. C. Chapman
recognized it on North Uist, in the Outer Hebrides. In Ireland its
eggs have been found in Galway, while the bird has frequently been
observed in Wicklow, and occasionally in some other counties.

The Wood-Wren has only once been proved to visit Norway, but it
is found in Sweden as far north as Upsala ; while it is very common

72 WOOD-WREN.

in the Baltic provinces, though rarer in South Finland, and only a
straggler to Archangel. Eastward it can be traced to Kazan, the
lower valley of the Volga, the Caucasus, and the western shore of
the Caspian. In Palestine, Asia Minor, and Greece, it chiefly
occurs on migration : but it breeds in Turkey and the greater part
of Europe, although rarely in the extreme south ; while it is only a
migrant in Spain, and almost unknown in Portugal. Tt appears
probable that a few remain during the summer in the mountain forests
of the Atlas ; the winter migrations extending to Madeira, the
Canaries, and the Gold Coast on the west side of Africa, as well as to
Abyssinia on the east. Notwithstanding its comparatively long
wings, the ^^'ood-Wren appears to hug the land on passage far more
closely than is customary with the Willow- Wren and the Chiffchaff,
thousands of which annually visit Heligoland on their migrations ;
whereas the A\'ood-Wren is seldom met with there.

Like its congeners, this species makes a domed nest of dry grass,
but there is }to lining of feathers. Sloping wooded banks are
favourite situations for the nest, which often is not merely 07i the
ground, but is actually set in some natural hollow among scanty
undergrowth and dry leaves. The hen at times sits very closely,
and when fairly beaten out she will feed in an unconcerned manner
for a quarter of an hour or more, uttering a Xq-^ pi-b ; after which she
works round to a branch above her nest, drops down abruptly, and
enters it in an instant. The 5-7 eggs, laid about mid-May, are white,
thickly spotted and frequently zoned with purplish-brown and violet-
grey : average measurements "65 by '55 in. {P. bonellii — a miniature
Wood-Wren, common on the Continent, especially in the south — lays
similar but much smaller eggs.) The food is principally insects,
often taken on the wing, and berries in the season. The call-note
is dee-ur, dee-ur, dee-ur ; the shivering song, which may be syllabled
as chit, chit, chit, chit, chitr, tr-tr-tr-tr-tr-tre, is accompanied by rapid
vibrations of the wings and tail.

In spring the adult has a broad and characteristic sulphur-yellow
streak above and behind the eye ; the upper parts yellowish-green ;
wings greyish-brown, edged with yellowish, turning whiter on the
inner secondaries ; tail greyish-brown ; belly and under tail-coverts
white ; breast and throat sulphur-yellow ; bill, legs and feet brown.
Length 5-2 in. ; wing, to the tip of the 3rd and longest quill, 3-1
in. ; the first or bastard quill being very short ; tarsus 7 in. In
plumage the sexes are alike ; the young differ in being rather
yellower than the adults. The coloration, larger size, and propor-
tionately long wing distinguish this species from its allies.

I

SYLVIIN.^.

73

THE RUFOUS WARBLER.

Aedon galact6des (Temminck).

The Rufous Warbler is a southern species, which has been
obtained in England, as a straggler, on three occasions. The first
example was shot by the late Mr. Swaysland near Brighton on
September i6th 1854, and according to Mr. W. Borrer of Cowfold,
who recorded it, the bird was a male preparing to moult. On
September 25th 1859, after the prevalence for a w-eek of a strong
southerly wind, a very thin bird, which had lost its tail, was shot at
the Start, in Devonshire, by Mr. W'. D. Llewellyn, who presented it
to the British Museum. A third was obtained in a turnip-field near
Slapton, Devon, on October 12th 1876, as recorded by Mr. H.
Nicholls (Zool. s.s. p. 5179). These occurrences, all in autumn,
show that the individuals in question were merely wind-driven waifs
from the south ; nor is it likely that many others have escaped
observation, the bird being conspicuous by its plumage and habits.
It resembles a large pale-coloured Nightingale, with white tips and
black spots on a broad fan-shaped tail.

The Rufous Warbler does not appear to visit France, or even the

74 RUFOUS WARBLER.

northern portions of the Peninsula ; but in Southern Portugal and
Spain it is abundant from the third week in April until the end of
September. To the mainland of Italy it is a somewhat rare
straggler ; but it visits Malta on its migrations to and from Northern
Africa, where, from Morocco to Egypt, it is generally distributed
throughout the greater part of the year. In winter it goes to
Abyssinia, and has been found in the mountains of that country in
May at an elevation of 3,500 feet. In April, according to Canon
Tristram, it arrives in Palestine, and breeds to the south of Beyrout ;
but north of the Lebanon we meet with a very closely-allied species,
Aedon familinris, which is much less rufous on the upper parts,
and has the central pair of tail-feathers brown instead of chestnut.
The latter breeds in Asia Minor, Persia, Turkey, Greece, the
Caucasian district, and Turkestan ; wandering, strange to say, across
the line of Aedon galacfodes, to Italy, Nice, and even Heligoland.

Breeding begins by the end of May ; the rather bulky nest being
often placed, without any attempt at concealment, at some distance
from the ground, on a branch or in a fork of a tamarisk bush ; some-
times between the roots of a tree in a bank-side ; and frequently in
the cactus-hedges which border vineyards. Wool, hair, feathers and
any soft materials are used for the lining, amongst which a piece of
snake's-skin is generally to be found. The eggs, usually 5 in
number, are pale grey, streaked and blotched with ash-brown and
dull violet, much resembling those of the Tawny Pipit : measure-
ments -88 in. by -Gt, in. In its habits this bird is lively and restless,
constantly flirting its expanded tail ; whence its Spanish names of
' Alza-cola,' and ' Alza-rabo.' I have not found it to be at all shy,
until it becomes conscious of being watched and followed : a pro-
ceeding which it naturally resents, as do most birds. The original
English name of Rufous Sedge Warbler is remarkably inappropriate,
as the bird is never seen in sedges, and is rather partial to arid
places. Its food consists of insects. The song resembles that of
the Redbreast, delivered in Thrush-like jerks (Aplin).

Adult male : upper parts chestnut-brown ; a broad whitish streak
above the eye to the nape ; quills brown with reddish-bufif margins ;
tail rich chestnut with a narrow blackish terminal band on the two
central feathers, and a broad sub-terminal black band with increasingly
large white tips from the centre to the outer feathers ; under parts
sandy-white, more tawny on the breast and flanks ; bill, legs and
feet brown. I^ength 6-5 in. ; wing to the end of the 3rd and longest
quill 3-5 in. The female is slighdy, if at all, smaller and paler than
the male.

SVLVIJNyt.

73

RADDE'S BUSH-WARBLER.

Luscim'ola schwarzi (Radde).

For the discovery in England of this wanderer from Eastern
Siberia ornithologists are indebted to the persistent researches of
Mr. G. H. Caton Haigh. On the ist of October 1898, according
to his custom at the time of migration, Mr. Haigh was diligently
" working " the hedgerows which border the long sea-banks on the
Lincolnshire side of the Humber, and, when near North Cotes
(where he obtained the first British specimen of the Greenish
Willow-Warbler), he was attracted by a strange and particularly
powerful note. Thereupon the hedgerow was thoroughly beaten
out, and the owner of the loud voice proved to be the Warbler in
question — a bird about the size of a Wood-Wren. Easterly winds
had been prevalent for some time. The illustration is taken from
this specimen, kindly lent for the purpose.

Radde discovered this Warbler in a kitchen-garden at Kulus-
sutajevsk, near the Tarei-nor, Transbaikalia, on the 22nd of
September 1856, and named it Sylvia {Phyllopneuste) sc/nvarzi,
after his friend the astronomer to the expedition (Reis Siid.
Ost-Sibir Bd. ii. pp. 260-263, t^^- ^"- ^g^- ^"3)- He afterwards
found it in theChingan Mountains; Dybowsky met with it in
Daiiria and the Ussuri country ; Schrenck in the Amur Valley, and
Dr. Nikolski in the south-western forests of the Island of Saghalien.
From the dates at which specimens were obtained the bird evidently
breeds in the above districts, but nothing is known of its nidifica-
tion. The most detailed account of this Warbler is by Godlewski,
who writes to the following effect : — On its migrations this species

74 RADDES BUSH-WARBLER.

is common throughout South-eastern Siberia and in J)auria, and is
widely distributed in autumn ; but it is rarer in Ussuria, though it
appears to nest there, for it sings all through the summer. In the
early part of August, during our journey across the Government of
Yeniseisk, on the road between Irkutsk and Tomsk, it was also
singing, so that it probably nests there. On passage it frequents the
bushy margins of the forests, and it arrives early in June. Its song
is short and not very agreeable, but loud, and the alarm-note maj-
be rendered as gibout-gibout. We did not find its nest. It leaves
Ussuria about the middle of September.

In winter Radde's Bush-Warbler visits Southern China, Pegu, and
the northern and central portions of Tenasserim (Oates, Fauna
Brit. India, i. pp. 399-400). Its large bastard-primary indicates its
connection with the genus Lnsciniola, in which Seebohm placed it ;
but Mr. Oates finds this genus too comprehensive, and relegates
the bird to Herbivoaila of Swinhoe. The upper plumage is
olive-brown, tinged with tawny, especially on the rump ; wings and
tail brown, edged on the outer webs with the colour of the back ;
supercilium very distinct and reaching to the nape ; lores and
feathers behind the eye dark brown ; ear-coverts buff and brown ;
lower plumage rich tawny-buff, paling on the throat and abdomen ;
axillaries and under wing-coverts buff. In summer the lower parts
are nearly white, merely tinged with yellow or buff, more especially so
on the vent and under tail-coverts. Bill horn-colour, the base fleshy-
white and the gape yellow ; iris brown ; legs and feet fleshy-yellow.
I.ength about 5-6 inches, wing 2 '45, tarsus 0-9 inch, bill from gape
0-65. The 2nd primary is equal to the Sth, or intermediate between
the 7th and Sth ; the ist (or bastard) primary is very long, measur-
ing 0-85 inch in length (Oates).

The young bird, like Mr. Haigh's specimen, from which the
figure is taken, is decidedly more olivaceous on the upper-parts.
The bill is stout and deep for that of a Warbler, and the three rictal
bristles on each side are very strong, but the supplementary hairs do
not extend up the culmen nor cover the nostrils as in Phylloscopus.
(From 'The Ibis,' 1899, pp. 1-3.) The broad and abrupt
termination of the white superciliary stripe is very characteristic of
this species.

SYLVIINvE.

75

THE ICTERINE WARBLER.

Hypolais icterina (Vieillot).

Although common on the Continent, even within sight of
our shores, this member of a well-marked genus — not remotely
allied to the group of Reed-Warblers — is only a rare visitor to
England and Ireland. The first example was killed on June 15th
1848, at Eythorne, near Dover ; a second (now in the Dublin
Museum), on June 8th 1856, at Dunsinea on the banks of the
Tolka, CO. Dublin ; a third was shot by Mr. F. D. Power on
September nth 1884, near Blakeney, Norfolk; a fourth near New^-
castle-on-Tyne, June 20th 1889 ; a fifth at Easington, Holderness,
Yorkshire, on May 28th 1891 ; a sixth at Wells, Norfolk, September
4th, 1893 ; and a seventh at Cley, Norfolk, September 7th 1896.
Lastly, Mr. A. F. Ticehurst exhibited at the British Ornithologists'
Club, on May 19th 1897, a female which had been shot at Burwash,
Sussex, on April 30th. All these examples have been examined and
identified by competent authorities ; the significance of which will
be apparent hereafter.

In Norway the Icterine Warbler breeds up to a little beyond the
Arctic circle, although in Sweden, Finland and Russia, its northern
range is less extensive. Eastward, the Ural and the valley of the
Tobol form its known limits, while further south it has been obtained
at Lenkoran, on the western side of the Caspian. In Asia Minor,

76 ICTERINE WARBLER.

and South-eastern Europe as far as Malta, it is only known on its
migrations to and from Africa — where it winters down to about 25°
S. lat. ; but in Sicily and on the mainland of Italy, where it arrives
in April, it remains to breed ; though Sardinia and Corsica are
seldom, if ever, visited. In Central and Northern Europe, up to
the Baltic provinces, Denmark, Germany, Holland and Belgium, it
is common from the middle of May until autumn. In the north-
east of France it is very abundant, and extends westward as far
as the valley of the Seine, in and beyond which is found the next
species, H. polyglotta, often confounded with our bird both as
regards specimens and nomenclature. The Icterine Warbler appears
to be rare in Savoy and unknown to the westward. Both species
meet in Tunisia.

The nest, generally placed in the fork of a small tree or lilac bush
in a slightly moist locality, is a firm, deep, and often beautiful
structure of dry grass, wool, thistle-down, lichens &c., lined with
horsehair. The 4-5 eggs are dull rose-pink, blotched, and some-
times scrolled with dark purplish-brown : average measurements
•72 by "55 in. In Holland incubation begins about the end of May
or early in June, almost every garden containing a pair ; and the
presence of an intruder of his own, or any other small species, is
promptly resented by the male. The song has been much admired
for its variety, and its supposed imitation of the notes of other
birds — whence the German name Spotivogel or Mocking-bird ; but
Seebohm, who was gifted with a fine ear for notes and who had
enjoyed considerable experience, saw no reason for supposing the
bird to be more of a mocker than the Song-Thrush or the Night-
ingale, When the nest is approached a soft pi-ti-ii-y is uttered ;
the alarm-note being an angry tek, tek, tek. The food of the Icterine
Warbler is principally insects and small snails, but in summer and
autumn fruit and berries are freely consumed.

The adult male in spring has the lores and a streak over the eye
yellow ; upper parts greyish-olive ; quills brown, broadly margined
and tipped with buffish-white on the secondaries, bastard primary
very small; tail brown, slightly tipped with buff; under parts lemon-
yellow ; bill, brown above, yellowish below ; legs and feet slate-
brown. Length 5-2 in. ; wing 3-1 in. The female is a trifle paler;
the young bird is browner, with wider pale margins to the quills.

SYLVIIN/E.

77

THE MELODIOUS WARBLER.

Hypolais polyglotta (Vieillot).

In 'The Zoologist' for July 1897 (p. 333), Mr. A. F. Ticehurst
stated that on April 30th, the same day as the Icterine Warbler
already mentioned (p. 75), a smaller bird was also obtained at Bur-
wash, Sussex, and he hinted that this might be the Melodious Warbler.
Mr. G. Bristow, of St. Leonard's, having obligingly sent up the bird
for identification, it has been examined by several ornithologists,
and there can be no doubt that it is an example — a male by dis-
section— of If. polyglotta.

It is satisfactory to have the occurrence of this species thoroughly
authenticated, because the event has for some time been expected.
On May 26th 1886 the Rev. Allan Ellison saw and heard a bird
which probably belonged to this species in co. Wicklow, Ireland,
and during the very same month and year the Rev. M. A. Mathew
frequently watched and listened to a similar bird at Stone Hall, in
Pembrokeshire. In May 1897 (Zool. p. 332) Mr. Mathew Hstened
to the song of another bird (or two) in East Devon, but this he
identified as that of the Icterine Warbler, and he is to be con-
gratulated on his powers of discrimination. An egg, which, from its
small size and bright pink colour, belonged probably to the

7 8 MELODIOUS WARBLER.

Melodious Warbler, was sent to me in 1893 as having been taken
near Lancing, Sussex, where the species was stated to have bred
two or three years in succession.

The Melodious Warbler does not penetrate so far north as its
larger relative, and its range is western. In winter it is found as far
south as Senegambia, and its breeding-grounds begin in North
Africa, extending from Tangier to Tunisia. A comparatively small
portion of the birds which cross the Mediterranean visit both sides
of the Adriatic, and wanderers have been recorded from South
Tyrol, Bohemia and Moravia ; while Italy is regularly visited,
especially the western side. But the bulk pass the summer in the
Iberian Peninsula, where the species is abundant, as well as in
France up to Normandy, the boundary of its eastern distribution
being, roughly, a line from Savoy to the valley and mouth of the
Seine. It is much if a straggler has occurred in North-eastern
France or in Belgium ; on Heligoland Gatke obtained one, on
May 23rd 1846.

Col. Irby gives April 25th as the earliest date of the arrival of this
Warbler in the south of Spain, and May 14th for eggs ; two broods
are, however, produced in the season, as I have had eggs taken up
to July 25th. The deep and cup-shaped nest is chiefly composed
of down from willows and thistles, and is placed in bushes or low
trees, generally at no great distance from water ; the 4-5 eggs are
rose-pink (brighter than those of the Icterine Warbler), with small
blackish spots, and often with a large amount of fine hair-lines :
measurements 7 by "5 in. The song is similar to that of the pre-
ceding species, but, having heard both, I agree with Mr. J. I. S.
Whitaker and Mr. Aplin in considering that of the Melodious
Warbler to be far finer, though less loud. The food consists of
insects and fruit.

The adult may be distinguished from the Icterine Warbler by
its smaller size ; the absence of any pale margins to the inner
wing-quills (except just after the autumn moult) ; its proportionally
short wing; its larger bastard primary; and by the 2nd primary
being shorter than the 5th (in H. icterma the 2nd is decidedly
longer than the 5th). Length 4*9 in. ; wing only 2-5 in.

SYLVIIN.^.

79

THE REED-WARBLER.

ACROCEPHALUS STREPKRUS (Vieillot).

The Reed- Warbler arrives in England regularly in the latter part
of April ; and from that time until September it is common in most,
but not all, of the localities apparently suited to its habits, in the
southern, midland, and eastern districts. In the extreme south-
west it is rare, seldom visiting Cornwall or the Scilly Islands, but
it breeds freely in South Devon ; while in Wales it is fairly common,
at least as far west as Breconshire, and especially about Llangorse
Lake, where there is abundance of reeds (Phillips). It is plentiful
in like situations in Cheshire (Nicholson) ; but in Lancashire,
where suitable spots are few, it is naturally local, and in Lakeland it
is rare. In Yorkshire it is abundant at Hornsea Mere in the East
Riding, while it breeds up to the vicinity of Ripon, and also
near Leeds; but northward it is rare. There is as yet no proof
of its occurrence in Scotland. In Ireland it is said to have been
once obtained — near Dublin, on December 21st, 1843 (!), but not
since ; while wings sent from lighthouses, and attributed to this
species, have proved to be those of Blackcap and Garden-Warbler.

The south of Sweden, and about 58° N. lat., mark the northern

8o REED-WARBLER.

summer limits of the Reed-Warbler in Europe ; but below this line
the bird has been found breeding in suitable localities down to the
extreme south of Spain and Italy, and perhaps in Algeria. Large
numbers pass the winter in the basin of the Mediterranean, whilst
others go down to Central Africa. Eastward, it is found as far as
the countries between Baluchistan and South-western Siberia.

In the breeding-season the Reed-Warbler is by no means re-
stricted to reeds, or even to the immediate proximity of water ; and
Mr. R. H. Mitford has given an account of the nesting of several
pairs annually in lilac-trees in his garden at Hampstead. On the
Thames and elsewhere the slender branches of willows and alders
are frequently selected ; the nest being often ten feet above the
ground or water, and sometimes at a far greater elevation. Excep-
tionally nests have been found in hedges fringing a river. Where
reeds are abundant, as in the Eastern Counties, they are usually
preferred ; and in every case the nest is supported by from two to
four reeds or twigs, as the case may be, woven into the sides of the
nest, which is so deep that the eggs will not roll out in the strongest
wind. Begun when the reeds are quite short, the nest is often a
full yard above the water by the time that the young birds are
hatched. The materials employed are dry grasses and moss, with a
little sheep's-wool, feathers, and horsehair for a lining, but occasion-
ally there is so much wool or flowering grass that the nest seems
to be made of them. The 4-5 eggs are greenish-white, clouded,
blotched or freckled with dark olive, ash-colour, and black : average
measurements 72 by -53 in. The Cuckoo is partial to the nest of
this Warbler, and I have more than once found two eggs of that
parasitical bird in the same nursery. Incubation begins about May
22nd. During the summer the varied song of the Reed Warbler
may be heard at intervals during the day, except in windy weather ;
but it is loudest and most attractive during the long twilight of
evening. The food consists of aquatic insects — especially small
dragon-flies — -and their larvs, spiders, slugs and worms, varied in
the season by fruit and berries.

The adult male has a pale buff streak over each eye ; upper parts
brown, tinged with chestnut, especially on the rump ; under parts
white, turning to buff on the sides, thighs, and under tail-coverts.
In autumn the chestnut and buff are more pronounced. Bill horn-
brown above, yellowish-brown below ; legs and feet purplish-brown.
Length 5-25 in. ; wing to end of 3rd and longest quill 2-5 in. The
female, according to my experience, is decidedly less rufous during
the breeding-season. The young are very tawny underneath.

SVLVIIN.^i.

r(iyr'

THE MARSH-WARBLER.

AcROCEPHALUS PALUSTRis (Bcchstein).

It is difficult to show in a wood-cut the points of difference
between this species and the Reed-Warbler ; nor, for that matter,
can much be said in favour of many of the coloured illustrations
which are supposed to represent the Marsh-W^arbler. Gould's
coloured plate in the ' Birds of Great Britain ' undoubtedly repre-
sents a Reed- Warbler ; so does, in my opinion, one in the late
Lord Lilford's ' Birds of the British Islands ' ; while in Mr.
Dresser's plate of the two species in his ' Birds of Europe ' the
respective tints are inadequately rendered, and the legs of the
Marsh- Warbler are wrongly coloured stone-grey, although accurately
described in the letterpress. The legs of the Marsh- Warbler are
pale brownish flesh-colour ; the general hue of the upper parts is at
all times less rufous than in the Reed- Warbler, and distinctly greenish
olive brown ; while, except when much abraded, the wing-feathers
are more tipped and margined with pale buff. The under parts are
tinged with sulphur-buff: not rufous-buff, as in the Reed- Warbler.

The Marsh-Warbler was first noticed in England as a spring-
visitor in small numbers to Somersetshire, particularly to the neigh-
bourhood of Taunton ; several nests have since been found near
Bath, as well as in Gloucestershire, while in Oxfordshire the

H

82 MARSH-WARBLER.

bird has been watched year after year by Mr. W. Warde Fowler
and others. The late Mr. F. Bond had a genuine nest and eggs of
this species, which he took some years ago in Cambridgeshire, but
the pair of birds which he obtained at the same time and place are
simply Reed-\\\arblers (Coll. Brit. Mus.).

Denmark, and Revel in Esthonia, appear to be the northern
limits of the breeding-range of the Marsh- Warbler ; while eastward
it extends across Russia to South-western Siberia, Turkestan and
Persia ; the bird wintering in many parts of Africa, as far south as
Natal. South of the Baltic it is generally distributed in suitable
localities throughout Europe, except in the extreme west, respecting
which further information is desirable. The ' Verderolle,' as it is
appropriately named in French, undoubtedly breeds in Picardy, and
as far west as Normandy ; but as yet no specimens are forthcoming
from the Spanish Peninsula, where the Reed- Warbler breeds freely.
In the low ground of Switzerland, as at Interlaken, Brienz, Lucerne,
&c., the Marsh- Warbler may always be observed j as well as along
the valley of the Rhine, especially near Coblenz (J. H. Salter), and
in Holland.

The Marsh- Warbler does not frequent reeds, but often breeds in
cornfields, far away from any water except a small brook, though
usually in some swampy thicket or osier-bed. The nests never over-
hang the water, although often close to it, in low bushes, or among
rank meadow-sweet, cow-parsnip and nettles ; those which I have
examined were composed of fine round grass-stalks and lined with
horsehair. The 5-7 eggs are much whiter in their ground-colour
than those of the Reed- Warbler, with spots and blotches of olive-
brown and violet-grey: measurements 73 by '55 in. Only one
brood is reared in the season, but if the nest be taken, another is
soon built, and fresh eggs have been found in the beginning of July.
The male bird is often conspicuous at some distance from the
nest ; not skulking like the Reed- Warbler, but boldly pouring out
a song far more melodious and imitative than that of its congeners.
The food is similar to that of the Reed-Warbler.

The adult is olive-brown above, with a faint buffish-white streak
over the eye; under parts white, tinged with sulphur-buff; wing-
feathers olive-brown, tipped and margined with pale-buff; bill horn-
brown above, paler below; legs and feet brownish flesh-colour.
Length 5-25 in. ; wing to the end of the 3rd and longest primary
27 in. : longer than in the Reed-Warbler. In fresh and fully
moulted birds the 2nd quill infinitesimally exceeds the 4th : the
reverse being the case with the Reed- Warbler.

SYLVIIN^,.

83

THE GREAT REED-WARBLER.

AcROCEPHALUS TURDOiDES (Meyer).

The Great Reed-Warbler is another migratory species which, like
the Icterine Warbler, is so common on the Continent that it is
a marvel its visits to our shores are so few and far between. It is
not a bird likely to escape notice : on the contrary, its powerful
chattering song and large size would at any time attract attention ;
yet the fact remains that it has been very rarely obtained in
England. The first on record was obtained near Newcastle on May
28th 1847 by Thos. Robson (afterwards well known as a collector
at Ortakoi, near Constantinople) ; three are stated — though on the
authority of a dealer whose traffic with Holland was notorious — to
have been obtained in Essex and Kent about 1853 ; Mr. Goodchild
informs me that an example shot near Sittingbourne is in the
collection of Mr. G. Thomas ; Mr. W. O. Hammond shot one near
Wingham, Kent, on September 14th 1881 ; and one was obtained
near Ringwood, Hampshire, on June 3rd 1884. Statements as to
the finding of eggs supposed to belong to the bird are not wanting,
but none of them are authenticated. In YarrelFs ' British Birds,'
until the 4th Edition, this species was called the Thrush-like

H 2

84 GREAT REED-WARBLER.

Warbler ; and by some authors it is inappropriately termed the
Great &^^''f- Warbler.

The Great Reed- Warbler is only a rare migrant as far as the
lower portion of Sweden, while the islands at the mouth of the
Gulf of Riga appear to be its northern limit, but in suitable
localities south of the Baltic it is abundant in summer throughout
Europe ; also occurring on the Caspian and in Turkestan. In
Morocco and Algeria it is to a great extent resident ; its winter
migrations extending almost to the extreme south of Africa. In
Egypt, and eastward to India, its line is crossed by that of A.
stentoreus, a close ally. The Great Reed- Warbler nests annually as
near to us as Calais, and is quite common in Belgium and Holland.

In the breeding-season this species may be looked for among tall
reeds and bulrushes, whether on the banks of streams and lakes, or
on small ponds. The nest, seldom finished before the end of May,
is a compact cup-shaped structure, some five inches deep, composed
of dry reeds and grass, with a lining of the finer portions and the
flowers of the same ; the whole being closely bound to several
upright reed-stems, or sometimes willow-twigs. The 4-5, often 6
eggs, are pale greenish-blue, blotched and speckled with ash-grey,
russet-brown and dark olive : measurements "9 by '65 in. Only one
brood is reared during the season, and by the beginning of September
the southward migration has taken place. In its habits the bird is
generally bold, and it is conspicuous, as it flits from one clump of
reeds to another, or sits high upon one of the upper stems, uttering
its loud harsh song, karra-karra karra, karee-karee-karee, charra-
charra-charra ; it has also a croaking note when alarmed. It sings
from early morning till late at night. Its food consists principally
of insects and their larvae, especially reed-beetles {Donacia) ; but in
autumn it is said to eat elder-berries, &c.

The adult male has a dull whitish streak from the nostrils over
each eye ; the upper parts are warm olive-brown, with paler tips and
margins to the feathers of the wings and the graduated tail ; under
parts warm buff, whiter on the throat and belly ; bill brown,
yellowish at the base ; inside of the mouth orange-yellow ; irides
brown; legs pale horn-colour. Length 7-8 in. ; wing to the tip of
the 3rd and longest quill (the first or bastard being very small)
375 in. The female is slightly smaller. The young are more
fulvous on the under parts, and are slightly striated on the sides of
the neck and throat.

SYLVIIN.-E.

85

THE SEDGE-WARBLER.

AcROCEPHALUS PHRAGMiTis (Bechstcin).

The Sedge-Warbler or Sedge-bird arrives in our islands during
the latter half of April, and from that time it is the most abundant
and generally distributed member of the genus until the latter part
of September ; while occasionally examples have been observed late
in October and even in winter. It breeds throughout the mainland
of Great Britain, although somewhat locally in the extreme north,
and exceptionally in the Isle of Skye ; while it occurs in Barra,
Outer Hebrides ; breeds increasingly in the Orkneys ; but is not yet
recorded from the Shetlands. To Ireland it is a regular and widely-
distributed visitor in summer, and is frequently killed by striking
against the lighthouses.

In Norway the Sedge-Warbler is found as far north as lat. 70° ;
and eastward, it can be traced across Sweden, North Russia, and
Siberia to lat. 67° in the valley of the Yenesei. Southward, its
breeding-range extends to the Altai, AVestern Turkestan, Palestine,
Greece, and the central part of Italy ; but in Sicily and the southern
part of the Mediterranean basin westward to Spain it is principally
known as a migrant. In the latter country I obtained examples in
spring and autumn, and, although not found breeding, 1 have adults
shot at Malaga on July 25th. Throughout the rest of Europe this
species is tolerably abundant in suitable situations, especially in

86 SEDGE-WARBLER.

the north, although sometimes unaccountably local. In winter it
migrates as far as South Africa.

While partial to the banks of streams, lakes and ponds, where
rushes and osiers abound, the Sedge-Warbler is by. no means
restricted to such, or even to moist situations ; indeed it may often
be found among copses and hedge-rows far from water. The
nest is never suspended, like that of the Reed-Warbler, but is
concealed among the lower branches of a shrub, or in the rank
herbage by some stream or ditch, or even in a mossy hollow in the
ground. Mr. A. H. Evans and I found one in the middle of a
gooseberry bush in a garden by Hickling Broad ; and Mr. M.
Browne has recorded another which was placed quite ten feet up, at
the top of a ' bullfinch ' hedge, in Leicestershire. The foundation
of moss is surmounted by grass and coarse bents, with a slight
lining of horse-hair and seed-tufts of plants, and occasionally
feathers. The 5-6 eggs are of a yellowish clay-colour, clouded or
mottled with a brownish-shade, and often streaked and scrolled at
the larger end with black hair-lines (much like those of the Yellow
Wagtail) : measurements "68 by "52 in. The young are hatched
early in June. Aquatic insects and their larvae, small slugs and
worms, form the principal food of the Sedge-^^'arbler ; but in
autumn, like its congeners, it appears to be partial to elder-berries.
Its babbling notes, cheep, cheep, chissock cheep, are loud and merry,
though somewhat harsh (for which reason the bird is known as the
' Chat ' on the Thames) ; while in the summer it sings day and night,
being more often heard than seen ; it is also a great imitator.

The adult male in spring has the lores and ear-coverts brown,
surmounted by a broad yellowish-white streak above each eye ;
crown streaked with dark brown on a paler ground, forming a sort
of cap ; neck, back and wing-coverts reddish-brown clouded with
darker brown ; rump and tail-coverts tawny brown ; tail dark brown,
with paler edges ; wings nearly the same ; chin and throat white ;
breast and under parts buff ; bill dark brown above, lighter below ;
legs and feet pale brown. Length 5 in. ; wing to the end of the 3rd
and slightly longest primary 2-5 in. ; the bastard primary being very
small. The latter character serves to distinguish the Sedge-^^'arbler
from the Moustached ^^'arbler {A. melaiiopogott), which is found in
the south of Europe, and is similar in general appearance, but has a
long bastard primary. The female Sedge-^^'arble^ is less rufous on
the rump, and is generally of a duller brown than the male. The
young are distinctly spotted with pale brown upon the throat and
upper part of the breast.

SYLVIIN/E.

87

THE AQUATIC WARBLER.

AcROCEPHALUS AQUATicus (J. F. Gmeliii).

Owing to the similarity of the Aquatic \\'arbler to the preceding
species, all the earlier examples obtained in England appear to
have been originally overlooked. Professor Newton was the first
to recognize a specimen in the collection of Mr. W. Borrer, who said
that it had been shot on October 19th 1853, while creeping about
among the grass and reeds in an old brick-pit near Hove, Sussex.
This example having been exhibited before the Zoological Society
(P. Z. S. 1866, p. 210), it was subsequently examined by Mr. Harting,
who announced (Ibis 1867, p. 469) that he also possessed an Aquatic
Warbler, obtained near Loughborough, in Leicestershire, in the
summer of 1864, and forwarded to him by a friend, under the
impression that it was a Grasshopper-Warbler. In February 1871,
Mr. J. H. Gurney detected in the Museum at Dover a third example,
which the Curator, the late Mr. C. Gordon, stated that he had shot
near that town. Mr. Gurney has further pointed out that the bird
figured as a Sedge- Warbler in Hunt's ' British Ornithology ' was
undoubtedly an Aquatic Warbler, in all probability obtained in
Norfolk about the year 1815. Lastly, an example was shot at
Blakeney, Norfolk, on September 8th 1896. The conspicuous buff

S8 AQUATIC WARBLER.

Streak down the middle of the crown in the Aquatic Warbler is
an unfailing mark of distinction between this species and the
Sedge-Warbler.

The Aquatic Warbler seldom visits Heligoland ; though it breeds
sparingly in the southern part of Denmark, Schleswig-Holstein, and
on the southern side of the Baltic. In Holland and Belgium it is
of rare occurrence ; but in France it is found annually in the
departments of Somme and Nord. In the Brenne and beyond the
Loire it arrives about the third week in April to breed ; while further
south, in the Camargue and similar marshy districts, it is not
uncommon. Eastward, it is fairly distributed throughout Germany,
becoming abundant in Silesia as well as in some parts of Poland,
and only less so in Austria-Hungary. It breeds in many parts of
Italy, Sicily and Sardinia ; but in the Spanish Peninsula I have
obtained it only in September. In North Africa it is probably
resident. In the eastern portion of the basin of the Mediterranean
it appears to be merely a migrant or a winter-visitor ; and the
marshes of the Southern Ural form its boundary in that direction.

According to Naumann, the nest is placed in more open localities
than that of the Sedge- Warbler, and generally about a foot from the
ground, in a bunch of sedge, or amongst dwarf willow-growth, but
never among reeds overhanging the water. It is similar to that of
the Sedge-'\\'arbler, and the eggs, 4-5 in number, are slightly less
yellow in their ground-colour than those of that bird : measurements
■65 by "51 in. Breeding commences in the middle of May. In its
habits this species is remarkably shy, concealing itself on the
least alarm and running like a mouse along a branch or on the
ground. Its food consists of insects. The song, uttered from the
end of April to July, is shorter and less varied than that of the
Sedge-Warbler.

In the adult the forehead is rufous-buff; the lores and ear-coverts
are pale brown, surmounted by a buff stripe over and behind each
eye ; above this, on each side, is a broad blackish stripe, followed
by a conspicuous buff streak along the middle of the crown ; nape
and back tawny-brown striped with black ; rump rufous-brown,
with black streaks ; tail-feathers brown, darker along the shafts ;
under parts yellowish-buff, darker on the flanks, which, with the neck
and throat, are more or less striated ; bill brown above, yellowish
below ; legs and feet yellowish-brown. In the autumn the buff tint
becomes more intense. Length 4-9 in. ; wing to the tip of the 3rd
and longest primary 2-4 in., the bastard quill being very small.

SYLVIIN.t.

89

THE GRASSHOPPER-WARBLER.

LocusTELLA nAvia (Boddaert).

This Warbler owes its trivial name to a rapid trilling song, which
somewhat resembles the chirping of the grasshopper or the mole-
cricket ; but in many parts of England it is also known as the
' Reeler,' from a fancied similarity to the noise of the old-fashioned
implement used by wool-spinners, or of the running-out of the
line on a fisherman's reel. The bird arrives from the south about
the second half of April, departing in September ; and between those
months it is of tolerably general distribution in suitable localities
throughout England and Wales ; being often supposed to be rarer
than is really the case, owing to its skulking habits. Fens and
partially reclaimed land are favourite situations, but heaths, commons,
and tangled hedge-rows are also frequented, while the moist
shoulders or ' dips,' near the summits of some of our highest hills,
such as the Cheviots, are situations to which it seems to be partial ;
in fact Northumberland and Durham are two of the counties in
which it is abundant in some summers. In Scotland we trace
it, in gradually diminishing numbers, as far as Arisaig, below the
Sound of Sleat, and, across that water, to the Isle of Skye. It is
found almost all over Ireland.

The Grasshopper-Warbler is only a rare visitor to Heligoland,
and is hardly known to cross the Baltic, but in Russia it is found as
far north as St. Petersburg. Over the greater part of Europe it
seems to be generally distributed, although seldom common ; but it

90 GRASSHOPPER-WARBLER.

is not improbable tliat it may often be overlooked. In Italy it is
said to be rare ; but in the south of Spain I found it fairly abundant
in autumn and winter ; and in the latter season it appears to visit
Morocco and Algeria. Eastward, it can be traced in Europe to
Transylvania, and the south-east of Russia ; perhaps to the Altai, in
Siberia ; but beyond the Ural Mountains its line is crossed by
allied species : — Z. lanceolata in Siberia, and Z. straminea in
Turkestan.

The nest may be looked for in clumps of dry fen-grass, the
bottoms and sides of thick hedge-rows, rank herbage on hill-sides,
or in young plantations. When flushed from her nest the bird
flies off with a very peculiar drooping movement of her outspread
tail, and, if not pursued, she will usually not fly far. On her
return she will sometimes come stealing back again with the
mouse-like action so often insisted upon as a characteristic, but
neither Mr. A. H. Evans nor I have noticed this performance on
her leaving the nest. This, a compact and rather deep structure,
is principally composed of moss and dry grass, with a finer lining
of the latter ; the 5-7 eggs are pale pinkish-white, freckled and
zoned with darker reddish-brown : measurements 7 by "54 in.
Two broods are sometimes reared in the season ; the first eggs being
laid about the third week in May ; while they have been taken fresh
in the first week of August. The song, already described, may be
heard to advantage on a still summer's evening, or during the two or
three hours after dawn ; the bird perching on the topmost spray of
a bush or the point of a tall reed to utter it, but taking refuge in the
herbage on the smallest alarm, although perhaps only for a moment.
The alarm-note is a sharp tic, tic, tac. The food consists of dragon-
flies — taken on the wing — and other insects, with their larvae. This
species appears to migrate in large parties, for Booth observed several
hundreds at daybreak early in May, all congregated on a small patch
of some dozen or twenty acres of mud-banks covered with marsh-
samphire and other weeds, near Rye in Sussex, and evidently making
their way inland.

The adult is greenish-brown above, with darker striations down the
centre of each feather ; quills and tail brown, with faint bars on the
latter ; under parts pale brown, with darker spots on the neck and
breast ; under tail-coverts very long, and streaked along the shafts
with dark brown ; bill brown ; legs and feet pale yellowish-brown.
Length 5-4 in.; wing to tip of 3rd and longest quill 2-4 in. The
sexes are alike in plumage. The young are more suffused with buff
on the under parts, and have larger bastard primaries.

SYLVIIN.E.

91

SAVrS WARBLER.

LOCUSTELLA LUSCINIOIDES (Savi).

As remarked by Professor Newton, in the best account extant of
Savi's Warbler (Yarrell's British Birds, 4th Ed., i. p. 389), there can
be Httle doubt that this bird was a regular (though never a very
abundant) summer-visitant to England, until the drainage of the
fens and meres of the Eastern Counties unfitted large districts for
its habitation. The first example ever brought to the notice of
naturalists — still at the Norwich Museum — was shot in Norfolk
during the month of May, in the early part of this century ; but
having been submitted to Temminck it was pronounced by him to
be a variety of the Reed- Warbler ; while some subsequent confusion
in his mind was, doubtless, the cause of his w^holly erroneous state-
ment that Cetti's Warbler (a very different species, with only ten tail-
feathers) had been killed in England. Not until 1824 was the
specific distinctness of Savi's Warbler recognized by the Italian
ornithologist after whom it is named. In after years about six
examples of the bird, and one or two of its nests, were taken in
Norfolk ; while in Cambridgeshire and Huntingdonshire a larger
number of both were obtained in fens which are, at the present day,
with two exceptions, completely drained. The last British specimen
was obtained at Surlingham, Norfolk, in June 1856 ; and none are
known to be in existence except those from the Eastern Counties,

92 SAVI S WARBLER.

where the bird used to arrive about the middle of April, and at its
first coming was not shy. There is some evidence that this species
was noticed in May 1897 in the Humber District (Cordeaux), as
well as near Olney, Bucks.

In Holland, Savi's ^^'arbler has become rarer of late years, owing
to drainage ; so that at the present time it appears to be very local,
and almost restricted to the reed-beds of the Maas district. It is
also found in summer in similar localities in the Camargue, at the
mouth of the Rhone ; in some parts of Andalucia in Spain ; the
swamps of ]\Iassaciuccoli in Tuscany ; Austria-Hungary ; the Balkan
States ; Southern Russia as far as the Caspian ; and Western
Turkestan. It has been obtained in Cyprus, and once in Palestine ;
while it appears to pass the winter in Egypt, where Capt. Shelley
found it tolerably abundant and generally distributed, frequenting
the most luxuriant growth in the cornfields, as well as the reedy
marshes. Canon Tristram observed it in the oases of the Sahara
as far south as 32° N. lat. ; while northward, in Algeria, Mr. Salvin
met with it breeding in the marshes of Zana ; and it has occurred
in ^Morocco. In the islands of the Mediterranean it appears to be
rare, even on migration.

The deep cup-shaped nest, placed in sedges and reed-beds, or in
tufts of spiky rushes which flourish in wet ground, is composed
of interwoven sedge-blades, and may be compared with that of a
Crake in miniature. The 4-6 eggs are white or pale buff in
ground-colour, thickly freckled, and generally girdled, with ashy-
brown and violet-grey spots : measurements "78 by '57 in. In
Andalucia nesting begins early in May, but in Galizia and Holland
not until the end of that month ; both sexes incubating. Count
Wodzicki says that in the breeding-season the male is excitable and
quarrelsome, displaying also much curiosity on the appearance of
an intruder ; he sings all day in calm clear weather, but seldom at
night, and generally at the top of some commanding reed. From its
monotonous note this ^^'arbler was formerly known to our fen-men
by the names of ' red craking reed-wren ' and ' reel-bird ' ; while in
Holland it is called Sivorr and in Germany Schirrvogel. The call-
note is a short krr. The food consists of insects and their larvae.

In the adult the upper parts are reddish-brown ; the fan-shaped tail
(of 1 2 broad feathers) shows in certain lights some faint transverse
bars ; throat and centre of abdomen white ; upper breast, flanks, and
under tail-coverts buff; bill brown above, paler below; legs and feet
pale brown. Length 57 in. ; wing to the tip of the 2nd and longest
primary 2-6 in. The young are slightly paler on the under parts.

ACCENTORIN/E.

THE HEDGE-SPARROW.

Accentor nodularis (Linnoaus).

The Hedge-Sparrow is resident and generally distributed through-
out the British Islands : the exceptions being the bleakest of the
Outer Hebrides and the Shetlands, for in the Orkneys it has bred
since 1887, and is increasing. In Sutherland and Caithness it is
extending its range wherever plantations are springing up ; while in
winter it comes nearer to houses, where a more plentiful supply of
food is attainable. On the east coast it is a regular migrant,
extraordinary numbers sometimes arriving on the coast of Lincoln-
shire and Yorkshire in September and October ; while return parties
have been noticed in spring. The Hedge-Sparrow is known by a
variety of names, such as ' Dunnock,' 'Dykie,' 'Smokie,' and
' Shuffle-wing ' (the last from its peculiar action). Chaucer called
it ' Haysogge,' and to this day it is known in Surrey as ' Isaac ' ;
while some well-meaning writers name it the Hedge-Accentor, to
show that it is no relative of the obnoxious House-Sparrow.

In Norway the Hedge-Sparrow breeds as far north as the limit of
forest growth, and eastward it occurs sparingly up to 60° N. lat. in
the Ural Mountains ; but from the greater part of these northern
regions it migrates southwards in autumn ; large numbers passing
by Heligoland. Throughout Europe, south of the Baltic, it is

94 HEDGE-SPARROW.

generally distributed in summer down to the northern districts of
Spain, and Mr. Tait found it nesting in the valley of the Douro, in
Portugal ; but in Southern Spain its familiar eggs have not yet been
seen. In the latter country, and, in fact, along the northern shores
of the Mediterranean, it is a winter-visitor ; wandering to the islands
and to Algeria; Canon Tristram say.s that it is resident in the
Lebanon ; and Von Heuglin found it in winter in Arabia Petrcea.
Its south-eastern breeding limit appears to be the Caucasus.

The nest is seldom placed far from the ground, and is generally
in hedge-rows and in tangled bushes, or among heaps of dry
sticks ] less frequently in ivy. In a wet cave on Ailsa Craig the late
R. Gray found one placed on a ledge of rock, at the root of some
hart's-tongue fern. Roots and green moss, with hair and wool for
the lining, are the materials employed ; and the 4-6 blue eggs,
measuring about 78 by '56 in., may frequently be found early in
March ; two. and sometimes three broods being reared in the season.
An old and popular belief, alluded to by Chaucer, and, long after,
by Shakespeare, is that the Hedge- Sparrow is usually selected by
the Cuckoo as a foster-parent for its young ; while the observations
of Jenner and others on the behaviour of nestling Cuckoos, have
tended to strengthen the idea, for, owing to the situations adopted,
the nests of the Hedge-Sparrow are easily found and watched ; yet
it may be doubted whether the nests of the Meadow-Pipit and Pied
Wagtail are not greater favourites. The food consists of spiders,
small beetles and other insects, worms, seeds, and, in severe weather,
any crumbs and sweepings obtainable in the neighbourhood of
habitations. The short song of the Hedge-Sparrow is commenced,
even in our islands, as early as February, and in the south of
Europe it may be heard all through the winter.

The adult male has the head and nape slate-grey, streaked with
brown ; ear-coverts brown ; back and wings rufous-brown, with
umber streaks ; the lower wing-coverts with buffish-white tips, which
form a narrow but distinct bar ; quills and tail dusky brown ;
chin, throat and upper breast slate-grey ; belly dull white ; sides
and flanks pale reddish-brown, with dark streaks ; bill brown, lighter
at the base; legs and feet yellowish-brown. Length, 5*5 in.; wing
to the tips of 3rd-5th and longest primaries 275 in. The female
is somewhat less in size and duller in colour, and the streaks about
the head, neck and shoulders are smaller and more numerous. The
young have no slate-grey on the head and throat, and are browner
and more spotted than the adults.

ACCENTORIN^..

95

THE ALPINE ACCENTOR.

Accentor collaris (Scopoli).

As might be expected, this mountain-loving species is only an
exceptional visitor to England. Its first recorded occurrence was at
Cambridge, where two of these birds were noticed climbing about
the buildings or feeding on the grass-plots in King's College, one of
them being shot on November 22nd 1822 ; previously, however,
an example had been obtained near Walthamstow, Essex, by Mr.
Pamplin, in August 18 17. Subsequently several birds have been
taken — or their occurrence recorded by competent observers : one
near Lowestoft, Suffolk ; one at Wells, Somerset ; four in South
Devon ; one near Cheltenham ; one near Scarborough ; two near
Lewes, Sussex ; and one on the Llanberis side of Snowdon, on
August 20th 1870. The last bird was exceedingly tame, hopping
about a small stone-enclosure, where I watched it as long as I could
without attracting attention.

As a wanderer the Alpine Accentor has occurred in Heligoland,
Northern Germany, Belgium, and the north of France, especially
Normandy ; while along the cliffs of the Loire it is to be found with
tolerable regularity in autumn (Bureau). Its home is, however, in the
mountains of Savoy and the ranges which, under various names,
stretch from the Alps to the Carpathians inclusive ; the Apennines ;
Sicily ; Sardinia ; the Pyrenees and their Cantabrian continuation ;
the Guadarrama and other Spanish ranges down to the Sierra
Nevada ; Greece ; Asia Minor ; the Caucasus, and Northern Persia.
Eastward, the distribution of this bird can with difficulty be traced,

96 ALPINE ACCENTOR.

owing to a chain of forms of questionable distinctness, leading to
well-defined species in those highlands of Asia which form the
head-quarters of the 01d-A\'orld genus Accentor.

The nest, built towards the end of May, is placed on the ground,
among crevices of rocks, or under some small bush ; it is round,
compact, and somewhat shallow, the materials consisting of dry
grass-stems, with a slight lining of fine moss, and sometimes a few
feathers. The 4-5 eggs are of a pale blue, like those of the other
members of the genus: measurements "95 in. by '68 in. In summer
the bird is to be found up to the edge of the snow-line, and
seldom below the altitude of 4,000 feet : while on the Tatra
Mountains of Galizia, Count Wodzicki met with breeding colonies
of from twenty to forty pairs ; an unusual gregariousness, though in
autumn small flocks collect. In summer this species feeds on
beetles and other insects, while in autumn it gets as fat as a
Bunting on the seeds of Alpine plants ; nor does it leave the
mountains until snow covers the seeds, and forces it downwards
to the villages and even to the coast. It creeps about in the same
sly way as our Hedge-Sparrow does ; like that bird, it undoubtedly
hops, and does not run, as some writers have asserted ; nor does it
duck its head and jerk up its tail every time it utters its note, after
the manner of the Chats. Seebohm saw it at least fifty times
without perceiving the habit alluded to, and the same is my own
experience. He describes the song as a rich liquid chick, ich, ich,
ich ; the call-note is a plaintive tri, tri, tri.

The adult has the head, nape, and earcoverts greyish-brown with
darker streaks ; back rather browner, with broader streaks down the
centre of each feather ; wing-coverts dark brown, tipped with white
spots, which form a double bar ; secondaries margined and tipped
with rufous ; primaries dark brown ; tail dark brown, with buffish-white
tips, which are larger on the inner webs and almost absent on the
central feathers ; chin and throat white, spotted with black ; breast
and centre of abdomen greyish-brown ; flanks mottled with dark
chestnut ; bill black above, yellowish at the base ; legs and feet
pinkish-yellow, in life. The sexes are alike in plumage. The young
bird has the feathers of the back edged with rufous ; there is no
mottled white patch on the throat ; and the under parts are of a
very dusky yellowish-brown. Length 7 in. ; wing to the tip of the
3rd and longest primary 4-1 in. ; the bastard primary is compara-
tively small.

L

CINCLID.*.

97

/ .'\K

THE DIPPER.
CiNCLUs AQUATicus, Beclisteiii.

It may fairly be said that the Dipper, Water-Ouzel or " Water-
Crow " is found in the British Islands wherever there are rapidly
running rivers, or brooks rippling over rocks and stones, while, as a
wanderer, it occurs on the margins of more sluggish streams ; the
mouths of tidal rivers, and the sea-shore being favourite resorts in
winter. Eocalities suitable to its habits present themselves in Corn-
wall, Devon and Somerset (where the bird is known as the ' Water-
Colly ' i.e., Water-Blackbird), Wales and the bordering counties, and,
northwards, to Scotland, where every river or burn of any consequence
is frequented by several pairs ; the range extending to the Outer
Hebrides, and occasionally to the Orkneys. In Ireland the species is
resident in the mountainous districts and some of the lower valleys.

Our Dipper is naturally of rare occurrence in the flat eastern
counties of England ; but these are sometimes visited in winter by
the Black-bellied Dipper, Cindus 7?ielanogasfer, Brehm ; a form
which some naturalists consider entitled to specific rank. This
has little or no chestnut colour in the breast-band, and is found
in Scandinavia, and Northern Russia ; visiting Denmark, Heligo-
land, Northern Germany, and Holland. After examining a
considerable number of Dippers, including the fine series in the

I

98 DIPPER.

British Museum, it appears to me that C. melanogaster is merely a
dark form which inhabits the northern countries of Europe, as well
as the higher mountain regions of the south. Even in Derbyshire
the Dippers from the Peak district at 1,500 feet are darker than birds
from 1,000 feet lower down ; and examples from the iipper portions
of the narrow valleys of the Pyrenees above Luz, as well as the
lofty Cantabrian Mountains, in North-western Spain, are indistin-
guishable from Scandinavian specimens. At lower elevations, and
also on the river Genii near Granada, the Dippers have a broad
chestnut band, and belong to a race intermediate between our
British form and another — paler on the back — called by separatists
C. albicollis ; the last-named inhabiting the Alps, the Carpathians,
Italy and Greece. From the Caucasus and Asia Minor eastward to
Tibet, intergraduating races lead to the browner-backed C. cash-
viiriensis ; while in the Atlas Mountains is found yet another form,
distinguished by Canon Tristram as C. minor. Judging from the
above I still (1897) consider it advisable to treat both the forms of
Dipper which occur in our islands under one heading, while admitting
that the extremes of each race are recognizable.

The nest is a large oval ball of moss, grass or leaves, and
generally lined with dead leaves; the entrance being low down in the
side. It is placed in a hole under a bridge, in the wall of a mill-dam,
in a bank, or on a ledge of rock, often behind a cascade of water ;
sometimes in the boughs of low trees overhanging a river. The
4-6 eggs are of a dull white: measurements i in. by 75 in. Fully
fledged young have been found on March 21st; and not only are two
and even three broods reared in the season, but a second or even third
clutch of eggs is occasionally deposited in the same nest. The song,
begun in autumn, may frequently be heard throughout the winter, and
always early in spring. The food consists of soft-shelled molluscs,
spiders, aquatic beetles and other insects, with their larvje, many of
which are known to be destructive to the spawn of trout and salmon.
The bird sinks in a peculiar way, without taking a " header "; in pursuit
of its prey, it employs both legs and wings, using the latter like oars,
and the young are able to swim freely as soon as they leave the nest.

Adult : head and nape umber-brown ; back and tail-coverts slate-
grey, mottled with brown ; tail and wing-feathers dark brown ; chin,
throat and upper breast white ; lower breast dark chestnut-brown,
passing into black on the flanks and lower belly ; bill brownish-
black ; legs and feet brown. Length 7 in.; wing 3-6 in. The
sexes are alike in plumage. The young are greyish-brown above,
and have no chestnut-brown on the under parts.

PANURID/E.

99

THE BEARDED TITMOUSE.

Panurus biarmicus (Linnjeus).

The drainage of the reedy fens and meres has destroyed the
former breeding-grounds of the Bearded Tit in Sussex, Kent, Essex,
Cambridgeshire, Huntingdonshire and Lincolnshire ; perhaps —
aided by the greed of collectors — even in Suffolk. The places where
the bird can now be observed in the nesting-season are mostly in the
Broad-district of Norfolk, with, perhaps, one locality in Devonshire.
As a visitor it has twice occurred in Cornwall ; while it has been
recorded in Dorset, and along the Thames valley to Gloucestershire ;
as well as in Nottinghamshire and Staffordshire. It is a resident
species in England, seldom wandering far from its usual haunts ; and
if our indigenous birds should be exterminated, there is little hope
of their place being supplied by migrants from the Continent.

An exceptional wanderer to Heligoland, and rare in Holstein and
Germany east of the Moselle, the Bearded Tit becomes compara-
tively common in the great reed-beds of Holland ; visiting Belgium
in autumn and Luxembourg in winter, to escape the severity of the
weather. In France it is principally found in the valley and the
delta of the Rhone, and in the marshes below Narbonne. In Spain
I observed it in considerable numbers on the Albufera lake, near
Valencia, where it is resident ; as it is also in the marshes of Italy
and Sicily. It is found in suitable situations in Poland, Austro-

I 2

lOO BEARDED TITMOUSE.

Hungary, South Russia — especially in the marshes of the Black and
Caspian Seas — Turkestan, Yarkand and Southern Siberia : the
coloration of specimens becoming gradually paler from England
eastward to Central Asia. The bird has also been observed in
Albania, Greece and Asia Minor.

On the Norfolk Broads the 'Reed Pheasant,' as it is called,
often begins to lay early in April ; the nest being placed near the
water, in sedge, crushed-down reeds, or aquatic plants, but never
suspended from the stems. It is composed of flat grass-blades,
sedges, and dead flags, with a lining of the flower of the reed. The
5-7 eggs are shining creamy-white, sparingly streaked with short wavy
lines of reddish-brown : average measurements 7 by -55 in. Some-
times two hens occupy the same nest, each laying an egg daily until
a total of 10 is reached. Two broods are produced in the season,
fresh eggs being obtainable up to the early part of August. The
note is a clear, ringing ping, ping; and when the nest is approached
a plaintive ee-ar, ee-ar is uttered. Even in the winter the birds are
lively and musical, and at that season they may be seen in flocks of
forty or fifty together ; often roving from the frozen inland waters to
those which are kept open by the influence of the tide. The food
consists largely of the seed of the reed in winter ; but in summer
the crops of some individuals have been found closely packed with
such small shell-bearing molluscs as Snccinea amphibia. In its diges-
tive organs and other points of internal structure this bird shows no
real affinity to the Tits, and some writers have advocated its relation-
ship to the Finches ; it is, however, as Professor Newton remarks,
a perfectly distinct form, with no very near relations, and quite
entitled to be regarded as the representative of a separate family, the
Pamii idcE.

The adult male has the crown bluish-grey ; a black loral patch
descends diagonally from below the eye and terminates in a pointed
moustache; nape, back and rump orange-tawny; secondaries longitu-
dinally striped with bufiish-white, black, and rufous ; primaries brown
with white outer margins ; tail mostly rufous ; chin and throat
greyish-white turning into greyish-pink on the breast ; flanks orange-
tawny ; under tail-coverts jet black ; bill yellow ; legs and feet black.
Length 675 in. ; wing 2'25 in. The female has the head brownish-
fawn, and no black on the lores, cheeks, or under tail-coverts ; the
back is somewhat streaked, but in other respects she is merely duller
than the male. The young bird is like the female, but the crown
of the head and the middle of the back are streaked with black.

PARID.t.

THE LONG-TAILED TITMOUSE.

AcREDULA CAUDATA (Linnjeus).

The Long-tailed Titmouse is one of those species which exhibit
a strong tendency to variation under cHmatic or other conditions ;
and ornithologists must exercise their individual discretion in classing
each form as a race, a sub-species, or a completely segregated
species. In the adult bird found in Scandinavia, Northern Germany,
Austria and Russia — extending across Siberia to Japan — the head is
white ; the purity and extent of that colour attaining the maximum
in the far north. This is the true A. caudata, as restricted by some
authors, which has been obtained once in Northumberland, and
which seems to have occurred in some of the Scottish forests ; while
intergradations between this and the next form have been observed.
In the Netherlands, Germany west of Cassel, and part of France,
A. caudata meets and interbreeds with the form which represents it
generally in the British Islands, and which is distinguished by its
duller tints as well as by having the white on the head restricted
to the crown. If separated specifically, this dull form is A. rosea.
In the south of France and the north of Italy, the latter meets
and intergrades with the greyer-backed A. trbii, which becomes
the representative in Sicily and Spain. Although it is difficult to

I02 LONG-TAILED TITMOUSE.

separate any but adult examples of these two races, Herr Lorenz
has not hesitated to describe A. irbii var. caitcasica ! Space fails for
the enumeration of the Siberian, Chinese and Japanese forms of
Long-tailed Tit upon which specific names have been conferred ;
but I may observe that from the Balkan Peninsula to Persia occur
two distinct species, A. tephronota and A. macedonica, in both of
which there is a black patch on the throat.

Our form of the Long-tailed Tit is resident and tolerably abundant
throughout England and Wales, wherever the localities are suited to
its habits ; and, although somewhat more partial in its distribution
in Scotland, it is by no means uncommon there ; ranging as far west
as Skye, and wandering to the Shetlands. In Ireland it is resident
and common.

The nest is oval, with a small hole in the upper part of the side,
and is composed of silvery lichens, green moss, wool and spiders' webs,
felted together, and lined with a profusion of feathers. Its form has
procured for its architect the name of ' Bottle-Tit ' ; while, owing to
the lining, the bird is frequently called the 'Feather-poke.' The
nest is often placed in the middle of a thick whitethorn, holly, or
furze-bush ; sometimes in ivy, or high up in the lichen-covered
branches of a tree ; occasionally in tangled masses of brambles and
creepers. The eggs, usually laid about the middle of April, are"white,
generally more or less speckled and streaked with light red, but some-
times merely suffused with that tint : measurements •53 by "42 in.
In number they are usually from 7 to 10 ; but 16 young birds have
been found in the same nest, without any evidence of their being the
produce of more than one female. When sitting, the long tail of the
bird is turned over its back, and often projects above its head through
the entrance-hole. Two broods are often reared in the season, and
subsequently the family may be seen flitting in single file from one
hedge-row to aiiother with a remarkably dipping motion. The usual
note is a shrill zee, zee, zee. The food consists of insects and their larvae.

Adult male (British) : front and crown white, bordered on each
side by a black line, running from the base of the bill over the eye
to the nape and upper back, which are also black ; scapulars and
lower back dull rose ; wings dark brown, margined with white on
the secondaries ; tail-feathers black, the three outer pairs broadly
tipped and margined with white ; cheeks and throat dull white ;
upper breast white with a few black streaks ; belly and flanks dull
rose; bill, legs and feet black. Length 5-5 in. ; wing 2*45 in. The
female has rather more black about the head ; the young are duller
in colour and have no rosy tint on the upper parts.

I03

THE GREAT TITMOUSE.

Parus major, Linngeus.

This species, often called the Ox-eye, is resident and generally
distributed in suitable localities throughout England and Wales,
Ireland, and the greater part of Scotland ; but in the northern and
western portions of the latter it becomes uncommon ; being only a
rare visitant to the Isle of Skye, Sutherland, the Orkneys, and,
perhaps, the Shetlands.

In the comparatively mild climate of Norway the Great Titmouse
is found as far north as the Arctic circle ; but in Russia it has not
been recorded beyond lat. 64° N., while in the valley of the Yenesei
Seebohm did not find it above 58° N. Eastward it is met with in
the wooded districts of Siberia as far as Transbaikalia. In Mongolia,
China and Japan, its representative is P. minor : slightly smaller,
with the under parts buffish-white instead of yellow. Our species is
common over the whole of Europe ; being migratory in the more
northern countries, but resident in the temperate and southern,
down to the Mediterranean. In most of the islands of that sea it
is also found, though seldom in Malta ; it occurs in the Canaries,
is resident throughout a great part of North Africa, and abounds in
Asia Minor, Palestine and Persia.

I04 GREAT TITMOUSE.

The nest is often commenced in March, though usually in April ;
a hole in a tree or wall being commonly selected ; but many curious
situations are on record, such as the inside of a pump in constant
use, a letter-box, a shelf in a three-cornered cupboard, or the
interior of an inverted flower-pot ; one of such, in the British
Museum, containing three new nests ! Sometimes the foundations
of old abodes of other birds, as Crows, Rooks and Magpies, or
squirrels' dreys, are utilized (but more frequently on the Con-
tinent than in this country). The structure consists of soft moss,
surmounted by a warm bed of hair, fur, wool and feathers. The
6 and even 12 eggs are white, spotted and blotched with light
red: measurements, 7 by '55 in. Two broods are produced in the
season. The Great Titmouse may often be seen roving from tree
to tree in our gardens and sheltered districts ; sometimes hanging
by its strong claws with its back downwards, while searching for
insects, its principal food. No doubt the bird destroys buds ; but
in many cases these already contain grubs which would not only
put a stop to the growth of the sprouts, but would inflict further
damage upon the trees. It is fond of peas, while in the autumn
and winter it cracks and eats nuts and hard seeds, but on the
whole its predilections are decidedly for ' animal ' food. In cold
weather the lover of birds may enjoy watching the actions of this
species and its kin, by suspending a piece of raw meat, a bone, or a
lump of suet, from some bough or iron standard outside the
windows. The Great Titmouse will attack small and weakly birds,
splitting their skulls with its powerful beak in order to get at their
brains ; and it has even been known to serve a Bat in this manner.
Its usual note in spring resembles the sound produced by sharpening
a saw with a file, and may be heard at a considerable distance ; its
call-note is a low zee ; and some individuals display great power of
imitating other birds.

Adult male : crown, nape, and throat bluish-black ; cheeks white ;
on the nape a small spot of whitish, which reaches the yellowish-
olive of the mantle ; wing-coverts bluish-grey, with white tips which
form a bar ; quills dark brown with paler margins ; tail-feathers slate-
grey, the outer pair tipped and margined with white ; a black stripe
from the throat to the vent ; sides and flanks dull sulphur-yellow ;
bill black ; legs and feet lead-coloured. Length 575 in.; wing to
the tip of 4th and longest primary 2 "85 in. The female is duller
in colour than the male ; the young bird has a tinge of yellow on
the cheeks.

I

PARID.E.

^05

THE COAL-TITMOUSE.

Parus ater, Linnffius.

In the Coal-Titmouse, as in the Long-tailed Titmouse, there are
gradual variations, the extremes of which become, in the opinion
of some ornithologists, entitled to specific distinction. As Parus
britaiinicits, Messrs. Sharpe and Dresser have separated our race
from that of the Continent, because the upper back is olive-brown
in the PJritish bird, and slate-grey in the Continental form ; but,
while I admit that a difference in tint is often recognizable, there are
intergradations, and these are even noticeable in specimens from
some of the forests of Scotland, in which the bird is abundant.
Examples from Norfolk- — indistinguishable from those of the Conti-
nent— may, of course, be foreign immigrants ; and so may the
specimens in the British Museum, from Perthshire, which are identical
with birds from the Vosges, although less purely grey than those
from Japan. Against the migration-hypothesis must, however, be
set the experience of Mr. Gurney and the late Mr. Booth, who never
observed the Coal-Tit at sea off the east coast, nor received a wing
of it out of numbers sent from the light-ships, as well as the fact

Io6 COAL-TITMOUSE.

that it seldom visits Heligoland. I have therefore treated these
forms as climatic races.

The Coal-Tit is a resident species in England, Wales and Ireland,
and appears to have increased during the present century ; although
it is still, as a rule, less numerous than the Great and Blue Tits. In
Scotland, on the contrary, it is the commonest of the family in the
north, and is fairly distributed, except in the Outer Hebrides,
Orkneys and Shetlands. On the Continent the greyer-backed race
is found in summer as far north as lat. 65°, a partial migration taking
place in winter ; but in the central and southern portions of Europe
the bird is generally distributed as a resident. In Algeria the
representative is P. ledouxi, with yellow cheeks, nuchal spot and
under parts — much like the young of our bird. In the mountains
of Cyprus Dr. Guillemard obtained a form described by ]\Ir. Dresser
as F. Cypriotes (Ibis 1888) ; distinguished by a tint on the back even
browner than in British specimens, a nearly obsolete nuchal patch,
and a greater amount of black on the throat. In the Caucasus
occurs a larger form, P. michaloivskii, intermediate in tint between
that of our islands and the typical race of the Continent ; and under
various other names, according as the bird increases in brightness of
colour and length of crest, the Coal-Tit is found across Asia to
Kamchatka, China and Japan.

The nest, commenced in iNIarch or April, is placed in a hole in
a tree, a crevice in a wall, a mouse's, mole's or rabbit's burrow
in a bank or the level ground, foundations of crows' nests, &c. ;
while Bond found one on the branch of a fir-tree, close to the bole.
Moss and wool, rabbits' fur, or deer's hair and feathers, are the
materials ; the 7-1 1 eggs being white, spotted with light red :
measurements "6 by, '45 in. The note is decidedly more shrill than
that of its congeners. The young are fed largely upon green cater-
pillars, but besides these, insects, nuts and seeds are eaten.

Adult male : crown, nape, throat, and upper breast glossy blue-
black, with a large white nuchal spot ; cheeks and sides of the neck
white ; back grey, tinged with olive in most British specimens ; rump
brownish-fawn ; quills ash-brown, with dull white margins to the
secondaries ; wing-coverts with white tips, which form two bars ; tail
ash-brown ; breast dull white, passing into fawn on the belly and
fianks ; bill, legs and feet dark horn-colour. Length 4*25 in. ; wing
2 "4 in. Female: slightly duller in colour. Young: no gloss on
the head ; cheeks, nape-spot and under parts suffused with sulphur-
yellow ; upper feathers tinged with olive. The white patch on the
nape readily distinguishes the Coal-Tit from the Marsh-Tit.

PARID.E.

107

V>^

THE MARSH-TITMOUSE.

Parus palustris, Linnaeus.

The Marsh-Titmouse is another of our resident species ; but with
the exception of the Crested Titmouse it is the least plentiful and
the most local of the genus. Its name is somewhat misleading, for
the bird may often be seen in orchards and gardens, and even in
pine-woods ; but it is partial to the vicinity of rivers, and to the
alders and pollarded willows which flourish on swampy ground. In
England, and in suitable parts of Wales, it is fairly common ; but in
Scotland it is local, and was not known to breed to the north of the
valley of the Forth, until in 1893, Mr. W. Evans found it nesting in
Strathspey. In Mull it was abundant in October 1878. In Ireland it is
rare ; it has been recorded from cos. Antrim, Kildare, and Dublin.

British examples are somewhat browner on the upper parts and
flanks than Continental specimens, and, according to Dr. Stejneger,
they have also shorter tails. Nevertheless those ornithologists who
have admitted the British Coal-Tit to be a distinct species, have not
been equally courageous as regards the British Marsh-Tit, although
the differences between the dull insular and the bright Continental
forms are quite as marked. Dr. Stejneger has emphasized his
opinion of this omission by naming our bird P. palustris dresseri ;
and, as I agree with him that it is inconsistent to recognize specific
distinctness in the former case and to reject it in the latter, I have

Io8 MARSH-TITMOUSE.

treated the variations in both as merely those of race. In
Scandinavia north of lat. 6i°, Northern Russia, the Alps and the
Carpathians, the Continental form is mainly represented by a larger
and still greyer sub-species, P. horealis, variations of which are
found across Asia to Japan. The typical form is distributed through-
out Central and most of Western Europe down to the Pyrenees ;
but in Portugal it has not yet been identified, and in Spain, I only
observed it at Granada and Cordova, as did the late Lord Lilford at
Santander ; while it is rare in Southern Italy and Greece. In the
latter country, as well as in the rest of South-eastern Europe, Asia
Minor, and Northern Persia, it is almost replaced by P. /ugubris, a
larger bird, with a dark brown head and a stout bill.

From the middle of April to May the Marsh-Titmouse makes its
nest in holes in trees — especially willows and alders, in decayed
stumps near the ground, or behind loose bark, or in burrows made
by rats and mice in banks. The bird has been observed to hew
out its own abode, carefully removing in its bill the chips of wood
that would otherwise betray the site, and leaving a very narrow-
entrance, although the hole is often of considerable size inside. The
nest itself is composed of moss, wool, rabbits' fur and hair felted
together, and is often lined with willow-down ; the 5-8 eggs are
white, spotted with dull red — sometimes almost liver-colour: measure-
ments •61 by '47 in. The alarm-note is a rapidly uttered tay, tay,
tay, tay, much more metallic than in other species ; the song being
a simple sis, sis, sis, see. The food consists largely of insects, in
pursuit of which the bird has been seen to thrust its bill under the
scales of the rough bark of a Scotch fir, and to prize them off with
a forcible jerk ; in the autumn and winter however, seeds (especially
those of the sun-flower), beech-mast and berries are consumed ; the
bird holding them in its claw like a parrot, while getting out the
edible parts. Its habits during the breeding-season are more retiring
than those of other Tits.

Adult : upper part of head and nape glossy black ; cheeks dull
white, turning to buff on the sides of the neck ; back olive-brown,
inclining to grey in Continental specimens ; rump rather browner
olive ; quills and tail ash-brown with the outer margins paler ; chin
and throat black ; remaining under parts dull white, turning to buff
on the flanks ; bill black ; legs and feet lead-colour. Length 4*5 in. ;
wing to the tips of the 4th — 5th, and longest quills 2*45 in. The sexes
are alike in plumage ; in the young the colours are duller and more
olive-brown.

T09

THE BLUE TITMOUSE.

Parus c.eruleus, Linnffius.

The Blue Titmouse is one of the best known of British birds,
and is generally distributed throughout the greater part of our
islands. In Scotland, however, it does not appear to reach the
Outer Hebrides, though found in Jura, Mull, &c. ; while it is very
local in the north-west, resident in Sutherland and Caithness, and
only a wanderer to the Orkneys and Shetlands. In Ireland it is the
commonest of the genus. In autumn considerable numbers of Blue
and Great Tits arrive on our east coast ; and still larger flocks pass
by Heligoland.

In Norway the Blue Titmouse breeds as far north as lat. 64°, but
further east its range does not extend beyond 61^ N., nor is the bird
found in Russia beyond the Ural Mountains. It is generally dis-
tributed over the remainder of Europe, except in some of the Greek
islands, and is common in Asia Minor ; but in Persia it is replaced
by P. persitits^ a much paler bird, with broader white margins to the
greater wing-coverts. Continental specimens of the Blue Titmouse
are brighter than those of our islands, and attain the maximum of
brilliancy in the south of Spain ; while on the other side of the
Mediterranean, in Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco, we find P. ultra-
7nariniis, and in the Canaries the insular form P. teneriffm : birds

no BLUE TITMOUSE.

with the same pattern, but with bluish-slate backs, blue-black crown,
and more intense coloration. In Central Russia our Blue Titmouse
meets P. pleskii, a pale blue-backed form, with the belly pure white,
and only a pale yellow spot on the breast ; while in Siberia, Russia,
and Poland, and, as a wanderer, in Eastern Germany, we find the
larger and very beautiful Azure Titmouse, F. cyamis, in which pale
blue and white are the prevailing colours. I mention this bird
because live specimens are not unfrequently brought to England,
and, sooner or later, there will probably be an attempt to add it to
the British list.

The Blue Titmouse makes its nest in April, and generally selects
a hole in a wall or a tree ; but, exceptionally, curious sites, too
numerous to mention, have been recorded. The bird defends its
dwelling with great pertinacity, hissing like a snake, and pecking at
the fingers of the intruder in a way which has gained for it the name
of " Billy-biter." The nest is composed of wool and moss, with
feathers and hair in varying proportions. The eggs, usually 7-8
(though as many as 18 are on record), are white, spotted with light
red — more minutely than those of our other Tits ; measurements
•58 by "45 in. This species and the Great Titmouse may be
encouraged to almost any extent by hanging up suitable nesting-
boxes. The young are fed largely with larv?e of the gooseberry- and
winter-moths. Aphides and other insects ; while the parents also
prey on the grubs of wood-boring beetles, the maggots from oak-
galls, spiders, &c. In summer and autumn the Blue Titmouse may
perhaps damage fruit to a small extent ; in winter a meat-bone hung
up will always prove an attraction. The note is a harsh chee, chee,
chee.

Adult male : forehead, and a line which runs backward over each
eye and encircles the crown, white ; crown, cobalt-blue ; a blue-black
stripe runs through the eye to the nape, where it meets a dark blue
band which crosses the nape, encircles the white cheek.s, and joins
the bluish-black throat ; mantle and rump yellowish-green ; tail and
wings blue, the coverts and inner secondaries of the latter tipped
with white ; breast and abdomen sulphur-yellow, with a bluish-black
streak down the middle ; bill blackish ; legs and feet bluish-grey.
Length 4"3 in. ; wing to the tips of 3rd — 4th and longest quills 2 "4 in.
The female is somewhat duller in colour. The young exhibit less
blue and more yellow in their comparatively dingy plumage.

PARID/E.

;||;;

THE CRESTED TITMOUSE.

Parus cristatus, Linnaeus.

It seems probable that the Crested Titmouse has been for ages a
resident species in the old forests of Scotland, which now survive
principally in the valley of the Spey. Probably the bird does not
breed at the present time outside Strathspey. It has occurred in
Perthshire in winter, but, as a rule, it wanders little from its usual
haunts, and one recorded example in Argyll and another near
Dumbarton, appear to be the only instances in Southern Scotland.
In England few of the cases on record can be substantiated, but
there need be little doubt that from time to time a wanderer arrives
from the Continent. A bird in the Museum of Whitby, Yorkshire,
was obtained in that vicinity in March 1872, and one, examined
by Mr. E. Butterfield, was shot in August 1887 near Keighley, in
the same county ; one appears to have been killed in Suffolk about
1873, two or three have been taken in the Isle of Wight and
Hampshire, and Baron A. von Hiigel observed a bird at Bourne-
mouth on March 26th 1874. For details, a careful paper by Mr.
J. H. Gurney (Zool. 1890, p. 210) may be consulted.

It is not remarkable that the Crested Titmouse should occasion-
ally visit England, for it is resident in Normandy ; while it breeds

I I 2 CRESTED TITMOUSE.

sparingly in several districts of Holland, principally in oak-trees, for
abroad it is by no means restricted to conifers. It inhabits the pine-
forests of Scandinavia and Russia up to about 64° N. lat. ; and
eastward it can be traced as far as the valleys of the Don and
the Volga. In Germany and in the higher districts of France it
is tolerably abundant wherever firs are plentiful ; while in the Jura,
Alps, Carpathians, and other ranges down to the Balkans it is
generally distributed, though it does not go far into Italy. In some
parts of the Lower Pyrenees I found it common ; and in the south
of France, as well as in Spain, it may often be observed among
trees close by the sea. In the latter country it breeds in the cork-
woods in the vicinity of Gibraltar, as well as on higher ground ; it is
also frequent in Portugal. It has not yet been obtained in North
Africa, Greece, or Asia Minor.

In Scotland, the nest of the Crested Titmouse is often placed in
the rotten stump of a fir, a hole being bored in the tree, from
two to eight feet above the ground ; it may be in old stumps of
large trees within six inches of the soil, sometimes in gate-posts,
iron supports of fences, and fissures in living firs. In Germany, the
deserted nests of Magpies, Crows, and squirrels are also utilized ;
and the bird has been seen by an excellent observer to occupy nests
built in bushes, apparently those of the Wren and the Long tailed
Titmouse. The materials are moss, deer's hair, wool and fur, felted
together; the eggs (usually laid in Scotland at the end of April or
early in May), are from 5-8 in number, and are white, boldly
spotted or zoned with light red : measurements "62 by '48 in. Two
broods are sometimes produced in the season. The food of this
bird consists of insects and their larvae, small seeds, and berries. The
note is zee-zee. The bird is very lively in its habits, flitting rapidly
from one pine to another, and it may often be seen during winter
in company with Tree-Creepers, Golden-crested Wrens and Tits.

In the adult male the feathers of the head are dull black, broadly
edged with greyish-white, and prolonged into a conspicuous crest ;
on either side a black streak runs from the eye to the back of the
head ; these join, and descend behind the cheeks (which are mottled
with black and white) till they meet the black throat and upper
breast ; back and wings olive-brown ; quills and tail hair-brown ;
abdomen dull white, turning to buff on the flanks ; bill black ; feet
and legs lead-colour. Length 4^5 in. ; wing to the tip of the 4th
and longest primary, 2-5 in. The female has a shorter crest and
less black on the throat ; and the young are like her, but have
hardly any crest.

k

SITTID.«.

113

,1 "■ ', '

%:^^-l. ,

THE NUTHATCH.

SiTTA ci:siA, Wolf.

The Nuthatch is tolerably common in most of the districts in the
south-east and centre of England which contain old timber. In the
west it is rarer beyond Herefordshire, though perhaps increasing,
as it is in Brecon, Radnorshire and some other parts of Wales,
where it was formerly considered a very uncommon bird. In
Lancashire it is seldom seen, and in Yorkshire it is mostly restricted
to the large old parks ; while in the more northern counties it seems
to have decreased during the present century, and is now very rare.
In Scotland it has been obtained in Haddington-, Berwick- and
Roxburgh- shires, and observed in Skye ; it is also said to have
occurred on Bressay, in the Shetlands. In Ireland the Nuthatch is
as yet unknown : an attempt by Col. Cooper to introduce it at
Markree Castle, Sligo, seeming to have failed.

On the Continent the northern limit of this species appears to be
the peninsula of Jutland, where it meets its close ally, S. europcra
(With nearly white under parts), which replaces S. ccesia in Scandi-
navia, Northern Russia and Siberia. From the Baltic southwards
to the Mediterranean and Black Seas, our bird is generally
distributed ; Loche records it from Algeria and Capt. S. G. Reid
from North-western Morocco ; and it has been obtained in Asia
Minor and Palestine. Eastward, it cannot with certainty be traced,

k;

114 NUTHATCH.

owing to the presence of some questionably valid species. Our
bird is absent from Malta, Sardinia and Corsica ; but in the last-
named island it is represented by a very distinct species, S. white-
headi, with white under parts and — in the male — a jet-black head,
named by Dr. R. B. Sharpe after its discoverer.

The Nuthatch begins to breed about the middle of April ;
generally making its nest in some hole in a limb of a tree, and
occasionally between the buttresses of a trunk, close to the ground.
A hole in a wall is sometimes selected ; and, in many instances, the
aperture is filled up with clay and small stones, leaving only a
narrow orifice for entrance. An extraordinary nest in the British
Museum, presented by the late Mr. F. Bond, was placed in the side
of a haystack, and measured thirteen inches by eight, the weight of
the clay being eleven pounds. Some distance inside the cavity is a
bed of dry leaves or of the scales of the Scotch fir, on which the 5-7
eggs are deposited. These are white, spotted with reddish-brown —
larger and more boldly blotched than those of the Great Titmouse :
measurements 77 by "56 in. In spring the male utters a loud and
shrill whistle, as well as tiii-tui-tui ; there is also a bubbling or churring
note. When courting he spreads his tail, displaying the white spots,
and puffs out the feathers of the breast. In autumn the bird feeds
largely on hazel-nuts, which it fixes in some crevice, and then
proceeds to hammer with its bill until the shell is broken, each
stroke being delivered with the full weight of the body, working from
the hip joint ; whence the names of Nuthatch (/>., Nuthack) and
Nutjobber. It is also partial to beech-mast, and will eat many kinds
of hard seeds, as well as acorns, and even corn in times of scarcity ;
but during a considerable portion of the year it feeds on insects,
for which it searches on trees and on the ground. At such times
its motions resemble those of a mouse rather than of a bird, being
upward, sideways or downward, with equal facility ; while, according
to Jardine, and also Blyth, the head and back are sometimes down-
wards, when roosting.

Adult male : the upper parts generally of a bluish-slate colour ;
quills browner ; central tail-feathers slate-grey, the remainder black at
their bases, barred and tipped with white and grey ; a black streak
running from the base of the bill through the eye to the side of the
neck ; above the eye a narrow white streak ; chin and cheeks white ;
throat and belly rich buff; flanks and under tail-coverts streaked
with dark chestnut ; bill horn-colour, lighter at the base ; legs and
feet brown. Length 57 in.; wing 3-4 in. The female is rather
duller in colour, and the young are decidedly so.

TROGLODYTID^.

115

THE WREN.

Troglodytes parvulus, K. L. Koch.

I

The Wren, a bird as famih'ar by traditional associations as the
Robin Redbreast, is generally distributed throughout the British
Islands. Although sedentary with us, its numbers are largely
increased by autumnal immigration ; many being found in October,
according to Mr. Cordeaux, on and near the treeless coasts of
Lincolnshire and the south of Yorkshire, and, perhaps less
abundantly, in Norfolk. In our remoter islands, the resident birds
have become somewhat different from those of the mainland.
A single example from St. Kilda was described by Seebohm
as T. hirte?isis (Zool. 1884, p. z?>2>) '^ but Mr. Dresser, who sub-
sequently examined seven examples, considers that the supposed
points of difference are all to be found in specimens from various
parts of Europe, and that the bird is not worthy of specific rank
(Ibis 1886, p. 43). Mr. Barrington considers that the slightly larger
Wren resident in Shedand is very close to a dark and more barred
form found in the Faeroes, which, with the Iceland bird, has been
separated as T. borealis ; while Dr. Stejneger has distinguished the
Wren found in the south-west of Norway as T. bergetisis.

With the above exceptions the typical form of Wren inhabits the
whole of Europe ; breeding up to the Vefsen fjord in Norway, to 64°
N. in Sweden, and nearly as high in Finland and Russia. East-
ward, the Ural Mountains appear to be its boundary, and in the

Il6 WREN.

Volga district the Wren is chiefly observed in winter. It is found in
Morocco and Algeria, although absent from Egypt ; and it has
been met with in the Caucasus, Northern Persia, Asia Minor and
the north of Palestine ; the representative species in Central Asia
being T. pallidiis.

The Wren begins to breed very early, making its nest in shrubs,
bushes overgrown with brambles, hedges, banks, the sides of walls
covered with ivy, trees, hayricks, thatched roofs and other situations.
The materials employed are principally leaves and moss, although
dry grass is often used ; sometimes there is a lining of feathers.
The structure, which is comparatively large, is domed, and has a
small hole in the side ; the eggs, about 6-8 (though i6 young have
been found in one nest), are white, generally spotted with red :
measurements "67 by "5 in. Two broods are produced in the
season. It is a common belief — and one not to be rashly dis-
countenanced— that if the inside of a Wren's nest is touched the
bird will desert it ; but if care be used such is by no means invari-
ably the case. Imperfect nests are frequently found near an
occupied one, and owing to the notion that they are built by the
male bird for his lodging at night, they are commonly known as
" cocks' nests." In winter, however, old nests and holes in walls or
thatched roofs are undoubtedly resorted to by Wrens in some num-
bers for warmth and shelter. The song, loud for the size of the
bird, may be heard during the greater part of the year ; the alarm-
note is a sharp clicking chit. The food consists principally of
insects, for which search is made in all sorts of crannies, but in winter
the bird will eat seeds and any odd scraps.

The adult has a dull white streak over the eye \ upper parts red-
dish-brown, with narrow transverse darker bars ; outer quills umber-
brown, barred with buff and dark brown on the exterior webs ; under
parts bufifish-white on the chin and throat, becoming browner on the
belly and flanks, the latter being somewhat barred ; bill dark brown
above, paler below, legs and feet light brown. Length 3 "5 in. ; wing
I '9 in. The female is smaller, duller above and browner beneath,
and has paler legs. The young are less distinctly barred.

CERTHIID.*:.

117

THE TREE-CREEPER.

Certhia familiaris, Linnceus.

Although tolerably numerous, the Tree Creeper is not very fre-
quently observed, owing to its small size, modest colours, and the
quickness with which it shifts its position on the trunk or branch of
the tree where it is seeking for spiders and other insects that lurk
in the crevices of the bark. It is generally distributed throughout
Great Britain from Cornwall to Caithness, occasionally wandering to
the Orkneys and Shetlands, and residing in Skye, though not found
in the Outer Hebrides. In Ireland it is common in every county
where timber prevails.

In Norway the Tree-Creeper is abundant in all the lower conifer-
woods up to Trondhjems-fjord ; while eastward it occurs in Sweden,
Russia, and across Siberia, as far north as trees flourish, to the
Pacific. Southward, it is found in Japan, Northern China, and
Asia down to the Himalayas, in and south of which several distinct
species replace it ; westward, it inhabits Persia, Asia Minor, Tunisia,
Algeria, and the basin of the Mediterranean generally as far as
the Spanish Peninsula ; and central it is distributed throughout
Europe in suitable localities. Mr. Hartert (' Novitates Zoological,'

Il8 TREE-CREEPER.

iv. pp. 136-139) distinguishes by trinomials five subspecies in
Europe, an indefinite number in Asia, and five in North America,
from about 50° N. lat. to Mexico and Guatemala.

Towards the middle of April the Tree-Creeper makes its nest ;
usually selecting a crevice between the partially detached bark
and the trunk of a tree, or a narrow cleft in the bole ; but not
unfrequently placing it behind loose plaster, or under the eaves
of a shed or dwelling ; sometimes in the foundations of the nests
of Birds of prey and Rooks, and in piles of timber or bricks. Fine
straw or twigs, roots, grass and moss are the materials employed, with
a lining of wool, feathers, and strips of inside bark — often that of
the birch-tree. The 6-9 eggs are white, spotted, zoned and blotched
with reddish-brown and dull purple, especially towards the larger
end : measurements "62 by '47 in. Incubation is assiduously per-
formed by the female, who is, however, rather shy, slipping off her
nest if she sees an intruder ; but sometimes when the young are
fledged, even though still in, or close to their home, the parents
show remarkable indifference. Two broods are often reared in
the season. The food, as already observed, consists principally
of insects, and occasionally of seeds of the Scotch fir. The
song of this little bird is shrill, but rather pleasing ; and I have
noticed that in the bright climate of the south of Europe, in the
gardens of the Alhambra at Granada, for instance, it is much more
prolonged and joyous than in the north. The call-note is a feeble
cheeps cheep. When climbing, the stiff-pointed feathers of the tail
are depressed ; the bird ascending by their assistance and by that of
its long curved claws, with a short jerking movement, and generally
in spiral curves. In winter the Tree-Creeper may often be
observed in company with various species of Titmouse, or with
Golden- and Fire-crested Wrens.

The adult has a dull white streak over the eye ; feathers of the
head, neck, and back dark brown with pale centres ; lower back
rufous-brown ; wing-quills dark brown, barred and margined ex-
teriorly with buffish-white ; tail of twelve stiff-pointed feathers, dull
reddish-brown, with paler shafts ; chin to belly silvery-white ; flanks
and vent suffused with buff; the rather long, slender, curved bill
dark brown above, yellowish below ; legs and feet, light brown.
Length about 475 in. ; wing 2-5 in. The sexes are alike in plumage.
The young have a more rufous-yellow tinge than the adults.

CERTHIID.B.

IT9

ri.l'^^'- f

THE WALL-CREEPER.

TiCHODROMA MURARiA (Liniijeus).

This inhabitant of the mountainous regions of Europe and Asia
is a very unusual wanderer to England. The first authenticated
instance was furnished by the late Thomas Bell, who published
(Zool. s.s. p. 4664, and Tr. Norfolk and Norw. Nat. Soc. ii. p. 180)
a letter from Robert Marsham of Stratton-Strawless, Norfolk, to
Gilbert White of Selborne, dated October 30th 1792, containing an
accurate description of a Wall-Creeper which had just been shot
v-'hilst flying about his house. Eighty years later Mr. F. S. Mitchell
stated (Zool. s.s. p. 4839) that one, then in his possession, was shot
on May 8th 1872, at Sabden, at the foot of Pendle Hill, in
Lancashire, when flying around a tall chimney, and attracting the
attention of the mill-hands by its crimson-banded wings. Mr.
W. R. Butterfield recorded (Zool. 1896, p. 302) the occurrence of an
adult in breeding-plumage some years ago near Winchelsea, Sussex.

I20 WALL-CREEPER.

On migration the Wall-Creeper has occurred several times at
Rouen and in other parts of Normandy, while along the Loire it is
not uncommon, and seven or eight examples have been obtained as
far west as Nantes ; most of them on the walls of the old chateau
which overlooks the busy wharves. It breeds sparingly in suitable
localities in the Vosges and the Jura ; while stragglers have occurred
on the Rhine as far north as Coblentz, and in the valleys of the
Moselle and the Meuse. In the mountains of Savoy and Switzer-
land it is generally distributed, being perhaps more abundant in the
Grisons than in any other district ; it is also resident in the Basses-
Alps, Provence, the mountainous regions of the mainland of Italy,
Sicily, Sardinia and Elba ; while Professor Giglioli has observed it
climbing about walls in Florence. Throughout the Pyrenees and
the Cantabrian chain, and in the mountains of the Peninsula
down to the Sierra Nevada, it is comparatively abundant. East of
the Alps we find it in Tyrol, Styria, the Carpathians, Greece, the
Caucasus, and the mountains of Asia as far as China ; while
Riippell has recorded it from Egypt and Abyssinia.

The nest, composed of moss, straw, and grass, lined with hair,
wool and feathers, is placed in some crevice of the rocks ; and the
3-5 eggs are white, very finely spotted with reddish-brown : measure-
ments 78 by "56 in. Two broods are sometimes produced in the
season ; incubation devolving upon the female. The call-note is a
shrill pli-pli-pli-pli-pli, like that of the Lesser Spotted Woodpecker.
The food consists of spiders, insects and their larvae generally, in
search of which the bird may be seen climbing up the face of a
cliff by vertical jumps ; the wings being nearly closed, though
spread when the bird is basking ; the tail is not used as an aid to
progression.

Adult male in breeding-plumage : slate-grey above, darker on the
head and still darker on the rump ; wing-coverts mostly crimson ;
quills blackish, tipped with dull white, the 2nd to 5th each with
a basal and a sub-apical white spot on the inner web, the 6th
with only a buff basal spot ; outer webs of nearly all the primaries
rich crimson ; tail black, tipped with grey and white ; throat and
breast black ; remaining under parts dark grey ; bill, legs and feet
black. Length 6 in. (bill '6 in.); wing 3-9 in. The female has
rather less black on the throat. In winter that part becomes
greyish-white in both sexes, while the head is browner and the upper
parts are paler. The young bird at first exhibits less crimson, has
a shorter bill, and the throat is grey like the shoulders, though the
black throat is acquired the first spring.

MOTACILLID^.

121

THE PIED WAGTAIL.

MoTACiLLA LUGUBRis, Temminck.

The Pied Wagtail was first distinguished from the White Wagtail
of the Continent by Temminck, who conferred upon it, in 1820, the
above scientific name ; in ignorance of which, Gould, seventeen years
later, called our bird M. yarrelli. Throughout the British Islands
this is a common and generally distributed species ; visiting the
extreme north of Scotland in March and remaining to breed, but
migrating southwards, as a rule, on the approach of winter. It
nests, sparingly, in some of the Hebrides, and from the Orkneys it is
now never absent, but in St. Kilda, as also in the Shetlands, it is only
known to occur on the spring and autumn migrations. In Ireland
it is common and, on the whole, resident, though partially migratory
as regards the northern districts ; while even in England, though
always present, there is a general movement southward in autumn, and
northward in spring. The late Mr. A. E. Knox observed large flocks,
mainly composed of young of the year, early in September, travelling
along the coast of Sussex in the direction of Kent, whence the transit
to the Continent is shortest ; while from the middle of March numer-
ous small parties, consisting of old males (the females being later),
have been seen to arrive from the sea where the Channel is wider.

L

122 PIED WAGTAIL.

On the Continent the Pied Wagtail is ahaiost restricted to the
western portion. It occurs, and perhaps breeds, in the south-west
of Scandinavia ; visits Denmark ; passes over Heligoland, Holland
and Belgium on the spring migration, and nests sparingly in the north-
west of France ; while in the south-west I observed that males of
this species and of the White Wagtail were in full plumage from
the latter part of December to the end of March, after which
both disappeared. The Pied Wagtail arrives in Portugal about
October 20th, and leaves in March, in the which month I obtained
an adult male at Seville, Spain ; and it occurs near Tangier in
Morocco. Eastward, it has been met with irregularly in autumn
from Nice to Sardinia, Sicily, and Malta

Breeding generally begins early in April ; the nest — of moss, dry
grass and roots, lined with hair and feathers — being in some cleft of a
bank, wall, rock or quarry, a decayed or pollarded tree, the thatch
of a building, a faggot stack, or even an open field. The Cuckoo
often places her egg in it. The 4-6 eggs are greyish-white, closely
speckled and streaked with ash-brown : measurements "8 by '6 in.
Two broods are often reared in the season. The bird feeds
principally on insects obtained in the meadows, moist ground, and
shallow water, to which it is partial ; on the coast it eats the flies
&c. found amongst the sea-drift, and Mr. Tait observed it hovering
over the water to pick up the floating ova of a small crab, while
Booth says that it is fond of glow-worms. The call-note is a sharp
chiz-zic; the song, seldom heard except in spring, is short but agree-
able. The quick running movements of this pretty bird, and the
lively motion of its long tail, must be familiar to every one.

Adult male in breeding-plumage : forehead and sides of the head
and neck pure white, contrasting strongly with the deep black of the
crown, nape, throat and breast ; mantle, rump and wing-coverts
black, the latter with white margins which form a double bar; quills
blackish, the inner secondaries — nearly as long as the primaries —
margined with white on the outer edge ; tail-feathers black, except
the two outer pairs which are mainly white ; belly white ; sides and
flanks blackish; bill, legs and feet black. Length 7-3 in.; wing
3 "5 in. The female has a shorter tail, the back is lead-grey with
somewhat darker streaks, and the black on the crown and breast is
less extensive. After the autumn moult both sexes lose the black
chin and throat, and become greyer on the back. The young are
like those of M. alba, next to be described, but darker on the upper
parts.

MOTACILLID.t.

123

THE WHITE WAGTAIL.

MoTACiLLA ALBA, Liiinseus.

This Continental representative of the famih'ar species already
described was first recognized in England by the late Mr. F. Bond,
who found two pairs at Kingsbury Reservoir, Middlesex, in the latter
part of May 1841. Since that date it has occurred in a good many
counties of England, being not uncommon in Cornwall in spring ;
Mr. Haigh found it numerous in North Wales on the spring passages
of 1 89 1 and 1897 ; and it is said to have nested in Devon, the Isle of
Wight, Kent, Middlesex, Cambridgeshire, Suffolk and Huntingdon-
shire. Of a pair of birds obtained with their nest and young in
Norfolk, presented to the British Museum by Lord Walsingham, the
male is a White and the female is a Pied Wagtail ; Dr. Giinther has
informed me of a similar case of interbreeding in Suffolk ; and Mr.
Aplin has recorded another, with the sexes reversed, in Oxfordshire.
Mr. Cordeaux mentions several occurrences in Lincolnshire, in
spring ; competent observers have noticed the species in Notting-
hamshire, Yorkshire, Lancashire and Cumberland ; and on May
24th 18S5 I watched an adult, probably a male, by some lead-works
near Langley Castle in Northumberland. In Scotland the White
Wagtail has been observed in some of the southern counties ; while
pairs have been noticed near Gairloch, in Ross-shire ; Booth saw
several couples in April on the river bank at Inverness, and a number
on the island of Lewis early in May 1877, after rough weather;

124 WHITE WAGTAIL.

moreover it appears that there is a regular spring-migration through
Coll, Tiree, and some of the Outer Hebrides. Saxby says that he
obtained the White ^^'agtail in Shetland in May and June. In Ireland
it is as yet little known ; Mr. R. Warren shot one in co. Mayo on
April 25th 1 85 1, and another on April 29th 1893, while Mr.
Barrington has a specimen obtained on Achill Island in May 1894.

The White Wagtail is a regular visitor to the Faeroes and Iceland,
wandering to the Island of Jan Mayen and the south of Greenland.
It is found over the whole of Europe and of Northern Asia ; the
Siberian birds, which are of a purer grey on the upper parts, wintering
in India and Burma ; while the ordinary form occurs in Asia Minor,
Palestine and Northern Africa in summer and winter, visiting
Madeira, the Canaries and Senegambia on the west, and Zanzibar
on the east, in the latter season. It is one of the earliest species
to return to those northern summer-quarters from which cold and
want of food have forced it to migrate at the end of autumn ; the
males arriving about a week before the females.

The sites for the nest are similar to those chosen by the former
species ; but the White Wagtail has further been known to breed
in the burrow of a Sand-Martin, and also to make its nest in
an open place in the middle of a strawberry-bed. The 5-7 eggs
are sometimes of a rather bluer grey, with bolder ashy markings,
than those of the Pied Wagtail ; but frequently they cannot be
distinguished, and the average measurements are identical. In
general habits, food and haunts, the ^^'hite Wagtail hardly differs
from our indigenous bird ; I have seen flocks whitening the furrows
in Spain and the south of France, as Mr. Gurney has in Algeria.

The adult male in breeding-plumage has the forehead and the
sides of the head and neck white ; crown and nape black ; back
and rump ash-grey ; upper wing- and median coverts tipped with
white ; quills blackish, the long inner secondaries edged outside
with white ; tail-feathers black, except the two outer pairs which
are mainly white ; chin, throat, and breast black ; abdomen Avhite ;
flanks grey; bill, legs and feet black. Length 7-5 in. ; wing 3-5 in.
The female has a shorter tail ; her colours are less pure, and the
black portions are more restricted. After the autumn moult the
chin and throat are white, and the black is reduced to a crescentic
band. In the young the white forehead, cheeks and throat are
tinged with yellow, and the head and mantle are olive-grey, but
males soon show white on the forehead and black on the throat.
Long before the following spring the olive tint has disappeared,
and the young have a light appearance.

MOTACILLID.'E.

125

THE GREY WAGTAIL.

MOTACILLA MELANOPE, PallaS.

This beautiful species, easily recognizable by the yellow tints of
its under parts and its exceptionally long tail, is resident, or partially
migratory, throughout those portions of the British Islands where
streams are found in the vicinity of mountains, or even hills ;
but to the flat country and the sea-coast it is chiefly a visitor on
migration and in winter. It breeds regularly in Cornwall, Devon,
Somerset, Dorset and Wilts ; and sparingly in Hampshire, Surrey,
Sussex, Kent, Buckinghamshire, Oxfordshire, Leicestershire and
Lincolnshire. In Wales and the Marches, as well as on both sides of
the Pennine range, it is common, increasing in numbers to the north-
ward. In Scotland it is generally distributed, although not very
abundant in Sutherland and Caithness ; it nests in small numbers in
Skye, and occasionally visits the Outer Hebrides, Orkneys and
Shetlands. It breeds throughout Ireland, where it is a familiar
species.

On the Continent the Grey Wagtail barely reaches the extreme
south of Sweden, and is very rare in Northern Germany, while in
Russia it is hardly found beyond the latitude of Moscow ; but in
the mountainous and even rolling ground of the central and
southern parts of Europe it is fairly common ; breeding down to
the basin of the Mediterranean, where it is a resident, as it is
also in the Canaries, Madeira and the Azores. Eastward, it is

126 GREY WAGTAIL.

found in summer across Asia (south of about 67° N. lat.) to Persia,
Turkestan, the Himalayas, Northern China and Japan ; wintering as
far south as the Indo-Malayan islands, and down to Somali-land in
Africa.

The nest is placed usually near a stream, in some rugged portion
of a bank, occasionally among the stems of a shrub, frequently in a
rough stone wall or some crevice of the rocks. In the Pyrenees,
where the Grey Wagtail is very abundant, I observed a nest behind
a pair of votive crutches at the entrance to the grotto at Lourdes.
The materials employed are moss, soft grass and fine roots, with
abundance of hair for a lining. The eggs, usually 5 in number, are
greyish-white, mottled with pale clay-colour, and sometimes marked
with a few black hair-streaks at the larger end : measurements 75
by -55 in. Two broods are occasionally reared in the season; the
first eggs being laid in April ; and the male takes his share in the
task of incubation. The food consists of aquatic and other insects,
small molluscs and crustaceans ; and at the baths of Dax in the
Landes, a pair of birds which frequented the courtyard of the hotel
used to enter the open windows of the thronged corridors, with the
utmost familiarity, in search of flies. The call-note is a sharply
uttered zis zi. In its constant and rapid movements this species
resembles its allies, but it is decidedly more addicted to perching on
trees by the side of streams.

The adult male in breeding-plumage has the crown and ear-coverts
slate-grey, with a narrow white streak above the eye ; below the lores,
which are black, a broad white line runs on each side to the nape, which
is slate-grey, as are the mantle and rump ; wing-feathers brownish-
black, the long secondaries margined with bufhsh-white ; upper tail-
coverts greenish-yellow ; the outside pair of tail-feathers white, the
next two pairs also white wath a black stripe along part of the outer
web, the remainder brownish-black ; chin and throat black ; breast
to lower tail-coverts sulphur-yellow ; bill dark brown ; legs and feet
pale brown. Length from 7 to 7 -5 in., depending upon the length
of the tail, which is variable; wing t^-t^ in. The female has a
shorter tail than the male, and her tints are duller and greener, while
on the throat she has far less black, and usually none at all. That
part becomes white in both sexes in autumn, when a buff tint
appears on the breast. The young bird is browner than the female,
and its eye-stripe is buff. This species has bred, in captivity, with
the Pied Wagtail, and the hybrids proved fertile.

MOTACILLID.E.

127

THE BLUE-HEADED WAGTAIL.
MoTACiLLA FLAVA, Liiinseus.

In 1832 it was pointed out by Gould that the Blue-headed Wag-
tail of the Continent was distinct from the Yellow Wagtail, which is
a regular visitor to our islands ; two years later Doubleday shot an
example of the former at Walton-on-the-Naze ; and since that date
a considerable number have been obtained or observed, mostly in
the south-western, southern, and eastern counties of England ; while
the bird nested on several occasions near Gateshead, Durham
(Hancock); and Mr. Haigh shot one in Merionethshire on April 22nd
1897. As a rule, however, the Blue-headed Wagtail can hardly
be considered as more than an irregular visitor on migration ;
generally in spring, but not unfrequently in autumn. In Scotland it
has been shot near Edinburgh and Dunbar, as well as on the
Pentland Skerries, south of the Orkneys ; while Saxby states that he
obtained it on the autumn migration in Shetland.

The Blue-headed Wagtail has wandered to the Faeroes ; and I
have examined a specimen in the British Museum obtained by
Gould in summer as far north in Norway as the Dovrefjeld.
Southward, it is found throughout Europe ; breeding in the west
down to the shores of the Mediterranean, where it is partially
resident, and pushing its migrations in winter to the south of Africa.
Eastward, it is found across Asia to the Pacific ; and also in Alaska,
where it breeds up to 64° N. lat. This Wagtail runs to varieties
which are, in the opinion of some ornithologists, entitled to take
rank as species ; but upon this iniricate question I must refer my

128 BLUE-HEADED WAGTAIL.

readers to Dr. Sharpe's views (Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. x. pp. 516-532).
I have only room for the broad statement that in Upper Scandi-
navia, Northern Europe, and Siberia, migrating as far as the south
of Africa and India, there is a form (the male of which has a nearly
black crown and no eye-streak) known as J/, viridis of Gmelin, or
better as M. borealis of Sundevall ; two examples of which are said
to have occurred at Penzance. In the basin of the INIediterranean
is found a close ally, M. cinereicapilla of Savi, with grey crown but
very little eye-streak ; while in South-eastern Europe and Central
Asia there is an easily recognizable race with a very black head and
no eye-stripe, known as M. feldeggi or M. melanocephala : and when,
as in Hungary, this black-headed bird exhibits a narrow white eye-
stripe, it is called M. paradoxa.

Breeding commences in the latter half of May ; the nest being
placed on the ground among herbage in meadows and corn-fields.
It is composed of fine roots, grass and moss, lined with horsehair
and a few feathers ; the 4-6 eggs being yellowish-white, clouded
with pale brown, and sometimes scrolled with black at the larger
end : measurements 78 by "56 in. The food consists of insects
and their larvae ; and the bird is very partial to small flies, in pursuit
of which it may be seen strutting and fluttering within a few inches
of the muzzles of grazing horses or cattle ; whence the German
name ' Kuh-stelze.' The call-note is a shrill chit-up.

The adult male in breeding-plumage has the crown and nape
bluish-grey ; lores and ear-coverts dark slate-grey ; over each eye and
ear-covert a white streak \ mantle olive, tinged with yellow ; wing-
coverts dark brown, with yellowish-white tips, forming a double bar ;
secondaries margined with the same colour ; quills dark brown ; tail-
feathers blackish-brown, except the two outer pairs, which are white
with black edges to the inner webs ; chin and a line below the lores
white ; throat, breast and tail-coverts bright gamboge-yellow ; bill,
legs and feet black. Length 6 "3 in. ; wing 3*2 in. The female is
rather shorter ; the head has a more olive tint, and the yellow of the
under parts is less pronounced. In autumn both sexes acquire an
olive-brown tinge. The young are greenish-brown above, with a
rough V-shaped line of brown spots from the nape to the breast,
while the under parts are only pale yellow ; but the ivhite eye-stripe
which serves to distinguish typical examples of this species from our
Yellow Wagtail is always present. Young males often display in
their first spring some dark mottlings on the throat, grey patches on
the head, and a considerable amount of yellow on the shoulders.

MOTACILLID^.

129

rK^-mSM^

THE YELLOW WAGTAIL.
MoTACiLLA RAii (Bonapartc).

The Yellow Wagtail is a regular summer-visitor to the British
Islands, arriving early in April, and leaving again in September. In
Cornwall and Devon it is chiefly seen on migration, though it nests
in the latter ; but from Somersetshire onwards, it is generally
distributed throughout England as a breeding-species in wet
meadows and other suitable situations. In Wales it is local, and
chiefly noticed on migration. In Scotland it has nested as far as
Perthshire, and perhaps up to the south-west of the Great Glen, but is
rarely found beyond the latter ; while a wanderer has been obtained
in North Ronay, Outer Hebrides, and the bird is said to have
occurred in the Shetlands. In Ireland it breeds regularly about
Lough Neagh, in Ulster, as well as on Loughs Corrib, Mask and
Carra, in Connaught ; the nest has also been obtained once near
Dublin, where the species occurs on migration, as it has done in
CO. Wexford (Ussher).

Although the Yellow Wagtail has occurred on Heligoland,
Borkum, and the coast of Holland, it is only west of Belgium that
it is known as a regular visitor, while even in the north of France
the Blue-headed Wagtail prevails in the breeding-season as far as
Dieppe. Westward our Yellow Wagtail is said to predominate ;
and on passage it visits the south of France and both sides of
the Iberian Peninsula with great regularity, though only of rare and

M

130 YELLOW WAGTAIL.

accidental occurrence in Italy, Sicily, and Malta ; while southward,
its migrations extend down the coast of W. Africa as far as the
Gaboon. A large and isolated colony is said to inhabit the valley
of the Lower Volga, the Caspian region, and Turkestan as far east
as the Altai Mountains ; the migrations of this section reaching
along the eastern side of Africa as far as Natal. In Eastern Asia
the representative species is M. taiva?m.

The nest, built early in May and generally well concealed, is
placed in a depression or a small furrow of the ground in a meadow
or corn-field ; sometimes in a bank, or at the foot of a wall, among
the long rank herbage. Even in the same locality there is con-
siderable variation in the materials employed ; moss and dry grass
being generally used for the exterior, while the lining may be of
feathers, hair, rabbit's-down, or fine roots. The 4-6 eggs are
greyish white mottled with clay-brown, and often have some black
hair-streaks : measurements 78 by "56 in. A second brood is
sometimes reared in the season. The food consists of the small
thin-shelled molluscs found among water-meadows, and various
kinds of insects ; and the bird is as partial as the Blue-headed
Wagtail to the proximity of grazing cattle. In its note and in the
bold curves of its flight, it also resembles that* species ; it is, how-
ever, rather more addicted to perching on low bushes and fences.

Adult male in breeding-plumage : lores, ear-coverts and back,
greenish-olive ; the forehead yellower ; a sulphur-yellow streak over
the eye and ear-coverts on each side ; wing-coverts and quills dusky-
brown, tipped and margined with pale buff; tail-feathers blackish-
brown, except the two outer pairs which are white, merely edged
with black on the inner webs ; under parts rich sulphur-yellow ; bill,
legs and feet black. Length about 6 "2 5 in. ; wing 3-15 in. The
female is browner on the upper parts, and the eye-streak and under
parts are less yellow. In autumn the adults of both sexes become
much paler. The young in the first and nestling-plumage, which is
only worn for a short time, are greenish-brown on the upper parts,
and buff on the breast, much resembling young Pipits ; later they
turn yellow on the vent and under parts, and gradually become like
their parents, though the sides of the neck and the breast are spotted
with dark brown for some time.

For those Wagtails which exhibit a prevalence of yellow in their
plumage and have also a longer hind-claw than the Black-and-white
Wagtails, Cuvier established the genus Budytes ; and, inasmuch as
the Grey Wagtail presented intermediate characters, Kaup invented
for it the genus Calobates.

M0TACILL1D.«.

131

THE TREE-PIPIT.

Anthus trivialis (LinncTus).

The Pipits superficially resemble the Larks, but differ from them
considerably in structure and some of their habits ; while they agree
with the Wagtails in almost every respect, except in the coloration
of the plumage. Like the latter birds, Pipits moult twice in the year
- — partially in spring — and they are equally fond of bathing ; while
I-arks have only an autumnal moult, and usually dust themselves
over, instead of washing.

The Tree-Pipit generally arrives in the southern portions of
England early in April ; and, except in the west of Cornwall, it
is fairly distributed throughout the country in summer ; while in
Wales it is very common in the moist, wooded valleys suited to its
habits. In Scotland, where it is often mis-named " Wood-Lark," it
is plentiful in the south-west districts, while it appears to be fairly
diffused in other parts of the country, but it is rarer in the north, is
very local in Aberdeenshire, has only been detected breeding in
Sutherlandshire since 1875, and is merely a wanderer to the Orkneys.
In Ireland its reported occurrence has not yet been authenticated.
The majority depart for the south during the month of September,
but in the west the late Mr. Cecil Smith observed a flock of about

M 2

132

TREE-PIPIT.

a score preparing to migrate from the cliffs near Exmouth on the
26th of October.

A specimen of the Tree-Pipit is said to have been brought by the
Austrian Expedition from Jan Mayan [?] On the Continent this
species breeds as far north as Tromso in Norway, and southward to
the Pyrenees, the higher grounds of Nortliern Italy, and the
Crimea; below which it is principally know^n as a migrant in
spring and autumn, or as a resident in winter; as it is also in the
northern portion of Africa, from the Canaries and Morocco on the
west, to Egypt, Nubia and Abyssinia on the east. It occurs in Siberia
in summer as far east as Krasnoiarsk in the valley of the Yenesei,
where it meets with A. maculatus, a closely-allied form, more olive-
green in colour and with few dusky streaks on the upper parts. In
winter the Tree-Pipit has been found in India, as far south as
Belgaum and as far east as Chutia-Nagpur (Oates).

About the middle of May the nest, placed on the ground among
herbage, is constructed of moss, dry grass and roots, lined with fine
bents and a little hair. The 4-6 eggs are subject to much
variation ; some being greyish-white, mottled with deep brown ;
others rich reddish-brown; some almost lilac-pink; and ogain a
not uncommon variety resembles the egg of the Reed-Bunting :
measurements '82 by "6 in. Two broods are sometimes reared in
the .season. The food consists principally of insects, with small
seeds. The song of the male, see-ar, see-ar, see-ar, is generally
begun on the topmost branch of a tree, after which the bird rises
and hovers in the air, and descends — still singing — to his perch.

Adult male : eye-stripe buff; upper parts clear sandy-brown with
distinct dark brown streaks ; wing-coverts and secondaries dark
brown with paler edges ; primaries dull brown ; outer pair of tail-
feathers white, with a dark brown stripe on part of the inner webs ;
the second pair merely tipped with white, and otherwise dark brown,
like the remaining rectrices ; chin dull white; throat buff, with a dark
line on each side from the bill to the gorget ; sides of the neck, breast
and flanks buff, with elongated spots and streaks of dark brown ;
belly dull white ; bill brown above, lighter below ; legs and feet pale
flesh-colour in life, but yellowish-brown in preserved specimens.
Length 6 in. ; wing y^ in. The female is slightly smaller, and less
distinctly spotted on the breast. In autumn the buff tint is more
pronounced ; and in young birds the spots and streaks are smaller
in size, but more numerous. The Tree-Pipit may always be distin-
guished from the Meadow-Pipit by its somewhat larger size, warmer
buff tint, paler legs, and much shorter and more curved hind claw.

MOTACILLID.^.

133

THE MEADOW-PIPIT.

Anthus pratensis (Linnaeus).

The Meadow-Pipit — generally known as the Titlark, and locally
by the names of Titling, Moss-cheeper, Ling-bird &c. — is the
smallest and most abundant member of the genus throughout the
British Islands. During summer it is nearly as much at home on
elevated moors as on lowland pastures ; but in winter the bleaker
situations are deserted for more sheltered localities, especially those
in the vicinity of the sea-coast. In autumn considerable numbers
leave our shores altogether, and a return migration takes place in
spring.

In the Faeroes and Iceland the Meadow-Pipit is common in
summer, while in South Greenland a solitary wanderer was obtained
in 1845. The breeding-range extends over the greater part of Europe,
from the North Cape to the Pyrenees, the northern portions of
Italy and the Carpathians, and perhaps to some of the elevated
regions still further south ; but in the basin of the Mediterranean
the bird is principally known as a visitor on passage or in winter.
Eastward, it is found in Asia Minor, Palestine, Western Turkestan,
and the valley of the Ob in Siberia ; Avhile its southern wanderings
reach North Africa, from Morocco to Egypt. In the Canary
Islands and Madeira there is a resident insular form known as
A. bertheloti, smaller in size, with paler and less marked upper part.s,
narrowly striated under parts, and no green tint in its plumage.

Our resident Meadow-Pipits begin to breed early in the spring.

134 MEADOW-PIPIT.

but the migratory individuals which arrive from the south in April
are somewhat later. The nest, placed among sheltering herbage in
a depression of the level ground or the side of a bank, and often in
ling, is constructed of dry grass with a lining of finer materials ; the
eggs, usually 4-6 in number, being greyish-white — sometimes with a
green and at others with a pinkish tint — thickly mottled with
different shades of brown, and occasionally having a few hair-streaks
at the larger end : measurements 78 by "57 in. Two broods are
generally reared in the season. In many districts, especially on
the moorlands where other small species of birds are comparatively
scarce, the Cuckoo commonly places her egg in the nest of the
Meadow-Pipit. The rather shrill song is generally uttered on the
wing, but sometimes from a stone or low bush. The food consists
of insects, worms, small snails and molluscs, with seeds in winter ;
and in search of these the bird may be seen working its way among
grass or heather with a slow creeping movement, varied by an occa-
sional quick run. Its flight is jerky and wavering. The scent
emitted by the Titlark is very strong, and dogs 'point' it more
frequently than they do any other ground-bird.

Adult male : eye-stripe narrow and dull white ; upper parts olive-
brown, with dark stripes down the centre of the feathers ; quills dark
brown, v/ith a greenish-yellow tint on the margins of the outer webs;
wing-coverts and inner secondaries (the latter being shorter than the
primaries) brown, edged with dull white ; tail dark brown, except
the outer pair of feathers which are white on the terminal part, while
the second pair have a white spot near the tip ; under parts dull
white, streaked with brownish-black on the throat, gorget and flanks ;
bill dark brown above and at the tip, the rest paler ; legs and feet
pale brown ; hind claw longer than the hind-toe, and only slightly
curved. Length 575 in. ; wing yi in. The female is less richly
spotted below. After the autumn moult, the upper as well as the
under parts are suffused with a yellowish-buff tint ; and in spring
this hue is very noticeable on the throats of fresh arrivals from the
Continent. The young are even more buff-coloured, but the streaks
on the under parts are smaller and browner than in the adults.

MOTACILLID/E.

135

THE RED-THROATED PIPIT.

Anthus cervinus (Pallas).

On March 13th 1884 a Red-throated Pipit was brought by a
bird-catcher to the late Mr. Swaysland, the well-known bird-stuffer
at Brighton, and was examined in the flesh on the following day by
Mr. J. H. Gurney, who recorded the occurrence in ' The Zoologist '
for that year (p. 192). In the same volume (p. 272) Mr. Walter
Prentis stated that, in April 1880, he shot an example of this
species at Rainham in Kent, whilst it was feeding and singing along
the freshly-turned furrows behind his plough, and sent it, as merely
a bright-coloured Meadow-Pipit, to Dover for preservation. Both
these specimens were forwarded to Dr. R. B. Sharpe, who exhibited
the former — now in the possession of Mr. T. J. Monk of Lewes —
at a meeting of the Zoological Society, April ist 1884. Up to that
year no thoroughly authenticated British-killed example was known,
although the late Mr. Bond possessed a genuine specimen of the
bird, labelled "Unst, May 4th 1854," purchased at the sale of the
collection of the late Mr. Troughton. Subsequently, as recorded by
Mr. F. Coburn (Zool. 1896, p. loi), an example was obtained near
St. Leonards, Sussex, on Nov. 13th 1895, and this was exhibited at
the meeting of the British Ornithologists' Club in the following
December.

The Red-throated Pipit is one of the species which, throughout
the year, enjoy the maximum of sunshine. Amidst the continuous
daylight which reigns in summer to the north of the Arctic circle, it
breeds in many parts of Scandinavia, especially in East Finmark ;
while eastward we find it — in augmented numbers beyond the limit

136 RED-THROATED PIPIT,

of forest-growth — from Novaya Zemlya, across Siberia to Kamchatka
and Bering Island. It even appears to have crossed the Pacific to
Alaska and Lower California ; and its migrations undoubtedly
extend to Southern China, Borneo, Burma, India, Persia and Egypt.
In the last-named country and in Nubia the bird is exceedingly
abundant in winter, and up to the month of April, by which time it
has assumed full breeding-plumage, ^^'est of Tunisia, in North
Africa it becomes much rarer, though occasionally found near
Gibraltar; but the main line of the spring-migration passes through
Eastern Europe, curving round to Scandinavia, and the species is
undoubtedly scarce to the west of Heligoland.

The Red-throated Pipit makes its nest in the sides of the
tussocky ridges of the bogs or tundras of the north ; dry grass being
the material employed, with a finer lining of the same. The eggs,
4-6 in number, vary from a nearly uniform rich mahogany colour to
a greenish-grey with dark brown mottlings : measurements 75 by
•58 in. In late springs breeding does not commence before the last
week in June, so that only one brood can be reared in the season.
The note is louder, fuller, and richer than that of the Meadow-Pipit.
The food consists principally of insects and their larvae, small
worms, molluscs and grass seeds. In its winter quarters the Red-
throated Pipit is gregarious ; and frequents planted fields where
suitable cover exists.

The adult male, in breeding-plumage, is browner on the upper
parts than either the Meadow- or the Tree-Pipit, and the black
streaks are more pronounced ; the eye-stripe is broad and of a
rufous-buff ; the tail-coverts are more striped ; the inner secondaries
nearly equal in length to the primaries, as in the Tree-Pipit ; the
chin, throat, sides of the neck and breast vinous-chestnut ; the
gorget has fewer and smaller spots, but the flanks and under tail-
coverts are broadly streaked ; abdomen buff ; bill dark above,
yellowish below ; legs and feet light brown ; hind-toe as in the
Meadow-Pipit. Length 5-8 in.; wing 3*5 in. In the female the
vinous-chestnut only extends to the throat, and her breast and flanks
are more streaked with black ; she is also smaller in size. In winter
the red throat is only found in mature birds, and at that season the
feathers of the mantle are margined with white ; the general tint
being greyish-brown, without the olive-green of the Meadow-Pipit.
Birds of the year are very buff in colour on both upper and lower
parts ; but even by December there is a little rufous round the eye
and on the cheeks, and that tint is slightly apparent on the throat.

MOTACILLTD.«.

137

THE TAWNY PIPIT.

Anthus camp^stris (Linnaeus).

The Tawny Pipit was first noticed as a wanderer to our islands by
the late Mr. G. Dawson Rowle}', who recognized two examples shot
in autumn near Brighton, one of which had previously been taken
for a Richard's Pipit (Ibis 1863, p. 37). Since that time about a
score have been obtained, at the same season of various years, in
Sussex ; one at Trescoe, Scilly Islands, in September 1868 ; one at
Bridlington, Yorkshire, on November 20th 1S69; and one near
Lowestoft, September 2nd 1890; while other occurrences may have
been overlooked.

It is somewhat remarkable that the Tawny Pipit should not have
been noticed on our shores in spring ; inasmuch as it is an annual
visitor, for the purpose of breeding, to the sandy dunes of the north
of France and Holland, and suitable dry wastes inland. Rare
in Denmark, it passes over Heligoland on migration, and is not
uncommon in the south of Sweden ; while on the islands and the
south-eastern side of the Baltic as far as Riga it is generally
distributed in summer. Southward it occurs, either breeding or on
passage, in most of the stony and arid districts of Europe down to
the Mediterranean ; north of which sea it is not found in winter.
In Northern Africa it is probably a resident species ; while its
migrations are known to extend to the Canaries and down to

138 TAWNY PIPIT.

Damaraland on the west side of Africa, and the Lake districts on
the east. From Palestine and Asia Minor we trace it to Turkestan
and the plains of North-western India ; while from Central Asia to
Eastern Siberia it is represented by a smaller race of doubtful
specific distinctness. It is essentially a desert-loving species, and
even when migrating will seldom be found on fertile or well-watered
soil, but on plains sprinkled with a little coarse herbage it is
usually abundant, up to an elevation of about 5,000 feet in Southern
Europe. It crosses the Mediterranean from the end of March
onwards, and reaches the shores of the Baltic late in April ; while
the return migration takes place in August and September.

The nest is placed at the foot of a shrub or bush — on the lee-side
where there is a prevalent wind — and sometimes among growing
barley ; the materials being roots and dry grass, with a lining of
horsehair. The eggs, 5-6 in number, are of a greyish-white,
blotched and streaked with darker grey and purplish-brown ;
resembling, as already observed (p. 74), those of the Rufous
Warbler : measurements "85 by "62 in. The food consists of small
insects, but seldom or never of seeds. This species does not
collect in large flocks, like other Pipits. The call-note is a short
whit ; and the song, usually uttered during a brief fluttering flight,
is poor and monotonous.

The adult male in spring is sandy-brown tinged with grey on the
upper parts, with dull darker centres to the feathers, more marked
on the crown, but almost obsolete on the rump ; over the eye a
buffish-white streak; ear-coverts ash-brown ; wing-coverts dark brown
with buff edges ; quills and secondaries umber-brown, with tawny
margins ; the outer pair of tail-feathers dull white, with a large
portion of the margin of the inner web brown ; in the second pair
the brown extends nearly to the shaft, which is also brown, as are
the remaining tail-feathers ; from the base of the bill to the eye a
faint dusky stripe ; chin and throat tawny-white ; breast warmer buff,
slightly striated with brown ; lower parts paler ; biU brown above,
yellowish below ; legs and feet yellowish-brown. Length 6 "5 in ;
wing 3 -6 in. The female is slightly smaller than the male, and is
said to be often without the streaks on the breast, but the least
spotted bird in a series before me is a male. From the autumn
moult to the early part of the following spring the tints are much
more tawny, and, in young birds, are pronounced on the margins of
the wing and tail-feathers, while the brown markings of the upper
parts and of the breast are more intense.

MOTACILLID^.

139

''/ fe'^^f^

RICHARD'S PIPIT.

Anthus richardi, Vieillot.

This large Pipit, distinguishable by its length of limb and
extremely long hind claw, is an Eastern species which visits Western
Europe irregularly on migration, and generally in autumn. At least
sixty occurrences are on record in Great Britain — but none in Ireland
— since 1824, when Vigors announced the bird as a visitor to our
shores. The majority of these have been in the southern districts
of England, especially on the Sussex coast ; but six specimens have
been obtained near Yarmouth in Norfolk, three in Northumberland,
one in Shropshire, one — in summer — near Fleetwood in Lancashire,
two in Cumberland, two in Warwickshire, and one in Kent. In
Scotland the only authenticated example is one obtained by Mr.
J. G. Millais, near Dunkeld, on August 2nd 1880.

It is only as a rare visitor that Richard's Pipit has been met with
in the southern districts of Norway and Sweden ; but on Borkum,
and along the coasts of Holland, Belgium and France, it is not
so infrequent on migration, while on Heligoland it is abundant in
autumn and not unknown in spring. In Central Europe it is rare,
though in the south of France, especially in Provence, it is well
known ; near Malaga and throughout the south of Spain it is
in some years tolerably common from November to April ; while it
occurs irregularly in Italy and in the basin of the Mediterranean,
occasionally visiting North Africa. Its usual breeding-grounds are
not to be found west of Turkestan ; in the valley of the Yenesei

I40 RICHARDS PIPIT.

Seebohm found both old and young in August, up to 58^^ N. lat. ;
and the bird nests abundantly on the elevated steppes of Eastern
Turkestan, the Lake Baikal district and Mongolia. In winter it
visits South China, Burma, and the Indian region to Ceylon.

The nest is built during the early part of June, in some depression
in a meadow or grass-field ; and the eggs, which, judging from the
clutches obtained by Dybowski, are generally 5 in number, are
greyish-white blotched with various shades of brown : measurements
•86 by "68 in. In Daiiria the Cuckoo frequently deposits her egg in
the nest of this Pipit. Two broods are sometimes reared in the
season ; and in September the southward migration commences.
In winter the bird is described by Mr. Brooks as frequenting paddy-
grounds and vetch-fields in Bengal, where it is very wary, keeping a
sharp look-out, with head erect and outstretched neck ; but Col.
Legge found it very tame in the wet pastures of Ceylon. Its usual
call-note is loud, and calculated to attract attention, while it has also
a soft double chirp like that of a Bunting. The ordinary flight
is undulating and strong. Col. Legge says this bird feeds on
worms and grasshoppers, and often seizes a passing butterfly or
insect on the wing. The name was conferred in honour of
M. Richard, of Luneville in Lorraine.

The male in breeding-plumage has the feathers of the upper
parts sandy-brown with dark centres, producing a mottled Lark- like
appearance ; rump nearly uniform brown, tail-coverts striated ; wing-
coverts tipped with reddish-buff; secondaries broadly — and primaries
faintly — margined with huffish- white ; outer pair of tail-feathers
nearly white, with only a narrow dusky margin to the inner web ; in
the second pair the dusky margin extends nearly to the tip, and
the shaft also is brown ; remaining tail-feathers very dark brown,
with pale and often huffish margins to the central pair ; chin white ;
a dotted line of brown spots from the base of the bill down each
side of the neck to the gorget, which is still more spotted on a buff
ground-colour extending down the flanks ; abdomen dull white ;
bill dark brown above, yellowish below ; legs and feet yellowish-
brown : hind claw generally longer than the toe. Length 7*25 in. ;
wing 375 in. The female is smaller, but similar in plumage. In
autumn a decidedly more rufous tint pervades the upper and, still
more, the under parts. In the young the pale margins to the upper
feathers and the streaks on the under parts are more pronounced.
A specimen in my collection, which I take to be a bird of the
previous year, obtained at Malaga on March 15th, is renewing its
tail-feathers.

MOTACILLID/E.

141

THE WATER-PIPIT.

Anthus spipoletta (Linnceus).

The true Water-Pipit is an unusual visitor to England ; its
occurrences having been estimated as more frequent than was really
the case, owing to a confusion with the Scandinavian form of the
Rock-Pipit, which occasionally visits us. The first authenticated
examples of the Water-Pipit were recorded by Mr. Pratt of Brighton,
in 1864, when one killed near that town, and another taken near
Worthing, were sent to Gould for identification ; while subsequently
three have been obtained at Shoreham and one at Lancing, on
the spring and autumn migrations. On April 5th 1895, Mr. G. H.
Caton Haigh shot one at Tetney, Lincolnshire, and on April 5th
1897 he obtained another at the mouth of the Glaslyn, Carnarvon-
shire. Both these specimens were exhibited at meetings of the
British Ornithologists' Club.

During the breeding-season the Water-Pipit is to be found on
the Alps and the mountain ranges of Germany and Central Europe,
the Pyrenees, and some of the higher regions in the Spanish
Peninsula, even in the extreme south. Two examples are said to
have been obtained on Jan Mayen Island early in June by the

142 WATER-PIPIT.

Austro-Hungarian expedition. On passage it occurs throughout
Europe south of the Baltic, down to the Mediterranean and Black
Seas. In Russia it breeds in the Ural ]\Iountains up to 64° N. lat,
and in the Caucasus ; as it does in the high ranges of Asia Minor,
Persia, Baluchistan, Turkestan, and in the Altai. In winter it visits
the North of Africa, and Asia to Western India ; being replaced to
the eastward by a smaller form, A blakistoui. In Japan the repre-
sentative is A. Japoniais, doubtfully distinct from A. pennsylvanicus
— also known as A. ludovicimtus — which is found throughout North
America and in Greenland ; the latter has also been identified in
Heligoland, and is said, but on insufificient evidence, to have
occurred in Great Britain.

The Water-Pipit returns to its breeding-quarters as soon as the
elevated regions are sufficiently free from snow ; and quite early in
May I observed large numbers in the Valle'e du Lis, above Luchon.
The nest, loosely composed of dry grass and plant-stems, lined with
a few hairs and feathers, is placed on the ground among stones, or
under the shelter of a low bush ; the eggs, usually 5 in number, are
greyish-white mottled with brownish-olive : measurements '8 by
•6 in. In some localities two broods are reared in the season. The
song of the male is an often-repeated ///, tit, tit, uttered in the air
or from the top of some bush. The food consists of insects, minute
snails, and small seeds.

The adult male in breeding-plumage has a white stripe over the
eye and the greyish-brown ear-coverts ; upper parts greyish-brown,
turning to brown on the rump ; wings dark brown with pale edges to
the coverts and secondaries ; the exterior pair of tail-feathers white
on the outer portion, the second and third pairs brown tipped with
white, the remainder brown ; chin w^hite ; throat and breast warm
vinaceous-buff ; belly paler, and flanks rather browner, with a few
dark streaks; bill, legs and feet brown. Length 6 "5 in.; wing
3'6 in. The sexes are alike in plumage. In autumn the vinous
tint is lost, and the sides of the neck and breast are spotted with
dark brown. The young bird is still more spotted, and the outer
webs of the exterior pair of tail-feathers are pale brown.

The Water-Pipit may always be distinguished from the Rock-
Pipit by the distinctly ivhite colour of the outer part of the exterior
pair of tail-feathers, and the white tips to the second pair ; and,
although in young birds this white is not so pure as has been
asserted, it is sufficiently so for the distinction of the species from
even the Scandinavian form of the Rock-Pipit, which, in its turn, is
much brighter than our resident bird.

MOTACILLID.E.

143

THE ROCK-PIPIT.

Anthus obscurus (Latham).

The Rock-Pipit is a resident species in the British Islands, where
it is essentially a shore-bird ; generally frequenting, during the
breeding-season, those portions of the sea-coast which are of a rocky
nature ; although during autumn and winter it is found on salt-
marshes and in the muddy estuaries where there is sea-weed.
Along the east coast a migration southwards has been noticed in
October. In Scotland and Ireland the bird is abundant in suitable
localities.

The Rock-Pipit inhabits the Faeroes, but has not been obtained
in Iceland or Greenland. Along the western side of Scandinavia,
and in Denmark, is found a race which, in the breeding-season,
exhibits a vinous tint on the breast, approaching the hue of that
part in the Water-Pipit ; and birds belonging to this form have been
distinguished as A. ntpestris. Booth says that this used to arrive in
Sussex in considerable numbers from March to April, though it never
remained to breed ; while it has also occurred on the east coast of
Great Britain. Hancock said that he had an example shot from the
nest at Chepstow, Monmouthshire, on April iSth 1854; several
from Wales and also from Northumberland are in the British
Museum, and Mr. J. H. Gurney has one which he obtained near

144

ROCK-PIPIT.

the Land's End. A woodcut of this form is given below. Our
dull-coloured race is found in the Channel Islands and along the
northern and western shores of France ; while it is represented by
the Scandinavian form to the eastward and in the Baltic.

The nest, generally in a clump of sea-pink, a grassy bank, or a
crevice of the rocks on the sea-shore, is made of dry grasses and
sometimes sea-tang ; the 4-5 eggs are usually greenish-grey mottled
with olive-brown, but I have seen reddish ones, like those of a
Tree-Pipit : measurements "8 by "6 in. Two broods are produced
in the season. The food consists of marine insects, flies, small
molluscs and crustaceans, for which the bird may be seen searching
among the heaps of sea-weed on the shore at low water.

The adult is olive-brown with darker streaks above ; the under
parts being dull ochreous-olive streaked with brown on the breast.
At its best the plumage is much like that of the Water-Pipit in
winter, but more olive, and the exterior tail-feathers have smoke-
coloured outer webs, so that the under side of the tail seems nearly
uniform brown. The young are more striated. Length 6 "2 5 in. ;

Pycnonotid.b. — An example of the South-African Bulbul or
" Gold- vented Thrush," Fyawtiotiis cape7isis, was shot near Water-
ford, Ireland, in January 1838, and skinned by the late Dr. R.
Birkett. Considering the natural habitat of the bird, and the time
of year, it is only reasonable to suppose that it had escaped from
confinement.

ORIOLID.^.

145

THE GOLDEN ORIOLE.

Oriolus galbula, Linnffius.

This handsome bird is an annual spring-migrant to Cornwall
and the Scilly Islands, where as many as forty have been seen in
a single April, and it is an irregular but not infrequent visitor to
the southern and eastern counties of England ; while nests have
been found— or the birds seen under circumstances which left little
doubt that they were breeding — in Norfolk, Essex, Hertfordshire,
Northamptonshire, Surrey, and especially in Kent. The most
authentic instances have been at Dumpton Park, Isle of Thanet, where
a pair of birds, protected by the proprietor, Mr. Bankes Tomlin,
reared a brood (Harting, 'Our Summer Migrants,' p. 268) in 1874,
and again in 1875. ^^^ ^ •'"1'^' however, the bright plumage of this
bird attracts the attention of the destroyer, and the species is thus
prevented from nesting with us annually, as it would otherwise do ;
for migrants generally return to the localities in which they were

N

146 GOLDEN ORIOLE.

hatched. In Scotland its occurrences have been few, and mostly in
the southern districts ; but one is recorded from Lerwick, Shetland,
in October 1882, and one from Sanday, Orkney, in ]\Iay 1893. Fo^
Ireland about forty are on record ; the majority from cos. Waterford
and Cork, but several from the north and west.

The Golden Oriole is a mere wanderer to the south of Sweden,
and is only known to have visited Heligoland once in the last fifty
years ; but it breeds in South Finland, and in Russia rather further
north than St. Petersburg. In the rest of Europe it is a common
species during the summer, except in the eastern half of the
Mediterranean basin, where it is better known as a migrant. East-
ward it is found in Asia — north of the great mountain ranges — as
far as Irkutsk ; but in the Indian region it is represented by
O. kuadoo, in the adult male of which the black loral streak extends
behind the eye, and the outer tail-feathers are entirely yellow. In
North Africa the Golden Oriole breeds sparingly, but winters
regularly ; its migrations extending to South Africa. As a straggler
it has been found in Madeira and the Azores ; also in the Faroes,
in May 1893 ; but Kjaerbolling's assertion that one was picked up
dead in the north of Iceland in December 1S43, is incredible.

The nest is placed in, and suspended from, the horizontal fork of
a small branch of some tree — frequently an oak or fir — in a shady
grove or thick wood, and is made of strips of pliable bark, wool,
slender grass stems &c., carefully woven together; the 4-5 eggs
are glossy white, blotched with reddish-purple: measurements 1-2
by "84 in. Although fond of shade, the Oriole is not a shy bird, and
often breeds in the gardens of large towns. Its food consists of
insects and their larvae, the young birds being principally fed on
caterpillars ; but fruits, especially cherries, are also eaten. The
French name ' Loriot ' indicates the flute-like call of the male ; the
alarm-note being a harsh khrr.

Adult male : most of the plumage golden-yellow ; lores black ;
quills and wing-coverts black, tipped and margined with yellowish-
white ; tail-feathers yellow at the tips and black at the bases, except
the central pair which are mostly black ; bill dull red ; iris bright
red ; legs lead-grey. Length 9*5 in. ; wing 6 in. I have tried in
vain to obtain any proof of Blyth's theory that the mature female
assumes the plumage of the adult male ; she certainly has a blackish
loral streak, but the yellow is far less intense than in the male, and
the under parts are striated with greyish, while in less mature birds
the upper parts are merely greenish-yellow. The young are duller in
colour than the female.

LANIID.«.

147

THE GREAT GREY SHRIKE.

k

Lanius excubitor, Linnceus.

The Great Grey Shrike is a conspicuous and fairly regular visitor
from the Continent to the British Islands in autumn and winter ;
while it has occasionally been observed in spring and even in
summer, though there is no evidence that it has ever bred with us.
It is naturally more frequent on the eastern side (especially in the
Humber district, where it pursues the small migrants) than on the
west; but though records are wanting from the Hebrides, it has
occurred in Argyll and often in the Orkneys, while it was seen by
Saxby in the Shetlands. In Ireland it is an irregular visitor in
winter.

Many of the specimens obtained in winter have a white bar on
the primaries only, the bases of the secondaries being black ;
whereas in the typical L. excubitor the bases of the secondaries are
white, and the wing exhibits a double bar. The form with only one
bar is the L. major of Pallas, and, as shown by Prof. CoUett (Ibis
1886, pp. 30-40) it meets and interbreeds with L. excubitor in
Scandinavia, typical examples of both races being actually found in
the same brood, while intermediate individuals are not uncommon.
Where the sexes have been determined by dissection the double-
barred bird has generally proved to be a male and the single-
barred a female. The typical L. excubitor breeds as far east as
St. Petersburg, beyond which, and in Western Siberia, L. ?iiajor

N 2

148 GREAT GREY SHRIKE.

becomes the representative form. In the valley of the Yenesei
the latter meets, but does not interbreed with, the whiter-winged
L. leticopterus ; the last ranging through Turkestan to Southern
Russia, where, by its union with the typical L. exciibito>% it seems
to have produced an intermediate race, known as L. homeyeri. Space
will not allow me to say more.

A Grey Shrike of some kind was seen in Iceland in 1845 by John
Pell the falconer ; and, as already shown, two forms occur and inter-
breed in Northern Europe, even up to lat. 70°. In winter both are
forced to leave the high north, but in Central Germany the typical
L. excubitor often remains throughout the winter, and comparatively
few individuals of either form extend their migrations to the shores of
the Mediterranean, although more numerous in the Black Sea region.
The south-east of France and the Spanish Peninsula are occupied
by a distinct and resident species, L. meridionah's, with vinous-
coloured breast, while in Morocco and Algeria we find Z. algeriensis ;
these two species seldom, if ever, crossing the Mediterranean. The
Great Grey Shrike with the double white bar breeds in the north of
France, Belgium, Holland, Germany, and Central Europe.

From the middle of May onward, the rather bulky nest of twigs,
roots and moss, lined with wool, hair and feathers, is built usually at
the top of a fir, or high up on the forked bough of some other tree.
The 5-7 eggs are greenish-white, spotted and zoned with olive-
brown and violet-grey: measurements i"i by -8 in. The food
consists largely of lizards, mice, shrews, birds up to the size of a
Redbreast, frogs, and insects, especially beetles and grasshoppers ;
the indigestible portions being thrown up in pellets. Eike other
members of the family, this species impales its prey on long sharp
thorns — whence the name of " Butcher-bird"; while its fondness for
sitting, like a sentinel, on a lofty and conspicuous perch has earned
for it the name of excubitor. The alarm-note is a sharp shake,
shake : the call-note fna'i.

Adult male : forehead and a line over each eye white ; lores,
cheeks and ear-coverts black ; upper parts pearl-grey, turning to white
on the scapulars ; wing-feathers black with white bases to the
primaries, and — in the typical Z. exciibilor — also to the secondaries,
which, with the inner primaries, are tipped with white; outer tail-
feathers chiefly white ; in the others the black at their bases increases
until the central ones are black to their tips ; under parts white ; bill,
legs and feet blackish. Length 9-5 ; wing 4-3 in. Female : duller,
and the breast faintly marked with greyish semilunar bars. Young :
dull grevish-brown above, and more barred on the under parts.

LANIID^E.

149

THE LESSER GREY SHRIKE.
Lanius minor, J. F. Gmelin.

The Lesser Grey Shrike is an annual summer-visitor to' the
southern and central portions of Europe, and, on migration, it
occasionally wanders to England. Early in November 185 1, a
female was killed in the Scilly Islands; in the spring of 1869 an
adult was received by the Rev. Murray A. Mathew from Great
Yarmouth, where another was taken in May 1875 ; on September
23rd 1876, a bird of the year, identified by the late Mr. Gatcombe,
was taken alive near Plymouth ; the Rev. M. A. Mathew has
recorded (Zool. 1894, p. 345) the discovery of an adult, which had
been shot at Heron Court in September 1842 ; and Mr. F. W.
Frohawk states (Field, p. 839) that he identified one with binoculars
in Mid-Kent on May 15th 1897.

It is doubtful if the Lesser Grey Shrike has occurred in the south
of Sweden or in Denmark ; while it is distinctly rare on passage
in Heligoland, and only less so in Holland, Belgium and the
north of France. Eastward, it is not uncommon along the southern
shores of the Baltic, and has even wandered to Finland ; while in
the south it is generally distributed over Europe as far west as the

150 LESSER GREY SHRIKE.

valley of the Rhone and Provence. It is common in Italy, Sicily,
Dalmatia, Greece, Turkey, Asia Minor and Palestine, where it
frequents the outskirts of cultivation on the lower grounds, but does
not ascend to the elevated regions. In all the above countries it is
only known in summer or on migration ; and its winter-quarters
appear to be in South Africa. In Asia it is found from Persia to
Omsk in 57° N. lat., and eastward to Lake Zaisan in long. 84° E. It
arrives in Germany between April 24th and May 7th, remaining till
between August i8th and September loth (Dr. Rey) ; but in south-
eastern Europe it stays until October.

The nest, commenced about the middle of May, is generally
placed at least ten feet from the ground, in an oak, wild pear or
crab, and in Greece frequently in an olive-tree. It is composed
of twigs, dry roots, aromatic field-flowers and green grasses, with a
lining of wool, hair and feathers ; the eggs, 5-7 in number, are pale
bluish-green, blotched with olive-brown and ash-colour : measure-
ments '98 by 77 in. Incubation, shared by both sexes, lasts fifteen
days, and during the breeding-season the birds are very pugnacious,
driving even Crows and Magpies from the vicinity of their nest.
Like most Shrikes, this species is fond of perching on the topmost
branch of a tree or other elevated position, whence it darts with
rapidity upon its prey, sometimes gliding with extended wings
for a short distance. Its food consists of beetles and other
insects, seldom impaled on thorns, but devoured while held in the
bird's foot : in the season, however, cherries, figs and other fruits
are eaten, llie note is described by Naumann as a harsh kjdck,
kjdck, but the song of other birds is often imitated.

Adult male : forehead, line above the eye and ear-coverts black ;
cheeks white ; nape and back grey, rump rather paler ; wing-feathers
black, slightly tipped with white on the secondaries, and with white
bases to the primaries, forming a broad single bar ; central tail-
feathers black except at their bases ; in the others the bases and tips
are white, which gradually encroaches upon the black until the outer
pair are entirely white ; under parts white, suffused with a rosy blush
on the breast and flanks; bill, legs and feet blackish. Length 8*5 in.;
wing 4 '6 in. The female and the immature male have less black on
the forehead. The young bird — the upper figure in the woodcut —
has no dark frontal band, and the under parts are dull yellowish-
white, mottled with grey transverse lines. This species may be
distinguished from all other Grey Shrikes by its wing formula ;
the I St or bastard primary being very short, while the 2nd nearly
equals the 3rd and longest primary.

151

THE RED-BACKED SHRIKE.

Lanius coLLURio, Linnaeus.

This, by far the commonest of our British Shrikes, arrives in the
south of England very early in May, and is irregularly distributed
during the summer throughout the wooded districts of the southern
and central portions, and in Wales. In Norfolk, however, it
appears to be decreasing ; in Lincolnshire and south-east Yorkshire
it nests very sparingly ; while northward it is of irregular occurrence,
and is said to be rarer than in former years. In the south-east of
Scotland it has occasionally been known to breed, as well as at
Cambuslang, Lanarkshire, in 1893 ; but beyond the Forth it is rare,
though migrants have been taken at Rattray Head, Dee, as well as
on the Pentland Skerries. In the Shedands Saxby says that he
shot a young male on October 5th 1866, and that on June 9th
(probably a slip {ox July) 1870, he saw a female Red-backed Shrike
followed by three young birds already tolerably strong on the wing.
In Ireland the only example on record was shot on August loth
1878, near Belfast. For details respecting the distribution of this
species, Mr. O. V. Aplin's paper (Tr. Norw. Soc. v. pp. 286-310)
should be consulted.

152 RED-BACKED SHRIKE.

In summer the Red-backed Shrike is found in Scandinavia and
Northern Europe as high as about 64° N. lat., and southward
throughout the greater part of the Continent : but in the south-west
it appears to be rare, for Mr. Tait only once obtained it, with its
nest, in the north of Portugal ; while one shot by Mr. Abel Chap-
man on April loth is the only specimen recorded from Southern
Spain, though in the north the bird is found from Catalonia to
Santander. Comparatively few, in fact, remain to breed in the
basin of the Mediterranean, although the species is common in
some parts on passage ; but eastward it is found nesting on the
high grounds of Hermon, Lebanon, and the Altai Mountains. In
winter its migrations extend to Natal and Cape Colony.

In the second half of ]May the nest, large for the size of the bird,
is placed usually about five or six feet from the ground, in a thick
thorn-bush or strong hedge, and is made of stalks of plants, moss,
and roots, with a lining of bents, wool and hair. The 4-6 eggs vary
considerably, some having the ground-colour of a greenish-white,
others of a yellowish-clay, and some of a salmon tint ; they are
spotted and zoned with brown, olive or lilac, or blotched with two
shades of light red and violet-grey : measurements "88 by '65 in.
Only one brood is reared in the season : the majority taking
their departure in August in family parties, before their moult,
though the capture of a young bird is recorded on November nth
1869, when in pursuit of a Wren. This Shrike feeds on mice,
lizards, beetles, humble-bees, wasps and other insects ; it has
been seen to strike down and carry off a Sand-Martin on the wing;
while, like its congeners, it impales its prey on thorns, whence its
trivial name of " Flusher," i.e.^ Flesher. The alarm-note is a harsh
chack, but the male has a rather sweet song, and is also a good mimic.

The adult male has the frontal band, lores and ear-coverts black ;
crown and nape grey ; mantle chestnut-brown ; wing-feathers brown
edged with rufous ; tail-coverts grey ; tail-feathers (except the two
central pairs, which are mostly black) white at their bases and
black on the lower portion, with black shafts and narrow white
tips; chin white; under parts rose-buff; bill, legs and feet black.
Length 7 in.; wing 37 in. The female ordinarily has the upper
parts and tail russet-brown with famt crescentic bars on the mantle,
and the under parts bufifish-white with greyish-brown semilunar bars;
but mature females lose the bars, and even assume a plumage like
that of the male. The young bird is whiter on the forehead,
duller and less rufous-brown on the upper parts, more barred both
above and below, and has iron-grey legs.

LANIID.li.

^53

THE WOODCHAT.

Lanius pomeranus, Sparrman.

Although a common species during the breeding-season on the
opposite shores of the Continent, the Woodchat Shrike only crosses
the narrow seas at irregular intervals, and not more than about
thirty-five examples are known to have been obtained in England
during the last hundred years. The majority of these have been
noticed in the southern and eastern districts, and generally at the
time of migration ; but there is evidence that the bird has nested
twice near Freshwater in the Isle of Wight, while westward it has
been known to occur as far as Cornwall. Northward, it has been
identified on rare occasions up to Yorkshire, Lancashire, Cumber-
land and Northumberland ; but there is no proof that it has visited
Scotland or Ireland. Mr. O. V. Aplin published an excellent
summary in 'The Zoologist' for 1892, pp. 345-352.

On the Continent the Woodchat breeds from Normandy north-
eastward as far as the line of the Baltic and the valley of the Vistula,
beyond which it is of accidental occurrence ; while southward
it is generally distributed throughout Europe, and in the countries

154 WOODCHAT.

on both sides of the Mediterranean is abundant. Even there,
however, it is only a visitor ; arriving about the end of March,
or early in April, and leaving again between August and October.
Eastward, it breeds in South Russia, Turkey, Asia Minor, Palestine
and Persia ; while in winter it occurs in Arabia, and down the East
African coast to about 5° N. lat., also on the west side in the
Canaries, and to the Gambia and the Gold Coast. Throughout
North Africa it is abundant in summer, arriving from the southern
side of the Sahara in March.

The nest, composed of a variety of materials and frequently
adorned with the flowers of aromatic plants, is placed in the fork of
a branch of almost any tree, without the slightest attempt at con-
cealment. The eggs, usually 5 in number, are, as a rule, rather
larger than those of the Red-backed Shrike, though similar in colour ;
the exception being the red variety, which is comparatively rare :
average measurements '92 by '68 in. In its habits and food this
species resembles other Shrikes, though insects of various kinds,
especially grasshoppers and beetles, appear to form a larger propor-
tion of its diet ; it is also very fond of bathing. The note usually
heard is a harsh krah kack krah; but the male has also a low and
rather pretty song in spring, and shows great capacity for imitating
the notes of other birds.

The adult male, represented in the lower figure, has an elongated
white spot above each nostril ; forehead, lores, ear-coverts, sides of
neck and back black; crown and nape chestnut-red; scapulars
conspicuously white ; wing-feathers blackish, with white bases to the
primaries, forming a single bar ; coverts and secondaries tipped with
buffish-white ; lower back grey ; tail-coverts nearly white above,
turning to grey below ; tail-feathers chiefly black, with white tips and
with white outer webs and bases to the exterior pair ; under parts
buffish-white, darker on the flanks. Length yi in. ; wing 3'8 in.
The female has all the colours less bright and the upper parts are
tinged with rufous and buff. The young bird (the upper figure in
the cut) is russet, streaked and mottled with darker brown and dull
white on the upper parts, and with wide rufous margins to the
quills ; under parts much barred with brownish ; bill yellowish-horn.

ViREONiD.^. — Mr. Edwin Brown (Mosley's Nat, Hist, of Tut-
bury, p. 94 and p. 385, pi. 6) described and figured a male of the
American Red-eyed ' Flycatcher,' Vireo olivaceus, which a Derby
bird-catcher known as ' Hatter Dick ' asserted that he had captured,
with a female not preserved, at Chellaston in May 1859. [I]

AMPELID.t.

155

THE WAXWING.

Ampelis garrulus, Linnasus.

For upwards of two centuries this beautiful bird has been known
to visit our islands at irregular intervals, and sometimes, as in the
winters of 1686, 1830-31, 1834-35, 1849-50, 1866-67, 1872-3, and
1892-93, in considerable numbers. As might be expected in the
case of an inhabitant of the Arctic regions, the visits of the Waxwing
have been more frequent to the northern and eastern portions of
Great Britain than the western side ; and although they have
reached Argyll and Skye, they have not extended to the Outer
Hebrides, while occurrences in the Orkneys and Shetlands have been
rare. In Ireland, also, they have been few and far between. In
England the Waxwing has been obtained in almost every county,
including the south and the extreme south-west ; and, on the spring
migration, in Norfolk up to the first week in May. Its visits depend
on the severity of the weather on the Continent, but it does not
follow that the same winter should be rigorous in the British Islands.

The wanderings of the Waxwing are not known to extend in a
south-westerly direction as far as the Pyrenees or the Spanish
Peninsula ; but from Provence, in the south-east of France, they

156 WAXWING.

can be traced across the northern districts of Italy to Turkey. In
summer the bird inhabits the Arctic regions,. within the Hmits of tree-
growth, in Europe and Asia ; but it is very erratic, nesting for some
seasons in large numbers in certain districts and then suddenly
abandoning them. Its breeding-range extends across Bering Strait
to Alaska and the Rocky ]\Iountains, while in winter the United
States — exceptionally as far south as 35° N. lat. — are visited. The
representative species in temperate North America is the Cedar-bird,
A. cedforum (erroneously stated to have visited Great Britain), which
is rather smaller, without any white or yellow on the wings. Our
Waxwing occurs in winter in Japan and Northern China, but there
the resident species is A. phanicoptera, which has red markings on
the wings and tail, but no wax-like tips.

The best account of the discovery of the breeding of the Waxwing,
with which the name of Wolley will always be associated, has been
given by his friend and sometime companion Professor Newton, in
' The Ibis ' for 1861 (pp. 92-106), and in the 4th Edition of ' Yar-
rell's British Birds.' The first nests and eggs were found in Russian
Lapland in 1856, since which a great many have been taken ; and
the breeding-range is now known to extend westward to the north-
eastern portion of Norway, and southward to about 65^ N. lat., on
the shores of the Gulf of Bothnia. Open portions of the forest
appear to be preferred ; the rather large nest being placed on the
branch of a spruce, Scotch fir, or birch, and mainly composed of the
lichen known as tree-hair, on a platform of dead twigs. The 5-7
eggs are pale purplish-grey, blotched and streaked with several shades
of brown and lilac : measurements "97 by '68 in. In summer the
food consists of crane-flies and other insects ; later, hips, juniper-
mistletoe- and other berries are eaten, and are usually swallowed
whole. The note of this bird is a low cir-ir-ir-ir-re.

Adult male : frontal band, lores, eye-region and chin black ; fore-
head and sides of the crest chestnut-brown ; general plumage light
greyish-brown, shading into ash-grey on the rump and abdomen ;
wing-coverts black, tipped with white : secondaries spotted with
white at the end of the outer web, and with tips to some 8 of the
shafts like red sealing-wax; primaries black, with V-shaped yellow and
white borders; tail blackish, terminated by a broad yellow band, and,
in mature birds, with small red wax-like tips ; under tail-coverts
chestnut; bill, legs and feet black. Length 7-5 in. ; wing 4*5 in.
Female : rather duller, with (as a rule) fewer wax-like tips, and
generally without the white edges to the inner webs of the primaries.
Young : browner and without the black throat.

MUSCICAPIDiE.

157

THE SPOTTED FLYCATCHER.

MUSCICAPA GRI'SOLA, LinilKUS.

The Spotted Flycatcher is often said to be one of the latest spring-
visitors to our islands ; nevertheless it has been observed exception-
ally in our eastern counties as early as April 23rd, and at Carlisle one
day earlier, while the usual date of its appearance in the south is
about the first week in May ; and even in the remarkably cold back-
ward spring of 1888, I watched an evidently new arrival feeding in
Kensington Gardens on the ist of that month. During the summer
this species is generally distributed throughout Great Britain, be-
coming rarer towards the north ; although even there it has been
found nesting in Sutherland, Caithness, and as far westward as Skye;
occasionally in the Orkneys, which it sometimes visits in autumn,
as well as the Shetlands. Mr. Ussher says that in Ireland it breeds
in every county, even in the remote west.

The Spotted Flycatcher breeds as far north as Tromso in Norway
and Archangel in Russia ; while southward it is tolerably abundant
throughout Europe, nesting down to the northern shores of the
Mediterranean ; also on the African side, and in Asia Minor, Pales-
tine, Persia, Turkestan, and Siberia as far as Irkutsk. In winter it
visits India, Arabia, and Africa to Cape Colony. It leaves our
islands and the northern portion of Europe in September, but in the
south the abundance of insect food enables it to remain later ; and
in Asia Minor it has even been obtained late in November.

158 SPOTTED FLYCATCHER. ,

The nest is frequently placed among creepers or trellis-work, or in
a hole in a wall or a tree ; occasionally behind loose bark ; often on
a beam in a verandah or an out-building, whence the name of " Beam-
bird " ; and sometimes in such odd situations as the top of a door-
hinge, the inside of a lamp or of a stove, &c. The structure, which
is rather neat, and generally assimilated to its surroundings, is of
moss, lichens, and a few strips of bark, warmly lined with wool, hair
and feathers. In the eggs, which are 4-6 in number, the ground-
colour varies from bluish-white to pale green, spotted and clouded
with rusty-brown: measurements 75 by "55 in. Incubation begins
about the third week in May, and is said to devolve entirely upon
the female, who is fed by the male ; two broods are not unfrequently
produced in the season, the first being hatched early in June. There
is evidence that the Spotted Flycatcher occasionally makes use of
old nests of other birds, without alteration or addition {Cf. C. Wolley
Dod, 'The Field' August 14th 1897, p. 307). This is one of the
few species which nest in some of our London parks and gardens.
Its food consists principally of insects, and the bird may often be
seen sitting on a fence or branch, whence it darts upon some fly or
gnat, returning with a graceful sweep to the spot it has just quitted.
It can even manage a tolerably large moth, such as the Yellow
Underwing, and it will dash at the Small White butterfly {Pieris
rapcv), though it always declines that insect on closer acquaintance ;
while in the autumn it has been known to feed on berries, especially
those of the mountain-ash, to which so many species of birds
are partial. The song is very faint and low, and the call-note is a
zt-chick.

The adult has the crown light brown, with dark streaks down the
centre of the feathers ; upper parts hair-brown, slightly darker on the
wings and tail, and paler on the margins of the wing-coverts and
secondaries ; chin and under parts dull w^hite, with brown streaks on
the throat, breast and flanks ; bill dark brown ; legs and feet blackish.
The sexes are alike in plumage. Length 5"S in. ; wing y^ in. The
young are very much spotted ; the feathers of the upper parts have
pale centres with broad dark margins, and the wing- and tail-coverts
are conspicuously tipped with buff, as are also the secondaries.

MUSCICAPID,€.

^59

'/ '

THE PIED FLYCATCHER.

MusciCAPA ATRiCAPiLLA, Linnceus.

Although far less numerous than the preceding species, the Pied
Flycatcher is a regular visitor to Great Britain, arriving in the latter
part of April and returning southward in autumn. Large numbers
have sometimes been observed during the first week in May on the
Pentland Skerries, the Isle of May, and at Flamborough and Spurn in
Yorkshire ; while a return migration has been noticed in August and
September. During the breeding-season this is a very local species,
and although nests are said to have been found occasionally in some
of the southern counties, its favourite haunts are rather in the west
and north. In portions of Wales, such as Brecon, Carmarthen,
Merioneth and Denbigh, as well as in the English counties on the
Welsh border, it breeds annually ; also in Lancashire, some parts of
Yorkshire, Durham and Northumberland ; but its head-quarters are
in Westmoreland and Cumberland, where it appears to be on the
increase. In Scotland this species is much rarer, but it has bred as
far north as Inverness-shire, and has often occurred in the Orkneys

l6o PIED FLYCATCHER.

on migration. In Ireland an adult female was shot by Mr.
R. Warren at Moyview, co. Sligo, on April 19th 1875, and since
1886 six examples have been killed by striking against the Tearaght,
Fastnet, and Tuskar lighthouses (Barrington).

A wanderer to the Freroes, the Pied Flycatcher breeds regularly up
to 69° N. lat. in Scandinavia, 65° in Finland, and about 60° in
Northern Russia as far as the Ural Mountains ; southward, in suitable
wooded localities, throughout the greater part of Europe down to the
centre of Spain ; eastward, as far as Palestine, while it has been
met with in Northern Persia. In Algeria it is said to be a resident ;
its migrations extending to the Canaries, as well as down the west
side of Africa to the Gambia and on the east to Egypt.

The nest is generally placed in a fairly deep hole of a tree in thin
or detached groves of oaks, birches, ashes, alders or aspens, the same
area being resorted to in successive seasons ; occasionally holes in
walls are utilized. It is made of dry grass and roots, with a lining of
hair ; the 6-9 eggs, laid from the middle of May to the first week in
June, are pale blue, with, occasionally, a few fine specks of reddish-
brown : average measurements "68 by "52 in. Like its congener, the
Pied Flycatcher feeds principally upon insects, but it does not so often
catch them on the wing, preferring to take up its position at the
extremity of a dead bough, whence it can dart upon them in the grass
beneath ; and it is frequently to be seen among the highest branches
of forest trees (H. A. Macpherson). The note is tzii-tzit-tzif, trui,
trui, trui.

The adult male in breeding-plumage has the upper parts black,
with a white frontal band, conspicuous white outer margins to the
secondaries, and a mottled band of grey and white across the rump ;
under parts white; bill, legs and feet black. Length 5 in. ; wing 3"i in.
Less mature males show some white on the outer margins of the two
exterior pairs of tail-feathers. After the autumn moult the upper
parts are somewhat browner, but the white frontal patch is always
present. In the female the frontlet, wing-patches and under parts are
buffish-white, and the upper parts are olive-brown. The young bird
in nestling-plumage is mottled on the back like the Spotted Fly-
catcher, but the white on the wings is very conspicuous in the male.
The upper figure in the cut represents a male in breeding-plumage ;
the lower one a young male killed in September.

The AVhite-collared Flycatcher, M. coildris, was figured by Gould
in his ' Birds of Great Britain,' but there is no proof of its occur-
rence in England. The male has a white frontlet and collar.

MUSCICAPID/F,.

i6i

THE RED-BREASTED FLYCATCHER.

MusciCAPA PARVA, Bechstcin.

This small Flycatcher is one of those species which, like the
Isabelline and Desert Wheatears, have their usual habitat to the east
of our island, but in autumn and winter often migrate in a westerly
direction. Its occurrence in England was first noticed near Fal-
mouth, where two examples were seen for several days, and one — a
female — was shot on January 24th 1863. In the October following,
two were obtained in the Scilly Islands, and a third on November
5th 1865 ; on October 5th 1883, a young male was killed by Mr.
G. Bolam in his garden at Berwick-on-Tweed ; at Scarborough one
was obtained on October 23rd 1889; in Norfolk, one at Cley on
September 13th 1890 and another on October 4th 1894, and a third
at Rollesby Broad on December loth 1896. For Scodand the
only record as yet is from the Monach lighthouse, off North Uist, on
October 22nd 1893. Ireland furnishes one from the South Arklow
light, off Wexford ; one from the Tearaght light, and one from Tory
Island ; all three in October of various years.

As a wanderer the Red-breasted Flycatcher has been taken in
Holland, Denmark, and off the south of Sweden, while a good many
examples have been obtained in autumn on Heligoland. It breeds

o

1 62 RED-BREASTED FLY-CATCHER.

sparingly in North-eastern Germany and in the St. Petersburg
district ; south of which, in Central Europe, it hecon\es more plenti-
ful in summer, though very local. To the south-east of France it is
an occasional visitor ; and, from the accurate description of a careful
observer, I have little doubt of its irregular occurrence, during winter,
in the south-west of Spain. Though only a migrant to Italy, the
islands of the Mediterranean, Greece, and the Black Sea region, it
breeds in Southern Russia, the Caucasus and Northern Persia ; while
eastward, it occurs in Turkestan, and in Siberia as far north as
Yeneseisk, and eastward to Lake Baikal, where it probably nests.
In winter it visits India, as far south as Mysore, and in Africa its
migrations extend to Nubia.

The Red-breasted Flycatcher arrives in Northern Germany in May
(generally leaving early in Septeml:)er) ; and it appears to be partial to
woods of beech and hornbeam, or those where beech and fir are mixed.
The nest, built early in June, is rather deep and cup-shaped, neatly
formed of moss and a few lichens, with a lining of dry grass and
hair. It is usually placed in a hole in the trunk or some rotten
branch of a beech-tree, but occasionally in a fork against the stem,
from six to ten feet from the ground. In appearance the eggs, 5-7
in number, are intermediate between those of the Redbreast and the
Spotted Flycatcher ; having a very pale greenish ground-colour, with
mottlings of rusty-brown : measurements -63 by -5 in. The young
are hatched towards the end of June, and their food, like that of the
adults, consists of insects, in search of which the birds soon leave
their breeding-grounds in the forests for gardens and orchards in
the vicinity. The habits of this species are lively and active, and in
pugnacity, as in plumage, the male resembles our Redbreast. It has
a pleasant song, resembling the syllables tivi several times repeated,
while the alarm note is a c\td.r piiik^ pink.

The adult male in breeding-plumage has the cheeks ash-grey ;
crown and nape browner grey ; upper parts in general wood-brown ;
tail (of twelve feathers) rather darker brown, with conspicuous white
bases to the four outer pairs ; chin, throat and upper breast reddish-
orange ; belly white ; sides and flanks pale buff ; bill brown ; legs
dark brown. Length 5-1 in. ; wing 2-8 in. The female has no ash-
grey on the head and her throat is merely reddish-buff. The young
bird has a spotted nestling-plumage, and later the wing-coverts and
secondaries become tipped with buff ; otherwise it resembles the
female. The male pairs in the immature plumage of the first year;
the orange-red on the throat does not extend to the breast until
the third moult.

HIRUNDINID/E. l6'

THE SWALLOW.

HiRUNDO RUSTiCA, Linnffius.

This well-known visitor has been known to arrive in the southern
portions of our islands in some numbers by March 21st, while
from April loth forward it is generally distributed, although some-
what scarce and local in the extreme north, and decreasing in the
north-west. It visits the Outer Hebrides, and will probably be
found to breed there exceptionally, as is the case in the Orkneys
and Shetlands. . Emigration usually begins early in September, and
most birds have left us by the middle of October, but there are
many records up to the end of December, and a few in January
and February ; while one out of two laggard Swallows survived the
exceptionally mild winter of 1 895-1 896, at Masham, Yorkshire.

The Swallow occurs in the Faeroes in ISLiy, and has been known to
stray to Iceland, South Greenland, Spitsbergen and Novaya Zemlya.
It nests in Scandinavia up to "jo" N. lat., but not quite as far as the
Arctic circle in Russia ; eastward and southward, its breeding-range
extends over Europe, Asia (north, as a rule, of the great mountain
ranges), and Northern Africa ; while during winter it is found through-
out the Indian region as far east as Burma and the Malay peninsula,
and all over Africa. My space will not permit a discussion of its con-
geners, and I must refer my readers to Dr. R. B. Sharpe's excellent
remarks (Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. vol. x., especially pp. 126-127).;

o 2

104 SWALLOW.

merely observing that, by way of Asia, a connection appears to be
established near Lake Baikal with the North American Swallow,
H. erytkiogaster of Boddaert, better known as JI. horreorum. The
latter, although found in Greenland, does not cross the Atlantic to
Britain, nor has our bird been observed further west than about 180
miles beyond the Azores. In Egypt there is a resident subspecies,
H. savigiiii, with the under parts nearly as ruddy as the throat.

The nest was, no doubt, originally built in caves, and even now
these are sometimes resorted to, but at the present day it is usually
placed about human habitations or buildings of some kind ; often it
is in chimneys, though almost any ledge or projection will serve ;
while exceptionally it has been found in forked boughs of trees, and
in even more remarkable sites. Mud, with a mixture of short straws,
and a lining of fine grasses and feathers, is the material employed,
and the structure has generally the shape of half a saucer ; the eggs,
laid from May i8th onwards, and usually 4-6 in number, are white,
blotched and speckled with several shades of grey and brown :
measurements "82 by "54 in. Two broods are produced in the season,
but I have known even three hatched by the same pair of (marked)
birds, although I believe that the last brood, still in the nest on
October 23rd, was not reared. To the extreme south of Europe the
Swallow returns by the end of Ja^nuary, and below Seville I found
many nestlings by April i6th. With us large flocks collect together
in autumn, prior to their departure for the south, and are then
conspicuous on roofs, trees and telegraph-wires, especially in the
vicinity of water. The food consists mainly of gnats and crane-flies
in spring, with small beetles in summer. The soft, low twittering
.song can hardly be described ; the alarm-note may be syllabled as
feet-a-feet, feet-a-feetit.

The adult male in spring has the forehead and throat dark chest-
nut ; crown, upper parts and pectoral band deep metallic blue ;
quills dark bluish-green ; tail-feathers bottle-green, with white patches
on the inner webs of all except the central pair, the long outside
streamers often two inches longer than the next ; belly and under
wing-coverts buff; under tail-coverts pale chestnut ; bill, legs and feet
black, and very small. Length 7*5 in.; wing 4*9 in. The female
has the tail shorter, the forehead less chestnut, and the under parts
whiter. The young are duller in colour ; the frontlet and throat are
pale chestnut, and the spots on the tail are tinged with rufous. The
moult takes place in winter, and I noticed that the birds which were
breeding in the south of Spain in April had not then attained the
warm buff tint on the under parts, which I observed later.

HIRUNDINID^. 165

THE MARTIN.
Chelidon urrica (Linnaeus).

The Martin, sometimes called the House-Martin to distinguish it
from the Sand-Martin, usually arrives a few days later than the
Swallow, and is of general distribution during the summer through-
out the British Islands. In the north, however, it is rather local and
even of irregular occurrence, while in some parts of the north-west it
has become decidedly scarcer of late years. It seldom visits the Outer
Hebrides, and only breeds sparingly in the Orkneys and Shetlands.
In Ireland it is local, and less common than the Swallow. By the
middle of October the bulk of the Martins have left this country, but
considerable flocks have been noticed up to the middle of November,
and birds — generally young — have been obtained in December.

The Martin is a rare visitor to Iceland, but in the Faeroes it is not
uncommon on the spring migration. In Scandinavia it breeds as far
north as about lat. 70°, but in Russia its range in that direction is less
extensive ; while eastward our bird is not known beyond the valley of
the Ob, its place being taken in Siberia by C. lagopoda, a species
with a shorter and squarer tail and entirely white upper tail-coverts.
In the Himalayas the representative species, C. cashmiriensis, is
smaller, with shorter and less deeply-forked tail ; but our bird is
found during the breeding-season in North-western India, Turkestan,

1 66 MARTIN.

Persia, Palestine, Asia Minor, and throughout Europe, except in the
Basque Provinces, where, for some mysterious reason, it is ahiiost
unknown. It also breeds abundantly in North Africa ; visits the
Canaries and Madeira ; and probably winters in Central Africa,
inasmuch as examples have been obtained in Abyssinia on the east
side, and off the coast of Guinea on the west.

The nest, constructed of mud, is not left open at the top like that
of the Swallow, but is shaped like the quarter of a cup, and is fixed
against a wall, bridge or rock, beneath eaves or other projections ;
the hole for entrance being in the top or corner of the side. On
rocky coasts, and in mountain districts, especially those where lime-
stone prevails, the nests are often placed in large numbers against
the cliffs ; while I have also found House-Martins nesting well inside
crevices, in Wales (near Fishguard), the Pyrenees, and in Norway.
Upon a lining of pieces of straw and feathers, the 4-5 eggs, of a pure
white, are deposited about the last week in May: measurements
79 by '52 in. Incubation lasts a fortnight, and two, or, occasionally
three, broods are produced in the season, for young have been found
in the nest up to October 17th : the same spot being occupied year
after year. The food of the Martin consists entirely of insects, and
it is a pity that this beneficial bird should be dispossessed and
driven from its home, as it often is, by the detrimental House-
Sparrow. This has lately happened to several colonies in the West-
end of London. The note is a low twitter, sounding like spritz.

The adult has the upper part of the head, nape and back glossy
blue-black ; rump white, as are the upper tail-coverts, except those
next the tail, which are bluish-black ; wings and the forked tail sooty-
black ; under parts white, as are also the feathers which cover the
legs and toes ; bill black. Length 5"3 ; wing 4*25 in. The sexes
are alike in plumage. The young bird is sooty-brown above, with
hardly any gloss ; the rump and under parts are dull white ; the tail
is shorter and less forked ; and some dark feathers on each side of
the neck form an incipient collar.

An American Purple Martin, Progne purpurea, said to have been
shot near Kingstown in 1839 or 1840, is in the Museum of Science
and Art, Dublin. An American Tree-Swallow, Tachycintta bkolor,
said to have been killed at Derby in 1850, is now in the Museum at
Norwich. There are no other instances of the occurrence of these
species in Europe ; and, even assuming the correctness of the state-
ments, the birds had probably received " assisted passages."

HIRUNDINID/E.

167

THE SAND-MARTIN.

CoTiLE RiPARiA (Liimaeus).

The Sand-Martin, the smallest member of the family that visits
our islands, is one of the earliest species to arrive in spring, often
making its appearance by the third week of March. It is also one
of the first to quit our shores, its southward emigrations commenc-
ing in August and terminating in October ; but, exceptionally, it has
been noticed in various localities up to the end of November.
Owing to the nature of its haunts it is somewhat locally distributed
throughout the British Islands, but upon the whole it is widely diffused,
extending regularly to some of the Outer Hebrides and breeding
sparingly in Orkney; while in 1887, Mr. A. H. Evans ascertained
that it nested near Lerwick in the Shetlands. In Ireland, according
to Mr. R. J. Ussher, it is more widely distributed than the House-
Martin.

In the Faeroes and Iceland the Sand-Martin has not yet been
obtained, but on the Continent it is generally distributed from 70°
N. lat. to the Mediterranean in summer ; while it also breeds spar-
ingly in the northern districts of Africa, and abundantly in Egypt
and Palestine. Eastward, it is found across Asia to Kamchatka ; on
the American continent it breeds in large colonies in Alaska and
up to 68° N. lat. on the Mackenzie River ; while it can be traced to

1 68 SAND-MARTIN.

Newfoundland. In winter it visits Mexico, Central America and
the valley of the Amazon ; and — in the Old World — China, the
Indian region, and South-eastern Africa down to Zanzibar. Occasion-
ally it wanders to the Canary Islands.

Early in May it makes a nest, generally in banks — whether
natural, such as earth-cliffs and chalk-holes by the sides of rivers
and lakes, or artificial, such as railway-cuttings, sandpits and gravel
quarries— or even in huge heaps of sawdust. In such situations
galleries slanting slightly upwards are bored, and, in a somewhat
wider chamber at the end, the nest is formed of a little dry grass with
an abundance of feathers. The eggs, usually 4-6 in number, are
pure white : average measurements 7 by '48 in. In some parts of
Norway the Sand-Martin burrows into the turf-covered roofs of
the peasants' houses ; while in this country holes in old walls are not
unfrequently utilised, and Mr. R. Warren found nests in the crevices
of a ruin on I-ough Cullen. Small colonies are often ousted by the
overbearing House-Sparrows, but where large numbers congregate,
they are able to defy intruders. Two broods are generally produced in
the season, and after leaving their flea-haunted nest, the young betake
themselves to the vicinity of water, where they feed all day upon the
gnats and other insects found in such localities, and roost at night
in large numbers in the reed-beds and plantations. The male has a
low twittering song, but the alarm-note is rather harsh.

The adult male is hair-brown above, slightly darker on the crown
and lighter on the rump ; wings and tail blackish-brown ; under
parts white, except a mottled brown pectoral band ; bill black ; legs
dark brown, with a tuft of pale buff-coloured feathers above the hind
toe. Length 4-8 ; wing 4 in. The female has a rather narrower
band across the throat. The young bird, shown in the upper figure
of the woodcut, has the feathers of the upper parts tipped with dull
white, and the under parts tinged with buff

In the rocky gorges and mountainous regions of Central and
Southern Europe many of my readers may have noticed a rather
larger bird, resembling our Sand-Martin in the colour of its upper
parts, but displaying white spots on its outspread tail. This is the
Crag-Martin, Cot'ile rupeslris, a bird which has not yet been found
in the British Islands, but which may possibly stray to our shores, as
it breeds regularly no further off than Switzerland and the Pyrenees.
This species has not the small tuft of feathers on the metatarsus,
and its eggs are spotted, like those of the Swallow.

FRINGILLIN.t.

169

THE GREENFINCH.

LiGURiNUS CHLORis (Linnffius).

The Greenfinch, sometimes called the Green Linnet, is a common
and well-known resident species in the cultivated and wooded dis-
tricts of Great Britain and Ireland. In the bleaker portions of our
islands it is, naturally, less abundant ; but it has spread with the in-
crease of plantations of late years, and even in some of the Orkneys
it now breeds freely, although to the Shetlands, as well as to the
Outer Hebrides, it is still a mere visitor, chiefly in autumn. Large
flocks annually arrive on our east coast in October.

To the Faeroes the Greenfinch is only a rare wanderer ; but south
of 65° N. lat. in Norway and 60° in the Ural Mountains it is more
or less sedentary in suitable localities throughout Europe. In Spain,
Northern Africa, Palestine and Asia Minor, our comparatively large
and dull-coloured bird is only observed during the winter months,
and the race which breeds is distinctly smaller, and — especially on
the forehead — more brightly coloured. Extremes of this form have
been named L. chloroticus ; while intermediate examples have been

17° GREENFINCH.

Styled L. aiiraiitiiventris. Eastward, the Greenfinch is found as far
as the north-west of Persia and Turkestan ; but in Eastern Siberia,
China and Japan, the representative species is L. sinicus, with
greyish head, brown mantle, and yellowish-brown under parts. As a
straggler the Greenfinch has occurred in Madeira, and as an intro-
duced species in the United States.

The nest is placed in hedges, shrubs and evergreens, often in
tolerably tall trees or amongst ivy, and occasionally in such unusual
situations as a cavity in a tree or a hollow at the top of a gate-post.
It is commonly a rather loose and slovenly structure, built (without
much attempt at adaptation to the surroundings) of coarse fibrous
roots, moss and wool, with a lining of finer materials, hair, and feathers.
The eggs, 4-6 in number, are pale greenish-white, blotched, spotted,
or even zoned with reddish-brown and purplish-grey : measure-
ments -83 by -55 in. Not unfrequently several nests may be found
in proximity. The first laying takes place at the end of April
or early in May, and two broods are often reared in the season.
The young are fed upon caterpillars and other insects, and soft
seeds ; later, berries of various kinds are also consumed ; and in
autumn flocks may be seen on the stubbles. The song is poor,
while the call-note is a long-drawn twe e-eer, reiterated by the male
as he sits on the top of a bush. In confinement the Greenfinch is
easily domesticated, and shows a moderate capacity for learning
the songs of other birds, while it interbreeds with several species
of Finch ; also, in a wild state, with the Linnet.

The adult male has the lores dusky-black ; forehead greenish-
yellow ; a golden-yellow stripe over each eye ; crown, neck and
mantle olive-green, turning to yellow on the rump; secondaries
brownish-grey, darker on the shafts and inner margins ; quills greyish-
brown with yellow outer webs ; central tail-feathers and terminal
portion of the rest blackish-brown with greyish edges, the basal por-
tions yellow ; under parts greenish-yellow, greyer on the flanks ; bill
dull flesh-colour, darkest at the tip ; legs and feet pale wood-brown.
Length of the large form about 6 in., and wing 3-5 in. ; but a brilliant
specimen of the smaller race, now before me, measures rather less
than 5 in. and the wing hardly 3-2 in. The female is somewhat
smaller and far less brightly coloured than the male, the head and
mantle being greenish-brown with darker striations ; the outer webs
of the primaries barely edged with yellow; and the under parts
generally dusky, with very little yellow. The young are dull brown,
tinged with yellow, and spotted and streaked with darker brown.

FRINGILLIN.t.

171

THE HAWFINCH.

COCCOTHRAUSTES VULGARIS, Pallas.

The Hawfinch is a bird of shy and retiring habits, and unless
attention be attracted by the shrill and — when once heard — unmis-
takable whistle, its presence may easily escape detection. There
can be no doubt it has been steadily increasing in numbers during
the last fifty years, and, though still local in distribution, the nest
has been found in every county in England, excepting Cornwall,
even as far north as the Lake district and Northumberland, though
there the bird becomes rare. From Worcester and Hereford it has
now spread to Brecon, where it breeds, but in the rest of Wales it
is still uncommon. In spite of the extension of the metropolis, the
Hawfinch has not quite ceased to nest in Middlesex, and it is com-
paratively common in some parts of Norfolk, Suffolk, Essex, Herts,
Bucks, Berks and Surrey, while in Kent it may almost be called
abundant. In Scotland, a young bird obtained near Edinburgh
was, in the opinion of Mr. W. E. Clarke, bred in the neighbour-
hood, and the species has been taken in winter in the Solway
district, while said to have been seen in Sutherland. To Ireland
this Finch is only a rare and irregular wanderer in winter, and has
never been obtained at any of the lighthouses.

Even to the south of Scandinavia the Hawfinch is only an
occasional visitor, but in Russia it has been found nesting as far north
as the St. Petersburg district Over Central Europe, in suitable

172 HAWFINCH.

localities, it appears to be generally distributed, although nowhere
very common ; but in the south, from Spain to Turkey, as well as in
Asia Minor, it is a more abundant resident species. In North-western
India we find Dr. R. B. Sharpe's paler species, C. /uiinii, while a
slightly different subspecies, C. japonicus, inhabits Eastern Siberia,
North China and J^iP'^in- In Morocco the Hawfinch is rare ; but it
breeds sparingly in Algeria, occurs in Tunisia, and has wandered to
Egypt and Palestine.

The nest, built at the end of April or early in May, is generally
placed in trees overgrown with grey lichens, such as old hawthorns,
apple- and pear-trees ; the horizontal branches of oaks, beeches
and spruce firs, the heads of pollarded hornbeams, and holly
bushes are also selected. It is a rather flat structure, built of twigs
mixed with grey lichen, and lined with fine roots and a little hair.
The eggs, 4-5 in number, are pale olive- or bluish-green, spotted
and streaked irregularly with dark olive- and greyish-brown :
measurements "98 in. by 72 in. Only one brood is reared in the
season, but if the first nest is interfered with, another is built.
The young are fed largely on caterpillars, but otherwise the food of
this species consists largely of peas, the kernels of cherry-stones
(which are crushed by the powerful bill), and of the seeds of the
hornbeam and other trees, beechmast, haws and similar berries. In
winter small parties and even flocks are formed, and a certain
amount of movement — hardly to be called migration — takes place
in England. The song is short and poor ; the call-note is a prolonged
whistle repeated four times.

The adult male in spring has the lores, a narrow frontal line con-
necting them, and also the throat, deep black ; head orange-brown ;
nape grey ; back dull brown, paler on the rump and tail-coverts ;
upper wing-coverts blackish, followed by a line of white which turns
to brown on the secondaries; quills black, with white patches on the
inner webs, and with steel-blue tips, which, from the fifth inwards,
are jagged ; tail-coverts orange-brown, and very long ; tail-feathers
black at the bases and dark on the outer webs, their ends white; under
parts vinous-brown ; bill dull black at tip, leaden-blue at the base ;
legs and feet flesh-colour. Length 7 in. ; wing nearly 4 in. Female :
less orange-brown on the head and duller in colour. In winter the
bill in both sexes is pale horn-colour. The young bird has the head
and cheeks yellowish-brown ; mantle mottled brown ; under parts
dirty white, spotted and barred with dark brown ; throat white,
tinged with yellow ; bill olive. By August black feathers begin to
appear on the throat.

FRINGILLINzE.

173

THE GOLDFINCH.

Carduelis elegans, Stephens.

Owing to the arts of the bird-catcher, as well as to improve-
ments in cultivation which have done away with many of the tracts
formerly covered with thistles and other weeds, the Goldfinch has
undoubtedly decreased in numbers during the last half century;
nevertheless, the Wild Birds' Preservation Act, and perhaps agricul-
tural depression, have somewhat operated in its favour during the
past twelve years. Though local, and principally to be found
during the breeding-season in the neighbourhood of gardens and
orchards, it still nests in every county in England — not except-
ing Northumberland, where it has bred at Greenhead ; while
it is tolerably common along the Eden valley in Cumberland,
although in the northern and western counties a comparatively rare
bird. Beyond the Border it has almost disappeared from the
Lothians, owing to the influence of high farming ; but I am
informed by Mr. R. Service that, after a marked diminution, it is
again on the increase in the Solway district. It is now very
scarce beyond the Great Glen ; but on one occasion it has
nested in the south of Skye, while as a straggler it has occurred
in Mull and Eigg (Macpherson), as well as in the Orkneys.
In Ireland it is widely distributed. A large proportion of
the Goldfinches which inhabit England during the summer, as

174 GOLDFINCH.

Avell as flocks which have arrived from the Continent, cross the
Channel in October, and return northward in April.

South of about 64° N. lat. in Norway, and 60° in the Ural
Mountains, the Goldfinch is found breeding throughout Europe,
although rare in the north ; while in Spain and other southern
countries it is exceedingly abundant and very bright in colour. It
is a resident in Madeira, the Canaries and Northern Africa ; visits
Egypt in winter; and ranges eastward to Persia. There, and
generally to the east of the line of the Urals, we find a larger form,
known as C. major, with nearly white rump and flanks ; and in
Southern Siberia this meets and interbreeds with C. caniceps, which
has no black on the crown and nape, but more white on the wing.

The compact nest— like that of the Chaffinch, but smaller, neater,
of finer materials, and without the conspicuous lichens — is built
about the middle of May, and is often placed in a fork of a fruit-
tree or a horse-chestnut ; sometimes in a hedge or evergreen shrub.
The 4-5 eggs are greyish-white, spotted and streaked with purplish-
brown : measurements "66 by "5 in. Two broods are produced in
the year, and young have been found in the nest in September. At
first they are fed with insects and their larvK : but later the principal
food consists of seeds of the thistle, knapweed, groundsel, dock and
other plants. The song of this favourite cage-bird is well known ;
its call-note is a sharp twif. In captivity it breeds with several
other species of Finch.

Adult male : feathers at the base of the bill and lores black ; fore-
head and throat glossy crimson-red ; cheeks and lower throat white ;
crown and the parts behind the cheeks black ; on the nape a narrow
line of white : back wood-brown ; wings black, tipped with white on
the inner quills and barred with bright yellow : tail-coverts white
with black bases ; the three outer pairs of tail-feathers black with white
central spots, the remainder black, tipped with white ; breast white,
banded with brownish-buff, with a yellow tint posteriorly ; flanks
buff; belly and under tail-coverts white; bill whitish with a black
tip; legs and feet pale flesh-colour. Length 5 in.; wing 3 in. In less
mature males, only the ist and 2nd pairs of tail-feathers have white
spots. The female has a more slender bill and less crimson on the
throat. The young, known as "grey-pates," "bald-pates" and
"branchers," are greyish-brown on the upper parts ; the wing tips
are buffish-white, and only the outer pair of tail-feathers show the
white spot. Some birds, called "cheverels," have the throat white ;
examples from Morocco have the back isabelline, and there are
several other varieties.

FRINGILLIN^.

175

^^ ^^■

THE SISKIN.

Carduelis spinus (Linnreus).

The Siskin, or Aberdevine as it has been called since the time of
Albin, is principally known in England and Wales during winter
and on its migrations to and from its more northern breeding-
quarters ; but there is evidence that it has bred, exceptionally, in
Surrey, Sussex, and perhaps some other southern counties. In the
north, where fir-woods are more abundant, it has nested in the
county of Durham ; while a few pairs breed regularly in some parts
of Cumberland, and in the Solway district in Scotland. From
Perthshire northward, it nests freely in some of the old fir-wood
districts, and suitable localities up to Caithness ; in East Sutherland
it is said to be resident, and it breeds in Ross-shire ; but on the
western side generally it is only a somewhat rare winter-visitor, and
has not yet been traced to the Outer Hebrides nor the Orkneys,
although it occurs on both passages in the Shetlands. In Ireland
it nests in many counties where pine-trees flourish, especially in
Wicklow and Waterford ; while in winter it is tolerably common.

In Northern Europe the breeding-limit of the Siskin coincides
with that of conifer-growth ; and southward, the bird nests in some
of the fir-woods of Germany, South Holland, France, Switzerland,
Northern Italy as far as the vicinity of Florence, Austria, and

176 SISKIN.

the Caucasus ; while it is found on migration down to the Mediter-
ranean, and in winter sometimes visits Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia.
Eastward it has been met with in Asia Minor, Northern Persia, and
across Siberia to Northern China and Japan, being a favourite cage
bird in the last country. In the Indian region, from Kashmir to
Western China, the representative species is C. spinoides.

The Siskin generally produces two broods in the year, and St.
John found well-fledged young near Nairn as early as April 26th.
Firs of some kind or birches are the trees usually selected, and the
nest, while occasionally placed at the top against the main-stem,
is generally high up and at the end of a long lateral branch ; yet
sometimes it is built in gorse and other bushes. Fir twigs, fine roots
and green moss are the materials employed to form a tolerably neat
structure, which is lined with horsehair and a few feathers. The eggs,
usually 5 in number, are slightly smaller than those of the Goldfinch,
rather bluer in ground-colour, and speckled with dull lilac and
reddish-brown: measurements •65 by "47 in. Siskins not unfrequently
breed in captivity, but there is a difficulty in rearing the young,
as in the earlier stages they appear to require Aphides^ such as
infest the leaves and green shoots of the alder. Later in the year,
beechmast, and seeds of rag-weed and other plants are eaten.
The call-note is loud and clear, resembling the word zeisig, whence
the bird's German name ; the song is pretty and varied.

The adult male has the crown, chin, and lores black : cheeks and
ear-coverts dusky-greenish ; above and behind each eye to the nape
runs a broad streak of yellow, which unites with the same colour on
the upper breast ; feathers of the mantle greenish-olive, with dusky
shaft-streaks ; rump yellow ; the central pair of tail-feathers dusky-
black, the others black near the tips, yellow at the bases and on the
inner webs ; wing-coverts black, tipped with yellow ; quills blackish,
with yellow margins and bases forming two irregular bars ; belly
white ; flanks yellowish, streaked with black ; bill pale brown : legs
dull brown. Length 4-6 ; wing 2-8 in. In autumn the colours are
duller, and there is hardly any black on the chin. The female
has dusky streaks on the crown, and very little yellow on the rump,
wings and tail ; the under parts are yellowish-white, with ash-brown
stripes. The young bird is still duller and greyer in appearance.

An example of the North American Spiiius tristis is said to have
been taken on Achill Island in September (Zool. 1894, p. 396).

FRINGILLIN.t:.

177

THE SERIN.
Serinus hortulanus, K. L. Koch.

The occurrence of the Serin in England was first recorded from
the neighbourhood of Portsmouth (NaturaHst, 1853, p. 20), by the
Rev. W. Hazel ; and subsequently, about eight examples have been
obtained by bird-catchers in Sussex — most of them near Brighton ;
one or two near London, two in Norfolk, one in Somersetshire, and
one in Devon ; while Mr. G. C. Swailes saw and heard a male singing
near one of his aviaries containing Serins, outside Beverley on
April 26th 1897. In Ireland one was taken near Dublin, on January
2nd 1893. Almost all of these were noticed either in spring or in
autumn ; and although the Serin is a very common cage-bird abroad
and likely to be imported, yet, considering that it breeds no further
off than Luxemburg, it is probably a genuine visitor to our shores.

In Holland, where the Serin was formerly rare, it is now captured
almost every autumn (Blaauw) ; it has wandered to Schleswig ; at
least a dozen examples have been obtained on Heligoland ; and its
northern breeding-range extends to Darmstadt and the upper portions
of the Rhine and Moselle valleys. Southward, it is found — generally
at the foot of mountains skirting the plains — throughout the greater
pari of Europe, and on both sides of the Mediterranean ; in Asia
Minor it is resident and extremely abundant, and it has been
traced to Sinai and Egypt. It visits the coast of Palestine in
winter, but in the higher regions of that country the representative
species is S. canonicus, a larger, paler and much yellower bird ;
while in the Lebanon, Taurus and other mountain ranges, reaching

p

178 SERIN.

to North-western India, is found S. pusilliis, the male of which has
a red forehead and black throat and cheeks. The Serin has been
introduced in the United States.

The nest, placed in the fork of some tree or about breast-high
in a bush, is built of fine roots, bents, lichens and grey moss, with
a lining of softer materials. The 4-5 eggs are pale greenish-white,
with light reddish-brown spots and a few darker blotches : measure-
ments ■61 by '47 in. The food chiefly consists of various kinds of
seeds. The song resembles the word zi-zi often repeated, and a
flock of birds settled in a tree produces a peculiar buzzing or
almost hissing sound.

Adult male in breeding-plumage : forehead, a line over each eye,
rump, throat and breast, bright yellow ; cheeks and upper parts olive,
with dark brown streaks ; greater wing-coverts and secondaries edged
with dull white ; quills and tail brown, margined with pale yellow ;
belly white ; flanks boldly streaked with brown ; bill horn-brown ;
legs pale brown. Length 4*5 ; wing 27 in. Female: much less
yellow and more striated. In winter both sexes are duller in colour ;
while the young in their first autumn exhibit hardly any yellow tint.

Examples of the subspecies Seriitus canaria, peculiar to the
Canaries, Madeira and the Azores, have been taken in England,
and, although cages-full are known to be imported, there are persons
who wish to believe that the individuals captured are not escaped
birds, but genuine wanderers from a warm to an inhospitable climate !
The aforesaid Rev. W. Hazel has stated (Nat. 1853, p. 20) that the
African Serinus icterus ( Crithagra chrysopyga of Swainson), was taken
near Portsmouth. Mr. Langton has recorded (Zool. 1886, p. 490)
that, among the rarities obtained by the late Mr. Swaysland of
Brighton, there was a " Citril Finch" taken alive on October 14th ;
but on examination the bird proved to be a freely-imported South
African species, Serums canicollis, another specimen of which has
since been captured. Montagu mentioned an example of the American
Cyattospiza ciris, taken near Portland in 1802, which he, with his
accustomed good sense, naturally presumed to have escaped from
confinement. Another American species, the " White-throated
Sparrow," Zonotrichia albicoUis (which is really a Bunting), having
been obtained near Aberdeen, was included and figured by the
late R. Gray in his ' Birds of the West of Scotland.' A second
example has been taken near Brighton ; and Mr. Cordeaux has
recorded (Zool. 1893, p. 149) an adult male shot in Holderness, on
February 13th, while feeding with other "pensioners."

FRINGILLIN/E.

179

THE HOUSE-SPARROW.
Passer domesticus (LiniiKus).

The House-Sparrow is generally distributed throughout Great
Britain and Ireland wherever human habitations are to be found,
except near some of the high moorland farm-houses and a few of
the most elevated villages. In proportion as land is brought under
cultivation, the Sparrow makes its appearance and rapidly increases,
so that it is now established in the Inner Hebrides, the Orkneys,
the Shetlands, and other places where it was formerly unknown.

As yet the House-Sparrow does not appear to have reached the
Faeroes, but in Scandinavia it occurs, in suitable localities, up to and
a little beyond the Arctic circle ; while eastward it can be traced
across Russia, and along the inhabited portions of Siberia to
Daiiria ; but not to Japan or China. A smaller and paler race
(known as P. indicus, but not considered by the best authorities as
entitled to specific distinction) inhabits Cochin, Siam, Burma and the
Indian region, as far west as Southern Persia ; whence gradations
lead back to the typical bird, which is found almost all over Europe
where grain will grow. In Italy, and on the island of Corsica, the
representative species is P. italice, the male of which has the crown
chestnut instead of grey ; but although this species has been found
for a considerable distance up the Brenner Pass, it has not yet
infringed upon the territory of our bird, which, on the northern

p 2 *

I bo HOUSE-SPARROW.

side, reaches Innsbruck. In Sardinia, Sicily and Malta we find
only P. hispanioknsis, also widi a chestnut head, but much blacker
on the throat and flanks. In Spain our bird keeps to the towns,
and does not seem to clash with P. hispanioknsis, which there
breeds in the woods, often occupying the foundations of inhabited
nests of large birds of prey. ^Vestward, the House-Sparrow occurs
in Madeira, but apparently not in the other Atlantic islands. In
Africa it is found from Morocco to the Albert Nyanza ; while it
swarms in South Arabia and at Aden. Introduced, like the rabbit,
through officious ignorance, in Australia, New Zealand, and the
United States, it has become such a curse that special legislation has
been loudly invoked for its destruction.

The well-known nest, of straw, hay, dry grass and all sorts of odd
materials, thickly lined with feathers, is placed indifferently in trees,
among climbing plants, under the eaves of roofs, in the spouts of
water-pipes, in holes in walls, and those in banks originally excavated
by the Sand-Martin ; in fact almost everywhere. The 5-6 eggs
are pale bluish-white, blotched, speckled or suffused with ash- and
dusky-brown and black : measurements "9 by "6 in. Three broods
are frequently reared in the season. The young are fed upon cater-
pillars and the larvae of various destructive insects, and in this
respect the Sparrow is beneficial ; but there is abundant evidence
that during the greater part of the year an enormous amount of
grain &c., is devoured, and the consensus of opinion appears to be
that, while extermination is not advocated (nor practicable), the
increase of this species should be checked. By deferring the
destruction of the insect-fed young until they are fledged, the greatest
amount of usefulness may be extracted from this bird, which causes
incalculable harm by dislodging the House-Martin and other insec-
tivorous species.

Adult male : lores black ; a narrow streak of white over each eye \
crown, nape and lower back ash-grey ; region of the ear-coverts
chestnut ; back chestnut-brown streaked with black ; wings brown,
with a bar of white on the middle coverts ; tail dull brown ; throat
and breast black, sometimes suffused with bright chestnut ; cheeks
and sides of the neck white ; belly dull white ; bill bluish-black ;
legs pale brown. Length 6 in. ; wing 3 in. In winter the colours
are duller and the bill is yellowish-brown. In the female the upper
parts are striated with dusky-brown ; there is no black on the throat
or grey on the crown, and the under parts are brownish-white. The
young bird is deeper brown both above and below ; the middle
wing-coverts are tipped with buff; the bill is dull yellow.

FRINGILLIN.C

l8l

THE TREE-SPARROW.

Passer montanus (Einnaeus).

The Tree-Sparrow is rarer and more local than the preceding
species, but it is undoubtedly extending its range, having recently
been found in the Outer Hebrides, including St. Kilda, and in
North Ronay, as well as in many other places where it was unknown
in former times. In the south-west of England it is as yet un-
common, and it is not abundant in Wales, although it breeds in
Brecon; while it is very local in Eancashire and Cumberland. It is
probably more abundant in Cambridgeshire and some of the eastern
and midland counties than elsewhere ; but it is difficult to sketch its
distribution with accuracy, owing to the strong probability that, from
its resemblance to the House-Sparrow, it has often been overlooked.
Large numbers arrive from the Continent upon our north-east coast
in autumn. On the mainland of Scotland its settlements are mostly
along the eastern side, from the Border to Sutherland. Unknown
in Ireland until 1852, it is now a resident and increasing species
near Dublin ; Mr. H. M. Wallis has stated that he saw a pair in
May 1886 on Aranmore Island, off Donegal ; and a bird has been
taken at the Tuskar lighthouse.

About 1869 the Tree-Sparrow reached the Faeroes, where it has
multiplied exceedingly ; and in Norway, although still local, it has
now spread beyond the Arctic circle. Throughout the rest of
northern and temperate Europe it is generally distributed ; in Hun-
gary and Slavonia it is more abundant than the House-Sparrow ;
and, although local, it may be said to be common in most parts of

1 02 TREE-SPARROW.

the south, except in the islands of the Mediterranean. I have
specimens from Valencia and Malaga in Spain, but the bird has not
yet been obtained in Portugal. It is rather common in some parts of
the south of France, and breeds in many towns, but is very local in
the Pyrenees. In Algeria and Tunisia it is rare, but it is said to visit
Egypt and Arabia ; it is found throughout the greater part of Asia
south of about 58° N. lat., down to the Philippines and the Malay
Peninsula ; and in Java, where it was introduced less than a century
ago, it has already varied so much from the type as to be named var.
inalaccensis by M. Dubois. Imported specimens, or their descend-
ants, have been obtained in North America.

The nest is often placed at some distance from habitations,
in the rotten wood of pollard-willows and other trees ; but in
many districts it is built in the outer side of the thatch of barns
and outhouses, and beneath the tiles of roofs, as well as under the
coping of old walls and in sea-cliffs ; in fact almost any hole will
serve. The materials employed are mostly dry grass and feathers ;
the 4-6 eggs, smaller and more glossy than those of the House-
Sparrow, are greyish-white, generally freckled all over with rich
hair-brown: measurements 75 by "54 in. Two, and even three
broods are reared in the season ; the first being hatched about the
middle of April. The young are fed on caterpillars and other
insects, soft vegetables &c., but later, both they and their parents
live principally upon small seeds ; while in winter both young and
old frequent rick-yards, highroads and even streets of towns, for the
horse-droppings. The male has a slight, though somewhat pleasant
song, but the ordinary call-note is a shrill chirp. In captivity — and
exceptionally in the wild state^this species has bred with the
House-Sparrow.

Unlike the preceding species, the sexes are alike in plumage. The
adult has the lores and a streak under each eye black, crown and
nape warm reddish-brown ; cheeks and ear-coverts white, with a
triangular black patch ; mantle, wings and tail much as in the male
House-Sparrow, but both upper and lower wing-coverts tipped with
white, forming two distinct bands ; chin and throat to upper breast
black ; under parts greyish-white, brownish on the flanks ; bill
black; legs and feet pale brown. Length 5*6 in. ; wing 275 in.
In the young bird the plumage is duller, and the bands on the
■wings are tinged with buff. As shown by the above measurements
it is a decidedly smaller species than the House-Sparrow.

FRINGILLIN.E.

THE CHAFFINCH.

Fringilla ccelebs, Linnaeus.

The Chafifinch is a common and generally distributed species
throughout the cultivated or wooded portions of the British Islands,
especially in the north of England ; it may even be found nesting
in low bushes in some of the treeless Outer Hebrides, as well as the
Orkneys, and also at a considerable elevat'ion on the mountains of
Scotland, where it is undoubtedly increasing. As yet it has not
been recorded as breeding in the Shetlands, although it visits them,
especially in October, and some birds remain for the winter. At
that season large flocks arrive from the Continent on our east coast,
while other bands, from the north of our island, spread themselves
over the inland provinces. Owing to a partial and temporary
separation of the sexes at this time, the name ccelebs, or bachelor,
was used by Linnaeus in reference to the deserted males. Mr.
Barrington considers it the commonest passerine bird in Ireland.

As a wanderer the Chaffinch has been obtained in the Faeroes,
and in summer it occurs, in comparatively small numbers, nearly up
to the North Cape ; while south of the Arctic circle it is generally

1,84 CHAFFIN'CH.

distributed during the breeding-season throughout the temperate
regions of Europe down to the Mediterranean. Colonel Irby found
it breeding near Gibraltar, but in the south of Spain it must be very
local in summer, though common in winter. At that season it visits
Egypt as well as the coast of Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia, but
inland, the representative species is F. spodiogenys, the male of which
has a bluish-grey head and nape, greenish back, and under parts of
a vinaceous white, while the female is much greyer than our bird.
Dr. Sharpe distinguishes the IMadeiran Chaffinch as F. niaderensis,
and considers F. morekti of the Azores and F. tintillon of the
Canaries as subspecies ; the dark grey F. teydea, found on the Peak
of Teneriffe, being distinct. Our Chaffinch breeds on Hermon,
Lebanon, and in the forest region of Persia ; and has been found as
far east as Omsk in Siberia.

About the middle of April, the nest, almost too well known to
need description, may be found at a moderate height from the
ground, in a fork of the lower branches of a tree or in a bush, and
is artfully composed of wool, green moss, lichens and other
substances felted together, with a lining of hair and feathers. The
eggs, 4-6 in number, are usually of a pale greenish-blue, clouded
with reddish- and spotted with purplish-brown, but occasionally they
are unspotted blue: measurements '8 by "57 in. Two broods are
generally reared in the- season. The call-note is chissick. The alarm-
note or challenge is the familiar spink, spink, spiuk, to which the bird
owes one of its many local names ; the song varies much in different
localities, one of the commonest renderings being toll-toll, pretty-
little de-dr. Both young and old feed largely on insects and the
seeds of weeds, so that in spite of pilfering of fruit, vegetables
and newly-sown seeds, the Chaffinch may be considered as one of
the gardener's best friends.

Adult male in spring : forehead black ; crown and nape bluish-
grey ; back reddish-brown ; rump yellowish-green ; upper wing-
coverts white, greater coverts black, tipped with yellowish-white,
forming two conspicuous bars ; quills dull brown, slightly fringed
with greenish-white ; central tail-feathers dark grey, the rest black,
with broad white patches on the two exterior pairs ; cheeks, throat
and under parts rich reddish-brown, paler on the belly : bill bluish-
lead ; legs dull brown. Length 6 in. ; wing 3 '4 in. Li autumn the
bill is brownish, and the head is tinged with rufous. Female : head
and back light yellowish-brown : breast pale yellowish-grey. Young :
similar to the female, but with paler tints at first ; the males, how-
ever, begin to show brighter colours within a fortnight.

FRINGILLIN^.

t8:

THE B RAMBLING.

Fringilla montifringi'lla, Linnaeus.

This species is said to pass through the Shetlands on both migra-
tions, but its appearance is decidedly irregular in the Orkneys, as
well as in the west of Scotland generally ; while even on the east
side it is seldom abundant to the north of the Firth of Forth,
though immense flocks are sometimes observed in the Lothians.
Throughout October many arrive annually on the north-east coast
of England, especially the Humber district, but further south the
relative abundance of the Brambling — or Mountain-Finch as it is
sometimes called — depends upon the severity of the weather on the
Continent. In hard winters the species may be very numerous,
especially in the vicinity of beech-woods, but in other years it is not
noticed ; while in Cornwall and Wales its appearance is very un-
certain. By the middle of March almost all have returned to their
northern breeding-grounds, but exceptionally a few birds have been
known to remain behind. To Ireland this bird's visits are very
irregular, and it is little known there, but at long intervals large

l86 BRAMBLING.

flocks have been observed in the beech-woods of Armagh and the
north-eastern districts, and also in co. Cork.

To the Faeroes the Brambhng is only an exceptional visitor. On
the mainland it breeds throughout the sub-Arctic pine and birch
forests, from Norway to Kamchatka ; while on migration it occurs in
Japan, China, Northern India, Asia Minor and the whole of Europe ;
but it is only in very severe winters that it pushes its wanderings to
the African side of the Mediterranean. Immense flocks sometimes
visit Belgium, Holland, Germany and Heligoland ; but statements
that this species has nested in the Pyrenees, the Alps, or the
Ardennes, are as yet unconfirmed.

As a rule, the Brambling breeds at higher altitudes than those
frequented by the Chafifinch ; and its nest, usually placed where a
branch meets the stem of a birch- or fir-tree, but sometimes in small
juniper bushes, is bulkier, less compact, and largely composed of
birch-bark. Several pairs generally breed in company. The eggs,
6-7 in number, laid late in May or early in June, are, as a rule, rather
greener than those of the Chaffinch and have more defined markings,
but many of each species are quite indistinguishable : measurements
•8 by "6 in. The Brambling has bred several tmies in captivity. Its
food consists of insects, small seeds — especially those of the knot-
grass, beechmast, and the kernels of nuts. The call-note is a harsh
cMb ; the male during the breeding-season utters a long, wearisome
and oft-repeated cree, much louder than that of the Greenfinch.

The adult male in breeding-plumage has the head, cheeks, nape
and back glossy blue-black with white bases to the feathers, which
sometimes show in the form of an irregular collar ; upper wing-
coverts orange-buff, tipped with white ; greater coverts black,
margined with white, which forms a conspicuous bar ; quills mostly
brownish-black, with whitish exterior margins ; rump white, mottled
with black ; tail-feathers black, with a little white at the base of the
outer pair ; throat and breast reddish-fawn-colour ; belly dull white ;
flanks spotted with black ; under wing-coverts bright yellow ; bill
bluish-black ; legs brown. Length S'l in. ; wing 3 "6 in. In autumn and
winter the black feathers of the head and back have ample margins
of reddish-brown (as represented in the woodcut), which are shed in
spring ; a warm orange-brown pervades the wing- and tail-coverts,
breast and flanks ; and the bill is yellow, with a black tip. The
female is dull brown on the upper parts and has none of the rich
black and chestnut markings of the male. Young birds at first
resemble the female, but the males soon show signs of black on the
head and back, and the under parts are brighter fawn-colour.

FRINGILLIN.'E.

187

M ,V-4-

THE LINNET.

LiNOTA CANNABiNA (LiiinL-eus).

Owing to its seasonal changes of plumage this species is often
known as the Grey Linnet ; also as the Red or Brown Linnet, to
distinguish it from the Greenfinch, which is frequently styled the
Green Linnet. It is widely distributed throughout the greater part
of the British Islands, especially on uncultivated lands and furze-
covered tracts ; but in the mountain-regions of Scotland it is repre-
sented by the Twite. Near Gairloch in Ross-shire it is almost
unknown, and it appears to be local in the Hebrides, though
common enough in the Orkneys ; while in Shetland it was identified
by Mr. Harvie-Brown in October 1892. In autumn large flocks
from the Continent arrive on our east coasts, and a general move-
ment southward occurs among our home-bred birds.

The Linnet does not breed north of lat. 64° in Scandinavia, nor
beyond 60° in East Russia ; but southward, it is found as a resident
all over Europe, as well as in North-western Africa, the Canaries
and Madeira. Eastward, it appears to range as far as the Altai
Mountains ; but the representative which breeds in Asia Minor,
Hermon and Lebanon nearly up to the snow-line, as well as in
Persia and Northern India, is more ash-coloured, with bright scarlet
on the breast and more defined coloration, and is known as

L. fringilVirostris or L. hella. In winter one or both visit Egypt
and Abyssinia.

Breeding begins about the middle of April ; the nest being made
of fine twigs, moss and grass-stalks, and lined with wool, hair,
vegetable-down and sometimes a few feathers. It is generally
placed in gorse or juniper bushes, though often in hedges, and
sometimes in low trees. The eggs, 4-6 in number, are bluish-
white, blotched, speckled and streaked with reddish-brown and
purplish-red : measurements 7 by '53 in. Two broods are often
reared in the season. The food consists of soft seeds, especially those
of an oily nature, as in the case of the various species of flax and
hemp ; grains of charlock, knot-grass, and other weeds are also
largely consumed ; while in winter various kinds of berries and even
oats are devoured. In autumn the different families unite in large
flocks, which may be seen crossing the stubbles with swift dipping
flight, uttering their musical and rapidly-repeated twit, twit. At this
season large numbers are taken by bird-catchers, as the prisoners
then adapt themselves more easily to captivity than if captured in
the spring. The natural song is sweet, although somewhat irregular,
but it is the capacity for learning the notes of other species which
makes the Linnet so great a favourite for the cage. In our cold,
dull climate, captive males seldom acquire in sprmg the fine crim-
son tints on the head and breast ; but abroad, under the influence
of warmth, bright sunshine and good food, Mr. J. Young has
known them do so, while in Madeira the wild males appear to
undergo hardly any eclipse.

The adult male in breeding-plumage has the forehead and centre
of the crown crimson ; rest of the head, nape and sides of the neck
mottled brownish-grey; mantle chestnut brown; wing-feathers dull
black, with white outer edges which form a conspicuous elongated
bar ; upper tail-coverts dark brown, with broad whitish margins ;
tail-feathers black, narrowly edged with white on the outer and
broadly on the inner web ; chin and throat dull white, striped with
greyish-brown ; breast crimson, occasionally with a decided yellow
tinge ; belly dull white ; flanks fawn-brown ; bill horn-colour, legs
brown. Length 5"5 ; wing 3T5 in. In autumn the bill is brownish,
the crimson feathers are concealed by wide grey margins, and the
under parts are more striated. The female is rather smaller and
duller in colour, with no crimson on the head and breast, and little
white on the wings, while both upper and under parts are much
streaked with dark brown. The young at first resemble the female.

FRINGlLLINili.

THE MEALY REDPOLL.

LiNOTA LiNARiA (Linnteus).

The logical separation of the various species or races of Redpolls
is one which presents unusual difficulties. Dr. R. B. Sharpe
considers (Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. xii. pp. 245-257) the typical Mealy
Redpoll, Linota linaria, as a main stem, if I may use the term, with
three subspecies, viz. : L. holboelli, rather larger and with a very
much longer bill, found " in Northern Europe from Scandinavia tg
Eastern Siberia,'"' and, as a wanderer, twice in Norfolk ; Z. rostrata,
" only distinguishable by the coarser striping of the under parts and
by the stouter and more obtuse bill," inhabiting Greenland and
North-eastern America ; and our smaller and ruddier Lesser Redpoll,
L. riifescens, of which more hereafter. L. exilipes, with greyer rump,
Dr. Sharpe considers to be a good species, with a range extending
from Northern Scandinavia across Siberia and throughout Northern
America ; while he puts down as a subspecies of L. exilipes the
rather larger Z. /ionie»ian?ii, of Eastern North America, Greenland,
Iceland, Jan Mayen and Spitsbergen, one example of which was
recorded by Hancock, under the name of Z. canescens, as having
been obtained near Whitburn, Durham, on April 24th 1855, and
another by Mr. Cordeaux from the Humber district (Zool. 1895,
p. 58). The whole question is incrusted by a voluminous literature,
in which hardly two authors agree as regards specific value ; but,

igo MEALY REDPOLL.

for the sake of convenience, I treat the Mealy Redpolls under one
heading, and take our small, dark. Lesser Redpoll separately.

The typical Mealy Redpoll is a common visitor to Shetland from
September onwards, while the line of its migration appears to be
principally along the east coast in Scotland and the north of
England, for the bird is rarer and of more uncertain occurrence on
the west side. South of Durham its visits become irregular ; in the
Eastern Counties it has occasionally been obtained in spring, and
exceptionally in summer ; and in some years large flocks have been
noticed down to the Channel, though in Devon and Cornwall it is
almost unknown. In Ireland it has been taken in Kildare and
Mayo ; while the Tearaght light has furnished several examples of
the subspecies Z. rostrata in various autumns, from 1889 to 1893.

In Europe and Asia the Mealy Redpoll nests rather farther north
than the limits of birch-growth, but southward, it may be doubted
if it reaches below 58° N. lat. ; for the bird found breeding in
the mountain-regions of Central Europe is, probably, our Lesser Red-
poll. The Mealy Redpoll has been obtained on Kolguev Island
(Pearson), and on migration it is irregularly abundant down to the
Alps, but rare in the south of France, Italy, (ireece and Southern
Russia. As already stated, one or two races breed in Arctic
America, and a large form in Greenland, Iceland and Spitsbergen.

The nest, neatly built of bents, lichens and shreds of bark, with
a lining of catkins, hair and feathers, is usually placed in the low
fork of a tree or a bush, and sometimes in a tuft of grass. The 5-6
eggs are greenish-blue, spotted with reddish-brown : measurements
•7 by '5 in. The young feed on insects and their larvre ; afterwards
on seeds, like the parents.

The adult male in spring has the lores black ; forehead and part of
the crown blood-red ; upper parts dark brown, mottled and streaked
with greyish-white, especially on the rump, which is tinged with
pink ; tail-feathers dark brown, with pale edges ; chin black ; sides
of neck and breast carmine ; lower parts dull white, streaked with
dark brown on the flanks ; bill horn-colour, yellowish at the base ;
legs dark brown. Length 5'i in. ; wing 2*9 in. The female is
smaller, darker on the upper parts, and more streaked on the lower ;
with less red on the head and none on the breast. The young have
the upper feathers margined with buff and have no red on the fore-
head, but are otherwise like the female. After the autumn moult
the new feathers have broad yellowish-grey margins, which, in the
male, conceal the carmine, and the general appearance is very pale ;
whence the name of ' Mealy,' and, perhaps, of ' Stone-Redpoll.'

FRINGILLINi^.

191

THE LESSER REDPOLL.

LiNOTA RUF^scENS (Vieillot).

The Lesser Redpoll, the smallest of our British Finches, may be
distinguished from the preceding by its size, and by its darker and
more rufous colouring. Throughout the greater portion of the year
it is generally distributed over the British Islands, and large numbers
are taken by bird-catchers from autumn to spring ; but in the
breeding-season it is rather local. Its distribution at that time in
Scotland appears to be somewhat dependent upon woods and
plantations, and is consequently irregular, extending to the Orkneys
and to the Inner Hebrides, but not to the Outer group ; though
in winter the bird is generally dispersed and partially migratory. In
Wales and England it nests, more or less commonly, in and north of
Brecon, Worcestershire, Shropshire, Leicestershire and Norfolk ;
locally in Suffolk, Northamptonshire and Cambridgeshire ; sparingly
in Gloucestershire and along the upper parts of the Thames valley ;
and more frequently than is generally supposed in the counties of
Middlesex, Surrey and Kent, even in the vicinity of London. In
Hants, Wilts, Dorset and Devon, it is a very local breeder, and in
the extreme south-west it is rare at any time ; while it has never
been obtained on migration from any of the light-ships on the east
coast of England. It nests commonly in many parts of Ireland,
and large flocks are sometimes seen in winter.

192 LESSER REDPOLL.

On the Continent the Lesser Redpoll is unknown to the north of
the Baltic, but it visits Heligoland (where a pair nested in 1872),
Western Germany, Holland, Belgium, and France down to the
Pyrenees. Bailly stated long ago that it bred in Savoy ; Mr. S. B.
Wilson says that he found it nesting on the Engstlen Alp (6,100
feet) as well as in other parts of Switzerland ; and Professor Giglioli
maintains that it breeds on the Italian side ; while even Dr.
Stejneger admits ('Auk' 1887, p. 144) that examples from the
Austrian Alps are practically identical with British specimens. There
are, however, some ornithologists who question the identification. In
severe w-inters our bird extends its migrations to the south of Spain.

In the southern half of England the nest is often built in April,
but nearly a month later in the north. The situation selected varies
a good deal ; in Norfolk, for instance, a small fruit-tree is often
chosen, while a good many pairs may be found breeding in low
alders and willows, down in the marshes ; again, small plantations
of conifers, shrubberies, and hazel are much frequented. Fine
twigs and grass stems, with a little moss and wool, are the
materials employed for the exterior of the nest, the inside being
beautifully lined with vegetable-down (principally from the catkins
of the willow), hair and feathers. The 4-6 eggs are pale blue,
spotted with reddish-brown : measurements "63 by '48 in. Two
broods are usually produced in the season, and unfledged young
have been found in the nest as late as September 14th. In autumn
the various family parties unite to form large flocks, and rove about
in search of food, which consists mainly of seeds. At all times of
the year the Lesser Redpoll is a tame and confiding bird, allowing
a near approach ; and it is also sociable, being frequently found in
the company of Siskins and other species. The usual note is a con-
tinuous twitter, but the love-song of the male is rather loud and clear.

The adult male in spring has the lores and throat black, forehead
and crown blood-red ; upper parts of a darker and warmer colour
than in the Mealy Redpoll — especially the pink-tinted rump, while
the bands on the wings are rufous-buff, not white ; breast carmine-
red ; plumage otherwise as in the Mealy Redpoll, and colour of soft
parts the same ; but the dimensions less, our bird measuring only
475 in., and wing 275 in. After the autumn moult the red tints
are generally less brilliant, owing to the pale edges of the new
feathers; but I have seen old males with plenty of crimson in
October. The female is smaller than the male, and has no red on
the rump or breast, but only on the forehead ; while the young bird
is even duller in colour, inasmuch as it has no red on the head.

FRINGILLIN.E.

193

THE TWITE.

LiNOTA flavir6stris (Linnceus).

The Twite, or Mountain-Linnet as it is often called, may be
distinguished from the Redpolls by its longer tail, more slender
appearance, and the absence of any crimson tint on the head or
breast. During the breeding-season it is an inhabitant of most of
our moorlands from the Midlands northward, and, although more
frequent in the hilly districts, it nests at the lower level of the
mosses in Lancashire and elsewhere ; it is, however, rather local,
and only a few pairs seem to breed in the Lake district. Li
Cumberland it has, for some unaccountable reason, decreased
during the last thirty years. On the mainland of Scotland the
" Hill-Lintie" or "Yellow-neb Lintie," as it is called, becomes more
abundant, especially where there is a sufficiency of long rank
heather ; while in the neighbourhood of the shore, on the long arms
of the sea so numerous on the west coast, as well as in the
Hebrides, Orkneys and Shetlands it is resident and numerous. In
Ireland it breeds commonly on the mountains, and especially on
the elevated coast, from Waterford in the south to Donegal in
the north. On the approach of cold weather the higher districts
are abandoned, and flocks, which gradually increase, descend to
the sea-shore and spread themselves over the country, large numbers
occurring on the Lincolnshire coast in the first half of October ;
but in the south and east of England their appearance is somewhat
irregular, while in Cornwall the species is, like the Lesser Redpoll,

Q

194 TWITE.

extremely rare, and it seems to be unknown in Pembrokeshire as
well as Merionethshire, in Wales.

On the Continent the Twite is found in summer among the
islands and along the coast of Norway up to about 70° N. lat., but
in Sweden it is scarce even in the sub-alpine districts, and it is
somewhat doubtful if it nests in Northern Russia. On migration it
visits Denmark and Northern Germany (sometimes passing in large
numbers over Heligoland), Holland, Belgium and France ; but it
seldom goes far south, and its occurrences in Spain, Italy and
Southern Russia, have been few and far between. In the east, how-
ever, from the Caucasus and Asia Minor to Tibet, it is represented
by L. b?-evirostris, which is little more than a paler form.

The nest is often placed in heather, or in low fruit and other
bushes ; sometimes in ivy, or among the grass growing on rocks
by the sea-shore, or again, beneath a strip of turf which has been
nearly reversed in ploughing or in road-making ; while on Rathlin
Island I found one on the ledge of a cliff, Soo feet high, when
seeking eggs of the Manx Shearwater. Fine roots for the outside,
with an ample lining of wool, a little hair and a few feathers, are the
materials employed ; the eggs, usually 3-4, but sometimes 6 in
number, being pale greenish-blue, blotched with reddish-brown, and
rather more inclined to streakiness than those of the Linnet :
measurements 7 by '5 in. Nidification commences about the
middle of May, and two broods are sometimes produced in the
season. The food consists largely of the seeds of charlock and
other weeds, but in the Shedands the bird is said to be somewhat
destructive to the newly-springing turnips and cabbages. Its call-
note is indicated by its monosyllabic name. The Twite is usually
more shy than the Lesser Redpoll.

The adult male in spring has the lores, cheeks and throat
reddish-buff; crown, nape and mantle hair-brown with paler edg-
ings ; wings dark brown, with whitish margins — very noticeable in
flight — to the greater coverts, inner primaries and some of the
secondaries ; rump rose-red ; tail-feathers brown, with whitish inner
edges to the three outer pairs ; breast and flanks bufifish-white
streaked with hair-brown; belly dull white; l)ill pale yellow; legs
dark brown. Length 5 in. ; wing 3 in. In winter the general
appearance is greyer, and the bill is less yellow. The female has
no carmine on the rump; the bar on the wing-coverts is buff; and
the bill is dusky-brown at the tip. The young are somewhat duller
in colour.

FRINGILLIN.'E.

195

X :x

THE BULLFINCH.

PVRRHULA EUROP.EA, Vicillot.

During the greater portion of the year the Bullfinch is a
frequenter of wooded districts, in which, unless the white rump and
—in the male — the bright colour of the breast should catch the
eye, the bird may often escape notice, and thus be considered rarer
than is really the case. In spring, however, it frequently attracts
the attention of the gardener by its visits to his fruit-trees, and
although the damage done to the young buds may sometimes be
over-estimated, it cannot be denied that there is apparent ground
for complaint. Throughout suitable localities in England and
Wales the Bullfinch is generally distributed, especially on dry,
sandy soils ; and, although rather more local in Scotland, it has of
late years spread to some of the Hebrides — especially to the south-
eastern part of Skye, but to the Orkneys and Shetlands it is a rare
visitor. In Ireland it is common, except in treeless districts, and in
the south is increasing.

In Northern and Eastern Europe and in Siberia, migrating south-
ward in winter, is found a large and brilliant race, which has been
separated by Brehm as P. major, and this has been freely imported
and has been taken in Yorkshire ; but our smaller bird inhabits

196 BULLFINCH.

the countries south of the Baltic and west of Central Russia,
as far as the northern portions of the Spanish Peninsula, while
in Italy it reaches Naples and Sicily; wandering occasionally
to several islands in the Mediterranean, and even to Algeria. In
the mountainous portions of St. Michael's, one of the Azores, is
found P. murinus, a large insular species, in which the sexes are
nearly alike in plumage, both of them being of a dull grey without
any white on the rump ; a remarkable development, as no connect-
ing link is known in the Canaries or in Madeira.

The unmistakable nest of the Bullfinch is a platform of fine twigs
of the birch, beech, fir &c., surmounted by fine roots and a little
hair woven into a shallow cup for the eggs. These, laid in the
early part of May, are 4-5 in number, of a clear greenish-blue,
speckled and streaked with purplish-grey and dark brownish-purple,
especially at the larger end : measurements 73 by -55 in. A white-
thorn hedge, or a fork near the extremity of a low branch in some
leafy tree or evergreen (yew and box being favourites), are among the
sites selected. The duties of incubation devolve upon the female. The
young are fed partly on insects and their larvK, and partly on seeds
softened by the parent ; but later in the year I have seen both old
and young birds feeding upon the berries of the rowan-tree, dog-
rose, hawthorn &c., while the seeds of such weeds as the dock,
thistle, ragweed, groundsel, chickweed and plantain, are largely con-
sumed. It is open to doubt whether the Bullfinch's destructiveness
to buds in spring may not originate in a search for concealed
insects, but in any case a charge of shot fired into the tender branches
of a fruit-tree does far more damage than the depredations of the
bird. The call-note is a soft ivheoii.

The adult male has the forehead, lores, throat, and head above
the eyes, glossy blue-black ; mantle smoke-grey ; larger wing-coverts
black, tipped with white, which forms a conspicuous bar: quills dark
ash-colour, with narrow whitish edges to the emarginate portions of
the 2nd, 3rd, 4th and 5th ; secondaries glossy blue-black ; rump
pure white ; tail glossy blue-black ; cheeks and under parts bright
brick-red ; vent white ; bill black ; legs and feet dark brown.
Length 6 in. ; wing 3-25 in. The female is of a browner grey on
the upper parts, and the under parts are vinous-brown. The young
differ from the female in having no black on the head, and the bar
on the wing is butfish-white. An entirely black nestling, found with
three other young birds of the ordinary colour, attained after
moulting the plumage of the female.

FRINGILLIN.5.

197

THE SCARLET GROSBEAK.

Pyrrhula erythrina (Pallas).

The Scarlet Grosbeak is an Eastern species which has noticeably
extended its range in a westerly direction of late years, and on two
occasions has been known to stray to England. The first instance
on record was that of a female, captured on the downs near Brighton
in September 1S69, which subsequently lived until June 1876 in the
aviary of Mr. T. J. Monk of Lewes, in whose collection it is now
preserved. On October 5th 1870, another female, in the collection
of the late Mr. F. Bond, was taken near Caen Wood, Hampstead.
Other examples have probably occurred from time to time, and have
been overlooked ; for young birds or females of this species might
easily be mistaken for Greenfinches.

As a straggler, the Scarlet Grosbeak has visited Finmark, South
Sweden, Sylt, Schleswig, Heligoland, Holland, Belgium, France
(especially Provence), the south of Spain (whence I possess a speci-
men, killed on November 15th 1874, and have seen another),
Austria, Italy and IVLilta. In North eastern Germany it is not un-
common on migration, and on one occasion it has been known to
nest in Silesia ; but the western limits of its usual breeding-range
appear to be Finland, the Baltic Provinces of Russia, East Prussia
and Poland. Eastward, it nests throughout the marshy forests of

I go SCARLET GROSBEAK.

Northern Siberia to Kamchatka ; further south, in the elevated regions
of the Caucasus, Asia }vlinor, Turkestan, the Himalayas, and Central
Asia to Northern China. In winter it is very common throughout
the greater portion of the Indian region. It is rather late in return-
ing to its northern breeding-quarters in Europe, and near Warsaw it
does not arrive until about the middle of !May ; but in the drier
climate of Siberia it is earlier. It leaves towards the end of August
or early in September.

The nest, which is rather deep, and slenderly constructed of dry
grass-stalks with a lining of horsehair, is placed in the fork of a small
bush, generally in the neighbourhood of water. The eggs, usually
5 in number, are laid about the middle of June, and of a deeper
greenish-blue than those of the Bullfinch, sparsely marked with
reddish-brown and almost black spots : measurements 75 by "57 in.
The food consists of seeds, grain and berries, and Col. E. A. Butler
says that the bird is partial to the ^yatery nectar in the flower of the
Indian coral-tree, while Jerdon observed it eating bamboo-seeds ; the
young are probably fed on insects. The song, generally uttered
from the top of a bush or low tree, is a loud clear whistle, tu-ivhif,
tu-tii-i, several times repeated in rapid succession, whence the Hindoo
name ' Tuti.'

The adult male has the top of the head glossy carmine-red ;
mantle warm brown with a reddish tinge ; quills and tail dark brown,
with paler huffish margins ; rump and upper tail-coverts carmine-red ;
chin and throat rich rose-red ; breast rose-pink, fading to brownish
on the flanks ; bill yellowish-brown ; legs reddish-brown. Length
5"5 in. ; wing 3'25 in. The female has no red tints, the general
colour of the upper parts being dull striated olive-brown, but the wing-
coverts and inner secondaries are much more conspicuously edged
with dirty white than in the male ; the lower parts are dull white
with a huffish tinge on the throat and breast, and numerous hair-
brown streaks from the latter to the flanks ; a brown stripe descends
from either corner of the lower mandible. The young are at
first rather greyer in tint than the female, but cock birds soon begin
to show a distincdy yellowish tinge on the ear-coverts, rump, and the
outer margins of the quills and tail-feathers. It seems probable that
the rosy hue is not assumed until after the second moult.

This species has been separated by some modern authors from
Pyrrhula, under the generic name Ca)-podacHS of Kaup ; the dis-
tinctions consisting mainly in the shape of the bill and in the smaller
amount of covering; to the nostrils.

FRINGILLIN.B.

199

THE PINE-GROSBEAK.

PvRRHULA ENUCLEATOR (Linnaeus).

The Pine Grosbeak is at the utmost a very rare visitor to the
British Islands, and although about forty so called ' occurrences '
are on record, critical examination by Mr. J. H. Gurney (Zool.
1877, PP- 242-250 and 1890 pp. 125-129), and Professor Newton
(4th Ed. Yarrell's B. B.), has disposed of many as unworthy of belief,
although the identification of the specimens still existing is correct.
Live birds have often been brought to England, and, according to
Dr. A. G. Butler, few species are more likely to be turned out of
aviaries, on account of their voracity and bad habits ; while dead
specimens have frequently been sent over frozen, a notable consign-
ment being in March 18S9. Where so much deception is known to
have been practised, suspicion is inevitable, and may, perhaps, be
carried too far. Mr. J. Whitaker has a male in rosy plumage shot
on October 30th 1890, in Nottinghamshire (Zool. 1890, p. 464);
while a female, recorded by Mr. J. H. Gurney (Zool. 1893, p. 150),
was captured alive near Yarmouth on September 3rd 1892, moulted
in October, and was alive up to January 24th 1893. In Heligoland
an adult male was obtained on October 20th 1890.

200 PINE-OROSBEAK.

To Denmark the Pine-Grosbeak is only a rare winter-visitor, and
its occurrences, even in the suitable conifer woods of North-eastern
Germany, Silesia, and Poland, are irregular. Accepting the records
without criticism, the bird has strayed at long intervals to Holland,
Belgium, France, Switzerland, and Southern Germany ; while, prob-
ably following the line of the mountain pine-woods, a solitary example
appears to have crossed the Alps to the Trentino in the winter of
1876. Its home is principally in the conifer region near the Arctic
circle ; but sometimes, as at Pulmak in Lapland, it extends to the
birch woods as far as 70° N. lat. ; while eastward, the bird is plenti-
ful in Northern Russia, across Siberia to Kamchatka, and as far south
as Lake Baikal ; as a straggler it has also been obtained in the Kuril
islands, to the north of Japan. In America it occurs throughout
the Arctic and sub-Arctic forests, migrating southward in winter to
California, Colorado and the northern portions of the Eastern States.

For the first knowledge of the nesting and eggs of the Pine-
Grosbeak, we are indebted — as in many other cases — to the
researches of the late John Wolley, who discovered the breeding-
haunts of this bird in Lapland. The nest, similar to that of the
Bullfinch, consists externally of interlaced birch-twigs, with a lining
of fine stiff grass, and is usually placed on the horizontal branches of
a fir or a birch-tree, near the bole. The 4 eggs are deep greenish-
blue, spotted with brownish-purple : measurements i in. by 72 in.
The food consists partly of insects, but mainly of buds, birch-catkins,
seeds and various berries. The song has been described as loud and
flute-like ; the flight is undulating.

The adult male has the feathers of the head, back and rump
suffused with rich rose-red, upon a ground-colour of slate-grey ;
wings ash-brown, with broad pinkish-white tips to both sets of wing-
coverts, and white margins to the secondaries ; tail dusky-brown ;
under parts rose-red, turning to grey on the flanks and vent ; bill
dark brown, paler at the base of the lower mandible ; legs blackish-
brown. Length 8'25 in. ; wing 4*25 in. In the female the rose tint
is replaced by a more or less golden-yellow, except on the back, which
is slate-grey. The young have a greyish-green tinge. The late Mr.
A. C. Chapman found a pair of birds breeding in this greyish-green
plumage, the male having rather more of the yellow colour than the
female ; another nest belonged to a couple of greyish-green birds ;
while at a third nest a male in full rosy plumage was paired with an
ash-grey female.

Many authors have accepted the genus Piiiicola of A^ieillot for this
species.

FRIN'GILLIN.E.

THE CROSSBILL.

LoxiA CURVIROSTRA, Linnceus.

In England the Crossbill is generally noticed from autumn to
spring, in family parties which sometimes unite to form flocks ; but
numerous instances are known in which this essentially nomadic
species has bred among conifers, e\"en in the southern and eastern
counties, although such situations as its habits require are less
frequent there than in the north. From the Lake district upward
it nests in many localities, chiefly in the old pine-forests of Scotland;
but it seldom strays to the Outer Hebrides, and is an uncertain
visitor to the Orkneys, though of regular occurrence in the Shetlands.
In Ireland it has been found breeding in many counties, owing to
the increase of fir plantations of late years. Throughout the British
Islands it occurs irregularly on migration, from July onward.

R

202 CROSSBILL.

The Crossbill nests throughout the pine-forests of Europe, from
Lapland to Spain, the Balearic Islands, and Greece, as well as in the
mountains of Africa (the southern residents having noticeably weaker
bills than northern examples) ; and it also frequents the conifer
growths of Siberia as far as Kamchatka, wintering in North China.
The pine-woods of Scandinavia and Northern Russia are simul-
taneously inhabited by a large stout-billed race, formerly distinguished
as the Parrot-Crossbill, Loxia pityopsittacus, but now esteemed by
modern authorities as merely one of several forms which Dr. Sharpe
(Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. xii. p. 439) " does not consider to be worthy
of even subspecific rank." This extreme phase merely differs from
the type in its tendency to larger size, and in the fact that its food
consists largely of the seeds of the Scotch fir, whereas the smaller
and commoner form also feeds on the spruce, larch, stone-pine &c.
The large-billed birds are occasionally obtained in our islands and
in Central Europe, though they do not migrate far south. Forms
slightly smaller than the ordinary Crossbill are found in the
Himalayas and Tibet, Japan, and in North America, but the high-
lands of Mexico produce a rather larger race.

The nest, frequently built in February or March, is generally
placed on the horizontal branch of a fir, often close to the stem, and
is formed of twigs, surmounted by a cup-shaped structure of dry
grass, moss, wool and lichen, with a lining of similar but softer
materials. The eggs, usually 4, and rarely 5 in number, are greyish-
white, sparsely spotted with several shades of reddish-brown, like
those of the Greenfinch, but larger : measurements "9 by '66 in. ;
those of the Parrot-Crossbill hardly exceeding these dimensions. In
summer both young and old birds eat caterpillars and the larvae of
insects, but later their food is obtained from larch and fir cones,
while rowan and other berries, apple-pips and buds are also
consumed. The note is a gip, gip, gip, chi, chi.

The adult male has most of the upper and under parts dull
crimson, which is brightest on the rump (younger birds are orange-
yellow) ; wings brown, with a pale bar along the edges of the
coverts ; tail brown ; bill, legs and feet dark brown. Average
length 6 '5 in. ; wing 3 "8 in. In the female the red is represented
by greenish-orange, and her plumage is more striated, especially
before maturity. The young bird is greenish-grey, with a little
yellow on the rump, and also on the gorget in the cock ; under parts
much striated ; in the nestling stage the general colour is ash-brown,
and at three weeks old the bill is still straight, the lower mandible
shutting within the upper.

FRINGILLIN.t.

THE TWO-BARRED CROSSBILL.

LoxiA BiFASCiATA (C. L. Brchm).

This species — sometimes called the European White-winged
Crossbill, to distinguish it from the American form — inhabits the
coniferous forests of Northern Russia and Siberia as far as Kam-
chatka and the Pacific ; wandering in autumn and winter to South
Sweden, Denmark, Heligoland, North Germany, Holland, Belgium,
the north of France, Switzerland, North Italy, Austria and Poland.
In our islands the first recorded specimen was obtained near Belfast,
Ireland, on May nth 1802, and in July or August 1868, a s&cond
was obtained in co. Dublin. A few years prior to 1843 one was
killed in Cornwall ; between November ist 1845 and March 25th
1846 eleven were shot in the neighbourhood of Brampton in
Cumberland; in May 1846 two or three were killed from a flock
near Bury St. Edmund's, Suffolk ; and about the same time the late
H. Doubleday shot a bird at Epping. Others seem to have been
observed from time to time in various parts of the United Kingdom,
and in the autumn of 1889 another invasion took place, many birds
being observed from Yorkshire to Surrey. On June i8th 1894 an
adult male was shot]at North Ronaldshay, Orkneys, while in February
1895 there were occurrences in Somerset and in co. Fermanagh.

::04 TWO-BARRED CROSSBILL,

The forests of America, from Alaska to Labrador, are inhabited
by a bird known as the White-winged Crossbill, Loxia leucoptera,
which Dr. Sharpe considers to be only entitled to subspecific
distinction ; and after examining many specimens, including those
in the British Museum, I agree with him that the only difference of
any moment between the European and American forms consists in
the darker scapulars of the latter ; to which I may add that the
red in the male has a pinker tint, and the bill in both sexes is
weaker. A hen, ascribed to the American form, in the Strickland
Collection at Cambridge, was killed near Worcester in 1838 ; a red
male was picked up dead at Exmouth on September 17th 1845 ;
and a female, which lived in the late Mr. Stevenson's aviary at
Norwich till December 1874, was stated by the dealer of whom it
was purchased by Mr. J. H. Gurney to have been captured — it was
not said where — on the rigging of the vessel " Beecher Stowe," which
arrived at Great Yarmouth in October 1870. Even from Greenland
only five occurrences are on record during nearly sixty years, and
none from Iceland or the Faeroes. As it is notorious that American
White-winged Crossbills, captured at sea comparatively near their
own coast, have been brought to the British Islands and have then
escaped or been liberated, I do not consider that a claim has been
made out to a place in the British list.

A nest of the Two-barred Crossbill sent to Mr. Dresser, with the
parent birds, from the Archangel district, is described as rather
smaller and slighter than that of the Common Crossbill, while the
eggs are somewhat darker in colour and less in size. In food and
habits this bird resembles its congener, but its song being of a
superior quality, it is a greater favourite as a cage-bird.

Adult male : head, neck, mantle and rump carmine-red, slightly
mottled with black ; wings black, with white tips to the inner
secondaries, and broad pinkish-white edges to the greater and
median wing-coverts ; tail-feathers brownish-black, narrowly edged
with reddish-white ; under parts carmine red, which fades into
white on the belly ; bill horn-colour, lighter on the lower mandible ;
legs dull brown. Length 6-25 in. ; wing 37 in. In less mature
birds the pink tinge on the wing-bands is wanting, and the flanks are
striated. Female : upper parts greenish-grey, with a yellow tint, and
dusky-brown streaks ; rump pale yellow ; under parts greyish-yellow,
paler on the throat and abdomen, and streaked with dusky-brown
Young bird in August : much striated on a greyish ground, with
hardly any tinge of yellow ; white upper wing-bar very narrow ;
quills and tail-feathers distinctly margined with greenish-white.

EMBERIZIN.li:.

BLACK-HEADED BUNTING.

Emberiza melanocephala, Scopoli.

The Black-headed Bunting — not to be confounded with our com-
mon Reed-Bunting, which is sometimes called by this name — is an
inhabitant of the south-eastern portions of Europe ; but from time to
time it wanders westward, and, owing to the increased attention now
paid to ornithology, its presence has been detected on four occasions
in Great Britain. The first example, an adult female, identified by
the late Mr. Gould and now in the collection of Mr. T. J. Monk of
Lewes, was shot near Brighton while following a flock of Yellow
Buntings, about November 3rd 1S68. The Rev. J. R. Ash worth has
recorded (Zool. 1886, p. 73) the acquisition of an identified speci-
men in June or July 1884, stated to have been shot in Nottingham-
shire. A third example, said by the dealer from whom it was
purchased to have been captured alive near Dunfermline about
November 5th 1886, was recognized by the Rev. H. A. Macpherson
at the Bird Show of February 15th 1887, held at the Crystal Palace
(Zool. 1887, p. 193), where I saw it again in 1888, when in nearly
adult male plumage. Mr. W. R. Butterfield has recorded (Zool.
1897, p. 273) the occurrence of an adult female, picked up near
Bexhill, Sussex, on November 3rd 1 894. The fact that the females
and young are dull-coloured birds, and therefore not likely to be
imported, favours the assumption that these histories are substantially
correct.

On Heligoland the Black-headed Bunting has occurred about

2o6 BLACK-HEADED BUNTING.

fifteen times, in May and June, and once in August ; but I do not
find it recorded from Northern Germany, though it sometimes visits
Austria. It has also occurred near Marseilles, and along the Riviera
to Liguria ; while in Verona, as well as down the east side of Italy,
it is not uncommon and breeds occasionally, as it does abundantly
in Dalmatia on the further side of the Adriatic. To Sicily and Malta
it is only a rare visitor, and it does not seem to cross to Africa. In
Greece, Turkey, the Danubian Provinces, Southern Russia, Asia
Minor, Palestine and Northern Persia it is common from the end of
April to autumn, after which it migrates to its winter-quarters in
North-western and Central India, where immense flocks are found
during the cold season.

The Black-headed Bunting seldom ascends the mountains to any
great elevation, preferring the flat ground planted with vines, olive-
trees, pomegranates <S:c., near the sea-shore. The nest is generally
in climbing plants, rose-bushes or brambles, and, in Turkey, often
among peas, which are allowed by the gardeners to stand until the
time that the young are fledged. It is rather loosely constructed of
the stalks of small flowering plants, with a lining of dry grass, roots
and hair. The eggs — difi'erent in appearance to those of any other
European Bunting — are pale greenish blue, speckled with ash-brown,
and are 4-6 in number : measurements "85 by 7 in. In summer
both young and old feed on grasshoppers and other insects, and on
fruit ; but in India, during autumn and winter, considerable havoc
is made in fields of grain. Canon Tristram says that this bird has
nothing of the Bunting in its habits or character, whereas Seebohm
asserts that in its habits and song it is a typical Bunting. The call-
note of the male is a vibrating monotonous chiririri.

The adult male has the head and ear-coverts black ; back and
rump orange-brown ; wings hair-brown, with dull whitish margins to
the coverts and secondaries ; tail-feathers hair-brown, with a narrow
white streak to the inner webs of the outer pair ; under parts and
sides of the neck bright gamboge-yellow ; bill greyish horn-colour ;
legs and feet pale brown. Length 675; wing 37 in. After the
autumn moult the bright tints, although perceptible at the bases of
the feathers, are obscured by the new dull brown edges. The female
is sandy-brown on the upper parts, with darker striations on the head
and back, and buffish-white margins to the wing-coverts and quills ;
rump slightly tinged with yellow ; tail-feathers hair-brown with paler
margins ; throat and belly dull white ; breast and flanks sandy-buff
with narrow brown streaks ; under tail-coverts pale yellow. The
young resemble the female.

EMBERIZIN.^..

:o7

C"^ K' ^ K

THE CORN-BUNTING.

Emberiza miliaria, Linnaeus.

This species is frequently called the Bunting-Lark, and by many
authors it has been styled the Common Bunting ; but the use of the
latter name is hardly to be encouraged, as the bird, although widely
distributed throughout the British Islands, is decidedly local and
not nearly so common as the Yellow Bunting. It is principally to
be found where grain of some kind is grown, and when arable land
is turned into grazing-ground the Corn-Bunting becomes scarce, or
even disappears. Low lands and the vicinity of the sea are the
districts most affected in Scotland and its islands, where it ranges as
far west as St. Kilda ; while northward it is found breeding freely on
the Shetlands, even on Foula, the remotest. In Ireland it is
common in suitable districts, but local In autumn our home-bred
birds become gregarious, and to a certain extent migrants ; at the
same time considerable accessions are made to their numbers,
especially on our east coasts, by visitors from the Continent.

In Scandinavia the Corn-Bunting is only known in the extreme
south ; but from Denmark and the hither side of the Baltic it is
generally distributed over the open portions of Europe in summer,
while partially migratory in winter from the northern and central
districts. In the Spanish Peninsula and other grain-producing coun-
tries of the south, as well as in North Africa and the Canaries, it is
resident and extremely numerous ; it is also found in Palestine, Asia
Minor, Persia and Western Turkestan ; and in winter as far south as

20"8 CORN-BUNTING.

Xubia, Arabia Petrsa, Bushire and Sind. In forest and mountain
regions it is practically unknown.

The Corn-Bunting is a late breeder, and in this country it is
usually futile to search for its eggs before the latter part of May.
The nest may often be found in rough herbage, or at the foot of a
low shrub, but is generally placed well towards the middle of a field
of clover, grass, or peas, or under a clod among young corn ; while
some umbelliferous plant, sufficiently strong to afford a perch for
the bird, will probably be at no great distance from it. Straw, a
little moss, roots and dry grass, with hair for a lining, are the
materials employed to form the somewhat loose structure ; the eggs,
4-5 in number, are of a dull purplish-white, or sometimes ochreous,
blotched and streaked with dark purple-brown : measurements
•98 in. by "7 in. The hen sits closely, whilst the male utters
his harsh and monotonous iic-iic-teese on a perch, which varies in
elevation from the top of some tall tree or a hedgerow to a clod in
the fallows. The flight is heavy and laboured, the legs of the bird
hanging down at first, as if broken. The young are fed on insects ;
the adults have been seen to eat cockchafers, and they undoubtedly
devour numbers of small beetles ; but in autumn and winter grain
is largely consumed, and the birds become so fat that, in the south
of Europe, they are much in request for the table. Many are taken
in nets, together with Larks, owing to their habit of roosting on the
ground, and Booth says that near Shoreham numbers resort in the
evening to the beds of marine weeds which grow on the mud-flats
above high-water mark.

The adult male has the lores, and a line above and behind the eye
buffish-white ; ear-patches, head, neck, mantle and upper tail coverts
pale hair-brown, .streaked with darker brown down the middle of each
feather ; wing-coverts dark brown with buff margins ; quills dusky-
brown ; tail-feathers rather lighter brown with pale edges ; throat
buffish-white, with brown spots at the side which form a streak ;
remaining under parts buffish-white, freely spotted on the breast and
streaked on the flanks with brown ; bill yellowish-brown, with a dark
stripe along the ridge of the upper mandible ; legs pale flesh-colour.
Length 7 in. ; wing 3 '6 in. The sexes are alike in plumage. The
young bird is darker, with broad fulvous margins to the wing-coverts
and secondaries, and the under parts are tinged with buff. Some
Continental specimens — especially those from the east— are very pale
in colour. Albinistic varieties are not uncommon.

EMBERIZIN.E.

209

^^s- *\

/''J^'w^i

THE YELLOW BUNTING.

Emberiza citrixella, Linnaeus.

The Yellow Bunting is familiarly known as the Yellow Hammer ;
the latter portion of the name having, no doubt, a common origin with
' Ammer,' the modern German word for a Bunting ; but our form of
spelling has now been in print for upwards of two centuries, and
few, even among purists, will risk the imputation of a solecism by
omitting the aspirate. The species is for the most part common
and resident throughout the British Islands ; it even nests in the
Outer Hebrides and the Orkneys, but as yet is not known to do so
in the Shetlands, although a winter-visitor to that group. As regards
Ireland Mr. Barrington remarks that, considering its abundance, the
birds which strike against the lighthouses are comparatively few in
number.

In Norway the Yellow Bunting is found breeding up to about
70^ N. lat., but eastward, its northern summer range gradually
declines to 64° on the Ob, in Siberia, and even less in the valley of
the Yenesei, where the bird is not known eastward of Krasnoiarsk ;
while to the south-westward, it occurs in Turkestan, Persia and
Asia Minor. In temperate Europe this species is generally dis-
tributed, and, except in the northern districts, is resident ; but its
breeding-range does not appear to extend southward of the Pyrenees
and the Cantabrian Mountains, nor the northern portions of Italy ;
while, even in winter, the bird is almost unknown in the islands of
the Mediterranean, Southern Italy, and the south-west of Spain,

s

2ro YELLOW BUXTIXG.

though said to occur in the Canaries. In Palestine, according to
Canon Tristram, its place is taken by a very distinct species, E. cassia,
which occasionally wanders to Heligoland ; where, by the way, the
Yellow Bunting is common on migration in spring and autumn.

The nest, constructed of dry grasses and a little moss, with a
lining of finer material and hair, is usually placed on or near the
ground, in the side of a bank, or among tangled herbage ; but
often it is built in a bush, and in plantations of young spruces ;
while exceptionally at a height of seven feet. The well-known
eggs, 4-5 in number, are subject to considerable variation in
shade of colour, but as a rule they are purplish-white, streaked,
spotted and clouded with reddish-purple, and scrawled with long
hair-like markings, from which, in some parts, the bird has acquired
the name of "Writing Lark": measurements "85 by -6t, in. Incu-
bation, in which the male takes part, lasts fourteen days, and at least
two broods are produced in the year ; the first eggs being laid about
the middle of April, while nestlings are not uncommon in Septem-
ber. The Cuckoo not infrequently deposits its egg in the nest of this
species. The familiar song, often rendered as ' Little-bit-of-bread-
and no cheese,' may be heard from morning till night during the
hottest weather, and even on bright days in winter. In summer
both young and old feed largely on insects ; in autumn they are
partial to blackberries and other wild fruits ; while seeds and grain
form their principal sustenance in winter, at which season large flocks
frequent stubble-fields and even farm-yards. During severe weather
the late Mr. Booth observed a flock feeding on the carcase of a horse
hung up at some kennels, in Perthshire. In many places this pretty
Bunting has been displaced by the House-Sparrow.

The adult male has the throat and head lemon-yellow, streaked
with dusky-brown, especially above and behind each eye ; feathers
of the mantle, coverts, and secondaries reddish-brown with blackish
central stripes ; quills dusky-brown with narrow yellowish margins ;
rump and tail-coverts chestnut ; tail-feathers chiefly dark brown, with
elongated white patches on the lower portions of the two outer pairs :
under parts lemon-yellow, with dusky chestnut streaks on the breast
and flanks ; bill bluish : legs light brown. Length 6-5 in. ; wing
3 "3 5 in. In autumn the colours are duller, owing to the pale
margins of the new feathers. The female is less yellow and more
streaked with brown, while the chestnut tints are nearly absent.
The young are much streaked on the under parts, and show no
vellow until after their first moult.

EMBERIZIX.t.

THE CIRL BUNTING.

Emberiza cirlus, Linnaius.

The Cirl Bunting is a resident in the south of England, and was
added to the British list by Montagu, who found it breeding in Devon-
shire ; while subsequent observations have considerably extended
our acquaintance with its range. Upon this point a valuable paper by
Mr. Aplin (Zool. 1892, pp. 121-128 and pp. 174-181) should be
consulted for details. The bird is known to be fairly common —
though very local — from Cornwall to Kent, and upon the slopes of
the valleys of the Thames and its tributaries as far as Gloucester-
shire; also on the chalk-hills of Hertfordshire and Bedfordshire,
especially in the neighbourhood of Tring ; it has also been found
breeding in Warwickshire, Worcestershire, Herefordshire and Salop.
In Wales it has decidedly spread of late, and is known to have nested
in Brecon, Glamorgan, Cardigan, and Denbighshire, while it has
occurred in other parts of the Principality. In East Anglia it is
rare, only five examples being recorded for Norfolk ; in North-
amptonshire and the Midland counties it is of accidental occurrence,
and to Yorkshire it is a rare visitor; while in Durham, Northumber-
land and Cumberland it is unknown, though it has strayed to Lan-
cashire. In Scotland, at long intervals, three stragglers have been
taken : one near Edinburgh, one in x'Vberdeenshire, and one in Rox-
burghshire. In Ireland no authenticated example has been obtained.

s 2

212 CIRL BUNTING.

The Cirl Bunting has only twice been obtained (in spring) on
Hehgoland, and is of rare occurrence in Holland and Belgium. In
summer it is found from France on the west to Bohemia on the
east ; while southward it is resident from the Spanish Peninsula to
Greece, Southern Russia, Turkey, Asia Minor, and the islands of the
Mediterranean. The late Lord Lilford found it breeding up to
4,000 ft. in the mountains of Algeria, and in winter it is partially
migratory from the north as far as the south of its range.

The nest, similar to that of the Yellow Bunting, but often with
rather more moss, is placed in a bank among the stems of a
hazel or other bush, though sometimes in furze or juniper at a little
distance from the ground. The eggs, 4-5 in number, are purplish-
grey with almost black markings, bolder, as a rule, than on those of
the preceding species and with fewer hair-lines : measurements "85
by "63 in. The first clutch is laid in May, the second in July ; and
on the chalk-hills of Surrey, where the bird is not uncommon, I
have found that the Cuckoo is rather partial to its nest. The young
are fed chiefly on moths, grasshoppers, and other insects ; but later,
grass seeds and grain are eaten, while in the south of France,
during snowy weather, I have seen small flocks feeding, along with
Sparrows and other Finches, on the refuse in the streets. Although
unobtrusive, my experience is that the Cirl Bunting is anything but
a shy bird ; on the contrary it will at all seasons allow a very near
approach and close inspection, while if disturbed it does not fly
far. The note is like that of the Yellow Bunting, but without the
" no cheese,'"' and is nearly expressed by the French name for the
bird, " zizi." In the bright climate of the south the song may be
heard throughout the greater part of the year, except when the
bird is moulting.

The adult male has a lemon-yellow streak from the forehead over
each eye ; lores and ear-coverts black ; crown and nape olive
streaked with black ; upper wing-coverts greenish-grey ; mantle and
secondaries darker chestnut-brown and the rump decidedly less
rufous than in the Ye'low Bunting ; quills and tail-feathers about
the same as in that species ; throat black, followed by a pale sulphur-
coloured collar : below this a broad olive grey band, succeeded by
chestnut-brown stripes which run down the flanks ; belly sulphur-
yellow ; bill dark horn above, bluish below : legs yellowish. Length
6'5 in. ; wing 3'25 in. The female has the throat pale buff, no
yellow on the crown, and hardly any on the breast or under parts,
which are streaked with dark brown ; upper parts less rufous than in
the male. The voung are rather duller than the female.

EMBERIZIX.E.

/// // 1 1

THE ORTOLAN.

Emberiza hortulana, Linnaaus.

This Bunting was first described as a visitor to England from a
bird taken alive in Marylebone Fields, a little before 1776, and this
is now in the Museum of Newcastle-on-Tyne, as well as a specimen
caught on board a collier off the Yorkshire coast in May 1822.
In November 1827, a male was killed near Manchester. In Sussex
four or five examples have been taken in spring and autumn since
1841 ; and an immature bird was killed in the Scilly Islands early
in October 1851. Several have been captured near London since
1837, and from that time onwards such increasingly large numbers
of live Ortolans have been annually imported from the Continent
that occurrences in the home-counties are open to suspicion, as
escapes are notorious. One was killed on Lowestoft Denes in May
1859; an immature bird was shot from among some Linnets, at
Cley, Norfolk, on September 12th 1884, another on September 5th
1889, and a third on September 15th 1892; while at Easington,
Yorkshire, one was obtained on October nth 1889. In Scotland
two examples were obtained in November 1863 near Aberdeen,
while two males were shot on the Isle of May, on May 2nd and 5th

214 ORTOLAN.

1885. A. G. More states that in the Museum of Science and Art
at Dubhn there is a specimen said to have been taken in co. Clare
previous to May 1852.

The Ortolan visits Heligoland in large numbers on the spring as
well as the autumn passage, and is found in summer as far north as
the Arctic circle in Scandinavia ; but eastward, its northward range
gradually recedes to about lat. 57° in Russia. South of the Baltic the
bird is irregularly distributed throughout Europe, and, though local,
it is fairly common at no greater distance from this country than
some districts in the north of France, Flanders, Dutch Brabant Szc.
It is an eminently migratory species. Even in the south of Europe
(where it is rather partial to low bushes on stony hill-sides) it is only
a summer-visitor ; in Northern Africa, where it breeds in compara-
tively small numbers, it goes as far southwards as Abyssinia for the
winter; while in Palestine, Asia Minor, Persia, Turkestan, and
Siberia as far as the valley of the Irtish, it only passes the summer,
occasionally visiting the north-west of India. I have known the
Ortolan to arrive on the French side of the Pyrenees as early as
March 23rd; the return begins in August.

The nest, built in the latter half of May, of dry grass and roots
with a lining of fine bents and hair, is always on the ground, and
generally in open fields, though sometimes among coarse herbage
or under small bushes. The eggs, 4-6 in number, are pale purplish-
grey, distinctly spotted and very little scrawled with purple or black :
measurements 78 by '62 in. The natural food consists of beetles
and other insects as much as seeds, but in confinement the bird
feeds greedily upon oats and millet, until it attains the fatness which
is proverbial. The note, which is rather metallic, may be syllabled
as tsee-ah, isee-ah, tsee-ah, tyiir.

The adult male has the crown and nape greenish-grey ; cheeks
dusky ; feathers of the back, wing coverts and secondaries fulvous-
brown, with dark central stripes ; rump reddish-brown ; tail-
feathers brown, with oblong patches of white on the three outer
pairs ; throat sulphur-yellow, with a dusky streak from the gape
downwards on each side ; pectoral band olive-grey ; lower breast,
belly and under tail-coverts warm chestnut ; bill dull red ; legs
brownish-orange. Length 6'25 in. ; wing yTy in. Males in their
first spring have the rump dull striated brown ; no white on the third
inner pair of tail-feathers ; paler under parts. The female has
the head greener and more streaked ; upper parts duller; gorget
yellowish-buff streaked with brown ; under parts yellowish-buff.

EMBERIZIN^.

■^5

THE SIBERIAN MEADOW-BUNTING.

Emberiza cioiDES, Brandt.

In 'The Ibis' 1889, pp. 293, 294, Canon Tristram stated that
Mr. R. W. Chase, of Birmingham, had lately obtained a specimen
of this species obtained at Flamborough, Yorkshire. It was said to
have been taken by a fisherman named William Gibbon, in November
1886, and was mounted from the flesh by Mr. Matthew Bailey, the
well-known bird- preserver at Flamborough (Yorkshire ' Naturalist '
1889, p. 356). I have lately had an interview with Mr. Bailey,
and the history of the specimen appears to be quite satisfactory.

The Siberian Meadow-Bunting has not yet been obtained on
Heligoland, nor in any part of the Continent. Taczanowski says
that it is widely distributed in Turkestan, Western and Eastern
Siberia, Mongolia, Manchuria, Corea, and over a great part of China.
It must be mentioned, however, that the bird which breeds at
Kiukiang on the Yangtse (see Styan, 'Ibis' 1891, p. 354) is dis-
tinguished by some ornithologists as E. castaneiceps, and Seebohm
('Ibis' 1889, p. 296) expressed an opinion that the Flamborough
specimen approached the Chinese rather than the typical Siberian
form. I have examined many examples in the Natural History
Museum, and, without expressing an opinion as to the very fine
distinctions, I treat the two forms as constituting one species in the
present article.

Mr. Kibort, who collected for Seebohm, obtained this Bunting in

2l6 SIBERIAN MEADOW-BUNTING.

summer and autumn at Krasnoiarsk, in lat. 56° N. on the Yenesei,
and accounts of its breeding in Southern Baikalia, Dai.iria, and Mon-
goha are furnished by Godlewski, Dybowski, and Prjevalski. The
nest, built in the second half of May, of dry bents with a lining of
hair and finer materials, is placed at the foot of a bush — frequently
a wild apricot — often on a ledge of some precipice or steep hill-
side. The eggs, usually 4 and seldom 5 in number, are white,
with a violet tinge, spotted and scrawled with dark brown or black :
measurements about "86 by '62 in. The song of the male is said to
be pleasant, though interrupted, like that of most Buntings.

The adult male has the lores black ; crown and nape chest-
nut-brown ; a whitish stripe above and behind each eye ; cheeks
rather deeper in colour than the crown ; from the gape to the cheek
passes a dull white stripe, and below this a broad black moustache-like
streak ; chin and throat white, merging into grey on the sides of the
neck ; across the breast a deep chestnut band, flanks paler, belly
whitish ; mantle chiefly chestnut, streaked on the upper back ; inner
secondaries with blackish centres and warm buff edges ; quills ash-
brown ; middle tail-feathers chestnut, the next three pairs umber-
brown, and the two outer pairs black at their bases with white
terminal halves ; legs pale flesh-brown. Length 6 "5, wing 3 "4 in.
The female has little more than streaks of chestnut on the crown
and a very slight pectoral band, while her general colours are paler.
The young male is at first similar to the female, but by December
the warm chestnut-colour becomes marked and characteristic.

EMBERIZIN.t.

217

THE RUSTIC BUNTING.

Emberiza rustica, Pallas.

The first example of the Rustic Bunting known to have occurred
in England was caught near Brighton, on October 23rd 1867, and
was shown alive to the late Mr. G. D. Rowley ; it is now in the
collection of Mr. T. J- Monk of Lewes. A second, identified and
recorded by Mr. W. E. Clarke (Zool. 18S1, p. 465), exhibited at a
meeting of the Zoological Society, and now in the York Museum,
was shot on the Holderness coast, Yorkshire, on September 17th
1 88 1, the same day on which a young bird of this species was
obtained at Heligoland by Giitke. The late Lord Lilford stated
(Zool. 1883, p. 2^) that a young male was sent to him in the
flesh, which had been taken by a bird-catcher at Elstree reservoir,
near London, on November 19th 1882.

The Rustic Bunting is an eastern species which is gradually
extending its range westward, and is nov/ known to wander to
Sweden, while it occurs annually and even breeds in East Finland.
Giitke possessed eight specimens taken on Heligoland (two of them
in April), and as many more have been obtained there ; while
stragglers have occurred from time to time in Holland, Germany,
Austria, the south of France, the north of Italy and twice in the
south-east (Apulia), and once near Constantinople. From Arch-
angel eastward it is found, increasingly, across Siberia, visiting
Kamchatka and even Bering Island ; while the late Dr. von Mid-
kendorff found it paired and apparently nesting in the Stanovoi

2l8 RUSTIC BUNTING.

^lountains, and it is common in Transbaikalia and Amurland.
Southward, it is abundant on passage in Mongolia, and, according
to Blakiston, it is common in the southern part of the main
island of Japan in winter, as well as on Yezo in summer. In
the cold season it is found in China as far south as Shanghai ; and
it is supposed to breed in the mountainous regions to the north of
Mongolia, and in Turkestan, as well as in Northern Siberia. In
Western Siberia it appears to be very local.

Nothing was known to Taczanowski of the reproduction of this
Bunting in Siberia up to 18S9; but Mr. Dresser informs me that he
has examined three clutches of eggs taken on 4th-5th June by Mr.
Sandman, who discovered the breeding-haunts in North East Fin-
land in 1886. In these clutches, of 5-6 eggs, the general colour
is greenish-grey, with olivaceous brown blotches (not distinct spots),
but without any scrawling, while sometimes the ground-colour is
reddish : average measurements 78 by "58 in. The bird arrives in
Northern Russia about the beginning of May, and frequents the
open portions of swampy fir-woods, where it is supposed to nest, as
in such situations Meves met with two broods in July. The young
are said to feed upon oats and other grain. The song is described
by von Middendorff as rich and melodious, while the call-note is a
sharp cry, not unlike that of the Redwing.

The adult male in breeding-plumage has the lores, crown, and
ear-patches black ; from above each eye to the side of the neck
a broad white stripe, and a small patch of the same colour on the
nape ; mantle, upper wing-coverts and rump rusty-chestnut, with
some blackish streaks on the upper back ; greater and middle
wing-coverts with broad white tips, which form two conspicuous
bars ; secondaries with dark brown centres and rufous margins ;
quills ash-brown ; tail-feathers chiefly dark brown, but the exterior
pair with the greater part of their webs white, and the second pair
with a long white streak from near the base to the tip of the inner
web ; throat and belly white ; breast broadly banded with rusty-
chestnut, and flanks streaked with the same colour ; bill dark brown
above, yellowish below j legs pinkish-yellow. Length 5*45 in. ; wing
3'i in. In the female the head and ear-patches are brownish,
mottled with black, the chestnut tints on the back and chest are
less pronounced, and the dark streaks are conspicuous. The young
bird in August has the upper parts warm tawny-brown with blackish
streaks ; under parts dull white, streaked with dark brown, and
suffused with rufous-buff, with a faint chestnut tinge on the breast
and flanks.

E.MBEP.IZIX.t.

219

THE LITTLE BUNTLXG.

Emberiza pusi'lla, Pallas.

The only British example yet recorded of this smallest of
European Buntings was brought, on November 2nd 1864, to the
late Mr. Swaysland of Brighton, and was identified alive by the late
Mr. G. D. Rowley. It was subsequently exhibited before the
Zoological Society, and now forms part of Mr. T. J. Monk's fine
collection of Sussex birds. Other wanderers may have occurred
and been overlooked.

The Little Bunting has been obtained near Lund, in Sweden, on
the spring migration of 181 5 ; also once in East Prussia ; at long
intervals four or five specimens have been taken in Holland ;
two near Antwerp, in Belgium, in autumn ; and on Heligoland
about thirty passed through Gatke's hands, chiefly in September
and October. In the south-east of France the bird is said to occur
almost every autumn, and along the Riviera to Liguria and Northern
Italy it is not very uncommon on passage, while its wanderings
extend to Apulia and the Island of Sardinia ; and stray examples
have been obtained in Germany, Austria, the neighbourhood of
Constantinople, Smyrna and Beyrout, as well as twice in Algeria.
In summer the bird is found in Northern Russia as far west as
Onega, while eastward from Archangel and the valley of the Dwina
it increases as far as the Taimyr Peninsula, and reaches across
Siberia to the mountains beyond Lake Baikal, and the Amur dis-
trict. On passage it visits Mongolia, and winters in China, Burma,
Assam, the Andaman Islands, and the hill-districts of India.

220 LITTLE BUNTING.

Von Middendorfl^ was the earliest discoverer of the eggs of the
Little Bunting. Seebohm found the species extremely abundant in
the valley of the Yenesei from June ist onwards, before the snow had
sufficiently melted to make the forest penetrable, and took his first
nest on the 23rd of that month, on the south bank of the Kuraika, a
tributary of the Yenesei. The structure was in a hole made in the
dead leaves, moss and grass, carefully lined with fine dry bents, and
contained 5 eggs; two other nests afterwards obtained were lined
with reindeer-hair, and contained respectively 5 and 6. Those of
the first clutch are described as almost exact miniatures of Corn-
Bunting's eggs : the ground-colour being of a pale grey, with bold
twisted blotches and irregular spots of very dark grey, and equally
large underlying shell-markings of paler grey ; the others were
redder or browner in ground-colour ; measurements "63 by '56 in.
Mr. H. L. Popham obtained a far larger series on the Yenesei in
1895, and again in 1S97 ; the variation in colour and markings
being remarkable. As a rule the bird was extremely tame in its
breeding-haunts, though in winter the late W. R. Davison found it
excessively wild in Tenasserim, when in flocks ; in summer it appears
to be partial to the younger woods composed of a mixture of pines,
firs, alders and birches. All travellers, who have had the opportunity
of observing it, describe its song as low and sweet, more like that of
a Warbler than of a Bunting, while the call-note resembles the
words tick, tick, tick. The food consists of insects in summer and
of seeds in winter.

The adult male in breeding-plumage has the crown and sides of
the head rich rust-colour, with a broad black stripe from above
each eye to the nape, behind which is a dull whitish collar ; mantle
and rump reddish-brown with blackish streaks ; wing-coverts brown,
tipped with buffish-white ; quills ash-brown ; tail-feathers the same,
with longitudinal white terminal patches on the two outer pairs ;
chin and throat pale chestnut ; upper breast and flanks dull white,
thickly streaked with black ; belly whitish ; bill horn-brown ; legs
pale brown. Length 5*25 in. ; wing 275 in. In the female the black
on the head is duller, the median stripe is less pronounced, and the
general tints are paler. Li the young bird the central stripe on the
crown is buff, and the two side stripes are reddish-brown with dark
streaks ; the secondaries are broadly edged with rufous-brown, and
the under parts are more streaked and mottled with black.

EMBERIZIN.^.

t^ :

jj^'Mi

THE REED-BUNTING.

Emberiza schceniclus, Linnaeus.

This bird is often called the Reed-Sparrow, and has, unfortunately,
also been known as the Black-headed Bunting, which has led
to confusion with the totally different species already described
(p. 205). It is resident and generally distributed throughout Great
Britain and Ireland, breeding sparingly even in the Outer Hebrides
and the Orkneys, though only a rare visitor to the Shetlands. In
summer it frequents fairly damp spots, whether on the banks of
sluggish streams bordered by alders, osiers and sedge, or rush-grown
places on swampy moorlands. In winter it sometimes assembles
in flocks, and Booth found from forty to fifty birds roosting on
patches of reeds by small marsh dykes ; at that season also, in search
of food, it often shifts its haunts to stubbles and other places at
some distance from water. At intervals large numbers have been
known to cross the North Sea from the Continent and visit our east
coast in autumn, while a similar migration has been noticed on the
shores of Ireland.

The Reed-Bunting inhabits suitable localities in Europe from the
vicinity of the North Cape to the Mediterranean, though in the
northern portions it is partially migratory, while it occurs irregularly
on Heligoland. In Spain and the extreme south, however, it is chiefly
observed during the winter, and comparatively few remain to breed.
It occurs in North-western Africa, yet in the North-east and in
Egypt it seems to be uncommon, and to Asia Minor it is only a
winter-visitor. Eastward, it is found across Siberia to Kamchatka ;

222 REED-EUNTIXG.

but South-eastern Siberia, ^Mongolia and China are inhabited by a
smaller race, which has been called E. passerina, with the black and
white colours in stronger contrast and the rufous less pronounced.
In Southern Spain, Southern Italy and Sicily, a resident form with
a larger bill has received the name of E. paJjistris ; while further
east, from Astrakhan to Turkestan and Yarkand, a bird with a still
larger bill, and also paler in colour, is distinguished as E. pyrrhtddidcs.
Few authors agree as to the nomenclature of these supposed species,
or where the lines of distinction between them are to be drawn ;
nevertheless Dr. Sharpe (Cat. Birds Brit. INIus. xii. p. 473) has
placed the two last with a Japanese form in the genus Pyrrhiilo-
rhyncha^ which Professor Giglioli instituted in 1S65.

The nest, commenced in the latter part of March or early in
April, is usually placed upon the ground, at the foot of a tuft of
rushes or of the stems of young willows and shrubs ; frequently in
herbage on the side of a bank ; occasionally on young spruce-firs or
on bunches of reeds, at varying elevations. The materials employed
are dry grass, moss and withered flags for the exterior, with bents,
hair and the feathery tops of reeds for the lining. The eggs, 4-6 in
number, are purplish-grey — sometimes with a huffish tinge — boldly
spotted and streaked with darker purple brown : average measure-
ments 77 by '59 in. The Cuckoo is moderately partial to the nests
of this species. Two, and occasionally three broods are produced
in the season. The hen sits very closely, and both she and the male
feign lameness and practise other devices to divert attention from
the young. In summer the food consists of insects, such as cater-
pillars and small white moths, also small fresh-water crustaceans and
molluscs ; later in the year, seeds of marsh-plants and grain'are con-
sumed. The song of the male is loud and stammering, ending with
a long-drawn zississ ; the call-note resembles the word tschec.

The adult male has the head and throat deep black, with a
broad white line from the base of the bill joining a collar of the
same colour ; mantle, wing-coverts and secondaries warm reddish-
brown, with dark centres to the feathers ; quills dull brown ; tail-
feathers blackish, with oblique white patches on the two outer
pairs ; belly whitish ; flanks dusky, streaked with brown ; bill and
legs dull brown. Length 6 in. ; wing 3'i in. In autumn the
black on the head and throat is obscured by the buffish-brown tips
of the feathers. The female is rather smaller, much duller in colour,
and has a reddish-brown head with darker streaks, while the eye-
stripe is buffish-white and the throat is merely streaked with black
on a huffish ground. The young resemble the female.

EMBERIZIX.t.

THE LAPLAND BUNTLVG.
Calcarius lapponicus (Linnasus).

The Lapland Bunting or " Longspur " was first recognized as a
visitor to our islands by Selby early in 1826, when one was sent
from Cambridgeshire, with some Larks, to Leadenhall Market ; while
subsequently, at long intervals, examples have been obtained near
London, in Lancashire, Westmoreland and Durham, near Whitby
on the spring migration, in Lincolnshire and Norfolk, near Shrews-
bury, and several on the coasts of Kent, Sussex and Hants. Only
about forty specimens had, however, been taken in England (almost
all on the autumn migration) up to 1892, when there came a great
invasion, chiefly on the East coast, followed by larger numbers in
1893, when flocks were observed near Flamborough and in Lincoln-
shire. In Scotland two specimens are said to have been obtained
in Caithness, and in October 1892 others were taken in the Orkneys
and Shetlands. In Ireland Mr. Barrington received a female from
the Fastnet Rock, on October i6th 1887.

In summer the Lapland Bunting inhabits the greater part of the
circumpolar regions, being found on both sides of Greenland up

224 LAPLAND BUNTING.

to 75° N., in Jan ^Nlayen, Arctic Europe (Kolguev abundantly,
Vaigatch, Novaya Zemlya and Franz, Josef Land sparingly), Arctic
Asia to the Liakov Islands, and in Arctic America. To Iceland,
however, it is merely a wanderer from Greenland, while it has not
been recorded from Spitsbergen. It is only at considerable eleva-
tions, such as the Dovrefjeld in Norway, that it is found breeding
to the south of the Arctic circle ; but it becomes abundant in
Lapland, while in Northern Siberia it is, perhaps, the commonest
bird on the tundras. In Asia it migrates further south than in
Europe, and reaches 30° N. lat. in China; whereas it is rare in
South Russia or Northern Italy, and unknown in Spain. In Central
Europe its occurrences are accidental, but further north they are
more frequent, and are regular on Heligoland in autumn. In
North America this species breeds up to lat. 73°, and winters in
South Carolina, Kansas and Colorado.

Swampy moorlands — beyond the limit of forest growth — with
tussocks of grass and stunted willows or birches, are the favourite
summer-haunts of the Lapland Bunting, but occasionally it inhabits
dry and bushy spots. The nest, built early in June, is placed in a
hollow of some little mound or grass-clump, and is made of dry
bents and roots, but its thick lining of feathers at once distinguishes
It from nests of the Red-throated Pipit and other birds frequenting
such localities. The 4-6 eggs are pale greyish- or reddish-brown,
spotted, blotched and slightly scrawled with darker shades of brown :
measurements "82 by "58 in. The song of the male is generally
uttered on the wing ; the bird rising from some low bush, and
hovering above it, like a Tree-Pipit. The call-note is a plaintive
whistle. The food consists of insects as well as seeds in summer,
and of the latter, with larvfe, in winter.

The adult male in summer has the crown, cheeks, throat and
breast black ; a broad white streak over each eye and down the
sides of the neck ; hind neck broadly banded with bright chestnut ;
feathers of the back, rump, wing-coverts and secondaries tawny-
brown, with blackish centres and paler margins ; quills dull brown ;
tail-feathers dark brown, with long white patches on the inner webs
of the two outer pairs ; belly white, with broad black streaks on the
flanks ; bill yellow, with the point black ; legs black ; hind claw
nearly straight, and longer than the toe. Length 6-25 in.; wing 3'6 in.
In the female the crown, ear-coverts and chestnut collar are streaked
with brown and black ; the upper parts paler ; throat white, with an
irregular blackish gorget. The young bird is still duller in colour.
In winter both sexes have pale rufous margins to the upper feathers.

EMBERIZIN^.

225

THE SNOW-BUNTING.

Plectrophenax nivalis (Linnaeus).

The Snow-Bunting is principally a cold-weather visitor to the
British Islands, frequenting the Shetlands from September onward,
though seldom reaching the east coast of England until October,
and generally returning northwards in March or April. For more
than a century, however, pairs had been noticed in summer on
several of the higher mountains of the Scottish mainland, where
they undoubtedly bred, but it was not until July 1886 that Messrs.
Peach and Hinxman discovered the nest and young in Sutherland.
Next, Mr. J. Young took a nest with five eggs in June 1888 ; while
in 1893 a nest was found by several ornithologists in the Cairn-
gorms, and the species is evidently on the increase there, as well
as on Ben Nevis and other mountains. In the Shetlands, Saxby
had already obtained a nest with three eggs on Unst, and others
have been taken on Yell.

In the Faeroes many Snow-Buntings breed, and in winter they
are abundant there, as they are throughout the year in Iceland ;
while northward. Col. Feilden found them nesting on Grinell Land
in 82° 33' N. In Spitsbergen, Franz Josef Land, Novaya Zemlya,
Siberia, and the Arctic regions generally, this species is widely
distributed in summer ; migrating southwards in winter to Georgia

T

226 SNOW-BUNTING.

in North America, Japan, Northern China, Turkestan, South Russia,
the shores of the Mediterranean, Malta, Northern Africa, and
occasionally to the Azores. It is of annual occurrence as far as the
central portions of Europe, but its visits south of the Alps are
exceptional.

Near the southern extremity of its breeding-range the Snow-
Bunting builds in the " screes " or stony sides of mountains, but
in the Fseroes, Spitsbergen, and the high north, the nest is often
but little above sea-level, generally in some crevice behind or under
rocks and boulders, or among the piles of drift-wood which fringe
the shores of the Arctic Sea, though sometimes fully exposed. It
is formed of dry grass and moss, lined with a few hairs and many
feathers — especially those of the Ptarmigan ; the 4-6 eggs are
greyish-white, spotted and blotched with brownish-red and purplish-
black : measurements "86 by "62 in. While the female is sitting the
male utters a low and melodious warble, often hovering in the air ;
the call-note is a long-drawn tsee. In summer both young and old
feed principally on mosquitoes and other insects, but in autumn and
winter they live on seeds, and do some damage to newly-sown corn.
On the ground the Snow-Bunting runs with rapidity ; it also hops,
and has frequently been observed to perch on trees.

The adult male in breeding-plumage has the mantle, inner
secondaries, terminal part of primaries, and the six central tail-
feathers, black ; the rest of the plumage mostly white ; bill, legs and
feet black ; hind claw shorter than its toe. Length 6"65 in. ; wing
4'4 in. In the female the head and neck are streaked with greyish-
black, and the upper parts are dull black, except the secondaries,
which are chiefly white. In autumn the bird (as figured) has the
feathers of the upper parts broadly edged with pale chestnut, and
the bill yellow with a black tip : in this state it has been called the
"Tawny Bunting." In winter the chestnut margins are abraded and
are succeeded by white. The j'oung bird is greyish-brown, with
darker spots on both upper and under parts ; a specimen is figured
in Messrs. Harvie-Brown and Buckley's 'Fauna of Sutherland &c.'

Males of the introduced American Red-winged Starling, Agehnus
phafiiceus, have been captured in this country ; while Icterus
baltitnore has been recorded from the Shetlands (Zool. 1890, p. 457).
Attempts have also been made to swell the British list by including
in it escaped examples of the American Meadow-Starling, Stiirnella
magna ; the American Rusty Gxs.c'^Xe, Scokcophagiis ferrugitieits ; and
the Indian Mynah, Gracida religiosa.

STURNID^.

227

THE STARLING.

Sturnus vulgaris, Linnaeus.

The Starling or Stare, now generally distributed throughout the
United Kingdom, has materially increased during the last forty
years both as regards numbers and range, in Wales, the west and
north of England, and Ireland. In Scotland also, it is now common
in many districts in which it was either rare or unknown within the
memory of persons hardly past middle-age ; in the Shetlands and
Orkneys, however, it has been resident for at least a century, and
for little less in the Outer Hebrides {Cf. Harvie-Brown, Ann. Scott.
Nat. Hist. 1895, pp. 2-22). Large flocks arrive on our east coasts
in autumn, at which season there is also a marked migration west-
ward, and localities in the interior of this country which have been
frequented during the summer are then almost deserted, while great
numbers seek winter quarters in the south and west of Ireland.

In the Faeroes, where this species is common and resident, the

228 STARLING.

birds have, as a rule, large and particularly broad beaks. In Iceland
a solitary specimen was obtained in December 1878, and as long ago
as 185 1, Holboll procured one in Greenland. In Norway the species
occurs as high as Tromso, but eastward we find its northern exten-
sion gradually diminishing, until in the Urals and across Siberia
it does not exceed 57" N. lat. Throughout Europe our Starling is,
with few exceptions, generally distributed, and breeds as far south
as the central provinces of Italy ; but throughout the greater part
of the Mediterranean basin it is a visitor — often in vast numbers —
during the cold season, when it reaches the Canaries. In the
Spanish Peninsula, Southern Italy, Sicily, Sardinia &c., the bird
found in summer is the unspotted S. ii7iicoIor ; while from Asia
Minor to the Altai range and North-western India the representa-
tives are S. purpurascens and other closely-allied species.

The nest is usually built in some hole in a tree, cliff, bank, or
wall ; also (as many persons know to their cost) in chimneys, water-
pipes, and under eaves ; more often than generally known it is open
to the sky in a fir or other tree ; while in places where suitable
timber is wanting, holes in peat-stacks and even in the turf itself,
heaps of stones for mending roads, rabbit-burrows &c., are selected.
A large untidy mass of dry grass or straw, sometimes with a little
moss, wool and a few feathers for lining, forms a receptacle for the
4-7 pale blue eggs, which measure about V2 by "85 in. When
successively removed, as many as forty eggs have been obtained
from the same nest in the season. The Starling feeds principally
upon worms, slugs, small molluscs, insects and their larvK ; it also
eats voles, the young and eggs of other birds, cultivated fruit and
wild berries. Its song, imitative powers, habit of congregating in
large flocks at roosting time, and aerial evolutions have been
described at length elsewhere.

In summer, the adult male has almost the whole plumage glossy
black, with rich metallic purple and green reflections ; the feathers
of the upper parts being tipped with triangular buff-coloured spots ;
quills and tail-feathers dark brown, with bufiish margins; bill
lemon-yellow ; legs and feet reddish-brown. After the autumn
moult the feathers of the upper parts are deeply margined with
buff, and those of the under parts are tipped with white. Length
8"6 in. ; wing 5*2 in. The plumage of the female is less brilliant
and the terminal spots are larger. Until autumn the young bird
is uniform greyish-brown above, clouded with white below ; in which
plumage it is the " Solitary Thrush " of Montagu and others.

STURDINiE.

229

THE ROSE-COLOURED STARLING.

Pastor roseus (Linnsus).

This handsome species, which was first recognized as a visitor
to the British Islands in 1742, when Edwards figured an example
killed near Norwood, has subsequently occurred at intervals in many
parts of England, occasionally in Wales, and often in Devon and
Cornwall ; though more frequently on the eastern side of the island.
As a rule its arrival has taken place between May and October,
and the visitors to our shores appear to have been birds which
had separated from flocks of their own species and joined those of
Starlings &c. In Scotland, the Rose-coloured Starling has rather
frequently been noticed in the Orkneys, and has occurred in every
district except the Outer Hebrides ; in Ireland, though rarer, it
has wandered to the extreme west.

As might be expected in the case of a species which has casually
visited the Shetlands, the Rose-coloured Starling has reached the
Faroes ; but up to the present time it has not strayed to Iceland.
In Norway one occurred near Trondhjem in 1885, and one at
Sitskoven in 1894, while several examples have been obtained in
Sweden, Finland and Denmark, and on Heligoland nearly fifty have
been noticed in as many years. Over the rest of Europe the bird is
an irregular migrant, increasing in frequency to the southward ; and,
though rarer in the extreme west, it has been found near Seville

230 ROSE-COLOURED STARLING.

in Spain. Until June 3rd 1875 it was merely known as an almost
annual summer-visitor to Italy, but on that day commenced an
irruption of flock after flock, following up large flights of locusts,
and the ruined castle of Villafranca in the province of Verona was
soon occupied by some twelve or fourteen thousand Rose-coloured
Starlings, which speedily ejected the original feathered inhabitants.
The first eggs were laid about June 17th ; by July loth the young
were fledged; and by the 14th all had taken their departure. In
Bulgaria, the Dobrudscha, Southern Russia, the vicinity of Smyrna
in Asia Minor, and in other places, large colonies have been found
nesting, though not regularly ; while localities inhabited by thousands
in one year may be absolutely deserted the next. Eastward, the
Rose-coloured Starling extends through Turkestan to Lake Saisan ;
numbers winter in India ; vast flocks traverse Palestine in spring ;
and on migration the bird has occurred at intervals in North Africa.
The nest, composed of dry grass with a few feathers, is generally
placed in some suitable crevice in ruins, railway-cuttings, quarries
and cliffs, or among loose stones on the side of a ravine being occa-
sionally open to the sky. The 5-6 eggs are glossy bluish-white :
measurements I'l by '83 in. The female sits very closely, and is
fed by the male with locusts, apparently the favourite food of old
and young ; for which reason the bird is protected in the Caucasus
and other districts. In India, however, it is destructive to grain
during the cold season, and it also devours mulberries, while it will
eat cockroaches in confinement. The note is a harsh and con-
tinuous babble, which is described by Canon Tristram as deafening
when uttered by dense flocks in rapid flight. Although so con-
spicuous in colour when on the ground or perched upon a tree, yet
a small party of birds will suddenly become almost invisible by
dropping among oleander bushes, the pink flowers of which exactly
match the colour of the breast.

The adult male has the long crest, head, neck and throat glossy
violet-black ; wings and tail metallic greenish-black ; back, shoulders,
breast and belly rose-pink ; bill yellowish-pink, black at the base ;
legs yellowish-brown. Length 8-5 ; wing 5 in. The female is less
brightly tinted and has a smaller crest. The young bird at first
is greyish-brown above, with buff margins to the wing- and tail-
feathers ; the throat is white, the lower parts are striated buffish-
white, the bill is brown ; but in September the moult into the adult
plumage commences. In June 1890 a bird with a r^^ instead of a
black head was taken alive in Bulgaria (P.Z.S. 1890, p. 590).

CORVID.^.

THE CHOUGH.

Pyrrhocorax graculus (Linnpeus).

The Chough is not only a local but also, apparently, a very
capricious species ; localities formerly inhabited by it being some-
times abandoned, without any assignable reason. In England at
the present day it is not known to breed to the east of the cliffs of
Dorsetshire, while westward as far as Cornwall its distribution is
irregular. In North Devon there were formerly many small
colonies ; but in 1887 I found that the bird had almost disappeared
from Lundy Island, where about forty pairs used to nest, owing in
a great measure to the Peregrine, which, in default of Pigeons, is
very partial to Choughs — especially the young. On the sea-cliffs
and in some inland localities of Wales it is not rare, while it is still
resident in the Isle of Man. In Scotland it has long ago quitted
St. Abb's Head, and has almost vanished from the Wigtownshire
coast and western mainland, but it breeds on Islay, Jura, and other
islands of the Inner Hebrides, up to Skye, and was obtained in
September 1896 near Stornoway; though of accidental occurrence
on the east side and inland. In Ireland it nests along the rocky
coasts and sometimes in the mountains of the south, west and north.

232 CHOUGH.

In several of the Channel Islands the Chough was formerly
common, and it breeds in some of the rocky portions of the north-
western and west coasts of France, as well as in those of the
Peninsula. Mountainous situations in the Alps, Carpathians, Par-
nassus, Urals, Apennines, Pyrenees, Cantabrian range, and the
south of Spain, are, however, its favourite haunts, while on the
rocky islands of the Mediterranean it is plentiful ; it is also resident
in the hill-regions of Northern Africa, Abyssinia, Arabia, Asia
Minor, the Caucasus and Persia, and throughout the mountain
ranges of Asia as far as North-eastern China. As a rule this species
is little given to wandering.

The nest, built from the latter part of April to the middle of
May, is composed of long wiry stems of heather, or of some
deciduous plant, and is well lined with wool and hair. It is
frequently placed in some cavity in the roof of a cave ; but some-
times in vertical fissures, holes in ruins and grassy banks, or disused
lime-kilns. The 3-5 eggs are greyish-white with occasionally a
yellow or greenish tinge, spotted and streaked with several shades
of dark grey and pale brown : measurements i"5 by i"i in. When
flying, the Chough performs a series of curves in the air, alternately
rising with a scream and then suddenly dropping with almost closed
wings, but on the ground its movement is a short and very quick
run. The usual cry is a clear metallic kling, but in autumn I
have heard flocks uttering chough-chough very plainly. The food
consists of insects and their larvae (in search of which stones are
often turned over), and occasionally of grain.

In the adult male the plumage is glossy bluish-black, with a
slight green tint on the primaries ; bill, legs, and feet cherry-red.
Length 16 in. ; wing 11 in. The female only differs in being some-
what smaller. In the nestling the beak and legs are dull orange,
but by September those parts have become as red as in the parent.

A yellow-billed Alpine Chough, P. alpinus, shot near Banbury,
Oxfordshire, on April 8th 1881, and examined in the flesh by Mr.
O. V. Aplin, is now in the collection of Mr. J. Whitaker. The
species is eminently sedentary, and it is unlikely that an individual
should have wandered so far from its home in the mountains of
Central and Southern Europe ; on the other hand I believe that
Lady Dorothy Nevill, who has been successful in inducing our
species to breed in confinement, has purchased importations from
the Continent, and it is probable that the bird in question had
escaped.

CORVID.«.

233

THE NUTCRACKER.

NUCIFRAGA CARYOCATACTES (LilinEeUs).

The Nutcracker is an irregular visitor to England and Wales, but
about thirty fairly authenticated occurrences are on record, princi-
pally in the southern half of our island, and all of them, so far as is
known, in autumn. In Scotland one was shot at Invergarry and
one in Orkney, both in October 1868; while Sir Herbert E. Max-
well has recorded an occurrence in Wigtownshire in 1891. As yet
there is no evidence that the bird has visited Ireland.

C. L. Brehm and others have recognised several subspecies of
Nutcracker. A form with a stout bill (as in the engraving) breeds
in the coniferous forests south of lat. 67° in Scandinavia, some of
the islands of the Baltic, West Russia, East Prussia, the Hartz
Mountains, the Jura, the Black Forest, the French, Swiss and
Italian Alps, and eastward, by the Carpathians, to Transylvania.
This form is said to be resident. In Siberia, from the Ob and the
Yenesei eastward — -perhaps to portions of China — occurs a form
with a slender bill and with a greater developement of white spots ;

'■34

NUTCRACKER.

while in birds from Manchuria, Corea, Japan and the Kuril Islands,
the bill is moderate, though incHned to be thick. The Siberian
form, with slender bill, is known to wander westward in autumn, at
irregular intervals and sometimes in large numbers ; and there is
evidence that this is the chief visitor to Western Europe, including
Great Britain. Some form of Nutcracker occurs in the Pyrenees
and has been observed in Estremadura ; it has also been found in
Sicily and Sardinia ; but not yet in Greece, Turkey, or the Caucasus.
In Kashmir the representative is IV. imiltipunctata, and in the
Himalayas N. hemispila.

The Nutcracker often begins to breed early in March, when the
forests are still difficult of access owing to the snow ; and although
eggs were obtained in the French Alps by the late Abbe Caire as
long ago as 1846, it was not until after 1862 that English ornitholo-
gists became acquainted with some specimens taken on the island
of Bornholm, followed by others from Germany, Switzerland, &c.
The rather bulky nest, composed of twigs, with grass, roots, and a
little moss and lichen for a lining, is placed from fifteen to thirty
feet from the ground in a spruce fir, close to the stem. Sometimes
the bird will sit upon only two eggs, but 3 are usual ; they are pale
bluish-green, spotted with ash-brown, like some light varieties of
those of the Magpie : measurements v^, by '95 in. Seebohm was
mistaken in supposing that the Nutcrackers on the Yenesei retired
in June to breed ; they disappeared because it was time to moult,
and nearly all his specimens are immature birds. The seeds of
fir-cones are a favourite food, especially those of the arolla pine
{Pitms cembra) ; also hazel-nuts, of which the bird can carry a
dozen in its dilatable pouch and oesophagus ; while scraps of meat
and refuse are freely eaten. Its flight is dipping, but less laboured
than that of the Jay. One of the notes is gurre, gurre, and another
resembles the noise made by springing a rattle ; but before nesting
begins the birds become silent and very wary.

The adult male is umber-brown above and below, profusely
spotted with drop-shaped white markings on the back and breast,
and more sparingly on the throat ; quills glossy black ; tail-feathers
greenish-black, with broad white tips to all except the central pair ;
under tail-coverts white; bill and legs black. Length 12 "5 in.;
wing 7-3 in. The female generally shows a rather browner tint on
the quills. The fledgling is covered with filamentous hair-brown
feathers with white streaks down their centres ; but almost as soon as
the quills are developed, the back and breast are covered with brown
feathers spotted with white, as in the adult.

corvida:.

235

THE JAY.

Garrulus glandarius (Linneeus).

The Jay is less abundant than formerly, owing chiefly to the dis-
like entertained for it on account of its egg-stealing proclivities, but
partly to the esteem in which its blue wing-feathers are held for
making artificial flies. Being, however, an inhabitant of woodlands,
and a wary as well as a wandering bird, it manages to hold its own,
and is still tolerably common throughout England and Wales.
Flocks from the Continent occasionally visit our east coast in
autumn. In Scotland the Jay is very local, and its numbers have
decreased, though its range has extended northward with the spread
of plantations, and now reaches to Glengarry, Inverness-shire.
Messrs. Harvie-Brown and Buckley have not found it in Sutherland
or Caithness ; it is not recorded from the Outer Hebrides or the
Orkneys ; and Saxby is the sole asseverator of its occurrence in
the Shetlands. In Ireland it is very local, and almost confined to
the eastern and southern districts.

South of the Arctic circle in Scandinavia, and of about 63° N. lat. in
Russia as far east as the valley of the Volga, the Jay is found through-

236 JAY.

out the suitable wooded portions of Europe, down to the Mediter-
ranean and Black Seas. In North Africa it is represented by
G. minor, and also by G. cervicalis which has a black crown, \vhite
ear-coverts, and deep rufous nape ; while forms, to which specific
rank has been accorded by some authorities and denied by others,
are found intergrading, from the Urals, the Caucasus, Asia IMinor
and Persia eastward, until the extreme of differentiation is reached in
G. brandii of Southern Siberia, North China, and the North Island
of Japan. The race inhabiting the South Island of Japan differs
from the European bird in having some black on the lores.

The nest, often commenced early in April, and fairly well con-
cealed, is an open, cup-shaped structure of short twigs, neatly lined
with fine roots and grasses ; it is usually not more than twenty feet
above the ground, in the branches or the outgrowth of the side of a
tree, or in some high bush. The 5-6 eggs are greenish-grey,
thickly speckled and often zoned towards the larger end with olive-
brown, and sometimes scrolled with a few black hair-lines : measure-
ment I '2 by "9 in. The young at first go about in family parties,
but subsequently they often unite with others and form bands which
at times migrate in large streams, chiefly in a westerly direction.
Thus in the autumn of 1876, and again in that of 1882, immense
numbers, apparently coming from the great forest regions of Eastern
Germany, were observed crossing Heligoland during three consecu-
tive days. The food of the Jay consists chiefly of worms, insects,
berries, nuts, beechmast, acorns and fruit, but also to some extent
of the eggs and young of other birds. The natural note is a harsh
screech, but, as is well known, the bird possesses considerable
imitative powers.

The adult male has the head covered with a whitish crest, each
feather tipped or striped with black ; ear-coverts, nape and back
light vinous-brown ; rump white ; tail-feathers black, the exterior
pair brownish ; primaries dull black with white margins to the outer
webs ; secondaries deep black with long white basal patches, the
innermost rich chestnut tipped with black ; wing-coverts barred
alternately with black, white and pale blue; chin pale buff;
from the base of the bill backwards a black streak ; under parts
buffish-white, turning to rufous on the flanks ; bill dark horn-colour ;
iris bluish-madder; legs and feet pale brown. Length about
14-25 in. ; wing 7-25 in. The female resembles the male, and the
young differ little from the adults except in having brown irides.

CORVIDiE.

THE MAGPIE.
Pica rustica (Scopoli).

In East Anglia and other game-preserving districts of Great
Britain the Magpie is a rare bird, but it is plentiful in Wales and
the Marches, as well as m many of the ' hunting-counties,' and may
be described as irregularly distributed up to the north of the
mainland of Scotland, while it has occurred in the Orkneys. In
Ireland, where its appearance was first recorded in 1676 in co.
Wexford, it is now very common.

The Magpie seldom visits Heligoland, but from the North
Cape in Scandinavia southward it occurs, more or less plentifully,
throughout Europe, except in the islands of Corsica and Sardinia.
It is not recorded from Palestine, although found in Asia Minor.

238 MAGPIE.

Eastward— subject to a variation in the amount of white in the
plumage, which has led to the creation of several species— the
Magpie is found across Asia to India, China and Japan, as well as in
the northern portion of America from the Pacific to Michigan ; but
in California it is represented by P. niiftaHi, with yellow bill and
ear-patch. Algeria and Morocco are inhabited by F. inauritanica,
which has a bare blue ear-patch and no grey on the rump ; and
although Magpies in Spain down to Seville are identical with
those from Norway, yet examples from the Alpujarras, where a
geologically-recent connection with Africa existed, are distinctly
intermediate between the typical and the African species.

The nest, large and domed, is often begun towards the end of
March, and is made of thorny sticks on a foundation of turf and
clay plastered with earth inside, fine roots and dry grass being the
lining. It is generally placed at some height in the fork of a tree,
but often in tall — though sometimes in very low — hedges and thorn-
bushes ; while in Norway it is occasionally under the eaves of houses
or on the ground. The late Lord Lilford found several nests in the
papyrus of the Anapo, near Syracuse. The eggs, usually 6 but
sometimes 9 in number, are bluish-green or yellowish-white in
ground-colour, closely freckled with olive-brown : measurements
I "4 by I in. In its food, the Magpie is almost omnivorous; the
benefits it confers by devouring slugs, snails, worms, rats and
mice, as well as the eggs of Ring-Doves, probably counter-
balancing its destructiveness to the eggs and young of game and
poultry. As showing its boldness, the late Lord Lilford has
recorded (Zool. 1888, p. 184) an instance of fourteen or fifteen
Magpies attacking a sore-backed donkey in snowy weather, while,
after its death from natural causes, several were shot in the act of
feeding upon its body. The note is a harsh chatter, kept up inces-
santly as long as any obnoxious person or animal remains in its
haunts ; while the manner in which the bird will swoop at an
exhausted fox must be a familiar sight to many sportsmen.

The adult male has the head, neck, back and breast black, glossed
with green and violet ; rump grey ; scapulars and belly white ;
secondaries black, with violet lustre ; primaries black, glossed with
green, and having an elongated patch of white on their inner webs ;
tail black, iridescent with greenish-bronze ; bill, legs and feet
black. Average length 18 in., of which the longest tail-feathers
sometimes measure 11 in.; wing 775 in. The female is slightly
smaller and less brilliant in plumage, and has a shorter tail ; while
the feathers of the young have comparatively little sheen.

CORVID^:.

THE JACKDAW.

C6rvus monedula, Linnaeus.

The Jackdaw is a familiar resident throughout England and
Wales. It is also common over the greater part of Scotland, but in
the north-west it is somewhat rare, and although it breeds sparingly
in Skye it has seldom been noticed in the Outer Hebrides ; again,
there are now several large and increasing colonies in the Orkneys,
but in the Shetlands the bird is as yet an accidental visitor.
In Ireland it is, as a rule, abundant ; but in Kerry, Donegal and
other wild portions of the coast, its place is — or was — taken by the
Chough, and it is exceptionally that the two species are found
breeding within the same area. The same holds good of Guernsey
in the Channel Islands, and on Lundy Island there used to be no
Jackdaws ; in fact, although generally distributed along our coasts
as well as in town and countr)', this species is sometimes unaccount-
ably absent. Large numbers arrive on our east coast in autumn,
and a similar migration occurs at Heligoland.

To the Faeroes and Iceland the Jackdaw rarely wanders, and in
Norway it is not found breeding north of Trondhjems fjord ; though
in Russia it occurs at Mezen, near the Arctic circle. As a rule, it
is resident throughout the rest of Europe ; but in the south of

240 JACKDAW.

France, Spain, Italy, Greece, and some other portions of the
Mediterranean basin, including Morocco and Algeria, it is extremely
local. After heavy gales from the south-east it has been found in
the Canaries. The examples obtained in Eastern Europe, Turkestan,
Kashmir, and the valley of the Yenesei in Siberia, have remarkably
white and well-defined collars ; but from the Altai Mountains to
Eastern Siberia and China, the representative species is C.dauria/s,
which has the nape, sides of the neck, lower breast and belly ashy-
white.

For its breeding-place the Jackdaw chooses holes and cavities in
rocks, churches and castles — ruined or not, the chimneys of in-
habited houses, rabbit-burrows and hollow trees ; while sometimes
the nest is among stalks of coarse ivy on cliffs, or in spruce firs,
open to the sky. It is usually a substantial, and sometimes a
monstrous, pile of sticks, warmly lined with wool, rabbit's-fur and
other soft materials. The 4-6 eggs, laid towards the end of April,
are of a pale bluish-green, boldly spotted and blotched with black,
olive-brown and violet-grey ; sometimes the ground-colour is greyish-
white and the markings are very scanty : measurements i "4 by i in.
The warm lining is often pulled over the eggs, so as to conceal
them ; and the late Mr. C. B. Wharton found a clutch smeared and
apparently disguised with a coating of clay, taken from a lump
which was in the nest. At Cambridge great inconvenience was
formerly caused by the appropriation of the labels from the old
Botanic Gardens by the Jackdaws ; no fewer than eighteen dozen
being discovered in one chimney. The food consists largely of
insects and their larvae, worms, and the parasites found on sheep,
upon the backs of which the bird may often be seen perched ; but
the Jackdaw is also a terrible egg-stealer. The flight is rapid but
wavering, numerous evolutions being performed in the air to the
accompaniment of a short clear note, sounding like cae. Although
it generally flies in pairs the Jackdaw is at all times more or less
gregarious, and especially so in winter.

The adult male has the lores and crown of the head glossy
purplish-black ; ear-coverts, nape and sides of the neck grey, in-
clining to white, and producing the effect of a collar ; rest of the
upper parts glossy black ; under parts dusky-black ; bill, legs and
feet black. Length about 14 in. ; wing 9-3 in. The female is
somewhat smaller and the grey collar is less defined. The young
are dull black, with very little grey on the head and nape. The iris
is white at all ages.

CORVID.'E.

241

THE RAVEN.

CoRvus coRAX, Linn^us.

Although a diminishing species, in consequence of the hatred
entertained for it by sheep-farmers and the ease with which it can
be trapped, the Raven still maintains itself in the British Islands.
In the south its numbers are somewhat influenced by the prices paid
for young birds ; but even now, from Kent to Cornwall, and along
the rocky coasts of North Devon and Wales there is hardly a suitable
headland in or near which a pair does not at least attempt to breed
annually ; while nests built in trees, although far rarer than formerly,
are less uncommon than might be supposed at short distances
inland. Not long ago several pairs frequented Essex, but the Raven
is now rare in the eastern counties and throughout the interior of
England. On the hills and fells of the west and north it is still
to be found ; while in Scotland, and especially in the islands, it is
by no means uncommon, provided there are cliffs suitable for its
protection. In Ireland it is still resident in the wilder parts, but
its numbers have decreased of late years.

The Raven is stationary in the Faroes, where pied birds (occa-
sionally met with in the British Islands and elsewhere) are rather

u

242 RAVEN.

frequent. It very rarely visits Heligoland. In Iceland and Scandi-
navia the bird formerly sacred to Odin is abundant, and it is said to
have been observed once in Spitsbergen ; while southward it is dis-
tributed all over Europe, especially in the wooded and mountainous
districts, and along the sea-coast. It inhabits the northern half of
Asia down to the Himalayas ; but between Palestine and the
Cape Verde Islands it is represented by the smaller Brown-
necked Raven, C. laitbrinus, or by C. affinis, which has the nasal
bristles pointing upwards and very long secondaries. North-western
Africa, the Canaries and Madeira, are inhabited by another small
species, C. tingitanus. In America the Raven is found across the
continent from the Pacific to Greenland, and southward to Guate-
mala, but it is local and not common to the east of the Mississippi
Valley.

The nest, often built or repaired early in February, though later
on the fells, is generally a bulky structure when placed in a crag,
but when in trees it is, according to my experience, smaller and
more compact. The foundation is a mass of sticks, stems of
heather &c., while the lining is of wool, rabbit's-fur, deer's-hair and
other soft substances. The eggs, 3-5, rarely 6 or 7 in number, are
bluish-green, flecked with olive-brown, sometimes sparingly, but at
other times so thickly as to produce an almost uniform ash-brown
appearance ; exceptionally they are reddish-white, blotched with
rufous-brown: average measurements 1-9 by i"32 in. In defence
of its nest the Raven is very bold, attacking even an Eagle ; while
its harsh, defiant, barking whow, whozv, when once heard, will never
be forgotten. It has, however, softer and more musical notes,
generally uttered early in the year, while the bird is performing
aerial evolutions and frequent somersaults ; and its imitative and
linguistic powers in confinement are well known. There is a bold
sweep in its flight unrivalled by that of any other Corvine bird. In
its food it is omnivorous ; and where it is persecuted on account of its
supposed depredations among lambs and game it is shy and difficult
of approach ; but in other places it is very tame, and in Majorca I have
seen pairs following the peasants, like Rooks, when the ground under
the olive-trees was being ploughed. It is a great destroyer of rats.

The plumage of the adult is black, glossed with purplish-blue
on the upper parts and the acuminate feathers of the throat ; tail
slightly rounded; bill, legs and feet black. Length about 25 in. ;
wing 17 in. The female is slightly smaller than the male, the
feathers on the throat are less developed, and her plumage, like that
of the young, is less lustrous.

CORVID/E.

243

THE CARRION-CROW.

CoRVUS cor6ne, Linnccus.

In spite of the constant persecution which this species undergoes
from those interested in the preservation of game, it is still fairly
common in most of the wooded districts of Southern England and
Wales ; especially in the neighbourhood of low-lying coasts, estuaries,
lakes, and somewhat sluggish rivers. Near London, where it is
comparatively unmolested, it is by no means rare, and a few pairs
are distributed among the Parks. In the north of England,
especially in the Lake district and on the Cheviots, as well as in
the south of Scotland and as far north as Perthshire, it is common ;
beyond which, and in the west (though it has nested in Islay), the
prevailing form is the Hooded Crow : the two not unfrequently
interbreeding. The Carrion-Crow is recorded from Coll, and is
resident, though scarce, in Skye ; is said to have occurred in the
Orkneys ; and visits the Shetlands at long intervals. In Ireland it
is extremely rare, its place being taken by the Hooded Crow. Con-
siderable accessions to its numbers take place on the east coast of
Great Britain in autumn.

The Carrion-Crow is seldom found in Iceland, and even to the
southern portions of Scandinavia it is a very irregular visitor. Its

u 2

244 CARRION-CROW.

reported existence near Archangel is open to question, and in the
interior of Russia it is decidedly uncommon, though frequent in
the Caucasus, the Black Sea district, the valley of the Danube,
Greece, and Southern Germany. It rarely visits Heligoland. In
Northern Ciermany its eastern summer-limits are approximately
indicated by the valley of the Elbe ; while to the west and south
it is found breeding as far as the Mediterranean coast of France,
the Spanish Peninsula, Northern Italy, Corsica and Sardinia. In
Asia, it nests in Turkestan and Kashmir, while in Western Siberia
it meets and interbreeds freely with the Hooded Crow ; again pre-
vailing, as a larger form, in the forest district between the Yenesei
and the Pacific, as well as in Northern China and Japan. The
occurrence of our Carrion-Crow in North Africa is doubtful, but
visits to Madeira are recorded.

This species seldom makes its nest before the first week in April,
generally selecting for the purpose some moderately tall tree which
affords a good look-out, or a ledge of rock ; but it will also build in
a low bush, and even on the ground. The structure is composed
of sticks, fine twigs &c., with a warm lining of wool and other soft
materials ; the eggs, usually 4-5 in number, are bluish-green, spotted
and blotched with olive-brown : measurements I'y by i'2 in. The
Carrion- Crow probably pairs for life, and is generally to be seen in
couples, quartering the ground carefully, with somewhat heavy
flight, in quest of food. Carrion, poultry, the eggs of game and
water-fowl, leverets, moles, rats, fish, mussels and the refuse of the
shore — nothing comes amiss to it ; but it will also eat insects,
grubs, grain and fruit, like the Rook, and I have seen it on the hill-
sides in the Pyrenees as well as in Switzerland in considerable
flocks. Its ordinary note is a hoarse croak, but it sometimes emits
sounds which may almost be called musical ; while in confinement
it develops some capacity for imitation.

The adult male has the entire plumage black, glossed on the upper
parts with purple and tinged with green on the head, neck and
throat ; the nostrils are covered with thick bristly feathers, directed
forwards; bill, legs and feet black. Length 19 in.; wing 13 in.
The female is less glossy, and has sometimes a brown tinge on her
plumage. The young bird is still duller in colour. The inside of
the mouth is always pale flesh-colour : whereas in the young Rook
it is dark flesh-colour, soon turning livid and afterwards slate-colour.
The Rev. H. A. Macpherson has recorded a bird of a reddish- fawn
colour, the rest of the brood being normal ; and Mr. ^V. Eagle
Clarke has described a brindled-grey variety.

CORVID^.

245

THE HOODED CROW.

CoRVUS coRNix, Linnaeus.

This bird, often called the Grey or Royston Crow, is a regular
and numerous visitor to England, especially the eastern districts,
from October onwards ; but as a rule it departs in spring, though
instances are on record of its having remained to breed, and cases
of hybridism with the Carrion-Crow are not infrequent in the
north. In Wales it is rare, but in the Isle of Man it nests
annually. On the mainland of Scotland it is only too abundant,
predominating in the north and west, and becoming the represen-
tative form in the Outer Hebrides, Orkneys and Shetlands. In
Ireland also it is common, and increasing, especially in the south.
The majority of the large numbers found in our eastern dist/icts
arrive from the Continent, and apparently from Scandinavia.

In the Faeroes the Hooded Crow is resident, and it occasionally
visits Iceland. In Scandinavia, Finland, Northern Russia, and East
Prussia it is common, migrating from the higher latitudes in autumn,
at which season large flocks pass over Heligoland and winter in
Northern Germany west of the Elbe. These, as a rule, take their
departure in March, although some occasionally remain to inter-
breed with the Carrion-Crow. Colonies of the Hooded Crow are
dotted about Central Germany, are frequent in Galizia, and extend

246 HOODED CROW.

to Slavonia ; but in Switzerland, France and Spain, the bird is only a
winter-visitor. It nests, however, in the islands of Majorca, Corsica
and Sardinia ; while on the mainland of Italy, Sicily and in the
Cyclades, it is resident. To North-west Africa it is merely a visitor,
but in Egypt it is very abundant where trees exist, breeding in
February and March ; it is also found in Syria ; while eastward it
can be traced as far as the Persian Gulf, where it meets with the
whiter C. capellamis. A third race, drab-grey on the lighter parts
(named by Mr. Oates C. sharpii), visits North-west India in winter,
and inhabits Afghanistan, Turkestan, and Siberia as far as Tomsk.
The area between that place and Krasnoiarsk — about 350 miles
east — is said to be occupied by hybrids between this bird and a
large form of the Carrion-Crow ; the latter becoming the repre-
sentative in Eastern Siberia.

In the south of Ireland the Hooded Crow sometimes has eggs
by the middle of March (Zool. 1883, p. 337), but in Scotland it is
later in breeding. According to circumstances, the nest is placed
on inland rocks, sea-cliffs, tall trees, low bushes, clumps of papyrus,
on the ground among heather, or even on the roofs of huts. The
materials are similar to those used by the Carrion-Crow, and the
eggs, 4-5 in number, cannot with certainty be distinguished, but
they are often slightly longer, paler, and of a brighter green ground-
colour. The habits and food of the two Crows are similar, though
perhaps the Hooded Crow is rather the bolder robber ; while I have
seen a young one greedily devouring the carcase of a recently shot
member of the same brood. The call-notes are said to be quite
distinguishable by practised ears.

The thoroughbred Hooded Crow has the head, throat, wings, tail
and thighs black, glossed with greenish-purple ; the rest of the body
ashy-grey of varying tint, with a few dark streaks down the centre of
the breast-feathers ; the remainder as in the Carrion-Crow, the grey
colour forming the sole distinction. To some extent the hybrids
are fertile, and Seebohm found every intermediate state of plumage
between the two forms : a large case of specimens illustrating
these gradations has been presented by him to the Natural History
Museum at South Kensington. Northern examples of the Hooded
Crow are rather larger than those resident in the south of Europe,
and also, as a rule, than Carrion-Crows from Scotland. Professor
Newton has expressed with his usual perspicacity the reasons for
not admitting the specific distinctness of these Crows ; but it has
seemed expedient to treat them under separate headings in the
present work.

CORVID^.

247

THE ROOK.

CoRVUS FRUGiLEGUS, Linnseus.

The Rook is even better known than the Jackdaw, owing to its
custom of Hving in noisy flocks throughout the year, and its tendency
to select the vicinity of human habitations for its breeding-places. Few
rookeries now exist in London, and the same may be said of other
spreading cities ; but as regards the country, the Rook is generally
distributed throughout England and Wales, being especially numerous
north of the Tees. In Scotland it has for some years been increasing
in numbers and northward range, breeding in Caithness and Suther-
land, the Outer Hebrides since 1895, ^"<^ the Orkneys; while in
Skye there are several rookeries. In the Shetlands, where trees are
scarce, the Rook is at present only a visitor. The increase of this
species is not regarded with favour in Scotland, for in default of
other food it undoubtedly pilfers eggs, and in the small area of
Renfrewshire it has been held responsible for 6,000 eggs in one
year. In Ireland it is common. Numbers from the Continent visit
our east coast (regularly) and our south-west districts (irregularly) in
October and November, and a considerable return migration has
been observed early in the spring.

248 ROOK.

Flocks of Rooks made iheir appearance towards the end of
November 1880 in IceLind, and the Faeroes are sometimes visited.
In Scandinavia — whence, as a rule, this species emigrates in winter — •
it breeds below the line of the fells ; it also nests in Finland on the
frontier of the St. Petersburg district, and eastward, sparingly, as far as
Archangel. During summer it is generally, though somewhat irreg-
ularly distributed throughout the rest of Northern and Central
Europe; nesting southward down to the vicinity of Biarritz in
France, Modena and Venetia in Italy, the Dobrudscha, and the
Crimea; but it is only known as a winter-visitor to the Iberian
Peninsula and the countries in the Mediterranean basin, where,
during summer, the soil is usually too hard to be bored for grubs &c.
It nests in the wooded districts of Northern Persia, Turkestan, and
Siberia as far as the valley of the Irtish ; visiting Afghanistan,
Kashmir, North-western India, and Palestine in winter, at which
season it is also found in Egypt as far south as Memphis, and occa-
sionally in Algeria. In Eastern Siberia, China and Japan the repre-
sentative species is C. pastinator, in v;hich the throat is feathered,
and the plumage purplish-black.

The nest, usually built about the middle of March, and composed
of twigs and turf, with a lining of roots and straw, but seldom — if
ever — any wool, is generally placed in tall trees, but sometimes in
pollard-willows, firs, laurustinus and holly-bushes ; occasionally on
chimney-tops and ornaments of church-spires, and exceptionally on
the ground. In the Orkneys dry tangle and fish-bones are used as
building material. The 3-5 eggs are bluish-green, blotched and
streaked with olive-brown, like those of the Carrion-Crow but
rather smaller: measurements i'6 by 1-15 in. The food consists
chiefly of insects and their larvae, but practically the Rook will eat
anything, and in dry seasons, when protective herbage is scanty, it
not only takes eggs if occasion offers, but hunts for them regularly
and sytematically, like a Crow. Its note is the well-known caw.

In the adult the general plumage is black with a blue gloss ; the
forehead, lores and throat are bare of feathers, and show a greyish
warty skin ; bill, legs and feet black ; inside of mouth slate-coloured.
Length 19 in.; wing 12-65 i"- In the young, until the second
moult, the base of the bill is bristly, as in the Crow, but the bill
itself is more slender, and the inside is deep flesh-colour; the
feathers have greyer bases, and the plumage has a bluish tint. The
bird does not breed until it is nearly two years old. White, pie-
bald and chocolate-brown varieties are not uncommon ; while
curious malformations of the bill have been noticed.

ALAUDID^.

>49

THE SKY-LARK.

Alauda arvensis, Linneeus.

This favourite songster, known also as the Laverock, is distributed
throughout the British Islands (though local in the north of Scot-
land), and is especially abundant in the vicinity of arable or pasture
land. A considerable emigration takes place from the northern
districts in autumn ; and at that season the flocks of our home-bred
birds are augmented by hordes from the Continent, which are some-
times observed arriving on our east coast for days in succession. Li
Ireland a similar invasion from England takes place.

The Sky-Lark only breeds in small numbers in the Faeroes,
but flocks sometimes visit that group of islands in autumn. In
Scandinavia it nests as far north as lat. 70°, but is comparatively
rare beyond the Arctic circle ; while eastward it is found, in suitable
localities, across Russia, Siberia, and Asia generally north of the
Himalayas, as far as the coast of the Pacific, the Kuril and other
islands, and Japan. In winter it visits China, North-western India,
Afghanistan, Persia, Asia Minor, Palestine and Egypt. During the
summer it is found throughout Europe, and even breeds sparsely in
the southern portions of the Spanish Peninsula, while in the north-
west dark-coloured residents are found on the higher grounds. In
autumn a general southward movement takes place, and few Sky-

250 SKY-LARK.

Larks remain on the northern side of the Baltic ; on Heligoland as
many as 15,000 have been caught in a single night, and immense
numbers are taken on passage, as well as in winter, in the south of
Europe. The Sky-Lark visits Northern Africa, where a few breed
on the slopes of the Atlas ; its migrations extending regularly to
the Canaries and occasionally to Madeira. An example was shot
at Hamilton, Bermudas, on June 12th 1850 ; while the importation
of this species to the United States, Australia and New Zealand is
notorious.

The nest, often commenced in the first half of April, and placed
on the ground in ' a hollow among growing crops, or under the
shelter of some tuft, clod of earth &c., is made of dry grass, with a
finer lining of the same. The 3-5 eggs are dull grey, thickly
mottled and often zoned with olive-brown : measurements '94 by
•68 in. Incubation lasts fourteen days, and two broods are generally
produced in the season. The food consists of insects and worms,
with seeds of various kinds during the colder portion of the year,
and some grit to aid digestion. When the germination of wheat
is delayed, and before the leaf is "in two blades," the Sky-Lark
does harm by biting the plantlet ; but sentimental persons who
own no wheat consider the bird's song to be ample compensation
for the injury to farmers. Every one must be familiar with the
rapturous thrill of the Sky-Lark, as, rising from the ground, it soars,
still singing, until almost lost to sight ; but it sometimes utters its
song while on the ground, and, exceptionally, I have seen a bird —
unmistakably of this species and not a Tree-Pipit— giving forth its
joyous carol while swaying in the wind on the topmost branch of a
tree some twenty feet in height. Like other members of the family,
the Sky-Lark is fond of dusting itself to get rid of insect parasites.

The adult in spring has the general plumage of the upper parts
warm yellowish-brown, streaked with dark brown, especially on the
crown and back; over the eye a buffish-white streak; quills dark
brown with buff outer margins and greyish-white tips, bastard
primary very small ; tail-feathers with dark brown centres and tawny
edges, except the outer pair, which are chiefly white, while the
.second pair have white outer webs; under parts bufifish-white,
streaked with dark brown on the throat, breast and flanks ; bill
dark brown above, paler below ; legs yellowish-brown. The dimen-
sions vary greatly: average length 7-3 in. ; wing 4-3 in. The sexes
are alike in plumage, but the female has shorter wings. In the
young bird the feathers are broadly tipped with buff ; in autumn
both young and old have a tawny tint.

ALAUDID^.

251

THE WOOD-LARK.

Alauda arb6rea, Linnaeus.

The Wood-Lark is a locally distributed species in England and
Wales, being chiefly found during the breeding-season on warm,
dry, light soils, especially on undulating ground studded with copses
or plantations. Although nowhere plentiful, it is most frequent in
some of the southern counties, such as Devon, Dorset, Wilts, and
Gloucestershire ; it occurs on the Chiltern Hills, and is also fairly
distributed along the dry, wooded and rising ground on both sides
of the valley of the Thames, as well as over the line of the chalk
formation which runs from Buckinghamshire to West Norfolk and
Suffolk. In the midland counties it is very local, and northward it
gradually becomes scarce ; comparatively few breeding in Yorkshire,
Lancashire, Cumberland and the Lake district. Up to that point
it appears to be a resident in some localities and an irregular
migrant in others, while it is a species which has suffered consider-
ably from the persecutions of bird-catchers and to some extent from
severe winters ; but few records for even the south of Scotland are
authentic, and it may be well to remember that the term "Wood-
Lark " is often misapplied to the Tree-Pipit. In winter considerable
companies are sometimes found in the southern districts of England,
especially in snowy weather, but there does not appear to be any
important immigration from the Continent. In Ireland this species
has bred in cos. Wicklow and Cork.

The Wood-Lark rarely visits Heligoland. In summer it inhabits
the southern portion of Scandinavia, as well as Russia below about

252 WOOD- LARK.

60' N. lat., as far east as the Ural Mountains; while it is common
in France, Belgium, Holland and Germany. It is also found, in
places suited to its habits, in Switzerland, the P)Tenees up to 4,000
feet. Central Spain, and Southern Europe generally, to the Medi-
terranean, Black and Caspian Seas ; its numbers being increased
by accessions from the north in winter. At that season it also visits
Northern Africa and Palestine, while in the former, and probably
in the latter, it breeds on the high ground.

The nest, rather firmly constructed of grass and a little moss,
with fine bents for a lining, is generally placed in a depression of
the ground, sheltered by a low bush or a tuft of grass, but sometimes
in smooth turf. The 4-5 eggs are said by Prof. Newton to be often
laid by the middle of March ; they are white or pale greenish-white,
finely spotted and often boldly zoned with warm brown and violet-
grey : average measurements "83 by ■63 in. They are quite unlike
eggs of the Sky-Lark, rather resembling some of those of the Crested
Lark. Two broods are produced in this country', but on the Con-
tinent the bird does not appear to nest so early as with us ; while
in autumn young and old rove about in family parties. The food
consists principally of insects, supplemented by small seeds and
tender herbage. The sweet and flute-like song, fairly indicated by
the French name " Lu-lu " repeated several times, is very attractive,
and is uttered by day — and not unfrequently by night^almost
throughout the year, except during the moulting season ; the bird
hovering in the air and descending spirally with half-closed wings.
This .species is partial to sandy or light soils, rough and barren hill-
sides sprinkled with bushes, sheep-walks, and stony table-lands.

The adult male resembles the Sky-Lark in the general mottled-
brown colour of its upper parts, but it may always be distinguished
from that species by its smaller size, more pronounced crest, much
shorter tail, more slender bill, and by the very broad buffish-white
stripes which run backward over each eye to the nape, where they
join and show up the dark ear-coverts ; the bastard primary is much
longer than in the Sky-I^rk, and there is a conspicuous triangular
patch of dark brown tipped with bufifish-white on the larger wing-
coverts ; the tail-feathers are chiefly brownish-black with triangular
white tips ; the throat and breast are yellowish-white streaked with
dark brown; belly yellowish-white; legs and feet flesh-brown.
Length 6 in. ; wing 37. The female has shorter wings and shows
less crest ; the young are more rufous and have light buff tips to
their feathers.

ALAUDID.E.

THE CRESTED LARK.

Alauda cristata, Linnaeus.

The Crested Lark is a tolerably common bird just across the
Channel, for instance at Boulogne, Wimereux and Cape Oris Xez
(J. H. Gurney), yet authenticated specimens have seldom been
obtained, even in the south of England. The late Mr. Bond had
an example obtained at Littlehampton, Sussex, pre\-ious to 1845,
and another was taken alive near Shoreham on October 20th 1S63 ;
while in Cornwall, at intenals, four have been killed in autumn and
winter, and one on June 12th iSSo. The late CapL Hadfield's
assertion that one was captured in the Isle of Wight, as well as state-
ments that a bird had been taken from the nest near Cambridge and
that the species had bred near Dover, lack the requisite confirmation.
There are no authentic records from Scotland. In Ireland, a Crested
Lark appears to have been shot in co. Dublin prior to Februar}-
1836, by Sir W. H. Russell, the celebrated war-correspondent.

The Crested Lark flourishes best in warm countries, but it can
bear cold well, though snow interferes with its means of subsistence,
and it is resident in small numbers as far as 6o~ X. laL in Sweden
and Russia. In Denmark, Northern Germany, Holland and Bel-
gium, it becomes more frequent : in the north of France it is fairly
common ; while in Central and Southern Europe it is abundant.

2 54 CRESTED LARK.

especially on dry sandy soils, except in Corsica, Sardinia and Malta,
in which it is nearly unknown. It is numerous in North Africa, and
as far south as Senegal on the west ; but there and elsewhere an
approach to the desert is generally accompanied by a more sandy
tint, and sometimes by an increase of size and a greater develop-
ment of bill. Allowing for these and other climatic variations,
which have led to the fabrication of at least thirty species and sub-
species, the Crested Lark may be said to range eastward from
Morocco to Abyssinia, Arabia, and Northern China.

The nest, often commenced early in March, is usually placed in
some depression of the dry ground, such as a hoof-print, or amongst
herbage, but at times on an old wall or bank of earth, or even on
the ridge of a low thatched shed in the fields ; the materials employed
being dry grass and roots. The eggs, 4-5 in number, vary from
greyish-white distinctly spotted with brown and violet-grey, to
greenish-grey mottled with olive-brown : measurements "95 by "69 in.
Incubation, in which the male takes part, lasts a fortnight. The
Crested Lark is a tame and conspicuous bird, frequenting sandy
roads — in which it is fond of dusting itself — and running with great
rapidity : I have actually seen it glide beneath a horse when at a
slow walk, rather than take wing. Its flight is undulating and
resembles that of the Wood-Lark. The bird is not gregarious, and
is generally seen singly, or in pairs and family parties. The short
but rather liquid, flute-like and melodious song of the male is
generally uttered on the ground, though often during a short flight,
and occasionally from a bush ; the call-note may be syllabled as
coo-hai. The young are fed on insects and their larvae, but seeds
and grain form the principal food of this species, and in snowy
weather it may be seen examining horse-droppings &c.

The general colour of the upper parts is greyish-brown with
darker streaks, and often with a sandy tint ; while the under parts
are buffish-white, with dark streaks on the gorget, and pale brown
markings on the flanks. The characteristics of this species are the
long, drooping, pointed crest, large bastard primary, orange-tawny
hue of the under side of the wing and inner portion of the quill-
feathers, and the absence of white from the tail — the feathers of
which are tawny brown and black. Owing to the shortness of its
tail and wings, the dimensions — length 7 in., wing 4-2 in. — are less
than those of the Sky-Lark, though the bird is rather more bulky.
The female is slightly smaller and darker than the male ; the young
bird has the feathers of the upper parts broadly margined with
white and buff, and fewer spots on the breast.

ALAUDID/E.

255

THE SHORT-TOED LARK.

Alauda brachydactyla, Leisler.

The Short-toed Lark is a rare wanderer to England, and the
authenticated instances of its occurrence appear to be : — one near
Shrewsbury, two near Brighton, one near Southampton, one on the
Scilly Islands, one near Cambridge, and one in South Breydon
Marshes, Norfolk — all in autumn ; and one killed near Brighton in
April 1858 by a person who saw it alight and begin dusting itself
in the road. On July 27th 1888, Mr. Cooper, the taxidermist, of
Radnor Street, E.C., showed me a live bird said to have been taken
at Amberley, Sussex, on the i8th of that month. In Ireland one
was obtained on the Black-rock light-house, co. Mayo, on October
nth 1890, and was sent to Mr. R. M. Barrington in the flesh.

Although this species has been recorded as a visitor to Heligoland,
it can only be considered a straggler to Northern or even Central
Germany, Belgium, or France north of Paris ; but at Blois the late
Sir Edward Newton found it breeding, and it is a regular summer-
visitant to the districts further south, though said to emigrate in
winter. In the Spanish Peninsula it is abundant and — in the
southern portions at least — resident ; it is so also in North-western
Africa, but in the north-east, as far south as Abyssinia, it is only
found in winter and on passage, when it is very numerous, and
occurs in large flocks. To Italy it is only a summer-visitor, although
abundant in the south, but in Malta it is sedentary, and it is found

256 SHORT-TOED LARK.

more or less throughout the year in Greece, Turkey, Southern
Russia, Asia Minor and Palestine ; while further east we trace it to
Persia, Turkestan, the northern half of India, and as far east as
Lake Baikal.

The nest is placed at the foot of a tuft of grass, or in a cavity, such
as a hoof-print ; bleached grass, with a few feathers, wool and hair as
a lining, forming the materials. The 4-5 eggs are dull white, mottled
and freckled with greyish-brown : measurements 78 by '58 in.
During the breeding-season the bird frequents dry and sandy soil,
and plains where the herbage is somewhat scanty ; while its tame-
ness is such as often to cause difficulty in shooting a specimen for
identification without blowing it to pieces, and I have seen a bird
cut down with a whip in the road. The male utters his short and
rather feeble song while perched on some clod or low wall, or during
a brief, undulating, and somewhat jerky flight. In autumn and
winter large flocks are formed, and in India, according to Jerdon,
they darken the air. The food consists principally of small seeds.

The adult has the upper parts pale rufous-brown with darker
streaks ; a white line over each eye ; central tail-feathers dusky-
brown, the rest blackish-brown, except the outer pair which are
broadly margined with buffish-white ; under parts white, with a few
brown spots and streaks on the side of the neck, and a huffish
tinge on the breast and flanks. The short and conical bill is
yellowish-brown ; the legs are pale brown ; the hind claw is straight
and, as a rule, short, but subject to considerable variation. After the
moult both upper and under parts have a warm rufous tint, which is
sometimes retained until the middle of the following IMay. Length
575 in. ; wing 3*5 in. The sexes are alike in plumage. The
young bird has the feathers of the upper parts, including the tail,
broadly margined and tipped with buff.

This Lark is one of a group of allied species which have been
placed by some systematists in the genus Calandrella, characterized
by the absence of crest, a stout conical bill, comparatively short
hind-toe, and an infinitesimal bastard primary. Several of its con-
geners are found over portions of the same area : for instance, Calan-
drella bci'tica in the extreme south of Spain, C. minor in North
Africa and the Canaries, and C. pispoletta in the steppe-region east
of the Volga. These three, however, are more closely related to one
another than to our bird, being distinctly marked with numerous
dark brown streaks on the throat and breast ; their eggs, moreover,
have bold spots on a creamy white ground.

ALAUDID^.

257

WHITE-WINGED LARK.

Alauda sibirica, J. F. Gmelin.

An example of this Eastern species, which had been captured ahve
near Brighton on November 22nd 1869, when associating with a
flock of Snow-Buntings, was recognized on the same day by the late
Mr. G. Dawson Rowley and subsequently exhibited at a meeting of
the Zoological Society. It proved to be a female, and is now in the
collection of Mr. T. J. Monk of Lewes.

An occasional visit from the White-winged Lark is not surprising,
for three specimens have already been obtained in Belgium : one in
October 1855 near Liege, another at Malines (or Mechlin) in 1856,
and a third near Namur. On Heligoland one was taken on August
2nd 1 88 1, and, although the occurrence of this species is not yet
authenticated in Northern Germany, its visits to Poland and Galizia
are not infrequent ; while stragglers have been recorded — always on
the autumn migration — from Trent in Tyrol, as well as Verona and
Bergamo in Italy. On the 'black-earth' plains of Russia as far
north as Saratov on the Volga this Lark is a common breeding
species, and it visits Southern Russia and portions of Turkey in
winter ; while eastward, it can be traced through the Kirghis steppes
to the Altai Mountains, and as far north as to Omsk on the Irtish.

X

258 WHITE-WINGED LARK.

The nest, generally built early in May, is placed on the ground,
sheltered under a tussock of grass, and the 3-5 eggs are yellowish-
white, spotted and mottled with several shades of brown and violet-
grey : measurements '95 by "65 in. In Russia the bird does not
arrive until after the grass is green, and, according to Eversmann,
prefers those portions of the steppes which are most clothed with
herbage ; while Pallas, who was the first to observe this species on
the banks of the Irtish, describes it as frequenting the road-sides
and uttering its song — similar to that of the Skylark but shorter —
when hovering at a moderate height from the ground. During the
cold season it is found in large flocks and is very tame. The food
is probably similar to that of other Larks.

The adult male has the top of the head and ear-coverts pale
chestnut ; lores and eye-stripe dull white ; back tawny-brown, with
dark stripes down the centre of each feather ; upper wing-coverts
chestnut, the rest rufous-brown ; outer quills dull brown, the inner
primaries and the secondaries chiefly white (exhibiting a large and
conspicuous bar or patch) ; tail-coverts and central tail-feathers
broadly edged with chestnut, the outer pair of tail-feathers white
and the rest chiefly dark brown ; under parts white, with brown and
rufous spots on the throat, gorget and flanks ; under wing-coverts
white ; bill horn-colour ; legs yellowish-brown. Length 7 in. ;
wing 4-6 in. The female is smaller (wing 4-2 in.), with hardly a
tinge of rufous on her brown streaked crown, and little on the
wings, tail or breast. After the autumn moult the plumage is
tinged with buff. The young resemble the female. The chestnut
tint, white wing-patch, and white under-wing-coverts are sufficiently
distinctive of this species.

The White-winged, the Calandra, and other stout-billed Larks
have been placed in several genera, the favourite one being Melano-
corypha ; but that name is, at best, misleading, for the Calandra,
which is the type, has not a black crown, nor would it be easy to
define the characters which distinguish that genus from Cala7tdrella.

Two examples of the Calandra Lark, Alauda calandra, said to
have been killed in England, have been recognized in the shops of
bird-stuffers at Devonport and Exeter respectively ; but the evidence
is not sufficient to warrant the introduction to the British list of
a species which is very tolerant of confinement and one of the
commonest cage-birds in Spain and Italy.

ALAUDID.I-:.

259

THE SHORE-LARK.

Otocorys alpestris (Linnaeus).

The Shore-Lark was first noticed as a visitor to England in
March 1830, when one was obtained on the coast of Norfolk.
Subsequently the species occurred, at irregular and sometimes
long intervals on the eastern and southern shores of England
(seldom on the western side) until the winter of 1869-70, when a
considerable visitation took place, chiefly along the east coast.
From that time onward, especially in 1879-80 and 1882-83, i^-^
numbers have considerably increased, and autumnal arrivals on the
coast of Yorkshire are almost annual, while some birds remain
throughout the winter, and examples have been obtained on the
northward migration in spring as late as April 22nd. In Scotland,
where the first specimen was shot in East Lothian by the late
Mr. W. W. Evans on January loth 1859, this species has occurred
as far north as St. Andrews, but not on the west coast ; while from
Ireland it is as yet unauthenticated.

The present species, a member of a well-defined and widely-
distributed genus, has undoubtedly spread westward from America
in recent times, and is still extending its range in that direction. In
the Old World it now passes the summer in the northern regions
(or those elevated above the limits of forest-growth) of Scandinavia,
Finland and Russia, Kolguev, Novaya Zemlya, Franz Josef Land, and
Siberia to the Sea of Okhotsk. On migration it occurs irregularly
throughout the greater part of Europe, and occasionally down to the

X 2

26o SHORE-LARK.

Black and Mediterranean Seas, though not recorded up to the
present from the Spanish Peninsula ; while eastward, it descends to
Baikalia, Mongolia and Northern China. The area between Bosnia
and the Altai Mountains is inhabited by a recognizable species,
O. petticillata, in which the black on the ear-coverts joins the black
on the throat ; while a paler Tibetan form has been distinguished as
O. lortgirostris. In the desert region betvveen Morocco and Arabia
Petrsea there is a resident and well-marked tawny species, O. hilopka.
Our bird occurs in Greenland, and the eastern portions of Arctic
America, but, according to American trinomialists, no fewer than
eleven sub-species are distributed over the remainder of the Western
Continent ; while O. peregrina inhabits the high lands of Colombia.
The nest, slightly made of grass and plant-stalks, with willow-
down and reindeer-hair for a lining, is placed in some hollow of
the ground, or among stones on a hillside. The eggs, 4-5 in
number, are greenish-white, minutely freckled and often boldly
zoned with olive-brown, and occasionally scrolled with black hair-
lines : measurements "9 by '63 in. Breeding often begins in Nor-
way and Lapland by the middle of May, and two broods are
produced during the season. In autumn small flocks are formed,
which rove about in search of food, principally seeds, though in
summer beetles and other insects are eaten ; the Shore- Lark is also
partial to the small molluscs and crustaceans found on the sea-
shore. It is a tame and confiding species, frequently entering the
streets of towns and villages in the north of Europe, and up to the
end of June it may be heard uttering its pleasant and rather mellow
song from some post, rail or barn-top, or while hovering in the air.

The adult male has the lores and cheeks black ; throat, forehead,
and the eye-stripe enclosing the ear-coverts and joining the throat,
yellowish-white ; across the front of the crown a black band, termi-
nating in an erectile tuft of black feathers on each side of the
head ; nape and mantle pinkish-brown ; wing-coverts tipped with
white, quills brown ; middle tail-feathers warm brown, the rest
nearly black, with whitish margins to the outer pair ; upper breast
broadly banded with black ; under parts dull white, with brown
streaks on the flanks ; bill greyish-black ; legs black. Length 7 in. ;
wing 4-3 in. The female is smaller (wing barely 4 in.), with less
black on the head \ the erectile tufts are wanting, and her general
colour is duller. The young male resembles the female ; the nest-
ling is dark brown mottled with buff, but the black ear-patches are
conspicuous. In the adults after the moult the feathers on the
head are much tinged with yellow.

CYPSELID.^.

261

THE SWIFT.

Cypselus apus (Linnaeus).

The Swifts, with which we enter upon the Order Picarl«, were
formerly placed among the Passeres, and close to the Swallows ;
but it is now generally admitted that in spite of a similarity in
habits and appearance, the Swifts have as little structural affinity
with the latter as with any other Passerine family. They have no
true song-muscles, and their note is a harsh scream. Their powerful
wings are very long ; while their four toes are directed forward,
and, though well adapted for clinging, are so small that walking is
difficult. Contrary, however, to the popular belief, birds sometimes
succeed in raising themselves from fairly level ground.

The Swift, often called " Screecher " and " Deviling," is an
abundant migrant to the British Islands. It usually makes its
appearance in the south towards the end of April ; but Prof.
Newton and his brother, the late Sir Edward Newton, observed a
Swift near Lowestoft as early as March 26th 1897. The majority
have taken their departure by the end of August, but laggards have
been recorded up to October, November and even December ist.

262 SWIFT.

To the extreme north of Scotland this species is somewhat
irregular in its visits, and it is only seen occasionally in the Orkneys
and Shetlands ; while on the west side it is not numerous in the
Inner Hebrides and is rare in Skye, as well as in the Outer group.
To Ireland it is a regular visitor, and, though uncommon in some
parts of the west, it is plentiful in Mayo and Sligo.

To the Faeroes the Swift is an occasional visitor, but it is found in
Scandinavia up to 70^ N. lat, and in Russia as far as Archangel.
In Asia it breeds to the north of the Western Himalayas ; while on
migration it visits the Punjab and has occurred in the Andaman
Islands. A pale race inhabits Mongolia and Northern China ;
between India and Tunisia the white-rumped C. affinis seems to
be resident ; in portions of Northern Africa our bird is either asso-
ciated with or represented by the Pallid Swift, which visits Southern
Spain and the Canaries ; and the latter islands are also inhabited by
the smaller and darker C. iinicolor. Throughout Europe our Swift
is abundant in summer, often arriving in the sunny south early in
March, though not until June in Lapland ; while on migration it
visits Madagascar and the extreme south of Africa, and is said to
breed in Natal.

Holes under the eaves of cottages and other buildings, church
towers, crevices in sea-cliffs, quarries, chalk-pits, as well as hollow
trees, are the sites selected by the Swift for breeding ; and to these
it returns year after year. A few bits of straw and grass, with some
feathers, collected on the wing and glued together by the viscous
secretion of the bird, form its usual nest, but it sometimes robs
of their dwellings Martins, House-Sparrows, and even Starlings.
The eggs, laid late in May or early in June, are 2 in number, and
when more are found in the same nest, they may be the produce
of two females ; they are oval, rough in texture, and dead-white :
measurements i in. by -65 in. Incubation lasts eighteen days, and
as a rule only one brood is produced in the season ; backward
young being abandoned by their parents when the time arrives for
emigration. Insects taken on the wing form the food, and the
indigestible portions are rejected in the shape of pellets. The wild,
screeching note is sometimes startling when uttered by birds
sweeping by at lightning speed, and often in the worst of weather,
for the Swift seems to revel in the storm.

The plumage of the adults is a bronzed blackish-brown, with a
small greyish patch under the chin ; bill, toes and claws blackish.
Length (to the tip of the tail) 6-75 in. ; wing 6-8 in. The young
have more white on the throat, and paler margins to the feathers.

CYPSELID^.

263

THE ALPINE SWIFT.

Cypselus melba (Linnccus).

This large Swift was first noticed as one of our occasional visitors
about midsummer 1829, when one was shot off the coast of
Ireland ; and since that time three or four more have been
obtained, at long intervals, in that island. Upwards of a score of
instances are on record from various parts of England : mostly from
the southern half, though one of them occurred as far north
as Alnmouth in Northumberland. No captures have as yet been
made in Scotland. With the exception of a bird taken near Dublin
in March 1833, the occurrences authenticated have been between
June and October ; and for several reasons, coupled with the fact
that I once captured an example on board ship in the Bay of Biscay
early in August, I incline to the belief that the birds which come to
us are from the Pyrenees or the Cantabrian range.

The Alpine Swift is a very rare visitor to Heligoland, Germany,
and the north of France, although it breeds no further off than the
cliffs at Nolay on the western frontier of Burgundy. It also nests
sparsely in the Vosges and the Jura; while in some parts of Savoy, and
more plentifully in Switzerland, it annually resorts to high crags and
towers, arriving at the end of April and leaving in September or
October. All the high mountains of Central and Southern Europe
are frequented by it during the summer ; as well as the ranges
of North Africa, Asia Minor, Palestine, Persia, Turkestan, and India
as far east as Assam. In the cold season, and during a considerable

264 ALPINE SWIFT.

portion of the year, it is found in Ceylon ; also in suitable situations
down to the extreme south of Africa, where it is supposed, though
not yet proved, to breed.

A new spire now (1897) replaces the old tower of the cathedral at
Berne, where many ornithologists have studied the breeding-habits
of the Alpine Swift ; but several places in that city still afford suit-
able resorts, while there are many such in Friburg, the cliffs of Mont
Saleve, and other localities. "The nests are circular, substantial,
saucer-like structures, built up of sticky mud, and further welded
together by the birds' saliva, bound with straw, bents of grass,
pieces of paper and morsels of cloth" (J. H. Gurney, Tr. Norw.
Soc. vi., p. 258). I believe that the eggs are normally 2 in
number, but as 3 and 4 are sometimes found, perhaps two birds lay
in the same nest ; the colour is dead-white : measurements i '2 in. by
■77 in. May 20th is the earliest date on which I have found eggs.
The Rev. H. A. Macpherson noticed some green grass in many of
the nests. Only one brood is reared in the season ; the male and
female taking turns in the duties of incubation. The food consists
of insects : among these the pernicious Tabaniis bovinus. The note
is louder than that of the Common Swift, and the flight is more
powerful ; while the large size, browner colour and white belly are
distinctive characters.

Excepting a blackish patch in front of the eye, the upper parts,
sides of the neck, gorget and under tail-coverts are of a nearly
uniform mouse-brown, with a metallic lustre on the wings and tail ;
throat and belly white ; bill black ; feet brown ; length (from the tip
of the bill to the end of the tail) 8 in. ; wing 8"45 in. The sexes are
alike in plumage. In the young the feathers are slightly margined
with greyish-white.

The vignette below represents the breastbone and foot of the
Common Swift.

CYPSELID.E.

265

THE NEEDLE-TAILED SWIFT.

AcANTHYLLis CAUDACUTA (Latham).

An example of this Asiatic species was shot at Great Horkesley,
near Colchester, on July 8th 1846, having frequented that neigh-
bourhood for two days, and was examined in the flesh by Doubleday
and Yarrell. The latter did not include it in his 3rd Edition of
' British Birds,' being probably under the impression — then generally
prevalent — that the species was a native of Australia, to which it is
now known to be merely a winter-visitor. On July 26th or 27th
1879, another specimen was obtained near Ringwood, in Hampshire,
having for a few days before been seen flying with a companion over
the river Avon by Mr. Corbin, on whose behalf the specimen was
exhibited by Prof. Newton at a meeting of the Zoological Society.

This fine Swift has not yet been noticed in any other part of
Europe, and its western breeding-limits are probably in the moun-
tains to the south of Krasnoiarsk, in the upper valley of the Yenesei,
whence Seebohm received specimens. The late General Prjevalsky
found it in summer up to 62° N. at Yakutsk on the Lena ; while it
is moderately abundant round Lake Baikal, and rather plentiful on

266

NEEDLE-TAILED SWIFT.

the Amur River, as well as about Lake Hanka, near Vladivostok, on
the Sea of Japan. It is also met with in Mongolia, Manchuria, and
the mountains of the Chinese Empire ; while in the cold season it
migrates as far as Eastern Australia and Tasmania. It is said to
return to its breeding-quarters about the end of April or early in
May ; departing for the south in August and September ; and
Prjevalsky has described its bands as passing overhead in an almost
incessant stream at the time of the autumn migration in Mongolia.
In the Himalayas and Assam the representative species is A. nudipes.

Several pairs are stated by the above-mentioned Russian explorer
to breed in close proximity, the nests being placed in cliffs, or in
hollow trees ; the eggs are probably white. The food consists of
insects ; the note is described as feeble ; while all observers agree in
eulogizing the unrivalled vigour of the bird's flight. Gould remarks
that the keel of the breast in this species is more than ordinarily
deep, and that the pectoral muscles are more developed than in any
bird of the same weight with which he was acquainted.

The adult has the forehead dull white ; crown, nape and sides of
the head dusky black, with a greenish gloss ; back dusky brown, paler
in the middle ; wing-coverts and secondaries bottle-green ; inner
secondaries chiefly white on the inner webs ; primaries blackish ;
tail-feathers bottle-green, with projecting spinous shafts; throat, breast
and under tail-coverts white ; belly sooty-brown ; lower flanks white,
mixed with glossy blue-black ; bill black ; legs and feet dark brown,
with one claw directed backwards : in which respect birds of this
genus differ from the true Swifts. Length 8 in. ; wing S'l in.

The vignette below represents the head and left foot of the Night-
jar, the next species.

CAPRIMULGID^.

267

THE NIGHTJAR.

Caprlmulgus europ.'EUS, Linnaeus.

The Nightjar is the latest of our regular summer migrants to
arrive, and is seldom noticed before the middle of May ; while it
usually leaves us in September, though it has been known to remain
until November in the mild south-west of England. Uncultivated
ground more or less covered with ferns, gorse or heather, and
the cool shade of woodland glades, are its favourite haunts, and
the species is consequently local ; but it is distributed as far as
the northern extremity of the mainland of Scotland, as well as in
the western islands, except the Outer Hebrides, to which, as to the
Orkneys and Shetlands, it is only an irregular visitor. In Ireland it
is rather common in some of the southern and central counties, but
rare in the north and west.

The Nightjar sometimes visits the Freroes, and in Scandinavia it
has been found nesting up to about 63^ N. lat; but in Russia it has
a less extensive range, while eastward it does not reach beyond
Lake Baikal in Siberia. Throughout the summer it is found over
the greater part of Europe, down to the elevated districts of Spain ;
but in the south of that country (though common on passage early
in May, and obtained as late as December nth), its place is chiefly

268 NIGHTJAR.

occupied by the Red-necked Nightjar, C. ruficoUis. On migration
from Africa our Nightjar crosses Malta, where large numbers are
shot for the table in spring. It breeds on the high grounds of Asia
Minor, Palestine, Persia, Turkestan, and Afghanistan — where its
plumage shows a tendency to paleness ; and it also nests on the
mountains of North Africa, while in winter it is found in that Con-
tinent down to Natal, as well as in Arabia and North-western India.

From May 23rd onward the eggs, 2 in number, may be found on
the bare ground or short moss, and often on dead gorse-needles in
open patches among furze. They are oblong and equally rounded
at each end ; and creamy-white, marbled and veined with brownish-
black and lilac-grey : measurements i -2 by "85 in. Fresh eggs have
been found as late as August 12th. Incubation lasts eighteen days.
The nestlings, at first covered with a thick greyish down, sometimes
display a precocious activity approaching that of the young of
Gallinaceous and other ground-breeding birds ; but they are depen-
dent upon their parents for food, and do not attempt to feed
themselves in confinement. The Nightjar lives entirely upon insects,
and these it may be seen to take upon the wing in the twilight or
when the moon is shining, though it hawks for them on dark nights as
well ; it is not, however, averse to light, and is fond of basking where
the rays of the sun fall. The wings are sometimes brought into con-
tact and produce a loud clap ; the male also utters a sharp whistle
during flight, as well as a bubbling note, while the well-known,
vibrating churr is emitted while the bird is stationary ; the female's
note is chuck. When reposing on a branch the bird sits lengthways,
with the head level with or lower than the tail ; the use of the
pectinated claw has yet to be determined. From early times and in
almost every European language the Nightjar has been stigmatized
by some name equivalent to "Goat-sucker"; in England it is known
by the equally unfortunate designation of " Night-hawk," as well as
" Dor-Hawk," " P^ern-owl " and " Churn-owl."

In the adult male the general plumage is ashy-grey, streaked,
spotted and barred with dark brown and warm buff ; on the throat
are some white patches ; near the centre of each of the three outer
primaries are well-developed white spots ; and the two lateral pairs
of tail-feathers are broadly tipped with white. These pure white
spots on the wings and tail are wanting in the female, and her
tints are less rufous. Length 10-5 in. ; wing 7-55 in. In the young
the pectination of the claw of the middle toe is not pronounced, and
the wing- and tail-spots in the male have a buffish tint. Albinisms
are occasionally obtained.

CAPRIMULGIDiE. 269

THE RED-NECKED NIGHTJAR.

Caprimul(;us ruficollis, Temminck,

A freshly-killed example of this southern species was recognized
in the flesh by that eminent ornithologist, the late John Hancock,
in the shop of Mr. Pape, at Newcastle, on October 6th 1856. It
was stated to have been shot the previous day at Killingworth, and
is now in the Newcastle Museum.

Up to the present time the Red-necked Nightjar has not been
noticed elsewhere in Northern Europe ; but in Languedoc and Pro-
vence, in the south-east of France, it has been obtained on several
occasions. Though not yet recorded from the mainland of Italy,
one was taken at Spalato, Dalmatia, in March 1875, and Mr.
C. A. ^Vright has mentioned two captures in Malta during May, in
different years. In summer this species is common in the southern
half of the Spanish Peninsula, where it frequents the cool chequered
shade of the woods during the greater part of the day ; it is also
said to be a regular visitor to some of the Canary Islands ; while
eastward it is found throughout North Africa as far as Tunisia.

The eggs, 2 in number, are placed on the bare ground, and
resemble those of our Common Nightjar ; on average they are less
boldly marked, and are also a trifle larger, as might be expected
from the superior size of the bird. I am not aware of any distinctive
points deserving mention as regards the food and habits.

In general pattern of coloration the Red-necked Nightjar resembles
the preceding species, but its tint is paler, and is more rufous on the
wings as well as the under parts ; a conspicuous tawny collar encir-
cles the head, and the throat exhibits large white patches ; the white
spots on the three outer primaries increase in size with the age of the
bird, and are small and tinged with buff in the young. These
patches are not confined to the male, as they are in our Nightjar,
but are common to both sexes, and there is no perceptible difference
in plumage ; the two lateral pairs of tail-feathers are broadly tipped
with white. Length 12 in. ; wing 7 "8 in.

It has not been considered necessary to give an illustration of
this rare visitor, nor would a wood-cut do justice to its distinctive
charat;ters. Coloured illustrations are in Gould's ' Birds of Great
Britain,' Mr. Dresser's ' Birds of Europe,' and the late Lord Lilford's
' Coloured Figures of the Birds of the British Islands.'

270 CAPRIMULGID.1-:.

THE EGYPTIAN NIGHTJAR.

Caprimulous .t:GVPTius, Lichtenstein.

On June 23rd 1883 a gamekeeper in the employ of Mr. J.
Whitaker. of Rainworth Lodge, near Mansfield in Nottinghamshire,
shot a Nightjar, the light colour of which attracted his attention ;
and on his mentioning the fact to his master, who takes a special
interest in albinisms and pale varieties, the bird, which had mean-
while undergone very rough treatment and then been thrown aside,
was submitted to competent authorities. It proved to be an exam-
ple of the Egyptian or Isabelline Nightjar (Zool. 1883, p. 374).

The occurrence of this south-eastern species in Europe is not
unprecedented ; Seebohm having discovered in Heligoland a
specimen (now in the Gatke collection) which was shot on
June 22nd 1875, and had been passed over as a pale variety
of the Common Nightjar. Subsequently Professor Giglioli recog-
nized in the Museum of the University of Malta, three examples
obtained in 1876 ; while in Sicily a bird, which was probably an
Egyptian Nightjar, was shot at Girgenti, and an undoubted speci-
men was obtained at Modica in 1879. The breeding-places of this
species are the sandy parts of Trans-Caspia, Turkestan, Baluchistan,
Egypt, Nubia and Tunisia ; to which Dr. A. Koenig has recently
added the district of Biskra, in Eastern Algeria. The winter-
quarters of this species appear to be still further south.

An egg, taken near Biskra on April 14th 1892, is figured by Dr.
Kcenig in the Journal fiir Ornithologie for 1896, pi. vi. fig. 2. It
measures 1-22 by -86 in. and is greyish-white, with faint lavender
mottlings. ^'on Heuglin says that 2 eggs form the complement, and
are placed in a depression in the sand or under a low shrub. The
old bird sits very closely and rises unwillingly, often running with
puffed-out throat from one bush to another, uttering meanwhile a
curious note. Captain Shelley found flocks in Egypt in spring and
autumn, and it would appear that the sexes separate on migration.

The plumage of the adult is sandy-grey finely marked with black,
the pattern being generally the same as in the Common Nightjar ;
there are, however, no white spots on the upper surface of the tail
or wings, but the inside webs of the primaries are pure white.
Length io'5 in. ; wing 8"i in.

For the reasons mentioned on the preceding page, I have not
considered it expedient to give a wood-cut of this species ; it is well
figured in Mr. Dresser's ' Birds of Europe,' vol. iv. pi. 262.

lYNGINiE.

271

THE WRYNECK.

Iynx torqui'lla, Linnaeus.

This bird resembles the Nightjars in its delicately pencilled
plumage, though allied to the Woodpeckers in its structure. It is
a regular spring-visitor to England, sometimes arriving in the south
by the middle of March, though usually about the first half of April;
whence the names " Cuckoo's-mate " or " Cuckoo's-leader," which
have their equivalent in several European languages. In the south-
eastern counties it is more numerous than in the west, while it is
rare in Wales ; Lancashire has seldom been visited by it of late
years, and to Cumberland it is now merely a straggler ; in Yorkshire
and Durham it is very local, and it becomes rare in Northumberland.
Statements that it has nested in Scotland require confirmation, but
at intervals it has been known to occur in Caithness, the Orkneys,
and the Shetlands ; while it visits the entire east coast on the spring
and autumn migrations. In Ireland it has been taken in co. Water-
ford in October 1877 ; on Aran Island, off Galway Bay, on October
6th 1886 ; in co. Wicklow, May 1895 ; at Rockabill in September
1896, and probably in Donegal in October 1878. By the latter part
of September it has usually left England for the south, but there are
assertions that the bird has been seen and heard in winter.

272 WRYNECK.

The Wryneck has been known to visit the Faroes. In Scandi-
navia and Finland it has been found up to about 64° N. lat., and in
Russia it visits Archangel ; but across Siberia to Kamchatka its
range does not extend so far north. In summer it inhabits the
Japanese islands, as well as suitable localities on the mainland of
Asia down to the Himalayas and the Altai Mountains ; while in the
cold season it visits India and Burma. In Africa its winter-quarters
extend to Kordofan on the east and Senegambia on the west, but
it appears probable that a limited number go no further than Algeria.
Some may even remain in the south of Europe, where, however, the
bird is chiefly known on passage ; in summer it is generally distri-
buted over the rest of the Continent.

About the middle of May the Wryneck makes use of any con-
venient hole in a tree, at no great height, or occasionally in an earth-
cutting or sandbank. The eggs are usually from 7-10 in number,
but the bird has been induced to go on laying until, as recorded by
Mr. Frank Norgate, the maximum of 4 2 was reached ; they are pure
white, rather larger, less glossy, and thinner in shell than those of
the Lesser Spotted Woodpecker : measurements "8 by "6 in. When
disturbed, the sitting bird makes a loud hissing, calculated to induce
the belief that a snake is concealed in the hole — a practice which
has led to the popular name of " Snake-bird " ; it also erects the
feathers of the head and twists its neck in a way which is equally
characteristic of the above name ; while, when taken in the hand, it
will often feign death. Its loud note, which somewhat resembles
that of a Kestrel, and may be syllabled as qui, qui, qui, or /«>', pay,
pay, is heard from the time of the bird's arrival until midsummer.
The food consists almost entirely of insects, many of which are
obtained on the trunks and branches of trees : chiefly of ants
and their pupae, sought on the ground, the bird shooting with
marvellous velocity its long, retractile, vermiform tongue (covered
with a glutinous secretion) into ant-hills. In autumn the Wryneck
is said to eat elder-berries. In its habits it is skulking and unob-
trusive ; its flight is short and undulating.

The general colour of the upper parts is variegated grey and rufous-
brown, streaked on the nape, back and scapulars, with brownish-
black ; quills dark brown, with buff bars on the outer webs ; tail-
feathers soft at the tips, greyish-brown with darker bars ; throat
warm buff, with narrow black bars ; breast and flanks dull white,
with small spots and bars. Length 7 in. ; wing 3-4 in. The female
is rather smaller and duller in plumage than the male ; the young
are more strongly marked with blackish-brown on the under parts.

PICIN^.

273

''\ :n%\

THE GREEN WOODPECKER.

Gecinus viridis (Linnffius).

This largest and best known of our British Woodpeckers occurs
in most of the wooded districts of England as far north as
Lancashire and Yorkshire ; beyond which it becomes rare, being
only occasionally found breeding in Durham, Northumberland,
Westmoreland or Cumberland. Across the Solway it is said to
have been killed in Kirkcudbrightshire, but other records from
Scotland require confirmation ; a bird is said to have been seen at
Kirkwall, Orkney, in July 1885. In Ireland — where all the Wood-
peckers are uncommon — this species has only twice been obtained
up to 1898. Even in England it is often unaccountably local, and
has decreased of late years without any assignable reason in some
districts, while, on the other hand, it has become common in the
extreme west of Cornwall, without reference to trees or woodlands
(Rodd). In Wales it is abundant in Pembrokeshire, and fairly
numerous further north.

In Norway the Green Woodpecker breeds up to about 63° N. lat. :

Y

2 74 GREEN WOODPECKER.

but in Sweden and in the islands of the Baltic it does not range so
far north ; in Russia, it is very rare about St. Petersburg and is
uncommon in the forests of the central provinces, though it reaches
the Urals. In Denmark it is scarce, and in Heligoland it has only
once been taken ; but southward it is generally distributed through-
out most of Europe down to Turkey, as well as in the Caucasus,
Asia Minor and North Persia ; it is, however, very local in Greece,
unknown in Sardinia and Corsica, and rare in Sicily, though
common on the mainland of Italy. It is abundant in the French
Pyrenees, but in the Iberian Peninsula its representative is the grey-
cheeked G. sharpli, which links our bird to G. vaillaiiti of North
Africa (with no red on the lower cheek-patch of the male), and, less
closely, to G. canus of the Continent (the male of which has little
red on the head, while the female has none).

Early in April an old abode is occasionally utilized, but usually
a new circular hole is hewn in a trunk or branch of some tree
whose wood is not necessarily decayed ; the excavation running
horizontally till the heart is reached, and then turning downwards
for a short distance, when it is enlarged to form a suitable
receptacle for the 5-7 pure glossy white eggs, slightly pyriform
in shape : measurements i "3 by "88 in. The discarded chips of
wood are rarely removed from below, and often serve to indicate
the position of the nest. The note most frequently heard is the
loud laughing pleu, pleu, pleu, popularly supposed to foretell rain,
for which reason " Rainbird " is a common name in some parts, as
well as "Yaffle" and " Woodwale." In search of timber-haunting
beetles, spiders and other insects, this ^^'oodpecker may be seen
climbing obliquely up some trunk or branch with short jerking
movements, assisted by the stiff-pointed feathers of the tail, until,
on arriving at the top, it passes with dipping flight to some other
tree ; it also feeds to a great extent on ants in summer, and on
other ground-insects during the great part of the year, while it has
been said to eat nuts and acorns.

The upper plumage of the male is chiefly olive-green, shading
into yellow on the rump : under parts pale greyish-green ; crown
and nape crimson ; lores black ; on each lower cheek an elongated
patch of crimson edged with black. Length 12-5 in. ; wing 6-4 in.
The female has less crimson on the head, and the cheek-patches
are black. In the young the under parts are barred. The nestling
is mottled on the back, and profusely spotted with arrow-headed
markings on the under parts.

PICIN/t. 275

'I

GREAT SPOTTED WOODPECKER.

Dendrocopus major (Linnaeus).

The Great Spotted Woodpecker is often supposed to be rarer
than it really is, in consequence of its retiring nature and its habit
of confining itself to the higher branches of trees ; but nowhere in
the British Islands can it be considered abundant. It is, however,
fairly distributed throughout the wooded portions of England, and
though naturally rare in the treeless parts of Cornwall, and scarce in
Wales (where it is increasing in Brecon), it is not infrequent in
many of the southern and midland counties. North of Durham it
becomes rare as a breeding species ; and in Scotland, where it
formerly nested up to the Moray basin, it has only recently been
found breeding in the south-east. Unlike our other Woodpeckers,
this species is an irregular migrant from the Continent, and occurs
in autumn from the Shetlands and Orkneys southward, especially
along the east coast : sometimes in considerable numbers. In
Ireland it is not known to breed, but examples have been obtained
at long intervals ; several having been taken in the autumn of 1886,
one in February 1887, many in 1889, and one in 1890.

This Woodpecker has wandered to the Faroes, and is the only

276 GREAT SPOTTED WOODPECKER.

member of the family which regularly visits Heligoland in autumn ;
doubtless on its migration from Scandinavia, where it breeds up to
70" N. lat. In Russia it is common up to about 64° N. lat. ; and,
allowing for an increase in the extent or purity of white in its
plumage, this species can be traced to the Sea of Japan. Between
the Persian Gulf and the Mediterranean other forms are observed,
which show in addition a tendency to develop a crimson band
on the breast — a coloration which reaches its highest point in
D. numidiciis of North Africa ; though Continental and even British
examples sometimes exhibit distinct signs of a red pectoral band.
In the Canaries our northern form occurs.

The nesting-hole, smaller than that made by the preceding species,
is generally hacked out in a similar manner ; but, according to good
authorities, a natural cavity in a dead branch is sometimes prolonged
and utilized, and several holes are often cut out before the bird is
satisfied. The 6-7 eggs, laid on the bare wood about the middle of
May, are creamy-white in colour, and in shape rather less pyriform
than those of the Green Woodpecker : measurements "98 by 75 in.
Both sexes take part in incubation, which lasts about a fortnight.
It has been noticed in captivity that this bird descends by a series
of jerks with the tail downwards, but in the wild state the mode of
progression is usually diagonally or spirally upwards. The food
consists of insects and their larvae, but in autumn the berries of
the mountain-ash, nuts, acorns &c. are eaten. The note is a sharp
keek or gick, and sometimes a low, reiterated tra, but the male often
makes a loud vibrating noise by rapidly hammering with his bill on
the bark of a tree.

The male has the upper parts chiefly black ; forehead dull white ;
cheeks and ear-coverts white : nape crimson ; scapulars white ;
wing-feathers barred with white on the outer webs; under parts dull
white ; vent crimson. Length 9-4 in. ; wing 5-5 in. The female is
slightly smaller and has no red on the head. The young of both
sexes have the crotvn of the head red. In ignorance of this fact,
a bird obtained in the Shetlands during the migration of 1861
was supposed by Saxby to be the Middle Spotted Woodpecker,
D. viedius, and was afterwards figured by Gould as the White
backed Woodpecker, D. kuconotus ; but it has been pronounced by
Prof. Newton and other authorities to be a slightly albescent
D. major !

An example of the American Hairy \Voodpecker, D. villosus, is
said to have been obtained in Yorkshire more than a century ago,
and another near Whitby in 1849.

PrCIN/E.

277

"^ \t\^v ^^''

THE LESSER SPOTTED WOODPECKER.

Dendrocopus minor (Linnceus).

Owing to its small size and its partiality for tall trees, such as
elms and poplars, this little " Barred " Woodpecker frequently
escapes observation ; but, though less widely distributed than the
preceding species, it is the more numerous in many parts of the
southern half of England; being, in fact, rather common near
London and along the valley of the Thames, as well as in the
midlands, especially Northamptonshire. In Yorkshire it becomes
scarce and very local, as it is in Wales ; while in Lancashire and
more northern counties it is extremely rare. Mr. Service informs
me that three examples have been obtained in the Solway district,
at long intervals, since i860. In L'eland only six or seven occur-
rences are on record ; and none of them are recent.

In Scandinavia the Lesser Spotted Woodpecker breeds as far
north as lat. 70°, while in Russia it is found up to Archangel and to
lat. 67° in the valleys of the Petchora and the Ob; though eastward,
to the Pacific, its northerly range is rather less extensive. Forms
which vary slightly from the type are found in Kamchatka, Japan,
and Northern China, but their southern limits in Asia are as yet
undefined ; while in Asia Minor another occurs, and yet another in
the Caucasus. Our bird is generally distributed throughout the
greater part of Europe ; but, though common in Southern Russia

278 LESSER SPOTTED WOODPECKER.

and Turkey, yet in other parts of the south it is either comparatively
rare or has been overlooked. There also it is to a considerable extent
a migrant, but in the Azores, strange to sa}', it is a resident.

The nest-hole is often made in the highest branches of poplars
and other tall trees, but sometimes at very moderate elevations in
oaks, chestnut- and fruit-trees, hawthorns, or pollard willows. The
6-7 eggs, laid about the middle of May, resemble those of the
Wryneck ; but their texture is more ivory-like and their colour more
creamy-white, while they are slightly smaller: measurements 75 by
•57 in. The food consists almost entirely of timber-haunting
insects. The usual note is an often repeated keek, but the male
further produces a vibrating noise like that made by the preceding
species. In flight and general habits this bird hardly differs from
its congener, except perhaps in its extreme restlessness.

The adult male has the forehead buff; crown of the head pale
crimson ; nape and lower cheek-stripe black ; cheeks white ; upper
parts black, broadly barred with white ; central tail-feathers black,
the rest black barred with white ; under parts buffish-white, with
black streaks on the flanks. Length 6 in. ; wing 37 in. In the female
the crown is whitish instead of crimson, and the under parts are
more striated. The young male has a crimson crown, as in the adult ;
but in the young female only the fore part of the head is red,
while the black and white chequerings of the back are less pure.

The Rev. O. Pickard-Cambridge has a specimen of the North
American Uowny \\'oodpecker, D. pubescens, supposed to be a bird
which he shot at Bloxworth in Dorset, in December 1836; and an
example of this species has also been killed near Elbeuf, in Nor-
mandy : — American ' Spotted Woodpeckers ' are, however, known
to have been brought to Europe and turned loose more than a
century ago {Cf. Prof. Newton in 'Yarrell,' 4th Ed., ii. p. 485).
An American Golden-winged Woodpecker, Colaptes auratus, is said
to have been shot at Amesbury, Wilts, in 1836. As regards the
Black Woodpecker, Ficiis martins, Mr. J. H. Gurney and Prof.
Newton have, I think, conclusively shown that in the British
Islands there is not one of its numerous recorded occurrences
sufficiently authenticated ; while a bird undoubtedly shot in York-
shire on September 8th 1897, may be suspected of being one of
the individuals liberated by the late Lord Lilford. Donovan's
statement in 1809, that an example of the Three-toed Woodpecker,
Picdides iridactylus, had " lately" been shot in the North of Scotland
is unsubstantiated.

ALCEDINID.*:

279

THE KINGFISHER.

Alcedo ispida, Linnaeus.

The Kingfisher is resident and generally distributed throughout
England and Wales ; also in the greater part of Scotland, though of
irregular occurrence in Sutherland and the west as far as Skye, and
very rare in the Outer Hebrides. In Ireland, though breeding in
almost every county, it is scarce and local (Ussher). In few places
can it be considered an abundant species ; mainly owing to the fact
that it is shot on account of its bright plumage, but partly for its
feathers, used in making artificial flies. The banks of lakes,
ponds, and streams of all sizes (provided the current be not too
rapid) or even the sea-shore, especially a rocky coast, are its usual
haunts ; and there it may frequently be seen darting in a straight
line over the water, or sitting patiently on some convenient perch,
awaiting an opportunity for the sudden plunge by which it secures
its prey.

Even in the southern portion of Scandinavia the Kingfisher is of
accidental occurrence, though known to have nested there on one
occasion; to Denmark it is merely a visitor; while in Russia it is
rarely found as far north as St. Petersburg. In Northern Germany

28o KINGFISHER.

— where, from its habit of congregating on the ice round any open
water, it is known by the name of ' Eisvogel ' — it is uncommon ; but
southward it is found in suitable locah'ties throughout Europe down
to the Mediterranean. It breeds near Gibraltar, and is said to do
so in Morocco and Algeria ; while it visits Egypt in winter, and
occurs in the Canaries and Madeira. Variations from the type are
noticed between Asia Minor and South-western Siberia, while those
from further south, as far as the Malay Archipelago, have been
called A. bengalensis ; but the differences are very trifling.

For a nesting-place a hole in a bank is either bored or selected ;
generally near water, but sometimes in a dry sand-pit, and occasion-
ally in some crevice in a wall. It usually slopes upward from the
entrance, and at the end, upon the bare earth or upon a layer of
small fish bones, the roundish glossy-white eggs, 6-8 but sometimes
lo in number, are deposited : measurements '9 by 75 in. The
young are known to have been out of the nest by March nth, and
they have been found inside as late as July 24th, so that two
broods are produced in some seasons. The food consists of small
crustaceans, insects (such as dragon-flies and water-beetles), minnows,
sticklebacks, and the small fry of other fishes ; the quantity con-
sumed being extraordinary. In autumn the young are driven by
the parents from the nesting-place and become partially migratory.
The note is a shrill tit, tit, tit, somewhat like that of the Common
Sandpiper. The legends and superstitions relating to this bird are
too numerous for mention here.

The adult male has the lower cheek-stripe, head and wings dark
greenish-blue, slightly mottled ; lores and ear-coverts chestnut ; back
cobalt-blue ; tail dark blue ; throat white ; under parts chestnut ; bill
black, orange at the base; feet reddish-brown. Length 7*5; wing
3 in. The female is slightly greener and duller; the young bird
further differs in having a wholly black bill.

Two examples of the North-American Belted Kingfisher, Cer)>ie
alcyon, are, respectively, in the Museum of Science and Art, and in
Trinity College, Dublin. One of these is said to have been shot in
CO. Meath on October 26th 1845, and the other in co. Wicklow the
following November. This species has not been obtained in
Greenland, Iceland, or on the Continent of Europe ; and it seems
inexpedient to admit to the British list an American land-bird
which— even assuming the accuracy of the records— had probably
escaped from confinement.

CORACIID.E.

281

THE ROLLER.

CORACIAS GARRULUS, LilinffiUS.

This bright-plumaged bird was first recorded as a visitor to our
islands by Sir Thomas Browne, who described a specimen obtained
in Norfolk in May 1644. Since then, upwards of a hundred
examples have been noticed, chiefly in the southern and eastern
counties of England and Scotland ; some, however, have visited
Caithness and the Orkneys, while in the west one has even reached
St. Kilda. In Ireland there have been seven or eight occurrences,
at long intervals. The majority of appearances in the British
Islands have been in the autumn, but a fair proportion during the
spring migration.

To the Faeroes and the north of Norway the Roller is only a
straggler, and it is scarce in any part of the latter country ; but in
Sweden it breeds annually up to about 61° N. lat, and in Russia,
sparingly, as far north as St. Petersburg. In Northern Germany
it is not uncommon in summer, though rare in Denmark, Holland,
Belgium and Northern France ; it is tolerably abundant in Central
Europe ; while in Spain and other countries bordering the
Mediterranean it is very numerous, arriving in the Peninsula from
the middle of March onwards, and leaving by November at the
latest. It is plentiful in Turkey, Southern Russia, Asia Minor,

z

282 ROLLER.

Palestine, Persia, and temperate Asia as far to the north-east as
Omsk in Siberia ; while southward, it is found in Kashmir and
North-western India, where it meets with the closely allied C. i?idiais,
the breast of which is vinous-purple instead of blue. In the north
of Africa it is common in summer, but even there it does not pass
the winter ; nor does it breed in Egypt, though it traverses that
country on its way to and from South Africa. During the cold
season it inhabits the lower half of that continent down to Cape
Colony and Natal.

In wooded districts the nesting-place selected is some hollow in a
tree, but quite as often it is in the wall of a ruined fortress or in
a high bank ; in these a bedding of roots, grass, feathers and hair
is accumulated, but when in trees, the bare wood or a few chips
suffice. The 5-6 eggs, often globular, but sometimes elongated, are
glossy white : measurements i'4 by i"i in. Incubation lasts nearly
three weeks, commencing early or late in May, according to the
country. During the breeding-season the male indulges in some
extraordinary tumbling antics, turning somersaults in the air, and
uttering a harsh cry which the Germans syllable as racker-7-ackei-
and the Spaniards as carlaiico-carlanco ; but at other times the bird
is merely restless, flying from branch to branch with flapping,
uncertain flight ; while, like the Bee-eater, it may frequently be seen
sitting on telegraph-wires. The food consists of beetles and other
insects captured on the ground. On migration the Roller is
observed in large flocks.

The adult has the head and nape greenish-blue , mantle chestnut-
brown ; upper wing-coverts dark blue ; greater wing-coverts and
bases of primaries light blue, quills black ; tail-feathers dark blue
at the bases and in the middle, and pale blue on the lower portions;
chin white ; under parts light blue ; bill dark horn-colour ; legs and
feet yellowish-brown. Length 12 in. ; wing 77 in. The sexes are
alike in plumage ; the young bird is much more dull and less
pronounced in colour.

The late Dr. Bree stated that a male of the Ab}ssinian Roller was
killed near Glasgow about 1857, and a female later, some forty
miles off ; the former was preserved by Mr. Small of Edinburgh,
and is said to be in the Paisley Museum. In October 1883 a bird
shot near Louth, Lincolnshire, was identified at a taxidermist's by
Mr. Cordeaux as our C. garrulus, but in 1890 a specimen, said to be
the very same bird, proved on examination to be the Indian Roller,
C. indiais (Ibis 1891, p. 147).

MEROPID/E.

283

THE BEE-EATER.

Merops apiaster, Linnreus.

The first British-killed Bee-eater on record was obtained in Nor-
folk in ]une 1793, and since that time over thirty examples have
been obtained (while many others have been noticed) south of
Derbyshire in England and Pembrokeshire in Wales : chiefly on the
spring migration. Further north its visits have been rarer. Mr.
W. Eagle Clarke mentions a bird picked up exhausted near Filey in
Yorkshire on June 9th 1880 ; while in Scotland, one was captured
in October 1832 near the Mull of Cialloway, two or three are said
to have been taken in the north-east, and one of a couple was shot
in Caithness on May 12th 1897. In Ireland, to the south of co.
Dublin, this species has occurred on seven or eight occasions, even
in small flocks ; six birds having been found resting in a snipe-bog
on November 2nd 1892.

The Bee-eater has wandered as far north as Muonioniska (within
the Arctic circle), but its visits to Sweden, Denmark, and Northern
( 'icrmany, are few and irregular, and on Heligoland it has only once
been obtained. It is said to have bred in Central and Southern
(iermany, as well as near Abbeville in the north of France, while
it nests not infrequently in Languedoc and Provence ; but north
of the Alps and Carpathians, and of about lat. 55^ in Russia, it
only does so exceptionally. In Southern Russia, Turkey, Greece,

284 BEE-EATER.

along the valley of the Danube, and in Southern Italy, the Bee-eater
is abundant ; and in the Spanish Peninsula it swarms from the
beginning of April until the latter part of August. It visits the
Canaries and Madeira, and is common throughout the basin of the
Mediterranean and in North Africa, while in winter it is found as
far south as Cape Colony. In Egypt it is abundant on migration,
though few remain to breed, the representative species being the
Blue-cheeked M. persicus. Eastward, it reaches the Altai Mountains
in summer, and North-western India in winter.

The Bee-eater generally breeds in colonies, like the Sand-Martin,
and banks by the side of rivers or dried-up watercourses may be seen
honeycombed with its excavations, commenced soon after arrival ;
the bill of the bird being sometimes worn down by the operation.
In the great plains below Seville holes are often bored diagonally or
even vertically in the ground ; and as the shafts vary from three or
four to eight or nine feet in depth, the eggs, placed in a smaller
chamber at the end, are not reached without labour. These,
generally 5-6 in number, are laid upon the bare earth, though after-
w-ards surrounded by castings and the wing-cases &c. of coleop-
terous insects ; they are pure glossy white, nearly globular in shape :
measurements i in. by -9 in. Though sometimes found by the end
of April, the middle of May is the usual time, and only one brood
appears to be reared in the season. SacksfuU of birds are taken in
Spain by spreading a net over the face of an occupied bank and
pouring water into a parallel trench cut at some distance back ; for
the Bee-eater is hated by the peasants, owing to the ravages inflicted
upon their numerous hives, though it also destroys large numbers
of wasps, locusts, grasshoppers, beetles and other insects. The
flight is light and undulating ; the note is a sharp quilp.

The adult male has the lores and ear-coverts black ; forehead
white below, pale green above ; head, neck, upper back and a broad
bar on the secondaries, chestnut-brown ; remaining quills chiefly
bluish-green ; lower back tawny-yellow ; tail green, the two elongated
central feathers tipped with black ; throat bright yellow, with a
black band ; under parts greenish-blue ; bill black ; feet reddish-
brown. Length ii*25 in.; wing 6 in. The female is greener on
the back, duller in colour, and has the central tail-feathers shorter.
In the young these feathers scarcely project ; the upper parts are
greenish-brown ; and there is no black gorget.

An identified adult Blue-tailed Bee-eater, M. philippinus, is said to
have been shot near Seaton Carew, Northumberland, in August 1862.

UPUPID.-E.

285

THE HOOPOE.
Upupa epops, Linnaeus.

The Hoopoe has been noticed for more than two centuries as a
visitor to Great Britain, and in spring it arrives so regularly on our
southern and eastern coasts that, if unmolested, it would soon become
one of our regular breeding species. The appearance of this tame
and conspicuous bird is, however, the signal for its persecution unto
death, and I am afraid to say how many have been slain in certain
localities in Sussex and Kent where they alight after crossing the
Channel. In spite of their inhospitable reception a few pairs
manage to escape, and some have nested from time to time in
Devon, Dorset, Wilts, Hants, Surrey, Sussex, Kent, and probably
other counties. In autumn many individuals are observed in our
eastern counties, especially on the coast after gales ; some even in
winter : for instance, a bird frequented Scampston in Yorkshire for
a week in the early part of January 1S96; while several were
noticed in the exceptionally mild January of 1898. In the west of
England and in South Wales the Hoopoe is not rare, but north-
ward it is seldom seen ; though it has occurred irregularly in Scot-
land as far as Sutherland and Caithness, as well as in the Orkneys,
Shetlands, and Outer Hebrides. To Ireland it is an almost annual
visitor in small numbers, principally to the southern portion.

Accidentally the Hoopoe has been taken in the Freroes, Spitsber-

286 HOOPOE.

gen, and the north of Norway and Russia ; while in the south of
Sweden and in Denmark it breeds sparingly, though in the latter its
numbers have diminished owing to the eradication of the old hollow
trees in the forests. Southward it is generally distributed through-
out Europe, wherever there are swampy woods and timber-fringed
meadows suited to its habits ; v.-hile in the countries bordering the
Mediterranean and Black Seas it is abundant and almost ubiquitous,
being especially numerous at the periods of migration. It is found
in the Azores and Madeira, while common (and partially resident)
in the Canaries, Northern Africa, Egypt and Nubia ; its most
southern winter-quarters being, as far as is known, between Abyssinia
and Senegambia. It is widely distributed through temperate Asia
up to Mongolia, and has occurred in Japan.

A hole in the decayed wood of some tree — frequently a willow
or ash — is usually selected, and the slight materials of which the
nest is composed are generally surrounded or cemented by ordure
of some kind, which causes an intolerable stench, subsequently
increased by the droppings of the female and young. Some-
times a crevice in a wall or rock is made use of ; in China holes in
exposed coffins are occupied ; and Pallas found a nest in the chest
of a rotting corpse loosely covered with stones. The 4-7 eggs are
pale greenish-blue when first laid, but later they become greenish-
olive : measurements i in. by 7 in. The food consists of worms, in-
sects and their larvae — especially those found in dung — and flies,
which are taken on the wing. The flight is undulating. The
movements of the Hoopoe are particularly graceful at the time of
courtship, when the male struts about with crest erect, uttering a
note resembling a soft hu-bu (whence the Spanish term " abubilla ")
or hoop-hoop, to which, and not to the crest, it owes its English and
French names ; when excited, however, the bird emits a harsh croak
(W. Eagle Clarke).

The adult has the plumage pale cinnamon on the head, shoulders
and under parts ; the long, erectile crest-feathers richer in tint
and tipped with black ; quills black, broadly barred with white,
and striped with buff on the inner secondaries ; lower back barred
with black, white and buff ; tail black, with a broad white bar across
the centre and descending towards the tips on the outer pair of
feathers ; the long, slightly decurved bill is black, flesh-coloured at
the base; feet dusky-brown. Length from base of bill 975 in.;
bill 2-5 in. ; wing 6 in. The female is rather smaller, duller in
plumage, and has less crest. The young bird has a shorter bill, and
the colours are not so rich.

CUCULID^.

2S7

THE CUCKOO.

CucuLUS CANORUS, Liniijeus.

The male Cuckoo, which precedes the female by a few days,
seldom arrives even in the south of England before April 6th, when
his presence is announced by the well-known cuck-00 note, often
uttered at night as well as by day. In June, according to the
familiar adage, he " changes his tune " and becomes hoarse, while
by August most of the adults have taken their departure, though
the young sometimes remain until October. In summer the bird is
found throughout the United Kingdom, inclusive of the islets.

Though an accidental visitor to the Freroes, the Cuckoo ranges
almost to the North Cape in Norway ; nearly as far north in
Russia ; and across Northern Asia up to lat. 67°. Over Europe it
is generally distributed, and a comparatively small number breed in

288 CUCKOO.

the countries bordering the Mediterranean, as well as in North
Africa ; but to the Canaries and Madeira the Cuckoo is only an
irregular visitor. In Asia it breeds down to the Himalayas and
perhaps further south ; while in winter it reaches the Philippines,
Celebes, Burma and Ceylon, as well as Natal in Africa. Allied
species occur in both the above continents.

The female, which resorts to the same locality year after year,
deposits her egg on the ground, and then conveys it in her bill to
the nest of some bird destined to act as foster-parent. In this
country the latter is commonly the Meadow-Pipit, Pied Wagtail,
Hedge-Sparrow, Sedge- Warbler and Reed-\\'arbler ; less frequently
the Yellow- and Cirl-Bunting, with many others. In ' The Ibis,'
i8g6, p. 397, is an interesting list of these, compiled by Mr. Bidwell.
The egg, which averages about S^ by 75 in., varies considerably,
and, though usually of a greenish- or reddish-grey, with darker
cloudings and spots, it sometimes, but not always, resembles the eggs
of the foster-bird. For instance. Cuckoo's eggs placed in the nest of
the Orphean \A'arbler, Garden ^^'arbler, and Blackcap (supra, p. 46),
are chiefly distinguishable by their size ; while eggs of a pale blue
have been found, though these have not invariably been located in
nests of the Hedge-Sparrow or the Redstart. From 5-8 are
produced by the female in the season ; and 12-13 days are required
for incubation. There is a statement, made in Germany, that
exceptionally the Cuckoo hatches its own eggs. When only thirty
hours old, the intruder begins to eject the other nestlings by the aid of
a cavity in its back, which fills up after the twelfth day ,; and when two
Cuckoos are in the same nest the struggle for existence is sometimes
severe. The food consists of insects and their larvK, especially hairy
caterpillars ; the indigestible portions being thrown up in pellets.
Up to June 20th the male calls on the wing, as well as when
perched ; the female utters a water-bubbling or whistling note.
The superficial resemblance of the Cuckoo to a Hawk undoubtedly
proves deceptive to other birds ; while ignorant persons frequently
assert that " Cuckoos turn to Hawks in winter."

The adults of both sexes are greyish-ash above and on the throat,
with small white spots on the darker grey tail, and dusky bars on the
white under parts; irides, legs and feet, yellow. Length 13 in.;
wing 8"5 in. The female sometimes shows a slight rufous tinge on
the breast. The young has the upper parts clove-brown ; a white
spot on the nape ; irides brown. Birds of both sexes are sometimes
found in spring of a rich chestnut-brown, like a female Kestrel, and
this form has been distinguished as C. riiftis.

CUCULID.^;.

289

THE GREAT SPOTTED CUCKOO.

COCCVSTES GLANDARIUS (LinnKUS).

An example of this southern species was captured alive in an
emaciated condition on the island of Omey, off the coast of Con-
nemara, probably in March 1842 ; it was subsequently secured for
the Museum of Trinity College, Dublin, where I noticed that it was
in immature plumage. Another, shot near Bellingham, Northumber-
land, on August 5th 1870, and now in the Newcastle Museum, is a
young bird. On October i8th 1S96, an immature male was obtained
on the Denes near Yarmouth ; while from the description sent to
Mr. R. M. Barrington by Mr. T. King, lightkeeper at the Skellig
Rock, CO. Kerry, there can be little doubt that a bird in nearly adult
plumage was observed there on April 30th 1897.

The Great Spotted Cuckoo has occurred exceptionally in Germany,
more frequently in the south of France, and several times in spring
in Italy as far north as Liguria ; but it is rare in Malta, and unre-
corded from Sardinia or Corsica. In Southern Spain I found that it
arrived by March 2nd, and it is common throughout the summer in
the Peninsula as far north as the vicinity of Madrid, wherever there
are woods suited to the habits of the Magpie, in the nests of which

A A

290 GREAT SPOTTED CUCKOO.

this Cuckoo deposits its eggs. It is not known to Ijreed in any
other part of Europe, though it visits Greece and Southern Russia ;
in Asia Minor, Palestine, and Northern Persia, however, it occurs in
summer. It breeds throughout the wooded districts of Northern
Africa, Egypt, Nubia, and Somali-land : while it wanders to the
Canaries on its way to South Africa, where it winters.

In Spain, as already mentioned, it generally selects the Magpie as
foster-parent, and I have found as many as four of its eggs with six of
those of that bird, in the same nest, while occasionally a Raven's or
Blue-winged Magpie's is made use of. Mr. E. Lort Phillips, however,
found eight eggs of this parasitical bird in the same nest w-ith four
of Con'ifs affinis, in Somali-land ; in Egypt the Hooded Crow's nest
is chosen, and in Algeria the Moorish Magpie's. The Cuckoo takes
the egg in her l)ill, and, after placing it in the nest, often ejects an
egg of the foster-parent to make room for her own. The egg is pale
green, streaked and spotted with russet and dull lilac, sometimes
closely resembling that of the Magpie, but more elliptical as well as
of a much firmer and smoother texture : measurements i'2 by "96 in.
A female shot on April 6th had a well-formed egg in her oviduct, but
early May is the usual time for laying. The food consists of insects.
The note of the male is a harsh kark-kark ; that of the female hurroo-
burroo. Col. Irby gives August 7th as the latest date for Spain.

The adults of both sexes have the crown grey with a long-pointed
crest ; upper parts greyish-brown with white tips to most of the
feathers ; tail-feathers, except the central ones, largely tipped with
white : neck buffish-white ; under parts dull white. Length 15-5 in. :
wing 8 in. The young bird has a nearly black head and nape, buft^
neck and breast, and chestnut on the upper parts of the primaries.

An example of the American Yellow-billed Cuckoo, Coccyzus
atnericaiuis, was shot in co. Cork in the autumn of 1825 ; another
near Dublin in 1832 ; a third in Pembrokeshire, also in the
autumn of 1832; a fourth near Aberystwith in October 1870: a
fifth at Lundy Island in October 1874 ; while a sixth was picked up
dead near Bridport on October 5th 1895. ^^ the Continent, one
was obtained in Belgium in October 1874, and another near Turin
in 1883. Admitting that these occurred at the time of migration,
I cannot believe that they crossed the Atlantic without human
assistance. The same remark applies to the American Black-billed
Cuckoo, C. erythropthalmits, a specimen of which was shot near
Belfast about September 25th 1871 ; while in Italy one was killed
near Lucca in 1858.

STRI01D.4':.

291

THE BARN-OWL.

Strix flammea, Linnceus.

This species, also known as the White, Screech- or Church-Owl,
is generally distributed throughout England, Wales and Ireland ; it
might even be common, but for the persecution it suffers from game-
keepers, ignorant farmers, and dealers in plumes for ladies' hats, fire-
screens &:c. In Scotland it is not often found above the Lowlands,
though it breeds in small numbers as far as Caithness and the
Inner Hebrides, including Skye ; in the Orkneys and Shetlands it
is almost — if not quite — unknown. Immigrants, usually of the
dark phase which prevails in Denmark, are noticed at intervals, as
in 1859, and again in 1891.

The Barn-Owl Avas observed by the late Mr. D. Meinertzhagen
at Muonioniska, in May 1897, but it is not known to nest
beyond the south of Sweden, to which it has spread from Den-
mark, where the bird is tolerably common. To Heligoland it is a
rare visitor. It is resident in Courland and not scarce in Poland ;
while in Central Russia it is found sparingly as far east as Tula and
Orel, becoming abundant in the southern provinces of Podolia and
Bessarabia. In Austro-Hungary and the greater part of Germany

A A 2

292 BARX-OWL.

it is fairly numerous, though somewhat local in its distribution ;
and throughout Western Europe it is a well-known species. It is
found in the Azores, Madeira, the Canaries, and the Cape Verde
Islands, Northern Africa as far east as Egypt, and in Palestine ; in
the north-eastern portion of the Mediterranean basin, however, it is
seldom met with, though occurring in Mesopotamia and down to
the head of the Persian Gulf Over the above-mentioned area light
as well as dark phases are found. Making allowance for climatic
varieties which Dr. R. B. Sharpe and other authorities do not con-
sider entitled to specific distinction, this Owl may be described as
ranging over the African region inclusive of Madagascar, the Indian,
Malayasian, Australian and Polynesian regions ; as well as in
America and its islands, from about 40" N. to 40° S. lat.

The Barn-Owl takes up its abode in church-towers and belfries,
farm- and other buildings, hollow trees, dovecotes, and clefts in walls
or cliffs. It makes no nest, though castings may be found round
the eggs. These are sometimes laid in pairs ; six, nearly fresh,
having been found alongside of three nestlings, while two or three
stages of the latter may occur simultaneously. Incubation occa-
sionally begins towards the end of March, though usually in April
or May, while it has been known to take place up to November afid
December. The eggs are dull white : measurements i'6 by i"2 in.
There is no evidence that this species does any harm to eggs or
pigeons in the dovecotes which it often inhabits, while it feeds
chiefly on voles and field-mice, thereby entitling itself to protection
on the part of the agriculturist; it also eats rats, bats, small birds,
insects, and occasionally small surface-swimming fish. During the
daytime the Barn-Owl generally remains concealed, though when
disturbed I have seen it flitting in no uncertain manner in the
brilliant sunshine of the south ; but it seeks its food in the dusk of
evening and at nights. Its cry is a loud weird .shriek, and a snoring
sound is emitted by young and old.

The typical adult has the upper parts orange-buff, minutely varie-
gated with brown, grey and white ; facial disk white with a brownish
rim ; under parts white. The dark form has the upper parts greyer,
with darker spots and vermiculations ; the facial disk tinged with
orange, and its rim blackish : under parts warm orange-buff with
clearly-defined blackish-grey spots. Bill white ; operculum (or skin
which covers the orifice of the ear) large ; legs covered with white
hair-like feathers. Length 13-5 in; wing 11-25. The female is slightly
larger than the male. The young bird, at first covered with white down,
hardly differs from the adult after its feathers have been assumed.

STRIGID.t:.

293

^ Vr^^^^ -"

A.;(A^V

THE LONG-EARED OWL.

Asio 6tus (Linnaeus).

The Long-eared Owl is more abundant than is generally sup-
posed, and it is found throughout the year in the wooded districts
of Great Britain, especially in fir-plantations ; its numbers being
increased in autumn by migrations from the Continent. Where
suitable cover is available it breeds in the Inner Hebrides, and has
been obtained in North Uist ; while it is now known to nest in the
Orkneys, and occurs in the Shetlands on migration. In Ireland it
is common and resident.

This Owl has wandered to the Faeroes and Iceland, and is a
well-known visitor to Heligoland. It breeds in Scandinavia and
Russia as far as 63° N. lat., though rare and local at the northern
extremity of its range ; but south of 59° in the Ural Mountains it
is more or less numerous down to the northern slopes of the
Caucasus ; while westward, it is generally distributed throughout the
woodlands of Europe. In the south it is more abundant in winter
than in summer, and the birds which breed in Spain and Italy gene-
rally resort to the wooded mountains. Mr. Godman obtained a

2 94 LONG-EARED OWL.

nestling in the Azores ; while in the Canaries this species breeds in
the palm-trees of the warm valleys as well as in the mountain forests ;
it is also found in North Africa from Morocco to Egypt. Eastward,
it has been recorded from Arabia ; it inhabits the wooded por-
tions of Asia north of the Himalayas as far as China and the Sea of
Japan, though it has not been found in Kamchatka ; and in winter
it visits Northern India. In North America it is represented by a
subspecies, A. ivilsoniiDiiis (Lesson), which has darker upper parts
and more closely barred under parts.

The Eong-eared Owl usually deposits its eggs in an old squirrel's
drey, or some former nest of a Ring-Dove, Magpie, Crow, Rook,
Heron, and, on the Continent, of a Buzzard, Kite &c.j a little lining
of small thin sticks and rabbit's fur being often added. It lays very
early in the season, and even in Northumberland clutches of eggs have
been taken by February 22 nd. These, 4-6 in number, are white,
with a rather smooth but not glossy surface : measurements i '6 by
I "3 in. Several pairs may be found in close proximity, and I once
knew of eight broods in a fir-plantation which stretches along a
commanding ridge in Surrey. On May loth 1897, Mr. Ogilvie Grant
and Capt. Savile Reid found a nest on the ground on an island
in Eoch Syre, Sutherland (Irby). This Owl is nocturnal or crepus-
cular in its habits, and during the daytime is seldom to be found
in the open fields, except just after immigration. The pellets which
I have examined show that it feeds principally upon field-mice, young
rats, and birds up to the size of a Blackbird, though beetles and
other insects are sometimes eaten. The old birds occasionally make
a barking or ' quacking ' noise, while on the wing as well as when
perched ; but as a rule this species is rather silent, and certainly
does not ' hoot ' like the Tawny Owl. The nestlings utter a loud
mewing ; they often leave the nest before they can fly, and climb up
again, by the aid of their bills (R. J. Howard).

The adult male has the upper parts buff, mottled and vermiculated
with brown and grey, and streaked with dark brown, especially on
the long erectile ear-tufts ; facial disk buff, with a greyish-black
margin and outer rim, and dark markings round the eyes ; under
parts warm buff and grey, with broad blackish longitudinal streaks
and minute transverse bars ; bill blackish ; operculum semicircular ;
legs covered to the toes with fawn-coloured feathers. Eength 14 in. ;
wing 11-5 in. It has been stated that the female is more rufous in
tint than the male. In the young the facial disk is yellower and the
markings on the under parts are more defined.

STRIGID.E.

295

THE SHORT-EARED OWL.

Asio ACCiPiTRiNUS (Pallas).

Unlike the preceding arboreal species, the Short-eared Owl is an
inhabitant of the open country, especially upland moors, fens, heather
or furze-covered hillsides, and more or less damp places ; while in
the latter part of the year it is often met with in turnip-fields and
stubbles. Owing to the fact that large numbers arrive regularly from
the Continent in autumn, and remain for the winter, this bird is
frequently flushed by sportsmen, and is often called the Wood-
cock-Owl, from the coincidence of the time of its appearance, and,
perhaps, from its twisting flight ; in some years it is much more
plentiful than in others. Normally, it may be said that a few pairs
nest in the south-west of England, as well as in Whales, while, in
spite of drainage, some breed in East Anglia, and more freely on
the moorlands northward. At long intervals, however, coincidently
with irruptions of field-voles, Short-eared Owls flock to the infested
spots, where they remain as long as food continues plentiful. This
was notable during the plague of short-tailed voles in the south-
west of Scotland in 1S90-1891, when a wonderful increase was
noticed, not only in the breeding birds, estimated at four hundred
pairs, but also in the abnormal number of eggs laid. Under ordinary
conditions the species nests in the Inner and Outer Hebrides, as
well as in the Orkneys, and sometimes the Shetlands. In Ireland
the Short-eared Owl has not yet been recorded as breeding, but it
is as common there in winter as it is in the rest of the United
Kina:dom.

296 SHORT-EARED OWL.

This migratory species is a wanderer to the Faeroes, and its
occurrence has been twice authenticated in Iceland ; while it is the
commonest of the Owls visiting Heligoland. From 70° N. lat. to
the shores of the Mediterranean, Black and Caspian Seas, it is gene-
rally distributed throughout Europe, breeding in suitable localities
down to the south of Russia, Italy, Sicily and Malta. In the
Spanish Peninsula it has not yet been known to nest, though
abundant there in winter, while in jNIorocco it meets with an African
species, Asio capensis (which visits Spain) ; it occurs on the Salvage
Islands (between Madeira and the Canaries), and is found far south
in Africa. Its breeding-range extends over Northern Asia to
Kamchatka ; while in winter the species has been obtained in China
down to Canton, and in Singapore, as well as in the Sandwich,
Ladrones and Caroline groups. On the continent and islands of
America it occurs from Greenland to the Straits of Magellan ; nest-
ing where suitable food and conditions exist, and following-up
invasions of small rodents.

In the fens the nest is a mere hollow formed on the top of a clump
of sedge or in the side of a mass of mown reeds ; but on the moors the
eggs are laid among heather; they are usually 6 in number — though
up to 12 were frequent during the vole-plague — and are rather smooth
in texture, and creamy-white in colour : measurements i"6 by i"25 in.
They are generally laid early in May, though young may be found
unable to fly in August. The food consists of rats, field-mice, voles,
lemmings, and other rodents, birds from the size of a lark to that
of a plover, and occasionally of bats, fish, reptiles, and large insects.
This Owl pursues its prey in daylight, and has been known to pick
up and carry off wounded birds. .

In the adult the plumage of the upper parts is similar to that of
the preceding species ; but it is more blotched than streaked, the buff
tint is more pronounced, the facial disk and the rim are browner, and
the ear-tufts, though erectile, are short and invisible, except when the
bird is excited ; the under parts are streaked longitudinally with
blackish-brown, but are not transversely barred or vermiculated ;
bill black ; operculum semicircular. Length i4"5-i5 in. : wing
about 12 in. ; the female being slightly larger than the male. The
young bird is browner and darker, with bolder markings, and is
very tawny on the under parts, while the iris is pale sulphur-yellow,
instead of the rich yellow found in the adult. Pallid forms of this
Owl are not uncommon, and specimens from different parts of the
enormous area inhabited vary considerably in tint.

STRIGID/E.

2q;

THE TAWNY OWL.

Syrnium aluco (Linnaeus).

The Tawny, Brown, or Wood-Owl familiarly called " the Hooter,"
is tolerably abundant in England and Wales, wherever there are
woods or crags suited to its habits ; it is in fact commoner in some
places than the White or Barn-Owl, though decreasing in others.
In the south of Scotland it is well-known, while it is quite the most
numerous Owl in the Moray basin, and has extended its range on
the mainland to Caithness and Sutherland ; in the west, it occurs in
Skye and several of the Inner Hebrides. In Ireland its presence
has not yet been authenticated.

Erom the Faeroes this exceptionally migratory species was recorded
in January and again in March, 1871 : on the latter occasion in
company with some Long-Eared Owls. In Norway it is numerous
up to the Trondhjemsfjord, above which it becomes rare ; but in
Sweden its northern range is less extensive, though the bird is com-
mon in the southern parts of that country. In Heligoland it has
only once occurred in half a century. Below 6o°-6i° N. lat. in
Russia it is generally distributed as far as the western slopes of the
Ural Mountains, but on the east side it is scarce, and is as yet

298 TAWNY OWL.

unknown in Siberia. Throughout temperate Europe the Tawny
Owl is found in suitable localities, but in the south it is very local,
being almost confined to the higher wooded districts in the Spanish
Peninsula and Italy, while it has not yet been obtained in Corsica
or Sardinia. In North Africa and Asia Minor it is known to breed
in small numbers, and Canon Tristram met with it among the
cedars of Lebanon. At least six other members of the genus
occupy the area between Turkestan and China.

The Tawny Owl breeds early, sometimes having eggs at the end
of February and often by the middle of March in England, though
later in the north of Scotland. A hollow in the trunk of some
decayed tree, especially when covered with ivy, is a favourite site ; but
old nests of Rooks (even in frequented rookeries), Crows, Magpies
and other birds are often occupied, and ruins, barns, out-buildings,
disused chimneys &c. are occasionally resorted to ; while instances
of eggs being laid in rabbit-burrows, on ledges of root-trellised crags,
or on the bare ground under shelter of fir-branches, are common.
The 3-4 and even 6 white eggs are rather smooth in surface and
nearly round in shape : measurements i'8 by i*5 in. The clicking
note of the young resembles the word kee-'wick ; the old birds may
be heard to utter their loud hoo-hoo, whoo-it, or tit-zvhit, to-who
as it is rendered by Shakespeare, chiefly in the evening, but also
shortly before dawn. During the day this species remains con-
cealed, and appears to dislike the sunlight more than any other
British Owl ; while it depends largely upon its sense of hearing.
Some bold individuals resent an approach to their nest, and cases
are known of distinct aggressiveness. The food consists chiefly
of voles, rats, mice, shrews, squirrels, moles, and occasionally of
small birds, insects, and surface-swimming fishes.

The adult male has the upper parts of varying shades of ash-grey
mottled with brown, with large white spots on the outer webs of the
wing-coverts ; tail barred with brown and tipped with white ; under
parts buffish-white, mottled with pale and streaked with dark brown ;
facial disk greyish, with a dark brown border ; operculum large ; legs
feathered to the claws. Length about 15 in.; wing 10 in. The
female is much larger, and often more rufous in plumage. This
species is, however, subject to dichromatism, and there are two
distinct phases— a red and a grey— the colour of which is indepen-
dent of sex ; the ruddy form being, perhaps, the more common in
this country. The nestlings are covered with greyish down ; after-
wards the plumage is generally more rufous than in the adults.

STRIGID.T..

>99

TENGMALM'S OWL.

Nyctala tengmalmi (J. F. Gmelin).

This small Owl, with thick and downy plumage, is an inhabitant
of northern or elevated forest-regions, whence it migrates in severe
weather ; and, at long intervals, it has wandered to Great Britain in
autumn and winter, as well as in spring, presumably on its return
northwards. Since the beginning of this century about twenty
examples have been taken in England — chiefly in Northumber-
land, Yorkshire, Norfolk and Suffolk ; specimens have, however,
been obtained as far south as Kent and Somerset (though a so-
called Sussex example proved to be a Little Owl) ; also in Shrop-
shire (once) ; near Preston in Lancashire (once) ; and in Cumber-
land on November 3rd 1876. In Scotland one was captured alive
in December i860 on Cramond Island, Firth of Forth ; and an
adult female was recorded from the vicinity of Peterhead on
February 3rd 1S86. As yet there is no record from Ireland.

On Heligoland Tengmalm's Owl has occurred about thirty times
in fifty years. It inhabits Scandinavia, Lapland, Finland and
Russia, almost up to the northern limit of the forests ; while its
southern breeding-range in the latter country coincides with the
growth of Pinus sylvestris, and reaches as far as Saratov and Oren-
burg. In winter its migrations extend to Guriev, where the Ural
River empties into the Caspian ; but Dr. Menzbier does not believe
in its asserted existence in the Crimea. It breeds in the higher

300 tengmalm's owl.

forests of the various branches of the Carpathians and the Alps,
from Styria and the Tyrol westward, as well as in the A^osges, the
Jura, and the mountains of Dauphine ; while it has occurred on
both sides of the Pyrenees, though not further south in Spain. In
other parts of Europe it is chiefly a migrant. Eastward, it appears
to range through the forests of Siberia down to the Altai Mountains,
and eastward to Baikalia, and even to the Sea of Japan, though not
observed in Kamchatka ; while in Arctic America it is represented
by a slightly darker form, known to separatists as Nydala richardsoni .

Our earliest knowledge of the breeding-habits of this, as of so
many other Arctic species, was derived from ^^'olley, who found that
in Lapland it occupied the tyllas or inis (nesting-boxes, formed of
logs hollowed out at either end, with a hole cut in the side) set up by
the inhabitants for the use of the Golden-eye Ducks ; it also deposits
its eggs in holes in trees, and often in some former abode of the
Black Woodpecker. The smooth white eggs, laid between the
beginning of May and the end of June, are 4-6, and exceptionally
10 in number: measurements 1*28 by i in. The food, which con-
sists of lemmings, mice and other rodents, with large beetles and
small birds, is generally procured during the latter half of the day ;
though sunshine does not incommode a bird which passes the
summer in the continuous light of the high north. The call-note is
a soft, long-drawn whistle.

The adult male has the upper parts umber-brown, with small
white spots on the top of the head, large white patches on the back
and wing-coverts, and five lines of spots — forming bars — on the tail-
feathers ; facial disk nearly complete, dull white with a dark outer
ring ; under parts greyish-white, irregularly barred and streaked with
brown ; legs and toes thickly covered with whitish brown-speckled
feathers (in the Little Owl the feathers on the legs are short and the
toes have merely bristles) ; bill yellowish-white. Length 9 in. ; wing
6-5-7 in. The female is slightly larger than the male, but has the
white spots less pronounced ; the young are much darker than the
adults, and the spots are chiefly on the wings and tail. A charac-
teristic of this Owl, as shown by Prof. Collett of Christiania, is that
the ear-regions in the skull itself, as well as the orifices, are unequal
in size, and hence the skull is not symmetrical.

The late Sir William M. E. Milner recorded (Zool. p. 7104) the
occurrence of the North American Saw-whet Owl, Nyctala acadica,
near Beverley in Yorkshire. He was probably mistaken or imposed
upon.

STRIGID.^,.

THE LITTLE OWL.

Athene noctua (Scopoli).

In 1758 Edwards figured a Little Owl caught alive in a
chimney near the Tower of London, and since that date many
examples have been obtained in England ; but such numbers are
known to have been imported from the Continent and intentionally
liberated — to say nothing of those which have escaped from confine-
ment— that it is impossible to say whether any of our visitors have
been really wild. In May 1843 Waterton turned out five Little
Owls near Wakefield, which he had brought from Italy the previous
year ; subsequently Mr. St. Quentin in Yorkshire, and Mr. Meade-
Waldo in Hampshire, introduced many others which have bred at
large, though in gradually diminishing numbers ; while in 1888
the late Lord Lilford established quite a colony in Northampton-
shire. Cages-full, brought from Holland, may often be seen in
Leadenhall Market ; and, without disputing the claim of this species
to a place in the British list, it must be said that in the countries it
inhabits, it is not much addicted to migration. As yet it has not
been recorded from Scotland or Ireland.

Throughout Gatke's long experience the Little Owl was only once
obtained on Heligoland. It is of exceptional occurrence in Sweden,
while in Russia the Baltic Province of Courland marks its northern
breeding-limit ; but south of lat. 56° it is a generally distributed
resident in Europe ; especially in the countries washed by the

302 LITTLE OWL.

Mediterranean. Examples from Greece are paler than those from
Western Europe ; and an increase in sandy tint has led to the separa-
tion of the form which inhabits North Africa and Egypt as A. glaiix
or A. nieridionaUs. Other variations in tone are found in South
Russia and in Asia Minor ; while between the Ural Mountains and
Northern China there is a fairly distinct species, A. bactriana, which
has the toes covered with feathers instead of hairy bristles.

In April or May the Little Owl deposits its 3-5 white eggs in holes
in ruins, farm out-houses and other buildings, hollow trees, disused
rabbit-burrows, or rocks: measurements i "4 by i'i5 in. Mr.
Meade-Waldo informs me that incubation lasts twenty-eight days ;
that the bird feeds largely on insects, and frequents lawns in the
evening to collect earth-worms ; while in winter it catches birds at
roost, and devours a large number of Thrushes ; eating also mice
and other small mammals. Early in the spring the male is very
noisy, and repeats its note of cu or sometimes cu-cii, with exasperating
monotony, and I have heard it do so again in autumn. This Owl
is comparatively diurnal, and is therefore liable to be mobbed by
small birds ; for which reason it is often used as a lure by Con-
tinental bird-catchers. Its habit of alternately ducking down and
drawing itself up to its full height is extremely grotesque.

The adult has the upper plumage brown, with triangular white
stripes on the head, white spots on the nape and wings, and four
bands of dull white on the tail ; under parts dull white streaked
with brown ; facial disk greyish-white and ill-defined ; no oper-
culum : irides yellow ; toes covered with hairy bristles. Length :
male 9 in., wing 6 in. ; female 9-5 in., wing 6-5 in. The young
have a more rufous tinge than the adults.

According to the least elastic interpretation of the often dis-
regarded laws of nomenclature, the generic name Athene is inadmis-
sible, inasmuch as it has been previously employed in Entomology,
and Cariue should therefore be adopted : but many will agree with
me that the point should be conceded, if only to preserve an associa-
tion with Pallas Athene, to whom this bird was sacred. The specific
name passerina, sometimes employed, is distinctly inadmissible ; for
the Sfrix passerina of Linnseus {Glaucidiiim passerimim of recent
systematists) is the Pigmy Owl, a bird hardly larger than a Sparrow,
and one which has never occurred in the British Island.s, nor is
likely to occur, unless introduced.

strigida:.

503

THE SNOWY OWL.

NVCTEA SCANDIACA (Lillliailis).

This conspicuous bird was first noticed in Britain by the late
Dr. Edmondston, who recognized it in 181 1 on Unst, the most
northern of the Shetland Islands, to which, as well as to the Orkneys,
it is now known to be an almost annual visitor in the cold season,
especially after northerly gales ; while its occurrence in the Outer
and the Inner Hebrides, as well as on the mainland of Scotland, is
by no means unusual. In England it has been obtained on several
occasions in Northumberland and Yorkshire, nine times in Norfolk,
once in Suffolk, and about five times in Devon, while one on Exmoor
may be given to Somerset. To Ireland its visits have been less fre-
quent, but at intervals it has been observed in several counties
during the winter months. In a wild state it has never been known
to breed in the British Islands, though it has done so in captivity.

To the Fceroes and Iceland the Snowy Owl is only a straggler :

304 SNOWY OWL.

but it is resident on Jan Mayen, and is only absent for a few months
in winter from Spitsbergen, Franz Josef Land, Novaya Zemlya,
Vaigatch, and the Kola Peninsula. Where small mammals are
wanting it feeds on birds, and on the fells of Scandinavia it follows the
lemmings on their migrations ; while of late years it has been found
breeding in many places where it had previously been unnoticed.
In Russia it inhabits the tundras, nesting down to the Governments
of St. Petersburg, Livonia, and even Orenburg; while in winter
it occurs as far as the Caspian and Azov Seas. In the western
half of Europe, it visits Pomerania, the north of Germany and
Denmark in some numbers during cold weather, though hardly
known on Heligoland ; and its wanderings have extended to Hol-
land, France, and Lower Austria. In Asia, it is found across
Siberia to Kamchatka and Bering Island ; while in winter it regu-
larly visits Turkestan, and an example has even been obtained at
Mardan, not far from Peshawur. On the American continent it
breeds on the barren-grounds and the verge of the wooded districts,
from Alaska to Labrador ; on Grinnell-Land Col. Feilden found it
nesting as far north as 82° ^:^', though it abandoned those high
latitudes at the end of August to reappear on March 29th ; and it
inhabits Greenland. In winter it has occurred in Texas, as well as
the Bermudas ; while a flock, perched on the spars of a vessel, has
voyaged from Labrador half way to Ireland.

The Snowy Owl deposits its eggs on the bare ground or in a
mere hollow scraped in the reindeer-moss, generally on some slight
eminence. The white eggs, 10 of v.-hich have been found together,
are often laid in pairs and at intervals, and are rather more elongated
than usual: measurements 2-3 by 175 in. Prof. Collett .says that
the female and young are fed by the male, which exhibits great
boldness and even ferocity when the nesting-place is approached.
The food consists of lemmings and other rodents, Arctic hares.
Ptarmigan, Willow- and other Grouse, Little Auks &c. ; wounded
birds being often picked up before the sportsman can reach them ;
carrion is also eaten, and the bird is an expert catcher of fish. Its
flesh is highly esteemed by the inhabitants of the Arctic regions.
The cry is a loud and repeated krau-au.

The plumage is white, barred and spotted with an amount of black
or dark brown which varies greatly in different individuals; the
female being more profusely marked than the male. Small but
almost invisible tufts exist ; there is no operculum ; bill black ; iris
orange-yellow. Length : male 22 in., wing 15-5 in. ; female 25 in.,
wing 17-5 in.

STRIGID.t.

THE HAWK-OWL.

SuRNiA FUNEREA (Liiinjeus).

An example of this rare wanderer to Great Britain was taken in an
exhausted state off the coast of Cornwall in March 1830 : a second
was shot near Yatton, in Somersetshire, while hawking for prey on a
sunny afternoon in August 1847 ; a third on Unst, in the Shetland
Islands, in the winter of 1860-61 ; a fourth near Glasgow in December
1863 ; and a fifth near Greenock in November 1868. Those of the
above now available for critical examination belong to the North
American form — distinguished by trinomialists in the United States
as S. uliila caparoch — in which the dark transverse bands of the
under parts are more ruddy than in the European, while the white
on the upper parts is rather more pronounced ; and there can be
little doubt that these birds had received aid from vessels bound for
Bristol or the Clyde. An example of the European form was,
however, obtained near Amesbury, Wilts, and identified by Dr. R. B.
Sharpe (P. Z. S., 1876, p. 334) ; while the Shetland bird (destroyed
by moth) was also, judging by the description, from the Old World.

The Hawk-Owl does not migrate to any extent, and neither of the

B B

3o6 HAWK-OWL.

forms has been found in Greenland or Iceland. The European race
inhabits the pine-forests of Scandinavia and Northern Russia, in
the latter up to 68° N. lat. ; and though only breeding occasionally
in the Baltic Provinces, it does so regularly as far south as the
Governments of Moscow and Smolensk, and in the mountain
forests of the Ural down to Orenburg. Thence it moves in winter
to Poland and Northern Germany ; very rarely to Heligoland ;
occasionally to Denmark, Holland, Belgium, Northern France,
Lorraine, and Alsace ; exceptionally to Austria. In Siberia, where
it is found from the Ural to Kamchatka, and down to 43° N. in
winter, its colours are purer and more strongly contrasted — as in the
case of many other species ; while this North-Siberian form, Surnia
doliata (Pallas), occurs in Alaska. There it meets with the American
race already mentioned, which ranges eastward to Labrador, and as
far south as Pennsylvania in severe winters.

The Hawk-Owl begins to breed by the middle of April ; and
Wolley, to whom we owe the earliest details respecting its habits,
found that it occupied holes in trees and the nesting-boxes set up
by the peasants for the use of Ducks, in which it lays from 5 to
8 white eggs: measurements i"55 by i"2 in. In Arctic America
these are said to be deposited in nests built of small sticks and twigs,
in pine-trees : doubtless the deserted habitations of other birds, such
as are utilized by the Long-eared Owl. The male bird fiercely
attacks any intruder upon its domain, and both sexes appear to take
part in the task of incubation. Adults are in full moult before the
young can fly (Wheelwright). The cry is similar to that of a
Hawk: a bird which, from its long tail, sharp wings and quick flight,
this species much resembles in appearance. It flies much in the
day-time and has been seen to strike down the Siberian Jay on the
wing ; its food consists of lemmings and other rodents, large insects,
and birds up to the size of Ptarmigan or a Willow-Grouse ; to obtain
the latter of which it will sometimes attend upon the sportsman.

The general colour of the upper parts is dark brown, spotted with
white ; facial disk incomplete ; tail long and graduated, narrowly
barred and broadly tipped with white ; under parts white, barred
with dark reddish-brown ; feet covered to the claws with greyish-
white feathers ; bill yellowish-white ; irides straw-yellow ; no oper-
culum. Length 15 to 16 in. (tail about 7-5 in.) ; wang 9'2-9-5 in. ;
the female being larger than the male, and having the dark bars on
the under parts slightly broader as well as more rufous.

STRIGID.^.

307

THE SCOPS-OWL.

Scops giu (Scopoli).

This Owl, the smallest which occurs in the British Islands, was
first noticed as a visitor in the spring of 1805, when specimens
were obtained in Yorkshire. Since that time examples have been
recorded from Northamptonshire, Essex, Middlesex, Bucks. Berks,
Wilts, Cornwall, Pembrokeshire, Cheshire, Lancashire and Cumber-
land ; four occurrences are authenticated in Norfolk, and there are
records from the south-east of Yorkshire. The often-repeated story
of the breeding of the Scops-Owl at Castle-Eden Dene in Durham
is untrue. One was killed in Sutherland late in May 1S54 ; the late
Col. Drummond-Hay has recorded a pair shot at Scone in May 1864 ;
Mr. G. Sim says that one was picked up dead near Kintore on
September 2nd 1891 ; and one was taken alive at the lighthouse
on North Ronaldshay, Orkneys, on June 2nd 1892. Li Ireland one
was killed in co. Meath in 1837, one in Wexford in the spring of
1847, a third near Belfast in November 1883, and a fourth in
Wexford on May 31st 1889.

The Scops-Owl is only a summer-visitor even to the temperate
portions of Europe, exceptionally extending its migrations to
Heligoland (once), Holland, Belgium, Northern France and Switzer-
land. South of the Alps and Carpathians it is not uncommon ;
while in Southern France, the Spanish Peninsula, Italy, and east-
ward to Greece, Turkey and Southern Russia, it becomes abundant.

B B 2

3o8 SCOPS-OWL.

In fact, it is found in summer as far, north as the grape annually
ripens, but it is most numerous in those warmer countries in
which the olive-tree also grows, though there it may ascend to
elevations far above the oil-producing zone. On migration, numbers
are taken in Malta and served at table (Lilford). In the Mediter-
ranean basin it appears to be to some extent resident, as it is also in
portions of Northern Africa ; but the majority pass onward, to winter
in Abyssinia and Senaar. Our Scops-Owl is common in summer in
Asia Minor, Palestine, Persia and Turkestan ; but in the Indian and
African regions it has several representatives of greater or less specific
distinctness.

About the middle of May this Owl usually lays its white eggs
(5-6 in number and measuring about i"25 by i in.) in some hollow
cork- or olive-tree, though elms, poplars and willows are used ;
sometimes, however, it resorts to a hole in a wall or a roof ; while
in the south of France it is said to make use of old Magpies' nests.
It is partial to cork- and olive-woods as well as to groves of trees on
the banks of rivers ; and its note may frequently be heard in the
gardens of large cities, such as Seville and Florence. To my ear,
its cry is a clear, metallic, ringing ki-oii — whence the Italian names
Chiu or Ciii. This Owl is particularly nocturnal, and, although it
can face the sunlight, yet, except when disturbed, I never saw it on
the wing in the day-time, during which it remains perched across a
branch, often close to the stem. It then resembles, beneath the
shady foliage, some gnarled stump or knot, but, on a tap being given
to the trunk, this supposed knot will be seen to shoot up to double
its former height and exhibit a pair of ear-tufts. So abundant is
this quaint little bird on the wood-fringed banks of the Tagus and the
Jarama that I have found over a score in an afternoon's ramble.
It feeds on beetles, grasshoppers, large moths and other insects ;
perhaps also on mice and small birds, but it is chiefly insectivorous.

The general colour of the plumage is grey, with a dark centre to
each feather and vermiculations of various shades of brown ; facial
disk incomplete above the eyes; ear-tufts conspicuous when erected;
legs feathered, but feet bare ; beak black ; irides yellow ; operculum
wanting. Length : male 7-5 in., wing 5-8 in. ; female 8 in., wing
6-1 in. The female is often rather more rufous than the male, while
the young are decidedly so.

Examples of the American Scops asio are said to have been
obtained in Yorkshire and Norfolk, but no credence need be attached
to these statements.

STRIGID.-E.

309

THE EAGLE-OWL.

Bubo ignavus, T. P'orster.

From time to time examples of this large and handsome species
have been recorded in Great Britain ; but some of these individuals
are known to have escaped from that semi-captivity in which they
are often kept, while suspicion attaches to others. Birds which
were probably genuine migrants from Northern Europe have,
however, been obtained, at long intervals, in the Orkney and
Shetland Islands, and also on the mainland of Scotland ; while in
England a female which showed no sign of having been in con-
finement was shot near Stamford in Lincolnshire, in April 1879,
Mr. Cordeaux records an individual seen near Easington, Holder-
ness, in the winter of 1879-1880, as well as another noticed several
times in October 1888, and no more likely district for a wanderer
from Scandinavia can be imagined. There is no evidence that the
Eagle-Owl has ever visited Ireland ; but in the Science and Art

3IO EAGLE-OWL.

Museum, Dublin, there is an example of the South African Bubo
macitlosus, said to have been brought in the flesh to the late Dr.
Birkett of Waterford on January 27th 1851 (probably an imported
bird), and at one time this specimen was erroneously identified as
the American B. virginianiis.

The Eagle-Owl inhabits the forest-covered, rugged and mountain-
ous districts of Europe, from Scandinavia, Lapland and Northern
Russia to the Mediterranean ; as well as Africa north of the Atlas
Mountains. Specimens from beyond the A^olga are pale in colour,
while east of the Ural Mountains and across Siberia to the Sea of
Okhotsk a still paler form, B. sibiricus, occurs ; but birds from
China to the Sea of Japan seem to be identical with those from
Europe. In Central Asia, through the Himalayas to Tibet, its
representative is the rather smaller B. turcomanus ; while B. blakis-
toui is the species found in Japan ; and B. ascalaphus (with shorter
ear-tufts) inhabits Syria, Egypt and North-east Africa. America is
occupied by B. virgiinamis and its sub-divisions.

In the forest-regions the Eagle-Owl deposits its eggs in some
wide fork or other convenient place in a large tree, or makes use of
an old nest of another bird ; but in the mountains it selects ruins,
slightly overhung ledges, or the roots of trees on crags, and the
sides of narrow gorges, while it is not averse to the proximity of a
cottage ; and in the steppes it lays its eggs on the open ground.
Incubation often commences early in April ; the 2-3 nearly round
eggs being creamy-white : measurements 2 -3 by i "9 in. No nest is
originally made, but the young are often found upon an accumula-
tion of castings, mingled with fur from rats, rabbits, hares, &c.,
which, with birds, form the food of this predatory species. In
Spain and the Pyrenees the peasants make a practice of robbing the
nest of the game supplied daily to the young by the parent birds,
and substituting any available offal ; for which reason the position is
seldom revealed to strangers until the young are nearly ready to fly.
The Eagle-Owl seeks its prey by day as well as by night ; its cry,
chiefly uttered early in the spring, is a loud boo, boo. In confinement
this species breeds freely and has been known to live to a great age.

The general colour of the upper parts is dark brown or black,
mottled with tawny-yellow ; wings and tail transversely barred ;
under parts yellowish-brown with dark streaks and bars ; head with
long ear-tufts ; operculum absent ; legs thickly feathered to the toes ;
irides bright orange. Length : male 24 in., wing 18 in. ; female
25 in., wing 18-5 in. Northern examples are larger than those from
the south.

VULTURID^:.

311

THE GRIFFON-VULTURE.
Gyps fulvus (J. F. Gmelin).

In the spring of 1843 a bird of this species (presumably gorged
or injured) was caught dive on the rocks near Cork Harbour,
and is preserved in the collection at Trinity College, Dublin. It
was described by Thompson as being in adult plumage ; but, after
examination, I have no hesitation in saying that it is immature.
There is no other instance of the capture of this Vulture in the
British Islands ; but an eminently cautious ornithologist, who is
familiar with Griffons, informed me that some years since he had
watched one soaring near Southampton Water.

The Griffon-Vulture was obtained near Utrecht in Holland about
1830 ; while it has been observed on several occasions in Normandy,

312 GRIFFON-VULTURE.

and has been captured on the chffs to the north-west of Cherbourg.
It annually visits the south of France in autumn ; breeds in small
numbers on the Spanish frontier in the Western Pyrenees ; and is
common in the mountainous portions of the Iberian Peninsula, as
well as in most of the situations suitable to its habits in Southern
Europe and the basins of the Mediterranean, Black and Caspian
Seas. In Switzerland and the Carpathians it is of very rare occur-
rence, though it has been obtained in Poland, and in Germany as
far north as East Prussia ; while in Russia it is found up to about
lat. 50°, and has considerably extended its range northward along
the Ural Mountains during the last forty years. In Asia it can be
traced to Turkestan and the mountains of Northern India, where,
however, it meets with a larger form which has been separated as
G. himalayensis ; while in Africa it is resident as far south as
Nubia (though represented by G. kolbi in the south), and is found
in the Red Sea district down to Aden.

Towards the end of January the Griffon- Vultures may be seen
building or repairing their nests with branches of trees and claws-
full of grass torn up by the roots. Their usual resorts are over-
hung ledges, cavities and fissures, such as are especially frequent in
limestone ranges, and these are seldom accessible from above with-
out a rope ; while owing to thick scrub the base of the cliff is often
unattainable. Exceptionally a nest has been found in a tree. In the
latter part of February, though sometimes not till the end of March,
I and not rarely 2 eggs are laid ; these are rough in texture, and
usually white in colour, but some are more or less marked with
genuine blotches of a rusty-brown, as well as with blood-stains :
measurements 37 by 2-8 in. A strong and unpleasant musky smell
pervades the eggs, nest, and the whole dung-splashed ledge. Like
other Vultures, this species hunts by means of its keen sight ; the
alteration in the flight of the nearest bird, on the discovery of a
carcase, being quickly noticed and followed-up by more distant
individuals. During the lambing-season I have seen it on the
ground, assiduous in its attendance upon the ewes \ but it is an
arrant coward and I never knew of its touchmg any living creature.
It is at all times somewhat gregarious.

The general colour is bufifish-brown, with black on the wings and
tail ; the head and neck are covered with whitish down ; and there
is a broad ruff, which is composed of long whitish filaments in the
adult, but of brownish acuminate feathers in the young ; under parts
striated buff in the adult, warm fulvous in the young. Length about
42 in., wing 28 in. ; the female being slightly smaller than the male.

VULTURID.^.

THE EGYPTIAN VULTURE.

Neophron percnopterus (Linnceus).

In October 1825 two birds of this species are said to have been
observed near Kilve, Bridgewater Bay, Somersetshire, when one,
which had been feeding on the carcase of a sheep, was shot, and
proved to be in immature plumage. Another immature example
was killed on September 28th 1868, in a farm-yard at Peldon, Essex,
whither it had been attracted by the blood of some geese.

The Egyptian Vulture has wandered to Norway and Germany, but
its most northern nesting-places seem to be in Savoy ; while further
south it is not uncommon in summer, arriving in Provence and the
Pyrenees early in March. It is usually seen in pairs and never
breeds in colonies ; but a couple or two are to be noticed near
almost every mountain-range in the Spanish Peninsula, as well as in
Southern Europe generally, especially in the basins of the Mediter-
ranean, Black and Caspian Seas. To Madeira it is only a wanderer,
but it inhabits the Canaries, the Cape Verde Islands, and North
Africa from Morocco to the Red Sea ; while in winter it goes as far
as Cape Colony. From Asia Minor it can be traced to Persia and

314

EGYPTIAN VULTURE.

North-west India, but eastward its representative is a smaller form,
JY. gingittianus, which has a yellow bill.

The nest, built of branches, and warmly lined with hair and wool,
has sometimes as a foundation a former abode of the Bearded
Vulture, Raven or other large bird, and is usually placed on a ledge
of rock ; but in Turkey it is often in cypress and other trees, while
in Spain it is sometimes on the ilex. The 2 eggs are seldom laid in
Europe before April loth ; they are creamy-white, blotched and
often richly suffused with chocolate-red : measurements 2 '5 by 2 in.
This Vulture feeds on the lowest animal and vegetable refuse, dung
of all kinds, and bones from which the Griffons have stripped the
flesh ; it may also be seen following the plough, with long, slow
strides, for what it can pick up. But though repulsive in its habits
it appears to advantage on the wing, circling round without a flap of
its outspread pinions, or at times sweeping low over the ground, like
a Harrier.

The adult is white, with black primaries ; the fore part of the
head and neck being yellow and devoid of feathers ; bill horn-brown ;
irides crimson ; legs and feet flesh-colour. Length 26 in. ; wing
19 in. The young bird (represented in the vignette) is dark brown,
with greyish head and neck ; irides brown. In confinement the
full plumage is not attained until the third year.

FALCONID^.

315

THE MARSH-HARRIER.

Circus ^ruginosus (Linnteus).

This species, known as the Moor-Buzzard so long as ' moor '
retained a signification alhed to ' mire ' or ' marsh,' can now be
barely included among our indigenous birds. The principal cause
of its decrease in England has been the drainage of the fens in
the eastern districts, and the reclamation of the marshy wastes in
Somerset, Dorset, Shropshire, Lancashire, Yorkshire and some other
counties, where it used to breed until within the last thirty or forty
years. Sometimes a pair or two attempt to rear their broods in the
Broad-district of Norfolk, but are rarely, if ever, allowed to succeed,
and I know of no other county in which this Harrier has recently
nested ; though migrants from the Continent occur in spring and
autumn, reaching Western England and Wales. In Scotland the
Marsh-Harrier is very rare, even in the Solway district which is not
altogether unsuited to its habits ; the only example Booth ever saw
was an immature bird in East Lothian ; single instances are on
record from Dumbartonshire as well as from Scalpa, near Skye ;
Mr. Macleay of Inverness has received but one in all his long
experience ; Mr. G. Sim of Aberdeen tells me that only a solitary

3l6 MARSH-HARRIER.

male, shot on May 12th 1881, has passed through his hands in thirty
years; and on November 28th 1883 Mr. J. d. Millais shot a bird of
the year in Hoy, Orkneys. In Ireland the species was formerly
common about Lough Erne in co. Fermanagh, and along the valley
of the Shannon, as well as in co. Cork and other districts ; but now
it is only known to nest in Queen's County (where it is protected
by Lord Castletown) and a few other areas.

In Norway the Marsh-Harrier is of accidental occurrence, but it
breeds in Denmark and the south of Sweden, while it is found sparingly
in summer up to Archangel. In Middle and Southern Russia it is
common, and resident in the latter, but from the northern districts
it migrates in the cold season, as it does — at least partially — from its
summer-haunts in Poland, Denmark, Germany, Holland, Belgium
and the north of France. In the marshes of the Spanish Peninsula,
Italy, and the rest of Southern Europe it is abundant throughout
the year, as it is in North Africa, from Morocco to Egypt ; while in
winter it has been observed in Abyssinia, and perhaps even in the
Transvaal. Eastward, it passes the summer in the temperate por-
tions of Asia as far as the valley of the Ob, Turkestan and Kashmir ;
migrating in the cold season to India, Ceylon and Burma.

The nest, built of reeds and dry grass, is often a large firm
structure, on a mass of sedge, but sometimes slight, and occasion-
ally on the lower branches of a tree in or on the confines of a
marsh. The eggs, 3-5 and even 6 in number, are pale bluish-white,
seldom — if ever — with distinct brown markings : measurements i "9 in.
by I "5 in. In the season the Marsh-Harrier is a sad destroyer of
the eggs and young of waterfowl, while it also takes small mammals
and birds ; but during the greater part of the year it feeds largely
on frogs and reptiles, and the scarcity of these when the marshes
are frozen is one of the causes of its departure from the north of
Europe.

The mature male has the head creamy-white, streaked with
umber; mantle brown; primaries blackish; rest of the wings and
the tail silvery-grey ; under parts buff, striped with brown on the
breast and with chestnut on the belly and thighs ; under-wing white.
In the female the tail and under parts are brown. Young birds are
chocolate-brown, but the males have the entire crown of the head
buffish-white, while the females have a yellowish patch streaked
with brown, on the nape only. In subsequent stages the plumage
of this species varies greatly. Length: male 21 in., wing 16 in. ;
female 22*5 in., wing 16 -5 in.

FALCONID.'E.

3^7

THE HEN-HARRIER.

Circus cyaneus (Linnceus).

The Hen-Harrier frequents higher and less marshy ground than
the preceding species, and although it used to breed in (or on the
rising ground above) the fen-district of Eastern England, before the
spread of agricultural improvements, it was probably never common
there, Montagu's Harrier being often mistaken for it. Of late years
its numbers have been so far thinned by game-preservers that in
England and Wales it is now only to be found nesting on a few of.
the wildest and most extensive moorlands and wastes. Even in Scot-
land and its islands, where this Harrier was formerly numerous, it is
rapidly decreasing as a breeding-species ; but young birds are some-
times fairly abundant as migrants in autumn, when the adults also
come down from the moors to the lowlands, and the male (sometimes
called " the Goshawk ") attracts attention by his pale grey plumage.
These remarks apply equally to Ireland. Few — and those chiefly
adults — are to be met with in the British Islands during winter.

In Scandinavia and Northern Russia the Hen-Harrier is found in
summer about as far north as lat. 69°, though rare near that limit ;
and it is only south of 62'' that it becomes at all numerous in the

3l8 HEN-HARRIER.

last-named country. From March or April until autumn it is to be
found in suitable localities in Denmark, Holland, Germany, &c.,
down to the Alps and the Carpathians. In France — where from its
abundance on migration in November it is called Biisard Saint-
Martin — a few breed on the high ground, down to the Pyrenees ;
while a fair number nest in the north of the Spanish Peninsula, as
well as in Italy. Throughout the basin of the Mediterranean the
Hen-Harrier is chiefly known on passage and in winter, when it
visits Morocco, Algeria, and North-eastern Africa as far south as
Abyssinia. Eastward it is found across Asia, except Kamchatka,
up to a little above the Arctic circle (though rare beyond 60° N.) in
summer, and down to Canton in winter. Over the northern half of
America it is represented by a closely-allied species, C. hudsonius.

When placed on a bare hill-side the nest is often a slight struc-
ture, though, if in deep heather or a dried-up marsh, it is frequently
a mass of roots and plant-stems a foot high ; while in Germany a
grain-field is a favourite site : whence the name Korn-weihe. The
4-6 eggs are bluish-white, exceptionally with genuine yellowish-brown
markings or even bold rusty blotches : measurements i"8 by i"45
in. Incubation, which devolves upon the female, seldom commences
before the latter part of May, and lasts three weeks. Like other
Harriers, this species quarters the ground with great regularity in
search of the small mammals, birds and reptiles which form its food ;
but, though destructive to game, there is no evidence that it is — or
ever was — an especial scourge of the poultry-yard, as might be
inferred from its trivial name. The flight is particularly buoyant,
and often low ; the light-coloured rump being very noticeable when
the bird is soaring or hovering.

The adult male has the upper parts pale slate-grey ; rump white ;
throat and breast bluish-grey ; remaining under parts white. In
younger males there are five ashy bars on the tail, and brown streaks
on the flanks, thighs and nape. Cere, irides and legs yellow. Length
19 in., wing 13-5 in. The female is brown above, streaked with
white on the nape and on the edges of the distinct facial ruff; rump
white, marked with rufous ; tail brown, with five darker bars — whence
this sex was formerly called the Ring-tail, and was considered a
distinct species ; under parts buffish-brown, with darker stripes.
Length 21 in., wing 15 in. The young resemble the female, and
have, like her, brown irides, but their plumage is more rufous in tint.

In this and the preceding two species — and, I believe, in all
except Montagu's and the Pallid Harrier — the outer webs of the
primaries to the 5th inclusive are emarginated.

FALCONID.'E.

319

\V^^

MONTAGU'S HARRIER.

Circus cineraceus (Montagu).

This species, first distinguished from the Hen-Harrier by Mon-
tagu, is smaller and more slender than that bird, with proportionately
longer wings ; and in any stage of plumage it may infallibly be recog-
nized by the outer web of its 5th primary having no emargination.

Montagu's Harrier was never a resident in the British Islands, as
erroneously stated by Seebohm ; on the contrary, it is merely a spring
and summer visitor to Europe (hardly excepting the Mediterranean
basin), and its northerly range is not extensive. To us it comes in
April, and a pair or two make their nest — often fruitlessly — almost
every year in East Anglia ; while instances are on record of it
having bred of late years in Devon, Somerset, Dorset, Hants —
including the Isle of Wight — and other counties of England, as well
as in Wales ; and it even reaches to Yorkshire, beyond which it is
rare. In the Solway district a female, which had evidently been
sitting, was shot, according to Mr. R. Service, on June 15th 1882,
and there have been a few other occurrences ; but the species is un-
known in Scotland, except in the south, and statements that it has
bred in Sutherland or visited Caithness are unfounded. In Ireland

320 MONTAGUS HARRIER.

six examples have been obtained since 1849, from co. Dublin south-
ward ; one of these on May 21st, one on July 3rd, and the others
in autumn.

The St. Petersburg district and the Gulf of Finland appear to
mark the extreme northern breeding-limits of this Harrier ; but it is
abundant in summer in Central and Southern Russia, and on the
steppes of the latter a few remain throughout the winter. It seldom
visits Heligoland, and is not numerous in Denmark or Northern
Germany ; but to the central and southern districts of the latter it is
a regular visitor, arriving in March and leaving in October ; while in
Holland, Belgium, and many parts of France it is more or less
common ; large flocks often congregating at the time of migration.
A considerable number breed in the Spanish Peninsula and other
parts of the south of Europe, passing through in autumn and again
in spring, and many are killed in Malta on their migrations to and
from Africa. Montagu's Harrier also nests in Morocco and Algeria,
while in winter it visits the Canaries and occurs in Africa as far
south as Cape Colony. In Asia its range extends to Turkestan and
the south-west of Siberia in summer, and to India, Ceylon and
Burma in winter.

The nest is ofcen a mere hollow lined with dry grass and bordered
with twigs, in the middle of a small clearing in gorse or heather,
and, on the Continent, in a field of grain ; but in the fens it is more
substantially built of sedge. The 4-5 eggs, laid at intervals of two
or three days, towards the end of May, are usually pale bluish-white,
but sometimes spotted with reddish-brown : measurements, 1 7 by
1-3 in. I never found the male bird on the nest. Like other
Harriers, this species eats small mammals and birds, but its food
consists principally of grass-snakes, vipers, lizards and other reptiles,
large insects, such as grasshoppers and locusts, and, during the season,
eggs of ground-nesting birds. From the crop of a male I once took
two unbroken eggs of the Crested Lark, and the crushed remains of
others. The flight is very light and elegant.

The adult male has the upper parts slate-grey, with a black bar
across the secondaries ; tail-feathers greyish, with five dark bars,
except on the middle pair ; throat and breast ash-grey ; lower parts
white streaked with rufous. Varieties ranging to an entirely sooty-
black are not uncommon in this sex, but rare in the female. The
latter is usually brown above, and buffish-white streaked with rufous-
brown below ; the young are similar, but almost chestnut on the
under parts. Length: male about 18 in., wing 14 in.; female
19-25 in., wing 15-4 in.

FALCONID^..

THE COMMON BUZZARD.

BuTEO VULGARIS, Leach.

As regards the British Islands, the epithet ' common ' is annually
becoming less and less applicable to this species ; but there are
districts in England — especially in the west — as well as Wales, where
the bird may still be seen circling high in the air, and be heard
uttering its plaintive mewing cry. Sixty years ago it used to breed
in Norfolk and other eastern counties abounding with Partridges and
ground-game, without being considered incompatible with their
existence; but with the increase of Pheasant-worship the doom of
the Buzzard was sealed. In Scotland it is chiefly found in the
centre and west of the mainland, and a few pairs breed in the Inner
Hebrides, but the bird is very rare in the Orkneys and of doubtful
occurrence in the Shetlands. In Ireland it is almost extirpated as a
nesting-species, but is an occasional visitor from autumn to spring.

The Common Buzzard appears to reach its northern breeding-limit
at about lat. 66° in Sweden ; while in Russia it is seldom found to
the east of the Baltic Provinces or of the Vistula, beyond which its
place is taken by the more rufous African Buzzard {B. deserioriun of
many authors) ; and Dr. Menzbier thinks that where the two forms
or species meet they interbreed. From Poland westward, however,
the Common Buzzard is generally distributed throughout Europe ;

c c

322 COMMON BUZZARD.

migrating to some extent even from Northern Germany during the
colder months, but residing in the central districts. Small flocks
pass over Heligoland throughout the year, except in June and July.
In the south of Europe, though sometimes seen on passage in large
numbers, the Buzzard is rather local as a breeding-species ; while in
Western Asia, Egypt, and North Africa, the resident form is the
aforesaid B. desertoriim. Our Buzzard, however, inhabits the Cape
Verde Islands, Canaries and Madeira, while the Azores owe their
name to its abundance when the Portuguese discovered that group.

Cliffs, especially those covered with ivy or scrub, are favourite
resorts in Wales, the Lake country and Scotland ; but in wooded
districts the nest is usually built in a tree, and, when placed in a
fork, is frequently a deep, bulky structure of sticks, with a slight
cavity on the top, lined and surrounded with green leaves, which
are renewed from time to time. The 3-4 eggs are greyish-white,
blotched and streaked with reddish-brown and pale lilac ; measure-
ments 2*25 by 175 in. Both birds take part in incubation, which
usually begins about the middle of April and lasts four weeks.
There is no evidence that this species is destructive to game, its
ordinary food consisting of field-mice, moles and other small mam-
mals, frogs, reptiles, grasshoppers, and even earth-worms ; but it
takes small birds when it can pounce upon them unawares. Unless
pressed by hunger, it is sluggish in its habits, though when on the
wing its spiral gyrations are remarkably graceful.

The plumage varies greatly, irrespective of sex or locality. Very
old birds are dark brown above and below, with a few light
markings on the breast ; tail brown, with twelve darker bars ; legs
bare of feathers and yellow in colour. Length: male 21 in., wing
i4'5 in. ; female 23 in., wing 16 in. Very handsome varieties —
ranging from cream-colour mottled with brown to pure white — are
often found on the Continent. The young bird has the upper
parts paler ; throat brown, streaked with white ; breast blotched with
brown on a white ground.

A bird said to have been killed at Everley, Wiltshire, in September
1864, was considered by the late Mr. J. H. Gurney to be
B. desertorum ; and to this species he also ascribed two examples,
obtained near Newcastle, in the Hancock collection.

The American B. borealis is said to have been shot in Notting-
hamshire in the autumn of i860 ; and a dealer's specimen of the
American B. lineatus is stated to have been obtained near Kingussie
on February 26th 1863.

FALCONID^K.

323

THE ROUGH-LEGGED BUZZARD.

BuTEO lag6pus (J. F. Gmelin).

The Rough-legged Buzzard — distinguishable at a glance from
the preceding species by having the front and sides of the legs
feathered to the toes — is an irregular autumnal visitor to England ;
considerable numbers, chiefly of immature birds, sometimes making
their appearance in the eastern counties, and remaining, if
unmolested, for the winter. In the south and west it is less
frequent ; but it is not rare in the midlands and northward, its line of
migration appearing to follow the Pennine range. In some of the
northern and eastern parts of Scotland it is of almost annual
occurrence; and in the winters of 1875-76, 1880-81, and the
autumn of 1891, it was numerous down to the east and even the
south of England. To Ireland, however, its visits have only been
recorded about ten times : two of these in 1891 and one in 1895,
all three in November. The often-repeated statement, made in
1836, that the Rough-legged Buzzard nested, "year after year, on
the ground, amongst the heather, in the moor-dells," near Hackness,
in Yorkshire, rests upon a gamekeeper's recollection of twenty-four

c c 2

324 ROUGH-LEGGED BUZZARD.

years earlier, and is contrary to the known habits of the bird ;
while the assertion by Thomas Edward that the nestlings were taken
from a wood near Banff in 1864, is probably as incorrect as many
of his other records.

The Rough-legged Buzzard is the commonest bird of prey in the
higher districts of Scandinavia, and — beyond the wooded region — in
Russia, nesting in the latter, irregularly, as far south as lat. 56°, as
well as in the Baltic Provinces ; while in winter it goes down to the
northern shores of the Caspian and to the Asiatic side of the Black
Sea. Eastward it breeds in Siberia down to Baikalia and up to
Kamchatka ; it is found in Alaska ; and it visits Northern Japan as
well as Turkestan during the cold season. AVanderers have occurred
as far south as Malta and other islands of the Mediterranean, and
the bird is an occasional winter-visitor to the Pyrenees, though
only frequent to the north of the Alps and the Carpathians. In
North America it is represented by the more rufous and darker
B. sancfi-johannis, fondly believed to visit England by owners of
deep-coloured examples of the European bird.

The nest is of large sticks when placed in trees, but when on a crag
it is a slighter structure, lined with grass. The 3-5 eggs, often laid
by the middle of May, are similar to those of the preceding species,
but the average dimensions are a trifle larger and the markings are
sometimes still more handsome. This Buzzard feeds, to some extent,
on frogs, reptiles and birds, but largely on such small mammals as
lemmings, moles and mice ; it can even manage an Arctic hare, and
its partiality for rabbits has often proved fatal to it on the warrens
of Norfolk and Suffolk. Open or marshy moorlands are more to its
taste than wooded districts, in which respect it differs from the
Common Buzzard ; its flight is bolder ; and in the air the white on
the tail forms a good distinction. By some authorities this and
other species with feathered legs have been placed in a separate
genus, Archibuteo.

The adult has the head and neck creamy-white, streaked with
rusty-brown ; mantle dark brown ; basal part of the tail white, with
a broad brown subterminal bar and several narrower bars on a
mottled ground ; under parts huffish, barred with rufous brown,
thickly on the abdomen and flanks ; legs feathered to the toes on
the front and sides. Length 23-26 in.; wing i7-2-i8-5 in.; the
female being larger than the male. The immature bird (represented
in the woodcut) is browner in plumage and has less white on the
tail ; the under parts are streaked rather than barred with brown.

FALCONID^.

325

J^/|f^f7'P

'III! I l^^V

THE SPOTTED EAGLE.

Aquila maculata (J. F. Gmelin).

In January 1845 two examples of this wanderer to the British
Islands were shot near Youghal in Ireland, and one of them — an
immature bird — is preserved in the Museum of Trinity College,
Dublin. Two young males were shot in Cornwall on December 4th
t86o and early in November 1861, as recorded by the late E. H.
Rodd ; and on December 28th 1861 a male was shot near Somerley,
Hants, by a keeper of Lord Normanton's. Mr. W. A. Durnford
states that a bird of this species was picked up dead on Walney
Island, Lancashire, in 1875 ; and on October 31st 1885 an example
was obtained in Northumberland. In 1891 no fewer than four
were taken in Essex and Suffolk between October 29th and
December i6th.

A small form of Spotted Eagle breeds in the forests of Northern
Germany and the Baltic Provinces of Russia, wanders to Sweden,

326 SPOTTED EAGLE.

and can be traced through Poland to Bessarabia. A larger form
(which breeds occasionally in East Prussia, Poland, Galizia and
Transylvania), occupies the forest-region of Russia eastward and
southward as far as the steppes, as well as the Caucasus, Central
Asia to Northern China, some parts of India, Persia, and Asia
Minor. This is the form which nests in Turkey, the districts
watered by and south of the Danube, suitable localities in Italy and
the islands of the Mediterranean, and, sparingly, in North Africa ;
while, though not common in the south of Spain, I have frequently
seen and heard it in the Pyrenees. To Northern France, Belgium,
Holland, and even the wooded valleys of the Moselle and the
Rhine, both races are rare visitors. In winter they migrate
entirely from their northern — and partially from their southern
— haunts in Europe ; numbers ascending the Nile valley to
Abyssinia. The chief difference in the adults is that of size ; an
average male of the larger form being equal to a female of the
smaller. In the young of the smaller form there is usually a more
defined huffish patch on the nape, while the pale spots of the upper
parts are limited to the secondaries and wing-coverts : whereas in
the larger form these spots are also found on the scapulars and
rump. It is chiefly — if not entirely — the larger which has visited
the British Islands, and Mr. W. T. Blanford has decided that for
this the proper name is A. maculata : Gmelin's Falco ncEvius being
probably a Buzzard. A later name, A. clanga of Pallas, has been
confusingly applied, especially on the Continent, to a larger and
distinct species, namely the Steppe-Eagle, A. orientalis.

The nest, almost invariably built in a tall tree, is a large flat
structure of sticks, with a slight lining of fresh twigs, leaves or
grass ; the 2-3 eggs, laid early in May, are greyish-white, streaked
and often boldly blotched with ruddy brown : measurements
2 "5 by 2'i in. Nests found on the ground in the Dobrudscha and
South Russia, and formerly ascribed to this species, have proved
to be those of the above-mentioned Steppe-Eagle. The food con-
sists largely of frogs, but also of reptiles, grasshoppers, small birds and
mammals. The loud and shrill cry is repeatedly uttered in spring.

The general colour of the adult is warm coffee-brown or greyish-
brown, according to the age of the feathers. The young bird is
purplish-brown, with pale edges to the upper feathers — as shown in
the cut — and ochreous streaks on the under parts. Length of
wing : male 19-20 in. ; female 21-23 i"- The nostrils are round, not
oval ; the legs (feathered to the toes) are rather long and slender.

falconida:.

327

THE GOLDEN EAGLE.

Aquila chrysaetus (Linnceus).

As regards England, authenticated occurrences of this species in
the south are exceedingly rare ; the birds recorded as " Golden "
Eagles generally proving to be examples of the White-tailed or Sea-
Eagle in the tawny-brown plumage of immaturity. At long intervals
single specimens have been obtained in Sussex (Charleton Forest,
prior to 1752), Norfolk (Stiff key, November 1868), Lincolnshire
(November ist 1881 and October 29th 1895), and Northampton-
shire (October 1849); while somewhat further northward this species
is not much more frequent, although about two centuries ago it
bred in Derbyshire and Wales, and almost within the last hundred
years in the Cheviots and the Lake district. Across the Border,
as Mr. R. Service informs me, there were eyries up to 1833 in the
Moffat Hills, and for some years after 1850 in Ayrshire and Kirkcud-
brightshire; but to the Lowlands of Scotland the Golden Eagle is now.

328 GOLDEN EAGLE.

at best, a rare visitor in the cold season. Its present breeding-
places are confined to the Highlands and to the islands off the
western coast, where, owing to the protection afforded by many of
the proprietors of deer-forests, its numbers have, to some extent,
recovered from the destructiveness of grouse-preservers. It no
longer, however, nests in the Orkneys, and has never been known
to do so in the Shetlands. In Ireland a few pairs remain in the
north and west, but their years are numbered.

The Golden Eagle inhabits the mountains as well as some of the
forests of Europe, from Lapland to the Mediterranean ; North
Africa; Asia, as far east as the Amur and Southern Japan, and south-
ward to the Himalayas ; and also America north of lat. 35°; but it is
unknown in Iceland or Greenland. Over this vast area considerable
variations in size and plumage are observed : — examples from
Western Europe being darker than those from the Central and
Southern portion ; while adults as well as young from the eastern
half of Russia have a great deal of white at the base of the tail.
The maximum of size appears to be attained in the lofty ranges of
Central Asia and the Himalayas, but some American birds are
very large. Four distinct species — one of which is divided into five
varieties — are recognised by some Russian naturalists !

The nest — placed on the ledge of a crag in mountainous regions,
but often in a tree, and occasionally on the ground — is usually a large
platform of sticks, lined with softer materials and the fresh tufts of
Liizula sylvatica. The eggs, laid early in April, are 2 and some-
times 3 in number, while an exceptional instance of 4 was recorded
by the late Sir J. ^^^ P. Campbell-Orde. Some are dull greyish-
white or mottled-buff; others are streaked, blotched, or even richly
suffused with shades of reddish brown and lilac ; and at times only
one white egg will be found in the nest: measurements 2*9 by
2'3 in. In Scotland the "Black Eagle," as it is called (and some
equivalent of that name prevails wherever the bird is known), feeds
to a great extent upon mountain-hares, while on the Continent it
eats marmots and similar animals ; it also takes grouse and other
birds, lambs, occasionally fawns and the ' calves ' of red deer, and,
when pressed by hunger, it does not refuse carrion. Its note is a
shrill squeal, ending in an abrupt bark.

The general colour is dark brown, tawny on the nape ; the tail is
mottled with dark grey in the adults, but the basal half is white in
the young, which have also white bases to their body-feathers ;
thighs dark brown ; legs feathered to the toes. Length 32-36 in. ;
wing 24-27 in. ; the female being decidedly larger than the male.

FALCON I D^.

329

THE WHITE-TAILED EAGLE.

Haliaetus albicilla (Linnaeus).

Immature examples of this species — also called Erne, Cinereous or
Sea-Eagle — are not unfrequently observed in the maritime counties
of England in autumn and winter, at the time v.-hen the birds reared
in the northern parts of Europe are on their migration southward,
but adults are of very rare occurrence. Within the last hundred
years the White-tailed Eagle bred in the Isle of Man and the Lake
district ; in comparatively recent times in Galloway, Dumfriesshire,
and other places on the south-western mainland of Scotland, and not
long ago in Argyll ; but now its eyries are confined to some of the
western and northern islands. In Ireland, where it was formerly
more numerous than the Golden Eagle, its propensities for carrion
have led to its destruction by poison, and only on the west coast
can a pair or two be found.

53°

WHITE-TAILED EAGLE.

The White-tailed Eagle is now only a visitor to the Faeroes ; but
it is a resident in Iceland, and also in the south of Greenland,
visiting the northern districts of the latter in summer. In North
America it is represented by the Bald Eagle, II. leucocephalus, a
species with a pure white head and neck, which has erroneously
been stated to occur in Iceland, Scandinavia, and even in Ireland !
Our White-tailed Eagle occurs on Novaya Zemlya (Pearson), and
inhabits the neighbourhood of salt or fresh water in Scandinavia,
Denmark, Northern Germany, Russia, the valley of the Danube,
and Turkey ; visiting the rest of Europe, the Canaries, and
Northern Africa ; it even breeds in the reed-beds of Lake Menzaleh
in Lower Egypt ; while eastward we trace it across Asia to Kam-
chatka, Manchuria, and China down to 28^ N. in summer; and in
winter to Japan and India. Though it wanders to the Commander
Islands, the representative species in the long chain of the Aleutian
Islands appears to be the American Bald Eagle.

The nest, similar to that of the Golden Eagle, is often placed on a
sea-cliff, but sometimes on an inland rock ; frequently in a tree or
wide-spreading bush on some small island in a loch; occasionally on
the ground. When built in swamps, as in Lower Egypt, it resembles
a gigantic nest of the Marsh-Harrier, being raised to a considerable
height above the deep surrounding mud. The eggs, usually 2 in
number, dull white in colour, and measuring about 2*85 by 2 "2 in.,
are laid in Scotland in April ; but as early as February in the south-
east of Europe, and by December or January in Egypt. Few kinds
of fish, flesh, fowl or carrion come amiss to this species. The cry
is a loud yelp.

Very old birds have the head and neck nearly white streaked with
ash-brown ; mantle brown ; primaries nearly black; tail wedge-shaped,
and white in colour ; under parts dark brown ; beak, cere, irides, legs
and feet yellow. Length : male 33 in., wing 24 in. ; female 36 in., wing
26 in. The young bird is dark brown, mottled with fulvous on the
mantle and wings ; tail dark brown ; beak black ; cere and irides
pale brown. The full plumage is not attained till the fifth or sixth
year. Varieties of a uniform bluish-grey, yellowish-grey, and silvery-
white are on record.

In the White-tailed Eagle the lower part of the tarsus is bare of
feathers, while the whole length of each toe is covered with broad
scales. In the foot of the Golden Eagle the tarsus is clothed with
feathers to the base of the toes, each of these being covered with
small reticulations as far as the last joint, beyond which there are
three broad scales.

FALCONID^..

331

THE GOSHAWK.

AsTUR PALU.MBARius (Liniiaeus).

Adult examples of the Goshawk are rarely obtained in the British
Islands ; but immature birds have occurred, at long intervals, in
autumn and winter, and sometimes in spring. These visitors are,
naturally, most frequent on the east coast of England and Scotland ;
but instances are on record from the vicinity of London, the southern,
the midland, and even the western counties. In Saxon times, and as
late as 1472 (Paston letters), falconers used to turn their Goshawks into
the woods in spring, in order that young might be obtained later, but
it may be doubted if the species was ever numerous in England. In
Scotland, prior to 1804, Colonel Thornton received a nestling from
the forest of Rothiemurchus, and saw some eyries in the old fir-
woods in the valley of the Spey ; but there is no later proof that
this species has bred in any part of Great Britain. Neither Mr. R.

332 GOSHAWK.

Service nor the veteran taxidermist Mr. Hastings have ever met with
an example anywhere in the Solway district ; and it must be
remembered that in many parts of Scotland (and elsewhere) the
Peregrine Falcon is often miscalled ' Goshawk.' It is unknown ni
Sutherland, and nearly so in Caithness and the Shetlands ; but in
the Outer Hebrides a young male was shot in December 1887 or
January 1S8S. In Ireland only three occurrences are authenticated.

The Goshawk is a rare visitor to Heligoland. It is common in
the forest-regions of Scandinavia and Russia, down to the Black
and Caspian Seas ; it is also abundant in the wooded districts of
Germany and Central Europe generally, and not rare in many
parts of France, especially Normandy. In Italy, as well as in the
Spanish Peninsula, it is rather scarce and local, though it breeds as
far south as Andalucia ; it even nests in Morocco ; while in winter it
visits Egypt and Palestine. Eastward it ranges across Asia to the
Sea of Okhotsk, Japan, and China. The young migrate from the
northern districts ; the adults rarely do so.

Though the old nest of some other species is occasionally repaired,
the bird frequently builds its own, which is a large structure of sticks,
placed in a tree — generally on the outskirts of a forest or near a
clearing, and used year after year. The 4 eggs, laid in April or early
in May, are pale bluish-grey, occasionally with a few rusty markings:
measurements 2*3 by i'8 in. The Goshawk is a bold and rapacious
species, preying upon hares and smaller mammals, water-fowl, game-
birds and poultry ; the shortness of its wings and the steering power
given by its comparatively long tail enabling it to follow with
marvellous rapidity every turn of its quarry, which it takes in a
style called trussing by falconers. Its hearing is very acute.

The adult has a narrow white line above the eye and ear-coverts ;
upper parts ash-brown, with four broad dark bars on the tail ; under
parts white, thickly barred with dull black ; cere, iris, and legs
yellow. Male: length 20 in., wing 12 in.; female: length 23 in.,
wing 14 in. The young bird has the upper parts brown, and five
dark bands on the tail ; under parts warm buff, with numerous
drop-shaped markings of dark brown ; iris pearl-white.

A specimen of the American Goshawk, Asfiir atricapiUiis, said
— on somewhat slight evidence — to have been obtained in Perth-
shire in 1869, is in the Edinburgh Museum ; and another, shot in
Tipperary in 1870, is in the Dublin Museum. This distinct, though
nearly allied species, has closely freckled — not barred — under parts ;
it is not likely to be a genuine visitor to the British Islands.

FALCON I D^.

333

THE SPARROW-HAWK.

AcciPiTER Nisus (Linnffius).

The Sparrow-Hawk is generally distributed in Great Britain and
also in Ireland, wherever there are woodlands suited to its tastes.
It is emphatically an arboreal species, and is, naturally, of rare
occurrence in the Orkneys, Shetlands, and Outer Hebrides, where
the long-winged Kestrel often bears the name — as elsewhere it
suffers for the delinquencies — of this dashing short-winged species.

In autumn the Sparrow-Hawk is frequently observed at our light-
ships and stations on the east coast ; and large numbers sometimes
cross Heligoland on their way from higher latitudes — the young
passing first, and the adults following. The breeding-range extends
northward to the limits of forest-growth, and southward to the
Mediterranean ; comparatively few birds, however, remain to nest in
Spain or Italy, where this species is chiefly noticed on passage, when
following the flocks of small birds on which it preys. It occurs in
Madeira, the Canaries, North Africa, and Egypt as far up the Nile
as Assouan, and migrates to Kordofan. In Asia it is found across
Siberia to Kamchatka and Japan, and breeds, sparingly, down to
Kashmir and the Himalayas, while in winter its range extends to
the latitude of Canton. There are many other members of this
genus, possessing a well-defined geographical range ; but the

334 SPARROW-HAWK.

only one which need be noticed is the Levant Sparrow-Hawk,
A. brevipes^ which inhabits the area between Central Russia and
Syria, and appears to be extending its range in a westerly direction ;
it may be recognized by its much shorter legs.

Like the Goshawk, this species usually builds its own nest,
composed of sticks with a slight lining of twigs, and invariably
places it in a tree, often on the branches close to and sheltered by
the bole, or near the top : sometimes, however, it adapts and adds to
the deserted abode of a Crow, Wood-Pigeon, or other bird. The
4-6 eggs are pale bluish-white, blotched, mottled, and often zoned
with various shades of reddish-brown : measurements i-6 by i"25 in.
In this country they are generally laid early in May, at intervals
of two days, and incubation lasts nearly seven weeks. When
urged by the necessities of a clamorous brood the Sparrow-Hawk is
even more bold and rapacious than at other times, and is then
especially dangerous to the young of game and poultry ; but it
feeds principally on other birds, even Magpies and Wood-Pigeons,
snapping them up in an instant, as it glides with rapid though stealthy
flight along hedges or the skirts of woods. Like all the other short-
winged species, it feeds on the ground — usually under shelter of a
tree, bush or hedge-row, and the small heap of feathers unmis-
takably marks the spot where it has dined ; for, unlike the Falcons,
the Hawks require both feet to secure their quarry and do not seem
to know where its life lies, so that perching is then awkward for
them (Delme'-Radcliffe). In India and Japan the Sparrow-Hawk is
still prized by native falconers ; and in this country it has been
trained to take Quails, Partridges, &c.

The adult male has the upper parts slate-blue, mottled with white
on the nape ; tail greyish-brown, with from three to five dark bars ;
cheeks and ear-coverts bright rufous ; under parts buff, barred with
reddish brown ; cere greenish yellow ; irides orange ; legs and feet
yellow; middle toe very long and slender. Length 13 in., wing
775 in. The female is much larger, measuring i5'4 in., wing 9 in.;
her breast is usually greyish white, barred with ash-brown, and there
is a rufous patch on the flanks ; when very old, however, she attains
the plumage of the adult male. The young are sepia-brown above,
with rufous edges to the feathers : and the under parts are white,
with rufous-brown bars, so broad on the throat as almost to deserve
the name of spots ; iris pale yellow to orange. Both sexes have
been known to breed in immature livery. Few birds vary so much
in plumage and size as the Sparrow-Hawk.

FALCONID.-E.

335

THE KITE.

MiLvus ictInus, Savigny.

This species— the Anglo-Saxon Cyta (Newton), and also known as
the Gled or Glead, in allusion to its gliding flight — may, from the
colour of its tail and upper plumage, conveniently be called the Red
Kite, when the necessity arises for distinguishing it from its con-
geners. Within the recollection of persons still living it was tolerably
common in many of the wooded districts of England and Wales,
but for many years it has not been known to breed in the south-
eastern counties ; one of the last nests known in Lincolnshire — a
former stronghold — was in 1870 ; and in the few spots still inhabited
in the Western Midlands, the Marches, and Wales, this handsome
bird will soon be exterminated by the collector of British specimens
unless the most stringent measures are taken. In Scotland it
survives in a few localities, though there the value of its tail-feathers
for salmon-flies adds to the risk which it elsewhere incurs from the
gamekeeper ; while, exceptionally, stragglers have reached the
Orkneys, and perhaps the Shetlands. The Kite is not, however,

336 KITE.

much addicted to migration. At long intervals single birds or pairs
— wanderers from the Continent — are observed in the eastern por-
tion of Great Britain ; but as the Kite is not often permitted to
pass westward, the gaps left by the destruction of our indigenous
and resident birds have little chance of being filled. In Ireland,
according to the late Mr. More, it has only been observed five or
six times.

To Heligoland the Kite is a very rare visitor. In Scandinavia it
is not known to breed north of lat. 6i°, whence it emigrates on the
approach of cold weather ; as it does also from Denmark and
Germany, where it is common in summer. In Russia it is not
found to the east of the Governments of Tula and Orel, or of the
river Dneiper. Over the rest of Europe it is generally distributed,
and in the Mediterranean basin it is resident, as it is in the
Canaries. It is not rare in North Africa as far east as Tunis, but
in Egypt it is represented by M. cegyptiiis ; it breeds, however, in
Palestine and Asia Minor, though more abundant there in winter.

The nest, which is usually placed in a tree — though in North
Africa it has been found in crags — is composed of sticks, mixed with
a variety of rubbish — such as bones, fragments of newspapers and
old rags, as well as the " lesser linen " for which the Kite's pre-
dilection was well known to Shakespeare. The eggs, laid in April
or early in May, and rarely more than 3 in number, are dull white
or very pale blue, spotted, blotched, and sometimes streaked with
reddish brown: measurements 2"25 by 175 in. The food is offal,
small mammals, birds, reptiles, frogs, and fish ; but though the Kite
is detrimental to very young game and poultry (especially when it
has to satisfy a brood), and is emphatically a " snapper-up of uncon-
sidered trifles," it is not a powerful species. On the wing the wide
circles of its flight are remarkably graceful ; either side of the out-
spread tail being raised or depressed at will, and serving to govern
the bird's course. In the "search for prey a large extent of ground
is daily covered. The cry is a shrill whhv, heh-heh-heh.

The adult has the head and neck white, striped with black \ mantle
rufous-brown ; primaries blackish ; tail rufous and much forked ;
under parts rusty red, striped with dark brown on the breast ; under
side of wings whitish, with a dark patch (very conspicuous in
flight); legs and feet yellow; iris yellowish-white. Length about
25 in., wing 20 in. The male is a trifle smaller than the female, but
his colours are brighter and his tail is longer and more forked. The
young are paler and more mottled on both upper and under parts.

FALCONID.t.

337

THE BLACK KITE.

MiLvus MIGRANS (Boddaert).

Although the Black Kite is a regular summer-visitor to the
valleys of the Rhine and the Moselle, as well as to other districts of
the Continent at no great distance from our shores, yet only one
example is known to have been obtained in Great Britain. This, an
adult male, now in the Newcastle Museum, was taken in a trap in
the deer-park at Alnwick, and brought in a fresh state to the late
Mr. John Hancock on May nth iS66.

On Heligoland the Black Kite has seldom been identified, but
it arrives on the southern side of the Baltic about the end of March,
and leaves again in September. Owing to its partiality for marshy
forests, open valleys and the vicinity of water, it is local in its
distribution, and it is only an irregular visitor to Holland, Belgium
and the north of France ; but it breeds annually, in suitable
localities, in Germany, the lake-districts of Switzerland, and the
southern half of France ; while it is abundant in Spain from the
beginning of March until October, though not numerous on the
mainland and islands of Italy, or in Greece. It is distributed over
Central Europe, and is found in Russia, from Finland and the

D D

338 BLACK KITE.

province of Archangel down to the Caucasus and the Caspian Sea.
In Asia it breeds as far east as Southern Afghanistan, though as a
rule the representative species beyond the Ural Mountains are
M. govinda and M. inelanotis. In Egypt the resident bird is the
yellow-billed M. cBgyptius, but in winter the Black Kite visits South
Africa and INIadagascar (Newton). It breeds in Africa north of the
Atlas, and is resident in the Cape Verde Islands.

The eggs, seldom laid before the beginning of May, are usually
2 in number, similar in appearance to those of the Red Kite, but
rather smaller. The nest is frequently placed in a crag in Algeria,
particularly one studded with bushes or scrub ; in Europe, towers,
ruins, and especially trees — even in populous towns like Pera — are
selected, and in Spain I have found ten or more nests in a small
patch of marshy wood. At Bayonne the Black Kite may often be seen
crossing the streets and steering its way among the telegraph wires,
or picking up offal and small fish from the river Adour. The latter,
which it often devours while on the wing, are favourite food ; also
reptiles, frogs, grasshoppers, small birds and mammals.

The adult male has the throat and forehead whitish and the
crown pale rufous, streaked with black ; mantle umber-brown ; tail
rather rufous-brown with blackish bars ; under parts rufous-brown,
especially the flanks ; bill black. Length 24 in. ; wing 18 in. The
female is slightly larger. The young bird is paler in colour, and
the upper feathers have pale edges. The term ' Black ' is not
inapplicable to this bird as observed flying, when the dark under-
surfaces of the wings and the general sombre hue of the plumage
are noticeable ; the tail is much less forked than in the Red Kite.

An example of the American Swallow-tailed Kite, Elanoides
furcatus, was taken alive during a heavy thunderstorm, near Hawes
in Yorkshire, on September 6th 1805, but afterwards made its
escape, and there is ground for suspecting that it had previously
been in confinement. There are other records of the occurrence in
Great Britain of this chiefly Neo-tropical species, but none of these
are, to my mind, satisfactory, and the species has never occurred on
the Continent.

I have examined an immature specimen of the Black-winged
Kite, Elanus cccrukus, said to have been shot about 1862, in co.
Meath ; but it was unrecognized for ten years, and the evidence is
insufficient. The species is semi-tropical. In the Museum at
Dieppe is (or was) a specimen said to have been obtained on
September ist 1841, after a gale from the south-west.

FALCONID.^.

539

THE HONEY-BUZZARD.

Pernis APivoRUS (Linnceus).

The Honey-Buzzard is an annual summer-visitor to those wooded
districts of Europe which lie between 43° N. lat. and the Arctic
circle, and a limited number pass as far west as Great Britain in
May and June ; while the fact that some nested with us has
been known since the days of Willughby. On the return-passage
in autumn, examples, mostly young, have been obtained in England
up to the latter part of November, as well as on the east coast of
Scotland. To V\'ales this species rarely wanders, but it has bred
several times as far west as Herefordshire, and its nests have been
found at intervals in various counties, from Hampshire up to
Aberdeenshire and East Ross-shire. About i860 it became known
that several pairs annually resorted to the New Forest ; ^5 soon
became the standard price which collectors of ' British ' specimens
were willing to pay for a couple of well-marked eggs ; and nearly
^40 were given for a pair of old birds with their nestlings. By
about 1870 most of the birds had been killed ; and it is with difficulty
that the few which still visit us are preserved. In the Shetlands the

D D 2

340 HONEY-BUZZARD.

Hoiiey-Buzzard has occurred several times on migration, and probably
in the Orkneys. To Ireland it is a rare visitor, chiefly in autumn.

In Norway the Honey-Buzzard does not breed above the south-
eastern districts ; but in Sweden, Finland and Russia it extends up
to, and even a little beyond, the Arctic circle. Large numbers pass
over Heligoland. Southward, this species is distributed throughout
Europe during the summer, to Bulgaria, Italy as far as the Adriatic,
the Pyrenees, and the mountain forests of Northern Spain ; but
in the rest of the Peninsula, and, in fact, throughout the Mediter-
ranean basin, it is principally known on passage. Vast flocks have
been observed traversing the Straits of Gibraltar from Morocco
early in [May and repassing in September ; while the species is a
regular migrant in Tunisia, less frequent in Egypt, passes by Sinai,
and crosses the Bosphorus to and from Asia Minor. Eastward
it can be traced through Turkestan to Eastern Siberia, where it
becomes rare, as it is also in China and Japan. In the Indian region
its representative is the Crested Honey-Buzzard, P. ptilorhyiichiis.
Our Honey-Buzzard visits South Africa and Madagascar in winter.

The nest, usually placed upon the remains of the former abode of
some other large bird, and often in the main fork of an oak or a
beech, is well lined — and sometimes sheltered — with fresh twigs
and leaves of the latter. The round and glossy eggs, generally 2,
sometimes 3, and exceptionally 4 in number, are laid in June,
and are creamy-white, blotched and often deeply suffused with rich
brown or red : measurements i'9 by 17 in. Both male and female
incubate, the sitting bird being regularly fed by the other. Wasps,
wild bees and their larvae form the principal food of this species in
summer, but other insects are also eaten, as are, occasionally, birds,
mice and other small mammals, slugs, worms and caterpillars.
Owing to the thickness of the foliage at the time of its visits, and
the fact that its prey is chiefly obtained upon the ground, this species
is by no means conspicuous, except during migration. It runs with
ease and rapidity. The cry, seldom uttered except by the young,
is a shrill kee.

The adult male has the head ashy-grey; upper parts brown; three or
four distinct blackish bars on the tail ; under parts white, barred and
spotted with brown on the breast. The female is slightly larger,
and the grey on the head is usually limited to the lores. Length
from 22 to 25 in., wing 17-18 in. The young bird has a whitish
head and pale edges to the upper feathers ; the under parts being
white streaked with brown : a dark brown form, however, occurs,
while varieties are not rare.

J

FALCONID^.

341

THE GREENLAND FALCON.

Falco candicans, J. F. Gmelin.

Considerable difference of opinion has long existed respecting the
specific distinctness of some of the large Northern Falcons, for
which several systematists have adopted the genus Hierofako ; and
the late ]\Ir. John Hancock was the first to show that in the Green-
land Falcon the prevailing ground-colour is white at all ages, whereby
it may always be distinguished from the Iceland Falcon, or any
other member of the group which occurs in Europe. Being a
summe-r-inhabitant of Arctic regions, where food is almost unobtain-
able in winter, this species is forced to migrate, and consequently
examples have been taken from time to time in the British Islands.
These have naturally occurred with greater frequency in Scotland and
the north of England than in the south, though an immature bird,
the subject of the present figure and now in the British Museum,
was shot in Pembrokeshire, and examples have been obtained in

342 GREENLAND FALCON.

Breconshire, Sussex, Devon and Cornwall. Ireland, as might be
expected from its geographical position, has not been unfavoured :
Mr. R. J. Ussher informs me that nineteen examples have been
identified, and that on eight occasions birds which seemed to be
pairs were noticed, while the records for April are twice as numerous
as for any other month, though the winter of 1883-84 afforded
eight. There are also eleven Irish records which cannot definitely
be referred to this or the next species.

It may be doubted whether the true Greenland Falcon nests to
the south of the Arctic circle. It was obtained on Jan Mayen
Island, and is probably the species which has been seen on Spits-
bergen, as well as Novaya Zemlya ; while its head-quarters are in
the northern portion of the country whence it takes its name.
Mr. Chichester Hart, of H.M.S. 'Discovery,' saw a pair nesting on
Grinnell Land, in 79° 41' N. lat. ; while westward a 'white' Falcon
can be traced through Arctic America to Alaska, across Bering
Straits to Kamchatka and Arctic Siberia, and, in spring, to the
Amur. ]Mr. Barrett-Hamilton brought from Bering Island a white
bird which seems to be F. candicaus. No example has been
obtained on Franz Josef Land. In the British Museum are
specimens, presented by Mr. J. G. Millais, from Akureyri and
Reykjavik in Iceland ; and from that island were brought (probably
in transit) the 'white falcons' which were accepted as tribute or
gifts worthy of royalty in the Middle Ages. Greenland Falcons
have visited Norway, Sweden and Heligoland, and have even
ranged as far south as the French side of the Pyrenees in winter.

The eggs, sometimes 4 in number, are pale orange-red in
ground-colour, w'ith darker mottlings and spots : measurements 2 '2
by I '8 in. ; they are placed on a bare ledge of rock, or on the old
nest of some other bird. In the north the food of this species consists
of Ptarmigan and Willow-Grouse, lemmings and other mammals.

The adult is chiefly white, with blackish streaks and elongated
spots on the upper parts ; the under parts being pure white or only
slightly spotted, and the flanks devoid of bars ; but the individual
variation is very great. In the first plumage the markings are
brownish and very broad above, but drop-shaped below, the tail
being more or less barred. The adult dress is assumed at the first
complete moult, and never varies afterwards. Length of the male
21 in. ; wing 14-5 in. ; female 23 in. ; wing 16 in. Cere, bill, legs
and feet pale yellow in the adult ; light bluish-grey in the young.
In this, as in all true Falcons, the irides are dark hazel : — not
yellow, as in the short-winged Hawks.

FALCONID^.

343

THE ICELAND FALCON.

Falco islandus, J. F. Gmelin.

In the Iceland Falcon the prevailing colour is either brown or
grey, according as the bird is young or old, and in the adult the
flanks are always more or less barred. The occurrences of this
species in the British Islands appear, so far as evidence goes, to be
less frequent than those of the Greenland Falcon, possibly because
there is not the same necessity for migration ; but identified
specimens have been obtained in the Shetlands, Orkneys, Outer
and Inner Hebrides, and in several localities on the mainland of
Scotland ; also in Northumberland, Westmoreland, Yorkshire, and
on Herm in the Channel Islands. In Ireland authentic examples
have been captured in Donegal, Antrim, and near BelmuUet and
Westport in co. Mayo — the last in 1883.

The typical form of this Falcon inhabits Iceland, where it breeds
in precipitous cliffs above the numerous lakes — especially near

344 ICELAND FALCON.

My-vatn, whence the late W. Proctor of Durham used to receive
eggs and a few skins almost every year, after he had visited that
locality. In Greenland, south of the Arctic circle, there is a
representative form which is known as F. holboelli ; this is w^hiter
than the typical Icelander, though darker than the Greenlander,
and has some bars on the flanks, while there is a little yellow at the
base of the bill. Either this, or else the true Icelander, occurs on
Jan Mayen Island, as well as the Greenland Falcon. Labrador is
inhabited by F. obsoletus of American systematists, a very dark
greyish-brown bird, easily recognizable. I cannot find any conclusive
evidence of the occurrence of the typical Icelander in Germany,
Holland, or France, but the species has been taken in Norway.

In Iceland the eggs, 3-4 in number, and similar in size and
appearance to those of the Greenland Falcon, are deposited on the
ledge of a cliff, or on the former abode of some other bird,
frequently a Raven. The food consists of water-fowl, waders, and
largely of Arctic species of Grouse (often called ' Ptarmigan '),
which are captured on the wing.

The adult is represented by the front figure in the engraving ;
the prevailing colour of the upper parts being brownish-grey on a
creamy ground, while the under parts are of a purer white ; the bill
is bluish horn-colour, the legs and feet are yellowish. The young
bird (in the rear) is ashy-brown above, while the under parts are
marked with dark drop-shaped spots ; the feet are more inclined to
yellow than they are in the young Greenland Falcon. Length of
the female 23 in., wing 16 in. ; of the male 21 in., wing i4"5 in.
There is great individual variation, and some examples show a
greyish ground-colour which closely approaches that of the next
species.

Among the Northern Falcons there is great individual variation,
from the nestling stage onward. The first moult usually begins in
April, when the bird is nearly a year old, and after that moult is
completed — as it should be by October— there will be no further
change in the pattern or character of the plumage. That is to say,
the bird which then exhibits numerous dark markings will reproduce
them at each successive moult to the end of its life, while a pale
bird will remain so. The intensity of the markings may perhaps
become fainter when the feathers are old and ready to be cast.
These remarks equally apply to the Peregrine Falcon.

FALC0NID.1i.

545

THE GYR-FALCON.

F.\LCO GYRFALCO, Linnffius.

Careful examination of the Northern Falcons has convinced me
of the recognizable distinctness of the representative of the Iceland
Falcon resident in Scandinavia, although at one time I was sceptical
on this point, owing to want of experience as well as of material.
The true F. gyrfako of Linnaeus is rather smaller in the head and
body than the Icelander (though its tail is longer) and its wings are
shorter in proportion, the grey of the ground-colour is of a more
decidedly lavender tint ; the crown and sides of the head are much
darker, the lower cheek-patch or stripe being sometimes so strongly
developed that the bird resembles a large Peregrine ; while the
flanks and under surface are very strongly barred.

In the collection of Mr. W. Borrer, of Cowfold, Sussex, there is a
fine example of this species, shot at Mayfield, in January 1845,

346 GYR-FALCON.

during severe weather, when in the act of devouring a pigeon on
the top of a wheat-stack. Mr. EUman, its original owner, was
for a long time under the impression that it was a light-coloured
Peregrine, until Mr. Borrer convinced him that it belonged to the
group of Northern Falcons ; it was then assigned to F. islatidus^ and
was subsequently recognized as F. gyrfalco by that great authority,
the late Mr. J. H. Gurney (Borrer's B. Sussex, pp. 5, 6). I had the
pleasure of examining this specimen on INIarch 5th 1898; it is in
adult plumage. An immature example, shot near Orford, Suffolk,
in October 1867, has been assigned by Dr. R. B. Sharpe to this
species.

The Gyr-Falcon inhabits Norway and Sweden, while, according to
Dr. Menzbier, it is common and resident about the Varanger Fjord,
and occasionally breeds in Russian Lapland ; in fact Mr. H. J.
Pearson found a nest containing two young birds on a cliff near
Sviati Nos, on the Murman coast, in June 1895. It does not
appear to migrate regularly or to any great extent, but from time to
time birds referable to this species have been obtained further south
in Russia than the district of St. Petersburg, as well as in Poland,
Northern Germany and Holland.

The late Mr. John WoUey was, I believe, the first naturalist who
gave, from his own observations (chiefly in West Finmark), any
particulars of the breeding of this species, and for full details
reference should be made to Prof Newton's ' Ootheca Wolleyana,'
Pt. i., pp. 87-98, pi. viii (eggs) ; also pi. C (birds). In the majority
of cases the nests in which the eggs were deposited were on ledges
of rocks, but sometimes in trees; subsequently. Prof. R. CoUett found
that in the portions of West Finmark which he visited, as well as in
the Dovrefjeld, nests in trees were more often used. The eggs, up to
4 in number, resemble those of the Iceland Falcon, but are a trifle
smaller.

The distinctive characters of the plumage of the adult have already
been sufficiently described ; the cere is yellow ; the bill dark bluish ;
tarsi and toes yellow. Length : male 19-5 in., wing 14 in. ; female
22 in., wing 15 in. The young birds can hardly be distinguished
from those of the preceding species, except by experts.

All these Northern Falcons were formerly esteemed in Europe for
hawking ; but the experience of our modern falconers is that they
become " soft " and sluggish in our cHmate.

FALCONID.E.

347

THE PEREGRINE FALCON.

Falco peregrinus, Tunstall.

This fine species, the Falcon, par excellence, of those devoted to
the ancient sport of hawking, is still fairly common throughout our
islands, and considerable numbers of immature birds, technically
known as Red or Passage-Hawks, annually occur between autumn
and spring, especially on the eastern side. From several of its
former haunts the Peregrine has been banished ; but many of
its eyries may still be found — though some of them are yearly
robbed — from Kent to Cornwall, and more frequently along the
coast of Wales ; while in the mountainous districts of the north of
England these are on inland-rocks as well as in sea-cliffs. In Scotland
the Peregrine is widely distributed over the mainland and the
islands, as far as the Shetlands. In suitable localities in Ireland it
may be considered quite a common bird ; and though, as a rule,
each pair asserts its supremacy over a tolerably wide area, yet eyries
exist there at no great distance apart.

To the Fceroes the Peregrine is a rare visitor, and it has not been

348 PEREGRINE FALCON.

obtained in Iceland ; but it was found on Jan ^Mayen in April, and
breeds regularly in Greenland up to about 70° N. lat., as well as
at Cumberland Island, on the western side of Davis Strait. On the
mainland of North America is found F. anatum, a closely-allied
species with ruddier breast. In Europe, our bird is found from
Scandinavia and the Northern Island of Novaya Zemlya (Lutke
Land) down to the Mediterranean, but in the basin of that sea it
is only known in winter: the resident race being the small F. puniais.
Across Asia the Peregrine — allowing for sub-species — is found as
far east as Kamchatka, the Kuril Islands, and Japan ; in fact,
under one form or another, it is met with almost all over the world.

This Falcon does not build a nest, but deposits its eggs, often
early in April, on some overhung ledge of a cliff covered with a
coating of earth, in which a hollow is scratched ; or on an old nest
of a Raven, Crow, Heron &c., in rocks or trees (usually pines). It
also resorts to church-towers and steeples, while it lays its eggs on
the bare ground in Lapland and Siberia. The 2-4 eggs vary from
freckled orange-brown to rich brick-red : measurements 2 in. by i '6,
The same spot is resorted to year after year ; and one in Connemara,
known in 1684 to have been frequented from time immemorial, is
still inhabited. Both sexes incubate ; and should one of the birds
be killed the survivor soon finds another mate. The young are driven
away by their parents in August, and in autumn numbers have been
captured on the heaths near Valkenswaard in Holland for hawking.
The Peregrine varies its diet according to locality and individual
taste, preying on ducks, waders, sea-fowl (especially Puffins), Pigeons,
Grouse, Partridges, Lapwings, Hooded-Crows, Rooks, Choughs,
Magpies, Jays, and even Kestrels ; while it sometimes sweeps young
rabbits off the side of a cliff. In many districts it is known as the
' Hunting-Hawk,' and, erroneously, as the ' Goshawk ' ; by falconers
the male is called the Tiercel (corruptly Tassel), and the female the
Falcon. The cry is a loud and repeated hek, hek, hek.

The adult has the crown, cheeks and stripe blackish ; upper
parts slate-grey (paler on the rump) with darker bars ; under parts
bufifish-white to warm rufous, barred with a very variable amount of
black ; iris hazel-brown ; bill bluish ; cere and legs bright yellow.
Length: male 15 in., wing 12-5 in.; female 18 in., wing 14 in.
Young : upper feathers brown with buff margins ; under parts
ochreous, with dark brown streaks ; cere and legs livid-grey.

For remarks upon the moulting of this and other species of
Falcons, reference may be made to the last paragraph on p. 344.

FALCOXID.E.

349

THE HOBBY

Falco subeuteo, Linnaeus.

The Hobby belongs to a group of Falcons {Hypotriorchis of many
authors) characterized by remarkably long wings, comparatively short
tail, and soft plumage. It arrives in England in small numbers
about the middle or latter half of May, and has been found breed-
ing in the southern counties as far west as Devon, especially in
Hampshire ; at one time with tolerable regularity in Essex ; less
frequently in Buckinghamshire, Cambridgeshire and Suffolk ; not
uncommonly in Oxfordshire, Berkshire, Norfolk and Lincolnshire ;
occasionally in the midlands, and exceptionally in Yorkshire ; while
in Cornwall, Wales, and the west it is seldom noticed. In Scotland,
where it has occurred as far north as Sutherland, Caithness and the
Shetlands, it is rare even on migration, and was not known to nest
until, in August 1887, the late Sir Edward Newton discovered an
adult and three young nailed up at Kinnaird House, Perthshire.
In Ireland nine examples have been obtained, most of them in May
or June. As a rule, the Hobby leaves the British Islands in
September, but many occurrences during our ' winter ' months are
on record.

The Hobby visits Heligoland annually, and has been recorded as

350 HOBBY.

far north as the Arctic circle in Lapland, while in Russia it is found
throughout the wooded districts from 65° N. lat. down to the mouth
of the Volga ; but in no part of the Continent does it remain during
the cold season. From Scandinavia southward it is generally
distributed over Europe to the Mediterranean, though most
numerous from Bulgaria eastward ; it nests in the pine-woods in the
extreme south of Spain, and visits the Canaries, Morocco, Algeria
and Egypt, though rare in the last. Eastward from Asia Minor we
trace it in summer across the wooded portions of Siberia to Kam-
chatka, and southward to Kashmir ; while in winter it occurs in
China, and in India down to Belgaum. In Africa it ranges as far
south as Cape Colony. Its representative in the Indian region is
7^ severus, while in South Africa it is K cuvieri.

The Hobby is a very late breeder, seldom having eggs before the
early part of June, and often not till the end of that month. It
does not make a nest for itself, but adds slightly to one built in
a tree by a Crow, Magpie, or other bird. The eggs, usually 3 in
England, but up to 5 in number on the Continent, are often
yellowish-white, closely freckled w'ith rufous, and can then be easily
distinguished from those of the Kestrel ; but sometimes they are
suffused with reddish-brown and are therefore not so recognizable :
measurements i"6 by i'2 5 in. Previous to laying, the female is said
to sometimes brood on an empty nest or upon eggs of the Kestrel.
I have known a Hobby, taken as a nestling in 1849, which lived
for fifteen years. Dragonflies, cabbage-butterflies, cockchafers and
other insects, form its principal prey in summer ; but it also takes
birds, especially Starlings ; while it has been known to catch Swifts,
and is the terror of Swallows and Martins. Larks are especially
subject to its harassing attacks in autumn, when it leaves the wood-
lands and frequents the more open country ; it will also accompany
sportsmen and seize Quails in front of them.

The adult has the upper parts slate-grey, nearly black on the
head, with a black moustache-like streak and slightly rufous nape ;
cheeks and throat white ; under parts buftish-white, broadly striped
with black ; vent and thighs rust-red ; cere, orbits and legs yellow,
iris dark brown. The sexes are alike in plumage, but the female
is larger, though less vivid in colour. Length: male 12 in., wing
10 in.; female 14 in., wing 11-25 '"• The young bird has the
crown of the head mottled with buff, and a decided tinge of that
colour on the cheeks and under parts ; upper feathers brown,
edged with ochreous-white ; tail with a broad pale tip ; vent and
thighs only pale rufous.

FALCONID^.

351

THE MERLIN.
Falco ytSALON, Tunstall.

The Merlin, the least of the indigenous British Falcons, has not
been proved to breed on the moorlands of Cornwall, Devon, and other
counties in the south of England, but from Pembrokeshire north-
ward its nest has often been found in many parts of Wales. In and
beyond Derbyshire the Merlin is distributed, in suitable localities,
up to the Shetlands ; while in Ireland it is tolerably frequent in the
mountainous districts, as well as in some of the great red bogs of
the central plain (Ussher). In autumn it descends to the low
grounds, bays and coasts, where Snipe, Dunlins and other waders,
with small birds, generally afford abundant prey ; while during the
winter it is generally distributed throughout the British Islands,
though the examples then obtained are chiefly immature.

The Merlin is a resident in the Faeroes, but only a summer-
visitor to Iceland ; an example has, however, been taken at sea not
far from the coast of Greenland, and one actually at Cape Farewell

352

MERLIN.

in May 1875. In North America it is represented by F. colutnlmrius,
with fewer bars on the tail. In Scandinavia the Merhn is common
in the northern districts from April to October, and it has been
observed as far as Yugor Strait, 69° N. lat. ; while southward it nests
in Central Russia, on the high ground of Germany, in the Alpine dis-
tricts of Central Europe, and in the Pyrenees. It is the commonest
of the ' passage-hawks ' on Heligoland, and elsewhere it is well known
on migration ; the proportion of adults to immature birds being
unusually great in the basin of the Mediterranean. During the
cold season it inhabits North Africa and abounds in Egypt, its
migrations extending to Nubia and Sennaar. Eastward, it frequents
the northern portions of Asia as far as Ussuria in summer, wintering
in Northern India and China.

In the British Islands the nesting-place is usually a mere hollow
scratched in the moorland ground, often on the side of a bank, and
it is but seldom that even a few twigs of heather are found as a border.
In the Faeroes, Norway, and also in the Pyrenees, ledges of precipitous
cliffs are resorted to ; while in Scandinavia (frequently), in Scotland
(occasionally), and perhaps in England oftener than is supposed, an
old nest of some other species, built in a tree, is utilized. In the
Museum at Oxford may be seen a hen bird with her eggs and the
old nest of a Heron or a Crow in which these were deposited, from
a cliff near Milford Haven. The 4-6 eggs, laid in May, are deep
reddish-brown or purplish-red, without gloss : measurements i'5 by

I "2 in. The Merlin preys chiefly on Dunlins, Meadow-Pipits,
Thrushes, Larks, &:c. ; while it has been seen in pursuit of a
Swallow, whose rapid evolutions it followed as if moved by the same
impulse. By falconers it was, and still is, used for flying at Larks ;
in swiftness, however, it does not approach the Hobby, or even the
wild Peregrine. Owing to its habit of perching on rocks, it is
known in some parts as the ' Stone Falcon.'

Adult male: crown and mantle slate-colour, and nape rufous, with
black shaft-streaks ; throat white, and under parts bufifish, striped with
dark brown ; tail bluish-grey, broadly banded with black near the
end and tipped with white; cere, legs and feet yellow. Length

II in. ; wing 7-8 in. Female: upper parts dark liver-brown; tail-
feathers brown, crossed with five narrow paler bands and tipped
with white ; nape, cheeks and under parts dull white, streaked with
brown. Length 12-5 in. ; wing 8-6 in. Old females sometimes
attain the male plumage. The young resemble the female, but are
more rufous in tint.

FALCONID.Ii.

353

THE RED-FOOTED FALCON.

Falco vespertinus, Linnaeus.

This small species (sometimes misnamed the Orange-legged
Hobby, though it is more nearly akin to the Kestrel) is merely a
summer-visitor to Europe, in the eastern portions of which it has
an extensive northerly range, though in the west its appearance is
irregular. Its appearance in the British Islands was first noticed in
Yorkshire in April and in Norfolk in May of 1830, and subsequently
about thirty specimens have been obtained. Most of these have
been taken in the eastern and southern counties, but examples have
been recorded from Cornwall, Pembrokeshire, Denbighshire, Salop
and Lancashire ; while Yorkshire, Durham and Northumberland have
been visited. In Scotland, one was shot in Aberdeenshire in May
1866, and another in May 1897, one in Fifeshire in September 1880,
and one near Jedburgh in June 1888. In Ireland, a bird now in the
Dublin Museum, was taken in co. Wicklow during the summer of
1832. Most of the authenticated occurrences have been in spring
or summer, with a few in autumn, and exceptional instances in the
winter months.

The Red-footed Falcon seldom visits Heligoland. It has been

E E

354 RED-FOOTED FALCON.

found in the south of Sweden, and as far north as lat. 65° in
Finland ; but Dr. Menzbier thinks that it has only extended its
migration to the northern provinces of Russia within the last fifty
years. During the same period a gradual diminution in its numbers
— as a breeding species — has taken place in the south, especially
near Odessa, where immense flocks used to arrive early in April
and afterwards disperse, reuniting in autumn previous to departure.
On the steppes of Orenburg this decrease has partially coincided
with remarkable immigrations of the Lesser Kestrel, previously a
very rare bird there. The Red-footed Falcon breeds in Siberia as
far as Yeneseisk and even Lake Baikal ; but eastward the repre-
sentative is F. anmrensis (the adult male of which is white beneath
the wing instead of grey), and this visits Lidia. On migration our
species is found in Asia Minor and South-eastern Europe ; while in
the Danubian provinces and Hungary it breeds in considerable
numbers ; but westward it is only a straggler, and in Spain it is rare,
though it has visited the Canaries in spring. In winter it is found
in Africa down to Damara Land.

In May or June this species appropriates the old nest of a Crow,
Magpie or Rook, in which it deposits 4-6 eggs, of a yellower red
than those of the Kestrel and smaller in size : measurements i "45
by I '15 in. Five or six nests so occupied maybe found in one
tree ; and in its general habits this Falcon is remarkably gregarious,
numbers roosting close together. The food consists chiefly of
dragonflies, large moths, beetles, grasshoppers and other insects;
also of lizards, shrews and field-mice. The flight resembles that of
the Kestrel, and lacks the dash of that of the Hobby ; the note is
a clear, shrill ki, often repeated, especially towards evening, at which
time the bird usually seeks its prey.

The adult male has the head, shoulders, breast and tail nearly
black ; mantle and under wing-coverts lead-grey ; quills paler, with
black shafts ; thighs, vent and under tail-coverts rich chestnut ; bill
dark horn-colour ; cere, orbits, legs and feet reddish ; claws nearly
white. Length w$; wing 97 in. The female has the head, nape
and under wing-coverts chiefly chestnut ; mantle and tail slate-grey,
with darker bars ; principal quills brownish, barred on the inner
webs with bufifish-white ; length 12 in.; wing 10 in. The young bird
has the throat and forehead whitish ; crown pale chestnut ; upper
surface tinged with ruddy brown ; tail-feathers distinctly barred, and
the bars on the primaries tending to coalesce. The male soon
begins to assume his dark plumage.

FALCONID^E.

355

THE KESTREL.
Falco tinnunculus, Linnaeus.

The Kestrel— also familiarly known as the Wind-hover, from its
habit of hanging almost motionless in air against the wind— is the
most abundant of the British birds of prey ; and would be still more
numerous than it is, but for its persecution by persons who ought
to be aware that it feeds principally upon rodents, and is, therefore,
one of the best friends of the agriculturist. It is generally dis-
tributed throughout the United Kingdom ; but in Scotland, where its
harmlessness and utility are now recognized by the more intelligent
gamekeepers, it migrates, as a rule, from the northern districts in
winter ; at which season its numbers in England are further increased
by visitors from the Continent, chiefly on passage.

To the Faroes the Kestrel is only a wanderer, and it has not

356 KESTREL.

been obtained in Iceland; but on September 27th 1887 a female
was shot near Nantucket, Massachusetts, and examined in the flesh
by Mr. C. B. Cory. Its eggs have been found even as far north
as lat. 68° in Scandinavia, but there, and in Finland, it is not
plentiful near the limits of its range, while in Russia its occurrence
at Archangel is accidental. Throughout the rest of Europe, however,
it is common, migrating more or less from the northern districts in
winter, but residing during the entire year in the south. Nowhere
is it more abundant than in Spain, and swarms may be seen,
especially towards sunset, circling round the lofty church-towers of
C6rdova and Seville ; while above the great plains watered by the
Guadalquivir many hundreds are often visible at the same moment,
alternately hovering and dropping down on their prey, which there
consists principally of beetles. The Azores, ]\Iadeira, Canaries, and
Northern Africa to Abyssinia, are inhabited by a slightly smaller
and darker race ; while southward, the Kestrel ranges beyond the
Equator. In Asia it reaches from the Mediterranean to the con-
fines of Eastern Siberia, and down to the Himalayas and Burma
in summer ; while in winter it pervades the whole Indian Empire.
In America the representative species is F. sparverius, an example
of which is said, though on very incomplete evidence, to have been
shot in Yorkshire in May 1883.

The Kestrel either makes use of the former nest of a Crow,
Magpie, Wood-Pigeon &c., or else deposits its eggs in cavities in
cliffs, chalk-pits, quarries, buildings and hollow trees, and excep-
tionally on the ground. These, often laid early in April in England,
and 4-6 in number, are usually brownish-red, but sometimes have a
mottled yellowish-white ground-colour : measurements i-6 by 1-25 in.
In northern countries the Kestrel preys chiefly on mice, birds being
seldom taken ; to the southward it feeds largely on beetles, grass-
hoppers and other insects. Its graceful flight, as well as its shrill
cry kee, kee, kee, are familiar.

The adult male has the head, neck, lower back and tail bluish-
grey, the latter broadly banded subterminally with black and tipped
with white : back pale chestnut, with small black spots ; under parts
buff, streaked and spotted with black ; cere, legs and feet yellow.
Length 14 in.; wing 9-5 in. The female— which is not appreciably
larger— has the upper parts rufous, barred with black ; on the tail
several narrow bands of black, with a broad one near the tip. Very
old hens partially assume the male plumage, and have more or less
blue on the rump and tail. The young resemble the female, but
are somewhat lighter in colour.

FALCONID/E.

357

THE LESSER KESTREL.

Falco- cenchris, Naumann.

The claim of this species to a place in the British list was formerly
received with suspicion, but no fewer than five occurrences are now
(1898) authenticated. An example in the York Museum was
shcvt in the middle of November 1867, by Mr. John Harrison of
Wilstrop Hall, who noticed the bird flying about his farm ; in May
1877 ^" adult male, with one leg injured, was captured alive near
Dover, and presented by Mr. E. P. Robinson to the Museum of
that town ; on February 20th 1891 an adult male was shot near
Dublin ; early in March of the same year another adult male was
obtained near Tresco, Scilly Islands ; and lastly a female is recorded
by Mr. G. Sim as having been shot at Boynalie, Aberdeenshire, on
October 25th 1897. It may be added that two examples, which
had been captured in the Mediterranean, escaped from the s.s.
' Irthington ' : one of them on April 27th 1894, near Blyth, and the
other on May 5th, near Belfast (Ibis 1894, p. 451).

It will not appear so remarkable that the Lesser Kestrel should
occasionally visit our islands, when we consider that it is a regular

358 LESSER KESTREL.

migrant to Europe, has been obtained as far nortli as Calvados in
Normandy; Anhalt in Germany, and has probably occurred on
Heligoland. According to Taczanowski, it is abundant during the
breeding-season in the southern provinces of Poland, but does not
reach W'arsaw. To Savoy, and even to the south of France, it is
only an occasional visitor, and statements respecting its breeding
on this side of the Pyrenees require confirmation ; while it is not
common on the mainland of Italy, though abundant and partially
resident in Sicily and some other islands of the Mediterranean. In
the southern parts of the Spanish Peninsula it is very numerous,
especially in Andalucia, where a few remain through the winter,
though the majority arrive in February and leave early in October.
In Greece and the south-east of Europe it is common in summer,
and since 1877 thousands have annually invaded the Orenburg
district, where, either as a consequence or a coincidence, the Red-
footed Falcon has become rarer. Eastward it is found as far as
Bokhara ; while an allied species, F. pekifie?isis, breeds in China
and winters in India. Asia Minor, Palestine, Egypt and North
Africa are regularly visited by the Lesser Kestrel in summer, while
its migrations in the cold season extend to Cape Colony.

No nest is built, but the eggs are deposited in holes in cliffs, banks,
walls or roofs of inhabited buildings as well as in ruined towers,
churches &c., and sometimes old nests of other birds in trees. In
Andalucia, Col. Irby found eggs as early as April 26th, and Dr.
Kriiper has taken them by the end of that month in Greece. The
complement is 4-5, exceptionally 7 ; the ground-colour is usually
yellowish-white, mottled with much paler reddish-brown than are eggs
of the Common Kestrel: measurements i"4 by i"i in. The food
consists of insects, especially cockchafers and other beetles, and
grasshoppers ; the stairs and other approaches to the towers fre-
quented by this and the larger species being often covered with a
deep accumulation of wing-cases and ejected pellets of indigestible
matter; small lizards are also eaten. The cry has been syllabled
as vev-ai, and also as psche, psch, psche, wsche.

The Lesser Kestrel much resembles our common species, but is
smaller in size and has ivhite clatvs. The male has no black spots
on the back, and the innermost secondaries are slate-grey instead
of chestnut. Length 12 in. ; wing 9-1 in. The female can only
be distinguished from the Common Kestrel by her smaller size and
her white claws : length 12-25 i'"*- J ^^'i'lg 9"2 in.

FALCONID.E.

359

THE OSPREY.

Pandi'on haliaetus (Linnaeus).

The Osprey is at times not uncommon on the sea-shores and
inland waters of our islands, especially in autumn : for instance no
fewer than ten were recorded between the Tyne and the Thames in
the months of September and October iS8i ; but the majority of
these visitors are immature birds, some of which would doubtless
remain on our coasts, if unmolested, until the following May.
Estuaries are favourite haunts ; and in those of Sussex and Hamp-
shire the bird is known as the Mullet-Hawk, owing to its partiality
for that fish. Tradition states that it formerly bred on the south
coast of England, and the Rev. H. A. Macpherson believes that it
did so in Lakeland until the end of the last century. In Scotland
there were at least two eyries in Galloway up to about i860, but at
the present day those which are known to exist are confined to the
Highlands, where their safety depends upon protection ; while to
the Hebrides, Orkneys and Shetlands, the Osprey is only an acci-
dental visitor. Mr. R. J. Ussher informs me that he has fifty

360 OSPREY.

records for Ireland, where the bird occurs chiefly on the autumn
migration or in winter ; but it has never been known to breed
in that island, though many of the inland waters appear suitable.

This species does not occur in Iceland or Greenland, but it is very
abundant in North America ; while it is generally distributed over
the Old World as far south as Australia, so that it may almost be
termed cosmopolitan. In Europe it breeds — either in forests near
lakes, or on sea-cliffs — from Lapland to Spain, and eastward to
Greece and Southern Russia ; as well as from the north coast of
Africa down to the Red Sea on the east side, and the Canaries and
Cape Verde Islands on the west ; likewise in suitable localities
throughout Asia. Its distribution is, in fact, restricted by two con-
ditions only : the bird must be in the vicinity of waters inhabited by
fish which swim sufliciently near the surface to supply it with food,
and the proximity of mankind is a decided objection.

The nest is a bulky structure of sticks, sometimes mixed with turf;
and on the top is a small cavity lined with moss for the reception of
the eggs. These, 2-3 in number, are often very beautiful, having
the ground-colour of white or buff, with rich blotches of chestnut-
red or claret-colour and underlying blurs of purplish-grey : average
measurements 2-5 by i'8 in. In the northern hemisphere they are
usually laid towards the end of April or early in May. In wooded
districts trees are generally preferred, and Booth stated that all the
nests he had recently visited in the Highlands were in Scotch-firs ;
but old buildings and rocky islets in lochs are also utilized. In
North America the Osprey is gregarious, and as many as three
hundred pairs have been seen nesting on one small island. Until
taught caution by molestation it is a very unsuspicious bird, as
every one must be aware who has read St. John's ' Tour in Suther-
land.' The food consists of fish, upon which the bird plunges,
often from a considerable height, and bears its prey away in its
claws ; these are remarkably curved and sharp, the outer toe being
reversible and the soles of the feet very rough.

The adult male has the head and nape white, streaked with brown ;
upper plumage umber with a purplish tinge ; under parts white, with
a band of brown spots across the breast ; cere, legs, and toes
greenish-blue. Length 22 in. ; wing 19 in. The female is larger,
and more marked with brown on the breast ; length 24 in. ; wing
2 1 in. The young bird has pale edges to the upper feathers and
the tail distinctly barred ; the adult plumage is not attained until
the third or fourth year. The irides are yellow in young and old.

pelecanida:.

361

THE COMMON CORMORANT.

Phalacrocorax carbo (Linnceus).

The Great, or Black Cormorant, as it is sometimes called to
distinguish it from the smaller Green Cormorant or Shag, is
common and generally distributed along the greater part of the
British coast-line, and until 1825-27 some 50 or 60 pairs used to
nest on the trees at Fritton, Suffolk. From Flamborough northward
to Caithness it is more abundant, as a rule, than the Shag ; though in
the Shetlands, Orkneys, Hebrides, and along the western side of
Scotland, it is usually in a minority ; while in Wales it is again in the
ascendant as far as Pembrokeshire, where, as in the south-west of
England, the Shag predominates. It is widely distributed in Ireland.
Apart from the sea-coast, the Cormorant not infrequently nests
inland : notably on the bold rock near Towyn known as Craig-y-
deryn, and on several lakes in Ireland, sometimes breeding in com-
pany with Herons on trees.

F F

362 COMMON CORMORANT.

This species is found in tlie Faeroes, Iceland, and Greenland up
to about 70° N. lat. ; while it is generally distributed over Europe,
and breeding-colonies are to be found in situations widely different
in character, such as ledges of cliffs, the swampy meres of Holland,
and the inundated forests of the valley of the Danube. It is found
all over Asia — except in the high north — and usually nests on trees ;
while in Australia and New Zealand the representative is a doubt-
fully distinct form, P. novcE-hollandiiT:. Our bird is said to have
occurred in South Africa, and is common in the north of that
continent. In America it inhabits the Atlantic coast, from Hudson
Bay to New Jersey, but it has not yet been noticed on the Pacific.

The nest is a large structure composed of sticks and grass or water-
plants, mixed, when near the coast, with masses of sea-weed ; the
eggs, laid in this country in the latter half of April or in May, and
3-5 in number, are oblong, rough in texture, and have a pale blue
under-shell with a chalky-white coating: measurements 275 by
I '6 in. Many birds usually congregate at the breeding-places,
which, as already indicated, are to be found on high cliffs, low islets,
bushes or trees. In 1882 a pair hatched two young in the
Zoological Society Gardens, Regent's Park, and it was observed that
after the male had been fed and retained the fish for about an hour,
he mounted the side of the nest and opened his capacious mouth,
which the young bird entered as far as its outstretched wings would
allow, and helped itself to the macerated food in the old one's crop.
The parents had been trained by Capt. F. H. Salvin for catching
fish : a practice pursued as a sport in this country since the time of
the Stuart sovereigns ; while, as a business, it has been followed in
China and Japan from time immemorial. The nestlings are blind
for a fortnight or more after being hatched.

The adult has the upper head and neck black, with many hair-
like white feathers, and those on the occiput lengthen and form a crest
in spring ; throat white \ gular pouch yellow ; mantle bronze-brown
and black ; quills, and the tail of fourteen feathers, black ; under
parts rich bluish-black, except a white patch on the thigh, which is
assumed very early in spring and lost in summer ; irides emerald-
green. The sexes are alike in plumage, but the male is larger, brighter
in colour, and has the longer crest. Length about 36 in. ; wing
14-5 in. The young bird is dark brown above, dull white mottled
with pale wood-brown below ; irides brown the first year, then pale
bluish-green, changing to emerald at the end of the second year.
There are records of varieties tending to albinism, and even of pure
white birds with light-coloured bills and feet.

PELECANID^.

3(^3

THE SHAG, OR GREEN CORMORANT.

Phalacr6corax graculus (Linnceus).

The Shag, also known as the Scart, Scarf, or Crested Cormorant,
may be distinguished from the preceding species by its smaller size,
and, when adult, by its prevailing green colour. The illustration is
taken from a bird in autumn plumage ; the crest, which is assumed
very early in spring and only retained for a few months, is tuft-shaped
and curved forward. The young are not so easily recognized on the
wing, but may be distinguished on examination by the tail-feathers,
which, in this species, are only twelve in number. The Shag is
essentially marine, and seldom wanders inland, or to fresh water ;
its favourite haunts being rugged coasts, especially those honey-
combed with caves, or shores margined with fallen rocks and large
boulders, amongst which it often makes its nest. Such situations
are frequent on the west coast of Scotland and its islands up to the
Shetlands, and to a great extent along Ireland, as well as in South
Wales, and in England from the Isle of Wight westward ; and in
these the Shag is, on the whole, more abundant than the Cormorant.
By fishermen and seaside folk, however, the trivial names are fre-
quently interchanged, while the term ' Diver ' is sometimes applied
to both birds, and these facts should be borne in mind.

364 SHAG, OR GREEN CORMORANT.

Westward of Iceland the Shag has not yet been found, and,
although it is common in the Faeroes and on the coast of Norway,
as well as on the islands along the Murman coast of Russian Lap-
land, it is scarcely known to enter the Baltic, and is rare on the
German shores of the North Sea. It breeds in the Channel
Islands, and along the Atlantic coasts of France, Spain, Portugal,
and Morocco ; while a somewhat brighter form, found throughout
the Mediterranean and known as F. des/iiaresti, does not appear to
me to be specifically distinct.

The nest, formed of sea-weed and grass matted and plastered
together, and emitting a horribly frctid smell, is often placed in cliffs,
or among fallen rocks and large boulders ; but frequently it is on
a ledge near the roof of a cave, and so far in that the sitting bird
can scarcely be discerned amidst the gloom and spray-mist. The
3-4 eggs — like those of the Cormorant in colour and texture, but
smaller, and more variable in shape — are laid in April on our south-
west coasts, and Mr. Ussher has found young birds as early as the
14th of May; but in the north incubation is later. The nestlings,
at first bare and purplish-black in colour, are afterwards partially
covered with down, which is of a browner black than that of the young
Cormorant. The mode of feeding is identical in the two species.
The Shag lives principally upon sea-fish, for which it dives; the action
beginning with a spring out of the water ; and it has the power of
descending to a considerable depth, for it has been caught in a
crab-pot fixed at twenty fathoms below the surface. The note is
kroak, kraik, kroak.

The adult has the bill black, the base of the under mandible and
inside of the mouth chrome-yellow, and the naked skin about the
gape black, thickly studded with small round yellow spots ; irides
green ; the forehead bears a crest which curves forward, assumed in
January and lost by the beginning of May ; crown, neck, and under
parts rich dark green with purple and bronze reflections ; feathers of
the mantle dark green with blackish margins ; quills and the twelve
tail-feathers black, as are also the legs, toes, and their membranes.
Length 27 in. ; wing io'75 in. The sexes are alike in plumage, but
the male is the larger. The young bird has a very slender bill, with
yellow lower mandible ; the upper parts brown, tinged with green ;
the under surface brownish-ash, mottled with brown.

A male example of the American Darter, Plotus anhinga^ is said to
have been shot near Poole, Dorset, in June 1851, as recorded by
the Rev. A. C. Smith (Zool. [1852] p. 3601 fig. and p. 3654).

PELECANID,«.

565

v,^#ifll*fc - .,

-"♦^ji^jx

THE GANNET.

SuLA BASSANA (Liiinseus).

The Gannet, or Solan Goose, is a resident within British waters,
though its abundance in different localities varies with the season of
the year. On Lundy Island, its ancient and only breeding-place in
England, it is now almost, if not quite, exterminated ; but in Wales
there is a colony on Grassholm, off Pembrokeshire. In Scotland
there are well-known stations on the Bass Rock on the east, and
Ailsa Craig on the west side ; also at two stacks off Boreray in the
St. Kilda group ; at Sulisgeir, about 35 miles north of the Butt of
Lewis ; and at Suliskerry, nearly 40 miles west of Stromness, which
is frequented by an unusually large number of immature liirds. In
Ireland there is a colony on the Bull Rock, off Dursey Head, co.
Cork, and a larger and increasing one on the Little Skellig.

366 GANNET.

In the Faroes this species breeds on Myggenaes, the most western
island of the group ; while in Iceland it has several colonies.
Thousands nest on the Magdalen Islands, as well as on some other
rocks in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and Kumlien says that he saw
the bird up to 65° N. In winter the Gannet ranges over the Atlantic,
down to North Africa, the Canaries and Madeira on this side, and
the Gulf of Mexico on the other ; but it seldom enters the Baltic
or goes far up the Mediterranean, though after stormy weather it
has occasionally been taken at a considerable distance inland.

The nest is a mass of sea-weed and grass, on which is deposited a
single egg ; this (like that of the Cormorant) has a pale blue under-
shell overlaid with a chalky-white coating, but soon becomes soiled :
measurements 3'25 by i"9 in. When unmolested, Gannets are very
tame during incubation, and will allow themselves to be stroked by
the hand without any sign of impatience except a low guttural grog,
grog; but at times they are very vociferous, and as they are con-
tinually interfering with each other, or taking advantage of the
absence of their neighbours to pilfer the materials of their nests, a
constant noise is kept up, which may be syllabled as carra, crac,
era. The immense numbers which throng Stack-an-Armin and
Stack Lii, off Boreray, form a sight never to be forgotten. The
food consists of surface-swimming fish, such as herrings, pilchards,
sprats and anchovies, upon which the Gannet plunges perpendicu-
larly with closed wings from a considerable height ; the birds fish in
company, and many become entangled at times in the meshes of
the fishermen's long sea-nets. In some districts of Scotland the young,
collected in August, are plucked, cleaned, half-roasted, and sold for
food, the fat is boiled down, and the feathers are used for stuffing beds.

The adult has the crown and nape buff-colour ; the rest of the
plumage white, except the primaries, which are black. In the bird
of the first year, the under plumage is mottled with dusky-ash and
buff, while the upper parts are blackish-brown flecked with white ;
in each successive year the dark markings diminish until the sixth,
when the adult dress is attained. Length 34 in. ; wing 19 in. The
nestling is at first naked and black, but is afterwards covered with
down, which is most persistent on the head and hind neck, giving the
bird the appearance of wearing a long wig.

A Tropic-bird, Phaethon aefherci/s, is said to have been found
dead in Herefordshire more than forty years ago (J. H. Gurney, Tr.
Norfolk Soc. v. p. 659).

ARDEID.«.

367

THE COMMON HERON.

Ardea cinerea, Linneeus.

This bird is no longer protected as in the days of Falconry, but
it is still generally distributed throughout the British Islands ; and
in England the number of its colonies has suffered no diminution,
though many of them are seriously reduced in size as compared
with former times. In Scotland there never were many large
heronries, but small ones are scattered over the greater part of the
mainland as well as some of the outlying islands. The latter remark
applies to Ireland, where, however, there are also some important
assemblages in trees in cos. Cork, Waterford, Dublin, Down,
Donegal, Mayo and Galway.

The Heron sometimes visits the Fseroes and Iceland, and a young
bird was picked up dead in South Greenland in 1856. On the coast
of Norway it ranges to 68° N. lat., though it does not reach beyond
57" in Sweden and Russia ; while southward it is found, in suitable
localities, over the greater part of Europe, and considerable numbers
breed in colonies in the marshes of Northern and Central Italy, the
valley of the Danube, and Southern Russia. In France there is one

368 COMMON HERON.

very large heronry at Ecury-le-grand, near Champigneul, in Marne ;
while scattered pairs are found in many districts. Migrants bearing
the labels of the Loo Hawking Club, Holland, have been shot from
time to time near Perpignan. To the Spanish Peninsula, the Azores,
Madeira, the Canaries, the Mediterranean basin, Africa as far as
Cape Colony, Ascension Island, the islands of the Indian Ocean,
and Australia, the Heron is either a winter-visitor or a wanderer;
but it breeds throughout Asia, from about 60° N. down to Ceylon.

In January, if the season is very mild in England, but as a rule in
February, Herons resort to their breeding-places, and these are often
occupied for years in succession ; while, like the Rooks, in whose
vicinity they often build, they usually nest in company. According
to circumstances they avail themselves of high trees, precipitous
sea-clififs, crags covered with ivy and shrubs, bare hill-sides, the walls
of ruins, the level ground, low bushes, or reeds and bull-rushes.
The nest is fiat, rather broad, and formed of sticks, with a lining of
small twigs, roots and dry grass ; the 3-4 eggs are uniform bluish-
green : measurements 2*5 by 17 in. Incubation lasts 25-26 days
(W. Evans) ; and a second clutch of eggs is sometimes laid while the
first brood is still in the nest. Heronries are occupied from spring
to August,' and are occasionally visited in the winter, but except
in the breeding-season the bird is often solitary and shy. The
food consists of reptiles, molluscs, crustaceans, worms, insects, small
mammals — such as water-rats and field-mice, and still more largely
of eels, pike, flounders and other coarse fish, but trout and the
young of water-fowl are not despised. Young Herons are helpless
for some time after they are hatched ; when fledged they are good
eating, and were formerly esteemed for the table. The alarm-note
\?> Q.\o\idfrajik, frank, which is especially startling to other birds,
but at the nest it is a prolonged kronk or kraak. When flying, this
species is easily recognized by the slow flapping of its rounded wings.

The adult male has the crest bluish-black; upper parts chiefly slate-
grey ; forehead, cheeks and neck white, the last being streaked with
dark bluish-grey and terminating in long white feathers ; under parts
greyish-white; bill yellow. Length 36 in.; wing 17 "25 in. The
female is smaller, and her colours are less bright, while the plumes
are shorter, as they are also in the young birds ; in the latter the under
parts are ash-colour, and there are no long feathers at the bottom of
the neck. Varieties are sometimes obtained.

The members of this family have the breast and lower flanks
furnished with well-developed powdery tufts of decomposed feathers,
the use of which is not known.

ARDEID.B.

569

THE PURPLE HERON.

Ardea purpurea, Linnaeus.

Although the Purple Heron is comparatively abundant on the
neighbouring shores of the Continent, it is only of irregular occur-
rence on the east coast of England, and is even less frequent in the
south, from Sussex to the Scilly Islands. In Wales and along the
west side it has seldom been noticed ; while the only example
on record for Ireland is one killed at Carrickmacross in 1834,
now in the Warren collection at the Dublin Museum. In Scotland
this species is said to have occurred in Caithness and Aberdeenshire
more than forty years ago, and Mr. W. Evans has a young bird shot
near Prestonpans, East Lothian, in October 1872. Altogether about
fifty specimens have been obtained in the British Islands, the majority
of these being in immature plumage.

The Purple Heron is only a wanderer to the south of Scandinavia,
Heligoland (once), Northern Germany and Poland. Its nesting-
places nearest to our shores are in Holland, where it is still by no

G G

37° PURPLE HEROX.

means uncommon, though lately interfered with by drainage ; but,
while principally a visitor on passage to Belgium, it breeds in con-
siderable numbers in the marshy districts of the Loire, and in some
parts of the south and east of France. In the Spanish Peninsula
it nests freely, as it does also from Central Germany to the swampy
parts of Southern Russia ; migrating, as a rule, in the cold season
from all the countries on the northern side of the Mediterranean.
It is found in ^Madeira, the Canaries (rarely) and Cape Verde
Islands, as well as in Northern Africa, while in Abyssinia it has been
obtained at an elevation of 9,000 ft., and it inhabits suitable locali-
ties down to Cape Colony and Madagascar. In Asia, to the east of
about long. 50*^, it is represented by A. vianillcnsis^ which has no
streaks on the fore neck.

Its breeding-places are usually difficult of access, being situated
in flooded swamps, or in the midst of dense masses of reeds. Mr.
Philip Crowley describes the nests at the Naarden Meer, near
Amsterdam, as placed about three feet above the water, and made
by bending down twelve or fifteen reeds to form a platform, on
which some smaller pieces were arranged crosswise, and this agrees
with my experience in Spain. The bluish-green eggs, usually 3 in
number, are smaller than those of the Common Heron : measure-
ments 2' 2 by I "5 in. In its habits the Purple Heron is shy, and
crepuscular or even nocturnal in its time of feeding. From the
thinness of the long snake-like neck, the birds are with difficulty
distinguished when they are standing in a reed-margined lake, nearly
up to the belly in water; for their bodies, in the shimmering sunlight,
exactly resemble tussocks of rushes. The note is more guttural than
that of its congener. The food consists of small mammals, reptiles,
fishes (especially eels) and aquatic insects.

The adult has the crown and long plumes glossy purplish-black ;
cheeks and sides of the neck fawn-colour, streaked with bluish-black;
back and wing-coverts dark slate-grey ; elongated filamentous dorsal
feathers chestnut ; tail grey ; neck reddish-buff with a line of black
down each side, terminating in a mass of chestnut, grey and black
elongated feathers ; under wing-coverts chestnut ; breast rich
maroon-red ; thighs rufous ; bill yellow ; toes very long. Length
about -^2) '"• (bill 6 in.); wing i4'25. The sexes are alike in
plumage, but the male is the larger. In winter the long
plumes are absent. In the young, until the second moult, the
occipital crest, as well as the elongated feathers at the base of the
neck and on the scapulars are absent ; the general colour above is
rust-red, and the under parts are brownish-white.

ARDEID/E.

371

THE GREAT WHITE HERON.

Ardea alba, Linnaeus.

The Great White Heron is a rare visitor to Great Britain, and it
would appear from Mr. J. H. Gurney's careful revision (Tr. Norfolk
Soc. V. p. 186) that out of thirty-two "records," only five examples
are authenticated or available for examination. Two of these were
obtained in Yorkshire, and one of them is in the Museum of the
county city ; one, killed in East Lothian on June 9th 1840, is in
the collection of the Earl of Haddington at Tyninghame House ;
one (with the long back-plumes) shot on Thorney Fen, Cambridge-
shire, is now in the possession of Col. Charles Isham Strong, of
Thorpe Hall, Peterborough; and one, killed at Loch Katrine,
Scotland, in May 1881, and also having the dorsal-train fully
developed, is in the Edinburgh Museum. Others are said to have

G G 2

372 GREAT WHITE HERON.

been observed, but some of them were probably Spoonbills ; while
several records are unworthy of serious consideration.

The Great White Heron occasionally visits the south of Sweden,
and the north-east of Prussia, but is of very rare occurrence in
Poland ; although near Glogau, in Silesia, a pair was found breeding
by A. von Homeyer in 1863. Over a great part of the area drained
by the Danube and its tributaries it was formerly plentiful in
summer, but owing to persecution for the sake of its plumes, its
numbers have been much reduced of late years ; in the Black Sea
district, however, and the south of Russia, it is still common.
Throughout the basin of the Mediterranean and in the marshy
parts of Italy it is not infrequent, especially in winter ; it visits the
south (and exceptionally the north) of France, and the east of
Spain ; and sometimes wanders to the Azores. It inhabits the
warmer portions of Asia as far as Burma, but in the Indian region
a smaller species, A. intermedia, predominates. In North Africa it
occurs principally in winter, and has been found, like the Purple
Heron, on the high table-lands of Abyssinia ; while it has been
obtained as far south as the Orange Free State. Its representative
from Japan to Australia and New Zealand has the bill yellow through-
out the year ; whereas our bird has the bill black in summer, and
yellow at other times. In America a closely-allied species, A. egretta,
has the bill yellow and the tarsi and tibiae black at all seasons.

The nest found by Homeyer was slightly built and placed in an
old fir-tree, and three recently hatched birds were found in it on
June 28th. In Northern India and Burma the nests are built from
June to August in half-submerged groves, but in the Carnatic and
Ceylon, this and all Herons breed from December to February
(Blanford). The 3-4 eggs are pale greenish-blue : measurements
2 "5 by I '5 in. The food consists of small fish, reptiles, molluscs
and aquatic insects.

The adult has the whole plumage white ; the feathers at the
bottom and sides of the neck in front fairly developed ; dorsal train
very long and filamentous in spring, but absent in autumn ; bill
black during the breeding-season, but afterwards yellow ; lores and
orbits pale green ; irides yellow ; tarsi and toes blackish ; the tibiae
being paler. Length of the European bird to end of tail about
35 in. (bill 6 in.) ; wing 17 in. The males are the larger, and have
the plumes more developed. In the young bird the bill is yellowish,
the legs are paler, and the elongated feathers are not acquired until
the second spring.

ARDEID/E.

173

) '

THE LITTLE EGRET.

Ardea garzetta, Linn?eus.

The Little Egret has a more southern habitat than the preceding
species, and, as might be expected, its visits to the British Islands
are very uncommon. When subjected to critical examination almost
all the records of its occurrence are more or less unsatisfactory; and,
as far as I can learn, the only example about which there can be no
doubt, is an adult examined and recorded by the late Mr. J.
Gatcombe, killed at Countess Weir, on the Exe, on June 3rd 1870,
and belonging to Mr. E. H. Harbottle, of Topsham, near
Exeter. It is not improbable, however, that one has been obtained
in Sussex ; while the late Lord Lilford(B. Northamptonsh. ii. p. 118)
adduced some evidence that two were shot near Whittlesea about
1849. There is no specimen in existence to prove Thompson's
assertion that the Little Egret has visited Ireland on three occasions.

This species has not been found to the north of the Baltic, and
it seldom wanders to Germany, Holland, or the north of France,
though not uncommon in the southern and eastern portions of the

374 LITTLE EGRET.

latter. It is tolerably abundant in suitable localities in the
Spanish Peninsula, Italy, Sicily, Sardinia, Cyprus, and generally
throughout the Mediterranean region. The northern limit of its
breeding-range appears to be in the wooded swamps of Slavonia,
where Mr. W. E. Clarke found it nesting towards the end of May
1883 on the Obedska 'bara,' a marsh on the river Save, not far
from Semlin. In the same year Messrs. Seebohm and Young found
it breeding in colonies on the Lower Danube ; and it is common
during the summer in Turkey and Southern Russia. Across Asia it
is distributed as far east as China and Japan ; in India and Ceylon
it is resident ; it visits the Philippines and Malayasia ; and a near
ally ranges from Java to Australia. To the west, it occurs in the
Azores and Canaries, and breeds in the Cape Verde Islands ; while
in Africa it is found as far as Cape Colony. Its representative in
the warmer districts of America is A. candidissima, distinguishable
by the large bunch of occipital feathers and by the yellow basal
portion of the bill.

The nests of the Little Egret are usually placed in bushes and
trees, in company with those of other swamp-loving species ; the
material consisting of sticks and a few reeds, on which are deposited
the 3-6 eggs, of a pale bluish-green, somewhat pointed at both ends :
averaging 175 by i"25 in. In Andaluci'a Mr. R. B. Lodge found
them on May 5th. Dr. H. Gadow shot examples of this bird on
April 17th 1884, round an isolated rock on the south coast of Por-
tugal, on the inaccessible summit of which it appeared to be
breeding, in company with some Gulls ; and Mr. Boyd Alexander
took its eggs from nests made of acacia twigs on May loth,
on ledges or in recesses of sea-cliffs, in the Cape Verde Islands.
The note of alarm or defiance resembles the syllables ak, ark, and
ork. The food consists of small fishes, aquatic insects, frogs and
worms.

The adult in spring and summer has the beak black j lores
lavender ; irides varying from yellow to pale lavender ; the entire
plumage pure white ; on the nape two long narrow feathers ; some
lanceolate plumes at the bottom of the neck in front ; dorsal plumes
greatly lengthened and filamentous ; legs mostly black, with yellowish
spots on the toes ; claws black. For some time after the
autumn moult the dorsal and occipital plumes are absent, and
the legs and feet are nearly black. Length to end of tail 2 1 in.
(bill 4 in.) ; wing 11 '25 in. Mr. J. H. Gurney says that the plumes
are sometimes as much developed in the females as in the males.
Young birds have a greyish tinge, and no elongated plumes.

ardkid.t:.

175

THE BUFF-BACKED HERON.

Ardea bubulcus, Audouin.

A young Buff-backed Heron, which proved on dissection to be a
female, was shot towards the end of October 1805 near Kingsbridge
in Devonshire, where it had been seen for several days in the same
field, following some cows, and picking up insects ; it was by no
means shy, and was fired at a second time before it was secured.
The occurrence was recorded by Montagu, to whom the specimen
was presented by Nicholas Luscombe, of Kingsbridge, and it is still
(i8g8) preserved in the Natural History Museum at South Kensing-
ton. No other authenticated British-killed example is known to
exist. Col. Irby assures me that the bird mentioned in ' The
Zoologist' p. 31 16 [1851] came from a well-known dealer, and that
no reliance can be placed upon the date or locality assigned.

The Buff-backed Heron is essentially a southern bird ; and an
adult male, shot on the Obedska 'bara,' on May 29th 1883, is
recorded by Mr. W. E. Clarke as the first instance known in
Hungary ; while on the Danube, as well as in Poland and Southern
Russia, it is extremely rare. Even in the south of France, Italy,

376 BUFF-DACKED HERON.

Sicily, Malta and Greece it is seldom found, though not infrequent
in Cyprus. Its only known breeding-haunts in Europe are in the
southern portions of the Spanish Peninsula, and from March to
autumn it is very common in the marshes of Andaluci'a, where
thousands may be seen amongst cattle or on their backs, picking
off ticks ; whence the name " Purga-bueyes," a corruption of
" Espulga-bueyes," meaning " cattle-cleaners," and also " Garra-
patosa," i.e., " tick-eater." It has occurred in Madeira and the
Canaries, and it appears to be resident in suitable localities from
Morocco to Egypt ; while southward, it is found in Arabia and
Persia, and over the whole of Africa, as well as in Madagascar. At
the Caspian we touch the western range of a closely-allied species,
A. coro/naiida, in which a rich orange-colour pervades the head and
neck ; and this representative extends across the warmer parts of
Asia to South Japan ; two examples of it are said to have been shot
near Turin in May 1S62, and one of them has been identified by
Prof. Giglioli.

Like its congeners, the Buff-backed Heron breeds in colonies,
making a nest of dry sticks and twigs on tamarisk-bushes in swamps,
on trees, or sometimes in gardens. Mr. J. H. Gurney describes
a colony of about five hundred birds in the Faioum, the nests being
in a large bed of dead tamarisks, and from two to five feet above
the water ; but none of these contained young in June, while
many were in course of building. Mr. R. B. Lodge found eggs
in Andalucia on May 5th. The 3-5 eggs are very pale blue, and
rounded at both ends; measurements I'S by i'3 in. The food
consists of cattle ticks {Acari), beetles and other insects turned up
by the plough, grasshoppers, locusts, and frogs. The note may be
syllabled as gi-ah. In Egypt this species is often made to do duty
for the Sacred Ibis with the tourist, and is to some extent respected
by the peasants.

The adult in summer has the crown, crest, fore nape, and the
plumes of the back and neck saffron-buff; the rest of the plumage
white, somewhat creamy on the wing-coverts ; lores, orbits, and
irides golden-pink ; beak reddish at the base, yellow at the tip ;
legs yellowish-red. Length about 20 in. ; wing 9 '5 in. The
female is rather smaller than the male, and her plumes are less
developed. After the autumn moult, and until the following
spring, the elongated buff feathers are wanting, and the bird is
almost pure white. In the young bird the skin about the base of
the bill is very dark ; the plumage shows little buff-colour, and the
legs are dull olive.

ARDEID.^.

377

THE SQUACCO HERON.

Ardea ralloides, Scopoli.

About fifty examples of this little Heron have been taken in the
British Islands since 1775, when a specimen was killed in Wiltshire.
The other counties visited by it are Hants (and the Isle of Wight),
Dorset, Somerset, Devon, Cornwall (about a dozen instances),
Montgomeryshire, Denbighshire, Brecon, Salop, Notts, Suffolk,
Norfolk, Lincolnshire, Yorkshire and Cumberland. In Scotland, one
was shot on the Forth and Clyde Canal, another near Edinburgh, and
a third on Sept. 7th 1896 in the Orkneys. In Ireland, Mr. Ussher
informs me that nine or ten have been obtained at long intervals,
between May and November 23rd. With very few exceptions,
however, these visitors have arrived in spring or summer, and have
been in immature plumage.

On the Continent the Squacco Heron is only a straggler to Poland,
Northern Germany, Denmark, Holland, Belgium and the north of
France ; but it is not uncommon in the valley of the Loire, where
I believe it breeds. South of that line and of the Alpine ranges, it
is generally distributed in suitable localities throughout Central and

378 SQUACCO HERON.

Southern Europe, from spring to autumn. In Spain it arrives in
April, though in the valley of the Danube it does not do so
before the middle of May. From the Canaries we find it
numerous and resident in North Africa — including Egypt, and it
inhabits that vast continent as far south as Namaqua Land, the
Transvaal and Natal ; while the late Sir Edward Newton obtained
it in Madagascar. Persia appears to be its eastern limit in Asia.

The Squacco Heron breeds in colonies, in company with other
members of the family; building a slight nest of sticks, on bushes
or trees in flooded marshes. Mr. W. E. Clarke in Slavonia, and
Messrs. Seebohm and Young on the Lower Danube, found eggs by
^Liy 26th ; in Andalucia, however, Mr. R. B. Lodge found nests with
their full complement by ^Nlay 8th in 1897. The 4-6 eggs are
greenish-blue — smaller and darker than those of the Buff-backed
Heron: measurements i"5 by i"i in. Li its breeding-haunts this
species is very pugnacious towards its congeners. The food consists
largely of water-beetles and other insects, small crabs, molluscs, frogs,
minute fish, and occasionally small mammals : an entire shrew having
been found in the crop of one examined by the late Mr. Rodd. In
its habits this bird is somewhat inactive, passing the greater portion
of the day in one position, the head being drawn in between the
shoulders like that of a Bittern ; and in Spain Col. Irby noticed
that it did not frequent the grazing-grounds after the manner of the
Buff-backed Heron. It is usually very silent, but occasionally
utters a harsh rarr. In dry seasons the nuptial dress is sometimes
not assumed until late in the spring, and in Andalucia in 1868 (a
very dry season) I found that even on May 21st some birds were
still rather bare on the neck.

The adult in breeding-plumage has the head and hind neck pale
buff, streaked with dark lines ; the occiput furnished with eight or
nine long lanceolate plumes, which are pure white in the centre
and margined with black ; sides and front of the neck warm buff;
back more vinaceous ; dorsal plumes elongated and filamentous ;
wing-coverts pale buff; rest of plumage white; bill cobalt-blue at the
base, black at the point ; lores naked and green ; irides yellow ; legs
yellowish-pink ; soles yellow. Length 20 in. ; wing 9 in. In the
immature plumage — ^most frequently seen in this country — the streaks
on the neck are longer and broader, and the ground-colour is mixed
with ashy-brown ; the back, and the ends of the inner secondaries
are wood-brown ; and the younger the specimen the darker are the
feathers alon2; the middle of the back.

ARDEID.«.

179

THE NIGHT-HERON.

Nycticorax GRiSEUS (Linnaeus).

The first specimen of the Night-Heron recorded in England was
shot near London in May 1782; since which time many examples
have been obtained in the British Islands, and the species may be
considered as an almost annual visitor in spring and autumn. In the
south-western counties it would probably have bred, if unmolested,
for in 'The Zoologist' (p. 252S), the late Rev. C. J. Bulteel gave
details of his unrivalled success in destroying eight adult birds — four
males and four females — in Devonshire, between May 23rd and
June 22nd 1849. Both old and young have been taken along the
south coast as far west as Cornwall ; more than twenty in the
eastern counties, and a good many inland ; fewer from Yorkshire
northward ; while to the western side of the island its visits have
been infrequent. In Scotland, four occurrences in the south, one in
Aberdeenshire, several in Argyllshire, and one in the Outer Hebrides

3oO NIGHT-HERON.

are on record ; while in Ireland about twenty examples have been
obtained in various localities, from Cork to Donegal.

The Night-Heron occasionally wanders to the Fteroes, South
Sweden and Denmark, but even on the southern side of the Baltic
it is rare, and of late years has gradually been driven from many of
its nesting-places in the northern portions of Germany and Holland.
In France it is chiefiy known on migration, though it breeds
sparingly in the south ; it nests in the Spanish Peninsula, as well
as on the mainland of Italy — which it leaves in autumn, though
resident in Sardinia ; while on passage it visits the coasts and other
islands of the Mediterranean. Large colonies are found on the
Danube, and throughout the districts of the Black and Caspian Seas.
Eastward, it is distributed throughout temperate and southern Asia,
as well as over the whole of Africa ; in fact it is almost cosmopolitan,
inasmuch as slightly varying forms inhabit America, from the Fur
Countries down to the Falkland Islands. In Australia, and north-
ward to the Pelew Islands and Celebes, the representative is iV^
cakdonicus, which has the upper parts of a bright cinnamon-colour.

The Night-Heron breeds in colonies, usually building a nest of
small sticks radiating from the centre, on trees or tamarisk-bushes in
swamps ; but in China, where it is held sacred, large groves are
selected, and Swinhoe has described a vast assemblage round the
great Honam Temple at Canton, where the nests are placed thickly in
some venerable banyans. In some parts reed-beds are chosen, and
in the swamps of Lake jNIichigan dead rice-stalks are built up into
solid structures. The 3-5 eggs are very pale greenish-blue, slightly
pointed at both ends : measurements 2 by i"4 in. The bird com-
mences sitting at once, and there is an interval of some two days
between the laying of each egg. In Andalucia Mr. R. B. Lodge
found eggs by May 8th, but further north incubation is later. The
food consists of water-insects and their larvK, worms, snails, small
fishes and frogs. The note is a mournful qua-a, seldom uttered in
the daytime, though after dark the birds are very noisy.

The adult male has the crown, nape, and middle of the back
greenish-black ; neck, wings and tail grey ; under parts greyish-
white ; at the nape three to ten long white plumes ; bill blackish
above, lower mandible and lores lead-colour ; iris brick-red ; legs
and feet yellow. Length about 23 in. ; wing 12 in. The female is
duller in colour and has shorter nuchal plumes. The young bird has
the upper plumage umber-brown, with paler streaks and white spots ;
under parts striped with white, buff, and brown ; no crest. Young
males are capable of reproduction while still in immature plumage.

ARDEin-^s.

-^8i

THE LITTLE BITTERN.

x\rdetta minuta (Linn^Eus).

This small species has been obtained in nearly every county of
England, especially in the eastern and southern districts ; while there
can be little doubt that it bred on some of the Broads of Norfolk
comparatively recently, and formerly did so in other localities. In
Wales, and on the west side of the island, it is of rare occurrence,
as it is also to the north of Yorkshire ; while to Scotland its visits
are very irregular, though extending as far as the Orkneys and
Shetlands. Mr. Ussher informs me that he has at least twenty-four
records for Ireland, the majority from the southern counties. Most
of the instances recorded in the British Islands have been between
spring and autumn, but a few in the winter months.

The Little Bittern is only a rare wanderer to the Faroes, Iceland,
Norway and Sweden ; and although it has been obtained on several
occasions in Denmark as well as the district of St. Petersburg, its
usual migrations do not extend beyond the Baltic. Southward, it is
found during summer in suitable situations throughout Europe ; but
even from Spain, Italy and Greece it takes its departure in autumn,
to return in April. It occurs in the Azores, Madeira and the
Canaries, as well as in North Africa, where its numbers are
augmented by migrants from the north in winter — at which season
it visits Egypt and Nubia. In Southern Africa it is represented by
the smaller and more rufous Ardetta podicipes. In Asia, our Little

382 LITTLE BITTERN.

Bittern is found breeding from the shores of the Caspian to Kashmir
and Sind, while it occurs in Nepal and North-western India ; but
eastward and southward it is represented by A. sinensis, the back of
which is brown instead of black, and also by A. cinnamoiiiea ; while
allied species inhabit Australia and America.

The nest, made of flags and blades of grass, is placed among
growing reeds, and very little above the water ; or in tamarisk-
bushes ; but sometimes it is in pollarded willows, and occasionally
the bird makes use of the former abode of a Magpie, in bushes or
hedges near a swamp. The eggs, normally 4-5 in number, though
9 are said to have been found, are usually laid in the latter half
of May, are uniform dull white, with a greenish-grey tinge :
measurements i"4 by i in. When disturbed from her nest the
female utters a sound like ^ett, gett ; but the male emits a peculiar
grunting wof, wough. The food, obtained chiefly by night, consists
of small fish and their fry, frogs, reptiles, molluscs and aquatic
insects. During the day the Little Bittern skulks in reed-beds,
plantations of osiers, and other moist situations ; and, when disturbed,
climbs among the branches, and threads its way through the
tangled vegetation with great celerity. The late Lord Lilford
observed that on its arrival in Corfu and Epirus it frequented
gardens, orange-groves and olive-trees. It often endeavours to
escape notice by remaining motionless, with crossed legs, outstretched
neck, and bill pointing upwards : thus resembling a dry reed or a
dead bulrush. Mr. H. M. Wallis informs me that at Lake Varese
a bird had such confidence in its powers of assimilation that it
remained until grasped, and afterwards it sat quietly upon the
gunwale of his boat.

I'he adult male has the crown, nape and back greenish-black ;
primaries and tail browner black ; cheeks and neck warm buff", wing-
coverts paler ; throat and under parts buff, with a few dark streaks
on the breast and flanks ; bill yellow ; legs and feet greenish-yellow.
Length about 13 in. ; wing 6 in. The female is a trifle smaller, and
diff'ers in having a brown tinge on the head, the cheeks and hind
neck rufous, back brown, wing-coverts brownish-buff; under parts
buff, much streaked with wood-brown and umber. The young at
first resemble the female, but the upper parts are duller in colour.

The members of the genus Ardetta resemble the true Bitterns
in having only ten soft tail-feathers and two pairs of powder-down
tracts, whereas the Herons have twelve tail-feathers and three pairs
of powder-down tracts.

ARDEID.'E.

383

THE COMMON BITTERN.

BoTAURUS STELLARis (Liiinceus).

The extensive reed-swamps and marshes, to which the Bittern
resorts during the breeding-season, have greatly decreased of late
years in England, owing to drainage and cultivation ; nevertheless,
its eggs were occasionally found in the Broad-district of Norfolk
down to March 30th 1868, and as recently as August 1SS6 a
young bird with down still adhering to it was obtained there. Before
the reclamation of the East Anglian fens the ' Butter-bump,' as it
was called from its note, bred in them annually, as it did also in
other suitable portions of England and Wales ; while, even at the
present day, so many of the birds which visit us are shot in spring,
that, if a little forbearance were exercised, the ' boom ' of the Bittern
might again be regularly heard in our land. To the mainland of
Scotland the species is only an irregular visitor, occasionally wander-

3cS4 COMMON BITTERN.

ing to the Outer Hebrides, the Shetlands, and, perhaps, the Orkneys.
In Ireland it is now chiefly found in winter, especially in co. Cork,
though it used to breed in the south up to the first quarter of this
century.

The Bittern is a rare visitor to the southern portion of Norway,
but it is a spring-migrant to Sweden up to about 60° N. lat. ; while
in Eastern Russia it can be traced to 57°, and in Western Siberia
to Yeneseisk. Southward, it is distributed in summer through-
out the Pal^earctic region, from Japan and China to the Azores ; and
it is resident in the warmer portions of Europe, where its numbers
are augmented in winter by visitors from the north. It is found in
Northern Africa, but is represented in the south by B. capensis.

Extensive reed-beds are the usual nurseries of this skulking
species ; but sometimes it selects swamps on the margins of
unfrequented lakes. The nest, placed on the ground amongst the
thickest herbage, is composed of dry reeds heaped together ; the
eggs, often laid in March or April, and usually 4 in number, are of
a uniform brownish-olive colour, sometimes with a green tint when
fresh : measurements 2"i by i"5 in. They are laid at intervals of
several days, and incubation lasts about 25 days; while the young
do not quit the nest till nearly able to provide for themselves. The
Bittern usually feeds at night, and is seldom seen on the wing in
the day, during which it remains in thick beds of reeds ; but
I have seen it take shelter in a tree on the skirt of a marsh.
The flight is dull and flagging, and seldom sustained to any
great distance, except on migration. In the breeding-season the
male makes a loud booming or bellowing noise, whence, probably,
the term Botaurits ; but at other times the bird utters a sharp, harsh
cry. The food consists of small mammals, birds, fish, water-beetles,
lizards, frogs, and almost anything that can be swallowed. The
Bittern has been described as a solitary bird ; but forty to fifty have
been observed on the wing in a flock, and in Lower Egypt Capt.
Shelley got close to about a score reposing among the reeds. When
wounded, the bird lies with the neck drawn in, but this can be shot
out with startling rapidity and effect.

The adult has the crown and nape black ; general colour buff,
irregularly barred above and streaked below with black ; feathers of
the neck long and forming an erectile ruff; tail of 10 soft feathers ;
primary-coverts and quills barred with black and chestnut ; bill
greenish-yellow ; legs and feet grass-green. Length 28 in. ; wing 13 in.
The sexes are alike in plumage. In the young bird the colour of
the quills and coverts is nearly uniform.

ARDEID.t.

385

r'^ r \\ yr

THE AMERICAN BITTERN.

BoTAURUS LENTiGiNosus (Montagu).

It is difficult to refuse a place in the British list to a bird which,
although an inhabitant of America, has been obtained on some thirty
occasions in our islands, and which was first distinguished as a new
species by Montagu, from a specimen killed in Dorsetshire in 1804.
Since that date examples have been recorded from Kent, Sussex,
Hants, Devon, Cornwall, Pembrokeshire, Anglesea, Lancashire and
Yorkshire ; in Scotland, from Dumfriesshire, Islay, Elgin, Aberdeen-
shire and Caithness ; in Ireland about twelve : from cos. London-
derry, Down, Armagh, Louth, Kildare, Carlow, Wexford, Tipperary and
Cork. As far as is known, all these, with the exception of one shot
in Dumfriesshire on March 25th 1878, have been obtained between
October and February : dates which coincide with those of the
bird's well-known annual migrations. Although an example was
killed in Guernsey on October 27th 1870, the American Bittern has
not yet occurred on the Continent ; but this may be accounted for
by the fact that the greater part of the trade across the North Atlantic
is to the British Islands, which are, also, the nearest land eastward.

H H

38(5 AMERICAN BITTERN.

There can be little doubt that many, and probably most of our visitors,
have been aided on their passage by being able to rest on the yards
of vessels ; especially on those of steamers, the square-sails of which
are seldom set, so that a bird might easily remain, unobserved and
undisturbed, by day as well as by night, while each twenty-four hours
would find it, even on cargo-boats, some 300 miles further on its
way across. It could probably exist without food for far longer than
is necessary for such a transit ; moreover, if hungry, or dislodged
from its ship, its long slender feet would enable it to alight on
patches of sargasso and other masses of floating sea-weeds found on
the line of the Gulf Stream, and among these it would find small
fish, crustaceans, and other sustenance, until another vessel passed
by. Doubtless numbers perish for one that reaches our shores.

An exhausted example of this species was captured by dogs at
Egedesminde in Greenland, in 1S69 ; and in America its range on
the MacKenzie River extends to the Arctic Ocean, though the bird
is probably rare so far north. South of the 58th parallel in the
Fur-countries, it is found, as a breeding-species, down to Texas ;
while on its extended and bold autumnal migration it is a regular
and sometimes an abundant visitor to the Bermudas, where it also
occurs, though with less frequency, on its passage northward in
March. In winter it visits the West Indian Islands and Guatemala.

When situated on dry ground, the nest is a very slight structure of
reeds and grass ; but in places liable to inundations it is sometimes
considerably elevated. The eggs, 4-7 in number, are equally
obtuse at either end, and are of a uniforni drab colour : measure-
ments I "9 by I "45 in. This Bittern usually feeds on frogs, lizards,
and small mammals, but it is almost omnivorous. The note of the
male in the early part of the breeding-season is a deep choking
croak, resembling the noise made by driving a stake in boggy soil,
whence its common name of " Stake-" or " Post-driver."

This species resembles our Old A\'orld bird in general plumage,
but is smaller in size ; its bill, legs and feet are more slender ; the
feathers of the upper parts are more finely vermiculated ; and the
primaries are uniform leaden-hrozvn. Length about 24 in. ; wing
1 1 in. The young have a ruddier tinge and coarser mottlings.

A specimen of the American Buiorides viresce?is, said to have
been shot in Cornwall in October 1889, was exhibited at the
Linnean Society in April 1890, by Sir C. Sawle {Cf. Zool. 1890,
p. 105 and p. 181).

J

CICONIID/E.

387

'V

ill

^ ~ J,

THE WHITE STORK.

Cic6nia alba, Bechstein.

It does not appear that the White Stork has ever been more than
an irregular wanderer to the British Islands ; and as long ago as
1544 Dr. William Turner, writing at Cologne, expressed his surprise
that a bird so common in Germany should be unknown in England.
Later, it was considered by Merrett, Willughby and Ray a very rare
visitor, but Sir Thomas Browne remarked on its occurrence in the fens
and marshes of Norfolk, where, from the proximity of Holland — in
which the species has long been protected — more examples have
been obtained than in all the rest of Great Britain. An adult
female, shot about May 17th 186 1 at Woodbastwick, contained an
egg ready for exclusion, which was cracked by the fall of the bird ;
and more than thirty specimens have been recorded from East
Anglia, chiefly in the spring. Several have been noticed from
Northamptonshire southward, and on April 23rd 1884 a flock of six
passed over the town of Newbury in Berkshire, flying m a north-

H H 2

388 WHITE STORK.

easterly direction. Northward, the occurrences of this species
become less frequent, and in Scotland they are rare, though extend-
ing to the Orkneys and Shetlands ; while still fewer are known on
the west side of Great Britain. In Ireland six are on record.

In Norway the White Stork has been found as far north as Bergen,
and is a yearly visitor to the south, where, however, it is not
encouraged to breed, as it is in Sweden, Denmark, Holland, Germany
and the greater part of Central Europe. In France, Italy, Sicily,
Sardinia and ^Slalta it is of irregular appearance ; but in the Spanish
Peninsula it nests freely on the towers and belfries of churches in
towns, and on the ' almiares ' or stacks of the farm-houses, as well as
on trees. It is equally abundant in Slavonia and the Danubian
Provinces, although not specially protected there ; as well as in
Turkey and Southern Russia ; but in Greece and the Archipelago it
is less common. It breeds in Asia Minor, and sparingly in Palestine,
which it visits in great numbers (Canon Tristram says tens of
thousands) on migration ; while it ranges to Central Asia and India,
Mr. Parker having even found it nesting as far south as Ceylon, in
December. In China and Japan the representative species is
C. boyciana, with black bill and red lores. In the west, the White
Stork is a wanderer to the Canaries, and it is numerous from early
spring to autumn in North Africa, where a few remain during the
winter ; but the majority pass southward — immense numbers
migrating through Egypt — as far as Natal and Cape Colony.

The nest, built of sticks, and added to year by year, is usually
placed on buildings, or on cart-wheels set up for the use of the bird,
in Holland and other parts of the Continent ; but trees and the
ledges of cliffs are also utilized. The eggs, 3-5 in number, are
pure white : measurements 2*8 by 2*1 in. The yolk is of a very
deep orange-colour. Incubation, which lasts a month, begins by
March 25th in Morocco, but is later in the north. The old bird feeds
the young by inserting its beak within the mandibles of the nestling,
and then disgorging the food ; this consists of frogs, reptiles, fish,
grasshoppers and other insects, worms, small mammals and young
birds. During the breeding-season Storks keep up a constant
clattering with their bills. The pleasing legend of the conjugal
fidelity of this species is quite unfounded on fact.

The adult has the bare skin round the eye black ; plumage white,
except the quills, which are black frosted with grey ; bill, legs and
feet red. Length 40 in. ; wing i-x, in. In the young the quills are
dull black, while the feet and legs are brownish-red.

389

THE BLACK STORK.

CicoNiA NIGRA (Liiiiiaeus).

The Black Stork is a far rarer visitor to England than its con-
gener, and there is no authentic record of its occurrence in
Scotland or Ireland. In May 1814 a bird, disabled by a slight
shot-wound, was captured on West Sedgemoor, Somersetshire, and
lived in the possession of Montagu for more than twelve months ;
it is now in the British Museum. Since that time examples have
been obtained, at long intervals, between the months of May and
November, in the Scilly Islands (i), Devon (i), Dorset (2), Kent (2),
Middlesex (i), Oxfordshire (i), Essex (i), Suffolk (i), Norfolk (2),
Yorkshire (i), and Durham (i).

This species is only a straggler to Norway ; but it breeds sparingly
in the forests of the south of Sweden, Denmark, Brunswick, Hanover,
Pomerania, East Prussia and some other parts of Germany ; also
in Poland, Central and Southern Russia, the Danubian Provinces,
Turkey and Spain. In the rest of Europe it occurs as a migrant,

390 BLACK STORK.

and is even said to visit Madeira. Eastward it breeds in Palestine,
and can be traced — through Persia, Turkestan, Siberia up to 55° N.
lat., and Mongolia — to China, where it nests on cliffs in the moun-
tains near Pekin ; while flocks winter in India as far south as the
Deccan. It is found throughout Northern Africa, from Morocco
to Egypt, Nubia and Abyssinia ; and appears to be generally
distributed during our cold season down to Cape Colony.

Unlike the White Stork, which frequents the society of man, the
Black Stork has its breeding-haunts in the most secluded spots, and
generally in marshy woods, where it builds its nest in high trees.
Mr. H. J. Elwes has described one in Jutland as a large and heavy
mass of sticks, lined with tufts of green moss, and situated about
thirty-five feet from the ground, in a good-sized beech ; another
was on an old nest of the White-tailed Eagle, in a smaller tree
overlooking a wide swampy valley in the forest ; and the late Mr.
Seebohm found similar structures in oaks and firs. In Spain,
Bulgaria and Turkey, clefts and ledges of cliffs are also used. The
4-5 eggs are coarse in texture and of a dull greyish-white colour,
while, when the shell is held up to the light the lining membrane
shows gree?i, whereas it is yellowish in the egg of the White Stork ;
the dimensions also are smaller, being about 2*6 by 2 in. The male
stands by the female whilst she is sitting, and little fear of intruders
is shown. Incubation commences in the latter half of April, and,
as a rule, the Black Stork arrives at its northern breeding-stations
rather earlier than its congener ; while it leaves later in the autumn,
and has once been obtained in Sweden in winter. Its food consists
largely of fish ; but frogs, reptiles, small mammals, and aquatic
insects are also eaten. The young utter a peculiar guttural note ;
the adults, however, merely make a clattering noise with their
bills. The illustration was taken from a bird which lived in the
gardens of the Zoological Society in the Regent's Park for about
thirty years.

The adult has the head, neck, upper breast and mantle glossy
black, with blue, purple, copper-coloured and green reflexions ; under
parts below the breast white ; bill, orbits, pouch, legs and feet coral-
red. Length 38 in. ; wing 21 in. The sexes are alike in plumage.
In the young bird the upper feathers are dull metallic-brown,
margined with dirty-white; and the bill and legs are olive-green,
afterwards turning to orange-red.

The Storks, Ibises, and Spoonbills have no powder-down tracts.

ibidld.t:.

391

THE GLOSSY IBIS.
Plegadis falcixellus (Linnaeus).

The Glossy Ibis is now only of accidental occurrence in the
British Isbnds, but towards the end of the last century- its \isits
appear to have been more frequent, and near L5Tin in Norfolk it
was known to gunners and fishermen as the 'Black Curlew.' In the
eastern and midland counties and on the estuaries of the south
coast it has been obser\-ed more often than in the west, though it
has occurred in Pembrokeshire and Lancashire : it is even popularly
— and erroneously — supposed to be the bird called the Liver, figured
in the arms of Liverpool. Northward it is decidedly rare, and only six
examples seem to have been obtained in Scotland : one of them near
Kirkwall, Orkney, and one at Unst in the Shetlands. In Ireland it
has occurred at least twent)- times, either singly or in small flocks,
chiefly in the southern and eastern counties, and once near Belfast.
As a rule the visits of this species have been in autumn or early
winter, but occasionally in spring.

To the Faeroes, Iceland, Scandina\"ia, Denmark, and the Baltic
Provinces the Glossy Ibis is a mere wanderer ; and north of the
Alpine ranges of Central Europe its appearance can only be con-

392 GLOSSY IBIS.

sidered irregular. Southwards it becomes common, and in Spain
it nests freely in the marshes of Andalucia. Its most northern
colonies appear to commence in Slavonia, and are to be found along
the valley of the Danube, extending thence throughout the Black Sea
district to the Caspian. In Asia it ranges to 48° N. lat., and breeds
as far south as Ceylon ; while in winter it passes down the Eastern
Archipelago to South Australia. It nests in suitable localities in
North Africa, and on the east side of that continent its migrations
extend to Natal. Our Glossy Ibis appears to be found in the
Eastern United States, but the representative species in Neo-tropical
America is P. guarauna, which has a white margin of feathers
surrounding the bare space on the forehead.

Mr. W. Eagle Clarke found the Glossy Ibis breeding by thousands
in the great bird-colony on the Obedska ' bara ' in Slavonia ; its
nests, constructed of sticks and a few reeds, being placed among the
lower branches of sallow-bushes (tamarisks in Spain), either on
the surface of the water or very little above it. The eggs, 3-4 in
number, are oval, and are of a dark greenish-blue, slightly
pitted : measurements 2 in. by i "5 in. In India and Ceylon the
nests are built in trees, and Col. Legge describes the young as
climbing actively among the branches, and clinging so firmly with
their feet as to be removed with difficulty. The food consists of
small amphibians, reptiles, crustaceans, &c., obtained on the muddy
banks of rivers and estuaries ; also of locusts, scorpions and beetles.
In flight the pinions are first moved rapidly, and produce a whizzing
sound, after which the bird skims for some distance.

The adult has the head, neck and under parts deep reddish-
brown ; back, wings and tail brownish-black, glossed with metallic-
green and purple ; bill dark brown ; bare skin round the eyes
greenish-grey ; irides hazel ; legs and feet bronze-brown. Length
about 22 in. ; wing 1075 in. The sexes are alike in plumage, but
the female is slightly smaller. The young bird has no glossy tints ;
and the head, cheeks and neck are streaked and patched with
greyish-white.

The family of the Ibises, of which Pkgadis forms a somewhat
outlying genus, has no affinity to the Curlews, with which, owing to
a superficial resemblance in the shape of the bill, it was formerh'
associated; its relationship is with the Storks i^Ciconiidcc)^ ano,
more closely, with the Spoonbills {Plataleidie). The egg of the
Sacred Ibis is similar to that of the Spoonbill, and so are, probably,
the eggs of the other typical species.

PLATALEID^.

393

THE SPOONBILL.

Platalea leucor6dia, Liniiceus.

Prof. Newton has shown (Tr. Norfolk Soc. 1896, p. 158) that in
the time of Edward L (1300) the Spoonbill was known, under the
name of "Popeler," to breed in Norfolk; while up to the days of
Willughby and Sir Thomas Browne it used to nest on trees — in
company with Herons — in that county and Suffolk. Mr. Harting
has drawn attention to breeding-places near Goodwood in Sussex,
and at Fulham in Middlesex (Zool. 1877, p. 425; 1886, p. 81)
in the sixteenth century, when its usual name was "Shoveler," or
"Shovelard"; and Owen, in 1602, describes it as nesting on high
fees in Pembrokeshire. Even now the bird frequently visits East
;)Lnglia, and is found from time to time along the south coast,
?gpecially in Cornwall ; while occasionally it wanders up the
Thames valley. In Pembrokeshire and on the flats of Cardigan Bay
: is often seen, though on the west side it is rare. Nine specimens
lave been recorded from Yorkshire, but northward it is of rare
ccurrence ; stragglers have, however, been obtained in the Inner

394 SPOONBILL.

Hebrides, Orkneys and Shetlands. Tn Ireland, Mr. Ussher informs
me that he has records of ^^ occurrences in the maritime counties,
principally in the southern districts and especially in co. Cork.

The Spoonbill seldom visits Scandinavia or Northern Russia, and
was first obtained in Heligoland on July 14th 1892 ; but south of
56° N. lat. it breeds in suitable localities, even as near us as Holland,
where, however, its haunts are rapidly being drained. Its arrival is
usually in April, and it remains till September, or a little later. To
France it is now merely a wanderer, though in the time of Belon it
used to nest on trees in Brittany and Poitou ; but it breeds in the
south of Spain, as well as along the Danube and in the Black Sea
district, whence it emigrates in winter. Westward it wanders to the
Azores, Madeira and the Canaries ; while eastward, it ranges to
India, Ceylon, and Northern China ; in Africa it appears to be
resident as far south as Socotra. Representatives are found in South-
east Asia, South Africa, and Australia ; but the Roseate Spoonbill
of America belongs to a different genus, Ajaja.

The nests, formed of broken-down and piled-up reeds, may be on
the surface of the water, as in Holland and Spain : on the submerged
branches of willows, as in Slavonia &c. ; or on trees, as already
mentioned ; the last being a favourite site in India and Ceylon. In
Southern Europe laying sometimes begins very early in May, the eggs,
4-6 in number, being deposited at considerable intervals ; they are
rough in texture, very variable in shape, and dull white, streaked and
spotted with reddish-brown, in colour : measurements 2*5 by i"8 in.
The food consists of small fish, frogs, molluscs, aquatic insects and
crustaceans, obtained in shallow pools \ and WoUey noticed that
the bird, while feeding, kept its bill immersed, upon which, as on a
pivot, a movement in a semi-circle was rapidly maintained by the
whole body. In captivity the Spoonbill is inoffensive to other
species, and will eat any sort of offal. Mr. R. B. Lodge heard the
bird emit a few low notes while flying round its nest ; but it has no
true vocal muscles, though a singular figure-of-8-like convolution of
the windpipe is found in old birds of both sexes.

The adult male in spring has the plumage white, with a tinge of
yellow on the occipital plumes and fore neck ; bill yellow at the tip,
the rest black, barred with yellow ; gular region orange ; irides red ;
legs and feet black. Length 36 in. (bill 8"5 in.) ; wing 14*5. The
female is slightly smaller and has less crest. In winter the plumes
are absent. The young has the bill narrower at the tip, more
flexible, and of a livid flesh-colour ; irides ash-colour ; shafts and
ends of the quill-feathers black, and no occipital plumes.

i

t

PHCENICOPTERID.«.

395

THE FLAMINGO.

PHrENICOPTERUS ROSEUS, PallaS.

Early in September 1881 an adult Flamingo was seen for a week
or so on the estate of the late Sir John H. Crewe, in the northern
part of Staffordshire ; but having crossed the river Manifold to
another property, it was captured and taken to the owner of the
land, by whom it was kept alive for a few days, and then killed.
Another adult bird, recorded by Lord Henry Scott (Zool. 1884,
p. 338), was shot on November 26th 1883, on the mud banks outside
the Beaulieu river, Hampshire, which it had frequented for about a
fortnight after a great gale from the south-west. Capt. G. E. Shelley
has informed me that on August 12th 1884, when waiting near New
Romney for the evening flights of Curlews, an adult Flamingo flew
past him, having been put up by his two nephews, who got within

396 FLAMINGO.

about fifty yards of it. Inquiries failed to show that any bird of this
species had escaped from menageries about the above dates ; but
one which was shot in the Isle of Sheppey on August i6th 1873,
may have been an individual which escaped from the London
Zoological Gardens on July 19th.

The visits of the Flamingo to England are not nearly so remark-
able as are those of many other southern species, for stragglers have
been obtained in Pomerania and Hesse-Darmstadt ; single birds,
and even flocks, have been observed from time to time along the
Lower Rhine ; and varying numbers often ascend the valley of the
Rhone, visiting the lakes of Switzerland, Savoy, and the /'fangs of
La Brenne in Central France. Flocks still resort to the lagoons of
the Rhone delta, and in years when there is plenty of water they
breed on the etang de Valcares ; while still larger communities are
found at the mouth of the Guadalquivir in the south of Spain, and
at Tunis and other suitable places in North Africa. The Flamingo
also breeds in the Cape Verde Islands ; ranges over the whole of
Africa ; and inhabits Asia from the Caspian to Lake Baikal.

It had long been known that Flamingoes bred in colonies,
depositing their eggs on nests built of mud, and raised to heights
varying from a few inches to about two feet, according to thr
liability of the soil to inundation ; but Mr. Abel Chapman was the
first to prove, from personal observation (Ibis, 1884, pp. 86-89), that
the birds sit with their long legs doubled under their bodies, and
do not stand astride of their nests, as popularly supposed and erro-
neously pictured. The eggs, laid about May 24th, are 2 in number,
and have a very chalky-white surface, beneath which the shell is
greenish-blue: measurements y6 by 2-25 in. Mr. W. Eagle Clarke
found that in the Camargue the food consisted of minute crustaceans
{Artonia salina), &c. Flamingoes feed by day ; their cry, formation
in flight, and moult are Anserine, and they swim with ease.

The adult has the general plumage rosy-white, with scarlet wing-
coverts and black quills ; irides and bare skin next the eye yellow ;
bill rosy at the base, black at the tip ; legs and feet pinkish- red.
The length to the tip of the tail varies, irrespective of age or sex,
from 50-60 in. ; wing 16-17 in- I" the young of the first year the
pink is absent, except a slight trace of it on the wings ; the
secondaries are irregularly barred with black, and the bill, eyes, legs
and feet are dull lead-colour. The nesding is covered with greyish-
white down ; the bill is nearly straight.

ANATID^.

397

THE GREY LACx-GOOSE.

Anser cinereus, Meyer.

This species is generally supposed to be the principal source from
which our domestic race has sprung, and, according to Prof. Skeat,
the trivial name indicates that it is the species of ' Grey ' Goose which
in former days lagged behind to breed in our fens, when its congeners
had betaken themselves to more northerly regions ; Mr. Harting,
however, suggests that "lag" is derived from "leag" or "lea," and
means " field-" (goose) as distinctive from the '•' rut-" or root-eating
species, such as the Brent. Nestlings were taken in the Cambridge-
shire fens up to 1773, and breeding continued in Lincolnshire up to
the early part of this century ; but this species is no w rare along the east
coast, while of very irregular occurrence in the south and west, even
in winter. Even in the Solway district and throughout the greater
part of Scotland it is seldom met with ; but it still breeds, though in
rapidly decreasing numbers, in Ross, Caithness, Sutherland, and,
more abundantly, in the Hebrides, especially on the outer islands ;
being the only kind of Wild Goose which nests in Scotland.
To the Orkneys and Shetlands it is only an accidental visitor. In
Ireland, a colony of semi-domesticated birds has for many years
been resident on the lake at Castle Coole (Lord Belmore's), and
from autumn till late spring some numbers are to be found, chiefly

398 GREY LAG-GOOSE.

in the southern and western counties, though the species is less local
than is generally supposed. There can, however, be little doubt
that the majority go past our islands, to the south of Europe.

Though now only a visitor to the Faeroes, the Grey Lag-Goose
breeds in the south of Iceland, and is tolerably numerous during
summer in Scandinavia ; also in Russia as far south as the Caspian,
as well as in the Black Sea district and along the valley of the
Danube. A limited number breed in Denmark, and — very locally
—in Holland and North Germany. Occasionally it has been
known to nest in the south-west of Spain, where vast flocks are
found in winter ; in the Mediterranean basin, however, as well as
over Central Europe, it is chiefly observed in cold weather. In
Asia it seldom reaches the Arctic circle, and Mr. Popham did not
meet with it on the Yenesei, while southward it (or a closely-allied
form, A. rubrirostris of Hodgson), extends to Canton in China, and
Central India.

The nest, generally placed among coarse grass or rank heather,
though sometimes on a ledge of a crag, is composed of heather, small
twigs, reeds, or moss, without any lining until the female has laid her
eggs, which she then surrounds with down plucked from her breast.
These, usually 5-6 in number, though 1 2 are said to have been found,
are dull yellowish-white : measurements 3-5 by 2*4 in. In Scotland
incubation generally begins about the middle of April, and after the
females begin to sit the males leave them and collect in flocks at the
nearest water. This Goose feeds on grass and other vegetable
substances which are found inland, and — unless very much harassed
— always by day ; at night it betakes itself to promontories, sand-
banks, and other spots difficult of access. On long flights, a change-
able but more or less wedge-shaped formation is often assumed by
flocks of this, as well as of all the other ' Grey ' species, whence the
term ' a skein of Geese ' ; while old sportsmen usually spoke of a
' gaggle ' : the latter term having reference, no doubt, to the noise
made by the birds.

The adult has a few white feathers round the base of the bill ;
the general plumage of the head, neck and upper parts greyish-
brown ; lower breast and abdomen dull-white, with a few black spots.
The distinguishing characteristics of the species are the bluish-grey
rump and wing-coverts, flesh-coloured bill with a white nail at the
tip, and flesh-coloured legs and feet. Length : male 34 in. ; wing
17*5 ; female 30 in., wing 16 in. Weight 8-10 lbs. The young are
darker than the adults, and have no black spots on the under parts.

ANATID.^^.

399

/sTz-^^W

^^^Sr^^jasij

THE WHITE-FRONTED GOOSE.

Anser albifrons (Scopoli).

The White-fronted — or, as it is sometimes called from its hoarse
note, the Laughing — Goose, is a smaller bird than the preceding
species, which, however, it resembles in having a white nail at the
tip of the bill. It is a winter-visitor to the British Islands, and
large flocks occasionally arrive in England, especially in the south
and south-west ; but it is not plentiful on the east coast, and is
local in its distribution. It annually visits some of the bogs in Wales,
as well as Swansea Bay, and is the species found in large numbers
on the Severn, especially near Berkeley, from December to
March. It is uncommon on the east side of the mainland of
Scotland, except near the Moray Firth ; while on the west it occurs
but sparingly in the Outer Hebrides, though in Islay it is the
commonest of the ' Grey ' Geese, arriving early in October, and
remaining till the middle of April. It is irregularly plentiful in the
Shetlands, and is the commonest species in the Orkneys. In
Ireland it is abundant, and more widely distributed inland than any
other member of the genus.

The true White-fronted Goose has occurred in the Faroes and
throughout Iceland ; and although it is not known to nest in
Norway or Sweden, yet in winter it visits their coasts, as well as

400 WHITE-FRONTED GOOSE.

those of Denmark and Western Europe as far as the Mediterranean.
It goes rather far north to breed ; for Mr. Pearson found it on both
islands of Novaya Zemlya, and Mr. Popham informs me that it is
plentiful on the Lower Yenesei. Middendorff describes it as the
commonest Goose in the Taimyr district, whence, in the cold season,
it migrates as far south as Shanghai and Northern India. Westward,
its lines of migration seem to be down the Volga and other great
river-valleys to Syria, Egypt and Nubia. This species was domesti-
cated by the ancient Egyptians, as shown by paintings on a slab
from Maydoom, as well as on others in the temple of Amada in
Nubia, and in the British Museum.

The bird which breeds in the northern districts of Scandinavia
and on the fjelds, is characterized by smaller size, somewhat darker
plumage, and a short bill straight ridged from the tip to the forehead,
on which the white extends beyond the line of the eye. By those
who admit its claim to specific rank this is known as the Lesser
White-fronted Goose, Anser erythropus of Linnaeus, and a young
male of this was shot by the late Mr. A. C. Chapman at Holy
Island in Northumberland, on Sept. i6th 1886. The late Mr.
Seebohm obtained this form — as I consider it — on the Yenesei, and
the area which it visits on migration appears to be nearly identical
with the range of the larger and more numerous bird. The White-
fronted Goose which is found in Greenland and in America up to
72° N. lat. {A. gambeli), is a very large bird, with a great deal more
black on the breast, abdomen, and flanks, and much darker under
wing-coverts ; it occurs as far west as Alaska, and visits the northern
Asiatic coast.

The nidification of the White-fronted Goose is like that of its
congeners; the 5-7 creamy-white eggs measure 3 in. by 2 in. For
its feeding-grounds this species appears to prefer fields of grass and
clover to stubbles. It breeds in captivity, and has been known to
produce a brood by union with a Bernacle Goose.

The adult male has a white frontal band ; upper plumage brownish-
ash ; breast and belly brownish-white, broadly barred with black ; bill
orange-yellow, with a white nail at the tip ; legs, toes and webs
orange. Length 27 in. ; wing 16 in. Good weight, 6| lbs. The
female is rather smaller and has less black on the breast. The
young are darker and more uniform in colour, and the feathers at
the base of the upper mandible do not show any white till January ;
while there are no black markings on the breast in females ; and
the bill-nail is light brown.

AXATID.t.

40 T

THE BEAN-GOOSE.

Anser secetum (J. F. Gmelin).

This species and the Pink-footed Goose, next to be considered,
may usually be distinguished from the two preceding by the black
nail at the tip of the bill. The Bean-Goose does not breed in any
part of the British Islands, but it comes to us in autumn, and is
widely, though not abundantly, distributed along our coasts during
the winter; a return migration being observable early in spring.
On the eastern side, and also in Lancashire, it is decidedly less
plentiful than the Pink-footed Goose ; but in Cornwall it is said
to predominate. On the mainland of Scotland and in some of the
islands it is comparatively rare, while its reported occurrences in the
Outer Hebrides, Orkneys and Shetlands require confirmation. In
Ireland it is at times numerous in the midlands and west, though
rare in the south, and ranks next in abundance to the White-fronted
Goose.

The Bean-Goose has not been identified in Iceland, and I strongly
suspect that the '■'■A. segetuni" recorded from East Greenland by the
Danish Expedition of 1891-92 is the next species. It breeds freely
in Scandinavia to the north of lat. 64°, and also in North Russia,

I I

402 BEAN-GOOSE.

where Messrs. Harvie-Brown and Seebohm found it nesting on the
'tundras' of the Petchora, while at Dvoinik, on July 27th, several
hundred old Geese and about as many young were observed march-
ing like a regiment of soldiers, most of them being in full moult
and unable to fly. According to Mr. Trevor-Battye, Admiral
Markham, Mr. H. J. Pearson, and others, this species is abundant
on Kolguev, Waigats, and both islands of Novaya Zemlya ; in fact,
it is the predominating 'Grey' Goose on Kolguev (Trevor-Battye),
and Mr. H. L. Popham makes a similar remark respecting the
Yenesei. Eastward of about 115° long, in Siberia, the representative
is A. serrirosfris, a larger bird with some tawny colour on the head
and neck, large flocks of which visit Japan and China in winter.
Our bird is not known to reach India, but it occurs in Palestine and
the basin of the Mediterranean, and is common in Russia down to
the Caspian and Poland ; while, though rare in the Iberiau Penin-
sula, it is said to have been obtained in Madeira.

The nest is built early in June, in a tussock of sedge or upon a
hillock in an islet ; the eggs, up to 6 in number, are dull creamy-
white, and are smaller and lighter in weight than those of the Grey
Lag-Goose: measurements 3 "2 by 2*2 in. The Bean-Goose is
decidedly herbivorous, feeding by day on pastures : and its name is
probably owing to the long and repeated confusion of this species
with the Pink-footed Goose, which is graminivorous. Sir R. Payne-
Gallwey says that Bean-Geese are the slaves of weather ; when frost
sets in they are driven to the neighbourhood of tidal-waters ; con-
tinued rain and wind keep them inland ; a north wind unsettles
them ; a north-east wind, again, will bring them to the coast in
anticipation of frost ; a change, and they are on their travels once
more. He adds that Geese are not very wary at night, nor do they
appear to possess the power of vision of other wild-fowl. In con-
finement, this species has bred with the Pink-footed Goose.

The adult is characterized by its somewhat slender shape, long,
weak bill — orange in the centre, and black at the base and on the
nail — pinkish-yellow legs and feet, and the absence of any black
on the breast; the general plumage is darker than in the two
preceding species, and there is no bluish-grey on the shoulder.
Though less bulky than the Grey Lag-Goose, it is nearly as long,
being a slim bird : male 33-34 in. ; wing long in proportion, and
averaging nearly 19 in.; weight, 7,^-8 lbs. The female is rather
smaller. Young birds are generally darker, their markings are less
distinct, and the neck has a tawny tinge.

I

ANATIDyE.

40:

THE PINK-FOOTED GOOSE.

Anser rrachyrhynchus, Baillon.

The late Mr. A. D. Bartlett was the first to call the attention of
British ornithologists to the distinguishing marks of this species, in a
paper read before the Zoological Society of London on January 8th
1839 ; although the name which he then proposed had to give way
to one conferred in 1833 by Baillon of Abbeville. Subsequent
observation has shown that the Pink-footed far exceeds the Bean-
Cioose in abundance on the east coast of England from the end
of September onward through the colder months ; for instance,
nearly all the large flocks of ' Grey ' Geese which frequent the
marshes and uplands of Holkham and Burnham in Norfolk are of
this species, while similar testimony is given respecting the Humber
district by Messrs. Cordeaux, H. Sharp and F. Boyes, the eastern
part of Yorkshire by the late A. Strickland and Mr. W. Eagle
Clarke, and Northumberland by Mr, Abel Chapman. On the west
side its predominance is less decided, while in the south its
occurrences are not so frequently noticed. It is found in winter
on the east coast of Scotland ; as also on the west, and sparingly
in the Outer Hebrides, but it is rare in the Orkneys, and not yet
recognized in the Shetlands. In Ireland it was obtained and
identified for the first time near Belfast, on October 21st 1891.

The Pink-footed Goose breeds in the north of Iceland, and is the

I I 2

404 PINK-FOOTED GOOSE.

only ' Grey ' Goose found breeding in Spitsbergen ; but there is as
yet no evidence of its presence in Franz Josef Land, Novaya Zemlya
and the vicinity, Arctic Siberia or Kolguev. It visits Norway, but
accurate information is scanty respecting its distribution in Sweden,
Denmark, Russia and the greater part of Europe, for up to the
present day some Continental writers on ornithology are unable to
distinguish this species from the Bean-Goose ; identified examples
have, however, been obtained on passage in Holland, Belgium, and
France. The reported occurrence of the Pink-footed Goose in
India, or further east, in winter, is not yet confirmed by authenti-
cated specimens.

The nest is said to be placed in situations commanding an exten-
sive view, and the male is constantly on the watch to warn his mate
of any approaching danger. Messrs. A. H. Cocks and Abel Chap-
man found three pairs with goslings in the yellow downy state at
Magdalena Bay, Spitsbergen, on July 29th, by which date the adults
had recovered the use of their wings, being more advanced in their
moult than the Brent Geese. The white eggs are rather smaller
than those of the Bean-Goose, measuring 3-15 by 2-15 in. In
captivity the Pink-footed Goose is said to keep apart from its
congeners. Its voice differs from that of the Bean-Goose in being
sharper in tone, and the note is also repeated more rapidly. This
species is partial to grain dropped in the stubbles, as well as young
white clover, trefoil, &c.

The late Mr. Cecil Smith, who kept this and other ' Grey ' Geese
for many years, remarked that the Pink-footed Goose had the upper
mandible pink in the centre with the base and edges black, and the
nail (usually) black, while the legs and feet were pink ; but the colours
of the soft parts were not always constant, some of the birds which he
bred having the light parts of the bill and the legs and feet orange
(as bright and decided an orange as in the Bean-Goose). They were,
however, slightly different in plumage, having the white markings
on the tail broader, and the shoulder more blue-grey : in this
respect resembling the Grey Lag-Goose, though the blue is darker
than in that bird. To this may be added that the Pink-footed
Goose is smaller than the Bean-Goose, the length being barely
28 in., wing 17 "5 in., and the bill is markedly shorter in proportion ;
while Bartlett has pointed out that the formation of its sternum
more closely resembles that of the White-fronted than that of the
Bean-Goose. Weight 5^-7 lbs.

I

ANATID.i:.

405

THE SNOW-GOOSE.

Chen hyperboreus (Pallas).

On November 9th 187 1 my attention was called to two immature
Snow-Geese in Leadenhall Market ; and subsequent investigation,
carried out with the assistance of the late Sir Victor Brooke, showed
that they had been shot a few days before, on the lake of Tacum-
shane, co. Wexford, while a third was killed soon after in Wexford
harbour, but not preserved. In October 1877, as recorded by Mr.
Harting (Zool. 187 8, p. 419), a flock of seven were seen near Bel-
mullet, CO. Mayo, two of which were captured, and one — a gander —
subsequently paired with a Common Goose and had young. Having
met with its death by an accident in the spring of 1884, it was presented
by Mr. J. R. Crampton to the Museum of Science and Art, Dublin,
the authorities of which courteously sent it to me to be ligured, and
its portrait by Mr. C. Whymper is at the head of the present article.
There is some evidence that three birds sold at the dispersal of the
Knowsley menagerie (Lord Derby's) had been obtained in Ireland.

4o6 SNOW-GOOSE.

In 1884, and again in the severe winter of 1890-91, birds and even
flocks, were recognized on the wing by the Rev. H. A. Macpherson
and Mr. D. L. Thorpe in Cumberland, by Mr. G. Bolam and Sir
Ralph Payne-Gallwey in Northumberland, and by Mr. H. Sharp in
Yorkshire, while three appear to have visited Berkeley on the
Severn ; but no examples were obtained.

The home of the Snow-Goose is in North America, where two
forms are found, differing only in size. The larger nests in the
Hudson Bay region, migrating southward — chiefly along the
Atlantic coast — in winter. The smaller, to which the specimens
obtained in Ireland clearly belong, breeds in Western Arctic
America and Alaska, visiting the country between the Pacific and
the Mississippi valley during the cold season. It is this race which
occurs in Japan and was obtained in North-eastern Siberia by
Pallas, who described it under the specific name hyperboreits {Clien
albatus of Cassin) ; and to this probably belong the Snow-Geese
which have from time to time been noticed in the Ural district,
(ireece, Germany down to Silesia, Heligoland and Holland. A
female was shot near Lister, South Norway, on September 24th 1889 ;
and in Southern France two have been procured out of flocks. One
or both forms go as far south as the Bermudas, Texas and Cuba.

Mr. R. MacFarlane describes the nests as being placed near lakes,
in hollows formed in the sandy soil, and well lined with down ;
the eggs, usually 5 in number, are chalky-white : measurements
3*4 by 2*2 in. The young fly in the middle of August, and by the
end of September all have departed south. The food in summer
consists of green rushes, insects &c., and in autumn of berries,
especially those of Empetrum nigrum. Another member of this
genus, C. ccenilescens, differs only in having a varying amount of
lead-coloured markings irregularly disposed over its plumage ; and
it has been suggested that this and the Snow-Goose may be
coloured and white phases of the same bird, like those that exist in
the case of some of the American Herons. There is a third white
species, C. rossi, a very small bird.

The adult has the quill-feathers black, greyish at the base, as are
also the coverts ; remaining plumage pure white, the forehead some-
times stained with orange-rust colour ; bill red, commissures black,
nail whitish ; legs and feet red. Length : male 28-30 in., wing
17-18 in. ; female 23-3-24 in., wing 15-16 in. The young bird has
the upper parts dull brownish-grey with darker centres to the feathers
of the back and wing-coverts ; under parts greyish-white ; bill black ;
legs and feet lead-colour.

I

ANATID.«.

40;

THE RED-BREASTED GOOSE.
Berni'cla rufic6llis (Pallas).

This small and richly-coloured Goose is a very rare wanderer as
far west as Great Britain, and almost all our authenticated specimens
in existence have been obtained on the east side of the island.
The first recorded occurrence is that of a bird shot near London
early in 1776 during a severe frost, and now in the Museum of
Newcastle-on-Tyne ; while another, taken alive near Wycliffe in
Yorkshire about the same time, lived until 1785. One, killed near
Berwick-on-Tweed in 18 18, is in the British Museum (Natural
History) ; and a fine example sent from Maldon in Essex, on
January 6th 187 1, is in the possession of Mr. Wilfrid Marshall of
Norton Manor, Taunton. Two are said to have been obtained in
South Devon and one in Norfolk. There are other records, but
unsubstantiated.

During the summer the Red-breasted Goose inhabits those dis-
tricts of Siberia which lie to the north of the limit of forest-growth
in the valleys of the Ob and the Yenesei, and eastward to about
long. 105°. In the former Dr. Finsch found it not uncommon ; in
1877 the late Mr. Seebohm secured a bird which had been shot from

408 RED-BREASTED GOOSE.

the nest in 70" 30' N. lat. on the Yenesei, along the banks of which
he afterwards saw adults with their broods ; while on the Boganida,
115° E. long., jNIiddendorff had long ago obtained the first authenti-
cated eggs, and as a straggler this species has occurred as far east
as Irkutsk. An important line of migration in autumn is between
the Aral and the Caspian, and on the latter, according to Dr. Radde,
large numbers are often caught in nets or shot on some grassy
islands near the south-western shore, during the winter. The
ancient Egyptians were acquainted with this handsome Goose, for it
is accurately portrayed in colours on the Maydoom slab already
mentioned (p. 400), and repeatedly, according to ]Mr. E. C. Taylor,
at Thebes. I have seen a specimen in the collection of the late
Lord Lilford, labelled by the late Mr. S. Stafford Allen "Alexandria,
December 2nd 1874," and skins said to be from Algeria were
offered for sale in 1SS4. Three examples have been obtained in
Italy, five or six in France, several in Holland, and a few in
Northern Germany, Denmark, and Sweden ; while in Russia the
bird is said to visit Archangel in spring and to pass through the
Central Provinces, in small numbers.

On the Yenesei, in 1S95, Mr. H. L. Popham found four nests,
all placed at the foot of cliffs occupied by either a Peregrine or a
Rough-legged Buzzard (possibly for protection from foxes), and well
supplied with down; the 7-9 eggs being creamy-white : measurements,
279 by I "93 in. (Ibis 1897, p. 99). The call-note is syllabled by
Pallas as shak-voy, whence comes, according to Dr. Finsch, the local
name at Obdorsk. The food consists of grass and green vegetables,
and water is frequently taken. In a wild state this species is
exceedingly gregarious, and in confinement it is very tame and
sociable. A female, which lived in the Gardens of the Zoological
Society from 1S58 to 1870, paired with a Brent Goose, and, judging
by its skin, now in the British Museum, the plumage is as brilliant
in this sex as in the male.

The adult has a white patch in front of the eye; the crown,
throat, hind-neck, and lower part of the breast black, bordered by
narrow lines of white ; ear-patches and breast rich chestnut ; upper
parts almost black, with greyish-white edges to the wing-coverts ;
tail black ; belly white, barred with black on the flanks ; bill, legs
and feet very dark brown. Length 21-22 in.; wing i4'5 in. In
the young bird the ear-patch is whitish, with rufous in the centre ;
the chest is merely tinged with reddish ; and the rest of the upper
and under parts are dusky-brown, except the abdomen and the tail-
coverts, which are white.

\

ANATID.E.

409

.^-

THE BERNACLE GOOSE.
Bernicla leucopsis (Bechstein).

Competent observers seem to agree that the Bernacle Goose
is a rather uncommon winter-visitor on the east coasts of England
and Scotland, and chiefly occurs there when the weather is very
severe on the Continent ; while on the shores of the English
Channel as well as inland, it is decidedly rare. On the west side,
from Cornwall northward, it is not infrequent, and it is of regular
occurrence in Lancashire and Cumberland ; and in the upper part
of the Solway Firth thousands are sometimes seen from the end of
September — when they begin to arrive from the north-west — until the
latter part of March. The same may be said of the Outer and Inner
Hebrides and the neighbouring mainland, except that the birds are
later in leaving for their breeding-grounds. To the Orkneys this
species is a tolerably regular visitor, and Mr. Harvie-Brown found it
plentiful in autumn in the south of Shetland, where, however, it
does not pass the winter. In Ireland it is somewhat local, but
rather abundant on the north and north-west coasts, as well as along
Dundalk Bay on the east. There is, however, some difficulty in
tracing its distribution, inasmuch as the Brent Goose is often
misnamed " Bernacle."

In the Faeroes and Iceland this species is of irregular occurrence ;
while it is unknown in Arctic i.\merica except as a very rare visitor

4IO BERXACLE GOOSE.

to the southern end of Hudson Bay. Three individuals obtained,
respectively, in Nova Scotia, New York and North Carolina are
suspected of having escaped from semi-domestication. That the
Bernacle was an annual autumnal visitor to South Greenland has
long been known, while Graah recorded its occurrence on the
East coast of that vast island, and the Danish Expedition of 1891-92
found it breeding in considerable numbers up the extensive Fjords
of Scoresby Sound, above 70° N. lat. From the evidence of Mr. J.
Lament, Mr. Leigh Smith's party, and Mr. Trevor-Battye, it occurs,
and possibly breeds, in some parts of the Spitsbergen archipelago ;
but its existence is not proven on Franz Josef Land, Novaya Zemlya,
or the islands to the south, except Kolguev, where Mr. Trevor-
Battye saw five birds. No specimens were brought by the ' Vega '
expedition from any part of Arctic Siberia nor by recent travellers.
The nesting of a pair for several successive years on Borgevajr, one
of the Lofoten Islands, off the coast of Norway — as recorded by Prof.
Collett — may be looked upon as exceptional. On migration this
species visits Russia, Scandinavia, Denmark, and the north-western
coasts of Europe, with even the large rivers : for example, the Weser
above Bremen, and far up the Vistula ; accidental visitors have
been obtained at the mouth of the Guadalquivir in Spain, and near
Foggia in Italy ; and Mr. C. A. Payton says that he saw a couple on
November 3rd 1887 as far south as Mogadon

The Bernacle breeds freely in captivity, its eggs being white and
measuring 275 by i'9 in. It feeds on the grass pastures near the
sea, and always at night, except when very much harassed by gunners
during moonlight. While feeding, the flocks are noisy and keep up
a constant cackling, while sentinels are posted to give the alarm.
The name is attributable to the vulgar belief that this species and
the Brent were hatched from bernacles {Lepadidcr) attached to logs
of wood floating in the sea, as often described up to the date of a
paper published by the Royal Society in 1678.

The adult has a black stripe between the eye and the bill, while
the head, neck and throat are also black ; forehead, cheeks and chin
white ; mantle lavender-grey, barred with bluish-black and white ;
quills and tail-feathers almost black ; breast and belly greyish ; vent
and tail-coverts pure white ; flanks barred with grey ; bill, legs and
feet black. Length 27 in. ; wing 16 in. The female is slightly
smaller than the male. The young bird has the white of the
cheeks varied with black, rufous edges to the feathers of the
mantle, darker bars on the flanks, and paler legs.

I

ANATID.t.

411

THE BRENT GOOSE.
Bernicla brenta (Pallas).

The Brent is the most abundant and generally distributed of the
Geese which visit us ; and is found, in varying numbers, on the
coasts of Great Britain— particularly the east and south— throughout
the cold months of the year. Unless wounded, it is seldom seen on
inland waters, and it passes a great part of the day and night at sea ;
while at other times it frequents the extensive mud-flats and sand-
bars on the shore which are exposed at every ebb-tide. Immense
flocks resort to the vicinity of Holy Island on the Northumbrian
coast, and multitudes have been observed in some seasons on the
Cromarty and Dornoch Firths. In the Orkneys it is common,
though local, while it visits the Shetlands annually ; but in the
Hebrides and along the west side of Scotland it is less numerous
and less regular in its visits than the Bernacle. Vast quantities
occur in many places on the shores and estuaries of Ireland.

In cold weather the Brent Goose migrates to the Fseroes, the
coasts of Scandinavia, and the shores of Europe generally;
occasionally reaching the Asiatic and African portions of the
Mediterranean, and even as far south as Mogador (Payton;. It
seldom occurs in Iceland, and the Danish Expedition did not
obtain it in East Greenland, but it breeds on the west side and on
the opposite shores of Grinnell Land up to 82^ 30' N. In varying

412 BRENT GOOSE.

numbers it nests in the Spitsbergen archipelago, Franz Josef Land,
Novaya Zemlya, Kolguev, and the coasts and islands of Arctic
Siberia ; near Kolguev, indeed, it must be abundant, judging from
Mr. Trevor-Battye's experiences. On the Pacific side of North
America its representative is B. nigricans, in which the white on the
neck forms a nearly complete collar, while the black extends to the
lower breast ; this is the species which visits Jap-'in. Throughout
Arctic America eastward of Alaska our bird is found ; though in
American examples the under parts are, as a rule, somewhat lighter
than in the majority of birds obtained in Novaya Zemlya &c. Both
of these forms visit the British Islands, but the darker usually—
though not invariably — predominates on the east coast south of the
Humber. Exceptionally the Brent has been taken in Central Europe.

Col. Feilden describes a nest in Grinnell Land as composed of a
foundation of grass, moss and stems of saxifrage, with a warm bed
of down for the eggs, laid by June 21st and usually 4 in number,
smooth and creamy-white in colour: measurements 27 by i'8 in.
The Brent Goose is a day-feeder, searching on the ooze, or with
head and neck extended below the surface of the water in shallow
places, for aquatic plants and sea-ware, especially grass-wrack and
laver: whence the local names "Ware-Goose" and "Road-Goose,"
i.e., Root-Goose. The call-note is a loud cronk or honk.

The adult has the bill, head, throat, and neck black, except a
small white patch on each side of the last ; mantle brownish-black,
with paler edges, which in August, after the moult, are tinged with
rufous-brown ; quills, rump and tail black, tail-coverts white ; upper
breast black; lower breast and belly slate-grey: legs black (exception-
ally with a reddish tinge). Length 22 in.; wing 13 in. Females
are rather smaller than males. The young bird has little or no
white on the sides of the neck, and the colours are less contrasted.

The Canada Goose, Bernicla canadensis, has been domesticated
in this country for more than two centuries, and stragglers are
occasionally shot out of the hundreds of unpinioned birds now in
existence ; but there is no evidence that wild American birds visit
us, and it is significant that occurrences in Ireland are far rarer than
in England. The Egyptian Goose, Chenalopex cegyptiaca, is another
introduced species, examples of which often wander and are killed ;
though in a wild state it is not known to cross the Mediterranean.
The Spur-winged Goose, Plectropterus ganibe?isis, was introduced
prior to 1678, and two examples have been killed in this country ; but
the species is not found wild in Africa north of the tropic of Cancer.

ANATID^.

413

-^^

THE WHOOPER SWAN.

CvGNUs jNiusicus, Bcchstein.

This species is also called the Whistling Swan, both names refer-
ring to the peculiarity of its note ; while by way of distinguishing it
from its larger domesticated congener the prefix ' Wild ' is frequently
employed. Not much more than a century ago this fine bird
used to nest in the Orkneys, but at the present day it is only
a migrant or winter-visitor to the British Islands. In numbers
which vary according to the mildness or severity of the weather
prevalent in Northern Europe, it annually resorts to the coasts and
islands of Scotland from November onwards, while in spring
individuals out of passing flocks have been observed to
linger until May about the old breeding-haunts. In hard frosts
Whoopers are often abundant on the shores of England as
far south as the Channel, where Poole Harbour and other suit-
able localities are favourite resorts ; while in Wales, though the bird
is no longer a regular visitor, a lake with an island in the middle,
near Solva, still bears the name of Llyn-yr-Alarch or Swan-lake.
On the coasts of Ireland the Whooper is an irregular winter-visitor,
but far less common than the smaller Bewick's Swan.

The Whooper is now only a visitor to the Faeroes, but is generally
distributed during the breeding-season in Iceland ; and it occa-

414 WHOOPER SWAN.

sionally wanders to South Greenland, where it used to nest up to
Godthaab, 64- N., until exterminated by the natives. In Norway it
is seldom known to breed below the Arctic circle, but in Sweden,
Finland, and Northern Russia it is found in summer down to
lat. 62° N., while, up to 67°, at which Dr. Theel found it on the
Yenesei, it can be traced across Siberia to Kamchatka and the
Commander Islands. On migration it visits the estuaries and
inland waters of Europe, as far south as the Mediterranean, Black
and Caspian Seas, while in severe winters it reaches the lakes of
Algeria, Lower Egypt, and Palestine ; it has once been obtained in
Nepal, and occurs in Japan, Corea and China during the cold
season.

The nest is a large structure of coarse herbage, and is generally
placed on an island in a lake, concealed in willow- or other scrub
where such covert is available. The eggs, up to 7 in number, are
pale yellowish-white: measurements 4*5 by 2*9 in. Incubation
often begins in the latter part of May ; and Dr. Palmen states that
the young grow so slowly as to be unable to fly until the end of
August, or even later. The food consists of the roots and stems
of aquatic weeds, and of grass. The note is a loud and trumpet-
like whoop, 7vhoop-whoop, whoop, and, when uttered during flight,
often forms a rhythmical accompaniment to the strokes of the pinions.

The adult has the entire plumage white, with occasionally an
adventitious ochreous tint on the feathers of the head ; legs, toes
and their webs black. The anterior part of the beak is depressed
and black, while the basal portion is quadrangular and yellow ; this
latter colour extending forward beyond the openings of the black
nostrils. Whole length of a male 60 in. (bill 4"2) ; wing 25*5 in. ;
weight 22 lbs. The female is smaller. The young bird has the
beak of a dull flesh-colour, tipped and margined with black ; the
upper plumage ash-brown ; and the under parts paler as far as the
flesh-coloured legs, the vent being white. Fairly adult plumage is
attained by the second winter, but the shafts of the feathers on the
back are dusky until the next moult.

The Whooper (like all the other species of the genus found in the
northern hemisphere — except the Mute or Tame Swan), has a
remarkable cavity in the keel of the sternum into which the tube
of the trachea passes and forms a parallel loop. In the Mute Swan
the keel is single and unprovided with a cavity. Some further
remarks will be found at the end of the next article.

ANATID.€.

415

.^

BEWICK'S SWAN.

Cygnus bewicki, Yarrell.

This Swan — which is one-third less than the Whooper, and pre-
sents noticeable differences in the smaller size and distribution of
the yellow patch at the base of the bill — was recognized as a visitor
to this country by Yarrell in 1829, and almost simultaneously by
R. Wingate of Newcastle. Subsequent experience has shown that
Bewick's Swan is of fairly frequent occurrence in severe winters on
some parts of the coasts of England and Wales, although rarer than
its larger congener; while in Scotland it is sometimes abundant —
especially in the Outer Hebrides — and occurs in the Orkneys. All
over Ireland, as already remarked, it is far more numerous than the
Whooper; Mr. R. Warren writes that on December 17th 1880
more than two hundred were seen together on Lough Cullen,
CO. Mayo; and during the unexampled frost of 1881 eight hundred
were observed at one time on the lake of Castle Gregory in
CO. Kerry ; while even thousands are said to have been counted in
other localities. Sir R. Payne-Gallwey states that there is a strong
feeling in Ireland — especially in the west — against slaying a Swan,
and the majority of fowlers cannot be induced to fire at one.

Bewick's Swan has not been found in Greenland or Iceland, and

41 6 Bewick's swan.

it is only an irregular visitor to Norway, though rather more frequent
in P'inland. Its summer habitat is decidedly more northerly and less
westerly than that of the Whooper, no nesting-places being known
to the south of about 68^, or to the west of the White Sea, and it
was only near the mouth of the Petchora that Messrs. Harvie-Brown
and Seebohm obtained the first identified eggs on record. In 1894
Mr. Trevor-Battye found it nesting a little further west, namely on
Kolguev Island, where afterwards Mr. H. J. Pearson's party were the
first to obtain the young in down ; and it occurs in Novaya Zemlya
and some other localities in the Arctic Sea. On the Yenesei the
late Mr. Seebohm, as well as Mr. H. L. Popham, recognized no other
Swan to the north of the Arctic circle ; and it ranges eastward to
beyond the Lena, but has not been obtained in Kamchatka. In
the cold season it visits Japan and China ; while in Europe it has
occasionally been found as far south as the Mediterranean.

The nest resembles that of the Whooper, but the eggs are smaller
than those of that bird, and have rather less gloss : measurements
3'9 by 2 '6 in. The note sounds like fong or boo?ig quickly uttered,
and is very different from that of the larger species. The food
consists chiefly of aquatic plants.

The adult is pure white ; the irides dark ; legs, toes and webs
black ; the distribution of black and orange-yellow on the beak is
shown in the illustration. The young bird is greyish-brown, but the
white plumage is acquired in the second winter, when the irides are
yellow. Length from 46-50 in. (bill 3"5) ; wing about 21 in. ;
weight 13 lbs.

An immature Swan shot near Aldeburgh in October 1866 and
now in the Ipswich Museum, is, in the opinion of Professor Newton,
an example of the American Trumpeter-Swan, C. buccinator : a larger
species than the Whooper, with a black bill. It has long been
naturalized in this country and has repeatedly hatched its young in
captivity. Another North-American species which has been stated —
on weak evidence — to have been found at long intervals in the shops
of Edinburgh poulterers, is C. columbiamis : a bird smaller than the
Whooper, though larger than Bewick's Swan, and resembling the
latter in having patches of small size at the base of the bill, though
these are of a deep orange-colour. In the adults of our Whooper
and the American Trumpeter-Swan the loop of the trachea between
the walls of the keel takes a vertical direction, whereas in Bewick's
Swan and in C. cohiinbicuius the bend is horizontal ; but in immature
birds these distinctions are less marked and more variable.

ANATID/E. 417

THE MUTE SWAN.
Cygnus olor (J. F. Gmelin).

The Mute or Tame Swan is said to have been brought to England
from Cyprus by Richard I. ; but be this as it may, the species is
now generally distributed throughout the British Islands in a semi-
domesticated condition, and of late years it has even been introduced
in some of the Outer Hebrides, where it breeds, and the birds fly
about as if wild. There is a celebrated ancient swannery at Abbots-
bury, in Dorsetshire ; large numbers inhabit the streams and broads
of Norfolk ; and the presence of this handsome bird on the Thames
and other waters m.ust be familiar to every one. In Ireland it
maintains itself on lakes and rivers in many counties, and it has
been obtained as far west as Achill Island.

The individuals which are occasionally shot during winter in
Britain are often assumed to be some of our home-bred birds which
have strayed from their usual haunts ; but such is not necessarily
the case, for the Mute Swan still breeds in a perfectly wild state at
no greater distance from us than Denmark and the south of Sweden,
whence it is forced by cold to migrate in winter ; while in a free
(as well as in a half-protected) condition it is found in many parts
of Germany, especially in East Prussia. Thoroughly wild birds nest

K K

4l8 MUTE SWAN.

in considerable numbers in Central and Southern Russia, and on
the Lower Danube ; sparingly on some of the lakes in Greece ;
more abundantly in the vicinity of the Black and Caspian Seas, and
in Turkestan. In winter the Mute Swan occurs on the waters of the
greater part of Europe, and is a regular visitor to the lakes of Algeria
and Egypt : it can also be traced through Asia to Mongolia, and to
North-west India.

According to the late Mr. H. Stevenson, Swans pair for life, and
build a fresh nest each season : this is generally on a small island or
peninsula, and is a large structure of reeds or coarse herbage. The
females do not lay until their second year — some not till the third
or fotjrth — and commence with 3-5 eggs, but later the clutch some-
times consists of 10-12, which are dull greenish-white, averaging
4 in. by 2-9 in. With wild birds incubation begins in IMay, but it is
earlier in a state of semi-domestication. The young are hatched in
about 36 days and are carefully tended by their mother, who
frequently carries them on her back, to which she sometimes raises
them with her foot, at the same time sinking her body low in the
water. The food consists of water-plants (such as Chara), aquatic
insects (S:c., also of grain, and bread. The note of the wild bird in
pairing-time is loud and trumpet-like, but it is fainter in tame
individuals.

The adult male has the greater part of the bill reddish-orange,
nail, nostrils, lores and the basal tubercle or " berry " black ; plumage
white; legs and feet black. Length 56-60 in.; wing 27 in. The
female is smaller and has far less tubercle. The cygnet is sooty-
grey above, and paler below, with lead-coloured bill and legs.

In the so-called " Polish " Swan, C. immuiabilis of Yarrell, the
cygnets are white, while the adult is said to have a less developed
tubercle and ash-grey legs and feet ; but neither the late Mr. A. D.
Bartlett nor I could find these distinctions in old birds in the
Zoological Gardens which had been white as cygnets, ^^'ith the
exception of a bird obtained in Holland in December 1840, few — if
any — specimens of the " Polish " Swan are known to have occurred
outside the British Islands ; and it is now generally considered by
ornithologists to be a mere variety as regards the colour of the young.
As pointed out by Prof. Newton, white cygnets were noticed on the
Trent 200 years ago, while in 1885, 1886, and 1887 a pair of Swans
at Cambridge produced broods in which some of the young were
abnormally white (Zool. 1887, p. 463; 1888, p. 470); and Count
Salvadori states that "none of the characters attributed to
C. itnmiiiabilis are constant" (Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxvii. p. 38).

ANATID^.

419

THE COMMON SHELD-DUCK.

Tad6rxa cornuta (S. G. Gmelin).

This handsome species frequents, as a rule, salt or brackish water,
and is to be found on the coast during the whole year, especially on
flat shores, sand-bars and links. In such localities it occurs along
the east of England, and also on the west of the island, notably in
Wales, though the increase of population and commerce has inter-
fered with it in Lancashire and Cheshire ; while in the south a
limited number nest in Devon, Somerset, Dorset, and Hampshire.
The east side of Scotland, where the bird is an abundant resident,
is visited, especially in winter, by large flocks escaping from the cold
of the Continent, and although the " Stock-annet," as it is trivially
named, is somewhat local on the west and in the islands, it is
tolerably numerous during the summer in most of the Hebrides and
the Orkneys, and it is said to have nested in the Shetlands. In
Ireland it breeds in many counties, especially in Sligo, Mayo, Clare,
Waterford and A\'exford, becoming more plentiful in winter.

The Sheld-Duck rarely visits the Faeroes, and the first record for
Iceland was in January 1894. It nests on the coast of Norway
up to about 70° N. lat., and is abundant in Sweden, Denmark, the
Baltic, the North Frisian Islands and Holland, while it also breeds on
the shores of France, and, sparingly, in the Spanish Peninsula ; but

K K 2

420 COMMON SHELD-DUCK.

to the interior of Europe and the basin of the Mediterranean it is
chiefly a migrant or winter-visitor. It is, however, resident in the
basins of the Black and Caspian Seas, and is found on the salt-lakes of
the temperate — or the elevated — districts of Asia, as far east as Japan ;
while its winter-range extends southward to the tropic of Cancer.

The nest, made of grass or leaves, and profusely lined with down,
is placed at distances varying from a few feet to three or four yards
up a rabbit-burrow — whence the name " Burrow-Duck," or at the
end of a tunnel (made by the bird) which occasionally forms a
nearly complete circle. Sometimes it is in holes in bridges, or
among rocks near high-water mark, and, exceptionally, in a dense
covert of furze. The 7-12 eggs, laid in May, are of a smooth
creamy-white, and measure about 275 by 1*9 in. In the Frisian
Islands and some parts of Denmark artificial burrows are made by
the natives, the eggs being taken up to June iSth, after which the
birds are allowed to sit. Incubation lasts from twenty-eight to
thirty days, and when the young are hatched they follow their
parents, being sometimes carried by the female on her back to the
water. The feeding-grounds are mussel-scalps and sandy shores, on
which the bird obtains minute molluscs, crustaceans, and marine
insects, with sea-weed ; but in captivity grain, soaked bread, and
vegetables are eaten. The note of the male is a shrill whistle;
but the female, which is far more noisy, utters a harsh bark,
sometimes followed by several distinct quacks. The flesh is dark in
colour, and unpleasant in smell and flavour. In confinement the
natural preferences of this species must be consulted, or else it will
not breed readily. The prefix " Sheld " is given by Ray (1674) as an
East Anglian equivalent for particoloured.

The adult male in spring has the beak and basal knob bright red ;
head and upper neck dark glossy-green, followed by a white collar,
below which is a rich chestnut band ; wing-coverts white ; wing-spot
on the outer webs of the secondaries green ; scapulars and primaries
nearly black ; rump and tail-feathers white, the latter tipped with
black ; a dark brown line down the middle of the breast and belly,
the rest of the under parts white; legs and toes, with the webs, flesh-
pink. Length 25 in. ; wing 13 in. The female is rather smaller,
duller in colour, and has no knob at the base of the bill. The
young has the head and neck blackish; face, wing-coverts and
all the under parts white ; inner secondaries white, edged with
chestnut, and with little green on the speculum ; beak flesh-colour ;
legs and feet livid lead-colour. The bird does not breed till it is
nearly two years old.

421

THE RUDDY SHELD-DUCK.
Tadorna casarca (Linnaeus).

The Ruddy Sheld-Duck was first recorded as a British bird from
a specimen now in the Newcastle Museum, killed near Blandford,
Dorset, during the severe winter of 1776. The species was long
ago introduced on many of our ornamental waters, and some birds
shot in Norfolk, Northamptonshire and other places were either known
or strongly suspected to have escaped from semi-captivity ; though
there was less doubt about an example shot from a party of four in
Romney Marsh, Kent, on September 8th 1884, as well as a few
obtained in Scotland and Ireland. These, however, need not now
be specified, for in 1892 — a year of very severe drought in south-
eastern and southern Europe — the Ruddy Sheld-Duck appeared in
such numbers as to preclude any reasonable doubt of a genuine
migration. According to the interesting record given by Mr. F.
Menteith Ogilvie (Zool. 1892, pp. 392-398), not only single birds,
but flocks of 10-15 ^^d even 20 were observed in June and July in
several parts of Ireland, the Solway district, and between Sutherland
and Norfolk. A few others have subsequently occurred.

This emigration in 1892 did not stop at the British Islands, for
some wanderers actually found their way to Iceland and even to
Greenland ; while solitary examples have been recorded from
Norway, Sweden, Bornholm in the Baltic, and Lake Ladoga ; but

422 RUDDY SHELD-DUCK.

as a rule the Ruddy Sheld-Duck is almost unknown to the north of
the Alps and the Carpathians. Individuals have been obtained near
Toulouse in France, and a few breed in the extreme south of Spain,
but otherwise the Ruddy Sheld-Duck is rare in the Mediterranean
to the west of the Adriatic. Eastward it becomes more abundant,
nesting in Macedonia, the Danubian and Black Sea districts,
Southern Russia, Tibet and other elevated districts of Asia up to
16,000 ft., and as far as Japan and China. In India, where it is known
as the " Brahminy Duck," it is very common during the cold season ;
while it is resident in suitable localities throughout Northern Africa
from Egypt to Morocco. In South Africa it is represented by the
grey-headed T. ca?ia, and by other forms in Australia and New
Zealand.

The nest, well lined with down, is placed in almost any sort of
hole : sometimes in the middle of a corn-field, or in a marmot's
burrow on the plains, sometimes in clefts of precipitous rocks,
the deserted abodes of birds of prey, hollow trees, the fireplaces
of abandoned Mongol villages, &c. The eggs, 9-16 in number,
are similar to those of the preceding species, but a trifle
smaller: measurements 2 "6 by i"8in. When uttered on the wing
the call may be syllabled as d-ouiig, but the usual note is kark or
kape, several times repeated. The Ruddy Sheld-Duck differs from
its congener in being partial to fresh-water. Though usually found in
pairs during the summer, it is gregarious at other seasons, thousands
being mentioned by Jerdon as frequenting the Chilka Lake in April.
In its style of walking it resembles a Goose ; and it feeds in a similar
manner, grazing in fields of young corn and eating grass freely,
as well as molluscs and crustaceans. It often breeds in confinement,
and has produced offspring with the Egyptian Goose {Chenalopex
cegyptiaca) : that genus is, in fact, nearly allied to the SheldT)ucks,
as indicated by the formation of the trachea.

The adult male in spring has the beak lead-colour ; irides yel-
lowish-brown ; head, cheeks and chin buff-colour, darkening to
orange-brown on the neck — which is encircled by a black ring,
(absent from autumn to spring) ; back, breast and under parts
orange-brown ; wing-coverts buffish-white ; primaries dark lead-grey ;
secondaries paler, with a brilliant bronze-green wing-spot ; rump and
tail lead-colour; legs, toes and webs blackish. Length 25 in. ; wing
i4"5 in. The female is rather smaller and has a whitish forehead ;
she never has a black collar ; and this ornament is also absent
from the young male. The young are like the female, but duller in
colour.

ANATID.t:.

THE MALLARD.

Anas boscas, Linnceus.

The Mallard, or Common Wild Duck, was formerly more numerous
in the British Islands than — owing to the progress of drainage and
the consequent extension of agriculture — it is at present; yet, thanks
to protection, its numbers have increased of late. As a rule it
is resident during the year in suitable localities throughout the
United Kingdom, but the birds which breed with us are few in
proportion to the numbers which annually arrive from the Continent
during the cold months ; and there are still places where decoys are
worked with profit, as shown by Sir R. Payne-Gallwey in his ' Book
of Duck Decoys,' to which the reader is referred for information on
that interesting subject.

This species visits Greenland, and is abundant during the summer
in Iceland ; while it is generally distributed throughout Europe south
of the Arctic circle, and breeds in suitable localities down to the
Mediterranean, as well as in Northern Africa. The range of the
migrants from the north extends to the Canaries, Madeira, and the
Azores, a few pairs remaining to nest in the last-named group. In
Asia the Mallard is found — -wherever the water does not freeze for
any length of time — from Turkestan to China and Japan ; it breeds
as far south as Kashmir, and visits India and Upper Burma in the
cold season. It inhabits the temperate portions of North America,
wintering as far south as Panama ; but in the north-east of that
continent its place is in some degree taken by the closely-allied

424 MALLARD.

Dusky Duck, Anas obscitra, both sexes of which much resemble the
female of our bird.

Incubation often begins in the second half of March in the
south of England, and a little later even on the bleak moors of
Northumberland. The nest, made of grass and lined with down, is
usually on the ground near fresh-water, though not infrequently
at a distance from it ; but grain-fields, hedge-rows, stacks of faggots,
forks or hollows of trees, and even the deserted nests of other birds
are more or less utilized. The 8-12 eggs are pale greyish-green
or greenish-buff: measurements 2*25 by i"6in. Two months or
ten weeks elapse before the young can fly. In the wild state the
Mallard is partially monogamous, but the domestic forms which have
sprung from it are all polygamous ; and, as remarked by the late
Mr. C. M. Adamson, the half-wild breeds get duller in colour, and
have coarser feet, while the wings — which in a wild bird reach nearly
to the end of the tail — become shorter in proportion to the body.
The Mallard is almost omnivorous and strictly a night-feeder.

The male in full plumage has the bill yellowish-green ; head and
neck glossy-green, followed by a narrow white ring ; hind-neck and
breast dark chestnut ; across the secondaries a greenish-purple
wing-spot, fringed above and below with white ; rump bluish-black,
the four central upper tail-coverts black and up-curled, the rest
greyish ; belly and flanks greyish-white ; under tail-coverts velvet-
black ; legs, toes and webs orange-red. Length 23 in. ; wing 11 in.
Towards the end of May the male begins to assume a brown plumage
similar to that of the female, but not identical with it, while the bill
retains its yellowish tint ; the quills are cast simultaneously, so that
the bird is incapable of flight ; but by the middle of October he has
again acquired his full dress. Very old drakes — in semi-captivity at
least — lose the white collar, and half-bred birds often do not show
it at all. The female is smaller, and has an olive-green bill and dark
brown crown, general plumage mottled-brown and buff, alar speculum
dark green; the drake's plumage is occasionally assumed. The
young at first resemble the female. In a wild state the Mallard not
infrequently breeds with the Pintail, and in captivity with almost
any Duck ; varieties are not uncommon, but albinoes are rare.

Technically the word "Mallard" may be applicable only to the
drake, but, on the other hand, " Wild Duck " is vague, and I agree
with American ornithologists in employing "Mallard" for this
species, and thereby avoiding ambiguity.

ANATIDif':.

425

THE GADWALL.
Anas strepera, Linnaeus.

This species is a comparatively rare visitor to the British Islands ;
but the descendants of a pair of pinioned birds, introduced nearly
fifty years ago at Narford Hall, have greatly multiplied on the
carefully preserved estates of Lord Walsingham and elsewhere
in Norfolk, and have also induced perfectly wild Gadwalls to
remain and breed. Except in the above county and one or two
spots in the Midlands, this Duck is, however, uncommon ; though
it may be found in the London markets in spring and occasionally
in autumn. Its occurrence has been recorded in Radnorshire and
Breconshire, Cardiganshire and Pembrokeshire, but in the west of
England it is rare at any time of year. In Scotland it is now and
then met with on the east, while in the west and in some of the
Hebrides it is not infrequent, and is even abundant on Tiree in
winter ; and it is an occasional visitor to the Orkneys. In Ireland
its distribution is irregular, but the bird appears to be more
numerous than is supposed, especially in the west.

The Gadwall breeds sparingly in the My-vatn district of Iceland ;
and, though not known to nest in Norway, it does so rather freely
in the south-east of Sweden, while there is evidence that it has been
found in Russia as far north as Archangel in summer. In Holland,
Belgium and France it chiefly occurs on migration and in winter ;
but in Spain it undoubtedly nests near the mouth of the Guadal-
quivir, while throughout the basin of the Mediterranean it is not

42 6 GADWALL.

uncommon during the cold season in suitable localities, such as
rush-grown lakes and pools ; its migrations extending to the inland
waters of Northern Africa and up the Nile valley to Nubia. To
Northern (iermany it is chiefly a summer-visitor, becoming more
abundant in Central and Eastern Europe ; while in Asia up to
60'^ N. it is met with as far as the Pacific, and it is one of the
most plentiful species in Northern India during the cold season.
Across North America it is generally distributed, passing southward
to the West Indies and Mexico in winter.

The nest, made of grass and lined with down, is generally in a dry
place at a little distance from the water ; the eggs, 8-13 in number,
are of a buffish-white : measurements 2'i by i'5in. The Gadwall
is a lover of fresh-water, and much addicted to concealing itself
among thick reeds and aquatic herbage. Its migrations are
nocturnal, and it also feeds by night — chiefly on seeds, grain (rice in
India), and other vegetable matter ; consequently its flesh is excel-
lent. The call-note is a curious rattling croak.

The adult male in spring has the head and upper neck greyish-
brown with darker mottlings ; back with crescentic markings of light
grey on a dark ground ; median wing-coverts chestnut, greater coverts
almost black ; primaries brown ; secondaries brown and black — the
outer webs forming a ivhite wing-spot; inner secondaries pointed and
of two shades of brownish-grey, the darker colour occupying the
centre of each feather, the lighter colour forming the margin ; rump
and upper tail-coverts bluish-black ; tail-feathers dark brown, with
paler edges ; lower neck dark grey, each feather with lighter
crescentic margins; breast and belly white; flanks and vent marbled
with two shades of grey ; under tail-coverts bluish-black ; bill
blackish ; legs, toes and webs dusky yellow-orange. In summer an
approach to female plumage is made. Length 20 in. ; wing 10 '5 in.
The female has the head and upper neck spotted with dark brown,
on a paler surface ; the crescentic bands on the lower part of the
neck alternately dark and light brown, but broader than in the male,
under parts white ; feathers of the lower hind-neck and upper parts
brown, with paler margins ; wing-spot white, as in the male ; tail-
feathers dark brown, with pale edges ; under tail-coverts spotted.
The young are of a more uniform reddish-brown colour above,
speckled with dark brown ; the middle of each feather also is dark
brown ; and the characteristic white wing-spot is always present.

Owing to the pronounced developement of the comb-like " teeth "
of the bill, this species has been made the type of the genus
Chatilelasvms.

ANATID.t.

427

THE SHOVELER.
Spatula clypeata (Linnceus).

This species — sometimes called the " Spoon-bill " or " Broad-
bill " — is chiefly a visitor to this country during cold weather ; but
since the Act for the Preservation of Wild Fowl was passed in 1876
increasing numbers have remained to breed with us, though less
frequently in our southern and western counties, where localities
suited to their habits are few. It nests regularly in some parts of
Norfolk and Lincolnshire, and sparingly in Yorkshire, Durham and
Northumberland ; while in Nottinghamshire and some parts of the
Midlands it is becoming more abundant ; and, though rarer in Wales,
and on the west side of England, a few pairs inhabit the marshes
on the Cumberland side of the Solway. In Scotland it nests in
Kirkcudbrightshire, Roxburgh, and some other southern counties, but
its principal breeding-haunts are between the Forth and Tay, while
nests have been found up to Sutherland and the Orkneys, as well
as on Tiree in the Inner Hebrides, though the bird is almost
unknown in the Outer islands (W. Evans). In Ireland it is not
uncommon in the south, and nests freely in Queen's Co., Lough
Derg on the Shannon, Lough Portmore in co. Antrim, in co.
Dublin, and other localities.

In summer the Shoveler seldom goes further north than the Arctic
circle, but from Denmark, the Baltic, and even Archangel south-

428 SHOVELER.

ward, it nests down to the African side of the Mediterranean, where
numbers of migrants appear in winter, and some visit the Canaries.
In the cold season the Shoveler is abundant in Egypt and Nubia ;
it is even said to be resident in the elevated regions of Abyssinia ;
and its migrations extend to Cape Colony. Across Asia south of
68° it is found in suitable localities, visiting India, China, Japan,
the Malay Archipelago, Australia, and even the Gilbert Islands
during cold weather ; while in America this widely-distributed
species breeds from Alaska to Texas, wintering as far south as
Panama.

The nest is usually on dry ground, among heather, rank vegetation
or tufts of sedge, and is made of fine grass, with a lining of down
plucked by the female from her body after she begins to sit. The
eggs, 8-14 in number, are of a pale greenish-buff colour : measure-
ments 2 by I "4 in. The note in pairing-time may be syllabled as
took, took ; otherwise the bird is comparatively silent. The Shoveler
feeds on grasses, worms, slugs, snails, aquatic and other insects, and
small crustaceans ; its flesh is well-flavoured, rivalling that of the
Gadwall or the American Canvas-back. With all Ducks, however,
diet is an important factor, and even a Canvas-back, when it has
not been feeding on the succulent Vallisnerla so abundant in the
Chesapeake river, is a very ordinary bird for the table. In confine-
ment the Shoveler has bred with the Garganey.

The adult male has the bill lead-colour, dilated towards the tip ;
irides yellow ; head and upper neck green ; lower neck and scapu-
lars white ; feathers of the middle-back dark brown with paler
margins ; shoulders pale blue ; greater wing-coverts white ; second-
aries dark brown with a green wing-spot ; primaries, rump, upper
tail-coverts and tail-feathers almost black; breast and belly rich
chestnut ; flanks freckled with dark brown on a paler ground ; vent
white ; under tail-coverts black ; legs, toes and webs reddish-orange.
Length 20 in. ; wing 9-5 in. In summer the drake assumes a dress
approaching that of the duck, but more rufous, and the blue on
the wing-coverts is not lost. The female has the head and neck
mottled with two shades of brown ; the feathers of the upper parts
dark brown in the centre, with lighter edges ; under parts pale
brown ; irides brown. The young drake at first resembles the mother-
bird. The nestling has a proportionately longer, narrower, and
more slender bill than the young Mallard or Gadwall, but at the age
of three weeks there is an obvious increase in length and breadth,
especially in drakes.

ANATID/E.

429

THE PINTAIL.

Dafila acuta (Linnaeus).

This slender and elegant Duck — locally known from the length
of its tail as the " Sea Pheasant " — is a regular visitor to Great
Britain, from September onwards. In the northern districts it
seldom lingers long, while its numbers on the east coast are subject
to considerable variation, and on the west it is rather uncommon ;
its principal resorts being our southern shores and estuaries, though
its appearance on inland waters is not unusual. As a rule the
Pintail leaves us in April ; but in the east of Scotland it has now
estabhshed itself as a breeding-species, six or seven pairs of birds
and four of their nests having been discovered on Loch Leven this
summer by Mr. W. Evans (Ann. Scott. Nat. Hist., 1898, p. 162).
In the west the Pintail is rare, though there is some evidence that it
has bred in the Hebrides, and it is uncommon in the Orkneys
and Shetlands. To the south and west of Ireland it is a winter-
visitor, and it is said to have nested, exceptionally, at Abbeyleix in
Queen's County, but on the whole it is local and not numerous. In
spring its numbers are increased by migrants from the south.

The Pintail has nested in the Faeroes, and is generally distributed
in Iceland during the summer months, sometimes wandering to
Greenland. It breeds abundantly in the northern portions of
Europe ; in tolerable numbers in Holland ; and, decreasingly, down

430 PINTAIL.

to lat. 50" ; while Messrs. Eagle Clarke and Laidlaw found pairs,
apparently nesting, in the Rhone delta. During the cold season it
is found over the rest of the Continent, as well as in Northern
Africa, Egypt, Asia Minor, the Indian region as far south as Borneo,
China and Japan ; its summer-range northward in Asia extending up
to lat. 72*^ on the Yenesei (Popham). In America also it has been met
with up to 72^^ N. lat. in Alaska, and thence eastward to Labrador;
its winter migrations reaching to the West Indies and Panama.

The nest — generally placed among coarse herbage in a dry
situation, and often at a little distance from water — is deep and well
lined with down; the eggs, 7-10 in number, being pale bufhsh-
green in colour and rather elongated in form : measurements 2'i by
1*5 in. Incubation commences in May or June, according to the
locality. In winter this species resorts to salt-water estuaries ; or to
large open sheets of fresh-water, in the shallow portions of which it
finds succulent plants (and wild rice abroad), as well as insects
and their larvae, and small molluscs ; its flesh is therefore excel-
lent in flavour. It feeds with its head below the water, its long
tail being then raised in the air, and it is notoriously partial to the
company of Wigeon. By day it is rather a silent bird, but it utters
a low-toned quack at night, and in the pairing-time a short double
whistle. In confinement it breeds freely, and has been known to
pair with the Wigeon ; an interesting case is also on record of a male
Pintail and a Common Duck producing young half-breeds which
had offspring again by the father, while the three-quarter birds bred
again with the pure species. Its frequent hybridization with the
Mallard in a wild state has already been mentioned ; the half-bred
drake being a remarkably handsome bird.

The adult male in spring has the head brown, shading into
greenish-black on the nape ; upper neck bronze, with a white stripe
down the neck on each side and meeting the white breast and belly ;
back and flanks mottled grey ; greater wing-coverts buff, followed
by a bronze-green wing-spot margined with black and white ;
tail black, the two central feathers much elongated ; under tail-
coverts black ; bill, legs and feet chiefly slate-grey. In July a
plumage like that of the female is assumed, and is retained until
October, but the bronze-green wing-spot is always present. Whole
length 26-29 in. (the central tail-feathers being sometimes 8'5 in.) ; wing
II in. The female is mottled-brown above and greyish-white below;
the long slender neck, greenish-bronze wing-spot, and the oblique
bufiish bars on the brown tail-feathers sufficing to distinguish her from
any other species. The young are like her in their first plumage.

ANATID.«.

431

'J^^^

.^"^M

THE TEAL.

Nettion crecca (Linnaeus).

It is chiefly between September and the following spring that this,
the smallest of our indigenous Ducks, is really abundant throughout
the British Islands ; but it nests, sparsely, throughout the south of
England, and even occasionally along the valley of the Thames. In
the eastern counties it is a fairly numerous breeder, while north of
the Trent it becomes more frequent; and it finds suitable retreats in
the Welsh bogs, as well as in the ' mosses ' of I-ancashire and
Cumberland. Except in the Outer Hebrides, where it is rare even
in winter, it is a widely distributed breeding-species in Scotland,
including the Orkneys and Shetlands. It breeds in every county
of Ireland, where a great influx takes place during the cold season.

During summer the Teal is common in Iceland and the north of
Europe, while a few pairs nest locally as far south as the Mediter-
ranean, and even in the Azores. In cold weather it is found all
over the Continent wherever fresh-water does not freeze for any
length of time ; it visits Madeira, the Canaries and North Africa ; is
numerous in Egypt ; and goes as far south as the highlands of

432

TEAL.

Abyssinia. It is distributed over Asia, from 70° N. in summer to
Siam in winter ; in all probability it breeds on the islands of the
Aleutian chain, and it has been obtained in Alaska in June.
Throughout North America, however, its representative is N.
carolinense, the subject of the next article ; but our Teal is an
occasional wanderer to the eastern seaboard, from Labrador down
to North Carolina ; and has been obtained in Greenland.

The nest — placed in tufts of heather or herbage, or under low bushes
on the borders of morasses and pools — is composed of dry grass and
leaves, to which a lining of down is added during the progress of
incubation. The 8-10 and even 15 eggs, usually laid early in May,
are buffish- or creamy-white with a faint tinge of green : measure-
ments I "8 by I "2 in. Many instances are on record of the affection
of this bird for its brood, and a female has even been known to
follov,' her ducklings into captivity. The food, obtained by night,
on or near fresh-water, consists chiefly of the seeds of aquatic
grasses, grain, rice (in warm countries), worms, slugs and insects.
The Teal has repeatedly bred in the Gardens of the Zoological
Society and elsewhere ; while in the wild state hybrids between it
and the Gadwall, as well as the Wigeon, are sometimes produced ;
one of the latter being the " Bimaculated Duck" of some authors.

The adult male has the bill blackish ; crown, nape, cheeks and
throat rich chestnut ; round and behind the eye an elongated patch
of purplish-green enclosed within narrow lines of buff, while a stripe
of the latter colour runs from the forehead to the base of the bill ;
upper parts delicately vermiculated with black and white; on the
secondaries a wing-spot of green and purplish-black, tipped
with buff; rump and tail-coverts almost black ; tail-feathers
ash-brown ; chin black ; front of neck spotted with black on
a warm buff ground ; breast and belly white ; flanks delicately
vermiculated with black and white ; under tail-coverts black in the
centre and warm buff on each side ; legs and toes brownish-grey.
Length 14*5 in.; wing 7-25 in. From the middle of July till
October the drake is in female dress, and I have found brown feathers
on the back as late as December. The female is mottled with brown
on the upper parts, and has a less brilliant wing-spot. The young
resemble her, but have darker centres to the under feathers and
paler edges to the wing-coverts.

The North American Summer-Duck, Aix spoiisa, is kept and
breeds freely on many ornamental waters, and wanderers are some-
times shot.

ANATID.E. 433

THE AMERICAN GREEN-WINGED TEAL.
Nettion carolinense (J. F. Gnielin).

An adult male of this species was shot on November 23rd 1879
on an arm of the Kingsbridge estuary, South Devon ; and was ex-
hibited by me on behalf of its owner, Mr. H. Nicholls, at a meeting
of the Zoological Society on December 4th 1888. In 'The Zoo-
logist ' for 1852, Mr. (now Colonel) John Evans recorded the occur-
rence of an adult male near Scarborough in November 1851 ;
a specimen which passed into the collection of the late Lord Hill.
Mr. Arthur Fellowes stated (Zool. 1880, p. 70) that he possessed an
example shot by his father 'more than forty years ago' at Hurst-
bourne Park, Hants, and he correctly described the essential feature
of its plumage. The species has never been kept in the Gardens of
the Zoological Society of London, nor, as far as I am aware, in
any other part of Europe up to the present (July, 1898).

The Green-winged Teal, so called to distinguish it from the Blue-
winged representative of our Garganey in America (the subject of
the next article), is generally distributed over the northern portions
of the New World in summer, and also visits Greenland ; while in
winter its migrations extend to the Bermudas and West Indies,
Mexico and Central America. Its nidification and general habits
resemble those of our Common Teal ; and owing to the superior
quality of its food, which consists of rice, wild oats, fallen grapes &c.,
its flesh is remarkably delicate. The eggs, 7-12 in number, are
buffish-white : measurements I'S by i"2 5 in.

The adult male differs from our Teal in having a broad crescentic
band of finely vermiculated greyish-white feathers on each side of
the breast in front of the folded wing, while the buffish-white lines
which run from the beak to and round the green eye-patch are very
slightly defined ; the pencilling of the whole plumage also is more
minute. Length i4'5 in. ; wing 7-25 in. The female so closely
resembles that of our Teal that I am unable to give any specific
characters.

L L

434

BLUE-WINGED TEAL.

THE BLUE-WINGED TEAL.

QuERQUEDULA Di'scoRS (Linnaeus).

In 'The Naturalist,' viii. (1858). p. 168, Mr. W. G. Gibson, writing
from Dumfries, says, without naming any month, " a specimen of
the Blue-winged Teal {A?ias discors) was shot here a few weeks ago."
This bird, erroneously stated by the late Mr. R. Gray to have been
killed in January 1863, afterwards passed into the collection of
the late Sir William Jardine, and was subsequently acquired by the
Edinburgh Museum ; it is a male and undoubtedly genuine. The
same cannot be said for the bird recorded under this name in ' The
Zoologist' for 1882 (p. 92), which is an immature male of our
Garganey.

According to Mr. Oluf Winge, an adult male was shot near Saby
in Denmark, about the middle of April 1886. I am not aware
that this species has yet been introduced on ornamental waters in
Europe; for the bird mentioned in my ist Edition (p. 422), as
having been sent from Tours, proved to be the Cinnamon Teal,
Q. cyanoptera.

The Blue-winged Teal has a more southern habitat than the pre-
ceding, being seldom met with north of lat. 60°, while it is very local
on the Pacific coast. It breeds, in suitable localities, from Labrador
to Florida, and from the Saskatchewan to Mazatlan, as well as abund-
antly in the Mississippi valley ; and in winter its migrations extend
to the Bermudas, Mexico, the West Indies, and Guatemala. The
eggs, 8-12 in number, are pale buff: measurements i"85 by 1*35 in.
The food and habits do not differ materially from those of the pre-
ceding species.

The adult male has the throat, forehead and crown dark lead-
colour ; in front of the eye a long crescef-ific patch of white ; cheeks
and neck dull lavender-grey ; back mottled with reddish-buff; lesser
wing-coverts lapis-lazuli blue (far more vivid than in our Garganey) ;
on the wing a white bar, followed by a bronze-green patch ; under
parts pale reddish; bill black; feet yellowish. Length i6in. :
wing 7*5 in. The female is mottled with dull brown and buff, and
has only an indistinct eye-stripe.

I

ANATID^.

435

THE GARGANEY.

QuERQUEDULA ciRCiA (LinncGus).

This very local species visits England early in March, and, if un-
molested, remains in a few suitable spots to breed (whence it is often
called the Summer-Teal) ; while it is again observed on the migra-
tion southward in autumn. It nests regularly in the ' broad ' district
and other parts of Norfolk — where, owing to protection, it is on the
increase, also sparingly in Suffolk, probably in ^Varwickshire, Hants,
and some other counties ; visits Lincolnshire in April ; has been
found nesting in Holderness, Yorkshire ; and used to breed in
Northumberland before the drainage of Prestwick Car. Elsewhere
its occurrences are irregular, and in Wales and the west they are
decidedly infrequent. The same may be said of the mainland of
Scotland, and its visits to the Orkneys and Shetlands, as well as to
Barra in the Outer Hebrides, are exceptional. In Ireland, Mr.
Ussher informs me that he has records of twenty-six occurrences
between January and August, but chiefly during March and in the
south and west.

The Garganey seldom visits the Faroes or even the south of Nor-
way, but it breeds rather plentifully in Denmark, Sweden up to about
lat. 60°, Finland, and Russia as far as Archangel ; while it is very abund-
ant in East Prussia, and generally distributed in summer through-
out the rest of Europe, especially in the east, down to the Caspian,
Black and Mediterranean Seas, though of irregular occurrence in

436 GARGANEY.

the western portion of the Spanish Peninsula. It is, however, during
the cold season that it is most abundant in the south ; its winter
migrations reaching to North Africa, Egypt, Somaliland, and portions
of Arabia. In Siberia Mr. Popham obtained it as far north as
Yeneseisk, and eastward it reaches Kamchatka and the Commander
Islands ; while it is common down to the Himalayas in summer,
and very abundant during winter in India (where it is known as
the Blue-winged Teal) ; and it also occurs sparsely in Japan, the
PhiUppines, China and the Malay Archipelago.

The nest is sometimes placed among rough herbage, or in sedge
intermixed with coarse grass ; but also in heather, and in high,
fairly-drained — as well as open — situations. Laying begins in the latter
half of April or early in May, and the eggs, usually 8, though some-
times as many as 13 in number, are more creamy than those of the
Common Teal, with no tinge of green: measurements i"85 by
I "35 in. The food chiefly consists of small fish, aquatic insects
and molluscs, with little vegetable matter, and the bird is not, as
a rule, good for the table. Its usual note is a harsh knacky but in
spring the drake makes a peculiar jarring noise, like a child's rattle,
whence the name of " Crick " or " Cricket-Teal " in East Anglia.
This bird is rapid in its flight, and when swimming sits very high
in the water.

The adult male in March has the forehead, crown and nape dark
brown, with a white stripe on each side from the eye and ear-coverts
to the back of the neck ; cheeks and neck nutmeg-brown, varied
with short hair-like lines of white ; back dark brown ; elongated
scapulars black with a central stripe of white ; wiiig-cove?-fs bluish-grey ;
patch on the secondaries green between two white bars ; primaries
and tail dull brown; chin black; breast pale brown, with dark
crescentic bands ; belly white ; flanks varied with transverse black
lines bounded by two broad bands ; under tail-coverts mottled black
and white ; bill black ; legs, toes and webs greenish lead-colour.
Mr. J. H. Gurney states that the male Garganey remains for an
unusually long period in the plumage of the female. Length 16 in. ;
wing 7 '8 in. The female is smaller, and has the head brown with
darker spots and lines ; over the eye a light yellowish-white band
mantle dark brown with rufous edges ; wing-coverts greyish-brown
speculum dull metallic-green between two bars of white ; chin white
breast varied with two shades of brown on a surface of greyish
white ; sides and flanks j)ale brown, varied with darker brown
Young males in their first plumage, as usual, resemble females.

ANATID/K.

437

THE WIGEON.

Mareca PENELOPE (Linnaius).

Small parties of Wigeon begin to make their appearance on our
coasts about the end of August, but the bulk of the immigrants
arrive from the middle of October onwards, and immense numbers
are often to be found in sheltered bays and tidal waters until the end
of February, while in March and April the return migration from the
south sets in. In Scotland the ^^'igeon has long been known as a
partially resident species, breeding in some numbers over the greater
part of Sutherland, and sparingly in Caithness, Ross and Cromarty,
while eggs have been taken in the Orkneys and Shetlands, and of late
Perthshire and Selkirkshire have been added to its nesting-area. In
1897 a nest was found near Scarborough, and there is presumptive
evidence that the bird has bred exceptionally in the very south of
England. In Ireland it is common during the colder part of the
year, and it seems possible that a few pairs may nest in cos. Fer-
managh and Tyrone (Ussher).

This Duck is a summer-visitor to the Faeroes and Iceland, occa-
sionally wandering to Greenland. It is very abundant in Scan-
dinavia and Finland, but Kolguev and AVaigats (70° N.) are about
its limits ; while it breeds in Russia as far south as Ekaterinburg ;
and sparingly in Denmark, Holland, and Northern Germany. On

43^ WIGEON.

passage it visits the rest of Europe, going as far west as the Azores ;
and in Africa it is found down to Abyssinia. In Asia its range
extends from about 71" N. to Mongolia in summer, and in winter
over the rest of that continent and its islands down to Borneo ;
a specimen has even been obtained in the Marshall group, Poly-
nesia. From Siberia we trace this species across Bering Sea, by
way of the Aleutian Islands, to Alaska ; and it is not infrequent on
the coast of California, while in the east portion of the United
States it occurs almost every winter, especially between Virginia
and the Carolinas.

The nest, placed in a tuft of rushes, coarse herbage or heather, is
warmly lined with down, and may contain from 7-10 cream-
coloured eggs: measurements 2 "3 by i '5 in. On their arrival the
birds, when undisturbed, feed by day on aquatic plants and grass,
but after November they become nocturnal, and subsist largely
upon Zostera marina. The call-note of the male is a shrill whistling
whee-yoii, whence the local names " Whew Duck " and " Whewer" ;
but the female utters a low purr or croak ; while both sexes
rise in silence. Although it is a surface-feeder and does not dive
for food, the Wigeon can submerge itself easily and turn rapidly
under water when wounded and pursued. No other species offers
such attractions to the punt-gunner ; and it is taken in large
numbers in those of our decoys which, as in Essex and in Pem-
brokeshire, are situated near the sea, though flocks sometimes
resort to waters as much as 30 miles inland. In confinement it
breeds occasionally, though not very freely ; and it has been known
to cross with the Pintail, Mallard, Gadwall and Teal.

The adult male has the forehead and crown buff; cheeks and
hind-neck chestnut, minutely spotted with bottle-green ; chin black ;
throat and upper neck chestnut ; breast white passing into grey on
the under parts, the flanks being pencilled with dark grey ; mantle
chiefly of a finely vermiculated grey ; shoulder white with a terminal
bar of black, followed by a green wing-patch tipped with black below ;
quills and tail dark brown ; bill bluish-lead colour ; legs and toes
dark brown. Early in July a plumage like that of the female is
assumed, but the tints of the drake are always the brighter. Length
i8"5 in.; wing io'5 in. The female is smaller; the upper parts
are mottled with greyish-brown, and the shoulders nearly white ;
the wing-patch is greyish-green, and the under parts are buflish-
white. As usual, the young bird resembles the female ; the latter
occasionally assumes nearly full male plumage.

ANATID^.

439

THE AMERICAN WIGEON.

Mareca AMERICANA (J. F. Gmelin).

The occurrence of this bird in a London market during the
winter of 1837-8 was thus noticed by Blyth, in the third volume of
N. Wood's 'Naturalist,' p. 417: — "The American Wigeon is a
novelty which was obtained by Mr. Bartlett. He selected it from
a row of Common Wigeons, deeming it, at the time, to be only an
accidental variety of the species ; there was a female along with it,
which, after some hesitation, he unfortunately left, considering it
only as a variety, but insufficiently diverse to be worth preserving ;
he has since, however, positively recognized the female of the
American Wigeon to be identical with the bird he thus passed over
hesitatingly in the market." This specimen — a male— is now in the
collection of Mr. J- H. Gurney, and we may fairly assume that it
was really taken in this country. Thompson believed on hearsay
evidence that one, not preserved, was killed in February 1844 on
Strangford Lough near Belfast ; Thomas Edward, of Banff, has
enumerated, among his many unauthenticated rarities, another, shot
on the Burn of Boyndie in January 1841, but afterwards thrown
away ; while two records in ' The Zoologist ' are so utterly unsub-
stantiated as to be unworthy of serious consideration. In February
1895, however, Sir Ralph Payne-Gallwey obtained in the flesh
a young male, which had been recently selected from a number of

44° AMERICAN WIGEON.

Common Wigeon at a Leeds game-stall, and its portrait appears in
the late Lord Lilford's ' Coloured Figures of British Birds.'

In J'rance, according to MM. Marmottan and Vian, a female,
now in the collection of the former, was taken at Le Crotoy, Somme,
on April 13th 1875 ; and Mr. O. H. Howarth has informed me
of a specimen in a collection at St. Michael, Azores. Dr. L.
Stejneger has stated that a very lean and moulting female was found
dead on Bering Island on May ist 1883.

Li North America this Wigeon is found in summer from Alaska
eastward throughout the Fur-countries to Hudson Bay ; and on
migration it occurs over the greater part of that continent, being
numerous on the Chesapeake, where, like the Canvas-back, it feeds
on the Vallisneria. Audubon says that it is abundant during winter
at New Orleans, where it is much esteemed on account of the juici-
ness of its flesh, and is best known by the name of "Zinzin." In
the West and in most parts of the Eastern and Middle States
it is called "the Bald Pate." It frequents the rice-fields of the
South, wanders to the Bermudas, and is an annual winter-visitor to
Mexico, the West India Islands and Central America.

The nest of this species is stated by Kennicott to be always on
high dry ground, among trees or bushes, at a considerable distance
from water ; it is a comparatively small depression among the dead
leaves, lined with down, and contains from 7-10 ivory-white eggs,
measuring 2"i by i -5 in. The note is a soft, gentle whistle.

The adult male has the forehead and crown dull white ; a broad
green streak passing backward from the eye ; cheeks and neck
whitish, freckled with black ; mantle brownish-grey vermiculated
with black ; lesser wing-coverts white, and the greater ones tipped
with black ; on the secondaries a green patch ; tail greyish-brown ;
upper breast to flanks mottled reddish-brown ; belly and vent
white ; bill black at the tip, the rest greyish-blue ; legs and feet
bluish. In younger males the plumage is duller, and the soft parts
are darker in colour. Length 19 in. ; wing 10 "5 in. The female
has the head and neck yellowish-white speckled with black (decidedly
whiter than in our Vvlgeon), very little rufous on the breast,
and a dark brown back. The young are much like the females in
the first season, but in the drakes the wing-pattern is better defined
and the colours are more pronounced.

ANATID.t.

441

^■:iS3(^*^^

> ^' / ,

THE RED-CRESTED POCHARD.

Netta rufina (Pallas),

The Red-crested Pochard is a southern and eastern species which
was first noticed as a wanderer to the British Islands by J. Hunt, who
figured a female killed in Norfolk in July 181S; and eight or nine
examples have since been obtained in that county, chiefly in winter.
Others have been taken along the east coast between Berwick-on-
Tweed and the mouth of the Thames ; Devon and Cornwall have
each contributed one ; there is a specimen in the British Museum
from Pembrokeshire ; and a male was shot on October 9th 1897 in
Westmoreland. In Scotland one was obtained in Argyllshire in
January 1862 ; in Ireland one in co. Kerry on January i8th 1881.

This Pochard seldom occurs on the waters of Denmark, Northern
Germany, Holland or Belgium, while in Switzerland it is chiefly
found on the lakes of the eastern cantons ; but though rare in the
north of France, it is not uncommon in the Rhone delta, where
Messrs. W. E. Clarke and T. Laidlaw found it breeding. In the
Spanish Peninsula it is almost confined to the lakes on the east side
and those in the Balearic Islands. In the southern half of Italy it

M M

442 RED-CRESTED POCHARD.

is not uncommon, and more than two centuries ago Willughby
obtained it in the marlcet at Rome, while it is also resident in Sicily
and Sardinia. It breeds in small numbers in Central and Southern
Germany ; more frequently along the valley of the r)anul)e, and
abundantly in some parts of South Russia ; while in winter it is
found throughout the basins of the Mediterranean, Black and
Caspian Seas. In Africa it nests in many of the lakes to the north
of the Sahara, though very rare in Egypt. In Asia its summer-
haunts are in Northern Persia, and Turkestan as far east as the
Lob-nor, but do not reach Siberia ; its winter-range extends to
Northern and Central India (where thousands are sometimes seen
on large sheets of wMter), and occasionally to China. A young
male was found in the New York market on February 2nd 1872.

Mr. W. E. Clarke describes a nest found in the Camargue on
May 17th as placed in the centre of a dense mass of purslane, and
consisting of a broad rim of down, with a few short tamarisk twigs :
it contained 10 fresh eggs. These are clear pea-green in their colour
(which soon fades): measurements 2 "3 by i"6 in. The food —
obtained very largely by diving — consists of water-weeds, frogs,
small fish, insects &c. ; the flesh of this bird is generally held in
high estimation. The call-note, seldom heard by day, is a deep
grating hirr^ but occasionally the male utters a sort of whistle.

The adult male in spring has the beak crimson, with a paler nail ;
irides reddish ; crown and erectile crest golden-bay, rest of head
and upper neck vinaceous-chestnut ; throat, lower neck, breast
and belly brown-black ; flanks white, with a tinge of salmon-pink ;
mantle yellowish-brown ; lesser coverts and a band across the
secondaries white, with a greyish border to the inner secondaries ;
primaries brown at the tip, and whitish above ; tail-feathers ash-
brown ; legs and toes vermilion-red ; webs blackish. In less mature
birds the soft parts are duller in colour. Length 22 in. ; wing
io'5 in. The female has no crest, and the top of the head is dark
brown ; the cheeks and throat are greyish-white ; the upper and
under parts pale rufous to greyish-brown ; the point of the shoulder
and the wing-patch dull white ; the beak and legs dull red. Young
drakes at first resemble the females, but the crest and the red colour
of the bill soon become apparent.

This species is the type of the genus Netta, Kaup, which differs
from Fiiligula in having 16 tail-feathers in place of 14, a longer bill,
and some other points. Like the rest of the group of Diving
Ducks, it has a broadly lobed hind-toe. In adopting Netta I have
followed Count Salvadori, Dr. AV. T. Blanford and others.

ANATIDiE.

443

THE COMMON POCHARD.

FULIGULA FERINA (LilinffiUS).

This species is also known by the names " Red-headed Poker " or
" Red-eyed Poker " in the case of the male, while that of " Dun-bird '''
is usually, but not exclusively, bestowed upon the female or the
young. The Pochard is in the main a cold-weather visitor to
England, though very irregular both as regards numbers and
localities. It usually appears early in October and leaves again in
spring ; but a good many now remain to breed on some of our
inland waters, where, owing to efficient protection, they have
increased of late. Such is the case at Merton and in other parts of
Norfolk, at Hornsea Mere in Yorkshire, in Lancashire, Dorsetshire,
Hertfordshire, and some localities which need not be named. In
Scotland this species is generally distributed, except in the Outer
Hebrides, though it breeds in Tiree ; and it nests in Ross, Moray,
Perthshire, Fifeshire, Roxburghshire, and in the Orkneys ; visiting
the Shetlands. In Ireland it is widely distributed over inland waters
in winter, and there is evidence that it has nested in many counties.

The Pochard is only a wanderer to the Faeroes and Iceland, while
it is not common in any part of Scandinavia ; but in Russia it
breeds as far north as Lake Ladoga, and southward to the Caspian.

444 COMMON POCHARD.

A tolerable number nest in Denmark, Germany, Poland and suit-
able localities throughout the rest of Europe, sojourning on the
lakes of the High Alps on their way to the Mediterranean, to
which, and to North Africa as far as the Egyptian lakes, large flocks
resort in winter ; while a few visit the Canaries. Eastward, the
Pochard extends in summer across temperate Asia to the Baikal
district, but not further north ; and southward in winter it reaches
Japan, China, and India down to lat. 15° N. In America the
representative is a closely-allied species, F. aniericana^ with no black
at the base of the bill, greyer back, and whiter belly. The famous
Canvas-back also belongs to this genus, and is sometimes sent over
from America in ice.

The nest is placed among rushes, sedge or other coarse herbage,
near the margins of meres and pools ; the greenish-drab eggs being
7-10 or even 13 in number: measurements 2"4 by 1*7 in. The
Pochard is excellent for the table so long as it eats the plants which
grow below the surface of our inland waters, but when on the sea it
becomes coarse, owing to a diet of crustaceans and molluscs. It
feeds principally towards dark, at which time large numbers are
captured in nets set for the purpose, but from decoys its diving-
powers often enable it to escape. The usual note of the male is a
low whistle, but the alarm-cry of both sexes is a rough ciirre, whence
comes one of the bird's local names. In captivity it has been
known to breed, but not freely. Wild birds have several times been
obtained which appear to be hybrids between this species and the
Ferruginous Duck. One of these is the so-called ' Paget's Pochard '
described by W. R. Fisher (Zool. p. 1137 and p. 1778), shot on
Rollesby Broad, Norfolk, and now in the possession of Mr. J. H.
Gurney, who has a second example, shot in the same county in
February 1859. A third is in the Booth collection; and a fourth,
caught alive at Saham-Toney Mere on January 9th 1897, is still
(August 1898) living at Keswick Hall, Norwich. This hybrid has
been named F. homey eri and F.ferinoides.

The adult male has the head and neck chestnut-red ; breast and
upper back black ; mantle finely freckled with lavender-white and
black ; wing-patch grey but inconspicuous ; under parts greyish-
white ; tail-coverts black : bill black with a broad band of blue across
the middle ; iris ruby-red; legs and toes bluish-grey. Length 19 in. ;
wing 8 '2 5 in. The female has the iris brown ; head, neck and breast
dull brown; chin white ; the rest of the plumage being browner
than in the male. The young at first resembles her; the black
breast is not assumed by the drake during his first year.

AN ATI D^..

445

:-4U-

THE FERRUGINOUS DUCK.

FuLiGULA NYROCA (Giildenstadt).

This species — also called the White-eyed Duck, from the colour
of its irides — is an irregular visitor to England, principally in winter
and spring. More than twenty examples have been obtained in
Norfolk, a few in Suffolk, Cambridgeshire, Yorkshire, and along the
Trent valley up to Nottinghamshire ; Northumberland and Lanca-
shire being each credited with one. Those exposed for sale in the
London markets are open to the suspicion of having been brought
from Holland (whence live birds are also sometimes sent) ; but
four have been killed near Oxford, one in Dorset, and two in
Devon ; while a remarkably tame bird was observed on a pond in
Radnorshire during the latter part of 1858 and up to March 1859.
In Scotland this Duck has been obtained once (perhaps twice) in
the Firth of Forth in winter, and two were killed on the Tay early
in 1 85 7 (W. Evans). In Ireland six occurrences have been noted,
from January to March inclusive (Ussher).

The Ferruginous Duck is not known to breed to the north of
Holland, Schleswig - Holstein, East Prussia, or Moscow, but in
Poland, Hungary, and Slavonia it is very abundant from April to
autumn ; on passage it visits the lakes of the Upper Engadine ; and
it is a resident of general distribution in the southern portions of
Europe, from Spain to the Volga. It visits the Canaries, nests in

446 FERRUGINOUS DUCK.

North Africa, and in winter is found in large flocks on the lakes of
Egypt, and thence to Abyssinia. In the temperate and elevated
regions of Asia it is generally numerous, and Mr. Hume says that
boat-loads of its eggs are brought into the market of Srinagar, in
Kashmir. During cold weather it is found over India down to
lat. 17° N., and as far east as Arrakan ; but in Eastern Siberia,
China and Japan it is represented by F. baeri.

A nest found in Spain by the late Lord Lilford was placed amongst
high rushes, at a short distance from the water, and was composed
of dry water-plants with a lining of brownish-white down and a few
white feathers. Mr. W. E. Clarke describes the down as l^rownish-
black, with greyish tips at the point of insertion. The eggs, 7-14
in number, are whitish or pale buff-colour, sometimes with an
evanescent greenish tinge : measurements 2'\ by i-5 in. The food,
sought by day, consists partly of vegetable matter, but largely of
insects and their larvae, small molluscs, crustaceans &c. ; and there
is consequently great variation in the fitness of this Duck for the
table. Its diving powers can hardly be surpassed; it rises, however,
somewhat heavily, striking the water repeatedly with its feet, like a
Coot ; and it is not remarkably rapid \vhen on the wing, at which
time it has a very dark appearance, whence its Spanish name
" Negrete." By this fact and by its white wing-bar it may easily be
recognized. It is seldom seen on large open sheets of water, but
prefers weedy lakes and ponds, where it can find reeds and other
cover suited to its skulking nature ; in fact its resorts are somewhat
similar to those of a Little Grebe. The note is a harsh kirr, kere,
kirr. Mr, J. H. Gurney has known a drake live in captivity for
fifteen years.

The adult male has the bill bluish-black ; irides white ; head,
neck and upper breast rich chestnut-brown, with a narrow brown
collar, and small white spot on the chin ; back and wing-coverts
umber brown with a tinge of green ; quills dusky black, part of
the inner webs white ; on the secondaries a white patch bordered
with black ; tail sooty-black ; lower breast and belly white ; flanks
chestnut-brown, vent greyish-brown, under tail-coverts white ; legs
and toes lead-colour, the webs darker. Length 16 in. ; wing 775 in.
The female is rather smaller ; her irides are not so white ; the head
and neck are of a darker brown, less rich in tone ; and the lower
breast and belly are seldom — though occasionally — as white as in
the male. The young bird of the year has even less of the chestnut
tint than the adult female.

ANATID/E.

447

THE TUFTED DUCK.

FuLiGULA CRiSTATA (Leach).

The Tufted Duck is well known as occurring between autumn and
spring on our low-l3-ing coasts, estuaries and lakes, where it is often
found in company with Pochard, Scaup, Golden-eye, and other
diving-ducks ; but considerable numbers remain to breed with us,
and in few areas more abundantly than in Nottinghamshire,
especially on the ponds at Newstead, Clumber, Welbeck, Rufford
and Rainworth : the last — the property of Mr. J. Whitaker — having
been visited by many ornithologists. Nests have also been found
in Yorkshire, Lancashire, Northumberland, Norfolk, Sussex, Hants,
Dorset, and some other counties which afford suitable resorts. In
Scotland the Tufted Duck is now known to breed on more than
forty lochs, and plentifully on some of them ; while its nests have
been found as far west as Tiree and as far north as Hoy, and the
bird has been seen in the Shetlands in summer. In Ireland, increas-
ing numbers nest on the lakes of Ulster, the central counties and the
Shannon valley, while in winter the species is generally distributed.

This Duck is said to have bred in the Fjeroes, and it is found in
small numbers on the rivers and lakes of Norway in the warmer
months, becoming more abundant in Sweden, Finland and Russia,
though comparatively rare beyond the Arctic circle. Southward, it
nests in suitable localities down to about lat. 50° N., while over the
rest of Europe it is found (even in the High Alps) on migration, and

448 TUFTED DUCK.

in winter ; at which season it ranges through Africa as far as
Abyssinia. In summer it frequents Northern Asia, nearly up to
Lit. 70", and during cold weather large numbers visit Japan, China,
and India down to Coimbatore, while wanderers reach the Malay
Archipelago and even Eastern Polynesia.

As a rule incubation begins towards the end of May or early in
June, the nest being concealed under a bush, in a tuft of grass or
sedge, and sometimes in a peat hole ; the 8-13 eggs are of a greenish-
buff colour: measurements 2 "3 by i"5 in. Incubation lasts about
23 days. The call-note on alighting is rendered by Mr. Whitaker
as currugh^ airrii^h, uttered gutturally ; and he called my attention,
when at Rainworth, to the fact — ^which he believed to be invariable
— that the female is the first to rise when both birds are together
on the water. The Tufted Duck dives freely and frequently. For
the table it is tolerably good when it has been eating aquatic plants,
but as soon as it has taken to animal food, either on fresh or salt
water, the result is not satisfactory. Feeding takes place soon after
twilight, and also in the early morning. Pinioned birds have bred
on the ponds of the London Zoological Gardens and other orna-
mental waters ; and at the former a Tufted crossed with a Ferruginous
Duck in 1849, the hybrids afterwards breeding either inter se or
with the parents till 1861. In the British Museum there is a
hybrid presented by Mr. R. J. Howard from a brood produced
between the Tufted Duck and the Pochard in 1886 on a reservoir
in Woodfold Park ; and a similar bird is in the Belfast Museum.

The adult male has the elongated crest, head and neck glossy
purplish-black ; breast and upper parts duller black, with a green
tinge on the secondaries ; wing-patch white with a black border ;
belly and flanks white, washed with grey towards the vent ; under
tail-coverts black ; bill slate-grey with a black nail ; irides brilliant
golden-yellow (whence the bird is sometimes called " Golden-eye ") ;
legs and toes slate- blue, webs black. Length 17 "2 5 in. ; wing 8 in.
Mr. Whitaker says that a paired male began to change into female
plumage in May, but an unattached drake was as bright as ever
until the end of August, when he became less white on the flanks.
It is, perhaps, not generally known that the drakes of many other
species retain nearly full dress throughout the summer, when they
have not mated. The female is rather smaller, and is sooty-brown
on those parts which are black in the male, the under surface being
brown barred with grey ; immature females (as well as young males)
have the forehead sprinkled with white after the autumn moult until
the following April.

ANATID.E.

449

THE SCAUP-DUCK.

FuLiGULA MARiLA (Liiinjeus).

The Scaup-Duck makes its appearance on the southern coast of
Great Britain about the end of October or the beginning of Novem-
ber, though somewhat earher in the north. It is common during
the winter on low oozy shores as well as in sheltered rocky bays,
but the great majority take their departure in spring, and assertions
respecting the breeding of this species in Scotland lack con-
firmation ; while, though generally distributed in the cold season,
it is not plentiful in the Orkneys or the Outer Hebrides. In
Ireland large flocks visit the coasts and tidal waters of the north and
west, but comparatively few^ are noticed in the south.

The Scaup is common in autumn and winter in the Faeroes,
where a few only remain to nest ; but in Iceland it breeds in great
abundance, as it does up to lat. 70° N. in Scandinavia, Arctic
Russia, and Siberia as far as Bering Island. According to Blasius
it has nested on one occasion at the Hiddensee in Brunswick, but
as a rule it is not found south of the Baltic exxept on passage or
in winter, when it visits the Swiss lakes. It reaches the Mediter-
ranean, but is rare in the western portion, though not uncommon
in the east and the Levant, as well as on the Black and Caspian
Seas. It is unknown in Turkestan and rare in India, though
occasionally found as far south as Bombay ; the mountains and

N N

45° SCAUP-DUCK.

elevated table-land of Central Asia diverting its line of migration to
the east of the meridian of Lake Baikal, whence it can be traced
southward to Japan, China and Formosa. Across North America,
from the Pacific to the Atlantic, it is distributed north of lat. 50^ in
summer, and down to Mexico and the West Indies in winter ; but
in Greenland it is of rare occurrence. There is also a smaller form
— of doubtful specific distinctness — known as the American or
Lesser Scaup, F. affinis of Eyton {F. niariloides of Vigors) ; but the
example figured as the above in the earlier editions of ' Yarrell,' and
once in the collection of the late Mr. F. Bond, appears to be a
hybrid between the Scaup and the Pochard, and is certainly not the
American bird.

The nest is placed in rough herbage, or among stones in the
vicinity of water; the pale greenish-grey eggs are usually 6-1 1
in number, though as many as 22 have been found together, the
joint produce of more than one female: measurements 2*6 by
175 in. The note is remarkably hoarse and discordant, resembling
the word skai/p, and its utterance is accompanied by a peculiar toss
of the bird's head. The food during winter consists chiefly of
molluscs, small crustaceans, and sea-plants, obtained by diving
over beds of oysters and mussels (known as " scalp "), or from reefs
on which tangle grows ; the bird is therefore unpalatable to most
people, and, not being an object of pursuit, is, as a rule, rather
tame.

The adult male has the head, neck and upper breast glossy
greenish-black ; mantle with fine wavy cross-lines of black and
white ; on the secondaries a white patch with a greenish-black
border ; quills, rump and tail-feathers dull brown ; belly white ; bill
pale greyish-blue ; nail black ; irides light yellow ; legs and toes
lead-blue. Length igin. ; wing 8-5 in. The female has a broad
white band round the base of the lead-coloured bill ; head and
neck sooty-black ; breast and back brown, with greyish vermicu-
lations ; belly dull white ; flanks and under tail-coverts mottled
with brown. The young drake at first resembles the female, and
does not attain the full glossy black head until he is more than
three years old.

ANATID/E.

451

■•^■'^'^^-^v^^^, m

THE GOLDEN-EYE.

Clangula glaucion (Linnaeus).

The Golden-eye generally arrives on our coasts about the middle
of October ; and so long as the inland waters are not frozen it
frequents many of our lakes, as well as rivers and tidal estuaries.
Immature birds sometimes remain until the end of May, and the
Rev. H. A. Macpherson states that he saw a year-old male in
North Uist, on July loth 1886. As a rule, however, the species is
comparatively scarce in the Outer Hebrides, though common in
winter in the Orkneys and Shetlands. In Ireland it is well known
on the estuaries, and especially on the fresh-water loughs. The young
and the females are often called ' Morillons,' and are considered
by many fowlers as quite distinct from the far rarer mature males.

This species is uncommon in the Faeroes, and still more so in
Iceland ; being represented in the latter island, as well as in Greenland,
by the larger Barrow's Golden-eye (C islandica), the male of which
has a greater developement of crest and a more purple gloss on the
head, while the female is barely recognizable by her average
superiority in size. In Scandinavia our Golden-eye is common in
summer as far north as lat. 70° even where the trees — in which it
usually makes its nest — are hardly large enough to provide holes

N N 2

452 GOLDEN-EYE.

suitable for occupation ; while it breeds regularly down to about lat.
58° in Russia ; and sparingly, it is said, in Holstein, Mark Branden-
burg and East Prussia. Drs. Fatio and Studer assert that it has
nested on the Lake of Wallenstadt and in other parts of Switzerland,
to the waters of which it is certainly a regular visitor. Southward it
is found in cold weather over the rest of Europe, but only severe
winters drive it to the western portion of the Mediterranean or to
North Africa, though it is not infrequent in Greece, the Black Sea,
and the Caspian district. Throughout Siberia it remains up to 67"^ N.
as long as it can find open water, and it also inhabits the lakes of
the Pamirs, Kashgaria and Mongolia; while on migration it visits
Japan, China, and, occasionally, Upper India. In North America
a larger form, identical in plumage, is found.

When in a hollow tree or a hole previously tenanted by a Black
Woodpecker, the nest often has an opening so small that a man's
hand can with difficulty be inserted ; but to obtain the eggs the
Lapps and Finns place boxes or hollowed logs in convenient situa-
tions, especially in the neighbourhood of falls and rapids, to which
this bird seems partial. The eggs, usually 10-12 in number, are
bright green, though the colour soon fades: measurements 2 "4 by
I '6 in. The food, obtained by diving, consists of crustaceans and
molluscs, as well as sea- "grass", which is brought to the surface
and eaten. The Golden-eye rises from the water with great
rapidity, and, from the noise produced during its flight, is often
known by the names of "Rattle-wing" and "Whistler." In the
wild state hybrids between this and several species, including the
Smew and the Hooded Merganser, have been obtained.

The adult male has the head and upper neck glossy greenish-black,
the feathers on the crown being slightly elongated ; a conspicuous
oval white patch under each eye; chin, throat, and back black;
lower neck, elongated scapulars, large wing-patch and under parts
white ; thighs dark brown ; legs and toes yellow with blackish webs ;
bill bluish-black ; irides golden-yellow. In summer a plumage
similar to that of the female is assumed, but a little white remains
at the base of the bill, and a good deal on the wing. Length 18-5 in. ;
wing 8*25 in. In females and young males there is no white spot
between the eye and the bill ; the head is umber brown, nearly
separated by a paler collar from the greyish neck, gorget and
shoulders ; the wing-coverts are tipped with black, so that the white
wing-patch is divided into three portions; the back and flanks are
dark brown, and the belly is white.

ANATID/E.

453

THE BUFFEL-HEADED DUCK.

Clangula albeola (Linnaeus).

About the winter of 1830 an adult male of this North American
species was shot near Yarmouth, and is now in the Norwich
Museum, having been purchased at the dispersal of the late Mr.
Rising's collection. In ' The Birds of the West of Scotland ' (p.
396), the late Mr. Robert Gray stated that he had examined a male
shot on the Loch of Loriston, Aberdeenshire, in January 1865, as
well as a bird of the same sex in the Banff Museum, obtained many
years previously on the Loch of Strathbeg ; while a bird — also a
mature male — from Bridlington, Yorkshire, taken in the winter of
1864-65, is now in the collection of Mr. J. Whitaker of Rainworth.
Some other records are unauthenticated, while one of them is
known to be essentially untrue.

The Buffel-headed Duck is not known to have occurred on the
shores of the Continent, and even in Greenland Reinhardt was only
aware of the occurrence of a female at Godthaab, about the year 1830.
In America this species is found during the summer as far south as
the States of Maine, Minnesota, Wisconsin and Iowa, and across the
Fur-countries to the Pacific, though rare in Northern Alaska. In
autumn, and again in spring, an important line of migration is

454 BUFFf:L-HEADED DUCK.

afforded by the great Mississippi valley. A single specimen was
obtained by Dr. Stejneger in January 1883, on Bering Island, off
Kamchatka, being the only instance yet recorded from the Asiatic
side. This Duck migrates to California — where it is very abundant
between October and April, Texas, Mexico, the ^^'est Indies, and
occasionally to the Bermudas.

A nest found by Mr. Lockhart on the Yukon River was in a
poplar, about twenty feet from the ground, and on July 7th con-
tained 10 eggs ; their colour was of an ivory-white, with a faint tinge
of green : measurements 2 by i'5 in. Mr. A. C. Stark describes a
nest from which he shot the female on May 27th 1882, in West
Minnesota, as being in a hole in an oak-tree, which was only a few
inches deep, and partly filled with decayed wood, whereon lay 8 eggs
nearly buried in down. The stomach of the above bird was crammed
with small red worms ; but snails, leeches, grasses and aquatic plants
are also eaten, while on the sea-coast shrimps and molluscs are
obtained by diving. From its fatness this species is generally known
in North America by the name of "Butter-ball"; and it is also
called the "Spirit-Duck," owing to the alacrity with which it dis-
appears beneath the water. Its note is a mere croak, like that of
the Golden-eye, but more feeble. It is very tolerant of cold, and
has been seen on the Ohio when that river was thickly covered with
floating ice.

The adult male has the forehead metallic-green, with a dash of the
same colour on the back of the neck, while the crown and throat
are iridescent purple ; from behind the eye to the nape extends a
large triangular white patch which terminates in a sort of crest ;
below the purplish-green neck comes a narrow white collar which
meets the white under parts ; back, rump and inner secondaries,
black ; outer secondaries, speculum and coverts chiefly white,
variegated with black ; tail slate-grey ; bill bluish ; irides dark
brown ; legs and feet yellowish-pink. Length 15 in. ; wing 675 in.
The female is smaller ; her head and neck are ash-brown, with
a white patch behind the eye ; the upper parts are chiefly
greyish-brown ; the white on the wing is less defined, and the under
parts are tinged with brownish-grey on the sides. The young at first
resemble the female.

ANATID/E.

455

THE LONG-TAILED DUCK.

Har^lda glacialis (Linnreus).

Although this species is somewhat uncommon in the south and
south-west of England, it was exceptionally numerous in the winter
of 1887-88 ; but on the west coast it is local, and adults are seldom
seen. On the east side, young birds are not infrequent, and two
adult males have been shot in East Anglia in June and a female
even in July ; while northward this Duck becomes tolerably abun-
dant from November to April. In Scotland it is to be met with in
winter from Berwickshire to Caithness, and on the west side it is
very common in the Outer and Inner Hebrides. In the Orkneys
and Shetlands, where the bird is well known by the name of "Calloo,"
from the loud musical note of the male, it occurs on nearly all the
inlets or voes ; there is even some evidence that it has bred on
Sanday, and there can be little doubt that it nests occasionally in the
Shetlands. To the north and west of Ireland its visits are irregular,
and in the south they are exceptional.

It is probable that the Long-tailed Duck nests, though sparingly,
in the Faeroes, and it does so in considerable numbers in Iceland.
In Scandinavia it breeds on the streams and lakes of the fells as far
south as lat. 60°, though it only becomes numerous to the north of the
Arctic circle ; while in winter it is very abundant along the coasts.
It also breeds in Jan Mayen, Spitsbergen, Novaya Zemlya, North

45^ LONG-TAILED DUCK.

Russia, Siberia, and throughout Arctic America, as well as in Green-
land ; in fact its summer range is circumpolar. In cold weather it
migrates southward to about 40° N., visiting the Swiss and Italian
lakes as well as the Adriatic ; in Asia it reaches Japan and North
China; while in America it is found to lat. 37" N., and is widely
known as the "South-southerly" and "Old Squaw," from its
gabbling cry. In this connection it may be mentioned that in
many parts of Scotland the call-note is rendered by "Coal an'
can'le licht."

The nest, generally placed among herbage, low bushes by the
side of fresh-water, is composed of a few stems of grass, with a thick
lining of down, which is little inferior to that of the Eider. The
eggs, of a somewhat elongated oval form, are pale greyish-green, and
measure about 2'i by i'45 in. On a small flat island in My-vatn,
Iceland, Messrs. Shepherd and Upcher counted more than twenty
nests, and observed a Long-tailed Duck and a Scaup sitting together
on one which contained several eggs of the two species. The food
consists of animalculee which swim at various depths, and of small
molluscs, crustaceans &c., chiefly picked off sea-weed ; in summer
aquatic plants and insects are eaten.

The adult male in early spring has the cheeks brownish-grey ;
below, on each side of the neck, an oval patch of dark brown ;
forehead, crown and rest of the neck pure white ; back and
rump blackish ; elongated scapulars, inner secondaries, and short
exterior tail-feathers white ; central tail-feathers black, and some-
times 5 in. longer than the rest ; breast, wing-coverts and primaries
brownish-black ; belly and flanks white ; bill pale rose-colour in the
middle (when fresh) ; nail and the basal-half black ; irides varying
from yellow to hazel and red ; legs and toes pale lead-colour, webs
blackish. Length (inclusive of the central tail-feathers) 22-26 in. ;
wing 8*8 in. In the summer-plumage, assumed by the end of May,
the space round the eye is pale buff mixed with a little white, the
rest of the head, neck, back and breast being dark brown, while the
feathers of the scapulars and the secondaries have broad rufous
margins with black centres. In the depth of winter there is more
white about the head than in spring ; and every intermediate stage
between these plumages is to be found. The female has the crown
and upper parts dark brown ; a dull white stripe behind the eye ;
cheeks, throat and upper breast ash-brown ; under parts white ; no
long tail-feathers. The young male resembles her, but soon becomes
darker on the back. A thoroughly mature female has the neck
white.

ANATID^.

457

'"•la^ ^^^--- —, ' -.^

THE HARLEQUIN DUCK.

CosMONETTA HisTRioNiCA (Linnaeus).

As shown by Prof. Newton in 'The Ibis,' 1859, pp. 162-166,
and also by Mr. J. H. Gurney in his ' Rambles of a Naturalist,'
pp. 263-269 (1876), the majority of the birds which have from
time to time been recorded as Harlequin Ducks obtained in Great
Britain have been proved — where proof was possible — to be Long-
tailed Ducks, American Wood-Ducks, or some other species. It
appears probable, however, that the specimens figured by James
Sowerby in his 'British Miscellany' (1806), were procured in
Scotland ; the collection of Mr. J. Whitaker of Rainworth contains
a male bird obtained by Mr. Roberts of Scarborough from some
fishermen who had found it dead on the shore at Filey in the
autumn of 1862 ; while on December 2nd 1886, three individuals
were observed near the Fame Islands, off the coast of Northumber-
land, and two young males which were secured are, respectively, in
the collections of Mr. R. W. Chase and the Rev. Julian Tuck.

A male Harlequin Duck in the Upsala collection is supposed to

458 HARLEQUIN DUCK.

have been obtained on the Swedish coast ; and I have examined, in
a private collection at Lausanne, a bird of that sex, shot on Lake
Leman on September 12th 1865, while occurrences are recorded on
the lakes of Morat, Zurich and Constance. This species has not
been observed in Spitsbergen, Novaya Zemlya, nor in Siberia as far
as the Lena delta, but eastward it is found on the waters of the
highlands from Lake Baikal to the Stanovoi Mountains and Kam-
chatka, whence, by way of the Kuril Islands, it can be traced to
Northern Japan in winter. It inhabits the Aleutian Islands, Alaska,
California down to the head-waters of the Stanislaus at about 4,000
feet of elevation, the Fur-countries (except the Barren Grounds) and
Newfoundland ; migrating as far south as St. Louis, Missouri, in
winter. In Greenland it has been observed on both coasts and up to
about lat. 70° N. on the east. In Iceland it appears to be resident,
migrating from the northern to the southern districts in winter.

Mr. Shepherd observed this species in considerable numbers in
the north-west of Iceland, frequenting the Laxa and other rapid
streams ; its nests were in holes in the banks, and, near Myvatn, in
the lava, or under stones ; while in the south-east Mr. H. J. Pearson
found them also under wild angelica and trailing plants. The eggs,
normally 7 in number, are of a warm creamy colour : measurements
2 '2 by 17 in. The food consists of small molluscs, crustaceans and
marine insects in winter ; and in summer the bird hunts for the
larvae of Ephemerides among the stones in the shallows of the swiftest
rivers (H. H. Slater).

The adult male has a large white patch on each side of the base
of the bill, separated by a median black line running to the nape
and margined with white and chestnut ; behind each eye a white spot,
and lower down a stripe of the same colour ; rest of the head, throat
and neck bluish-black, with an imperfect collar of white margined
with black ; in a line with the closed wing a broader but much shorter
crescentic half-band of white (the collar and bands are too extensive
in the wood-cut) ; upper parts chiefly bluish-black, with some white
stripes and spots on the scapulars, secondaries and wing-coverts ;
wing-patch purple ; breast and abdomen dark greyish-brown ; flanks
rich chestnut ; a small white spot on each side of the tail-coverts ;
bill bluish-black ; i rides orange ; legs and feet lead-colour. Length
1 7 in. ; wing 8 in. The female is smaller, of a nearly uniform brown-
colour above, mottled on the front of the neck ; at the base of the
bill and behind each eye are patches of white, varying in purity ;
belly dull white.

ANATID.^.

459

--Aw-A'\'"^'^^^' ■

.. N^\,S\K\.^\ 7

THE EIDER DUCK.

SoMATERiA MOLLissiMA (Linnceus).

The Eider Duck is only a winter-visitor in somewhat small
numbers to Wales and the western and southern coasts of England,
but along the east side it gradually becomes more abundant north-
ward, and along the coast of Northumberland, especially on the
Fame Islands, it has been known for centuries as a breeding bird.
In Scotland it nests in suitable localities up to the Orkneys and
Shetlands ; while in the Outer Hebrides it is decidedly increasing,
and it breeds freely on Tiree, as well as on Colonsay, Jura and Islay,
and in some localities in Argyll. On the Irish coast only about
thirty-six examples have been obtained, chiefly in cold weather.

This species is abundant in Iceland, the Faeroes, and Norway,
where it is protected by law ; thence northward it can be traced to
Jan Mayen, Spitsbergen and Franz Josef Land. It also breeds on
both islands of Novaya Zemlya, but it is rare at the mouth of the
Yenesei ; while eastward it is not known to extend beyond Cape
Chelyuskin, and has not been found by recent travellers at the
mouth of the Lena or in Kamchatka. Bering Sea is inhabited by a

460 EIDER DUCK.

larger species, Soniateria v-nignon, the male of which has a black
chevron under the chin. A form distinguished as S. mollissima
horealis inhabits Greenland up to kit. 81° N., and goes westward as
far as the Coppermine River in Arctic America ; while in Southern
Labrador, and down to the Delaware in winter, is found S. dresseri,
Sharpe, which has the bare space near the base of the bill rounded
rather than triangular, and the sides of the crown greener ; an
example of this form, obtained by Mr. T. M. Pike in Holland, is in
Mr. Hart's museum at Christchurch, Hants. In winter our Eider
occurs irregularly on the coasts of Europe, and exceptionally as far
south as the Adriatic and other portions of the Mediterranean ;
occasionally on inland waters.

The nest is usually among coarse herbage on low islands at no
great distance from water ; but it has occasionally been found a mile
or even more inland, and also at upwards of 1,000 feet above sea-
level. The materials are grasses, fine sea-weed, and sometimes
heather, while during incubation, which lasts about 28 days, the
celebrated down is gradually added. The duck, when disturbed,
squirts a stinking liquid over her eggs ; these, 5-8 in number, vary
from greenish-grey to bright green : measurements 3 in. by 2 in.
Towards the end of May, when the ducks begin to sit, the drakes
leave them and form small parties. The food, obtained by
diving, consists of mussels — some of which, swallowed entire, are
2\ in. in length — crustaceans, and sea-weed ; while, in confinement,
worms, slugs and the raw flesh of other birds are freely eaten.
Several broods have been hatched in the Zoological Gardens.

The adult male in very early spring has the bill greenish ; down
its centre halfway to the nostrils there reaches a wedge of black
feathers, like those of the sides of the bill, forehead and crown,
the last being bisected by a white line running to the pale green
nape and divided by another white line from a green patch on each
side of the neck ; cheeks, back and wing-coverts white ; long sickle-
shaped secondaries yellowish-white ; quills, rump and tail nearly
black, with a patch of white on each side of the last ; breast rosy-
buff; belly black; legs and toes dull green. In summer the white
feathers are shed, and the back becomes nearly black. Length
23 in. ; wing 11 in. The female is chiefly buff with dark bars, but
is very ruddy in first plumage ; quills and tail-feathers dull black.

The front figure in the wood-cut represents an old male, and an
immature bird of the same sex is in the background. The male
does not attain full plumage until the third spring.

ANATID7E.

461

THE KING-EIDER.

SoMATERiA SPECTABiLis (Linnseus).

The King-Eider is an inhabitant of the Arctic regions, and its
visits to our coasts are rare, though naturally more frequent in the
north than in the south. Mr. J. H. Gurney has a female which was
purchased — freshly killed — in Leadenhall Market by the late Mr.
Gatcombe, who had previously seen an immature bird at Plymouth ;
in Norfolk a young male was obtained in January 1888, and two
females were shot in November 1890; and a bird was killed at
Bridlington in Yorkshire as long ago as August 1850. At the Fame
Islands, which seem very attractive to this species, adults of both
sexes have been observed from time to time in summer, and mature
drakes were secured in November 1873 and April 1885, respectively.
In Scotland birds have been obtained or identified by competent
observers off the coasts of Haddingtonshire and the Firths of Forth
and Tay ; while in the Orkneys four have been taken (two of them
in spring). In Ireland, Kingstown Harbour, Belfast Lough, Rathlin
Island and Achill Island have each yielded a specimen ; all of them
in winter and at long intervals.

Even on the shores of Holland, Denmark and the Baltic the
King-Eider is very rare ; but there is a specimen in the Museum

462 KINCx-EIDER.

at Boulogne, and one was obtained near Venice on August 21st 1888.
It is only a visitor to Iceland, the Faeroes and the coast of Norway,
and there is as yet no proof of its breeding in Spitsbergen, which,
however, it frequents ; but it nests on Kolguev, Novaya Zemlya, and
along the Arctic shores of Siberia as far as Bering Sea. Crossing
eastward to America, it has been found in summer nearly as far
north as man has penetrated, and its southern nesting-limit is in
the Province of Quebec ; while in winter it occurs on the coast of
America as well as on the great fresh-water lakes, down to the latitude
of New York, and it has been recorded from California. In West
Greenland it nests near Godhavn and Upernavik, though by no
means so plentiful there as the Common Eider.

The nest is similar to that of our Eider, and the eggs, which are
not known to exceed 6 in number, present the same varied shades
of green ; but they are decidedly smaller, measuring about 2 "6 by
I "9 in. The food consists chiefly of crustaceans and molluscs.

The adult male has the bill and the naked basal tubercle orange-
red, the latter margined with black ; cheeks sea-green and white ;
top of the head and nape bluish-grey ; neck buffish-white ; upper back
whiter ; wing-coverts white, showing conspicuously on the otherwise
sooty wing ; the elongated black inner secondaries falling in curves
over the primaries ; lower back and upper tail-coverts black ; tail-
feathers dark brown ; under the chin a black chevron ; front of neck
white ; upper breast rich buff; lower breast, belly, and under surface
black, except a white patch on each flank ; legs and toes orange-red,
webs darker. Length 21 in. ; wing 10-5 in. The female has the beak
greenish ; the entire plumage of two shades of brown, the darker
colour occupying the centre of each feather of the back, while the
margins are bright rufous ; the brown on the head and neck being
rather lighter. She is smaller than the female of the Common
Eider, and the central lines of feathers on the upper mandible run
as far as a line with the nostrils, though more in the direction of
the commisures of the bill, whereas in the female Common Eider
these lines hardly reach half way. The plumage of the young drake
is at first like that of the female, but afterwards the head and neck
become yellowish-grey, spotted with black, and a great deal of the
latter colour appears on the upper as well as the under parts, while
the buff gorget becomes well defined, but no white appears on the
wing-coverts till much later. The male does not attain full plumage
until nearly four years old.

ANATID.^.

463

STELLER'S EIDER.

SOMATERIA STELLERI (Pallas).

This Arctic species, formerly called Steller's Western Duck, occa-
sionally wanders to the temperate portions of Europe in winter, and
has twice occurred in England. The first example, a male in nearly
adult plumage, was killed on February loth 1830, at Caistor in
Norfolk, and having been afterwards presented to the Norwich
Museum by the Rev. George Stewart, formed the subject of
Yarrell's (and the present) illustration. The second was shot while
sitting alone on the sea off Filey Brigg, Yorkshire, on August 15th
1845, by the late Mr. G. N. Curzon, and is in the collection of his
brother, Lord Scarsdale, at Kedleston, where I have examined it.
This bird was beginning to moult, the white feathers on the head
and the black marks on the chin and neck — characteristic of the
male — being just visible ; but the upper parts are still in the imma-
ture plumage, which resembles that of the female.

Steller's Eider is said to have been obtained in 1855 between
Calais and Boulogne ; four examples have been shot off Heligoland,
and two in Denmark ; while in the Baltic it is sometimes not
uncommon. To the unfrozen waters on the coast of Norway it is an
annual winter-visitant, and its most westerly breeding-place is said

464 STf:LLER's EIDER.

to be on the Varanger Fjord, just east of the North Cape ; it is,
moreover, reported as nesting on the coast of Russian Finmark, and
eggs and down are asserted to have been taken at Petschinka in 1870.
There is, however, no record of it on Novaya Zemlya, nor along
the Arctic coast of Siberia until the Taimyr Peninsula is reached,
where Middendorff found the bird common and breeding on the
'tundras.' Dr. A. Bunge saw flocks in June at Great Liakoff Island,
lat. 73° N., to the east of the Lena delta, and had two eggs brought to
him on July 4th ; and the ' Vega ' expedition procured specimens in
July close to Bering Strait, north of which this species is common ;
while it can be traced down the coast of Kamchatka — where the
bird was first obtained by Steller — to the Kuril Islands in winter.
In the Aleutian Islands and the north of Alaska it is very abundant,
but eastward it is only sparsely distributed along the American shores
of the Arctic Sea to Davis Strait ; while it is very rare in West
Greenland, and unknown on the east side.

Middendorff describes the nest as cup-shaped and lined with
down, placed in the moss on the fiat ' tundras ' ; the eggs, 7-9 in
number, are of a pale greenish-grey colour : measurements 2 "2 by
I "6 in. The food consists of marine insects and molluscs. As far
as is known, the bird chiefly frequents deep clear sea-water ; and in
winter it is found in small flocks, which are sometimes joined by a
solitary King-Eider, the only Duck with which this species has been
seen to associate.

The adult male has the head and upper neck chiefly satin-white ;
lores and crescentic tuft across the occiput dull green, the latter
tipped with black ; chin black ; round the neck a collar of bluish-
black, ending in a broad stripe which passes down the middle of
the back to the upper tail-coverts ; quills and tail-feathers brown ;
secondaries partly white, with a rich dark blue patch ; the decurved
inner secondaries and long falcated scapulars white on the inner
and rich blue on the outer webs ; below the point of the wing some
white feathers tipped with black ; middle of breast and belly rich
chestnut-brown, passing into warm buff on the front, sides and
flanks ; vent and under tail-coverts dark brown ; bill, legs and
feet dark grey. Length 18 in. ; wing 8"5 in. The female is dark
brown, mottled with rufous, especially about the neck and breast ;
the greater coverts and the secondaries have white tips, forming
two bars, which enclose between them a bluish-black wing-patch.
The plumage of the immature drake is described on p. 463.

ANATID.B.

465

THE COMMON SCOTER.
CEdemia nigra (Linnsus).

A comparatively small number of immature Common or Black
Scoters may be observed on our coasts during the entire summer,
but the autumn and winter months are those in which this species
is really abundant, and nowhere more so than along the eastern
side of Great Britain. At times its flocks almost blacken the sea
between this country and Holland, while they are also very plenti-
ful in the English Channel ; but not many enter the bays, except
in coarse weather, though storm-driven birds occasionally take
refuge on inland waters. On the coast of Wales, as well as in the
west of England and Scotland, the Scoter is less plentiful, except on
the shallows of Morecambe Bay and on the Solway, where thousands
are sometimes seen ; it is comparatively rare in the Hebrides, except
at Tiree, where it bred in 1897 ; and it is not numerous in the
Orkneys or the Shetlands. In spring the majority take their depar-
ture for the north of Europe, but a few remain to breed in Caith-
ness, Sutherland, and the north-west of Rosshire. In Ireland the
species is abundant every winter on the marine loughs from Dundalk
northward, and south-westward to Connaught, but in the south it is
comparatively uncommon.

The Scoter visits the F?eroes and nests sparingly in Iceland, while
it is generally distributed during summer in the northern portions
of Scandinavia, Russia, and Siberia as far as the Taimyr and

o o

466 COMMON SCOTER.

Boganida. When the Baltic is frozen it is found in vast flocks on
the coast of Friesland, and is hardly less numerous off Holland,
Belgium and Northern France. Along the Atlantic sea-board of
Europe it is of regular occurrence in winter, reaching as far to the
south-west as the Azores ; and it is also met with up the Mediter-
ranean as far as Tunisia, but is rare on the shores of Provence and
Italy. On the inland waters of the Continent it is less frequent
than the Velvet-Scoter, but it visits the Swiss lakes and appears to
cross the Alps to the Adriatic at intervals ; while an important line
of migration runs along the valley of the Volga to the Caspian, and
Canon Tristram found the species on the coast of Palestine in winter.
Throughout North America the representative is a closely-allied
species, ffi. americana, in which the entire protuberance at the
base of the bill is orange-yellow ; this form ranges across the Pacific
to Kamchatka and the Kuril Islands, where it breeds, visiting Japan
and the Corea in winter.

The nest, usually placed on an island in a fresh-water lake, or
among the heathery bogs in the vicinity, is composed of grass
and moss with a lining of down ; the eggs, laid during the first half
of June, are 6-9 in number, and yellowish-white in colour : measure-
ments 2*5 by I '8 in. The food consists chiefly of molluscs, which
the bird obtains by diving, and it generally approaches the shore
with each flood-tide for the purpose of satisfying its appetite ; the
flesh is oily and seldom eaten in this country. Like the rest of the
genus, the Common Scoter dives well, and remains a considerable
time under water. The call-note of the male during the breeding-
season is rendered by Faber as tii-tu-tu-tii, the female answering
with a harsh re-7-e-i'e-re-re.

The adult male has the central ridge of the upper mandible
orange-yellow, the knob and the rest of the bill black ; irides dark
hazel ; upper plumage deep glossy-black, under surface duller ; legs,
toes and webs dusky-black. Length 20 in. ; wing 9 in. The female
has the crown and upper parts sooty-brown, the margins of the wing-
coverts a little lighter ; chin dirty white ; cheeks and sides of the
neck greyish-brown ; lower part of the neck, breast, abdomen, vent
and under tail-coverts dark brown ; no knob and no orange ridge on
the bill; legs and toes dusky-olive, webs almost black. Young birds
of the year, at the approach of their first winter, have the cheeks,
chin, sides and front of the neck dull greyish-white, while the under
surface of the body is mottled with white and brown.

anatida:.

467

THE VELVET-SCOTER.

CEdemia fusca (Linnceus).

The Velvet-Scoter, easily distinguished from the preceding species
by its larger size and the conspicuous white band on the wing, is
far less numerous on our coasts in autumn and winter ; but Mr.
Cordeaux has observed that in Lynn and Boston ' deeps ' a pair or
two are found associating with almost every flock of Common
Scoters, and I have noticed the same off Southport in Lancashire.
Along the south of England it is not infrequent, though never very
plentiful, while it seems to be rare in the west and in Wales ; occa-
sionally it visits inland waters. It is of irregular occurrence in
winter off Northumberland, and there, as well as in the Firth of
Forth and St. Andrews Bay, non-breeding birds have been observed
throughout the summer. As a rule the Velvet Scoter is more
abundant on the east side of Scotland than on the west, and it is
common in some of the Orkneys ; yet it is an unusual visitor to
the Shetlands, while it is rare in the Hebrides. There is some slight
evidence that a few pairs have bred in parts of the northern High-

002

46S VELVET-SCOTER.

lands. At sea off the northern and eastern coasts of Ireland this
species is not uncommon, but on the west side it is almost unknown.

To the Faeroes the Velvet-Scoter is a very rare wanderer, and
it has not yet been obtained in Iceland, and only once in Greenland.
In Scandinavia and Northern Russia it is common on the lakes of
the interior during the summer, and according to Taczanowski it
breeds as far south as Podolia, while Naumann states that it occa-
sionally nests in Mecklenburg. In winter it visits the Baltic, the
North Sea, and the waters of Western Europe ; and on migration it
crosses the Alps to the Adriatic, also reaching the Black Sea and the ■
Caspian. In Siberia Mr. Popham found it as far east as the mouth ■
of the Yenesei ; but the representative species in Eastern Siberia is
CE. carbo, which visits Japan and China in winter and may occur in
Alaska. Throughout North America the representative species is
(E. velvetina {(E. degiafidi) — a rather smaller bird, the male of
which presents some differences in the form of the bill.

The nest, seldom made before the end of June, is placed in a
dry spot under some bush or tree, often at a considerable distance
from fresh water, and is lined with leaves and down. The eggs,
8-10 in number, are of a clear creamy-white and rather large for
the size of the bird: measurements 275 by i"9 in. As a rule
the Velvet-Scoter keeps further out at sea than the preceding species,
during the winter ; it dives deeper, and remains down longer. Its
food consists largely of molluscs, and its flesh is rank.

The adult male has the plumage velvet-black, except a small
white patch behind each eye and a conspicuous white bar across
each wing (which gives the bird when flying the appearance of an
old Blackcock) ; bill apricot-yellow, with an elevated black basal
tubercle, from which a narrow dark line runs diagonally above each
nostril to the nail and is continued backwards to the gape ; irides
white; legs and toes orange-red, webs black. Length 22 in.;
wing 1075 in. In the female the upper plumage is sooty-brown,
and the under parts are lighter ; there is a large dull white patch
before — and a smaller one behind — each eye ; the white wing-bar is
less defined than in the male, and the bill is dark lead-colour with a
smaller basal tubercle : legs and toes dull red. The young are like
the female.

ANATID.^.

469

THE SURF-SCOTER.

CEdemia perspicillata (Linnseus).

The Surf-Scoter is a North American bird which has not infre-
quently wandered in the cold season to our coasts — especially to
the western side, where the influence of the Gulf Stream is felt.
Since 1838, when its occurrence in British waters was first recorded
by Blyth, two examples have been obtained near Weymouth,
three in South Devon, one in Cornwall, two in the Scilly Islands,
a young male off Lytham in Lancashire on December 9th 1882, an
adult drake at Crofton in Cumberland, and a bird near Stornoway
in the Hebrides during the winter of 1865. But its favourite haunts
between autumn and spring appear to be in the Orkneys, where
at least six specimens have been obtained during the last twenty
years, while a far larger number have been identified by thoroughly
competent observers. In the Shetlands it has not yet been procured,
but Robert Dunn stated that he made unavailing attempts to get
within shot of a male in Roeness Voe in June 1847, On the east
side of Scotland, one was shot in the Firth of Forth in 1852, and
Gould seems to have obtained one earlier. In Ireland several were
seen on Belfast Lough during September 1846, one of them being
now in the museum of that town ; a bird was obtained at Clontarf,

47°. SURF-SCOTER.

CO. Dublin, in October 1880; and Mr. R. M. Barrington recorded
(Zool. 1889, p. 32) the capture of a female or young male in Crook-
haven Harbour, co. Cork, on November 5th 1888. Mr. J. R.
Sheridan seems to have obtained a female off Achill Island ; and
Mr. R. \Varren has described (Zool. 1897, p. 84) the capture of a
male and a female in the estuary of the Moy.

This species has occurred once in the Faeroes, once in Norway,
several times in Swedish Lapland, and once in the Gulf of Bothnia ;
a bird killed off Heligoland is in the Gatke collection, and many
examples have been obtained in various winters along the north
coast of France. To Greenland the Surf-Scoter is only a straggler,
and it is also rare in the extreme north-east of Siberia. Throughout
America to the north of about lat. 45°, it is found during summer
from the Atlantic to the Pacific ; while in the cold season it visits
Lower California and the Great Lakes, follows the eastern sea-board
as far as Florida, and occasionally reaches the Bermudas and Jamaica.

The nest is usually built on the margin of a lake, or concealed
beneath the lower branches of a stunted pine-tree ; and the eggs,
from 6-8 in number, laid in the latter part of June, are of an ivory-
white colour: measurements 2*3 by i"6 in. The food consists
chiefly of small bivalves, for which the bird dives with great
assiduity amidst the tumbling surf to which it is partial ; while it
seldom, if ever, visits inland or sheltered waters. Exceptionally,
the Surf-Scoter has been known to fly against the lanterns of light-
houses in America. By the gunners and fishermen in New
England it is, like many other Sea-Ducks, known as " Coot," with
such distinguishing prefixes as "skunk-headed," "hollow-billed," or
" spectacled."

The adult male has the general plumage deep black, the under
parts somewhat sooty in their tint ; on the forehead a broad patch
of white, with another of the same colour on the nape ; bill chiefly
orange-red — deeper above the nostrils — with a square patch of black
on each side of the upper mandible ; iris straw-yellow ; legs and feet
orange-red, webs dark olive. Length 21 in. ; wing 9-5 in. The
female differs in having the plumage of a dull brown colour, which is
lightest about the cheeks — on which two white spots are sometimes
present — and on the under parts, while the white patch on the nape
is less defined ; bill dark olive ; legs and toes yellowish-orange, webs
greyish-brown. Li the young the white patches on the cheeks are
said to be more pronounced than in the adult female, but there is
great individual variation in the plumage of this species. An albino
has been recorded by Dr. C. Hart Merriam.

ANATID.^..

471

THE GOOSANDER.

Mergus ^ierganser, Linn?eus.

In England this species, the largest of the British 'Saw-bills,' is
known as a visitor to estuaries and fresh-water lakes during the cold
season, and sometimes remains in Norfolk until May. In the east
it is more plentiful than the Red-breasted Merganser, but in the
south, and on the waters of Wales, it is of somewhat irregular
occurrence. In Scotland, besides occurring in winter, it has for
some years been known to nest in Sutherland and down to the Great
Glen, as well as in Strathspey and elsewhere in the Highlands ; but
in the Shetlands, Orkneys and Outer Hebrides it is rare at any
season. To Ireland it is only an irregular visitor, though sometimes
seen on inland waters in small flocks during severe frosts.

Though not yet recorded from Greenland, and seldom seen in
the Faroes, the Goosander breeds and is said to be resident in
Iceland. It is common throughout the summer in Scandinavia,
Finland, and Northern Russia as far south as the Ural and Central
Volga districts ; it nests sparingly in hollow trees where the forests
come down to the water in Denmark, as well as in the north-
eastern provinces of Germany ,; and it also breeds in Switzerland on
the lakes of Bienne, Neuchatel, Morat and Constance. In winter it
occurs on the waters of the Continent as far as the south of Spain,

472 GOOSANDER.

as well as in North-western Africa ; but it is uncommon in the
Mediterranean, except in the Adriatic branch, which it reaches by
crossing the Alps. It is tolerably plentiful in the Black Sea, and
eastward it can be traced across Siberia to Kamchatka, its breeding-
range reaching as far south as the elevated lakes of Central Asia,
inclusive of those on the northern side of the Himalayas ; while in
the cold season the bird is found down to about lat. 22° N. in China.
North America is inhabited by a closely-allied sub-species, the adult
male of which shows a distinct black band about half-way across the
wing-patch.

Toward the end of April in Denmark and East Prussia, but
somewhat later in Sweden, the Goosander lays its eggs in hollow
trees, or avails itself of the nesting-boxes set up by the natives for
various species of Ducks ; while in Scotland a hole in the trunk
of a tree (frequently an alder), a recess beneath gnarled roots, a
hole in a peat-bog, or sometimes a sheltered ledge of rock, are the
localities selected. The down is greyish-white; the eggs, 8-13 in
number, are of a creamy- or buff-white, very different from the
greenish-drab of those of the Red-breasted Merganser : measure-
ments 2 '6 by I "8 in. Booth remarked that until the young attained
the age of a month or five weeks, the female usually kept them in
the shallows, where there was less danger of their falling victims to
their great enemy, the pike ; he also noticed that although the
young birds had no pinion-feathers, they appeared, on rising after a
dive, to flap along the surface for a yard or two, striking the water
with their feet. The note is described by Mr. Oswin Lee as a
harsh karrr. The food consists almost entirely of fish.

The adult male has the greater part of the bill blood-red ; irides
red ; head and upper neck glossy bottle-green ; lower neck and the
entire under parts white, tinged with salmon-pink ; upper back and
scapulars black ; wing-coverts chiefly white ; primaries and some of
the secondaries ash-brown ; lower back and tail ash-grey ; legs and
toes orange-red. Length 26 in. ; wing 11 in. The female has the
head — with its small crest — and the upper neck reddish-brown ;
chin dull white ; upper parts chiefly ash-grey, with dark brown inner
secondaries and quills, and a white wing-patch ; under parts buffish-
white, mottled with ash-grey on the sides ; bill, legs and feet duller
than in the male. Length 24 in. ; wing 10 in. The young at first
resemble the female, but a rudimentary dark collar soon makes its
appearance in the drakes ; these do not attain their full plumage
until the second year.

ANATID^.

473

THE RED-BREASTED MERGANSER.

Mergus serrator, Linnseus.

The Red-breasted Merganser is generally distributed during the
winter along the shores of England and ^^'ales ; but, unlike the
Goosander, it is not partial at that season to inland waters, though
sometimes observed far up tidal rivers. In Scotland it is resident,
and breeds in considerable numbers on the fresh-water lochs as
well as on the coasts of the northern and western districts of the
mainland, especially in Ross and Sutherland ; while it is abundant in
the Hebrides and Orkneys, though less frequent in the Shetlands.
In Ireland, where it is known as " Sheld-Duck," and occasionally as
" Spear-Wigeon " from the sharp serrated bill, it nests regularly on
most of the large loughs, and in many localities along the sea-board;
while hundreds may sometimes be seen together in severe weather.

This species breeds in Greenland, Iceland, the Faroes, Scandi-
navia, Northern Russia, and — sparingly — on the islands of the
Baltic, as well as along its southern shores. In winter it visits the
lakes and large rivers of the Continent, though less plentiful there
than the Goosander ; yet on the coasts it is more numerous, and it
is by no means rare throughout the Mediterranean, migrating as far
as the waters of Algeria and Egypt. It ranges across Northern

474 RKD-BREASTED MERGANSER.

Siberia to the Pacific in summer, and to Japan and China in
winter ; but in India, where the Goosander is common during the
cold season, the Red-breasted Merganser is either exceedingly rare
or has been overlooked, for only a single example, obtained off
Karachi, is on record. In America it inhabits the northern dis-
tricts from the Pacific to the Atlantic, reaching as far south in
summer as about lat. 45° N., while its winter-range extends to the
Bermudas.

The nest is well concealed in heather, brushwood or long grass,
and may be at the end of a small tunnel which leads to the middle
of a thick growth of briars ; sometimes it is in the burrow of a
Sheld-Duck, or among broken lava in Iceland ; and exceptionally it
is almost open to the sky. The lining consists of drab-coloured
down ; the eggs, usually laid in the latter part of May and seldom
more than 10 in number, are drab-coloured with a greenish tinge :
measurements 2-5 by 17 in. After the young are hatched the male
may often he seen at no great distance from the female and brood,
but if approached he soon departs ; the mother, on the contrary,
remains with the young, diving and doubling in the water with
marvellous rapidity. The Merganser swims very low ; on land,
according to the late Mr. A. C. Chapman, it sits nearly upright. It
feeds by day, chiefly on small fish, including trout and salmon-fry ;
its flesh is extremely unpalatable.

The adult male has the bill and irides red ; the head, with its long
filamentous crest, and the upper neck, dark glossy-green ; below this,
a white collar, divided on the nape by a narrow black line running
to the back, which is also black ; near the point of the wing a
conspicuous tuft of white feathers broadly edged with black ; the long
falcated inner scapulars black, and the outer ones chiefly white ;
wing-patch white, barred with black ; rump, flanks, and tail-coverts
vermiculated with grey ; lower neck pale chestnut-brown, streaked
with black : under parts white ; legs and toes reddish-orange.
Length 24 in. ; wing 9"5 in. The female is smaller, with a very
distinct black bar across the wing-patch, and has the head and neck
of a reddish-brown : like the duck Goosander, which she somewhat
resembles, though her back is browner, and her dimensions are
much less, the length of her wing being only 9 in. The young
resemble her in plumage, but males may be recognized by a per-
ceptible enlargement at the base of the trachea ; they do not attain
their full dress till after their second autumn moult. The old drakes
lose their bridit colours in summer.

ANATID/E.

475

THE SMEW.

Mergus albellus, Linnaeus.

The Smew, or Smee — sometimes called Nun, from the sharply
contrasted plumage of the male — is the smallest member of the
genus, and the least numerous of the three " Saw-bills " which
frequent our islands. Young birds and females, known to fisher-
men as Red-headed Smews, are not uncommon in winter along the
eastern side of England and Scotland, but males in full dress are
seldom met with, as they keep further out at sea, and rarely approach
the shore, except in very severe weather. In the south this species
is of tolerably regular occurrence on the sheltered estuaries and
inland waters ; but it is comparatively scarce along the west coast
of England and Wales, and also of Scotland, save round the Inner
Hebrides. In the Orkneys it is not uncommon, but it is seldom
seen in the Shetlands. To Ireland it is an irregular visitor — chiefly
to fresh-water — in the cold season.

This species is not known in the Freroes, Iceland or Greenland,
and even in winter is seldom found on the coast of Norway or of
that portion of Sweden which lies outside the Baltic ■. though on
its south-westerly migrations it skirts the Atlantic sea-board of
Europe and reaches Morocco. The extensive lakes of Switzerland

476 SMEW.

and Central Europe prove attractive to a tolerable number, and
many pass down the Rhone valley to the Mediterranean, where the
bird is generally distributed in winter. Its western breeding-limit
appears to be in Finnish Lapland, and there Wolley obtained the
first authenticated eggs on record ; it also nests in Northern Russia
and for a considerable distance southward along the Ural ]Moun-
tains ; while lines of migration run down to the ^'f^gean, the Black
Sea, and the Caspian. In summer the Smew is found across
Siberia up to the limit of forest-growth, and in cold weather it visits
Japan, China, and Northern India. An ancient specimen in the
British Museum is said to have come from " North America."

It was only after four years of arduous research, and persistent
inquiry respecting the breeding habits of the " Uinilo," as the Finns
call the Smew, that Wolley succeeded in obtaining three eggs, which,
with the female bird, had been taken from a hollow in an old rotten
birch-stump, on June 8th 1857 ; while four more belonging to the
same clutch were afterwards sent to him. In 1S75 Messrs. Harvie-
Brown and Seebohm had four eggs brought to them at Habariki on
the Petchora, a little south of the Arctic circle, and they afterwards
procured from the nest some of the down, which is white. The
eggs are cream-coloured, like those of the Wigeon, but they have a
close-grained surface, and are much heavier, though slightly smaller :
measurements 2 in. by i"45 in. The food consists of fish, crus-
taceans &c. The Smew, like the rest of the genus, is an excellent
diver, but it walks with difficulty, owing to the backward position of
its legs.

The adult male in spring has the short bill slate-blue, with a white
nail ; irides reddish ; round each eye a black patch ; forehead,
crown and elongated crest satin-white, the latter set off by a
triangular patch of greenish-black ; throat, neck, and under parts
white ; back black, with a crescentic mottled band of the same
colour stretching over each side of the shoulders and another in
front of each wing ; scapulars white, margined with black ; lesser
wing-coverts white ; greater coverts black, with two narrow white
bars ; quills and tail-feathers blackish-brown ; flanks finely vermicu-
lated with grey; legs and toes lead-colour. In June the female
plumage is assumed and is retained until the autumn. Length
17*5 in. ; wing 7-6 in. The hen-bird is much smaller; she has a
black patch on the lores (not assumed till the second moult) ; head
reddish-brown, with a nuchal stripe and collar of ash-grey ; upper
parts much as in the male ; under parts pure white. In the young
the upper surface is mottled with grey.

ANATID/E.

477

THE HOODED MERGANSER.

Mergus cucullatus, Linnaeus.

There are several unauthenticated statements respecting the
occurrence of this North American species in British waters, but
the records upon which reliance can be placed are very few in
number. Eyton, in his ' History of the Rarer British Birds ' (p. 75),
has described and figured a Hooded Merganser which he obtained
in the Menai Straits, North Wales, in the winter of 1830-31. In
Ireland, Mr. Ussher has not been able to find, among the birds at
Chute Hall, Tralee, the specimen said to have been killed in Dingle
Bay, CO. Kerry, about 1840 ; while he has been equally unsuccessful
with regard to an immature bird stated by Watters to have been
shot in CO. Meath. Sir R. Payne-Gallwey, however, has had the good
fortune to secure no fewer than three (' Fowler in Ireland,' p. 121).
Of the latter, a pair haunted a creek in Cork Harbour during the
severe frost of December 1878, in company with some Red-breasted
Mergansers ; but though he had ample opportunities of observing
through a glass their motions when feeding and flying, they were
too wild to allow of his approach within range, until one day when
they were deserted by their companions. He killed the third bird
during yet more severe weather in January 1881, on the north coast
of Kerry ; while he heard of a solitary individual being shot near
Sligo the same winter, but believes that it was not preserved. From
what he saw of those he procured, they appeared to fly faster and

478 HOODED MERGANSER.

with a more darting motion than their congeners, though diving
with equal facility ; on one occasion, however, a crippled Hooded
Merganser made no effort to submerge itself, but swam low in the
water like a wounded Teal, with the crest laid flat and the head
looking small and black, very unlike its usually bushy aspect. For
the evidence that Hoy obtained a male in Norfolk in the winter
of 1837-38, reference may be made to Stevenson's 'Birds of
Norfolk,' iii. p. 228.

There is no authenticated instance of the occurrence of the
Hooded Merganser on the Continent, nor, so far as I can discover,
in Greenland, to which this species is stated by the authors of ' The
Water Birds of North America ' to be an occasional visitor. In
winter it reaches Mexico, Cuba and the Bermudas ; it is abundant
in the Carolinas, which form its southern breeding-limit ; and north-
ward it is found up to the St. Lawrence on the east and Alaska on
the west, within the limits of forest-growth.

As far as our present knowledge goes, the Hooded Merganser
invariably makes its nest in the hollows of trees, and lines it with
down, which, according to Mr. G. A. Boardman, is dark-coloured,
and not white, as the down of birds which nest in holes usually is.
The 5-8 eggs are of a pure ivory-white, and of an oval or almost
globular form: measurements 2"i by 175 in. This species feeds
on fish ; the localities it affects are fresh-water ponds in summer,
and deep creeks on the sea-coast in winter.

The adult male has the bill black ; irides bright yellow ; head and
upper neck black, ornamented with a semi-circular crest in which
the posterior half is white edged with black ; back and wing-coverts
black ; quills, rump and tail-feathers dark brown ; the elongated and
slender scapulars and the inner secondaries white, edged with black,
lower neck in front white, with two black crescentic bands descend-
ing from the upper part of the back and directed forwards ; belly,
vent and under tail-coverts white ; sides waved with yellowish-brown ;
legs and feet dull red. Length about 19 in.; wing 775 in. The
female is rather smaller in size, and has an elongated reddish-brown
crest ; head, hind neck, back, and wings dark brown ; chin white ;
neck in front pale brown, the edges of the feathers lighter in colour;
under parts white ; bill, irides and feet, as in the male. The young
resemble the female for the first year, but during the second the
black and white about the head appears in the drakes, and in the
third spring their plumage is complete.

COLUMBID.^.

479

THE RINCx-DOVE OR WOOD-PIGEON.

COLUMKA PALUMBUS, LinilffiUS.

The Ring-Dove — so called from the white feathers on the neck
of the adult — is also well-known in many parts of England as the
Wood-Pigeon, and in the North as the Cushat or Queest. Owing
to the large amount of land now under turnips and other green
crops which supply food during the inclement months, as well as
to the increase of coverts and the destruction of birds of prey, the
numbers of this voracious species have so far been augmented as to
cause serious loss to agriculturists, especially in the Lothians, where
the bird was rare a century ago. Immense flights sometimes
arrive on the east coast from the Continent, and in October and
November 1884 the country between Berwick-on-Tweed and Yar-
mouth was infested by hungry hordes, while there was a large
migration in 1894. On the west side the Ring-Dove is less numerous,
though pushing northwards, breeding locally and sparingly in
the Outer Hebrides and Orkneys, and visiting the Shetlands. In
Ireland, as in Great Britain, it is generally distributed, and its

480 RING-DOVE.

numbers receive additions in winter. In London every park, and
nearly everv square, is now frequented by this species.

The Ring-Dove occasionally wanders to the Faeroes, and is found
in summer over the wooded districts of Europe up to lat. 65°-66° N. ;
but the northern birds migrate from the colder regions in winter,
and join those which are resident in the central and southern
districts as well as in Northern Africa. The nearer islands of the
Azores and Madeira seem to mark the western limit, while eastward
the range cannot be traced with certainty beyond long. 60*^ E., a
meridian which skirts the Ural Mountains and the Persian Gulf.

Breeding begins in March or early in April, while a second clutch
of eggs is usually laid in June, and a third brood is often produced
in October. The nest, slightly built of twigs laid cross-wise, is
placed in almost any kind of tree; frequently in thick ivy on cliffs
and old walls, commonly in bushes or hedge-rows, and sometimes on
former habitations of other birds or squirrels. The eggs, usually 2,
but exceptionally 3 in number, are oval and pure glossy white :
measurements i*6 by i"2 in. They are laid at intervals of two or
three days, and incubation lasts about seventeen ; the male, as a
rule, sitting in the day-time. The young are blind and helpless
till about the ninth day, and remain in the nest until able to fly ;
being fed at first with a curd-like secretion from the crops of their
parents, and afterwards by regurgitated food. Grain of all sorts,
peas, young clover, the leaves and bulbs of turnips, beech-nuts and
berries, with seeds of a good many plants, form the chief articles
of diet. The Ring-Dove is strictly monogamous, and in summer
is generally seen in pairs, but in cold weather it becomes gregarious.
Exceptionally it has been known to breed in confinement, and
also to produce a hybrid with the domestic Pigeon. Its note is the
well-known coo rod, coo coo.

The adult male has the head bluish-grey ; sides and back of the
neck glossed with violet and green, which is bounded on each side
by a patch of white ; mantle brownish-grey ; wing-coverts grey,
broadly edged with white, which forms a conspicuous bar ; lower
back slate-grey ; tail-feathers nearly black, except at their bases ;
breast rich vinous-purple, belly paler, flanks and vent ash-grey.
Length 17 in.; wing 10 in. The female is smaller and somewhat
duller in colour. The young before their first moult have no white
on the sides of the neck, and their tints are less pure, but the adult
plumage is assumed the first year. There is only one moult in
the year. Varieties more or less spotted with white, and even
perfect albinoes, are sometimes met with. Weight, from 17-26 ozs.

C0LUMBID.4i:.

THE STOCK-DOVE.

COLUMBA (iNAS, LinnGsus.

The Stock-Dove has often been confounded with the white-
rumped Rock-Dove, and the name has even been erroneously sup-
posed to signify that this species was the origin of our domestic
breeds, though the prefix really refers to the bird's habit of nesting
in the " stocks " of trees : whence also the Danish " Huldue " and
the German " Hohltaube," both meaning Hole-Dove. In England
the Stock-Dove has greatly increased in numbers of late years, and,
though somewhat local, is tolerably frequent in most districts where
old timber exists, especially in the remains of our ancient forests, and
also in our parks, even when close to London. It inhabits wooded
crags in the Isle of Wight as well as similar localities in Wales, the
cliffs of Dorset, some parts of Devon, Derbyshire, and even those near
Flamborough Head in Yorkshire. In treeless areas, such as are met
with in Suffolk, Norfolk, Lincolnshire, the East Riding of Yorkshire,
Lancashire, Cumberland &c., it deposits its eggs in rabbit-burrows,
or under the shelter of dense furze ; while in many places it is
persistently misnamed ' Rock-Dove ' or even ' Blue Rock ' by the
inhabitants. In Scotland, as long ago as 1885 it had extended its
range as a breeding-species to the sand-hills along the Moray and

p p

482 STOCK-DOVE.

Dornoch Firths, while it is now found in Sutherland and West Ross ;
and it has been obtained from time to time in the Orkneys and
Shetlands. In Ireland, where it was first recognised in 1875 by the
late Lord Clermont, and was supposed to be confined to the north-
east, it is now known to nest also in co. Wicklow and some of the
central districts. As a rule, it leaves the northern portions of our
islands in October and returns in March.

The Stock-Dove is found in Scandinavia, and in Russia up to
about lat. 60^-61° N. as far east as the Ural Mountains ; while in
many parts of Central Europe it is even more abundant than the
Ring-Dove. In the south, as well as in Northern Africa, it is
resident in limited numbers, though chiefly observed in winter as
a migrant from colder regions ; eastward it can be traced in Asia as
far as Eastern Turkestan and the edge of the Gobi desert.

As already mentioned, rabbit-burrows, pollards, holes in trees,
cliffs &:c., are used as nesting-places, to which may be added cross-
beams in old churches, matted ivy, former abodes of other birds,
and squirrels' dreys. The eggs — usually 2 in number, though 3
have been found — are of a rather more creamy tint than those of the
Ring- or the Rock-Dove: measurements i'5 by I'l in. They are
often laid by the middle of March, though usually in April, and
have been found as late as October. In length of incubation and
general habits this species resembles the Ring-Dove, but its note is
shorter and less distinct, and has been described as "grunting"; while
for its food the Stock-Dove consumes a larger proportion of the
seeds of charlock and other weeds, as well as also beech-mast. Its
flight is lighter and more rapid than that of its heavier and larger
congener. A bird which appeared to be a hybrid between a Stock-
Dove and a tame Pigeon was shot in Nottinghamshire (Zool. 1885,
p. 150); and Mr. Tomalin has recorded the pairing of a male
Stock-Dove with a Ring-Dove.

The Stock-Dove differs from the Ring-Dove in having no white
on the sides of the neck, and the nuchal patch of a greener tint ;
the vinous-purple on the breast hardly comes below the line of the
shoulders, while the lower parts are bluish-grey, as in the Rock-Dove;
there is no white on the wings, but some black spots on the inner
secondaries and wing-coverts form an imperfect bar ; the axillaries
and under wmg-coverts are grey. The whole length is only 13 '5 in. ;
wing 8-8 in. The female is slightly smaller than the male and her
colours are less brilliant. The young have no shining metallic
feathers on the neck before their first moult, and the dark spots on
the wing-feathers are scarcely visible. Weight, about 13 ozs.

COLUMBID.E.

48:

' i\ii\w,it>ft^l.itf*'\^^^^^^">^

THE ROCK-DOVE.

CoLUMBA LiviA, J. F. Giiielin.

The Rock-Dove is, I believe, only to be found in a truly wild
state in localities where caves or deep fissures exist, and such as
these are few and far between in the east and south of England.
Even in some places which appear to offer the requisite conditions
- — such as the Channel Islands — this species is little known ; while
it is very local in Devonshire, and only a few frequent the cliffs of
Cornwall. It can be traced along the coast of Wales and to one
spot in Cumberland, as well as to the Isle of Man, while on the
eastern sea-board it is found near Flamborough Head. Birds — •
apparently wild — sometimes frequent holes in cliffs inland, as well as
on the coast, but they are open to the suspicion of being partially
domesticated individuals which have reverted to a wild state, or
the descendants of such. Along the coast of Scotland, from St.
Abb's Head northward, the wild Rock-Dove is widely distributed ;
while in the Shetlands and Orkneys, as well as in the Hebrides, and
along the west side, almost every district has its " Ua' Caloman,"
or ' doo-cave.' In Ireland, especially among the rugged wave-
hollowed cliffs facing the Atlantic, the Rock-Dove is abundant, and
there the breed is found in all its purity.

In the Faeroes this species is plentiful, but in Scandinavia it is very

p p 2

484

ROCK-DOVE.

local, and in the rest of Europe it is decidedly uncommon, except
in mountainous regions, such as the Pyrenees and the various ranges
of Spain and Italy ; while even there, a considerable admixture of
semi-domesticated birds is apparent. Individuals from the Canaries
and the coasts and rocky islands in the west of the Mediterranean
have generally a distinct band of white on the croup, but, pro-
ceeding eastward, this has a tendency to become less pure and
narrower than in northern examples, until in specimens from the
Jordan valley that part is grey. Birds identical with our own have,
however, been obtained in Baluchistan, Afghanistan, Northern India
and Kashmir, but about Gilgit and eastward the representative is
C. riipestris. " There seems," says Darwin, " to be some relation
between the croup being blue or white, and the temperature of the
country inhabited by both wild and dovecot pigeons : for nearly all
the do\ecot pigeons in the northern parts of Europe have a white
croup like that of the wild European rock-pigeon ; and nearly all
the dovecot pigeons of India have a blue croup like that of the
wild C. intermedia of India."'

In the British Islands the favourite resorts of the Rock-Dove are
deep caverns, on the ledges of which a slight nest is constructed,
sometimes as early as :\Iarch : while young and even unhatched
eggs have been found in September, so that at least two broods must
be reared in the year. The 2 white eggs measure 1-5 by 1-15 in.
Like other members of the family, this species is partial to grain,
but it makes amends by eating the roots of the couch-grass
{Triticum repens), and the seeds of various troublesome weeds, as
well as considerable quantities of snails. It drinks frequently, and
both wild and tame Pigeons have been seen to settle on the water
like Gulls and drink whilst floating down stream. It has a marked
objection to alighting on trees— a peculiarity which is still shared by
its domesticated relatives.

In size and general hue the Rock-Dove much resembles the
Stock-Dove, but the green on the neck is prolonged to the throat ;
the mantle is of a paler grey ; two very distinct black bars cross
the wing-coverts and the secondaries : the croup is white, and the
black bar near the tip of the tail-feathers is much narrower than in
the Stock-Dove ; the upper breast is dark grey with hardly any tinge

of vinous; and the axillaries and under wing-coverts are luhite a

very conspicuous distinction in flight. As usual, females are slightly
smaller and duller than males ; while in the young the metallic tints
are wanting.

I

I

COLUMBID.E.

485

THE TURTLE-DOVE.

TuRTUR COMMUNIS, Sclby.

The Turtle-Dove is only a summer-visitor to the British Islands,
arriving in the southern districts about the end of April or early in
May, according to the nature of the season. In Cornwall, Western
Wales, and Lancashire it is infrequent, but it is abundant in the
eastern and midland counties, and is now of more or less regular
occurrence up to about the line of Sheffield, north of which it is
comparatively rare ; it has, however, been known to breed in Durham
and Cumberland, and is recorded as having done so in Northumber-
land. ^Moreover, it probably nests in the south-west of Scotland,
while its migrations have extended to the Shetlands and Orkneys

486 TURTLE-DOVE.

as well as to the Outer Hebrides. In Ireland, as yet it has hardly
been known to breed, but as a spring visitor it is on the increase.
Departure for the south usually takes place in September, but many
birds remain later, and one was even obtained on December 21st
1894 at Penrith (Macpherson) ; while Col. John Evans had a good
view of a bird near Horsham on February 8th 1898, the mildest
winter on record.

The Turtle-Dove has been obtained at Quickiock in Lapland,
but it is rare to the north of the Baltic, though generally distributed
throughout the rest of Europe, and especially abundant in the south
at the periods of migration. At that time it is also plentiful in Asia
Minor, Palestine and Persia, and has been obtained as far east as
Yarkand. Its Asiatic representative is T. orientalis, while the
Collared Turtle-Dove, T. risorius, so often seen in confinement,
has its western limit in Turkey. Our bird occurs in Madeira and its
islets, the Canaries, and Northern Africa ; even breeding in Egypt,
though there the more abundant species is T. isabellimis. Its
migrations extend to about lat. 12° N. in the Red Sea, and to the
highlands of Abyssinia.

The nest, very slightly constructed of slender twigs, is usually at
no great height from the ground, on the branches of a tree or a
thick bush : sometimes an old nest of a Rook is utilized (H. S.
Davenport). The 2 eggs, laid late in May or early in June, are of
a somewhat creamy-white and rather pointed at one end : measure-
ments I "2 by "9 in. The parents take turns in the task of incuba-
tion, which lasts about a fortnight, and two broods are sometimes
reared in the season. The Turtle-Dove is partial to grain, pulse,
and seeds, including those of numerous weeds ; like other members
of the family, it drinks regularly. Its flight is rapid, and, when
amongst trees, remarkably tortuous ; the note is a low plaintive coo,
uttered more especially by the cock bird.

The adult male has the head, nape, outer wing-coverts, rump
and flanks bluish-ash ; a conspicuous patch of black feathers
tipped with white on each side of the neck ; feathers of the mantle
chiefly cinnamon-brown with dark centres ; tail-feathers broadly
tipped with white ; throat and breast pale vinaceous ; belly and
under tail-coverts white. Length 11 '25; wing 6'8 in. The female
is rather smaller, and her tints are browner. In the young before
the moult in September (represented by the lower figure) there
is no white on the neck, and the upper plumage is suff'used with
l^rown.

COLUMBID.^.. 487

THE RUFOUS TURTLE-DOVE.

TuRTUR ORiENTALis (Latham).

At a meeting of the Zoological Society held on May 6th 1890,
the late Mr. Seebohm exhibited a bird of this species which,
according to a letter from Mr. J. Backhouse, had been obtained
near Scarborough on October 23rd 1889 ; at the same time and
place that a Red-breasted Flycatcher was shot (Pr. Z. S. 1890, p.
361). Through the kindness of Mr. Backhouse and the authorities
of the York Museum, I have recently examined this Turtle-Dove,
which is a bird of the year, and is the counterpart of one from the
mouth of the Amur, in Eastern Siberia, shot on October 13th, and
now in the British Museum (Natural History).

A young bird of this species was found in December 1842 among
some game from Herjeiidale in North Sweden ; and in October
1850 a similar example was caught alive near Piteii, in lat. 65^ N.
The latter was sent to Stockholm in 1851 and lived, under the care
of W. Meves, the well-known curator, until 1853, when, having
attained its full plumage, it was " made into a specimen." In Asia,
the Rufous Turtle-Dove is found from the base of the Eastern
Himalayas to Central India, Assam, Tipperah, North Burma, China
and Japan ; also in Manchuria, and in Southern Siberia from the
mouth of the Amur to the Upper Yenesei.

This bird is the T. meena of many writers on the birds of India,
where breeding seems to take place from December to April. The
eggs are oval, white and glossy : measurements 1*15 in. by "9 in.

The adult male is larger than our Turtle-Dove, and has the black
feathers on the sides of the neck tipped with bluish-grey instead of
white ; the breast and also the belly distinctly vinaceous ; the rump
slate-blue ; the under tail-coverts and the terminal band of the tail-
feathers lavender-grey. Length 13 in., wing 7*4 in. The female is
rather smaller. The young bird has no neck-patches, and its upper
parts are duller in colour, but the rump is distinctly slate-blue.

Five examples of the American Passenger-Pigeon, Ectopistes
migraforius, have been shot in the British Islands, but it may
reasonably be doubted whether any of them had crossed the
Atlantic in a wild state. At least one of these had evidently been
in captivity, while it is notorious that, from 1830 onwards, many have
been brought over and turned loose in this country.

488

PTEROCLID^..

:-=^^^"^.-'

jC?"-"^i.

iFi

W0^1H2.

PALLAS'S SAND-GROUSE.

Syrrhaptes paradoxus (Pallas).

No event in the annals of ornithology has excited more interest
than the irruptions of Pallas's Sand-Grouse. These, as regards the
British Islands, were first called to notice by a few appearances in
Norfolk, Carnarvonshire and Kent, in July and November 1859;
while several examples were obtained on the Continent during the
same year. In 1863 the ripples of a far larger wave of invasion
spread westward over Europe ; Heligoland being reached by
May 2ist, the date on which our first visitors of that year were shot
in Northumberland, out of a flock of fourteen. Next day about
twenty reached Staffordshire, and numbers were subsequently found
in many parts of the British Islands ; the majority on the eastern
side, from Kent to Caithness, and a few alighted in the Shetlands.
Inland, as well as in the south of England, occurrences were not want-
ing ; and, while they were less plentiful in the west, it was in Pem-
brokeshire that the last survivor was shot, in February 1864. One
bird even wandered to Benbecula in the Outer Hebrides, and several
were killed in Ireland, some of them as far west as co. Donegal. All

SAND-GROUSE. 489

these, however, were merely the skirmishers of a larger army which
arrived in Galizia and Moravia on May 6th, and rolled westward to
the Atlantic ; spreading southward as far as Rimini in Italy, as well
as to the Pyrenees. Northward they reached the F?eroes and about
lat. 62° in Norway, while a few eggs were taken among the sand-
hills of Denmark and Holland. In 1872 small flocks were observed
in Northumberland and Ayrshire ; in 1876 a pack was seen in May
near Winterton in Norfolk, and in October two birds were shot in
CO. Kildare, Ireland. Incidentally it may be mentioned that the
year 1876 witnessed the establishment of an important colony on
the Kirghiz steppes beyond the Volga.

In 1 888, from the end of February onwards, it was noticed that
flocks of Sand-Grouse were in movement on the steppes of Oren-
burg in Eastern Russia ; next, flocks were observed passing over
Poland, the Austrian Empire, and various parts of Germany ; while
by May the invasion had reached the British Islands. The eastern
districts were, naturally, the most favoured, and two clutches of eggs
were taken on the wolds above Beverley in Yorkshire by Mr.
Swailes ; but the birds were widely spread over the country, even to
the extreme west. In Scotland, where Mr. W. Evans estimated
that the sojourners were from 1,500 to 2,000 in number, a young
bird was found on the Culbin Sands, Moray, in 1888 by Mr.
Alexander Scott, game-keeper to Major Chadwick, who further
succeeded in finding another nestling in 1889. This was sent in
the flesh to Prof. Newton, and its portrait by Islr. Frohawk, with full
description, appeared in 'The Ibis,' 1890, pp. 207-214, pi. vii. As on
the former invasion, visitors found their way to the Outer Hebrides,
and some also alighted in the Orkneys and Shetlands. In Ireland a
considerable number were captured or observed, the migration extend-
ing on this occasion as far west as Belmullet, co. Mayo. A special
Act of Parliament was passed for the protection of Sand-Grouse in
1888, but very great destruction had already taken place during the
summer of their arrival, and the Act did not take effect until
February 1889, by which time most of the survivors of the
'* warm reception " given to the new-comers had succumbed to
the moisture of our climate, or had departed for more congenial
regions.

On the Continent, the irruption of 1888 reached southward to
Valencia in Spain, and northward to lat. 62^ 24' in Norway. The
home of this species is to be found from the eastern side of the
Caspian to the Tian-Shan and the Altai ranges, all over Mongolia
and Southern Daiiria, down to the Koko-nor and Tsaidam, and in

490 SAXD-GROUSE.

winter to the plains of Pecliili in China. On the high table-lands
of Tibet its representative is its sole congener, S. tibetamis.

The eggs, usually 3 in number, are laid in April or May, in a
hollow scratched in the sandy soil ; they are elliptical in shape, and
stone-buff blotched with purple-brown in colour : average measure-
ments I '5 by I'l in. Both sexes appear to incubate, as a male
was shot off one of the clutches of eggs obtained by Mr. Swailes.
The note has been rendered as iruck-turiik, or whirk, whirr, or
again as chak^ chak. The food consists of seeds of plants, such as
chick-weed and corn-spurrey, as well as of seeds of clover, turnip
and rye ; with some insects. The flight is rapid, and very like
that of the Golden Plover. The birds have a habit of almost
burying themselves in the sand, with which their colour closely
assimilates.

The adult male has the head yellowish-grey ; chin whitish, throat
pale rust-colour ; back, scapulars and rump warm buff, barred with
black ; quills bluish-grey, as are the long and pointed central tail-
feathers ; neck and breast greyish-buff, crossed by a mottled black
gorget ; belly banded with black ; feathers of the vent and of the
feet down to the toes dull white. Length 1475 •"• j vving 9-1 in.
In the female the head and sides of the neck, and the upper parts
generally, are striped and spotted with black, a band of the same
colour crossing the upper throat ] the general hue is duller, and the
central tail-feathers are shorter. The young resemble the adult
female, but have all the neck and chest spotted with irregularly-
shaped blackish-brown marks, and the black bars on the inter-
scapular region and the round subterminal spots on the less and
median wing-coverts much less regular, being broken up into
variously-shaped marks ; the filiform ends to the primaries and the
tail-feathers (which are conspicuous in the adult) are not developed
(Ogilvie Grant).

TETRAONID.t.

491

THE CAPERCAILLIE.

Tetrao urogallus, Linnreus.

The Capercaillie — also known as the Wood-Grouse, and the male
as the Cock-of-the-wood — was formerly an inhabitant of the pine-
forests of the British Islands ; but at some remote period it became
extinct in England and Wales, while in Scotland and Ireland the
same fate appears to have overtaken it in the second half of the last
century. In 1837 its re-introduction from Sweden was successfully
accomplished in Perthshire, and from that county, Forfarshire, and
some other centres of distribution, it has now spread over the central
districts as far as Loch Lomond, East Stirlingshire and Fife, while
its further extension seems chiefly a question of time. Already the

492 CAPERCAILLIE.

area of coniferous woods has proved too restricted, and the species is
now often found in coverts largely consisting of oak and birch. The
females precede the males by one or two years in the search for new
quarters, and under these circumstances they often breed with the
Blackcock ; the male hybrid being a remarkably handsome bird,
with plum-coloured breast and a slightly forked tail.

The Capercaillie inhabits the pine-forests of Scandinavia up to
lat. 70°, and in Denmark its remains are found in the kitchen-
middens of the prehistoric races who lived before the fir-woods had
given way to the oak and the birch. It is still abundant among the
conifers of Russia, but is decreasing in those of Poland, Northern
and Central Germany, the various branches of the Alps and Carpa-
thians, the Balkans, the Pyrenees, and the Cantabrian range. In
the Caucasus it is unknown. It is found from lat. 67° N. in Siberia
down to the Altai ^fountains and north-eastern Turkestan, and as
far as Lake Baikal ; east of which it is represented by two forms
which have the scapulars broadly tipped with white, and in males
from Kamchatka the white forms a complete bar.

Early in spring the male Capercaillie begins his love-song of
peller, peller, peller, to attract the hens, at the same time erecting his
tail and drooping his wings in a sort of ecstasy: a proceeding known
as his " play " or " spel," and which is repeated for a short time about
Michaelmas. The nest is a hollow scraped in the ground under a
tree or bush, the 6-12 eggs being pale reddish-yellow, with brown
spots and blotches : measurements 2*2 by i'5 in. Incubation lasts
about a month, and the young are usually hatched early in June.
The food of the adults consists of tender shoots of the Scotch fir
(rarely of the spruce), with various berries in summer ; the young
eat insects, worms &:c. The name Capercaillie is, I believe, derived
from the Celtic galmr a goat — with allusion to the elongated chin-
feathers of the male and his amorous behaviour in spring — and
coille a wood : i.e., 'goat of the wood ' ; but some authorities prefer
cabhar an old man, or gobur a horse.

The adult male has a strong hooked bill ; upper plumage chiefly
dark slate-grey, nearly black on the tail ; chest dark glossy-green ;
lower parts almost black ; legs covered with hair-like brown feathers,
short in summer, but overhanging the toes in winter. There is great
variation in size : average length 35 in. ; wing 14-5. The female is
much smaller, and the general colour of her upper plumage is brown
mottled with buff and white ; the neck and breast are orange-buff,
barred with black and spotted with white.

TETRAONID.^=:.

493

THE BLACK GROUSE.

Tetrao tetrix, Linnaeus.

Birds of this species are generally known collectively as Black-
game, and in Devon and Somerset as Heath-poults ; the sexes being
distinguished as the Blackcock and the Greyhen. They are found,
in small numbers and locally, in Cornwall and South Devon, and
are tolerably plentiful on Exmoor, as well as on the Brendons and
the Quantocks, in Somersetshire; while they still maintain themselves
in Dorset, Wilts, and the New Forest district. In Sussex, Surrey
and Berkshire their presence is the result of reintroduction early in
the present century, and none are now to be found in Kent, where,
however, the species existed in the time of Henry viii. ; and it is
in an ordinance for the regulation of the royal household dated
from Eltham that the word ' Grouse ' makes its first appearance in

494 BLACK GROUSE.

■our language as 'Grows.' The bird has been introduced near
Sandringham in Norfolk ; while it is scattered locally over the
wilder portions of the Midland counties, the Marches, and many
parts of Wales, and north of Sherwood Forest it is found in every
English county. In Scotland it is distributed, in varying numbers,
over the mainland and in many of the Inner Hebrides, but attempts
at introduction in the Outer islands, as well as in the Orkneys,
have not been successful. In Ireland it was never indigenous.

The Black Grouse inhabits Scandinavia, Russia, the heath-clad
wastes of the east of Holland, the hilly districts of Germany
•and Central Europe, Switzerland (except the Jura), and the northern
Apennines. It is not found in the Pyrenees ; while in the Caucasus
it is represented by a smaller and more slender species, the male of
which has a deep glossy-black plumage and a remarkably developed
tail. Beyond the Ural Mountains the Black Grouse stretches across
the wooded regions of Siberia up to 67° N., and as far south as
Manchuria.

Blackcocks are polygamous, and in spring they assemble before
dawn to fight for the hens, performing the most extraordinary antics
in order to prove attractive. When this lek is over they retire
with the females they have secured, and the latter make a slight
nest on the ground in which they deposit 6-10 eggs of a yellowish-
white spotted with orange-brown: average measurements 2 by i"4
in. The males have also a short " spel " in autumn, when they
separate from the females and fiock together. The young feed
largely on ants' eggs and other insect food, while whortleberries
&c., barley, the juicy seeds of rushes, and the tops and buds of many
other plants are favourite articles of diet with the adults ; abund-
ance of moisture being at all times essential. Interbreeding with
the Capercaillie has already been noticed ; it is not infrequent with
the Pheasant ; and it occasionally takes place with our Red Grouse,
the Scandinavian Willow-Grouse and the Hazel-Grouse.

The general colour of the Blackcock is bluish-black ; the wing-
bar and the under tail-coverts being white. Length 23 in. ; wing
10*3. The Greyhen is chiefly pale chestnut-brown, barred and
freckled with black ; wing 9 in. The latter breeds in her first
spring, but the young males are liable to be driven away by the
older and stronger cocks. The young male is at first like the
female, but the dark plumage begins to show early in October, and
is nearly full by December, although the full development of the
out-curved tail-feathers is not attained till the third year.

TETRAONID.^.

495

^-i*^^'^

THE RED GROUSE.

Lag6pus scoticus (Latham).

This species, indigenous only to the British Islands, is our repre-
sentative of the Willow-Grouse (Z. albus), the latter inhabiting the
northern portions of Europe, Asia and America. In Scotland,
from which the Red Grouse derives its specific name, the bird is
generally distributed over the moors of the mainland, from the
highest point where ling {Calluna) and heath {Erica) flourish, down
to the coast-line ; while it also occurs in the Inner and most of
the Outer Hebrides, and remarkably fine specimens are produced in
the Orkneys. In England the Red Grouse is found from the northern
counties — especially Yorkshire and Derbyshire — down the Pennine

496 RED GROUSE.

range as far as the Trent, as well as in Lancashire, Cheshire,
Staffordshire, Shropshire, and on most of the Welsh moors to
Glamorganshire ; but to the south-east of these lines it has never
succeeded in maintaining itself, though introduced on the heaths of
Surrey and elsewhere. It is resident on most of the moorlands and
peat-bogs of Ireland, but is far less abundant there than in Scotlahd
or the north of England. About thirty years ago it was accli-
matized in the district of Gottenborg, South Sweden, and intro-
duction has been essayed in North Germany.

Red Grouse pair very early in spring, the female making a scanty
nest in some depression in the ground, under shelter of a tuft of
heather. The 8-10 and sometimes 15 eggs are of a buffish-white
ground-colour, mottled with rich red or brown : measurements 175 by
I '2 in. Incubation, which lasts 23-24 days, does not become general
until April, though eggs have been found by March 17th. The
female sits very close, the male being usually at no great distance,
while on the approach of danger he emits a warning koh, kok, kok.
He is also in the habit of standing on a hillock and uttering a peculiar
crow at dawn, especially on clear, frosty mornings ; the note of the
hen being a strange nasal croak. The young leave the nest scon
after they are freed from the shell, and, with their parents, feed on
the leaves and fruit of the bilberry &c., the tips of ling- and heath-
shoots, and, occasionally, grain ; the principal feeding-time being, as
a rule, late in the afternoon. Unlike its congener the Willow-
Grouse, our bird seldom perches on trees or bushes, though it often
sits on earth-dykes and walls. In severe snowy weather Grouse are
driven from the higher moors to the lowlands, and have been known
to wander so far that they seem to have completely lost the bearings
of their old haunts. The causes of the disease to which they are
subject have been much disputed ; but as long ago as June 181 5 a
severe outbreak in the Reay country, Sutherland, was on record
(Zool. 1887, p. 302).

Mr. Ogilvie Grant considers that the male presents three distinct
types : — a form in which the general colour is red ; a form much
spotted with white on the breast and belly ; and a black form, often
mixed with the two preceding. The complete moult begins after
breeding ; a change in plumage taking place early in winter.
Length 15 in. ; wing 8-25 in. The female (represented in the fore-
ground) is rather smaller and exhibits much more of a yellowish-
chestnut tint : she assumes a distinct breeding-plumage early in
May, and has a complete moult in autumn. The young moult
completely in their first autumn.

TETRAONID^.

497

THE PTARMIGAN.

Lagopus mutus (Montin).

As regards Great Britain, the Ptarmigan is now confined to
Scotland ; but there are traditions of its occurrence in former times
on the fells of Cumberland and Westmorland. Investigations by
Mr. R. Service (Zool. 1887, pp. 81-89) have shown that a few birds
existed in the highest portions of Dumfriesshire and Galloway until
about 1822, when the last were captured near Sanquhar, but a
subsequent attempt by the late Duke of Buccleuch to re-stock that
district proved unsuccessful ; while on Arran, though at one time
re-introduced, its presence is now doubtful. A few pairs survive on
the Paps of Jura, and gradually decreasing numbers are found in
Skye, Harris, and Lewis. From the vicinity of Ben Lomond north-
ward, the Ptarmigan inhabits the " region of stones " on the higher
mountain-masses, especially in Perthshire, Aberdeenshire, Inverness-
shire, Ross, and Sutherland. In Ireland it is unknown.

Q Q

498 PTARMIGAN.

The Ptarmigan is resident in the Lofoden Islands, and on the
fells of Scandinavia above the limits of tree-growth, as well as in
the loftier portions of Finland, the Kola Peninsula, and the Ural
Mountains. It is found in the French, Swiss, and Italian Alps,
and in small numbers in Tyrol, Styria, and Carinthia, though no
longer in Transylvania ; while in the Pyrenees it is tolerably abun-
dant near the snow-line, and it is said to occur in the mountains
of the Asturias and Leon. In Asia, our Ptarmigan appears to
inhabit all the high mountains of Siberia down to the Altai and as
far east as Kamchatka, and a bird (not in summer dress) obtained
near Yokohama in Japan, at an elevation of more than 9,000 ft.,
has been ascribed to this species. On the lower ground of Northern
Siberia and Arctic America, as well as in Greenland and Iceland,
its representative is the browner Z. rupestris, or some closely-allied
form ; but the larger L. hemileucurus of Spitsbergen is more nearly
related to the Willow-Grouse.

The nest is a hole scraped in the soil and scantily lined, while
the 8-10 eggs, laid late in May, have the ground-colour, as a rule,
rather lighter than in those of the Red Grouse, and are smaller in
size, measuring about 17 by i*i in. In wet or stormy seasons the
various families associate or 'pack' by the beginning of August, but
otherwise not till winter ; they are scarcer on the extreme summits
of the mountains than at a lower elevation, and birds shot in the
highest situations are usually small in size. The food consists of
the green tops of ling &:c., with various kinds of berries. In Scot-
land the Ptarmigan suffers from disease, like the Red Grouse.

The male in summer has a red wattle over each eye ; lores
blackish ; head, upper parts, long tail-coverts and flanks dark
brown, finely mottled and barred with greyish-brown ; tail-feathers
sooty-black, tipped with white; belly white. Length i4"5 in.;
wing 775 in. The plumage of the female is orange-tawny, barred
with black. In both sexes and at all seasons — except for the short
time that the young are in nesting plumage — the wings are white,
with dark shafts to the quills. In autumn the male has upper parts
slate-grey finely vermiculated with black ; the female is browner.
In winter both sexes are white, but the male may be recognised by
his black lores and eye-stripes ; old females, however, sometimes
exhibit the latter. More than nine-tenths of the so-called
' Ptarmigan ' sent over to our markets are Willow-Grouse in winter
dress ; these may be known by their larger size, and as regards the
males — by the absence of any black on the lores.

PHASIAN1D.«.

499

THE PHEASANT.

Phasiaxus colchicus (Linnaeus).

There is evidence that the Pheasant had become naturahzed in
the south of England before the Norman invasion, though there is
no mention of its existence in Scotland until 1594, or in Ireland
till 15S9. At the present day, however, it is generally distributed
throughout the United Kingdom, and it has even been acclimatized
in some of the Outer Hebrides. Little, if any, deviation from the
typical P. colchicus took place up to the end of last century, when
the introduction of the Chinese Ring-necked P. iorquatus com-

Q Q 2

500 PHEASANT.

menced, which has left almost indelible marks, especially with regard
to the characteristic white collar. Fertile hybrids have also been
produced with the beautiful green-tinted Japanese P. versicolor^ and
the splendid long-tailed Chinese P. reevesi; the so-called "Bohemian
Pheasant" being merely a pale buff-coloured variety.

The Pheasant owes its generic and specific names to its tradi-
tional introduction from the banks of the Colchian Phasis — the
modern Rion — which enters the Black Sea near Poti ; and there
the pure breed is still to be found, ^^'estward, it inhabits portions
of Asia Minor, Turkey, Greece, Albania and Roumelia, but it may
be doubted whether it is indigenous to the northward of the
Balkans, though it is found wild in Corsica. Under greater or less
protection it is met with in nearly every country of Europe, up to
the southern districts of Sweden and Norway. Eastward, its range
extends along the southern shores of the Caspian about as far as
Astrabad, beyond which a desert cuts it off from the various species
which inhabit Afghanistan, Turkestan, Mongolia, and China.

The short crow of the males may be heard in March, when fight-
ing takes place for the possession of the hens, which, as a rule,
begin to lay in April. From 10-14 eggs, measuring about i'85 by
I "45 in., of an olive-brown or sometimes a pale blue colour, are
deposited in a slight nest on the ground; but exceptionally squirrels'
dreys and former habitations of other birds in trees are selected.
Incubation lasts 23 days. Several hens will sometimes sit amicably
on the same nest, as they will do with Partridges and domestic
fowls ; while in a few instances cock-birds have been seen incu-
bating as well as rearing the brood. The natural food consists of
grain, berries, acorns and other vegetable matter, snails, and an
enormous number of wire-worms and injurious insects; ants and
their larvs forming the chief sustenance of the young. Water and
cover are indispensable, though trees are not absolutely essential,
for Pheasants do not constantly roost in them during the summer.
When well on the wing their pace is tremendous, and they have
been seen to fly nearly four miles at a stretch ; they also swim with
considerable facility. Hybrids have been produced with Black
Grouse and several other species of gallinaceous birds. A partial
assumption of the male plumage by females which are old or have
ceased to breed is not uncommon.

Space does not allow of a description of the Pheasant, now
seldom — if ever — found pure-bred in this country. The average
weight of an old cock-bird is from i-^l lbs., and of a hen about
2\ lbs.

PHASIANID.t.

501

THE COMMON PARTRIDGE.
Perdix cinerea, Latham.

The Common or Grey Partridge is generally distributed through-
out England, and is nowhere more abundant than in East Anglia
and Hampshire. The cultivation of grain is undoubtedly favour-
able to its increase in numbers as well as in size, but birds which
have fed on heather, whortleberries &c., in wild moorland districts
are by no means inferior in point of flavour. In Scotland the
Partridge is local, though plentiful on some of the low grounds ; but
it is not widely diffused in the Inner Hebrides, nor does it thrive in
the Outer islands, to which, as well as to the Orkneys, it has been
introduced. In Ireland its numbers have diminished of late years,
from various causes, chiefly poaching.

In Norway this species exists under difficulties, owing to the
rigour of the winter and the abundance of birds of prey, especially
the Goshawk ; nor can it be said to flourish in any part of Sweden.
It is found in Denmark, Germany, Holland, Belgium, and France

5°2 COMMON PARTRIDGE.

down to the Rhone delta, as well as on the eastern side of the
Adriatic ; but in the south, as a rule, it frequents the higher ground,
and yields the plains to the Red-legged Partridge. It occurs on
both sides of the Pyrenees up to 4,000 ft, and as far as the valley
of the Douro in the Spanish Peninsula, especially in the moister
regions to the west ; in Italy it ranges to Naples, and in Central and
Eastern Europe it is abundant. It can be traced to Asia Minor
and the mountainous districts of Persia, and it also inhabits the
south-west of Siberia, a larger and greyer race being found in the
Altai Mountains ; while eastward the representative is the smaller
P. barbata, the male of which has a golden-buff breast, and a deep
black ' horse-shoe ' mark below.

The Partridge often pairs in February, but eggs are seldom laid
until the end of April or the beginning of May. From 12-20 of
these are often produced by a single hen ; but as many as t,i have
been found in one nest, from 23 of which the young were hatched
and went off with the old birds, while 4 of the eggs left behind had
live chicks in them. The usual colour of the shell is olive-brown,
but pale blue or whitish varieties are not very uncommon : measure-
ments 1-45 by 1-15 in. Incubation lasts 21-23 days. The young
are attended by both parents with great assiduity, and I have seen
the old birds show a bold front to a female Hen-Harrier for several
minutes, while covering the retreat of their brood to the shelter of a
hedge. The food consists of green leaves, grain, many species of
insects, small snails (S:c. Breeding takes place in the first spring,
but the old males are very pugnacious and molest the younger birds.

The adult male may be distinguished from the adult female by
the brighter yellowish chestnut on the head and throat, the greyer
neck, and the dark brown ' horse-shoe ' mark on the lower breast ;
but in many districts young females (of the year) have this mark
very fully developed, though old hens have not. At all ages, how-
ever, the wing-coverts have buff cross-bars in the female, whereas
there is only a longitudinal stripe in the male (Ogilvie Grant). The
legs and feet are bluish-white in the adults, but yellowish-brown in
the young, which resemble the female in plumage. Average length
12-5 ; wmg 6 in. Varieties are common, but they are mostly found
in young birds, though in some cases they seem to be connected
with the nature of the soil frequented ; Partridges from the clay
being often poor in colour, while those from the gravel are very
warm m tint. In some parts an increasing tendency to a white
' horse-shoe ' is apparent ; while a black '\orse-shoe ' has been
found.

PHASIANID.y-.

5°:

4 />

*^

THE RED-LEGGED PARTRIDGE.

Caccabis rufa (Linnsus).

This species — often called the French Partridge — belongs to a
well-defined group ; the members of which resemble each other in
their partiality for dry or mountainous districts, their main pattern
of coloration, the similarity of the sexes in plumage, and the presence
of blunt spurs on the legs of the males. The Red-legged Par-
tridge was successfully acclimatized in England about 1770, when
large numbers of eggs were hatched under domestic fowls on
two estates in Suffolk ; and as the result of this and subsequent
introductions it is now thoroughly established, not only in the
above county, but also in Norfolk, Lincolnshire, Cambridgeshire,
Essex, some of the Midlands, and on dry ground along both sides
of the Thames valley. Owing to similar but independent centres
of dispersal, and a natural tendency on the part of the bird to seek
congenial situations, it is also found in many other districts ; but
under no circumstances has it thriven in the west, or on rich grass-
lands, and its stronghold is in East Anglia. There it has even
resisted attempts to exterminate it, made under the belief that it
harassed the Grey Partridge, while its habit of running used to
render dogs unsteady and precluded the possibility of walking it up ;

5°4 RED-LEGGED PARTRIDGE.

but since 'driving ' became a system, the only objection to it is its
inferiority for the table. Attempts at introduction on the mainland
of Scotland and in the Orkneys have failed ; nor have those made
in Ireland since 1844 been successful. There is no evidence that
this species undertakes long migrations from, or on, the Continent.

In the Channel Islands the Red-legged Partridge is an alien, while
it is decidedly rare in Normandy and the north of France, and in
Belgium it is almost unknown. In the centre, east, and south of
France it is generally distributed, and it is the only red-legged
species indigenous to the Spanish Peninsula. On the Rock of
Gibraltar the Barbary Partridge (C. petrosa), with brown nape and
collar, has been introduced from Morocco \ and its eggs have occa-
sionally been hatched in England, but the bird has never maintained
a footing here. The Red-legged Partridge is also found in the Azores,
Madeira, and on the island of Gran Canaria : probably introduced
by the early settlers. In the Alps and the Apennines its progress
east\vard is barred by the presence of the larger and stronger
C. saxatilis, which also occupies Sicily; Sardinia is held by the
Barbary Partridge; but the Balearic Islands, Elba, Corsica, and
part of North-western Italy are left to the ' French ' bird. Few species
bear confinement better, for thousands of birds are carried about
in cages during the greater part of their lives, owing to the southern
practice of using them to lure their wild relatives within shot.

The scanty nest is usually on grassy banks, often in thick brush-
wood, and not infrequently in the side or on the top of a stack ; the
15-18 eggs are yellowish-white, speckled with rufous-brown: mea-
surements 1-6 by 1-25 in. Incubation lasts 23 days. The food
consists of leaves, seeds and insects, obtained chiefly on waste land
of a drier and more open nature than that frequented by the
Grey Partridge. The latter is seldom interfered with; the two
species living apart, and very rarely interbreeding. The Red-legged
Partridge occasionally perches on trees, and may often be seen on
gates and palings. The note is a grating chuk, chuk, chukar.

The adult male has the bill red ; crown grey ; a black streak from
each eye backwards and downwards to a gorget of the same colour ;
general upper parts hair-brown ; tail-feathers chestnut ; throat white ;
breast pearl-grey; belly fawn-colour; flanks greyish, handsomely
barred with black and chestnut ; legs red, with rudimentary spur-
knobs. Length 13-5 in. ; wing 6-25 in. The female is rather smaller
and duller in colour, without any knobs on her legs. The young
have no grey on the throat and hardly any black on the gorget.

PHASIANID^.

505

=^^ <

THE QUAIL.

CoTURNix COMMUNIS, Bonnaterre.

The Quail is principally a spring-visitor to the British Islands, and
the majority leave for the south in October ; but in mild winters
some remain with us — especially on the west coast of England ;
while in Ireland, up to about 1865, this species might be considered
as partially resident, though of late years a marked and unaccount-
able diminution in its numbers has been noticed. In England,
before drainage and high cultivation had broken up the coarse
tussocky land in which the Quail delighted, it was far more plentiful
than it is at present, particularly in Hertfordshire, Cambridgeshire,
Suffolk, Norfolk, Lincolnshire, Lancashire &c. ; but from time to
time unusual influxes take place. One of these extended in 1870
from East Anglia to Cardigan, Pembroke and Cornwall; in 1885 a
remarkable increase was noticed on the high ground along the
north side of the valley of the Thames and as far as the Severn ;
while in 1892 there was a marked accession, and a still larger
immigration occurred in 1893. Northward, the Quail gradually be-
comes less numerous, yet nests have been found in Scotland as far as
Caithness, Sutherland, the Orkneys and the Shetlands, several times

5o6 QUAIL.

in the Outer Hebrides, and not infrequently in the south-west of
the mainland.

In summer the Quail is found in the Faeroes, and, though sparingly,
as far north as lat. 65° on the Continent, while southwards it becomes
more abundant, and immense flocks annually visit the countries
bordering on the Mediterranean ; especially on the spring migration,
when, as of old in Sinai, multitudes come up in the night and cover
the land. The majority pass northwards, though many remain to
breed ; in autumn, on the other hand, a considerable number sojourn
in the south of Europe and the north of Africa, though the majority
go further^ and many reach Madagascar, Mauritius and the extreme
south of Africa. There, as well as in the Cape Verde Islands, the
Canaries, ]\Iadeira and Azores, a resident form {C. capensis) is found,
and with this our migratory bird often interbreeds. Our Quail is
widely distributed over temperate Asia, crossing the Karakoram
(16,000 ft.) and other ranges on its migrations ; while in Japan,
Formosa, China, Burma and the North-east of India it meets and
breeds with another resident form, C. japonicus.

The nest — a mere hole scraped in the ground, lined with a few
plant-stalks — is often in a wheat-field, but sometimes in clover or
grass; and the eggs, 7-12 in number, are yellowish-white, blotched
or speckled with umber-brown : average measurements I'l by "9 in.
Incubation lasts about three weeks, and two broods, or "bevies" as
they are called, are sometimes reared in the season. The food
consists of slugs and insects, plantain, chickweed &c. — no less than
3,500 seeds of the latter having been found in the crop of a single
bird. The male utters three castanet-like notes, which is generally
rendered in this country by the words " wet-my-lips," while the call
of the female is a ■sohfeiu,fecV. As a rule the male is monogamous.

In appearance the Quail resembles a miniature Partridge. The
male (in the foreground) is rather smaller than the female (in the
background), and has two dark brown bands descending from the
ear-coverts, terminating at the throat in a blackish patch which is
not acquired until the second year. Length of the female 7 in. ;
wing 4*4 in.

Two examples of the Andalucian Hemipode, Turnix sylvatica,
are said to have been obtained in Oxfordshire, and a third in York-
shire. No one who knows how sedentary and local this species is,
will believe it to have been a genuine visitor.

RALLID.^.

507

THE LAND-RAIL.

Crex pratensis, Bechstein.

The Land-Rail, also known as the Corn-Crake, is widely dis-
tributed in summer throughout the British Islands. It usually makes
its appearance in the southern counties of England during the last
ten days of April, though m Yorkshire and northward it is seldom
heard till the first or second week in May, and only towards the end
of that month in the Shetlands. Westward, it has been obtained
in St. Kilda, and it is common in the Outer Hebrides, where it is
probable that a few birds occasionally pass the winter. This is
undoubtedly the case in Ireland, and, more rarely, in England ; but
the majority have taken their departure before October. The bird
may be found wherever there is grass-land.

This species occasionally breeds in the Faroes, but its occurrence
in Iceland has not been authenticated, though an example was
obtained in South Greenland in 1851 and another in May 1892.
Individuals which had, no doubt, availed themselves of the assist-
ance of vessels, have frequently been obtained of late years on the
eastern sea-board of the United States; and in October 1847 one was
shot in the Bermudas. As a wanderer the Land-Rail has been found
in the Azores and Madeira, while in the southern countries of Europe

5o8 ' LAND-RAIL.

it is of regular passage in spring and again in autumn ; not nest-
ing, I believe, below the line of the Pyrenees, but continuing its
course to the central and northern districts, or even the Arctic
circle. In Asia it is found as far east as the Lena, though not
recorded from China or Japan ; Dr. Scully obtained an example at
Gilgit in October : and it breeds in Western Turkestan. In winter
it visits Arabia, while in Africa it is found down to Natal and
occasionally in Cape Colony.

The nest, composed of bits of dry plants and herbage, is generally
among long meadow-grass, where the mowing-machine plays havoc
with sitting birds and eggs ; but it is not infrequently in standing
corn or clover, and thus escapes notice until the brood is safe. The
7-10 eggs are usually laid towards the end of May or early in June,
and are pale reddish-white, spotted with grey and rufous-brown :
measurements i"45 by i"i in. The 'creaking' call-note uttered
by the male — especially towards evening — can easily be imitated
by passing the edge of the thumb-nail across the teeth of a
comb, and by this means the bird may be lured to within a
short distance : the ventriloquial powers attributed to this species
are, in my opinion, due to the rivalry of two birds, as well as
the marvellous rapidity with which the Land-Rail sneaks, unper-
ceived, from one spot to another. It does not take wing readily,
and flies slowly, with its legs hanging down ; while, if closely
pressed, and especially if wounded, it will elude even a dog by
climbing among tangled bushes, and when captured it will not
infrequently feign death : a device common to other members of
the family. The food consists of worms, slugs, insects, small
lizards, plants, seeds &:c. ; the flesh is highly esteemed for the table.

The adult male has ash-grey patches above each eye and on the
cheeks ; feathers of the upper parts yellowish-brown with dark
centres ; wing-coverts and quills chestnut ; throat white ; breast
greyish-buff; belly nearly white in the centre, the flanks broadly
barred with cinnamon-brown and buff"; bill, legs and feet pale
brown. Length 10-5 in.; wing 5-25 in. Females are rather smaller,
and, like the young of the year, have the grey on the head and the
chestnut on the wings less pronounced ; the male loses the grey on
the head and flanks after the autumn complete moult, but assumes
that colour in spring. The nestlings, which are at first covered
with black down, are able to fly in about six weeks. The usual
weight of an adult is 6-7 ozs., but a bird of nearly 9 ozs. is on
record. Albinoes and other varieties are sometimes met with.

RALLID.E.

509

r^OrSi^-^-^r-X^^^

THE SPOTTED CRAKE.

PORZANA MARUKTTA (Lcach).

This species, smaller in size than the Land-Rail, is also a regular
spring visitor to England, but owing to the drainage of the fens and
the reclamation of marsh-land, it is far less plentiful than formerly.
In two excellent articles by Mr. O. V. Aplin (Zool. 1890, pp. 401-
417 and 1891, pp. 88-96), the collected evidence indicates that the
bird often arrives in Sussex and other southern counties by the
middle of March, and breeds wherever it finds localities suitable to
its habits ; though often supposed to be rarer than is really the case,
owing to its skulking habits. Among its known nesting-places may
be mentioned East Anglia, the Humber, Trent and Solway districts,
Durham and Northumberland, as well as several of the southern
counties, and the bogs of Breconshire in Wales. The majority
leave in October, but some remain through the winter, especially in
the south and south-west. On the east side of Scotland, where it is
chiefly seen in autumn, it has nested as far north as Elgin, while on
migration it has occurred in the Orkneys and thrice in the Shetlands
(in October) ; on the west it has bred in Kirkcudbrightshire and
Dumfriesshire, but has seldom been recorded north of the Clyde.
In Ireland, where it is rare, its occurrences are chiefly in autumn, but
its eggs have been found in Roscommon, and a nestling in Kerry.

Although the Spotted Crake has twice been obtained in Green-
land, it has not yet been noticed in Iceland or the Faeroes. On the
Continent its northern range extends to about lat. 65° in Scan-

5IO SPOTTED CRAKE.

dinavia, though not quite so far in Russia ; and southward, it is
generally abundant in suitable localities during the summer months;
visiting Heligoland (in small numbers) on both migrations, especially
in that of May. In the marshy portions of France, Central Europe,
Italy and Sicily it breeds freely, but in the Spanish Peninsula it is
chiefly a migrant ; as a wanderer it has been obtained in the Canary
Islands ; while it is found in winter along Northern Africa, and as far
south as Abyssinia. In Asia it ranges eastward in summer to
Yarkand and southward to Gilgit, while on its way to India in
September it — ^like the Quail — crosses the lofty Karakoram.

The nest, usually placed in a thick reed-bed or in a tussock of
sedge surrounded by water, is formed externally of long flags, with
a cup-shaped centre lined with fine soft grass. The 8-10 eggs are
of an olive-buff ground-colour, spotted and flecked with dark
reddish-brown: measurements i'3 by "9 in. The young, which are
at first covered with lustrous greenish-black down, take to the water
very soon after they are hatched. The call-note is a peculiar zvhuit,
whuit. Meadows margined by streams and ditches are the favourite
resorts of this species, but little can be seen of it without the
assistance of one or more good dogs, and, when pursued by these,
it will flutter up into a tangled growth of brambles, from which
it can only be thrashed out with difficulty. The food consists of
worms, slugs, and aquatic insects, with vegetable substances.

The adult male has the bill yellowish, tinged with red at the base;
eye-stripes, face and throat dull grey ; crown dark brown ; upper
parts generally olive-brown with darker streaks, and minute spots of
white, which are thickest on the neck and the tail-coverts ; breast
brown, spotted with white ; belly dull grey ; flanks barred brown
and white ; legs and feet yellowish-green. Length 9 in. ; wing
4*5 in. The female is slightly smaller and duller in colour. In the
young bird the throat is white, and the spots are less pronounced.

A specimen of the Carolina Crake, P. Carolina, shot near New-
bury, Berks, was exhibited at the meeting of the Zoological Society,
February 14th 1865, by Professor Newton, who remarked upon the
powers of endurance in their flight of various members of the
family Rallids, and upon the capture of this species on one occasion
in Greenland. In the ' Field ' of December 4th 1897, Mr. C. Clive
Bayley records that two came on board the yacht Vampa in about
lat. 20° N. and long. 55- W. ; one of them taking food freely and
reaching England alive. The adult may be distinguished from the
European bird by its black face.

RALLID.1-:.

5i«

THE LITTLE CRAKE.

PORZANA PARVA (Scopoli).

This Crake — also called, from its colour, the Olivaceous Gallinule
— is, on the whole, a rare visitor to England, though in Norfolk at
least eleven authenticated examples have been obtained since 1809,
and a much larger number of such an inconspicuous species must
have escaped notice. Specimens have also been recorded from
Suffolk, Cambridgeshire, Lincolnshire, Yorkshire (several), Lanca-
shire, Cumberland (two), Oxfordshire, Middlesex, Kent (by Mark-
wick in 1 791), Sussex, Hants, Dorset, Somerset, Devon (several)
and Cornwall ; while other counties have no doubt been visited,
though the bird has not always been accurately distinguished from the
still smaller Baillon's Crake, next in order. As regards Scotland, a
specimen preserved by Thomas Edward of Banff in March 1852 is
in the collection of Mr. J. H. Gurney. In Ireland, the only
authenticated example is one which was shot at Balbriggan in
March 1854; a bird recorded under this name from Queen's Co.
having proved to be a Spotted Crake. There is no evidence that
the Little Crake has nested with us, and all its visits have been in
spring and autumn.

This species is said to have bred in the south of Sweden, and
on migration has occurred in Denmark as well as once on Heligo-

512 LITTLE CRAKE.

land. It nests, somewhat sparingly, from Holstein eastward, and
along the southern side of the Baltic as far as Livonia, as well as in
Central Russia ; more abundantly in Poland, Southern Germany,
Austro-Hungary, Central France, Savoy and the Rhone valley, and
also in Italy down to Sicily ; but is as yet only known on passage
in the rest of the Mediterranean and in Spain. It is, however, said
to be resident in Algeria, and it has been obtained in Tunisia,
while it winters in Equatorial Africa, and wanders to the Canaries.
In the Caspian district it is common in summer ; and eastward it
can be traced through Persia and Turkestan as far as Gilgit, while it
occurs on the lakes of Sind in winter.

A nest found in the Obrez marsh in Slavonia on May 24th 1883,
is described by Mr. W. Eagle Clarke as a depression in the side of
a hummock of sedge about six inches above the water, amply lined
with short broad pieces of reed-blade, and containing 7 eggs. The
colour of these is pale olive flecked with dull brown ; their shape
is oval, and their dimensions somewhat exceed those of Baillon's
Crake, being I'l by "85 in. A newly-hatched chick, to which Mr.
Clarke's attention was drawn by the loud clear note of the old bird
on May 26th, was "glossy black with a beautiful dark greenish
cast, and had bluish-grey legs." The note is a deliant kik^ kik, kik.
In food and general habits this species resembles its congeners, but
Mr. Hume says that it is rather more insectivorous. He never
flushed it from sedge or reed, but found it running over or swim-
ming among the leaves of the lotus and water-lily, while he several
times saw it diving, apparently in search of food.

The adult male has the beak green, red at the base ; irides red ;
centre of crown and hind neck, and the upper surface generally olive-
brown ; back with broad black streaks, and a few small white marks,
none of which are on the wings ; primaries clove-brown on both
webs (without any white outer margin to the first as there is in
P. baiUotii) ; inner secondaries dark brown in the centre, with broad
olivaceous edges ; tail-feathers with dark brown centres; forehead,
sides of the head, front of neck, breast and belly slate-grey ; thighs
and vent spotted and under tail-coverts barred with white ; legs and
toes green. Length 8 in. ; wing 4-2 in. The female is smaller, and
differs in having lores and streak above the eye grey ; crown, nape
and sides of the neck pale brown ; chin white ; front of neck, breast
and belly tawny buff-colour ; flanks and under tail-coverts greyish,
with narrow white bars. The young are still paler on the under
parts, and more streaked on the flanks.

RALLID.«.

513

I. ' .

( i\

^•^,w4iL:^4i;i /L^

BAILLON'S CRAKE.

PORZANA BAILLONI (Vieillot).

This species (named after the distinguished naturaHst of Abbeville),
though rather more irregular in its visits to England than the Little
Crake, is also generally observed in spring and autumn ; but two
nests with eggs, believed to belong to Baillon's Crake, were found
in Cambridgeshire in June and August 1858, while two more were
taken near Hickling in Norfolk in June and July 1866. There
is no evidence that the bird is a resident, though an example is said
to have been captured on some ice near Cambridge in January 1823,
Besides Norfolk, in which about ten specimens have been obtained,
Baillon's Crake has occurred in Suffolk, Derbyshire, Nottingham-
shire, Hertfordshire, Dorset, Somerset, Cornwall, Yorkshire, Lanca-
shire, the Isle of Man, and Cumberland. In Scotland one was
recorded by Jardine from Lockerbie, Dumfriesshire, in 1842 ;
another (in the Sinclair collection at Thurso) was probably killed in
Sutherland in 1841 ; one struck a telegraph wire in Renfrewshire
in May 1893; and one is said to have been killed at Stranraer in
1 89 1. In Ireland only two authenticated instances are known,
both of them from the south.

It is not surprising that Baillon's Crake should occasionally nest
with us, for it breeds annually in some parts of Holland, and

R R

5T4 13AILL0N S CRAKE.

was, indeed, plentiful in Brabant until the fact became known to
collectors. It nests sparingly in Normandy and is numerous in the
marshy districts of the Lower Loire, as well as in the Rhone valley,
and round some of the Swiss lakes ; but it is very irregularly
distributed in Germany and unknown in the Baltic Provinces.
Taczanowski does not mention its occurrence in Poland, and Mr.
W. E. Clarke did not find it in Slavonia, though it appears to be a
regular visitor to Lower Hungary, the Black Sea district, and Russia
up to about 56° N. lat. It nests in Portugal and Spain, as well as
in Northern Italy, while on migration it is found throughout the
basin of the Mediterranean, and reaches the Canaries and Madeira.
In Africa it is widely diffused, breeding as far south as Natal, and
it has been obtained in Madagascar. In Asia it is found as far east
as the Persian Gulf, beyond which it is replaced by P. pusilla,
distinguishable by a brown stripe through the eye and ear-coverts.

The nest, built among reeds or sedge, is similar to that of a
Moor-hen, and large for the size of the bird ; the eggs, 6-8 in
number, are olive-brown with umber blotches and streaks, darker,
as a rule, and rather smaller than in those of the Little Crake :
measurements i in. by "8 in. A nestling found by Mr. W. C. Tait
in June is described as shiny black, with a yellowish bill and
greenish slate-coloured legs. It uttered a low piping cry, which
was answered by the parent bird close by with a kek-kek-kek.
Baillon's Crake usually frequents small marshes and pools,
especially where there is a fringe of tamarisk or other bushes,
and appears to be less partial to meres and open waters than the
Little Crake. Evening and day-break are almost the only times
when it is to be seen, and if disturbed it runs like a water-rat in
preference to taking wing. The food consists of insects and their
larv?e, small molluscs, and a little vegetable matter.

The adult male has the bill green, base red ; irides red ; crown,
hind neck and upper parts warm brown, with flecks of black and
white ; cheeks, throat and breast slate-grey ; flanks and under tail-
coverts conspicuously barred with black and white ; outer web of
first primary white. Length 7 in. ; wing 3-45 in. The female has
the chin nearly white ; the under parts paler grey ; the wing-coverts
more profusely spotted with white, and the neck streaked with dark
brown on a paler ground than in the male. The young bird (in the
background) resembles her in the colour of the upper parts, and in
having a fainter white line on the outer web of the first primary ;
the throat is white, and the under parts are barred with two shades
of brown, these soon turning to grey in the males.

RALLID.B. 5 I 5

■:Z5??-' ^§1 ->5 -^ 7

THE WATER-RAIL.

Rallus aquaticus, Linnceus.

The Water-Rail may be considered a resident in most of the
marshy districts of England ; but there is evidence that a consider-
able number of the birds which have been bred in this country
move southward in autumn, their place being taken by emigrants
from the north. In the vicinity of the Norfolk ' Broads ' it is some-
what abundant, notwithstanding a large and regrettable traffic in its
eggs. In Scotland it is found, chiefly during the cold season, in
suitable localities on the mainland and also on the outlying islands ;
it even passes the winter in the Shetlands, where Saxby noticed that,
when the frost set in, it would visit enclosed places, such as corn-
yards, though he never discovered any grain in the stomachs of the
specimens obtained. In Ireland the Water- Rail is resident, though
more frequently remarked in winter, when the herbage, vrhich at
other times conceals it, is scanty.

This species is only recorded as an autumn-visitor to the Faeroes,
but a few remain all the year in Iceland ; and on October 15th 1SS2
an example was obtained as far north as the island of Jan ^Mayen.
In Norway it has been found up to Ranenfjord (close to the Arctic
circle), and near Bergen it is to some extent stationary ; but in
Sweden, except the south-west, it is only a summer-visitor, and it is
rare in the Baltic Provinces of Russia, though observed as far north
as St. Petersburg. In Northern Germany, Denmark and even

5l6 WATER-RAIL.

Holland, it is local ; but over Belgium, France, and the rest of
Europe, it is widely distributed, and in the Caucasus it is found up
to a considerable elevation. Eastward it can be traced through
Turkestan as far as Gilgit and the Himalayas; but the Indian region,
China, Japan, and Southern Siberia are inhabited by the closely-
allied R. itidicus. In Africa our Water-Rail breeds in the marshes of
Morocco and Algeria, and visits Egypt, Abyssinia, and the vicinity
of Aden in winter ; but in South Africa it is represented by a
distinct species, R. cceru/escens. It has not yet reached the Azores,
but an example has been known to settle on a vessel in the Atlantic
when 240 miles from the nearest land, and there is a record of
more than double that distance.

The nest, which is well concealed in a tussock of sedge, or some-
times among coarse herbage in a willow-bed, is made of flat leaves of
the reed and sedge; the eggs, 7-1 1 in number, are pale creamy-
white, sparsely flecked with reddish-brown and ash-grey : measure-
ments I '4 by I in. Two broods are no doubt produced in the season,
for Mr. A. H. Evans obtained eggs which were slightly incubated as
early as April 8th, while fresh clutches are frequently found in June
and July. The female, as a rule, slips off and sneaks away on the
approach of intruders, and even if the clump of sedge containing her
nest is surrounded and well beaten out, there is great difficulty in
forcing her to take wing; a solitary person, advancing stealthily,
can, however, approach sufficiently near for observation, and a dog
will often capture a sitting bird. During the breeding-season Water-
Rails are very noisy, uttering a loud cro-o-o-a7i, called "sharming"
in Norfolk. The food consists of aquatic plants, worms, slugs and
snails.

The adult male has the bill red ; irides hazel ; feathers of the
crown, hind neck and upper surface olive-brown, with black streaks
down the centres ; quills dusky-brown ; cheeks, neck, and breast
lead-grey; flanks nearly black, barred with white; vent pale buff;
legs and feet brownish flesh-colour. Length 11 "5; wing 475.
The female is duller in colour, and frequently exhibits some distinct
white bars on the wing-coverts. The young bird has the under
parts of a dull buffish-white, speckled on the throat and barred on
the flanks with dark brown ; while the upper parts have a more
olive tint than in the adult. The nestling is covered with black
down.

RALLID.t.

517

THE MOOR-HEN.

Gallinula chloropus (Linnaeus).

This familiar species, also known as the Water-hen, is generally
distributed throughout the British Islands, and is, as a rule, stationary ;
though a partial migration takes place in winter from the northern
districts where the cold weather is severe and continuous. Else-
where the Moor-hen manages to exist very well during frosts, resorting
to running streams when ponds are frozen over, and finding shelter
in plantations, hedge-rows and thick bushes. Its trivial name had
its origin at the time when ' moor ' was equivalent to mire or
' marsh.'

As a wanderer the Moor-hen has occurred in the Fteroes and the
south of Iceland ; but in Scandinavia it only breeds sparingly up to
lat. 63°, while in Russia it seldom nests as far north as St. Petersburg.
Throughout the rest of Europe it is more or less common in suitable
localities, and is resident in the Canaries, Madeira and the Azores,
as well as in Africa north of the Sahara ; its numbers in the last being
reinforced by migrants from the north in winter. Southward it can
be traced along both sides of that continent to Cape Colony, but
birds found in Madagascar, Reunion and the Seychelles are some-
what different, while a remarkable island-species, G. nestotis, is found
in the Tristan da Cunha group. From Ceylon and the Philippines
northward our Moor-hen is resident in Asia up to the main island of
Japan, and it breeds as far north as Lake Baikal in Siberia. A closely-

5 I 8 MOOR-HEN.

allied representative, G. galeafa, is found in America, and G. sand-
vicencis inhabits the Hawaiian Islands ; while G. tenebrosa, which
has no white stripes on the flanks, is the Australian species.

The nest is generally built in wet places, among reeds, sedge and
other aquatic plants or on the roots of alders : but it is often placed
on branches of trees and thorn-bushes over water, even twenty feet or
more from the ground. The materials employed are dry reed-flags
{Typha), sedge «S:c., matted together, and the birds have been known to
raise the structure when an inundation was threatened. The eggs, 7-9
in number, are bufifish-white speckled with reddish-brown : measure-
ments I '65 by I '2 in. Incubation, which lasts three weeks, some-
times begins in March, and two if not three broods are produced in
the season ; the young from the first nest assisting their parents in
building another, and even in taking care of the second brood. The
Moor-hen usually feeds on slugs, worms, grass, grain when procur-
able, insects and their larvce ; but it will also devour the young of
other water-fowl, and is very pugnacious towards the latter, as well
as to members of its own species. The call-note is a loud crek-rek-
rek, several times repeated, especially towards evening.

The adult has the fore part of the bill yellow, base and frontal
plate red ; irides reddish-hazel ; upper parts chiefly dark olive-
brown ; head, neck and under parts dark iron-grey, with some white
streaks on the flanks ; belly and vent greyish ; median tail-coverts
black, in strong contrast with the conspicuously white lower coverts :
legs greenish-yellow, with a red garter above the tarsal joint. Length
13 in. ; wing 675. Young birds have the beak, frontal plate, and
legs dull green ; throat white ; under parts ash-grey ; upper surface
greyish-olive.

The Purple Gallinule {Porphyria cceriikus), the Green-backed
Gallinule {P. smaragdonotiis), the Indian P. poliocephalus and the
Australian P. melatiotus are frequently kept in semi-captivity, and
individuals which have escaped or, which have been deliberately
turned out, have from time to time been captured in our Islands.
The bird from the south-west of Ireland recorded by Thompson as
a " Martinique Gallinule " has proved to be P. s/na7-agdonotus, but
there is said to be a genuine example of the American species in
Mr. Hart's Museum at Christchurch.

RALLID.E.

519

THE COOT.

FULICA ATRA, LinilffiUS.

The Coot is found upon most of the large ponds, lakes and
sluggish rivers throughout the British Islands. In East Anglia,
owing to successive drainage of its breeding-haunts, it is less plenti-
ful than it formerly was, but it is still abundant on the Broads ;
also on Slapton Ley in Devon, where large numbers are killed
at the annual battues ; on Southampton Water ; and in Poole
Harbour and other parts of Dorsetshire ; while on the Nene, in
Northamptonshire, it appears to have increased. As a rule it is
resident, remaining throughout the winter even in the Hebrides and
Orkneys ; though chiefly a summer-visitor to the Shetlands. When
the inland waters are closed by frost it migrates to tidal estuaries
and the sea-coast.

This species is a tolerably regular visitor to the Faeroes, and
wanders to the south-west of Iceland, while a solitary example has
even reached Greenland. On the coast of Norway, under the
influence of the Gulf Stream, the Coot has been found up to
lat. 70° N. ; while it nests in the southern districts of that country
and of Sweden, as well as along the shores of the Baltic, as far as

520 COOT.

St. Petersburg. Southward it is generally distributed over Europe
down to the Mediterranean, where, owing to the arrival of migrants
from the north, its numbers in winter are sometimes enormous. In
the south of the Spanish Peninsula its breeding-range touches that
of the Crested Coot, F. crisiata, a species which has two bright red
caruncles on the frontal plate. This is the resident representative
throughout Africa ; in winter, however, our bird visits the Azores,
Madeira, and the Canaries, swarms upon the waters of North Africa
and Egypt, and reaches the Blue Nile. Eastward it can be traced
across temperate Asia to China and Japan, and it nests, sparingly,
as far south as Kashmir and the plains of Northern India ; while
in the cold season multitudes are found on the lakes of Sind, as well
as in Burma. The range of this species extends to Java ; while
its representative in North America differs chiefly in having a
large amount of white on the under tail-coverts.

The nests are strong and compact structures of dry flags, and are
usually raised from six to twelve inches above the water on founda-
tions of reeds or tufts of rushes, some of them being so firm as to
support the weight of a man seated when up to the knees in water ;
they are, I believe, often utilized in Spain by the Marsh-Harrier. The
eggs, 7-10 in number, are stone-colour, minutely speckled with dark
brown: measurements 2 by i"5 in. The young, which are often
hatched early in April, leave the nest after three or four days and
follow their parents. In winter, when Coots are in large flocks, they
protect themselves against birds of prey by throwing up water with
their feet ; while they are at all times remarkably wary, for which
reason their company is much sought by water-fowl, as they give the
alarm by day, when many of the latter are asleep. Hawker says,
" If a gentleman wishes to have plenty of wild-fowl on his pond, let
him preserve the Coots, and keep no tame Swans." The flight of
the Coot is powerful when fairly on the wing, the legs being stretched
out behind like those of a Heron; while a wounded bird will scratch
like a cat. The food consists of aquatic insects, worms, slugs,
weeds and other vegetable substances.

The adult has the beak of a pale flesh-colour ; the naked patch
on the forehead pure white — whence the name Bald ' Coot ' ; irides
crimson ; plumage sooty-black below and dark slate-grey above,
with a narrow white bar across the wing ; legs, toes and webs dark
green. Length 15 in. ; wing 8-5 in. In the young bird the frontal
patch is smaller, the throat is nearly white, and the under parts are
grey.

GRUID.i;.

521

THE CRANE.
Grus communis, Bechstein.

There is evidence that until the year 1590 the Crane used to breed
in the fens and swamps of East AngHa, and its visits in winter
continued with regularity to a later period, though they gradually
diminished in frequency. In the present century it can only be con-
sidered as of irregular occurrence in England, while it is very rare
on the mainland of Scotland, and only an occasional visitor to the
Orkneys and Shetlands. In Ireland a few have been obtained, the
latest in September 1896. "When estimating the value of early
records respecting its supposed abundance, it must be remembered
that the Heron was — and still is — -frequently known as the ' Crane.'

522 CRANE.

On the spring-passage this species sometimes visits the Fseroes,
and it wanders to the north-east of Norway, while it breeds in the
morasses in the south of that country, as well as in Sweden, Lap-
land, Finland, Russia (down to the Black Sea), Poland (especially
on the Vistula), Northern Germany, Austro-Hungary, the Danubian
Provinces, Turkey, Italy (Venetia), and Spain (Andalucia). Its
loud trumpet-like note may be heard over the greater part of Europe
from the beginning of March onward, announcing its return from
the south and Africa, in which its winter range extends to Abyssinia.
In December 1892, the Khalifa handed to his captive, Slatin Pasha,
a capsule taken from the neck of a Crane killed in the Sudan,
containing a statement that this bird had been bred and liberated
on a specified estate in South Russia. Eastward the Crane can be
traced across Asia up to lat. 65" N. in summer, and to Japan, China,
Northern India tS:c. during the cold season ; Prjevalski, when at an
elevation of 16,000 feet, observed flock after flock crossing the lofty
ranges of Central Asia on migration, at such an enormous altitude
above him that the birds themselves were scarcely visible !

The nest is placed on slightly raised ground in a marsh, and the
eggs, usually 2, though occasionally 3 in number, are of an olive-
grey colour, blotched with reddish-brown: measurements 3 '8 by
2*6 in. They are laid towards the end of April in Spain, but in
Lapland Wolley did not find them till a month later. The food
consists of grass, grain, pulse, acorns, the tubers of the sweet
potato, water-melons &c., with beetles and other insects in winter ;
while I have seen a Crane in captivity capture and swallow a Sparrow.

The adult has a red warty patch on the crown ; general plumage
slate-grey ; inner secondaries long, drooping, and bluish-black in
colour. Length 45 in. ; wing 21 in. The male is larger and rather
darker than the female. The young have no red on the head ; the
upper plumage is greyish-brown, and the hind plumes are short.
Breeding does not take place till the third year.

A male example of the Demoiselle Crane, Griis 7'irgfl, is said to
have been shot at Deerness, East Mainland, Orkney, on May 14th
1863, a companion bird being pursued, but not obtained (Zool.
p. 8692). This inhabitant of Africa, Asia, and the south of Europe,
has wandered as far north as Sweden and Heligoland ; it is also
frequently kept in confinement. An African Crowned Crane,
Bakarica pavofiina, was mobbed to death by the populace on the
Sabbath-day, September 17th 187 1, near Dairy in Ayrshire.

OTIDID.E.

523

THE GREAT BUSTARD.

Otis tarda, Linnseus.

Until the year 1526 the Great Bustard used to breed, sparingly, on
the flat portions of Berwickshire and East Lothian, on the Scottish
side of the Border ; while in England it was abundant on the moors,
extensive downs and plains as far south as the Channel. The
enclosure of wastes, the planting of trees, and the increase of
population contributed to the gradual diminution of its numbers ;
and this fine species gradually passed away from Berkshire, Hert-
fordshire, Cambridgeshire, the wolds of Lincolnshire, and the downs
of Sussex, while the first decade of this century saw the extinction
of the birds indigenous to Salisbury Plain. On the Eastern Wolds
of Yorkshire a survivor of former droves was trapped in 1832-33 ;
and in Norfolk and Suffolk the last fertile eggs were taken about
1838, though a few birds lingered to a somewhat later date. The

524 GREAT BUSTARD.

Bustard is now only an irregular wanderer to Great Britain — excep-
tionally as far north as the Orkneys; the winter of 1870-71 being
signalized by the arrival of a considerable number, while a smaller
migration was noticed in England in the winter of 1S79-S0 (coin-
ciding with a visitation in the northern and central provinces of
France), and another incursion in 1890-91.

In Denmark, and in the south of Sweden — where this species for-
merly bred, it is now of only accidental occurrence, and in Russia it is
seldom found further north than Moscow, though southward it is
plentiful. It is still resident, except in severe winters, on the plains
of Germany — especially near Leipzig, and in Poland it is widely
distributed ; on the steppes of the Danubian and Black Sea districts
it becomes abundant, and it is also common in suitable portions of
the Spanish Peninsula ; but to the rest of Europe it is chiefly a
visitor. In Morocco, Tunisia, and North Africa generall)', it is rare.
North of the great mountain ranges in Asia, it can be traced to
Western China, and a flock has been known to wander as far as the
valley of the Indus ; but in Eastern Siberia, and the greater part of
China in winter, its representative is the closely-allied O. dybowskii.

In spring the males fight furiously for the possession of the
females, but afterwards they live apart in small droves, and towards
the end of May they moult their quills, remaining for some time
unable to fly ; otherwise the Bustard is very strong on the wing, and
the idea that it habitually seeks safety by continued running is a
popular error. The eggs, laid in a hollow scraped in the ground,
are 2-3 in number, and are olive-green blotched with brown :
measurements 3 by 2-1 in. Incubation, which lasts rather more
than three weeks, begins in April in Spain, though later in Germany;
the young are soon able to run and hide themselves. Green corn,
peas, clover &c., are the chief articles of diet, but worms, small
mammals and reptiles are also eaten. Old males sometimes weigh
upwards of 30 lbs., and their flesh is coarse, but the hens and young
are excellent for the table.

The adult male has a tuft of long bristly white feathers at the
base of the bill on each side ; head bluish-grey ; upper surface
chiefly ochreous-yellow barred with black ; wings white, except the
primaries, which are brownish ; breast banded with rich chestnut
and grey ; belly white. Length 43 in. ; wing 24 in. The female
has no bristles or pectoral band, and is much smaller; wing 19 in.
The young resemble the hen. In the adult males of this and some
other Bustards there is a large sub-lingual air-pouch, which is
capable of great dilation during the love-season, though at other
times almost invisible.

OTIDID.E.

525

^^%-,

#'-;i«^

^-^^^-

THE LITTLE BUSTARD.
Otis tetrax, Linnaeus.

Unlike the preceding species, the Little Bustard was never more
than a wanderer to the British Islands, and, since its presence was
first noticed in 1751, most of the tolerably numerous occurrences
on record have been during the colder half of the year. The
majority of these have been in the southern counties (notably
Cornwall), or in the eastern half of England (especially in Suffolk,
Norfolk, and Yorkshire) ; while as regards Scodand the four known
instances have all been on the east side. In Ireland, six examples
have been obtained ; four of them in the south.

Exceptionally the Little Bustard has been obtained in the south
of Norway and Sweden, as well as on the German side of the
Baltic, and in the St. Petersburg district; while in May 1883 its
nest was found near Fehrbellin (north of Berlin). It is, however,

526 • LITTLE BUSTARD.

chiefly a winter-visitor to Germany : but it has greatly increased of
late years on the undulating plains which stretch across France from
Marne to La Vendee, arriving about the end of March or early in
April, and leaving in September. In the Spanish Peninsula it is very
common on broken or rolling ground ; but to the north of Italy it is
only a visitor, though resident in the south as well as Sicily and
Sardinia; while it is tolerably plentiful along the valley of the Danube,
as well as in the Balkan Peninsula, Turkey, Greece, and Southern
Russia. Eastward it extends to Turkestan, and on migration it is
known to cross the lofty Pamir plateau on the way to its winter-
quarters in North-western India. In Africa north of the Sahara it
is abundant, being well known in Algeria and Tunisia by the name
of " Poule de Carthage " ; it is, however, rare in Egypt.

The male assumes his breeding-plumage in April, at which time
he selects a spot about three feet in diameter, on which he passes
several hours each day, with head and neck thrown back, wings
somewhat extended, and tail erect, pouring forth his peculiar cry of
pnit, prut (whence the French name Canepetiere), jumping up at
the conclusion of each call, and striking the ground in a peculiar
manner on his descent. At this season ]\Ir. Abel Chapman found
that the throat became much dilated. Conflicts take place for the
females, but instead of uniting in flocks whilst the latter are in-
cubating, each male is to be found in the vicinity of a hen. The
nest, slightly made of dry grass, is placed on the ground, among
herbage sufficiently high to conceal the bird ; the eggs, 3-4 in
number, are of a very glossy olive-brown or pale green, clouded
with darker patches, and often beautifully zoned with rufous :
measurements i"95 by i"5 in. The first clutch is laid about the end
of May, a second being frequently produced in the latter part of
July. The food consists of herbs, grain, insects, slugs, small snails,
frogs, field-mice &c. The male rises with a loud clatter of his
wings, but the female sits remarkably close. In autumn the birds
form large packs, which afterwards break up into smaller parties.

The male in spring has the cheeks and throat dark grey enclosed
by a white loop, below which is a broad collar of black, followed by
a band of white and then another of black ; crown and general
upper plumage sandy-brown, vermiculated with black ; wing-coverts
and under surface white. Length 17 in.; wing 9'5 in. In winter
the feathers of the neck and breast are sandy-brown streaked with
black, as in the female. The latter differs chiefly in having the
upper parts blotched — rather than vermiculated — with black. The
young are like the hen, but rather more barred on the flanks.

OTIDID.t.

527

MACQUEEX^S BUSTARD.
Otis macqueeni, J. E. Gray.

This species, which might with advantage be called the Asiatic
Ruffed Bustard, occasionally wanders across Europe to England.
In October 1847 a bird — now in the ^Museum of the Philosophical
Society at York — was shot in a stubble-field near Kirton-in-Lindsey,
Lincolnshire; on October 5th 1892, an adult male, now in the
Newcastle Museum, was obtained near Redcar; and on October 17th
1896, a third was secured, near the Spurn, Holderness.

It is tolerably certain that the five Ruffed Bustards recorded from
Northern Germany between the years 1800 and 1847 were all
examples of O. 7nacqueeni^ and not of its closely-allied African re-
presentative, O. iindulata : the existence of two distinct species being
unknown to Naumann and others. A genuine Macqueen's Bustard,
killed near Utrecht in December 1850, is in the Museum at Leiden,
while three specimens have been obtained in Belgium, one on the

5^8 macqueen's bustard.

Swedish island of Oeland, one (out of a flock of six) in Schleswig,
one in Poland, one in Silesia, one near Helsingfors in Finland, and
one in Livonia towards the end of September 1880. In Italy two
females were obtained near Rome in November and December
1859; but the species occasionally met with in Malta, Sicily, and
Southern Spain is the African Ruffed Bustard. In the Aralo-
Caspian region Macqueen's Bustard is resident, and eastward it can
be traced to the steppes near Lake Balkash and to the Altai
Mountains. On migration it crosses the Pamir to pass the cold
season in Northern India, where it appears in September and leaves
again in INIarch ; while in the semi-desert districts of Sirsa and
Kurrachi, in Sind, it is sometimes so abundant that fifty have fallen
to a single gun in a day. It is also found in Afghanistan, Baluchistan,
and in Persia it breeds along the Gulf of Oman. Both the above
species are generally known by the name " Houbara."

Of late years a tolerable number of eggs have been received by
Herr Tancre from the vicinity of the Altai range (lat. 50° N.), in
the extreme south of the Russian province of Tomsk. All that I
have seen are olive-brown with darker blotches, and with less of a
greenish tinge than is found in some of those of the Great Bustard :
average measurements of 3 (a clutch) in the collection of Mr. E.
Bidwell 2 "5 5 by 17 in. Probably this species is not polygamous,
for Mr. Hume never observed any preponderance of females over
males. It frequents sandy wastes studded with low bushes, among
which it runs with great rapidity, feeding largely on the small fruits
of the Be?; the berries of the Grevia^ and young shoots of lemon-
grass, with a few grasshoppers or beetles. The specimen killed in
Lincolnshire had its crop filled with caterpillars of the yellow-under-
wing moth, small-shelled snails &c.

The adult male has a crest of white feathers tipped with black,
and a ruff, which is chiefly black, on the sides of the neck ; upper
parts pale buff, finely vermiculated with black; tail washed with
rufous, crossed with three black bars, and tipped with white ; throat
pale grey ; breast bluish-grey ; abdomen white. Length 28 in. ;
wing 1 5 "5 in. The female is a little lighter in colour, and has the
crest and ruff less developed. In the African Ruffed Bustard,
O. undulaia, the ground-colour is more rufous, the vermiculations
are coarser, the tail is broadly crossed with five dark bars, and the
elongated feathers of the crest and lower throat are white. The
latter species occurs on Lanzarote, the nearest of the Canary Islands
to Africa.

CEDICNEMID^..

529

THE STONE-CURLEW.

Q^DiCNEMUS scoLOPAX (S. G. Gmelin).

The Stone-Curlew is often called the Thick-knee, owing to the
swelling observable at the knee-joints in young birds and which dis-
appears with increasing age ; while another name for it is Norfolk
Plover, with reference to its comparative abundance on the extensive
' brecks ' and warrens of East Anglia. It comes to this country, as a
rule, in April, and, after assembling in flocks in the early autumn,
leaves in October; but a few have been known to remain until Decem-
ber, and on January 30th 1895 (one of the most severe seasons on
record) a bird was killed in Lincolnshire ; while in Cornwall and
South Devon a tolerable number pass the winter. The Stone-
Curlew is especially partial to chalk downs, open heaths, and
dry sandy soils, such as are found in Dorset, Wilts, Hants, Sussex,
Kent (where it lays its eggs on the shingle in Romney Marsh
as well as on the neighbouring uplands), Berkshire, the counties
along the north side of the Thames, Bedfordshire, Hertfordshire,
Cambridgeshire, Suffolk and Norfolk. It is also known to have

T T

53° STONE-CURLEW.

nested in the Midlands and Worcestershire, as well as on the wolds
of Lincolnshire and East Yorkshire ; but in Northumberland it is of
very rare occurrence, and there are no records for Cumberland or
Lancashire ; while in Wales and west of Herefordshire it is almost
unknown. In Scotland one was obtained near St. Andrews in
January 1858, and one in Dumbartonshire in August 1897. In
Ireland only six or eight examples have been met with.

Though only a straggler to Denmark, the Stone-Curlew breeds
sparingly in the northern districts of Germany, and is found in
summer throughout the temperate portions of Europe where the
localities are suitable ; while south of the Alps and the Carpathians
it is to a great extent resident, as it is in the Canaries and Madeira.
It inhabits North Africa, Egypt, and the coast of the Red Sea ; but
in Somali-land its representative is CE. ajfinis, closely related to the
widely-distributed South African CE. capensis. In Asia our bird has
been noticed as far north as the wastes near the Saisan Lake (below
the Altai range) ; and southward it is found in Afghanistan, India
(including Ceylon) and Burma. Other members of the genus are
found in various parts of the African, Indian and Australian regions,
as well as in the tropical portions of America.

The eggs, usually 2 in number, are pale clay-brown, spotted and
streaked with ash-grey and umber: measurements 2*1 by i"5 in.
They are laid in a mere hollow scraped in the heath-land, or on the
sand, and often among scattered stones, which they much resemble ;
specimens from arid localities in the south of Europe, Africa, and
India being as a rule pale in colour and small in size. Eggs are
often found by the middle of April, and sometimes in September.
The male incubates during the day. Worms, slugs, and insects
— especially nocturnal beetles — are the principal diet, though the
Stone-Curlew also eats such small mammals as field-mice, as well as
frogs and reptiles. Its whistling cry is chiefly heard after dusk,
and on moonlight nights the birds are very noisy, but during the
day they are usually silent.

The adult lird has the beak black at the point, greenish-yellow at
the base ; irides very large and golden-yellow ; feathers of the upper
parts pale brown, with dark streaks down the centres ; wing-coverts
with dull white tips which form two narrow bars, quills nearly black ;
throat and a streak below the eye white; neck and breast buff,
streaked with dark brown ; belly paler ; vent and under tail-coverts
almost white; legs and feet yellow. Length 16 in.; wing 9-25 in.
The sexes are alike in plumage; the young are rather duller in
colour than the adults, and have more bars on the tail-feathers.

GLAREOLIN^.

531

^.^f-3i&i._

THE PRATINCOLE.

Glareola pratincola (Linnaeus).

Even to the south of Europe the Pratincole is only a summer-
visitor, though it occasionally wanders to Great Britain on both spring
and autumn migrations. Its occurrence was first noticed in 1807,
when examples were obtained almost simultaneously at Ormskirk in
Lancashire and Bowness in Cumberland, while subsequently four
specimens have been taken in Norfolk, one in Cambridgeshire, one
in Essex, one in Lincolnshire, three in Yorkshire, and one, strange
to say, in Unst, the most northern of the Shetland Islands. In the
south of England, Surrey, Hants, Dorset, Wilts, Somerset, Devon
and Cornwall have been visited ; and a bird was observed near Hay
in Breconshire by Messrs. Baskerville, who were well acquainted
with the species. In Ireland, it is said that one, which was not
preserved, was shot nearly fifty years ago in co. Cork ; and the
identification was probably correct, for all the evidence that I have
been able to collect indicates that this species reaches our shores by
traversing the western half of France.

Early in April the Pratincole returns from its winter-quarters
in the south to North Africa, where large numbers remain to breed ;
while others pass through Egypt and nest in Palestine, Asia Minor,
the Dobrudscha, the neighbourhood of Missolonghi in Greece,
Sicily, the Balearic Islands, and the plains at the mouth of the
Guadalquivir in Spain. In other parts of the Mediterranean basin

T T 2

532 PRATINCOLE.

the bird is chiefly a migrant, though individuals may remain on the
west coast of Italy, where the " Pernice di mare " is well known
on passage. It continues its course to the Camargue in the south
of France, where it finds suitable breeding-ground, except in dry
seasons ; while a few ascend the valley of the Rhone to Savoy
and Lake Leman, and spread out over France as far west as the
mouth of the Somme. In Holland an example was obtained on
July 24th 1892, but the mountains of Central Europe form a barrier
which the Pratincole rarely crosses ; and, though found in Austro-
Hungary, it is very rare in Poland. In Southern Russia and on the
eastern side of the Black Sea the representative form is G. melan-
optera, which has black — instead of chestnut — under wing-coverts
and axillaries, with no white alar bar. Both of these forms (as well
as one that is intermediate) are found in Asia (especially on salt-
plains) as far east as the Tian-Shan range ; and both occur in South
Africa down to Natal in the cold season. There are several other
members of the family in the Ethiopian, Indian and East Australian
regions, but none are known in the New World.

Early in May the eggs, 2-3 in number, are laid, with their axes
parallel, on the sun-dried mud which has been covered with water
during the rains of winter ; the shell is thin, the form very oval, the
ground-colour buff or grey, marbled and zoned with black or
purplish-brown spots: measurements i"i5 by '9 in. The note,
when the breeding-place is invaded, is a shrill kia, kia, kia-ia ; the
birds swooping close to the intruder's head, and also cowering over
the soil sideways or with extended wings, though this proceeding
does not necessarily indicate the proximity of their eggs or young.
The flight is very Tern-like, but when on the ground the bird runs
with great rapidity. The food — often taken on the wing — consists
of insects, especially beetles, grasshoppers and locusts.

The adult has the upper parts clove-brown ; tips of secondaries,
tail-coverts, and bases of the tail-feathers white ; throat buff,
enclosed by a narrow black bridle; breast brownish-buft'; belly
white; axillaries ruddy-chestnut. Length io'5 ; wing 7*5 in. The
sexes are alike in plumage. In the young bird the upper parts are
much mottled and barred with black and grey, and the breast is
profusely striped with dark brown. The nestlings are clove-brown
with slight mottlings on the upper parts, and white below ; they can
run, like Plovers, on emerging from the shell.

CURSORIIN^.

533

THE CREAM-COLOURED COURSER.

CuRSORius GALLicus (J. F. Gmclin).

The Cream-coloured Courser is only an irregular wanderer to the
countries north of the Mediterranean, and its specific name is
owing to the accident that the bird was first described from an
example killed in France. Although, however, an inhabitant of
southern and even desert localities, yet — such are the eccentricities
of migration — its visits to Great Britain have been, with one doubtful
exception, between the early part of October (in which month seven
individuals are known to have been killed) and December. Kent,
Middlesex, Suffolk, Norfolk, Lincolnshire, Yorkshire, Northumber-
land, Cumberland, Leicestershire, 'North Wales' in 1793 and
Cardiganshire in October 1886, Cornwall, Devon, Somerset, Dorset,
Wilts and Hants, may be enumerated among the districts in which
it has been identified ; and altogether about a score of specimens
have been obtained, inclusive of one shot on October 8th 1868 in
Lanarkshire — the only instance in Scotland. The species has not
yet been noticed in Ireland.

As a straggler this Courser has occurred once near Liege in
Belgium, once in Holland, once (in 1835 or 1836) in Heligoland,
three or four times in Northern and Central Germany, and to about

534 CREAM-COLOURED COURSER.

the same extent in France. Even to the south of the last, as well as
to Spain and the mainland of Italy, its visits are rare and irregular,
though somewhat more frequent in Sicily and Malta. In Bulgaria
and the Dobrudscha this species is unknown, and it is only a
wanderer to the steppes of South Russia. In the west its true
home commences at the Canary Islands, on some of which the bird
is numerous ; while eastward it inhabits Africa north of the Sahara —
where Canon Tristram obtained the first eggs on record (Ibis,
1.S59, P- 79, pi- ii-, fig. 3) ; and southward it is found in Kordofan, as
well as on both sides of the Red Sea. Through Arabia it can be
traced to Persia, Baluchistan, Afghanistan and Northern India, but
Dr. W. T. Blanford is doubtful respecting its asserted nesting in
India proper. Other members of the genus inhabit portions of
Asia and Africa ; the one most closely allied to the present species
being a native of Somali-land.

On Fuerteventura, Canaries, Mr. Meade-Waldo obtained young
birds by March 23rd, on the barest parts of the desert, where the
stones were mostly small ; and such was the abundance of the species
on that island in 1891 that about a thousand eggs were taken for collec-
tors, while at least double that number were destroyed. Most of the
earlier eggs in European collections were, however, the produce of a
bird which was brought to Favier of Tangiers in 1851 and laid
them at irregular intervals until 1859. Their colour is stone-buff,
marbled or freckled with brown and purplish-grey : measurements
I "35 by I'l in. The clutch consists of 2 eggs, and incubation seems
to devolve upon the females ; the cocks either going about in little
parties, or mixing with birds that are not breeding. The food
consists of insects and small molluscs. The note emitted by the
female is syllabled by Favier as rererer.

The adult has the beak dark brown ; irides hazel ; forehead and
crown of a sandy-buff, turning to grey and deepening to slate-blue
margined with black on the nape ; from the eye to the nape a white
streak, with a narrow black stripe below ; upper surface generally
sandy-buff; quills, under wing-coverts and axillaries black; under
parts pale greyish-buff, gradually passing into white at the vent ; legs
greyish. The sexes are alike in plumage. Length 10 in. ; wing
6'3 in. The young bird (in the background) is more rufous in tint,
and has no grey or black on the nape, while the eye-stripe is buff
instead of white ; the feathers of the throat and the upper parts
have dark crescentic markings.

CHARADRIID.1':.

535

53^-

THE DOTTEREL.

Eudr6mias morinellus (Linnaeus).

The Dotterel usually makes its appearance in the southern and
eastern counties of England towards the end of April or early in
May, according to the season ; leaving for the south in August or
the beginning of September. It is somewhat partial to the chalk-
formation, and considerable numbers used to sojourn for a few days
on the arable land of the low hills on the borders of Hertfordshire
and Cambridgeshire, as well as on the Chilterns and similar localities,
on their way northward. For at least a century it has been known
to breed on the mountains of the Lake district, but there is no
evidence that at any time during that period it was plentiful, though
its numbers have undoubtedly decreased of late years. For details
reference should be made to the Rev. H. A. Macpherson's ' Fauna
of Lakeland,' pp. 348-358. On migration the Dotterel often lingers
on the moors and marshes near the sea-coast on both sides of our
island, and is of tolerably wide distribution, except in Wales, where
it is of irregular occurrence. None remain during summer on the
Cheviots, along which the " trips " pass on their way northward in
spring, but according to Mr. Service a few pairs have nested on the
Galloway and Dumfriesshire hills ; while further north the bird
breeds in moderate numbers on the Grampian and Cairngorm
ranges at an altitude of 2,700 to 3,000 ft., and occupies a few locali-

53^ DOTTEREL.

ties to the north of the valley of the Spey(Harvie-Bro\vn and Buckley).
It is said to have visited the Orkneys and Shetlands, but has not
yet been recorded from the Outer Hebrides, and is of rare occur-
rence on the west side of Scotland. In Ireland it has been obtained
as far north as Donegal, but is decidedly uncommon at any season.

The Pearson Expedition of 1895 found this species nesting on the
South Island of Novaya Zemlya, as well as on Waigats in 1897 ;
and it breeds in considerable numbers on the fells of Scandinavia.
Its eggs and young have been taken on the highlands of Transyl-
vania, Styria and Bohemia, but as a rule the bird is chiefly a migrant
over the Central part of the Continent and throughout the Mediter-
ranean basin, in which Northern Africa, Egypt and Palestine appear
to be its winter quarters ; its wanderings extending to the Canaries.
From Russia eastward it nests on the tundras and some of the
mountains of Siberia as far as the Sea of Okhotsk, and southward
to the Ala-tau range ; visiting Turkestan and Persia in winter.

Mr. Frank Nicholson, who has been in the habit of exploring the
Lake district for more than thirty years, says that the eggs
never exceed 3 in number; they are usually laid in a depres-
sion of the short dense moss, a little below the summits of the
mountains, and their colour is a rather oily yellowish-olive, blotched
and spotted with brownish-black: measurements i*6 by it in.
Incubation seldom begins before the first or second week in
June. The food consists of wireworms, beetles and other insects.
The trivial as well as the scientific name of this bird refers to its
supposed stupidity and the ease with which it allows itself to be
approached by a fowler with a net, while watching and even imitating
his movements.

The adult has the crown nearly black, bordered by a broad white
loop which runs backwards from each eye and round the nape ;
feathers of the upper parts ash-brown, with paler edges and rufous
margins to the inner secondaries ; tail-feathers — except the central
pair — broadly tipped with white ; chin and throat dull white ; breast-
feathers ash-brown, tipped with black at their junction with a white
gorget, followed by warm chestnut on the lower breast and flanks ;
belly black ; tail-coverts white ; axillaries greyish. Females are
sometimes a trifle larger, but seldom brighter, than males. Length
9 in. ; wing 6 in. The young bird has the feathers of the crown
and upper parts margined with rufous-buff, especially the long inner
secondaries ; breast mottled with greyish-brown, and with little
indication of the white gorget ; remaining under parts dull white.

>

CHARADRIID.«.

537

THE CASPIAN PLOVER.

^^GIALITIS ASIATICA (Pallas).

On the morning of May 22nd 1890, two strange birds were
observed in a large market-garden bordering on the North Denes at
Great Yarmouth, and later in the day one of them was shot. It
proved to be an adult male of the Caspian Plover, and, having been
exhibited by Mr. Southwell at a meeting of the Zoological Society
(Pr. Z. S. 1890, p. 461), it was placed in the Norwich Museum.

In an important paper on Limicolae, published m ' The Ibis ' for
1870, Mr. Harting had described and figured this species ; pointing
out (p. 207) the possibility that it might visit England, inasmuch as
its occurrences at Heligoland in November 1850 and May 1859
had brought its westward wanderings within a measurable distance of
our shores. In November 1887 a straggler was obtained in Italy, on
the banks of the classical Metaurus, and is now in the Museum at
Florence. That as long ago as April 1836 an example should have
been taken at Odessa, as well as a pair at Astrakhan in 187 1, is not
surprising, for the home of this Sand-Plover begins at the Khirgis
steppes. According to Prof. Menzbier (Poynting's ' Eggs of
Limicolje,' p. 23), the breeding-area extends from the mouth of the
Volga over the lower courses of the rivers Ural and Emba, and

53S CASPIAN PLOVER.

Stretches along the eastern shores of the Caspian, continuing to the
Sea of Aral, the salt-lakes of Turkestan, and southward to the Amu-
Daria. On migration the bird passes by Lenkoran southward to
the Persian Gulf and Arabia, while, following the east coast of
Africa and the Nile valley, it reaches Cape Colony ; it also occurs
in Damaraland and Angola. A specimen has been obtained near
Ratnagiri in India.

Prof. Menzbier says that this Plover arrives on the north shore of
the Caspian (especially round Guriev) in the beginning of April, and
colonies of about ten pairs take up their residence round a salt lake.
The nest is a shallow depression, with hardly any lining, and the
eggs, 3 in number, have an ochraceous ground-colour, thickly
sprinkled with irregular blackish-brown spots: measurements i'45
by I "02 in. Departure takes place by the middle of August. The
food consists mainly of Coleoptera and Cicadae.

The adult in spring has the forehead and cheeks white ; no rufous
colour on the hind-neck, but a broad band of bright chestnut across
the upper breast, followed by a narrow black band on the lower
edge ; the rest of under parts white ; upper surface brown ; primaries
dark brown with white shafts ; axillaries white ; bill black ; legs
greenish-olive ;■ iris dusky hazel. Length 7'5 in.; wing 5"6 in.;
tarsus I "35. In winter the pectoral band is merely brown, and the
head and upper parts are umber-colour, with a tinge of sandy buff
on the forehead, cheeks and hind-neck. The young have more of a
sandy tinge and the feathers of the upper parts have buff edges ;
the length of the tarsi serves to distinguish them from the young of
the Rin2;ed Plover.

CHARADRIID.1^.

539

THE RINGED PLOVER.
.Egialitis hiaticola (Linnceus).

This bird is sometimes called the Ringed Dotterel — a name to be
deprecated as having led to confusion with the true Dotterel, while
locally it is known as "Stone-hatch" or "Sand-lark." Through-
out the British Islands the Ringed Plover is generally distributed
along the flat portions of the coast, as well as on sandy warrens and
inland lakes at some distance from the sea, and on migration it is
also found by the banks of rivers. The birds which are more or
less resident here and on the opposite shores of France and
Plolland, as well as those which arrive from the north in autumn,
are larger, more bullet-headed, and duller in the colour of the
mantle than those which come from the south in spring ; but these
leave us after a short stay, though a few, perhaps, remain to breed in
Kent and Sussex. Many individuals of this smaller race have been
erroneously recorded as examples of the next species.

In summer the Ringed Plover occurs in Iceland, and it has been
found on Jan Mayen, and even on the Seven Islands (lat. 8o°45'N.),
as well as on Spitsbergen. It has also been obtained up to 79° in

54° RrS'GED PLO%"ZR.

Greenland, as well as on the opposite side of Smith Sound and Davis
Strait : but in America prop>er its representative is-:£". seinipalmata, a
smaller species with more developed webs between the toes. Ovu-
bird reaches Iceland in May and leaves in September, while on the
Continent it inhabits most locahties which are suitable, becoming
rarer in the interior of compact countries like Russia, and more
abimdant in those which present a varied coast line, or are inter-
sected bv large rivers. It nests on Kolguev, Novaya Zemlya, and
along the northern shores and the higher tundras of Siberia as far
as Bering Strait ; migrating southward on the approach of winter.
The small race already mentioned occurs as far south as Madeira,
the Canaries, and Northern Africa (including Egypt), going down to
the Cai)e of Good Hope in the cold season ; while in Central Asia
it nests on the large salt lakes as far as Turkestan, and exceptionally
it wandeia to the north of India.

The nest is usually a mere shallow cavit}- in the sand, sometimes
lined with small stones, but CoL H. W. Feilden has recorded an
exceptional instance in which the green fleshy leaves and the stems of
Atripkx littoralis were employed. Laying becomes general by the
middle of April, and two broods are usually produced in the season,
freshly-hatched yoimg being often found in the first week of August.
The eggs, 4 in number, are pear-shaped, and of a stone-buff colour,
spotted with black : measurements i "4 by i in. Various devices
are practised by the parents to divert attention from their nestHngs,
though the latter can run as soon as they emerge from the shell, and
are not easily seen, owing to the similarit}' of their colour to the
surroundings. The food consists of worms, insects, and thin-
skinned crustaceans, such as shrimps, sand-hoppers, &a ; particles
of grit being taken to aid digestion. The usual note is a melodious
whistle, and the alarm-oy- may be syllabled as pen-y-et. but during
the pairing-season the cock has a distinct love-call.

The adult male in spring has the forehead and a stripe behind
each eye white ; fore-crown, lores and sub-ocular region black ; chin,
throat and neck white, followed by a black collar, broadest on the
breast ; nape and upper parts hair-brown, with a narrow white alar
bar ; outer tail-feathers chiefly white, the rest brown with white tips ;
lower breast and belly white ; bill black at the point, yellow at the
base; legs orange. Length 775; ^"ing 5*25 in.; in the smaller
Continental form only 5 in. The female has the black collar less
defined, and in winter both sexes are duller in colour. The young
bird has the beak blackish, no black band on the fore-crown ; loral
strif>e and gorget dusky brown ; legs pale yellow.

CHARADRIID.^.

541

THE LITTLE RINGED PLOVER.

^:gialitis curonica (J. F. Gmelin).

The true Little Ringed Plover is one of the rarest of our occa-
sional visitors, and the genuine instances of its occurrence appear to
be the following :— Years ago, Doubleday obtained an example at
Shoreham in Sussex, and Mr. W. Borrer has another, shot near the
mouth of Chichester Harbour, in May ; Rodd's collection contains
one killed on October 23rd 1863, at Trescoe in the Scilly Islands;
while on Kingsbury Reservoir in Middlesex, in August 1864, Mr.
Harting and Mr. R. H. Mitford each obtained an immature bird ;
and in the Seebohm collection at the British Museum there is an
adult female shot at Freshwater, Isle of Wight, in August. Others
have been recorded from time to time in ' The Zoologist ' and else-
where, but all those which have been submitted to competent
authorities have proved to be specimens of the small Continental
form of the Ringed Plover. The distinctions between the two are
mentioned at the end of this article.

It is somewhat remarkable that the Little Ringed Plover should
so seldom visit us, inasmuch as it is common on the Continent at
no great distance from our shores. It is only a wanderer to the
Faroes, but it nests in Scandinavia, and according to Bogdanow,
occurs sparingly as far north as 64-66° N. lat. in Russia ; while it
owes its specific name to its occurrence in Courland, and it breeds

542 LITTLE RINGED PLOVER.

abundantly in Poland and Germany, though less plentifully in Den-
mark, Holland, Belgium, and Northern France. It does not affect
the open sea-coast, preferring expanses of sandy soil by inland lakes
and on rivers, and these it finds in some parts of France, the Spanish
Peninsula (up to an elevation of 4,000 ft. in the Pyrenees), Italy,
the south of Europe generally, and Northern Africa. In Asia it
nests across Siberia to the Sea of Okhotsk, as well as in Japan,
China, and in Turkestan up to an altitude of 4,000 feet ; it visits
India as far south as Ceylon during the cold season, and even
reaches the Moluccas and New Guinea. In Africa it has been
recorded from Mozambique on the east and the Gaboon on the
west.

The usual breeding-places of this bird are sandy islets and strips
of waste land overgrown with coarse wiry grass, on the margins of
rivers ; also the dried-up beds of winter-torrents and elevated stony
plains. Incubation seldom begins before the latter half of May,
when the eggs, 4 in number, are laid in a slight hollow ; their colour
is pale stone-buff, with minute dark brown spots and streaks, very
different from the bolder markings prevalent in the preceding
species : measurements i'i5 by "85 in. The usual note is rendered
by Naumann as did or deli ; but the love-call, chiefly uttered by the
male when on the wing, is a more prolonged trill. The food con-
sists of water-beetles and other insects, in search of which the bird
has been observed to turn over small stones.

The adult Little Ringed Plover is smaller in size, slenderer in
form, and one-fourth less in weight than ,£". hiaticola ; the shafts of
the primaries are all dusky, except the outer one which is white
(whereas in the larger species there are on the shafts flecks of white
which form a conspicuous bar when the wing is extended) ; the
general colour of the upper parts is even paler in .^. curonica than
it is in Continental examples of the Ringed Plover. In spring the
eyelids are golden yellow, and the legs are of a pale ochre colour.
Length 6'5 in. ; wing 4-5 in. The young exhibit a more decidedly
sandy tint on the upper parts than do those of the Ringed Plover,
and the down of the nestling is more distinctly buff.

CHARADRIID/I'-.

543

THE KENTISH PLOVER.

^GiALiTis CANTiANA (Latham).

The Kentish Plover is easily recognizable by its incomplete
pectoral band. It arrives on the shores of England in April, and
departs, as a rule, in September ; but individuals which were prob-
ably migrants from the Continent have been obtained on the east
coast in October, Bridlington in Yorkshire being the most northern
locality in which they have been noticed. Even in Lincolnshire
the species is of rare occurrence, though more frequent in Norfolk
and Suffolk ; but on the shingle-beaches of Kent (whence it was first
described), as well as in Sussex, it formerly bred in considerable
numbers, though collectors have contributed to its decrease. West-
ward its appearance is unusual, and only a few specimens are
recorded from Devon and Cornwall ; but in the Channel Islands
it is not uncommon, especially on Guernsey and the neighbouring
islets. To Ireland it is a very rare visitor.

As a wanderer the Kentish Plover has been recorded on four
occasions from the south-west of Norway, and it breeds in the south
of Sweden, though it is rare on the Baltic coast of Germany. In
Denmark, Holland and Belgium it is fairly numerous, while in
France and the Spanish Peninsula it is abundant, both on the sea-
shore and on brackish lagoons at some distance inland. It appears

544 KENTISH PLOVER.

to be resident throughout the basin of the Mediterranean, as well as
in the Azores, Madeira and Porto Santo, the Canaries and the
Cape Verde Islands ; while in winter it has been found in Africa as
far south as Cape Colony. In summer it frequents the Black,
Caspian and Aral Seas, as well as the lakes of the Pamirs, Turkestan,
Daiaria and Mongolia, the island of Askold, Japan and China ;
migrating in the cold weather to the Malay Peninsula, Burma and
India, while a small number nest locally in the last. In America the
representative is ^. nivosa, which has white — and not black — lores,
when in breeding-plumage.

Towards the end of May, in warm seasons, the eggs are laid in a
small hollow in the sand, or among fine shingle and broken shells,
often in a nearly upright position, the points being buried and the
thick ends just showing above the loose soil. They seldom exceed
3 in number, though I have found 4 in Spain and also in the
Channel Islands ; they are rough in texture, and of a yellowish
stone-colour, spotted and characteristically scrolled with black :
measurements i'2 by "9 in. Mr. H. A. Dombrain says that occa-
sionally they are deposited on a heap of sea-weed thrown up by a
very high tide. If disturbed when sitting, the bird will run a few
yards, fly a little, then drop again and run, uttering a plaintive note ;
but when the young are hatched it sweeps closely round, accompany-
ing each stroke of the wing by a sharp whistle, and then dropping
suddenly and cowering with expanded wings and tail. The food is
similar to that of the Ringed Plover : a species which is said to
bully and drive from its haunts its smaller congener.

The adult male in spring has the forehead and a broad line above
each eye white ; lores and a stripe behind the eye black ; fore-
crown black ; top of the head and nape reddish-brown ; neck — all
round — and the entire under parts, white ; on each side of the neck
a black patch which is not continued to the breast ; upper parts —
including the three central pairs of tail-feathers — hair-brown with
darker shafts ; outer tail-feathers white ; bill, legs and feet black.
Length 6'75 in. ; wing 4*25 in. The female has no black on the
fore-crown, her neck-patches are brown instead of black, and her
colours are less bright. The young resemble the female, while the
downy nestlings are more rufous than those of the Ringed Plover.
The illustration represents an adult male in summer, and a young
bird in autumn plumage.

CHARADRIID/E.

545

THE KILLDEER PLOVER.

.'Egialitis voci'fera (Linnaeus).

In 1862 a mounted example of this American bird was identified
by Mr. P. L. Sclater, who was informed by Mr. J. R. Wise that it
had been killed in April 1859 (in the ' Ibis' 1862, p. 276, the year
was erroneously given as 1857) near Christchurch in Hampshire ;
but as corroborative evidence of this was wanting and the specimen
had changed hands during the interval, I did not consider it advis-
able to include the species in the 4th Edition of 'Yarrell.' On
January 15th 1885, as stated in the preface to the above work, Mr.
Jenkinson shot a bird, which I afterwards examined, at Tresco in
the Scilly Islands (Zool. 1885, p. 113).

The Killdeer Plover has not yet been recognized on the mainland
of Europe, though, according to Mr. J. Y. Johnson, it has been
obtained on the island of Madeira. In America it is widely dis-
tributed, breeding from the plains of the Saskatchewan (where it
arrives about April 20th) southward as far as Mexico ; its migrations
extending to the Bermudas, the West Indies generally, and tropical
America down to Colombia. In California and the southern portion
of the United States it is resident or only partially migratory ; while
even as far north as Long Island it has been met with up to the end
of November and often makes its re-appearance quite early in the

u u

546 KILLDEER PLOVER.

spring. In New England it is by no means plentiful, its line of
passage being more to the west ; but exceptionally it visits Maine,
and large flocks were observed near Portland between 28th and 30th
November 1888.

The nest is usually a mere hollow in the ground, without any
lining beyond a few bits of dry grass, or fragments of small shells
arranged in the form of a ring. The eggs, 4 in number, are pear-
shaped, and of a creamy-white colour blotched with dark purplish-
brown, much resembling those of our Ringed Plover, though larger
in size : measurements i"6 by I'l in. During incubation the parents
sit in turns upon their eggs, nor do they leave them by night or day
unless disturbed, in which case they are very noisy and resort to the
usual manoeuvres of Plovers to divert the attention of the intruder.
The note — to which the species owes its name — resembles the
syllables kill-dee rapidly enunciated, generally in a loud clear tone,
which often startles wild-fowl and renders this bird an object of
dislike to the native hunter. The food consists of worms, insects
and small crustaceans, chiefly obtained on inland pools and swamps ;
the actual sea-coast being rarely frequented by the Killdeer Plover,
although it may be found on the neighbouring lagoons or back-
waters.

The adult has the forehead and a streak behind the eye white ;
fore-crown banded with black ; lores, crown, nape and upper parts
umber-brown, with rufous margins to some of the long secondaries ;
alar bar and portions of the quills white ; rump, tail-coverts, and
basal portion of the long tail-feathers rufous, the subterminal por-
tions of the latter being barred with black and tipped with white ;
throat and under parts white, with two black bands across the chest ;
bill black ; legs yellowish-grey. Length 9*5 in. ; wing 6*5 in. The
sexes are alike in plumage ; the young are more conspicuously
marked with pale rufous on the upper parts. The Killdeer is a
larger bird than the Ringed Plover, and its proportionally longer
tail and legs give it a very graceful appearance.

For many of the above particulars I am indebted to ' The Water-
birds of North America.'

CHARADRlIDiE.

547

THE GOLDEN PLOVER.

Charadrius pluvialis, Linnaius.

The Golden Plover breeds in the British Islands, but it is most
plentifully and generally distributed on its migrations and during
the colder months of the year. Early in August a few birds with
faded black breasts make their appearance, while large flocks of young
usually arrive towards the end of September, and these are followed
from October to November by the adults which have moulted. A
return northward is noticed in March, when the birds which have
their breeding-places on our moorlands retire from the coasts which
they have frequented during the winter ; but long after these have
been engaged in the task of incubation, flocks from the south con-
tinue to pass northward ; the plumage of the later arrivals being, as
a rule, far darker, especially as regards the black breast, than that of
our home-keeping individuals. These nest sparingly on the high
ground in Devon and Somerset, more plentifully in Breconshire and
other counties of Wales and the Marches, and in increasing abundance
from Derbyshire northward to Sutherland. In the Orkneys, Shet-
lands, and Hebrides this species is common, and enormous numbers
frequent the pastures and shores in winter. In Ireland it breeds on
many of the mountains and several of the bogs, while vast flocks or

U U 2

548 GOLDEN PLOVER.

" Stands " visit the coasts from early in autumn onwards, especially
when the light of the moon enables them to feed by night.

In summer the Golden Plover has been found on Jan Mayen and
in Greenland; while it is a regular visitor to Iceland, the Fjeroes
and Northern Europe, and breeding as far south as the moors of
Brabant, Luxembourg, Germany, and sparingly in Switzerland.
Over the rest of the Continent it occurs on migration, passing the
cold season in the basin of the Mediterranean, and wandering to
Madeira as well as down the coast of Africa to Cape Colony. It
visits Novaya Zemlya, and' inhabits the tundras of Siberia as far
east as the Yenesei, but there the smaller C. dominiciis (the subject
of the next article) predominates, and becomes its representative in
Eastern Siberia. In winter our Golden Plover has been found in
Turkestan, Baluchistan and Sind.

The slight and scantily-lined depression which serves for a nest is
usually in short grass or heather, though often where the ground is
quite bare ; the eggs, 4 in number, are large in proportion to the
size of the bird, and are of a yellowish stone-colour handsomely
blotched and spotted with rich brownish-black : measurements 2 by
I "4 in. Incubation, in which the male takes an important part,
commences towards the end of April even on the bleak moors of
Northumberland, but is later in Northern Europe ; the young run
as soon as they are hatched, though unable to fly for a month or five
weeks. The food consists of insects and their larvae, worms, slugs,
small molluscs, the fry of the common mussel, and a little vegetable
matter. The note is a clear whistling tliii^ often heard by night over
large towns at the times of passage ; the spring-call being described
by Mr. Abel Chapman as tirr-pce-you.

In spring the adult male has the forehead white ; crown, nape
and mantle blackish, profusely spotted with gamboge-yellow, the
markings on the inner secondaries being of an oak-leaf pattern ;
tail barred with brown ; above the eye a white line which continues
down each side to the neck and even to the flanks ; under parts
black ; axillaries white ; bill, legs and feet black ; no hind-toe.
Length 11 in. ; wing 7-5 in. The female has usually less black
on the breast. After the autumnal moult the under parts are white,
tinged with dusky yellowish-brown on the breast, and the upper parts
are more yellow than they are in spring, when the breast becomes
black: sometimes by the end of February in England. The young
resemble their parents in winter-plumage, but are still yellower above;
the flanks are more mottled, and the tips of the axillaries are often
spotted with ash-brown, although the bases of those feathers are white.

CHARADRIID^:. 549

THE LESSER GOLDEN PLOVER.
Charadrius domInicus, p. L. S. Miiller.

There are two slightly different forms of this species, one of which
is found in the eastern part of Asia while the other inhabits North
America; and inasmuch as individuals referred to both of these
have been obtained in the British Islands, the above trivial name
has been adopted as being the least misleading. An example of
the Asiatic race was found in Leadenhall Market among a lot of
Golden Plovers in December 1874, and was said to have come
from Norfolk ; but this alone, however probable, did not suffice to
procure the admission of the species to the British list. In the
autumn of 1882 Mr. J. H. Gurney found a bird of the American
form in the same market ; and Mr. J. G. Millais has recorded (Zool.
1886, p. 26) the occurrence of a second American specimen in
Perthshire, on August 3rd 1883. In 'The Field' of December
loth 1887 Mr. Millais stated that on November 26th he received
from Stennis in Orkney, in the flesh, one of the Asiatic race.
Lastly, an example of the American form was obtained near Bel-
mullet, CO. Mayo, on September 13th 1894.

A bird ascribed to the American race was obtained on Heligo-
land in December 1847 by Gatke. Of the Asiatic form the
collection of that distinguished ornithologist contains no fewer than
three examples, all captured in summer ; while two have been taken
in Malta, two (recently) on the mainland of Italy, one (in the posses-
sion of the late Lord Lilford) at Malaga in Spain, and one at Lublin
in Poland. This race breeds on the tundras up to lat. 74° N. from
the Yenesei to Bering Sea, and as far south as the plains of
Mongoha, migrating in winter to China, Japan, India, the Malay
region, Australia, New Zealand and Polynesia; it also visits the
Prybilof Islands and the coast of Alaska, while, as might be
expected, gradations are found in the Pacific which lead insensibly
to the American form. This was first described and named
C. domiiiicus, by P. L. S. Miiller in 1776, from a specimen obtained
on San Domingo. As a rule, it is characterized— especially in
Eastern America— by its larger average size, relatively shorter
inner secondaries, and less brilliant yellow tint. It has occurred at
Olga Bay, Siberia, and it nests on the Barren grounds from Alaska

55° LESSER GOLDEN PLOVER.

to Davis Strait, as well as in the northern part of Greenland ; while
on passage it traverses Canada and the United States, seldom
occurring on the coast of California, but rather inclining to the east
of the Rocky IVIountains. In September and October large flocks
often arrive in the Bermudas, the birds being extremely fat and
highly appreciated for the table ; while on Antigua, Martinique,
Barbadoes, and other West Indian Islands, they are sometimes so
tame or exhausted that they can be knocked down with sticks
and stones. The migrations extend through tropical America, to
Argentina on the east side and Chile on the west.

A nest of the Asiatic bird which Seebohm found on the Yenesei,
was upon a piece of turfy land overgrown with moss and lichen,
and was a mere hollow in the ground, lined with broken stalks of
reindeer moss; while Mr. H. L. Popham says that the eggs are paler
in ground-colour than those of the Golden or the Grey Plover :
measurements 2 in. by i"33 in. The eggs are 4 in number. Mr.
MacFarlane, in his notes respecting the nidification of the American
form on the Barren grounds, gives the average measurements
as 1*9 by 1-3 in. The habits and food of this bird are similar
to those of its congener ; but its note, according to Seebohm, is
more like that of the Grey Plover, being a plaintive ki), sometimes
kl-ee, and often the treble kl-ce-ko ; Mr. Popham also states that it is
very distinctly recognizable.

In the breeding-season this species differs from the Golden
Plover in being smaller, and in having the axillaries suioke-grey to
their bases instead of white ; the latter distinction existing at all
seasons of the year. The winter-plumage, however, according to
Seebohm, " differs widely from that of the Golden Plover, though it
resembles very closely that of the Grey Plover, the spotted feathers
of the upper parts being replaced by feathers having yellow margins.
Young in first plumage resemble adults in spring-plumage on their
upper parts, except that the tail-feathers, instead of being dark
brown with transverse bars of pale brown, are uniform dark brown
with marginal yellow spots." Young in down obtained by Mr.
Popham are less marked with black on the sides of the head than
are those of the Golden Plover, and the yellowish-white band across
the hind-neck is more clearly defined. Average length of the
Asiatic race 9 in., wing 6-5 in. ; of the American 9*5, wing 675 in.

It has not been considered necessary to give an illustration of
this species.

CHARADRIID/E.

551

^^T%,

THE GREY PLOVER.

Squatarola helvetica (Linnreus).

This is a larger bird than the Golden Plover, with a more robust
bill, and may be recognized on the wing by its black axillaries as
well as its white tail-coverts ; while, on handling a specimen, the
presence of a distinct hind-toe is an unfailing characteristic. As
compared with that species it is less numerous, and it is not found in
large flocks, but small parties are widely distributed along our coasts
and estuaries. A few black-breasted birds return from their northern
quarters by the end of July or beginning of August ; the majority
of the young arrive in September ; and the bulk of the adults come
in October and November, after their moult. Considerable numbers
spend the winter here, and flocks of a score or more frequent the sea-
shore and mud-flats up to the end of May, by which time the black
breast has been assumed ; while birds which are not breeding remain
till June and even July. Though a regular winter-visitant to Ireland,
it is less numerous there than in Great Britain, in which, again, it is

552 GREY PLOVER.

more abundant on the east than on the west coast, while rare in the
Outer Hebrides and Orkneys.

The Grey Plover has only once been obtained in Iceland, and
there is no proof of its breeding on the fells of Scandinavia. In
1875 Messrs. Harvie-Brown and Seebohm took its eggs and young
on the tundras of the Petchora ; Mr. Trevor-Battye, and afterwards
the Pearson Expedition, found it nesting on Kolguev ; Mr. Popham
was similarly successful on the Yenesei ; further east Middendorff
had already obtained its eggs on the Taimyr Peninsula in lat. 74°
and on the Boganida in 71*^ N. ; and its summer-range extends to
Kamchatka. In winter this species visits the greater part of Asia,
Australia, Madagascar, and both sides of Africa, while it occurs on
passage in the Canaries and along the whole coast-line of Europe.
A limited number cross the Continent by way of the valleys of the
Rhine and the Rhone (in fact the bird owes the specific name
helvetica to the earliest described specimens having been procured
by Reaumur in Switzerland), while another route followed is along
the Volga and Kama rivers. Though somewhat rare in Greenland,
it is distributed over the Barren grounds of Arctic America in
summer, and reaches Guatemala in winter.

The nest is a slight hollow in the moor ; the eggs from ten
identified clutches obtained on the Petchora between June 22nd
and July 12th are described by Seebohm as 4 in number, inter-
mediate in ground-colour between typical specimens of those of
the Golden Plover and the Lapwing, the blotching being similar :
measurements i"9 by 1*4 in. The male takes part in incubation.
The alarm-note is a plaintive kop, sometimes combined with a
double klee-eep ; while during the time that the bird is on our coasts
its usual call may be syllabled by tl-e-ih, in a much sharper key than
that of the Golden Plover. The food consists of worms, marine
insects and their larvse, small molluscs and sea-weed.

The adult male in breeding-plumage has the fore-crown white ;
upper parts mottled and barred with brownish-black and white,
the latter predominating in the tail-feathers ; lores, cheeks, throat,
neck and breast black ; vent and under tail-coverts white ; axillaries
black; bill, legs and feet blackish. Length 11-5 in. ; wing 775 in.
In the female the black is less pronounced. After the autumn
moult the under parts are chiefly white, and the upper plumage has
a more ashy appearance, especially in the female. The young are
thickly streaked with brownish-grey about the head and neck, and
the upper parts exhibit some yellow spots up to the end of December;
the axillaries are dark brown, not black

CHARADRIID.-E.

553

THE SOCIABLE PLOVER.

Vanellus gregarius (Pallas).

In the autumn of the year i860 or thereabouts, an immature
example of this south-eastern species was shot from among a flock
of Lapwings, near St. Michael's-on-Wyre in Lancashire; and having
been subsequently placed in a case with many other stuffed birds
which impeded the view, it was at first erroneously recorded as a
Cream-coloured Courser. It afterwards came into the possession
of Mr. W. H. Doeg, when it was correctly identified, and was ex-
hibited by the late Mr. Seebohm at a meeting of the Zoological
Society of London on November 20th 1S88. Its pedigree appears
to be perfectly satisfactory.

The Sociable Plover has not yet been observed in Heligoland or
the northern part of Western Europe, but as long ago as March
1838 an adult (figured by Bonaparte) was shot near Rome, where a
young female was obtained in November 1872, while a third example
was killed near Sienna in the spring of 1856. On the Riviera an
adult male was taken near Nice in April 1883. At Cadiz, in
February 1868, I found in the market a bird — too advanced for
preservation — in the plumage of the first year, a stage then little

554 S0CIAf3LE PLOVER.

known, but with which I happened to be familiar, having recently
received from the Crimea the specimen figured in the background
of the present illustration. The bird has not actually been killed
in Poland, but near Lublin in September 1842 Taczanowski
identified two adults — which he was unable to shoot — in company
with some Golden Plovers. The Sociable Plover inhabits the
steppes of the Crimea and of the district between the Don, the Volga
and the Caucasus, as well as the Aralo-Caspian area and Turkestan ;
while on June nth 1S97 Mr. Popham shot an example in lat. 61° N.
on the Yenesei, a great extension of the range of this species. In
September it crosses the Pamirs to the dry uplands of Sind and the
sandy plains of India, and wanders southward to Ceylon in the cold
season, when it also visits Arabia, Egypt, Nubia and Abyssinia.

Eggs obtained through the Moravian colony at Sarepta, and taken
on the Sarpa, are rather paler than those of the Lapwing and less
thickly spotted : measurements i"S by i"3 in. Prof. Menzbier says
that the male takes part in incubation. The food consists of
spiders, grasshoppers, beetles and their larvae. Von Heuglin, who
had opportunities of observing this bird in Kordofan and Sennaar,
says that it frequented sandy localities and ground that had been
burnt ; it was, as a rule, quite silent, but every now and then he
heard it utter a short, shrill whistle.

The adult has the crown of the head glossy-black, enclosed by a
broad white band which starts from the base of the bill and runs
backwards above each eye to the nape ; lores and a narrow streak
behind each eye black ; nape and mantle pale drab, rather browner
on the wing-coverts ; secondaries conspicuously white, quills chiefly
black ; tail-feathers white, with a subterminal band of dark brown
on all except the outer pair ; chin white ; cheeks and sides of the
throat pale buff; breast ash-brown, turning to black on the belly,
followed by rich chestnut-red on the flanks and vent ; axillaries and
under tail-coverts white; bill, legs and feet black. Length 12 in. ;
wing 8 in. The sexes scarcely differ in plumage. The young bird
has the crown dark brown, with a bufifish-white circlet ; cheeks and
nape dull buff, striped with brown ; breast rather distinctly marked
with ' arrow-heads ' of ash-grey ; belly dull white, with a little chest-
nut above the vent ; the tzvo outer pairs of tail-feathers white ;
axillaries and under wing-coverts white, as in the adult.

This species is often placed in the genus Cha'tusia, chiefly because
it has not a crest ; but it has a hind-toe, and for the purpose of the
present work I have thought best to unite it with VaneHus.

CHARADRIID^..

555

THE LAPWING.

Vanellus vulgaris, Bechstein.

The Lapwing, also called the Peewit, owes the first name to the
slow flapping of the rounded pinions, while the latter is obviously
derived from the bird's familiar cry. Throughout the British Islands
this species is generally distributed and is, as a rule, resident ;
though partial emigration from the north takes place in -winter.
Its favourite resorts are marshy pastures and moorlands, but its
breeding-grounds, even when on flats, are usually above the risk of
inundation, though these on the mountains seldom infringe upon
those of the Golden Plover. In England, drainage and the increase
of cultivation have diminished the numbers of nesting birds, but
large flocks annually arrive from the Continent in autumn ; while
in Scotland the bird is abundant, and is on the increase in
many of the northern districts, and the islands ; it even visits St.
Kilda every spring. In Ireland it is very common, but Sir R.
Payne-Gallwey states that its eggs are not collected or appre-
ciated there as they are in Great Britain, although the birds are
freely netted for the table.

This species occasionally wanders to Jan Mayen and Greenland,
while it is a rare visitor to Iceland ; but it breeds sparingly in the

55^ LAPWING.

Faeroes, as well as in Northern Europe up to the Arctic circle, and
it is tolerably plentiful in the south of Norway and Sweden in summer.
The majority of the eggs sent to this country are from the Nether-
lands and North Germany, where they are systematically gathered
up to a date which is fixed by law. In suitable localities the Lap-
wing nests down to the extreme south of Spain, as well as, sparingly,
in North Africa and Egypt ; while its migrations extend westward
to the Canaries and Azores. A wanderer was obtained in Barbadoes
on December 24th 1886 (Feilden), and another has occurred in
Alaska. Across Asia the species is found breeding from lat. 65° N.
to the plains of INIongolia, and on the Tian-shan range up to an
elevation of about 11,000 ft. ; while in winter it is also met with
in the Indian region down to about lat. 25° N.

The eggs, normally 4 in number, vary in ground-colour from
olive-green to stone-buff, grey, or even pale blue, the blotches being
blackish-brown : measurements i -6 by i -3 in. They are seldom to
be met with before the latter part of March, and April is the usual
month for laying, but they may be found fresh through May and
into June. Almost any depression in turf, fallow-land, dried mud
or shingle, suffices for their reception ; a few bents placed crosswise
being added, usually during incubation. A\'hen approached, the
female sometimes runs silently from her eggs before taking to the
wing, and it is the male which indulges in frantic swoops and twirls,
accompanied by noisy cries ; though when the young are hatched
both parents practise every artifice to allure man or dog from their
brood. The ' false nests ' often found are scraped out by the cock
in turning round, when showing off to the female. On the approach
of winter large flocks are formed, which break up in the following
spring ; the birds flying in lines with great regularity. The food
consists of worms, slugs and insects.

The adult male in breeding-plumage has the crown and the long
erectile crest greenish-black ; sides of the neck whitish ; upper parts
metallic-green, glossed with purple and bronze ; quills chiefly black,
the tips of the three outer pairs greyish ; tail-feathers white, with a
broad subterminal band of black, except on the outer pair ; face,
throat and upper breast bluish-black ; belly and axillaries white •
upper and under tail-coverts fawn-colour. Length 12-5 in.; wing
875 in. The mature female has a slightly shorter crest, and
younger hens show some white on the chin. In winter the throat
is white in both sexes. The young bird has a shorter crest and the
dorsal feathers are edged with greyish-buff.

charadriida:.

55:

THE TURNSTONE.

Strepsilas interpres (Linnaeus).

This species, conspicuous by the variety of its plumage, is a
regular visitor to our sea-coasts, and at times to the margins of
lakes and large rivers. Some birds make their appearance by the
latter part of July, but the bulk of the migrants from the north do
not arrive till August ; while in sheltered situations on the east
side of Scotland, as well as in the south and west of England,
many stay throughout the winter. In May the return north-
ward takes place, yet occasionally birds in nuptial dress and some-
times in pairs remain during the summer in localities apparently
suitable for reproduction. Nevertheless authenticated eggs have not
yet been obtained in any part of the United Kingdom, though diligent
search might possibly be rewarded among the islands of Scotland
or on the deeply-indented shores of the west of Ireland, where the
bird is at all times far more plentiful than it is in England.

The Turnstone was found by Dr. Bessels far up Smith Sound,
and it has occurred on Jan Mayen and Spitsbergen. It breeds
in West Greenland up to lat. 77°, Iceland, and perhaps in the
Fseroes ; but its most accessible nesting-places are on the coasts and
islands of Scandinavia, Denmark, and the Baltic. It also breeds on
Kolguev and on the South Island of Novaya Zemlya, while it was
obtained on Franz Josef Land in May, and is found in summer

55S

TURNSTONE.

along the northern coast of Siberia as far as Bering Strait. During
the cold season it ranges over Asia, and down to Australia"
Tasmania, New Zealand, Polynesia, South America and the African
region. There lias been some reason for believing that the Turn-
stone might breed in the Canaries and Azores, while Mr. Tait says
that in Portugal it is usually seen near the mouth of the Douro
" from the beginning of April till the middle of September," adding
that in the summer of 1869 a young bird was brought to him alive
and kept in a cage for many months. No eggs have, however, been
taken south of the Baltic. On migration the Turnstone is found
along the entire coast line of Europe and on many inland waters,
and it is generally distributed in North America, breeding in the
Arctic regions.

The nest, close to high-water mark, is often a shallow depression
lined with a few dry leaves and bents, under the shelter of bushes or
scanty herbage on the coasts of the Northern seas or upon ledges of
rock on their islets ; but in Iceland, Kolguev and Novaya Zemlya
the Rev. H. H. Slater found that fells at some distance from
the sea were preferred. The eggs, 4 in number, are very distinct
from those of any other species, being of a greenish-grey colour,
spotted and streaked somewhat spirally with bluish-ash and brown :
measurements i-6 by n in. Incubation, shared by both sexes,
takes place about the middle of June, only one brood being reared
in the season. The Turnstone feeds chiefly on small crustaceans
and molluscs, in search of which it may be seen— sometimes in
parties— turning over stones or examining sea-weed, whence its
Norfolk name of " Tangle-picker." It is easily tamed, and Mr. Tait
has given an interesting account of the manner in which his captive
bird called down a Whimbrel with which it afterwards lived (Ibis,
1887, p. 387). The note is a clear whistle, but a loud twittering is
often uttered by the bird when on the wing.

In spring, as shown in the illustration, the adult male has the
head, neck, upper breast and shoulders variegated with black and
white ; mantle streaked with chestnut and black ; rump conspicuously
white, followed by a dark brown patch on the coverts, most of the
tail-feathers being of the same colour ; under parts white ; legs and
feet orange-red, hind-toe turning inwards and not backwards.
Length 9 in. ; wing 6 in. The female is a trifle larger, but slightly
duller in colour, and in autumn the chestnut tint is much reduced
in both sexes. The young bird has the forehead and cheeks brown,
collar dark umber, merely a huffish tint to the margins of the wing-
coverts and secondaries, feathers of the back tipped with dull white.

CHARADRlID.t.

559

THE OYSTER-CATCHER.

H.EMATOPUS osTRALEGus, Linnaeus.

The Oyster-catcher inhabits the shores of Great Britain and
Ireland throughout the year, exhibiting a marked preference for
sandy bays, stretches of low flat rocks mixed with shingle, and
mussel-scalps ; but it often occurs inland, and in Scotland it nests
on all the large rivers and many of their tributaries on the east side,
and along the Lochy in the west. In autumn the birds which have
bred in the north pass southward, and a certain influx of visitors
from the Continent takes place, so that large flocks may be seen
from that time onward along the coasts. Owing to the black and
white in its plumage, a common name for the bird is " Sea-Pie,"
while I think that ' catcher ' is a corruption of the Dutch aekster
(magpie). Another appropriate term is ' Mussel-picker,' and in the
south-east of England " Olive " is applied.

To Greenland this species is merely a straggler, but it is resident
in the southern districts of Iceland, and occurs in summer on the
coasts of Europe, from the North Cape to the delta of the Rhone

560 OYSTER-CATCHER.

and the head of the Adriatic. Throughout the greater part of the
Mediterranean basin, however, it is principally a migrant ; but it
breeds on many of the inland waters of the Continent, and along
the large rivers of Russia, as well as on the shores of the Black and
Caspian Seas, whence it retreats in winter. In Asia the Arctic
circle forms its northern summer-limit, while Burma, Ceylon, India,
Baluchistan and Persia are visited during cold weather ; migration
extending down the Red Sea to Mozambique on the east side of
Africa, and to Senegambia on the west. There are several other
members of this cosmopolitan genus.

The eggs, usually 3, but sometimes 4 in number, are yellowish
stone-colour, spotted and scrolled with ash-grey and dark brown :
measurements 2-2 by 1-5 in. They are commonly laid on shingle
or among sand-hills, and frequently on a pavement of small frag-
ments of shells or on a tussock of sea-pink growing upon a narrow
ledge of rock ; but I have seen them on the summit of a lofty
' stack,' and also in the previously robbed nest of a Herring-Gull,
while they have been found in meadows far from the sea, and Prof.
Collett mentions a clutch laid in a cavity at the top of a felled pine.
They are sometimes laid by the third week in April, while incuba-
tion becomes general in the second half of May, and lasts three
weeks. On rocky coasts each pair inhabits a certain district, but on
flat shores considerable numbers may be found associated, and their
noise is perfectly deafening when the young are just hatched, the
old birds flying close round the head of an intruder, except where
they have been much disturbed. At other times the Oyster-catcher
is remarkably wary, and alarms every other bird in the neighbour-
hood with its shrill keej>, keep. It swims well and sometimes takes
to the water of its own accord. Mussels, whelks, and limpets are
neatly scooped from their shells by the bird's powerful bill ; annelids,
crustaceans, small fish and marine plants being also eaten.

The arrangement of the black-and-white plumage of the adult is
shown in the engraving ; bill orange-vermillion ; irides crimson ; legs
and toes livid flesh-colour. Whole length 16-5 in. ; wing 975 in.
From autumn to spring the front and sides of the neck are white,
and the bill is horn-coloured towards the tip. The young have the
feathers of the back and wings margined with brown.

A Sheathbill, Chionis alba, of Antarctic America, obtained in
Carlingford Lough, co. Down, on December 2nd 1892, is in the
collection of Mr. R. M. Barrington. Living examples have often
been sent from the Falkland Islands.

CHARADRIID.E.

561

THE AVOCET.

Recurvirostra avocetta, Linnaeus.

This remarkable bird was formerly a regular summer-visitor to
England, and bred in considerable numbers in suitable localities, such
as the coasts and estuaries of the Humber district, Lincolnshire, Nor-
folk and Suffolk. Reclamation of fen-land gradually circumscribed
its haunts, and moreover a large colony at Salthouse appears to have
been destroyed in consequence of a demand for Avocet's feathers for
dressing artificial flies ; while the collection of its eggs also contributed
to the decrease of the species, and nesting in England had probably
ceased by 1824. Small parties still arrive in spring, and occasionally
in autumn, but the former are never allowed to breed, for the
amasser of " British-killed " specimens offers inducements to the local
gunners far exceeding the amount of any fine and costs that would
be imposed under the Wild Birds' Preservation Act in the event of
the offender's conviction. On the south coast the Avocet used to
nest on the flat shores of Kent and Sussex, to which it is now only a
visitor; while on the west side it is of rare occurrence and in the

X X

562 AVOCET.

Solway district it is unknown. North of the Humber and along
the east coast of Scotland it is seldom seen, though stragglers have
been met with in the Shetlands, Orkneys and Outer Hebrides. In
Ireland its rare visits have been chiefly to the south, but one occur-
rence is on record from the estuary of the Moy in the west.

The Avocet still finds breeding-places in some districts of Den-
mark and along the southern shores of the Baltic, as well as in the
Frisian Islands and on the coast of Holland ; and southward, the
delta of the Rhone in France and that of the Guadalquivir in Spain
may be mentioned. It occurs in Northern France and on the coasts
and inland waters of the greater part of the Continent on both
spring and autumn migrations, while it is to some extent resident in
the basin of the Mediterranean, and becomes abundant on the
margins of the Black, Caspian and Aral Seas. Eastward, it extends
across temperate Asia to Northern China in summer, and as far
south as Ceylon in winter. In Africa it is found down to Damara-
land and Cape Colony — in both of which it is said to nest, and it
occurs in Madagascar. Representative species inhabit North
America, the Andes of South America, and the Australian region.

The eggs are laid in May, on bare cracked mud near water, in
some slight depression in the sand, or among scanty herbage ; their
number is normally 3-4, and in colour they are clay-buff, blotched
and spotted with black : measurements about 2 by i -5 in. The usual
note is a clear kluit^ whence the bird's Dutch name. The Italian
designation " avocetta " and the Spanish " boceta " may be derived
from bocinefta or some similar colloquial diminutive of the classical
word biiccina (a curved trumpet), with reference to the shape of the
bill. To obtain the worms, aquatic insects and thin-shelled crus-
taceans on which the bird chiefly feeds, this bill is employed with
a sideways scooping action which leaves zig-zag marks on the soft
mud or sand, whence the name "scooper;" while the Avocet was
also known as " cobbler's-awl duck " and " shoeing-horn," and, from
its cry, as "yelper," "barker," and " clinker."

In spring the plumage of the adult is black and white, as shown in
the engraving ; the slender, pointed, and flexible bill is black, and
resembles two thin flat pieces of whalebone coming to a point and
turning upwards ; the irides are reddish-brown ; legs and toes pale
blue. Length nearly 18 in. (bill 3"2), wing 8"5 in. i\.fter the
autumn moult the light portions of the plumage are greyish. In the
young the dark portions are tinged with brown and edged with
rufous. The bill is distinctly upcurved in the nestling of only a day
or two old.

CHARADRIIDiE.

563

THE BLACK-WINGED STILT.

HiMANTOPUs CANDiDUS, Bonnatcrre.

The occurrence of the Stilt in the British Islands was noticed as
long ago as 1684 by Sir Robert Sibbald, who described and figured
one of two examples which had been shot at a lake near the town
of Dumfries. Since that date a few more have been obtained or
observed — at long intervals — on the mainland of Scotland, as well
as in the Orkneys and Shetlands ; while two are recorded from
Yorkshire, one each from Notts, Lincolnshire and Cambridgeshire,
and about fourteen from Norfolk. Suffolk, Oxfordshire, Gloucester-
shire and some inland counties have also been visited, while in the
south of England, from Kent to Cornwall, a good many specimens
have been procured from time to time ; on the west side, however,
the Stilt is very rare, though Montagu mentions one from Anglesea.
In Ireland it has been met with on five or six occasions. As a
rule the occurrences in the British Islands have been in the months

X X 2

564 BLACK-WINGED STILT.

of May, June and July, only a few of the wanderers being observed
in autumn.

The Stilt is only an irregular visitor to Denmark, Germany,
Holland, the north of France and the lakes of Switzerland ; but —
like the Avocet — it breeds sparingly on the Neuseidler See in
Hungary, and abundantly in the marismas of Southern Spain, as well
as in the marshes of Sicily, and on the low shores of the Black,
Caspian and Aral Seas. It also nests freely by the lakes of North
Africa, though even there, and throughout the basin of the
Mediterranean, the bird is chiefly a summer-migrant, arriving in
March or April and seldom remaining after the end of November.
In winter it is found down both sides of Africa and in Madagascar ;
while in Asia it inhabits the warm and temperate regions, large
numbers breeding in some parts of the north of India, as well as in
Ceylon.

The eggs, full clutches of which I found plentiful in the south of
Spain by May 4th, are usually 4 in number, and of a warm stone-
colour with hieroglyphic-like scrollings and blotches of black :
measurements 17 by i'25 in. By the pools in the marismas they
are placed in a slight nest of bents at the side of a tuft of rushes,
often so near the water as to be coated with mud from the birds' toes ;
but on the lower and wetter ground Mr. Abel Chapman met with
more solid structures, while on the lagoons of the Black Sea Messrs.
Young and Seebohm observed nests from two to four inches high, and
Col. Legge found great variety in the sites chosen in Ceylon. The
food consists of small univalves, gnats and other flies, beetles and
aquatic insects, in pursuit of which the bird wades up to the tarsal
joints in shallow water. The note is a clear pee, pee, pee, and when
the eggs or young are approached, gnrcet, gnreet, gnreet, sharply
reiterated. At such times the old birds fly close round the head of
the trespasser on their territory, hovering above him with slow beats
of their wings, and dangling their long legs, which are outstretched
during the ordinary flight.

The male in first breeding-dress has the nape and hind-neck
black, but in the mature bird those parts are white, like the head ;
mantle and wings greenish-black ; tail grey ; rest of the plumage
white, with an evanescent pink tinge. Bill black, irides crimson,
legs and feet rose-pink. Length from tip of bill to end of tail 13-5 in.
(bill 2-5), wing 9-5 in., legs 10 in. The female has a browner
mantle. The young bird has the nape, hind-neck and shoulders
grey ; back and inner secondaries ash-brown ; quills brownish-black.

CHARADRIIDiB.

565

THE GREY PHALAROPE.

Phalaropus fulicarius (Linnaeus).

The Grey Phalarope owes its trivial name to the autumnal plumage
in which it usually visits us, for during the breeding-season the pre-
vailing colour is deep chestnut. At irregular intervals birds — chiefly
young — make their appearance upon the shores of England, the
favoured counties being those to the south-east, south and south-
west ; and Mr. J. H. Gurney estimates that during the great immigra-
tion between August 20th and October 8th 1866, upwards of 500
were killed, of which about 250 fell in Sussex, few birds touching the
coast to the north of Ramsgate. A visitation of some importance in
1869 and a smaller invasion in the autumn of 18S6 were almost con-
fined to the south, though another in 1S91 was more widely spread.
Examples are occasionally obtained on the spring-passage. On the
east of England this Phalarope seldom alights above Norfolk, but in
Scotland it has occurred, sparingly, from Berwickshire to the Orkneys;
it was not, however, taken in the Outer Hebrides until the autumn
of 1890, though several times recorded from the Inner islands. In
Ireland it is rare, but a few examples were obtained in the south in
the autumn of 1886, and a good many in 1891. Individuals have
often been killed far inland by the side of lakes or ponds, and pools of
fresh or brackish water sheltered from the sea are favourite haunts.

566 GREY PHALAROPE.

The Grey Phalarope appears to be circumpolar in its breeding-
range. It is common on the Liakoff Islands and at the Lena delta ;
while its eggs have been taken by Middendorff in the Taimyr dis-
trict, by Mr. Popham at the mouth of the Yenesei, and by Col.
Feilden on Spitsbergen ; and many have been sent from the districts
of Upernavik and Egedesminde in Greenland. Westward, Arctic
explorers have noticed the bird as far north as 82° 30', and it is
abundant in summer on the shores of Alaska, as well as on the
Asiatic side of Bering Sea. In winter its migrations extend to
Chile and New Zealand, and China seems to be visited regularly,
but there is much to be learned respecting the lines of passage in
Asia, for the bird is rare on the Pamirs, and has only once been
obtained in India (Calcutta, May 1846). In Europe, though seem-
ing to miss the Volga valley, it is found on many inland waters and
on the coasts down to the Mediterranean ; it also visits North
Africa.

Courtship is conducted by the female, and in June the eggs, 4 in
number, are laid in a depression near some small pool in the spongy
peat or moss ; these are olive-buff, thickly blotched with umber-
brown — less pointed, more boldly marked, and rather larger than
those of the Red-necked Phalarope : measurements i'2 5 by "88 in.
Incubation is performed by the male, who also takes charge of the
young, which are sometimes on the wing by the middle of July and
depart by the end of August. Small crustaceans and marine animals
are the chief articles of food, in pursuit of which the birds may be
seen swimming buoyantly on the waves — sometimes hundreds of
miles from land — and also picking the parasites off the backs of
whales and other cetaceans. The note is a sharp tweet, but the
female sometimes utters a low clink, dink.

In breeding-time the female has the bill yellow with dark tip ;
forehead and crown blackish ; cheeks white ; under parts reddish-
chestnut ; feathers of the mantle blackish, with broad rufous
margins ; wing-coverts lead-grey tipped with white ; legs, feet and
lobed membranes yellow. This stage is shown by the bird in the
background. Length 8-25 in., wing 4-9 in. The male is smaller
and duller, with less defined white on the cheeks. In autumn the
chestnut gradually disappears ; by winter the under surface has
become white, the back pearl-grey, and the margins on the mantle
are white ; the bill is black, the forehead white, and a black streak
runs backwards from the eye. The bird in the foreground is in this
stage. The young mainly resembles the adult in autumn plumage,
but shows some tawny colour on the upper parts and breast.

CHARADRIID.E.

567

THE RED-NECKED PHALAROPE.

Phalaropus hvperb6reus (Linnaeus).

A few pairs of this graceful species — the remnant of many — still
nest in the Shetlands, Orkneys and Outer Hebrides, in localities
which are protected from or undiscovered by the trading collector,
and these birds arrive from the south in the latter part of May ;
while by August both old and young have departed. Along the east
side of Scotland, however, this Phalarope is decidedly rare, and it
is uncommon on migration in the west. To England its visits, even
in autumn, are very irregular, though recorded, especially since 1870,
in Northumberland, Yorkshire, Lincolnshire, East Anglia, some
of the midland and most of the southern counties, occasionally in
Wales, and exceptionally along the north-west coast. Occurrences
in spring are unusual, and altogether the avoidance by this species ot
the greater part of the British Islands on its passage to and from its
summer haunts is somewhat remarkable. In Ireland a bird was
shot in CO. Armagh, about November 13th 1891.

The Red-necked Phalarope breeds plentifully in the south of Green-
land, Iceland, the Faeroes, and above the forest-growth on the Dovre-
fjeld in Scandinavia as well as in the north, Novaya Zemlya, Siberia
up to lat. 73° as far east as Kamchatka, and on the high ground by
the Sea of Okhotsk. In Alaska and throughout the Arctic regions of
America it is very abundant, and there again it nests by some of the
lakes in the mountain ranges, as well as on the flat coast ; while in
winter or on passage it has been found down to the Bermudas and
Guatemala. In the Old World its migrations extend to the Indo-

568 RED-NECKED PHALAROPE.

Malayan region, China and Japan, its line through Central Asia
crossing the Pamir range. Unlike its congener, it avails itself of
the route by the valley of the Volga, especially in spring ; it visits
the Black Sea district and some of the inland waters of Central
Europe; and it occurs irregularly on both sides of the Mediterranean
basin, though rare to the west of Italy. It is seldom found in the
west and north of France, Holland or Germany ; but towards the
north-east end of the Baltic it is not uncommon on the autumn
passage, when it also visits the Swiss lakes.

The nest is in a tuft of grass in a wet place, and the 4 eggs are
often greener in ground-colour, blacker in their markings, and
smaller and more pointed than those of the Grey Phalarope: measure-
ments I •15 by '82 in. Courtship is performed by the female, who is
sometimes accompanied by two males ; and the cock-bird usually
incubates, though both parents display great anxiety after the young
are hatched. The note is a low pleep, pleep, or tvit, wit, wit. The
food consists of small crustaceans, marine insects, worms &c. Like
the last-named species, the Red-necked Phalarope swims well,
though not noticed so far from land.

In summer the adult female has the head, hind-neck, and
shoulders lead-grey ; the feathers of the back and wings somewhat
darker, with a mixture of pale rufous ; tips of the wing-coverts and
secondaries white, forming a bar ; tail-feathers ash-brown, the middle
pair darkest ; chin pure white ; sides and front of the neck chestnut ;
centre of the neck and upper breast lead-grey ; under parts white ;
bill black ; legs, feet and lobes greenish. Length 7-5 in. (bill '9),
wing 4"4 in. The male is smaller, and has the colours on the head
and neck much duller and less sharply contrasted. In winter the
forehead and the greater part of the crown are white ; nape and a
streak through the eye sooty-brown ; dorsal feathers margined with
white ; cheeks and under parts nearly pure white. The young in
autumn have rufous and afterwards bufifish-white margins to the
upper feathers, but subsequently resemble their parents ; though
their feet are yellowish and the toes are much less lobed.

The third and largest member of the genus, Fhalaropus ivilso7ii,
is confined to America. Mr. J. Whitaker has a specimen which is
said to have been shot " some years ago " in Leicestershire, but
Mr. Montague Browne denies this (Verteb. Leicest., p. 151). A
genus, Steganopus, has been devised for this species, which has a
long slender bill, like our Red-necked Phalarope. Some ornitholo-
gists have placed the Grey Phalarope in a third genus, Crymophilus.

CHARADRIID/E.

569

1^1 ^^ \^> ' /f

)KU*^-i/''

THE WOODCOCK.

ScoLOPAX RUSTicuLA, Linnreus.

The annual ' flights ' of this well-known species usually begin
in October, and a return migration northwards is noticed early in
March, when the birds which intend to breed in our islands betake
themselves to suitable coverts. Of late years, owing to the increase
of plantations in the vicinity of feeding-grounds, the number of
the individuals which remain has been greatly augmented ; and
nests have been found in most parts of England, Wales, Scotland
and Ireland, except on some of the barest islands. Early in autumn
the home-bred birds disappear from their haunts, few, if any, being
seen until the October influx, and they are popularly supposed to
have left the country ; but their disappearance is partially attribut-
able to self-effacement during the moult, for many birds which had
been captured and marked with metal rings in the spring in
Northumberland, have been shot in the same county in autumn.
Migration takes place by night, when casualties against the lanterns
of lighthouses and vessels are not infrequent. Birds have often
been known to alight when the wind was from a quarter directly
opposed to the direction whence they might be expected ; but this
was probably due to the existence of a different current of air in the
more elevated strata through which they had been passing.

570 WOODCOCK.

The Woodcock has only once been obtained in the Faeroes and
has not occurred in Iceland, though met with as a straggler in New-
foundland and on the Atlantic coast of the United States. A
large proportion nest in the forests of Scandinavia and Russia ; a
smaller number breeding — up to the limit of tree-growth — in the
rest of Europe, down to Northern Italy, Transylvania, the Balkans
and the Caucasus. On both sides of the Mediterranean basin the
Woodcock is chiefly found in winter, when it is plentiful in suitable
localities ; but in the wooded mountains of the Canaries, Madeira
and the Azores it is resident. Southern Persia and India are only
visited during the cold season, but the bird breeds in Kashmir and
the Himalayas above 10,000 ft., and in the Japanese group as far
south as the great volcano of Fuji-yama ; while northward it passes
the summer in the forest regions of Siberia.

The nest is merely a depression in some sheltered place, a lining
of dead leaves being added, usually during incubation. The
eggs — often laid by the middle of March, though more frequently
in April — are usually 4 in number ; they are slightly pyriform,
and of a yellowish-white colour, blotched with ash-grey and two
shades of reddish-brown: measurements 175 by i"3 in. Two
broods are sometimes produced in a season. The female often
removes her young, and the balance of evidence appears to be that
the nestling is clasped between the thighs of the old bird and pressed
close to her body, sometimes even up to the base of the bill. During
the day the Woodcock rests in dry grassy bottoms, or beneath thick
bushes, such as holly or laurel ; but at dusk and early in the morn-
ing, especially during breeding-time, the male persistently follows
certain tracks along glades in woods — often called ' cock-roads ' —
uttering a deep as well as a whistling note ; and similar routes are
also traversed by both sexes on their way to and from their
feeding-grounds. Worms, when procurable, are devoured in almost
incredible quantities, while beetles and other insects, small
crustaceans and even mussels, are also eaten. Few birds exceed
15 ozs. in weight, though such are on record.

The general colour of the upper plumage is reddish-brown vermi-
culated with black, and that of the under parts wood-brown with
darker bars. Externally the sexes are alike. Length 14 '2 5 in.
(bill 2-9), wing 7-5 in. The second year's dress is paler than that
of the first year, but there is great individual variation. In the
young bird the outer webs of all the primaries show distinct fulvous
notches ; in the adult there are hardly any such markings on the ist
and 2nd outer webs. Partial albinisms are not uncommon.

CHARADRIID.E.

571

THE GREAT SNIPE.
Gallinago major (J. F. Gmelin).

The Great, Double, or Solitary Snipe as it is often called, is an
annual visitor in small numbers to the eastern and southern por-
tions of England ; the arrivals — chiefly of young birds — being
generally between the middle of August and the middle of October.
In the central and western districts the species is far less frequent ;
while, as regards the spring migration, only three examples from
East Anglia seem to be on record. In Scotland about a dozen
authentic specimens have been obtained, at long intervals : two of
them in May. As regards Ireland, Mr. Williams, the well-known
taxidermist in Dublin, is aware of only five occurrences, and three
of these in the west ; though more than a dozen large specimens of
the Common Snipe have been forwarded to him for preservation,
under the belief that they belonged to the rarer species.

The Great Snipe breeds in the lowlands and also on the fells of
Scandinavia up to about lat. 70° N., as well as in Denmark (rather
freely in Jutland), some parts of Northern Germany, and, sparingly,
in Holland. In the marshy districts of Poland to the east of the
Vistula, as well as in Russia down to Bessarabia, it nests freely ; and
Messrs. Harvie-Brown and Seebohm found it in abundance as far
north as the delta of the Petchora. Over the rest of Europe it
occurs on passage, though it is scarcely known in the west of France,

572 GREAT SNIPE.

and uncommon in Spain ; but in the Rhone valley and further east it
seems to be equally frequent in spring and autumn, while distinctly
more numerous on the vernal migration in Italy, Malta, the Ionian
Islands and Albania. It occurs in Africa from Morocco to Egypt,
and passes southward to Natal, where it arrives in September and
October ; returning northward in April, in which month it has also
been obtained in Damara-land on the west side. In Asia it has
been found, up to lat. 71° N., across Siberia as far east as the Yenesei
(where it exceeds the Common Snipe in numbers), and southward
to the Tian-shan range, Turkestan, Persia &c., but it has not yet
been recorded from India or China.

The nest is a hollow, often among willow-bushes, or in some
hillock above the level of a morass or forest-swamp ; the 4 eggs
are greyish-buff with pale purplish underlying blotches and bold
characteristic purplish-brown surface-markings : measurements i '8 by
1*25 in. Incubation begins at the end of May or early in June,
and is said to last eighteen days, but it is probably longer, for the
experiences of Mr. W. Evans show that nearly all the members of
this group require three weeks. The young, which run as soon as
hatched, are ready to fly by the middle of August. The food con-
sists of the larvK of insects (especially of flies of the genus Ti'pula),
small slugs and worms, while, according to Prof. Collett, a few small
stones are swallowed. In autumn, when the bird is often a perfect
ball of fat, it weighs from 7 to 10 ozs. In this country many
examples have been shot from grass-fields and clover, heather, potato-
patches in a sandy soil, barley-layers, turnips, and drier situations
than those frequented by the Common Snipe ; while the late Lord
Lilford remarked its predilection for currant-plantations in Corfu.
Though often found in couples the Great Snipe is seldom, if ever,
in ' wisps ' ; its flight is steady and heavy, and the tail is expanded
like a fan. A low, grating sound is produced by the bill in spring.

The adult may be distinguished from the Common Snipe by its
larger size, proportionately shorter legs and bill, more boldly barred
under parts, and especially by the much greater amount of white in
the tail-feathers, which are normally 16 (exceptionally 18 during the
moult) and not 14 in number. Length io"5 in., wing 5*5 in. The
sexes are alike in plumage. In the young bird the tail-feathers are
barred across both webs, but the ground-colour of the four outer
pairs is nearly pure white and not mottled as it is in the Common
Snipe ; while the markings on the breast and flanks are more arrow-
shaped than those of the adult, and the general tint is more rufous.

CHARADRIID.E.

THE COMMON SNIPE.

Gallinago ccelestis (Frenzel).

This species still breeds in England and Wales wherever drainage
has not abolished the localities suited to its habits, and it is
comparatively abundant in the marshes of Suffolk, Norfolk and
Lincolnshire, while it is generally distributed on the northern moor-
lands, and up to a considerable elevation in Scotland and Ireland. The
birds produced in the British Islands are few, however, compared to
those which annually visit us in October and November, when many
are killed by striking against the lanterns of lighthouses. These
migrants, though they frequently shift their ground under the influence
of the Aveather, often remain until March.

The Snipe is said to have occurred in South Greenland, and is
fairly abundant as a breeding-species in Iceland, the Faeroes, and
throughout northern and temperate Europe down to the marshes of
Northern Italy. On passage or as a winter-visitor it is found in the
Atlantic Islands, as well as on the African side of the Mediterranean
basin ; it ascends the Nile valley to Abyssinia, and reaches Aden ;
while on the west side it occurs in Senegambia. In Asia, south of
70° N. in Siberia, it breeds down to the lofty table-lands of Yarkand,
crosses the great central ranges on migration, and is found in winter

574

COMMON SNIPE.

as far as the Moluccas. A closely-allied species with i6 tail-feathers
inhabits North America, but our bird has wandered to the Bermudas.

During the breeding-season both sexes of the Snipe produce,
while on the wing and especially towards evening, a drumming or
' bleating ' sounds which appears to be chiefly due to the action
of the wings, slightly assisted by the expanded tail-feathers. In
April, though exceptionally in March, a slight nest in a tuft of grass,
heather or bunch of rushes, or on the open moor, is prepared; the eggs
— usually 4 in number and very large for the size of the bird — are
yellowish- or greenish-white, blotched somewhat obliquely with several
shades of brown : measurements i "6 by i 'i in. The alarm-note — scape,
scape, and chip, chip — is as well known as is the zig-zag flight of the
bird on being flushed ; when feeding, however, the Snipe may be
sometimes approached unawares, and will then try to escape notice
by squatting. Occasionally it perches on trees (S:c., though the fact
has been dogmatically denied by persons of limited experience.
As its food consists of worms, insects and small molluscs, the Snipe
often becomes very thin during a continuance of frost ; its average
weight is 4 ozs.

The tail-feathers are normally 14 in number; length of the bird
1075 (bill 2 "5), wing 5 in. A detailed description is rendered
unnecessary by the wood-cut ; and space will be more profitably
devoted to a vignette of the so-called Sabine's Snipe, which is now
generally admitted to be merely a dark form, seldom found outside
the British Islands, wherein more than 60 examples have been
obtained. The numerous variations in the plumage of the Snipe
have led to the creation of several bad species.

CHARADRIID.l-:.

575

. ..fe«^%?^''^

'^■/J

THE JACK SNIPE.
Gallinago gallinula, Linnaeus.

The Jack Snipe seldom appears in the British Islands before the
beginningof September, and the heaviest arrivalstake place in October;
at which time the bird sometimes strikes against lighthouses, though
with less frequency than the Common Snipe. Before its departure
northwards in April its plumage has assumed all the bloom and
brilliancy of the nuptial period, while the fact that a few individuals
have been known to remain till late in spring and even throughout
summer, has given rise to suppositions that the Jack Snipe might
breed with us ; there is not, however, a single authenticated instance
of its having done so in any part of the United Kingdom. During
the colder months of the year it is generally distributed, and though
less numerous than the Common Snipe, it is more ubiquitous, while
exhibiting a marked preference for certain localities.

As a wanderer the Jack Snipe was obtained in the Fccroes in 1890.
In summer it inhabits Scandinavia, especially to the north of the Arctic
circle, and in Western Russia it nests as far south as St. Petersburg ;
but east of Archangel it appears to be infrequent, and Messrs.
Harvie-Brown and Seebohm did not observe it on the Lower
Petchora. Putting aside unsubstantiated assertions respecting its
supposed breeding below lat. 55*^ N., it may be described as a bird of
passage over the remainder of the Continent, and in the south it is
often plentiful — in some years even more so than the Common

576 JACK SNIPE.

Snipe — during winter. At that season it also visits North Africa
and Egypt, where it sometimes remains as late as May ; and ascends
the Nile to Abyssinia. In Asia it breeds on the tundras of Siberia
as far north as lat. 70°, though not found nesting in the valley of the
Yenesei ; while on passage it visits Japan and even Formosa in the
cold season, as well as Tenasserim and the rest of the Indian region,
Persia, and Turkestan ; and it has been obtained in August on the
Sayan Mountains (at 8,000 ft.) in North-western Mongolia.

For the first details of the nidification of this, as of many other
species, we are indebted to Wolley, who found the bird breeding in the
latter half of June on the marsh of Muonioniska in Lapland. The
nests are described as being loosely made of little pieces of grass,
equisetum, and a few old leaves of the dwarf birch, placed in a dry
sedgy or grassy spot close to more open swamp. The Jack Snipe
weighs about 2 ozs., yet its 4 eggs weigh more than i\ oz. These,
so disproportionate to the size of the bird, are yellowish-olive, spotted
and streaked with brown, the latter colour being somewhat more
predominant than in those of the Common Snipe, while they are
rather smaller, averaging 1-5 by i in. During the breeding-season
the Jack Snipe makes a ' drumming ' noise, which Wolley compared
" to the cantering of a horse over a hard road : it came in fours
with a similar cadence, and a like clear yet hollow sound." The food
consists of larvae of beetles and other insects, always accompanied
by a little grit. A continuance of severe weather does not seem to
impoverish this bird, and between the fattest of several Jacks and
the leanest of some Common Snipes, weighed the same day, I have
found a difference of only \ oz. in favour of the larger species.

The adult male in breeding-plumage exhibits a large amount of
metallic-green and purple on the upper parts ; the female is, on
average, a trifle larger in size but not so bright in colour. In winter
the reddish-brown of the upper parts is obscured by a tinge of grey ;
while in the young bird the green and purple reflections are wanting.
Varieties are very uncommon, but a melanism shot near Staines was
recorded by the late Mr. F. Bond. Length 7-5 in. (bill 1-5), wing
4-25 in. The tail-feathers are only 12 in number, for which reason,
supplemented by the fact that there are two notches on each side of
the posterior margin of the breast-bone — the Common Snipe having
but one — this species has been placed apart by some ornithologists
in the genus Limnocryptes.

The Red-breasted Snipe, which followed this species in the
ist Edition, is now removed to p. 621, before the Godwits.

CHARADRIID/E.

577

THE BROAD-BILLED SANDPIPER.

LiMicoLA PLATVRHYNCHA (Teiiiminck).

The Broad-billed Sandpiper was first made known as a visitor to
the British Islands by Hoy, who recorded an example shot on May
25th 1836, on Breydon Broad, Norfolk. This locality afforded a
second on May 25th 1856, a third on April 23rd 1858 (Zook p. 6096),
and a fourth on September 5th 1891, while another was killed at
Cley in August 1895. The late Mr. \V. Borrer had a specimen
obtained near Shoreham in October 1845, and three have since
been procured near Rye in the autumn or early winter of 1887,
1895, ^""^ 1896; while one was shot at Littlestone, Kent, in Sep-
tember of the year last mentioned. Sir H. S. Boynton possesses
one killed at Hornsea Mere, Yorkshire, in April 1863. One, shot
near Belfast, Ireland, on October 4th 1844, is in the Museum of
that city.

It is evident that this species usually migrates to the eastward of
our islands ; although it breeds no further off than the Dovrefjeld and
other districts of Scandinavia, and visits the coasts and inland waters
of Denmark, Holland (seldom), Germany, France and Switzerland.
It has not yet been noticed in the Spanish Peninsula, but in Italy
its occurrences are not infrequent, though irregular, and large flocks
— which have probably made use of the Brenner Pass — sometimes
alight in the marshes of Venetia. From Finland and the tundras of
European Russia, where it nests, a south-easterly line of flight brings
it to the Black Sea and the Aralo-Caspian region ; Severtzoff

Y Y

5.78 BROAD-BILLED SANDPIPER.

obtained a specimen on the Kara-kul Pamir, and the species is
found locally in various districts of India, though common only at
the mouths of the Indus and the Irawaddy. Strange to say, it has not
been found breeding in the Arctic portion of Siberia, but it occurs
on Lake Baikal and plentifully on the Sea of Okhotsk ; visiting
Japan, China, the Philippines, the Malayan region, and the Moluc-
cas in the cold season. From North Africa and Egypt, its winter-
progress can be traced along the Red Sea to Madagascar.

The nesting-habits were first made known to English readers by
the late Richard Dann, who found small colonies of this Sandpiper
in the grassy morasses of Lulea- and Tornea-Lapmark, as well as at
about 3,000 feet above sea-level on the Dovrefjeld. Wolley's ex-
plorations subsequently rendered us familiar with a series of its eggs,
which vary in colour from rich chocolate to greenish-brown, mottled
with umber: measurements 1*2 by '9. According to Mr. F. S.
Mitchell the lining of the nest— which is placed in a tussock of
grass — is suited to the colour of the eggs, the darkest ones being laid
on the brown withered leaves of the mountain-willow, and the lighter
ones on grass ; he found them on the Dovrefjeld as early as June 9th,
but in Lapland the latter part of that month is the usual time for
laying. Incubation spots were found by Prof Collett in both sexes.
The bird sits very close and, when flushed, usually drops again a
short distance off; early in the season, however, it soars high in the
air, rising and falling suddenly, like the Snipe, and repeating the
note toa-woo^ rapidly. The food consists chiefly of insects and their
larv?e.

The adult male in breeding-plumage has the feathers of the
crown, shoulders and mantle very dark brown, variegated with white
and rufous, the latter colour predominating on the margins of the
long inner-secondaries ; quills and central tail-feathers blackish,
outer tail-feathers pale ash-brown ; throat and breast white, tinged
with rufous and spotted with dark brown, as are also the flanks ;
belly white ; bill high at the base, very flat and wide, and rather
abruptly decurved near the tip ; legs and feet dark olive. Length
6'5 in. (bill i "2), wing 4*25 in. The female is somewhat paler on
the back, and slightly larger. In the young the upper feathers are
more broadly margined with greyish-white. In winter the general
upper plumage is ash-grey, very similar to that of our Dunlin ; but
a distinctive characteristic is the small amount of white on the
secondaries and the sides of the upper tail-coverts.

CHARADRIID^.

579

AMERICAN PECTORAL SANDPIPER.

Tringa maculata, Vieillot.

SIBERIAN PECTORAL SANDPIPER.

Tringa acuminata (Horsfield).

The American Pectoral Sandpiper has been observed in the
British Islands with far more frequency than any other species of
wader from the New World. The first authenticated specimen was
shot in October 1830, at Breydon, Norfolk, in which county seven
more have since been obtained ; Suffolk can claim four ; Yorkshire
four or five (the last on September 28th 1897) ; Durham two ; and
Northumberland one, on June 27th 1853. There are also records
of one from Eastbourne in Sussex ; one from Kent on August 2nd
1898 ; two from North Devon ; one from Falmouth in Cornwall ;
and four from the Scilly Islands — among the last an example on
May 27th 1840. A young bird (one of three) was shot in Cumber-
land on October i8th 1888. In Scotland, an immature bird was
killed at Don-mouth, Aberdeenshire, on October 2nd 1867, and
another (identified by Mr. Harting) near Loch Lomond on
November 24th 1882, while a third was shot at Westray, Orkney,
by Mr. F. M. Ogilvie on August 26th 1889. In Ireland, Mr.
Williams of Dublin found in the market a remarkably fat male, sent
from Portumna, co. Galway, with Snipe, in October 1888. Except
where otherwise mentioned, all the above occurrences have taken
place in autumn or winter.

This species has not yet been met with on the Continent of

Y Y 2

580 PECTORAL SANDPIPERS.

Europe, and the correctness of its supposed identification on the
Asiatic side of Bering Strait is open to question. In summer it is
distributed across the Barren grounds, from Point Barrow and the
mouth of the Yukon to Hudson Bay ; while on migration it is
common throughout the Dominion of Canada and the United
States, ranging to the Bermudas, Bahamas and West Indies
generally, and as far south as Patagonia and Chile in winter. It
has occurred several times in the south and west of Greenland.

The naturalists of the United States Expedition to Point Barrow
in 1882 and 1883 obtained eighteen sets of eggs, each complete
clutch consisting of 4 ; these have a drab or greenish ground-colour,
blotched with umber-brown : measurements i"5 by i*i in. The nest
is said to be built in the grass, in some high and dry locality, and
never in the marsh like that of Phalaropes. The birds pair soon
after their arrival towards the end of May or early in June, when the
male may be seen taking short, low flights, with the wings held high
and beaten stiffly, while the throat is puffed out like a goitre (whence
the name Pectoral), and a muffled hoo, hoo, hoo, hoo, is constantly
repeated. The food consists of insects — especially coleoptera, and
sea-weed, on which the birds become remarkably fat.

The adult has the feathers of the upper parts dark brown with
buff and rufous margins ; secondaries with but little white on their
edges ; rump and tail-coverts dusky-brown ; central tail-feathers nearly
black, the rest ash-brown with paler margins ; cheeks and throat
dull white striped with hair-brown ; breast bufifish, profusely streaked
with brown : under parts white. The sexes do not differ in plumage.
Length 8 in. (bill I'l), wing 5*3 in. The young bird has fewer
stripes on the breast.

An adult example of the Siberian Pectoral Sandpiper was
shot on August 29th 1892, at Breydon, Norfolk ; while a bird of this
species, now in the Norwich Museum, is said to have been obtained
near Yarmouth in September 1848. The former is described and
figured in 'The Ibis' 1893, pp. 181-185, P^- ^'•

This species breeds in Eastern Siberia, but its eggs are as yet
undescribed. In autumn it visits the Commander Islands, wanders
to Alaska, and passes along the east side of Asia to Australia, New
Zealand, and Polynesia.

The adult is more rufous than the American species on the crown,
mantle and breast, and the markings on the under parts are pro-
nouncedly arrow-shaped and descend to the flanks. The young bird
has very few stripes on the breast. Length 7*4 in. ; wing 5 '25 in.

CHARADRIID^.

58r

"*^®'

^

»- — ^■^*-^/\\

BONAPARTE'S SANDPIPER.

Tringa fuscicollis, Vieillot.

This American species resembles a Dunlin in winter-plumage, but
may always be distinguished by its smaller size, shorter bill and
white upper tail-coverts. The first British example on record was
shot prior to 1839, in Shropshire ; while subsequently three have
been obtained in Cornwall, two in the Scilly Islands, four at Instow
in North Devon, two in Sussex, and one at Kingsbury Reservoir in
Middlesex. There is a specimen in the Belfast Museum, believed
to have been killed near that city prior to April 15th 1836.

On the Continent of Europe this Sandpiper has not yet been
observed, for the T. scJiinzi of Brehm and some other ornithologists
is a small form of the Dunlin ; though our bird is the T. schhizi
of Bonaparte, and under the name of Schinz's Sandpiper was
figured and described in the ist, 2nd and 3rd Editions of ' Yarrell.'
On June 28th 1897, a solitary female of this species was shot near
Cape Flora, in the south of Franz Josef Land (Ibis 1898, p. 259) :
a very remarkable occurrence, for the bird has not yet been
identified in any part of Siberia. Even in Alaska it is rare, only
two specimens having been obtained by Mr. Murdoch at Point
Barrow ; but it is generally distributed in Arctic America from the
Mackenzie valley (where it breeds abundantly) eastward ; while it
occurs in Greenland in autumn, and is said to have visited Iceland.
On migration it is common in the Mississippi valley, and along the
whole Atlantic coast to Florida ; ranging southward to the West

582 Bonaparte's sandpiper.

Indies, Central America, Colombia, Brazil, Argentina, the Falkland
Islands, the Straits of Magellan, and, on the Pacific side, to Peru
and Chile.

Authenticated eggs obtained bj' Mr. MacFarlane on the Barren
grounds near the Arctic coast, have a rufous-drab ground-colour, and
are boldly blotched with dark brown, especially at the larger end :
measurements i"35 by "95 in. The complete clutch consists of 4,
and the nest is a mere depression in the ground, lined with a few
decayed leaves. Dr. E. Coues says that he has frequently observed
this bird on rocky shores covered with sea-weed and moist with
the falling spray, and of all American Sandpipers it is the most
gentle and confiding. When startled, it emits a soft, low weet, dif-
ferent from the note of any other wader, flying off in very compact
flocks in a vacillating manner, alternately showing the upper and
under parts, and being easily recognized on the wing by the
conspicuously white upper tail-coverts. It usually associates with
Semipalmated Sandpipers, and, in common with other small
species, is known by the name of " Peep." Rodd remarked that
the call of the birds killed in Cornwall was shorter and sharper
than that of the Dunlin. The food consists of insects, small
crustaceans, marine animals &c. ; and with us, as in America, the
bird appears to be partial to rocks which are covered with sea-weed
and slope down to the water.

The adult in summer has a white streak over the eye ; feathers
of the upper parts ash-brown with dark centres, the edges being
grey and rufous ; quills dusky-brown ; rump dark ash-brown ;
upper tail-coverts chiefly white, though streaked laterally with brown,
the central pair — which are not conspicuous — being dark ; tail-
feathers ash-brown, except the central pair, which are dark brown,
pointed, and elongated ; chin white ; cheeks, neck, upper breast
and flanks greyish-white, speckled and streaked with dusky-
brown ; axillaries, belly and under tail-coverts white ; bill very short,
straight, and nearly black ; legs and feet dark olive. The female is
a trifle the larger and more richly coloured. Length 7*25 in.
(bill -g), wing 475 in. In winter the mantle is brownish-grey, and
the streaks on the breast and flanks are less sharply defined. The
young are more mottled with white and rufous on the back, while
the throat and breast are suffused with buff.

The trivial name is attributable to the fact that Schlegel named
the species after Bonaparte, in ignorance of Vieillot's earlier
description.

CHARADRIID.Ii.

583

THE DUNLIN.

Trixga alpina, Linnaeus.

The Dunlin is the most numerous of the Sandpipers which fre-
quent our shores and tidal rivers, and there it may be found through-
out the year, for although many of the adults retire inland for
nesting purposes, yet a number of immature birds remain during
the summer. Its favourite breeding-quarters are wild and often
elevated moorlands, which are comparatively rare in the south of
England ; but nests have been found in Cornwall and Devon, and
I have seen the young hardly able to fly on Exmoor in Somerset.
In Wales it undoubtedly nests in Cardiganshire and Merionethshire,
and it formerly did so in the marshes of the Dee in Cheshire ; while
it still breeds in Lancashire, and in some numbers on the mosses
on both sides of the Sohvay. On the east side its eggs have been
obtained in Lincolnshire, and pairs are scattered over the moors
from Yorkshire northwards to the Cheviots. In Scotland, where
suitable situations abound, the bird is pretty generally distributed
on the mainland, though local in Sutherland ; and it is rather
plentiful on many of the islands as far as the Shetlands. In
Ireland, it nests locally, from Wicklow up to Donegal and London-
derry ; while in autumn and winter it frequents the coasts in
thousands.

The Dunlin varies considerably in size, length of bill, and colour
of plumage ; and even in the Palaearctic region there appear to be

584 DUNLIN.

two races : a large and northern one of duller tints, and a smaller
brighter bird to which Brehm applied the name T. schinzi. North
American individuals are characterized, as a rule, by their larger
size, longer bills, and more rufous summer-plumage, but in sketch-
ing the geographical distribution I consider these as merely forms
of one species. With this proviso, it may be said that the Dunlin
ranges in summer to East Greenland, Spitsbergen, Iceland, the
Faeroes, Scandinavia, Kolguev, South Novaya Zemlya, and the
tundras of Russia. Southward, it nests in Holland (locally), Den-
mark, and along the coast of Northern Germany ; while, according
to Prof. Giglioli, it breeds in the marshes of Venetia in North
Italy ; and Mr. Abel Chapman shot a bird from its eggs in the
extreme south of Spain. During the colder months of the year the
Dunlin is met with on all the sea-shores and many of the inland
waters of Europe, as well as in the Canaries ; and in Africa it
migrates down the east side as far as Zanzibar. In summer it
inhabits the greater part of Siberia, while it winters in China and
many districts of the Indian region. In America it nests in the
north, descending on the Pacific littoral to California and on the
Atlantic to the West Indies ; it is also found in Greenland.

Early in May on the salt-marshes — though somewhat later on the
fells — the Dunlin forms a slight nest, which is often in a tussock
of coarse grass, or among sea-pinks, short heather &:c. ; the eggs,
4 in number, are greenish-white, blotched and spotted with two
shades of reddish-brown : measurements i"35 by "95 in. During the
pairing-season the birds soar to a moderate height, uttering a some-
what prolonged dwee ; but in autumn, when in flocks, a distinct purre
may be heard. From this the species derives one of its local
names, while it is also called " Stint," " Ox-bird " and " Sea-snipe."
The food consists of worms, small crustaceans, and marine insects.

The adult in spring (represented in the foreground) has the crown
of the head rufous, streaked with black; mantle chestnut, variegated
with black ; rest of the upper plumage chiefly ash-grey ; throat and
upper breast greyish-white with dark stripes ; lower breast black ;
belly white. As a rule the females are larger and have longer bills
than the males. Average length 7*5 in. (bill i'25), wing 4*5 in.
In the young the feathers of the head and back have large black
centres and rufous margins; the chin is white; the upper breast
tawny-buff, with dark streaks which enlarge to spots on the lower
breast and flanks ; belly nearly white. In winter the adult is
chiefly ash-colour above, with a distinct white alar bar, and the
under parts are white, with a mottled greyish band on the lower neck.

CHARADRIID.4^.

5=^5

THE LITTLE STINT.

Tringa minuta, Leisler.

The Little Stint arrives on the east side of England every autumn,
and again on the passage northward in spring. Its numbers on the
mud-flats of Norfolk are sometimes considerable, but on the
whole the British Islands appear to lie on the outskirts of the
chief line of flight pursued by this somewhat eastern species. On
the south coast this Stint is not very common, while westward its
occurrences are decidedly irregular, the sandy flats of Lancashire
and of the Solway district being the localities it most affects. In
Scotland, it occurs every autumn on the east coast as far north as
Aberdeenshire ; while it has recently been observed in considerable
numbers on the Moray Firth as well as in the Orkneys, and Saxby
met with it in the Shetlands ; but on the west side it is decidedly
rare. According to A. G. More, it is found every autumn in Ireland,
chiefly along the north-east shore, but is nowhere plentiful.

On its autumnal migration this species visits the greater part of
Europe, and, except on the west coast of France, it is almost as abun-
dant on the spring-passage. It does not appear to winter in any numbers
on the northern side of the Mediterranean, though many individuals
remain in Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Egypt ; but the majority
make for the extreme south of Africa, the Seychelles, and Arabia,
crossing the great ranges of Asia on their way to the Indian region.
The breeding-grounds of the Little Stint were first discovered by
Middendorff in 1843, as far east as the Taimyr river, Siberia, in lat.

586 LITTLE STINT.

74° N.; but in the summer of 1872 Messrs. Harvie-Brown and Alston
obtained a bird in nuptial dress at the mouth of the Dwina, while
Prof. Collett found the species common on the Porsanger-fjord in
Norway, proving that it bred further to the westward than had
previousl}^ been supposed ; and in July 1875 Messrs. Harvie-Brown
and Seebohm were the first to take the eggs in Europe, near
the mouth of the Petchora. Nesting-places have since been dis-
covered by Henke near Archangel, Mr. E. Rae in the Kola Penin-
sula, Prof. Collett in North Norway, Mr. Trevor-Battye on Kolguev,
the Pearson Expeditions on the last-named and other islands
(especially Waigats) up to Belootchia Bay in Novaya Zemlya, Dr.
O. Finsch near the Kara Gulf, and Mr. Popham on the Yenesei.
Birds found on the Lena delta and further east in Siberia have
redder breasts in breeding-plumage, though undistinguishable in
winter, and have been named T. ruficollis.

The nest is a mere hollow in the moor, scantily lined with dead
leaves &c. ; the eggs, 4 in number, are, as a general rule, miniatures
of those of the Dunlin : measurements i by 75 in. Fourteen
beautiful illustrations are in the ' Eggs of the Limicolas,' by the
late F. Poynting. Incubation begins in the second half of June,
and the male takes a full share. The sitting-bird appears to be very
quiet and tame when at the nest, from which, however, it sometimes
endeavours to divert attention by feigning lameness. The note is
described as a sharp wick, but in autumn, when the birds are in
flocks, their call resembles the confused chirping of grasshoppers.
Aquatic insects, small crustaceans, worms, molluscs, and occasion-
ally the seeds of plants, constitute the food.

The adult in summer-plumage (represented in the foreground)
has the upper parts variegated with rufous and black like a Dunlin ;
chin white ; throat and upper breast tinged with rufous and speckled
with dark brown ; under parts white ; bill, legs and feet black.
Length 6 in. (bill 7), wing 3*55 in. The female is slightly larger
than the male. After the autumn moult there is no red on the
throat, and the upper parts are of an ashy-brown, though always with
more rufous than is the case in Temminck's Stint. The young
have the feathers of the back edged with bufifish-white ; the legs
and feet are blackish even from the nestling stage. As pointed out
by Mr. Harting, the Little Stint resembles a miniature Dunlin
(except for the black breast), while Temminck's Stint is more like a
small edition of the Common Sandpiper ; these remarks being
especially true of winter-plumage.

CHARADRIID/E. 587

THE AMERICAN STINT.

TRINGA MINUTILLA, ^'ieillot.

The American Stint has been obtained in this country on three
occasions. The first example was shot on a piece of wet grass-land
adjoining the sea-shore in Mount's Bay, Cornwall, on October loth
1853, by W. S. Vingoe, who showed it to E. H. Rodd, by whom it
was recorded in ' The Zoologist,' p. 4297 ; the occurrence being
also noticed under the name of Tringa pusilla in the Preface
(p. vi) to the 3rd Edition of Yarrell's ' British Birds.' In Sep-
tember 1869 a second example was killed on Northam Burrows,
near Bideford, by Mr. Rickards of Clifton (Zool. s.s. p. 202 5 j, who
brought the freshly-skinned specimen to Mr. Harting for his inspec-
tion, and its identity has been vouched for by that competent authority
(Hbk. Brit. Birds, p. 143). On August 22nd 1892 — and also on
Northam Burrows — another example was shot by Mr. Broughton
Hawley, on whose behalf I exhibited it at a meeting of the
Zoological Society (P. Z. S. 1893, P- 178)- The date is erroneously
given in 'The Zoologist,' 1892, p. 411, as i6th August ; that being
the day on which Mr. Hawley first observed the bird. He informed
me that our Little Stints did not arrive there until later. The species
has, therefore, as good a claim as many other stragglers to be noticed
in this work ; but it has not been considered necessary to figure it,
as an engraving would not adequately show the points of difference
between it and the Little Stint. The American bird is rather
smaller, with a proportionately longer and more slender bill, while it
is conspicuously darker at all seasons ; in the breeding-plumage the
fore part of the chest is ashy-buff, with distinct spots of dark brown
— not rufous with tiny dots as in T. minuta ; and the legs are dusky
olive-brown, whereas they are black in our Little Stint.

This species, called by American ornithologists the Least Sand-
piper, has visited Greenland, and is widely distributed through-
out the Arctic portions of the New World, breeding as far south
as Sable Island — a little below Nova Scotia, as well as in New-
foundland, Labrador, and the northern regions generally as far west
as Alaska. A limited number winter in the Gulf States, but the
majority pass onward to Mexico, the West Indies, Central America

588 AMERICAN STINT.

and Brazil. In autumn large flocks take an easterly direction as
far as the Bermudas, while on the west side the species is extremely
common in Southern California.

A nest found in Labrador by Audubon is described as a hollow
lined with a few blades of dry grass, the locality chosen being
under the lee of a small rock, exposed to all the heat the sun can
give in that country. The eggs, 4 in number, are of a rich cream-
yellow tint, blotched and dotted with very dark umber, especially at
the larger end : specimens in Mr. Dresser's collection measure i in.
by '8 in. Of twenty nests found on the Barren grounds by Mr.
MacFarlane, all but six were taken between June 21st and 30th.
Worms, small crustaceans and marine insects are the chief food of
this species. The note is a shrill twitter, resembling the syllables
peep-peet.

The adult in breeding-plumage has the feathers on the head and
back blackish, slightly edged with rufous ; hind-neck ashy, varied
with rufous ; wing-coverts ash-grey, exteriorly margined with buff,
the greater coverts with white edges which form an indistinct alar
bar ; quills ash-brown, blacker towards their tips, the shafts whitish-
brown, with the exception of the outermost which is chiefly white
and only dusky towards the extremity ; lower back and rump deep
black ; tail-feathers pale ash-grey, the middle pair elongated and
blackish like the rump ; lores, eyebrows, and sides of the face
whitish ; throat white ; chest ashy, mottled with dark brown in the
centres of some of the feathers ; rest of the under surface white ;
under wing-coverts whitish, some of the lower ones mottled with
brown ; bill nearly black ; legs dusky olive-brown ; iris dark hazel.
Externally there is no material difference between the sexes. Total
length 5-25 in., wing 3 "5 in. In autumn some of the feathers of
the back and scapulars have pale grey edges. The winter-plumage
is ash-grey above, some of the dorsal feathers being dark purplish-
brown in the centre and margined with white ; the lower part of
back and the rump are blackish ; the upper wing-coverts like the
back, the greater coverts clearer brown, and indistinctly tipped with
white ; rest of the plumage as in summer.

The Semipalmated Sandpiper, T. piisilla, or Ereunetes pusillus,
another very common and widely-distributed species in America,
may always be distinguished from the above by having the anterior
toes webbed at the base. It has not yet been obtained in Europe,
but visits the north-east of Siberia.

CHARADRIID.E.

589

^^ ^.N ^^1 ^'

-"7
"vf

a/"^;m'^/^

TEMMINCK'S STINT.

Tringa temmincki, Leisler.

Though less rare on migration than was formerly supposed, this
species is more irregular than the Little Stint in its visits to Great
Britain, notwithstanding that the western limit of its breeding-
grounds are at no great distance from our northern shores. There
are, however, only two or three trustworthy records of its occurrence
in the east of Scotland (Aberdeenshire); while merely a few
examples, at long intervals, have been obtained on the east coast of
England between Northumberland and the south of Lincolnshire, in
autumn. In Norfolk a good many have been met with at that season
—one as late as November 23rd— while about ten have been procured
on the return passage in May. Southward this species can be traced
along the rest of the eastern sea-board, and on the Channel to Corn-
wall and the Scilly Islands ; it has also been found inland, as at
Kingsbury Reservoir in Middlesex, Foulmire in Cambridgeshire,
Mansfield Reservoir in Nottinghamshire, Ribbleton Moor in Lanca-
shire &c. On the west side it is very rare, and since 1832 only six
examples have been authenticated between the Solway district and
the estuary of the Dee, while there is no record from Pembrokeshire.
According to Thompson a specimen was procured near Tralee in

59° temminck's stint.

Ireland in January 1848 : a very remarkable date, inasmuch as, with
this exception, the bird has not been known to remain during the
winter in the United Kingdom.

Temminck's Stint breeds as far south as Trondhjem in Norway,
and in those parts of Sweden, Russia and Siberia which lie beyond
the limits of forest-growth ; also, it is said, in the Stanowoi Moun-
tains. On its migrations, which extend to the Malay Archipelago,
it visits China, crosses the Asian tableland to India, and descends
both sides of Africa, to lat. 10° N. on the east side and to Sene-
gambia on the west. A considerable number, however, spend the
winter in the Mediterranean basin, and on passage the bird is found
on the shores as well as on many of the inland w^aters of Europe ;
it is, in fact, far more partial than the Little Stint to rivers, lakes
and ponds.

The nidification of this species was first made known to us by
Wolley, who found the bird breeding, somewhat locally, to the
north of the Gulf of Bothnia. The nest, seldom far from water, is
a scantily-lined depression in sedge, rushes or short gras;S ; the eggs,
4 in number, vary from pale buff to greenish-grey, blotched with
several shades of brown : measurements n by '8 in. Prof. Collett
never found the females near the nest or young, and the brooding-
birds which he shot were all males with large incubation-spots ; but
the Rev. H. H. Slater, Mr. Popham and others have shot females
from the nest. In the courting-season both birds may be seen
hovering or floating in the air like butterflies, uttering a "very
musical little warble "' (H. 11. Slater). The usual call-note in
autumn is a sharp piirr. The food consists of worms, marine
insects, and larvae of StaphylinidcE ; fragments of grit being taken to
aid digestion.

The adult in summer-plumage has the feathers of the upper
parts greyish-brown with darker streaks, and with broad blackish
bars on the mantle ; the shaft of the outer primary nearly 7i'hite,
the other shafts dusky, like the rest of the quills ; wing-coverts
lipped with white ; the two outer pairs of tailfeathers zclu.'e ;
throat and breast buffish-brown with darker streaks ; under partr;
and axillaries white ; bill blackish ; legs and feet greenish-rrcy in
life. Length 575 in. (bill -6), wing 3-8 in. The sexes are a'uic in
plumage. After the autumn moult the dark markings on the back
are lost, and the general colour is similar to that of the Common
Sandpiper. In the young bird the upper feathers are tipped with
grey ; the breast shows few spots ; the outer tail-feathers are less
purely white, and the legs are yellowish.

charadriida:.

59T

THE CURLEW-SANDPIPER.

Tringa subarquata (Giildenstadt).

This species, which derives its name from the fact that its decurved
bill somewhat resembles that of the Curlew, is an annual migrant —
in varying numbers — to suitable parts of the coast of Great Britain,
especially the estuaries of the east side of Scotland, Northumber-
land, the Humber district, Norfolk, Kent, Sussex, Hants, Dorset, and
thence westward to Cornwall ; while it may sometimes be found on
inland waters. On the west it is decidedly less frequent, and its
occurrences in the north of Scotland, the Orkneys and Shetlands,
seem to be irregular. The principal influx— chiefly of young birds —
takes place in August and September, the journey southward being
resumed by the end of October ; but in Ireland the Curlew-Sand-
piper has been known to remain in the southern counties until
November or even December. On the spring-passage it has been
met with as early as March 19th, and birds in the red summer-dress
continue to pass northward along the east coast of England till June.

The Curlew-Sandpiper has not yet been obtained in the Fc^eroes,
Iceland, Greenland, or Spitsbergen ; while in Scandinavia and even
in Finland it is principally observed on the autumnal migration, being
very rare in spring. Although examples had been obtained near
Archangel, and also at the mouth of the Petchora and on Kolguev,
as well as in nuptial dress on the Yenesei (close to the Arctic circle) on
June 15th, yet it was not until July 3rd 1897 that Mr. H. L. Popham

592 CURLEW-SANDPIPER.

shot a female from a nest containing 4 eggs, near the mouth of
the last-named river. Even there, the species was very scarce, and
the Yenesei probably forms the western breeding-limit. Further
east Middendorff had been nearly successful, for he observed birds
dispersed over the tundras of the Taimyr in lat. 74° N. in June,
and secured a female with a partially-shelled egg in her oviduct ;
while Dr. Bunge noticed migrants passing over the Lena delta,
probably on their way to the Liakoff Islands, and the ' Vega ' Expedi-
tion obtained a specimen close to Bering Strait on June 6th 1879.
Mr. J. Murdoch procured an example at Point Barrow, Alaska, on
June 6th 1883, but, with this exception, the species is unknown in
Arctic America, while it is of rare occurrence on the Atlantic sea-
board of the United States, and is exceptional in the West Indies.
In winter it has been found down to Patagonia, Tasmania, and
Cape Colony ; while the mountain-ranges of Central Asia offer no
barrier to its progress to or from the Indian region, and Severtzoff
always maintained that it bred on the lofty Pamirs. In spring,
migrants in the richest red plumage are to be seen from the Canaries
and Spain to Egypt and the Levant, passing northwards.

Mr. Popham's nest, above mentioned, was a rather deep hollow
in a ridge of the tundra ; the 4 eggs resemble some of those of the
Common Snipe, though smaller: average i"45 by i in. (see Pr.
Z. S. 1897, p, 490, pi. li., figs. 1-4). The bird is generally found,
later in the year, in small flocks on sandy shores, ooze and salt-
marshes, frequently associating with Dunlins and other Waders,
though as a rule it keeps somewhat apart. Its wings are compara-
tively long and pointed, and the flight is very strong, especially
down wind, the white rump being then conspicuous. The note
is more prolonged than that of the Dunlin ; the food consists of
aquatic insect?s, small crustaceans, and worms.

The adult in summer-plumage has the head, neck and mantle
chestnut, streaked and barred with black and grey; upper tail-coverts
white tinged with buff, and broadly barred with black ; quills and
tail-feathers ash-grey ; under parts chestnut-red, slightly barred with
dark brown and grey on the abdomen and flanks. After the autumn
moult the rufous colour is lost, and the under parts become white.
Length 8 in. (bill i"4), wing 5"i in. ; females being rather larger
than males. The young bird (figured in the foreground) has the
upper feathers margined with buff; tail-coverts white ; throat and
upper breast tinged with buff, and streaked with pale brown ;
remaining under parts white ; bill at first shorter and less decurved
than in the adult.

CHARADRIID.T..

593

THE PURPLE SANDPIPER.

Tringa striata, Linnaeus.

The Purple Sandpiper is widely distributed along the coast of
Great Britain from September until the following spring, and
exceptionally it has even been found inland ; but its marked prefer-
ence is for rocky shores on which large masses of sea-weed are
exposed at low water. Young, scarcely able to fly, have been
obtained on the Fame Islands, while adults have been observed in
the Outer Hebrides and other northern localities as late as the middle
of June ; and there may be justification for the presumption that the
bird has nested on the high ground in the Shetlands, though identified
eggs have not yet been obtained. On the rugged portions of the
Irish coast it is met with in winter, as well as in small flocks on the
spring migration until far on in May.

This species breeds in considerable numbers no further off than
the Fseroes, especially on Sandoe ; and in Iceland, Greenland,
Spitsbergen, Franz Josef Land and Novaya Zemlya it is more or
less plentiful. Owing to the influence of the Gulf Stream, it is
resident or only partially migratory on the coast of Norway, and is
even found on the shores of Sweden during winter, though not
common at any season far up the Baltic; southward it can be traced
on passage along the Atlantic sea-board down to Morocco ; and
there is a surmise that it may nest high up in the mountains on
some of the Azores, as Mr. Godman shot a male in full summer-
plumage in June on Flores. In the Mediterranean it is of unusual
occurrence, while M. Alleon did not meet with it on the Black Sea.
To the east of Novaya Zemlya the low tundras of Arctic Siberia are

z z

594 PURPLE SANDPIPER.

unsuited to its habits, and it is rare or very local until Bering Strait
is reached. American ornithologists consider that the birds found
in that region — inclusive of Alaska — belong to a distinct species, T.
coiiesi, while a supposed third, T. pfiloc?iemis, is almost restricted to
the Pribilof Islands. The range in western Arctic America cannot,
therefore, be defined with certainty, but our bird undoubtedly breeds
in the north-eastern portion, migrating in winter to the Great Lakes
and the Middle States, and, exceptionally, to the Bermudas.

In the circumpolar regions nests are frequently placed close to
the sea-shore; but in the Faeroes they were found by WoUey — and after-
wards by Col. Feilden — on the fells ; one being taken by the latter
on May 20th, when deep snow was still lying in the sheltered spots
and the tops of the hills were white. In Northern Iceland, also,
the Rev. H. H. Slater shot a brooding female at nearly t,6oo ft. above
sea-level. The nest is sometimes placed in a rather deep depression
in the ground, and is composed of grass, with a lining of dead
leaves ; the eggs, 4 in number, vary from pale green to olive or dull
buff, with purplish under-shell markings and reddish-brown surface-
blotches : measurements i"45 by i in. Attendance on the brood
and the larger share of the duties of incubation fall to the lot of
the male. In summer the food consists chiefly of insects; while in
winter the bird may be seen on the rocks, regardless of the drench-
ing spray, searching for small crustaceans and molluscs among the
sea-weed. The Purple Sandpiper swims well and voluntarily ; while,
owing to its tameness, few Sandpipers admit of closer observation.
The note is a weet-ivit.

The adult in summer has the upper parts dark brownish-grey ;
the feathers of the mantle nearly black, spotted with rufous and
tipped with buffish-white ; the jth-gth secondaries chiefly white,
and very conspicuous in flight ; rump, tail-coverts, and central tail-
feathers sooty-brown, the remaining tail-feathers being ash-brown;
throat, neck and breast greyish, obscured with dusky-brown streaks;
belly whiter, and the flanks spotted with dark brown; legs and feet
ochreous-yellow, the hind-toe directed inwards. Length 875 in.
(bill i*i), wing 5 in. ; females being rather larger than males. In
the young bird the feathers of the mantle and breast have cres-
centic white edges, which wear off later. In winter the dull upper
plumage has a purple gloss, and the breast is dark ash-brown with
only faint striations or mottlings, while on the flanks the markings
are bolder. The species may be easily recognized by its dark
colour, short legs, and generally ' dumpy ' appearance.

CHARADRIID.*:.

595

THE KNOT.

Tringa canutus, Linnaeus.

Camden (1607) connected with King Canute the trivial name of
this species, and Drayton (1622) gave further currency to the fond
idea ; but the origin is probably to be sought in the call, knut, kniit.
The Knot has long been known as a regular visitor to the British
coasts, and down to the end of the 17th century it was captured in
nets and systematically fattened for the table. Flocks, mainly of
young, make their appearance in mid-August, but the bulk of the
adults arrive somewhat later, and large numbers remain with us
until the following May ; they are then joined by migrants which
have developed in a higher degree the rich red tints of the nuptial-
dress under the influence of a warmer climate, and eventually
all, except the non-breeding birds, depart for the far north-west.
Nowhere in Great Britain is the Knot more abundant than on the
extensive sand-banks and mud-flats of the estuaries on the east,
especially on the Humber ; but in the Hebrides and down the west
side of Scotland it is comparatively rare until the Solway is reached,
whence it becomes plentiful in suitable situations down to Cornwall.
Large numbers are found in Ireland during the colder months, and
sometimes until late in spring.

596 KNOT.

To Iceland and the south of Greenland the Knot is a visitor on
the way to its breeding-grounds, which appear to be chiefly in North
Greenland and Arctic America. The earlier explorers found birds
on Melville Peninsula, and abundantly on Melville Island, one of the
North Georgian or Parry group ; but no eggs are known to have been
brought back. On July 30th 1S76 Col. Feilden, naturalist to H.M.S.
' Alert,' obtained a male and three nestlings near a small lake on
Grinnell Land in lat. 82° 33' N., while Mr. Chichester Hart,
naturalist to H.M.S. ' Discovery,' had captured a brood of four in
lat. 81° 44' on the nth, and three more were taken next day: a beau-
tiful group of the old and young being in the British Museum. A
bird obtained by Gen. Greely near Discovery Harbour contained
a hard-shelled egg; the Peary Expedition of 1892 found the species
evidently breeding; and a female "with full-sized yolks" was shot at
Point Barrow, Alaska, on July nth. In Arctic Siberia the repre-
sentative is T. crassirostris, which has a black breast in summer,
and visits India in winter ; though our bird occurs sparingly in China
and Japan on migration, when it reaches Australia and New Zealand.
It has not, however, been obtained on the Yenesei or even on
the Petchora, though one was found by the Bremen Expedition
among the eastern islands of the Spitsbergen group. On passage it
swarms on the coasts of Western Europe, and passes down the west
side of Africa to Damara-land ; while in America it is well-known
on the Atlantic sea-board, as well as on the Great Lakes and in the
Mississippi Valley, and exceptionally visits Jamaica and Brazil.

There is a presumption that an egg in the Museum at Cambridge
was laid by a Knot in the aviary of the late Lord Lilford. The birds
observed by Col. Feilden on and after July 5th were feeding eagerly
on the buds o{ Saxifraga oppositifolia, while the stomach of one killed
at Discovery Bay contained two caterpillars, a bee, and pieces of an
Alga ; in this country small bivalves are freely eaten. The Knot is
remarkably gregarious, and the young are very unsuspicious on
their arrival. No wader strikes the lighthouses more frequently.

The adult in breeding-dress (in the foreground) has the head and
hind-neck reddish-brown with darker streaks ; feathers of the mantle
blackish, spotted with chestnut and margined with white; tail-coverts
white barred with black ; cheeks, throat and breast chestnut ; flanks
and under tail-coverts whitish, mottled with black. Length 10 in.
(bill I '5), wing 6"5 in. In winter the upper parts are ash-grey, and
the under-parts are white with grey flecks. In the young the
feathers of the mantle have crescentic ash-coloured bars and dull
white tips ; under-parts with a huffish tinge ; legs and feet dull olive.

CHARADRIIDyE.

597

THE SANDERLING.

Calidris arenaria (Linnaeus).

This species — easily recognisable by the absence of a hind-toe —
usually arrives on the coasts of the United Kingdom by the middle
of August, and the early flocks, though chiefly of young, often
contain many older birds. Throughout the autumn the Sander-
ling is plentiful on the sandy portions of our shores, though
less numerous on the mud-flats, while it occasionally visits large
expanses of water inland ; comparatively few, however, remain on
any part of our coasts throughout the entire winter. By April the
return passage — in smaller numbers — commences ; birds in breeding-
dress being observed through May and even in June.

To the Faeroes the Sanderling is a somewhat rare migrant, but
it seems to have nested in some districts of Iceland. Ten eggs were
obtained by the German expedition of 1869-70 on Sabine Island, East
Greenland ; while on the west side nestlings have been captured near
Godthaab, as well as in 81° 38' N. by Dr. Bessels of the 'Polaris,'
and the Peary Expedition found the bird breeding. On June 24th
1876 Col. Feilden shot a male from two eggs in lat. 82^ ■^;^' on Smith
Sound, where the bird was not uncommon ; Sabine recorded it as
breeding freely on the Parry Islands ; and Mr. MacFarlane killed a

598 SANDERLING.

female from the first authenticated eggs, on the Barren grounds near
the Anderson River ; while westward, the species ranges to North
Alaska. Following up its circumpolar distribution, the bird has been
found on the Liakoff Islands, the Taimyr Peninsula, the Yenesei
delta, New Siberia, Waigats, and several islands of the Spits-
bergen group. Except in the Baltic, where it is scarce, the
Sanderling is tolerably common on passage along the coasts of
Europe and of the Atlantic Islands, and a certain number winter in
the basin of the Mediterranean ; others visit Cape Colony and
Natal, the Persian Gulf, India to Ceylon, Java, Borneo, Australia,
the Marshall and Hawaiian Islands, the Kurils, Japan and China.
In America, south of its summer-haunts, it is found down to
Patagonia and Chile.

The nest found by Col. Feilden was a depression in the centre of
a recumbent plant of arctic-willow, on a gravel-ridge several hundred
feet above the sea ; the eggs were greenish-buff spotted with brown,
resembling pale specimens of those of the Curlew in miniature :
measurements 1*4 by i in. lAke the Knot, this species was feeding
at its breeding-grounds on the buds of Saxifmga oppositifolia and
also on insects, but the stomachs of birds shot in this country
generally contain slender sea-worms, small bivalves and crustaceans,
with a little gravel. The fat on the body is sometimes nearly a
quarter of an inch in thickness. The Sanderling is remarkably
tame, and fairly sociable, consorting with Dunlins and other species
which frequent sandy shores ; it may, however, be easily recognized
by the conspicuous whiteness of its under-parts. The note is a
shrill ivick.

The adult in summer-dress (represented in the foreground) has
the feathers of the upper surface black or dark brown in their centres,
edged or spotted with rufous and slightly tipped with grey ; a good
deal of white at the bases of the inner primaries and along the edges
of the greater wing-coverts ; central tail-coverts mottled like the
back, but those on each side conspicuously white ; face, neck and
upper breast pale chestnut, spotted with dark brown ; remaining
under-parts pure white ; bill black ; legs and feet dark olive (black
in winter). Length 8 in. (bill "9), wing 47 in. The female is slightly
larger than the male. By the latter part of August the rufous tints
on the back have nearly disappeared, leaving the black markings very
distinct ; by the end of October the upper plumage is chiefly ash-
grey and all the under surface is white. In the young bird the upper
feathers are black, spotted with white, and variegated with pale buff,
traces of the last colour appearing on the sides of the neck and breast.

CHARADRIID.^.

599

THE RUFF.

Machetes pugnax (Linnsus).

The Ruff and Reeve— the latter being the name appHed to the
female— used formerly to breed in many of the marshy districts of
England ; but drainage has greatly restricted their haunts, while col-
lectors have done their best to extirpate the birds which arrive in
spring and attempt to nest. On the autumn migration the species
is more abundant, and a few individuals are occasionally met with
during the winter. In the west of England the Ruff is decidedly
rarer than in the east, and it is seldom obtained in Wales. In Scot-
land it occurs from Berwickshire to the Orkneys and Shedands, but
has seldom been noticed in the Outer or Inner Hebrides. In
Ireland it is of uncommon occurrence, and is usually seen m
autumn, though occasionally in winter and spring.

6oO RUFF.

As a straggler this species has been met with in the Faeroes and
Iceland, occasionally in Canada and the Eastern United States,
once in Barbados, and once on the Upper Orinoco in South America.
It breeds far north in Scandinavia, and in Russia up to Waigats
Island, while southward, it nests in Poland, Germany, Holland,
Belgium, and the north of France. On migration it is found over the
rest of Europe, its winter-range commencing on the southern side of
the Mediterranean, touching the Canaries and Madeira, and extending
down both sides of Africa to Cape Colony. In Siberia the Ruff
nests up to lat. 75° N., and during the cold season it visits Turkestan,
India, Burma, and occasionally Borneo, China and Japan.

Rufifs are polygamous, and in spring they " hill " ; that is, they
assemble upon knolls of ground, where, erecting the long feathers,
from which their name is derived, they spar, bill to bill — osten-
tatiously, but with little damage to themselves — for the females.
The latter make their nests about the middle of May in tussocks of
grass &:c., on the drier part of swamps ; the eggs, 4 in number, are
greyish-green, blotched and spotted with reddish-brown : measure-
ments I -8 by I "2 in. The males keep apart and appear to take no
share in rearing the young, which are somewhat less able to take
care of themselves than are the nestlings of most Waders ; but in
autumn flocks are formed, sometimes of very large numbers. The
food usually consists of insects and their larvae, worms &c., but
seeds of aquatic plants, rice, and other vegetable substances are
freely eaten, while in confinement the birds used to be fattened on
boiled wheat or bread-and-milk. The note is a low tu-whit,
tu-whit.

In spring the male sheds the feathers of the face, and caruncles
take their place ; curled tufts of feathers appear on the sides of
the head ; and by the beginning of May a shield-like erectile ruff is
developed, which lasts through June. Every variety of purplish-black,
chestnut, grey and white is shown on this ruff and also on the
feathers of the back, each bird annually regaining the same colour.
Length 12-5 in. (bill 1-5), wing 7-25 in. ; ordinary weight 6 ozs.,
but of a fatted bird 10 ozs. After the moult the male resembles the
female (in the foreground) in plumage, though he is about one-third
larger ; the neck and upper breast are buff, lower breast and belly
dull white ; primaries dusky-brown, feathers of the back dark brown
with buff margins ; the latter being especially conspicuous in young
birds. Length of the female 10 in., wing barely 6 in. A white
Reeve is in the Norwich Museum (J. H. Gurney).

CHARADRIID.^!.

60 1

X.

.J\'t

THE BUFF-BREASTED SANDPIPER.

Tringites rufescens (Vieillot).

An example of this American species was shot near Melbourne in
Cambridgeshire, when in company with some Dotterels, early in
September 1826 ; while four others have subsequently been obtained
in Norfolk, one in Sussex, four in Cornwall and the Scilly Islands,
one at Lundy Island in the Bristol Channel, and one at Burgh marsh
in Cumberland in September 1876. Almost all the above occurrences
have been in autumn ; but a male is said to have been killed at
Formby, Lancashire, in May 1829. As regards a supposed Caith-
ness specimen mentioned by R. Gray, Messrs. Harvie-Brown and
Buckley merely remark that the species is on Dr. Sinclair's list.
An example shot in the county is in the Dublin Museum, and two
(one of which is now in the Belfast Museum) were killed in the
People's Park of that city, in October 1864.

A bird obtained on Heligoland on May 9th 1847 is in the
Gatke collection ; and Drs. Fatio and Studer state that one has been
procured on Lake Leman, in Switzerland. In summer the Buff-
breasted Sandpiper inhabits the Arctic and sub-Arctic portions
of the American continent. A female obtained by the late Dr.
Rae on June 14th at Repulse Bay, in the south of Melville
Peninsula, is in the British Museum, as are also examples from
Fort Simpson ; many sets of eggs were taken by Mr. MacFarlane
on the Barren grounds of the Anderson River district, and Mr.
Murdoch met with this species nesting plentifully at Point Barrow

6o2 BUFF-BREASTED SANDPIPER.

in Northern Alaska, though on the Yukon and southwards to Sitka
it appears to be uncommon. Mr. E. W. Nelson found it rather
numerous on August ist 1880 on the north coast of Siberia to
the west of Koliuchin Bay, and says that the birds were evidently
on their breeding-grounds there ; while Middendorff has recorded
an example from the Sea of Okhotsk, shot on June 30th. On
migration it is found throughout the United States, though irregularly
and rather sparsely in the north-east ; becoming more plentiful in
Louisiana, and southward to IMexico. It visits the Bermudas, Cuba,
Barbados, Trinidad, and probably other islands in the West Indies,
passing the winter in South America, down to Eastern Peru and
Argentina.

Mr. Murdoch notes the arrival at Point Barrow as from June 6th
to 8th ; the birds frequented the drier portions of the tundras, and
deposited their eggs, 4 in number, in a shallow depression lined
with a little moss. When at Washington, I had the pleasure of
inspecting the superb series obtained by Mr. MacFarlane, and
certainly the eggs of few Waders present such beauty or variety ;
the prevailing ground-colour is pale buff or olive, the underlying
markings are lavender-grey, and the blotches rich reddish-brown
to black : measurements 1-45 by i in. Six examples are figured in
Poynting's ' Eggs of Limicote.' As a rule the species is remarkably
quiet, even at the season of courtship, though at times two males will
meet and go through a performance of sparring or showing-off, while
a solitary bird may often be seen walking about with one wing extended
upwards in the air. Early in August the migration southward takes
place; and as the food consists of beetles, grasshoppers and other
insects, which are plentiful in autumn, the bird becomes remarkably
fat and is much esteemed for the table. The note is a faint tweet.

The Buff-breasted Sandpiper may easily be recognized by the
beautiful black marblings on both sides of the inner webs of the
primaries and secondaries as well as on the under wing-coverts :
these markings being much more pronounced in adults than in the
young. The upper parts are buffish-brown mottled with black, a
slight greenish tinge showing on the tips of the primaries and on
the central tail-feathers, the other tail-feathers being barred towards
the tips ; under-parts rufous-buff, with a few black spots on the throat
and sides of the breast ; axillaries white. In the young the feathers
of the upper parts are broadly edged with dull white, the under-
parts are paler, and the spots are smaller. Length 8 in. (bill -9),
wing 5-25 in. Superficially the bird is not unlike a Ruff, though
much smaller than even a Reeve.

CHARADRIID/E.

603

BARTRAM'S SANDPIPER.
Bartramia longicauda (Bechstein).

The first authenticated occurrence of this larger wanderer from
America was near Warwick at the end of October 185 1, A second
example (in the collection of Mr. J. H. Gurney) was killed in a
ploughed field in Cambridgeshire on December 12th 1854; one,
now in the Taunton Museum, appears to have been shot more than
forty years ago on the banks of the Parret in Somersetshire ; the
late Dr. BuUmore had a Cornish specimen shot on November 13th
1865, and Dr. Leverton of Truro has another taken in October
1883 ; Mr. G. Bolam obtained one from the sea-banks of North-
umberland on November 21st 1879; and a freshly-killed specimen,
purchased in Leadenhall Market and said to come from Lincoln-
shire, was identified by Mr. Harting on October 27th 1880. The
late Mr. A. G. More examined a bird said to have been sent to a
Dublin game-dealer from Ballinasloe, co. Galway, in the autumn of
1855, and IMr. R. M. Barrington has a specimen shot near Bandon,
CO. Cork, on September 4th 1894.

There are several records of the visits of Bartram's Sandpiper to
the Continent, but the only satisfactory instances are those of a bird
killed in Liguria in 1859 (now in the Museo Civico at Genoa), and

6o4 bartram's sandpiper.

another obtained at Malta on November 17th 1S65 by Mr. C. A.
Wright, who afterwards presented it to the Museum at Florence.
In America this species breeds from Virginia northward to Nova
Scotia, and even as far as Fort Yukon, Alaska ; while it has been
recorded from Colville Bay, British Columbia, though otherwise
unknown to the west of ' the great divide.' In Canada it is par-
ticularly abundant on the plains of the Saskatchewan ; and in the
United States it is generally distributed from Pennsylvania and
Illinois westward to the foot of the Rocky Mountains, though not
very numerous nowadays (according to Mr. Cory) on the Atlantic
coast. On the spring migration large flocks pass through Kansas,
Nebraska, Minnesota and Dakota ; while the return passage south-
ward commences as early as July and continues during the autumn ;
extending to the Bermudas, the Southern States, Mexico and the
West Indies, as well as through tropical America, to Argentina on the
east side and Chile on the west.

Hilly grass-lands are the favourite haunts of this bird, for
which reason it is known in the United States as the Upland-,
Field- or Grass-Plover. The nest is a mere hollow — often in a
ploughed field — with only a few grass stems or leaves to keep the
eggs from the damp soil ; these, 4 in number, and laid early in
June, are pinkish clay-colour blotched with pale purple and umber-
brown : measurements rS by i"35 in. Only one brood is reared in
the year, and the young are somewhat helpless and clumsy. The
note is a soft mellow whistle, whence the bird derives its Louisiana
name of "Papabot." The food, which consists of beetles, grasshoppers
and other insects, small snails, earth-worms &:c., appears to be very
fattening, and in autumn the bird is much prized by epicures.

The adult in summer has the crown blackish, with a median line
of buff, feathers of the upper parts edged with warm buff, and
thickly streaked and barred with black ; inner web of ist primary
white, with conspicuous dusky bars ; tail (long and wedge-shaped
when closed) pale orange-buff barred with black and broadly
tipped with white, except the central pair of feathers which are chiefly
ash-brown ; neck and breast buff, with blackish arrow-shaped mark-
ings on the lower breast ; chin, belly and vent white ; axillaries and
under-wing barred with ash-brown and white. Length 1 1 '5 in.
(bill I "2), wing 6'6 in. The female is slightly larger than the
male. In winter the plumage has an ochraceous tint ; while
immature birds have the feathers of the back more margined with
rufous-buff than the adults. It will be observed that the tail is barred
as in Totanus, and is not plain as in Tringa.

CHARADRIIDiE.

605

THE COMMON SANDPIPER.

ToTANUs HYPOLEUCUS (Linnceus).

This species, often called the Summer-Snipe, is a regular visitor
to the British Islands, usually appearing in April and leaving again
by the end of September, though a few birds occasionally remain
till November. Inasmuch as its favourite haunts are the gravelly
margins of lakes or islets of shingle in running water, this Sandpiper
is chiefly a migrant in the south-east of England ; but exceptionally
it has nested in Lincolnshire, Norfolk, Buckinghamshire, Kent,
Sussex, and Dorset, and more freely along the moorland brooks of
Somerset, Devon and Cornwall. In Wales, and in fact west of the
Severn and north of the Trent, it is a well-known breeding-bird ; while
in Scotland it is to be found on almost every loch and burn throughout
the mainland, ranging to the Outer Hebrides, Orkneys and Shetlands.
It is generally distributed in Ireland, except in the south-east.

In summer this Sandpiper is plentiful from the Arctic circle down
to the Pyrenees, Alps, Carpathians, and the mountains of Turkey
and Greece, while it visits Madeira, and breeds— sparingly— in the
Canaries, Spain, and the Mediterranean basin. In the last, how-
ever, the species is better known in winter, at which season it
ascends the Nile valley to Abyssinia, and can be traced along the
entire coast-line of Africa, as well as to Madagascar &c. In Asia,
where it is found from the Arctic circle southwards, it crosses the great

6o6 COMMON SANDPIPER.

mountain barrier at an elevation of 17,000 ft. and breeds even in
the Himalayas ; its winter-range extending over the Indian, Malayan
and Australian regions, down to Tasmania.

The nest, which is often a tolerably firm structure of grass, dry
leaves, bits of rush Szc, is either placed on banks more or less in the
vicinity of fresh water, or on the shingle of some islet ; but some-
times on the bare rock, and exceptionally in a pollard-willow
(H. S. Davenport). The eggs, 4 in number, are usually reddish-buff,
rather minutely spotted with two shades of brown, but occasionally
the ground-colour is pale bluish : measurements i -45 by i in.
Incubation commences by the middle of May, but fresh eggs may
be found nearly a month later ; while every stratagem is used by the
female to divert attention from her nest or young, though the latter
can run as soon as they are hatched and show great aptitude in
concealing themselves. When on the ground, this bird is in con-
stant motion, flirting the tail up and down, or extending and with-
drawing the head and neck; it often alights on fences and bushes,
and swims and dives well. In spring it rises in the air, trilling a
pleasing song, but the usual note is a piping w/ieef, wheet, wheet.
The food consists of worms, insects and their larvae.

The adult male in summer has the upper parts of a bronzy-brown,
minutely flecked and barred with umber ; the three outer pairs of
tail-feathers broadly tipped with white and barred with black, the
rest chiefly bronzy-brown ; the chin white ; sides of the neck and
breast pale ash with dusky streaks ; under-parts white. Length 8 in.
(bill I in.), wing 4*25 in. The female is a trifle larger. After the
autumn moult the upper parts are more uniform in colour. The
young have the upper feathers margined with buff, and no dark
streaks down the middle of the throat.

The American Spotted Sandpiper, T. macularms, was allowed to
retain its place as a British bird in the 4th Ed. of ' Yarrell,' because,
among the numerous recorded instances of its occurrence, there
were two which could not with certainty be attributed to igno-
rance or deliberate fraud ; but I think that the species has no claim
to be considered as one of our visitors. Credulous collectors of
" British-killed " specimens will do well to read the investigations of
Mr. J. H. Gurney in his ' Rambles of a Naturalist,' p. 255, and in
' The Naturalist,' 1895, p. 311, or the exposure of a dealer's tricks in
Adamson's 'Some more Scraps about Birds,' p. 256. The American
bird has all the secondaries broadly barred with ash-brown, while in
the Common Sandpiper the 8th and 9th are nearly white.

CHARADRIID/E.

605*

THE SPOTTED SANDPIPER.

ToTANUS MACULARius (Liiinceus).

Since the Note on p. 606 was written, an example of this species
upon which no doubt rests has been obtained in Ireland, and was
exhibited by Mr. Frederick Curtis at a meeting of the British
Ornithologists' Club on the 15th of February 1899. The bird,
which proved to be a female on dissection, was shot on the 2nd of
that month near Finea, co. Longford, by Mr. Frank Roberts of
Windsor, and sent by him in the flesh to Mr. C. A. Veysey of
Windsor, who, in his turn, is a personal friend of Mr. Curtis.
The bird was very tame, and was feeding, when shot, in a meadow
much trodden by cattle by the side of the river Finea, and within
thirty yards of the village of the same name. There can now be no
reason for refusing this species a place in the list of occasional
visitors to the British Islands ; and indeed the probability of its
occurrence was never doubted, although the fact had not been
satisfactorily established.

This American species has never been secured in Heligoland, and
Dr. Anton Reichenow does not include it among the visitors to
Germany, notwithstanding a French record of its acquisition on the
22nd of April 1875 at " Spire, Bavibre rhenane." In North America
to the south of the Arctic Circle this Sandpiper has a very extensive
range, breeding from Labrador to Texas, and from the shores of
the Atlantic to the mouth of the Yukon. It is found up to an
elevation of 8,000 to 9,000 feet, and even to the shores of the

6o6* SPOTTED SANDPIPER.

lakes near the end of the forest growth In October it passes
southward for the winter, when it visits the Bermudas, the Antilles,
Central America, and South America down to the equatorial
portions of Brazil. The return passage is in April.

The nest is a light structure of bents and grasses, and is usually
placed in meadows, by the borders of streams or ponds. The eggs,
4 in number, are clay-colour or pale reddish-white, blotched with
ash-grey and two shades of chocolate-brown, these markings being
decidedly darker than in eggs of our Common Sandpiper : measure-
ments I '3 by "95 in. The fiight is rapid, performed with quick stiff
beats of the wings, and the bird frequently utters its cry of peet-
tveet as it passes along ; while its bowings and other attitudes when
on shore are very comical. (D. G. Elliot.)

The adult in spring has the upper plumage very similar to that of
our Common Sandpiper, but more strongly barred with dark brown,
while the throat, and especially the breast, are thickly spotted with
brownish-black ; bill greenish-olive above and yellow beneath ; legs
and feet yellowish flesh-colour. The sexes are alike externally. Length
7 in., wing 4*2. In winter the upper plumage lacks the bronze tint
of spring, and the under surface is nearly white, but the secondaries
are very distinctively barred with brown.

CHARADRIID/E.

607

THE WOOD-SANDPIPER.

ToTANUS GLAREOLA (J. F. Gmelin).

This bird is by no means so regular in its visits as the next species,
with which it was formerly confounded, and the main body of
migrants hardly reaches our shores. It is true that in autumn single
individuals, or even small parties, usually of young, are met with on
the east side of England, and in less numbers in the south, as well as
in muddy situations far inland ; while in Cornwall examples on the
vernal passage have been noticed as early as April 15th. A few
adults alight in East Anglia in spring, and a pair probably bred
in Norfolk prior to 1846 (Zool. p. 1324); while on June 3rd
1853 Hancock obtained a male bird, nest and eggs, on the now
drained Prestwick Car, in Northumberland. In Scotland the
Wood-Sandpiper has been obtained in Mid- and East Lothian, and
Aberdeenshire, and the late Mr. Bond received eggs which he con-
sidered to be well-authenticated from the vicinity of Elgin ; while in
the west, several occurrences in the area of the Clyde and Loch
Lomond are substantiated. Along that side of England the bird is
very rare, even in such congenial situations as the flat shores of the
Solway and of Lancashire, and it has seldom been recorded from
Wales. In Ireland, the first on record was shot in co. Wicklow, on
August 23rd 1885 ; two birds (out of three) were killed on the same
bog very early in August 1S96 ; and lastly, Mr. W. Drury obtained
one (which I have examined; near Lough CuUin, co. Mayo, on
September 5th 1898.

6o8 WOOD-SANDPIPER.

The Wood-Sandpiper is only a wanderer to the Faeroes, but on the
mainland of Northern Europe it is common during the summer,
breeding as far south as the valley of the Danube, and probably in some
parts of North Italy; while on May 28th 1870 I shot a bird which
had evidently been incubating, on the edge of a wooded marsh near
Aranjuez in Central Spain. Over the rest of the Continent it is well
known on passage ; its migrations reaching to South Africa, India,
Malayasia and Australia. In Asia its breeding-range stretches from
the great mountain-ranges northward to the Taimyr, and eastward
to Kamchatka.

In Europe the nest is usually concealed in some depression on
tolerably dry ground, though not far from water, and usually
amongst bog-myrtle, stunted heath, sedge, or other coarse vegeta-
tion ; but on the Yenesei Mr. Popham found that, in four cases out
of five, the eggs were laid in old nests of the Fieldfare. As this
habit had previously been supposed to be peculiar to the Green
Sandpiper, the sitting-birds (all males) were shot. The eggs, 4 in
number, are often pale green in ground-colour, though sometimes
buffish-white, and are speckled and blotched with reddish-brown,
especially at the broader end : measurements i '5 by i in. Incubation
begins about the middle of May in Holland, though later in the
north ; the male indulging in ' play ' similar to that of the Common
Sandpiper during courtship, and uttering a tremulous note, hero,
leero; but the cry of alarm is a sharp giff, giff. This bird perches
on bushes, trees or stakes even more often than its predecessor. It
feeds on worms, small molluscs, insects and their larvae, and a disagree-
able musky odour usually pervades its flesh.

This species is rather smaller than the Green Sandpiper, but with
a proportionately longer tarsus ; and it has the upper parts streaked
with olive-brown, the margin of each feather of the mantle showing
bufifish-white spots (elongated and well defined in the young, smaller
and triangular in the adult) ; the quills are dusky, but the outer one
has a white shaft (not dusky as in the Green Sandpiper) ; upper tail-
coverts white with narrow dark shaft-flecks ; outer tail-feathers white,
with bars on both webs in the young and on the outer web only in
the adult, the remaining feathers being distinctly barred ; neck,
throat and breast dull white, thickly streaked with ash-brown, the
flanks being barred with the same colour; axillaries white, merely
flecked with brown ; abdomen white ; legs and feet yellowish-olive.
Length 8*5 in. (bill I'l), wing 5 in.

Illustrations of the characteristic axillaries and tail-feathers of this
and of the Green Sandpiper jre given on p. 612.

CHARADRIID^E.

609

THE GREEN SANDPIPER.

ToTANUS OCHROPUS (Lintiaeus).

The Green Sandpiper is not uncommon on the spring as well as
on the autumnal migration in many parts of England and Wales,
while it is sometimes met with in the depth of severe winters, and
continues in good condition when Snipes are lean. From some
of our streams it is, indeed, seldom absent, except during June and
July ; and even in those months single birds, pairs, or small parties
have been noticed in Sussex, Norfolk, Suffolk, Yorkshire, Brecon-
shire and other counties ; indeed there is a possibility, though as
yet no proof, that it may occasionally breed with us. On the east
side of Scotland it is of fairly frequent occurrence, but in the north
it is very rare, while its presence in the island-groups has not yet
been recorded, and it is seldom met with on the west coast, except
in the Solway district. To Ireland its visits are not uncommon in
autumn and are fairly frequent in winter.

This Sandpiper is found nesting in marshy woods, from the
vicinity of the Arctic circle southward to Central Russia, Poland and
Germany, and as far west as Holstein. Over the rest of the Con-
tinent it is well known as a migrant, and I have an adult female
from Malaga, in the south of Spain, shot as late as June 24th.
From autumn to spring it is abundant in suitable localities from
Morocco to Egypt ; and, though not traced beyond Angola on the
west side of Africa, it ascends the Nile valley to Abyssinia, con-
tinuing its course through the Lake district to Cape Colony. In
summer it is found in Asia from the Arctic circle to the great

3 B

6lO GREEN SANDPIPER.

mountain ranges, while from July onwards it visits the rest of that
continent and the Malay Archipelago. There are two specimens in
the British Museum labelled respectively " Hudson Bay " and
" Halifax, Nova Scotia."

The remarkable nesting-habits of the Green Sandpiper were first
brought before the notice of the majority of British readers by Prof.
Newton (P. Z. S. 1863, pp. 529-532) ; but an intimation of the bird's
preference for trees had been given in 'Naumannia' for 1851-52,
and Forester Hinz had communicated full details (J. f. O. 1862,
p. 460) respecting its nidification, observed in Pomerania from 181 8
onward. As already stated, the Wood-Sandpiper shows a similar
taste in Siberia. The eggs, sometimes laid as early as April i6th,
have often been found in old squirrels' dreys, or the nests of
Song- and ]\Iistle-Thrushes, Blackbirds, Jays and Ring-Doves ; occa-
sionally on the ground, or on moss-covered stumps, broken-down
trees, and spines heaped upon branches of firs — at elevations reach-
ing to 35 feet, but always in proximity to pools. The eggs are pale
greenish-grey, with small purplish-brown spots, and are normally
4 in number ; though, as is the case with some other waders, 7 have
been found together, doubtless the produce of two females :
measurements i"55 by I'l in. The Green Sandpiper frequents
woodland streams and ponds, peaty swamps and meadow-drains,
rather than the vicinity of the sea, while it is generally observed
alone or in pairs, and at most in family parties. It is an extremely
wary bird, and frequently shifts its feeding-grounds for no assignable
reason. The flight is rapid and glancing ; the note is a shrill
tid-tid-tui. The food consists chiefly of insects, small red worms
and fresh-water snails ; the flesh has a disagreeable musky odour,
like that of the preceding species.

The adult is larger than the Wood-Sandpiper, and is rather
greener in tint, with fewer spots on the upper parts, and with whiter
upper tail-coverts which are very conspicuous in flight ; belly and
under tail-coverts pure white. The central tail-feathers have broad
black bars, and the axillaries are brownish-black, with narrow angular
bars of white: distinctive characters which are figured on p. 612.
Length 9-5 in. ; wing 5-5 in. The young show less of the metallic-
green sheen on the upper parts, while the spots are less plentiful
and not so purely white.

The Green Sandpiper has only one large notch on each side of
the posterior margin of the sternum, and was therefore placed in a
separate genus, Helodromas, by Kaup, who further created Rhya-
cophiliis for the Wood-Sandpiper.

1

CHARADRIID.C 6ll

THE SOLITARY SANDPIPER.

ToTANUS soLiTARius (Wilson).

A specimen of this American species was recorded by Robert
Gray in 'Tlie Ibis' for 1870 (p. 292), as having been killed some
years previously on the banks of the Clyde. In ' The Zoologist '
for 1882 (p. 432), Mr. T. Cornish stated that on September 21st of
that year, an example, now in the collection of Mr. Dorrien Smith,
was shot in the Scilly Islands ; and he subsequently identified
another (Zool. 1885, p. 113) which was obtained in a marsh near
Marazion in Cornwall in October 1884, according to the sale-
catalogue of Vingoe's collection (May 13th 1889). These have
been identified by competent authorities.

In America the " Wood-Tattler," as the bird is often called,
appears to be generally distributed during the breeding-season
from the vicinity of the Arctic circle to about lat. 44"^ N., and
from the Atlantic to the Lower Yukon in Alaska. Many orni-
thologists have observed it in summer, and Mr. Nelson has taken
the young when just able to fly in Illinois; yet nothing appears
to be known of its nidification, for the description given by the
late Dr. Brewer of an egg taken in Averment and ascribed to this
species indicates a probability of error ; while the story in ' The
Auk,' 1898, p. 328, of the bird being flushed (but not obtained)
near Lake Ontario, from 5 eggs " with grotesque brown figurings
somewhat similar in shape to those found on the eggs of the Purple
Crackle," can hardly be considered conclusive. The spring arrival
of the Solitary Sandpiper in the United States takes place in May,
while the return passage begins in July in the northern districts, and
even in the south few birds remain after October. On migration
South Greenland, the Bermudas, the Antilles, Mexico, Central
America, Brazil, Paraguay, Argentina and Eastern Peru are visited.

The Solitary Sandpiper is so named because it is generally found
alone or in pairs on its journeys, when it is not infrequent by pools
and rivulets ; but for a short time after the young are hatched small
family parties are formed. During the summer the bird appears to
be partial to small ponds surrounded by dense forest, and it then
resorts to decayed logs for the larvEe of insects, but at other times it
probes the soft mud for worms and minute crustaceans. The note
is a sharp whistle.

X -R 2

6l2

SOLITARY SANDPIPER.

This species is about the same size as the Wood-Sandpiper, but
its upper parts are even less spotted than those of the Green Sand-
piper ; the tail-coverts and central pair of rectrices are chiefly olive-
brown, with only minute flecks of white, while all the remaining
tail-feathers are boldly barred with black and white on both webs ;
the head, neck and under-parts are much the same as in the
Common Sandpiper ; the axillaries are barred angularly with black
and white in nearly equal proportions. Length 8"2 5 in. ; wing 5-2 in.
Its nearest ally is our Green Sandpiper, and, like that species, it has
only one large notch on each side of the posterior margin of the
sternum. An illustration is not considered necessary, inasmuch as
the distinctive characteristics could hardly be shown therein.

In the following vignette the upper figures represent, respectively,
a feather from the axiJlaries and one from the middle of the tail of
the \\'ood-Sandpiper, while below them are corresponding feathers
from the Green Sandpiper. The axillaries of the Solitary Sandpiper
resemble those of the Green Sandpiper in pattern, but the white bars
are much broader.

CHARADRIID.t.

6l

THE YELLOWSHANK.
ToTANUS FLAViPES (J. F. Gmelin).

This is another of those American species which occasionally find
their way to. this side of the Atlantic. The first British-killed
example on record was obtained at Misson in Nottinghamshire, by
some wild-fowlers who used to send their birds to Doncaster, and
thus reached Hugh Reid, the well-known taxidermist. It was next
sold to Sir W. ]M. E. Milner, who brought it to London in the
spring of 1855, to be used by Yarrell in his ' History of British
Birds,' and it forms the subject of the present illustration ; it is now
in the Leeds Museum. A second genuine specimen was shot by
E. Vingoe on September 12th 1871, on a salt-marsh near Marazion
in Cornwall, as stated by Rodd (Zool. s.s. p. 2807) with ample
diagnosis and details.

As a straggler the Yellowshank has occurred in South Greenland ;
but its breeding-grounds are in North America from Hudson Bay to
Alaska, extending as far south as Lake Superior, and perhaps to the
vicinity of Chicago, where Mr. Nelson found the young barely able
to fly on July ist 1874. On passage this species is generally distri-
buted throughout the greater part of the United States, and is abun-
dant along the valley of the Mississippi, though of comparatively rare

6*4 VELLOWSHAXK.

occurrence to the west of the Rocky Mountains. It visits the
Bermudas, Bahamas, and West Indies generally, as well as the
mainland of tropical America, wintering as far south as the Chupat
valley in Patagonia — where Durnford found it common during
November — and also in Chile.

According to Messrs. Kennicott, IMacFarlane and others, the nest
is a simple depression scantily lined with dead leaves &c., near the
edge of a marsh or pool. The eggs are 4 in number, and those
which I examined in the Smithsonian Institution at Washington were
creamy-buff, boldly blotched with chocolate-brown and umber :
measurements i"65 by i*i in. Six examples are figured in Poynt-
ing's 'Eggs of the Limicola;.' The food consists of insects and
their larvss, small crustaceans, worms &c. ; and in its general habits
this species resembles other Sandpipers.

The adult in summer has the crown and nape greyish-white
streaked with black ; mantle ash-brown with ragged blotches of
black which have a tendency to form regular transverse bars on the
scapulars and secondaries; upper tail-coverts pure white with dusky
bars; tail-feathers white, with numerous ash-coloured bands — broadest
on the central pairs — across both webs ; chin and neck white, the
latter thickly streaked with wood-brown; under-parts white; axillaries
white, barred tvith ash-brown ; bill black and very slender ; legs and
feet bright yellow. Length 1075 in. ; wing 6'4 in. In autumn the
streaks are almost absent from the head, neck and throat. The
young resemble the adults in winter-plumage, but ar£ more or less
tinged with pale brown on the upper parts.

As the immature Redshank, which has pale yellow legs, has several
times been mistaken for the Yellowshank, it may be pointed out
that T.flavipes has a much more slender bill, a longer tarsus, and
distinctly barred axillaries.

On May 13th 1889 Vingoe's collection was sold at Stevens'
auction-rooms, when the specimen of the Yellowshank from
Marazion obtained the price of ^5. 155-. 6^., and the Solitary Sand-
piper mentioned on p. 611 went for j[^\it- i4-^-

CHARADRIID/E.

615

THE COMMON REDSHANK.

ToTANUS CALiDRis (LinnKus).

In spite of drainage the Redshank may be found nesting in most
of the marshy districts of England and, sparsely, in Wales ; usually
making its appearance inland from the middle of March onwards.
Early in autumn home-bred birds begin to resort to the coast, where
they are joined by large numbers from the Continent ; but on the
approach of cold weather the majority pass southward, though in
some places birds may be found throughout the winter. On the
mainland of Scotland the species is abundant, but in the Orkneys
and Shetlands it does not breed plentifully, while in most of the
Outer Hebrides it is chiefly an autumnal visitor. In Ireland it is
fairly numerous during the summer, while plentiful at other times of
the year along the sea-board, especially on the bays of the west, where
large expanses covered with Zostera marina are left exposed by the
receding tide.

This species breeds in Iceland, the Faeroes, Scandinavia up to
lat. 70° N., and as far north as Sviatoi-noss in Russian Lapland ;
south of which it is found nesting in suitable localities throughout
Europe, as well as in Morocco. It visits the Canaries, and migrates
down the west side of Africa to Cape Colony, while on the east k
can be traced to Natal. In Asia it barely ranges north of laL 55°,

6i6

COMMON REDSHANK.

and it is very local in Siberia, though more widely distributed during
the summer over the elevated table-lands from Persia to Mongolia ;
on passage it occurs in Japan, China, the Philippines, Borneo and
Java, and it is plentiful in the Indian region during the cold season.

The Redshank frequently breeds in small communities, and in
marsh-land or pastures the nest is usually in the centre of a tuft of
rushes or of long grass, the entwined blades of which conceal the
contents from view ; but in many places the nest is as exposed as
that of a Lapwing or of a Golden Plover. The 4 eggs are of a
yellowish stone-colour blotched with purplish-brown, and measure
175 by 1-2 in. In the south they are often laid during the
first week in April, but they may be found fresh until the middle of
May, or later in the north ; incubation lasting twenty-two days
(W. Evans). When the nest is approached the bird is very noisy
and practises many artifices to allure the intruder from the neigh-
bourhood ; while at other times it causes annoyance to sportsmen
by flying round and alarming everything by its shrill note, which
has obtained for it the local name of took in East Anglia and tolk
m Scandinavia. In spring the male may often be seen uttering a
peculiar love-song while running along the top of a gate or fence,
pirouetting and bowing to his partner like an amorous pigeon.
Occasionally the bird perches on trees ; it dives when wounded ;
and it has been seen swimming to shallow water on the other side
of a creek rather than take wing. Its flight is quick though
somewhat wavering, the white band on the extended wing being very
conspicuous. The food consists of aquatic insects, worms, crusta-
ceans, and small molluscs. During seven or eight months of the
year this species frequents the margins of salt or brackish waters.

The adult male in summer has the upper parts bufiish-brown,
profusely streaked and barred with umber; secondaries nearly
white; rump white with a few dusky flecks; tail-feathers white,
thickly barred with blackish, and with a tinge of pale brown on the
central pairs ; under-parts white, streaked on the neck, breast and
belly and barred on the flanks and axillaries with ash-brown ; bill
black anteriorly, basal half red ; legs and feet bright orange-red.
Length 11 in. (bill i-8), wing 6-25, tarsus 1-9 in. The female is
rather larger and more rufous on the mantle. In winter the bird
has the upper parts ash-colour, the rump white, and the under-parts
nearly so, with a few ashy streaks and spots on the neck and breast ;
axillaries pure white. In the young the legs are yellow, the feathers
of the mantle are edged with rufous-brown, and the belly is un-
spotted.

CHARADRIID/E.

617

THE SPOTTED REDSHANK.

ToTANUS Fuscus (Linnccus).

The Spotted or Dusky Redshank is of somewhat irregular —
though not altogether infrequent — occurrence in Norfolk and other
eastern counties on the autumn migration, while birds assuming the
breeding-dress are still more common there in spring. Being partial
to fresh or slightly brackish water, this species cannot endure frost, and
leaves before winter begins. Even in Cornwall, Wales, Lancashire
and the Lake district it is seldom met with ; and though found occa-
sionally as far inland as Nottinghamshire, it is little known to the
north of the Humber. It has, however, occurred in Haddington-
shire, Aberdeenshire and Banffshire ; Mr. Harvie-Brown has iden-
tified a bird shot on the Findhorn ; Mr. Buckley admits a record
from Sanday, Orkneys, in 1849; and Mr. Service is aware of an
occurrence on the Scottish side of the Solway. In Ireland one
has been obtained near Belfast ; Mr. R. Warren has killed two and
has seen a few others on the Moy estuary in autumn, and even in
winter, between 1867 and 1888; while of late years the bird has
been met with on several occasions along the coast of co. Dublin.

6x8

SPOTTED REDSHANK.

In summer this species inhabits the northern portions of Scan-
dinavia and Russia ; the birds which intend to nest there arriving
in May, though migrants have been noticed passing northwards
over Heligoland as late as June 17th. It crosses the Continent
by several routes to the basin of the Mediterranean, whence its
winter quarters extend to Cape Colony. In Asia, it is irregularly
distributed across Siberia to Kamchatka and the Commander
Islands ; while in our cold season it visits Japan, China, Burma
and South India (sparingly), and North India (freely).

For details respecting the nidification British ornithologists are in-
debted to Wolle)', who observed the Spotted Redshank in Finland
in 1854. It appears to choose rather dry situations, such as the
tops of long hills covered with scattered timber and often where the
forest has been burned, many hundreds of yards from any marsh ;
and there, towards the end of May, in some slight depression, it
deposits its 4 eggs, which vary in ground-colour from a yellowish-
olive to a beautiful sea-green, and are blotched with several shades,
of brown and black : measurements i "85 by i "2 5 in. The bird sits very
closely, its white lower back being conspicuous as it crouches with
its neck drawn in ; on rising it flies round with an occasional tjeiiiy,
or stands upon the top of a neighbouring tree, showing the full
length of its slender legs, neck and bill. It becomes very demon-
strative when the young are hatched, and probably carries them
down to the marsh, as they are found there while still small. The
food consists of worms, beetles and other insects, univalves &c. ;
chiefly obtained near fresh water, to which, as already observed, this
species is far more partial than the Common Redshank.

The adult male in summer (figured in the background) has the
general plumage of a sooty-black hue faintly spotted with white ;
rump and upper tail-coverts white, closely barred with black ; tail-
feathers more thickly barred on a dusky ground ; bill nearly black,
red at the base of the lower mandible ; legs and feet claret-red at the
joints, but mainly livid. Length 13 in. (bill 2-35), wing 6-25, tarsus
2-2 in. The female is rather larger and often has a white chin, the
under-parts being paler and more mottled. After the autumn moult
the upper parts are chiefly ash-grey, more mottled with white than
in the Common Redshank, while the tail-feathers are much darker ;
the secondaries are thickly barred with dusky on both webs ; the
neck is ash-coloured, the under-parts are dull white, and the axillaries
white. The young bird has the upper surface tinged with brown,
the under-parts clouded with ash grey, and the legs orange-yellow.

CHARADRIID^.

619

THE GREENSHANK.
ToTANUS CANESCENS (J. F. Gmclin).

The Greenshank occurs annually, though in small numbers, on
the shores and many of the inland waters of Great Britain during
the spring and autumn migrations, but it is not very often met
with in December or January. In Ireland, however, it remains
through the winter (especially in cos. Mayo and Cork), until the
spring, after which its absence is very brief, inasmuch as some
birds appear again early in July, while the majority have arrived
by the end of that month (R. Warren). In Scotland it was dis-
covered nesting by Macgillivray in the Outer Hebrides, where a few
pairs are still to be found, as they are in Skye and some of the Inner
islands ; but on the mainland its breeding-range is increasing,
especially in the Moray area, and extends over portions of Caithness,
Sutherland, Ross, Inverness, Argyll, and the north of Perthshire, while
Mr. Service thinks that a few pairs inhabit the Galloway hills. The
Greenshank has never been known to breed in the Orkneys, and
Saxby's statements respecting the finding of its eggs in Shetland
remain uncorroborated.

This species is a regular summer-visitor to the fells and morasses
of Scandinavia, Northern Russia, and Siberia up to about lat. 60^ N.

620 GREENSHANK.

as far as the Stanowoi Mountains ; while in winter it ranges
over the greater part of the eastern hemisphere down to the
AustraHan region. On May 28th 1832 Audubon obtained three
specimens in Florida, but since that date the bird has not been
noticed in North America, though examples ascribed to Buenos
Aires and Chile are in the Leiden Museum. The Greenshank is
well known on the coasts and inland waters of Europe, especially on
the autumnal passage, and considerable numbers go no further in
winter than the basin of the Mediterranean and the Canaries.

The nest is often at some distance from water, or even on dry
ground among scattered pine-trees, but in Scotland it is generally
near the edge of a loch or other fresh water. Mr. Buckley mentions
finding three eggs between two stones on May 24th 1869, and on
passing the spot on May 26th 1871 a bird was sitting closely
between the same two stones and did not move until touched with
the point of a fishing-rod. The eggs, normally 4 in number, are of a
warm stone-colour, with blotches of purplish-grey and spots of rich
brown : measurements I'g by i"3 in. The male takes a large share
in the duties of incubation. When its haunts are approached, and
especially after the young are hatched, the Greenshank is very
vociferous, uttering a loud chee-zveet, chee-iveet^ and swooping round
the head of the intruder ; at other times it has a strong, rapid flight,
and, like other Sandpipers, it perches on trees. It feeds on small
fish and spawn, crustaceans, molluscs, worms, beetles &c., often
searching for the last in meadows frequented by cattle.

The adult male in summer has the head and neck greyish-white
streaked with blackish-brown ; feathers of the mantle and secondaries
nearly black, edged with pale grey ; rump white ; tail-feathers white,
mottled and barred with brown ; under-parts white, with ash-brown
streaks and spots on the throat, breast and flanks ; bill slightly
upcurved and blackish ; legs and feet olivaceous. Length 14 in.
(bill 2 '2 5), wing 7*25, tarsus 2*25 in. Li winter the upper parts are
greyer and the under surface is pure white. The immature bird has
tawny margins to the dorsal feathers, while the chest and flanks are
minutely pencilled with blackish-grey ; tarsi greenish, bluer at the
joints.

It is asserted in Littleboy's ' Birds of Hertfordshire ' that a Marsh-
Sandpiper, T. stagnatilis, was shot near Tring Reservoirs in October
1887, but the bird was not submitted to competent authorities at
the time, and has since been burned. This Greenshank in miniature
has been known to visit Heliefoland and Northern France.

CHARADRIID/K.

621

THE RED-BREASTED SNIPE.
Macrorha.mphus griseus (J. F. Gmelin).

The trivial name of this American species is somewhat unfortu-
nate, for the bird does not belong to the Sub-family Scolopacinse,
but to the Totaninae, among which it now finds its proper place.
Its occurrence in Great Britain was first noticed by Montagu, who
described and figured — under the name of Brown Snipe — a bird
which was killed in Devon in October of a year prior to 1802, and
now in the British Museum. Two or three more specimens are said
to have been procured in the above county, and one has been shot
in the Scilly Islands ; Middlesex has produced two, Norfolk three,
Lincolnshire one (on August 15th 1882), Lancashire one (now in
the Preston Museum), and another in September 1891 ; while on the
Cumberland side of the Solway a young bird, afterwards in Hey-
sham's collection, was taken on September 25th 1835. All these
were obtained in autumn. In Scotland, a young bird (now in the
Edinburgh Museum), was shot near Largo, Fifeshire, in September
1867 ; a correctly identified example is .said to have been killed in
Lanarkshire ; and on September 2nd 1891 one was obtained in
Argyll. In Ireland, in 1893, an immature female was shot on
September 29th in Queen's County, and an adult female on
October nth in co. Tipperary.

On the mainland of Europe the Red-breasted Snipe has been
found in Denmark, Picardy and Normandy; while on the other side

62 2 RED-BREASTED SNIPE.

of the Atlantic it is of rare occurrence in the South of Greenland.
It breeds on the vast morasses round Hudson Bay, and about as far
south as lat. 44° N., migrating along the east coast ; but west of
the Mississippi valley a slightly larger form prevails, with somewhat
longer bill and brighter coloration in summer, and for this American
ornithologists have adopted the name scolopaceus. Both forms
occur in winter in the Gulf States and among the West Indian
Islands, while it is admitted that birds undistinguishable from those
of the Atlantic race occur on the Barren grounds and in Alaska —
the summer-quarters of the western form — as well as down the
Pacific side of America. For the purposes of the present work we
may unite the two under one heading, and say that the Red-breasted
Snipe breeds throughout the Fur countries, migrating in winter as
far south as Brazil on the east side and Chile on the west, while a
few wanderers cross the Pacific to Japan and North-eastern Siberia.
On Long Island, near New York — where the bird is known by the
name of " Dowitcher " — it arrives towards the end of April, and
within a month the most northern of its breeding-grounds have
been reached.

According to Messrs. Dall MacFarlane, Nelson, and others, the
4 eggs are laid in June in some slight hollow in a tussock near a
lake or marsh-pool ; their colour is greenish-grey or brownish-olive,
blotched with dark umber: measurements 175 by i'22 in. The
young are on the wing by the end of July, and early in August the
adults begin to lose their red breeding-plumage, while by September
they have assumed their grey winter-garb, and have formed large
flocks. Owing to its tameness this species affords no sport, and if
disturbed merely utters a short iveet on taking flight, soon settling
down again by the side of the water, in which it seeks the small
insects, worms and marine bivalves which constitute its food.

The adult male in summer has the crown blackish, mottled with
tawny-brown ; feathers of the mantle blackish, with fulvous edgings;
shaft of the first quill pure white ; upper tail-coverts and tail barred
with black on white and rufous ; under-parts ruddy-brown, with a few-
spots on the throat and breast ; axillaries and under wing-coverts
white, barred or mottled with dull black ; bill dark olive ; legs and
feet pale olive. Length of the male 10 in. (bill 2-2), wing 5-5 in.
The female is larger but alike in plumage. In winter the general
plumage is grey, and, except for its size and length of bill, the bird
then superficially resembles a Dunlin in the dress of that season.
The young bird is much greyer than the adult, and only the margins
of the feathers of the mantle are rufous.

CHARADRIID.E.

62-

mW'^'f

THE BAR-TAILED GODWIT.

LiMOSA lapp6nica (Linnreus).

The Bar-tailed Godwit is a regular visitor to our estuaries, sand-
banks and mud-flats in spring and autumn ; young buff"-breasted
birds, which are at first very tame, often beginning to arrive in
August. Mr. W. Evans informs me that in the Firth of Forth from
300 to 500 pass the winter, while Mr. Abel Chapman and Mr. G.
Bolam agree that far more resort to the coast of Northumberland ;
but in Lincolnshire, Norfolk, and southward to the Channel, com-
paratively few are then to be met with. On the other hand,
numbers in red breeding-plumage visit the south and east coasts
on the spring migration, and in Norfolk, from the date of their
arrival, the 12th of May used to be called by the Breydon gunners
" Godwitday." In Wales and the west of England this species
is chiefly seen in autumn and winter ; and the same may be said
of that side of Scotland, where, however, flocks of non-breeding
birds frequent the Sound of Harris, and also the Solway, in summer.
In the Orkneys this Godwit is rare. In Ireland it is tolerably com-
mon during autumn, though less plentiful in winter ; but many arrive
on the west coast in March, and increase in abundance up to April,
while numbers remain till nearly the middle of June.

624 BAR-TAILED GODWIT.

As a Straggler the Bar-tailed Godwit has been recorded from the
Fceroes, but its breeding-range barely extends as far west as Finmark,
and though Wolley obtained the eggs in the Muonio district of
Lapland, yet there he appears to have been only on the outskirts.
On the Petchora the bird has barely been observed ; and it had
been only once obtained on the Yenesei, until, towards the end
of June 1S95, Mr. Popham found it breeding along that river in fair
numbers, between lat. 69° and 72° N. From the Taimyr Peninsula
to Alaska, and by way of Japan and China to Oceania, Australia
and New Zealand in winter, we find a subspecies which is rather
larger, less ruddy, and more marked with brown on the rump. During
the colder months our form is irregularly distributed in Europe
down to the Mediterranean basin ; in Africa, it migrates to the
Gambia on the west and the Somali country on the east ; while in
Asia it visits the Mekran coast and the mouths of the Indus.

Eggs obtained by Wolley in Finland, and figured by Hewitson,
are light olive-green, blotched and streaked with brown ; they
measure 2*1 by 1*45, being similar to, but rather smaller than, those
of the Black-tailed Godwit, the next species. Mr. Popham says
(Ibis 1897, p. 105) that no two pairs occupy the same district, and the
nest is a slight hollow in the high-lying tundra. Both birds incubate,
but the male was found on the nest on three out of four occasions.
The sitting Godwit remains on its nest till it can be almost caught in
the hand, well knowing that in the resemblance of its back to the
surroundings lies its best chance of escaping observation. The
food consists of aquatic insects, worms, small crustaceans and
molluscs. The note is syllabled by Mr. Harting as lou-ey, /oie-ey.

In summer the adult male (in the foreground) has the head, neck
and under-parts chestnut-red, with dark streaks from the crown to
the sides of the breast ; mantle variegated with wood-brown and
black ; rump white with brown streaks ; tail buffish-white, barred
with dark brown. Length 15-5 (bill 2-25), wing 8 in. The female
is larger, but far less ruddy. After the autumn moult the under-
parts are chiefly white, with a few dark streaks on the neck and
breast ; the upper parts are brownish-grey, which becomes ashy in
winter ; the true tail-feathers are chiefly ash-brown with dark shaft-
streaks ; but the long tail-coverts are, at all seasons, distinctly barred,
so that in ordinary parlance the term " bar-tailed " is not inappro-
priate. The young bird has broad bars — retained through the
winter — on the tail-feathers ; upper parts tinged with buff and
checquered with two shades of brown ; under surface dull buff with
dusky streaks.

CHARADRIID^.

625

THE BLACK-TAILED GODWIT.

LiMOSA BELGicA (J. F. Gmeliii).

This species used to breed in the south of Yorkshire until the
opening of the present century, arfd down to 1829 in the fens of
Lincohishire and Cambridgeshire, while eggs were taken in Norfolk
as recently as 1847. Now, however, the bird is observed only on
the spring and autumn migrations and occasionally in winter ; the
passage southward beginning in August and the return taking place
from April to May. At no season is this Godwit numerous, and
north of the Humber it is of irregular occurrence, while it is seldom
obtained on the west side, even on the marshes of the Solway. On
the east coast of Scotland it is rare to the north of the Firth of Tay,
but an example was shot at Loch Spynie in the autumn of 1878,
another on Westray, Orkneys, on September 27th 1894, and Tiree,
in the Inner Hebrides, is sometimes visited in spring. In Ireland

3 c

626 ELACK-TAILED GODWIT.

it is repeatedly met with from August to the end of autumn, but
only exceptionally in spring (Ussher).

The Black-tailed Godwit has been known to nest in the Faeroes,
and does so annually in the south-east of Iceland ; while on the
Continent it breeds, sparsely, as far north as lat. 64°-65° in Scan-
dinavia and Russia, plentifully in Poland, sparingly in Silesia,
and — where the localities are suitable — in Northern Germany, Den-
mark, Holland and Belgium. Elsewhere it is chiefly known on
migration, in the course of which it visits the Canaries and Madeira ;
its winter-quarters commencing in the basin of the Mediterranean
and extending to Abyssinia. In Asia it is found in Western Siberia
south of lat. 60" as far east as the valley of the Ob, and through
Turkestan to the Altai, ranging over the Indian region to Ceylon
in winter ; while, east of the Lena, a larger form inhabits Eastern
Siberia and Kamchatka in summer, passing through Japan and
China to Australia and Polynesia during the colder months. The
occurrence of the Black-tailed Godwit in Greenland is doubtful ;
and in North America the representative species is L. hudso?tica,
which is smaller and has dark brown — instead of white — axillaries.

The nest is a slightly-lined hollow among coarse herbage ; the
eggs, 4 in number, are pear-shaped, and of a pale olive colour with
brown spots : measurements 2*2 by i'5 in. An excellent account of
the nesting-habits, by the late Mr. A. C. Chapman, is in ' The Ibis,'
1 894, p. 340 ; the usual note being syllabled as tu-ce-todo. The
food consists of insects and their larvae, worms &c.

The adult male in summer (figured in the foreground) has the
head, neck and breast reddish-fawn colour, with dark markings on
the crown and blackish bars on the lower breast ; mantle brown,
mottled with black ; wing-bar conspicuously white ; rump white ;
tail-feathers white at their bases, with a broad subterminal black
band; belly whitish, barred with dark brown. Length 16 in. (bill
37), wing 8 in. The female is decidedly larger (though there is
great individual variation), and her tints are duller. In winter the
general colour is ash-brown above and greyish-ash below, the vent
being white. The young are similar, but early in autumn they are
tinged with rufous on the neck.

The specific name belgica is based upon a full description, with an
excellent coloured plate, in Nozeman's ' Nederlandsche Vogelen ' ;
while the term agocephala, which has often been employed for this
species, was originally bestowed on the Bar-tailed Godwit.

SCOLOPACID^.

627

THE COMMON CURLEW.

NuMENius ARQUATA (Liniiseus).

This species is to be found during the whole year wherever sand
and mud-flats or rocks covered with sea-weed are left exposed by the
receding tide ; for even in spring, when the adults retire inland, their
places are taken by a few immature birds which remain during the
summer. The Curlew still breeds on the moors of Cornwall, Devon
and Somerset, sparingly in Dorset, Wilts and Hants, freely in
Wales and the neighbouring counties, and on the high ground
northwards (including the Isle of Man) as far as the Border ; also
on low-lying heaths, such as Thorne Waste in South Yorkshire.
It is even more generally distributed over the mainland of Scotland,
as well as in the Orkneys and Shetlands, but is not positively known
to nest in the Outer Hebrides, though it occurs there in autumn and
winter. In Ireland it is common throughout the year.

The Curlew is only a straggler to the Fjeroes, and is almost
unknown in Iceland, where its representative in summer is the
Whimbrel ; but it breeds more or less plentifully in Scandinavia,
Russia, Poland, North Germany, Denmark, Holland and Flanders,

3 c 2

628 COMMON CURLEW.

as well as on some of the wastes of Brittany. Immense flights cross
Heligoland on migration, and the species is well known on passage
throughout Central and Southern Europe, ranging as far west as the
Canaries and Azores ; while it winters in Africa from the Medi-
terranean to Damara-land and Natal, and visits Madagascar. As
regards Asia, the birds found between the Caspian and Lake Baikal
exhibit more white on the rump and axillaries than our western
form, though they intergrade with it ; and these visit the Indian
region in winter. Eastern Siberia is inhabited by iV. cyanopus — ■
characterized by a broadly-barred rump — which migrates to
Australia. The American representative of our bird is the large
N. longirostris, with rufous axillaries. In the Mediterranean basin
and Southern Russia, wandering to Holland, we find N. tenuirostris,
no larger than the Whimbrel, with which it has been confounded :
though quite unnecessarily, for it has a striated crown and its
axillaries are pure white.

The shallow nest is on bare ground or in grass-pasture, or
among the stems of bog-myrtle and heather ; and the 4 large pear-
shaped eggs, which are olive-green blotched with brown, and measure
about 275 by i"g in., have been found near Carlisle early in April,
while on the high moors of Northumberland incubation — in which
both sexes take part — is not infrequent by the end of that month.
Mr. Abel Chapman has remarked that for the first few days the
young seldom go far from the nest. As long as they remain on the
moors and pastures their diet consists of berries, worms, snails, spiders,
insects &c., and in early autumn the birds are excellent for the table ;
but after they have resorted to the sea-shore and fed on crustaceans
and marine animals they become unpalatable. The Curlew has
often been seen to perch on tall trees \ its flight is rapid, and a wedge-
shaped formation is assumed by flocks. It is not only remark-
ably wary, but seems to take pleasure in alarming every living
creature within hearing of its shrill cour-lie ; while it has also a
peculiar rippling and not unpleasant note.

The adult in spring-plumage has the feathers of the crown and
upper parts pale brown, with darker central streaks ; rump and
upper tail-coverts white, the latter streaked with dark brown
towards their tips; tail-feathers barred with dark brown and dull
white ; under-parts pale brown — nearly white on the belly — streaked
with dark brown. The female is the larger bird and has the longer
bill. Length 21-26 in. (bill 47 to 6), wing ii*5 to 12-25 i"- I^i
winter the under-parts are almost white ; in the young they are
washed with buff. The Curlew does not breed until its second spring.

CHARADRIID^.

629

THE WHIMBREL.

Nu:menius ph.-eopus (Linnaeus).

The AVhimbrel sometimes makes its appearance on our shores in
the early part of April, but the main body of migrants northward
arrive in May, with a regularity which has procured for this species
the name of " May-bird " in Cornwall, Hants, Norfolk and other
counties. A small number of non-breeders remain on our coasts
during the summer, while by the latter part of July the return
passage sets in and continues through the autumn ; at the latter
season, however, the birds usually fly very high, and few are met
with after the end of September, though a laggard has been shot in
December. None are known to breed on the mainland of Scotland,
but a small number nest on some of the Orkneys and a good many
do so on several of the Shetlands ; while a pair or two inhabit
North Rona in the Outer Hebrides, and the other islands of that
group are visited in spring. In Ireland the Whimbrel occurs on
the west coast in winter (Irby), and is abundant on the inland bogs
during the spring migration, but it has never been known to breed.

As a wanderer this species has occurred on Jan Mayen, and often

630 WHIMIJREL.

in Greenland. In Iceland and the Faeroes it takes the place of the
Curlew, from the beginning of May till September ; while in Scan-
dinavia it nests on the fells and to the north of the limits of forest-
growth. In the Arctic and sub-Arctic regions of Russia it appears
to be very local, while the greater part of Siberia is inhabited by a
sub-species, JV. varicgatiis, with the rump more streaked in the adult
than in the young of our western form ; and this eastern repre-
sentative migrates southward to Australia. Our typical bird, how-
ever, visits a considerable portion of the Indian region, as well as
Mauritius and Madagascar, and in Africa is found down to Cape
Colony. Its wanderings extend westward to the Canaries and Azores,
and on passage it is found over Europe to the Mediterranean,
though it seldom occurs far inland. Its American representative,
JV. hudsonicus — with rufous axillaries — has been obtained in Iceland
and once in the south-west of Spain.

A shallow depression in the herbage serves to contain the 4 eggs,
which are usually laid from the latter part of May to the middle
of June ; they are of two shades of olive-green, blotched with
brown : measurements 2*4 by 1*55 in. The Whimbrel is very pug-
nacious at its breeding-place, and I have seen it attack the Arctic
Skua, while Col. Feilden observed it driving away the Lesser Black-
backed Gulls, uttering its trilling cry, tett)\ tetty, tetfy, tet, as it darted
to and fro with rapid flight. Its food consists of small crus-
taceans, insects, worms, and land-shells, such as Helix ericetorum ;
and it is said to be partial to bilberries, for it feeds much more on
land than the Curlew. Owing to its note, " Titterel " is a common
name for this bird in Sussex, while in the south and west Whimbrels
are spoken of as " the Seven Whistlers," the rippling whistle being
often repeated seven times.

This species is much smaller than the Curlew, from which it
furthers differs characteristically in the markings of the head, the
crown being dark brown with a broad pale streak down the middle ;
the general hue of the upper parts is darker, though otherwise
the plumage is similar ; the axillaries are white, barred with
brown. Length 17 '5 in. (bill 3*4), wing 10 in. ; the female being
rather larger than the male. The young are spotted on the back
and barred on the wing-coverts and secondaries with buffish-white,
a remarkably chequered appearance being thus produced ; the
rump is more or less streaked ; the axillaries are only slightly barred,
but the dark transverse markings on the tail-feathers are more
numerous and defined than in the adults.

CHARADRIID.^.

THE ESKIMO CURLEW.

NuMENius EOREALis (J. R. Forster).

This small American species is an occasional straggler to the
British Islands, the first instance on record being that of a bird
which was killed in Kincardineshire on September 6th 1855. On
September 29th 1879 another, shot in Aberdeenshire, was sent for
preservation to Mr. G. Sim, who also received an adult male from
Kincardineshire on September 21st 1880. An example, said to have
been forwarded from Sligo, was purchased in Dublin market on
October 21st 1870, and afterwards presented by the late Sir Victor
Brooke to the Museum of that city. iVccording to the late Dr.
Churchill Babington, two were obtained near Woodbridge in Suffolk
in November 1852, only one of which is now in existence; while he
adds, on Hele's authority, that a bird, which was not preserved, was
killed on the river Aide some few years before 1870. The latest
occurrence is that mentioned by Mr. Thomas Cornish, at Tresco in
the Scilly Islands, on September loth 1887.

The Eskimo Curlew appears to be merely a visitor to Greenland,
but is widely distributed during the summer throughout the Arctic
regions of America from Hudson Bay to Alaska ; only a few, how^-
ever, remain to breed in the latter as far south as St. Michael's,
though northward this is the most abundant member of the genus.
It has wandered to the Tribilov Islands, but its representative
in North-eastern Siberia, and southward by China and Japan to the

632 ESKIMO CURLEW.

Moluccas and to Australia in winter, is JV. ininutus of Gould,
{Mesoscolopax miitutits, Sharpe), a slightly smaller species, which has
paler and less barred under-parts, and has moreover the front of
the tarsus transversely scutellated like the back ; whereas in the
American bird and typical members of the genus Nuvieiiius only
the hind tarsus is reticulated. Although the Eskimo Curlew has
been obtained in the Galapagos Islands, and also on the coast of
Chile, it does not appear to pass down the Pacific sea-board of North
America ; its line of flight in autumn being rather to the eastward
of the Rocky Mountains. Immense numbers migrate through the
Mississippi valley, but none winter there, nor is a long stay made
in any part of the United States to the north of Texas ; some visit
the Bermudas, while others pass southward as far as Patagonia and
the Falkland Islands. On the migration northward in spring, few,
if any, birds pass along the Atlantic coast, for, like the American
Golden Plover, they prefer the route by, and to the west of, the
Mississippi valley (G. H. Mackay).

Mr. MacFarlane, who found nests of this species between June
20th and July loth, describes them as mere hollows in the Barren-
grounds ; the eggs, 4 in number, are olive-drab or light ash-green,
blotched with various shades of brown: measurements 2 by i"5 in.
Four examples, after drawings by Mr. J. L. Ridgway, are figured in
Poynting's ' Eggs of Limicolae.' In autumn the bird feeds freely on
crowberries, and it is so partial to a species of snail found on low
rocks and mud-flats that Dr. Elliott Coues has seen flocks hovering
distractedly over a party of gunners who were stationed on ground
where these molluscs abounded. The note is an oft-repeated soft,
mellow whistle ; the flight is straight and very swift.

The points which distinguish this species from Mesoscolopax
minutus, have already been indicated ; the other diagnostic char-
acteristics are : primaries with scarcely a trace of bars, no white on
the rump, under-parts buff with transverse ' arrow-head ' markings,
axillaries chestnut barred with brown. Length 14 in. (bill 2-5),
wing 8'55 in. As Seebohm pointed out in his work on the Chara-
driidas, the pale stripe down the centre of the dark crown is suffi-
ciently defined to show that this species belongs to the group of the
Whimbrels rather than that of the Curlews ; but the expediency of
changing a long-accepted trivial name on such slight grounds may
well be questioned.

LARID^.

633

THE BLACK TERN.

HVDROCHELIDON NIGRA (LinnSBUs).

The Black Tern was a regular spring-visitor to England before
drainage had done away with most of the fens and morasses to
which it used to resort for breeding-purposes ; but even in Norfolk
the last eggs on record were taken as long ago as 1858, though early
in this century the nests of the " Blue Darr," as the bird was called,
might have been found by hundreds on the alder-swamps. In
Lincolnshire a pair or two of the " Car-Swallow," may occasionally
be seen in summer ; but otherwise this species chiefly frequents our
eastern and southern coasts, rivers, and inland waters in April and
early May, rarely reaching to the north of the Aire and the Humber ;
while in August the young begin to make their appearance, and a few
birds remain in the south-west as late as November. In the west of
England it is rare, even on the marshes of the Sohvay, where, how-
ever, its eggs are said to have been taken in 1855 ; and though it
has been met with on the Firth of Forth and other parts of the
lowlands of Scotland, as well as on Loch Lomond, it is as yet
unknown in the Hebrides or the Orkneys. The irregular occurrences
recorded from Ireland are chiefly those of immature birds in autumn.

As a straggler the Black Tern was obtained in the Faeroes in

034 BLACK TERN.

September iS86. Although it occasionally wanders to the south of
Norway, it is not known to breed north of about lat. 60° in the
Baltic, the Gulf of Finland or Russia ; but over the rest of the
Continent it is abundant in suitable localities down to the Mediter-
ranean ; and it also nests in the marshes of North Africa. In winter
it has been obtained as far south as Loango on the west and Abyssinia
on the east ; but all the specimens recorded under the name of
H. nigra from Damara-land, or the Transvaal, have proved to be
H. kiicoptera, the next species. In Asia, the Black Tern cannot
be traced beyond Western Turkestan, and there is no authentic
record from India or China. In America, from Canada in summer
to Chile in winter, its representative is H. siirinamensis, the adults
of which have the upper and under-parts deep black, and much
white on the carpal joints, while even the young are darker than
those of the Old World species.

From about the third week in May this bird may be found in
colonies on wet marshes or by shallow pools, making its nest of
decayed plants on heaps of wrack which rise and fall with the water,
or on the firmer hummocks of the bog. The eggs, 3 in number, are
ochreous or olive-green in ground-colour, boldly blotched with dark
brown : measurements i'45 by i in. The Black Tern feeds chiefly
on aquatic insects, many of which — such as dragon-flies — it takes on
the wing, and Mr. F. S. Mitchell has watched it swooping down
upon the field-crickets {Achefa campestris) during their momentary
appearance at the entrances of their burrows ; it is also very partial
to leeches, and will take small fish &c. The note is a shrill crick,
crick.

The adult in nuptial dress (figured in the foreground) has the head
and neck dark lead-grey, nearly black on the crown and nape ; back,
wings and tail slate-grey (the last slightly forked) ; throat, breast and
belly dark lead-grey ; under wing-coverts pale grey ; vent white ; bill
black ; legs and feet short, and reddish-brown in colour. Females
have usually paler under-parts than males. Length 9'6 in. (bill i"25),
wing 8 "5 in. After the moult, which begins towards the end of July,
the forehead, throat and nape are white, as are also the under-parts
for a short time, though they are usually barred with grey. The
young bird (in the background) is mottled with brown on the head
and mantle ; but by the following spring the upper parts have become
lead-grey, with a darker line remaining along the carpal joint. The
full dress is not acquired till the second spring, when breeding takes
place.

larida;.

635

Al

THE WHITE-WINGED BLACK TERN.

HVDROCHELIDON LEUCOPTKRA (Schinz).

This species, which has a more south-easterly habitat than the
Black Tern, is an irregular visitor to our shores on migration,
especially during May and June. In those months a good many
examples have been obtained in Norfolk, while others have occurred
on the coasts of Sussex, Hants, Dorset, Cornwall and the Scilly
Islands, northward in Yorkshire and Durham, and inland near
Coventry. The first British specimen on record was, however, shot
in Dublin Bay, in October 1841, and I have examined a bird
in full moult killed at Ilfracombe, North Devon, early in Novem-
ber 1870; these being the only autumnal instances known to me.
Five more have been obtained in Ireland, all in spring and south
or west of Dublin.

The White-winged Black Tern has only once been known to
wander as far as Lund in Sweden, and its northern breeding-limits
appear to be in the governments of Lublin and Siedlec in Poland,
south of which it is by no means uncommon on some of the
marshes of Central and South-eastern Europe. It probably nests
in Sicily, as well as near Massaciuccoli and Venice on the mainland
of Italy, which it also visits on migration ; it frequents the Camargue,
ascending the valley of the Rhone to Savoy and Central France ;
and it passes along the east coast of Spain in considerable numbers,
though seldom seen in the south-west and not recorded by Mr. Tait
from Portugal. In Western Morocco it is little known, but it
appears to breed in Algeria, Lower Egypt, Nubia, and perhaps

636 WHITE-WINGED BLACK TERN.

Abyssinia ; while in winter it is found in flocks on the marshes and
" vleys " of Africa down to the Transvaal and Damara-land. During
summer it inhabits Asia, from the Caspian to the Amur, Mongolia
and Northern China ; and it has occurred in Ceylon, though rare on
the mainland of India. In winter it passes down Eastern Asia and
islands to North Australia ; while two examples in full nuptial dress
were shot in the province of Nelson, New Zealand, on December
1 2th 1868. In North America an adult was obtained on Lake
Koskonong, Wisconsin, on July 5th 1873 ; and Col. Feilden shot a
young bird in Barbados on October 24th 1888.

This gregarious species nests in marshes, and may sometimes be
found in company with the Black Tern, for instance in Central
Europe, where, however, the latter predominates ; but in Southern
Russia large and distinct colonies are formed. The eggs, deposited
on floating vegetation in Mayor June, are 3 in number, and resemble
those of the Black Tern : measurements i"35 by i in. The flight
of this Tern is more rapid and its cry is harsher than that of the
preceding species ; the food consists of dragon-flies and other aquatic
insects.

The adult in summer has the head, neck and back glossy black,
in strong contrast to the white on the carpal joint of the wing ;
greater wing-coverts pearl-grey, and secondaries lead-grey ; primaries
frosted with pearl-grey, which soon wears off, leaving the outer webs
sooty-black ; upper tail-coverts and tail pure white, the latter very
slightly forked ; under-parts black, with a brownish tinge on the
belly ; vent white ; under wing-coverts and axillaries black : bill livid
red : legs and feet orange-red, and webs very much indented.
Length 9*3 in. (bill i*i), wing 8*2 in. After the autumn moult
the head, neck, and under-parts (inclusive of the wing-coverts) are
white, and the mantle and tail are grey. The young bird — which
resembles the adult in winter-plumage, though at first mottled wdth
brown on the upper parts — may be distinguished from immature
H. fiigra by its shorter bill, longer toes with more deeply incised
webs, paler rump and tail, and more defined wedge of white on the
inner webs of each primary. The feathers on the carpal joint and
of the tail do not become pure white until the third year.

The late G. R. Gray erroneously identified this species with the
Sterna nigra which Linnceus described as " found on the small reedy
islands about Upsala," and which was, of course, the Black Tern.
Being considered an authority on nomenclature, especially by
foreigners, his unfortunate precedent has been only too widely
followed, and has occasioned much confusion.

LARID.«.

637

^^lV\wVM^,l^yv/^^«;;^:^-

THE WHISKERED TERN.

HVDROCHELIDOX HYBRIDA (Pallas).

The Whiskered Teni has even a less northward range than the
preceding species, and only wanders to our islands at long intervals.
It was first recognized by Heysham, who selected the subject of the
above illustration from some sea-birds which had been shot at Lyme
in Dorsetshire towards the end of August 1836 ; in September 1839
one (in the Warren collection at the Dublin Museum) was obtained
at the mouth of the Liffey ; a third was killed, according to Mr.
Southwell, near Hornby Castle, Yorkshire, in 1842 ; an adult female
containing advanced ova was shot on Hickling Broad, Norfolk, on June
17th 1847, ^"d one was obtained at Dersingham in October 1890 ;
an immature example was procured at the end of August 185 1, near
Tresco, in the Scilly Islands ; an exhausted adult picked up on the
water near Plymouth in May 1865 and presented to me by the late
Mr. Gatcombe, is now in the British Museum ; and Mr. Hart, of
Christchurch, Hants, has an adult killed in June 1875. An old male,
shot in Nithsdale, on May 28th 1894, is in the Edinburgh Museum.

This Tern is a very rare straggler to Northern Germany, and
seldom wanders up the valley of the Rhone, though it used to nest
sparingly in the delta of that river. Large numbers arrive by the
middle of April to breed in the marshes of the south-west of Spain ;

638 WHISKERED TERN.

in Italy the bird is well known on passage ; there are important
colonies in the swamps of the Danube, as well as in Turkey, Greece
and the southern districts of Russia ; and a few pairs occasionally
nest as far north as the morasses near Lublin in Poland. In North
Africa, from oNIorocco to Egypt, the Whiskered Tern is abundant in
suitable localities, and it has been found in the months of our winter
in full breeding-plumage, as well as in immature dress, as far as the
Cape of Good Hope. In Asia it is distributed from the Mediterranean
to jMongolia, and nests freely in Northern India, while southward
it reaches the Moluccas. There the northern birds seem to meet with
those which I believe to have been bred in Australia ; the winter-
plumage of the latter being slightly paler than that of our northern
examples, although I can find no difference between adults in
nuptial dress from Queensland and from Europe. A young bird
brought from Barbados by Schomburgk is in the British Museum.

Like its congeners, this Tern breeds in colonies ; its nest being
often a large tangled mass of growing weeds pulled together on the
surface of the water. The eggs, 3 in number, are usually of a pale
green ground-colour, though sometimes stone-grey or buff, spotted,
blotched or scrolled with brown and black : measurements i"55 by
I "IS in. In Europe incubation commences in May, but July is the
usual month in India. The food consists of dragon-flies, grass-
hoppers, caterpillars, aquatic beetles &c., as well as of newts, small
fish and frogs. The flight is buoyant, but not very swift.

The adult in breeding-plumage has the forehead, crown and nape
black ; from the gape to the nape a broad white stripe which forms
the ' whisker ' from which the bird derives its trivial name ; upper
parts slate-grey, darker on the shoulders and primaries, except when
the latter are frosted with pearl-grey ; chin and throat greyish-white ;
breast slate-grey ; belly and flanks nearly black ; under wing-coverts
pure white ; axillaries white with a tinge of grey ; bill blood-red ;
legs, feet and webs vermilion, the webs less indented than in
H. leucoptera. Length 11 in. (bill i'4), wing 9-25 to 9*5 in. Indian
birds, which are probably almost sedentary, are smaller than
Western examples, which evidently take long journeys to South
Africa. In winter the forehead and under-parts are white ; the
crown, nape and ear-coverts being only streaked with black ; while
the mantle is paler than in summer, and is sometimes of a delicate
pearl-grey. The summer-dress is assumed by a moult, which com-
mences in February or March.

This and the two foregoing species constitute the natural sub-
division of " Marsh-Terns."

LARID^.

639

THE GULL-BILLED TERN.

Sterna anglica, Montagu.

This species was first made known by Montagu, from specimens
shot in Sussex, and, unaware that it was a mere visitor to our
shores, he bestowed upon it the inappropriate name of anglica.
Since the date of his discovery, examples have been obtained as far
north as Blackpool in Lancashire and the vicinity of Leeds in York-
shire ; in Norfolk no fewer than ten have been taken, and several
have occurred in Kent, three in Sussex, and one each in Hants,
Devon, Cornwall and Scilly : almost all of them in spring or
summer. A record from Ireland is the result of an erroneous
identification.

It is not remarkable that this widely-distributed Tern should
occasionally visit England, seeing that it annually nests on the
Island of Sylt and a few spots on the west coast of Denmark.
In the Netherlands, Central Europe, and the north of France, it is
only of accidental occurrence, but it breeds at the mouth of the
Rhone, and abundantly in Spain on the sand-banks between Cadiz
and the Portuguese frontier ; while, though chiefly a migrant in Italy,
it nests on the salt-lagoons of Greece, Asia Minor, and the Black and
Caspian Seas. In similar situations it is plentiful from Morocco to
Egypt, and in the Red Sea ; in Asia it is found in summer as far
north as the Hoang-ho valley in Mongolia, and also breeds on the
islands of the Persian Gulf. In the cold season it visits India and
Ceylon, as well as Southern China and the Eastern Archipelago ;
while in the last the northern birds meet with individuals of a slightly

640 GULL-BILLED TERN.

larger and paler race, which breeds in Australia and was distinguished
by Gould as S. macroiarsa. In America the Gull-billed Tern nests
along the east coast from New Jersey to Texas, as well as in the
Bahamas, Cuba &c., and probably on the back-waters near Santa
Catarina in Brazil ; while it ranges as far south as Patagonia. On
the Pacific side the late Mr. Salvin obtained it in Guatemala.

A slight hollow scratched in the earth or sand, lined with a few
fragments of sea-weed or dried grass, serves as the receptacle for the
eggs, which are 2 or 3 in number ; their ground-colour is usually
pale buff — occasionally of a greenish tint which soon fades —
blotched and spotted with several shades of brown : measurements
2 by i'4 in. During the breeding-season the note resembles the
syllables c/ie-dh, but at other times the bird utters a laughing af, af,
af, like a Gull. In Ceylon Col. Legge found it feeding on frogs,
crabs and fish ; in Egypt Von Heuglin observed it darting into the
dense smoke of a prairie fire in pursuit of locusts ; and in Algeria
Salvin noticed it hovering over grass fields, and pouncing upon
grasshoppers and beetles ; it also captures many species of insects
on the wing. Its flight is graceful but not very rapid, the long wings
being plied with steady measured strokes.

The adult in summer has the forehead, crown and nape jet black ;
upper parts pearl-grey, except where the frosting has been rubbed off
the primaries, which are then darker, especially on the edges of the
inner webs ; under-parts white ; bill black, very stout and strong ;
legs and feet black, with a tinge of red. Length 15 in. (bill i'q),
wing 1 2 "5 in. In winter the head is white, with ash-grey streaks,
some of which unite and form patches before and behind the eye
and on the ear-coverts. The young bird is mottled and striped with
brown, tinged with buff on the upper parts, while the bill and legs
are brown ; and even in the second year, when breeding begins, the
latter are still livid.

This species occupies a position between the Marsh- and the
typical Terns. The toes are almost as fully webbed as in the true
Sea-Terns ; while the tail is short, and the lateral feathers are slightly
rounded, though more pointed than in the Marsh-Terns, The bill
is remarkably robust and obtuse; and the tarsus is proportionately
longer than in any other species. For these reasons the bird has
justifiably been made the type of the genus Gelochelidon, which I
have accepted (Cat. Birds Brit. Mus., xxv, p. 4 and p. 25); but,
inasmuch as genera are matters of convenience, I do not lay stress
upon its use in the present work.

LARID.5.

641

-'^^V .^-^^^ r-

THE CASPIAN TERN.

Sterna caspia, Pallas.

This fine Tern, the largest member of the genus, is of more
irregular appearance on the coast of England than might be expected,
seeing that some of its breeding-places are at no great distance.
According to an excellent summary of its occurrences by Mr. J. H.
Gurney (Zool. 1887, p. 457), nine examples have been obtained —
and others have been observed— on the coast of Norfolk between
1825 and i860 ; while eight have been killed, at various times and
places, in Suffolk, Kent, Hants, Dorset, Lincolnshire and Yorkshire ;
and Mr. E. Bidwell saw an individual near the Fame Islands on
June 6th 1880. As regards Scotland, Mr. Oswin Lee states that
he made a sketch of one of two birds noticed at the Findhorn bar
on June 12th 1S87. From Ireland there is as yet no record.

As a wanderer the Caspian Tern has been obtained at Vagoe in
the Faeroes on May loth 1S87 (Feilden). It breeds in colonies on
the sandy shores and islands of Sweden and Denmark, while a well-
known haunt is (or was) Sylt, one of the North Frisian Islands ; but
I believe that a few birds have nested still nearer to us, namely on
the coast of Holland to the south of the Maas, for I saw six adults
flying in pairs and evidently going out to fish, in the early dawn of

^ D

642 CASPIAN TERN.

July 9th 1875. To the waters of France, Switzerland, and the
interior of the Continent, this Tern is only a straggler ; but it breeds
on the eastern shores of Spain, as well as on some islets near
Sardinia, and is generally distributed throughout the Mediterranean ;
it also nests by the Black and Caspian Seas, from the latter of which
it was first recorded by Pallas. It arrives at the northern limit of
its range in spring, and departs for the south in autumn ; but is
resident on the northern littoral of Africa, and along both sides of
that continent, as far as Cape Colony. In Asia it ranges from the
Caspian to China, crossing the lofty mountains on its migrations
to India and Burma in winter; while it breeds on the shores of
the Persian Gulf, as well as in Ceylon. In Australia and New
Zealand it is resident. In America this hardy species is found from
Labrador to the Yukon, breeding as far north as the Great Slave
Lake and a little beyond the Arctic circle ; while southward it can
be traced to both sides of Mexico.

The Caspian Tern lays in May or June on the bare sand, in a
slight hollow which is occasionally lined with pieces of shell or a
few bents ; the eggs are 2-3 in number, and in colour stone-buff,
spotted and scrolled with ash-grey and dark brown : measurements
2 "5 by 17 in. The ordinary food consists of iish. The note
is a loud, harsh krdke-kra, uttered freely by the bird when its
breeding-haunts are invaded. This species is nearly as partial to
brackish lakes as to the sea-shore, and when searching for food it
has a habit of keeping its bill pointed downwards, almost at a right
angle to its body.

The adult in summer-plumage has the bill vermilion-red ; crown
and nape glossy greenish-black ; neck and under-parts pure white ;
mantle pale french-grey, darker at the tips of the primaries,
on which the frosting quickly wears off; tail white with a greyish
tinge, and only slightly forked ; legs and feet black. Average length
20 in. (bill 3"3), wing 16-5 in. ; the male being larger than the
female and having a stronger bill, though there is considerable
individual variation, irrespective of locality. In winter the crown is
streaked with black, and there is a dark patch behind the ear-coverts.
The young bird has the forehead and crown white ; upper surface
mottled with ash-brown ; quills ash-grey ; bill reddish horn-colour.

In the Caspian Tern the tail is very short, less than one-third the
length of the wing ; while the bill is exceptionally stout and deep.
For these reasons Kaup made this species the type of the genus
Hydroprogne, which I have adopted (Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv., p. 4),
but its acceptance in this work is not pressed.

LARID^.

643

THE SANDWICH TERN.
Sterna cantiaca, J. F. Gmelin.

The Sandwich Tern, which derives its name from the place where
it was first observed in 1784, is a regular visitor to the British
Islands ; arriving in some localities towards the end of March,
though on the east coast usually about the middle of April, and
leaving for the south early in autumn. It not unfrequently changes
its breeding-grounds when persecuted, and ornithologists who have
recently explored the Scilly Islands have failed to find it there
in summer, while particulars respecting Kent, Essex or Suffolk
might prove prejudicial ; but a large and well-known colony inhabits
the Fame Islands ; and on the west a limited number nest on
Walney Island off Lancashire, and at Ravenglass in Cumberland.
Beyond the Solway a few pairs are found on the coast of Kirkcud-
brightshire, and birds seem to have occurred on Loch Lomond, as
well as on Tiree; on the east of Scotland there are breeding-
places up to the mouth of the Findhorn ; and northward a colony
was discovered in 1893 on North Ronaldshay, Orkneys. In Ireland
there is a carefully protected site near Ballina, described by Air.
R. Warren (Zool. 1877, p. loi), and another may exist.

This species has visited Norway, but it is seldom found north-
ward of Denmark and is almost unknown to the east of Copen-

3 D 2

644 SANDWICH TERN.

hagen in the Baltic, though it nests in large colonies on the low-
coasts and some of the islands of the North Sea, from Jutland to the
Netherlands. On migration it visits the shores of France, and in
1898 several pairs bred on an islet near Guernsey; while it is
common on passage in Spain, where some remain to nest, as they
do in Sardinia, and perhaps in Sicily. Further up the Mediterranean
it is comparatively rare, but it is plentiful on the Black and Caspian
Seas, and occurs along the Arabian and Persian coasts, and as far
as Karachi in Sind. It nests in the Canaries, and frequents the
northern waters of Africa, going down the west coast in winter as
far as Cape Colony, and reaching Natal on the east. In America this
Tern (sometimes distinguished as Sterna acuflavidd) inhabits the
Atlantic sea-board from New England southward to Honduras,
and the late Mr. Salvin found it breeding in the latter, while he
noticed it on both coasts of Guatemala ; in winter it has occurred
at Cartagena, Colombia.

The nests are frequently mere shallow holes scratched in the
sand among sea-campion or other plants, but on Walney Island and
elsewhere tolerably solid structures of bents have been noticed.
The eggs are usually 2 and rarely 3 in number, and while many are
of a warm stone-colour, thickly scrolled and spotted with ash-grey,
black or deep reddish-brown, in others the ground-colour is creamy-
white : measurements 2 in. by i"5 in. By fishermen this species
is distinguished as ' the Tern,' and other species pass under the
general name of ' Sea-Swallows.' It subsists chiefly upon fish,
especially the sand-lance and young gar-fish. Its flight is strong and
rapid, the bird making a great advance at each stroke of the
pinions ; and, except when engaged in incubation, it is usually on
the wing, uttering at intervals a hoarse and grating cry, kirhitf,
kirhitt, audible at a long distance.

The adult in spring has the bill chiefly black, yellow at the tip ;
forehead, crown and elongated nuchal feathers black ; mantle pearl-
grey ; quills rather darker on the portion of the web next to the
white shaft, but pure white on the greater part of the inner web
down to the very tip ; rump and tail white ; throat and under-parts
white, often suffused with a lovely salmon-pink ; legs and feet black.
In June the black on the forehead begins to diminish, and much of
it has disappeared by the end of August, but the nape remains
mottled throughout the winter. Length 16 in. (bill 2-5 in.), wing
12 in. The young (in the background) has the head barred with
black and white ; the back, wingcoverts and tail-feathers varied with
ansrular lines of black.

LARID^.

645

THE ROSEATE TERN.

Sterna dougalli, Montagu.

This slender and elegant species was discovered on the Cumbraes
in the Firth of Clyde by Dr. MacDougall of Glasgow, who sent a
specimen to Montagu. Selby subsequently found it breeding in
some numbers on the Fame Islands, which were afterwards almost
deserted, but of late years several pairs have again been noticed,
and there is now a prospect of efficient protection. Foulney and
Walney Islands on the Lancashire coast, as well as some of the
Scilly Islands, were formerly frequented by the bird, though latterly
it has seldom been observed in any of those localities. On the
other hand, it is known to have nested recently in Wales, and a few
pairs have been seen in Norfolk and Suffolk ; while Mr. Oswin Lee
appears to have identified breeding birds on the Moray Firth. Its
temporary disappearance may have been due in some measure to
the increase of the larger and stronger Common Tern, before which,
as Dr. Bureau informed me of his own knowledge, three colonies
of the Roseate Tern had successively given way on the coast
of Brittany within a few years. Indiscriminate egging on the
part of fishermen has also been prejudicial, especially as regards
some former settlements in the north of Ireland; and the gunners

646 ROSEATE TERN.

who used to shoot all kinds of Terns for sport, or for plumes for
ladies' hats, may have affected the Roseate to a slight degree. It
must, however, be remembered that this species arrives only at the
very end of April, and leaves, with its young, as soon as ever
these can fly ; and I have seen very few immature examples from
our seas.

The Roseate Tern is an oceanic and southern species, and is not
known northward of lat. 57°, being merely a straggler to the eastern
coasts of the North Sea. On migration it visits Lake Leman in
Switzerland ; it has several colonies on the west side of France ;
and in the Mediterranean it breeds on the coast of Tunisia ; while
it ranges to Madeira and the Azores, and across the Atlantic — by
way of the Bermudas — to America. There it is found breeding
along the east coast, from New England to the West Indies and
Venezuela, though it has not yet been obtained in the Pacific. It
has been recorded in error from the south-west of Africa, but I have
received specimens in breeding-plumage from Cape Colony ; while
by way of Madagascar and the Mascarene Islands it can be traced
through the Indian Ocean to Ceylon, the Andaman Islands and
South China, in all of which it nests, as it does in tropical Australia ;
it has also been obtained in South Japan.

The eggs, 2-3 in number, are laid on the ground, and vary from
creamy-white to buff-colour, blotched and clouded with bluish-grey
and rich brown ; they are as a rule more elongated than those of
the Arctic Tern, and measure about 17 by i'i5 in. The food con-
sists of fish obtained from the sea, which this species almost
exclusively affects, seldom visiting even a salt lagoon. In flight,
except when the bird is turning or hovering, the two long tail-feathers
are carried close together. The alarm-note is a rather peculiar and
harsh crake.

The Roseate Tern owes its name to the beautiful, though evanes-
cent, pink tinge on its under-parts ; the mantle is of a paler grey
than in the Arctic or Common Terns, and, except in mature birds,
this grey extends to the tail-feathers ; in the primaries the white
inner margins are well defined to the very tips and even a little way
up the outer webs (more so than in the much larger Sandwich
Tern), and this distinction holds good for young as well as old
birds. Another characteristic is the shortness of the wing as com-
pared with the length of the bird. Early in the breeding-season
the bill is orange at the base, but soon becomes chiefly or wholly
black ; the legs and feet are red. In winter the forehead is nearly
white. Length 15-5 in. (bill 1-9, tail 7*5 to 8), wing 9-25 in.

LARID/E.

647

THE COMMON TERN.

Sterna fluviatilis, Naumann.

The Common Tern is deservedly so named as regards the southern
and even greater part of the British Islands, but there is consider-
able difficulty in sketching its northern summer-range with exacti-
tude, owing to the fact that this over-laps the southern limits of the
Arctic Tern. Broadly speaking, I believe that the Common Tern
is the predominant species along the shores of the Channel and on
the west side of Great Britain as far north as the Isle of Skye ;
while on the east it is found from Kent to the Moray Firth.
Northwards, it yields numerically to the Arctic Tern, and often
shows a liking for fresh-water lochs or estuaries rather than for
exposed islands, though Mr. Harvie-Brown states that in 1885 it was
nesting abundantly at the western end of the Pentland Skerries, while
the eastern was occupied by a colony of Arctic Terns. There is no
conclusive evidence of the occurrence of the Common Tern in the
Shetlands, but several colonies are now known in the Orkneys and
Outer Hebrides. When the two species inhabit the same area, they
frequently shift their ground from year to year in a confusing
manner, and this, no doubt, caused Booth to miss seeing the
Common Tern on the P'arnes, where large numbers undoubtedly

648 COMMON TERN.

breed in most seasons. In Ireland it is the more plentiful bird in
the south, while it appears to rival the Arctic Tern in the north, and
it frequently nests by the margin of fresh water. It usually reaches
England about the end of April, and the autumnal migration lasts
from August to October, while on passage this Tern may often be
observed on rivers and inland waters, even in London.

During the warmer months this species is widely distributed on
the coasts, rivers and lakes of Europe, from Norway to the Medi-
terranean, Black and Caspian Seas ; as well as in North Africa, and
westward to the islands of the Atlantic. x\cross that ocean it breeds
abundantly in North America from Labrador to Texas, though
scarcely known on the Pacific coast ; while it has been obtained at
Bahia, Brazil, in winter. At that season it can be traced down the
west side of Africa to Cape Colony, and in Asia to India, Ceylon
and the jNIalay Peninsula ; it is also found in summer across the
temperate regions of Asia : but birds from the area between the
Caspian and the elevated lakes of Kashmir, Tibet and Southern
Siberia have a more vinaceous tint on the under-parts, with smaller
bills and feet than the strictly maritime examples.

The eggs, 3 in number, are laid on sand, shingle, dry wrack or
short herbage, a few crossed bents being occasionally added ; they
vary in colour from dull grey to stone-buff, blotched with bluish-ash
and dark brown: measurements 17 by I'l in. Exceptionally eggs
have been found by IMay 15th, but incubation hardly becomes
general until the early part of June. On the approach of an intruder
the parents utter a sharp piri-e or kik-kik, and when their young are
hatched they will often skim over the spot and drop small fish close
to the nestlings, whose mottled colour renders them almost indis-
tinguishable from the surrounding shingle. The food consists of
young coal-fish, sand-eels, shrimps and other crustaceans.

The adult in summer has the bill orange-red, with a horn-coloured
tip ; head and nape black ; mantle dark pearl-grey ; rump whitish ;
tail-feathers white, with grey outer webs, those of the streamers
being darkest ; breast and belly pale vinaceous-grey ; legs and feet
coral-red. In winter the forehead is sprinkled with white, the
under-parts are whiter, and the colours of the bill and feet are
duller. Length i4"25 in. (bill 17, tail 6-5), wing io'5 in. The
young bird has the crown and nape streaked with blackish-brown ;
mantle with ash-brown bars, which gradually disappear, till only a
dark band along the carpal joint remains ; tail-feathers grey on their
outer webs ; under-surface white ; bill, legs and feet reddish-yellow,
turning nearly black in winter.

LARID.^.

649

THE ARCTIC TERN.

Sterna macrura, Naumann.

This northern representative of the preceding species appears to
be the only Tern that nests in the Shetlands, while southward it
decidedly predominates over the Common Tern in the Orkneys,
the Outer Hebrides, and along the west coast of Scotland to the
Isle of Skye. On the east side of Great Britain it breeds in
several localities down to the Fame Islands, south of which it is
only known on passage. In the west of England it nests on Walney
Island, where, however, the Common Tern outnumbers it ; and the
same must now be said of the Scilly Islands, on which, according to
Rodd, the Arctic Tern was formerly in the ascendant. In Ireland
it breeds on i.slands off the coast, from Wexford to Antrim, and
more plentifully in cos. Donegal, Mayo, Gal way, Kerry and Cork.
On migration it is found on all our shores, but rarely inland.

Beyond the British Islands the Arctic Tern occurs in abundance
— during the short summer of the northern regions — as far as human
foot has trod ; for Col. Feilden, when with H.M.S. ' Alert,' obtained
it above lat. 82° K, and Parry's Expedition observed it beyond
Spitsbergen, while it has been recorded from Franz Josef Land. In
Asia, as well as in America, it is completely circumpolar in its range.

650 ARCTIC TERN.

On migration it can be traced along the Atlantic sea-board to the
Canaries and the Azores, a straggler occasionally penetrating into
the Mediterranean as far as Italy ; it descends the coast of Africa to
Table Bay ; and specimens obtained at sea to the south-east of
Madagascar, and even in lat. 66° S., far beyond New Zealand, are in
the British Museum. The islands of the Southern Ocean are in-
habited by two nearly-allied but well-defined species, while there is
a third representative on both sides of South America ; but on the
Pacific coast Staff-Commr. MacFarlane, when in H.M.S. 'Constance,'
obtained an Arctic Tern off Arica. It occurs in Kamchatka and
Amur-land; but there, as well as in Japan, and in Eastern Siberia as
far as Lake Baikal, the representative species is 6". longipennis, which
is intermediate between the Arctic and Common Tern, and has a
black bill, small ruddy legs and feet, with grey under-plumage.

In Ireland, Scandinavia, and Arctic America this bird has been
found nesting by fresh-water lakes, but its breeding-places are usually
by the sea. The eggs, laid in a depression of the sand or on scanty
herbage, or even on the bare rock just out of reach of the waves, are
sometimes 3 but often only 2 in number; they are slightly smaller
than those of the Common Tern, measuring about i"6 by i in., and
are subject to more variations, those with a pale bluish-green ground-
colour being frequent, while a rich ochre-red with rufous-brown spots
is occasionally found. In defence of its nest the bird is very bold,
sometimes striking the intruder sharply with its beak, and a flock has
been seen to mob and drown a Hooded Crow. In food and general
habits it does not differ materially from the preceding species, and
both may be seen dashing down with such force as to raise a cloud
of spray and completely submerge themselves.

The adult in summer may be distinguished from the Common
Tern by its blood-red bill, distinctly pearl grey under-parts (without
any vinaceous tint), and longer lateral tail-feathers. At all ages its
shorter tarsi are characteristic, though the difference is not invari-
ably so great as some writers have supposed ; a better distinction
being the narrowness and pale colour of the stripe next the shaft on
the inner web of each of the long primaries : this stripe being much
broader in S. fluviatilis. The young of both species go through
similar seasonal changes. The legs and feet are coral-red in spring
— duller in the young — and nearly black in winter. Birds which
are a year old have a dark bar on the carpal joint until the autumn
moult; they breed in the following June. Length i4'5 in. (bill i-6,
tail 7 "5 to 8), wing 10 in.

LARIDit.

651

THE LITTLE TERN.

Sterna iniinuta, LinnEeus.

Early in May this smallest of the British Terns makes its appear-
ance on our coasts, especially on those which present low flat shores
covered with sand, broken shells and shingle. In such localities it
may be found along the English Channel and from Kent northward
to the Humber, but the small colony which Selby found on the
coast of Northumberland opposite Holy Island, has ceased to exist
for many years. Mr. Wm. Evans informs me that this is also true
of Gullane in Haddingtonshire, but the bird still nests near the
mouth of the Tay and in Aberdeenshire ; though only a pair or two
can be recorded from the south-east of Sutherland and none from
the west. Of late years eggs appear to have been taken in the
Orkneys, and a bird was obtained near Stornoway, Outer Hebrides,
on August 3rd 1894, while colonies exist on Tiree. Southward
there are small settlements along the west side down to the Solway,
below which the Little Tern breeds in suitable localities in
Cumberland, Lancashire, Wales and Cornwall. In Ireland it
nests in many places, though seldom in large numbers, but it has
much increased of late. As a rule it leaves in September or early
in October, though a laggard has been obtained in the third week
of December.

The Little Tern seldom occurs in the northern part of the Baltic

652 LITTLE TERN.

but is abundant on the south shore of that sea ; while it follows
the course of the large rivers for a great distance, and nests on
their islands and sand-banks, so that it may be said to extend across
the Continent to the Mediterranean, Black and Caspian Seas. It
also frequents the Atlantic coast, breeds in North Africa as far as
Lower Egypt, and on the west side it descends in winter to Cape
Colony. Along the Asian plateau it is found nesting as far as
Northern India, visiting Burma and even Java; but in Ceylon,
China, and the eastern region generally, its representative is
S. sine/isis, which is rather larger and has white shafts to all its
primaries; while S. saundersi, with black shafts, inhabits the
African and Indian coasts. In North America we find S. aiifilla?-iim,
with dark shafts, as in our bird, but with a grey rump and very
little black at the tip of the bill ; whereas on the east side of South
America and far up the great rivers, S. siiperciliaris, with stout and
wholly yellow bill, is the representative species. These and other
small Terns have been placed by some systematists in the genus
Sternula.

The 2-3 eggs, laid on the bare shingle or soil towards the end of
May or early in June, are stone-coloured — often with a bluish
tinge — spotted with ash-grey and dark brown: measurements i'35
by "95 in. Far from showing fear when its haunts are approached,
the bird advances with rapid beats of its long pinions, uttering a
peculiarly sharp pirre, and it will frequently settle on its nest not
long after being disturbed. It feeds on small surface-swimming
fish and their fry, shrimps and other crustaceans. Like most Terns,
it may often be seen swimming or resting on the water.

The adult in. summer has the bill orange-yellow tipped with
black : forehead white, loral stripe, crown and nape black ; mantle
pearl-grey; wing-feathers grey, with white margins to the inner webs,
and with dark shafts to the two outer quills, which are, moreover,
ash-grey ; tail and entire under-parts white ; legs and feet orange.
Length 9 to 9"5 in., according to the length of the tail ; wing 675 in.
In winter the black on the head is duller in colour. The young
bird (figured in the background) has the bill dark brown at the tip,
paler at the base ; forehead, crown and nape tinged with buff and
streaked with blackish-brown ; mantle dull grey, tinged with buff
and mottled with umber ; tail-feathers greyish-white, slightly freckled
with brown near the tips. The black loral streak is not well defined
until after the second moult, up to which period a dark line on the
carpal joint and a grey tinge on the rump and tail-feathers indicate
immaturity ; breeding takes place the following spring.

LARID^.

65:

THE SOOTY TERN.
Sterna fuliginosa, J. F. Gmelin.

The specimen figured is said to liave been shot in October 1852
at Tutbury, near Burton-on-Trent, and having been purchased by
Mr. H. W. DesvcEux, of Drakelow Hall, it was exhibited by Yarrell
at a meeting of the Linnean Society in February 1853. Mr. J. E.
Harting has stated in ' The Field ' that he examined in the flesh an
example killed on June 21st 1869, near Wallingford in Berkshire;
while Mr. A. C. Foot of Bath sent me an adult, with the information
that it was caught alive, after wet and windy weather, about three
miles from that city, on October 4th or 5th 1885, and was seen in
the flesh by the late Rev. Leonard Blomefield as well as by the
Librarian of the Museum. Other birds recorded by this name
have proved to be Black Terns.

On the Continent, this species has been noticed as a wanderer
on three occasions. Naumann states that one was obtained near
Magdeburg ; Degland and Gerbe mention an adult male, now in
the Lille Museum, taken in an exhausted state near Verdun, on
June 15th 1854; and a third, now in the Museum at Florence,
was captured on October 28th 1862 in Piedmont, in a trout-net.

The Sooty Tern has been known to occur about a dozen times
as far north as the New England States, and it occasionally visits
the Bermudas ; but it is not found in any numbers on the
American sea-board above Florida and the Bahamas, though south-
ward it is generally distributed throughout the West Indies,
especially on the low islands known as ' Cays.' In the Pacific

654 SOOTY TERN.

it breeds from Lower California to Polynesia, where the coral
' atolls ' and other islands offer numerous localities suited to
its habits ; there are many well-known stations on the reefs
which fringe Australia ; and the species can be traced through the
Eastern Archipelago to China and the south of Japan. It occurs
in Ceylon, the Laccadive Islands, the Persian Gulf, the Red Sea,
and through the Indian Ocean, by way of the Chagos group and the
Mascarene Islands, to Madagascar. Off the west of Africa a small
number frequent St. Helena, and immense colonies, which have
been repeatedly described as ' Wide-awake Fairs,' are found on that
great volcanic cinder-heap, the Island of Ascension.

Normally each female only incubates a single egg at a time, but
in the same slight hollow in the soil which serves for a nest two
or even three eggs have been found. At Ascension these are
collected for eating, 200 dozen being sometimes picked up in
a morning. The colour is pinkish-cream or bluish-white, with
an endless variety of lavender and chestnut-red blotches ; the shell
being smooth, whereas in the egg of the Noddy — a bird often
found breeding in the same localities — the surface is of a rough
chalky nature : measurements 2 by i "5 in. As soon as the young
can fly, they and their parents go off to sea, where they feed upon
small fish and marine animals. According to some observers, this
species is crepuscular in its habits.

The adult has the forehead, eye-brows, sides of the neck,
and entire under-parts white ; loral streaks, crown and nape
deep black ; remaining upper-parts chiefly sooty-black, the two
long outer tail-feathers being white on their outer webs ; bill,
legs and feet black. Length 17 in. (bill 2-1, tail 7-5), wing 11 75 in.
The young bird has the under-parts sooty-brown ; and the upper
surface of a darker hue, with whitish tips to nearly all the feathers
except the primaries.

I have examined a specimen of the Smaller Sooty Tern, 6".
ancEStheta of Scopoli, which is said to have been captured on one of
the light-ships at the mouth of the Thames in September 1875
(Zool. 1S77, p. 213), but the evidence is slightly imperfect. This
inter-tropical species is browner on the upper-parts, has a longer
white stripe over the eye, a greyer tint on the neck, and less fully-
webbed feet than the above ; while the young bird has white under-
parts, even as a nestling. A third member of this group, S. h/nafa,
has a slate-grey back, and inhabits Oceania.

LARIDyE.

655

^' ^K\ ^^^

THE NODDY TERN.

Angus stolidus (Linnaeus).

Two examples of this pelagic species are recorded by Wm.
Thompson (Mag. Zool. & Bot. i. p. 549) as having been obtained
between the Tuskar Lighthouse and the Bay of Dublin, about the
year 1830, and one of these is in the Science and Art Museum of
the above capital. Some later reports of birds which were
" identified on the wing " as belonging to this species, either refer
to the Arctic Skua or are unworthy of serious consideration. Li
'The Zoologist,' for 1897, p. 510, is a record of a specimen said to
have been shot " on the Dee marshes about six years ago."

The Noddy is, like the Sooty Tern, of general distribution
throughout the tropics ; some of its best known breeding-grounds
being in the Tortugas group off the coast of Florida, the Bahamas,
and many of the ' Cays ' of the West Indies, as well as on both sides
of Central America. Li the Atlantic it was found by the ' Chal-
lenger ' Expedition residing as far south as the storm-beaten Liac-
cessible Island, off Tristan da Cunha ; while in the Pacific it occurs
from Mexico to the Galapagos group. On the islands and coasts
of Polynesia and Australia it is found breeding in most of the
localities mentioned when treating of the Sooty Tern, though often
slightly apart from that species ; and it occurs throughout the inter-
tropical Asian and African seas, breeding in the Laccadives, the
islands of the Red Sea, St. Helena, Ascension, and in other places.

Contrary to the habit of typical Terns, this and most of the

656 NODDY TERN.

members of the group of Noddies make a nest which is often of
large size, and is built of dry grass, bits of sea-weed, twigs, fish-bones
&c., not interwoven but laid in a heap, with merely a slight cavity
for the egg. The top of a cocoa-nut tree or the outer branches of
mangroves are sites often selected, while in some places the nests
are on shelving rocks beneath overhanging cliffs, or, more rarely, on
patches of sand and grassy slopes. Audubon, who was responsible
for an unconfirmed statement that the Sooty Tern habitually laid
three eggs, also asserted that the complement of the Noddy was the
same, but observers in all parts of the tropics are unanimous in stating
that this species never incubates more than one egg. The shell has
a somewhat dull and rough surface, and is ruddy-white or buff in
colour, sparsely blotched and freckled with reddish-brown : measure-
ments 2 by I "4 in. The yolk is bright yellow, whereas in the egg
of the Sooty Tern it is deep orange-red. In the northern hemisphere
breeding takes place in May or June, but in the southern tropics
there is great irregularity, and fresh eggs may be found from
September to January. As soon as the young are able to fly the
birds disperse over the ocean, and when fatigued they frequently
settle on vessels, exhibiting a stupidity or indifference which has
procured for this species its trivial, as well as its scientific, name.
The food consists of small fish, molluscs, medusae &c.

The adult has the forehead and crown lavender-grey ; lores black ;
hind-neck and throat lead-coloured ; breast and belly dark brown ;
upper-parts sooty-brown, darker on the wings ; bill black ; legs and
feet reddish-brown, with yellowish fully developed webs. Length
16 in., wing io"5 in. In less mature birds the lores and the grey
colours are duller. The young bird has the forehead and crown
greyish-brown, while both upper and under-parts are dull umber.
In this and other membei's of the group the tail is graduated, and
not forked, the outer pair of tail-feathers being always shorter than
the next pair. Three smaller and distinct species of Noddy are also
found within the tropics ; while in Polynesian and Australian waters
there are yet two others, very closely related, but characterized by
their nearly uniform grey colour and still smaller size.

Owing to a practical joke, which afterwards became a fraud,
Thompson was led to include the Swift Tern, S. bergii of Lichten-
stein {S. velox of Riippell) in his ' Birds of Ireland.' It is a purely
tropical species, and has not even wandered to the South of
Europe.

LARID^.

657

SABINE'S GULL.

XiMA SAEiNii (Joseph Sabine).

This small fork-tailed Gull is one of ihe species which were
first recognized in the United Kingdom by Thompson, who de-
scribed an immature example shot in Belfast Bay in September
1822. Since that date more than a dozen specimens have been
taken in Ireland ; while many others are on record from various
counties of England and Wales, with a few from Scotland. All
of them have occurred from August to December, and, with the
exception of six in summer-plumage obtained or observed, respec-
tively, in Yorkshire, the Island of Mull, Kent, Hants, Cornwall, and
on the coast of East Lothian, they have proved to be young birds.

This almost circumpolar species was not noticed in Norway before
October 1SS6, nor until 1892 in Holland, but it has long been
known as a visitor to the islands and shores of the North Sea and
the north of France, while stragglers have reached Switzerland and
even Austro-Hungary. It was discovered on the Expedition of 18 18
in search of a North-west passage, by the late Sir Edward Sabine,
who found it nesting in lat. 75° 29' on the west side of Green-
land ; and it is now known to breed throughout the Arctic regions
of America, from Baffin Bay to Alaska. Thence it can be traced
across the high latitudes of Eastern Siberia as far as the Taimyr
Peninsula, where Middendorff obtained its eggs. It has not yet
been recorded from Novaya Zemlya or Franz Josef Land; but

T. E

658 sadine's gull.

Sabine shot two in breeding-dress in July 1823 in the Spitsbergen
group, where birds were recognized by Parry's Expedition in 1827 ;
and the species is a visitor to Jan Mayen. In the Atlantic it has
been met with as far south as the Bermudas and Texas ; while
in the Pacific it not only crosses the equator, but goes as far as
lat. 12"' S., nearly adult specimens in winter-plumage having been
presented to me by Admiral Markham, from Callao Bay, where
Staff-Commr. MacFarlane afterwards found it in swarms during the
month of February. It thereby over-laps the habitat of the far
larger A', fiinata, another fork-tailed species, which has its head-
<}uarters in the Galapagos Islands.

The eggs, 2 in number, are laid on the bare ground, or on dry
tussocks in marshes near the sea, and frequently in proximity to
those of the Arctic Tern, with which bird this Gull often associates.
They are brownish-olive in colour, with somewhat darker blotches
near the larger end— much like those of the Arctic Skua in minia-
ture : measurements 17 by i"3in. The nestlings, hatched towards
the end of July, are at first mottled with brown and dull yellow.
The food consists of small fish, crustaceans, worms, insects and their
larvre ; the note is harsh and clicking.

The adult in summer-plumage has the head and neck lead-grey,
encircled by a black collar ; quills chiefly black, broadly tipped with
white ; tail and under-parts white ; mantle slate-colour ; length
13 in. ; wing 1075 in. In winter the crown and forehead are white,
but there is more or less black on the nape. The young bird in
the plumage of the first autumn (figured below) is ash-grey on the
upper-parts, barred with brown and dull white ; when still younger
it has a dark gorget.

LARIDit.

659

THE WEDGE-TAILED GULL.

Rhodostethia rosea, Macgillivray.

An example of this Gull in winter-plumage passed through the
hands of Graham, the notorious bird-stuffer of York, and was said to
have been shot near Tadcaster in December 1846 or February 1847 ;
it was afterwards purchased by the late Sir Wm. M. E. Milner, and
is now in the Museum of Leeds. According to several experts, it
presents the appearance of a specimen which has been mounted
from a relaxed skin, and not direct from ' the flesh ' ; but inasmuch
as this Arctic species wandered to Heligoland in February 1858,
and to the FcSroes in 1863, there is no inherent improbability of
its occurrence in Yorkshire, and it has been generally admitted to
the British list.

This beautiful rose-breasted bird is often called Ross's Gull,
after the late Sir James C. Ross, who discovered it on June 23rd 1823
on Melville Peninsula, during Parry's second Expedition, while it
was subsequently observed at Felix Harbour, Boothia ; and several
examples were seen on Parry's boat-voyage to the northward of Spits-
bergen, as well as in Hinlopen Strait. At long intervals, six speci-
mens were obtained in Greenland prior to 1885, and two immature
birds in the Mainz Museum are said to have come from Kamchatka.
The Austro-Hungarian Expedition procured one on Franz Josef
Land, and Baron von Nordenskiold's party in the ' Vega ' shot one

3 E 2

66o WEDGE-TAILED GULL.

on the Chukchi Peninsula, Bering Strait, in July 1879. In October
of the same year, Newcomb, naturalist to the ill-fated ' Jeannette,'
killed eight off the north-east of Siberia, and during the fearful
march of the starving, shipwrecked crew to the Lena, he saved
three skins by carrying them inside his shirt beneath his belt ;
and a few others have since been obtained at the mouth of the
above river. The American Expedition to Point Barrow in Alaska
found this species during September and October of the years 1S81
and of 1882 in large numbers, pointing to the probability of there
being an important breeding-place somewhere to the northward of
Wrangel Island. An adult was obtained on Bering Island in De-
cember 1895 ; jMr. E. Nelson procured a bird at St. Michaels, Alaska ;
and an example in breeding-dress, one of two sent from Disco,
Greenland, in 1885, was presented by the late Mr. Seebohm to the
British Museum. In August 1894, Dr. Nansen's party in the ' Fram '
obtained eight birds of the year in about lat. 81" N. and long. 130"
E. ; while in July and August 1895 the intrepid explorer observed
many adults, especially round four islands named Hvitenland, in
lat. 81° N. and long. 63° E., doubtless a breeding-place.

Statements that the egg had been taken with the Disco birds in
1885 (P.Z.S. 1886, p. 82 ; Auk 1886, p. 273) are unconfirmed, and
the circumstances, description, and a coloured photograph of the
egg in question, all indicate that it was probably that of Sabine's
Gull. Until the above appearance of flocks at Point Barrow, only
23 specimens of the bird were ascertained to be in existence. The
flight is described as peculiarly graceful and wavering ; the cry is
compared to that of the Wryneck by Dr. Nansen. A bird which he
shot vomited two shrimps.

The adult in summer has head and neck white, with a few black
feathers near the eye, and a narrow collar of the same colour ;
otherwise the head, neck, and entire under-parts are white, suffused
with rose-colour ; mantle pale pearl-grey : outer web of first primary
black, secondaries and inner primaries grey, tipped with rosy-white ;
tail wedge-shaped and pure white ; bill black (even smaller than
represented in the engraving) ; legs and feet red. Length 13*5 in. ;
wing 10-25 in. In winter there is no black collar. By September 21st
the young bird is pearl-grey on the crown and nape as well as on
the mantle, though the wing-coverts, inner secondaries, and rump are
barred with buff-tipped umber-brown ; the three outer primaries are
black on both sides of the shafts, and all up to the 7th are tipped
or barred with the same colour ; the central and projecting feathers
of the tail are terminally banded with blackish-brown.

LARID.1-:.

66i

BONAPARTE'S GULL.

LaRUS PHILADELPHIA (Ord).

It is to Thompson again that we are indebted for the first notice
of the occurrence of this species in the British Islands ; he having
correctly identified an example obtained near Belfast on February
I St 1848, which was brought to him before it was skinned. In
Scotland an adult, exhibited at a meeting of the Zoological Society
of London in 1884, was shot on Loch Lomond about the end of
April 1850, by Sir George H. Leith-Buchanan. In England, an
immature bird was killed in Falmouth Harbour on January 4th,
and another at Penryn— close by — on January loth, 1865 ; one was
shot early in November 1870 at St. Leonards in Sussex; and lastly,
a young example was obtained near Penzance on October 20th 1890
(Zool. 1891, p. 35).

Gatke informed me that he obtained an adult on Heligoland in
the severe winter of 1845, but otherwise there appears to be no
authentic record of the appearance of this bird in Europe, outside
of the British Islands. In summer Bonaparte's Gull is widely dis-
tributed over the lakes and wooded regions of the Fur countries of
North America, from a little within the Arctic circle down to
Manitoba ; but it does not visit the ice-fringed shores to the north-
ward and is of very rare occurrence in Bering Sea, though not
uncommon along the Yukon and on the marshes at the mouth of
that great river. On migration it frequents the Pacific coast as far

662 Bonaparte's gull.

south as San Pedro in California, as well as many of the inland
waters of the United States, while on the east side it is abundant and
of regular occurrence down to South Carohna, and occasionally visits
the Bermudas ; it is, however, rare on the Gulf side of Florida, and,
except as a wanderer to the Bahamas, has not yet been obtained in
the Antilles. With the first genial weather in April and through-
out the greater part of May a succession of birds passes northward ;
the earlier ones being adults, while the later arrivals are birds of the
previous year, some of which linger on the coast-marshes all the
summer. Richardson, who found this species breeding in the
vicinity of Great Bear Lake, says that it is seen there as soon as the
first pools are thawed, and before the ground is denuded of snow.

The above explorer, as well as Messrs. R. MacFarlane, Kennicott
and others, state that Bonaparte's Gull builds in colonies, placing
its nest, which is composed of sticks, grass, moss Sec, on the
branches of some bush or tree — often a spruce-fir — at elevations
varying from four to twenty feet ; in some districts, however, it
appears to breed in marshes, and, presumably, on the ground. The
eggs, 2-3 in number, are dull olive-colour, spotted, scrolled and
zoned with brown : measurements i'9 by i"4 in., though there is
considerable variation in a large series. This species undoubtedly
alights upon trees. The food consists of small fish, crustaceans,
insects and their larvae ; the flight is buoyant and Tern-like ; and
the note is described as a "sharp but rather faint squeak."

The adult in summer has the hood slate-black ; mantle pearl-grey;
tail and under-parts white ; first primary white, except on the outer
web and across the tip, where it is black ; the other quills subter-
minally barred with black, and white or greyish on the inner webs ;
bill black ; legs and feet orange-red. The sexes are alike in plumage,
and the statements of Audubon and Bonaparte that the female has
a brown hood are as inexplicable as they are erroneous. In winter
the head is nearly white. The bird figured on the rock is an im-
mature specimen in its first winter. The transitional stages are
similar to those in other Gulls ; but at all ages this species may be
distinguished by the white margins to the inner webs of the two
outer primaries. Length 14 in.; wing 10*25 in.

The American Laughing Gull, Z. a/r/a7/a, was added to the
British list by Montagu, in error, as indicated by his description
of the bird obtained at Winchelsea. This species is stouter than
our Z. 7-idibitndits^ has a blacker hood and darker mantle, and may
always be distinguished by its black outer primaries.

LARID.*:.

66'

THE LITTLE GULL.

Larus MiNUTUS, Pallas.

This species, the smallest member of the genus, was introduced
to the British list by Montagu, who described and figured a young
bird shot near Chelsea prior to 1813. Subsequently specimens have
frequently been obtained, while in 1866, and again in 1868, Little
Gulls appeared on the coast of Yorkshire in numbers till then un-
precedented ; though these were far exceeded along the entire east
side of England during the winter of 1869, and again after the heavy
easterly gales of February 1870, when the proportion of adults to
young birds was unusually large. This Gull has also occurred along
the Channel as far as Cornwall, but it seldom visits Wales and
Lancashire, though more frequent of late years in the Solway
district. Along the west of Scotland it has appeared at intervals
as farnorthward as Skye and North Uist ; while on the east, as might
be expected, the bird is more frequently met with, and has been

664 LITTLE GULL.

recorded (once in May) from the Border to the Shetlands. To
Ireland it is an infrequent visitor in autumn and winter.

The Little Gull wandered to the Faeroes in February 1886, and has
occasionally visited the south of Norway; but, according to Nilsson,
it formerly bred in Gottland, and occurs annually on the coasts and
islands of the Baltic. Its nearest nesting-places are now probably
those in the morasses of Esthonia, and between Lake Ladoga and
Archangel : but large colonies are to be found among the swamps of
the Ural, and the bird remains until somewhat late in spring in
Southern Russia and the Black Sea district, though not known to
breed there. On migration and in winter it visits the inland waters
and the coasts of Europe down to the Mediterranean, as well as the
northern shores of Africa from Morocco to Egypt. In summer it is
found across temperate Asia to the Sea of Okhotsk ; but, with the
exception of a bird shot by Col. Irby in Oudh in January 1859, it
has not been recorded from India. An immature example was
obtained on Long Island, New York State, about September 15th
1887 (Auk 1 888, p. 171).

The late AV. Meves of Stockholm, who found a large colony ot
" Schieks ■" — as the Russians call the Little Gulls — near Lake
Ladoga, described the nests as being placed on almost floating islets
of tangled plants, and built of leaves and grass. The eggs, usually
3 but occasionally 4 in number, are clive-green or brownish,
rather minutely spotted and sparsely blotched with umber : measure-
ments I "65 by I "I in. Both parents incubate. The stomachs of
the birds examined by Meves contained chiefly small fish, insects
being found only in a few.

The adult in summer (figured in the foreground) has the head
and upper neck deep black ; mantle pale grey ; primaries grey, broadly
edged with white and devoid of dark bars ; the under-side of the
wing black — a conspicuous characteristic when the bird is flying ;
neck and tail white ; breast and belly pinkish-white ; bill reddish-
brown ; legs and feet vermilion. In winter the head is white, more
or less streaked with ash colour on the nape, as shown in the hinder-
most figure. Length 1 1 in., wing 875 in. A young bird (the central
figure), shot in November, had the upper parts mottled with dark
brown, and a band of the same colour at the tip of the tail ;
primaries sooty on both webs next the shafts and white on the
remainder of the inner webs ; under-wing white ; bill blackish ; feet
yellowish-pink. The nape becomes dark grey the first spring, but
the dark markings on the shoulders and tail remain till after the
second moult. Mr. J. H. Gurney has recorded a white variety.

LARID.'E.

665

THE BLACK-HEADED GULL.

Larus ridibundus, Linnaeus.

This species — which might be more appropriately called the
Brown-headed Gull, for the hood is certainly not black — is
generally distributed throughout the year on the flat portions
of our shores, resorting in spring to marshy situations near the sea-
coast and even more to inland meres. Drainage, cultivation, com-
merce (as in the case of Fleetwood) and other causes, have led to
the destruction of many ' gulleries,' though the birds have simply
betaken themselves to other situations, and are probably as
numerous as ever. Of late years they have visited the London
waters in numbers, for the food supplied in winter. In the south of
England the most western colony is, up to the present, near Poole in
Dorset ; while there is one in Romney Marsh in Kent ; two, as Mr.
Miller Christy tells me, are to be found near the coast in Essex ;
and there are two or three in Norfolk, including the well-known'
Scoulton Mere. One important settlement is near Brigg in Lincoln-
shire, and there are smaller ones in Yorkshire ; those of Norbury
and Aqualate Mere in Staffordshire have been celebrated for
centuries ; in Wales there are several ; and large colonies exist
on Walney Island in Lancashire, in ' Lakeland ' and Northumber-
land. In Scotland they are even more plentiful, some of the largest
being near Wigton and Glasgow, at Inchmoin on Loch Lomond, and
in Perthshire, as well as in Moray, while smaller ones are found from

666 BLACK-HEADED GULL.

the Borders to the Shetlands ; and a stray bird has even been
obtained in St. Kilda. In Ireland this species is very abundant and
widely distributed, and there is even a colony on one of the Blasquet
Islands, the most western land in Europe to the south of lat. 57°.

The Black-headed Gull nests in one locality in the Faeroes, and
sparingly in the south of Norway and Sweden, but in Russia it
extends to Archangel. Southward it is abundant and widely dis-
tributed over the rest of Europe, down to the Mediterranean, where
it breeds as far south as the island of Sardinia ; and it also nests in
Asia Minor. In winter it ascends the Nile to Nubia, visits the Red
Sea, and ranges from Palestine to the Persian Gulf, Northern India,
and along the coast as far as the Bay of Bengal. On the elevated
mountain lakes of the great Tibetan plateau its representative in
summer is the larger L. briumeicephalus^ which has a paler brown
hood and a different wing-pattern ; our bird, however, inhabits the
temperate portions of Siberia as far as Kamchatka in summer, visit-
ing Japan, China, and the Philippines during the cold season.

The nests, built of sedge, flags &c., are placed on clumps of
rushes, grass-tussocks, masses of bog-bean, or on the bare ground ;
the eggs, normally 3 in number, though 4 are sometimes found,
vary from olive-brown to pale green, or even blue and pinkish-buff
in ground-colour, blotched with black and dark brown : measure-
ments 2 '2 by I '5 in. In ordinary seasons laying begins soon after
mid-April, the eggs being systematically collected for eating in
many places until some time in May. Incubation lasts fully
three weeks (VV. Evans). To the farmer this Gull is a great
benefactor, devouring large numbers of grubs and worms, and
capturing cockchafers and moths on the wing ; while it eats bread
freely in winter, and is, in fact, almost omnivorous. From its
hoarse cackle it is often called the Laughing Gull; also the "Peewit"
or "Peewit-Gull." The fact that this species commonly alights on
trees and bushes has been known to observant naturalists for the
last half-century or longer.

The adult male in spring has a dark brown hood ; french-grey
mantle ; white tail and under-parts, the latter with a pink tinge ; the
outer primaries being characterized by white centres and dark
margins to the inner webs. At the autumn moult the brown hood
disappears, but is sometimes reassumed as early as December.
Length 16 in., wing 12 in. In the young bird the outer primaries
are chiefly dark brown, but at an early period a streak of white,
which increases in size with the age of the feather, makes its appear-
ance alons; the middle of the inner web.

LARID^E.

667

THE MEDITERRANEAN BLACK-HEADED GULL.

Larus melanocephalus, Natterer.

On December 26th 1886, Mr. G. Smith of Great Yarmouth in-
formed me that he had just received an adult example of this species
in winter-plumage, shot on Breydon Broad : the bird was examined
in the flesh by Messrs. Southwell, J. H. Gurney and others, and I
subsequently exhibited it at a meeting of the Zoological Society of
London. This is the first authenticated instance of the occurrence
of the Mediterranean Black-headed Gull in the British Islands.
There is, however, an immature specimen in the British Museum,
which is said (and, I believe, with truth) to have been shot in January
1866, near Barking Creek on the Thames ; but this was not correctly
identified until I saw it in 187 1, and, considering the possibility of
some accidental exchange during the interval, I did not include the
species in the 4th edition of ' YarrelL' Its characteristics were,
however, described in that work, and the result was the identification
of the Breydon bird.

I have seen examples of this Gull from the mouth of the Somme
in the north of France, whence a southerly gale would soon bring it
to our coasts, and it is found nearly every year at the mouth of the
Gironde ; while there may be some breeding-place along the low
shores to the southward, as about a score of birds, unmistakably of
this species, were observed during the first week of March 18S2 at

668 MEDITERRANEAN BLACK-HEADED GULL.

St. Jean-de-Luz, ten miles south of Biarritz. In the latter part of
May 1868 I saw (from the sea) numbers on some marshes in the
south-west of Spain, and birds have been brought to me from the
islets at the mouth of the Guadalquivir, where, on May 9th 1883,
Mr. Abel Chapman shot a bird ; but eggs from that locality,
originally ascribed to this species, have proved to be those of the
Gull-billed Tern. Many breeding-places doubtless exist in the
Mediterranean, as the bird is plentiful there, but none are known
until the Gulf of Smyrna is reached ; there are also some in the
Dobrudsha district of the Black Sea. Southward this Gull occurs
in Cyprus, as well as on the coast of Egypt. Northward it has been
found up to Hungary, where Baldamus stated, in 1851, that he had
found one nest, and I have seen a young bird from that country ;
while wanderers have occurred on several of the large Swiss lakes.

Gonzenbach obtained many eggs of this Gull in the Gulf of
Smyrna, and Mr. Cullen trapped several birds for identification in a
colony on an islet in a lagoon of the Dobrudsha. The nests were of
sea-weed, like those of the Slender-billed Gull, L. gelasies, a species
which was breeding in far larger numbers in the same locality.
The 2-3 eggs show little or no greenish tint, but are dull white or
stone-colour, blotched and streaked with dark brown : measurements
2*2 by 1*4 in. Mr. Cullen stated that the birds, which were very
shy, fed upon water-beetles ; and M. Alleon, who found colonies in
the same district, says that this species is less aquatic and more of
an inland feeder than other Gulls.

The adult in breeding-plumage has the head jet-black ; mantle
pearl-grey, of about the same tint as in Z. ridibufidus ; primaries
white terminally and delicate grey above, with merely a narrow
black streak along the outer web of the first quill ; tail and under-
parts white ; bill coral-red with a darkish band in front of the angle ;
legs and toes red. Length 15-5 in.; wing 1175 in. Birds which
have assumed the black hood for the first time exhibit black streaks
next the shafts of primaries 1-3 and black bars on 1-5, until the
following moult. In autumn the head is streaked with dark brown,
most thickly about the eye and the ear-coverts. In the bird of the
year the first five primaries have the outer webs, the shafts, and the
greater portion of the inner webs dark brown on both upper and under
sides, with nearly white edges; whereas in the young of Z. rulibiindiis
the shafts and contiguous portions of the inner webs are white, with
dark margins. Seen from below, when the birds are flying, these
distinctions are very noticeable ; while the robustness of the bill in
Z. inelanocephalus is a marked feature.

LARID^.

669

THE GREAT BLACK-HEADED GULL.

Larus ichthyaetus, Pallas.

An example of this sou'.h-eastern species, which almost attains
the dimensions of our Great Black-backed Gull, was recorded by-
Mr. F. W. L. Ross (Ann. & Uag. N. H. (3) iv. p. 467) as having
been shot off Exmouth, about the end of May or early in June
1859, when in company with a flock of commoner members of the
family. This bird, now in the Exeter Museum, is an adult in
summer-plumage; its history appears to be satisfactory, and it
cannot be suspected of having escaped from confinement, tor no
instance was known of this species having been in captivity until
an adult was brought to the Zoological Society's Gardens in June

' Even in the Mediterranean the Great Black-headed Gull is only
found in the extreme eastern portion known as the Levant, where it
has been met with in Cyprus, and on the shores and lakes of
Palestine. It is common in Egypt and as far up the Nile as Nubia;
while it occurs in the Red Sea, the Persian Gulf, and thence
along the coast line to India. In the Black Sea it is decidedly
rare; but it breeds in great numbers on the Seal Islands in the
Caspian and on the low-lying shores of that sea, as well as on the
hkes of Turkestan ; while Dr. Finsch noted its arrival on the Ala-

670 GREAT BLACK-HEADED GULL.

Kul (a little to the east of Lake Balkash) on May 9th, and on the
Saisan-Nor early in June. Prjevalsky observed it in long. loo'^ E.
on the Koko-nor, an elevated lake in the mountain-range between
Mongolia and China ; and it is probably found throughout Tibet in
summer, as it passes over Gilgit on its way to India. There it
frequents the rivers, lakes and coasts, down to Ceylon and Burma,
during the cold season. It is unknown on the Amur or along the
sea-board of China, while Cassin's record from Japan is the result of
an erroneous identification.

Details are scarce respecting the breeding-habits of this Gull,
though, through the Moravian colony at Sarepta on the Lower Volga,
numbers of its eggs have been received ; these, which are laid on the
bare sand, are 3 in number, and in colour stone-drab, boldly streaked
and blotched with umber and black : measurements 2*95 by 2 in.
The cry is described as a harsh and raven-like croak : the food
consists of fish, crustaceans, locusts, reptiles &:c.

The adult in breeding-plumage has the head jet-black ; mantle of
a darker grey than in L. ridibundiis ; secondaries with broad white
tips, which form a conspicuous alar bar ; primaries chiefly white,
barred with black from the ist to the 5th and slightly on the 6th ;
tail and under-parts white ; bill orange-yellow, red at the angle and
zoned with black ; legs and feet greenish-yellow, the webs orange.
There is considerable variation in size, and females are often so
much smaller than males as to have given rise to the belief that
they belonged to a distinct species ; length of a male 26 in., wing
19 in. In winter the head is merely streaked with blackish. The
young bird is mottled with brown on the upper-parts, and the
primaries are dusky-brown. From young members of the Herring-
Gull group it may be distinguished by the white margins which
extend for a long way up the outer webs of the secondaries, as
wtW as by the uniformity in the dark band which crosses the
tail : this band being mottled and broken up in other species.
The nestling differs from that of almost all the Gulls in being of
an unspotted greyish-white above, and clearer white below.

The Gulls with hoods have been separated from the rest under
various generic names. The least objectionable is Chroicocephahis
of Eyton, based upon " coloured hood, small size, and more naked
tibiae " ; but as the second qualification did not suit the above
gigantic species, Kaup (who was at least logical) created for it the
genus Ichthya'etus. No term can be more inadmissible than Xe/iia,
as it should only be applied to a Gull with a forked tail.

LARID^.

671

THE COMMON GULL.

Larus canus, LinncGus.

The trivial name of this species has led to many errors as regards
England and Wales, though the bird is certainly " common " on the
coasts from autumn to spring, and is frequently seen inland. In April,
however, the adults pass northwards, and I am not yet aware of a
single breeding-place south of the Border ; but as this Gull nests on
the Scottish side of the Solway, an exception may, perhaps, have to
be made in time to come as regards England in that neighbourhood.
Northward the " Blue Maa," as it is appropriately called from its
colour, is found breeding in abundance on the coasts as well as the
fresh-water moorland lochs of Scotland, including the Hebrides,
Orkneys and Shetlands ; but it is comparatively rare in summer
along those portions of the east coast which are precipitous, and
unsuited to its habits. In Ireland the '' common " Gull of the
peasantry is generally L. ridibimdus, but since Mr. R. Warren
found a small colony on Lough Talt, co. Sligo, in the summer of
1855, other breeding-places have been discovered in cos. Mayo,
Donegal and Kerry ; while in winter the bird is plentiful by the sea.

The Common Gull is only a spring visitor to the Fteroes, and of
rare occurrence in Iceland ; but it is numerous in Scandinavia up

672 COMMON GULL.

to the North Cape, and in Northern and Central Russia. During
the colder months it occurs on the shores, lakes and rivers of the
rest of Europe, and on both sides of the Mediterranean basin, to
Palestine and the Suez Canal, as well as in the Nile valley and the
Persian Gulf. Birds which are, as a rule, larger and darker on the
mantle than western examples, inhabit Siberia as far as Kamchatka
in summer, and these frequent Japan and China in winter. From
the Pacific to Great Bear Lake, this Gull is represented in North
America by a slightly smaller species, L. brachyrhynchus ; but
throughout the rest of that continent we find L. dehnvarensis, a
rather larger bird, with a paler mantle and a doubly zoned bill. An
immature example of L. canus was, however, obtained in Labrador
on August 2ist i860, and is now in the Museum at Washington.

Grassy islands and sides of lochs, or .slopes facing the sea and often
not far above high water, are favourite resorts ; and in such this
species usually breeds in colonies, making a somewhat large nest of
sea-weed, grass, heather (S:c., and beginning to lay in the first half of
May. The eggs, normally 3 in number, are olive-brown in ground-
colour, spotted and streaked with blackish ; but pale blue, straw-
coloured and light green varieties are not uncommon : measure-
ments 2*25 by I "5 in. As a rule this Gull does not go far from
land, and owing to its being one of the first to seek the shore on
the approach of coarse weather it has been made the subject of
many rhymes and poetical allusions. It feeds on small fish,
molluscs, crustaceans &:c., and may frequently be seen picking up
grubs on the furrows in company with Rooks, while it will some-
times eat grain, small birds, and " cheepers." It has often been seen
on the tops of trees, in Germany, Norway, Siberia, and elsewhere.

The adult in summer has the head, tail, and entire under-parts
white ; mantle of a deeper grey than in any other medium-sized
Gull except the Kittiwake : primaries comparatively long, the three
outer pairs being dull black on the lower portions, with large white
' mirrors ' near the tips on the ist and 2nd, and even on the 3rd in
mature birds ; in the other quills pale grey predominating and the
black merely forming a bar, while all except the ist quill are broadly
tipped with white ; bill greenish at the base, rich yellow towards the
point ; legs and feet greenish-yellow in summer, darker in winter.
Length i7-i8"5 in. ; wing 14-15 in. In winter the head and neck
are streaked and spotted with ash-brown, as shown in the illustra-
tion. In the young bird the primaries and the broad tail-band are
dark brown ; the under-side of the wing is mottled with brown,
whereas in L. ridihundiis it is grevish-white.

LARID/E.

673

THE HERRING-GULL.
Larus argentatus, J- F. Gmelin.

THE YELLOWT.EGGED HERRING-GULL.

Larus cachinnans, Pallas.

The Herring-Gull is the most widely distributed member of its
family on the coasts of the British Islands, breeding wherever pre-
cipitous rocks or isolated 'stacks' afford a suitable refuge, while ii
is almost the only Gull that nests on the chalk-cliffs of the Channel.
Occasionally it resorts to low marshy ground, and colonies may be
found on islets in lochs in some parts of Scotland, though such
situations are usually left to the Black-backed and Common Gulls.

This species occurs in Greenland, and has been obtained on Jan
Mayen, but not in Iceland. It is abundant on the coasts of
Scandinavia and the Baltic, and immense numbers nest on some of
the low Frisian Islands, especially on Sylt, where from 40,000-
50,000 eggs are taken for eating in a season. Southward it ranges
down the western sea-board of Europe, stretching out to the Azores.
In America it has been found on the coasts and inland waters, from
the Parry Islands (lat. 75 N.) down to about 40'^ (breeding), and in
winter to 20^ N.

The nest, formed of herbage, is usually on the ledges of cliffs,

674 HERRI XG-GULLS.

but may be on flat ground, or even on trees, as in some parts of
North America, where the bird has been plundered by fishermen.
The eggs, often laid by the first week in May, and up to 3 in
number, are usually olive-brow'n, blotched and spotted with dark
umber, but the ground-colour is not rarely green, pale blue, or
reddish-buff: measurements 2*9 by i'95 in. This species may
sometimes be seen inland, searching for worms, slugs, grubs &c.,
and newly-sown grain ; but its principal food is obtained along the
shore or on the sea, and its trivial name is supposed to be owing to
its habit of following shoals of herring-fry. Like other large (lulls,
it is a great rol)ber of eggs, and it has largely contributed to the
decrease of the (iannets on Lundy Island.

The adult male in summer has the head, tail and under-parts
white ; mantle french-grey ; secondaries tipped with white ; outer
primaries chiefly black, with white tips and large sub-apical
'mirrors,' while a pale grey 'wedge' runs down their inner webs,
and increases in size on each successively, until the grey becomes
the predominating colour ; bill yellow, red at the angle ; orbital-
ring pale yellow ; legs and feet flesh-coloured. Length 24 in., wing
i7'5 in., tarsus 2'5, middle toe with claw 2"6 in. The female is
smaller. Li winter the head and neck are streaked with grey.
The young are mottled with brown, and full plumage is acquired (at
least in captivity) l)y the fifth year.

An example of the Yellow-legged Herring-Gull, Lams
cachiiinans, Pallas, in the collection of Mr. Connop, of Rollesby
Hall, Great Yarmouth, was shot on Breydon \\'ater, on Novem-
ber 4th 1886 (Zool. 1897, p. 572). I have examined the specimen.

This species frequents the coasts of Europe from the Gulf of
Gascony southward, Madeira (and probably the Azores), the Canaries
and North-west Africa, the entire basin of the Mediterranean, the
Black Sea, the Caspian-Aral region, and eastward to Lake Baikal
(breeding); while in winter it visits the w-est side of Africa to Angola,
the Red Sea, the Persian waters, and India to the Bay of Bengal.

In nidification and habits this Gull resembles L. argentatiis. In
plumage it differs in having a darker mantle, while the ring round
the eye and the gape are bright orange-red, the yellow and red of
the bill are very bright, and the tarsi and toes are brilliant yellow.
Length 23 in., wing 18, tarsus 275, middle toe with claw 2-65 in. The
young are like those of our Herring-Gull, but a distinctly yellow tint
is noticeable on the tarsi and feet in the second year {cf. Cat. B,
Brit. Mus. XXV. p. 268).

I.ARID^..

675

THE LESSER BLACK-BACKED (iULL.

Larus fuscus, Linnaeus.

Though resident in the British Islands — except, perhaps, in the
north — this species is far more local than the Herring-Gull in its
distribution during the breeding-season, owing to its liking for
grassy slopes or flat-topped and outlying islands, rather than for
precipitous cliffs. Li the south of England its nesting-places are
almost confined to Devon and Cornwall ; but several colonies exist
in Wales and the Isle of Man ; while on the ' mosses ' and ' flows '
of Cumberland it is so abundant that measures have to be taken to
prevent its undue increase ; and, though banished as much as
possible from the moors of Northumberland, large numbers nest on
the Fame Islands. In Scotland, closely-packed settlements may be
found — far too plentifully for game-preservers — up to the northern-
most Shetlands ; and especially along the western coast within the
shelter of the Outer Hebrides, whereas the Herring-(iull predominates
on the far side of that group. In Ireland, where the species is found

676 LESSER BLACK-BACKED GULL.

throughout the year, the breeding-places are chiefly on the coast,
though some are inland.

This Gull has not yet been obtained in (Greenland or Iceland, but
it is numerous during summer in the Fseroes, as well as along the
coast of Norway, whence it migrates southward, on the approach of
winter, as it does from the shores of the Baltic. Small colonies
exist on some of the Channel Islands and along the western sea-
board of France, as well as off Morocco and in the Mediterranean ;
while in winter the bird visits the Canaries, and West Africa down
to Bonny. Eastward it is found in Egypt, Nubia, the Red Sea
(where it is said to be resident), and on the Persian Gulf. North-
ward, it seems to be very rare in the Caspian, and hardly known to
the east of the line of the Dwina, though Mr. Popham obtained
an immature example at Golchika on the Yenesei. Its represen-
tative, however, from the Dwina eastward as far as the Yenesei
valley, is the Siberian River-Gull, L. affints, a species which has been
obtained (once) in South Greenland, and perhaps on Heligoland,
while it visits Western Asia and Equatorial Africa in winter. This
has a paler mantle than L. fiiscus, and is distinctly larger.

The nest of the Lesser Black-backed Gull is made of grass, bits
of sea-weed &c., and the eggs, sometimes laid by the first week in
May, and 3 in number, are smaller on average than those of
the Herring-Gull and exhibit greater variation, with a tendency to
bluish-green in their ground-colour: measurements 2 "8 by i'9 in.
The food consists chiefly of fish and small crabs, the indigestible
portions of which are thrown up in large pellets, and Mr. T. E. Buckley
has found similar castings composed of the husks of grain ; the
bird is, however, omnivorous, and is very injurious to the eggs and
young of moorland-game and water-fowl.

The adult in summer is white, except on the mantle, which varies
from slate-grey to black ; the three outer primaries are of a dusky
black which becomes paler towards the edges of the inner webs,
though there is no grey 'wedge'; a sub-apical white mirror exists on
the ist and — in mature birds — on the 2nd quill ; the legs and feet are
yellow, and the relative shortness of the latter is characteristic. In
winter the head and neck are streaked with dusky-brown. Length
of a male 22 in., wing i6-i6"5, tarsus 2'6, middle toe with claw 2*25
in.; the female is usually smaller. The young bird is similar to the
immature Herring-Gull, but the upper parts are darker, and the
primaries are nearly uniform black ; the lower part of the tail is crossed
by a black band, which gradually breaks up into mottlings and dis-
appears with increasing age : the legs and feet are at first light brown.

I.ARID.^.

677

THE GREAT BLACK-BACKED GULL.

Larus mari'nus, Linnceus.

As a breeding-species this Gull is by no means plentiful in
England ; but birds in various stages of immaturity may be seen on
our coasts at all seasons, while adults form a large proportion of
the flocks of " corpse-eaters " which resort to the shores of the
Humber in autumn. At the present day a few only nest on the
cliffs of Dorsetshire, Lundy Island, Cornwall, Scilly, Wales, and,
perhaps, on the Isle of Man ; while some find breeding-places in
the Lake district, and inhabit the ' flows ' in the neighbourhood of
the Solway. On the east of England no breeding-place is known.
In many parts of Scotland this rapacious (iuU is abundant, especially
on the deeply indented coasts and islands of the north and west,
and above all in the Outer Hebrides, where colonies of twenty to
twenty-five pairs may be found ; it also resorts, there and elsewhere,
to islets in mountain lakes, and to lofty hill-tops. In Ireland it is widely
distributed on the rocky coasts, especially in the north and west.

The Great Black-backed Gull is resident in Iceland and the Faeroes,

678 GREAT BLACK-BACKED GULL.

and is plentiful during summer on the coasts of the North Sea,
Scandinavia, and Russia, ranging as far east as the delta of the
Petchora, and probably to the mouth of the Yenesei (Popham).
Southward, no nesting-places are known on the Continent, except in
the north-west of France ; though the bird occurs in winter as far as
the Canaries, and is met with on the Mediterranean and Black
Seas, as well as on inland waters. Across the North Atlantic it is
found breeding in Danish Greenland up to lat. 68"^ N., and has
been observed in Baffin Bay ; while southward, it nests in Labrador,
Maine, and on some of the great inland lakes, visiting Florida, and
occasionally Bermuda in winter. The Bering and Okhotsk Seas are
frequented by L. schistisagiis of Stejneger, a species which is quite
as large as small specimens of L. /narinus, and is often nearly as
dark on the mantle ; and it was an example of this, from Northern
Japan, that I formerly referred to L. marinas. Dr. Stejneger's fine
species proves, however, to be closer to the Herring-Gull section of
the family; the next link in that direction being Z. vcgcr, which
inhabits the eastern coasts of Siberia and visits Japan and China in
winter. This last has a grey mantle, like Z. cachinimus, but its
tarsi and toes are flesh-coloured instead of bright yellow.

The nest of the (ireat Black-backed (juU is frequently on some
isolated stack of rock or on an islet in a loch ; and the eggs, laid in
]May, are never more than 3 and often only 2 in number ; their
colour is stone-buff, boldly blotched with dark grey and umber :
measurements 3 by z-\ in. Nothing in the way of animal food
comes amiss to this predacious species, whether it be sickly ewes,
weakly lambs, young or wounded water-fowl and game, eggs, or
carrion. The majestic flight, large size, and loud querulous note of
this species facilitate its recognition on the wing.

The adult male has the plumage white, except the mantle, which
is black with a tinge of slate-colour ; the scapulars and secondaries
have white tips which form a strongly contrasted alar bar ; all the
primaries are broadly tipped with white, the first often for 3 in.,
while the second has merely a black subterminal bar, and even the
third sometimes has a white spot ; the ' wedges ' on the inner webs
are greyish, as in the Herring-Gulls ; bill yellow, red at the angle ;
iris red; legs and feet flesh-colour. Length of a male 28-30 in.,
wing 19-20 in. The female is smaller, and has a less robust bill.
The young bird is paler in ground-colour than immature Z. argen-
tatus, and has more sharply defined mottlings. The white mirror
on the outer primary is shown long before mature plumage is
assumed.

LARIDi^.

679

THE GLAUCOUS GULL.
Larus glaucus, O. Fabricius.

This is a Gull with nearly white wings, and equal in size to the
preceding species. It is a visitor to our islands during the colder
months of the year, especially to the northern districts ; but although
sometimes observed in the Shetlands as late as June, it has never
been known to breed there, nor even in the Faeroes. In severe
winters it is sometimes abundant on the coasts of Great Britain,
immature birds, of course, forming the majority ; but south of
Norfolk it is of irregular appearance, and in Wales and the west of
England it is rare, although an example shot on the Severn in the
winter of 1840 happens to be the subject of the illustration. In
Ireland it is seldom met with, and then chiefly in the north and west.

The Glaucous Gull is common and resident in Iceland, and is
found during summer throughout the entire circumpolar regions of

68o GLAUCOUS GULL.

the Old and the New Worlds, but it abandons the highest latitudes
during the winter time. Then its migrations extend as far south as
the Straits of Gibraltar, the Mediterranean and Black Seas, and the
northern part of the Caspian ; Japan and California in the Pacific ;
the great lakes of America and the Mississippi valley, as well as the
east coast to Florida and Texas. Mr. Ridgway has distinguished
the Glaucous Gull of Alaska by the name of L. harroviaiuis, but I
can see nothing exceptional in specimens from the North Pacific,
the Arctic regions of America, or Greenland. The Pacific to the
north of lat. 40° is inhabited by a slightly smaller species, L. glau-
cescens, which has its primaries chequered with pale grey, but not
with black as in the Herring-Gull. A larger and very rare species,
known from Alaska and Vancouver Island, has been named
Z. uel^oni by Mr. Henshaw ; while on the east side of Bafifin Bay,
migrating to New Yoik State in winter, there is a much smaller
bird, L. kumlic/u', with rather more definition in its wing-pattern.

The nest of the Glaucous Gull is made on projecting ledges of
lofty cliffs or on low shores and sand-banks, according to circum-
stances ; the eggs, usually laid in June, are stone-colour, spotted
with ash-grey and brown : measurements 2 '9 by 2 in. From its
overbearing nature the Glaucous Gull has long been known as 'the
Burgomaster ' among whalers and sealers. It is omnivorous as
regards diet ; in South Greenland, during August and September,
the berries of Evipetruni nigrtan are largely consumed by the
immature birds ; while such is its rapacity that Col. Feilden found
two reindeer which he had shot one day on Spitsbergen reduced
to hide and skeletons by the next morning.

The adult male in summer has the head, tail and under-parts
white ; mantle and wings pale pearl-grey, with white tips to the
scapulars, secondaries, and outermost webs of the quills, the
primaries reaching but little beyond the tail ; bill yellow, orange at
the angle ; ring round the eye vermilion, iris yellow ; legs and feet
bright pink. In winter the head and neck are streaked with ash-
grey. Length 29 in., wing i8-i8'5 in. Females are often much
smaller. The young bird is mottled with ash-brown on a creamy
ground, becoming lighter at each moult, until, just before assuming
the pearl-grey mantle, it becomes white for a short time. In this
state it was supposed to be a distinct species, L. hiifchiusi of
Richardson ; but its identity is now fully established, and I have
watched every change of plumage in the birds brought up in the
Zoological Society's Gardens. In the immature bird the bill is
brown, the iris brown, and the legs and feet are livid flesh-colour.

LARID/E.

68l

THE ICELAND GULL.

Larus leucopterus, Faber.

This is another species with whitish wings, and bears about the
same proportion to the Glaucous that the Lesser Black-backed does
to the Great Black-backed Gull. It was first recognized in the British
Islands by the late Dr. Lawrence Edmonston of Unst in Shet-
land, and is now known as a tolerably frequent, though irregular,
visitor to the sea-board of Scotland in cold weather; while the winter
of 1872-3, which was remarkable for an unusual advent of Glaucous
Gulls in the Firth of Forth, was still more so for the influx of
Iceland Gulls, many of them being adults. Although this bird is
naturally rarer on the shores of England, a large number reached
Cornwall in January and February of 1873, while in the winter of
1874-5, after long-continued gales, both young and old were plenti-
ful on the coast of South Devon. Mr. J. H. Salter says that in some

3 t-

682 ICELAND GULL.

winters this species is not rare on the coast of Wales. In January
and February 1892, it was rather plentiful in the north and west
of Scotland ; and the invasion extended to the north and west of
Ireland, where the species had been previously considered rare,
though met with occasionally, chiefly on the estuary of the Moy and
in Donegal. It may now be considered of frequent occurrence,
especially on the west coast, and exceptionally it has been observed
in summer. On its migration northwards this bird has been observed
by Mr. Cordeaux in the Humber district as late as April i8th.

The Iceland Gull is merely a wanderer to the Faeroes, and even the
island from which it derives its trivial name is only inhabited by it
from September to May. During that period it is also found on the
coasts of Norway, the Baltic (seldom), the North Sea, and the north
and west of France down to the Gulf of Gascony (rarely). In
the breeding- season it appears to be confined to Jan Mayen Island,
Greenland, and perhaps the American side of Baffin Bay, though
our naturalists did not observe it in Smith Sound during the ex-
pedition of 1875-6; while it is of regular occurrence as far south
as Lake Michigan, and sometimes reaches Boston, during the colder
months. All the birds assigned to this species from the North
Pacific and Bering Sea are, in my opinion, L. glauciis.

The nest is often placed upon ledges of lofty cliffs. The eggs, 2-3
in number, are of a greenish stone-colour blotched with brown :
measurements 275 by i"8 in. The food consists chiefly of small
fishes, but crustaceans as well as refuse are greedily devoured, and
Saxby noticed this bird's partiality for oats and other vegetable sub-
stances. The flight is far more buoyant than that of the Glaucous
Gull — as might be expected from the fact that the Icelander has much
longer wings in proportion to its bulk; and Mr. Harvie-Brown has
remarked that, when resting upon a mud-bank, it has a neater and
more slender appearance and stands higher on its legs.

The adult in summer has the bill yellow, red at the angle ;
mantle pale grey ; secondaries with white tips which form a band
contrasting with the grey ; rest of the plumage white ; orbital ring
flesh-coloured; legs and feet yellowish flesh-colour. Length 22 in.,
wing 16-16-5 i"- (extreme). The largest male Iceland Gull does
not attain to the length of wing of the smallest female Z. glaucus,
in spite of its comparatively longer wing. During the winter months
the head and neck are spotted and streaked with grey. The young
bird is at first somewhat darker than the immature Z. glauats,
but is otherwise similar, and goes through the same stages, till
maturity is attained in the fourth year.

LARID.l^..

683

THE KITTIWAKE GULL.

RissA TRiDACTVLA (Liniiaeus).

The Kittiwake — characterized by an obsolete hind-toe — is to be
found in British waters throughout the year ; resorting in summer to
jagged cliffs, where immense numbers may often be found breeding
in close proximity. There are colonies on Lundy Island off North
Devon, the Scilly Islands, Wales, the Isle of Man, Flaniborough
Head, and the Fame Islands ; and, on the east side of Scotland, at
the Bass Rock, the Isle of May, and Dunbuy in Aberdeenshire ;
while in the Orkneys, Shetlands, and Hebrides thousands of birds
whiten the precipices, and the 'guUery' on the Shiant Islands is
probably the most extensive in Great Britain. In Ireland, too, this
Gull is extremely plentiful on the precipitous portions of the sea-board.

On the Continent the Kittiwake is not known to nest further
south than Brittany, but in winter it ascends the Garonne as. far
as Toulouse, and probably proceeds thence to the Mediterranean,
where it is not uncommon as far as Sicily ; it also visits the Black
and Caspian Seas, probably crossing Russia from the north. Its
southern range extends to the Canaries on this side of the Atlantic,

684 KITTIWAKE GULL.

and to the Bermudas on the other ; while, beyond the British Islands,
this Gull breeds in myriads on the cliffs of the Faroes, Iceland,
Norway — where a vast colony exists near the North Cape, Spitsber-
gen, Novaya Zemlya, Franz Josef Land, and wherever suitable localities
present themselves in the Siberian Arctic Ocean. Westward, it is
abundant in Jan IMayen, Greenland, and America above the Gulf of
the St. Lawrence to 81° 40' in Smith Sound, and as far west as
Bering Sea, while it migrates to Lower California in winter. In
Bering Sea are found individuals in which the hind-toe is not quite
obsolete and is occasionally terminated by a minute nail ; but this
peculiarity is not always of equal extent on both feet of the same
bird, nor is it confined to examples from the North Pacific. The area
between Alaska and Kamchatka is also inhabited by a perfectly
distinct species, R. brevirostris of Brandt, which has orange-red legs
and feet, and a darker grey mantle than our bird.

The nests — usually of small pieces of turf or sea-weed, with a lining
of bents, and exceptionally of such 'flotsam' as tobacco — are placed
on narrow ledges of rocks ; and I have seen some which were not
more than 5 feet above high-water mark, though the topmost might
be hundreds of feet higher. The eggs, 23 in number, vary from
greyish-white to olive-buff, blotched and zoned with ash-grey and
rich brown: measurements 2" 15 by i'6 in. They are seldom laid
until the latter part of May, so that many of the young could
scarcely fly — while others were still in the nest — when the original
Sea-Birds Protection Act expired on August ist; consequently
thousands were formerly slaughtered to provide plumes for ladies'
hats. The food consists of fish and marine animals ; sea-water is
drunk in preference to fresh ; and marked birds have been known
to follow vessels across the North Atlantic. The name is derived
from the note, as are those of ' Hacket ' and ' Hacklet ' ; the young
bird is often called ' Tarrock.' The Kittiwake dives freely and also
swims under water.

The adult in summer has the bill greenish-yellow ; mantle deep
grey; primaries chiefly black terminally from the ist to the 3rd,
and barred with black to the 6th ; head, neck, tail and under-
parts white ; legs and feet blackish. Length i5'5 in., wing 12 in.
In winter the nape and hind-neck are grey, like the mantle. The
young bird lias the bill black ; nape greyish ; shoulders, wing-
coverts and inner secondaries thickly spotted with brownish-black ;
ist to 4th quills blackish on the outer and on part of the inner web ;
tail barred with dull brown near the tip ; legs and feet brown until
complete maturity is attained.

685

THE IVORY GULL.

Pagophila eburnp:a (Phipps).

The first recorded British specimen of this truly Arctic Gull was
obtained by the late Dr. Lawrence Edmonston during the winter of
1822, in the Shetland Islands, where this species has subsequently
been met with on several occasions. Four examples have been re-
corded from the Orkneys, one of them as late in spring as May ;
while the Outer Hebrides, Sutherland, Caithness, Banffshire and
Aberdeenshire, and even Roxburghshire have been visited, and six or
seven birds have been killed in south-western waters, chiefly off the
Firth of Clyde. In England this Gull is, naturally, more frequent in
the north than in the south ; but its migrations have extended to
the Channel and Cornwall, and, exceptionally to Wales ; while in
Ireland two birds have been taken and others have been observed.
Altogether it may be considered that about thirty-five specimens
have been procured in the British Islands, and, of these, rather more
than half appear to have been adults.

686

IVORY f;ULL.

The Ivory Gull has been recorded on one occasion from Iceland,
and has been noticed on the coasts of Northern Europe down to the
mouth of the Somrae in France, as well as near Lausanne in Switzer-
land. In the high northern latitudes it is now known to be com-
pletely circumpolar in its range, for the American expeditions to
Point Barrow and Bering Sea met with it in those parts, where it had
not previously been observed, though already known to be tolerably
common on the Siberian coast and the islands to the northward.
Almost all the Arctic explorers in America have recorded it ;
Richardson found it breeding in long. 122° W. ; Sir Leopold
M'Clintock obtained a single egg (now in the Dublin Museum)
from a nest on Prince Patrick's Island in 116° W. ; and Col. Feilden
saw a pair on a lofty and inaccessible cliff in Smith Sound, on
August 1 6th 1 87 5. In Baffin Bay it is plentiful, and adults as well
as immature birds are annually obtained in Greenland ; while in
winter they wander as far south as New Brunswick. The best
known breeding-places are in the Spitsbergen archipelago, especially
on Stor-oen, and on Franz Josef Land (Ibis 1898, p. 264), while
Admiral Markham found the bird plentiful in the west and north of
Novaya Zemlya, and Dr. Nansen's" Expedition met with it in 1894,
in lat. 81° N. and long. 130° E.

The nest, composed of moss, sea-weed and drift, is sometimes on
ledges of precipices, but very often on the ground ; the eggs, which
are not known to exceed 2 in number, are very similar to those of
L. ca/itis, and measure about 2-5 by 17 in. In 'The Ibis,' 1888,
pp. 440-443, Prof. R. Collett has given a description of a fine series,
with a coloured illustration of two eggs and of a downy nestling ;
while Mr, W. S. Bruce has described a colony on Franz Josef Land
{oJ>. cit. 1898, pp. 265-267). The food consists largely of marine
animals and the droppings of walruses and seals, but the 'krang,' i.e.
flensed carcases, of whales &:c., are greedily devoured. Col. Feilden
says that this bird has a shrill note, not unlike that of the Arctic Tern,
and also that in its flight it resembles a Tern rather than a Gull.

The adult in summer has the entire plumage white, slightly rosy
in life ; the bill greenish-grey at the base and red at the tip ; legs
and feet black, the hind-toe strongly developed and connected with
the tarsus by a well-defined web. Length of a male 18 in., wing
13 in. ; the female being smaller. The young bird is dark grey on the
face and chin, and is spotted with black on the back, wing-coverts,
tips of the primaries and tail-feathers, as well as on the upper and
under tail-coverts. The downy nestling is greyish-white ; the fledge-
ling is smoke-grey.

STERCORARIID^..

687

THE GREAT SKUA.

Megalestris catarrhactes (Linnasus).

This is the largest European representative of the group of
Parasitic Gulls, the members of which obtain their food chiefly. .by
robbing the smaller sea fowl. In the British Islands the only
breeding-places of the Great Skua or 'Bonxie' are in the Shetlands,
where a well-known colony on Unst, and another on Foula may
be mentioned, at both of which the bird is protected. It seldom
visits the Orkneys or the Outer Hebrides, and is decidedly scarce
along the west side of Scotland, though occasionally met with
on the east during the colder months ; and the same may be said
of Wales and England, down to and throughout the Channel ; but
it seems to be rarer than is really the case, because it frequents
the fishing-grounds far out at sea, where the Gulls, which it robs,
are plentiful. Exceptionally, after severe weather, it has been met
with inland. It has rarely been detained in Ireland.

The Great Skua breeds in the Faeroe Islands, though diminished
in numbers by the ' neb-toll ' to which rapacious birds are subject ;

688 GREAT SKUA.

while in Iceland it is still abundant on the Vestmanna Islands, and
has four or five smaller settlements. There is no evidence of its
nesting within Norwegian waters, where it is scarce at any season ;
and although it can be traced in winter to the Straits of Gibraltar,
or a little further southward, it seldom enters the Mediterranean ;
it has, however, wandered to the lakes of Switzerland, and in 1882
to the Province of Verona. Though very rare in South Greenland,
it appears to breed on some islands to the north of Hudson Strait ;
and it is not uncommon on the fishing-banks down to New
England, in winter. Its reported occurrence across the Fur regions
and in the North Pacific is not confirmed by any recent explorer.
On both sides of South America, from lat. 12'^ S. to the Straits of
Magellan, its representative is M. ihi/ensis, which has bright
chestnut under-parts and axillaries ; while in the Falkland Islands
and throughout the Southern Ocean we find M. antarciica, a
stouter, sooty-brown species ; and in Victoria Land, lat. 71-76 S.,
long. 1 71-178 E., M. maccorniicki, a very pale representative.

The nest — a cavity in the moss and heather of the highest moor-
lands— is prepared in the latter half of May ; and the eggs, 2 in
number, are olive-brown or pale olive-green with darker markings :
measurements 2 "8 by 2 in. When handling a nestling, I found the
parents unremitting in their assaults ; they came down at full speed,
almost skimming the ground, until, at about fifteen yards' distance,
the strong feet with their hooked claws were lowered and held
stiffly out, producing for the moment a very ungainly appearance ;
but on quickly lifting the hand or stick, the bird rose again, while the
whirr and vibration of its pinions could be distinctly heard and felt.
The stomachs of a pair shot on the Faeroes were full of the flesh of
the Kittiwake, and the castings consisted of the bones and feathers
of that bird ; Heysham has recorded the capture of an adult in
the act of killing a Herring-Gull; and fish and offal are often eaten.
The cry is skui, skiii; whence the bird's name.

The adult has the head and throat dark brown mottled with
rufous ; nape covered with yellowish-brown acuminate feathers ;
upper parts dark brown, mottled with chestnut and dull white ; quills
umber-brown, with white bases which are conspicuous in flight; tail-
feathers umber, the central pair projecting about "5 in. ; under-parts
rufous-brown ; under wing-coverts blackish ; bill, legs and feet black,
the claws hooked and sharp. Length 21 in., wing 16 in. The
sexes are alike externally ; and the young bird scarcely differs from
the adults, except in the greater freshness of its plumage. Melan-
otic varieties are occasionally met with.

STERCORARIID/E.

689

THE POMATORHINE SKUA.

Stercorarius pomatorhinus (Temminck).

This species is of tolerably regular occurrence on the coasts of
Great Britain ; especially on the eastern sea-board, where a remark-
ably large migration was noticed in the autumn of 1879, and another,
less extensive, in October 1880. Some individuals remain through-
out the winter on our southern shores, and have been met with far
inland, after severe gales, but comparatively few are seen on the
spring passage. In Ireland the appearance of this bird is irregular.

In varying numbers the Pomatorhine Skua is a visitor to the
coasts of Europe. Though observed to the northward of the
Spitsbergen group — and abundant in some years during August
in the eastern islands — it has not yet been proved to breed in that
archipelago ; nor has it been actually obtained on Franz Josef Land,
though it occurs on both islands of Novaya Zemlya. In 1895, Mr.
Popham found nests near the mouth of the Yenesei, while Midden-
dorff had previously obtained eggs on the Taimyr tundras further
to the eastward. Thence, the bird can be traced to Bering Sea ;
and it occurs across Arctic America to Baffin Bay. In North
Greenland it appears to breed in colonies above Egesdesminde ;
while it has been obtained in Jan Mayen and Iceland, and visits

3 H

690

POMATORHINE SKUA.

the Fseroes on both migrations ; it occurs on the inland waters of
Europe down to the Mediterranean, and along the west coast of
Africa to Walvisch Bay ; and it has been obtained in Japan, Burma,
North Australia, California and Peru.

The 2 eggs, deposited in a mere depression of the moss, are
of an olive-brown with darker blotches, Mr. Popham's specimens
measuring about 2 '6 by i"8 in. Like other Skuas this species
plunders the Terns and Gulls; devouring 'krang' or any animal
matter cast up by the sea, and preying freely on lemmings.

The adult has the front and crown of the head sooty-black ; neck
white, with straw-yellow acuminate feathers ; upper parts chiefly
umber-brown, the two central tail-feathers projecting 4 in. and being
twisted vertically ; breast dull white ; flanks, abdomen and under
wing-coverts brown ; bill horn-brown ; tarsi and toes reddish-black.
Length 21 in., wing i4"25 in. The yellow on the neck is sometimes
assumed before the central tail-feathers are fully developed ; and
the flanks and tail-coverts are striated, except in mature birds in
autumn. Younger examples have a brown pectoral band, more or
less striated under-parts, barred tail-coverts, and central tail-feathers
little elongated. The bird of the year (represented below) is brown,
mottled and barred with dull rufous. Melanotic varieties are not
uncommon in immature birds.

STERCORARIin/1^..

691

THE ARCTIC or RICHARDSON'S SKUA.
Stercorarius crepidatus (J. F. Gmelin).

The second English name is strictly applicable to a dark form of
this bird ; but it is often employed and has the merit of being dis-
tinctive, whereas the first has occasionally been conferred on the
next species. The Arctic Skua breeds on most of the Shetlands,
and has several colonies in the Orkneys, while on the mainland it
may still be found in Sutherland and Caithness; it also nests at a
few spots in the Outer Hebrides, and sparingly on two or three of
the Inner islands. It is a regular migrant along both sides of
Scotland, as well as down the east coast of England ; but it is
less frequent in the Channel, while comparatively irregular in the
western sea. To Ireland it is a periodical visitor. It has been
met with on inland waters in various parts of the British Islands.

There are two very distinct varieties of the Arctic Skua, the one

3 H 2

692 ARCTIC OR Richardson's skua.

being entirely sooty, while the other has light under-parts ; but
where they meet they mate indiscriminately. Both the extreme
and intermediate forms are found nesting on our northern islands,
the Faeroes, Iceland, the coasts of Scandinavia, Russia, and probably
Novaya Zemlya; but the sooty bird has seldom been observed in the
Spitsbergen group, and most of the specimens from the far north of
America are white-breasted. The dark form predominates towards
the southern limit of the bird's breeding-range, whereas the white-
breasted race increases in numbers to the northward until it gains
the ascendency. As a breeding-species this Skua may be described
as circumpolar ; in the cold season it frequents the coasts of Europe
down to the Mediterranean, West Africa as far as the Cape of Good
Hope, the Persian Gulf and Mekran coast, the North Pacific to
California, and the Atlantic to Barbados and even Rio de Janeiro,
while it has occurred several times in Tasmania and New Zealand.

Towards the end of May or early in June the eggs, 2 in number,
are laid in a hollow of the moorland moss or grass ; they are of a
brownish-green colour, blotched with dark brown: measurements 2*4
by I 6 in. The flight of this Skua is rapid, although somewhat devious;
and any intrusion upon the breeding-ground is resented by swoops
which are directed from behind or sideways ; but although the bird
will actually strike with its wing, I have never seen it make a front-
attack. The cry is a plaintive inee, sometimes a sharp mee-dwh.
This species feeds principally upon fish, obtained by robbing the
smaller Gulls, but it also preys upon wounded or disabled birds, is
said to plunder the eggs of other sea-fowl, and has been known to
pick up worms and molluscs. It does not dive, but has frequently
been observed to settle on the water.

The lowest figure is that of an adult though, but not a very mature
example of the intermediate form ; in many, as already observed,
the throat and breast are white, and not shaded with brown. The
middle bird may be said to belong to the dark race, though more
sooty individuals are to be met with. Between the above there is
every gradation ; but all the adults have a yellow tinge on the
acuminate feathers of the cheeks and neck, and are umber-brown
on the upper-parts. Length 20 in. (tail 5, and central pair of
feathers often 3 in. longer), wing 13 in. The young bird (at the
top) I consider to be the offspring of light-coloured parents ; the
progeny of a dark pair being much more .sooty, with merely rufous
edges to the upper feathers.

STERCORARIID/E.

693

THE I.ONG-TAILED or BUFFON'S SKUA.

Stercorarius parasi'ticus (Linnceus).

This circumpolar species is rather smaller and much more attenu-
ated than the preceding, and is a less regular migrant to the British
Islands. Though naturally more frequent in the north than in
the south, it had not been noticed in any numbers in Scotland
until the autumn of 1891 ; on the east side of England, however,
it is comparatively common, especially between the mouth of the
Tees and Flamborough Head, and many birds, some of them adults,
were killed during the great storms of October 1879. Though rarer
to the southward, this species is met with along the Channel, where
it was abundant in October 1891, when individuals were also
obtained inland. Until the invasion of 1891, the west was seldom
visited, though old birds had occurred there in spring on several
occasions, one having been shot in Cornwall as late as June 4th
1877, and another in Cumberland on June 3rd 1885. In Ireland
it has been noticed in autumn, and, sparingly, in spring.

The Long-tailed Skua does not breed in the Faeroes or Iceland ;
but in Norway a few pairs inhabit the Dovrefjeld above the limit of
forest-growth, while Wolley, Wheelwright and others found consider-
able numbers nesting on the fells of Swedish Lapland to the north

694 LONG-TAILED SKUA.

of lat. 68". It breeds in Spitsbergen, and also in Novaya Zemlya
where Admiral Markham obtained a nestling, now in the British
Museum. Eastward, this species can be traced across the tundras
of Siberia to Bering Sea, and it is widely distributed over the Arctic
regions of America. Col. Feilden met with no other Skua in Smith
Sound at 82° 50' N. ; it breeds also in many parts of Greenland, and
visits Jan Mayen. On migration it ranges southward as far as the
basin of the Mediterranean, and down to about lat 40° N. on the
east of America, while on the Pacific side it has reached lat. 20° N.

The eggs — usually 2 in number — are laid on the ground in some
slight hollow, and are smaller, greener, and often more scrolled than
those of the Arctic Skua, which they otherwise resemble : measure-
ments 2 by 1*5 in. The birds are very bold when their nest is
approached, and utter a loud shrieking note ; the flight is remarkably
swift and elegant. In summer, crowberries are largely consumed by
the young ; at other times beetles, crustaceans, worms, small birds,
fish robbed from other Gulls or Terns, and lemmings, form the diet
of this species, with a preference for the last kind of fare.

The adult has the forehead, lores, crown and nape brownish-
black ; lower cheeks and neck bufifish-yellow ; mantle and central
tail-feathers of a greyer brown than in the Arctic Skua ; wings and
the shorter tail-feathers dark brown ; breast chiefly white ; flanks
and belly greyish-brown ; bill dark horn-colour ; legs olive-grey ; feet
black. Length 23 in., including the long tail-feathers, which some-
times project as much as 8"5 in. in the male and 7 in the female ;
wing 1 1 '9 in. Immature birds are barred with greyish-brown and
white on both upper and under parts — especially on the breast,
flanks, and tail-coverts. The young of the year are subject to a
little variation in tint, especially on the lower surface, but are always
greyer and less rufous than examples of the Arctic Skua. The
readiest distinction at any age is, however, to be found in the shafts
of the primaries ; all of these being white in the Arctic Skua,
whereas in the Long-tailed Skua the two outer ones only on each side
are tvhite, the rest being dusky : a fact which was distinctly indicated
by Linnaeus in his description.

In the young of this and of the two preceding species the inter-
digital webs are parti-coloured, as shown in the vignette of the
Pomatorhine Skua (p. 690). It was this peculiarity which led
Banks to confer the mere name crepidatns (sandalled) upon the
Arctic Skua, though Gmelin was the first to give a proper description
of that species.

ALClN.t:.

695

THE RAZORBILL.

Alca t6rda, Linnaeus.

The Akcc, or Auks, are pelagic birds endowed with great powers
of diving, while they swim admirably below as well as on the surface
of the water. They are found only in the higher or the temperate
regions of the Northern hemisphere, and have little structural
affinity with the Penguins of the Southern oceans, with which they
have been frequently associated, owing to a confusion of popular
names and a certain superficial resemblance. The Razorbill is one
of the best known members of the family, and, together with the
Common Guillemot and the Puffin, may be seen in the tide-way off
our coasts throughout the year ; but all three species can be best
observed during the breeding-season, when they assemble by
hundreds and thousands on suitable precipices and island-cliffs
throughout the United Kingdom. They usually arrive in the
latter part of March or early in April, and after the duties of in-
cubation are over they return to the open sea, accompanied by their
young. The Razorbill is, however, less plentiful than the Guille-
mot or the Puffin, and is rather more partial to sheltered waters.

696 RAZORBILL.

This Auk has been obtained off Jan Mayen, but is unknown in
Spitsbergen and the high Arctic regions to the eastward. It breeds
in the Faeroes, Iceland, Scandinavia up to lat. 71° N., and south-
ward to Brittany ; while in winter it visits the Baltic, and goes up
the Mediterranean to the Adriatic and Malta, though the majority
keep well out in the Atlantic as far as the Canaries, unless driven
into bays by stormy weather. In summer it resorts to the west coast
of Greenland up to about 73°, but seldom reaches the American side
of Davis Strait, and it has not been met with in the Arctic waters to
the westward. Southward, it breeds in Labrador and down to the
Bay of Fundy ; while in winter it has visited North Carolina. There
is no proof of its occurrence in the Pacific.

The Razorbill deposits a single egg, by choice in a burrow or a
crevice, or at least on an over-hung ledge, but in default of these it
will make use of an open shelf, like a Guillemot. When brooding it
couches along — ^not across — the egg, its mate often standing near ;
and both sexes incubate, the male bringing food to the female
when she is sitting. The eggs, often laid by the middle of May,
are not so pear-shaped as those of the Guillemot and seldom show
the faintest tinge of green ; they are usually white or pale chocolate-
brown, blotched and often zoned with mahogany-colour or black :
measurements 2*9 by I'g in. On holding the empty shell against
the light the inside lining-membrane shows green : whereas in that of
the Guillemot it appears to be yellowish-^vhite, except when over-
powered by the green of the shell itself. The young flutter from
the rocks to the sea, or (it is said) are taken by the neck and
carried down by the parents ; they are at first very loth to follow the
old bird in diving, and remain crying plaintively on the surface of
the water. The food consists of small fish (which are carried
diagonally in the bill, not at right angles as they are by the Puffin),
and crustaceans. The Razorbill utters a peculiar grunting or groaning,
especially when sitting ; on the water it may be distinguished at a
distance from the Guillemot by its upturned tail.

The adult (figured on the right) is chiefly greenish-black above,
deep brown on the throat, and white below ; in winter the upper-
parts lose the greenish gloss, and the throat, fore-neck and cheeks
are white. Length 17 in., wing 7*3. A young bird killed in
December (central figure) has the bill smooth and black without
any white groove on either mandible, and shows only a faint white
line from the top of the bill to the eye ; its plumage resembles that
of the adult in winter. I do not think that breeding takes place
until the bird is nearly two years old.

ALCIN^.

697

THE GREAT AUK.

Alca impennis, Linnteus.

This species, also called the Gare-fowl, is now supposed to be
extinct, and with good reason, for since 1844, when the latest
examples were obtained off Iceland, the bird has been vainly, though
assiduously, sought. It formerly inhabited the shores of Iceland, the
Faeroes, and the Scandinavian coast of the North Sea ; while its
presence in the Outer Hebrides was recorded as long ago as 1684,
though the bird had evidently become very rare in Scottish waters
by the beginning of the present century. An adult male — now in
the British Museum, and from which the above illustration is taken
— was obtained by Bullock in 1813, from Papa Westray in the
Orkneys; in August 1821 or 1822, Fleming received a live bird
which had been captured on St. Kilda ; and in May 1S34 another
— now in the Museum of Trinity College, Dublin — was taken
alive at the mouth of Waterford Harbour. No other British
specimens are in existence ; but Mr. Henry Evans, during his visits

DQS GREAT AUK.

to the St. Kilda group, has collected strong evidence that about
1840 a bird was secured on the grassy slopes of Stack-an-Armin,
and was killed three days afterwards as a witch, in consequence
of a storm which frightened its captors. Remains have been found
in Caithness, Argyllshire, some old sea-caves in Durham, and
latterly in several districts of Ireland, especially near Waterford ;
also, abundantly, in Denmark.

Nowhere was the Great Auk so abundant as round Newfound-
land, and particularly on Funk Island, where numerous bones
and even natural mummies have been found, as well as the remains
of the rude stone enclosures or ' pounds' into which — between the
sixteenth and eighteenth centuries — the birds used to be driven by
French and other fishermen, who afterwards salted them down for
food. The " Penguin " or " Pin-wing," as it was called, also
frequented the coast of Labrador, and was recorded by Catesby from
the waters of Carolina in winter. Passing northwards, there is no
proof that the Great Auk has been obtained within the Arctic
circle ; or even above 65° 20', on some islands near the east coast
of Greenland, now blocked by drift ice. Off the south-west of
Iceland, which has furnished the majority of the skins and eggs
existing in collections, there were three skerries on which it appears
to have bred ; one of these — the Geirfugla-sker, near Reykjanes —
disappeared during a submarine eruption in 1830, after the colony
on it had been nearly extirpated ; Eldey or the Meal-sack was
systematically robbed until the last two birds were taken alive in
June 1844; and there can now be no hope that a remnant may
exist on the surf-encircled Geirfugla-drangr. A graphic description
by Professor Newton, of his researches and those of Wolley in
Iceland, is to be found in 'The Ibis ' for 1S61, pp. 374-399.

The eggs resemble those of the Razorbill in general coloration,
but some of them exhibit a distinctly green tinge, as well as an
approach to the scrolling often observable in those of the Guillemot:
measurements 4-9 by 27 in. About seventy-two of these, and
seventy-nine skins or mounted birds, appear to be in existence.
The food is said to have consisted chiefly of fish : and the bird's
powers of swimming and diving have been described as remarkable.
The note was a low croak.

As shown by the engraving, the bird in summer-plumage is chiefly
black above and white below ; Fleming's description shows that after
the autumn moult the throat and fore-neck became white. Length
32 in. ; the longest feather of the wing only 4'25 in. The incapacity
for flight was, of course, the main cause of the bird's extermination.

ALCIN.t.

699

^mM^.'.^^^

THE COMMON GUILLEMOT.

Uria TRoiLE (Linnaeus).

The Common Guillemot is more numerous than the Razorbill,
which it resembles in the localities it frequents, the times of its
arrival and departure, its manners, habits, and food. Near Flam-
borough, and at other large and accessible colonies, its eggs are
collected during the season in vast quantities, chiefly, it is said, on
account of the albumen, which is used in trade, and, except where
extirpated by persecution, settlements may be found on suitable
sea-cliffs throughout the British Islands, especially in Scotland,
Ireland and Wales.

This species abounds in the Faeroes, the south of Iceland, and
Norway as far east as the Varanger-fjord ; while it ranges northward
to Bear Island. In the Baltic it breeds on Bornholm ; there are
colonies on Heligoland, as w^ell as on the northern and western
coasts of France ; and Mr. Tait has obtained eggs from the Ber-
lengas Islands, off Portugal. The Guillemot seldom enters the
Mediterranean, but it frequents the Atlantic down to about lat.
30° in winter ; and on the American side it breeds from lat. 64° N.

700 COMMON GUILLEMOT.

down to New England. A form with a somewhat stronger bill
inhabits the North Pacific.

The Guillemot prefers open ledges or the flat tops of 'stacks';
and on these is laid a single egg, of large size. Its very variable
colour is generally bluish-green more or less blotched and streaked
with dark reddish-brown or black, though sometimes it is white
scrolled with brown, and often plain green or white without any
streaks or blotches, while a rich reddish-brown variety is less
common. The form is that of an elongated pear : measurements
3"25 in. by 2 in. The hen usually sits facing the cliff, holding
the egg between her legs, with its point outwards ; if robbed
she will lay at least one more, similar in colour and markings.
Plenty of young are on the sea by the third week in July, and
by the end of August or early in September both parents and
offspring have quitted the rocks for the year. In England rhis
species is often called " Murre," from the hoarse murmuring
emitted by the multitudes assembled at their breeding haunts ; by
fishermen it is known as "Scout," " Marrot " or " Tinkershere " ;
and the young bird is called " Willock " from its cry : whence,
probably, the word Guillemot, of French origin. Considerable
force is exercised in diving, and the wings are used for propulsion
under water.

The adult in spring-plumage (on the right) has the head, neck
and upper-parts of a variable brown ; undersurface white ; bill
blackish ; legs and feet smoky flesh-colour, webs darker olive.
Length of a male about 18 in., wing 7 "5 ; the female being rather
smaller. In winter the throat becomes white or is mottled irregu-
larly with brown ; as shown in the young bird on the left.

The Ringed or Bridled Guillemot, figured below, is now generally
admitted to be a variety, with an unusual development of white round
the eye and along the crease or furrow behind it.

ALCIN^..

701

BRUNNICH'S GUILLEMOT.
Uria bruennichi, E. Sabine.

This species may be distinguished from the preceding by its
larger size, as well as by its stouter and deeper bill, for which reason
it has been called the Thick-billed Guillemot ; it is also blacker in
plumage on the upper-parts. It was originally included in the
British list upon somewhat slight evidence, for no competent
observers had met with it on the coasts of Ireland, the Shetlands,
the St. Kilda group, or in other places where it was said to have
occurred ; though it seemed probable that a specimen from Caith-
ness was once in the Sinclair collection at Wick, and that a
specimen found by Macgillivray among some skins belonging to
the late Mr. Wilson, janitor to the University of Edinburgh, had
been sent from the Orkneys, while an example was said to have been
obtained off the mouth of the Orwell in Suffolk. But all doubt
was at an end when three identified specimens were obtained on
the Yorkshire coast, in December 1894 and January 1895, while
one was taken in Cambridgeshire on J^inuary 12th of the latter year.

The late Mr. E. Harcfitt's collection contained a Briinnich's Guil-

702 BRUNNICH S GUILLEMOT.

lemot which was undoubtedly killed near Havre in France. The
species is a straggler to the coasts of the North Sea during winter,
and sometimes visits the higher latitudes of Norway in considerable
numbers ; but it has not yet been recognized in the Faroes, while
even in Iceland it is almost confined to the northern districts. In
Greenland it breeds above lat. 64*^, and Col. Feilden has described
(Zool. 1878, p. 380) his visit to a vast colony or " loomery " in the
cliffs of Sanderson's Hope — over a thousand feet in height — a little
to the south of Upernavik ; he also observed two individuals in
August as far north as lat. 79°, after which this bird was not seen
again until the return of the ' Alert ' to navigable water south of
Cape Sabine. It abounds on Jan Mayen, as well as Spitsbergen,
and round the latter it seems to pass the winter, for at So° N. Mr.
Arnold Pike records its presence on January nth; while at Franz
Josef Land, where there are several "loomeries," Mr. B. Leigh Smith's
party met with it on March 9th ; and Dr. Nansen shot a bird in
lat. 82° 19' N. It is also plentiful on Novaya Zemlya and along the
Siberian coast of the Arctic Ocean as far as the waters to the north
of Bering Strait. In Bering Sea and the North Pacific, American
naturalists distinguish a larger sub-species, which they call Uria
lomvia arm ; but on the Atlantic sea-board the typical form breeds
abundantly down to the Gulf of St. Lawrence, while in the winter
of 1896 its range extended to South Carolina, and several birds
were captured as far inland as Indiana.

The eggs are, as a rule, somewhat thicker and blunter than those
of the Common Guillemot, but they are subject to the same
variations in colour, though in green specimens that colour is
perhaps a trifle more pronounced. The food and habits, so far as is
known, do not differ materially from those of the preceding species.

The adult in summer has the beak black, with a whitish line
along the edge of the upper mandible from the nostrils to the gape ;
crown of the head and nape black, with a greenish gloss ; remaining
upper-parts duller black ; secondaries tipped with white ; throat and
fore-neck sooty-brown, as in the Razorbill ; under-parts white, that
colour running more to a point in front of the neck than is the case
with the Common Guillemot, in which the white usually terminates
in a rounded arch. Length of a male 18 in,; wing 8*25 in. ; the
female being rather smaller. The dark throat is lost in winter, as
it is in U. iroile ; and in the young bird the bill is much smaller
than in the adult. White varieties have been met with by Co).
Feilden in the Greenland and Spitsbergen seas.

ALCID^.

703

THE BLACK GUILLEMOT.

Uria grylle (Liniic^us).

The Black Guillemot is chiefly an inhabitant of our northern
waters, and its occurrences on the east coast of England or as far
south as the Channel are infrequent, even in winter. At the
present day it is not known to breed in Wales, but a few pairs
resort to the Isle of Man ; while across the Irish Sea it is found in
small numbers on the rocky portions of cos. Dublin, Wicklow and
A^ntrim, becomes more numerous in the north and west, and can be
traced along the south coast to co. Waterford. In Scotland, it
appears to have abandoned some localities on the east side where
it formerly nested ; but it is common about the cliffs near Dun-
cansby Head in Caithness, as well as on the west coast of Sutherland,
while it may be called abundant in the Hebrides, especially on the
Ascrib Islands in Loch Snizort, Skye. It is likewise plentiful in the
Orkneys and Shetlands, where it is generally known as the " Tystie."

This species breeds in the Fasroes, Scandinavia up to the North
Cape, Denmark, and some parts of the Baltic, as well as in the

704 BLACK GUILLEMOT.

White Sea as far as Onega ; while on the other side of the Atlantic,
it is found from Massachusetts to South Greenland. The birds
obtained by Col. Feilden in Smith Sound to the north of lat. 82°,
belong to the form distinguished as Uria mandti, in which the bases
of the feathers forming the wing-spot are pure white and the black
has a green tinge ; and this abounds in the waters of Spitsbergen,
Novaya Zemlya, Franz Josef Land, and Arctic Siberia, round to
Bering Sea. There it meets with U. cohi/nba, another near ally ;
while further south, ranging to Japan in winter, the representative is
U. carho, which has no white on the wings. Totally black indi-
viduals have been reported from Hebridean waters.

By some systematists the Black Guillemots have been separated
from the other Auks and placed in the genus Cepphus ; and they
undoubtedly differ from the species already noticed, in that they
lay 2 eggs. These are deposited in crevices of cliffs, or, occasionally,
of old ruins, as well as on the bare ground under blocks of stone or
among large boulders, sometimes a hundred yards inland ; their
colour is white, slightly tinged with green or blue, and spotted with
ash-grey and several shades of brown : measurements 2 "3 by i'5 in.
The yolk is of a very deep orange-red colour. The birds return to
their accustomed haunts year after year, and both sexes un-
doubtedly take part in the duties of incubation. Dunn and Saxby
state, from observation in Shetland, that the young never leave their
birth place until perfectly fledged and able to provide for themselves,
after which they are abandoned by their parents. The food is small
fish and fry, crustaceans &c. ; the cry is shrill but rather plaintive.

The adult in spring has the beak black, inside of the mouth
reddish-orange ; irides brown ; plumage sooty-black, with a greenish
gloss, except for a patch on the wing-coverts, which is white with
a black bar — often concealed — on the basal portion ; legs vermilion-
red ; length 14, wing 6*5 in. The sexes are alike in plumage.
After the autumn moult, the crown is white marked with black, the
back is barred with black and white, and the rump and under-
parts are nearly white ; but mature birds are black in winter.
The young bird exhibits more white than in the autumn dress
just described, dark brown irides, blackish-grey bill, inside of the
mouth pale orange ; tarsi and feet deep brown ; but by the end
of September the inside of the mouth has changed to brownish-
pink and the legs and feet to a deeper tint, while in December the
colour of these parts differs only in degree from that of the adults.
By the end of June the bird is indistinguishable from the adult
(Saxby). Varieties are occasionally met with.

ALCIN.t.

THE LITTLE AUK.

Mergulus alle (Linnaeus).

This species — also called the Rotche or Rotge, names apparently
of Scandinavian origin — is a tolerably regular winter-visitor to the
northern coasts of the British Islands ; and, though less frequent
southward, it occurs as far as the Channel. After stormy weather,
examples have been obtained at some distance up the Thames and
other rivers, as well as at many places inland ; while many hundreds
were taken, and far more were noticed, on the British coasts, during
the exceptionally severe weather of January 1895. Birds in full
summer-plumage are sometimes observed, and one of these was
obtained on the Monach Islands, in the Outer Hebrides, on June
24th 1893. On the coast of Wales the species occurs almost every
winter ; while it is not unusual in Ireland.

During the colder months the Little Auk frequents the North Sea,
and is distributed over the Atlantic as far south as the Azores and
the Canaries. Although resident in Iceland throughout the year, its
only breeding-place there appears to be on Grimsey. in the extreme
north; but on and about Spitsbergen — from lat. ^y' N. to the
drift ice at 82° — its numbers are almost incredible. In 1896 Dr.
Nansen observed it as early as February 25th, off Franz Josef Land ;

3 I

706 LITTLE AUK.

while it is common on the west side of Novaya Zemlya, though
not known directly to the eastward of the Kara Sea. In Greenland
large colonies exist from lat. 68^ northward nearly to 79°, beyond
which Col. Feilden did not observe this species ; nor has it been
recognised in the Arctic regions to the westward of Bafifin Bay, or in
Bering Sea, and the Pacific. In winter it ranges as far south as New
Jersey, being well known to American fishermen as the " Ice-bird,"
from its partiality to the vicinity of bergs and floes ; and even as
early as August 15th 1884, the steamer, on which I was, passed
through a flock in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, where, at that time,
there happened to be an unusual quantity of ice.

The single egg is deposited in holes and tunnels under stones, so
far in that the Arctic foxes cannot reach it, or else in cliffs up to
2,000 feet above sea-level ; it is of a pale greenish-blue colour,
sometimes faintly spotted and scrolled with red : measurements
I '9 by I "25 in. Col. Feilden found nestlings just hatched on
July 28th ; and subsequently noticed that the parents had their
cheeks distended with a reddish substance, consisting of immense
numbers of minute crustaceans, which were evidently intended as
food for the young. In autumn and winter the Little Auk feeds on
animal offal, and is then fond of staying close to fishing-vessels at
anchor ; while on the approach of a vessel it has a peculiar way of
splashing along the surface of the water — as if unable to fly — and
then diving through the crest of an advancing wave. As Mr. Abel
Chapman has remarked, it swims rather deep, and very much " by
the stern."

The adult has a small white spot over the eye ; head and upper-
parts greyish-black ; chin and throat sooty-black in summer, white
in winter, and mottled with black and white in spring and autumn ;
breast and belly white ; beak leaden-black ; irides hazel ; legs and
toes slate-colour, webs darker. Length 8"5 in., wing 4'65 in. The
young bird resembles the adult in winter-plumage. White and
isabelline varieties are sometimes met with.

In the Southern Hemisphere there is a genus of small oceanic
Petrels {Pelecandides), the members of which bear a strong super-
ficial resemblance to the Little Auk in size, form, colour, and mode
of flight ; but on closer examination, they may at once be recognised
by their tubular nostrils.

FRATERCULIN.t:.

707

THE PUFFIN.

Fratercula arctica (Lintic^us).

The Puffin is the representative in the Atlantic of the well-
marked sub-family FratercuHnce, whose other members are confined
to the North Pacific, the head-quarters of the AIcce. Even in
winter it is seldom altogether absent from British waters ; while
from the end of March to early in April or May — according to
latitude — it begins to return to its breeding-places, which it leaves
with great regularity in the latter part of August. At the present
day comparatively few nest in the Isle of Wight, or on the mainland
of Dorsetshire, Devon and Cornwall ; but numbers breed in the
Scilly Islands, and myriads burrow in the slopes of Lundy Island,
which consequently received its name (Junde puffin, ey island) from
the Scandinavian rovers who formerly resided there. Many haunts
exist in Wales, as well as a few in the Isle of Man ; but the Flam-
borough range of cliffs, and some of the Fame Islands, are the only
resorts known on the east side of England. In Scotland large
colonies are very plentiful, and the swarms of birds going and
coming round many of the islands in the Hebrides, especially St.
Kilda, make the horizon seem quite hazy ; while the same may be

3 I 2

yoS PUFFIN.

said of the wilder parts of Ireland. During stormy weather the
Pufifin is frequently driven far inland, and an individual has been
known to fly through an open window in Brook .Street. London.

This species is the most abundant of the rock-birds which visit
the Faeroes, and there are vast colonies on the coast of Norway —
especially north of the Arctic circle — as well as in Iceland. A large
race from Spitsbergen has been distinguished by some ornithologists
as F. glacialis, and it is probably this which occurs sparingly in
Novaya Zemlya, and more plentifully on the coast of Greenland up
to 70° N. lat. Southward, our form breeds on the Atlantic coast of
America down to the Bay of Fundy, migrating in winter as far as
Massachusetts. Returning to Europe, the Puffin nests on many of
the smaller Channel Islands, as well as on the coast of France,
and I observed numbers off the Berlengas Islands in June : while
in winter the bird is not uncommon in the Mediterranean as far east
as Sicily, and it has wandered to the Canary Islands.

In May a single egg is deposited in the fissure of a cliff, or at
some distance down a burrow in short turf or loose soil ; it is at
first of a dull white, freckled or even zoned with pale brown or lilac,
but the rough granular shell soon becomes stained : measurements
2-25 by I "6 in. In some places the eggs are laid under stones, or
without cover on ledges. Incubation lasts fully a month, and the
nestlings, which are covered at first with black down, remain for about
three weeks in their retreat ; being fed with herring-fry and other
small fishes, carried transversely in the bills of their parents —
as many as eight at a time. Crustaceans and other marine creatures
are also eaten ; the birds going out to procure food with great
regularity, and flying long distances — sometimes fifty miles — on
the quest. When on land Puffins rest on the whole length of
the foot and heel, and walk with a waddling gait ; but they fly
rapidly, and can swim and dive well. They fight fiercely, sometimes
holding one another till both are drowned. " Sea-Parrot " and
"Coulter-neb" are among the commonest of the English local names.

A detailed description of the adult in summer is rendered un-
necessary by the figure; length 13 in., wing 6 in.; Spitsbergen
examples being larger. In autumn the horny frontal sheath of the
bill is shed in several pieces, and the bill is consequently much
smaller in winter, as well as duller in colour. The young bird has
a less developed and shallower beak ; the sides of the head are
deeper grey, and the space in front of the eye is sooty-black ; in
some cases the dark face is partially retained when the bird begins
to breed, in its third year. Albinisms are not rare.

COLVMBID/F..

709

THE GREAT NORTHERN DIVER.

COLVMBUS GLACIALIS, LinilffiUS.

This fine bird (sometimes called the Immer- or Ember-Goose) is
the largest of the three Divers which regularly occur in British
waters. The young generally come close to the shore, and are
therefore more frequently obtained on our estuaries and in our
narrow seas than the adults ; the latter being, however, occasionally
abundant off South Devon and Cornwall, and all round Ireland,
especially in the west. They occur along the west of Scotland, even
as late as the month of June, and from the north of the last country,
indeed, they are seldom long absent ; while there have been grounds
for surmising that a pair or two may have bred occasionally in
the Shetlands, where adults have been observed during summer.
There are many instances of the occu-.rence of this species during
migration on lakes and meres in various parts of the United King-
dom.

In winter the Great Northern Diver is found along the Atlantic

7IO GREAT NORTHERN DIVER.

sea-board of Europe, while it also visits the Mediterranean and
Black Seas, and immature birds are often found on inland waters.
It is well known in the Faeroes and Norway from autumn to spring,
but it seldom goes far up the Baltic ; and in the Arctic portions of
Russia and Siberia its representative appears to be C. adamsi, the
next species. The Great Northern Diver is, in fact, a western
species, and its eastern breeding-limit appears to be in Iceland,
where a pair or two are found on nearly every lake ; it also nests
plentifully in the southern districts of Greenland and up to about
70° N. on both sides ; while in North America, where it is known
as the Loon, it is found in summer throughout the Fur countries
below the Arctic circle, and down to Maine. At Great Slave Lake
it meets with C, adamsi \ in winter it ranges southward to California
and Mexico.

The nest — always near fresh water, and placed on an islet holm
or the margin of a lake — is usually composed of flattened herbage
and moss. The eggs, which are normally 2 in number, are usually
laid in the second half of June, and occasionally on the bare
ground ; they are olive-brown in colour, with a few darker spots, and
measure 3 '5 by 2*5 in. A distinct track is often made by the bird,
on its sliding and floundering progress to and from the water, and
safety is usually sought by diving rather than by taking wing. The
food consists of crabs, and largely of fish ; and a Diver has been
captured in the meshes of a trammel-net 30 fathoms below the sur-
face of the sea. The cry — frequently uttered by night — has been
described as a weird and melancholy howl, and at other times as a
rather pleasant trumpeting, while a low croak is also emitted.

The adult has the bill black ; irides crimson ; head and neck
black, glossed with purple on the upper throat and with green on
the lower neck ; about 1 2 white streaks on the upper throat-band
and 1 8 on the lower ; mantle black with white spots, those on the
scapulars being as broad as they are long ; belly chiefly white.
Length 30-32 in., wing 13-14 in. ; males being decidedly larger
than females and often weighing upwards of 8 lbs. here, while
reaching 15 lbs. in America. In autumn the black throat-bands are
lost for a time. The young bird has the feathers of the upper-parts
greyish-black, with paler margins : under surface dull white ; bill
brownish horn-colour.

COLYMBID.E. 7 1 1

THE WHITE-BILLED NORTHERN DIVER.
CoLYMBUS ADAMSi, G. R. Gray.

This Diver is the Arctic representative of the preceding species,
from which it differs in several important particulars. The bill,
which is yellowish-white at all seasons, is deeper and has the under
mandible remarkably upcurved from the angle ; the head and upper
neck are glossed with green, while the lower neck is tinged with
purple (the reverse of the arrangement in the Great Northern Diver);
the white streaks of the transverse band on the throat are not
more than 8 in number, with fewer than lo on the lower neck ;
the white spots on the scapulars are decidedly longer than broad ;
while those on the flanks and upper tail-coverts are smaller than
in the sub-Arctic species ; and finally, this high northern form is
superior in size. Some of these distinctive features had attracted
the attention of the late Sir James Clark Ross, who virtually dis-
covered this bird on Boothia in 1830, though it was only named in
1859 by G. R. Gray; but until Seebohm worked out and sum-
marised the points of difference (Zool. 1885, p. 144), its claims to
recognition were somewhat coldly received.

Early in the spring of 1852 an example, which is now in the
collection of Mr. J. H. Gurney, was shot at Pakefield near Lowestoft,
and subsequently the late Dr. Churchill Babington figured in his
' Birds of Suffolk ' an immature specimen, believed to be from that
county ; while one in winter-plumage, in the Museum at Newcastle,
was obtained on the Northumbrian coast. One was killed by the
late Mr. Booth on Hickling Broad in December 1872 ; and the Rev.
J. E. Kelsall states that a specimen was secured in the winter of

712 WHITE-BILLED NORTHERN DIVER.

1895-96 in Hampshire. Dr. R. Bowdler Sharpe lias recently
identified, in the collection of Mr. Bulkley Allen of Altrincham, a
young bird shot on Loch Fyne, late in the autumn of 1S93.

During the breeding-season the White-billed Diver appears to be
circumpolar in its distribution. It may be this large species — and
not C. glacialis — that is found on the island of Jan Mayen and has
been observed in Spitsbergen; while in 1895 and 1S97 birds were
observed, by members of Mr. Pearson's Expeditions, at two places
in the southern island of Novaya Zemlya ; and the species probably
occurs in Arctic Russia. Prof. CoUett has shown (Ibis 1894,
pp. 269-281) that many individuals have been obtained in Norway :
and a young bird shot in Upper Austria in 1840 has recently been
referred to this species. In Siberia Mr. Popham was told that the
species was very rare on the Yenesei, but he received a skin from the
Boganida district, and Middendorff stated long ago that the birds he
obtained on the Taimyr peninsula had yellowish-white bills. Eastward
this Diver was found nesting on the Chuckchi peninsula, in 1879,
by Lieut. Palander of the ' Vega,' and it can be traced to the islands
of Bering Sea and Alaska. In the last it is at least predominant,
though further south, as well as round Great Slave Lake, it meets
with C. glacialis ; no intermediate forms being known. In winter
it ranges through the North Pacific down to Japan; while, as already
indicated, it is found in summer throughout America to the north of
the Arctic circle.

Messrs. Nelson, R. MacFarlane, or other explorers of the Fur
countries, give no special description of the breeding-habits of this
species, but in all probability these do not differ from those of the
Great Northern Diver. The two eggs from which Lieut. Palander
shot the hen-bird near Pitlekai, Chuckchi peninsula, on July loth,
averaged 3*65 by 2"3 in. The 'laugh' is said to be somewhat
harsher than that of its congener. The distinctions between the
two species have already been mentioned ; but it may be added
that the length of a male bird is about t^t, in., and of its wing i5'i in.

COLYMBIDit.

713

THE BLACK-THROATED DIVER.

CoLVMBUS ARCTicus, Liimjeus.

The Black-throated Diver is by far the rarest in winter of
the three species which annually visit the coasts of England ; and
the examples obtained generally prove to be immature birds,
although adults are sometimes met with as far south as the
Channel, and westward to the estuary of the Dart in Devon, or
occasionally in Wales. Few occurrences are known in Ireland
at any season, though birds with full black throats have been
recorded as late as the month of April by Mr. R. Warren from the
mouth of the Moy, and by Mr. L. Patterson from the neighbour-
hood of Belfast. In Scotland, as long ago as 1834 this Diver was
shown by Jardine and Selby to be a breeding-species in Sutherland,
and it is now known to be widely though thinly scattered over
the counties of the north and west ; and a pair of birds — with
their nest cut out from the soil, procured in Caithness by Col.
L. H. L. Irby and Capt. S. G. Reid — fill an attractive case in the
British Museum. Several of the lochs of Inverness-shire, Perth-
shire, Ross and Argyll, as well as many in the Outer Hebrides,
afford congenial summer-quarters, and Mr. T. E. Buckley observed
birds during May, June and July on some of the lakes of Rousay
in the Orkneys. Up to the present time the Black-throated Diver
is not known to have been obtained in the Shetlands at any season
of the year ; but Mr. Thomas Edmondston has recently informed
me that he identified the species on two occasions in the western
portion of Mainland, and has also received its eggs from that locality.

714 BLACK-THROATED DIVER.

The Black-throated Diver has been recorded as an exceptional
visitor to the Faeroes ; while in winter it is met with on the
coasts and inland waters of the Continent down to the Mediter-
ranean, Black and Caspian Seas. In summer it is decidedly rare
as a breeding-species to the southward of the German side of the
Baltic, but northward and eastward it is very abundant on the lakes
of Scandinavia, Finland and Russia ; while, by way of Kolguev and
the south island of Novaya Zemlya, it can be traced across Siberia
to the Pacific. In winter it visits Japan. Arctic America, especially
to the west of the line of the Rocky Mountains, is inhabited by a
form with a paler nape ; but our bird seems to occur over the eastern
area. It has not yet been identified in Greenland, Iceland, Jan
Mayen or Spitsbergen.

In Scotland the margin of a green island in some fairly large
fresh-water loch is usually selected ; the 2 eggs being laid in May,
often on a substantial mass of crushed vegetable matter ; they vary
in colour from olive- to russet-brown, with sparse spots of black or
umber: measurements 3*25 by 2'i5 in. In the Petchora district
Messrs. Harvie-Brown and Seebohm found a large floating nest,
partially supported by aquatic plants. Mr. S. Graham informs me
that he knows a mountain-loch in Argyll where, on three occasions,
the first and second clutciies of eggs were taken, after which a third
clutch was produced and hatched. Incubation lasts 28 days (W.
Evans). The cry of this Diver is loud and discordant, the flight is
said to be unusually rapid, and the food consists chiefly of fish.

The adult in summer has the crown and hind-neck ash-grey ;
upper-parts nearly black, barred and spotted with white; chin and
throat purplish-black, with an intermediate half-collar of short white
streaks ; sides of the neck striped with black and white ; under-parts
white ; bill black ; irides red ; legs and feet brown. Length about
27 in. ; wing 1175 in. Females are but slightly smaller than males,
and both sexes, when mature, have black throats. By the middle
of September the autumnal moult is completed, and the chin,
throat, and under-parts are then white, while the upper plumage is
chiefly ash-brown. The young bird has the hind-neck of a much
purer grey than the immature Northern Diver, which it otherwise
resembles in its general plumage ; it is, however, decidedly smaller.

COLYMBID.^. 715

THP: RED-THROATED DIVER.

COLYMBUS SEPTENTRIONALIS, EinilDeUS.

This species, the smallest member of the genus, is also the most
abundant in the British Islands ; immature birds and — in fewer
numbers — adults with the white throats characteristic of winter-
plumage being found on all our coasts from autumn to spring. In
April examples with red throats may be noticed, and these increase
in frequency as we proceed northwards ; until in Scotland this
Diver is found breeding, in variable though sometimes considerable
numbers, in most — if not all— of the Hebrides, and on the main-
land from Argyllshire upwards, as well as in the Orkneys and
Shetlands. To Ireland it is a regular visitor during the cold
season, and, in spite of the egg-collector, a pair or two sometimes
manage to rear their young on some of the loughs in Donegal. In
pursuit of fish this Diver frequents estuaries and is often met with
far up rivers, sometimes occurring on inland waters in winter as well
as in summer.

Northward the Red-throated Diver has been observed up tolat. 82°,
while it breeds plentifully in Spitsbergen, and throughout the Arctic
and sub-Arctic regions of Europe, Asia and America. In Europe
its migrations extend to the Mediterranean, Black and Caspian
Seas, though the bird is less frequently noticed on inland waters
than its congeners ; and Gatke has recorded, under date of
December 22nd 1879, a passage of large numbers off Heligoland.
Von Heuglin says that he has seen immature examples on the
lagoons of Lower Egypt in winter ; at which season the range of
this species reaches Japan, China and Formosa in Asia, and Mary-
land in America.

7l6 RED-THROATED DIVER.

When breeding, this bird frequents more desolate spots than the
Black-throated Diver, and generally prefers the margins of small
tarns or even pools — often at a considerable elevation — to islands
in a large loch. Sometimes there is a slight nest-border of heather or
bents, but usually the 2 eggs are laid on the trodden-down turf or
weeds, and so close to the water's edge that they are often moist
underneath ; their colour is olive-brown, spotted with umber :
measurements 275 by I'Sin. In Scotland they may be found
fresh from the middle of INIay to a month later, while more than
one pair of birds seldom inhabit the same piece of water ; but on
the Porsanger Fjord in West Finmark Prof Collett discovered fifteen
nests in half an hour, and also found that the male shared the duties
of incubation. The sitting bird lies flat down on the eggs, and, when
disturbed, glides into the water, and at first swims very low ; then,
bending the head and neck forward, it disappears with a gentle
plunge which hardly leaves a ripple ; but I have noticed that if my
stay near the nest was prolonged, the bird would swim high, snap-
ping the mandibles and turning the head with a jerky action, while
occasionally stopping to drink. Mr. Henry Evans informs me that
at times this Diver rises from a lake in the hills, and after ascending
to a" great height, rushes down to the sea at a speed which produces
a sound "like blowing-off steam," the descent terminating in a glide
just before the water is reached. Mr. Caton Haigh says that this
bird can sit, and even walk, in a fairly upright position. The note
is a harsh kark, kark, kakera, and is supposed to foretell wet or
stormy weather ; for which reason the bird is widely known as
the " Rain-goose." The food consists chiefly of fish, which is often
procured in sammer in open waters, at some distance from the
breeding-place.

The adult male in March has the crown and nape slate-grey,
streaked with white ; sides of the head and neck paler grey ; a long,
triangular patch of vinaceous chestnut down the middle of the fore-
neck : upper surface chiefly ash-brown : under-parts white, with
greyish-black spots on the flanks. Length 24 in., wing 11 "2 in.;
females being smaller. After the autumn-moult the red on the
throat is lost for a short time, and the upper plumage is spotted
and streaked with white. In the young bird the feathers are edged,
rather than spotted, with white.

PODICIPEDID.^.

THE GREAT CRESTED GREBE.
PoDiciPES CRISTATUS (Linnffius).

The Great Crested Grebe is more or less resident in England and
Wales on extensive sheets of water partially overgrown with reeds ;
such as the ' broads ' of Norfolk, the meres of Yorkshire, Shrop-
shire, Cheshire and Lancashire, Llangorse Lake in Breconshire, the
reservoirs of Notts, Leicestershire, Northants, Bedfordshire, and
Tring in Hertfordshire, Virginia Water in Surrey, and many similar
localities ; in fact, its increase during the last decade has been
remarkable. In Scotland, it is now known to breed on at least eight
lochs, as far north as Perthshire and probably Aberdeenshire ; while
it has occurred in the Orkneys, though there are few satisfactory
records from the Hebrides. In Ireland it nests on many of the fresh
waters, especially in the district round Lough Neagh ; while in winter
it may be met with on many parts of the British coasts. In Norfolk
it is generally called a " Loon," in Lincolnshire it was formerly known
as a "Gaunt," and in thenorth-east of Ireland its name is "Mulrooken."

This species is only a straggler to the Faeroes, and an accidental
visitor to Norway ; but it breeds in Southern Sweden, Denmark, and
on both sides of the Baltic ; becoming exceedingly abundant in some
parts of Russia, Poland, Germany and Hungary. Southward it nests
in suitable localities down to the Mediterranean, as well as in North
Africa, Palestine, Northern India, Central Asia and China, visiting
South Japan ; while it is also resident in South Africa, some parts of
Australia, and in New Zealand. There is no authenticated record
for any part of America (Ridgway).

7l8 GREAT CRESTED GREBE.

The nest is usually a mass of wet aquatic plants floating on the
surface of the water ; the eggs, which are sometimes as many as 5 in
number, are usually laid in April and May and are of a chalky-
white (with a green lining-membrane) when fresh, but they soon
become ochreous-brown from contact with the decomposing vegetable
matter : measurements 2*2 by 1-5 in. On leaving her nest, the female
covers them with weeds if time allows. Both parents are very careful
of their young, which repose upon the backs of the old birds just
beyond the insertion of the wings. The food consists of young eels
and other small fish, crustaceans &c. ; while tadpoles and frogs are
also eaten ; and feathers are frequently swallowed and brought up in
castings, together with fish-bones and other indigestible substances.
This bird may often be seen flying at a considerable height, like a wild
duck. Its call-note is a harsh croak ; the alarm-note being kek, kek.

The adult male in March has the crown and crest dark brown ;
stripe over the eye white ;^cheeks white ; tippet chestnut, blackish at
the margin ; upper-parts dark brown ; carpals and secondaries white,
and very conspicuous in flight ; under-parts silver-white ; bill ruddy ;
iris crimson ; legs and feet olive ; length 21 in., wing 7*5 in. Females
are rather smaller, and have the tippet and crest less developed ;
and after the autumn moult these ornaments are absent for a time
in both sexes. Little crest or chestnut-colour is shown by the
young until the second year. The curiously striped nestling is
fisfured below.

PODIClPEDIDiE.

719

THE RED-NECKED GREBE.

PoDiciPES GRiSEiGENA (Boddaert).

The Red-necked Grebe is tolerably common in suitable localities
along the eastern coast of Great Britain from autumn to spring, and
sometimes a great influx is observed, as in 1865 and again in 1897
in Norfolk, in January 1891 in Yorkshire, and on the coast of East
Lothian in the early part of 1895. In the Channel this species is of
irregular occurrence until Cornwall is reached, where, according to
Rodd, it is not infrequent. Turning northwards, it is decidedly rare
along the coast of Wales and on the west side of England and
Scotland, while it is as yet unrecorded from the Outer Hebrides ;
it has, however, been taken in the Orkneys and the Shetlands.
In Ireland only five or six birds have been recognised, at long
intervals, on the eastern and southern coasts. Examples in
breeding-plumage are sometimes obtained in our islands.

This Grebe is resident in the southern districts of Norway, and
breeds on some of the waters of Denmark, Northern Germany and
Holland, whence it migrates in autumn to our eastern shores. It is
also plentiful throughout the Baltic, and as far north as the reedy
lakes at the head of the Gulf of Bothnia ; while in Russia it is
found nesting from Archangel to the Black and Caspian Seas.
Over the rest of Europe it is chiefly known as a migrant, passing
along the Rhone valley, as well as by the Swiss lakes, to the
Mediterranean ; it also visits North Africa, and in Morocco
Col. Irby has seen birds so young that they must have been reared

720

RED-NECKED GREBE.

in that country. In Asia it appears to be found as far as Eastern
Turkestan and Siberia, where it meets with a larger form, distin-
guished by some ornithologists as C. holboelU ; and this is the
representative in the North Pacific, and North America in general, as
well as in Greenland, where it was first discriminated by Reinhardt.
A bird obtained in Iceland in December 18S5 may have belonged
to this form.

The nest is a floating structure, similar to that made by the pre-
ceding species, in the company of which the Red-necked Grebe may
often be found breeding in Northern Germany; the eggs are dull
white, and elliptical in shape, as are those of all the members of this
genus : measurements 2 in. by 1-3 in. This bird resembles its larger
congener in its general habits, diving-powers and food, but its note
is said to be somewhat louder.

The adult has the bill dark horn-colour, yellow at the base;
irides yellowish-white ; crown, nape and hind-neck blackish ;
feathers of the cheeks, chin and throat grey, those helo7v the eve
having white margins which form a strongly contrasted streak ;
upper-parts dark brown, with a conspicuous white patch on the
secondaries ; neck in front rich chestnut-red ; breast and belly silky-
white. Length iS in., wing 7 in. In winter the throat is greyish-
white; as it also is in young birds, which are duller in general
colour.

The figure below shows the appearance of the foot in the Grebe.

I

PODICIPEDID.E.

721

THE SLAVONIAN OR HORNED GREBE.

PODICIPES AURITUS (Liniiffius).

The Slavonian Grebe is a northern species, and its occurrence on
the southern and western shores of England seems to be irregular
even in winter, although the bird is an annual visitor in small
numbers to the coast of Wales ; but on the east side it is frequently
met with from autumn to spring, especially in Norfolk and at the
mouth of the Humber, as well as further to the northward. In Scot-
land it is generally distributed on both coasts, and in the Hebrides,
Orkneys and Shetlands it is even common ; but a statement that it
nested on some fresh-water lochs near Gairloch in Ross-shire was the
result of erroneous identification {cf. Ann. Scot. N. H., i. p. 171).
This Grebe is a regular, though not an abundant, visitor to Ireland in
autumn and winter, especially to certain bays in the north and west,
and adults have been obtained on the spring-migration.

It is only on migration that this species is found in the Faroes, but
it breeds regularly in Iceland, Scandinavia and Russia, and sparsely
in Denmark ; while in the colder months it is known throughout the
rest of Europe, down to the Mediterranean, where, however, it is
rare. In Asia, it ranges across Siberia to Japan, and about as far
south as lat. 24° N. during the cold season; in America, it is common

3 K

722 SLAVONIAN OR HORNED GREBE.

in Alaska and throughout the Fur countries in summer, visiting the
northern portions of tlie United States in winter, and occasionally
wandering to the Bermudas. Young birds have been met with in
the southern part of Greenland ; and an adult female was obtained
by the Austro-Hungarian Expedition on June 23rd on the Island of
Jan Alayen, the most northern occurrence on record.

The nest, composed of reeds and other aquatic plants, is usually
rather large and floats on the surface of the water, but Dr. Kriiper
says that he has found it in a tussock of grass, and once on a stone.
The eggs 2-4, or sometimes 5 in number, are of a bluish-white
colour when first laid, though they soon become stained : measure-
ments I '8 by I "2 5 in. The female dives with the young under
her wings, when Proctor observed that the position of the nestlings
was with their heads towards the tail of the parent bird, their bills
resting upon her back. Messrs. Slater and Carter repeatedly noticed
the adults swimming under water after leaving the nest ; their legs,
which may almost be called terminal instead of lateral members,
giving them somewhat the appearance of large frogs. The food of
this species is similar to that of its congeners.

Full breeding-plumage is not assumed till April. The adult male
(figured on the left) has then a tuft of elongated pale chestnut
feathers on each side of the head ; crown, forehead, chin and tippet
black ; upper parts dark brown ; secondaries chiefly white, except
the three outer ones, which are mainly dusky, like the primaries ;
neck, breast and flanks warm chestnut ; belly white ; bill straight,
nearly black, except the tip which is whitish; irides red; legs and toes
dark greenish-brown outside, yellower on the inner surface. Length
1 3 "5 in. ; wing 5*5 in. The female is rather smaller and has less
developed head-ornaments, but otherwise the sexes are alike ex-
ternally. After the autumn moult the irides are paler, the crest and
tuft are absent, and the under-parts are chiefly white, the throat and
flanks being streaked with dusky grey. Young birds bear a general
resemblance to the adults in winter-plumage, but the cheeks are of a
duller white, while the flanks and belly are browner.

It is unfortunate that the specific name 'ai^ri/us, which Linnceus
undoubtedly used for the Slavonian Grebe, should have been diverted
by Latham and other authors to the next species ; great confusion
being thereby caused.

PODICIPEDIDiT,.

72:

THE BLACK-NECKED OR EARED GREBE.

PoDiciPES NiGRicoLLis, C. L. Brehm.

This Grebe is rather smaller than the preceding species ; and is
chiefly a southern bird which at intervals pushes its migrations in
spring and summer as far to the north-west as the British Islands ;
it also visits us — though more rarely — in autumn and winter, to
escape the severe cold of the Continent. Individuals in complete
breeding-dress have been obtained occasionally in most of our
southern and eastern counties ; and there is even strong presumptive
evidence that the bird has bred in Norfolk, for Booth had "a fuU-
plumaged adult and a couple of downy mites " brought to him by a
marshman {cf. Tr. Norfolk & N. Nat. Soc. vol. iv. p. 416, footnote).
Northward, this Grebe is fairly common on the coast of Northum-
berland ; beyond the Tweed, however, it becomes scarcer, though
it can be traced to the Orkneys, but not to the Shetlands. On the
west of Scotland the only authenticated occurrences appear to be
those of an adult on Loch Sunart in the spring of 1866, one in Skye
in January 1895, and a pair shot on the Nith. A few instances are
on record from Cumberland, Lancashire, and the Isle of Man; while
the bird is a regular visitor in February and March to the coast of
Merionethshire, and has been obtained in Pembrokeshire. In

3 K 2

724 BLACK-NECKED OR EARED GREBE.

Ireland two examples in full plumage have been obtained in June,
and a few birds appear to have been met with during the colder
months.

The Black-necked Grebe is merely a wanderer to the southern
portions of Scandinavia ; but Benzon assured Mr. Dresser that
it bred regularly near Thy, in the north-west of Jutland, and
Mr. Hartert says that it nests freely in East Prussia. Southward
it breeds in suitable localities throughout the greater part of Europe,
becoming abundant in the countries bordering the Mediterranean and
Black Seas ; while it is even more plentiful in North Africa, whence
it ranges southward to the Cape. In Asia it is widely distributed
over the temperate regions, as far east as the Pacific and down to
about 2 2""' N. lat. in winter. In North America it is represented by
the closely-allied /'. califoniicus, which has hardly any white on the
innermost primaries or the outer secondaries. Neither species is
found in Greenland.

Canon Tristram found this Grebe on Lake Halloula in Algeria,
"in societies more densely crowded than any rookery"; the nests
being " raised on artificial islets, frequently almost touching each
other, and sometimes piled on stout foundations rising from more
than a yard under water." Benzon states that in Denmark the nests
he saw were not floating amongst the reeds, but were on tussocks
at the edge of the lake, though in places where the water was deep
and clear; they were made chiefly of "moss," and with this the
female covers up her eggs on leaving them. These, up to 5 in
number, are yellowish-white when laid, but afterwards become
brown, owing to stains: measurements i'65 by t"i5 in. The note
is described by Naumann as a soft beeb or — in the pairing season — •
a reiterated bidder-, the food consists of fish, crustaceans, coleopterous
insects &c. The late Mr. Gatcombe told me that he had seen this
and other Grebes dive when in deep water with a leap, as a Shag does.

The adult male in breeding-plumage — assumed in March — has
the head and neck black, with a triangular patch of long hair-like
feathers of a golden chestnut-colour on the ear-coverts ; upper parts
dark brown ; secondaries almost entirely white to their tips, while
there is also a great deal of white on the four inner primaries;
breast and belly white, flanks dull chestnut ; bill black, upcurved in
front of the angle. Length 1 2 in. ; wing 5 in. The female is
rather smaller. After the autumn moult the ear-tufts and black on
the throat are lost, only a dusky band remaining on the latter ; the
plumage of the young resembles that of the adults in winter.

I

PODICIPEDID.li.

725

THE LITTLE GREBE.

PoDiciPES FLUviATiLis (Tunstall).

This species — familiarly known as the Dabchick — is resident and
generally distributed on the reedy streams, lakes and ponds of
England ; it may even be found nesting on some of the ornamental
waters of London, notably in St. James's Park. In Scotland it is
less plentiful, though found northward to the Shetlands, and west-
ward it nests in the Outer Hebrides, while it breeds up to an
elevation of 2,000 feet or even more in the Highlands; it is how-
ever more frequently noticed in winter, when there is less chance of
concealment and the freezing of the inland waters drives it to the
coast. In Ireland it is common, and breeds in every county.

The Little Grebe is seldom met with in the Faeroes and has not
yet been recorded from Iceland ; while in Norway its range seldom
extends beyond lat. 62°. On both sides of the Baltic it is rare, even
in summer ; but it is of tolerably general distribution over the rest
of the Continent, and is resident in the south ; as it is in temperate
Asia as far east as Japan, and also in North Africa. Very closely-
allied forms are its representatives in South Africa, Madagascar,
Southern Asia, the Malay archipelago, Northern Australia, New
Zealand, and North America.

The nest — which is somewhat large for the size of the bird — is
composed of and moored to aquatic plants, or shrubs ; and in it

726 LITTLE GREBE.

from 4-6 eggs, rather pointed at both ends, are deposited between
April and August ; two clutches being often produced in the season.
Their colour is creamy-white, until stained adventitiously ; and
their measurements are 1*5 by i in. The sitting bird, on leaving
the nest, almost always covers them with weeds, which are plucked
by the bill with astonishing rapidity. Incubation lasts about
20 days. The food is usually small fish, insects and vegetable
matter, but in winter marine animals are often consumed. Like
other Grebes, this species swallows feathers ; it also carries its
young on its back, as described in the cases of the Great Crested
and Slavonian Grebes. Prof. Newton has stated (Ibis 18S9, p. 577)
that a bird which could not have been more than twelve hours old,
crawled upon and crossed a table from side to side, dragging itself
forward by means of its wings quite as much as impelling itself by
its legs. The note of the old bird is a whit, zvhit.

The adult male in spring (represented swimming in the foreground)
has the head, neck and upper parts dark brown ; very little white on
the secondaries ; chin black ; cheeks, throat and sides of the neck
reddish-chestnut ; under-parts chiefly greyish-white ; flanks dusky-
brown ; bill horn-colour, yellowish-green at the gape ; irides reddish-
brown ; legs and toes dull green. Length 9*5 ; wing nearly 4 in.
The female is slightly smaUer. In winter the chin is white, and the
head and neck are clove-brown, the general colour being paler.
The young are still duller in tint, with dusky streaks on the sides of
the head.

In ' Research ' for January ist 1889, Mr. R. Newstead, curator of
the Chester Museum, called attention to some interesting points in
the anatomy of this Grebe and some others. The fibula is not
fused to the tibia, but is connected with it along the whole length
by a very strong ligament, so that by taking hold of the foot the
tibia can be made to rotate ; while there is a perforated and grooved
bone at the back of the tarso-metatarsus, which has three perforations
and carries eight tendons. Diagrams illustrative of the above were
kindly sent to me by Dr. W. H. Dobie, of Chester.

An example of the American Pied-billed Grebe {Podilymlms
podicipes) — so young that it exhibited longitudinal stripes on the
neck — was exhibited by Dr. R. Bowdler Sharpe at the meeting of
the Zoological Society of London on June 21st 1881, and was
stated to have been killed near Weymouth in the previous January.
There had probably been an accidental exchange of specimens by
the dealer, for he sold the bird as merely a Little Grebe.

PROCELLARIID^.

727

THE STORM-PETREL.

Procellaria pelagica, Linngeus.

The Storm-Petrel is generally distributed throughout British
waters ; and during rough weather it is often met with inland,
especially at the time of the autumnal migration, when individuals
are frequently taken whilst fluttering against the lanterns of
light-houses and light-ships. Unusual numbers occurred between
October 27th and November 4th 1883 on the east side of England;
and in 1886, according to Mr. Harvie-Brown, "a regular stream
of migration of Petrels seems to have taken place with the ' great
rush ' of other species on the 5th-6th of October, as they were
reported from several stations " — in Scotland. The same writer
adduces evidence that this bird remained on South Uist during
November, December, and January 1822-23; though as a rule it
does not voluntarily approach the land until May. In Scotland and
Ireland its breeding-places are numerous, owing to the abundance
of low islets and other suitable situations; there are several on
the coast of Wales and one in the Scilly Islands, while a few pairs
are believed to nest on an islet off Lundy ; eastward of which no
resorts are known in England.

Southward, this species breeds in the Channel Islands and along
the coast of Brittany, as well as on both sides of the Mediterranean
as far as the Ionian Sea ; while storm-driven examples have been
obtained far inland on the Continent. It visits the Azores, Madeira

728 STORM-PETREL.

and the Canaries, and has been traced down the coast of Africa as
far as Cape Town during our winter months. Returning north-
ward, we find it nesting plentifully in the Fteroes, and it occurs,
though it probably does not breed, on the coast of Norway, up to
lat. 69° ; it also visits Iceland, Southern Greenland, the Bay of
Fundy and Newfoundland, but is not known to nest along the
American sea-board.

As a rule the Storm-Petrel does not begin to lay until the second
half of June, though Mr. Turle found eggs on the Blaskets in the
last week of May ; on the other hand a young bird has been found
in the nest as late as October i8th, and in the Faeroes up to November.
A slight bed of grass-stems is sometimes made at the end of a
burrow in turfy soil, or else beneath stones, or in crevices of
rocks ; but the single white egg — often faintly spotted with rusty
dots — is also laid on the bare soil: measurements i"i5 in. by
•85 in. Incubation lasts about 35 days. A strong odour of
musk pervades the burrow and its contents ; and the sitting bird
utters a note which is syllabled by Messrs. Harvie-Brown and
Buckley as ti-tee-tick, repeated several times in succession. The
food consists of crustaceans, molluscs, small fish, and fatty matter of
any kind ; the last being frequently obtained by following in the
wake of vessels. In fast steamers it is almost impossible to capture
this and similar species, but when a sailing ship is going slowly
through the water there is no difficulty in entangling them by trailing
long threads — slightly weighted at the end — from the taffrail ; sailors,
however, consider this proceeding unlucky, although they do not
necessarily connect the appearance of these birds with foul weather,
as has been asserted. In captivity the Storm-Petrel has been kept
alive on oil for three weeks. This and some other members of the
family are known by sea-faring folk as Mother Carey's Chickens
(perhaps a corruption oi Mater earn); while their habit of paddling
along the waves is supposed to have been the origin of the word
Petrel, after the Apostle Peter, who essayed to walk upon the water.

The adult has the upper parts sooty-black, but the tail-coverts are
white at their bases, while the edges of the wing-coverts are slightly
edged with white ; under surface sooty-black, sides of vent white ;
bill, legs and feet black. Length 6"5 in ; wing 47 in. In this
species, as is the case with all the Petrels, the sexes are alike in
plumage. The young bird is rather browner than the adult, and
shows little or no white on the wing-coverts or vent. Mr. J. H.
Gurney has an albino example.

PROCELLARlIDiE.

729

LEACH'S FORK-TAILED PETREL.

OCEANODROMA LEUCORRHOA (VieiUot).

This species was first made known as a British bird by Bullock,
who obtained it at St. Kilda in 1818. Subsequently it has often
been noticed within our waters, and it is no\v met with almost
annually on the east coast of England, as well as in Wales. It also
occurs inland, especially after northerly and westerly autumnal gales,
from which fact Mr. Cordeaux infers that birds are driven right
across the country. Off Cornwall it is quite as common in some
winters as the Storm-Petrel, and it may be said to have been taken
in almost every maritime county of Great Britain ; while unusual
numbers were noticed on the Scottish coast in the autumn of 1891
(W, Evans). In 1847 it was found breeding in the St. Kilda
group, and later investigations have shown that further colonies
exist on North Rona and several islands in the Outer Hebrides ;
while ere long the species will probably be found incubating on
some of the Inner islands. In Ireland it has frequently occurred,
notably in September and October of 1891 ; and in 1886 its
egg was obtained by Mr. R. J. Ussher from Tearaght, one of the
Blasquets, off co. Kerry, the most western land (with the exception
of Iceland) belonging to Europe, and birds were subsequently
procured there as well as eggs.

Leach's Petrel has wandered to the coast of Norway ; but it has
only been met with on three occasions and at long intervals on

73° leach's fork-tailed petrel.

Heligoland, though storm-driven individuals have been taken on
the coasts of Germany, Holland, Belgium, France, Portugal, and
even as far up the Mediterranean as Sicily ; while the Canaries and
Madeira are visited. On the further side of the North Atlantic,
Leach's Petrel has occurred in Iceland and Greenland ; and it is
common in America from Labrador to the Bay of Fundy, ranging
southward to Virginia in winter. It is also found throughout the
North Pacific, breeding from California to Alaska and the Aleutian
Islands, as well as in the Commander and Kuril groups, nearer to
Asia ; and it visits Japan. So far as our present knowledge goes,
this species is restricted to the Northern hemisphere. No fewer
than twelve species of Petrels with forked tails are included by
Salvin in this well-defined genus ; and inasmuch as the bird which
the Americans call the Fork-tailed Petrel is a different species, I
have employed the name. Leach's Petrel, to avoid the perpetuation
of confusion.

The egg— white, freckled and zoned with minute rusty spots, and
measuring about 1-3 by -97 in.— is laid in a burrow or hole of some
kind ; usually in the first half of June. Mr. John Swinburne— and
afterwards Mr. Harvie-Brown— found a large colony nesting in the
ruins of a deserted village on North Rona ; and there the latter also
obtained three Storm-Petrels, though these did not appear to have
eggs. All the Leach's Petrels proved on dissection to be females,
but on Grand Menan and other islands in the Bay of Fundy, where
this species is very abundant, investigations have indicated that the
male takes part in incubation. When dragged from their holes
the birds showed little disposition to fly, being apparently dazed by
the light of day, and when released, they invariably sought some
dark retreat. A strong musky smell pervades this bird and its
burrow, as in the preceding species. The food consists of small
molluscs, crustaceans, and any greasy substances found floating on
the water. The note resembles the syllables petvr-wit, peivr-tvit.

The adult has the general plumage dark leaden-black above and
sooty-black below, with a shade of ash-colour on the wing-coverts
and the margins of the secondaries, which gives the bird a greyer
appearance on the wing than the Storm-Petrel ; upper tail-coverts
chiefly white ; tail sooty-black and considerably forked ; bill black,
legs and feet dusky. Length 8 in. ; wing 6 in. The nestling being
covered with long greyish-brown down, resembles a small long-haired
mouse rather than a bird, as neither the wings nor the bill are
visible.

PROCELLARIIDrE. 73^

MADEIRAN FORK-TAILED PETREL.
OcEANODROMA CASTRO (Harcourt).

An example of this species was picked up dead on the beach at
Littlestone in Kent, on the 5th of December 1895, and was
examined in the flesh by Mr. Boyd Alexander, to whom it now
belongs. It was exhibited at a meeting of the British Ornithologists'
Club on the 29th of April following (Ibis 1896, p. 401).

This Petrel was known by the scientific name of Oceanodroma
cryptohucura (Ridgway), until Padre Ernesto Schmitz, of Madeira,
drew Mr. Ogilvie Grant's attention to the fact that the species had
been thoroughly diagnosed in 1851 by the late Mr. E. Vernon
Harcourt, who found it on the Desertas islets, and named it
Thalassidroma castro, because it was called " Roque de castro" by
the Madeiran fishermen (Ibis 1898, p. 313). This discovery
having been totally overlooked, the species was described as new by
Mr. Ridgway in 1882, from examples obtained in the Hawaiian
Islands, where others were subsequently procured for I^Ir. Scott B.
Wilson, by ^Ir. Francis Gay (Aves Hawaiienses, pt. iv.). An
American expedition to the Galapagos, moreover, met with this
species in that group ; while, passing to the Southern Ocean, there
are specimens in the British Museum from Australia and the Island
of St. Helena. In 'The Auk' for 1897, p. 297, Mr. W. Palmer
states that after the severe storms of August 23rd to 27th 1893, two
birds of this species were picked up within the limits of Washington
city. To continue the list of wanderers, Mr. Herluf Winge, in his
fourteenth Report of Birds which have occurred at the Danish
Lights, records that in 1896 an example struck the light-ship at
Drogden, a few miles south of Copenhagen, on the 19th of

732 MADEIRAN FORK-TAILED PETREL.

September, and another was taken at Kobbergrunden in the
Kattegat, on the nth of October. The principal haunts of this
species appear to be the waters and the islets of the Cape Verde
group, and those round Madeira and Porto Santo, notably the
Desertas already mentioned, as well as the Salvages, which also
belong to Portugal, though rather nearer to the Canaries, and on
all of these it breeds.

On his visit to the Salvages, in the spring of 1895, Mr. Grant was
rather too early for eggs, but he subsequently obtained one from the
Lime Island, Porto Santo, taken in June. It is described as " white,
with an indistinct zone of light red and faint purplish underlying
dots round the larger end " : measurements i"3 by "96 in. (Ibis 1896,
p. 54). In the Cape Verde group, Mr. Boyd Alexander found
young or much incubated eggs by the middle of March, and he
noticed that the burrows of this species ran further into the ground
and were also more tortuous than those of the Frigate Petrel which
was nesting in the same locality (Ibis 1897, pp. 96-97). At night
the birds flitted about, uttering a note which Mr. Boyd Alexander
renders as "I'm a nigger, I'm a nigger, I'm a nigger."

In this species the tail is only slightly forked, the outer feathers
being little longer than the middle pair ; while the upper tail-
coverts are white, tipped with black, and there is a considerable
amount of white at the bases of the tail-feathers. Otherwise the
Madeiran Petrel is very similar to Leach's Petrel. Mr. Grant says
that the female is decidedly larger than the male ; her wing averaging
5*98 in., whereas that of the male is 5 "8 in.

PROCELLARIID.t.

733

^-^X.

^:p^

WILSON'S PETREL.

OCEANITES OCEANICUS (Kuhl).

This remarkably long-legged Petrel was noticed and figured as
Procellaria pelagica by Wilson (Am. Orn. vii. p. 90, pi. Ix. fig. 6),
under the impression that it was identical with the Storm-Petrel ;
but the earliest scientific description of it was given by Kuhl in 1820.
In 1824 Bonaparte published a memoir on this and three more
species, with the distinctive characters, measurements, and figures of
each ; and, in ignorance of Kuhl's name, proposed to call the bird
Procellaria wilstmi, in honour of the distinguished ornithologist,
whose name can, however, only be handed down to posterity in the
trivial appellation. In his memoir Bonaparte says, " I have never
learnt that it has been seen on the coasts of Europe. I killed one,
that had probably strayed, near the Azores "; and this appears to be
the first printed notice of the occurrence of Wilson's Petrel near the
European side of the Atlantic. As regards the British Islands,
Gould observed this species in abundance off the Land's End in
May 1838, and in November of the same y°ar the specimen now
figured was found dead near Polperro in Cornwall ; an example
has been picked up near Chippenham in Wiltshire ; two have been
obtained near Freshwater in the Isle of Wight (the last in the
autumn of 1888) ; the late Mr. F. Bond recorded one from Sussex;
one was shot near Halifax in Yorkshire in November 1S74 ; and three

734 WILSONS PETREL.

have occurred in Cumberland, the latest of them in November 1890.
Mr. Henry Evans secured an example on Jura early in October
1 89 1, the first for Scotland. As regards Ireland, a specimen
which was supposed to have been obtained in co. Dublin, was
presented to Thompson in August 1840 by Glennon ; while, on
the ist and 2nd of October 1891, examples were secured in co.
Down and co. Antrim, respectively.

In France, three examples have been taken in the Gulf of
Gascony, all of them in December, while stragglers have occurred
on the coast of Provence ; I have a bird, in moult, captured off
Malaga on August 7th 1873; and Dr. Salvador! has identified a
specimen in the University Museum of Cagliari, said to have
been obtained off Sardinia. Mr. Godman found this Petrel
common in summer about the Azores, and Mr. Meade-Waldo
observed it occasionally in the Canaries ; while it has been procured
along the west coast of Africa as far as the Cape of Good Hope.
Examples were obtained by the ' Challenger ' Expedition, off the
Antarctic ice-barrier, on February 14th 1874; the Rev. A. E. Eaton
found the bird breeding on Kerguelen Island ; it visits the Arabian
Sea ; and it ranges over the South Atlantic from Brazil to Australia
and New Zealand, whence it can be traced across the South Pacific
to Chile and Peru. In the North Atlantic it is common along the
American coasts, visiting the West Indies and Mexico.

Nine eggs brought from Kerguelen by Mr. Eaton and described
by me (Phil. Trans, clxvii. p. 164) are of a dull white colour with
minute purplish-red spots, which usually form a zone at the broader
end : measurements i"3 by "9 in. They were laid in January and
February, in crevices and holes among shattered rocks or large
boulders. The birds arrived at their nesting-places in the latter part
of the previous November, but comparatively little was seen of
them by day, though towards evening they used to fly over the
water like Swallows, or follow the course of the valleys far away
into the country. In food and general habits this resembles other
small Petrels; in its anatomy, however, both Garrod and Forbes
considered that it differed so widely from the majority as to be
entitled to rank in a separate family, Oceanitidcz.

This bird has sooty-black plumage above and below, the quills and
tail-feathers darker black ; greyish-white edges to the wing-coverts
and inner secondaries ; white upper tail-coverts and thigh-patches ;
and a little white at the bases of the outer tail-feathers ; black bill,
legs and toes, and the webs of the last are yelloiv at their bases.
Total length 7 in., wing 6 in., tarsus i"4 in.

PROCELLARIID^. 735

. ^i'.^^i'

THE FRIGATE-PETREL.

Pelagodroma marina (Latham).

After a severe gale in November 1890, a number of sea-birds,
which had been washed up dead on the outside of Walney Island,
were taken to a local bird-stuffer at Barrow-in-Furness. Among
them was a Wilson's Petrel, and also an example of this species,
which was secured by the Rev. H. A. Macpherson, and sent up to
the late Mr. O. Salvin for identification (Ibis 1892, pp. 602-604).
On the ist of January 1897, after heavy gales from the south-w^est, a
young female was captured alive on the west side of the island of
Colonsay, and forwarded in the flesh to Edinburgh, where it was
identified by Mr. W. Eagle Clarke, and is now in the Museum of
Science and Art in that capital.

The haunts of this species nearest to our shores are in the
volcanic Salvages islets, already mentioned. On nearing that group,
says Mr. Ogilvie Grant, numbers of these elegant birds were seen
flitting along, close to the surface of the sea, with their long legs
dangling beneath them, and just touching the wvater. After landing
on the Great Salvage, he found that large colonies of this Petrel
were breeding on the flat top of the island, in burrows dug out in
the sandy ground, which were partly concealed by close-growing ice-
plants. Beyond this interesting locality, the bird is known to occur
off the Canary Islands ; while it was long ago described by Latham
from the South Seas. Gilbert, one of Gould's best collectors, found
it nesting off Cape Leeuwin, the south-west point of Australia, as
well as on Wallaby Island, one of the Houtmann's Abrolhos group,
and it is known to breed in the Chatham Islands, to the south

736 FRIGATE-PETREL.

of New Zealand, and in other similar places. The 'Challenger'
Expedition found it in burrows on Nightingale Island, one of the
Tristan da Cunha group, in the South Atlantic ; while as a wanderer
northward it has occurred on the coast of Massachusetts.

Mr. Grant obtained many specimens from the burrows on the
Great Salvage Island, and there, strange to say, the sitting birds are
often killed and have their brains eaten by mice, which also suck
the eggs. Out of twelve sitting birds three were males ; and the
most advanced eggs were but half-incubated on April 27th. These
were white, more or less finely spotted — and often zoned towards
the larger end — with dark red and purplish dots, but a few were
uniformly spotted all over the shell : measurements i "4 by i inch
{cf. Ibis 1896, pp. 51-53). On the Rombos islets, belonging to
the Cape Verde group, Mr. Boyd Alexander found that all the
incubating birds were females ; three males, which were also captured
in the burrows, being merely "keeping company." Here, as on the
other islets, breeding was earlier than in the Salvages. The birds
which were disturbed ran along the ground in a dazed condition,
and were promptly picked up by Black Kites ; in fact the general
evidence seems to be that this species is very nocturnal in its habits.
The note is described as grating, or grunting.

The adult has the crown of the head, nape, and a patch behind
the eye dark slate-grey ; forehead, lores and eye-stripe white ; upper
part of mantle grey, wing-coverts brown, quills blackish ; lower back
and tail-coverts clear grey, with some white at the bases of the
feathers ; tail-feathers black, ashy at their bases ; under surface
white, mottled with grey on the sides of the neck, flanks, and
under tail-coverts ; bill and feet black ; webs of toes yellow.
Length 775 in. ; wing, 6-25 in males and 6"38 in females.

PUFFINID^.

737

vV

.Va>-- ^-

THE GREAT SHEARWATER.

PUFFINUS GRAVIS, O'REILLY.

The Great Shearwater is a fairly regular visitor to British waters,
though it does not often make a very near approach to land. In
some years it appears in considerable numbers from August onwards
off Cornwall and the Scilly Islands, where it is called the "Hackbolt" ;
it is also not infrequent off Devon and Dorset, and in the latter it
has been obtained as early as the month of June; while on the east
coast many have been seen off Flamborough in September, and
several in Norfolk and Suffolk — one of them as late as November loth.
As regards Scotland, on July 13th 1885, the Rev. H. A. Macpherson
found a dead bird in Skye, and of late years examples have been
obtained off Tiree and at St. Kilda, while birds have been noticed
in other waters of the Hebrides, as well as off the Orkneys and
Shetlands ; and many frequent the fishing-banks near Rockall. On
the shores of Ireland this species has been captured on several
occasions, and under the name of " Hagdown " it appears to be
well known to the fishermen, who sometimes take it with a hook.

The Great Shearwater occasionally visits the coast of Norway, and
in November 1879 a flock was observed off Heligoland; while I saw
many off Normandy in the autumn of 1898. It has been noticed in
the Faeroes and in Iceland, and visits the south of Greenland, though
Reinhardt was mistaken in supposing that it bred there. Capt, J. W.

3 L

73^ GREAT SHEARWATER.

Collins States that on the fishing-grounds off New England and British
North America it arrives in May, remaining till October or Novem-
ber— according to the time of the first snow ; and, although in the
course of thirty years' experience in taking birds of this and the
next species for bait he must have seen thousands opened, he never
found one which showed any signs of breeding. The Great Shearwater
probably resorts to some of the islands in the Southern Ocean for
the purpose of reproduction; specimens having been obtained off
the Falkland Islands and Tierra del Fuego, as well as near the Cape
of Good Hope. Round the Azores and the islets between Madeira
and the Canaries the resident species is P. knhli (identical with
P. borealis of Cory), which visits the western coasts of France and
the Peninsula, and is abundant throughout the Mediterranean ; this
species is of a much paler brown on the upper parts, and has a
yellow-coloured and deeper bill.

Nothing is known of the nidification of the Great Shearwater, for
the egg figured by Hewitson from the Madeiran Desertas is that
of P. kuhli. The food consists chiefly of squid, and Mr. Gurney
found the horny jaws of small cuttle-fish in the stomach of a bird shot
near Flamborough; but any animal substance is greedily swallowed,
and, as already mentioned, this species is systematically taken with
a hook, to furnish bait for fish. When alighting this Shearwater
strikes the water with great violence — in a manner quite different
from that of a Gull — and then dives ; pursuing its prey under water
with great rapidity, and often tearing bait from the fishermen's hooks.
In the Atlantic it may be seen skimming the surface of the water
without any apparent effort, either wing alternately depressed or
sharply elevated ; but at times it flaps its pinions freely.

The adult has the bill dark brown ; head and nape ash-brown ;
neck whitish, when fully extended in flight ; feathers of the mantle
ash-brown with paler edges ; quills and tail-feathers blackish ; upper
tail-coverts mottled brown and white ; under-parts white, with some
pale brown running up the centre of the abdomen and on the
thighs; under tail-coverts brown; legs and feet pinkish-white in life,
drying yellow. Length 19 in. ; wing 127 in.

In 1822, Faber, who had never handled a specimen, gave the
name Procellaria major to a bird which was probably of this species,
and the name has been widely adopted ; but in 181 8 O'Reilly had
fully described the bird, with an excellent figure, under the name of
Procellaria gravis (Voy. to Greenland &c., p. 140, pi. 12, fig. 1).

PUFFINID^.

739

THE SOOTY SHEARWATER.

PuFFiNUS GRiSEUS (J. F. Gmelin).

The Sooty Shearwater was for many years considered to be either
a dark form or the young of the Oreat Shearwater, and there is
consequently some difficulty in saying to which of these species
many of the earlier records refer. Identified examples have been
obtained — during the months of our summer and autumn — at
North Berwick in Scotland ; near Newbiggin in Northumberland in
1897; along the coast of Yorkshire, especially off Flamborough ;
near Lynn in Norfolk; and in the Channel from Sussex to Cornwall;
but this species is everywhere much rarer than its larger congener.
In Ireland individuals have been secured on the coast of Kerry and
in Belfast Lough, while others have been observed.

This Shearwater has occurred in the Faeroes and once near
Heligoland ; while it visits the coasts of France, and has been
recorded from Portugal. It is generally distributed over the North
Atlantic, and is well known as the " Black Hagdon " on the North
American fishing-banks, where, however, Capt. Collins says that it
is far less plentiful than the Cireat Shearwater. All its breeding-
haunts appear to be in the southern hemisphere, and it is from the
Chatham group and other islands and coasts in New Zealand waters
that our knowledge of its nidification is derived. In the Pacific
Mr. A. A. Lane met with this species in vast numbers on the coast
of Chile in the early part of November, probably on the way to their

3 L 2

74° SOOTY SHEARWATER.

breeding-places ; while it ranges northward to California and the
Kuril Islands during the summer of the northern hemisphere.

According to the experience of Mr. Travers in the Chatham
Islands, this species makes, in the peaty ground, a burrow which runs
horizontally for about three or four feet and then turns to the
right or left; while a slight nest of twigs and leaves at the extremity
serves as a receptacle for the single white egg. From a series of
measurements given by Dr. H. O. Forbes, the average appears to be
3 in. by 2 in. On the island of Kapiti, off New Zealand, this
species was found breeding in February and even as late as March.
The male assists in the work of incubation, and the young birds,
which are very fat, are esteemed a delicacy by the Maories, who
also hold them over their mouths in order to swallow the oily matter
which is disgorged. The old birds roost on the shore, and are very
noisy during the night. The food of this species is probably of the
same nature as that of its congeners.

The adult male has the head, neck, and back dark brown, with
lighter margins to the feathers of the latter; quills and tail-feathers
blackish ; under-parts of a rather greyer brown, each feather being
paler in the centre than at the edge ; bill dark brown, paler at the
base of the lower mandible ; legs — in fresh specimens — blackish on
the outer side and lilac-grey within. Average length 18 in., wing
12 in. ; the female being slightly smaller. The young scarcely
differ from the adults, except in the greater freshness of plumage ;
and this remark applies to nearly all the Petrels. On the wing this
bird looks verv black at a distance.

PUFFINID.^.

741

r^ — '^^

^ "^^3-* -

THE MANX SHEARWATER.

PuFFiNUS ANGLORUM (Temminck).

THE LEVANTINE SHEARWATER.

PUFFINUS YELKOUANUS (Accrbi).

This species is widely distributed over British waters throughout
the year ; and in spring it resorts to many of the most retired parts
of our coasts, especially turfy islands and lofty cliffs with ledges,
in which it burrows. It owes its trivial name to Ray, who calls
it the " Puffin of the Isle of Man " in Willughby's ' Ornithology,'
and until a comparatively recent date it was abundant on the 'Calf
of Man. Southward it nests on the coast of Wales, notably on
Skomer off Pembrokeshire ; perhaps also on Lundy, where it is well
known as the "Cuckle"; and in the Scilly group, off Cornwall,
where it is termed " Skidden " and " Crew." On the east side of
the mainland of Great Britain, though the bird is plentiful, especially
near fishing-banks, no nesting-places are known ; but there are
several in the Orkneys and Shetlands, where the " Lyrie," as the
bird is called, is highly appreciated as an article of food by the
natives, who are amusingly secretive and even wilfully inaccurate on
the subject. A large colony exists on Eigg, and there are several
which are smaller in other islands of the Inner Hebrides, as well
as a few in the Outer group. As regards Ireland, Rathlin Island,
the islets and coasts of Donegal and Mayo, the Kerry Skelligs,
the Saltees, and some stations in St. George's Channel may be

742 MANX SHEARWATER.

mentioned ; and there are probably many others. In Erse and
Gaelic the bird's usual name is " Fachach."

This Shearwater breeds in considerable numbers in the Faeroes, and
is met with on the coast of Norway, as well as throughout the North
Sea ; it is also plentiful in the south-west of Iceland, and has
occurred in South Greenland ; while it is recorded from the Azores,
Madeira and the Canaries. In American waters the Manx Shear-
water appears to be rare, and Capt. Collins has not observed it on
the fishing-grounds ; but I saw two examples outside the Straits of
Belle Isle on x-iugust 13- 14th 1884, looking very black as compared
with the Great Shearwater, and a bird from Brazil (formerly in my
collection) is in the British Museum.

The single white egg is deposited in a slight nest of dry grass at
the end of a burrow, and is smooth in texture, with little of the
musky odour which is so pronounced in that of the Fulmar: measure-
ments 2 "4 by I "65 in. Incubation, in which the male takes part,
sometimes commences early in May ; while the nestling remains in
its home until long after it is fully fiedged, becoming enormously fat.
The food consists of surface-fish, offal, small cuttle-fish &:c. ; the oil
vomited by the bird is green, but leaves a yellow stain. The flight
is rapid and skimming, but — contrary to a popular idea — this
species often settles on the sea ; and it dives freely, remaining
under water for about 20 seconds. It is usually nocturnal or
crepuscular in its habits, but large flocks may also be seen by
•day. The note is cuck-cuck-do, generally repeated three times.

The adult has the crown, nape, and upper parts sooty-black ;
under-parts white ; sides of the neck mottled with greyish-brown ;
behind the thighs a patch of sooty-brown ; bill blackish-brown, paler
at the base ; legs and feet flesh-coloured, the outer toes darker.
Total length 15 in. ; wing 9-5 in. The young bird resembles the
adult and has white under-parts.

The Levantine Shearwater is the representative of our bird
throughout the Mediterranean, and is the well-known ame damnce
of the Bosphorus. Two examples from Devon are in the British
Museum, and Mr. J. H. Gurney has one from that county ; while I
believe that another was obtained off" Northumberland by the late
John Hancock, and one, procured off Scarborough on February 5th
1899, was sent in the flesh to the British Museum. It is browner
in tint than our Manx Shearwater, and not only are the under tail-
coverts and flanks dusky-brown, but the immature bird is dusky on
the bell}' ; it is moreover a larger species throughout; wing 10 in.

PUFFINID^. 743

•^r^

THE LITTLE DUSKY SHEARWATER.

PUFFINUS ASSIMILIS, Gould.

The subject of this illustration was brought to Yarrell by Mr. B.
Blackburn of Yalentia Harbour in co. Kerry, who afterwards sent a
note to the effect that the bird flew on board a small sloop in that
vicinity late in the evening of May nth 1S53. This specimen was
exhibited at a meeting of the Linnean Society in the following
June, and is now in the Dublin Museum. In ' The Zoologist ' for
1858 the late Mr. H. Stevenson stated that he had examined a
■ second example, which was found dead on the Earsham estate, near
Bungay in Suffolk, about April loth of the above year; and this,
the property of Capt. Meade, of Earsham Hall, was exhibited by
the late Mr. Osbert Salvin, at a meeting of the Zoological Society on
May i6th 1882. According to the original account, the bird had
probably been driven inland by a gale and had come in contact with
a tree, since it had a wound on one side of the head as if from a
violent blow. Both these specimens were originally referred to the
Dusky Shearwater, Fuffinus obscuriis ; but in the ist Edition of this
work it was hinted that the names would probably have to be uiter-
changed, in view of later knowledge and increased material. Through
the kindness of the owners, a re-examination of both examples has
taken place, with the result that our visitors prove to be P. assimilis.
This small Shearwater breeds on the islets of the Madeiran group,
especially the Desertas, where the late Mr. E. Vernon Harcourt, and
subsequently Mr. Hurrell, obtained birds and eggs ; it also nests on
the Salvages, nearer to the Canaries ; as well as in the Cape Verde
Islands. Southward, it is found in the Australian and New Zealand

744 LITTLE DUSKY SHEARWATER.

Seas. Its larger and darker ally, F. obsairiis (described in the ist
Edition of this work), has a more extensive range, but as regards the
Atlantic it chiefly frequents the American side, and its most northern
breeding-place appears to have been in the Bermudas. It is true
that an example of P. obscurus, formerly in Gould's collection, is
now in the British Museum, and is said to have been obtained in
Devon, but there is no confirmatory evidence, and Gould did not
so much as allude to the supposed occurrence of the species in his
' Birds of Great Britain.'

On the Great Salvage Island Mr. Ogilvie Grant procured downy
young in various stages ; also one late egg, almost fresh, pure white,
perfectly oval in shape, and large for the size of the bird : measure-
ments I '9 by I '35. On some islets in the Cape Verde group Mr.
Boyd Alexander found this species breeding, not only in holes, but
beneath rocky boulders and in small clefts of the rocks ; and he
describes it as gliding like some large soft-winged bat past the camp-
fire, for ever uttering its weird cry karki-karrou, karki-karrou, karki-
karrote.

The adult has the upper parts slaty-black, with a bluer tinge than
in P. obscurus ; under surface, including the under tail-coverts, of a
pure white, which extends over the lower part of the lores and close
up to the orbit of the eye, the dividing line on the sides of the neck
being more definite than in P. obscurus : under wing-coverts and the
outer portion of the inner web of the primaries white, except towards
the tip ; bill, black; tarsi and toes blackish, webs yellow. Length 10 '5,
wing 7 '4 in.

I

PUFFINID.'E.

745

THE CAPPED PETREL.

QiSTRELATA H.^SITATA (Kuhl).

The subject of the illustration was observed by a boy in March
or April 1850, on a heath at Southacre, near Swaffham in Norfolk,
flapping for some time from one furze-bush to another, until it
got entangled in one of them, and was secured ; when, although
exhausted, it had strength enough remaining to bite the hand of
its captor, who thereupon killed it. The late Mr. Newcome, of
Hockwold Hall, near Brandon, fortunately happened at the time to
be hawking in the neighbourhood of Swaffham ; and his falconer,
John Madden, observing the boy with the dead bird, procured it
from him, and brought it to his master, by whom it was skinned
and mounted, and in whose collection it found a place. A detailed
account of this bird, with two illustrations, is given by Professor
Newton in 'The Zoologist ' [1852], p. 3691.

In the Museum at Boulogne there is a Capped Petrel said to
have been shot near that town many years ago by its donor, a
sportsman long since deceased ; but the pedigree cannot be
considered quite satisfactory. A Petrel of the genus in the Buda-
Pesth Museum has lately proved to have been wrongly assigned to
this species. No other occurrences are recorded from Europe, and

746 CAPPED PETREL.

in fact little is known of the distribution or head-quarters of this
Petrel. An example from Hayti is in the British Museum ; Paris
has three, obtained by L'Herminier in the island of Guadaloupe,
where, however, IMr. Ober failed to rediscover the bird ,; while
another in Paris and one m Leiden are from unknown localities.
On the Continent of North America a wounded individual was
picked up on a salt lagoon on the east side of Florida in 1846;
another was shot on Long Island in July 1850 after a severe storm ;
three are recorded in 'The Auk' for 1894 as having been obtained
inland after the autumnal gales of j 893 ; and yet another was
obtained in New York State in January 1895.

In an excellent article in ' The Transactions of the Norfolk and
Norwich Natural History Society,' vol. v. pp. 24-39, Col. H. W.
Feilden has summed up all that is known of the distribution of this
species in its former breeding-haunts in the Antilles ; and has traced
its successive disappearance from each, up to the last resort known,
namely on the Morne au Diable, in the Island of Dominica. There,
a coloured man, who had found the birds in their burrows in the
dense dripping forest, at about 2,000 feet of elevation, as recently as
1882, showed Col. Feilden the holes, but his dogs plainly indicated
that no birds were within, and the guide repeated that a species of
opossum, recently introduced, had destroyed them. Many of the
Petrels appear to frequent the land merely for the purpose of repro-
duction, after which they disperse over the ocean and can seldom
be obtained or identified ; while their breeding-seasons seem so little
subject to rule (within the tropics) that the best period for search
cannot be laid down. In case any of my readers should ever have
the opportunity of landing on the small islands nearest the coast of
Brazil known as Trinidad and Martin Vas, in about lat. 20^ 30' S.
and long. 29- W., they will probably make some interesting dis-
coveries in Petrels, even if they do not meet with this particular
species. It is no doubt nocturnal in its habits.

The adult has the crown and nape dark brown, hind-neck white,
cheeks and earcoverts greyish ; mantle dark brown ; upper tail-
coverts white ; central tail-feathers chiefly brownish-black, the rest
more or less white on their basal portions, but broadly edged with
brown ; forehead and under-parts white ; bill black ; legs and feet
dusky-yellow. Length 16 in., wing 11 '3 in. The immature bird is
believed to be mottled with brown on the forehead and to be duller
in tint on the upper parts.

PUFFINID^.

747

THE COLLARED PETREL.

CESTRELATA BREVIPES (Peak).

The subject of this illustration was presented to the British
Museum by Mr. J. W. Willis Bund, who obtained it with a very
satisfactory history. The bird was killed at the very end of November
or the beginning of December, 1889, between Borth and Aberystwith,
and was first shown to the Rev. J. M. Grififith, vicar of the parish of
Llanfihangel Geneu'r Glyn, who advised the man who shot it to
take it to the Aberystwith bird-stuffer, Hutchins, from whom
Mr. Willis Bund afterwards bought it. A short notice of the
occurrence was given by Mr. J. E. Harting in ' The Zoologist ' for
1890, p. 454, and a full account of the species and its distribution,
with a coloured figure, appeared in ' The Ibis ' for 1891, pp. 411-414,
pi. ix, from the pen of the late Mr. Salvin. At that time the bird
was known as CE. torquata (Macgillivray), but it subsequently
proved to be identical with the Procellaria brevipes of Peale, whose
name has considerable priority.

The home of this Petrel is in the Western Pacific, and southward
to the great ice-barrier in lat. 68°, whence Peale obtained his
specimen. John Macgillivray met with it on Aneiteum, one of the
New Hebrides, and specimens were subsequently obtained from the
islands of Tanna and Erromanga, as well as in the Fiji group.
" Macgillivray says that on Aniteum this Petrel breeds in burrows
on the wooded mountain-tops in the interior of the island, the
highest of which attains an elevation of 2,700 feet. A young bird,
not many days old, and covered with black down, was brought to him

748 COLLARED PETREL.

on the 14th P'ebruary, but he did not obtain any eggs. The native
name, he adds, is ' Katebu ' " (Salvin, loc. cit.).

The adult has the crown slate-grey ; upper surface rather darker
grey, with a brown tint on the scapulars, wing-coverts and quills ;
upper tail-coverts grey ; tail-feathers blackish, greyer externally ;
forehead and throat white, with grey motthngs on the cheeks and a
dark patch behind the eye ; breast and under-parts white, with a grey
pectoral band, or else, as in the Aberystwith specimen, generally
suffused with grey below the throat ; under wing-coverts and
axillaries white ; bill black ; tarsi and proximal half of the toes
(except the outer one) yellowish, the rest black. Length about 11 "5,
wing 87 in.

PUFFINID.E. 749

BULWER'S PETREL.

BuLWERiA BULWERi (Jardine & Selby).

The only authentic instance of the occurrence of this species in
Great Britain is that of an example found dead on the banks of the
Ure near Tanfield in Yorkshire on May 8th 1837, which was brought
to Capt. Dalton (son of the Col. Dalton who provided Bewick with
the Storm-Petrel figured in his ' British Birds '). This specimen was
described and figured by Gould in Pt. xxii. of his ' Birds of Europe '
(1837); but he did not include the species in his 'Birds of Great
Britain ' (1873) ^^^ omitted all mention of his former sponsorship in
the Introduction, which at one time made me suspect that later infor-
mation had cast some doubt on the statement. However, Messrs.
W. Eagle Clarke and James Carter took considerable pains to investi-
gate the matter, and were successful in tracing the identical bird,
which is now in the Museum at York. Further details are given
in the ' Proceedings ' of the Zoological Society for 1887, p. 562, and
also in 'The Naturalist' for 1888, p. 156.

The first published account of this Petrel is given by Jardine and
Selby (111. Orn. ii. pi. 65), who conferred on it the name of
Procellaria bulweri, after a Mr. Bulwer, who was for some time a
resident in Madeira, and to whom they were indebted for the
specimen they described and figured. Webb, Berthelot and Moquin-
Tandon state (' Ornithologie Canarienne,' 1 841) that this species is
very common on the small island of Alegranza, where it breeds in

750 BULWER S PETREL.

holes in the rocks, and is known by the name of ' perrito,' or 'little
dog,' from its cry ; while Mr. Meade-Waldo describes it as fairly
common, and breeding on all the Canary Islands (Ibis, 1893, p. 207).
About the year 1850 Dr. Frere obtained a considerable number of
birds and eggs from the Desertas, near Madeira, where Mr. Hurrell
also took a good many in 1851 ; while Mr. F. D. Godman gives
(Ibis, 1872, p. 162) an interesting account of his visit to those islets in
187 1. Mr. Ogilvie Grant met with the bird on the Salvages, and
throughout Madeiran waters. Leaving the Atlantic, we find this bird
in the Hawaiian group, as well as in the Bonin and Volcano Islands,
far to the south of Japan, and it has been obtained near Amoy.

Mr. Godman writes: — " W'e found plenty of Bulwer's Petrels
sitting on their eggs, which were in holes or under rocks, and usually
about as far in as one could reach with one's arm. They build no
nest, but lay their eggs on the bare rock. I did not find more than
one egg in each nest. I secured several birds and eggs, and kept
some of the former alive. It is curious to watch them crawling
along the ground ; for they cannot fly unless they get to the edge
of a rock ; they waddle along on their feet, and, when they come to
a steep place, use the sharp-pointed hook of their beaks to draw
themselves up wuth. They seem to dislike the light, and hide them-
selves under a rock or crawl into a hole as soon as possible ; I never
saw one of this species flying about in the daytime, though some of
the smaller ones are common enough." The egg is pure white :
measurements 17 by 1-2 in.

The adult has the plumage almost uniformly brownish-black, paler
on the edges of the great wing-coverts ; tail much graduated and
cuneate ; bill black ; legs and toes reddish-brown, webs dusky.
Length 11 in., wing 8 in. It is a highly specialized form, with only
one near ally, Buhveria inacgillivrayi, from Fijian waters.

Examples of the Petrel familiarly known as the Cape Pigeon
{^Daption capensis) are recorded by More from the neighbourhood
of Dublin on October 30th 1881, by the Rev. M. A. Mathew from
near Bournemouth (Zool. 1894, p. 396), and by Mr. Salter from
the Dovey in 1879 (Zool. 1895, p. 254). This species belongs
essentially to the southern hemisphere, and I am not aware that it
has ever been proved to follow ships across the equator ; but the
ease and frequency of its capture with hook and line are notorious,
and many birds have been carried hundreds and thousands of miles
before being liberated. I do not believe that this species has ever
wandered to the United Kingdom.

PUFFINIDi*:.

751

THE FULMAR.

FuLMARUS GLACiALis (Linnffius).

This Petrel is seldom met with near the southern and western
coasts of England except during the colder months, and even then
chiefly after tempestuous weather, when it is sometimes driven far
inland ; but on the fishing-grounds about thirty miles off the east
coast it is by no means uncommon, and, when the herring-nets
are being hauled, birds are sometimes taken by the hand, owing
to their voracity. In Ireland few examples have actually been
obtained, but I have seen plenty within eight hours by steamer from
Lough Foyle. In Scotland, where the Fulmar is frequently observed
in winter, it has long been known to breed in the St. Kilda group,
and has been seen in summer round the Flannans and North Rona;
while in the Shetlands, where it began to nest on Foula in June 1878,
it has now spread to Papa Stour, Esha Ness, and two places in Unst,
and had reached the Noup of Noss by the summer of 1898.

In the Faeroes, where the Fulmar was first noticed as a breeding-
species about 1839, it is now common. Judging by the descriptions

752 FULMAR.

of the older ornithologists, as well as by specimens, it would appear
that, until recently, the birds found nesting as far north as that
group had white under-parts, and their young in the first plumage
resembled them — as I pointed out in ' Yarrell,' vol. iv. p. 5, as long
ago as 1884; but further north a form with greyish under-parts
had also been observed, and this phase seems to be making its way
southward, even to the Scottish islands. In Iceland, where the
species is very common, the grey race is said to predominate in the
north, and the same is the case on the western side of Davis Strait
and Bafifin Bay, though at Ovifak in Greenland the light-breasted
bird nests in myriads ; round Spitsbergen both forms occur, but the
grey-breasted bird forms a large majority ; one or both phases breed
on Franz Josef Land; while a Fulmar of some kind was met with by
Mr. Popham in long. 77° E. in the Kara Sea, as well as by Dr. Nansen
in long. 130'^ E., and far to the north of the Lena delta. Bering Sea
is inhabited by F. rodgersi ; and F. gli/pischa, which has a light and
a dark phase, frequents the North Pacific. In winter the Fulmar
has been met with about as far south as lat. 43° in European waters,
and in America it is well known as the " Noddy " on the fishing-
banks off Massachusetts and Maine.

The single egg is laid on a ledge or in a slight excavation on the
grassy shelf of a lofty cliff; its shell — which is roughly granulated
and has a strong musky smell — is at first pure white, with occa-
sionally a few minute reddish-brown spots : measurements 2 "9
by I '9 in. Both sexes incubate, and a low croon is sometimes
uttered. Large numbers of birds are annually taken by the St.
Kildans. who make use of the clear amber-coloured oil which the
bird vomits on being seized, and with which it nourishes the young.
The Fulmar is a constant attendant on whalers, sealers &c. — who
know it as the " MoUymawk " — in order to obtain fatty substances
and animal offal : but I never saw it take any food while on the
wing, and it always settles on the water to feed, just as an Albatross
does. The pinions are often flapped slowly in an owl-like manner,
but in scudding they are held very straight — a peculiarity by which
the Fulmar may easily be distinguished from a Gull at a distance.

The adult has the mantle and tail grey, quills dusky ; head, neck
and under-parts either white or of varying shades of grey ; front part
of the bill yellow, sides yellowish-white, nasal tubes olive-colour ;
legs and feet ash-colour. Length 19 in.; wing i3"25 in. The young
bird is slightly smaller, and has a darker bill ; that part being still
darker in the grey form.

DIOMEDEIDit:.

75:

THE BLACK-BROWED ALBATROSS.

DiOMEDEA MELANOPHRYS, Boic.

On July gth 1897, an exhausted individual of this species was
captured on the Streetly Hall Farm, near Linton, in Cambridge-
shire, and was sent by Mr. S. Owen Webb to Mr. Travis, a
taxidermist at Bury St. Edmunds (Ibis 1897, p. 625). Through
the good offices of the Rev. Julian Tuck, Col. E. A. Butler and
Mr. J. H. Gurney, the specimen was sent to London for the
inspection of Mr. Salvin and others. Mr. Southwell has neatly
remarked that after all the species was only revisiting the haunts of
its remote ancestors, for the bones of an Albatross of medium size,
from the Suffolk "red crag" near Ipswich, have been described and
figured by Mr. R. Lydekker.

For some years past it has been an established fact that birds
of this species occasionally reached the Northern Atlantic. On
June 15th 1878, Capt. David Gray, of the 'Eclipse' whaler, when
in lat. 80° 11' N., and long. 4° E., obtained a Black-browed
Albatross, which is now in the Peterhead Museum ; while in the
log of the 'Eclipse' for May 2nd 1885 there is the record of a
bird having been seen in 74° N., which, considering the experience
of its observers, may fairly be assigned to the same species. In 1S93
a Black-browed Albatross was shot near Mygganaes, in the Freroes,
and from a long account given by Mr. Knud Andersen, it appeared

754 BLACK-BROWED ALBATROSS.

that this individual had frequented the above island, and lived
amicably with the Gannets, for some thirty or forty years. On June
1 8th 1894, Mr. Harvie-Brown saw an Albatross of the size of this
species when about 20 miles off the Orkneys. The true home of
the Black-browed Albatross is, however, in the Southern Ocean,
where the bird is one of the most abundant members of the genus ;
multitudes breeding on the Chatham, Stewart Auckland, Campbell,
Antipodes and other Islands within about 400 miles of New Zealand,
apparently the head-quarters of the species. The ' Challenger '
Expedition did not find it breeding on Kerguelen, though it occurs
there, and throughout the South Atlantic ; while it is abundant on
the sea-shore and even in some of the bays of South Africa. It
wanders along the coast of South America, and has been recorded
from California.

Mr. W. Dougall (quoted in Sir Walter Buller's ' Birds of New
Zealand,' vol. ii., pp. 199-200) gives an interesting account of his
visits to some of the colonies on the islands mentioned. On one
of the Campbells the Albatrosses were nesting in hundreds, from
the region of tussock-fern and ti-tree scrub at 800 feet, up to the
top at 1,866 feet where undergrowth had become sparse ; their nests
of moss and earth being built up about four inches above the surface
of the ground, and the materials taken from the soil, in such a way
as to leave a trench all round the pile. The female never leaves
her nest during incubation, a period of about 60 days, and is fed
by her consort. Normally one egg is laid, though exceptionally two
have been found in the same nest ; the colour is creamy-white, with
surface spots of yellowish-brown : measurements 4"3 by 2*2 in.
This species feeds on medusae and moUusca, with any floating
refuse thrown overboard from ships ; and even the remains of a
Diving Petrel have been found in its stomach. In flight and general
habits it resembles the often-described Wandering Albatross.

The adult has a short slaty-black band before and behind the
eye ; back and wings brownish-black ; interscapular region cinereous,
shading into white at the base of the neck ; tail-feathers slate-grey,
with white shafts ; head and underparts white ; under wing-coverts
white, with a wide greyish-black border along the edges of the
wing; bill yellowish horn-colour, tip darker. Length 27-29 in.;
wing 17-19 in. The smaller dimensions suit a young bird, such as
the Cambridge example ; and in this the superciliary streak is not
very marked ; while the outer web of the outside tail-feather on each
side is conspicuously whitish. In this specimen the legs and feet
were described as "fleshy-blue."

APPENDIX.

White's Thrush (p. ii).

In 'The Field' for November 5th 1898, ^Slr. Peter Spicer,
taxidermist, of Leamington, stated that he had just
received an example shot at Packington, near Coventry.
Bluethroat (p. 35).

For SUECIA read suecica.
Nightingale (p. 39).

For the supposed Irish specimen, see Rufous Warbler
below.
Barred Warbler (p. 51).

For three (in Norfolk) read/«/r; and then add: — one, in
Norfolk, Rev. H. H. Slater, August 27th 1897 ; one,
near North Cotes, Lincolnshire, Mr. G. H. Caton
Haigh, September 5th 1897; one, Mr. O. V. Aplin,
Bloxham, Oxon, November 28th 1898.
Rufous Warbler (p. 73).

The first Irish example was shot at the Old Head of Kinsale
in September 1876. It is in the Museum of Queen's
College, Cork, and, until quite recentl_v, was supposed
to be a Nightingale (Ussher, Irish Nat. 1S99, P- 5-)-
Radde's Bush-Warbler.

(Inserted, with figure, as pp. 73*-74*).
White Wagtail (p. 123).

In the spring of 189S a considerable passage of birds was
noticed in the west of Ireland, and breeding probably
took place in co. Mayo.
Water-Pipit (p. 141).

An immature bird was obtained by Mr. Caton Haigh in
Carnarvonshire, on December 3rd 1897.
WooDCHAT (p. 153).

A young bird of this species was killed by striking the Black-
water Bank light-ship, co. Wexford, on the night of

J M 2

756 APPENDIX.

August 1 6th 1893, and its foot and wing were sent to
Mr. R. M. Barrington (Ibis 1899, p. 158).
Serix (p. 177).

A cock bird was taken and another bird was seen, near
Yarmouth, on April ist 1897 (J. H. Gurney).
Scarlet Grosbeak (p. 197).

See under next species.
Pine-Grosbeak (p. 199).

The female mentioned (Hnes 2-4 from foot) as captured
near Yarmouth, is a Scarlet Grosbeak and not a Pine-
Grosbeak.
Hawk-Owl (p. 305).

A female of the Old World form of this Owl was obtained in
Aberdeenshire on November ist 1898 (G. Sim, Ann.
Scot. N. H. 1899, p. 49).
Sparrow-Hawk (p. 334).

For seven (line 14) readyfe'^.
Flamingo (p. 395).

After a heavy gale from the south on 26th and 27th September
1898, a Flamingo was observed on the 28th on an estuary
known as the Traeth-bach in Merionethshire. There it
remained for nearly a month, and was shot by Mr. G. H.
Caton Haigh on the 21st of October. It was in good
condition and showed no sign of having been in
captivity (Zool. 1899, p. 29).
Pink-footed Goose (p. 403).

Read " Lough Swilly, co. Donegal " for "near Belfast" (2nd
line from foot).
King-Eider (p. 461).

A male, obtained in the Shetlands on February 24th 1899,
was sent to Mr. Harting in the flesh, and exhibited
by him at a Meeting of the Linnean Society on March
2nd.
Baillon's Crake (p. 513).

One, near Thurso in September 1898 (W. Arkwright, Ann.
Scot. N. H. 1899, p. 50).
Macqueen's Bustard (p. 527).

A female was shot in Aberdeenshire on October 24th 1898
(W. Eagle Clarke, Bull. B. O. C, No. Iv.).
American Spotted Sandpiper.

(Inserted, with figure, as pp. 6o5*-6o6*.)

INDEX.

(The English names of the species which are not admitted to the British List are
placed within square brackets. )

Aberdevine, 175
' Abubilla,' 285

ACANTHYLLIS, xix

AcaniliylHs caudacula, 265

mtdipes, 266

Accentor, xii
Accentor, Alpine, 95

— Hedge-, 93
Accentor coUaris, 95
- — — modularis, 93
ACCENTORIN.B, xii
AcciPiTER, xxiii
Accipiter brevipes, 334

nisus, 333

ACCIPITRES, xxii
ACREDULA, xiii
Acrediila catidata, loi
irbii, loi

var. caiicasica, 102

macedoiiia, 102

rosea, loi

tcpfironota, 102

ACROCEPHALUS, xii

Acrocephahis aqiiatiais, 87

inelanopogoii, 86

pahtstris, 81

phragiuitis, 85

stentoreus, 84

sireperiis, 79

iurdo'ides, 83

Aedon, xi
Acdonfaviiliaris, 74

galactodes, 73

/Egiai.itis, xxxiii
^gialitis asiatica, 537

caiitiana, 543

cicronica, 541

kiatico/a, 539

iiivosa, 545

seinipalmata, 540

vocifera, 545

AgelcEiis phtcnicciis, 226
Aix sponsa, 432
Alauda, xviii
Alaitda arbor ea, 251

arvensis, 249

brachydactyla, 255

calaiidra, 258

cristata, 253

sihirica, 257

ALAUDID.-E, xviii
Albatross, Black-browed, 753
ALC/E, xxxviii
Alca, xxxviii
Alca impeiinis, 697

tarda, 695

ALCEDINID/E, xx

ALCEDO, XX

Alcedo bengalensis, 280

ispida, 279

ALCID/E, xxxviii

' Alza-cola,' 'Alza-rabo," 74

' Ame damnee" (Levantine Shearwater),

742
Ammer, 209
AMPELID/E, xiv

758

INDEX.

AmPELIS, xiv
Anipelis cedroriiiii, 156

garritltts, 155

pha'nicoptera, 156

Anas, xxvii
Anas boscas, 423

discors, 434

obsciira, 424

strepera, 425

ANATID.^, xxvi

[Andalucian Ilemipode], 506

Angus, xxxvi

A nous stolidus, 655

ANSERES, xxvi

Anser, xxvi

Anser albifrons, 399

brachyrhymhiis, 403

cinereits, 397

• erythropiis, 400

■ ganibeli, 400

ritbrirostris, 398

segetiini, 401

serrirostris, 402

AXTHUS, xiv
Anthtis bertheloti, 133

blakistoni, 142

cai/tpcstHs, 137

■ cervimts, 134

Japonic lis, 142

htdovicianits, 142

— — maculatus, 132

obsciirns, 143

pennsylvanicus, 142

prat en sis, 133

rickardi, 139

riipestris, 143

spipoletta, 141

trivia lis, 131

Aquila, xxiii

Aquila chrysa'ctiis, 'i,2.'j

clanga, 326

• maciilata, 325

oriottalis, 326

Archibiiteo, 324

Ardea, xxiv

Ardea alba, 371

biibukus, 375

candidissinia, 374

cine7-ea, 367

coromanda, 376

egretta, 372

garzetta, 373

intermedia, yjT.

Ardea manillensis, 370

purpurea, 369

— — • ralloides, yj"]
ARDEID.i, xxiv
ArDETTA, XXV
Ardetta cinnamoinea, 382

mi nut a, 381

podicipes, 381

sinensis, 382

Asio, xxi

^j/i? accipitrinus, 295

capensis, 296

(?//«, 293

wilsonianiis, 294

ASTUR, xxiii

Astur atricapillus, 332

palunibai-ius, 331

Athene, xxii
Athene bactriana, 302

glaux, 302

meridionalis, 302

— — noctua, 301
Auk, Great, 697

Little, 705

Avocet, 561

' Bald Pate,' 174, 428, 440.
Bai'earica pavonina, 522
' Barker ' (Avocet), 562
Barn-Owl, 291

BaRTRAMIA, XXXV

Bartrainia longicauda, 603
'Beam-bird' (Spotted Flycatcher), 158
Bee-eater, 283

[Blue-tailed], 284

Bernicla, xxvi
Bernicla brenta, 411

canadensis, 412

leucopsis, 409

nigricans, 412

rujicollis, 407

' Billy-biter ' (Blue Titmouse), no
Bittern, American, 385

Common, 383

Little, 381

Blackbird, 13

Blackcap, 47

Blackcock, 493

'Black Curlew' (Glossy Ibis), 391

' Black Hagdon' (Sooty Shearwater),

739
' Blue-Darr' (Black Tern), 633
'Blue Felt' (Fieldfare), 7

INDEX.

75 9

\

' Blue i\Iaa ' (Common Gull), 671
' Blue Rock ' (Rock Dove), 481
Bluethroat, 35, 755

• Red-spotted, 35, 36

White-spotted, 35

' Boceta ' ( Avocet), 562
' Bonxie ' (Great Skua), 6S7
BOTAURUS, XXV
Botauriis capensis, 3S4

leniigiiiosiis, 385

stellaris, 3S3

' Bottle-Tit' (Long-tailed Tit), 102

'Boujir' (Puffin), 708

Brambling, 185

' Brancher ' (Goldfinch), 174

' Broad-bill ' (Shoveler), 427

Bubo, xxii

Bilbo ascalaphits, 310

blackistoiii, 310

igiiavns, 309

macttlosus, 310

sibiricus, 310

iurconiaiiits, 310

Virginian lis, 310

Budytes, 130

[Bulbul, South African], 144

Bullfinch, 195

BULWERIA, xl

Bulweria biiiweri, 749

inacgiHivrayi, 750

Bunting, Black-headed, 205

Cirl, 211

Common, 207

Corn-, 207

Lapland, 223

Little, 219

Ortolan, 213

Reed-, 221

Rustic, 217

Siberian Meadow-, 215

Snow-, 225

Tawny, 226

Yellow, 209

' Bunting- Lark ' (Corn-Bunting), 207

' Burgomaster' (Glaucous Gull), 680

' Burrow-Duck' (Sheld-Duck), 420

' Bush-Chats,' 26

Bustard, Asiatic Rufied, 528

Great, 523

— - Little, 525

— — Macqueen's, 527, 756

Butcher-bird (Great Grey Shrike), 148

BUTEO, xxiii

Biiteo borealis, 322

desei'torum, 321

lagopiis, 322

lineatiis, yii

sancti-johaniiis, 324

vulgaris, 321

BiUorides vii-escens, 386

' Butter-ball ' (Buftel-headed Duck),

454
' Butter-bump' (Bittern), 3S3
Buzzard, Common, 321

Honey-, 339

Moor-, 315

Rough-legged, 323

CaCCABIS, XXX

Caccabis petrosa, 504

riifa, 503

saxatilis, 504

Calandrella batica, 256

minor, 2.^(i

pispoletta, 256

Calcarius, xvii
Cakarins lapponiciis, 223

CaLIDRIS, XXXV

Calidris arenaria, 597
' Calloo ' (Long-tailed Duck), 455
' Canepetiere ' (Little Bustard), 526
[ ' Cape Pigeon ' ], 750
Daption capensis, 750
Capercaillie, 491
CAPRIMULGID.^, xix
Caprimulgus, xix
Caprimulgiis cegyptius, 270

eiiropccns, 267

TitJicoUis, 269

Carduelis, xvi
Cardnelis caniceps, 174

elegans, 173

viajor, 174

spinoides, 175

spinas, 175

Carpodaciis, 198

Carrion-Crow, 243

' Car-Swallow' (Black Tern), 633

[Cedar-bird], 156

Cepphus, 704

Certhia, xiii

Certhiafainiliaris, 1 17

CERTHIID.E, xiii

Ceryle alcyon, 280

Chaffinch, 183

CHARADRIID.K, xxxii

76o

INDEX.

Charadrius, xxxiii
Charadriiis doniiiiicus, 54S, 549

pluvialis, 547

' Chat,' 26, 86

CHELIDON, XV

Chelidon cashmiriensis, 165

lagopoda, 165

tirbica, 165

Chen, xxvi
Chen albatits, 406

c<t:rulesce)is, 406

hyperboreiis, 405

r(7J'J■^■, 406

Chenalopex (Vgyptiaca, 412, 422
* Cheverel' (Goldfinch), 174
Chiffchaff, 67
Chionis alba, 560
Choetusia, 554
Chough, 231

[Alpine], 232

Chroicocephalus, 670
Chrysomitris, xvi
' Churn-owl ' (Nightjar), 268

CiCONIA, XXV

Ciconia alba, 387

boyciana, 388

7iigra, 389

CICOXIID.^, XXV
CINCLID/E, xii
CiNXLUs, xii
Cinclus albicollis, 98

aqiiaticiis, 97

cashmiriensis, 98

melanogaster, 97

minor, 98

Circus, xxiii

Circtis (Eruginosits, 315

cineraceus, 3 1 9

cyaneiis, 317

hiidsoniiis, 318

Cirl Bunting, 21 1
Clangula, xxviii
Clangula albeola, 453

glaiicion, 451

islaiidica, 451

' Clinker ' (Avocet), 562

Coal-Titmouse, 105

'Cobbler's-awl Duck' (Avocet), 562

COCCOTHRAUSTES, XV

Coccothraiistes hiiniii, 172

japonic lis, 172

vulgaris, 171

COCCYSTES, xxi

Coccystes glandarius, 2S9
Coccyziis americaniis, 290

erythropthalmiis, 290

Cock-of-the-wood (Capercaillie), 491

Colaptes aiiratus, 278

' Colly,' Water- (Dipper), 97

COLUMBA, xxix

Coliimba intermedia, 484

livia, 483

cenas, 481

paliuubiis, 479

COLUxMB.E, xxix
COLUMBID.E, xxix
COLYMBID.E, xxxviii
CoLYMBUS, xxxviii
Colymbits adamsi, 711

arcticiis, 713

glacialis, 709, 712

• holboelli, 720

septentrionalis, 715

Coot, 519

' Bald,' 520

[Crested], 520

' Hollow-billed,' 520

' Skunk -headed,' 520

' Spectacled,' 520

CORACIAS, XX

Coracias garrnlus, 28 1

indicus, 282

CORACIID.^, XX
Cormorant, Black, 361

Common, 361

Crested, 363

Great, 361

Green, 363

Corn-Bunting, 207
Corn-Crake, 507
CORVID/E, xviii
CoRVUS, xviii
Corviis affinis, 242

capellaniis, 246

corax, 241

comix, 245

corone, 243

dailrictis, 240

fi'iigileits, 247

monediila, 239

pastinator, 248

■ sharpii, 246

■ tingitanits, 242

timbrinus, 242

COSMOXETTA, xxviii
Cosniouetta histrionica, 457

I

INDEX.

;6i

COTILE, XV

Cotik riparia, 167
— — riipestris, 168

COTURNIX, XXX

Coturnix capensis, 506

coinmitnis, 505

Japonicus, 506

• Coulter-neb ' (Puffin), 708
Courser, Cream-coloured, 533
Crake, Baillon's, 513, 756

[Carolina], 510

Corn-, 507

Little, 511

Spotted, 509

Crane, 521

[African Crowned], 522

[Demoiselle], 522

Cream-coloured Courser, 533
Creeper, Tree-, 117

Wall-, 119

' Crew' (Manx Shearwater), 741

Crex, xxxi

Crex praiensis, 507

'Crick,' 'Cricket Teal' (Garganey)

436
Crithagra chrysopyga, 17S
Crossbill, 201

European White-winged, 203

— - — Parrot, 202

Two-barred, 203

Crow, Carrion-, 243

Grey, 245

Hooded, 245

' Royston,' 245

' Water ' (Dipper), 97

Cryniophihts, 568

'Cuckle' (Manx Shearwater), 741

Cuckoo, 287

— — [American Black-billed], 290

[American Yellow-billed], 290

Great Spotted, 289

' Cuckoo's-leader,' '-mate' (Wryneck),

271
CUCULID.E, xxi
CucuLus, xxi
Cuculiis canorns, 287

riifiis, 288

Curlew, Common, 627

Eskimo, 631

Stone-, 529

Curlew-Sandpiper, 591
CuRSORius, xxxii
Ciir sarins galliais, 533

Cushat, 479
Cyanecula, xi
Cyauecula suecica, 35, 755
Cyanospiza ciris, 178
Cygnus, xxvii
Cygnus bewicki, 415

buccinator^ 416

columbianns, 416

iinmiitabilis, 418

miisiciis, 413

olor, 417

CYPSELID.^, xix
Cypselus, xix
Cypselus affinis, 262

apus, 261

iiielba, 263

itnicolor, 262

Dabchick, 725
Dafila, xxvii
Dafila acuta, 429
Dalmatian Regulus, 63
Darter, 364
Daulias, xi
Daiclias gohii, 40

iiiscinia, 39

Philomela, 40

DENDROCOPUS, XX
Dendrocopus leuconotus, 276

major, 275

medius, 276

7>iinor, 277

nuiiiidicus, 276

pubescens, 278

villosus, 276

' Deviling ' (Swift), 261
DIOMEDEID.E, xl
Diomedea, xl
Dioniedea melanophrys, 753
Dipper, 97

Black-bellied, 97

' Diver ' (Cormorant), 363
Diver, Black-throated, 713

Great Northern, 709

Red-throated, 715

White-billed Northern, 711

' Dor-hawk ' (Nightjar), 268
Dotterel, 535

Ringed, 539

Dove, Ring-, 479

Rock-, 483

Stock-, 481

Turtle-, 485

762

INDEX.

Dove, Rufous, 487

' Dowitcher' (Red-breasted Snipe), 623

Duck [American Summer-], 432

' Bimaculated,' 432

Buffel-headed, 453

Burrow-, 420

Common Sheld-, 419

Eider, 459

Ferruginous, 445

Golden-eye, 451

Harlequin, 457

Long-tailed, 455

Pintail, 429

Ruddy Sheld-, 421

Scaup, 449

' Spirit ' (Buffel-headed), 455

' Spoon-bill' (Shoveler), 427

Steller's Western, 463

Tufted, 447

' Whew ' ( Wigeon), 43S

White-eyed, 445

Wild, 423

' Dun-bird '" (Pochard), 443
Dunlin, 5S3

' Dunnock,- 'Dykie' (Hedge-Sparrow),
93

Eagle [Bald], 330

' Black ' (Golden), 32S

Cinereous, 329

Erne, 329

Golden, 327

~ — Sea-, 329

Spotted, 325

[Steppe-], 326

\Miite-tailed, 329

Eagle-Owl, 309
Ectopistes juigratorhis, 4S7
Egret, Eittle, 373
Eider Duck, 459

King-, 461, 756

Steller's, 463

Elanoidesfitj-catits, 338

Elauiis caritletis, 338

' Ember-Goose ' (G. N. Diver), 709

Emberiza, xvii

Emheriza castaneiccps, 215

cioides, 215

(iritis, 211

cit-rinella, 209

assia, 210

■ horiiilana, 213

melanocephala, 205

Emberiza miliaria, 207

pahtstris, 222

passerina, 222

pusilla, 219

pyrrhiiloides, 222

rustic a, 2.1"]

schccniclus, 2.2. i

Emberizin^, xvii
E7-eunetcs piisillus, 588
Erithacus, xi
Erithacus hyrcanus, 38

riibeciila, 37

Erne, 329
EUDROMIAS, xxxii
Eiidromias morijiellus, 535

' Fachach ' (Manx Shearwater), 742

Falco, xxiv

Falco cvsaloii, 351

amiirensis, 354

an at It III, 348

caiidicaits, 341

ceiichris, 357

colttiiibaritts, 352

ctivieri, 350

gyrfalco, 345

holhoelli, 344

islandiis, 343

nczvitis, 326

obsolettis, 344

pekinensis, 358

peregrintts, 347

pttnictts, 348

severtts, 350

sparveritts, 356

sttbbttteo, 349

tiimttncttltts, 355

vcspertintts, 353

Falcon, Greenland, 341

Gyr-, 345

Iceland, 343

Peregrine, 347

Red-footed, 353

' Stone-' (Merlin), 352

White, 342

' P'alcon,' 348
FALCOXID^, xxiii
'Feather-poke' (Long-tailed Tit), 102
'Felfer, Felt' (Fieldfare), 7
' Fern-Owl ' (Nightjar), 268
Fieldfare, 7
Finch, Citril, 178
Mountain-, 185

INDEX.

763

Firecrest, 59

' Firetail' (Redstart), 32

Flamingo, 395, 756

' Flusher' (Shrike), 152

Flycatcher [American Red-eyed], 154

Pied, 159

Red-breasted, 161

Spotted, 157

• [White-collared], 160

Fratercula, xxxviii
Fraterctila arctica, 707

glacialis, 708

Fraterculin/E, xxxviii
Fringilla, xvi
Fringilla Calebs, 183

maderensis, 184

iiiontifritigilla, 185

nioreleti, 184

spodiogenys, 184

teydea, 184

tint i lion, 184

FRINGILLID/E, XV

FrINGII.LIN.-E, XV

FuLiCA, xxxi
Fulica af}-a, 519

cristata, 520

FULICARLE, xxxi
FULIGULA, xxviii
Fuligida affinis, 450

a/nericana, 444

baeri, 446

cristata, 447

— — ferina, 443

ferinoides, 444

homeyeri, 444

marila, 449

marilo'ides, 450

nyroca, 445

Fulmar, 751
FULMARUS, xl
Fitlmariis glacialis, 751

gliipischa, 1^2.

rodgersi, 1^2.

Gad wall, 425
GALLIN.F;, XXX
Gallinago, xxxiv
Gallinago ccclestis, 573

ga Hill It la, 575

major, 571

Gallinula, xxxi
Gallimila chloropus, 517
galcata, 518

Gallimila 7iesiotis, 517

sandvicensis, 518

tenebrosa, 518

Gallinule [Green-backed], 51S

[Martinique], 518

Olivaceous, 511

[Purple], 518

Gannet, 365
Garden-Warbler, 49
Gare-fowl (Great Auk), 697
Garganey, 435
Garrulus, xviii
Garridus brandti, 236

cervicalis, 236

glandaritis, 235

minor, 236

' Gaunt' (Great Crested Grebe), 717
GAVI.E, xxxvi

GeCINUS, XX
Geciniis caniis, 274

sharpii, 274

vaillanti, 274

viridis, 273

Geocichla, 11
Gelochelidon, 640
Glareola, xxxii
Glareola melanoptera, 532

pratincola, 531

GLAREOLID/E, xxxii
Glaiiciditim passeriniiiii, 302
Glead, Gled (Kite), 335
Goatsucker, 268
Godwit, Bar-tailed, 623

Black-tailed, 625

Golden-crested Wren, 57
Golden-eye, 448, 451

[Barrow's], 451

Golden Oriole, 145
Goldfinch, 173
Goosander, 471
Goose, Bean, 401

Bernacle, 409

Brent, 411

[Canada], 412

[Egyptian], 412, 422

Grey Lag-, 397

Laughing, 399

Lesser White-fronted, 400

Pink-footed, 403, 756

Red-breasted, 407

'Road-,' ' Root-' (Brent), 412

Snow, 405

Solan (Gannet), 365

764

INDEX.

Goose [Spur-winged], 412

'Ware' (Brent), 412

White-fronted, 399

Goshawk, 331

[American], 332

' Goshawk' (Hen-harrier), 317
~ (Peregrine), 332, 348
[Grackle, American Rustic], 226
Graciila religiosa, 226
GRALL/E, xxxi
' Grass chat ' (Whinchat), 28
Grasshopper-Warbler, 89
Grebe, Black-necked, 723

Eared, 723

Great Crested, 717

Horned, 721

Little, 725

'- [Pied-billed, American], 726

Red-necked, 719

Slavonian, 721

Greenfinch, 169
Greenshank, 619
(jreyhen, 493

'Grey-pate' (Goldfinch), 174
Griffon-Vulture, 31 1
Grosbeak, Pine, 199, 755

Scarlet, 197, 755

Grouse, Black, 493

Red, 495

• Pallas's Sand-, 488

[Willow], 495

Wood, 491

GRUES, xxxi

GRUID.E, xxxi

Grus, xxxi

Grtis conuminis, 521
virgo, 522

Guillemot, Black, 703

Bridled, 700

Briinnich's, 701

Common, 699

Ringed, 700

Thick-billed, 701

Gull [American Laughing], 662

Black-headed, 665

Bonaparte's, 661

Brown-headed, 665

Common, 671

Glaucous, 679

Great Black-backed, 677

■ Great Black-headed, 669

Herring-, 673

— — Iceland, 681

Gull, Ivory, 6S5

Kittiwake, 683

Laughing, 666

Lesser Black-backed, 675

Little, 663

Mediterranean Black-headed, 667

' Peewit,' 666

Ross's, 659

Sabine's, 657

Wedge-tailed, 659

Yellow-legged Herring-, 673

Gulls, Parasitic, 6S7
Gyps, xxii
Gypsfiilvus, 311

hiiiialayeiisis, 312

kolbi, 3 1 2

Gyr-falcon, 345

' Hackbolt ' (Great Shearwater), 737

' Hacket,' ' Hacklet ' (Kittiwake), 684

H^MATOPUS, xxxiii

HiUDialopHS ostralegiis, 559

' Hagdown,' 737

Haliaetus, xxiii

Haliaetus albicilla, 329

leucocephahis, 330

Harelda, xxviii
Harelda glacialis, 455
Harrier, Hen-, 317

Marsh-, 315

Montagu's, 319

' Ring-tiil,' 318

Hawfinch, 171
Hawk, Gos-, 331

' Hunting,' 348

' Mullet-' (Osprey), 359

' Passage,' 347

' Red,' 347

Sparrow-, y:,T„ 755

Hawk-Owl, 305, 755

' Hay-bird' (Willow-Wren), 70

'Hazel Linnet' (Lesser Whitethn>at), 44

' Heath-poult,' 493

Hedge-Accentor, 93

Hedge-Sparrow, 93

Helodronias, 610

[Hemipode, Andalucian], 506

Hen-IIarrier, 317

HERODIONES, xxiv

Heron, Buff-backed, 375

Common, 367

Great While, 371

Night-, 379

INDEX.

765

Heron, Purple, 369

Squacco, 377

Herring-Gull, 673
Hierofalco, 341
' Hill-Lintie' (Twite), 193
HiMANTOPUS, xxxiv
Himait'opiis candidiis, 563
HIRUNDINID.^, XV

HiRUNDO, XV

Hiriindo erythrogastcr, 164

Jiorreoritm, 164

r J IS tic a, 163

savzg?!ii, 164

Hobby, 349 *

Orange-legged, 353

' Hohltaube' (Stock-Dove\ 481

' Holm-screech' (Mistle-Thrush), 2

Honey-Buzzard, 339

Hoopoe, 285

' Hooter ' (Tawny-Owl), 297

' Houbara' (Bustard), 528

House-Sparrow, 179

' Huldue' (Stock-Dove), 4S1

' Hunting Hawk ' (Peregrine^ 348

Hydrochelidon, xxxvi

Hydrochelidon hyhrida, 637

leiicoplera, 635

nigra, 633

siirinanieiisis, 634

Hydroprogne, 642
Hypolais, xii
Hypolais icterina, 57

polyglot fa, 77

Hypotriorchis, 349

IBIDIDyE, XXV

Ibis, Glossy, 391

Ichthyactus, 670

Icterus baltiinore, 226

' Immer-Goose ' (G. N. Diver), 709

[Indian Mynah], 226

IVNGIN.E, xix

Iynx, xix

lynx ton] II ilia, 27 1

Jackdaw, 239
Jack Snipe, 575

Jay, 235

' Katebu ' (Collared Petrel), 748
Kestrel, 35s

Lesser, 357

King-Eider, 461, 756

Kingfisher, 279

[Belted], 280

Kite, 335

Black, y:,7

[Black-winged], 338

' Red,' 335

[Swallow-tailed], 338

Knot, 595

'Kuh-stelze' (Wagtail), 12S

LAGOPUS, XXX

Lagopiis albiis, 495

heinileuciirits, 498

viittiis, 497

riipestris, 498

scoticHS, 495

Land-Rail, 507

LANHD/E, xiv

Lanius, xiv

Lanitis algeriensis, 148

collurio, 151

exciibitor, 147

homeyeri, 148

Iciicoptencs, 148

major, 147

meridionalis, 148

minor, 149

ponieraniis, 153

Lapwing, 555
LARID.E, xxxvi
Lark [Calandra], 258

Crested, 253

Shore-, 259

Short-toed, 255

Sky-, 249

White-winged, 257

Wood-, 251

Larus, xxxvii
Lams affinis, 676

argentatits, 673

atricilla, 662

barrovianns, 680

brachyrhynchus, 672

briinneicephahis , 666

cachinnans, 673

caniis, 671

delawarensis, 672

fusctcs, 675

gelastes, 668

glaiicescens, 680

glatictis, 679

hilt chin si, 680

ichthya'ctiis, 669

766

INDEX.

Lams JzitinUeni, 680

leucopterus, 681

marinus, 677

vielanoccphahts, 667

mimttiis, 663

fielsoni, 6S0

Philadelphia, 661

ridibundiis, 665

schisfisagus, 678

vegcB, 678

' Laverock,' 249

LiGURINUS, XV

Liguriniis aiirantiiventris, 1 70

chloris, 169

chloroticus, 169

sinicits, 170

LiMlCOLA, xxxiv

LIMICOL^, xxxii

Zz;« zV<?/a platyrhyncha, 577

Lininocrypies, 576

LiMOSA, xxxvi

Liiuosa (Vgocepkala, 626

belgica, 625

hiidsonica, 626

lapponica, 623

' Ling-bird' (Meadow-Pipit), 133

Linnet, 187

Brown, 187

Green, 169

Grey, 187

' Hazel-,' 44

Mountain, 193

Red, 187

LiNOTA, xvi
Linola bella, 188

canesceus, 189

caunabina, 187

cxilipes, 189

Jlavirostris, 193

fringillirostris, 188

• holboelli, 189

hornotianni, 189

linaria, 189

rostrata, 189, 191 .

■ 7-iifescens, 189

' Liver ' (Glossy Ibis), 391

LOCUSTELLA, xii

Locustella lanceolaia, 90

hiscinioides, 91

7iavia, 89

straininea, 90

' Loon' (Crested Grebe), 717
LoxiA, xvii

Loxia bifasciata, 203

acrvirostra, 201

I en c opt 67- a, 204

pityopsittaciis, 202

LUSCINIOLA, xii

' Lj'rie' (Manx Shearwater), 741

]\L\CHETES, XXXV

Machetes piignax, 599

MaCRORHAMPHUS, XXXV

Macrorliamphiis griseiis, 62 1
Magpie, 237
Mallard, 423
Mareca, xxviii
Mareca atiiericana, 439

penelope, 437

'Marrot' (Guillemot), 700
Marsh- Harrier, 315
Marsh-Terns, 633, 638
Marsh-Titmouse, 107
Marsh-Warbler, 81
Martin, House-Martin, 165

[American Purple], 166

Sand-, 167

' Mauvis,' 4

Mavis, 3

' May-bird ' (Whimbrel), 625

Meadow-Pipit, 133

Megalestris, xxxvii

Megalestris antantica, 688

catarrh actes, 607

chilensis, 688

viaccormicki, 688

Melaiwcorypha, 258
Merganser, Hooded, 477

Red-breasted, 473

Mergulus, xxxviii
Mergitlus alle, 705
Mergus, xxix
Afergus alb ell us, 475

ctictillatiis, 477

merganser, 471

serrator, 473

Merlin, 351
MEROPIDyE, XX

MEROPS, XX

Merops apiaster, 283

persictes, 284

philipphius, 284

Mertila maxima, 14
Mesoscolopax miiuittis, 632
MiLVUS, xxiii
Milvtis (egyptiiis, 335, 338

INDEX.

767

Milvus «07>inda, 338

ictinus, 335

melaiiotis, 338

mig7'aiis, 337

Mistle-Thrush, i
Mistletoe-Thrush, 2
[Mocking-Bird], 76
' Mollymawk ' (Fuhiiar), 752

MONTICOLA, X

Monticola cyanits, 17, 18

saxatilis, 17

Moor- Buzzard, 315

Moor-hen, 517

'Morillon' (Golden-eye), 451

'Moss-cheeper' (Meadow-Pipit), 133

MOTACILLA, xiv

Motacilla alba, 123

— — boreaHs, 128

cinereicapilla, 128

feldeggi, 128

Jlava, 127

htgiibris, 121

melanocephala, 128

vielaiiope, 125

paradoxa, 128

rati, 129

taivana, 130

viridis, 1 28

yarrelH, 121

]\IOTACILLID.-E, xiv

' Mother Carey's Chickens,' 728

Mountain-Finch, 185

' Mullet-Hawk' (Osprey), 359

' Mulrooken ' (Gt. Crested Grebe), 717

'Murre' (Guillemot), 700

MUSCICAPA, XV

Muscicapa atricapilla, 159

collaris, 160

grisola, 157

parva, 161

MUSCICAPID/E, XV

' Mussel-picker' (Oyster-catcher), 559

[Mynah, Indian], 226

Neophron, xxii
Neophron perciiopitrits, 313
NETTA, xxviii
Net fa ritjina, 441
NETTION, xxvii
Nettion carolinensis, 432

crecca, 431

' Nettle-creeper,' 42

' Night-hawk ' (Nightjar), 268

Night-Heron, 379
Nightingale, 39, 755
Nightjar, 267

Egyptian, 270

Isabelline, 270

Red-necked, 269

' Noddy' (Fulmar), 752
Noddy Tern, 655
NUCIFRAGA, xviii
Niicifraga caryocatactes, 233

heiiiispila, 2^4

initltipiinctata, 234

NuMENius, xxxvi
Nttntenins arqtiata, 627

borealis, 631

cyanopzis, 628

httdsoniciis, 630

longirostris, 628

mini tt us, 632

phiWpiis, 629

tenuv-ostris, 628

variegatics, 630

' Nun ' (Smew), 475
Nutcracker, 233
' Nuthack,' 1 14
Nuthatch, 113
' Nutjobber,' 114
Nyctala, xxii
Nyctala acadica, 300

richardsoiii, 300

iengmabni, 299

Nyctea, xxii
Nyctea scandiaca, 303

NYCTICORAX, XXV

Nyciicorax caledoniciis, 3S0
griseus, 379

OCEANITES, XXxix

Oceanites oceaniciis, 733
Oceanitida:, 734

OCEANODROMA, XXxix

Oceanodroma castro, 731

crypto leiictira, 731

Icitcorrhoa, 729

ODONTOGLOSS-E, xxvi
CEdemia, xxix
CEdemia americana, 446

carbo, 468

deglandi, 468

fusca, 467

nigra, 465

perspicillala, 469

velvetina, 468

768

INDEX.

CEDICXEMID.^, xxxii
O^DICNEMUS, xxxii
CEdicneiniis affim's, 530

capensis, 530

scolopax, 529

CESTRELATA, XXxix

CEstrelata brevipes, 747

hasitata, 745

torqitata, 747

' Old Squaw' (Long-tailed Duck}, 456

' Olive' (Oyster-catcher), 559

Oriole. Golden, 145

OraOLID.E, xiv

Oriolus, xiv

Oriolus galbiila, 145

kundoo, 146

Ortolan, 213

Osprey, 359

OTIDID.E, xxxii

Otides, xxxii

Otis, xxxii

Otis dyhowskii, 524

niacqiieeni, 527

tarda, 523

tetrax, 525

nil dill at a, 527

Otocorys, xix

Otocorys alpestris, 259

bilopha, 260

loiigirostris, 260

penic'Uata, 260

peregrina, 260

Ouzel. Ring-. 15

Water-, 97

' Oven-bird ' (Willow-Wren), 70

Owl [American Saw-whet], 300

Barn-, 291

Brown, 297

Church-, 291

Eagle-, 309

Hawk-, 305, 755

Little, 301

Long-eared, 293

• [Pigmy], 302

Scops-, 307

Screech-, 291

Short-eared, 295

Snowy, 303

Tawny, 297

Tengmalm's, 299

White, 291

Wood-, 297

' Woodcock-', 295

'Ox-bird' (Dunlin), 584

' Oxeye' (Great Titmouse), 103

Oyster-catcher, 559

PaCxOphila, xxxvii

Pagophila eburnca, 685

PANniON, xxiv

Paudiou haliactns, 359

PANURID.^, xii

Paxurus, xii

Paininis biariniciis, 99

' Papabot' (Bartram's Sandpiper), 604

PARID.'E, xiii

Partridge, Common, 501

[Barbary], 504

' French,' 503

Grey, 501

Red-legged, 503

Parus, xiii
Pants ater, 105
— — borealis, 108

bi-itanniciis, 105

ccEriileus, 109

cr (status, 1 1 1

cyamts, 1 10

Cypriotes, 106

Icdotixi, 106

lugiibris, loS

major, 103

michalovtski, 106

minor, 103

pains tris, 107

dresser i, 107

persiais, 109

pleskii, no

tcneriffce, 109

iiltramariniis, 109

[Passenger-Pigeon], 4S7
PASSERES, x
Passer, xvi
Passer domestiais, 179
— — hispanioletisis, 180

indicus, 179

italicF, 179

montaniis, 18 1

var. malaccensis, 182

Pastor, xvii

Pastor roseiis, 229

' Peep' (Sandpiper), 582

Peewit, 555

' Peewit-Gull,' 650

Pelagodroma, xxxix

Pelagodroma marina, 735

\

i

i

INDEX.

769

PELECANID-E, xxiv

Pelecano'ides, 706

* Penguin' (Great Auk), 698

PeRDIX, XXX

Perdix barbata, 502

cinerea, 501

Peregrine, 347

' Pernice di mare ' (Pratincole), 532

Pernis, xxiv

Pernis apivoriis, 339

ptilorhyiichits, 340

Petrel, Bulwer's, 749

Capped, 745

Collared, 747

• Frigate-, 735

Leach's Fork-tailed. 729

Madeiran Fork-tailed, 731

Storm-, 727

Wilson's, 733

Phaethoii aethereits, 366
Phalacrocorax, xxiv
Phalacrocorax carbo, 361

desinaresti, 364

graaihis, 363

nova-hoUandiiT , 362

Phalarope, Grey, 565

Red-necked, 567

Phalaropus, xxxiv
Phalaropiis fiilicariiis , 565

hyperboreits, 567

wihonii 56S

PHASIANID.F;, xxx
Phasianus, xxx
Phasianus cokhtcits, 499

ree-jesi, 500

torquatiis, 499

versicolor, 500

Pheasant, 499

[Bohemian], 500

PHCENICOPTERID.E, xxvi
Phcenicopterus, xxvi
Phccnicoptertis roseits, 395
Phylloscopus, xi
Phylloscopics bonellii^'jT,

fortunatus, 68

hii))iii, 62

new ton i, 64

proregiilus, 63

rtifus, 67

sibilatrix, 7 1

sicpcrciliosus, 61

— tristis, 67
trochihis, 69

Pica, xviii

Pica inaiiritanica, 23S

nuttalli, 238

rusfica, 237

PICARI^, xix
PICID/E, xix

PlCIN.^, XX

Picoides tridactyhts, 278

Piciis marlitis, 278

Pigeon [American Passenger-], 487

Wood-, 479

Pine-Grosbeak, 199

Pinicola, 2CX)

Pintail, 429

' Pin-wing ' (Great Auk), 698

Pipit, Meadow-, 133

Red-throated, 135

Richard's, 139

Rock-, 143

Tawny, 137

Tree-, 131

Water-, 141, 755

Pl-ATALEA, xxvi

Platalea leiicorodia, 393
PLATALEID.E, xxvi

Pl.ECTROPHENAX, xvii

Plectrophenax nivalis, 225
Plectropterus gainboisis, 412

PLEGADIS, XXV

Plegadis falcinelhis, 391

guaraiina, 392

Plotiis anhinga, 364
Plover, Caspian, 537

Golden, 547

Grey, 551

Kentish, 543

Killdeer, 545

Lesser Golden,r549

Little Ringed, 541

• Norfolk, 529

Ringed, 539

Sociable, 553

Pochard, 443

' Paget's,' 444

Red-crested, 441

PODICIPEDID.E, xxxviii
PoDiciPES, xxviii
Podicipes auritus, 721

californicus, 724

cristatiis, 717

Jltiviatilis, 725

griseigena, 719

tiigi-icollis, 723

3 N

770

INDEX.

Podilymbus podicipes, 726

' Poker,' Red-eyed, Red-headed

(Pochard), 443
' Popeler' (Spoonbill), 393
Porphyria cartdeus, 518

melanotus, 518

smaragdonotits, 518

PORZANA, XXxi

Porzana bailloni, 513

Carolina, 510

niaruetta, 509

parva, 511

piisilla, 514

'Post-driver' (Bittern), 386
' Poule de Carthage,' 526
Pratincola, X
Pratincola hemprichi, 29

maitra, 30

ritbetra, 27

ritbicola, 29

torquata, 29

Pratincole, 531
Procei.laria, xxxix
Procellaria brevipes, 747

bnlweri, 749

major, 738

pclaoica, 727, 733

wilsoni, 733

PROCELLARIID.i:, xxxix
P) -ogiie purpurea, 167
Ptarmigan, 497
PTEROCLETES, xxix
PTEROCLID.E, xxix
Puffin, 707

' Puffin of the Isle of Man,' 741
PUFFINID.E, xxxix

PUFFINUS, xxxix

Piiffinus angloritm, 741

assimilis, 743

borealis, 738

gravis, ^yj

griseus, 739

kiihli, 738

major, 738

obscurus, 743

yelkoiiamis, J 4.1

' Purga-bueyes ' (Buff-backed Heron),

376
' Purre ' (Dunlin), 584
Pyoionoiiis capensis, 144
PVGOPODES, xxxviii
Pvrrhocorax, xviii
Pyrrhocorax alpi7uts, 252

Pyrrhocorax graciihis, 231
Pyrrhula, xvi
Pyrrhula eniickator, 199

erythrina, 197

europaa, 195

major, 195

mitriiuis, 197

PyrrhitIo)-hyncha, 222

Quail, 505
Queest, 479

QUERQUEDULA, XXvii

Querquediila circia, 435

cyanoptera, 434

discors, 434

Rail, Land-, 507

Water-, 515

' Rain-bird' (Green Woodpecker), 274
' Rain-Goose ' (Red-throated Diver),

716
RALLID.-E, xxxi
Rallus, xxxi
Rallus aqiiaticics, 515

ccerulescens, 516

indiciis, 516

'Rattle-wing' (Golden-eye), 452
Raven, 241
Razorbill, 695
Recurvirostra, xxxiii
Reciirvirostra avocctta, 561
Redbreast, 37

' Red craking reed -wren,' 92
Redpoll, Lesser, 191

Mealy, 189

' Stone-', 190

Redshank, Common, 615

Dusky, 617

Spotted, 617

Redstart, 31

Black, 33

Redwing, 5

Reed-Bunting, 221

' Reed-Pheasant' (Bearded Tit), 100

' Reed-Sparrow,' 221

Reed-Warbler, 79

' Reel-bird ' (Savi's Warl)ler), 92

' Reeler ' (Grasshopper Warbler), 89

Reeve, 599

Regulus, xi

Regtihis calendula, 60

cristatus, 57

var, azoricus, 58

INDEX.

771

Regnlus cristatiis, var. japonicits, 58

ignicapillits , 59

viadereiisis, 60

teneriffiz, 60

Rhodostethia, xxxvil
Rhodostethia rosea, 659
Rhyacophilits, 610
Ring- Dove, 479

Ring-Ouzel, 15

' Ring-tail' (Hen Harrier), 318

RissA, xxxvii

Rissa brevirostris, 684

tridactyla, 683

Robin, 37

[American], 10

Rock -Dove, 481

Rock-Pipit, 143

Rock-Thrush, 17

[Blue], 17, 18

Roller, 281

[Abyssinian], 282

Rook, 247

' Roque de castro ' (Madeiran Petrel),

731
Rolche, Rotge, 705
Ruff, 599
Russet Chat, 24

RUTICILLA, X

Ruticilla cairii, 34

mesoletica, 32

ochrurus, 32

phccniciiriis, 31

riifiventris, 32

suecica, 36

titys, iz

Sanderling, 597

Sand-Grouse, Pallas's, 488

'Sand-lark' (Ringed Plover), 539

Sand-Martin, 167

Sandpiper, American Pectoral, 579

American Spotted, 606, 6o6'^ 756

Bartram's, 603

Bonaparte's, 581

Broad-billed, 577

Buff-breasted, 601

Common, 605

Curlew-, 591

Green, 609

Least, 584

[Marsh-], 620

Purple, 593

Schinz's, 581

Sandpiper [Semipalmated], 588

Siberian Pectoral, 579

Solitary, 611

Wood-, 607

'Saw-bills,' 471-476
Saxicola, X
Saxicola albicollis, 24

aurita, 24

deserti, 25

isabellina, 21

nielanokiica, 23

(Viianthe, 19

rtifa, 24

stapazina, 23, 25, 26

' Scarf,' ' Scart,' 363
Scaup, 449

[American or Lesser], 450

'Scheik' (Little Gull), 664
Scolecophagtts ferriigineiis, 226
Scolopax, xxxiv
Scolopax riistiatla, 569
' Scooper (Avocet), 562
Scops, xxii
Scops asio, 308

giti, 307

Scops-Owl, 307

Scoter, Common or Black, 465

Surf-, 469

Velvet-, 467

' Scout ' (Guillemot), 700

'Screecher' (Swift), 261

'Sea-Parrot' (Puffin), 708

' Sea-Pheasant' (Long-tailed Duck), 429

'Sea-Pie' (Oyster-Catcher), 559

' Sea-Snipe' (Dunlin), 584

' Sea-Swallows ' (Terns), 644

Sedge-bird, 85

Sedge-Warbler, 85

Great, 84

Rufous, 74

Serin, 177, 755
Serinus, xvi
Serinus canaria, 178

canicollis, 178

canoniciiSi 177

hortulaims, 177

icterus, 178

pusilliis, 178

' Seven Whistlers' (Whimbrel), 630

Shag, 363

Shearwater [Dusky], 743

Great, 737

Levantine, 741

772

Shearwater, Little Dusky, 743

Manx, 741

Sooty, 739

[Sheathbill], 560
Sheld-Duck, Common, 419

Ruddy, 421

' Sheld-Duck' (Merganser), 473

' Shoeing-horn ' (Avocet), 562

Shore-Lark, 259

' Shovelard,' ' Shoveler ' (Spoonbill),

393
Shoveler (Duck), 427
Shrike, Great Grey, 147

Lesser Grey, 149

Red-backed, 151

Woodchat, 153

' Shuflle-wing' (Hedge-Sparrow), 93 •
[Siberian Thrush], 12
Siskin, 175
SiTTA, xiii
Siita casta, 113

etiropcca, 113

whitekeadi, 114

SITTID.^, xiii

'Skidden' (Manx Shearwater), 741

Skua, Arctic, 691

Buffon's, 693

• Great, 687

Long-tailed, 693

Pomatorhine, 689

Richardson's, 691

Skylark, 249

' Smee' (Smew), 475

Smew, 475

' Red-headed,' 475

' Smokie ' (Hedge-Sparrow), 93
' Snake-Bird ' (Wryneck), 272
Snipe, Common, 573

Double, 571

Great, 571

Jack, 575

Red-breasted, 621

Sabine's, 574

' Sea-' (Dunlin), 584

Solitary, 571

Summer- (Com. Sandpiper), 605

Snow-Bunting, 225

Snow-Goose, 405

Solan Goose, 365

' Solitary Thrush ' (Starling), 228

SOMATERIA, xxviii

Somateria dresseri, 460
viollissima, 459

SoDiateria violissima borealis, 46c

v-mg)'iim, 460

spectabilis, 461

stelleri, 463

Song-Thrush, 3

' South-southerly ' (Long-tailed Duck),

456
Sparrow-Hawk, m, 755

[Levant], 334

Sparrow, Hedge-, 93

House-, 179

Tree-, 181

— — [White-throated-], 178

Spatula, xxvii

Spat It la clypeata, 427

' Spear-Widgeon' (Merganser), 473

' Spink' (Chaffinch), 184

Spinus tristris, 1 76

' Spirit-Duck ' (Buftel-headed D.), 455

Spoonbill, 393

[Roseate], 394

' Spoonbill ' (Shoveler Duck), 427
' Spottvogel ' (Icterine Warbler), 76
' Sprosser,' 40
Squatarola, xxxiii
Sqtiatarola helvetica, 55 1|
' Stake-driver' (Bittern), 386
Starling, 227

• [American Red-winged], 226

[Meadow], 226

Rose-coloured, 229

STEGANOl'ODES, xxiv
Steganopiis, 568
STERCORARIID.i;, xxxvii
Stercorarius, xxxvii
Stercorariiis crepidatiis, 691

parasiticus, 693

pomatorhintis, 6S9

Sterna, xxxvi
Sterna actijiavida, 644

ancEstheta, 654

anglica, 639

antillaritm, 652

bergii, 656

caiitiaca, 643

caspia, 641

doiigalli, 645

Jitiviatilis, 647, 650

fuliginosa, 653

longipennis, 650

Iniiata, 654

niacroiarsa, 640

inacrttra, 6^^

INDEX.

773

Sterna miinita, 651

saicitderst, 652

sinensis, 652

siiperciliaris, 652

velox, 656

Sternti/a, 652

Stilt, Black-winged, 563

Stint, American, 587

Little, 585

Temminck's, 589

« Stint ' (Dunlin), 584

' Stock Annet ' (Sheld-Duck), 419

Stock-Dove, 481

Stonechat, 29

Stone-Curlew, 529

' Stone-hatch' (Ringed Plover), 539

' Stone-Redpoll,' 190

Stork, Black, 389

White, 387

' Storm-cock' (Mistle-Thrush), 2
Strepsilas, xxxiii
Strepsilas interpres, 557
STRIGES, xxi
STRIGID.i:, xxi
Strix, xxi
Strixjlaininea, 291

passerina, 302

Stiirnella magna, '12.()
STURNID.-t, xvii
Sturnus, xvii
SHirniis piirpiirascens, 228

unicolor, 228

vulgaris, 227

SULA, xxiv

Stila bassana, 365

Summer-Snipe (Sandpiper), 605

Surf-Scoter, 469

SURNIA, xxii

Siirnia do Hat a, 306

fiinerea, 305

ultila caparoch, 305

Swallow, 163

[American Tree-], 166

Swan, Bewick's, 415

Mute, 417

• [Polish], 418

Tame, 417

[Trumpeter], 416

Whistling, 413

Whooper, 413

Wild, 413

Swift, 261

Alpine, 263

Swift, Needle-tailed, 265

[Pallid], 262

Sylochelidon, 624
Sylvia, xi
Sylvia affinis, 44

althea, 44

atricapilla, 47

cinetea, 41

conspicillata, 42

currttca, 43

fuscipilea, 41

hortensis, 49

jerdoni, 46

nielanocephala, 46

mimisciila, 44

nisoria, 51

orphea, 45

sarda, 56

subalpina, 53

nndata, 55

SVLVIINyE, xi

Syrnium, xxi
Syrnitun aliico, 297
Syrrhaptes, xxix
Syrrhapies paradoxus, 488

- tibetanits, 490

Tachycineta bicolor, 166
Tadorna, xxvii
Tadorna cana, 422

casarca, 421

cornnta, 419

' Tangle-picker' (Turnstone), 558
' Tarrock' (Kittiwake), 684
'T;issel' (Peregrine), 348
Teal, 431

Blue-winged, 434

[Cinnamon], 434

' Cricket,' 436

Green-winged, 433

Summer-, 435

Tern, ' the,' 644

Arctic, 649

Black, 633

Caspian, 641

Common, 647

Gull-billed, 639

Little, 651

Noddy, 655

Roseate, 645

Sandwich, 643

Sooty, 653

[Smaller Sooty], 654

774

INDEX.

Tern [Swift], 656

• Whiskered, 637

White-winged Black, 635

Terns, Marsh-, 635-63S

TeTRAO, XXX

Tetrao tetrix, 493

• iirogaUiis, 491

TETRAONID.^, xxx
Thalassidrotna castro, 731
Thick-knee, 529
Throstle, 3
Thrush, Black- throated, 9

[Blue Rock], 17, 18

■ ' Golden,' 12

[Gold-vented], 144

Mistle-, I

Mistletoe-, 2

Rock-, 17

[Siberian], 12

Song-, 3

White's, II, 755

TiCHODRO.MA, xiv
Tichodroma miiraria, 1 19
' Tiercel,' ' Tassel,' 348
' Tinkershere' (Guillemot), 700
Tit-lark, 'Titling,' 133
Titmouse, Bearded, 99

Blue, 109

Coal-, 105

Crested, iii

Great, 103

Long-tailed, loi

Marsh-, 107

' Titterel ' (Whimbrel), 630

' Tolk,' ' Took ' (Redshank), 616

TOTANUS, XXXV

To tan US calidris, 615

caiiescens, 619

flavipes, 613

fuse us, 617

glareola, 607

hypoleucus, 605

inacularius, 606 (note), 605"

ochropus, 609

solitarius, 6 1 1

siagnatiHs, 620

Tree-Creeper, 117
Tree-Pipit, 131
Tree-Sparrow, 181
Tringa, xxxiv
Tringa acuminata, 579

alpina, 583

canutus, 595

Tringa couesi, 594

crassirostris, 596

fuscicollis, 581

maciilata, 579

• viimita, 585

minutilla, 587

ptilocneviis, 594

pusilla, 587

rujicollis, 586

schinzi, 581, 584

striata, 593

subarquata, 591

teinmincki, 589

Tringites ricfescens, 601
Troglodytes, xiii
Troglodytes bergcusis, 115

borealis, 115

hirtensis, 1 1 5

pallidus, 116

paj-vulus, 115

TROGLODYTID.E, xiii
Tropic-Bird, 366
Tringites, xxxv
TUBINARES, xxxix
TURDID.i;, X

TUKDIN.E, X
TURDUS, X

Turdus alpcstris, 16

atrigularis, 9

iliacus, 5

lunulatus, it.

inertila, 13

inigratorius, 10

inusicus, 3

pilai-is, 7

rujicollis, 10

sibiricus, 12

torquatus, 15

varius, 1 1

viscivorus, i

Turnix sylvatica, 506
Turnstone, 557
Turtle-Dove, 485

[Collared], 486

Rufous, 487

TURTUR, xxix
Turtur communis, 485

■ isahellinus, 486

meena, 487

orien talis, 486, 487

risorius, 48

Twite, 193

' Tystie' (Black Guillemot), 703

INDEX.

775

' Uinilo ' (Smew), 476

UPUPA, XX

Up 1 1 pa epops, 2S5
UPUPID.^, XX
Uria, xxxviii
Uria briieniiichi, 701

carbo, 704'

• cohii/iba, 704

gO'^^e, 703

lonivia arra, 702

fiiaiidtt, 704

U-oile, 699

Vanellus, xxxiii
Vanellus gregarhts, 553

vulgaris, 555

Velvet-Scoter, 467
' Verderolle' (Marsh Warbler), 82
ViREONiD,^!, 154
Vireo olivaceus, 154
ulture, Egyptian, 313

Griffon-, 311

VULTURID.i, xxii

' Wachholder-drossel ' (Fieldfare), 8
Wagtail, Blue-headed, 127

Grey, 125

Pied, 121

White, 123-755

Yellow, 129

Wall-Creeper, 119
Warbler, Aquatic, R7

Barred, 44, 5i> 755

' Barred Willow,' 62

Dartford, 55

Garden-, 49

Great Reed-, 83

Great Sedge-, 84

Grasshopper-, 89

Greenish Willow-, 65

Icterine, 75

Marsh-, 81

Melodious, 77

Orphean, 45

Pallas's Willow-, 63

Radde's Bush-, 73*, 755

Reed-, 79

Rufous, Tl, 755

Savi's, 91

Sedge-, 85

Spectacled, 42

Subalpine, 53

Thrushlike, 83

Warbler, Yellow-browed, 61

' Water-blackbird,' ' -colly,' ' -crow,'

' -ouzel ' (Dipper), 97
Water-hen, 517
Water- Pipit, I43> 755
Water- Rail, 515
Waxwing, 155
Wheatear, 19

Black-throated, 23

Desert, 25

Isabelline, 21

' WTiew-Duck,' ' Whewer ' (Wigeon),

438
Whimbrel, 629
Whinchat, 27

' Whistler ' (Golden-eye), 452
' White-rumps ' (Wheatears), 20
Whitethroat, Greater, 41, 44

Lesser, 43, 44

Whooper, 413

' Wide-awake Fairs ' (Sooty Tern), 654

Wigeon, 437

American, 439

' Spear ' (Merganser), 473

'Whillock' (Guillemot), 700

Willow-Wren, 69

Windhover (Kestrel), 355

Woodchat, 153, 755

Woodcock, 569

'Woodcock-Owl,' 295

Wood-Grouse, 491

Wood-Lark, 251

Woodpecker [American Spotted], 27S

' Barred,' 277

[Black], 278

[Downy], 278

[Golden-winged], 278

• Great Spotted, 275

Green, 273

[Hairy], 276

Lesser Spotted, 277

[Middle Spotted], 276

[Three-toed], 278

[White-backed], 276

Wood -Pigeon, 479

Wood-Sandpiper, 607

' Wood-Tattler ' (Solitary Sandpiper),

611
' Woodwale ' (Green Woodpr.), 274
Wood- Wren, 71
Wren, 115

Fire-crested, 59

Golden-crested, 57

776

INDEX.

Wren [Ruby-crowned], 60

[St.. Kilda], 115

Willow-, 69

• Wood-, 71

'Writing Lark' (Yellow Bunting), 210
Wryneck, 271

Xema, xxxvi
Xemafivcata, 658

XciJia sabinii, 657

' Yaffle ' (Green Woodpecker), 274
Yellow-IIammer, 209
'Yellow-neb Lintie' (Twite), 193
Yellowshank, 613
' Yelper ' (Avocet),''562

' Zizi' (Cirl Bunting) 212
Zonotrichia albicollis, 178 •

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LONDON

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