Hi

HGSfl

THE LIBRARY

OF

THE UNIVERSITY
OF CALIFORNIA

PRESENTED BY

PROF. CHARLES A. KOFOID AND
MRS. PRUDENCE W. KOFOID

ILLUSTRATIONS OF ZOOLOGY.

ADVERTISEMENT.

HE

Engravings of objects of Natural History contained in the Encyclopaedia Metro-
politana have long been held in esteem for their beauty and accuracy. They were
\ accompanied by articles of great scientific value, contributed by those eminent Naturalists,

JOHN FLINT SOUTH, Esq., F.L.S., J. E. GRAY, Esq., F.L.S., and J. F. STEPHENS, Esq.,

F.L.S., F.Z.S.

The plan, however, on which the first edition of the Encyclopaedia was arranged,
was such as to scatter the descriptive details of Natural History inconveniently through
twelve quarto volumes of Lexicography. Consequently, when the present Proprietors endeavoured to meet the
wishes of the Public by dividing the Encyclopaedia into separate subjects, they were unable to associate the
Descriptions of Animals with the Engravings to which they related.

In order in some measure to remedy this defect, and to meet the existing demand for the Zoological Illustrations,
the Proprietors instructed the Editor of this Volume to prepare, from the Contributions above referred to, and from
the recent works of other eminent Naturalists, such an account of the Animals depicted in the Engravings as would
convey useful and agreeable knowledge of them individually, and afford a systematic view of the Genera, Orders, and
Classes to which they belong, and of which they constitute the characteristic Types.

That commission he has endeavoured to fulfil in the pages now submitted for public acceptance. He wishes it
to be understood, however, that the work does not pretend to be a System of Zoology, though the information given
in it is placed in systematic order ; neither does it pretend to describe the Animal Kingdom with any degree of
completeness, though it embraces, not merely the animals depicted in the Engravings, but many others that modern
science has distinguished as forming the boundaries of particular departments of animal life.

What he trusts the work will be found to do, is to give a distinct view of the great Outlines of Zoology — to
discriminate the peculiarities of its Divisions — and to exhibit the characteristics of those remarkable creatures which,
in their several departments, most forcibly arrest the attention of those engaged in the study of the works of
Nature.

London, January 1851.

-. ' b C9, L

I

ILLUSTRATIONS OF ZOOLOGY.

Cjje <£ngranings lit] 3. W. fotnrtj nnh Cjintnas ICattecr,

FROM

(Original framings taj intnErhij, farlq, l^nte, lnntr |tytH:, ICnutnj, anb Cljarirn f

WITH DESCRIPTIVE LETTER-PRESS

EMBUAriNG

of tr 9ntmal

ACCORDING TO r

CHARACTERISTIC ANECDOTES AND NARRATIVES SELECTED FROM THE WORKS OF RECENT NATURALISTS.

tv-

•W-iV ""t'1"

LONDON:
PUBLISHED BY JOHN JOSEPH GRIFFIN AND CO.,

53 BAKER STREET, PORTMAN SQUARE; AND

RICHARD GRIFFIN AND CO., GLASGOW.

1851.

CONTENTS.

VERTEBRATE ANIMALS.

CLASS I.— MAMMALIA.

ORDER I.— QUADRUMANA ; FOUR-HANDED

Simiaida, Monkeys

Lemuridse, Lemurs

ORDER II.— CHEIROPTERA ; WINI,-HANDEI
Galeopithecus, Cat-like Monkey .
Fructivora, Fruit-fating Bats •

Leafless-nosed Bats 10, 12

Leaf-nosed Bate 10, 12

ORDER III.— SARCOPHAGA ; PREYERS .
Insectivora, Insect-eaters ....
Plantigrada, Sole-treaders ....
Digitigrada, Toe-treaders ....
Piimata, Fair-footed

ORDER IV.— MARSUPIALA ; POUCH-BEARERS 31—35

Carnivora, Flesh-eaters

Inseetivora, Insect-eaters

Frugivora, Fruit-eaters

Fodienta, Burrotcers

Salienta, Leapers

ORDER V.— RODENTIA ; GNAWERS . . .
Claviculata, with perfect collar-bones
Hemiclaviculata, with imperfect collar-bones

ORDER VI.— EDENTATA ; TOOTHLESS . .

Tardigrada, Slow-movers

Cingulata, Banded

Myrmecophagida, Ant-eaters . . . •

ORDER VII.— PACHYDERMATA ; THICK-
SKINS 44 — 49

Proboscifera, Trunkcd ....
Eproboscifera, Trunkless . . .
Solipeda, Single-toed ....

ORDER VIII.— RUMINANTIA ; CUD-CHEWERS 49—55

Cameloida, Camel-like .
Solidicornia, Solid-horned
Cavicornia, Hollow-horned

ORDER IX.— CETACEA ; WHALES ,
Herbivora, Grazers . . . .
Spiracularia, Spouters .

CLASS II.— AVES.
ORDER I.— ACCIPETRES ; PHEYERS .

Diurna, Day Birds

Nocturna, Night Birds . . . ,

Page

ORDER II.— PASSERINA ; PERCHEHS . .

. 63—73
63

1

Fissirostrata, Wide-mmtthed

67
68

7

Tenuirostrata, Slender-beaked . .

71
72

9
10, 11

ORDER III.— SCANSORI ; CUMBERS . .

. 73—77
73

10,12

76

10, 12
15—31

ORDER IV.— GALLINACEA ; SCBATCHERS

. 77—82
77

15

81

18
21

29

ORDER V.— GRALLATORIA ; WADERS .

. 82—91
82

31—35

83

31

85

31

87

32

89

33

34

ORDER VI.— PALMIPEDA ; WEB-FOOTED

. 91—97
91

35—41

93

35

94

39

42—44
42
42
42

Lamellirostrata, Plaited-billed .

CLASS III.— REPTILIA.
ORDER I.— CHELONIA ; TURTLES . .

96
. 98, 99

44—49

ORDER II.— CHAMPSIA ; CROCODILES

. 99,100
. 99

44
47
49

ORDER III.— SAURIA ; LIZARDS . . .

100—103

101

102

49
50

Chatnieleonida, Chameleons ....

102
102

51
55—57

ORDER IV.— OPHIDIA ; SERPENTS . .

103—106

55

55

104

«

105

58-63
58

ORDER V.— BATRACHIA ; FROGS . . .

106—109
106

C1

Caudata Tailed .

108

CLASS IV.— PISCES.

SUB-CLASS— BONY FISHES

Page
110—124

ORDER I.— ACANTHOPTERYGIA ; SPINE-

FINNED 110—117

. . 110

. . 110

. . 110

. . 112

. . 112

. . 112

. . 113

. . 113

. . 113

. . 115

. . 115

. . 115

. . 116

. . 116

. . 116

ORDER II.— HETRO-MALACOPTERYGIA ;

ABDOMINAL SOFT-FINS . . 117 — 120

Percoida, Perch . . . .
Trigloida, Gurnals ...
Sciamida, Maigres . • •
Sparoida, Bream . . .
Msenoida;, Cockerel!, SfC.
Squammipennata, Scaly-fins
Scomberoida, Mackarels . .
Tamioida, Band-fish . ,
Theutida, Theutyes . . .
Labyrinthiformia, Cellular-yills
Mugiloida, Mullets .
Gobioida, Gobies ....
Pectoralipeda, Anglers . .
Labroida, Wrasses . . .
Aulostomata, Pipe-fish .

Cyprinoida, Carps .
Esocida, Pikes .
Siluroida, Sheet-fish
Salmonida, Salmons
Clupeoida, Herrings

117
117
117
119
119

ORDER III.— LffiMO-MALACOPTERYGIA
THROAT SOFT-FINS . .

Gadoida, Cod-fish

Pleuronectoida, flat-fish ....
Discobolida, Slickers

120—122
120
120
120

ORDER IV.— APODO-MALACOPTERYGIA ;

WITHOUT VENTRAL FINS . 122,123

Anguilliformes, Snake-like fishes ... 122

ORDER V.— LOPHOBRANCHIATA ; HOOP-
GILLS 123

ORDER VI.— PLECTOGNATHI ; FIXED JAWS 124

Gymnodonta, Naked-teeth 124

Sclerodermata, Hard-skins 124

SUB-CLASS— CHONDROPTERYGII ; CARTILA-
GINOUS FISHES 124

ORDER— ELEUTHEROBRANCHIATA ; LOOSE-
GILLS 124

Sturionida, Sturgeons 125

ORDER— PYCNOBRANCHIATA ; CLOSE-GILLS 125

Plagiostomata, Transverse mouths ... 125

Lampreys, Round mouths 125

INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS.

CLASS V.— MOLLUSCA.

Page

SUB-CLASS.— CEPHALOPODA ; HEAD-WALKERS

127—130

Order: OcTOPODA, Having eight feet . . 127
Order : FORAMINIFERA, Full of holes . . 129
SUB-CLASS.— GASTEROPODA, BELLY-WALKERS,

130—135

Order : PULMONIFERA, Air-breathers
Order : GYMNOBRANCHIATA, Naked-gills
Order: TECTIBRANCHIATA, Covered-gills
Order : PECTINIBRANCHIATA, Comb-gills

Tricoid Tribe

Buccinoid Tribe

Capuloid Tribe

SUB-CLASS.— ACEPHALA, HEADLESS . .
Order: HETEROBRANCHIATA . .

130
131
132
134
134
135
135

135, 137
136

SUB-CLASS.— CIRRHOPODA .... 137—139

Order: PEDUNCULAR, Camptosomata . . 127

Order: SESSILE, Acamptosomata . . . 138

CLASS VI.— INSECTA.

Order: COLEOPTERA, Sheath-winged . 138, 141

Order : ORTHOPTERA, Straight-winged. 139, 143

Order : NEUROPTERA, Lace-winged . 139, 143

Pa»e

Order : TRICHOPTERA, Hairy-winged . . 143
Order : HYMENOPTERA, Membranous-winged

139, 143

Order : LEPIDOPTERA, Feather-winged . 140, 144
Order : HEMIPTERA, Half-winged . . 140, 144
Order : DiPTERA, Two-winged . . . 141, 144

Order: APTERA, Wingless 141

Order: HOMOPTERA, Hoof-like wings . . 145
Order: STREPSIPTEHA, Twisted-winged . 145

CLASS VII.— CRUSTACEA.

Order BRACHYURA, Short-tails

Order MACROURA, Long-tails .

Order STOMAPODA, Footed-mouths

Order ISOPODA, Equal-legs , .

Order BRANCHIOPODA, Footed-gills

Order
Order
Order
Order

CLASS VIII.— ARACHNIDA.

THVSAXOURA, Fringed-tails
ARANEIDA, Spiders ...
CHELIFERA, Scorpions . .
ACARIDA, Mites . , ,

CLASS IX.— MYRLAPODA

146
146
146
146
146

147
147
147
147

148

CLASS X.— ANNELIDA

148

CLASS XI.— ECHINODERMATA ; SPINED-

SK1NS.

Order : ECHINOIDA, Sea-urchins
Family : Cidaroid . .
Family: Echinoid . . .
Scutelloid . •
Galeritidans .
Spatangoid . .

Family :

Family :

Family :

Order: STELLERIDA
Order: HoLOTHURiA

CLASS XII.— ENTOZOA
CLASS XIII— ACALEPHA

Order : CTENOPHORA, Crest-bearers .
Order: SCIAPHORA, Umbrella-bearers .
Order: SIPHONOPHORA, Siphon-bearers

CLASS XIV.— INFUSORIA

CLASS XV.— POLYPS

CLASS XVI.— SPONGIA

149
149
149
149
149
149
150
150

151
151
151
151
152

152

153
156

1

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

FIRST DIVISION.

VERTEBRATE ANIMALS.

CLASS I.— MAMMALIA.

ORDER IV.— MARSUPIALA.

PLATE XX.

ORDER III.— SCANSORES.

ORDER I.— QUADRUMANA.
PLATE I.
Ourang Outang.
Lotong.

PLATE X.

Mange's Dasyure.
Virginian Opossum.
Porcine Bandicoot, or Peramele.
Mouse-like Phalanger.

Common Antelope.
Egyptian Antelope.
Royal Antelope.
White-footed Antelope.
Gnu.

PLATE VII.
Long-tailed Jacamar.
Great Jacamar.
Great Black Woodpecker.
Three-toed Woodpecker.

Proboscis Monkey.

PLATE XXI.

Wryneck.

Great Baboon.

PLATE XI.

Ibex Goat.

Smaller Picus.

PLATE II.

Red Monkey.
Horned Monkey.
Squirrel Monkey.

Wombat.
Potoroo.
Great Kangaroo.
Wood Engravings :

Wild Sheep.
Rocky Mountain Sheep.
Bison.

ORDER IX.— CETACEA.

PLATE VIII.
Scarlet Maccaw.
Angola-yellow Parrakeet.
Bonneted Psittacule.

Four-fingered Monkey.
Striated Monkey.
Silky Monkey.

Kangaroo, p. 34.
Skeleton of Kangaroo, p. 34.

PLATE XXII.

American Manatee.

Grey Parrot.
Long-nosed Cockatoo.
Grey Small-tongued Parrot.

PLATE III.

ORDER V.— RODENTIA.

Steller's Rytina.

Ring-tailed Macauco.

PLATE XII.

ORDER IV.— GALLINACEA.

Short-tailed Indri.
Bengal Lori.
Senegal Galago.
Daubenton's Tarsier.
Tarsias Bucanus.

Lemming.
Dormouse.
Common Beaver.
Molina's Coypu.
Black Rat, '

PLATE XXIII.

Common Dolphin.
Narwhal.
Cachalot or Spermaceti Whale.
Common Greenland or Whalebone Whale.

PLATE IX.
Sonnerat's Cock.
Crested Cock.
Amherst's Pheasant.
Silver Pheasant.

Wood Engravings ;

^Egyptian Jerboa.

Nepaul Horned Pheasant.

Chimpanzee, p. 2.

Wood Engravings :

Cryptonyx Coronatus.

Sapajou, p. 5.

Teeth of Rodentia, p. 35.

CLASS II.— AVES.

Macauco, p. 8.
Head of Macauco, p. 8.

Molar teeth of Beaver, p. 35.

ORDER I.— ACCIPETRES.

PLATE X.

Carunculated Pigeon.

PLATE XIII.

Crown-bird or Crowned Pigeon.

ORDER II.— CHEIROPTERA.

Cape Jerboa.

PLATE I.

Stock-dove.

PLATE IV.
Java Rousette.
Swift Molasse.
Spectre Bat.

Alpine Marmot.
Common Hare.
Calling Hare.
Great Flying Squirrel.

Monk Vulture.
King Vulture.
Egyptian Vulture.
Alpine Gypaete.

White-headed Pigeon.
Abyssinian Pigeon.
Bald-fronted Pigeon.

Wood Engraving :
Bat Walking, p. 14.

Common Porcupine.
Wood Engraving :
Squirrel, p. 39.

Wood Engraving :
Griffin Vulture, p. 59.

PLATE II.

ORDER V.— GRALLATORIA.

PLATE XI.
Ostrich.

ORDER III.— SARCOPHAGA.

ORDER VI.— EDENTATA.

Peregrine Falcon.
Booted Buzzard.

Nandu.
Cassowary.

PLATE IV.
Common Hedgehog.

PLATE XIV.
Ai, or Three-toed Sloth.

Sea Eagle.
Cape Snake-eater.

Emeu.
PLATE XII.

Common Mole.

Wood Engravings :
Teeth of Insectivorous Animals, p. 16.
Nest of Mygale, p. 18.
Desman, p. 18.

PLATE V.
Polar Bear.

Nine-banded Armadillo.
Great Ant-eater.
Long-tailed Pangolin.
Spiny Echidna.
Rufous Ornithorhynque.

Wood Engravings :
Head of Armadillo, p. 42.
Ornithorhynchus, p. 44.

Wood Engravings :
Gypaetos, p. 60.
Head of Falcon, p. 60.
Kite, p. 61.
Eagle and Serpent, p. 156.

PLATE III.
Snowy Harfang, or Owl.
Brown Owl.

Great Bustard.
Common Thick-knee.
Golden Plover.
Grey Sand-piper.
Pied Oyster-catcher.
Bronze-winged Courser.
Marcgrave's Cariama.

PLATE XIII.

Raccoon.
Brown Coati.

ORDER VII.— PACHYDERMATA.

White Owl.
Long-eared Owl.

Boat-bUl.
Common Heron.

Wolverine.

PLATE XV.

Great Egret.

PLATE VI.

Indian Elephant.

ORDER II.— PASSERINA.

Bittern.

Pine Martin.

Giant Mastodon.

PLATE IV.

PLATE XIV.

American Skunk.

PLATE XVI.

Great Cinereous Shrike or Butcher-bird.

White Stork.

Common Otter.

Indian Rhinoceros.

Spotted Fly-catcher.

Senegal Jabiru.

Civet.
Egyptian Ichneumon.

American Tapir.
Hippopotamus.

Banded Tanager.
Mocking-bird.

Tufted Umbre.
Coromandel Erody.

PLATE VII.

Wood Engravings :

Orange Rock-cock.

Milky Tantalus.
Roseate Spoonbill.

Thibet Dog.

Head of Tapir, p. 47.

PLATE V.

Wolf.

Boar's head, p, 47.

Chimney Swallow.

PLATE XV.

Jackal.

House Martin.

Chinese Jacana.

Fox.

PLATE XVII.

Esculent Swallow.

Horned Screamer.

Fennek.

Horse.

Black Swift.

Freycinet's Mankjro.

PLATE VIII.

Ass. .

European Goat-sucker.

Sultana-bird.

Striped Hyena.

Zebra.

Leona Goat-sucker.

White Sheathbill.

Lion.
Tiger.

ORDER VIII.— RUMINANTIA.

Wood Engraving :
Bird of Paradise, p. 69.

Red Flamingo.
Collared Pratincole.

Wood Engraving :
Panther, p. 29.

PLATE XVIII.
Dromedary.

PLATE VI.

ORDER VI.— PALMIPEDA.

Llama.

Nuthatch.

PLATE IX.

Java Musk.

Xenops Bullions.

PLATE XVI.

Common Seal.
Black Otary or Seal.
Walrus.

PLATE XIX.
Elk or Deer

Common Creeper.
Wall Creeper.
Delalandi's Humming-bird.

Homed Grebe.

Senegal Coot-grebe.
Northern Diver.

Rein-deer.

Hoopoe.

Puffin.

Wood Engraving :

Roebuck. ~

Common Bee-eater.

Great Auk.

Seal, p. 29.

Giraffe or Camelopard.

Kingfisher.

Patagonian Penguin.

x LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

PLATE XVII.

ORDER IV.-OPHIDIA.

PLATE III.

Wood Engravings :

Hartie's Petrel.

PLATE V.

Mackerel.

Plaice, p. 124.

Berard's Haladrome.
Broad-billed Prion.

w.i-i. :,r. i 40 tnm.
Black-backed Gull.
Black Skimmer.

Ptndoput Pallasii.
Amp/iisboena Alba.
Tortrix Scytale.
Boa Constrictor.
Python Poda.

Sword-fish.
Doree.
Hairtail.
Stylephonis.
Chonlatus.
Red Band-fish.

Turbot, p. 1-J4.
Reraora, p. 122.
Disc or' Kemora, p. 122.

ORDER IV.

PLATE XVIII.

Java Oularcaron.

APODO-MALACOPTERYGIA.

Common Pelican.
Cormorant.

PLATE VI.

Wood Engravings :
Sword-fish, p. 114.

PLATE IX

Great Frigate-bird.
White Gannet.

Banded Rattle-snake.

Vipera Bents.

Tunny, p. 114.

Sharp-nosed Eel.

Conger.

Le Vaillant's Darter.

Cerastes ffaaelquittii.

PLATE IV.

(Massy Ophisure.

Red-tailed Tropic-bird.

PLATE XIX.

Wild Swan.
Wild Goose.
New Holland Pigeon-goose.
Shoveller.
Lobated Duck.
Goosander.

Yellowish Hooded Snake.
Trimeresurus Iticrocephalus.
Bicoloured Sea-serpent.
Pseudo-boa.
Coxilia Glutinosa.

OBDEB V.— BATRACHIA.

PLATE VII.
Edible Frog.

Climbing Perch.
Dotted Snake-head.
Mullet.
Butterfly-fish.
Wolf-fish.
Black Goby.

Wood Engraving :
Respiratory organs of Anabas, p. 115.

J/wrcCTW Mclcagris.
Sjjhagebranchus Sostratus.
Saccopharynx Harwootlii.
Banded Gymnote.
Anglesea Morris.
Beardless Ophidium.
Sand-lance.

Wood Engraving :
Gymnotus, p. 123.

Horned Frog.

PLATE V.

CLASS in.— REPTILIA.

Tree Frog.

Common Angler.

ORDER V.— LOPHOBRANCHIATA.

ORDEB I.— CHELONIA.

Common Toad.
Yellow-bellied Toad.

Surinam Toad-fish.
Red Wrasse.

PLATE X.

PLATE I.

Surinam Pipa.

Cretan Scarus.

Sea Drajjon.

Common Tortoise.
Written Fresh-water Tortoise.
Three-dtriped Box Tortoise,
Striped Turtle.

Wood Engravings :
Skeleton of Frog, p. 107.
Tadpole, in successive states, p. 107.

Tobacco-pipe Fish.
Sea Woodcock.

ORDER II.

Round Diodon.
Oblong Sun-fish.
Mediterranean File-fish.
Trunk-fish.

Matamata.
Nilotic Trionyx or Soft Tortoise.

Wood Engravings :

PLATE VIII.
Spotted Salamander.
Marbled Newt or Eft.

HETROMALACOPTERYGIA.
PLATE VI.

CMBh

Wood Engraving :
Globe-fish, p. 124.

Under surface of Tortoise, p. 98.
Skeleton of Tortoise, p. 99.

Menopome or Hellbender.
Aiolotl.
Snake-like Proteus.

arp.
Muddy Loach.
Four-eye.

YJ.l

SUB-CLASS.

ORDER II.— CHAMPSIA.

Lizard-like Siren.

rike.

PLATE II.

Wood Engravings :

Flying-fish.
Sheet-fish.

CHONDROPTERYGII.

Indian Crocodile.
Nilotic Crocodile.

Salamander, p. 108.
Aiolotl, p. 109.

Pimelodes Cychpum.
Loricaria Cirr/tosa.

ORDER.— ELEOTHEROBRANCHIATA.

Spectacle Alligator.

Wood Engravings :

PLATE XI.

ORDER III.— SAURIA.

Dorsal Fin, p. 118.

Sterlet.

PLATE III.

CLASS IV.— PISCES.

Pike, p. 118.

Northern Chimera, or King of the Herrings.

Nilotic Ouaran.
Eyed Lizard.

ORDER I.— ACANTHOPTERYGIA.

Malapterus, p. 118.
PLATE VII.

Southern Chimajra, or Elephant Fish.
Wood Engraving :

Common Stellion.
Striped Dragon.
Common Guana.

PLATE I.
Perch.
Common Weever.

Salmon.
Argentine.
Fetid Saury.

Sturgeon, p. 125.
ORDER.— PYCNOBRANCHI AT A .

Cape Anolis.

Smaller Red-beard.

Herrin£r.

Wood Engravings :
Dragon, p. 101.
Iguana, p. 101.

Red Gurnard.
Dactylopterus.
Scicma Umbra.
Saddle-fish.

Gnathobolus Aculeatui.
Porypterus Bichir.

PLATE XII.
White Shark.
Angel-fish.
Spotted Torpedo.

PLATE IV.
Egyptian Gecko.
Common Chameleon.

Wood Engraving :
Skeleton of Perch, p. 110.

ORDER III.
L(EMOMALACOPTERYGIA.

Rough Ray.
Sea Lamprey.
Myxine or Hog.

Officinal Scink.

PLATE VIII.

Three-toed Seps.

PLATE II.

Codfish.

Wood Engravings :

Scaly-footed Biped.
Chirotet Propus.
Wood Engravingi :

Ringed Sparus.
Sea Rough.
Cockerel!.
Pickarell.

Mediterranean Fork-beard.
Plaice.
Whiff.
Sole.

Shark, p. 126.
Head of Shark, p. 126.
Torpedo, p. 126.
Raia, p, 126.

Gecko, p. 102.

Streaked Chetodon.

Cornish Sucker.

Lamprey, p. 126.

Chameleon, p. 103.

Brama Atropus.

Common Remora.

Mouth of Lamprey, p. 126.

SECOND DIVISION.

INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS.

CLASS V.— MOLLUSCA.

ORDEB.— FORAMINIFERA.

Quinqueloculina saxorum.

Helix albella.

PT i TV IT

Amphegistina Quoyii.

epistyllium.

SUB-CLASS. —CEPHALOPODA .

i i. \ i J1. 11.
Nodosaria Isevigata.

Heterogystina depressa.
Fabularia discolithes.

Bulimus ovatus.
Pupa.

PLATE I.

Marginulina Raphanus.
Pavonia flabelliformis.

SUB-CLASS.— GASTEROPODA.

Clausilia.
Achatina virginea.

ArgonanU raricosta.

Textularia aciculata.
Polymorphina coramunis.

ORDER.— PULMONIFERA.

Physa rivalis.

argo.

Bulimina marginata.

PLATE III.

ORDER.— GYMNOBRANCHIATA seu

Wood Engraving, :

Paper Nautilus, p. 128.
Loligopsis, p. 128.

Urigerina pygmea.
Rosalina globularis.
Truncatulina refulgeiu.
Planulina Araminensis.

Limax maximus vet antiquorum.
variegatus.
Testacella Maugei.
Helix naticoides.

NUDIBRANCHIATA.

PLATK IV.
Doris trilobate.

Pearly Nautilus, p. 128.
Ammonite, p. 129.
Octopus or Poulp, p. 129.

Dendritina arbuscula.
Nonionina umhilicata.
Biloculina bulloides.

— — Japonica.
algira.

— — - carocolla.

lacinala.
nodosa.
pennigera.

Calamary, p. 129.

Triloculina trigoluna.

nux denticulate.

limliata.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. xi

Doris tuberculata.

SUB-CLASS.— CIRRHOPODA.

ORDEE VII.— DIPTERA.

ORDER VII.— DIPTEROUS INSECTS.

cornuta.
atro-marginata.
Onehidorus Leachi.
Peronia Mauritania.
Polycera quadricornis.
Tritonia Hombergii.
Thethys leporina.
Scyltea pelagica.

PLATE IX.

ORDER.
PEDUNCULAR (CAMPTOSOMATA).

Pentalasmis vulgaris.
Cineras vittata.

Echinomya fera.
Hirtea pomona.
Cenogastra mystacinus.
Ceroplatus tipuloides.
Thereva crassipennis.
Tabanus niger.
Diopsis ichneumonea.

Ceria conopsoides.
Henops marginatus.
Anthrax moria.

ORDER VIII.
HEMIPTEROUS INSECTS.

Glaucus Atlanticus.

Otion CjUvien.

Tingis vinarum.

Laniogerus Elfortii.

Scalpcllum vulgare.

ORDER VIII.— APTERA.

Lygseus militaris.

Eolidia Cuvieri.
Cavolina perigrina.
Eolis tergipes.

Polliceps cornucopia.
ORDER.

Pulex irritans (male and female).
penetrans (in different stages).

Tetyra nigrolineata.
Syrtis paradoxus.
Berytus tipularis.

Wood Engraving :

SESSILE (ACAMPTOSOMATA).
Tubicinella Lamarckii.

Illustrations of another Arrangement of
Insects ; more in accordance with the

Hydrometra stagnarum.
Genis lacustris.

Eolis, p. 132.

Coronula Diadema.

systems of recent Naturalists than the

OKDEB.— TECTIBRANCHIATA.

Chelonobia Savignii.
Pyrgoma cancellata.

preceding Arrangement.

ORDER IX.
HOMOPTEROUS INSECTS.

PLATE V.

Creusia Spinulosa.

PLATE III.

Acasta Montagui.

Lystra lanuginosa.

Pleurobranchus Peronii.

Balanus tintinnabulum.

OBDER I.— COLEOPTEROUS INSECTS.

Plata alba.

Lamellaria membranacea.
Aplysia piinctata.
Dolabella Rumphii.
Notarchus Cuvieri.

Balanus.
Conia vulgaris.
Clisia verruca.

Anthia quadriguttata.
Elaphrus uliginosus.
Omophron limbatum.

Delphax pellucidus.
dorsatus.
Thryps oajruleocollis.

Accra carnosa.

Wood Engraving :

Hydrous piceus.
Necrophorus vespillo.

ORDER X.

Bulla ]i'rtKiri;i

Balanus, p. 138.

Tachys minute.

STREPSIPTEROUS INSECTS.

Bullina Guanensis.
Umbella Indica.

TERMS USED IN COSCHOLOOY.

Passalus interruptus.
Chiasognathus Grantii.
Drilus flavescens.

Stylops mclitte.
. Kirbii.

PLATE X.

Tillus mutilarius.

Dalii.

ORDER.— PECTINIBRANCHIATA.
PLATE VI.

Symmetrical Univalves.
Serial Multivalves.

Enicopus niger.
Uleiota flavipes.

Halictophagus Curtisii.
Elenchus Walkeri.

Coronal Multivalves.

Callichroma alpina.

Xenos vespamm.

Trochoid Tribe.

Bivalve shells.

Molorchus abbreviatus.

Monodonta (animal of).

Lamplike Shells.

Rhagium mordax.
Cerocorna Schocffbri.

PLATE VI.

Trocbus Henslovii.

PLATE XI.

Homalysus suturalis.

TERMS USED is ENTOMOLOGY.

— — Emma.

SPiral Shells.

Notorus monocerus.

Antennae.

Imperator.
Paludina fasciata.

Sub-spiral Shells.

Lomechusa dentata.

Trophi, &c.

_^__ costata.

Opercula of Shells.

Legs.

Littorina littoralis.

PLATE IV.

A. Coleopterous.

Phasianella bulimoides.
Ampullaria solida.

COLEOPTEROUS INSECTS— (continued).

B. Strepsipterous.
C. Hymenopterou?.

Melania Bironensis.

Helophorus aquaticus.

D. Lepidopterous.

Natica millepunctata.

CLASS VI.— INSECTS.

Scaphidium quadrimaculatum.

Nerita undulosa.

Necrodes littoralis.

cariosa.

Illustrations of Lamarck's Arrangement

Anthicus pedestris.

Neritina Ovenii.

of Insects.

Nitidula grisea.
Apate capuzina.

CLASS VII.— CRUSTACEA.

Succinoid Tribe.

PLATE I.

Cerithium Laraarckii.

ORDER I.— COLEOPTERA.

ORDER II.

PLATE.

fuscatum.
^-^ telescopium (opercule of).

Wood Engraving :

Lucanus Cervus.
Lampyris noctiluca (male 2, female 3).
Cerambyx.

ORTHOPTEROUS INSECTS.

Tridactylus paradoxus.
Truxalis nasuta.

ORDER I.— BRACHYURA.

Grapsus pictus.
Phyllosoma clavicornis.

Paludina, p. 134.

Acridium bipunctatum.

ORDER II.— ORTHOPTERA.

ORDER II.— MACROURA.

PLATE VII.

Gryllotalpa vulgaris.

ORDER III.

Pagurus Bernarfus.

CapulM Tribe.

Blatta Lapponica.
Forficula vulgaris.

NEUROPTEROUS INSECTS.

Capulus Hungaricus.

Gryllus casrulescens.

Lestes autumnalis.

ORDER III.— STOMAPODA.

Pileopsis mitrula.
crenulata.

Mantis striata.

Raphidia notata.
Ephemera vulgata.

Squilla mantis.

Hipponix cornucopia?.

ORDER III.— NEUROPTERA.

Panorpa vulgaris.

ORDER IV.— ISOPODA.

Pispotam Bironensis.
Crepidula porcellana.
Peruviana.

Myrmeleo formicarius (in different stages).
Libellula depressa (larva of).
Neraoptera vulgaris.

ORDER IV.
TRICHOPTEROUS INSECTS.

Cymodoce Lamarckii.
Porcellus asellus.

Calyptraea Neptuna.

Ascalaphus barbarus.

Limnephilus griseus.

ORDER V.— BRANCHIOPODA.

Siphonaria radiata.
gigas.

ORDER IV.— HYMENOPTERA.

ORDER V.

Polyphemus stagnalis.

Gadinia.

Sphex spirifex.

Daphnia pulex.

Sigaretus baliotideus.
Coriocella nigra.

Urocerus gigas.
Pomphylus viaticus.

HYMENOPTEROUS INSECTS.
Banchus pictus.

Lepidurus prolongus.
Brachipus stagnalis.

Wood Engraving :

PLATE II.

Evania appendigaster.
Scolia quadrimaculata.

Hyalea, p. 135.

SUB-CLASS.— ACEPHALA.

ORDER V.— LEPIDOPTERA.
Lycaena dispar (in various stages).

Mutilla coccinea.
Ichneumon manifestator.
Pterygophorus cinctus.

CLASS VIIL— AEACHNIDA.

Hesperia comma

Masaris apiformis.

PLATE.

PLATE VIII.

Noctua delphinula.

ORDER.— HETEROBRANCHIATA.

Bombyx dispar.
furcula (in two states).

PLATE V.
ORDER VI.

ORDER I.— THYSANOURA.
Forbicina vittata.

Cynthia momus.
canopus.

ORDER VI.— HEMIPTERA.

LEPIDOPTEROUS INSECTS.

Podura villosa.

Botryllus polycyclus.
Polyclinum constellatum.

Fulgora eandellaria.
Naucoris cimicoides.

Fidonia melanaria.
Earis clorana.

ORDER II.— ARANEIDA.

Sigillina Australia.

Notonecta glauca.

Crambus margaritellus.

Mygale avicularis.

Distoma rubium.

Coccus cacti.

Harpipteryi harpella (two states).

Aranea extensa.

Sinoicum turgens.

Aphis rosse (in two states).

Adela sultzella.

lobata.

xii LIST OF ILLUSTEATIONS.

OBDEB III.— CHELIFERA.

Family — SPATAHOOID.

Doxococcus globulus.

SUB-CLASS.— ROTATORIES.

Scorpio rufescens.

Echinodardium Atropos.

Chilomonas volvox.
Bodo socialis.

ORDER I.— MONOTROCHOUS.

Cheliter cancruides.

Spatangos purpureus.
Brissus unicolor.

Cryptomonas ovata.
Trachelomonas volvocina.

Ptygura meliccrta.
Ichthydium podura.

ORDER IV.— ACARIDA.

Smaridia fringillaris.
Siro rabeus.

ORDEB II.— STELLERIDA.
PLATE III.

Gyges granulum.
Syncrypta volvox.
Spha?rosira volvox.
Volvox globata.

Chffitonotus maximus.
Glenophora trochus.
Ocistes hyalinus.
Cyphonautes compressus.

Asterias pulchella.

Vibrio subtilis.

Microcodon clavus.

^^— cylindrica.

Spirodiseus fulvus.

Tubicolaria najas.

CLASS IX.— MYRIAPODA.

Ophiura mutica.
— Lamarckii.

Closterium lunula.
Astasia h&matodes.

Floscularia ornata.
Melicerta ringens.

Polydesma complanata.
Lithobia vulgaris.
Glomeris zonatus.
Julus sabulosus.

— ^ squamosa.
lineolata.
Euryale simplex.

OBDER III.— HOLOTHURIA.

Euglena viridis.
Distigma tenax.
Epipyxis utriculus.
Dinobrion sertularia.
Amaeba diffluens.

Lymnas ceratophylli.
ORDER II.— SOROTROCHOUS.

Hydatina trachydactyla.
Furculai-ia giblia.

Wood Engravings :

Wood Engraving :

Difflugia Proteiformis.
Cypidium aureolum.

Diglena graiulis.
Triopthalmus dorsalis.

Julus, p. 148.

Holothuria, p. 150.

Deamidium Swarzii.

Cycloglena lupus.

Scolopendra, p. 148.

Xanthidium fasciculatum.

Lepadella ovali:..

Micrasterias Boryana.

Euchlanis lunn.

Euastrum aculeatum.

Colurus caudatus.

CLASS X.— ANNELIDA.

CLASS XII.— ACALEPHA.

Navicula phcenicentron.
Bacillaria vulgaris.
Isthmia enervis.

Squamella oblonga.
Callidiua elegans.
Rotifer macrurus.

PLATE.

Syndera ulna.

Philodina aculeate.

Wood Engravings :
Leech p. 148.

OBDEB I.— SIPHONOPHORA.

Echinella splendida.
Syncycha saljia.

Noteus quadricoruis.
Anunea squamula.

u«-~u, 1" *^"«

Group of Serpulae, p. 149.
Nereis, p. 149.

Diphya.
Rhizophysa planostoma.
Physsophora disticha.

Naunema Dilwynii.
Schizonema Aghardi.
Cyclidium glaucoma.

Brachionus amphiceros.
Pterodina patina.

Physalia megalista.

Chatomonas constricta.

Vellella cyanea.
Porpita gigantea.

Chsetophyla armata
Chatoglena volvocina.

CLASS XV.— POLYPS.

CLASS XI.

Peridinium tripos.

PLATE.

ECHINODERMATA.

OBDEB 11.— SCIAPHORA.
Berenice rosea.

Glenodinium tabulatum.

Cornicularia rugosa.
Tubipora musicalis.

ORDER I.— ECHINOIDA.

Geryonia hexaphilla.
Pelagia panopyra.

OBDEB II.— ENTERODELOUS.

Renilla Americana.
Tubularia clytoidea.

^Equorea Forskaelena.

Stentor Miilleri.

Corallium rubrum.

PLATE I.

Aurelia aurita.

Urocentrum turbo.

Gorgouia patula.

Family — CiDAROlD.

Rhizostoma Cnvieri.

Vorticella microstoma.
Zootbamnium arbuscula.

Millepora spongitis.
Biccllaria fastigiata.

Diadema fistularis.

OBDEB III.— CTENOPHORA.

Ophrydium versatile.

Serialaria lengidera.

Cidaris imperialis.
Astropyga radiata.

Beroe macrostoma.
CaUionira triploptera.

Tintinnus inquilinus.
Vaginicola chi*ystallina.
Enchelys pupa.

Cellepora hyalina.
Laomedia dicbotoma.
Plumaria secundaria.

Family— Ecansoi i>.

Cestum Veneris.

Lachrymaria proteus.

Sertularia pumila.

Echinus miliaris.

Leucophrys patula.

Caryophyllea solitaria.

elegant.

Coleps incurvus.

Meandrina limosa.
Zoanthus Ellisii.

sardicus.
Echinometra mammillatus.

CLASS XHI.— ENTOZOA.

Trachelius orum.
Phialina vennicularis.

Astrea ananas.
Meandrina cerebriformis.

PLATE II.

Wood Engraving :

Chilodon cucullus.
Nassula elegans.

Oculina varicosa.
Actinia dianthus.

Tapeworm, p. 151.

Trachelocera olor.

Family — SCUTELLOID.

Aspidisca denticulata.

Wood Engravings :

Echinanthus subdepressa.

Amphileptus fasciola.

Actinia, p. 155.

Echinarachnius placenta.

Veretillum, p. 155.

Ecbinoducus digitata.
CaMidulus Australis.

CLASS XIV.— INFUSORIES.
SUB-CLAS&— POLYGASTRICA.

PLATE II.
ESTEBODELOCS — (continued.)

Hydra, p. 155.
CamjKinularia, p. 155.
Coralliua, p. 155.
Plumatella, p. 155.

Family — GALERTTIDAKS.

PLATE I.

Colpoda ren.
Opbryglena acuminate.

Galerites albo-galerns.
Echinanaus minor.

OBDEB I.— ANENTEROUS.

Oxytricha cicada.
Stylonychia pustulata.

CLASS XVI.— SPONGIA.

Echinolampas Koenigii.
Kchinocorys ovatus.

Monas crepusculum.
guttula.

Discocephalus rotatorius.
Chlamidodon Mnemosyne.

Wood Engraving :

Echinobryssus Breynii.

Uvella virescens.

Euplotes Charon.

Spongia, p. 156.

ILLUSTRATIONS OF ZOOLOGY.

FIKST DIVISION.

VERTEBRATE ANIMALS.

The Vertebrate Animals are those whose special arrangement consists in a series of bones firmly connected, yet possessing freedom of
motion — the several bones being moveable on one another. The term comes from the Latin Vertebra, " a joint in the back-bone ;"
and this from Verto, "I turn."

CLASS I.— M A M M A L I A.

The Mammalians are warm and red-blooded animals, they respire through lungs ; and they all suckle their young, nourishing them by
a milky secretion formed in the Mammce (breasts or teats), hence the name Mammalia.

ORDER I.— QUADRUMANA.

THIS order comprehends the two large families of Monkeys and Lemurs,
which have their hind feet converted into hands, by being furnished with
thumbs.

Family 1. — MONKEYS; Simcrida.

The members of this family approach nearest of all animals, in form,
appearance, and habits, to those of the human race. They mimic, as it
were, the " Lords of the Creation ;" hence their appellation from the
Latin Simia, " an imitator."

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.
PLATE 1.

Genera. Species.

Simla ------- Satyrus -

f Maurus -
Semnopithecus - - - - < ,T .

^asicus -

Cynocephalus - -

Mormon - - - -

Common Name,

Orang-Outang.
Lotong.

Proboscis Monkey.
Great Baboon.

Cebus

Hapale

PLATE 2.

iRuber- - - -

Fatuellus - - -

Sciureus - - -

Paniscus - - -
fCommunis
1 Rosalia -

Red Monkey.
Horned Monkey.
Squirrel Monkey.
Four-fingered Monkey.
Striated Monkey.
Silky Monkey.

Other Genera of this Family : — Cercopithecus, Hylobates, Nyctipithecus.

CHARACTERS OF THE GENERA.

1. SIMIA (Gr. aip.ot, a fat nose). Teeth close- set and continuous; four
incisive in each jaw, erect and cutting ; cuspid teeth rather longer than the
former ; molar teeth five on a side in each jaw, the anterior two bicuspid,
the posterior three quadricuspid ; muzzle long, truncated, or rounded ante-
riorly; facial angle from 353to30°; face naked ; nostrils separated by a
narrow septum ; ears like those of a man ; no cheek pouches ; two pectoral
teats ; neither tail nor callosities ; all the feet five-toed and furnished with
flat nails.

2. SEMNOPITHECUS (Gr. atfivos, venerable and widr)Kof, a Monkey). In-
cisive teeth four in each jaw, two middle ones of upper jaw broader than
the others ; cuspid teeth long, pointed, slightly inclining outwards ; in the
upper jaw the second bicuspid rather longer than the first, both divided by
a deep longitudinal groove, and the outer larger than the inner point ; in
the lower jaw the first so-called bicuspid pyramidal, single-pointed, and
tall, the second similar to the second upper bicuspid, but with a small
additional ridge near the base of the crown ; molar teeth three on a side in
either jaw, and on the crown of each four points, except the third, which
has five points ; head long from before backwards, compressed laterally,

and rounded behind ; face naked, flat above, and rather prominent below ;
nose depressed at its base ; nostrils lateral, oblong, and semilunar ; ears
margined ; body slender, limbs very long, especially the posterior ; thumbs
minute and near to the fingers ; tail very long ; rump furnished with callo-
sities ; cheek-pouches rudimental.

3. CYNOCEPHALUS (Lat. dog-headed). Incisive teeth four in each jaw,
close set, and upright ; cuspid longer than the former, conical or pyramidal,
and sharp on their hinder edge ; molar five on a side in each jaw, the first
twice as long as the others, the last rather larger than the rest and in many
species five-pointed ; muzzle prominent ; nostrils divided by a narrow
septum; facial angle varying between 45° and 30'; face bare; cheek-
pouches ; auricles either with or without the edge turned over ; all the feet
five-toed, and the nails either flat or slightly arched ; rump furnished with
callosities ; tail of different lengths, in some species long, in others short,
and in a few a mere tubercle.

4. CEBUS (Gr. dj/3oe, an Ape with a tail). Teeth as in man, with the
addition of four more molar teeth; tail long; no cheek-pouches; the rump
hairy and without callosities ; nostrils piercing the sides of the nose and not
at the under part.

5. PITHECIA (Gr. 7r/0>jicoc, a Monkey). Incisive teeth close-set, in the
upper jaw four obliquely prominent, and separated by a gap from the
cuspid, in the lower jaw also projecting, long, narrow, and the outer ones
narrowed toward their tip ; cuspid teeth long, trigonal, and pyramidal ;
molar teeth six on a side in each jaw, their crowns armed with six blunt
tubercles ; head rounded ; muzzle obtuse ; chin sometimes bearded ; ears
with their edges curled ; nostrils separated by a wider septum than the
space supporting the upper incisive teeth ; tail of various length, and largely
covered with loose hair ; feet five-toed, the nails flat.

6. HAPALE (Gr. airaXoc, soft). Incisive teeth nearly upright, close, and
four in each jaw ; the lower sometimes longer and narrower than the upper ;
cuspid teeth conical, longer than the incisive, to which they are contiguous
in the lower, but from which they are distant in the upper jaw ; molar
teeth having a broad surface, studded with little points, five on a side in
each jaw ; face bare, nostrils separated by a broad septum, and expanded
laterally ; no cheek-pouches ; ears flat ; buttocks hairy, tail long, and not
prehensile ; feet five-toed, the nails compressed and pointed, except those
of the great toes of the hind feet, which are flattened ; the thumbs of the
fore feet hardly separated from the fingers.

7. CERCOPITHECUS (Gr. KipKoe, a tail, irWrieof, an Ape). Cheek-pouches ;
the last molar tooth in the lower jaw having four tubercles as the others ;
tail ; callosities on the rump.

8. HYLOBATES (Gr. v\?j, a wood, fiaivia, / walk). Teeth regularly
arranged, without any gap; incisive four in each jaw, upright; cuspid
rather longer than the incisive, conical ; molar five on a side in either jaw,
anterior two bicuspid, posterior three qnadricuspid ; facial angle 60 :

CLASS— M A M M A L I A.

ORDER— QUADRUMANA.

rump bare, furnished with callosities, but no tail ; feet and hands five-
fingered, the latter touching the ground when the animal is erect.

9. NYCTIPITHECUS (Gr. vv£, night, ir<0»j«roc, an Ape). Incisive teeth four
in each jaw, the middle upper flattish and little prominent, the outer
smaller, triangular, and rather set back; lower incisive rather wide on
their edge, and close set in a semicircular form ; cuspid moderate sized, and
equal in both jaws : molar six on a side in each jaw, with slightly-pointed
crowns ; nose flat ; cheeks prominent, but face very small ; orbits very
large ; top of the head flattened ; ears distinct, flat, and hairy ; body slender
and covered with woolly hair ; tail longer than the body, and not prehen-
sile ; hind legs longer than fore legs ; claws short, compressed, slightly
pointed, that of the great toe slightly flattened.

SIMIAIDA. — DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIES.

SIMIA — Monkey-like animals. The genus, as first formed by Linnaeus,
included the whole of the Monkeys, commonly so called, thereby bringing
together numerous animals, which though sufficiently allied to admit their
collection as members of a family, differed so materially in many points, as
to lead to a better arrangement Illiger converted the Linnsean genus into
a family consisting of no less than thirteen genera, which number has been
increased by later zoologists ; Temminck, for instance, to fifteen, and by
other writers still more numerously. Long indeed before the time of
Linnaeus, writers on Natural History had in a cursory manner observed,
that among the Monkeys there were several groups. Aristotle speaks of
three kinds, iri'dijcot, KJjfiot, and KvvoKityaXoi, of which he says tliat the
iri'Oijroc has no tail, being a biped, (on which point, however, he is incor-
rect,) that the irij/8oc is a ir/fli/icoc with a tail, and that the Kwok-^aXoe,
with the form of the iri'flijicof , is of more bulky and stronger proportions,
but that its face rather resembles that of a Dog. The counterpart of these
terms exists in the Latin words Simia,Cercopithecus, and Cynocephalus ; and
in our own language we find very loosely used the several terms Ape,
Ape without a tail, or Monkey, and Baboon,

The animals forming this genus are now generally known by the name
of Orang-Outang or Orang-Utan, the Malay phrase, signifying " a wild
man;" and of all the Monkey family most nearly resemble the human
form. Hence have arisen the fabulous accounts of Pigmies ; and even
Linnaeus has propped up this error by placing in his genus Homo, under
the name of Homo Troglodytes, one of the species called by Bontius Homo
Sylvestris Orang-Outang, which is the S. Satyrus of Linnaeus himself.

Till within a few years it was supposed that there existed but two
species of Orangs, the Black or Chimpanzee, and the Red or Orang-
Outang commonly so called. From the observations of Fischer and Owen
it however appears, that there are really three species, of which the Red
Orang may be regarded as the type ; and the latter zoologist has also proved
that another animal commonly called the Pongo, and generally considered
by zoologists as a distinct genus in the Monkey family, is in reality only
the adult of the Red species. He lias given a very minute account of the
difference, so far at least as their bony structure is concerned, in a paper in
the first volume of the " Zoological Transactions," On the Osteology of the
Chimpanzee and Orang-Utan ; and the result of his comparison of the two
animals leads him to agree with Geoffrey in the formation of the two sub-
genera, Troglodytes and Pithecus.

It would seem that these animals only in their childhood, as it may be
called, exhibit that mildness of disposition and docility which have been
considered as separating them widely from others of the Monkey family,
and approximating them to man, whilst in their adult state they become
morose and vicious, characteristic changes corresponding with the change
in their organic structure, and common to the whole family of Monkeys.
As regards their station and motion in the erect position, it has been
shown by Camper, Owen, and others who have minutely examined them
with reference to this point, that they are not more truly biped than others
of the same family ; and that the form of their hind limbs entirely precludes
the erect posture, though, in connection with other points of their anatomical
structure, it admirably suits them for the kind of life to which they are

destined, viz., that of living among and climbing on trees, upon the fruits
of which they live.

In their wild state they consort together in the woods, far away from
the dwellings of men, and though stated to be well known to the inhabit-
ants of the districts near which they live, it would seem that this know-
ledge arises from the accidental appearance of individuals who have
wandered from their usual haunts, and, losing themselves, have been
caught sight of and captured by the natives, rather than from being con-
tinually about them, as is the case with very many of this family. Hence
lias arisen the difficulty of procuring them, their consequent rarity in
collections of animals, and the great interest excited by them when ob-
tained ; added to which, that all the specimens of either species brought
either to Europe or America have been young, and with whatever care thev
have been tended have speedily fallen victims to the change of climate, and
probably to the change of food.

The characteristics of the Chimpanzee (Simia troglodytes), or Black
Ourang, are : — Muzzle long, truncated anteri-
orly ; strong, supraciliary ridges, behind which
the forehead recedes directly backwards ; no
cranial ridges ; facial angle 35\ excluding the
supraciliary ridges ; auricles large ; thirteen
pairs of ribs ; sternal bones in a single row ;
arms reaching below the knee-joint ; feet wide ;
hallux (great toe or thumb of the foot) ex-
tending to the second joint of the adjoining
toe ; canine teeth large, overpassing each other,
the apices lodging in intervals of the opposite
teeth ; intermaxillary bones anchylosed to the
maxillaries during the first or deciduous denti-
tion.

The first authentic account of the Chim-
panzee is that given by Dr. Tyson, in 1751,
under the name Pygmy: his animal was a
male from Angola, which measured twenty-six
inches from the top of the head to the heel in a straight lino. The hair
was of a coal-black colour, " straight, and much more resembling the hair
of men than the furr of brutes;" it was thicker and longer on the hind than
on the fore parts of the body ; the sides of the face were well covered with
hair about an inch long ; upon the upper lip and chin were a few " greyish
hairs like a beard." Tyson considered his animal to be biped, and says,
" 'tis sufficiently provided to walk erect." Ho had, however, previously
noticed, " that it would make use of its hands to supply the place of feet.
But when it went as a quadruped on all four, 'twas awkwardly ; not
placing the palm of the hand flat to the ground, but it walk'd upon its
knuckles, as I observed it to do when weak, and had not strength enough
to support its body." This, however, has been proved, by more frequent
observation than Tyson had opportunity for, to be the animal's natural
mode of walking when upon the ground. Of his manners it is said that he
was " the most gentle and loving creature that could be. Those that In
knew a-shipboard he would come and embrace with the greatest tender-
ness, opening their bosoms, and clasping his hands about them ; and, as I
was informed, tho' there were Monkeys aboard, yet 'twas observed he
would never associate with them, and, as if nothing akin to them, would
always avoid their company." When " a little used to wear cloaths, it
was fond enough of them, and what it could not put on himself it would
bring in its hands to some of the company to help him to put on. It
would lie in a bed, place his head on the pillow, and pull the clothes over
him as a man would do," but its habits were not cleanly.

In 1835, the Zoological Society had in their gardens a young male in-
dividual of this species, which measured two feet from the IK rl to the top
of the head. An account of its manners whilst in confinement is given l.v
Mr. Broderip in the Proceedings of the Committee of Science and Corre-
spondence of that Society for the same year. It was bought, off the Gambia
coast, and in the preceding autumn had been brought about a hundred and

FAMILY— S I M I A I D A. THE MONKEY TRIBE.

twenty miles from the interior of the country, and was stated to be about
twelve months old. The mother was said to have been four and a half
feet high, and was shot at the same time the young one was captured.
Mr. Broderip says, that when he saw him his " aspect was mild and
pensive, like that of a little withered old man ; and his large eyes, hairless
and wrinkled visage and man-like ears, surmounted by the black hair of
his head, rendered the resemblance very striking, notwithstanding the de-
pressed nose and the projecting mouth. When not otherwise occupied, he
would sit quietly in the lap of the old woman who tended him, pulling
about his toes with his fingers with the same pensive air as a human child
exhibits when amusing itself in the same manner." When spoken to,
Tommy, as he was called, endeavoured to do the same, gesticulating as he
stood nearly erect, protruding his lips, and making a hoarse noise, " hoo,
hoo," somewhat like a deaf and dumb person endeavouring to articulate.
" The effect of presenting a looking-glass before him when in the midst of
his play was very interesting : his attention was instantly and strongly
arrested ; from the utmost activity he became immoveably fixed, steadfastly
gazing at the mirror with eagerness and something like wonder depicted
on his face. He at length looked up at me ; then again gazed at the glass.
The tips of my fingers appeared on one side as I held it ; he put his hands
and then his lips to them, then looked behind the glass, then gazed again
at its surface, touched my hand again, and then applied his lips and teeth
to the surface of the glass, looked behind again, and then, returning to
gaze, passed his hands behind it, evidently to feel if there was anything
substantial there." A large Python, enveloped in a blanket, having been
brought in a hamper into the same room, and then uncovered, Tommy
cautiously advanced to the basket, peered over its edge, and instantly, with
a gesture of horror and aversion, and the cry hoo, hoo, darted away to his
keeper for protection, but no inducement could bring him back to the same
spot till the Snake had been removed. To a live Tortoise he also showed
aversion, but not horror. He took his rest in a sitting posture, leaning
forward with folded arms, and sometimes with his face in his hands;
sometimes, however, he slept prone, with his legs rather drawn up, and
his head resting on his arms.

Of the Orang (Pithecus) the following are the characteristics : — Muzzle
large, lengthy, and rather rounded in front; slight supraciliary ridges;
forehead receding, sagittal and lambdoidal crests strong ; facial angle 303 ;
auricles small ; twelve pairs of ribs ; arms reaching nearly to the ankle-
joint ; no round ligament in the hip-joint ; feet long and narrow, the foot
thumb not reaching the root of the adjoining toe, and often having but a
single joint, and that nail-less; cuspid teeth very large, and extending
beyond the intervals of the opposite teeth ; intermaxillary anchylosed to
the maxillary bones in the second dentition.

The Eed Orang (Simla Abelii or Pithecus Satyrus) is distinguished in
several particulars from the Black Orang. The most important difference,
however, is, that in this species the foot thumb, of which the concavity is
turned more towards the toes, is shorter, not reaching the head of the
metatarsal bone of the next toe, whilst in the Chimpanzee it always reaches
to the second phalanx of that toe. The hair of this species is of a reddish-
brown colour, thickest upon the back, but thin upon the front of the trunk.

The Simla Satyrus of Linnams is, according to Mr. Owen, an immature
Orang, with the deciduous teeth, and probably the young of this species.
They are natives of Sumatra. Plate 1.

The first scientific description of the Red Orang is that published by
Vosmaer in 1778 : in the same year Camper also produced an Essay,
entitled Kort Beright wegens de Ontleding van verschiedene Orang- Utangs,
in which he details the results of his examination of eight individuals of
this species ; and his account of their anatomical structure is as faithful as
Tyson's of the Black Oraug.

In August 1817 was exhibited at Exeter Change a young male of this
species, which had been brought from Java by Dr. Clarke Abel (on the
return of Lord Amherst's embassy to China), in whose hands he had been
placed by Captain Methuen, who had obtained him at Banjarmassing on
the south coast of Borneo, to which place he had been brought from the

highlands of that island by the natives, who considered him rare. He
measured from the heel to the crown of the head two feet seven inches.
Whilst in Java he lived on fruit, especially mangostans, of which he was
exceedingly fond, and drank water; but on the voyage fed indiscrimi-
nately on all kinds of meat, especially that which was raw, and was fond
of bread, but preferred fruit when he could get it. He preferred coffee and
tea, but would readily take wine, and was fond of spirits, as evinced by
stealing the captain's brandy bottle ; but at Exeter Change he preferred
milk and beer to anything else. Whilst on shipboard he was taught " to
eat with a spoon; and might be often seen sitting at the boatswain's
cabin-door enjoying his coffee, quite unembarrassed by those who observed
him, and with a grotesque and sober air that seemed a burlesque on human
nature." He was easily irritated when balked of food offered to him, and
showed great address in obtaining it. He neither grimaced nor was prone
to mischief as Monkeys generally, but was grave approaching to melancholy,
and mild in his disposition. He died on the 1st of April 1819, having
been an object of great interest and curiosity to the public, and the first of
his species which had been exhibited alive in England. Since that time
several have been brought to England.

The Dusky Orang (Simla Wurmbii) of Wurmb is not recognised as a
species distinct from the Red Orang, it having been satisfactorily proved
to be an adult animal of the Red species.

SEMNOPITHECUS — the Doucs. This genus of animals was named by
Fred. Cuvier from the gravity of its manners. It comes between the
Hylobai.es, which it resembles in the length of its limbs, and the Cerco-
pitkeci, like which it has a long tail. The form of the skull approximates
it to the former genus, as do also the callosities on the rump. But the
most striking character of the Semmopitheci is observed in the length of the
limbs ; the fore limbs are very slender, but the hinder are longer and stouter,
which enable them to make astonishing leaps, and distinguishes them from
all the other Monkeys of India. The thumbs are strong, and placed near
the fingers, so that the motions of the hand are more perfect ; the nails of
all the fingers rounded, but of the thumbs flat. The form of the teeth has
been already noticed. The fur is long and silky. They are all natives of
India or China : are generally mild and placid whilst young, but as they
advance in age become dull and morose.

The S. Entellus, a species of this genus, is a native of the East Indies,
and is called by the natives Houlman. They pay to it religious honours,
and it occupies a very prominent station among the Hindu divinities. It
makes it appearance in Lower Bengal about the end of the winter ; and
Duvaucel states that he had great difficulty in procuring a specimen, as the
Bengalese feared to destroy one, from a popular notion that the slayer of
a Houlman would die in the course of a year ; and so careful were they of
these animals, that during his stay at Chandernagar a guard of Brahmins
were constantly employed beating tom-toms to scare away the sacred
animals which were tempted to his garden for the sake of the fruit. In
the Hindu mythology the Houlman is considered as a hero, alike renowned
for his power, courage, and agility : he is said to have brought to Bengal
the mango, one of their most highly-prized fruits, which he had stolen from
the gardens of a famous giant in Ceylon ; for this robbery he was con-
demned to the flames, and in smothering the fire he burnt his hands and
face, which have since remained black.

The characteristics of the species S. Maurus (Plate 1) are briefly
these :— Length of the head and body, two feet three inches ; tail, two feet
four inches ; when standing on all-fours, about twelve or thirteen inches
high ; fur long, delicate, soft, and silky. When first born, this species is
of a reddish-brown colour, which gradually changes in age ; a greyish
tinge first appearing on the forehead, hands, and tip of the tail, thence ex-
tends to the neck, shoulders, and sides, gradually become darker till it
acquires the black coat of the adult. This species is found both at Sumatra
and Java ; in the former island it is called by the natives Lotong, and in
the latter Bwteng or Lutung Itam. They are found in the forests living
in large troops of more than fifty individuals, feeding on wild fruits of every
description, and when approached utter loud screams. They are very

B 2

CLASS— MAMMALIA.

ORDER-QUADRUMANA.

morose, and when confined are rarely if ever tamed. They are often
hunted for their "fur, which is used for horse equipage and military
ornament.

The species S. Nasica, or Proboscis Monkey (Plate 1), measures from
the tip of the nose to the root of the tail twenty-three and a half inches,
the tail is two feet and two inches, the fore limbs twenty, and the hind
twenty-two inches. This species is remarkably characterised by the
great size of its nose, which is four inches in length, and has the nostrils
opening on the under surface of its tip. Geofiroy has placed it, on account
of this peculiarity, in a distinct genus, which he calls Nasatis ; but Cuvier
still retains it among the Semnopitheci. Wurmb, who first noticed this
species, says that they live in large troops among the forests of Borneo,
that they assemble morning and evening by the side of streams, and dart
with great agility from tree to tree at a distance of fifteen or twenty feet.
Their cry is very deep and distinct, and resembles the word Kahau, hence
they are called by the colonists Kabau, but the native name is Bcmtanjan.

Besides the above species there are also the following : — The Cochin-
china Monkey (S. Nemseus), called by the natives Duk, a rare animal ; the
Simpai (S. Malalophos), found in the woods of Sumatra ; the Lutung Mera
(S. Pyrrhus), an inhabitant of Java, and a special favourite with the
natives, who take great care of it, when caught, on account of its beauty ;
the Clungkau (S. Cristatus), of Bencoolen, an almost untamable animal,
met with in Sumatra and the Malay Islands, called by the natives Era,
from its cry.

CYNOCEPHALUS — the Baboons. The general habits of these animals
correspond with those of other Simiaida, and they are mostly natives of
Asia and Africa. The genera includes Baboons with short tails, Baboons
with long tails, and True Baboons.

1. Those with long tails include the following species: — Lion-tailed
Baboon (Papio Silenus) ; the Chinese Monkey (Papio Sinicus), a native of
Ceylon; the Bonnet Monkey (Papio Radiatus), an inhabitant of the
Malabar Coast; the Hare-lipped Monkey (Papio Cynomolgus), found in
Guinea, Angola, and Java ; and the Black faced Macaque (Papio Carbo-
narius).

The Lion-tailed Baboon is in length about eighteen inches from the nose
to the tail, which is about half as long as the body ; general colour deep
black, excepting the beard, which passing from each side of the face de-
scends upon the chest, and varies from ash-colour to pure white ; the naked
face is flesh-coloured, except the muzzle, which is black ; the callosities on
the ramp are also flesh-coloured. Fischer mentions three varieties ; the
first black with a white beard, the second white with a black beard, and
the third entirely white. The editor of " The Gardens and Menagerie of
the Zoological Society Illustrated" has given the following amusing notice
of this species from the writings of Father Vincent Maria, the Procurator-
General of the Bare-footed Carmelites. " There are four sorts of Monkeys
found on the coast of Malabar. The first (the Wanderow) is perfectly
black, covered with glossy hair, with a white beard surrounding his chin,
and extending a span or more in length. To this Monkey all the rest pay
such profound respect, that they submit and humiliate themselves in his
presence, as though they were capable of appreciating his superiority and
pre-eminence. The princes and great lords hold him in much estimation,
because he is endowed above every other with gravity, capacity, and the
appearance of wisdom. He is easily trained to the performance of a variety
of ceremonies, grimaces, and affected courtesies, all which he accomplishes
in so serious a manner, and to such perfection, that it is a most wonderful
thing to see them acted with so much exactness by an irrational animal."
Knox, also, in his account of Ceylon, speaks of these Monkeys as being as
large as " Our English Spaniel Dogs, of a darkish-grey colour and black
faces, with great white beards round from ear to ear, which make them
show just like old men." They are found on the Malabar coast and in
Ceylon.

2. We shall next notice a few of the species of Baboons with short tails.
The Wrinkled Baboon (Papio Rhesus) measures about fifteen inches in

length from the nose to the tail, which is nearly six inches in length ; the

male is distinguished from the female by its cuspid teeth being more
powerful, by its larger size, and by the greater thickness of its whiskers.
The fur of this species is of a soft, silky texture, and is mostly hoarv. It
is found in India, especially in the woods on the banks of the Ganges ;
when taken young it is docile and tractable, but as it grows old becomes
very spiteful.

The Pig-tailed and Brown Baboon (Papio Nemestrinus), a native of
Sumatra, is more than two feet long from the nose to the root of the tail,
which is four inches in length, and more slender than in the last species.

The Wood Baboon (Papio Maurus) is nearly two feet in length ; general
colour deep brown ; the ears, face, and limbs black ; the tail very short,
being little more than a rudiment. From the East Indies.

The back of the Red-faced Baboon (Papio Speciosus) is of a vinous-grey ;
chest, belly, hinder and inner parts of the legs, and edges of the buttocks
greyish-white ; tail very short, and almost hidden in the fur ; face red, with
a purplish tinge, and encircled with black hair. From the East Indies.

The remarkable diminution in the length of the tail noticed in the last
two species leads to others in which there is merely a tubercle instead of a
tail ; and from this circumstance Cuvier and others have formed them into
a distinct genus (!NUUS); but this seems hardly warrantable, as they
otherwise closely resemble this subdivision of the PAPIONES. Two we
shall mention: — The Barbary Ape (Papio Inuus), which, when young, is
good-tempered, lively, and intelligent, and hence is frequently taught to
play tricks; but as it gets old it becomes ill-tempered, fierce, and mis-
chievous. It inhabits Egypt and Barbary, and has become located on the
rock of Gibraltar, where it is said to be very common. It walks con-
stantly on all-fours, but unsteadily, as, like all other Quadrumanous animals,
it is especially constructed for climbing, which feat it performs with great
facility. They live in large troops among the trees of the forest, and
boldly attack those enemies wliich they think themselves able to encounter,
and put them to flight by their numbers and incessant cries. When
enraged, it chatters with great rapidity, uttering a loud, rough voice, very
different from its mild tone when good-humoured. Its offensive weapons
are its large cuspid teeth and long broad nails, which, though flat, inflict
severe wounds. Its natural disposition to live in company induces it,
when in confinement, to adopt any small animal which may be introduced
to it ; this it carries about at all times, holding it tightly in its arms, and
fiercely resenting any attempt to withdraw it from its protection : it derives
much amusement from carefully looking over its hair and removing the
least dirt, which it immediately puts into its mouth.

The Black Ape (Papio ./Ethiops) is from fifteen to sixteen inches in
length ; is entirely black ; the hair woolly, except at the top of the head.
From the Philippines.

3. The True Baboons : muzzle very long, and truncated at its tip, in
which the nostrils are placed, giving the form and appearance of a dog's
nose, and hence they have been called CYNOCEPHALI ; their tail varies in
length in the several species. They are subdivided into the Common
Baboon (Papio Sphinx), a native of the Guinea coast ; the Lesser Baboon
(Papio Cynocephalus), a native of Northern Africa ; the Anuliis Baboon
(Papio Anubis), from Africa; the Porcine Baboon (Papio Porcarius),
native of Africa ; the Hog-faced Baboon (Papio Comatus), called ClMerna
by the colonists of the Cape of Good Hope ; and the Dog-faced Baboon
(Papio Hamadryas). This animal is one of the most savage of the gi'iius,
and in confinement is managed only by severity. It inhabits the hottest
parts of Asia and Africa, lives among the woods in large troops, and is
very dangerous from its fierceness.

Though the several species of the True Baboons partake of the same
nasal peculiarity, there are two species distinguished from all the othi-rs by
the very great length of their muzzle. They are the Great Baboon
(P. Mormon), of which we have a representation in Plate 1, and the Grey
Baboon (P. Leucophaeus). It has been proved by F. Cuvier that the
former species (P. Mormon) include two which were long considered as
distinct, but are now shown to be merely the same at dilllTiMit ages.
Before the development of the cuspid teeth, the head of the Mandrill is

FAMILY— S I M I A I D A. THE MONKEY TRIBE.

5

wide and short, and the body thick-set ; the face is black, and the ribs
upon the face wrinkled and blue ; the rump has no other than the general
colour of the body, and the scrotum is tan-coloured ; it is then the Simia
Maimoii of Linnaeus ; the Ribbed-nosed Baboon of Pennant. But as the
cuspid teeth begin to project, the form of the body and limbs becomes
more slender, and the muzzle begins to lengthen, its tip reddens, the thighs
exhibit their beautiful colours, and the scrotum becomes red. In the
course of two or three years the cuspid teeth have attained considerable
size ; the muscles of the limbs have increased very much in bulk, as also
has the body, the hinder parts of which, and also the muzzle, are particu-
larly developed ; so that, instead of the slight make which the animal had
previously exhibited, it now presents a heavy, unwieldy form, similar to
that of the Bear. During this time the colouring of the thighs becomes
more brilliant, the rump and neighbouring parts assume a brighter red,
and the nose reddens throughout nearly its whole length. It is now the
Simia Mormon of Gmelin, the Great Baboon of Pennant. Having attained
its full growth, the Mandrill, when erect, is five feet in height, and measures
two feet from the tip of the nose to the rump. These animals are natives
of Africa, especially of the countries in the neighbourhood of the Gulf of
Guinea. Adult specimens are not very frequently brought to Europe.
Two, however, have been exhibited in this country within the last few
years, one of which was in the Surrey Zoological Gardens, and had been
taught various tricks; it was a ferocious and disgusting-looking animal,
and was constantly moving about on all-fours.

CEBUS — the Sapajous. The animals composing this genus are all
natives of America, and they differ slightly in some parts of their anato-
mical structure from the other Sirrdaidce. Geoffrey and Desmarest have
divided them into numerous genera, but the trifling differences which they
have employed for that purpose, can scarcely be sufficient for more than a
division into the subgenera Mycetes (Howlers or Stentors) ; Ateles (Spider
Monkeys, the Sapajou proper) ; Cebus (Weepers or Capuchins) ; and the
Saganius and Douroucouii. The Red Monkey (Cebus Ruber), represented
on Plate 2, belongs to the first of the above divisions. The length of its
body, from the occiput to the origin of the tail, about twenty-two inches ;
the tail rather more than as long again ; general colour a bright red, face
black and naked ; a few large black bristles on the eyebrows, lips, and
chin ; belly and chest bare ; fingers long. The Indians call this animal the
King of the Monkeys. They live in small parties in the woody islets of
large flooded savannahs, and never on the mountains of the interior of
Guiana. The cry, or rather horrible rattling scream which they make may
well inspire terror, and seems as if the forest contained the united howlings
of all its savage inhabitants together. It is commonly in the morning and
evening that they make this clamour ; they also repeat it in the course of
the day, and sometimes in the night. The sound is so strong and varied,
that those who hear it often imagine that it is produced by several of the
animals at once, and are surprised to find only two or three, and sometimes
only one. Such was the account given to Dr. fehaw by a person who had
seen and kept these animals at Cayenne.

Of the Preacher Monkey, or Brown Howler (Cebus Fuscus) — another
species of this genera — Marcgraave gives a curious account : he says, " that
one sometimes mounts the top of a branch and assembles a multitude
below ; he then sets up a howl so loud and horrible, that a person at a
distance would imagine that a hundred joined in the cry ; after a certain
space he gives a signal with his hand, when the whole assembly join in
chorus ; but on another signal a sudden silence prevails, and then the orator
finishes his harangue. It is a dull morose animal, native of the Brazils,
living in the wildest deserts, but fond of its female.

The Four-fingered Monkey (Cebus Coaita, or Paniscus) is a species of
the subgenus Ateles (Plate 2). It measures about two feet in length
from the occiput to the tail ; limbs very long and slender ; thumbs of the
fore extremities hidden by skin ; nails flat ; hair black, long, and rough.
They inhabit the parts about Carthagena, Guiana, Brazil, and Peru ; are
extremely active, and it is said that in order to pass from top to top of
lofty trees, the branches of which are too distant for a leap, they will form

a chain by hanging down linked to each other's tails, and swinging about
till the lowest catches hold of a bough of the next tree -and draws up the
rest. Dampier has given an amusing account of them, which may be found
in his " Voyage."

The following species belong to this subgenus : — C. Pentadactylus ; C.
Hypoxanthus ; C. Marginatus ; C. Beelzebuth ; and C. Arachnoides.

The Capuchin Monkey (Cebus Capucinus) comes first in order under
the subgenus Cebus. Its characteristics are : head round ; face flat, flesh-
coloured, sprinkled with small black hairs ; those on the top of the head
also short, those on the vertex and top of the occiput black, and forming
a well-marked calotte or monk's cap, whilst the other hairs are of a greyish-
white ; a black line extends from the fore-part of the calotte to the root of
the nose ; shoulders and outside of arms greyish-white ; upper part of the
body, flanks, and outsides of thighs, brown, glossed at the points of the
hairs with yellow ; insides of the arms and thighs deeper coloured than the
external ; a brown line on the posterior surface of the fore-arm ; tail brown.
Native of Guiana.

We pass by the Weeper Monkey (Cebus Apella), so called from its
plaintive cry ; while of the Horned Monkey, or Horned Weeper (Cebus
Fatuellus) — Plate 2 — we can give but a very brief notice. Its back is
chestnut-coloured, becoming brighter on the sides ; belly bright red ;
extremities and tail of a brownish-black ; and it has two strong bundles of
black hairs rising on either side of the forehead. Native of Guiana.

There are several other genera under this division, varying merely in
colour, for which the reader is referred to M. Geoffrey's paper on the
Quculrumana, in the nineteenth volume of the " Annales du Museum."

We also include under this subgenus, M. Geoffrey's genus Callithrix,
which is merely distinguished by the tail being but slightly prehensile ;
such are the Squirrel Monkey (Cebus, or Callithrix Sciureus), and the
Masked Sagouin (Cebus, or Callithrix Personnatus), and four other species
of minor importance.

The Squirrel Monkey (Plate 2) is as large as a Squirrel; face flattish,
bare, and white, with a black patch, which includes the tip of the nose
and both lips ; a small greenish spot on each cheek ; upper parts of the
body of a yellowish-green, and having a greyish tint on the upper arms and
thighs, which changes to a bright orange on the fore arms and legs ; tail
greyish-green, deeper coloured above than beneath ; belly, chest, neck, and
cheeks white, slightly tinged with yellow. It is a very docile animal, and
surrounds its body with its tail ; is fond of insects, and has sufficient
sagacity to recognize them in prints. Is native of the Brazils and
Cayenne.

The subjoined wood-engraving is a faithful representation of the White-
throated Sapajou.

White-throated Snpajou.

Mr. Gardner, in his " Travels in Brazil," gives an amusing account of one
of those animals (C. Ateles Paniscus), which had been so thoroughly tamed
as to cause it to become a general favourite. He says, " Jerry became so

6

CLASS— MAMMALIA.

ORDER— QUADRUMANA.

fond of tea, that it would not go to sleep without its usual allowance ; its
its favourite food was farina, boiled rice, and bananas, but scarcely anything
came amiss to it. Whenever anything was given to it that was too hard
to break with its teeth, it always looked about for a stone, and lifting it
with one hand, by repeated blows would attempt to crack it ; if unsuc-
cessful by these means, it would try to find a larger stone, which it would
hold in both its bauds, and rising erect on its legs, would let it fall, leaping
backwards at the same time to avoid any injury to its toes. Jerry generally
rode on the back of a large mastiff dog, and in this manner performed
a journey of several thousand miles. These two animals were greatly
attached to each other. Before starting, the dog used to go to the place
where the little monkey was tied, and wait till it was put upon its back,
and its cord made fast to his collar. To prevent itself from slipping over
the dog's head, in going down a hill, Jerry made use of his long prehen-
sile tail as a crupper, by coiling the extremity round the root of that of the
dog."

The prehensile power of the tails of these animals may be inferred from
the following fact, noticed by Darwin in his " Journal of Researches :" —

" My companion, the day before, had shot two large Bearded Monkeys.
These animals have prehensile tails, the extremity of which, even after
death, can support the whole weight of the body. One of them thus
remained fast to a branch, and it was necessary to cut down a large tree to
procure it. This was soon effected, and down came tree and monkey with
an awful crash."

In conclusion, it is right to observe that the animals under this genus
(Cebus) are constituted into a family under the name Cebida?, by Dr. Gray,
Prince Lncien Buonaparte, and other eminent naturalists. For the present
we retain the earlier classification.

PITHECIA — the Sa/as. Although in some respects resembling the
Sopojous (Callithrix) and the Sogoins (Saguinus), the animals forming this
genus are distinguished from the former in not having the tail prehensile,
and from the latter in its thick hairy covering. From the Holders (My-
cetes) they are distinguished by not having the organ of voice so largely
developed ; and from the other smaller American monkeys they are
separated by the blunt form of the tubercles on their molar teeth, and by
the flatness of their nails. They generally live together in troops among
the woods of Brazil and Guiana, and are slow in their motions, voracious,
and dull. Kuhl has divided them into three sections from the varying
length of their tail, and from the chin being covered or not with a beard.

First, — Those with very bushy beards, and tails nearly as long as their
bodies. The Simia Satanas (P. Satanas), found on the banks of the
Orinoco, and on the banks of the Japura, in Peru. The Great Paraoua
(P. Hirsutus), so called on account of the thickness of its fur, which
resembles that of a bear : found near Tabatinga, on the rivers Tonantin and
Japnra, lateral branches of the Solimoens ; they are very fond of insects, and
a peculiar kind of fruit called " inga." They are heard at a great distance-
in the morning and evening, uttering a dull noise similar to a continued
chatter. They live together in troops among the forests, are very active and
watchful, and on the least noise hurry off into the deepest recesses of the
forests, so that they are caught with great difficulty. When once caught,
however, and tamed, they become much attached to their master, approach
whenever they see him eating, and run to him for shelter when alarmed.

The species P. Cheiropotes, an animal about the size of a fox, is
strong, active, sullen, and difficult to tame : its eyes have a melancholy
expression mingled with ferocity. When irritated, it raises itself on its
hind legs, grinds its teeth, rubs the extremity of its beard, and leaps around
the person on whom it desires to avenge itself. In these angry fits,
Humboldt mentions he has often seen it drive its teeth into large planks of
the Cedrda odorata. It rarely drinks; and what is very remarkable, never
like the other American monkeys, by putting its lips to the vessel in which
water is contained, but by taking up some into the hollow of its ham 1,
which it carries to its mouth, whilst the head is inclined on one shoulder,
and it uses either hand indiscriminately. Humboldt mentions that it
becomes furious if its beard be wetted, and therefore imagines that in con-

sequence of its being unable to drink in the usual way without wetting its
beard, it uses this curious method. They live only in pairs among the
forests in the vast deserts of the Alto Orinoco to the south-east of Cata-
ractes; they are not, however, very common in the other parts of Guianu.
According to Father Juan Gonzales, the Indians of Allures and of Esme-
ralda eat them at certain seasons of the year. The Capuchin Monkeys of
Rio Sinu are not, as supposed, either of this species or genus, but a variety
of the Red Howler.

The Jackated Monkey (P. Sagulatus), supposed by some to be the same
as the P. Satanas. It is a native of the interior of Demerara.

The second subgenus includes those without beards, and whose tails are
longer or of the same length as their body. The White-headed Saki (P.
Leucocephalus), VYarque of Buffon ; a native of French Guiana. The
Fox-tailed Monkey (P. Capillamentosus), whose trunk measures nine inches
in length, and the tail ten inches and three-quarters. It is a native of
Brazil and of French Guiaua, where it is allied Sakka Winkee. The Red-
bellied Saki (P. Rufiventer), found in French Guiana. The Red-bearded
Said (P. Rufibarbatus), native of Surinam. The Yellow-headed Saki
(P. Ocrocephalus), native of Cayenne. The Monk Saki (P. Mimachus).
This new species is given with some doubt by Geoffrey, and he thinks it
the animal called by Buffon the Yarque, and that it is a native of Brazil.

Besides these there are the Pitheda Inustus, inhabitants of the forests
bordering the Tonantin branch of the Solimoens river, near Tabitanga ; and
the Miriquoina, natives of the woods in the province of Chaco, and on the
western side of the Paraguay river.

The third subdivision are those animals which have short tails, and are
destitute of beards. The Black-leaded Saki (P. Melanocephalus) : it is
called Cacajao, or Cacahao, by the Maritivitain Indians of the Rio Negro ;
Caruiri by the Caudaqueres, or Cabres, of the Mission of San Fernando,
near the junction of the Orinoco, Atabapo, and Guaviare'; and Monofeo, or
Hideous Monkey, Chucutu, or Mono rabuu, Short-tailed Monkey, by the
Missionaries of Cassiquaire. But it is rare. It is a little, voracious animal,
but phlegmatic, inactive, weak, and exceedingly gentle. It feeds on all kinds
of fruit, even on the sourest citrons, but is especially greedy of the banana,
guava, papaya, and the cloves of the ingas. The Brachyurus Ouakary :
this species is called by the natives Ouakary ; they always live in troops,
principally in the forests bordering the river Iga, one of the branches of the
Amazon river, and during the day make the woods ring with their shrill
discordant cries.

HAPALE — the Oustitis. This genus was long considered as forming
part of the subgenus Pitheda, in the genus Cebus, to which these- animals
have a near resemblance ; but they are distinguished from them by the
upright position of the incisive teeth, by the approximation of the cuspid
to them in the lower jaw, by the number of molars, which are only live
instead of six on a side ; by the flat ears, which in the Pitheda have the
edge curled, and by the indistinct thumb of the hand, and the claw-like
nails, whilst the other genus have the thumbs distinct, and the nails flat.
They are very docile ; and are little, agreeably-formed animals, about the
size of our Squirrels, with the rounded head and flat visage of the American
Monkey tribe.

The animals included in this genus are subdivided into Oustitis with
ringed tails, Oustitis with tails not ringed, and Oustitis with large ears.

1. First, the Oustitis with ringed tails: —

Our second plate contains a picture of one species, the Hapale Vulgaris, or
Communis, named, by Geoffroy, Jacchus ; by Pennant, the Striated Ape ; and
by the inhabitants of Paraguay, Titi. Its general colour is ashy ; its rump
and tail are marked with alternate rings of greyish-brown and ash ; a
broad white spot on the forehead, and two large tufts of long, fine, ash-
coloured hair before and behind the ears; the remainder of the head and
shoulders brownish-red ; hands and feet brown. The Titi is a native of
Guiana and Brazil ; it walks on all-fours, and cannot grasp with the fore-
hand, except by closing all five fingers, in consequence of the shortness ,,t
the thumb; it sutlers much from cold and damp, but if taken care of will
breed in Europe, having done so in France.

FAMILY— L E M U E I D JE. THE LEMURS.

The following animals belong to this division : — The Pencilled Oustitis
(H. Pencillatus) ; the White-headed Oustiti (H. Leucocephalus) ; the
Hairy-eared Oustiti (H. Auritus) ; and the White-shouldered Oustiti (H.
Humeralifer) — all natives of Brazil.

2. Of the Oustitis with tails not ringed, we have the Black-tailed (H.
Melanurus), and the Fair, or Silvery Monkey (H. Argentius) — natives of the
banks of the Amazon river. The general colour of the latter (Plate 2) is
white, glistening, and silvery ; face, hands, and feet red ; tail black.

3. The Oustitis with large ears include the Tamary of Guiana (H. Rufi-
inanus), the Black (H. Ursula), the White-lipped (H. Labiatus), the Yellow-
faced (H. Chrysomelas), the Leonine (H. Leoninus), the Red-tailed (H.

(Edipus), and the Silky Tamary (H. Rosalius) — all natives of South
America. The last-named is given on Plate 2. Its characteristics are —
face dull purple, and surrounded by long, bright, bay-coloured hairs, which
turn backwards, and give it somewhat the resemblance of a lion's coun-
tenance, whence it is frequently called the Lion-faced Monkey ; the hair on
the body very long, of a silky texture, and bright yellow colour ; hands
and feet dull purple ; tail rather bushy at the tip. Native of Brazil.

CERCOPITHECUS — Monkey. This genus is one of those into which the
genus Simla of Linnaeus has been divided ; it comprehends such animals as
have cheek pouches, which are merely the cavities in the mouth, between the
cheeks and the teeth, very much enlarged ; into these the Monkey crams its
food, and will dispose of large quantities in that manner before it begins to
masticate. Upon the rump are two callous substances, which are generally
bare, on which the animal sits. They are fructivorous, live in troops, and
make great havoc in gardens and fields ; are easily tamed, but are very
mischievous. Their agility is such, that they will leap with the greatest
certainty from tree to tree, though burdened with their young clinging at
their backs. The negroes believe that they are a vagabond race of men
who are too idle to work. In many parts of India they are worshipped ;
and at Amadabad, the capital of Guzerat, there are hospitals for their
accommodation.

The various species of this genus are — the Red (C. Ruber), the White
Eye-lid (C. jEthiops), the Green (C. Sabaeus), the Malbrouc (C. Faunus),
the Varied (C. Mona), the Spotted (C. Diana), the Mustache (C. Cephus),
the Vaulting (C. Petaurista), the White-nosed (C. Nictitans), and the Co-
chin China-Monkey (C. NemaBus).

The last-named species, together with the S. Nictitans of Linnaeus, and
the Petite Cynocephale of Buflfon, are formed into a new genus by Illiger,
under the title of Lasiopyga, in consequence of the rump being covered
with hair instead of having callosities ; but Ouvier seems in doubt whether
the callosities have not been rubbed off when the animal was stuffed, and
therefore does not think there are sufficient grounds to establish the
genus.

HYLOBATES — the Gibbons, This genus is distinguished from other Apes
by the enormous length of the arms, in consequence of which the fingers
touch the ground when the animal stands upright.

The Great Gibbon (H. Lar) is about four feet high ; the body long and
slender ; the head round ; head, neck, back, sides of the body and legs
black ; a narrow circle of grey hairs surrounding the face ; ocular region,
nose, and extremities of both jaws, brown and naked ; upper part of the
feet grey, soles black. Native of India.

The species known as the Petit Gibbon of Daubenton, is probably a
variety of the Great Gibbon.

The Ash-coloured Gibbon (H. Leuciscus), a native of the Moluccas and
the Isles of Sunda, is as high as the Great Gibbon, while its arms are some-
what longer. The Siomany of the Malays (H. Syndactylus) is not more
than three feet in height, and, in colour, is entirely jet black ; the hair long
and soft, and forming a shaggy fleece ; it is remarkable for having the fore
and middle toes of the hind feet connected by membranes, as far as the
middle of the second phalanx, and two loose naked folds of skin on the
throat, which Sir S. Raffles says he has seen occasionally inflated with air.
They are numerous in the woods about Bencoolen, which they make re-echo
with their peculiar loud cry.

NYCTIPITHECUS — Nocturnal Apes. This genus is the same as that named
improperly by Humboldt, Aotus, as in neither species are the auricles either
deficient or small. In appearance and gesture, the Nyctipithed much re-
semble cats, and hence Buffon has called them Singes du nuit a face de Chat.
They are entirely nocturnal, for which their large sparkling eyes admirably
adapt them, but they cannot bear the light. Fred. Cuvier has named the
genus Nocthora. They are natives of South America. They form the
link between the Monkeys and Lemurs, and occupy, in the new world, the
place of the Stenopes in the old world.

The principal species are the Brown Douroucouli (N. Vociferans), and
the Black-tailed Douroucouli (N. Felinus). The former measures about
seventeen inches long from the nose to the origin of the tail, which is more
than a foot in length. It is found in the forests of Solimoens, near Tabaturga
and Mainas ; it is very timid and coy, and remarkably delicate in its habits,
and much resembles the Tarsiers and Bats of Madagascar. The latter,
which is found in the neighbourhood of the capital of Para, is seventeen
inches from the nose to the root of the tail ; its visage is very similar to
that of a cat ; the eyes are large and red ; the ears are oblong and naked ;
the body slender, the fur covering its upper surface very close, deep ash-
colour at the tip, ferruginous and black at the base ; under part of the
body, lower part of the thighs, and upper arms hairy, and inclining to
ferruginous ; tail, which is fourteen inches long, is almost entirely black,
except at its root, where it is rusty-grey above, and ferruginous beneath.

Family 2. — LEMURS; Lemuridce.

The family Lemuridce (Night-prowlers) is distinguished from that of the
Simiaida family by the elongation of their snout, and their participation, in
a much greater degree, of the form and habits of quadrupeds.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.

PLATE 3.
Genera. Species. Common Name.

Lemur ----- Catta ------ Ring-tailed Macauco.

Lichanatos - - - Madagastariensis - - Short-tailed Indri.

Stenops - - - - Tardigradus - - - - Bengal Lori.

Otolicnus - - - - Senegalensis - - - - Senegal Galago.

f Daubontonii - ... Daubenton's Tarsier.

iBaneanus ----- Young of the former.

Tarsius

CHARACTERS OF THE GENERA.

1. LEMUR. Upper incisive teeth four, two on a side, separated by a
gap in the middle; lower six inclined obliquely forwards; cuspid teeth
distinct, flattened laterally, hook-like ; molar six on each side above, five on
each side below, the anterior single-pointed, the hinder three having four
points; nose sharp; face hairy; the eyes directed forwards; ears short
and rounded ; tail long and hairy ; two pectoral mammae ; tarsus shorter
than the leg ; feet five-toed, the fourth of the hind foot longest ; thumb-
nails flat and broad, that of the posterior index-finger claw-like and subu-
late ; hair soft and woolly.

2. LICHANOTUS (Gr. Xi-^avot, the Index-finger). Incisive teeth in each jaw
four, inclined forwards, those above placed in pairs ; cuspid teeth distinct ;
molar five on each side in each jaw, their crowns studded with blunt
tubercles; the anterior two or false molar triangular, compressed and
pointed ; muzzle sharp ; face hairy ; eyes looking forwards ; ears short
and rounded; tail short; tarsus shorter than the tibia; feet five-toed;
nails of the thumbs flat, those of the fingers regular, except that of the
index of the hind-foot, which is slightly clawed.

3. STENOPS (Gr. m-tvot, narrow, and wif/, a face). Incisive teeth above
four in pairs, with an intermediate gap, below six inclined forwards ; cuspid
long and conical ; molar above six on each side, below five, the anterior single
pointed ; face hairy ; muzzle sharp and compressed ; auricles short and
rounded ; eyes large, close set, and looking forwards ; four pectoral teats ;
tarsus rather shorter than the leg ; feet five-toed ; nails flat, excepting that

8

CLASS— M A M M A L I A.

ORDER— Q UADRUMANA.

of each posterior index, which is claw-like ; thumbs short ; tail very
short.

4. OTOLICNUS. In the upper jaw incisive teeth four, vertical, in pairs,
and these separated by a gap ; cuspid teeth large and triangular ; molar
five on a side, the first pair single-pointed and resembling the cuspid ; the
others furnished with four tubercles. In the lower jaw six very narrow,
long, and procumbent incisive teeth ; cuspid, thick, and curved ; molar as
in the upper jaw : muzzle sharp ; face hairy ; eyes large ; ears large and
bare ; tail very long and hairy ; all the feet furnished with thumbs ; nails
flat, that of the fore-finger or second toe of the hind feet falcular ; the tarsi
longer than the legs.

5. TARSIUS. Incisive teeth in the upper jaw four, of which the middle
two are long, strong, and pointed, outer ones small and sharp; in two
lower jaws small and pointed ; upper cuspid teeth not so large as the
middle, but larger than the outer incisive ; lower cuspid larger than the
lower incisive ; molar teeth on each side in either jaw six, the anterior three
single-pointed, and increasing in size from the first; the last three in the
lower jaw have each two pointed tubercles on their outer edge, a very
large one on their inner edge, with two little points between them ; in the
lower the crowns of their teeth have three points disposed in a triangular
form in front, with two others behind separated by a deep groove ; head
nearly spherical; muzzle short; eyes large, approximated, and directed
forwards ; ears large, naked ; hind limbs very large, as the tarsus is thrice
as long as the metatarsus; nails triangular, broad, flat, and excepting
those of the second and third toes of the feet, which are narrow, curved,
and pointed ; body covered with longish and very soft hair ; tail very long,
with a bushy tip.

r.KMUUlD.K. — DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIES.

LEMUR — Macauco. The genus Lemur of Linnaeus included species of
very different characters, which have been ranged by Illiger, under the
genera Lichanotus, Stenops, Otolicnus, and Tarsius. The true Lemurs, as
now restricted, are distinguished from the Lichanoti by having five instead
of four lower molars, and by their long tail, which is wanting in the Licha-
noti; from the Stenopes they are separated by their long tail, their less
graceful form, and the length of the muzzle, which in the Stenopes is very
short ; from the Otolicni and Tarsii they are distinguished by the shortness
of the foot in comparison with those animals, and by the different form and
disposition of the teeth.

The Lemurs are rather elegant in form, and have the hinder rather longer
than the fore legs ; the body is covered with thick woolly, but soft hair,
which much increases the real size of the animal ; the head is of a tri-
angular shape, with a sharp and long-extended muzzle, which is bare ; the
eyes are large and prominent, directed forwards, and very lively. They
are natives of Madagascar and the neighbouring islands, and have not been
found elsewhere. Like the Monkeys, they live in troops, among the trees,
where they feed on fruit, and are extremely nimble. In confinement they
are very mild and docile, often becoming attached to their keeper. They
move about with much elegance, and with a very light step, usually
carrying their long bushy tail above their back. They are extremely chilly,
notwithstanding the warmth of their coat, and are fond of basking in the
sun, or lying before the fire, with their tail coiled round them, in which
state they usually sleep.

^ The King-tailed Macauco (L. Catta) is rather larger that) the common
its fur, which is short, close, fine, and upright, is of a reddish-ash on
the back, becoming lighter on the sides; the entire under parts and the
insides of the limbs white; face white, the nose tipped with black; the
ocular circlets and occiput also black; ears pointed and erect; i'rides
brown ; the tail, which is twice as long as the body, alternately ringed
thirty times with black and white; the black skin covering the palm
of the hand extends in a narrow line some distance up the arm over-
shadowed, however, by the wool. Native of Madagascar and the neigh-
bouring islands, and gregarious. It takes considerable and violent exercise

before going to rest, then seeks a high station, and
sleeps w ith its head dropped on the chest, and its
long tail coiled around it. It is very good tempered
and cleanly, combing itself with the lower incisive
teeth ; its cry is weak and similar to that of a Cat.
Plate 3. Hrad ut' Mucauco.

The other species are — the Black or Huffed Macauco, which, it is said,
is very fierce in its wild state, but in confinement mild and good tempered ;
the Bed Lemur (L. Ruber), a rare species ; the Woolly Macauco (L. Mon-
gooz), a good-tempered, but timid animal ; the \Vliite-fronted Macauco
(L. Albifrons) ; the Black-fronted Macauco (L. Nigrifrons) ; the Brown
Macauco (L. Fulvus) ; the Collared J^emur (L. Collaris) ; the White-footed
Lemur (L. Albimanus) ; the Rufous Lemur (L. Rufus), and the Cinereous
Lemur, the le Petit
Mold of Buflbn,
which is the small-
est species of the
genus. We subjoin
a wood-engraving of
the White-fronted
Macauco, with its
young one entwined
around its body.
This animal is about
the size of a Cat ; and
the male is distin-
guished from the fe-
male by having those
parts white which
in the female are
grey. In a speci-
men bred in France,
gestation lasted four
months ; in six
weeks after birth

the young fed them- ilue.iuco.

selves, and left sucking after six months.

LICHAXOTUS — the Indris. In form, these animals resemble the Lemurs,
but are distinguished by the smaller number of the incisive and molar teeth,
and the variation in their shape ; by the shortness of the ears, and the
extreme shortness of the tail. They have, however, the face and muzzle
elongated, and the head small.

The Short-tailed Indri (Plate 3) is about three feet in height when
standing erect ; the skin nearly black. This single species is a native of
Madagascar, and was first discovered by Sonnerat. It is tamed by the
natives, and said to be employed in hunting.

STENOPS — the Loris. This genus differs from the Lemurs, in having
the head large and round ; the muzzle, though pointed, short like that of a
pug-dog ; the eyes very large and close set ; the molar teeth more pointed,
the pectoral teats four instead of two, and the tail scarcely visible. The
general form of the body is somewhat like the Lemurs, but rather more
thick-set in one and more delicate in the other species. They are nocturnal
animals, and it is presumed live upon small animals, which they seize on
whilst asleep.

Our third plate contains a picture of the Slow Lemur, or Bengal Lori
(S. Bengalensis, or Lemur Tardigradus) : it is about thirteen inches in
length ; head rounded, muzzle short and obtuse, with the nose short and
flattened in front, the nostrils opening laterally; body short and thick-set,
covered with long, thick, yellowish, deep ashy fur. It is found in Bengal,
also in other parts of Hindustan, and in Ceylon, Penang, and Java. This
species is extremely slow in its motions, and hence was applied to it, by
Linna'us, the specific name Tardigradus, as distinguishing it from the other
and very active species of his genus L<

The habits of this animal, at least in a state of confinement, have been

FAMILY— F R U C T I V O K A. THE BAT TRIBE.

sufficiently interesting to attract the notice of three observers, Vosmaer,
Baird, and Sir William Jones. The first of them, Vosmaer, says, that it
slept all day till between eight and nine in the evening, seated on its rump,
close to the wires of its cage, with the head bent forwards between its fore
feet which were laid on its belly, whilst its hind feet firmly grasped the
wires. When aroused, it moved very slowly, drawing itself from bar to
bar, taking hold of the upper part of one bar with its fore feet, and not
leaving go till it had grasped another bar with one of its hands. Upon the
ground it also moved very slowly, dragging one leg after the other as if
partially paralyzed, and never raising its body, so that the belly was usually
not more than an inch from the ground. No attempt to make it leave go
its hold by poking with a stick succeeded, but if hurt and angered, it bit
sharply at the stick, uttering the cry ai, ai, at, lengthened into a plaintive,
long, and tremulous tone : this occurred especially when it was disturbed in
the day, which irritated it much. It was fond of soft fruits and eggs, and
destroyed bird and chaffers, which it ate voraciously. Vosmaer says it
would only eat biscuit when dry, but not moistened, and that it would not
touch water ; on the contrary, Baird's animal would not touch it dry, but
ate it greedily when moistened and sugared, and lapped water freely like a
Cat.

Another species, mentioned by Geoffroy, is the Nycticebus Javanicus, the
muzzle of which is much narrower than in the preceding species. There is
also the Slender Lori (S. Ceylonicus), which is remarkably distinguished
from the Slow Lori by the greater elevation of its nose, by its more delicate
form, and by the length and slenderness of its limbs ; its fur is soft and
almost woolly ; its general colour is reddish-brown, excepting the tip of
the muzzle, sides of the head, lower jaw, and under part of the neck, which
are whitish, and the chest, belly, and inside of the limbs, which are white,
the latter tinged with yellow ; a white patch upon the forehead descends
between the eyes, and the ocular circlets are ferruginous. It is a native of
the island of Ceylon.

From the difference in the general proportions of S. Bengdensis and
S. Ceylonicus — from the greater delicacy of limbs in the latter, and its more
upraised nose — Geoffrey has divided them into two distinct genera, applying
to the former that of Nycticebus, and to the latter Loris : this arrangement,
however, we have not thought fit to adopt; but retain them as species of
the genus Stenops.

OTOLICNUS — the Galagos. These animals have great similarity to the
Lemurs, but the length of the hind feet much exceeding that of the legs,
and giving to these limbs a very disproportionate appearance, their very large
membranous ears, their short, round head, and large eyes situated very low,
distinguish them from the latter animals. Like the Lemurs, they are also
nocturnal animals ; which is immediately noted by the large size of their
eyes. During daytime they live in the hollows of trees, where they make
their nest of dry grass, and in the evening, about twilight, leave it for the
purpose of hunting after insects and fruit, upon which they feed. They
have a long, bushy, and very rnoveable tail, but it is not prehensile. They
have hitherto only been found in Africa and Madagascar.

The species are the Thick-tailed Gdago (O. Crassicaudatus), the Mada-
gascar Gdago (O. Madagascariensis), the Senegal Gdago (O. Senagalensis),
Dermdorfs Galago (O. Dermdoiffii), and the Potto of Bosnian (O. Gui-
nensis). The last named is placed by Geoffroy among his Nycticebi, the
Stenopes of Uliger, but the length of the tail sufficiently distinguishes it
from them. Its general colour is ferruginous. Of the Senegal Galago a
representation will be found on Plate 3. This animal is about the size of
a Rat ; its ears are as long as its head ; fur long and thick ; the lips and
upper part of the nose yellowish-white, and the same colour prevails
between the eyes up to the forehead; top of the head, region of the eyes,
and cheeks blackish ; back dusky-yellow ; sides, fore arms and thighs of
the same colour but a lighter shade ; neck, chest, belly, arms, and legs
yellowish ; tail much longer than the body, ferruginous, and terminating in
a pencil-like form. It is further remarkable for having only two incisive
teeth in the upper jaw. It is a mild, inoffensive animal, lives in the hollows
of trees, feeds on insects, and is found in Senegal.

TARSIUS — the Mdmags. The species are three, viz : — the Woolly Jerboa,
or Daubenton's Tarsier (T. Spectram), Fischer's T. Fuscomanus, and the
Podje of Horsfield (T. Baneanus) ; Temminck and Cuvier are, however, of
opinion that there is but a single species, the T. Baneanus and the T. Fus-
comanus being regarded as the young of the Woolly Jerboa (T. Spectrum).

The Woolly Jerboa, or Daubenton's Tarsier (Plate 3), is about the size
of the long-tailed field-mouse, measuring with the toes inclusive eleven and
a half inches, tail nine and a half inches, almost naked and scaly like that of
a Rat ; forehead wide and flat ; the pupils of the eyes are so very large,
that scarcely any other part of them can be seen, and the superciliary
ridges but slightly developed ; ears large, and projecting laterally ;" " the
whole face," says Sir Stamford Raffles, " has a peculiar and singular aspect,
the grinning mouth giving it an odd expression of risibility ;" the hairy
wool, about half an inch in length, is very soft to the touch ; deep tawny
on the back, ramp, and belly, but paler on the other parts ; head ashy ;
neck short and hands reddish ; the toes, excepting the second and third of
the feet, have nails so small, that they resemble little scale-like processes ;
the tips of all the toes are dilated into flat, rounded, fleshy callosities, which
are considered to assist them materially in climbing ; many of the other
joints of the toes have these callosities, but of smaller size.

It is very rare in Sumatra, and only in the deepest woods is one seen in the
course of two or three years ; here it is called Singa-pooa, or Little Lion, and
the natives have a story that it was originally as large as a Lion, from which
it has gradually diminished to its present size. It mounts the trees with
short leaps, and feeds upon young leaves and ripe fruits. The inhabitants
have great dread of these animals, insomuch that if they happen to see one
upon any tree near their ladangs or forest rice-fields, they will immediately
abandon them and seek another spot ; otherwise they believe some mis-
fortune will certainly befall them or their family. A representation of the
T. Baneanus is also contained in our third Plate.

ORDER II.— CHEIEOPTEKA.
WING-HANDED.

THE distinctive features of this order consist in the affinity of their form
both to the Quadrumana and Aves.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.
PLATE 4.

Family 1. — FRUIT-EATING BATS ; Fructivora.

Genera. Species. Common Name.

Pteropus ... - Javanicus - ... Java Rousetta.

Family 2. — LEAFLESS-NOSED BATS.

Molossus - --- Velox Swift Molosse.

Family 3. — LEAF-NOSED BATS.

Phyllostoma - - - Spectrum ----- Spectre Bat.

Other Generaof these Families : — Noctilio, Nycteris, Nycticeius, Plecotus,
Rhinolophus, Rhinopoma, Taphozous, Vespertilio, and Galeopithecus.

GALEOPITHECUS.

The last-named genus must 'first be noticed before we proceed to the
characteristics of the genera which precede it, since Gray and other natur-
alists have given this genus of the Cheiroptera a family distinction, by
placing it between the Lemurs and the Bats.

GALEOPITHECUS (Greek yaXt'q, a Cat, and irldrims, a Monkey — Cat-
like Monkey, because it climbs trees like a cat. Its common name is
Cdugo. Its characteristics are : — Upper incisive teeth four, distant from
each other ; lower incisives four also, declining, their crowns pectinated ;
cuspid teeth very small, resembling the molars, the lower largest; anterior
molar teeth triangular, crown very sharply pointed on a broad base,
posterior bearing several points ; ears small ; neck, limbs, and toes enve-

10

CLASS— MAMMALIA.

ORDER— C II E I K O P T E R A.

loped in a broad, expanded membrane ; fingers of fore feet shorter than
fore arm ; nails much hooked, and rather com-
pressed ; mamma pectoral.

The animals composing this genus have
some general resemblance to the Bats and
Lemures: from the latter of which, how-
ever, they difler, in the elongation of the
head, and the smallness of the eyes, and,
from the former, in the shortness of the
fingers of the fore feet, which prevents the
membrane, expanded from the anterior to the
posterior extremities, from being used for fly-
ing, as by the Bats. The Cdugos are found
in the islands of the Indian Archipelago, live

among trees, and feed upon insects ; perhaps

, , . , , . , Galeopitbecus.

also on fruit and birds.

The most important species are, the Eed Cdugo (G. Rufus), which
measures about a foot long ; upper part of the body bright chestnut red ;
under light red ; iusides of the legs and the neck white. Native of the
Pelew Islands : is capable of running on the ground, but climbs trees, and
in dropping from branch to branch, spreads out the lateral membranes
attached to the limbs.

The Mottled Colugo (G. Variegatus) is only about half the size of the
Red Colugo ; upper parts ashy brown, with occasional deeper shades, and
spotted with white on the membranes and limbs ; under parts greyish
brown. This animal is considered by Audebert as the young of the G.
Rufus. It is noted by Mr. Finlayson, in his account of " The Mission to
Siam and Hue," as one of the animals found at Penang. It is also found
in the Moluccas.

CHEIROPTERA. — CHARACTERS OF THE GENERA.

Family 1. — FRUCTITORA.

1. PTEROPUS (Gr. irrepov, a wing, and vovc, afoot). Incisive teeth in
each jaw four, placed in a close, regular, semicircular form in the upper,
but often irregularly in the lower jaw ; in those species furnished with a
tail, regular in both jaws ; cuspid teeth long, compressed, and having three
faces ; molar teeth ten or eight in the upper, and twelve in the lower jaw,
the first and last varying in size proportionally to the bulk of the others ;
muzzle sharp ; ears of moderate size ; tongue rough and furnished with
papilla? ; wing membranes large ; interfemoral membranes forming only an
edging to the hind limbs of greater or less size, in some enclosing the tail,
in others only partially, and in some not at all.

Family 2. — LEAFLESS-NOSED BATS.

2. MOLOSSUS. Incisive teeth bifid, two above, grooved in front, two
below small and deciduous ; cuspid longish, conical in the lower jaw nearly
approximated, so as scarcely to leave room for the incisive ; molar four on
a side above, five below, their crowns studded with numerous points,
except the front, which have but one; snout long, upper lip pendulous;
auricles large, broad, and united at their base.

Family 3. — LEAF-NOSED BATS.

3. PHYLLOSTOMA (Gr. ^XXw, a leaf, -and ttT6^a, a mouth). Two or
four incisive teeth in the upper jaw, of which the middle two are the
largest ; in the lower jaw four smaller and close set ; cuspid teeth two in
each jaw, the upper sometimes separated from the incisive by a gap ;
molar either eight in each jaw, or eight in the upper and ten in the lower|
or ten in each jaw, or ten in the upper and twelve in the lower jaw, all
having pointed crowns, the anterior two or three single, and the rest many-
pointed ; muzzle more or less elongated, the lower jaw sometimes longer
than the upper ; upon the top of the nose two cartilages, one erect and of
a leaf-like form, the other horizontal and horse-shoe shaped ; thumb of the
hand clawed ; middle finger four-jointed, and all the fingers nail-less; hind

toes all clawed ; iuterfemoral membrane more or less perfect ; tail short or
entirely deficient.

4. NOCTILIO (Lat Nox, night). Incisive teeth, above four, of which
the middle two large and conical, the lateral small and tuber-
cular, beloic two minute and bifid ; cuspid long and conical ; molar
pointed, four on a side in the upper, and five in the lower jaw ; snout
short, expanded, and cleft, covered with little warty or fleshy tubercles ;
nose confounded with upper lip, nostrils slightly tubular, approximated, anil
prominent ; ears small and lateral ; interfemoral membrane very large and
projecting ; tail of moderate length mostly included in the membrane ;
claws of hind legs very strong.

5. NYCTERIS (Gr. wKrtpif, from vw£, night). Incisive teeth, above four,
contiguous, fixed in a moveable, intermaxillary bone, below six ; cuspid
large and distinct ; molar four on a side in each jaw ; cheek-pouches per-
forated at bottom to give passage to air into the cellular membrane ; from
the forehead to the tip of the nose a deep longitudinal groove, in front of
which are the nostrils, each terminating in a small longitudinal canal, and
generally closed ; ears longer than the head ; skin very loosely connected
with body, and forming a bag around the animal ; tail as long as the body,
enveloped in membrane, and terminating in a bifid vertebra ; feet five-toed,
the long toes of the fore feet without claws.

6. NYCTICEIUS (Gr. vv£, night). Incisive teeth, above, two, separated by
a wide space approximated to the cuspid and shaqily indented ; below, six,
truncated, cuspid, without tubercles at their base.

7. PLECOTUS (Gr. jrXeVw, I plait, and owe, <iroc, an ear). Auricles much
larger than the head, and connected by their base with each other ; lesser
auricles lancet-shaped, and the auditory passage furnished with a valve ;
incisive teeth in the upper jaw four, and in the lower six ; cuspid two in
each jaw ; molar, in the upper jaw five on a side, and in the lower six ;
muzzle simple ; mouth furnished with cheek pouches ; tail long and in-
cluded in the interfemoral membrane.

8. RHINOLOPHUS (Gr. piv, a nose, and Xo^oc, a crest). Incisive teeth,
two in the upper jaw; in the moveable intermaxillary bone frequently
deciduous, and four in the lower jaw, short and trifid ; cuspid teeth
long, conical, and distinct ; molar five on a side in each jaw, or five
on a side in the upper and six in the lower jaw, the anterior false and
one or two pointed ; the others pointed and tritorial ; muzzle obtuse ;
nose furnished with a very complicated membranaceous apparatus, that
part of it in front of the nostrils always assuming a horse-shoe form, that
behind varying in figure according to the species, and the nostrils themselves
being funnel-shaped ; auricles large, simple, and unprovided with opercules ;
body furnished with digital, lumbar, and anal membranes, which are not
covered with hair ; upon the breasts two teats furnished with milk tubes,
and upon the pubes two warts without milk tubes ; the joint of the first
finger is single, short, and rudimentary, the others have but two joints ; tail
contained in the anal membrane, and generally not extending beyond it.

9. RHINOPOMA (Gr. piv, a nose, and irw/ja, an opercule). Incisive teeth in
the upper jaw, two small ones apart from each other, in the lower four ;
two moderate-sized cuspid in each jaw ; molar four on a side in the upper
and five in the lower jaw, the anterior of these false, the others pointed and
tritorial ; nose long, conical, cut square at its tip, and furnished with a small
leaf-like cartilage ; nostrils narrow, transverse, and guarded with a small
lobe like an opercule ; forehead broad and concave ; auricles large, con-
nected together, inclining on the face, and furnished with an outer lobe or
opercule; interfemoral membrane narrow, square, and enveloping only tin-
base of the tail. There are but a few species of this genus known, and
they have the same habits as our Bats.

10. TAPHOZOUS (Gr. ra^oc, a tomb, and £au, Hive). Upper incisive teeth
two, sometimes deficient, lower four three-lobed ; cuspid tooth long, conical ;
molar five on a side in each jaw, the anterior two of each very small,
scarcely visible, the others with pointed crowns ; head pyramidal, with a
roundish pit on the forehead; ears large, distant; nostrils small, circular,
and partially concealed ; upper lip very thick ; tail short, its basal half

FAMILY— F K U C T I V O K A. THE BAT TRIBE.

11

enveloped in the interfemoral membrane ; the remainder free, and projecting
upwards when at rest ; a small pouch in the alar membrane.

1 1 . VESPERTILIO (from the Lat. vesper, the evening). Incisive teeth above,
four, cylindrical and sharp, in pairs with an intermediate gap ; below, six
with bifid points ; cuspid teeth distinct, long, and conical ; molar teeth from
four to six on each side in each jaw, sharp pointed, the posterior three
tritorial and the anterior conical ; muzzle lengthened ; ears large, the tragus
or earlet always existing ; feet five-toed, the thumbs of the fore feet free
from the wing-membranes, and famished each with a claw ; tail scarcely
projecting beyond the interfemoral membranes, and curved forwards.

CHEIROPTERA. DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIES.

Family 1. — FRUCTIVOEA.

PTEEOPUS — Wing-footed. These animals are frugivorous, but some few
of them are considered to feed also on animal food; they are of quiet
habits; live in large flocks, and during daytime suspend themselves by
their hind feet to trees, rocks, or old buildings; but at twilight they
take wing and commit great depredations among the orchards. The varia-
tion in the number of the molar teeth depends on the absence of the
anterior or first molar, which is intermediate between the cuspid and
molar teeth, and is of that kind called by Cuvier a. false molar ; it is want-
ing in those species which have the muzzle shorter than the others ; but
in some the hindmost molar is deficient, which renders the jaw still
shorter. All of them are natives of the Old World, and none have yet
been found in America; neither do the statements as to their sucking
the blood of persons whilst asleep, which have given rise to the application
of the name of Vampires, attach to them, but to the Phyllostomata, and
as regards them indeed only to a very limited extent.

The Edible Roussette (P. Edulis, or P. Javanicus), Plate 4, is the
largest of the genus, varying from eleven to fifteen inches in length, and
from three to five feet in extent. Its general form is slender ; body very
oblong ; muzzle long ; molar teeth six on a side in the lower, but only five
in the upper jaw, the anterior small molar being deficient ; muzzle, front
of the head, and throat very deep chestnut, more or less tinged with black ;
fur on the back lying close to the skin, on the under parts more full and
crisped; back from the shoulders blackish-chestnut, or blackish, more or
less tinged with ash, and the outside of the hind limbs tinged with one or
other of these colours ; chest reddish-brown, and other under parts blackish-
brown, often becoming quite black in the full-grown animal. It is a native
of the Indian Archipelago, and very common in the Island of Java, where
it is known as the Kalortg. During daytime it is seen suspended by its
large thumb claws to the trees in the neighbourhood of plantations, among
the fruit of which it makes great havoc, sallying out at dusk in large flocks
in search of food ; and this time is chosen by the natives for catching them,
which they do by means of a bag fastened to a long stick. They are much
valued as food, their flesh being white, delicate, and tender, but it is dis-
liked by Europeans, in consequence of the musky smell it retains from the
urine which it discharges when worried. It is this animal which is named
Vespertilio Vampyrus by Linnaeus, and of which so much is said about its
sucking the blood of persons asleep. This, however, is an error, for the
animal is entirely frugivorous.

Dr. Horsfield informs us in his " Zoological Researches in Java," &c.,
" That this animal is abundant in the lower parts of Java, and Uniformly
lives in society." He adds, " Numerous individuals select a large tree for
their resort, and suspending themselves with the claws of their posterior
extremities to the naked branches, often in companies of several hundreds,
afford to a stranger a very singular spectacle. A species of Ficus, in habit
resembling the Ficus religiosa of India, which is often found near the vil-
lages of the natives, affords them a very favourite retreat, and the extended
branches of one of these are often covered by them. They pass the greater
portion of the day in sleep, hanging motionless ; ranged in succession with
the head downwards, the membrane contracted about the body, and often
in close contact ; they have little resemblance to living beings, and by a
person not accustomed to their economy, are readily mistaken for a part of

the tree, or for a fruit of uncommon size suspended from its branches. In
general these societies preserve a perfect silence during the day ; but if
they are disturbed, or if a contention arises among them, they emit sharp
piercing shrieks, and their awkward attempts to extricate themselves, when
oppressed by the light of the sun, exhibit a ludicrous spectacle. In con-
sequence of the sharpness of their ckws, their attachment is so strong that
they cannot readily leave their hold, without the assistance of the expanded
membrane ; and if suddenly killed in the natural attitude during the day,
they continue suspended after death. It is necessary to oblige them to
take wing by alarming them, if it be desired to obtain them during the
day. Soon after sunset they gradually quit their hold and pursue their
nocturnal flights- in quest of food. They direct their course, by an unerring
instinct, to the forests, villages, and plantations, occasioning incalculable
mischief, attacking and devouring indiscriminately every kind of fruit, from
the abundant and useful cocoa-nut, which surrounds every dwelling of the
meanest peasantry, to the rare and most delicate productions, which are
cultivated with care by princes and chiefs of distinction. By the latter, as
well as by the European colonists, various methods are employed to pro-
tect the orchards and gardens. Delicate fruits, such as mangos, jambus,
lausas, &c., as they approach to maturity, are ingeniously secured by means
of a loose net or basket, skilfully constructed of split bamboo. Without
this precaution little valuable fruit would escape the ravages of the J&dong."

Mr. Adam White, in his beautifully-illustrated volume, " Popular His-
tory of Mammalia," states that " a specimen of the P. Javanicus was kept
alive in the Philadelphia Museum for several years. It was quite tame
and amiable towards those persons constantly about it, but disliked
strangers. During its voyage to Philadelphia it was fed on boiled rice,
sweetened with sugar ; at the Museum it was chiefly fed on fruit, and now
and then enjoyed picking the bones of a boiled fowl."

The Middle Roussette (P. Medius) measures in length eleven inches, and
in extent somewhat more than three feet. These animals are natives of
the continent of India, in the neighbourhood of Pondicherry and Calcutta :
during certain times of the year, at the latter place, the trees are covered
with numbers of them. It is probably the species known among the
natives of Hindostan as the Badur.

Besides these there are the following species : — The Black-faced Roussette
(P. Phaiops), ten inches long, three and a half feet wide : native of Mada-
gascar. The Steel-headed Roussette (P. Poliocephalus), a foot in length,
three feet and a quarter in extent : found in Australia. In the French
Museum it is marked P. Riibricollis.

The Woolly Roussette (P. Dasymallus), eight inches long, two feet four
inches wide : is found in the neighbourhood of Nangasaki and Jedo, where
it is called Sobaosiki, and is very destructive to orchards.

The Common Roussette (P. Vulgaris), from eight to nine inches in length,
three feet in width : it is found in the Isles of France and Bourbon ; it is
also said to be met with in Madagascar, and perhaps in Africa. At
feeding-time it mingles indiscriminately with the following species, on the
trees, to which they are attracted by the fruit or flowers ; but at other times
they attach themselves apart to the large trees in the depth of the forest.
It is eaten, and when young, especially, is considered very good.

The Red-necked Roussette (P. Rubricollis), seven and a half inches long,
two feet in extent : found in the Isles of France and Bourbon, and hooks
itself up in the hollows of trees and in the clefts of rocks.

The Pallid Roussette (P. Pallidus), seven and a half inches long, in
extent two and a half feet : it is found in the Isle of Banda, and its habits
are like those of P. Edulis.

The Keraudren's Roussette (P. Keraudrenius), seven or eight inches long,
from two to two feet and a half in extent : it is a native of the Mariannas,
where it is eaten, and is called at Guam, which is one of them, the Fanihi.
It flies in broad daylight, and when at rest suspends itself to the trees.

The Grey Roussette (P. Griseus), from six to eight inches long, twenty
inches in width : native of Timor.

The Masked Roussette (P. Personatus), six and a half inches in length,
twenty inches wide : from the Isle of Ternate.

c2

12

CLASS— M A M M A L I A.

ORDER— C IIEIROPTERA.

The Black-headed Roussette (P. Malanocephalos), three inches long, eleven
in extent : is found in the most solitary parts of the Island of Java, where
it is called Batoeauwel.

The Ifiodate Roussette (P. Minimus), three and a half inches long, from
ten to twelve in extent : is a native of Java and Timor, where it is very
destructive in the orchards, and especially prefers the fruit of the jambu ;
it is nocturnal, and during the day attaches itself to the higher branches of
the trees. In the Malay language it is called Lmeo-Assu.

The Straw-coloured Roussette — the Lesser Ternate Bat of Pennant (P.
Stramineus) — seven inches long, two and a half feet in extent: native
of the Isle of Timor. It feeds on fruit, and is found suspended in caverns
and on the branches of trees, in the holes of which it also sometimes
hides itself.

^Egyptian Roussette (P. Geoffroyi or P. ./Egyptiacus), five and a half
inches long, twenty in extent : is a native of Egypt and the western parts
of Africa, and like our bats attaches itself to the roofs of old buildings.

The Teat-lipped Roussette (P. Titthsecheilus), five and a half inches long,
from seventeen to twenty inches wide: from the islands of Java and
Sumatra. This species exhales a very strong odour, probably from the
neck, encircled by diverging hairs, and Temminck thinks that the frontal
bag in Rhinolophus Speoris, the opening on the chest in Phyllostama Hasta-
tum, the throat-bag in Dysopes Velox, and the chin-bag in Taphosous Sac-
colaimus, all serve the same purposes.

The Amplexicaudate Roussette, four and a half inches long, sixteen wide :
found at Bencoolen, Siam, and also in the isles of Timor, Amboina, and
Sumatra.

The Bordered-eared Roussette (P. Marginatus) closes our catalogue : it
is rather more than three and a half inches long and thirteen in extent.

Family 2. — LEAFLESS-NOSED BATS.

MOLOSSUS. — These animals have a very disagreeable physiognomy ; their
head is large, with a very broad snout, resembling that of a mastiff, whence
they have been named ; the ears large, arising near the commissure of the
lips, project over the eyes, to which, says Geoffrey, they serve the purpose
of protection ratherthan to favour the perception of sound. The tragus is
placed in front, and external to the auditory passage, which distinguishes
this genus from the greater number of this order, in which it is placed
within the ear, forming as it were a second auricle ; the muzzle lias no
hairs, the tongue soft, the nostrils situated in a kind of little collar extend-
ing beyond the lips. In all, the hind limbs are very short, the fibula
perfect, and often as large as the tibia ; the tail long, but half of it en-
veloped in the interfemoral membrane ; the wings are disproportioned to
the size of their large and heavy body, being very narrow, and in some
species so much so that they can hardly serve the purpose of more than a
parachute ; the thumbs of the wings short, but broad and strong. They
live in caverns, are not able to fly well, but climb the trunks of trees and
the walls with great vigour, and probably feed on insects.

The principle species of the Molossus of the old world are —

The Collared Molosse (M. Cheiropus) rather more than five inches long,
and the extent of the wings two feet: a native of the Indian Archipelago.
The Plaited Molosse (M. Plicatus), four inches and a quarter long, and
eleven and a half in extent, about the size of the common European Bat,
V. Murinus : native of Bengal, and very common about Calcutta. The
Rupelian Molosse (M. Rupelii), larger than the last : native of Egypt. The
Egyptian Molosse, three and a half inches long, nine and a half wide :
native of Egypt. The Slender Molosse (M. Tenuis), five inches long,
thirteen wide : found in Java.

The species common in the New World include the Rufous Molosse (M.
Rufus), five inches long, thirteen wide ; the Black Molosse (M. Alecto),
five and a half inches in length, twelve in width; the Shorn Molosse (M.
Abrasus), somewhat smaller tlian the last ; the Long-nosed Molosse (M.
Nasatus), four inches long, near eleven wide ; the Dusky Molosse (M. Ob-
scurus), three inches long, nine inches wide ; and the Swift Molosse (M.
Velox), Plate 4, three and a quarter inches long, ten wide ; ears rather

larger than high, and joined on the forehead; membranes not verv wide
but tolerably long, hairy above and beneath, in front of the neck a little
glandular ; the fur very short and smooth, very deep shining chestnut
above, but a little lighter beneath : from Brazil.

Family 3. — LEAF-NOSED BATS.

PHYLLOSTOMA. — These animals are natives of South America, where,
like all the Bats there found, they are considered by the Brazilians to bite the
skin and suck the blood both of men and animals, and hence have acquired
the name Morfego. This opinion has been pretty generally held ; but much
doubt is thrown upon it by observations of recent travellers in the Brazils.
Waterton, in his " Third Journey to Guiana," says, " Many a night have
I slept with my foot out of the hammock to tempt this winged .surgeon,
expecting that he would be there ; but it was all in vain, the Vampire
never sucked me, and I could never account for his not doing so, for we
were inhabitants of the same loft for months together." In his fourth
journey, however, he mentions that a young Indian, whilst sleeping in his
hammock in the shed next to his, was severely sucked in the great toe,
and that the hole made in it was of a triangular shape. This is but one
of the more recent notices of these alleged bloodthirsty animals ; but the
old voyagers, Peter Martyr, Ulloa, and Condamine, mention the circum-
stance as a well-authenticated fact.

The Phyllostomes are distinguished among the Leaf-nosed Bats from the
Rhinolophi and Megadermata by the more simple form of their nasal ap-
pendages, and from the latter also by their auricles being unconnected at
their base, and by having incisive teeth in both jaws. Among themselves
they differ as to the number of their incisive and molar teeth ; but this
alone, unless it were very great and their form very dissimilar, cannot be
considered sufficient for their division into distinct genera, t^pix has
indeed arranged them in the two genera Pltyllostoma and Vampynts, the
principal distinction being the greater length of the jaws in the latter
than in the former, which have no tail, whilst his Vampyrus has a short
one. The arrangement which we have followed is on the plan of Geollroy
in the "Annales du Museum," vol. xv., in which all are included in one
genus, with two subdivisions, containing those which have and those which
have not a tail.

First, those with tails: — The Javelin Bat (P. Hastatum), five inches
in length, twenty-three in breadth. According to Prince Maximilian's
observations, this species is a native of Eastern Brazil, but he found it
more especially at the River Mucuri and at Villa Viijoza on the Peruhype.
It flies at some height and strongly, though not very quickly, in the
evening, and often comes in at the windows in summer-time, when it
makes a great noise. During daytime it conceals itself near the houses,
among the leaves of the cocoa-palm, in high trees among the woods, and
in the leafy tops of trees. It is generally believed that these Bats suck the
blood of men and animals whilst asleep ; and Prince Maximilian observes,
that although he had never seen them in the act of sucking, yet after the
fluttering noise of their wings had been heard in the evening, the beasts of
burthen about which they had congregated were streaming with blood, and
at one station, the Rio das Contas, they were quite spent from the
bleeding.

In Mr. Darwin's " Journal of Researches," &c., we find (p. 22) the fol-
lowing confirmation of the blood-sucking qualification of some of the South
American Bats : — " The Vampire Bat is often the cause of much trouble,
by biting the horses on their withers. The injury is generally not so much
owing to the loss of blood, as to the inflammation which the pressure of
the saddle afterwards produces. The whole circumstance has lately been
doubted in England; I was therefore fortunate in bein^ present when one
(Desmadus d'Orbignyi, Wat.) was actually caught on a horse's back. We
were bivouacking late one evening near Coquimbo in Chile, when inv
servant, noticing that one of the horses was very restive, went to see what
was the matter, and fancying he could distinguish something, suddenly put
his hand on the beast's withers and secured the Vampire. In the morning
the spot where the bite had been inflicted was easily distinguished from

FAMILY— F RUCTIVORA. THE BAT TRIBE.

13

being swollen and bloody. The third day afterwards we rode the horse,
without any ill effects."

We have only space to name the other species : P. Macrophyllum, P.
Elongatum, P. Crenulatum, P. Brevicaudatum, P. Sovicinum, P. Cirr-
hosum, and P. Bidens. — All these have tails.

Bats of tliis genus without tails embrace — the Spectre Bat (P. Spec-
trum), Plate 4. This animal is about five and a half inches in length, and
twenty inches in extent. The fur of this species is soft, of a chestnut
colour above, and reddish-yellow beneath. Geoffroy considers this species
to be the Andera guaou,of Piso, who says it is as large as a Dove. It is
generally held by Zoological writers that this is the species referred to by
Condamine as the Bats which destroyed the cattle introduced by the Mis-
sionaries at Boija, and also those mentioned by Ulloa as being very common
at Carthagena, and so much given to blood-sucking as to be a great scourge
to the natives ; but no satisfactory relation has been hitherto given as to
the other species besides P. Hastatum, in reference to this point. It can
hardly be considered, though generally so esteemed, as the Bat which bled
Captain Stedman so profusely at Surinam, as it, as well as all the other
individuals of this genus, are natives of South America only. We may
here add that though several recent travellers in South America have
recorded instances of the bloodthirstiness of some of the Bats of that
Continent, yet they all reject the exaggerated statements which earlier
writers have published respecting them. We refer to the works of
Denman, Ischudi, Graham, and Azara.

The names of other species are P. Planirostre, P. Jamaicense, P. Brachy-
otum, P. Perspicillatum, P. Superciliatum, P. Lineatum, P. Rotundum,
and P. Lilium. — Without tails.

NOCTILIO. — The Bats of this genus are very remarkable for the cleft in
the upper lip, which from its resemblance to that of Hares has given rise to
the name of Hare-lipped Bats, sometimes applied to them. Cuvier and
Temminck include them all in a single species.

NYCTERIS. — The animals composing this genus are distinguished from
the others of the same family by the ease and elegance of their flight, and
by the power they possess of inflating their skin with air so as to render
themselves specifically lighter, in which respect they have some analogy to
Birds. This curious property was pointed out by Geoffrey St. Hilaire ;
the termination of the tail in a bifid piece like a reversed T is also a pecu-
liar character of this genus, and distinguishes it from all the other Bats.

NYCTICEIUS. — This genus, founded by Rafinesque, so nearly approaches
the Vespertiliones, except in the disposition of the incisive teeth, that
Temminck almost doubts the propriety of separating them.

PLECOTUS. — The individuals forming this genus were separated from the
Vespertiliones by Geoffrey, in consequence of the connection of the roots of
their auricles, and from the greater number of their molar teeth.
Two species we shall briefly notice : —

The Eared Bat (P. Vulgaris), which is the smallest of the Bat kind,
measuring not more than an inch and three-quarters in length, and seven
in breadth : it is found both in towns and in the country, hiding itself in
old towers, where it lives alone. Its cry is generally feeble, but when dis-
turbed becomes distinct and shrill. It is found throughout Europe and in
Africa. Two varieties are observed of this species : viz. first the Egyptian,
which is much smaller than ours, and has its fur of a more ferruginous
colour, and the last vertebra of the tail more detached from the membrane ;
and second, the Austrian, which is much larger and of a darker colour.

The Barlastellus (P. Barbastellus) measures about four inches long and
eleven wide ; it is found in houses ; lives in company with the Pipistrelle
Bats, and hybernates with them. It has a very fetid smell. It is found
in France, though not very commonly, still less frequently in Germany,
especially towards the north, occasionally in England. Some naturalists
have elevated this species into a distinct genus.

RHINOLOPHUS — Horse-shoe Bat. — This genus belongs to the insectivorous
tribe of Bats, its first finger or index having only a single joint or phalanx.
It is one of the most remarkable kind of Bats, and is distinguished by

the great size of its ears, and by the complication of its nasal apparatus.
But that which distinguishes it from all other genera of its family is the
existence upon the pubes of a pair of warty teats, besides the true teats
upon the breast. These, according to Kuril's observation, are deficient in
the first year of the animal's life, in the second are extremely small, and
only in the third year acquire their proper size ; but, though connected
with reproduction, he has never been able to find any lactiferous glands
near them. The auricles are very simple, consisting merely of a large
gristle, but without any opercule as in the other insectivorous Bats, which
renders them deaf at pleasure, by shutting up the auditory passage; and
hence it is that, during daytime, they bury themselves in the deepest holes
and most private recesses. The imperfection of this organ is, however,
fully compensated by the remarkable development of the nose. Its external
cartilages or gristles are disposed and folded so as to form a funnel, which
may more easily catch and conduct the scent to the interior of the nose ;
the nostrils themselves have a circular or oval form, and are placed at the
bottom of the funnel, the expanded upper part of which is bounded in
front and on the sides by a fold or folds of membrane which assume the
form of a horse-shoe, whence is derived the English name of the genus ;
posteriorly it is bounded by one or two membranes which assume various
forms. This disposition, although found in others of the same family, is
most fully developed in the animals of this genus. The thickness of the
lip arises from the numerous muscular fibres which lie close together
and run in different directions. They remain during daytime in the deepest
holes, and come out at night in search of insects. They are of various sizes.
The Horse-shoe Bats are arranged into three classes : viz., 1, those with
the upper nasal membrane erect and spear-shaped ; 2, those with the upper
nasal membrane stretched transversely ; and 3, those with the upper nasal
membrane transverse and a pouch on the forehead. 1. The Singk-speared
Horse-slioe Bat (R. Unihastatus), Double-speared Horse-shoe Bat (R. Bihas-
tatus), both natives of Europe, the latter common in England ; the Trident
Horse-shoe Bat (R. Trideos), a native of Egypt, and was discovered by
Geoffrey in tombs and caves ; the Lesser Horse-shoe Bat (R. Minor), native
of Java. 2. The Noble Horse-sJwe Bat (R. Nobilis), the Masked Horse-shoe
Bat (R. Larvatus), the Common Horse-shoe Bat (R. Vulgaris), the Deformed
Horse-shoe Bat (R. Deformis), all natives of Java ; Commerson's Horse-shoe
Bat (R. Commersonii), native of Madagascar ; the Crowned Horse-shoe Bat
(R. Diadema), a native of the isle of Timor; and the Ridge-nosed Horse-shoe
Bat (R. Clivosus), which lives in holes in walls and rocks, and is a native
of Africa. 3. The Pouched Horse-shoe Bat (R. Speoris), a native of the
island of Timor.

RHINOPOMA. — Two species of the animals forming this genus are : — The
Microphyllus, which measures two inches in length ; the tail an inch more ;
auricles nearly half an inch long ; expanse of wings seven inches and a third.
They are found in the lowest chambers of the Pyramids near Cairo.

The Carolinense, two inches in length ; the tail an inch and a half more ;
expanse of the wings eight inches. Is a native of Carolina.

TAPHOZOUS — dwellers in tombs. — This genus was formed by Geoffrey St.
Hilaire on a specimen found by him in the Egyptian Catacombs ; the tail,
when the animal suspends itself at roost, seems to project beyond the
margin of the interfemoral membrane ; it is, however, only sheathed by it,
and when the membrane is expanded in flight it slips off, and the tail is no
longer seen.

The species are — T. Perforatus, found in the deep caverns at Ombos, and
in the tombs of the kings at Thebes ; T. Lepturus, a. native of Surinam ;
T. Mauritiamis, native of the Isle of France; T. Longimanus, common in
dark store-rooms in Calcutta; and T. Rufus, common in Pennsylvania.
Godman mentions, on the authority of Titian Peale, a remarkable instance
of maternal affection in one of this species. " In June 1823, a boy caught
a young Red Bat, which he took home with him. Three hours afterwards,
in the evening, as he was conveying it to the museum in his hand, whilst
passing near the place where it was caught, the mother made her appear-
ance, followed the boy for two squares, flying round him, and finally alighted
on his breast, such was her anxiety to save her offspring. Both were

14

CLASS— MAMMALIA.

ORDER— C HEIROPTERA.

brought to the museum, the young one firmly adhering to its mother's teat.
The faithful creature lived two days in the museum, and then died of in-
juries received from her captor."

VESPEETHJO. — Of this interesting genus — all insect feeders — there are in
England no less than twelve species. Generally throughout the day they
remain hidden in hollow trees, clefts of rocks, caverns, under the eaves of
houses, or other outof-the-way places, suspending themselves by their hind
claws with their heads downwards, and crowding together one over another
so closely as to make it matter of astonishment how they can find room to
attach themselves. But as soon as the sun sinks below the horizon, and
twilight appears, their busy time arrives, and they are seen darting and
swimming around trees, or flitting over streams where gnats and other cre-
puscular insects are swarming, and, as it were, inviting their voracity, till
morning dawns, when they speedily fly off to their retreats. All the Bats
hybemate, but for very different periods ; the Pipistrelle, our most common
species, is seen almost to Christmas, and reappears as early as the middle
of March. They produce rarely more than one or two at a birth, and carry
them in their wing membranes as in cradles. Spallanzani found that though
deprived as far as possible of sight, scent, or hearing, they were still capable .
of flying about and avoiding every obstacle against which they might be
presumed likely to strike when set at liberty in places unknown to them,
and that they were able even to pass through passages which were only
sufficiently large to admit them. This remarkable phenomenon has been
beautifully explained by Cuvier, who observes, that " the membrane uniting
the hands and fingers presents to the air a very extensive surface; the
nerves distributed to it are numerous and very extensively divided, forming
an admirable net-work by their delicacy, and by the number of their anasto-
moses. It is probable that in the act of flight, the air struck by the wing,
or this so-sensible hand, impresses on it a sensation of heat, cold, mobility,
resistance, indicating to the animal the obstacles and facilities which it
meets with in its flight. Thus is it that blind men distinguish with the
hand, and even with the face, their approach to a wall, to the door of a house,
to a street, before touching them, and by the simple sensation of different
resistance of the air." (Lecons d'Anatomie Comparee, vol. ii. p. 581, 1st edit.)

A division of the Bats into two sections, though perhaps of but little
importance, may be founded on the different shape of the tragus or earlet,
which stands up like a valve before the passage leading to the ear-drum,
it being in some species more disposed to a lance-like or even linear shape,
whilst in others, with a narrowish base, it spreads upwards into a kidney
or heart-shaped process.

1. Bats with the lancet-shaped earlet. The Mouse-coloured Bat (V. Mu-
rinus), three and a half inches in length, extent of the wings fifteen inches.
This is one of the largest European, and the largest British Bat, and here
of extreme rarity, being only authenticated as caught in the gardens of the
British Museum. They live in large companies, frequenting old retired
buildings, but do not resort to woods, and avoid the society of other
species.

Bechstein's Bat (V. Bechsteinii), two inches in length, twelve inches in
width : it is a native of Europe, but rare in this country, and hitherto only
taken in the New Forest, where it lives in small parties of a dozen or
thirteen, resorting solely to hollow trees, never approaching dwelling-places,
and not intermixing with other species.

The Reddish-grey Bat (V. Nattereri), length of head and body nearly two
inches : a native of England, not infrequently living in hollow trees and
caverns in company with V. BarbasteUus and Mystacinus, and also with
Plecotus Auritus. It is found also in other parts of Europe.

The Whiskered Bat (V. Mystacinus), head and body measures nearly
two inches : is a native of England and other parts of Europe ; rarely fre-
quents houses, and is said to prefer the neighbourhood of water, and is
sometimes found in caverns.

Daubenton's Bat (V. Daubentonii), head and body two inches in length :
a native of England, is found also in many parts of Germany and in Den-
mark ; flies rapidly near the ground or over stagnant waters.

The Pygmy Bat (V. Pygmseus), length of head and body not quito an
inch and a quarter : is very numerous in the neighlxrarhood of Dartmoor
forest, where it was first discovered by Dr. Leach, but is by some persons
considered doubtful, and perhaps only the young of another species.

The Hairy Bat (V. Polythrix), Slender Bat (V. Lsevis), Blackish-Bat
(V. Nigricans), White-bellied Bat (V. Leucogaster), Long-nosed Bat (V.
Naso), all natives of Brazil ; the Painted Bat (V. Pictus), a native of
Ceylon ; and the Great Serotine (V. Maximus), a native of Guinea.

2. Bats with the battledoor-shaped tragus. The Great Bat (V. Noctula),
head and body nearly three inches long. The Great Bat, which, next to
the Mouse-coloured species, is the largest English species, is spread pretty
generally over Europe. It lives in large companies, nestling in the hollows
of trees, in caverns, and under house-roofs. Its flight is very rapid and
high ; hence White gave it the specific name of Altimlans. Its active life
is shorter than that of any other species, not appearing till the end of April,
and retiring in July, according to the observations of the last-quoted zealous
naturalist.

The Common Bat (V. Pipistrellus), length of the head and body rather
more than an inch and a half. This species is the most common Bat in
England, as determined by Jenyns, but not the Common Bat of Pennant ;
and it is generally spread throughout Europe. It is more active than the
other species, having been noticed about as late as the middle of December,
and reappearing in the middle of March. Jenyns observes its places of
retirement are crevices of decayed brick walls, in the cracks of old door-
frames, or behind the leaden pipes frequently attached to buildings for
carrying off rain. Its flight is quick and flitting, whence one of its vulgar
names, flitter Mouse. It frequents the neighbourhood of rivers, flying over
them or about the trees on their banks, in search of various kinds of gnate,
which Bell considers are probably its chief food.

" If a Bat be placed," says Mr. Patterson, in his useful little volume,
" Zoology for the use of Schools," — " If a Bat be placed on the smooth
surface of a table, its awkward at-
tempts at walking give an idea of
helplessness akin to that which was
suggested to naturalists when the
Sloth was seen upon the ground.
Yet compassion in both cases would
be alike misplaced. Each animal is
gifted with powers of locomotion
adapted to its wants. The Bat can
climb with ease the rugged and per-
pendicular surface of a tree, or can wheel its flight in the air, though
burthened with one or two young adhering to its teats."

The Particoloured Bat (V. Discolor), rare in this country, but found in
Germany. The Serotine Bat (V. Serotinus), which measures somewhat
more than two inches and a half in length : it is rare in this country, and
hitherto observed only in the neighbourhood of London ; but it is spread
pretty generally over central Europe. It is common in the woods of
France, and not infrequent on the timber stacks in Paris. It is rarely
found but in pairs, and sometimes singly. Like the Great Bat, it appears
late in spring, and flies throughout the night.

The Hairy-armed Bat (V. Dasycarpos), length of the head and body two
inches and a half. It is found in Germany in large societies in hollow trees,
but not intermixed with other species, and is fond of the neighbouring
stagnant waters. There is in the British Museum a single specimen said
to be British, and the only one presumed to be such.

There are many other species enumerated in larger works.

Bat walking.

FAMILY— I NSECTIVORA. INSECT-EATERS.

15

ORDER III.— SAECOPHAGA.

PREFERS.

THIS order is characterised by its flesh-eating propensity ; hence its desig-
nation from two Greek words, aapKoe, " flesh," and <j>ayw, " I eat."

Family 1. — INSECT-EATERS; Insectiwra.
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.

Genera.

PLATE 4.

Species.

Kriimceus - - - - Europasus -
Sore* ----- Araneus
Talpa ----- Europaea

Common Name.

Common Hedgehog.
Common Shrew.
Common Mole.

Other Genera of this Family : — Centetes, Mygale, Scalops.

CHARACTERS OF THE GENERA.

1. ERINACEUS. — Body covered above with spines instead of hairs, and
capable of being bent up on itself to form a prickly ball ; tail short, and
feet plantigrade, five-toed ; the two middle upper incisives separate from
each other, longer than the others, and conical ; nose slightly projecting.

2. SOREX (Gr. vpa£, a Rat or Mouse). Front teeth in each jaw two,
in the upper bicuspid, in the lower very long, horizontal, and denticulated
above ; on each side, in the upper jaw, five or four false molar, the first
and last larger than the intermediate, in the lower jaw two false molars ;
true molar teeth with pointed crowns, three on a side, in each jaw ; muzzle
long and conical ; eyes very small ; ears small, rounded, and not always
apparent; body covered with soft fur, and on each flank a row of odori-
ferous glands; tail varying in length, and but rarely equalling that of the
body ; feet plantigrade, toes distinct, five on each foot.

3. TALPA (Gr. rv<j>\oe, blind). Incisive teeth of nearly equal size, in the
upper jaw six, and in the lower eight ; cuspid teeth two-fanged, the upper
very long, curved, pointed, and sharp on their hinder edge, the lower not
elevated above the molar teeth; in the upper jaw on each side seven
molar teeth, of which the first three small, and the fourth much larger, are
all single-pointed, and the other three have cutting edges with two points
on their crowns ; and in the lower jaw on each side six, of which the front
three are single and the hind three double-pointed ; muzzle lengthened,
and the snout forming a sort of proboscis truncated ; eyes very small ; no
auricles ; body full, roundish ; tail short and scaly ; limbs short, the ante-
rior very strong and bulky, and furnished with a pair of broadly-expanded
feet, having their soles facing outwards with a sharp inner or under edge,
five toes webbed to the roots of the claws, which are long, wide, rounded,
and sharp pointed; posterior limbs very slender, feet plantigrade, with
five toes armed with slender, sharp, slight, curved claws ; fur soft, thick,
and silky.

4. CENTETES (Gr. KCVTW, to prick). Body covered with bristles and
spines ; tail short or wanting entirely ; cuspidate teeth two in each jaw
on either side ; the incisores between and before them ; molares five on
each side in both jaws, having their crowns cuspidated, of a triangular
shape ; the base of which is behind.

5. MYGALE (Gr. fivoyaXi), a Shrew). Incisive teeth — in the upper
jaw two, sharp and triangular, in the lower four, long, narrow, and
parallel, with truncated crowns, the middle two smaller than the outer ;
cuspid none ; molar, in the upper jaw seven, in the lower four false on each
side ; in the upper three true pointed, in the lower six of the same on each
side ; the muzzle sharp, with a projecting, flattened, moveable nose, having
nostrils at its tip ; eyes small ; auricles deficient ; body clothed with long
hair ; tail compressed ; feet five-toed, webbed, plantigrade ; the soles bare ;
hind feet hairy on their outer edge ; claws falcular.

6. SCALOPS (Gr. wcaXXw, / dig). Incisive teeth in each jaw two,
])erpendicular and cuneiform, the lower smallest ; no true cuspid teeth ;
in upper jaw, on either side, six false molar, of which the anterior four
are cylindrical, the last two lance-shaped, with their points inclining

backwards ; three molar with many-pointed crowns : in lower jaw, on each
side, from four to seven false molar, conical, but obtuse, and three molar
with many-pointed crowns ; muzzle lengthy, and terminating in a cartila-
ginous button ; eyes small ; auricles deficient ; body thick, cylindrical,
without distinct neck ; tail short ; legs short ; feet five-toed, the fore feet
very wide and strong, the toes connected to the last joint, their claws
large, semilanceolate, with narrow and rather obtuse points ; claws of
hind toes much shorter, compressed, and sharp.

INSECTIVORA. DESCRIPTION OF SPECIES.

ERINACEUS : the Hedgehog. The common Hedgehog (E. Europasus),
Plate 4, has the ears short, lives in hedges, and is very common. In
the winter it burrows and becomes torpid ; but in spring leaves its hole
in search of insects, which are its ordinary food, and occasionally fruits
also. It is a shy and timid little animal, and when disturbed rarely
attempts to escape, but rolls itself up into a prickly ball, and from this
form will not disengage itself, but rather closes more firmly the more it be
irritated, except when thrown into water, on which it speedily unrolls. It
is easily domesticated, and is very useful indoors to destroy Beetles and
other troublesome insects. A curious fact has been observed by Pallas,
that the Hedgehog feeds without injury upon the Cantharides, a single one
of which produces excruciating torments in the Dog and Cat. Native of
Europe.

The Long-eared Hedgehog (E. Auritus) is found from the north of the
Caspian Sea as far as Egypt.

There are about eighteen or nineteen species of Shrews. In form and
habits they have a general resemblance to the small kinds of Mice, but are
less vivacious. They are of small size, and among them are found the
smallest Mammalia, such as the S. Etruscus, Pulchellus, Personatus, and
Religiosus, which scarcely exceed the smallest Humming-bird in bulk.

The teeth of this genus are, as remarked by Isidore Geoffrey, extremely
interesting, as being intermediate between those of the true carnivorous and
those of the rodent animals, and linking them together.

The limbs of this genus are not so short as they seem to be, arising
from their feet being of the plantigrade kind, that is, the fore feet resting
on the ground as far as the wrist, and the hind so far as the heel. The
toes are all distinct and have no indication of web, not even in those species
which are aquatic, some of which have them, however, fringed with strong
hairs, which serve the same purpose as the loose fringes on the toes of the
Grebes and Divers ; the inner and outer toe of each foot is deeply cleft
from the others, by which they are enabled to be far spread and the
breadth of the paw much increased, an analogy to which has been observed
by Geotfroy in some of the Marsupial animals ; the claws are short, curved,
compressed, and sharp. The tail is always shorter than the body, some-
times scaly, and sometimes covered with fur. Like the Bats they possess
the remarkable power of rendering themselves deaf at will, and thus pre-
serving their auditory organs from injury by sudden and violent noise.

The eyes are so extremely small, that Geoffrey St. Hilaire has designated
them as " veritablement un organe tomb's en atrophie," a peculiarity which
belongs to all the subterraneous carnivorous animals. The Shrews are
remarkable for their strong musky odour, which arises from a series of
odoriferous glands situated along the flanks, and nearer the fore than the
hind limbs.

Some of the Shrews are found in both the Old and New World, but
others are not, and whilst some prefer dry soils, others are found only in
wet or marshy districts. Generally they live in holes, but sometimes make
their way into granaries or cellars, where their presence is soon known by
their musky odour.

The Fetid or Common Shrew (S. Araneus), Plate 4, measures, head
and body, from two to two and a half inches in length ; its tail is an inch
and a half, which is thick, blunt at the extremity, covered with short, close,
stifF, dusky hair, but not fringed on its under surface ; colours variable ;
ears small, having within two folds or lobes, one beneath the other, and
edged with hair ; feet small, the hinder not fringed. It is common upon

16

CLASS-MAMMALIA.

ORDER— S ARCOPHAGA.

dry soils in Europe, feeding on worms and insects, which its long flexible
snout enables it to rout up from beneath the surface of the soil with great
facility. The cry of this species is a shrill whistle. In spring the female
brings from five to seven young ones, which she deposits in a slight hole
lined with soft herbage, and being covered at the top is entered on the side.
Towards autumn they are found dead in great numbers, but without any
assignable reason. They are extremely pugnacious, and if two be put in
a box a contest takes place which terminates only in the death of one, the
greater part of which is eaten up by the survivor. They have a peculiarly
strong musky smell, which renders them so offensive, that though cats will
kill they will not afterwards meddle with them. The Shrew was formerly
considered venomous, and vulgar tradition assigned to it such malignity,
that it was said to lame the foot over which it ran. " Our ancestors," says
Dr. Johnson, " looked on her with such terror, that they are supposed to
have given her name to a scolding woman, whom for her venom they call
a Shrew." — Gilbert White states, " It is supposed that a Shrew Mouse is
of so baneful and deleterious a nature, that wherever it creeps over a beast,
be it horse, cow, or sheep, the suffering animal is afflicted with cruel
anguish, and threatened with the loss of the use of the limb." These
absurd suppositions were to be remedied by equally absurd antidotes in
the shape of the twigs or branches of a Shrew Ash, gently applied to the
limbs of cattle, which are immediately relieved of the pains caused by the
running of a Shrew Mouse over them. This Shrew Ash was made thus,
according to Gilbert White : " Into the body of the tree a deep hole was
bored with an auger, and a poor devoted Shrew Mouse was thrust in alive,
and plugged in, no doubt with several quaint incantations long since for-
gotten."

The Water Shrew (S. Fodiens) is common throughout many parts of
Europe, in the neighbourhood of streams and marshy ground ; and in the
spring produces six or eight young. It is well adapted for swimming by
the fringing of its toes, and moves in the water with great speed. The
length of its head and body is three and a quarter inches, of the former an
inch, and of the tail rather more than two inches.

The other species are — the WMte-toothed Shrew (S. Leucodon) and the
la Musaraiane (S. Constrictus), found in the neighbourhood of Strasburg,
Chartes, and Abbeville ; Foster sShrew (S. Fosteri), and the American Marsh
Shrew (S. Palustris), inhabitants of the fur districts of North America ;
the Short-tailed Shrew (S. Brevicaudus), the Small Shrew (S. Parvus), and
the Masked Shrew (S. Personatus), natives of Missouri and other parts
of America ; the Sacred Shrew (S. Religiosus) and the Perfuming Shrew
(S. Giganteus), found in the tombs at Thebes; the Oared Shrew (S.
Renifer), found in some parts of England and also in France; the White-
faced Shrew (S. Lineatus) and the Square-tailed Shrew (S. Tetragonuras),
inhabitants of Paris and other parts of France ; the Beautiful Shrew (S.
Pulchellus), found in the sandy desert, near Bokhara ; the Indian Shrew
(S. Indicus), in Sumatra and on the continent of India ; the Flaxen Shrew
(S. Flavescens) in Caffreland ; the Mouse-tailed Shrew (S. Myosurus) from
Java ; the White-coUared Shrew (S. Collaris), at the mouths of the Scheldt
and the Meuse ; and the Tuscan Shrew (S. Etruscus), found in Tuscany
under the roots and in the trunks of old trees, among heaps of leaves or
straw, in the holes of banks, and in winter in dunghills, where it finds
both food and protection from the cold.

TALPA — the Mole. — This genus of animals is furnished with forty-four
teeth : in the upper jaw six incisive, closely, regularly set, and nearly vertical,
followed on each side by a long, curved,
pointed, cuspid tooth, much flattened
laterally and with a sharp cutting hinder
edge, to which succeed three small single-
pointed or false molar teeth, and behind
them four true molar teeth, which, ex-
cepting the first, have many sliarp points
on their crowns ; in the lower jaw the in-
cisive teeth are eight, of nearly equal size
and projecting rather forwards, behind them the cuspid teeth, of so small a

Teeth of Insectivorous Animals.

size that they scarcely rise above the crowns of the other teeth, and of very
similar form and size to the first upper true molar, that is, a sharp elevated
point at the front of its crown, whilst the hind part forms a sort of heel or
step; three small false molars, of similar form but less size, follow the
cuspid on each side, and behind thorn are three true molar teeth, of which
the points on their crowns are well developed, and plainly indicate the
insectivorous habits of the animal.

A very remarkable circumstance in connection with the Mole is the
extremely small size of its eyes and the minuteness of the aperture between
the eyelids, hence it lias been commonly considered to be blind ; and this
opinion was supposed to be held upon the authority of Aristotle, and
retained till Ray had observed, in his beautiful work on the Creation,
" Moles have perfect eyes, and holes for them through the skin, not much
bigger than a pin's head ;" and it was subsequently found that these eyes
could be used.

The limbs of this genus present a remarkable instance of the perfection
of development in reference to the animal's habits ; for, though the fore
limbs have little resemblance in shape to the hind ones, and are but
awkward instruments for walking, yet for the important function of tunnel-
ling they are most admirably adapted, and the whole general arrangement
of the bony and muscular structure of the animal is subservient to this
point.

The hand or fore paw is very large, wide, and expanded like a rounded
shovel, and from its front project the last joints of the five fingers, which,
with their long, strong, and semicylindrical claws, are as long as the other
two joints and the palm of the hand together. The palm is much widened
by a sickle-shaped bone, which, extending from the wrist to the root of the
innermost claw, and having a thin edge, forms the palm into an excellent
scoop. The hind limbs are, even for the size of the animal, small, but in
comparison with the fore limbs exceedingly diminutive.

As might naturally be supposed from such powerful organs as the fore
limbs, the Mole is exceedingly active in its mining operations, and buries
itself almost instantly when placed on the ground. Jesse mentions that
he " turned one loose upon a lawn, the turf of which was on a bed of
strong gravel, and particularly hard and dry. Notwithstanding these
disadvantages, the Mole contrived to bury itself almost in an instant,
working into the earth by means of her snout and fins (for they can hardly
be called feet) so fast that the ground seemed to yield to her mere
pressure."

Whilst employed in burrowing, the animal rests on its belly, and perhaps
the hind feet being inclined outwards assists in throwing the dirt still
further back; but it would seem more likely that the hind feet serve
rather as cramps to steady the animal on the ground and prevent it receding
by the opposition which the soil offers to the penetration of the muzzle.
The earth in these burrows is not always actually removed : at first it is
only thrown behind the animal; but as the Mole passes the same road
again and again, the crumbled soil becomes gradually thrust against the
sides of the passage, and, being more and more pressed, at last forms very
solid and permanent walls. Nothing seems to stop its course whilst
driving its tunnels ; if the soil be too firm and hard for it to bore, it does
not waste its time in unavailing efforts to pierce it, but, changing its level,
is directed by unerring instinct to descend sufficiently low to pass beneath
it, and having reached more congenial soil, it again elevates its course till it
has attained its usual proximity to the surface. Neither are they checked
by water; for Mr. Bruce (Lin. Trans, vol. iii.) mentions one which was
seen at 10 o'clock at night close to an islet in the Loch of Clunie, and
which must in passing from the main land have swum a distance of 180
yards. That this could not have belonged to the islet would seem pro-
bable from a pair only having been observed at intervals of several years,
which each time were destroyed, and none other seen on the islet. Le
Court and Jesse also have observed that the Mole swims with perfect ease.
Of the organs of sense, those of smelling are the most largely developed
in the Mole. As Geoffrey St. Hilaire well remarks, " Is there any organ
of sense which could supply more efficiently, to an animal living under

FAMILY— I NSECTIVORA. INSECT-EATERS.

17

ground, the imperfection of the other senses than that of smell ? It is a
kind of touch at a distance, which reminds one of the direct touch of the
Bat's wing."

Moles are predaceous and extraordinarily voracious, being almost furious
in satisfying their hunger, which is supposed to be in them a more violent
feeling than fear. Their usual food is worms, ants, the grubs of cock-
chafers and beetles, and they are commonly, though incorrectly, believed
to eat the roots of the herbage ; which, however, is not the case, but the
mischief which they cause to the roots is by disturbing the ground about
them in their hunt after animal food.

Our remarks upon the two species of the Mole must necessarily be very
brief.

The Common Mole (T. Vulgaris), Plate 4, is rather more than five
inches long ; incisive teeth of equal length ; aperture between the eyelids
very small, surrounded by a narrow, bare skin, and hidden by the fur,
which is attached around it in a circular form ; the fur is close, short, soft,
and almost velvet-like ; its ordinary colour is glossy deep black, but vary-
ing according to the position in which the animal is held : thus looking
from the head towards the tail, it has an ashy tinge, but is dull black
when viewed from tail to head. The Mole is, however, subject to great
variety of colour, piebald, grey, cream-coloured, and tawny.

Le Court observes that the Mole in its passage across streams is directed
by its sight, and that the fur which usually overspreads the apertures of
the eyelids, when moistened by the water, separates, and radiating forms a
sort of circular frill around the eye, which is then fully exposed. But that
under common circumstances they really do see, is proved by the following
experiment, which Le Court made in the presence of Geoffrey. Into a
piece of earthen water-pipe several Moles were successively introduced, and
at the open end Le Court stationed himself; whilst he remained quite still,
the Mole moved rapidly along the pipe for the purpose of escaping into the
ground, but if he merely held up his thumb, as the animal approached the
aperture, it stopped, and immediately retraced its steps, so that by this
simple action it was as completely imprisoned as if fastened up with a
grating.

The common Mole is a native of Europe and the temperate parts of
Russia and Siberia, as far as the river Lena ; it is found also in Upper or
Northern Italy, and though its definite southern limits are not ascertained,
it does not appear to have been met with in Lower Italy. It is said also
that Moles are not found either in Iceland, Orkney, or Zetland.

The burrows which the Mole forms, taken together, are called its encamp-
ment, which are divided into several parts — its lodge and runs, together
with its hunting grounds, and its nest, for the rearing of its young ; but on
these we cannot here enlarge.

The Mole is most active, and casts up more earth immediately before
rain, and in winter before a thaw, as at these times the worms and grubs
begin to move towards the surface ; but on the contrary, in very dry weather,
it seldom or never forms any hillocks, but burrows deeply after its prey,
which at that time also buries itself deeply.

It is generally stated that Moles do not make any winter store ; Jesse,
however, was informed by a mole-catcher, " that previous to the setting in
of winter, the Mole prepares a sort of basin, forming it in a bed of clay,
which will hold about a quart. In this basin a great quantity of worms
are deposited, and in order to prevent their escape they are partly muti-
lated, but not so much so as to kill them. On these worms the Mole feeds
during the winter months.

With reference to the injury or benefit derived from the operations of the
Mole there has been and still is much dispute. Le Court considers they
do great mischief, not only from their reaping the young corn whilst in the
blade to line their nests, at breeding time, but also by the damage they do
to the finer roots of trees and other vegetables and grass. On the other
hand, Mr. Jesse says, " I have been assured that where old mole-hills are
most abundant on sheep pastures, the latter animal is generally in a healthy
state, and feeds on the wild thyme and other salubrious herbs which grow
on these heaps of earth. When these have been levelled and cleared away,

sheep are not found to thrive as well as they did previously. This fact was
confirmed to me by Mr. Hogg, the Ettrick shepherd, who deprecated the
practice of removing mole-hills. In Leicestershire, where old mole-hills are
extremely abundant in the fine and extensive pastures which are to be found
in that county, sheep thrive well, and are generally healthy."

Occasionally, however, they do very great mischief, as when they pierce
embankments so as to render them leaky. An instance of this kind occurred
in France in 1800, and a rich extensive district was near being destroyed
by inundation, from which it was only saved by Le Court's knowledge
enabling him to fix on numerous colonies of Moles, which, having esta-
blished themselves in the banks, had damaged them so much as to prevent
their keeping out the water.

The Blind Mole (T. Ceeca) inhabits Tuscany, the centre and south of Italy,
part of Southern France, and, from the comparison with Aristotle's descrip-
tion of his <i<77ra\a£, it cannot be doubted that this is the indigenous Mole
of Greece.

At a little distance below the surface, the Blind Mole scoops out long
winding passages, communicating with each other ; and in the course of its
work forms air-holes, throwing out the earth from below at particular hours
of the day in the shape of little conical heaps, which stop the growth of
the surrounding herbage, by disturbing their tender roots and depriving
them of their proper nourishment. They inhabit fields, kitchen-gardens,
and vineyards, because such soil suits their operations, but are never found
in hard bottoms nor in rocky districts, nor in places liable to inundation.
They change their quarters with the seasons, proceeding to more elevated
localities during the rainy season, but returning to the valleys in summer.
They produce twice a-year four or five young at a litter, between March
and August, which they tend with the greatest care, placing them on a bed
of dried grass and fine roots in a rather spacious chamber above the level
of the galleries, the entrance to which is carefully secured with props of
earth or woody fibre. Like the common species it is extremely voracious,
feeding principally on the larvae of insects and worms ; but it will feed on
almost any animal, and attacks those weaker than itself, as the Field
Mouse, which it devours alive.

The discovery and description of this species by M. Paul Savi, of Pisa,
has set at rest the contending assertions of different zoologists as to the
vision or blindness of the Mole, proving that although the common species
is capable of seeing, there is yet another which is really blind, and which
was doubtless the species known to and described by Aristotle.

The senses of smelling and hearing appear to be, as also in the case of
Sorex Etruscus, the only guides of the Blind Mole in distinguishing objects ;
indeed the scent is still more remarkable than in S. Etrusc., for on lifting
the animal from the ground in order to examine it, or even when it was
moving about spontaneously beneath the herbage, the nostrils were always
observed in motion, and whenever it chanced to discover any body which
it felt a desire to examine, the movement of the nostrils increased so greatly
as to cause the emission of a sound similar in kind, though of course not in
degree, to that made by hounds on scent.

CENTETES — the Tandrek. — These animals were formerly included among
the Erinacei ; but they differ from them materially in having the incisor teeth
in front, whilst the Erinacei have two long incisores similar to those of the
Rodentia in front, with the common incisor teeth behind. The new genus
was first instituted by Illiger. With respect to minor differences, they are
incapable of rolling themselves so completely into a ball as the Hedgehogs,
and they have either no tail or a very short one ; their snout is also very
long and pointed. They are natives of Madagascar.

The Silky Tandrek (C. Setosus), which measures from ten to twelve inches
in length, is the largest of the species ; we have also the Spiny Tandrek, or
Asiatic Hedgehog (C. Spinosus), which is about the size of the Common
Hedgehog, and the Radiated Hedgehog (C. Semispinosus), somewhat
smaller than the last. All these animals live in burrows on the water's
edge, where they pass the greater part of their time in sleep during the
hotter months ; they hunt for food in the mud, and spend more time in
the water than on land.

18

CLASS-MAMMALIA.

ORDER-S AKCOPHAGA.

Nest of Mygale.

MTGALE — the Desman. These animals lead an aquatic life. The form
of their skull rather approaches that of the Moles than the Shrews, in not
terminating so pointedly ; the 'nasal bones are much elongated, and the
gristly part of the nose so much lengthened as to resemble a trunk, and
is as moveable as that of the Elephant.

They prefer pools, lakes, and other quiet waters, in the banks of which
they form a burrow, the entrance from which is below the surface of the
water, and immediately after they work
slightly upwards, and form numerous wind-
ings to the extent of five or seven feet, so
that only part of their habitation is under
water : here they live either solitarily, or in
pairs, according to the season. They never
come to the surface of the water, except
at pairing time, when they grow bold,
sport upon the banks, and amuse them-
selves in scrambling among the rushes.
They are thought to feed on the roots of
the Nymphcea and on sweet rush, but
Pallas never found anything in their stomach except the remains of larvaa
and worms. As they do not become torpid in the winter, they are much
inconvenienced by the freezing of the water, and if there be any small aper-
tures in the ice many may be seen anxiously striving to find room to
breathe ; if they cannot do this, they have only the air in their burrows to
consume, and are soon suffocated. They possess a strong musky odour —
to such extent, indeed, as to flavour those Pikes and Silures which prey on
them.

One species — the Mushy Shrew or Russian Desman (M. Moscovitica) —
is eight inches long from the snout to the root of the tail, and the tail is
six inches and three quarters. It
is found in the Volga, and in the
neighbouring lakes from Novo-
gorod to Saratof. Its fur is con-
sidered valuable, as, like that of
the Beaver, it consists of long
hairs, with a fine down at the
roots. They are very common near Nisney Novogorod, and sold at the
rate of a rouble a hundred. The skins are put into chests amongst
clothes to preserve them from moth, and they are supposed to protect the
wearers from infection.

The Pyrenean Desman (M. Pyrenaica) is four inches long, tail four and
a half. It was discovered by M. Desrouias, in the neighbourhood of
Tarbes, at the foot of the Pyrenees.

SCALOPS — the Shrew-Mole. This genus was formed by Cuvier upon the
individual described by Pennant by the name Brown Mole. The animals to
which the Shrew-Moles have the nearest affinity in the form and dispo-
sition of their teeth is the genus Mygale, but the latter are distinguished by
having a greater number of false molar teeth.

The number of teeth assigned to the genus Scabps is variously stated by
different systematic writers. Destnarest only enumerates thirty in both
jaws ; F. Cuvier and Godman speak of thirty-six ; Harlan of forty, and
Richardson of forty-four. This seeming difference, however, may be easily
reconciled by the well-known fact that the false molars which occupy the
place of the cuspid and anterior molars fall out early and at irregular
periods, and thus cause the gaps which have been noticed by some writers
as characteristics of the genus.

The eyes of this genus are extremely minute, and can scarcely be seen
without a good glass. They are entirely hidden by the fur, which, when
turned aside, leaves a bare space about as large as a moderate-sized pin's
head ; in the centre of this is seen a small black speck, shown by the mi-
croscope to consist of a number of hairs ranged in a semi-elliptical form,
and enclosing an aperture in the skin large enough to admit a fine horse-
hair. This is the aperture of the eyelids, and behind it is the globe of the
eye, not so large as a mustard seed. The vision of the animal must there-

Desman.

fore be limited, as the focal distance of such an eye must necessarily be-
very short.

The Shrew-Mole (S. Canadensis) measures from the tip of the muz/.l.- to
the root of the tail five inches, the tail itself one inch long. When at rest
it more nearly resembles in shape a stuffed bag than a livint: animal, its
head being extended nearly to a point, without any auricles, and the eyes
so small and completely covered with fur as to escape notice. It is COM ml
with a soft, close-set, glossy fur, half an inch long, of a uniform bright
leaden colour, with silvery glossings when viewed in front, but of a darker
hue, with purplish reflexions when observed from behind — a variation
depending on the incidence of the light. The Shrew-Mole is very common
in America between Canada and Virginia; Dr. Richardson considers it
does not exist on the east side of the Rocky Mountains higher than 50
north latitude, but thinks it may be found higher up on the milder coast
of the Pacific. It is generally supposed that they, as well as Moles, do
much damage to the roots of grass and succulent vegetables ; but it is
probable that the benefit derived from their incessant pursuit ami destruc-
tion of slugs, worms, and insects, which are injurious to vegetation, is iiir
greater than the damage they cause by disturbing the earth about the roots
of herbage.

The strength of the Shrew-Mole far exceeds that which might be ex-
pected in so small an animal ; Godman mentions that one which he
possessed, after escaping from the basket in which it was confined, hurried
round the room, and when impeded by the legs of the heavy chairs did not
turn aside, but wedging itself between the chair and the wall thrust it oft'
without much apparent effort till it made a free thoroughfare, and finally
hid itself behind a large pile of quarto books more than two feet high,
which it also moved away from the wall.

They are tamed without much difficulty, and are observed to pass the
greater part of the day in sleep, but at night are very active ; they do not
appear to see in any light, as they uniformly run their nose against every
obstacle several times before learning to avoid those which were permanent.
When tamed, they may be kept in boxes of loose earth with dried grass
for their bed ; eat freely of fresh meat, either cooked or raw, drink freely,
and follow the hand of their feeder by scent. They eat in a peculiar manner,
doubling the flexible snout so as to thrust the food directly backwards into
the mouth, and often after receiving anything burrow that they may eat it
undisturbed.

Family. — SOLE-TREADERS ; Plantigrada.

So called because in walking they tread with the whole sole of the foot.
The appellation is derived from the Latin planta, " the sole of the foot,"
andgradus, "a step."

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.

PLATE 5.
Genera. Specie*. Common Name.

Ursus ----- Maritimus ----- Polar Bear.

Procyon ----- Lotor ------- Raccoon.

Nasua ----- Fuses Brown Coati.

Gulo ------ Americanus ----- Wolverine.

Other Genera of this Family : — Meles, Mellivorus.

CHARACTERS OF THE GENERA.

1. URSUS (Lat. a he Bear). Head somewhat1, cylindrical ; muzzle pro-
jecting; snout broad, and, together with the lips, more or less projectile ;
tongue long and soft ; incisive teeth in each jaw six, the outer upper ones
stronger and more pointed ; cuspid strong and conical ; molar teeth four
to six in the upper, and four to seven in the lower jaw ; of these from <>nr
to three in the upper, and from one to four in the lower jaw, small,
spurious, and deciduous; the next tooth on each side in . >adi jaw a true
sectorial molar, and behind these two very large tubercular teeth of a
squarish form ; ears of moderate size, and rounded ; body bulky, fat, and
more or less furred with down at the roots ; feet plantigrade, with five

FAMILY— P LANTIGRADA. SOLE-TREADERS.

19

distinct toes ; soles bare and callous ; claws curved and sharp ; two pec-
toral and four ventral teats ; tail short.

2. PEOCYON, (Gr. Trpo/cvwv). Incisive teeth six in each jaw ; cuspid
teeth long, conical, and pointed ; molar te^th six on a side in each jaw,
anterior three cutting teeth, posterior three tubercular, and those of the
upper jaw nearly square ; muzzle sharp ; ears small and oval ; tail of
moderate length and bushy ; feet plantigrade and five-toed ; claws sharp
and falcular.

3. NASUA (Lat. natus, a nose). Incisive teeth six in either jaw, the
upper outer one on each side sharp and conical ; cuspid long, conical, sharp,
and angular ; molar six on a side in both jaws, the three anterior pointed
and cutting, the three posterior tubercular and grinding; muzzle very
pointed, nose very long and moveable ; ears small and oval ; body hairy ;
tail long and covered with hair ; feet plantigrade and five-toed ; ckws
sharp and falcular.

4. GULO (Lat. gula, gluttony). Incisive teeth, above, six; the outer
one, on each side, longer than the intermediate, somewhat resembling the
cuspid, but more nearly resembling the incisive : below, six, the second
outer thicker and larger than those in the middle : cuspid teeth long and
conical ; molar, above, in some five, in others four, the two or three anterior
having but one point, the last but one the largest, sectorial, with two
points on its outer and one tubercle on its inner edge ; below, six or five
molars, the first small, deciduous, the three next single-pointed, the last
but one the largest, sectorial, two-pointed, and the last small, tuberculated,
and grinding ; snout pointed ; nose rather prominent and obtuse ; ears
rounded and short ; body airy ; tail of moderate length, or short ; anal
pouch little more than a fold of skin ; feet five-toed, plantigrade, soles
bare ; claws sharp and crooked.

5. MELES. Incisive teeth six, both above and below ; cuspid longer
than the incisive, conical and sharp ; molar five above, the first very small
and deciduous, second and third single pointed, fourth subtricuspid, fifth
square, tubercular, and largest of all; six below, first small, deciduous,
second, third, and fourth single pointed, fifth largest, with two large and
one small point on its outer, and two tubercles on its inner edge, sixth
small and tubercular ; nose prominent and obtuse ; ears small and rounded ;
body hairy; tail short; feet five-toed, cleft; soles naked; claws falcular,
those of the fore feet longest and strongest.

6. MELLIVORUS. See Eatel Ratel, under GULO.

PLANTIGRADA. — DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIES.

URSUS — Bear. Although in size equalling the largest of the preda-
ceous animals, the Bears are the least carnivorous of the whole order;
and in accordance with this is their system of dentition, for instead of all
their molar teeth being sectorial and shutting within each other like a pair
of scissors, the crowns of the hinder two in each jaw on each side are
tubercular, and their connexion with other carnivorous animals is shown
merely by a tooth in front of these, which is only a little more sectorial
than the rest. The spurious molar teeth between these and the cuspid
are deciduous, sometimes more and at other times fewer, being shed early
and leaving corresponding gaps ; and in one species at least not all the
incisives are permanent. All these circumstances indicate the disposition
to fmgivorous habits, which is the character of the genus, with the excep-
tion of a single species. They are all furnished with projectile lips, some
even are capable of great protrusion, so as to form a kind of proboscis.
The cartilages of the nose are also very moveable, and participate in this
projection. The general aspect of Bears is heavy, their body bulky, limbs
thick, and their motions awkward and shuffling upon the ground, although
they get along at a tolerably brisk pace ; but the greater number of them
are better suited for climbing trees, their descent from which is, however,
less ready, as they come down breech foremost. The breadth of their
forehead, their narrow muzzle, and their generally lively though small eyes,
somewhat relieve their otherwise heavy appearance. Bears are extremely
cautious, and avoid whatever they are unacquainted with, or, if induced
to approach, come slowly towards and examine it with great care before

meddling with it. Generally they are shy and little inclined to fight,
except when pressed by hunger, or when in company with their young and
attacked. When, however, compelled to act on the defensive, they are
very courageous, and little disposed to avoid a rencontre, but rising upon
their hind limbs endeavour to hug their opponent in their arms, and tear
him to pieces with their teeth and claws. Most of the species inhabiting
cold climates retire to dens, where they sleep through the greater part of
the winter, and during this time the female produces her young. Bears
are capable of a certain degree of education, and can be taught to perform
particular motions at the word of command ; hence they appear to have
been for many ages and in all countries great favourites of the populace,
who are amused by their grotesque antics. Where Bears are numerous,
they become considerable articles of commerce for the sake of the valuable
furs which they afford ; and they are either taken in snares or shot, pre-
ference being given to the latter method where possible, on account of the
danger the hunter is otherwise exposed to : but even shooting is by no
means free from danger.

The species are — the Brown Bear (U. Arctos), which is about four feet
in length and two and a half in height. This animal was formerly found
found throughout Europe as low as the Alps and the Pyrenees, but has
long since been extirpated from the British Isles, and from the interior of
Holland, France, and Germany ; it is, however, still common in the Alps
of both Switzerland and Savoy, in the mountain forests of Bohemia, Poland,
and Russia, and extends across Asia in great numbers, in Siberia, and as
far as Kamtschatka and Japan ; perhaps also in America and Africa.
Oken says that in their fifth year they mate ; the female goes with young
seven months, and produces one, two, or three cubs, which are perfectly
well formed, and about eight inches long ; they remain blind for a month,
and continue to suck during three months. Except during the short breed-
ing season they live solitarily, some resorting to their winter retreats, from
whence the female does not emerge till her young are able to follow her.
They feed generally on pulse, roots, and of potatoes they are very fond ;
also on berries, and to honey they are extremely partial, in search of
which they climb the trees, regardless of the stings of the bees. They also
hunt after ant-hills, being very partial to those insects, probably on account
of their acidity, as acid fruits, particularly barberries and sorb-apples are
great favourites. Occasionally also they prey on cattle and carrion, but
this generally after rousing from their winter sleep, when they are very
ravenous. At this time, as also when in company with their cubs, they
are approached with danger. They live very well upon bread, as upon it
alone, to the amount of eight pounds a-day, they are fed in the Garden of
Plants in Paris, and also in the public garden at Berne. Bears have lived
for forty-seven years upon bread, varied, however, with such unripe fruit
as is brought to market, and which, according to the regulations of the
town, is confiscated to their use.

The American Black Bear (U. Americanus) rarely exceeds five feet in
length ; the head is shorter and narrower, though the space between the
ears is wider, and the forehead more arched than in the European Black
Bear of Cuvier, though less than in the Brown Bear. This is the smallest
species of the American Bears, and inhabits every wooded district from
the Atlantic to the Pacific, and from Carolina to the shores of the Arctic
Sea ; but is more numerous inland than near the coast. Its food consists
principally of various kinds of berries; but these failing, it eats roots,
insects, fish, eggs, and such birds or beasts as fall in its way ; but it does
not eat animal food by choice. Those living in the fur countries hybernate
in dens, under fallen trees, beneath which they scratch away the soil, and,
retiring to it at the commencement of a snow-storm, are soon covered up.
But in more southern districts, where the timber is larger, a hollow tree
becomes their winter residence ; and in either case there they remain till
the greater part of the snow is gone. The cubs are produced in the be-
ginning of January, from one to five in number, probably according to the
age of the parent ; who though at other times very timid, yet at this period
is fierce and dangerous. According to Henry's account, the female does
not, like the male, reside in a den ; but so soon as her cubs are able to

D 2

20

CLASS— M A M M A L I A.

ORDER— S A R C O P H A G A.

climb, mounts up with them into the upper part of a tree, and there re-
mains through the winter, by which her offspring are secure from the
attacks of wolves or other animals. The native tribes of North America
have great veneration for the Bear — only attack it after certain ceremonies,
and even when dead make an exculpatory speech for the violence they
have committed in destroying it

The Grisly Bear (U. Cinereus) is the largest of the genus, measuring
nine feet in length, and even more, and said to exceed eight hundred pounds
in weight. This species inhabits the Rocky Mountains, and plains to
their eastward, extending as high as 613 N. lat., and perhaps higher;
southward they are found as low as Mexico ; but, according to Drummond,
they are most numerous in the woody districts on the eastern base of the
Rocky Mountains. The Grisly Bears are carnivorous, but also occasionally
eat vegetables, and are very fond of the roots of some species of Psoralea
and Hedysanan, and also the fruits of the bird cherry, choke cherry, and
Hippophce Canadensis. The pregnant females and young animals hybernate
in dens, of which Mackenzie mentions one ten feet in width, five feet high,
and six long ; but the old males often come out during winter in search of
food, and, from their great weight, their footsteps are often marked by the
cracking and sinking of the crust of snow to the extent of a yard or more
around the spot on which they have trod. Their ferocity is very great,
and they are so powerful as to be able to drag the carcase of a buffalo,
weighing about a thousand pounds, to a considerable distance.

The Juggler Bear (U. Labiatus) measures nearly five feet in length, and
two feet eight inches in height at the shoulders ; the lips long and thick,
of which the lower is longest, and capable of projection, retraction, and
lateral motion. This great length of the lips especially, together with the
presumed deficiency of the incisive teeth, led Illiger to form of this species
his genus Prochiltis. The general colour is deep shining black, excepting
the snout, and a spot above each eye, which are yellowish-white ; upon
the chest is a V-shaped patch of the same colour, the branches of which
rise up towards the neck. This animal is found in the sand-hills at Patna
in Bengal, and also in the mountains of Silhet, usually in pairs, with one
or two cubs, which, when in danger, mount on their dam's back. In the
Mahratta country it is known by the name Assail ; and, being more intel-
ligent and docile, is educated and carried about for the amusement of the
populace by the jugglers ; hence the specific name applied to it by Fred.
Cuvier. It burrows with its claws, and lives in caverns ; feeds on white
ants, also on honey, rice, and the fruit of the palm, Borassus Flabellifonms.
In confinement it appeared to be gentle and good-natured; but when
irritated, uttered a short abrupt roar, ending in a whining tone, expressive
of impatience. It was moderately lively, and had a habit of turning itself
frequently round, as if for amusement, like a dog about lying down to sleep.

The Malay Bear (U. Malayanus) is three feet eight inches in length ;
head short, conical, very gradually attenuated, obtuse, and broad between
the ears. According to Blainville, the skull of this species is as round
as that of a cat. General colour jet black, excepting the muzzle, before
the eyes, which is dusky-grey, and a white semilunar mark, with its
branches extending on the sides of the chest. Is a native of Sumatra ; and
Sir Stamford Raffles says, " When taken young they become very tame.
One lived two years in my possession. He was brought up in the nursery
with the children ; and when admitted to my table, as was frequently the
case, gave a proof of his taste by refusing to eat any fruit but mangosteens,
or to drink any wine but champagne. The only time I ever knew him
out of humour was on an occasion when no champagne was forthcoming.
It was naturally of a playful and affectionate disposition, and it was never
found necessary to chain or chastise him." This species is known to the
Malays by the name of the Bruang.

The Bornean Bear (U. Euryspilus) measures three feet nine inches in
length ; its skull, in comparison with that of other Bears, is of great size,
its contour above nearly hemispherical, and on the sides it expands ob-
liquely outwards. The gape of its mouth is considerable, and the animal
frequently opens its jaws widely as if yawning, thrusting out its long,
narrow, slender tongue to the length of a foot. The neck is short and

thick ; the body cylindrical and bulky, abruptly rounded towards the stout
short thighs, whilst the anterior limbs are more long and slender. The
tail is about two inches in length, of which one-half consists of a tuft of
stiff hairs extending beyond the bone. The claws are very long, strongly
arched, somewhat grooved beneath, rounded above, narrow at the base,
and gradually tapering towards their tips, which are transversely truncated.
The fur is short, closely applied to the skin, and rather rigid, with scanty
down at the base ; very short on the forehead, and gradually rising to the
crown, where they are dense, nearly erect, and very soft. The general
colour is glossy deep black. This species is a native of Borneo.

The Polar Bear (U. Maritimus) is from seven to eight and a half feet in
length, and from four feet three to nine inches in height. It is charac-
terised by the narrowness and flatness of its skull, from which the forehead
and profile of the face run in a nearly straight line to the thick muzzle
(Plate 5). The fur, which is yellowish-white, is very thick, long, fine,
and woolly on the hinder parts, belly, and legs, but short and even upon
the head, neck, and upper part of the back ; the soles are almost com-
pletely covered with long hair, and the thick short black claws are but
slightly curved. The naked extremity of the muzzle, the margins of the
eyelids, and the tongue black ; the lips purplish-black, and the inside of
the mouth pale violet ; eyes brown. The Polar Bear is a native of the
Arctic Regions, and has been found in higher latitudes than any other
quadruped, having been seen by Sir Edward Parry as high as 82 N. lat.
They descend southwards as low as the 55th parallel. The Polar Bear
never resorts to the woods, as do other Bears, except when it accidentally
loses its way in the fog, but constantly lives upon the sea-coast or upon
the ice-fields, with which it is not unfrequently drifted far from land, and
thus often transported from Greenland to Iceland and Norway, where it
commits great ravages amongst the flocks. It is fearless of cold, and seems
indeed to enjoy itself most when the cold is most severe. It swims,
makes long leaps in the water, and dives extremely well. The Polar Bear
is carnivorous, and feeds either on the floating carcases of dead whales and
fish, or on living seals and other marine animals, and even on the Walrus.
Their scent is very fine, and they are often attracted from a great distance
by the smell of turning kreng or refuse of whale blubber. Both Graham
and Hearne say that the he Bear wanders about the marshes and adjacent
parts till November, and then goes out to sea, and preys upon seals, whilst
the female retires under the declivity of a rock or the foot of a bank, not
unfrequently thirty miles from the sea, where the snow soon drifts over
her to a great depth ; a small hole, however, being left at the dome of the
den for the admission of air. There she remains from December to March
without food, and about Christmas produces two cubs. They are led
down to the sea-side by their dam to feed on seals and sea-weed ; and when
tired, are safely borne upon their parent's back. In the course of the
summer they become very fat, as much as a hundred pounds of fat being
occasionally taken from a single beast. The Greenlanders feed on their
flesh, which is coarse and white, and has somewhat the flavour of mutton.
The skin is used for making seats, boots, shoes, and gloves, and the ten-
dons, when split, serve for sewing threads.

There are also the Thibet Bear (U. Thibetamis), found in the mountains
of Nepaul and Sylhet ; and the Cordilleras Bear (U. Ornatus), found in
the Cordilleras, of which we can take no further notice in this place.

PROCYON — Raccoon. This genus, formerly included among the Bears,
are distinguished from them by the regular series of their teeth ; the an-
terior three molars, which in the Bears are of irregular size, at uiu'cjiial
distances, and often deciduous, being in the Raccoons placed regularly
behind each other, and gradually running from the form of cuspid into that
of the last three or true molar teeth. In this arrangement of the teeth
they resemble the Coatis (Nasua), but are distinguished from them by the
shortness of the muzzle, which is hardly at all moveable, by the shortness
of the head and its great width behind, and also by their short bushy tail.
Their limbs are slender, but the paws strong ; the fur on the body long,
thick, and loose, but on the head and limbs short. Two species only are
known, and both are from America.

FAMILY— D IGITIGRADA. TOE-TREADERS.

21

The Common Raccoon (P. Lotor) is about two feet in length ; the general
colour of the fur dusky grey, inclining to black on the upper parts, but
becoming lighter on the sides and whitish on the belly ; face whitish, sur-
rounded by a black band of unequal width. Is found most frequently in
North America. The Raccoon is a very lively, active animal, and in con-
finement is capable of slight attachment, which, however, it speedily forgets
when set at liberty. It feeds on vegetable substances, especially on fruit,
and also upon eggs and the birds themselves, and is said to be very dexterous
in extracting oysters from their shells. It feeds itself with its fore paws
like hands, not unfrequently sitting up on its rump, and has a remarkable dis-
position to plunge everything it eats into water, when it has an opportunity.
The Crab-eating Eaccoon (P. Cancrivorus) is of a tawny colour, mingled
with black and grey. Its habits are similar to those of the last species,
and it feeds on Crustacea. It is found in South America, and especially in
French Guiana.

NASUA — C'oati. These animals are remarkable for the elongation of the
nose, which is extended into a kind of trunk, pierced at the tip by oval
nostrils. In size they nearly equal the Fox ; the body is long and covered
with thick hair, the legs are short, and the tail, about equalling the length of
the body, is carried either horizontally or elevated. They live in the woods,
either alone or in pairs, but do not burrow. They feed on fruit, insects, and
reptiles, which they hunt by scent ; and they grub up the earth with their
long snout like Hogs. They are easily tamed, and fond of caresses, but
never attach themselves, and cannot be allowed to go at liberty, as they pry
into every hole and corner where they have the least notion anything is
to be obtained.

The Red Coati, or Brazilian Weasel (N. Rufa), measures in the length
of the body about fifteen inches, tail fourteen, general colour bright rufous.
It inhabits Brazil and Guiana, and climbs trees with great facility ; it car-
ries its tail perpendicular to the body, and puts it between its legs before
going to sleep.

The Brown Coati (N. Fusca), shown in our fifth Plate, is the same in
size as the Red Coati ; its general colour is blackish brown, mingled with
a little grey on the upper parts of the body ; dingy yellow beneath, espe-
cially on the neck and chest between the fore legs ; the head is grey, the
sides of the nose black, bordered on the upper edge with two white stripes,
which pass from the angle of the eye to the middle of the snout, where
they are gradually lost ; above and below each eye is a white spot, and a
third behind the outer corner ; the tail is alternately ringed with black and
dingy yellow. It is found in Brazil, Paraguay, and Guiana, climbs as well
as a cat, and is extremely troublesome from turning over everything which
comes in its way.

GULO — Glutton. This genus forms a link between the Plantigrade and
Digitigrade tribes. In disposition they are bloodthirsty and cruel, and
most of them are northern animals.

The Ursus Gido (G. Septentrionalis) is about the size of our Badger ;
the limbs large, back straight, and marked through its whole length with
a tawny line, the rest of the body either black or a deep chestnut ; tail
short and very hairy. Native of Lapland, Eastern Siberia, and Kamt-
schatka, in which latter country it often varies in colour to white and
yellowish ; such skins are more valued by the natives, who have a notion
that the heavenly beings are clad with them. Its victims are chiefly Deer.
The Woolverine (G. Americanus) is considered by Pallas to be a variety
of the last species ; it usually walks with the back arched : white spot on
the throat and chest, the latter crescent-shaped ; a yellowish-brown band
on the sides passing over the back above the tail. Found at Hudson's
Bay and in Canada, where it is called the Beaver-eater, in consequence of
preying on those animals. Is very fierce and powerful, but slow-footed,
and has a musky smell, which causes its preservation from other preda-
ceous animals.

Besides the Woolverine, the Orison (G. Vittatus), and the Guiana
Glutton (G. Barbaras), are natives of America.

The Eatel Ratel (G. Mellivorus), considered by some as a distinct genus,
is about the size of the Badger, with short legs and long' straight claws.

Found at the Cape of Good Hope, where it inhabits the deserted holes of
other predaceous animals : it feeds on Bees, to whose nests it is directed
by the Honey-guide Cuckoo, but fails of disturbing them when lodged in
the trees, as it cannot climb. It is courageous, and will often not only
face, but resist, a pack of Dogs which would destroy a Lion. It emits a
most horrible stench.

MELES — Badger. The individuals belonging to this genus were in-
cluded by Linnams among the Bears, from which, however, they are espe-
cially distinguished by the form of the molar teeth, the three hindmost of
which in the Bears are all tubercular.

The Common Badger (M. Vulgaris) is about two feet six inches in
length, and the tail six inches more ; it stands low on the legs ; the body
clumsy, thick, and covered with long, coarse hairs like bristles, which have
generally a greyish appearance.

The Badger is a harmless and inoffensive animal, spending the greater
part of its time in sleep ; it burrows under ground, and forms several cells,
with, however, but a single entrance ; here in the summer the female brings
forth her young, depositing them on a bed of grass and moss. It is not
decided whether they are carnivorous, or whether, like the Bears, they
only feed on animal food, when roots, fruit, and grass, believed to be their
common sustenance, is not to be found. In their motions they are slow,
but when attacked fight furiously and bite severely.

The Badger is found principally in Europe, but it is also met with in
the northern parts of Asia, though not in hotter climates. The skin of
the Badger is commonly used for pistol furniture, and among the High-
landers of Scotland for pouches ; the hairs are also employed for making
that kind of brash used in painting for softening down, which are called
sweetening tools. In China they are commonly used for food.

Badger-baiting is now scarcely heard of, though formerly it was a very
fashionable employment.

The American Badger (M. Labradorius) is of less size than the pre-
ceding and of lighter make, and the head, though as long, is not so sharp
at the nose ; its fur is very fine, about three and a half inches long on the
• back, and of purplish-brown colour. The American Badger frequents the
sandy plains skirting the Rocky Mountains as far as the banks of the Peace
River and the source of the River of the Mountains, and is very common
in the plains of the Missouri, as also near Carlton House, on the banks of
the Saskatchewan and Red River flowing into Lake Winnipeg.

Family — TOE-TREADERS ; Digitigrada.

The animals of this family are characterised by treading on the ends of
their toes, on which account they are named as above. Digitigrada is
composed of the Latin digitus, " a toe or finger," and gradior, " to walk."

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.

PLATE 6.
Genera. Species. Common Name.

Mustela Fouina Pine Martin.

Mephitis Americana - - - - American Skunk.

Lutra Vulgaris - • - - Common Otter.

Viverra Civita Civet.

Herpestes Ichneumon ... - Egyptian Ichneumon.

PLATE 7.

[Familiaris - - - - Thibet Dog.

I Lupus Wolf.

Canis ------ \ Aureus ----- Jackal.

Vulpes Fox.

[Fennecns - - - - Fennek.

PLATE 8.

Hyama Vulgaris .... Striped Hyena.

(Leo ------ Lion.

FelU - - - ' - \Tigris Tiger.

Othf.r Genera of this Family : — Megalotis, Paradoxus, Proteles.

CHARACTERS OF THE GENERA.

1. MUSTELA. Incisive teeth six in each jaw; the second lower outer
one narrower, and set further in than the others, cuspid, sharp, conical, and

22

CLASS— MAMMALIA.

ORDER— S ARCOPHAGA.

large ; molar in the upper jaw on each side four or five, of which the anterior
two or three are sectorial and slightly conical, the last but one the lar^i-st,
sectorial, tricuspid on the outer edge, and on the inner having a little dis-
tinct tubercle ; the last a transverse, tubercular grinder ; in the lower jaw
five or six, the first small and deciduous, the following two or three sectorial
and conoid, the last but one the largest, sectorial, and tricuspid, the last
point being very little elevated and increased by a little posterior process,
the last a small, circular, tubercular grinder.

2. MEPHITIS. Incisive teeth six above and the same number below, of
the latter the second on each side placed rather behind the others ; cuspid
long, conical, and apart ; molar, four above, the first two or false molar
conical and compressed, the third or carnivorous tooth widened on its inner
edge by a tubercle, the fourth, or tubercular, square, arid having four tuber-
cles on its crown ; five below, the first three conical and compressed, the
fourth, or carnivorous, increased on the inner edge by two tubercles, the fifth
small ; snout shorter than the skull ; ears small and rounded ; body covered
with long fur; tail long or short ; feet five -toed ; soles hairy; falcular claws,
those of the fore feet the longest, and fit for digging.

3. LUTRA (Lat. lutum, mud). Incisive teeth six above, six below, of
which the second outer is the narrowest, sometimes only four; cuspid
conical, sharp, and longer than the incisive ; molar above five on a side, the
anterior three or two conoid and cutting, the next to these the largest with
a broad, internal, lateral rising ; the last tubercular ; below, six or five, the
first small, the two following conoid and cutting, the last but one cutting
with two points, the last tubercular ; the head flat, nose short and broad ;
ears short; eyes furnished with a haw ; body covered with long close hair;
tail short and flattened horizontally ; legs short and muscular ; toes five on
each foot, webbed ; claws sharp and falciform.

4. VIVERRA. Incisive teeth in each jaw six ; cuspid teeth conical, long,
and distinct ; molar six on each side in each jaw ; in the upper, the anterior
three sectorial, conoid, and slightly compressed, the fourth sectorial very
large and tricuspid, the hinder two tritorial and tubercular ; hi the lower jaw,
the anterior four sectorial and single-pointed (the first tooth sometimes defi-
cient), the fifth largest, sectorial, its outer edge bicuspid with two internal
tubercles, and one large hinder tubercle, the sixth large, tritorial, and tuber-
cular ; muzzle lengthy ; tongue beset on its upper surface with sharp, coarse
papilla? ; ears short ; body covered with long hair more or less coarse, with
finer short hair, or down, at the base ; tail long, tapering, or cylindrical •
feet digitigrade, with hairy soles, with five distinct toes, and the claws
curved, sharp, and more or less retractile ; between the vent and the geni-
tals a glandular apparatus secreting an odorous, unctuous substance.

5. HERPESTES (Gr. tpn-^orj/e, a creeper). Six incisive teeth in each jaw,
the second outer, on each side of the lower, narrower than the others ;
cuspid teeth sharp, conical, longer than the incisive ; molars six on each side
in each jaw ; of the upper, the anterior three are compressed and cutting,
the fourth tricuspid, and the fifth and sixth tubercular ; of the lower, the
first four are single-pointed and cutting, the fifth largest and cutting with
two points on its outer, and two tubercles on the inner edge, behind which
is a broad surface, having four tubercles on it ; the sixth molar large, tuber-
cular, and grinding ; muzzle sharp, with a lengthened rounded snout ; ears
short and rounded ; body long and covered with long hair, except the head
and legs, on which it is short ; tail long ; anal pouch large, but single, and
immediately beneath the tail ; the vent placed in its deepest part ; the legs
short, five-toed, and half- webbed ; claws sharp ; the whole sole bare, but
the animal walks only upon the tips of the toes.

6. CANIS (Lat. catus, wary). Three false molar teeth above and four
below on either side ; two canine teeth in either jaw, behind each of which
are two tuberculous teeth, of which the anterior in the upper jaw are
very large ; tongue very soft ; five toes to the anterior, and four to the
hinder extremities.

7. HY-ENA. Incisive teeth six in each jaw, the second outer of the lower
jaw thicker at its base than the others ; cuspid very long, conical, and
sharp ; molar teeth large, five on each side in the upper jaw, the anterior
three single-edged, the fourth, which is the largest, tricuspid, and armed

with a little tubercle on its fore and inner edge, the fifth small, tubercular,
and placed transversely in the jaw ; in the lower jaw four, the anterior three
thick and conical, the fourth the largest and bicuspid ; feet four-toed, their
soles hain,-.

8. FELIS. Muzzle round; jaws short and strong; incisive teeth six in
each jaw ; cuspid very long, conical, sharp ; molar teeth cutting, four on
each side in the upper jaw, the two first thickish and conical, the third
which is the largest bicuspid, and the fourth tuberculated and smallest ; in
the lower jaw three, the anterior simply cutting, the third bicuspid ; tongue
rough, with little points inclining backwards; pupils in some round, in
others oblong vertically ; ears short and pointed ; body hairy, tail varying
in length ; feet digitigrade, five-toed before, four-toed behind, soles hairy ;
nails sharp clawed, and in most species retractile upwards, the roots enter-
ing into sheaths.

9. MEGALOTIS (Gr. ^tyac, great, and oJc, an ear). Incisive teeth above
and below ; cuspid teeth very long and sharp pointed ; molar teeth six
above and seven below on either side ; ears very long, oval, and open ; fore
feet five-toed, hind feet four-toed.

10. PARADOXURUS (Gr. irapaSo^ov, a paradox, and ovpa, a tail). In-
cisive teeth six in each jaw, of which the external are the larger, cuspid
distinct, conical, and larger than incisive ; molar six above and below, the
anterior upper three and lower four spurious, the fourth upper and fifth
lower sectorial, and the rest tubercular ; muzzle long and nose projecting ;
ears rounded ; feet five-toed, and the toes connected by a loose membrane
as far as the last joint, the claws sharp and partially retractile ; at the roots
of the toes four fleshy tubercles covered with delicate skin; tail long,
capable of being rolled up into a spire ; anal pouches none.

11. PROTELES (Gr. irpo, before, and rtXfcic, perfect). In each jaw six
incisive teeth, regularly ranged, broadish, grooved vertically in front. Those
of the lower jaw bilobed on their crown ; cuspid teeth rather longer than
the incisive, and conical ; molar teeth eight in the upper jaw apart from
each other, and six in the lower jaw ; muzzle slender and nose projecting ;
ears long and sharp ; fore feet five-toed, hind feet four-toed, plantigrade ;
claws falcular and sharp ; tail of moderate length.

DIGITIGRADA. DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIES.

MUSTELA — Marten, Polecat, Weasel. The animals which compose this
genus are distinguished from all other of the Carnivorous Family by the
length and slenderness of their bodies and the shortness of their legs ; their
neck is strong and thick ; their body and limbs are extremely supple, so
that they twist about like worms, whence they are called Vermiform Ani-
mals. All have anal glands, the secretion from which, in the Polecat,
Weasel, and others, is extremely offensive, whilst in some, as the Marten
and Pine Marten, it affords an agreeable perfume. They live a solitary life,
some in the neighbourhood of human habitations, others only in forests, or
near the brinks of streams. All of them are extremely sanguinary. These
animals are found in all parts of the world, but more especially in the tem-
perate and colder Northern regions, where their fur becomes extremely fine
and thick, and in Norway and Siberia forms an extensive article of com-
merce.

The first section of these animals includes the following species : —

The Polecat, or Fitchet (M. Putorius), which is about eighteen inches hi
length ; its tail is six inches. It lives in woods or thick brakes, either in
old rabbit burrows or forming a shallow burrow about two yards long,
which usually terminates amid the roots of trees ; sometimes it is found
under hay-ricks and in barns, and in winter occasionally even in houses. It
brings five or six young at a birth, and these, towards the end of the sum-
mer, are capable of providing for themselves. The Polirat steals out at
night, and is but rarely seen in the day-time ; it is a great enemy to young
poultry and game, especially Rabbits, the blood of which it is extremely
fond of. Though the smell of the Polecat when alive is so rank as to be
proverbial, yet its skin, when dressed with the hair on, is used as fur for
making tippets.

The Ferret (M. Furo) is by some zoologists considered as merely an

FAMILY— D IGITIGRADA. TOE-TREADERS.

23

albino variety of the Polecat ; its length is fourteen inches, and the tail five ;
the head is narrower, and the nose sharper than in the Polecat ; its colour
is pale or whitish-yellow, and the eyes red and fiery. They are easily tamed,
but are very soon irritated, and when angry are very apt to bite severely.
As they suffer much from cold, they require to be kept in boxes filled with
wool. They are never found wild in England.

The Sarmatian Weasel (M. Sarmatica) is in its general form similar to
the Polecat. It is very voracious, commonly lives in deserted holes of other
animals, is very active, moving along by jumps ; is fierce, untamable, and
watchful ; is said to bring four or eight young at a birth.

The Siberian Polecat (M. Sibirica) is of a more slender form than the
Polecat, and rather resembling that of the Stoat ; is about twelve inches
long, and the tail six ; the general colour is deep yellow, approaching to fox
colour ; tail full of hair, and darker than the body ; soles of the feet thickly
covered with fur ; the fur is longer and coarser than in the Polecat.

The Stoat or Ermine (M. Erminea) is about ten inches long, the tail five
inches, and tipped with black ; the edges of the ears and tips of the toes
yellowish-white, upper parts of the body reddish-brown, throat, breast, and
belly, white. Such is its summer coat, and it is then called by the French
Roselet, whilst we distinguish it by the name Stoat. But in winter it
becomes white, except the tip of the tail, which retains its black colour,
occasionally in England, but always in higher northern latitudes ; it is then
called the Ermine. In manners it resembles those of the Common Weasel.

The Common Weasel (M. Vulgaris) measures about six or seven inches
in length, its tail two and a half more, and its height two and a half inches.
During winter it becomes white in the fur countries, and is not distinguished
by the traders from the Ermine. The Weasel readily takes up its residence,
during winter especially, near habitations, for the purpose of living on
poultry-yards and dovecots ; but in wanner weather it retires to planta-
tions, where it makes its nest either under the roots or in the hollow of a
tree ; it brings four or five young at a time, which are found in spring hidden
in a bed of straw or stubble. The Weasel may be tamed so as to feed out
of the hand, and follow like a dog ; it soon learns to know persons, and
will lick the hand which feeds it.

Besides these there are — the African Weasel (M. Africana) ; the Striped
Weasel (M. Striata), found in Madagascar ; the Naked-footed Weasel (M.
Nudipes), native of Java; the Zorilla, of the Cape of Good Hope; and the
Jackash, or Vison Weasel, which is common throughout the whole breadth
of the American continent. The Vison lives much in the water, and when
pursued prefers sheltering itself there to endeavouring an escape by land, on
which it moves but slowly ; its short, smooth fur, Otter-like tail and short
legs, point out its aquatic habits. When irritated it emits a smell nearly
as fetid as that of the Skunk. The Vison is easily tamed, is fond of being
caressed) but is very easily offended, and will then bite sharply.

The second division of this genus includes the several species of Martens :
— The Marten (M. Martes) is about eighteen inches long, and the tail ten
more ; the head is of a more elongated form than in the Weasels ; claws
white, large, and sharp, well adapted for climbing trees, in which it here
constantly lives. The colour of the Marten varies to ash according to its
age and the different seasons in which it is taken. The skin of the Marten
has a fine musky smell. It lives solitarily in the woods and never approaches
habitations ; but deposits its young either in the nests of birds, or in the
drays or nests of Squirrels, and in winter very often shelters itself in Mag-
pies' nests. It brings four to six young at a birth, which as they grow it
feeds with fresh eggs and live birds, which it brings to the nest. When
taken young, it is easily tamed. Poultry, game, and small birds, are its
common food. The Marten is the most handsome of our indigenous beasts
of prey ; its motions are very elegant and nimble, and its eyes lively.

The Pine Marten (M. Foina) is about twenty inches in total length,
eight of which belong to the tail ; all the upper parts are yellowish-brown,
but the head is paler ; tips of the ears and cheeks white ; throat and breast
yellow ; tail bushy, and of a deeper colour than the body. It is very rare
in England, but in Scotland, where it inhabits the pine forests, it is, accord-
ing to Pennant, the only one known. It prefers cold to warm regions,

hence it is very common in the north of Europe, and especially in North
America, but it does not extend further north than 68' latitude, where the
woods cease. The Pine Marten feeds on Mice, Partridges, and Hares, and
it often destroys the stores of meat and fish laid up by the Indians. When
pursued and unable to escape, it sets up its hairs, arches its back, shows its
teeth, and makes a hissing noise like the Cat ; will seize a Dog firmly by
the nose and bite so hard, that a Dog, unaccustomed to it, will allow its
escape. They burrow in the ground, and bring from four to seven young
at a litter towards the latter end of April. The fur of the Marten is fine,
and often dyed to imitate sables and other costly furs. (Plate 6.)

The Sable (M. Zibellina) is in size equal to the Marten, but differs from
it in some few particulars. Its coat is generally brown, sometimes tawny,
and occasionally quite white. They are found in Siberia, Kamtschatka,
and some of the Kurile Islands between the latter country and Japan.
Their furs form a very valuable article of commerce, and are worth from
one to ten pounds apiece.

One of the modes adopted by the hunters for taking the Sable is as fol-
lows : a piece of timber is placed horizontally between two trees, and upon
it another aslant, and slightly supported at one end by a pole, from which
extends a rod to which a bait is attached ; this when meddled with disturbs
the whole apparatus, and the slanting board falls and kills the animal. The
first Sable taken is dedicated to the Church, and is called GOD'S Sable.

It does not appear that the Greeks or early Romans ever made use
of furs ; but about the year of our Lord 522, when Totila, King of the
Visigoths, reigned in Italy, the Seuthons, a people of modern Sweden,
found means of transmitting to the Romans the precious skins of Sables.
Furs were subsequently used for lining the tents of princes; and in 1252,
Marco Polo found those of the Cham of Tartary lined with Ermines and
Sables. In Wales, furs were highly esteemed so early as the time of Howel
Dda, who began to reign in 940. In the following century furs became
still more fashionable, and when Godfrey of Bulloign, and his followers, on
their way to the Holy Land, appeared before the Greek emperor Alexis
Comnenus, he was struck with the richness of their dresses. In England,
as elsewhere, this disposition for wearing fur increased to so great an extent
that, in 1337, it was enacted by Edward III. that no person should make
use of it unless he could afford to spend a hundred pounds a year.

The Pehan (M. Canadensis) is also valuable for its fur ; it is found from
Pennsylvania to the Great Slave Lake, and probably across the American
continent. Considerable numbers of the skins of this animal are annually
sold by the Hudson's Bay Company under the name of Woodshocks or Fishers.
How the Pekans have gained the latter title it is not easy to imagine, for
they are not amphibious, and feed only on the smaller animals.

Several other species are enumerated by Linnaeus, Buffon, and Pennant.

MEPHITIS — the Skunk. The animals forming this genus have a general
resemblance to the Putorii; and they are remarkable for ejecting a most
intolerably fetid odour, which is their best safeguard against the attacks of
other animals. They are predaceous and live in burrows.

The species are — The Striated Skunk (M. Putorius), about the size of
the European Polecat. The horrible stench which they emit renders them
almost impregnable, as few others, except dogs bred for the purpose, dare
encounter it.

The White-tailed Skunk (M. Chincha), of which Plate 6 contains a repre-
sentation, is found from Hudson's Bay to Peru, where it is called Chinche,
and in Peru, Conepatl, or Boy's little Fox. Its general colour is brown
more or less deep, marked on the shoulders and belly with two little white
spots. Mr. Darwin saw some of these animals. In his " Journal" we
find the following : — " We saw also a couple of Zorillos or Skunks — odious

animals, which are far from uncommon Conscious of its power,

it roams by day about the open plains, and fears neither dog nor man. If
a dog is urged to the attack, its courage is instantly checked by a few drops
of the fetid oil, which brings on violent sickness and running at the nose.

Whatever is once polluted by it, is for ever useless Certain it is

that every animal makes room for the Zorillo."

LUTRA — the Otter. The animals of this genus are piscivorous, and live

24

CLASS— MAMMALIA.

ORDER— S ARCOPHAGA.

on the banks of rivers. Of the species we may mention — the Great Otter
(L. Vulgaris), which is about three or four feet in length ; of a long and
slender make, flat forehead, limbs short and muscular, feet broad and
webbed, fur close and of a shining deep brown. (Plate 6.)

Otters feed entirely on fish, to which they are very destructive, as they
rarely devour further than the vent and leave the tail part untouched.
Occasionally, however, when fish is scarce, they leave their usual haunts,
and, proceeding inland for some distance, destroy poultry, sucking pigs,
lambs, and even rabbits. They have been occasionally known to feed on the
bark of trees also, and on vegetables. The Otter brings four or five cubs
at a birth, about June, and these, if taken young, may be brought up, as
has been done, by suckling from a bitch, and tamed. Many instances of
this kind have occurred, and the Otter taught to fish for his master. (See
" Daniel's Rural Sports.") The Otter is found throughout Europe, also in the
northern parts of Asia, in Chili, and North America, especially in Canada,
whence the finest skins are obtained.

The Brazilian Otter is larger than the Common Otter.

The Lesser Otter, a third of the size of the Common Otter, is found in
Poland and the north of Europe, and in North America, where it is called
the Minx, as in Sweden it is named Mcenk. Its fur is very valuable, and
nearly equals the Sable in beauty. It is taken in traps or with dogs.

The Sea Otter (L. Marina) measures from four to five feet in length ;
fur long, velvet-like, and deep, glossy black, sometimes varying to silvery ;
are very harmless, and show great affection to their young, carrying them,
before they can swim, in the water on their paws, and pining to death if
bereft of them. They are hunted for their skins, which are very valuable,
often fetching in China a hundred rubles apiece.

VlVKRRA — the Civet. The animals forming this genus are light, elegant,
and slender animals, having the papilla? of their tongue covered with sharp,
horny skin, like the Cat genus ; but their most remarkable character is the
glandular apparatus at the rump, in which is secreted the peculiar odorous
substance called civet, which in some species consists of two deep pouches,
and in others presents a simple cleft.

The species are arranged into two divisions, namely, the True Civets and
the Genets. Of the Civets we enumerate — the Civet Cat (V. Civetta),
which is about two feet and three inches in length from the muzzle to the
root of the tail, and the tail fourteen inches ; the fur is from four to five
inches in length, and capable of erection like a mane ; muzzle lengthy, and
lips furnished with long moustaches ; ears short and rounded ; colour of the
back and sides brownish or yellowish-grey, with rows of large dusky spots ;
tail either wholly black, or spotted only at its base. (Plate 6.) The
Civet is a native of the hottest parts of Africa, and prefers sandy and dry
mountainous districts. Civet is obtained from these animals, which are
kept in confinement for that purpose, the secretion being removed occa-
sionally from the subanal pouch as it collects.

The Zibet (V. Zibetha) is a native of the Asiatic continent from Arabia to
Malabar, and of the large islands of the Indian Archipelago. By the Malays
it is called the Tangalung, and is often kept by them in a state of partial
domestication ; its habits and degree of tameness resembling that of our
domestic Cat.

The Basse (V. Indica) is of a more lengthy and slender form than the
other species. It occupies in Java the station of the Civet and Zibet else-
where ; and it is kept in cages by the natives for the sake of its perfume,
and fed on mixed diet of eggs, fish, flesh, and rice, but its naturally fero-
cious disposition remains unchanged.

The Three-striped Weasel (V. Hermaphrodita), a native of Barbary, is in
size between the Civet and Zibet

The Genets are— the Genet (V. Genetta), eighteen inches long, tail from
ten to twelve; colour grey with a yellow tinge. Found in the South of
France, in Spain, and in northern Africa as far as the Cape of Good Hope ;
it is said, also, in southern Asia. It is easily tamed, and breeds in confine-
ment The Fossan (V. Fossa), same length as the above; a native of
Madagascar. The Filleted Genet (V. Fasciata) comes from Java. The
Delundung (V. Gracilis), concerning which considerable difference of

opinion is held as to the genus to which this animal belongs ; Pesmarest,
Blainville, and Cuvier place it among the Genets, but Horsefield believing
that it has a close affinity to the genus Felis, forms a special section in that
genus, to which he gives the name Prionodontidce. Length of body fifteen
inches, tail twelve and a half ; colour pale yellowish white; is a native
of Java, inhabiting the forests, but of its habits nothing is known. It is
called Delundung by the natives.

HEEPESTES — the Ichneumon. The Egyptian Ichneumon (Plate 6) is
about eighteen inches in length from the snout to the root of the tail, and
the tail about as long again ; the hair very rough and wiry, and each ringed
alternately with chestnut brown and fawn, which renders the coat a mixture
of the two colours. The Ichneumon is frequently known by the name of
Pharaoh's Rat, but whence this title is derived is not clear. It is said to
be a great destroyer of the eggs and young of the Crocodile, but it may be
doubted whether its services in this respect are so great as to entitle it to
the deification bestowed upon it by the ancient Egyptians, because the
number of Ichneumons is very limited in Upper Egypt, where the Croco-
diles abound, whilst in Lower Egypt, where there are but few, the Ich-
neumon is very common. In Egypt it is domesticated, and serves the
purpose of a Cat, destroying the vermin by which the houses are infested.
It is fond of poultry, and will feign itself dead till the birds come within
its reach, when it springs upon them, and, strangling them, generally satis-
fies itself by sucking their blood. The Ichneumon will also attack Serpents.
The story of the Ichneumon creeping down the Crocodile's throat whilst
asleep, and devouring its entrails, is now very properly thrown aside as
fabulous. The Ichneumon sleeps rolled up like a ball, with its legs sticking
out, and is not very easily wakened ; it grows rapidly, and is shortlived,
more especially in cold climates.

The Indian Ichneumon (H. Mtingo) is celebrated for its contests with
the Cobra di Capetto, one of the most poisonous Snakes known.

The RYZ/ENA (Gr. pvfctr, to snail) is included by Gmelin with the
Viverrse, but classed with the order Sarcophaga by Illigt-r. One species,
the Four-toed Weasel (R. Capensis), called also the Cape Surikate, is well
known. Its general appearance, and the nature of its fur, resembles that
of the Ichneumon, which has in like manner been separated from the Vi-
verrse. It has but four toes, and it stands higher on its legs than others of
the Viverrae.

The other species are — the Grey Ichneumon (H. Griseus), Cape of Good
Hope; Edwards' Ichneumon (H. Edwardsii), East Indies; the Hohang
Shira (H. Vansire), Madagascar ; the Garangan (H. Javanicus), of Java ;
also the Eed Ichneumon (H. Rubes), and the Great Ichneumon (H. Major),
the body of which is four inches longer than the Egyptian species, and its
coat rougher and longer.

This genus comprises a number of animals of which the habits are very
different, though they still bear some general resemblance to each other.
The similarity in their structure is very great, and particularly in the form
of their teeth. With the exception of one species, of which the varieties are
almost innumerable, they are wild and blood-thirsty animals.

CANIS — Dog. The genus may be divided into two subgenera, those
which have the tail not so long as the body and not furnished with hairs
in great numbers — these the Dogs; and secondly, those which haw the t;nl
very long and covered thickly with hairs, forming a kind of brush, such as
the Foxes.

First Section — Dogs. Our engraving (Plate 7) gives a representation of
the species C. Familiaris, the Domestic Dog, called also the Faithful Dog.
His tail bends to the left ; snout sharp, nose rounded and rather prominent ;
body covered with hair ; tail of irregular length in the different varieties.

This animal is born with his eyes closed, and they do not become open
till the tenth or twelfth day after birth. The female, which is called Biteh,
goes with young about sixty days, and pups six or eight young ones : the
animal arrives at its full growth in two years, and lives from fifteen to
twenty years ; the latter of which period it rarely exceeds.

Buffon considers all the varieties to have degenerated from the C. Do-
mesticus, affected by climate and other circumstances : six principal varieties

FAMILY— D IGITIGEADA. TOE-TREADERS.

25

are named. 1. The Shepherd's Dog (C. Domesticus), eminently useful in
directing the course of Sheep, and in preventing them from straying. These
animals are frequently the sole guardians of large flocks in the grazing
parts of this kingdom. The same animal, slightly varied by climate, is
employed by the Greenlanders to draw their sledges during the long
winters. The number of Dogs usually employed for this purpose is five,
yoked in couples with a leader ; the reins are fastened to the collar, and in
driving the cry tagtag, tagtag, turns them to the right, whilst hougha, hougha,
directs them to the left; ah, ah, stops them, an ha makes them set off.
The driver carries a stick ornamented with iron rings, the jingling of which
encourages the Dogs, and when they are inattentive to their duty he throws it
at them, and catches it up as he passes by. The dexterity of the driver in
regaining the stick is a matter of considerable importance, for as soon as the
Dogs find that it is lost, they not unfrequently set off at full speed, and rarely
stop till the carriage is dashed to pieces, or themselves completely exhausted.
The extent of ground over which they will run is almost incredible ; they
have been known in three days and a half to make a journey of 270 miles.

2. The Hound (C. Venaticus). This species includes three kinds of Bri-
tish Dogs: 1. The Terrier (C. Terrarius), employed in ousting Foxes from
their cover. A remarkable instance of the ability of the Terrier in destroying
Rats was formerly exhibited in a cockpit at Westminster, in which a
Terrier, named Billy, destroyed a hundred Rats in less than six minutes.
2. The Harrier (C. Leverarius), which derives its name from being employed
in hunting the Hare. To this division belong the Foxhound, which appears
to be only a larger kind, and the Beagle a smaller kind of Dog. 3. The
Bloodhound, the Sleuthounde of the Scots (C. Sanguinarius), a large,
strong, muscular, broad-breasted, stern-countenanced animal, of a deep tan
colour, and generally marked with a black spot above each eye ; its scent
is remarkably keen, and on this account it was formerly much employed in
finding out stolen game, and more particularly on the borders of England
and Scotland, in tracking those persons who might be obnoxious to their
neighbours from their predatory conduct. They are nearly extinct in Eng-
land at present. Besides the above, the Dalmatian Dog, the Turnspit, and
the Water Dog, belong to the same species.

3. The Spaniel (C. Aviarius). This species includes Pointers, Setters,
King Charles's Dogs, and the Shock Dog. The Pointer is employed for
the purpose of finding game in shooting. King Charles's Dog, a beautiful
little animal, derives its name from having been the companion of Charles
II., who rarely walked out without being accompanied by several of these
little Spaniels. The Shock Dog is the Dog which was formerly used as a
lap Dog by the ladies.

4. The Irish Greyhound (C. Graius Hibernicus), an animal now very
rare. It was formerly employed in hunting Wolves, but is not now fit for
any sporting purpose in this country. The Greyhound and the Mastiff,
Buffbn believes to be degenerate species of the Irish Greyhound.

5. The Bull Dog (C. Molossus). This animal is perhaps one of the
fiercest and of the greatest courage in the creation ; it does not stand very
high, but is very strong and muscular. Its courage in seizing the Bull,
which it always endeavours to do, by darting at his muzzle, or pinning him,
as it is technically called, is well known. It is not so common in England
now as it was formerly, when the inhuman and brutalizing sport of Bull-
baiting was in popular favour. From the Bull Dog is descended the Pug
Dog and the Egyptian Naked Dog.

6. The Newfoundland Dog (C. Terras Novas), which is known by its
height, standing between two and three feet from the ground ; his hair long
and silky, and his tail covered with long hair, and generally curled over his
back ; his coat black and white ; but the most remarkable circumstance
about him is, that the spaces between his toes are completely webbed so as
to render him an excellent swimmer. These dogs are very tractable, are
easily taught, and are very sagacious. In the island of Newfoundland and
in Canada, these Dogs are employed for draught, being harnessed to sledges
or small carts, and frequently perform their task without a driver : as soon
as they have delivered their load, they return home, and are rewarded with
some dried fish, of which they are very fond.

Under the same head the different species of the Wolf tribe are classed.

The Wolf (C. Lupus) — Plate 7 — is somewhat taller than a large Grey-
hound ; head long ; nose pointed ; ears erect and sharp ; tail straight and
shaggy ; its tip black ; legs long, and the fore legs marked with a black
stripe ; hair longish, of a greyish-yellow colour, and in the northern parts
of the globe becoming whitish during the winter. It inhabits the continents
of Europe, Asia, and America, and was formerly very common in England
and Ireland, but is now completely extirpated, the last having been killed
in Ireland in 1710. This is a cruel, cowardly animal, except when pressed
by hunger, when it will attack even men. They are exceedingly inimical
to Dogs, and bite very hard. When hunted, it is usual to protect the
Dogs' necks with collars armed with iron spikes. There is a species of
Wolf Fox at the Falkland Islands, whose tameness and curiosity is recorded
by Byron, and corroborated by Mr. Darwin (Journal, p. 193) : " they have
been observed," he says, " to enter a tent and actually pull some meat from
beneath the head of a sleeping seaman. The Gauchos also have frequently
in the evening killed them, by holding out a piece of meat in one hand, and
in the other a knife ready to stick them."

The Jackal (C. Aureus) is very similar in shape to the Wolf, but not so
large. It inhabits the warm parts of Asia and Africa, hunts in packs in
full cry, from night to morning, and carries off sheep and poultry. Its bark
is a kind of howl. When taken young it is easily tamed, and even when
wild it readily associates with Dogs. It is vulgarly called the Lion's Pro-
vider, but all the use it seems to be to the Lion is that of disturbing the
more timid inhabitants of the forest, whilst he being on the watch seizes
such as he may choose.

The second division embraces the varieties of the Fox tribe. (PI. 7.)

The Fox (C. Vulpes) is found in almost every part of the world ; and
is well known as a most mischievous animal. It has a sharp nose, broad
head, lively eyes, body long, of a yellowish-red colour, but subject to great
variety on that point ; tail straight, nearly as long as the body, and very
bushy, tipped with white. In England there are three varieties, the Grey-
hound, the Mastiff, and the Cur Fox ; these differ but little, except in size
and some trifling variety of colour.

The other varieties are — the Cross Fox, Northern ; the Brant Fox, from
Pennsylvania; the Karagan, from Tartary; the Corsac Fox, from the
Crimea; the Fulvous-necked Fox, North America ; the Black Fox, Siberia ;
and the Cape Fox, Cape of Good Hope.

The Fox is very destructive to poultry and game ; it is also very fond of
grapes, and does an immense deal of mischief -in those countries where there
are vineyards.

The last we shall notice is the Fennek, of Bruce (Plate 7), the C. Zerda
of Pennant. It is a small species, with woolly hair extending beneath the
toes ; it belongs perhaps to this genus, but it is impossible to give it any
proper place, as but little is known about it.

HYJEXA. The Hyamas have a general resemblance to the Dog, but are
easily distinguished by the greater length of their fore legs, and the hog-like
mane which extends more or less along the back ; they are morose and
vicious in their appearance, voracious, but very cowardly. They pass the
greater part of the day hi holes, which they dig for themselves, or in clefts
or caverns of rocks, from which they sally out in search of prey ; and if
they cannot find any living animal, will satiate themselves on a dead car-
case, however putrid, devouring it bones and all ; and should this carrion
fail, will tear up graves in order to satiate their ravenous appetite. Their
gait is awkward, and when they are first disturbed they limp much in
running, but after a short distance they gallop off very swiftly.

Plate 8 contains a figure of the Striped Hycena (H. Vulgaris), an animal
about the size of a large Dog, and very strongly made. It has a peculiar
cry, said to resemble in its commencement the moaning of the human voice,
and ending like a person endeavouring to vomit. This animal is a native of
the Caucasian and Altaic chain of mountains, Asiatic Turkey, Syria, Persia,
Barbary, Senegal, and the Cape of Good Hope, but here they are not very
numerous. The Arabs, when they kill the Hyaaia, bury the head to pre-
vent it from being used for magical purposes.

26

CLASS— MAMMALIA.

ORDER— S A R C O P H A G A.

The most common species at the Cape of Good Hope is the Tiger- Wolf
(H. Capensis), a very powerful animal. Although its presence requires
caution on the part of the shepherds in regard to their cattle, yet it is a very
valuable animal scavenger. It is well known that formerly it came nightly
to Cape Town and cleared away the offal, bones, &c., which were thrown
out iu large quantities.

The If airy Hyaena (H. Villosa) is less than the last species, and less
powerful ; confining its depredations to the destruction of smaller cattle, as
Sheep, Goats, &c. ; but it does not appear less carnivorous.

FELIS — Cat. The animals composing this genus are provided with the
most powerfully offensive organs of the whole family ; they are purely car-
nivorous, of which property the cutting /
form of their molar teeth, entirely covered
with enamel, very thin and sharp, is a
strong indication : in a state of nature they
prey upon living animals, which, having a
bad scent, they do not hunt, but lurk about
and seize by surprise, approaching under
cover very cautiously, and suddenly spring-
ing upon them when within reach. A Teeth of Carnivorous Animal,
remarkable circumstance is observable in their retractile claws, which in
walking are raised upwards by means of elastic ligaments, so that they
never touch the ground, but are kept sharp, to enable them more easily to
hold and tear their prey to pieces. In temper generally cruel, wary, and
untamable, few of them are- capable of domestication or attachment to man ;
they are cowardly, and if they fail in their attack, often slink away without a
second attempt to capture their prey. The larger species are natives of hot
climates, but the others are found in the more temperate and even icy regions.

1. Cats of large size, yellow and unspotted : —

The Lion (F. Leo), which stands about four feet and a half high ; his
length from the snout to the root of the tail is from seven to eight feet, and
the tail itself four more ; the head is larger and of a squarer form than in
the other species of this genus. The body and limbs are strong and mus-
cular ; the back, flanks, hind quarters, tail, and fore legs, covered with close,
short, tawny hairs tipped with black, and intermixed with a few entirely
black ; the whole chest, shoulders, neck, and front of the head, clothed in
long, shaggy hair, black and tawny intermixed ; that on the head and neck
longer than the other, and forming the mane, which is capable of erection ;
ears small and rounded ; tip of the tail tufted with long dark-coloured hair.
The Lioness is about a fourth less than the Lion, from which she further
differs in not having a mane ; she goes with young five months, and whelps
three or four at a time, of which she is extremely careful. The young
animals when first whelped are covered with rough, woolly hair, of a tawny
colour, mingled with black and grey. After each casting the coat, the
animal gradually approaches the colour of the adult ; but the young Lion
has no mane ; it does not begin to appear till the animal reaches the age
of three, nor is it complete before five years. The whelps remain at the
teat about twelve months. The Lion in the wild state is found extremely
fierce and courageous, when his habitation is in the arid and desert plains
of the Ulterior of Africa ; but in proportion as his haunts more nearly
approach the dwellings of man, his courage becomes subdued, and he has
recourse in seizing his prey to that cunning which so remarkably charac-
terises the genus, instead of attacking it with boldness as when living in his
native woods. The strength of the Lion is very great ; a stroke of his
paw is said to be sufficient to break the back of a Horse. He is capable
of bearing away very large animals, and has been known to leap over a
broad ditch, having a heifer in his mouth.

We have purposely condensed our remarks upon the Lion in order to
introduce a few extracts from a work recently published, entitled " Five
Years of a Hunter's Life in South Africa." The author, Mr. Gordon Cum-
ming, must certainly be ranked as one of the most daring and successful of
the disciples of Nimrod ; and his journal, we have no doubt, will afford to
thousands throughout the kingdom much amusement during the winter's
nights of 1850-1.

The Lion's roar is thus descril>ed by Mr. Gumming: "The night of the
19th March, 1844, was to me rather a memorable one, as being the first on
which I had the satisfaction of hearing the deep-toned thunder of the Linn's
roar. Although there was no one near, to inform me by what beast the
haughty and impressive sounds which echoed through the wilderness were
produced, I had little difficulty in divining. There was no mistake alxmt
it ; and on hearing it I at once knew, as well as if accustomed to the sound
from my infancy, that the appalling roar which was uttered within half a mile
of me was no other than that of the mighty and terrible king of beasts. . . .
At times, and not unfrequently, a troop may be heard roaring in concert,
one assuming the lead, and two, three, or four more regularly taking up
their parts, like persons singing a catch. Like our Scottish stags at the
rutting season, they roar loudest in cold, frosty nights ; but on no occasions
are their voices to be heard in such perfection, or so intensely powerful, as
when two or three strange troops of Lions approach a fountain to drink at
the same time. When this occurs, every member of each troop sounds a
bold roar of defiance at the opposite parties ; and when one roars, all roar
together, and each seems to vie with his comrades in the intensity and
power of his voice. The power and grandeur of these nocturnal forest
concerts is inconceivably striking and pleasing to the hunter's ear. The
effect, I may remark, is greatly enhanced when the hearer happens to be
situated in the depths of the forest, at the dead hour of midnight, unaccom-
panied by any attendant, and ensconced within twenty yards of the fountain
which the surrounding troops of lions are approaching. Such has been in y
situation many scores of times ; and though I am allowed to have a tolerably
good taste for music, I consider the catches with which I was then regaled
as the sweetest and most natural I ever heard."

Mr. Gumming goes on to describe the power and habits of this noble
animal : — " The Lion is exquisitely formed by nature for the predator)' habits
which he is destined to pursue. Combining in comparatively small compass
the qualities of power and agility, he is enabled, by means of the tremendous
machinery with which nature has gifted him, easily to overcome and destroy
almost every beast of the forest, however superior to him in weight and stature.
. . . Lions do not refuse, as has been asserted, to feast upon the venison
that they have not killed themselves. I have repeatedly discovered lions of
all ages which had taken possession of, and were feasting upon, the carcases
of various game quadrupeds which had fallen before my rifle. The Lion is
very generally diffused throughout the secluded parts of Southern Africa.
He is, however, nowhere met with in great abundance, it being very tan
to find more than three, or even two, families of Lions frequenting the same
district and drinking at the same, fountain."

Our author's encounter with a Lion and Lioness is full of interest : — " It
was a cold, windy morning, and I lay in my waggon longer tlian usual.
My other Hottentots thought proper to leave their charge, and go in quest
of honey under the guidance of a garrulous honey-bird. I had lain about
twenty minutes in my waggon after they had all started, and was occupied
in reading a book, when suddenly I heard the oxen come trotting along in
front of the waggons, as if sharply driven. On raising my head from my
pillow I perceived a Lioness following within twenty yards of them, and
next moment her mate, a venerable-looking Lion, with a shaggy mane which
swept the ground, appeared in the yellow grass in front of the oxen, waiting
for her to put them to flight. The plot had evidently been preconcerted
between them, this being the usual manner in which the Lion attacks tin-
Buffaloes. Fortunately the oxen would not run for them, and the Lions
seemed surprised at the confidence of their game. On springing to my feet
and shouting to them, they joined one another, and stood together beneath
a shady tree withina hundred and twenty yards of the wagons. My horses
were pasturing at a short distance from the Lions, feeding towards me, and
on these they seemed now to meditate an attack, their attention being
divided between the horses and myself. In such a )»>sition of afliiirs I con-
sidered it high time to give these bold intruders a hint whose cattle tin y
were so carefully herding. Snatching up my two-grooved rifle, which at
all times hung loaded in my waggon, I at once ran forward under cover of
a convenient bushy tree which intervened, and on gaining this bush I was

FAMILY— D IGITIGRADA. TOE-TREADERS.

27

within seventy yards of the Lions. Here a forked branch afforded an ad-
mirable rest. I placed my rifle in the fork, and, taking the old Lion low,
I let fly, hitting him in the shoulder ; the two then wheeled about, and,
bounding forward with angry growls, disappeared among the trees.

" From the cool state I was in when I fired, and the steady aim which
the forked branch had afforded me, I felt convinced that the Lion, if not
dead, must be mortally wounded, but I prudently resolved not to proceed in
quest of him alone. Presently some of my men, who had gone to the car-
case of a buffalo I had slain the previous day, returned bringing the dogs ;
and, having informed them of what had happened, I proceeded to take up
the spoor of the wounded Lion. On reaching the spot where the Lions
had stood, my dogs at once commenced barking angrily and looking sharply
around in every direction, their hair bristling on their backs. I at once
discovered blood, which increased as I proceeded from small red drops to
large frothy blotches ; and before advancing two hundred yards, on approach-
ing a dense green bush, my dogs, which led the way, sprang suddenly to
one side, barking with great vehemence. By this I knew that the Lion
was dead, and, on cautiously rounding the bush, taking care at the same
time to give it a wide berth, I had the satisfaction to behold a princely Lion
stretched lifeless on the ground. He was in the prime of life, having fine
sharp teeth ; and it being now the dead of winter he carried the most
luxuriant coat of hair, the rankness of his flowing mane exceeding in beauty
anything I had hitherto seen. I considered myself extremely fortunate in
having secured so noble a specimen of the Lion with so little danger, and I
at once set men to work to unrobe him, which they were not long in ac-
complishing."

Not less interesting is his recontre with a troop of Lions and Hya?nas :
— " On reaching the water I looked towards the carcase of the rhinoceros,
and, to my astonishment, I beheld the ground alive with large creatures, as
though a troop of zebras were approaching the fountain to drink. Kleinboy
remarked to me that a troop of zebras were standing on the height. I an-
swered, ' Yes :' but I knew very well that zebras would not be capering
around the carcase of a rhinoceros. I quickly arranged my blankets, pillow,
and guns in the hole, and then lay down to feast my eyes on the interesting
sight before me. It was bright moonlight, as clear as I need wish, and
within one night of being full moon. There were six large Lions, about
twelve or fifteen hyaenas, and from twenty to thirty jackals, feasting on and
around the carcases of the three rhinoceroses. The Lions feasted peacefully,
but the hyaenas and jackals fought over every mouthful, and chased one
another round and round the carcases, growling, laughing, screeching, chat-
tering, and howling without any intermission. The hyenas did not seem
afraid of the Lions, although they always gave way before them ; for I ob-
served that they followed them in the most disrespectful manner, and stood
laughing, one or two on either side, when any lions came after their com-
rades to examine pieces of skin or bones which they were dragging away.
I had lain watching this banquet for about three hours, in the strong hope
that, when the Lions had feasted, they would come and drink. Two black
and two white rhinoceroses had made their appearance, but, scared by the
smell of the blood, they had made off.

" At length the Lions seemed satisfied. They all walked about with
their heads up, and seemed to be thinking about the water ; and in two
minutes one of them turned his face towards me, and came on ; he was
immediately followed by a second Lion, and in half a minute by the re-
maining four. It was a decided and general move, they were all coming
to drink right bang in my face, within fifteen yards of me.

" I charged the unfortunate, pale, and panting Kleinboy to convert him-
self into a stone, and knowing, from old spoor, exactly where they would
drink, I cocked my left barrel, and placed myself and gun in position. The
six Lions came steadily on along the stony ridge, until within sixty yards
of me, when they halted for a minute to reconnoitre. One of them stretched
out his massive arms on the rock and lay down ; the others then came on,
and he rose and brought up the rear. They walked, as I had anticipated,
to the old drinking-place, and three of them had put down their heads and
were lapping the water loudly, when Kleinboy thought it necessary to shove

up his ugly head. I turned my head slowly to rebuke him, and again
turning to the Lions I found myself discovered.

" An old Lioness, who seemed to take the lead, had detected me, and,
with her head high and her eyes fixed full upon me, she was coming slowly
round the corner of the little vley to cultivate further my acquaintance.
This unfortunate proceeding put a stop at once to all further contemplation.
I thought, in my haste, that it was perhaps most prudent to shoot this
Lioness, especially as none of the others had noticed me. I accordingly
moved my arm and covered her : she saw me move and halted, exposing a
full broadside. I fired : the ball entered one shoulder and passed out behind
the other. She bounded forward with repeated growls, and was followed
by her five comrades all enveloped in a cloud of dust ; nor did they stop
until they had reached the cover behind me, except one old gentleman, who
halted and looked back for a few seconds, when I fired, but the ball went
high. I listened anxiously for some sound to denote the approaching end
of the Lioness ; nor listened iu vain. I heard her growling and stationary,
as if dying. In one minute her comrades crossed the vley a little below me,
and made towards the rhinoceros. I then slipped Wolf and Boxer on her
scent, and, following them into the cover, I found her lying dead within
twenty yards of where the old Lion had lain two nights before. This was
a fine old Lioness, with perfect teeth, and was certainly a noble prize ; but
I felt dissatisfied at not having rather shot a Lion, which I had most cer-
tainly done if my Hottentot had not destroyed my contemplation."

The following account of a dangerous interview with a Lioness must
close our present reference to Mr. Cumming's volumes, brimful though they
are with wonderful exploits and hairbreadth escapes : — " Having proceeded
about half-way, I suddenly observed two huge yellow Lionesses, about a
hundred and fifty yards to my left, walking along the edge of the reeds,
holding a course parallel to my own. The reitbucks smelt the Lions and
lay down. I got very near them, but they started off, and bounded straight
away from me : I fired and missed the buck.

" Ruyter came towards me, and I ran forward to obtain a view beyond
a slight rise in the ground to see whither the Lionesses had gone. In so
doing I came suddenly upon them, within about seventy yards ; they were
standing looking back at Ruyter. I then very rashly commenced making-
a rapid stalk in upon them, and fired at the nearest, having only one shot
in my rifle. The ball told loudly, and the Lioness at which I had fired
wheeled right round, and came on lashing her tail, showing her teeth, and
making that horrid murderous deep growl which an angry Lion generally
utters. At the same moment her comrade, who seemed better to know
that she was in the presence of man, made a hasty retreat into the reeds.
The instant the Lioness came on I stood up to my full height, holding my
rifle, and my arms 'extended, and high above my head. This checked her
in her course, but on looking round and missing her comrade, and observing
Ruyter slowly advancing, she was still more exasperated, and, fancying that
she was being surrounded, she made another forward movement, growling
terribly. This was a moment of great danger. I felt that my only chance
of safety was extreme steadiness, so, standing motionless as a rock, with my
eyes firmly fixed upon her, I called out in a clear commanding voice,
'Holloa! old girl, what's the hurry ? take it easy; holloa! holloa!' She
instantly once more halted, and seemed perplexed, looking round for her
comrade. I then thought it prudent to beat a retreat, which I very slowly
did, talking to the Lioness all the time. She seemed undecided as to her
future movements, and was gazing after me and snuffing the ground when
I last beheld her."

Lions are found throughout Africa, in those parts of Arabia and Persia
which border on the Tigris and Euphrates from the Persian Gulf as far as
Bagdad. They vary from each other in some trifling particulars.

The Barbary Lion is that which has been already described.

The Senegal Lion has a brighter and yellower coat than that from Bar-
bary, but its mane is neither so thick nor long.

The Arabian Lion is smaller than the others ; the males are much larger
than the females, and have no mane.

The Conguar, called also the Puma (F. Concolor et Discolor), differs

E2

28

CLASS— MAMMALIA.

ORDER— S A R C O P H A G A.

from the Lion in the smallness gf the head and want of mane, and tufted
tail ; it measures about five feet in length, and the tail is two feet long and
trailing ; its limbs are strong but short, and therefore it stands low. It is
a native of America, both of the South and North. The Indians employ
its coat, which is soft, for clothing, and from it also are made gloves and
shoes. It is sometimes called the Poltron Tiger.

2. Cats of large size, and striped transversely with black : — In this divi-
sion we find the Royal Tiger (F. Tigris), which in size nearly resembles
the Lion, but the body is more slim, and the head rounder and smaller : it
stands about three feet in height.

The Tiger is found only in Asia, extending as high as Chinese Tartary,
but is more common in India, and lives in ravines and jungles. Cowardly,
cunning, and cruel, it is a dreadful scourge to the countries which it inhabits,
as it does not hesitate to attack almost every kind of animal, not excepting
man : for these it lurks in ambush among the thick cover, and with a dreadful
roar, springing upon it with a bound from an almost incredible distance,
quickly drags it into its retreat, from which there is no chance of recovery ;
should he however fell in his aim, he slinks off till a more fitting opportu-
nity. Like the Lion, the Tiger if taken young will occasionally become very
docile. Tiger skins are considered of great value throughout the East, and
especially in China, where they are used to cover the seats of justice for the
mandarins.

The Rimau Dahan (F. Macrocelis), a native of Bencoolen, seems to con-
nect the Tiger with the Leopard, possessing the strong legs and thighs of
the former, with the more cylindrical form of the body belonging to the
latter.

3.. Cats of large size, marked with round dark spots : — The Jaguar, or
American Tiger (F. Onca), the Great Panther of the furriers, is nearly as
large as the Tiger, but of heavier proportions. It is found in various parts
of South America, passing the day in caves amongst the marshy forests,
but at night it sallies forth in quest of prey, and will attack Oxen and
Horses, the latter of which it is said to carry off as a Wolf does a Sheep :
it does not fear Dogs, and will even attack men in the desert.

The Panther (F. Pardus), about four feet in length, and the tail when
reflected reaches the tip of the nose ; the general colour deep fulvous yellow
on the upper part and sides of the body, and ashy beneath.

Panther.

The Cape Cat (F. Serval), not quite so large as the Panther, is a native
of the Cape of Good Hope, where it is called Tyger-bosch hat, and of all
the southern parts of Africa.

The Leopard (F. Leopardus) is rather smaller than the Lioness ; its tail
as long as the body, and when reflected extending only to the shoulders ;
general colour yellow above and white beneath. Native of Southern
Africa.

The Hunting Leopard (F. Jubata) is somewhat less than the Panther,
and is very remarkable in having the claws non-retractile, by which circum-
stance it connects this genus with Dogs. This animal is found in India,
where it is trained to hunt Antelopes.

4. Cato of moderate size, spotted with yellow, edged with black :— The

Brazilian Tiger (F. Mitis), more than two-thirds the length of the Hunt-
ing Leopard. It is a native of Paraguay, win-re it is common, and known
as the Chibigouazou ; it lives in the forests, but steals out at night to attack
the domestic animals : when taken it becomes familiar and docile ; its voice
resembles that of the Cat, but is deeper tonr-d.

The Ocelot (F. Pardalis), a native of Mexico, much resembles the habits
of the other species, and climbs trees.

The Oceloid Cat (F. Macroura) very nearly resembles the Ocelot: it is
three feet eight inches in length ; tail nineteen inches.

5. Cats of moderate size, standing high on the legs ; ears large, and not
nnfrequently tipped with a tuft of long hairs ; tail rather short : — The Lynx,
measuring rather more than two feet from the nose to the tail ; tail seven
inches ; skin very soft. It is a native of the forests of central Europe, but
never found in India ; it was formerly found in France, and but lately has
disappeared in Germany.

The Muscovite Lynx (F. Cervaria), about the size of a Wolf ; its fur
is very long and thick. The skins of this species are highly valued, and
adult skins with very black spots will fetch 100 to 120 or 130 francs.

The Canadian or Swedish Lynx (F. Borealis), in size between the Wolf
and the Fox ; the Bay Lynx (F. Rufa), a native of America, is smaller
than the common Lynx ; the Caspian Lynx (F. Chaus), about two feet
long, and its general figure is that of a Cat ; the Booted Lynx (F. Caligata),
about the size of a Cat, a native of Lybia and Barbary ; the Persian Lynx
(F. Caracal) measures about two feet and a halflong, and sixteen inches lii.u'li,
a native of Persia, India, and Barbary ; the Portuguese Lynx (F. Pardina),
the Lynx of the furriers, is in size equalling the European Badger, but
standing high on the legs ; tail short, but longer in proportion to its size
than that of the European Lynx ; the skin is not very valuable.

Besides the above there are — the Fasciated Lynx, the Mountain Cat, the
Florida Lynx, and the Golden Lynx, all natives of America.

6. Cats of moderate or small size and short legs — CATS properly so
called: — The Common Cat (F. Catus) measures about two feet eight inches,
and some large males three feet, of which one foot is the length of the tail ;
it varies much in size, according to the countries it inhabits ; those of the
south are not larger than our Domestic Cat, whilst those of Asia and the
midland forests of Europe are much larger. The fur is soft, very long ;
the silky hairs few, but also very long. The Wild Cat is found in all the
large forests of Europe ; those of Hungary and Russia, and the Asiatic
provinces, are of a larger kind, their fur much finer, and more valuable.

The Booted Cat of Egypt (F. Maniculata) resembles in form the last
species, except in being a third less in size, and having the tail longer and
more slender ; the fur is short and silky, but the woolly hair sparing.

Much difference of opinion has existed among zoologists as to the stock
whence our Domestic Cat proceeds. It was formerly supposed to have
sprung from the Wild Cat (F. Catus) ; and Schreber has very properly dis-
tinguished it from that animal by its smaller size, and the comparative
shortness and thickness of its hair.

The value of Cats seems in time past to liave been well understood ; for
during the reign of Howel Dda or Hoel the Good, a Prince of Wales, who
died A. D. 948, laws were in existence for its preservation ; any person who
destroyed a Cat belonging to the Prince's granary was to be fined one milch
ewe, her fleece and lamb, or as much wheat as would cover the tip of the
Cat's tail when she had been hung up by the tail with her head tom-hiiii:
the ground. The intrinsic value of the animal depended on its age : a
kitten before it could see was prized at a penny ; till it had caught a Mouse
twopence, and after that time fourpence, which at that period were, large
sums ; the seller forfeited a third of its value, however, if the Cat had not
its claws whole, was not a good mouser, and, if a female, not a good nurse.

There are several varieties of the Domestic Cat : the Chartreux Cat ; the
Spanish Cat, or Tortoiseshett Cat, as it is commonly called ; and the Angora
Cat, remarkable for the great length and silkiness of its hair.

We merely name the other secies: the Peruvian Cat (F. Celidogaster),
the Eyra Cat, and the Jaguarondi, natives of Paraguay ; the Pampa Cat
(F. Pajeros), and the Cayenne Cat (F. Tigrina), natives of South America;

FAMILY— P I N N A T A. FIN-FOOTED.

29

the Bengal Cat (F. Javanensis), native of Java ; and the Manul, from Mon-
golian Tartary.

MEGALOTIS — the Fennec. Of the Fennec there is but one known species
(M. Brucii), and this has been formed into a distinct genus by Illiger.
From the examination of one of the specimens now in the Zoological
Museum, Mr. Yarrell is convinced that it is a true Cams.

PARADOXURCS. This genus resembles the Civets in the form of its teeth,
but is distinguished from them by its more close-set form and by the pecu-
liar arrangement of the tail, which, when rolled up only partially, the ex-
tremity exhibits the appearance of the prehensile tail of some American
Monkeys, but if the curling be continued, the whole tail down to the root
curls in a spiral form. The soles of the feet are tubercular, and the animal
treads on nearly the whole length of the foot, and has therefore some ana-
logy to the Raccoons.

The species Musang (P. Typus) is twenty inches in length ; tail twenty-
two inches. In Java it is very destructive among the coffee plantations,
where it is called the Coffee Eat ; but its ravages are compensated by its
propagating the coffee plant in various parts of the forests and especially on
the declivities of fertile hills, thereby affording to the natives of the western
districts of Java no inconsiderable harvest without trouble on their part.
Schinz and Fisher include the Delundung or Felis Graalis of Horsefield in
this genus, but Cuvier places it among the Genettes.

PROTELES. The name applied to this genus refers to its being furnished
with five anterior toes instead of four like the Hyaena, in which the thumb
is entirely deficient or at least only rudimental ; and though it in this re-
spect resembles the Civets, it differs from them in the proportional form of
the fore limbs, in which it corresponds with the Hyasias. It is remarkably
characterised by the shortness of its hind limbs, giving to the animal its
peculiar gait, which has necessarily great influence on its habits. They are
nocturnal, and are very dexterous in burrowing like the Fox, always, how-
ever, taking care to have numerous entrances to their hole. When angry,
they bristle up their fur over the whole body. They run pretty quickly.
They are found in the interior of Caffraria, and are so rare that they do not
appear to be known to the natives.

Family — FIN-FOOTED ; Pinnata.

This family is characterised by feet so extremely short that on land they
barely assist the animal to crawl with, but in the water they serve as fins :
this circumstance, combined with their general conformation, renders them
expert swimmers. They come on land to suckle their young, or to enjoy
the glowing rays of the sun. They are known as Amphibious Animals.
The term Pinnata is from the Latin pinna, " a wing of a bird," or " a fin of
a fish."

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.

Genera.

PLATE 9.

Species.

Common Name.

Phoca Vitulina Common Seal.

Otaria Nigra Black Otary or Seal.

Trichechus - - - Vosmarinus - - - - Walrus.

CHARACTERS OF THE GENERA.

1. PHOCA (Gr. ^IWKIJ, a sea-calf). Four or six incisive teeth in the upper,
and two or four in the lower jaw, all pointed ; cuspid teeth conical and
slightly curved; molar teeth twenty-two or twenty-four, triangular, and
cutting or pointed ; muzzle and lips large ; nostrils capable of being per-
fectly closed, in one species extensible into a kind of trunk ; whiskers large
and numerous; external ears deficient; body covered with short, coarse
hair, lengthy, and tapering towards the tail, which is short; legs hardly
projecting from the trunk ; the feet five-toed, and the toes included in
membrane forming fins, with their pointed nails at the edge.

2. OTARIA (Gr. ouc, (iroc, an ear). Distinct though small auricles or ex-
ternal ears ; incisive teeth, above, six, of which the middle four have a double
cutting edge, whilst the outer are single and smaller, below, four, forked,

molar simply conical ; membrane of the hind feet expanded into a kind of
lobe reacliing beyond each toe ; nails flat and slender.

3. TRICHECHUS (Gr. 0pi£, hair, and l^w, I have). Muzzle obtuse, and
upper lip cleft ; in the upper jaw four incisive teeth, the middle two very
small and deciduous, the outer larger, cylindrical and obliquely truncated
inwards ; cuspid teeth krge, projecting downwards, cylindrical, pointed,
slightly curved, and their inner edge grooved longitudinally ; in the lower
jaw, neither incisive nor cuspid teeth ; molar, ten in the upper and eight in
the lower jaw, short, cylindrical, truncated ; no auricles ; body lengthy, fat,
and tapering towards the tail, which is little more than a fold of skin ; feet
five-toed, the toes connected with membrane, and forming paddles or fins ;
on the fore feet the inner toe or thumb is the longest, on the hind, the inner
and outer are much longer than the intermediate ones, and both hind
paddles are directed backwards, and approximated ; claws short ; four ven-
tral teats.

PINNATA. DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIES.

PHOCA — Seal. Seals differ but little from the Otaries ; the principal dif-
ference being in the absence of the auricle, and in the shortness of the
membrane of their fins. Their habits are very similar, living together in
large herds, principally passing their time in the seas, and only coming
ashore for any continuance during the time occupied by whelping and
bringing up their young. For this purpose they migrate in large herds from
the frozen Polar regions to warmer, desert shores, and laving there effected
their object, return again to the colder climes for which they are especially
adapted, being covered with a large quantity of fat, which, as with the
Whales, protects their animal heat from being destroyed by the extreme
cold to which they are continually subjected. They feed almost entirely on
fish, which they take by diving ; and in order to facilitate their operations,
the front of the eye is flattened somewhat like that of fishes, which enables
them to see better beneath the water than indeed they can above it. They
possess also, by a peculiar contrivance, the power of closing their nostrils so
as to prevent the entrance of the water ; and their external auditory pas-
sage is of such form as to preclude its admission there. They are generally
harmless and inoffen-
sive, except when pro-
voked, and are then
much more dangerous
at sea than ashore, as i|
when in the water their
motions are active, but
on land the bulkiness
of their bodies and the
form of their limbs, adapted to little more than swimming, prevent them
from moving quickly.

They have been divided into the following subgenera: — 1. The Caloce-
phala, large skull and short muzzle. The Common Seal (P. Vitulina).
From five to six feet in length. The appearance of the skin varies accord-
ing as it is wet or dry : when the Seal first leaves the water, the head, the
upper part of the body, the hind limbs, and the tail are slaty-grey, but on
the sides is varied with little round spots on a paler and yellowish ground,
of which tint are the under parts. When dry, the grey marking is seen
only along the mesial line, and sometimes there are also irregular spots on
the body of the same colour, but generally the rest of the body is entirely
yellowish. They are found in most parts of the world. They feed on all
kinds of fish, and are themselves very good food. If taken young, they are
easily tamed, will answer to their names when called, and appear as much
gratified with their master's caresses as a Dog. To the Greenlanders, Seals
are, as it has been well said by Crantz, " more needful than Sheep to us" —
the flesh supplying them with food ; their fat with oil both for cooking and
for light ; of the tendons they make thread ; of the skins of the entrails they
make windows, tent-curtains, and shirts, and train-oil bottles of the maw ;
with the skins they cover their boats and tents, and formerly, when they
could not procure iron, they converted the bones into all kinds of instru-

Seal.

30

CLASS— M A M MALI A.

ORDER— S ARCOPHAGA.

nit-nts and working tools. The Greenlander catches Seals either accom-
panied by other fishers, which occupation is then called a Clapper-hunt, l>y
shooting them, or by other contrivances. The Clapper-hunt consists in a
party going out together in their kajaks, or boats, and cutting off the Seals'
retreat; they then frighten them under water by hallooing and pelting them
with stones, and as the Seals are obliged to come up for air this is repeated
till they are tired, when the hunters destroy them with the agligak, an in-
strument resembling the erneinek, or harpoon dart, but differing from it in
having the shaft only a foot and a half long. If the Seal has a good broad
water of three or four leagues in extent, it will keep the sportsmen occupied
for a couple of hours before they can approach near enough to kill it, as in
the early part of the chase it will often start up three-quarters of a mile
distant from the spot at which it had dived. But if it approach the land
in order to escape, it is driven off by the women and boys, and soon
destroyed by the men who are in its rear. (Plate 9.)

The Leporine Seal, the Harp Seal, the Hock Seal, the White-clawed Seal,
the Hough Seal, and the Great Seal, inhabitants of the White Sea, coast of
Iceland, and within the Polar circle from Spitzbergen to Tchutki Noss.
The Hare-tailed Seal, from Terra Neuve, and the Griffin Seal, Baltic Sea ;
the White-tailed Seal, and the Marbled Seal — haunts not known.

2. The Stenorhyncha ; narrow muzzles. There are two species; the
Small-tailed Seal (P. Leptonyx). From seven to nine feet in length : conies
from the Falkland Islands and from New Georgia. The Weddell Seal,
common on the shores of the Southern Orcades.

3. The Pelaffia; inhabitants of the deep seas. The specific name is
Monk (P. Monachus), arising from the fact that when placed on its back,
the skin wrinkles up like a monk's hood. It is found hi the Adriatic
Gulf.

4. The Stemnopata, the Hood-cap, so called from having a moveable and
inflatable membrane upon the top of the head, the structure of which, how-
ever, is not satisfactorily made out. One species, the Hooded Seal (P.
Cristata), has upon its forehead a thick folded skin, " which," says Crantz,
" it can draw over its eyes like a cap, to defend itself against the storms,
waves, stones, and sand." It is found in the southern part of Greenland ;
and, according to Crantz, makes two voyages annually to Davis's Straits.

5. The Macrorhyncha, from the large size of its muzzle. The Proboscis
Seal, which belongs to this subgenus, is the largest of the seals. It mea-
sures from twenty to thirty feet in length, and fifteen or eighteen in circum-
ference. The male is distinguished by having the power of projecting the
muzzle in form of a proboscis : this, when the animal is at rest, being loose
and pendent, gives great breadth to the face, but whenever it breathes
strongly, or is about to attack or to defend itself, the muzzle becomes elon-
gated into a tube of a foot long. In the female there is not this formation,
and the upper lip is merely slightly cleft at its edge. These animals are
natives of the South Seas exclusively, and are particularly attached to
desert isles, and more especially to some than to others : thus they are
found in great numbers on Hunter's, King's, and New-year's-day Islands,
are rare on that of Two Sisters, and are entirely strangers to Mary's Island
and the He Decres ; nor do they exist either on the continent of New Hol-
land, nor on Van Diemen's Land, though occasionally they are driven by
tempest on the coasts of the latter two countries. They come northward
in the middle of June, and the shores of King's Island are then swarming
with them. About a month after their arrival, the females begin to drop
their young, surrounded by the males, which will not allow them to return
to the sea till they have ceased suckling their young, which increase from
seventy pounds to one hundred in the course of eight days, and the dams,
as might be expected, become extremely thin. After fifteen days, the teeth
begin to appear, and in four months are entirely cut. Their growth is so
rapid, that by the third year they have attained from eighteen to twenty-
four feet, which is their ordinary length, and after that time they do not
grow at all. When six or seven weeks old, their dams conduct them to
the sea, and the shores are entirely deserted, and if in swimming about any
of the cubs straggle from the herd, they are speedily driven to it again by
some of the older Seals. After remaining three weeks or a month at sea

to accustom the young to it, they return to land for the purpose of mating,
and this takes place among those which have attained three years, when the
proboscis is developed, but not till then. At this time the contests between
the males are very severe. The two rivals drag themselves along heavily ;
they close, and putting muzzle to muzzle, raise the whole fore part of their
body on their fins, open their wide mouths, their eyes flaming with anger,
and then dashing against each other with all their might, thev fall on, tooth
to tooth and jaw to jaw ; severe wounds are often inflicted, sometimes the
eyes are struck out, and frequently the tusks broken ; but in spite of these
they fight on till completely worn out, whilst the females patiently await
the issue of the combat which is to furnish them with a spouse. The
Proboscis Seal appears to be naturally of a good temper, allowing the
smaller species to swim among them without molestation, and when on
shore never attacking man unless provoked, so that people may walk among
them without danger.

OTAEIA — Otary. The animals forming this genus were separated by
Peron from the I'hoci, or Seals, in consequence of their being furnished with
an external ear, and also from the variation in the form of their teeth.
Like the Seals, however, they are aquatic animals, and spend but little time
ashore, except during the breeding season. Although living together in
herds, each family remains perfectly distinct from other of their companions,
and any even accidental intrusion is speed! Iv repelled by violence. Kadi
male is accompanied by many females, sometimes amounting to sixty or
seventy in number, but varying in the different species ; these they guard
with great jealousy, and fierce contests are frequently the result of any
attempt at abduction. They live upon fish, mollusca, marine plants, and
occasionally prey upon each other. The females produce one or two cubs
annually, which they suckle and tend with the greatest care. Generally,
they are natives of the Polar regions, but some species are found in the
Mediterranean, and others off the Cape of Good Hope. (Plate 9.)

The species are — the Lwn-mamd Otary, the Ursine Otary, the Little
Otary, the Crowned Otary, the Cinereous Otary, the White-necked Otary,
the Yellow Otary, and the Falkland Otary.

TRICHECHUS — the Walrus. The general form of the Walrus, of which
but a single species is known, corresponds to that of the seals, excepting as
to the head and teeth. The alveolar cavities of the upper jaw are large to
receive the large tusks, and thus render the muzzle large and full, whilst
the nostrils, instead of being placed at its tip, are directed upwards, and the
lower jaw is compressed and narrow, so as to be received between the
tusks, projecting about two inches beyond the upjior. There are but two
upper incisive teeth, which greatly resemble molar teeth in shape, and in
young animals there is also a still smaller tooth on each side, between then
and the cuspid teeth ; the tusks are large, and project about two feet from
the jaw ; they are of the finest ivory ; the lower jaw has neither incisive nor
cuspid teeth ; the molar teeth are four on a side in either jaw, cylindrical,
short, and truncated obliquely ; in young animals there is sometimes a
fifth.

The Arctic Walrus (T. Rosmarus) is usually from ten to twelve feet,
but occasionally as much as eighteen to twenty feet in length, and from ten
to twelve in girth ; the eyes are small, fiery, and sunken ; ears only minute
apertures far back on the head ; mouth very small and the lips thick, the
latter beset with transverse rows of transparent bristles, as thick as straws,
and curving downwards : the neck is very short. The whole animal is
enveloped in a thick wrinkled hide, thickest about the neck, and is
with short hair, mouse-coloured, reddish or grey. The Walrus, or
as it is sometimes called, is gregarious, living occasionally in flocks of thou-
sands. They are very timid, and avoid the haunts of man, living almost
entirely upon ice islands, where they sleep, as also indeed even in the
water. One great use of their tusks is to enable them to hook on to the
edge of the ice, and with the aid of their fore-fins to scramble on to its
surface. They are monogamous, couple in June, and early in the follow-in-:
spring bring forth one, and rarely two, young ones. They feed on mol-
luscs and also on sea-weed. They are harmless, except provoked, but then,
especially if wounded, are very fierce, and will even attack boats, end. -a-

ORDER— M AKSUPIALA. FAMILY— I NSECTIVORA. INSECT-EATERS.

31

vouring to get over the gunwale by means of their tusks. They are spread
generally throughout the Arctic seas, and are hunted for the sake of their
oil, skin, and ivory. (Plate 9.)

ORDER IV.— MARSTJPIALA. POUCH-BEARERS.

THE young of these animals are born in a very imperfect state, but
nature having provided the parent with a sort of pouch around the ab-
domen, which answers the office of a second womb, they are deposited
therein ; here, fastening themselves to the teats of the mother, they remain
until their undeveloped organization has arrived at its proper state of
perfection.

Family — FLESH-EATERS ; Carnivoi-a.
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.

PLATE 10.
Genus. Species. Common Name.

Dasyrus Maugei JIauge's Dasyure.

Other Genera of this Family : — Phascologale, Thylacinus.

CHARACTERS OF THE GENERA.

1. DASYURUS (Gr. Saavs, hairy, and ovpa, a tail). Eight incisor
teeth in the upper, and six in the lower jaw, small and regular ; two long
canine and twelve molar teeth in each jaw ; the two anterior molar thin
and cutting, and the four posterior crowned with points ; body slender ;
head conical, snout pointed, and the mouth very wide ; eyes small and
sharp ; anterior extremities having five toes armed with claws, the posterior
having but four, which are without claws, and a thumb which is so short
as to appear like a tubercle ; the tail long, and covered with long hairs,
but not prehensile.

2. PHASCOLOGALE (Gr. 0airv<i\oc, a pouch, and yaXt'?/, a cat). In-
cisive teeth in the upper jaw eight, of which the middle two are thick,
rounded, pointed, converging at their tip, and longer than the lateral, which
are very small, and separated from them by a gap ; in the lower jaw eight
incisive, of which the middle two, twice as large as those on the sides, are
inclined forwards ; cuspid teeth of moderate size, those in the lower jaw
the smallest; molar teeth seven on a side in each jaw, the first three
conical, single-pointed, and grooved on their inner side, the last four nearly
triangular, many-pointed, and of unequal size ; muzzle naked and cleft ;
ears large and naked.

3. THYLACINUS (Gr. QvXaKoc, a pouch). Incisive teeth eight in the
upper and six in the lower jaw, of equal length, but the outer one on each
side largest, regularly disposed in a semicircular form, and separated in
the middle by a gap ; cuspid teeth large, strong, curved and pointed ;
molar teeth seven on a side in each jaw, of which the front two are false
molars, and the other five very strong and large, irregularly triangular, and
furnished on their crowns with blunt tubercles, but the first of them has
only two tubercles ; of the lower molars, which are compressed and three-
pointed, the middle point is the most elevated ; the hinder three resemble
those of the dog ; hind feet thumbless ; tail compressed on the sides, and
terminating in a point.

CARNIVORA. — DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIES.

DASYURUS. The animals composing this genus are natives of New
Holland. Like the Opossums they live upon flesh and insects, but cannot
climb like them, as the strong thumbs of the hind feet and the prehensile
tail are wanting.

The species are — the Dog-headed Dasyure (D. Cynocephalus), about the
size of a Dog, three feet and a half in length ; the fur of the skin short, of
a deep grey on the back, and yellowish brown beneath : the animal is a
good swimmer. See THYLACINUS, below.

The Ursine Dasyure (D. Ursinus) is not above half the length of the
preceding : it lives on the shore, and feeds itself with its paws.

The Long-tailed Dasyure (D. Macrouras) is about the size of a Martin.

The Maugean Dasyure (D. Maugei) — Plate 10 — is nearly the size of a
Martin; snout and ears long; fur long and soft; in colour olive above,
grey beneath, and spotted with white over the whole of the body : is a
native of New Holland.

The Viverrine Dasyure (D. Viverrinus), about a foot in length. The
Tapha (D. Tafa), similar to the last, but without spots. The Brush-tailed
Dasyure (D. Pencillatus).

The Yellow Dasyure (D. Minimus) is the smallest animal in the genus,
its body not being more than four inches long.

PHASCOLOGALE. This genus has been separated from the Dasyuri by
Temminck in consequence of their having a false or single-pointed conical
molar tooth more, and their incisive teeth being disposed in regular order.
Of their habits nothing is known, excepting that it is said they are com-
monly found in trees, and rarely seen on the ground ; but Temminck con-
siders their molar teeth to characterise them as insect-eaters, and that in
New Holland they occupy the place of the Dasyures.

The P. Peniculata is about the size of the Brown Rat, the body being
eight, and the tail six inches long.

The P. Minima is rather less than the Garden Dormouse, the body
being four and the tail two inches long.

THYLACINUS. This genus has been separated from the Dasyuri by their
having four additional teeth in the upper jaw, a furred and non-prehensile
tail, a head like a dog, and a greater arch and width of cheek.

The Dasyurus Cynocephalus (T. Harrisii) is the largest of the carnivorous
marsupial animals : it is indeed nearly the size of a young wolf; the eyes
are large, full, black, and furnished with a nictitating membrane, giving to
it a very savage appearance ; the ears are wide at their base, rounded at
the tip, and covered with short hair ; head very large, and mouth extending
back nearly to the front corners of the eyes ; legs short and thick, in pro-
portion to the body ; fore feet five-toed, with short, blunt, black claws, and
a naked, callous heel ; hind feet four-toed, with short claws, concealed by
tufts of hair, extending an inch beyond them. The whole animal is covered
with short, smooth, dusky, yellowish-brown hair. It is found in Van
Diemen's Land, in the deep and almost impenetrable glens on the highest
mountainous district, and is commonly known to the colonists as the Zebra
Opossum and Zebra Wolf.

Family — INSECT-EATERS ; Insectivora.

Genera.

Species.

Common Name.

Didelphis - - - Virgiana - - - Virginian Opossum.
Perameles - - - Obesula - - - Porcine Bandicost or Peramale.

Another Genus of this family : — Cheironectes.

CHARACTERS OF THE GENERA.

1. DIDELPHYS (Gr. Sic, turice, and $t\(f>ve, a womb). Ten incisive teeth
above, and eight below ; seven molar on each side, of which the three first
are flattened laterally and pointed ; and the four last are multicuspid, the
upper triangular, and the lower oblong ; mouth very wide ; muzzle sharp ;
ears large and naked ; tail prehensile and scaly ; five toes on each foot,
distinct ; the hind thumb long and much separated from the others ;
abdominal pouch, — its margin only distinct sometimes.

2. PERAMELES (Lat. pera, a bag, and meles, a badger). Incisive teeth
in the upper jaw ten, the outer one far separated from the others, and in
form resembling the cuspid ; in the lower jaw six or eight ; cuspid distinct,
pointed, and larger than the incisive ; molar either seven in each jaw, or
eight in the upper and six in the lower, the anterior three or four com-
pressed and cutting, the posterior studded with points ; head very long and
nose pointed ; eyes lateral ; ears of moderate size and obtuse ; tail of
moderate length, thick at its base, pointed, and having but few hairs on its
upper surface ; fore feet five-toed, the middle three longer than the others,
and the inner, or thumb, nearly rudimental ; hind feet longer than the
former, and four-toed, the inner two very small and enveloped in skin to
the claws, the third the largest, and the outermost the smallest.

32

CLASS— MAMMALIA.

ORDER-M ARSUPIALA.

3. CHEIRONECTES (Gr. x'V- a *an^« ^ y1KT*lf< a swimmer)- Incisor
teeth, above ten, below eight ; cuspidated teeth longer than the incisors ;
muzzle sharp : face hairy ; eyes lateral ; ears naked and round ; tail scaly
and voluble ; feet distinct, pentedactylous, and the toes connected by webs ;
thumbs on the hind feet; nails hooked on the fingers and toes, but wanting
on the thumbs.

1XSECTIVORA. — DESCRIPTION OF SPECIES.

DIDELPHTS — Opossum. The Didelphides differ from the Cheironectes,
in not having the feet webbed ; from the Dasyuri, in having the tail pre-
hensile and naked, and more teeth ; and from the Phdangista, in having
all the toes distinct from each other, and unconnected by skin.

Some of the genus possess an abdominal pouch, in which their young
are carried ; but others have only a fold of skin on each side of the bottom
of the abdomen, forming as it were the rudiment of a pouch, and are said
to carry their young upon their back : this circumstance has led to their
division into two snbgenera, and indeed some naturalists have divided them
into distinct genera. Their tail is very long and prehensile, so that they
are able to swing themselves from tree to tree like the Monkeys.

The Opossums are fetid, nocturnal animals, which move but slowly, and
are great enemies to poultry and birds, the eggs of which, as well as the
birds, they destroy ; they live also upon fruit and nuts, and are omnivorous
feeders. All are natives
of America.

The mode in which the
young animal is conveved
into the abdominal pouch
of the parent is not at all
understood, as they have
not been known to breed
in confinement. This bag
is proper to the female,
which, after the birth of
the young, and their intro-
duction into the pouch,
closes it so firmly that it
cannot be opened without
the greatest difficulty : this
power depends upon cer-
tain muscles attached to
the bones which support
the pouch laterally.

1. Opossums with pouches. The Virginian Opossum (D. Virginiana),
about the size of a Cat, but of a thicker form ; the fur of a dusky white
colour, composed of woolly hair, like felt ; ears thin, naked, and black,
edged with white ; head nearly entirely white ; tail about thirteen inches
long, covered with dusky hair at its root, but the remainder naked and
covered with a scaly skin resembling the tail of a Snake, and prehensile ;
legs short ; feet armed with claws, which are sharp, except the innermost,
which is rounded like those of the Monkeys; belly whitish, and in the
female thirteen teats, of which twelve are disposed in a circle, and one in
the centre. It lives in the woods and fields, but at night sallies out in
search of its prey, which consists of poultry and their eggs ; but it also
feeds upon fruits and roots. Its gait is very slow ; but, like the Monkeys,
it is very ready in getting from the branch of one tree to another, by means
of its prehensile tail. The young ones when first littered are said not to
weigh more than a grain, and become firmly attached to the teat, upon
which they grow ; and when they have acquired the size of a Mouse, which
is about the fiftieth day, they leave the pouch, but quickly return to it on
the slightest alarm ; and they do not entirely leave it till they have acquired
the size of a Rat. They go with young about twenty -six days. Native o'f
America. (Plate 10.)

The Cayenne Opossum (D. Marsupialis), in size resembling the pre-
ceding, but the snout is longer, the mouth wider, and the skin of a vellowish-

Opossum.

brown colour. It is made use of as food, being considered delicate
eating.

The Molucca Opossum (D. Opossum). This species, which is not so
large, is considered by Dr. Shaw as a variety of the preceding ; but it has
been described as distinct by Daubenton. It is a native of the hot countries
of South America.

2. Opossums with a longitudinal fold of skin on eacli side of the belly.
The Naked-tailed Opossum (D. Nudicaudata), about the size of the Molucca
Opossum, and nearly resembling it in colour : is a native of Cayenne. The
Large-tailed Opossum (D. Crassicaudata), a native of Paraguay, The
Mexican Opossum (D. Cayopollin), which is about nine inches in length ;
the Woolly Opossum (D. Lanigera), the Mwine Opossum (D. Murina), an
animal of a small and slender form, known as the Wood Rat. The Touan,
(D. Tricolor), the Short-tailed Opossum (D. Brachyura), and the Dwarf
Opossum (D. Pusilla), which is only about the size of a Mouse.

PERAMELES. All the animals belonging to this genus are natives of
Australia; they are carnivorous, live in burrows which they dig with their
fore feet, and move by a succession of leaps.

The species are — The Porculine Opossum (P. Obesula), which is about
the size of the Common Rat; the head rather short and the forehead
arched ; the ears larger and rounded ; in both jaws eight incisive teeth ;
the upper parts ferruginous-yellow, and the under white. Of this species
Geoffroy has more recently made a distinct genus on account of the equal
number of incisive teeth, which, however, seems scarcely sufficient cause
for the separation. (Plate 10.)

The P. Nasuta is sixteen inches long ; the P. BougainviClei is but six
inches in length, while the P. Lawsonii is two feet.

CHIRONECTES. The Loutre de la Guiane (C. Guianensis) is a little
bigger than the Field Mouse. This animal is brown above, with three
transverse greyish lines, broken in the middle, white below. Illiger has
separated it from the genus Didelphis, on account of the feet being webbed.

Family — FRUIT-EATERS ; Frugiwra.

Genus. Species. Common Name.

Phalangista - - - Gliriformis - - - Mouse-like I'halanger.
Another Genus of this family : — Petaurista.

CHARACTERS OF THE GENERA.

1. PHALANGISTA (Gr. ^a\ay£, a joint). Head roundish, muzzle
sharpish ; incisive teeth in the upper jaw six, of which the middle two are
long, narrow, and converging, and those on the sides very small, but the
hindmost the largest; in the lower jaw two, twice as long as the middle
upper teeth, inclined forwards and cutting ; cuspid teeth two in the upper
jaw, and instead of them in the lower, two or three little rudimental teeth,
often not penetrating the gum ; molar teeth in the upper jaw six, the first
very small, and resembling a cuspid tooth, the second large and pointed,
the four others tuberculated ; in the tower jaw five molars, of which the
first resembles the second upper, and the remaining four correspond to
those above ; ears short, or of moderate length ; feet five-toed, the front
toes disposed in a semicircle, and armed with strong, compressed, and sharp
claws ; the inner hind toe free, answering to a thumb, but nailless, the
next two shorter than the others, and covered with skin to the last joint,
so as to appear externally but a single toe with two claws ; the outer two
toes large ; tail prehensile, in some covered entirely with hair, except just
at the under part of the tip, but in others naked, and covered with
rugosities.

2. PETAURISTA (Gr. viTavpov, an instrument to throw stones, because
the animal darts from branch to branch, as if shot from an engine). In-
cisive teeth, in the upper jaw six, of which the middle two are large and
converging, in the lower jaw two, inclining forwards ; no cuspid teeth, eight
molar in the upper and seven in the loner jaw on each side, the anterior
four upper and three lower conical, unequal, and rwonbtbg cuspid teeth,
the other four tubercular ; muzzle sharp ; eyes prominent ; ears hairy ;

FAMILY— F O D I E N T A. BORROWERS.

33

feet hairy, five-toed, and clawed, the second and third toes of the fore foot
connected together ; the skin expanded from the loins to the limbs, and
sometimes from the neck also, forming a kind of sail.

FROGIVORA. — DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIES.

PHALANOISTA. This genus has been named from the inclusion of its
second and third toes so completely together within the skin, as to appear
but a single toe, were it not for the two distinct claws which project,
although placed close to each other. They are covered with a close, soft,
and thick fur. They make use of their strongly prehensile tail for hooking
themselves to the branches of trees, among which they constantly live and
doze through the day, and are found either suspended to or squatting upon
the larger branches with their tail curled round them. They are not very
active, and feed on all kinds of food, principally however on fruits, and it
is believed also on insects. They have a very strong smell, but notwith-
standing this their flesh is eaten. They are natives of the isles of the
Indian Archipelago and of Australia. They are divided into Phalangers
and Couscous.

The Phalangers have the tail entirely or partially covered with hair ;
ears long and straight.

Species : — The New Holland Sear, or Vulpine Phalanger (P. Vulpina),
measures about two feet in length, the tail is about eighteen inches
long, and entirely covered with hair. It lives among the trees and in
holes in the ground ; is said to be omnivorous, feeding on young birds,
vegetables, and fruit. In captivity they sit upright like Squirrels, and
feed themselves with their fore paws.

The White-tailed Opossum, or New Holland Opossum (P. Cookii), from
two to two and a half feet long, of which the tail measures twelve or
thirteen inches. The Dusky Phalanger (P. Fuliginosa), about the size of
the Vulpine. The Yellow-footed Phalanger (P. Xanthopus), same size as
the last. The Dwarf Phalanger (P. Nana) is about the size of a Mouse,
with a slender tail, similar to the last species.

The Rufous-grey Phalanger (P. Gliriformis), about the size of a Dor-
mouse, the form of which it nearly resembles, except in being broader and
flatter ; eyes large and jet black ; ears long, erect, entirely bare, mouse-
coloured, and surrounded partially with a darkish ring in front, but inter-
rupted behind by a white spot ; face yellowish ; upper and back part of
the head reddish-grey, with a blackish ring about the eyes ; body covered
with soft thick fur of a grey colour, tipped with reddish-brown, and giving
the coat a reddish-grey appearance ; tail nearly as long as the body and
head together, broad and thick from its base to half an inch of its tip,
where it becomes contracted and gradually tapers to the end. In their
habits they are very like the Dormouse, feeding on nuts and such-like food,
which they take in their paws. They are nocturnal, come out late in the
evening, run about with great activity, and employ their tail as a prehensile
organ ; sometimes they reverse it and turn it over their back, but when
cold coil it up towards their under part, and almost between the thighs.
(Plate 10.)

The Couscous are those with the tail almost entirely naked, and covered
with rugosities ; the ears short. The species are : —

The Ursine Couscou (P. Ursina) is about three feet four inches in length,
of which the tail is nineteen or twenty inches. They are found in the
thickets of the northern parts of the Celebes, where during daytime they
are seen squatting on the branches of trees hidden by the leaves. Their
flesh is eaten by the natives.

The Golden-rumped Couscou (P. Chrysorrhos) is about four inches
shorter than the last species; the tail about thirteen inches in length.
From the Moluccas.

' The Spotted Couscou, or Surinam Opossum (P. Maculata), is about the
size of our Common Cat, the whole length being nearly three feet, of
which the tail has seventeen inches. Native of the islands of Amboina
and Banda, where it is called Coescoes, and of Waigiou, where it is
named Scham-scham. Its flesh is of good flavour, and it is eaten by the
natives.

The Large-tailed Couscou (P. Macroura) is about twelve inches to the
base of the tail, which is seventeen inches long, and very large at its base.
From Waigiou.

The White Couscou (P. Cavifrons), about the size of a Rabbit ; the tail
fourteen inches long. Native of Amboina and Banda ; also in New Ireland,
where it is common, and called by the natives Kapoune.

PETAUEISTA. These animals differ from the Phalangers, with which
they are included by Illiger, in having the skin extended from the sides of
the body to the limbs, like the Galeopitheques among the Lemurida, and
the Flying Squirrel among the Sciaurida, in the tail not being prehensile,
and the crowns of the hinder molar teeth being tubercular, from which
latter circumstance it is believed that they are not insect, but fruit-eaters,
though of their habits little is known. They are all natives of Australia.

The Black Hepoona, or Black Flying Opossum (P. Taguanoides), measures
about twenty inches in length from the tip of the nose to the root of the
tail, is rather longer; the whole animal is covered with thick soft for.
The Long-tailed Hepoona (P. Macrarus), about the size of the Brown Rat ;
also, the Yellow-bellied Hepoona (P. Flaviventer), the same size.

The Squirrel-tailed Hepoona, or Norfolk Island Flying Squirrel (P.
Sciurus), about the same size as the preceding species. Perm's Hepoona
(P. Peronii), about the size of the common Squirrel, and the Pigmy Hepoona
(P. Pygmaeus), which is about the size of a Mouse.

Family — BURROWERS ; Fodienta.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.
PLATE 11.

Genu

Species. Common Name.

Phascolomys - - - - - Fuscus ----- Wombat.
Another genus of this family : — Phascolarctos.

CHARACTERS OF THE GENERA.

1 . PHASCOLOMYS (Gr. tyaaKoXoc, a pouch, ^vc, a Eat). In each jaw two
incisive teeth of large size with truncated crowns ; no cuspid teeth ; five
molar on a side in each jaw, compound, and having the enamel rising
around the edge of their crowns, the first on each side, both above and
below, of an elliptical form, and small, the others each resembling two of
these joined together, and twice their size ; nose sharp ; eyes lateral ; ears
of moderate length, and upright ; head triangular when viewed in front ;
body bulky ; fore legs capable of performing pronation and supination, and
hind legs similarly circumstanced ; feet plantigrade, the claws of the front
toes strong, curved, and fit for digging; of the hind feet the thumb is
short and nailless, and the second, third, and fourth toes connected toge-
ther, and the fifth loose ; tail very short.

2. PHASCOLARCTOS (Gr. ^ao-icoXoc, a pouch, and apicroe, a Sear). In-
cisive teeth in the upper jaw eight, of which the middle two are very large
and long, and the others very short and small ; in the lower jaw two long
ones ; a large gap separates these from the molar teeth, and in it in the
upper jaw on each side is a little, sharp, cuspid teeth, but in the lower there
is not any ; molar teeth five on a side in each jaw ; their crowns deeply
grooved, and forming two sharp edges; tail entirely deficient; legs of
equal length and short, the fore feet having five toes, armed with short
pointed claws, the inner two toes shorter, and opposable to the outer three ;
the hind feet four-toed, the thumb being deficient, and the two inner con-
nected with each other.

FODIENTA. — DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIES.

PHASCOLOMYS — Wombat, or the Ursine Opossum (P. Bassii) — is about
two feet and a half long, or about the size of a Badger ; short and thick-set
in form, with a triangular-shaped head, a sharp snout and short limbs, and
in its general appearance resembling a small Bear. The animal is covered
with coarse hair about an inch and a half in length, thinnish on the belly,
thicker on the back and head, but thickest on the loins and rump ; the tail
is naked, except a few short fine hairs near its tip ; the colour is light

34

CLASS— MAMMALIA.

ORDER— M ARSUPIALA.

sandy-brown, varying in shade, but darkest on the back. The Wombat is
a slow-moving animal, its pace hobbling or shuffling like that of a Bear.
In disposition it is mild and gentle, but when provoked is furious.

The following account is given by Sir E. Home of the manners of his
domesticated Wombat : — " It burrowed," says he, " in the ground when-
ever it had an opportunity, and covered itself in the earth with surprising
quickness. It was quiet during the day, but constantly in motion during
the night ; was very sensible of cold ; ate all kinds of vegetables, but was
particularly fond of new hay, which it ate stalk by stalk, taking it into its
mouth like a Beaver, by small bits at a time. It was not wanting in
intelligence, and appeared attached to those to whom it was accustomed,
and who were kind to it. When it saw them, it would put up its fore-
paws on the knee, and when taken up would sleep on the lap. It allowed
children to pull and carry it about, and when it bit them did not appear
to do it in anger, or with violence. It appeared to have arrived at its full
growth, weighed about twenty pounds, and was about two feet two inches
long." It is found in the mountains near Port Jackson; and Captain
Flinders says it is " called by the natives Wamat, Wombat, or Womback,
according to the different dialects, or perhaps to the different rendering of
the wood-rangers who brought the information." Lesneur mentions that
it is valuable for its flesh, which appeared to him preferable to that of all
the other animals of Australia. (Plate 11.)

PHASCOLABCTOS — Koala. This genus, according to Goldfuss, forms the
link between the Kangaroos and the Wombats, having the connected two
inner hind toes of the former, and the bulky form of the latter.

The Cinereous Koala (P. Cinereus) is between two and three feet in length,
the general form resembling that of a Bear ; the ears are short, wide, and
erect ; the eyes lively, always in motion, sometimes fiery and threatening.
Its fur is thick, consisting of soft fine hairs of a bluish-grey above, and
white beneath, according to Goldfuss and Cuvier, but chocolate-brown in
Blainville's description. It is generally seen sitting like a Dog, and the
female carries her young on her back. It inhabits the forests of New
Holland, about fifty or sixty miles south-west of Port Jackson, and was
first brought to that settlement in August 1803. It climbs well, and lives
on the tops of the blue gum trees, where it rests during the day, either
sleeping or feeding on its tender shoots, which it prefers to any other food ;
in the night it descends, and prowls about, scratching up the earth in search
of some particular roots. It seems to creep rather than walk, and when
incensed or hungry utters a long shrill yell, and assumes a fierce menacing
look. But in captivity it soon becomes attached to the person who feeds
it. The New Hollanders eat its flesh, and are on this score readily induced
to hunt in pursuit of it, climbing the gum trees for this purpose with great
dexterity.

Family — LONG-FOOTED GRAZERS OR LEAPERS ; Salienta.

These animals, owing to the shortness of their fore legs, can make but
little progress in walking on all-fours ; but this defect is compensated by
their agility in leaping : hence their designation from the Latin saliens,
" springing," or " leaping up."

Genera. Species. Common Name.

HTpsiprymnus Murinus .... Potoroo.

Halmaturus ml Macropus - Giganteo* - - - Great Kangaroo.

CHARACTERS OF THE GENERA.

1. HYPSIPRYMKUS (Gr. Jtyoc, high, and irpvpva, a ship's stern). Incisive
teeth eight above, the last on each side distant from the others ; the middle
two slightly conical, straight, and four times the length of the others;
incisive in the lower jaw, two inclined forwards ; molar five on a side in
either jaw, grinders, and tuberculated ; snout sharp, upper lip cleft ; ears
long and rounded ; whiskers half the length of the head ; tail moderate
sized, scaly, and slightly covered with hair ; fore feet five-toed, the outer
two toes the shorter ; hind feet thumbless, four-toed, the inner two con-

nected, the middle twice as long as the others, and stronger ; toes clawed,
those of the fore feet adapted for digging.

2. HALMATURUS (Gr. aX/ia, a leap, and ovpa, a tail). Incisive teeth,
six above of equal length, placed obliquely, two below long, large, sharp,
and inclined so as to be on the same plane with the jaw ; no cuspid teeth,
but a large void space between the incisive and molar teeth, which vary
according to the age of the animal, from four to seven on each side on
either jaw, the anterior the smaller ; their crowns tuberculated ; upper lip
cleft ; head of a lengthened form ; ears long and erect ; eyes large ; tail, in
length equal to the body, covered with close hairs ; limbs disproportioned
to each other, the fore legs very short, five-toed, hind legs of great length,
four-toed, the inner two very small and connected to the root of the claws,
which are sharp ; outer toe of moderate length ; between it and the inner
toes an enormously strong large toe, much exceeding either of the others
in length and thickness, the last phalanx shod with a kind of hoof, as is
also that of the outer ; the metatarsal bones very long ; when at rest the
whole foot, even to the hock, resting on the ground ; hair woolly.

SALIENTA. — DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIES.

HYPSIPRYMNUS — Potoroo. This genus is considered by Cuvier as connect-
ing the predaceous with the herbivorous marsupial animals, from the former
of which they are especially distinguished by the deficiency of the thumb on
the hind foot. The length of their hind legs has given rise to their name ; and
in this circumstance they very much resemble the Kangaroos, to which,
except in size and the disposition of the teeth, they approach very near:
like them their progression is by leaping. Only one species is known.

The Macropus Minor, or Lesser Kangaroo, called also Potoroo (H. Ma-
rinus), is about the size of a Rabbit six months old, of a pale-brown
mouse colour on the back, becoming lighter on the belly. Native of New
Holland. (Plate 11.)

HALMATURUS — Kangaroo. Kangaroos were first discovered in the year
1770 by some of the navigators in Captain Cook's expedition to New-
Holland. Like the
other marsupial ani-
mals, they are fur-
nished with a bag at-
tached to the lower
part of the abdomen,
and supported on the
sharebones by a pair
of bones peculiar to
this order, in which
the young animals are Skeleton of Kangaroo,

received after birth, but when or how is not known, and here they remain
attached to the nipple of the parent until they have attained sufficient size
to shift for themselves ; prior, however, to their finally quitting this bag,
they occasionally leave it, in order probably to learn the method of pro-
viding for themselves, but upon the slightest fright they return to it again.
The tail in this genus is of remarkable length and strength ; it serves not
only as a third resting-point when the animal is at rest upon its haunches,
but answers the purpose of an offensive weapon, and is commonly employed
in locomotion to assist in the astonishing leaps which the Kangaroos ron-
tinually take in moving about, their
progresses being a series of springs
frequently of twenty feet at a time,
and not walking on all four extremities,
a position which they only assume
when feeding. They are herbivorous,
and have a remarkably curiously-
shaped stomach, and a very large ,,-^^
caecum. They are harmless and in-
offensive, except when quarrelling Kangnroo.
about the females, or when attacked.
They have been naturalized in France and England.

FAMILY— C LAVICULATA. WITH PERFECT COLLAR BONES.

The Great Kangaroo (H. Gigas) : the largest species measures five or six
feet from the tip of the nose to the root of the tail, which itself is about
two and a half feet long ; the skin is of a sooty- brown colour, deeper on the
back than on the sides, and inclining to a light grey on the neck, chest,
and belly. It is found on Kangaroo Island on the south coast of New
Holland, where, Peron says, it is when sitting about the height of a man.
(Plate 11.)

The Moustached Kangaroo (H. Labiatus) has been improperly called
the Great Kangaroo, as it is at least a foot shorter than the last species.
It is found in the neighbourhood of Botany Bay, Port Jackson, and the
banks of the Endeavour River, New Holland.

The Eeddish-grey Kangaroo (H. Rufogriseus) is about three feet and a
half long from the snout to the root of the tail.

The Bed-necked Kangaroo (H. Ruficollis) is not quite two feet in length.

The Eugene Kangaroo (H. Eugenii) measures about twenty-two inches
long.

The Banded Kangaroo (H. Fasciatus), and the Lebrun Kangaroo (H.
Brunii), about two feet ten inches in length. This last is the only
species not found immediately in New Holland, it being a native of the
Aroe Isles, between New Guinea and Arnheim's Land, and also in the
Isle of Solor, one of the Isles of Sunda.

Kangaroo-hunting is thus described in the Journal of Captain Gray.
After representing the stealthy approach of a native, and the alarm of danger
evinced by the animal on catching the sound of his enemy's footsteps, the
Captain proceeds : — " About a hundred yards to the right of the native,
you will see the Kangaroo erect upon its hind legs, and supported by its
tail ; it is reared to its utmost height, so that its head is between five and
six feet above the ground ; its short fore paws hang by its side, its ears
are pointed — it is listening as carefully as the native, and you see a little
head peering out from its pouch, to inquire what has alarmed its mother.
But the native moves not, you cannot tell whether it is a human being or
the charred trunk of a burned tree which is before you, and for several
minutes the whole group preserve their relative position ; at length the
Kangaroo becomes reassured, drops upon its fore paws, gives an awkward
leap or two, and goes on feeding, the little inhabitant of its pouch stretching
its head further out, tasting the grass its mother is eating, and evidently
debating whether or not it is safe to venture out of its resting-place, and
gambol about amongst the green dewy herbage.

" Meantime the native moves not until the Kangaroo, having two or
three times resumed the attitude of listening, and having, like a Monkey,
scratched its side with its fore paw, at length once more abandons itself in
perfect security to its feed, and playfully smells and rubs its little one.
Now the watchful savage, keeping his body unmoved, fixes the spear first
in the throwing-stick, and then raises his arms in the attitude of throwing,
from which they are never again moved until the Kangaroo dies or runs
away. His spear being properly secured, he advances slowly and stealthily,
no part moving but his legs ; whenever the Kangaroo looks round, he
stands motionless in the position he is in when it first raises its head, until
the animal, again assured of its safety, gives a skip or two and goes on
feeding. Again the native advances; and this scene is repeated many
times, until the whistling spear penetrates the devoted animal. Then the
wood rings with shouts ; women and children all join, pell-mell, in the
chace ; the Kangaroo, weak from the loss of blood, and embarrassed by
the long spear, which catches in the brushwood as it flies, at length turns
on its pursuers, and, to secure its rear, places its back against a tree, pre-
paring at the same time to rend open the breast and entrails of its pursuer,
by seizing him in its fore paws, and kicking with its hind legs and claws ;
but the wily native keeps clear of so murderous an embrace, and from the
distance of a few yards throws spears into its breast, until the exhausted
animal falls, and is theii soon despatched ; when, w'ith the assistance of
his wives, he takes the fore legs over his left, and the hind legs over his
right shoulder, and totters with his burden to some convenient resting-
place, where they can enjoy their meal."

ORDER V.— GNAWERS. RODENTIA.

THESE animals are unable to seize and tear living
prey ; but by their small and chisel-like teeth they
can gnaw (Rodo, I gnaw) through some of the
hardest substances of the forest, many of them feed-
ing on the bark of trees, and even on wood. The
natural divisions and connecting link of this order
have not yet been as perfectly discovered, nor
indeed do they appear to be so distinctly marked, as
in other orders.

Teeth of Rodentia.

Family — WITH PERFECT COLLAR BONES ; Claviculata.

The genera composing this family possess a well-developed clavicle;
hence the appellation.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.
PLATE 12.

Species.

Common Name.

Hypudseus ----- Lemnus ----- Lemming.

Myoxus ----- Avellanarius - - - Dormouse.

Casta ------Fiber------ Common Beaver.

Hydromys ----- Coypu ----- Molina's Coypu.

Mus Rattus Black Rat.

Dipus ------ Jaculus ----- ^Egyptian Jerboa.

PLATE 13.

Pedetes ---
Arctomys --

Capensis ---
Alpinus ---

-- Cape Jerboa.
-- Alpine Marmot.

Other Genera of this Family : — Fiber, Meriones, Myopotamus, Oudatra,
Saccomys, Saccophorus, Sciurus, Spermophilus, Tamias.

CHARACTERS OF THE GENERA.

1. HYPUD^EUS (Gr. viro, under, and owciac, the ground. Incisive teeth
covered by the lips, two in each jaw, smooth in front, the lower having
a wedge-shaped, rounded, cutting edge; molar three on a side hi each
jaw, the hinder the smallest, all placed close to each other, with broad
crowns, having the ivory and enamel intermixed ; snout short and obtuse ;
ears small and rounded ; tail round, hairy, and short ; toes distinct, five in
front, or four with a thumb-nail and five behind.

2. MYOXUS (Gr. five, a Mouse, and O£VE, sharp). Incisive teeth two
in each jaw ; the upper broadish and not grooved, the lower narrow and
much sharper ; molar teeth four on a side in each jaw, with distinct fangs
and crowns marked with two kinds of transverse ridges by a double line of
enamel ; nose sharp ; ears of moderate size ; tail long, sometimes very hairy
and round, at other times flattened horizontally, and the hairs standing out
on the sides like the webs of a feather, and sometimes tufted at the tip ;
feet four-toed in front, with a rudimental thumb, five-toed behind ; claws
falcular.

3. CASTOR (Gr. KaVrwp, a Beaver). Tail flat,
oval-shaped, and covered with scales ; five toes to |
each foot, those of the hind feet webbed ; grinding

teeth four on either side in each jaw. Molar Tecth of Beaver'

4. HYDROMYS (Gr. vSiap, water, and five, a Mouse). Molar teeth two
on a side in each jaw ; their crown obliquely quadrangular, and hollowed
like a spoon ; feet five-toed, the front toes distinctly divided, the hind either
entirely or half-webbed ; claws sharp, flattened ; tail as long as the body.

5. Mus. Incisive teeth two in either jaw, those of the lower narrower
and more pointed ; molar three on a side above and below ; of the upper,
the first has six blunt tubercles, the first two of which are placed in trans-
verse lines, and the next three in a second, and the sixth singly in a third ;
the second and third molars have four tubercles, of which one is placed in
front, another behind, and two in the middle situated obliquely from with-
out to within ; of the lower, the first has five tubercles, a single one in front,
the others in pairs, the second four in pairs, the third three, one in front,
and a pair of tubercles behind ; tail moderate-sized or long, ringed, scaly,

F2

36

CLASS— MAMMALIA.

ORDER— R O D E N T I A.

and generally but little covered with hair ; front feet four-toed with a rudi-
mental thumb, hind feet five-toed ; claws falcular.

6. DIPUS (Gr. Kt, twice, and irowc, afoot). Two incisive teeth in each
jaw; head broad; eyes prominent and large; hind legs very long; hair
long, and tufted at the extremity.

7. PEDETES (Lat. pes, a foot). Incisive teeth two in each jaw, smooth
in front, chisel-shaped, those of the lower jaw truncated and not pointed ;
molar four on a side in both jaws, their crowns rather cylindrical, sur-
rounded by a circle of enamel, divided into two halves by a groove ; head
broad, and flat between the ears ; muzzle obtuse, and terminating in a very
short nose, in which the nasal openings appear as two clefts ; upper lip
entire, the edge joining on each side behind the incisive teeth so as to form
a kind of pouch ; whiskers very large and strong ; ears long, narrow, and
pointed ; eyes large and low ; fore legs short, and having five distinct toes,
tipped with long, narrow nails, grooved, and fit for digging ; hind legs very
long, four-toed, the outermost toe the shortest and the inner the longest,
the others of equal length, and all armed with very thick, straight, tri-
angular, and pointed nails ; tail long, very thick, and muscular, and entirely
covered with longish hairs ; four pectoral teats ; and in the female an
abdominal pouch, as in the Opossum, but not containing the teats.

8. ARCTOMTS (Gr. fiprroc, a Bear, and fivt, o. Eat). Two strong,
sharp, wedge-shaped incisor teeth in each jaw ; five tuberculated grinders
on either side in the upper, and four in the lower jaw.

9. FIBER. Incisive teeth covered by the lips ; six molars in each jaw ;
muzzle short and obtuse ; ears hidden ; tail long, flattened, and scaly ; toes
distinct, those of the hind feet increased in breadth by a lateral membrane ;
claws much hooked.

10. MERIONES (Gr. fiypot, a thigh). Incisive teeth two in each jaw;
the front of the upper marked with a longitudinal groove ; no cuspid ;
molar tritorial ; nose sharp ; lip cleft ; ears not half so long as the head ;
tail moderate size, slightly ringed, covered with close hair ; fore legs short,
four-toed, hind legs three times as long as the fore, five-toed ; claws mode-
rate, fit for digging.

11. MTOPOTAMUS (Gr. ftvf a Mouse, and irorafioc, a river). Head
large, muzzle obtuse; ears small and rounded, incisive teeth large and
tinged with yellow ; molar compound, four in each side in both jaws ; tail
long, conical, strong, scaly, and slightly covered with hair ; feet five-toed,
the thumb of the fore feet very short, the other toes unconnected ; hind feet
webbed.

12. ONDATRA. Incisive teeth large, the upper flatly rounded in front;
the lower chisel-shaped, and nearly pointed at the tip ; molar four on a side
in either jaw ; nose short, thick, and obtuse ; eyes small, lateral, much
hidden in fur ; ears short, hairy, and scarcely distinguishable ; body thick,
flattish, covered with a long pile and close down ; tail compressed laterally,
and of nearly equal length with the body ; thighs hidden in the body ; feet
five-toed ; hind feet very large, toes distinct ; middle two united by web ;
claws large, thin, slightly arched, and conical.

13. SACCOMYS (Gr. awcKOf, a pouch, and /*vc, a Mouse). Incisive teeth
chisel-shaped, two in each jaw ; molar four on a side in either jaw ; muzzle
obtuse, upper lip cleft ; cheek-pouches external to the mouth, and opening
downwards ; auricles large and elliptical ; body short and covered with long
silky hair ; tail slender, long, and covered with verticillated square scales ;
feet five-toed ; claws short, sharp, and compressed, excepting those of the
thumbs of the fore and the second toe of the hind feet, which are straighter,
wider, and flatter.

14. SACCOPHORUS (Gr. OUKKOC, a pouch, and <f>tp<a, to bear). Incisive
teeth two in each jaw, uncovered by the lips, chisel-shaped ; molar, five on
a side above, inclining obliquely backwards, and four below inclining for-
wards ; head and trunk bulky ; eyes small ; ears short ; cheek-pouches very
large, unconnected with the mouth, but opening downwards and towards
it ; legs short ; feet five-toed, the front claws very long and much curved,
hind claws short ; tail of variable length.

15. SCIUBUS (Gr. a«rta, a shadow, and oipa, a tail). Incisive teeth
two above, the upper with the front surface smooth, the lower much com-

pressed ; molar teeth four on a side in either jaw, tubercular, and in the
upper a fifth, which is very early deciduous ; muzzle sharp, and upper lip
cleft ; eyes large and lively ; ears oblong, sometimes tufted ; tail distichous,
or dichotomous, t. e. disposed in two rows like the barbs of a quill, or
cylindrical ; hind much longer than fore limbs ; feet ambulatory, the anterior
four-toed, with a tubercle in place of thumb, sometimes covered with A
broad nail, the posterior five-toed ; all the nails clawed.

16. SPERMOPHILUS (Gr. airtppa, a seed, and </>l\oe, one who loves). In-
cisive teeth chisel-shaped, two in each jaw ; molar teeth five on a side above
and four below ; cheek-pouches ; pupils oblong and vertical ; auricles small
and close to the head, their margins curled inwards towards the auditory
passage ; tail short, often distichous ; legs long, with distinctly-divided toes.

17. TAMIAS (Gr. rapae, a storekeeper). Incisive teeth two in each
jaw ; molar teeth four on a side in each jaw, and in the upper a fifth very
small, rudimentary, and early deciduous ; profile of the whole head curved
and regular ; cerebral cavity not occupying half the head ; face narrow ;
muzzle sharp and upper lip cleft ; large cheek-pouches ; tail roundish, com-
pletely hairy, and as long as the body ; feet four-toed in front, five-toed
behind, and their claws not pointed.

CLAVICtTLATA. — DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIES.

HYPOTXEUS — CampagncH. This genus has been separated from the Lin-
na?an genus Mus by Pallas ; the animals are wild, and live in holes which
they burrow in the ground. Some of them are natives of England, but the
most destructive are found only in northern regions.

The species are — the Water Rat (H. Amphibius), about seven inches
long ; body covered with long black hairs, intermixed with reddish ; belly
iron grey ; tail five inches long, covered with short hair. It lives on the
banks of rivers in holes, which it digs in search of roots, on which it feeds.

The Meadow Mouse (H. Arvalis), which is about six inches long. These
animals live in companies on high and dry lands, in burrows about six
inches from the surface, and divided into several apartments, from which
the pregnant female sinks a hole of two or three feet in depth, terminating
in a chamber about the size of a man's fist, which she lines with dry grass,
and in it drops six or eight young at a birth. It is common in England,
and in France is a very severe scourge, not only devouring the seed as soon
as sown, but destroying it during every period of its growth.

The Economic Rat (H. (Economus), so called from its habit of storing
up food for the winter, is rather more than four inches long ; is a native of
Siberia and Kamtschatka, and said to be found occasionally in Switzerland
and France. These Campagnoles present an instance of migration, but at
uncertain periods ; and the immensity of their numbers may be in some
degree estimated, when it is stated, that travellers have been detained for
two hours whilst the little four-footed army passed by.

We pass over the Social Campagiwl (H. Gregalis), found in Siberia ; the
Garlic Campagnol (H. Alliarius), a frequenter of the rivers Lena and Jenesei ;
the Red Campagnol (H. Rutilus), of Siberia ; the Rock Campagnd (H.
Saxatilis), found in the Mongolian Desert, and proceed to give a brief notice
of the Lemmus, a representation of which is contained in Plate 12. This
animal (H. Lemmus) is about the size of our common Rat, and is covered
with a very thin skin, the fur of which on the head and back is black and
tawny, disposed in irregular patches, and the belly white tinged witli yellow ;
its tail is not above half an inch in length. It inhabits Norway and Lap-
land, the country about the river Oby, and the northern part of the Uralian
chain. It makes its appearance in these countries at irregular periods,
sometimes after an interval of three years. It is probable that they migrate
in consequence of want of food, and as they proceed they destroy every-
thing, leaving a perfect waste behind them. Nothing stops their progress,
neither rocks nor water ; the former they compass, the latter they swim
across, and although destroyed by thousands by the predacoous animals,
more especially the Arctic Fox, they journey onwards in an unbroken and
devouring mass. They move principally by night, and rest during the day.

MYOXUS — Dormouse. The Dormice arc of an elegant form, and much
resemble the Mures in their appearance. They feed on all kinds of fruit,

FAMILY— C LAVICULATA. WITH PERFECT COLLAR BONES.

37

and climb trees with great facility in search of them. During the greater
part of the day they sleep, and come out only at night. Having stored their
holes with nuts, acorns, chestnuts, corn, &c., they fall asleep on the approach
of cold weather, and remain torpid during the winter, except occasionally
waking to feed, after which they soon fall asleep again. They are found
both in Europe and America, and seem to form the intermediate link
between Rats and Squirrels.

The Common Dormouse (M. Avellanarius) is about the size of a Mouse,
and is the only species found in England ; it inhabits Europe generally so
far as Sweden. It lives in the hedges, makes its nest in a hollow tree near
the bottom, or in a thick bush, consisting of grass woven together and of a
round form, with a conical aperture at top. It brings three or four young,
which soon quit the nest for habitations of their own ; here they deposit
their store of nuts, and coiling themselves up like a ball, pass the winter in
a torpid state. When feeding, they sit up and hold their food like a
Squirrel. (Plate 12.)

The Fat Dormouse (M. Glis), found in the south-western parts of Russia,
Germany, southern France, Switzerland, Italy and Greece, but not in cold
climates ; it lives in the forests, climbs trees with great facility, and springs
readily from branch to branch. This Dormouse, which is about the size
of a Rat, was considered a delicacy by the Roman gourmands, who had
their Gliralia, or feeding-places, for the purpose of fattening them properly.

The Garden Dormouse (M. Nitela), about an inch shorter than the last,
is found in France and the south of Europe, in Poland and Prussia, in the
gardens, and sometimes in houses. It brings five or six young at a birth.
During the winter they collect in parties of eight or ten, and sleep together
in the midst of their food.

There are several other species, but they are of less importance than those
described.

CASTOR — Beaver. This curious genus of animals is particularly distin-
guished from others of the same order by its tail, which is remarkably
broad and thin, and is covered with scales. The fore feet are small, but
the hind feet are very large. The incisor or cutting teeth are remarkably
large and strong, and as in the other genera of the Rodentia extend deeply
within the jaws. They are possessed of inguinal pouches which secrete
the substance known in Pharmacy as Castor or Castoreum, and is very
valuable. The skins are important articles in commerce, being used in the
manufacture of hats ; the short downy part of the fur, which is close to the
body and covered by the long, coarse hair, being employed for that pur-
pose ; but it is generally mixed with the downy fur of other animals. The
black skins are esteemed most valuable, but the general colour is a dark
chestnut-brown : white Beavers are very rare. In shooting the Beaver, the
hunters endeavour to get to the side contrary to the wind, as the animal is
very shy, is possessed of a keen ear, and has a fine scent ; and this is gene-
rally done whilst they are at work or feeding. At other times they are
taken in traps composed of the branches of poplars, to which is attached a
log of wood, which falls upon the animal when it disturbs the trap by
stripping off the bark of the sticks, of which it is very fond. During the
frost, the hunter seeks his prey by making holes in the ice at a distance
from the houses, over which he spreads large nets, and having broken down
the huts, sends in Dogs trained for the purpose, which drive out the Bea-
vers, which are netted in their attempt to escape through the holes in the
ice. The last methods are preferred as doing less damage to the skin.

These animals spend the greater part of their time in the water, and live
principally upon the bark and young branches of trees. They are found in
the northern parts of Europe and Asia, but are most abundant in North
America.

The Castor Beaver (C. Fiber) is about the size of a Badger ; it is covered
with a coarse fur of a ferruginous-brown colour, beneath which and close
to the body is found a fine down ; the eyes are large and black ; ears short
and hid in the fur ; nose blunt ; toes of the fore feet distinct, those of the
hind feet webbed, and the second toe has an additional nail; tail about
eleven inches in length and three in breadth.

The Beaver presents one of the strongest instances of instinctive sagacity

and industry which can be met with in the animal creation. It is grega-
rious, living in societies of two or three hundred, whose labours are em-
ployed for the general good, and their settlements are made either in ponds
so deep as not to allow of their being frozen to the bottom, and which have
a stream of water running through them, or in rivers themselves. Having
determined on the place in which to erect their habitations, the first busi-
ness consists in forming a dam ; and for this purpose they stop the stream
in the most favourable place for their operations. The dam is raised by
driving stakes of five or six feet length into the ground at different distances,
interweaving them with branches of trees, and filling up the interstices with
clay, stones, and sand, which they ram down very firmly with their tails ;
the foundation of the dam is ten or twelve feet thick, the top is not more
than two or three feet broad, presenting a perpendicular face to the stream,
whilst the slope is placed on the outside, where as grass grows the dam is
rendered more solid. In this way they build a dam not unfrequently a
hundred feet in length. Within the embankment near the edge of the
shore, are built the houses, which are from ten to twenty-five in number ;
these are raised upon piles, and sometimes consist of two or three stories,
for the convenience of change in case of floods. The houses are of a round
or oval form with a vaulted roof; the walls about two feet thick, formed
of earth, stones, and sticks, but neatly plastered within ; and to each are
two entrances, one towards the water, and the other facing the land. Their
height above the water is about eight feet. In each habitation reside from
two to thirty Beavers, each animal having its own bed of moss, and each
family its own winter stock of provisions, consisting of the bark and small
branches of trees, which are kept in the water and fetched within as re-
quired. Whilst at work in erecting their dwellings one of the party acts
as an overseer, and by striking his tail indicates which parts are weakest ;
and according to M. du Pratz, the same signal is made when they are dis-
turbed, and are afraid of danger, on which account one is always placed as
sentinel. (Plate 12.)

HYDEOMUS — Coypu. The most remarkable external character of the
Hydromures is the webbing of the toes, all of which are enveloped in mem-
brane to the claws, except the outer, which is free. They differ from the
Rats, in having but two instead of three molar teeth on a side in each jaw ;
so that they seem to connect the Beavers with the Rats, and are only found
in the southern parts of the New World.

The Mus Caypus (H. Coypu) is the largest of the genus, being about
twenty-one inches in length, and the tail twice as long. It is mentioned by
Molina as in size and colour resembling the Otter. (Plate 12.) The general
colour of the animal is reddish-brown on the back, but inclining to a bright
brown on the sides, whilst the belly is of the same colour, but dull. It is
a good-tempered animal, easily domesticated, and will feed on any kind of
food ; naturally it lives much in the water, but utters no cry, except when
injured. It is found commonly in Buenos Ayres, Chili, and Tucuman, but
rarely in Paraguay.

The Yellow-beUied Coypu (H. Chrysogaster) is about half the size of the
last species, and is a native of Canal d'Entrecastaux.

The White-bellied Coypu (H. Leucogaster), about the same size as the
last, is a native of the Isle of Maria.

Mas — Rat, or Mouse. These animals differ materially in size, varying
between twelve and two and a half inches. They are distinguished from
the Dormice by the obtuse form of their head, by their less prominent eyes;
from the Hamsters by not having cheek-pouches ; from the Jerboas and
others by the equal length of their legs, which are furnished with delicate
toes armed with slender and pointed claws ; the toes are not webbed like
the Water Rats, nor have they the edges furnished with strong hairs like
the Musk Rats. The length of the tail is very various, in some it exceeds,
in others equals, and in some is less than that of the body. The greater
number of Rats are covered with coarsish hair, but some few have the hair
spiny. In their habits they are omnivorous, feeding indiscriminately on
grain, roots, fresh and putrid animal matter, and hence are very frequently
found in butchers' shops and slaughter-houses; but when impelled by
hunger, they attack each other and the stronger feed on the weaker. Some

38

CLASS— M A M M A L I A.

ORDER— RODE NT I A.

of them, but not all, lay up store of winter provisions, in burrows which
they construct a slight distance below the surface of the ground. They
multiply with great facility, and some of them live in the woods and fields,
whilst others follow the steps of man, and colonize every part of the globe
in which he settles, becoming one of his greatest pests : their increase on
shipboard is often to such an extent that it becomes necessary to unload the
vessel completely in order that these troublesome companions may be put
to flight, or destroyed by starvation, which is the only remedy for their
total removal.

The Slack Hat (M. Rattus), represented on Plate 12, measures seven
inches in length ; the tail rather more. It is carnivorous ; makes its nest
in a hole near the chimney, and lines it with wool, bits of cloth or straw ;
is very courageous, and during ratting time often fights fiercely with its
fellows. This was formerly the most common European species, but has
given way to the Brown Rat, which exterminates it wherever they meet.
It was introduced into South America about 1544, during the viceroyalty
of Blasco Nunez, and is now a great nuisance throughout that continent.

The Bandieote Mat (M. Giganteus) is the largest species of the whole
genus, the body including the head twelve inches, and the tail of equal
length : body thick and arched, so that it has the appearance of a young
Pig. It is found on the Malabar and Coromandel coast, in the Mysore, and
in Bengal, between Calcutta and Hardwar, and is eaten by the poorer
natives.

The Brown Rat (M. Decumanus) is about nine inches long, the tail of same
length. It is originally native of India and Persia, whence it was intro-
duced into England about the year 1730: in France it did not make its
appearance till twenty years after, but since that time it has spread in
every direction, and has been imported even into America. It is said that
they have great aversion to the smell of Rabbits and Guinea-pigs, which
are sometimes kept for the purpose of driving them away. Both in England
and France they are now exceedingly common.

There are also the Javan Rat, the Indian Rat, the Alexandrian Rat, the
Velvet or Martinique Rat, the Caraco Rat, and the Brazilian Rat : also
the Perchal Rat and the Cairo Rat.

The Gammon Mouse (M. Musculus) is an elegant though destructive little
animal : it is too well known to require description ; the length of its body
is about three inches and a half, and the tail of nearly equal length ; it is
covered with a sleek soft coat of hair. Several varieties of this species are
found, a very common one of which are the White Mice with red eyes,
which are merely albinoes ; others are yellowish, some light grey, some
deep black, and others spotted with white. They increase rapidly, the
female producing five or six young several times during the year. Nothing
seems to come amiss to them ; animal or farinaceous food, books, leather,
and even linen, are continually subjected to the destructive attacks of such
as live in houses, whilst those which inhabit the woods feed on roots and
wild fruit. They do not become torpid by cold, and are found as well in the
frozen regions of Iceland as in the warm climate of Egypt. This species
was the Mas of the ancients.

The Field Mouse (M. Sylvaticus) is larger than the preceding, the body
measuring above four inches, and the tail three and a half. They never
frequent houses, but are found in woods, fields, and gardens, where they
burrow and lay up great store of winter food, nuts, acorns, corn, &c., the
scent of which attracts pigs, which do considerable mischief in their endea-
vours to rifle these magazines. Field Mice are very destructive to corn,
and especially to beans which have been just sown, and hence in some parts
of England they are called Bean Mice.

The other species are — the American Field Mouse, about four inches in
length ; the Corn Mouse, or Shitnik of the Russians ; the Wandering Mouse
and the Beech. Mouse, both of Tartary; the Dwarf Mouse, of Strasburg ;
the Oriental Mouse, and the Barbary Mouse : also the Short-tailed Mouse,
which burrows a little distance from villages, and the Harvest Mouse, found
in Hampshire and other parts of England. The Frugiwrous Mouse, the
Little Mouse, the Square-tailed Mouse, and the Lineated Mouse.

DIPUS — Jerboa. Like the Kangaroo, the animals comprised in this genus

spring forwards instead of walking, a motion which is prevented by the
shortness of the front extremities. Each fore foot has five toes ; whilst in
those of the hind feet, that portion of the metatarsus, or bones which sup-
port the toes, to which the three middle toes are attached, consists of a
single piece like the metatarsal bones of birds. In some species there are
also upon the sides of the hind feet little toes. These animals live in bur-
rows, and during winter become torpid.

The Arrow Jerboa (D. Sagitta) is about the size of a Rat, and inhabits
the northern parts of Africa.

The Egyptian and Siberian Jerboa (D. Jaculus) is larger than the pre-
ceding ; the body is covered with long hair, ash-coloured at the bottom,
and pale tawny at the ends. It inhabits Egypt, Barbary, Palestine, and the
sandy tracts between the Don and Volga. The Arabs call it the Lamb of
the Israelites ; and it is believed to be the Coney of the Holy Scriptures,
and the Mouse of Isaiah (ch. Ixvi. 17). (Plate 12.)

PEDETES — Jumping Hare. At present there is known but a single spe-
cies of this genus, the P. Capensis. It measures from the muzzle to the
root of the tail sixteen inches, and the tail itself seventeen inches ; the fur
is light tawny. It is a native of the Cape of Good Hope, and called by
the natives Berg-haas or Spring-haas (the Mountain or Bounding Hare).
(Plate 13.) It sleeps during the day, and only moves out in twilight or
in the night. When asleep, it separates its knees, puts its head down be-
tween its hind legs, and covers its ears and eyes with the fore feet. It is
extremely timid, and on the slightest noise quickly buries itself.

ARCTOMYS — Marmot. The Marmots are about the size of our common
Rabbit (Lepus Cuniculus) ; they are short-limbed, having four toes, with a
very small thumb on the anterior, and five on the posterior extremities ;
have a short villous tail, the head large and flat, some species having ears,
others none ; the snout short and pointed, with a bilobed lip. They feed
on roots and grain, occasionally also on insects ; living in burrows carefully
lined with moss, the entrance of which they stop up with hay during the
winter, at which time they become torpid, and do not come out again till
March ; they litter early in the summer, bringing forth three or four young.
They live in large societies, and in fine weather may be seen sporting about,
and sitting upon their hind feet ; during which time a sentinel is set, who,
at the approach of danger, gives a shrill whistle, and they quickly disperse.
They are easily tamed, and may be taught a number of tricks.
Plate 13 has a picture of the Alpine Marmot (A. Marmotta).
The Bobac Marmot of Russia, the Earless Marmot of Bohemia, the Mary-
land Marmot, the Quebec Marmot, the Mauline Marmot, and the Hoary
Marmot — belong also to this genus.

FIBER — Musk Beaver. About the size of a Rabbit ; lives upon acorns ;
and is a native of Canada.

MERIONES — Hereen. They nearly resemble the animals of the genus
Dipus. The Bay Hereen are very numerous on the plains of Hindustan,
in dry stations, and at a distance from any water ; very destructive to the
grain, of which they lay up stores in their neighbouring burrows.

The Tamarisk Hereen, and the Egyptian Hereen, with a few others, be-
long to this genus.

MYOPOTAMUS — Coypu. The single' species (M. Bonariensis) of which
this genus consists very much resembles, in its general character, the
Beavers ; it however differs remarkably in the conical form of the tail : it is
found throughout the greater part of South America.

ONDATRA — Musquash. One species of Musquash (0. Zibethicus) is
fourteen inches in length, and its tail is eight and a half; its fur, which re-
sembles that of the Beaver, is of a dark umber-brown. The Musquash,
particularly the male, in the spring time, has a strong musky smell ; it is
however eaten by the Indians, and prized by them when fat ; it somewhat
resembles flabby pork. According to Richardson, this animal is not found
lower than latitude 30', and he has found them as high as 69°, near the
mouth of the Mackenzie River. They prefer small grassy lakes, swamps,
or the grassy borders of flowing streams where the bottom is muddy ; and
they feed chiefly on vegetable substances. They produce three litters in
the course of the summer, each consisting of from three to seven young.

FAMILY— H EMICLAVICULATA. WITH IMPERFECT COLLAR BONES.

39

Three varieties of the Musquash have been observed ; one entirely black,
which is very rare, another pied with blackish-brown patches on a white
ground, and a third white or albino, which is not very rare.

SACCOMYS — Pouched Mouse. The species S. Anthophilus is a native of
North America ; it is clothed with a silky fur of a light tawny-brown colour,
and its habits are not very dissimilar to those of Squirrels.

SACCOPHORUS — Pouched Rat. The species are — the Canadian, the Mex-
ican, the Columbian, the Umber, and the Mole-sltaped Pouch Rat — all natives
of America.

SCIURUS — Squirrel. The Squirrels are remarkable for the elegance and
activity of their motions, as well as for personal beauty, which is materially
increased by their extreme cleanliness. They are especially formed for
climbing, and then: muscular strength is very great. The springs which
they take from branch to branch, or from tree to tree, whilst playing with
each other, or in avoiding pursuit, are very astonishing ; and if no tree be
sufficiently near for them to spring to, they drop, without injury, to the
ground from heights which might be expected to crush them. On the ground
they move by repeated short leaps, whilst their long tail waves gracefully
over them. When listening or feeding, they sit upright on their haunches,
with the tail raised against the back, and its point gradually dropping
towards the ground. They hold the nuts, upon which they mostly feed,
principally between the rudimental thumbs and adjoining palms, turning the
nut about till the thinnest part of the shell is found, into which a narrow
aperture is soon made with the teeth sufficient to admit the points of the
lower front teeth, by which successive pieces of the shell are broken off till the
kernel is exposed. As their food is not to be obtained throughout the year,
they lay up hoards of nuts and grain against the winter, and so well do they
remember where these deposits are made, that they have no difficulty in
finding them even when deeply covered by snow. To these they occasion-
ally resort, when the weather is fine,
to feed, and then returning to their
nest or drey, as it is called, and which
is usually but at a short distance, fall
asleep, and continue till awakened by
the calls of hunger : they cannot
therefore be said to hybernate com-
pletely. They build their nests in
holes of trees, or in the forks of their
branches, and the nest consists of
sticks and moss laid together and
lined with fur, wliich the female
pulls from her breast when about to
bring forth her young. They are
extremely prolific when undisturbed,
and commit great ravages in the fields: this was and still is the case in
America and India, where the country is not so thickly inhabited. Godman
mentions, that in the United States they in some seasons migrate in large
bodies from one district to another, and are not stopped in their course,
although great numbers are destroyed by beasts and birds of prey, and in
crossing the rivers. They are generally distributed throughout all parts of
the world, except in New Holland, and live in the woods.

True Squirrels have the tail dichotomous ; profile nearly vertical ; brain-
case exceeds two-thirds of the length of the head ; in some the ears are
tufted, but in others plain. They are thus divided: — 1. Those with the
ears tufted : the Common Squirrel (S. Vulgaris), the Alpine, the Malabar,
the Madagascar, the Great-tailed, the Hudson's Bay, and Elphinstone's
Squirrel. 2. Those with ears not tufted : the Cat Squirrel, the Fox, the
Grey, the Black, the Varied, the Plantain, the Javan, the Golden-bellied, the
Blackish, the Black-banded, the White-striped, the Anomalous, the Ocular,
the Congo, Leschenhault's, Clark's, and Prewst's Squirrel.

The Guerlingets have the tail cylindrical or dichotomous only at its tip ;
middle of the forehead deeply flattened, its upper part elevated, as are also the
upper and hind parts of the head ; the breadth of the forehead equal to its
height, and the brain-case forming two-thirds of the length of the head ;

Squirrel.

ears not tufted. They include— the Double-handed, the White-banded, the
Beautiful, and several other species of Squirrel.

SPERMOPHILUS — or Spermophile. These animals differ from the Marmots
in a few particulars, thereby forming a transition from the Marmots, Arctomys,
to the Ground Squirrels, Tamias, and are found in the northern parts of
Europe, Asia, and America, and the intervening islands.

TAMIAS — Ground Squirrel. These animals differ from the True Squirrels
(Sciurus) in a few anatomical characteristics, and still more so in their
habits. Their claws are less sharp than in the Squirrels, which, together
with the soles of the feet not being capable of inclination towards each other,
render them less suited to climb trees, although enabling them to move
along the ground and to dig their burrows with greater facility ; hence their
common name of Ground Squirrels.

Among the species we find the following : — the Striped, the Four-lined,
the Hudson's Bay, and the Line-tailed Ground Squirrel — all natives of the
New World.

Family — WITH IMPERFECT COLLAR BONES ; Henudaviculata.

The clavicle in the members of this family is so imperfectly developed
as to merit the designation given them ; that organ being so small as
scarcely to fulfil its proper functions.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.
PLATE 13.

Genera. Species. Common Name.

Lepus ------ Timidus - - Common Hare.

Lepus vel Lagomys - - Pusillus - - - - Calling Hare.

Pteromys ----- Sabrinus - - - - Great Flying Squirrel.

Hystri* ------ Cristata - - - - Common Porcupine.

Other Genera of this Family: — Bathyergus, Cana, Cheiromys, Chlo-
romys, Ccelogenus, Hydrochosrus, Loncheres. We may also add the genus
Spalax, family Murides.

CHARACTERS OF THE GENERA.

1. LEPUS. Incisive teeth, four in the upper jaw, placed in two rows, the
front two large, wedge-shaped, grooved longitudinally in front, the hind
two very small, cylindrical, and flattened from before to behind, and applied
closely to the back of the first row ; two in the lower jaw wedge-shaped
also ; no cuspid teeth ; molars six of a side in the upper jaw, the hind one
very small, five below, their crowns flat with transverse projecting edges of
enamel ; muzzle sharp ; ears long ; body covered with hair ; tail very short,
generally turned up ; teats pectoral and inguinal ; fore legs short, five-toed,
hind legs very long, four-toed ; soles of the feet hairy ; claws falcular.

2. PTEROMYS (Gr. irTcpoy, a icing, and ftvt, a mouse'). Incisive teeth two
in each jaw, the upper wedge-shaped, and their anterior surface smooth,
lower compressed and pointed ; molar teeth five on a side in the upper and
four in the lower jaw, close set, simple, tritorial ; muzzle bluntish ; upper
lip cleft ; ears roundish ; fore feet four-toed, and with a thumb ; hind feet
five-toed ; skin of the sides of the body extended to the limbs, and forming
a kind of false wing ; tail long, roundish, and hairy.

3. HYSTRIX (Gr. 0p<£, a hair or bristk). Incisive teeth two in each jaw,
wedge-shaped, molar five on a side in each jaw, cylindrical ; body covered
with strong and sharp quills, projecting beyond others shorter, or from
among hair or wool ; tail variable in length ; feet four-toed in front, five-
toed behind, armed with strong claws.

4. BATHYERGUS (Gr. paGvepyttv, to work deeply in the earth). Incisor
teeth large, not covered by the lips, and wedge-shaped ; canine none ;
grinders four on either side, above and below, the posterior sloping deeply
outwards ; muzzle broad ; eyes small ; auricles none ; tail short and bristly ;
toes five on each foot, short and armed with thin flat nails.

5. CAVIA. Four toes before, and three behind, separate and armed with
broad nails ; the molar teeth having but a single lamina notched singly on
the inner edge in those of the lower jaw, and on the outer edge of those in
the upper ; no tail.

40

CLASS— M A M M A L I A.

ORDER— RODE NT I A.

6. CHEIEOMYS (Gr. \cip, a hand, and pvt, a mouse). Lower incisors
very narrow and much extended behind, resembling ploughshares; feet
pentedactylous, four of the toes on the anterior much elongated, and the
middle one very slender ; on the posterior the thumb is opposable to all
the toes.

7. CHLOROMYS (Gr. \\upoc, green, and /iCc, « mouse). Four grinding
teeth on either side ; those of the upper jaw sloped on the inner edge, those
of the lower on the outer edge ; four toes before and three behind, which
are twice as long as the former, and of them the middle toe rather the
longest.

8. CCELOGENUS (Gr. coi'Xoc, follow, and yiwe, a cheek). Four grinding
teeth on each side, of a rounded shape ; four toes, with a very small one
on the inner edge of the fore feet, and five on those behind ; deep hollow
in the cheek.

9. HYDROCHCERUS (Gr. vSwp, water, and \olpoc, a pig). Nose sharp,
obliquely truncated at the tip, and flattened from above ; upper lip entire ;
molar teeth four on each side in each jaw ; body covered with rough wiry
hair, tailless ; feet half webbed, four toes before and three behind, furnished
with claws.

10. LOXCHERES (Gr. Xrfyx'J' a spear, and aipu, to take). Incisive teeth
two, above and below, chisel-shaped ; molars grinding, five on each side ;
muzzle sharp, compressed : ears short, rounded, naked ; body hairy, inter-
mingled above with long, flattened spines, having lancet-like edges ; tail
long, scaled, and hairy ; feet four-toed in front, with a flat thumb-nail,
five-toed behind ; claws curved.

11. SPALAX (Gr. avaia, I root out). Incisive teeth in each jaw two,
chisel -shaped ; molar teeth three on a side in each jaw, tubercular ; aper-
ture of the mouth very narrow, and upper lip deficient : muzzle flat above
and rounded in front ; no external aperture in the skin for eyes ; no auricles,
but the auditory passage surrounded with a cartilaginous ring, and almost
entirely hidden in the fur ; neck very short, and of equal bulk with the
cylindrical body ; tail deficient ; legs short, five-toed, their nails weak, flat,
and slightly curved.

HEMICLAVICULATA. — DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIES.

LEPUS — Hare, Rabbit, The Hares are generally remarkable for their
extreme timidity ; but their inability to save themselves from the attacks
of their enemies by resistance has been amply compensated by the quick-
ness of their hearing and sharpness of vision, which warn them of the
coming danger, and by the swiftness of foot with which they are endowed
in order to escape, it They never run, but their motions consist of a suc-
cession of leaps more or less extended, according to the speed with which
the animal moves ; for this purpose is given the great length and strength
of their hind legs, which very much exceed those before; they are further
assisted by the extreme flexibility of the spine, which enables them to
bring the hind feet even before the front, and thereby throw the body for-
ward with a much stronger and greater spring ; and to give an idea of the
prodigious leaps they make, it may be here mentioned, that one species
has been known to pass over twenty-five feet at a single bound. This
structure, though well adapted for moving on a level surface, and much
more for going up hill, is disadvantageous for descent ; and, consequently,
if a Hare descend a steep place at speed, she may be noticed rolling over
and over frequently before she reaches the bottom.

The general colour of the genus approximates more or less to reddish or
greyish brown, dependent on the colours with which each hair is commonly
tinged, being usually black at the root, tawny in the middle, and greyish
at the tip. Many of them, however, change colour in the winter, and
become mostly white : this happens in such as are located in cold climates ;
and in some which live in high northern latitudes, the coat is always white.
It does not appear that this change from the darker summer colours to the
wintry white is effected by the shedding of the coat and putting out of
fresh fur, but by an actual change in the colour of the fur itself. Having
once changed, however, there is no recurrence to the original colour, but

the coat continues the same till cast in the spring, when the dark summer
colour is put forth, which is subsequently changed in the autumn.

The animals composing this genus are herbivorous : they feed at night,
and may be seen, when the moon shines, gambolling about with great
vivacity. It is a very curious fact with regard to Rabbits, that if once
domesticated, they lose their disposition to burrow, and the produce of
tame Rabbits do not attempt such a proceeding for several generations.
Hares and Rabbits are used for food, and their hair is employed largely in
the manufacture of hats, excepting some of the finer kind of Rabbits, of
which the skin, after being dressed, is converted into fur.

Various have been the endeavours to arrange the species of this genus
under the two divisions of Hares and Rabbits ; but though every one is
fully capable of distinguishing the one from the other, yet still so close is
the resemblance between them, that it is extremely difficult to point out
any distinctive characters. Besides which, the habits of the two genera so
closely resemble each other, that it may be matter of doubt whether there
is any advantage in separating them.

The subgenera are — True Hares (Lepores), and the Calling Hares
(Lagomures). The former have incisor teeth chisel-shaped; tail varying
in length, but distinct. Species — the Common Hare (L. Timidus), which
measures about twenty-two inches in length, has the ears about a tenth
longer than the head. The Buck, or Jack Hare, is distinguished among
sportsmen by his head being shorter, his ears greyer, and his shoulders
redder than the Doe.

The Hare does not pair, but pursues the female by scent ; they breed
during the whole year, except about eight or ten weeks in the severity of
the winter. The female goes about a month, and usually brings two, but
sometimes three or four, and a rare instance is mentioned of seven at one
kindle. When more than two are dropped, it has been observed that there
is a white star on the forehead. When about to kindle, she seeks a thick
brake, where she makes her nest and suckles the young about twenty days,
from which time they separate in search of food, and make their seat about
sixty or eighty paces apart. Shy and timid as they are, Hares may be
domesticated, and even become attached to the persons by whom they are
brought up. A very interesting account is given by Cowper, the poet, of
three young Leverets which he tamed and brought up, and apparently
without any great trouble.

In fighting, Hares strike with their feet, drumming upon the offender in
a rather unmerciful manner. They live six or seven years ; indeed,
of Cowper's tame ones, one lived nine and the other twelve years. The
old ones are known by the spreading of the cleft in the upper lip, the
blunt, rugged claws, the dry, tough ears, and the closeness of the bones in
the knee-joints ; on the contrary, in the young, the cleft is narrow, and the
claws smooth and sharp. (Plate 13.)

The Rabbit (L. Cuniculus) is of less size than the Common Hare, and
has the ears, which are nearly naked, a little shorter than the head. They
are found in the temperate and hot parts of Europe, and in the hottest
regions of Asia and Africa. They are not originally natives of America,
but in the southern part of that continent thrive as rapidly as in England.
They are incapable of bearing cold, so that even in Sweden they require to
be kept within the house.

Rabbits are extremely prolific, even to a proverb, littering six or seven
times in a year, and bringing six or eight at each litter ; from which Pen-
nant has calculated that if not interfered with, the descendants of a single
pair will amount to 1,274,840 in the course of four years, calculating at
eight to each of the annual seven kindles ; a number which Daniel considers
overrated, as the wild Rabbit never produces more than eight at two suc-
cessive kindles, and rarely above five. In Minorca they are very numerous,
but their flesh is so rank as to be unfit for food ; and in order to keep
down their numbers, each individual is called out two days in a year to
destroy them.

The Rabbit goes with young thirty or one-and-thirty days, but frequently
kindles out of the warren, on account of the danger to which they would
be there exposed from the buck's unnatural aversion to them. She digs a

FAMILY— H EMICLAVICULATA. WITH IMPERFECT COLLAR BONES.

41

hole about two feet in depth, lines it with fur from her own body and
grass, and thus makes her nest, in which she disposes her young and
suckles them early in the morning and late in tlie evening for six weeks ;
and when she leaves them in search of food, for the first three weeks, care-
fully stops up the hole with earth to protect them from vermin, after which
time it is left open for the young to go in and out : at last she takes them
to the warren, and her cares for them cease. Rabbits live to eight or nine
years of age.

The other species of the true Hares are — the Variable Hare, found in
the mountainous districts of Scotland and in more northern climes ; the
American Hare, the Polar Hare, the Prairie Hare, the Brazilian Hare, the
Maussel Hare, the Cape Hare, and the Baikal Hare.

The second class, the Lagomures, have no tail ; incisors gouge-shaped
behind, forming on their margin three distinct points, of which the middle
is produced by both teeth, molar teeth having the plates of enamel sepa-
rated on the inner edge by a deep groove, legs short, voice very shrill.

Species — the Calling Hare (L. Pusillus), about six inches in length ;
ears nearly triangular ; the fur is set in a very soft, thick down, both of a
brownish-lead colour, the former greyish towards the end and tipped with
black; under parts hoary with a yellow tinge; the eyes hazel and very
prominent. Found in the south-east of Russia, in the hills south of the
Uralian, and in the west of the Altaic Chain, and about the Irtish. They
prefer sunny valleys, and burrow on the western side of the hills amidst
the bushes ; they leave but a narrow entrance to the long galleries in which
they make their nests, those of the old ones and the females are numerous
and intricate. They live very retired, and are rarely seen except when
taken in the ermine-traps during the winter. Their cry is very peculiar,
resembling the piping of a Quail, but deeper, and so loud as to be heard at
the distance of half a German mile ; it is seldom uttered in the day, except
in cloudy and rainy weather, and is repeated four or six times at regular
intervals. (Plate 13.)

The Alpine Hare, the Little Chief Hare, and the Ogotoma, of the Mongols,
belong to this division.

PTEROMYS — Flying Squirrel. This genus is distinguished from the
Squirrels, to which in form it is otherwise much allied, by the extension of
the skin from the sides of the body to the hind edge of the fore limbs, and
the front edge of the hind limbs forming a membrane somewhat resembling
the wing of the Bat, but differing from it in not being supported by any
bone. It is not, however, to be supposed that the animal is capable of
supporting itself in the air by means of the flying membranes ; their only
purpose is that of a parachute, to prevent the animal dropping so directly
down, as it would do without them, when darting from the higher branches
of trees, and thus enabling them to dart more obliquely from place to
place ; but as a means of ascent their wings are of no use. They are
nocturnal animals, feed on fruit, and are found in Asia and in North
America. Length of the body twenty-three inches, and of the tail twenty-
one ; head small, muzzle sharp, and beset with stiff black whiskers ; ears
small and pointed ; neck short. Is a native of Java and other Indian Isles ;
and, besides using its wings as a parachute, is said to cling to the branches
of trees with its tail. (Plate 13.)

Other species — the Bay Flying, the Dart Flying, the Bristle-cheeked
Flying, the Pretty Flying, the European Flying, the American Flying, and
the Hudson's Bay Severn River Flying Squirrel.

HYSTRIX- — -Porcupine. The covering of these animals among the
Rodentia resembles that of the Hedgehog among the Sarcopliaga, and like
it they are capable of raising the quills (which are much larger and stronger
than in the Hedgehog) when irritated ; in doing which the rattling of them
makes a loud noise, and adds to the formidable appearance which the Por-
cupine then makes. All of them, except the crested species, have the tail
long, and in some it is prehensile also. They live in burrows, and have
much the same habits as the Hare and Rabbit. The grunt which they
emit has caused their supposed resemblance to the Pig.

The Crested Porcupine (H. Cristata) is rather more than two feet in
length ; has a long crest of stiff bristles on the top of the head reclining

backwards. Native of India, Southern Tartary, Persia, Palestine, and
Africa ; it is also found wild in Italy, but is not indigenous, and seems to
have degenerated, as its quills are shorter and crestless. The assertion of
it shooting its quills is fabulous.

Other species — the Brazilian Porcupine (H. Prehensilis), the Malacca
Porcupine (H. Fasciculata), the Canada Porcupine (H. Dorsata), and the
Long-tailed Porcupine (H. Macroura), native of the Indian Archipelago.

BATHYERGUS — Cape Mole Rat. The two species, B. Maritimus, the
African Rat, and B. Capensis, the Cape Rat, are both found at the Cape
of Good Hope, and differ little from each other except in size. The former,
called "Zand Moll," is about the size of a Rabbit; and the latter, known
by the name " Bless Moll," is seven niches in length.

CAVIA — Cavy. This genus very much resembles the genus Hydrochcerus,
from which it has been separated by Cuvier, because of the material dif-
ference in the structure of the teeth.

The Hock Cavy (C. Aperea) has the upper lip divided ; ears short ;
upper part of the body black, mottled with tawny ; throat and belly white,
It inhabits Brazil, living in holes of rocks, and is hunted for food, being
considered superior to our Rabbits.

The Restless Cavy, or Guinea Pig (C. Cobaya), has its upper lip half
divided ; ears large, broad, and rounded ; hair coarse and bristly, like that
of a Pig. This little animal is well known, being often kept in houses,
under a supposition that its smell drives away the Rats. It is cheerful
and lively, but very shy and timid, running about continually, and making
a grunting kind of noise ; is much attached to the female, for which the
males often fight till one be killed. It is very prolific.

CHEIROMYS — Aye Aye. These animals differ from the Sciuri in shape
of their teeth, and in having five toes on each foot. Natives of the Island of
Madagascar.

CHLOROMYS. The animals which compose this genus differ from the
Caviae in the form of their teeth ; there are but two species, which are
natives of America.

CffiLOGENUS. Of this genus there is but one species, the Spotted Cavy
(C. Paca). They are sometimes called Hog Rabbits, and are natives of
Brazil.

HYDROCHCERUS — River Hog. This animal (H. Paraguayensis), which
is about the size of a two-year old Hog, is a native of South America,
living in fenny districts near the great rivers in large herds, and uttering a
loud discordant cry, like the braying of an ass. It is the largest of all the
Rodentia, except the Beaver, grows very fat, and its flesh is considered
good eating. Mr. Darwin (" Journal/' p. 49) makes mention of one which
he shot at Monte Video, which weighed ninety-eight pounds ; its length
from the end of the snout to the stump-like tail was three feet two inches,
and its girth three feet.

LONCHERES. Two species are only named, but we are ignorant of their
peculiar habits.

SPALAX — Slepez, which in the Russian language means blind. This
animal differs from the genus Mus, with which it was included by Linnaais,
by the absence of a tail, by the deficiency of upper lip, by the breadth of
the incisive teeth, by the absence of eyes and auricles, and by the fore feet
having no thumb-nail. When the skin is removed from the head, a ten-
dinous expansion is seen spread over the orbits, beneath which is found a
little oblong glandular body, about the middle of which is a black spot
representing the globe of the eye, which, when cut into, exhibits the proper
coats and humours.

The species are two — the Blind Slepez (S. Typhlus), found in Asia
Minor, Syria, Mesopotamia, Persia, and Southern Russia, between the
Tanais and Volga. Its hearing is remarkably acute ; its motions are quick,
its step irregular and hurried ; and it walks backwards nearly as well as
forwards. Like the Mole, it lives in the most fertile plains in burrows at
but little depth below the surface of the soil. It feeds entirely upon roots,
and is a great plague to the agriculturist. The female produces two or
four young at a birth.

The other species (S. Javanicus) is found in the Isles of Sonda.

42

CLASS— M A M M A L I A.

ORDER-EDENTATA.

ORDER VI.— EDENTATA. TOOTHLESS.

SOME of the animals composing this order are destitute of teeth in the
fore part of their jaws, while others are totally destitute of them. In the
Cuvierian system they are known as Edentata.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.

PLATE 14.
Family — SLOW-MOVERS; TarcKgrada.

G«ntu. Species . Common Name.

Bradipus .... Tridactylus - - - AY or Three-toed Sloth.
Other Genera of this Family : — Megalonyx, Megatherium.

CHARACTERS OF THE GENERA.

1. BRADYPUS (Gr. flpativs, slow, and xowc, a foot). Molar teeth cylin-
drical, canine, and pointed ; hind feet articulated obliquely with the legs ;
the toes furnished with long claws, enveloped in skin as far as the roots of
the nails ; fore extremities very long, so that in walking the animal trails
along on its elbows ; pelvis very wide, so as to prevent the apposition of
the knees.

2. MEGALONYX (Gr. fttyas, great, and ovv£, a claw). Molar tooth
cylindrical, simple, the interior bony, surrounded externally with enamel ;
claw-joints of the feet resembling those of the Sloth.

3. MEGATHERIUM (Gr. /«'yac. great, and Bypiov, a beast). No cuspid
teeth ; four molars in each jaw : feet three-toed both in front and behind,
the toes of unequal size, and formed to support great claws ; tail, if any,
very short.

TARDIGRADA. — DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIES.

BRADYPUS — Sloth. Of all the animals in the creation, those which
compose this genus would seem to be the most ill-conditioned and
defenceless ; but they are not so, being equally well suited to the situation
in which they are placed, as those animals upon which nature has bestowed
more personal beauty and activity. They have derived their generic
name from the extreme tardiness of their motions. The stomach consists
of four pouches, which however are not plaited or corrugated as those of
ruminant animals ; and the intestinal canal is very short and without any
caecum. They live mostly on trees, and bring forth one at a birth, which
they carry on their backs.

The Three-toed Sloth (B. Tridactylus) is about the size of a large Cat ;
head flat, with a blunt black nose ; small heavy eyes ; general colour dusky
brown ; tail short ; three long claws to each hand and foot ; the fore extre-
mities twice as long as the hinder. It is a native of South America, where it
lives among the trees, climbing with great labour ; and when it has procured
as much food as it chooses, it forms itself into a ball, and drops to the ground
to save the toil of descent. It has a very curious and plaintive cry, accord-
ing to Kircher, in an ascending and descending hexachord. It is very patient
of hunger, and one which had suspended itself on a pole lived without food
for forty days. (Plate 14).

The Two-toed Sloth (B. Didactylus) is a native of America : a specimen
of it in the British Museum measures eleven inches.

MEGALONYX. An extinct genus of animals, of which only one species
is known (M. Jeflersonii).

MEGATHERIUM. Another extinct genus, the fossil remains of which
prove it to be the largest of any recent discoveries. Only one species
(M. Cuvieri) is known. The first specimen was found in September, 1789,
in the excavations on the banks of the river Luxan, near the town of that
name, about three leagues from Buenos Ayres, and at an elevation but
little more than nine feet above the level of the stream ; and from observa-
tions made then and subsequently on other specimens, it appears that the
Megatherium resembles the Sloths in the head and shoulder, and the Ant-
eaters and Armadillos in the singular commixture of the characters of the
legs and feet, hence occupying an intermediate station between the Sloths
and Armadillos.

Family— BANDED ; Cingtdata.

This family is so named because its several members are marked by
rings or bands on the body and tail. Cingulata is from the Latin cingula,
"a girth."

Genus. Speciei. Common Name.

Dasypus - - Novemcinctus - - Nine-banded Armadillo or Tatou.

CHARACTERS OF THE GENUS.

1. DASYPUS (Gr. Saotif, hairy, and irovt, afoot). Body covered with
a hard scaly coat, consisting of small compartments, and sometimes
extending over the head and tail ; the
parts not defended by scales slightly
covered with hairs ; snout long ; no
incisor or cuspidate teeth ; the molar
teeth cylindrical, at a distance from
each other, and numerous ; claws very
long, always five to the hind feet, and four or five to the fore feet.

Head of Anninlillu.

CINGULATA. DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIES.

DASYPUS — Armadillo. These curious animals are known to the inhabit-
ants of Guiana, by the name Tattu ; they live in holes in the earth,
which they are very expert in burrowing, and for which purpose their
large claws are very advantageous.

The species are — the Nine-banded Armadillo (D. Novemcinctus), about
three feet in length; the crusts on the shoulders and rump marked with
small hexagonal plates ; nine intermediate bands ; colour black ; breast
and belly covered with long hairs ; tail long, and covered with rings
throughout nearly its whole extent. Sometimes this animal lias but seven,
and at other times eight bands ; and is called, accordingly, Septemcinctus
or Octocinctus. (Plate 14.)

Mr. Darwin speaks of four species ; one of which (the Mulitd) does not
come so far south as Bahia Bancha. The three met with in that quarter
are — the Minutus or Pichy, the Villosas or Peludo, and the Apar. " In the
course of a day's ride, near Bahia Bancha," he says, " several [of the Pichy]
were met with. The instant one was perceived, it was necessary, in order
to catch it, almost to tumble off one's horse ; for in the soft soil the
animal burrowed so quickly, that its hinder quarters would almost disap-
pear before one could alight. It seems almost a pity to kill such nice
little animals, for, as a Gaucho said while sharpening his knife on the back
of one, ' Son tan mansos ' (they are so quiet)."

The Three-banded Armadillo, shell about twelve inches long, the Six-
banded Armadillo, the Twelve-banded Armadillo, and the Great Armadillo,
some of which arrive at three feet in length, are all of this genus.

Family — ANT-EATERS ; Myrmecophagida.
So named from the nature of their prey — /jw'p/jr;£, an ant.

Speciei.

Genera.

Common Name.

Myrmecophaga - - Jubata - - Great Ant-eater.

Manis ----- Macroura - - Long-tailed Pangolin or Manis.

The genus Orycteropus, which is not now of this family, may, witli no
great impropriety, be introduced at the end.

CHARACTERS OF THE GENERA.

1. MYRMECOPHAGA (Gr. pvp/jLi)!-,, an ant, and <f>ayia, 1 eat). No teeth
of any kind; head not broader than the neck; nose much elongated and
roundish ; mouth very narrow ; tongue very long, roundish, and projec-
tile; body covered with coarse hair; tail of moderate length, in some
species prehensile; fore legs longer and stronger than hind legs, which
have four or five toes, whilst the former have only two or four, but all are
connected with each other as far as the claws, which are falcular, and
those of the fore legs very large.

FAMILY— M ONOTREMATA. WITH A SINGLE VENT.

43

2. MANIS. No teeth ; head but little larger than the neck ; muzzle long
and attenuated, with the nostril slightly prominent ; mouth small, ter-
minal ; tongue roundish, very long, and projectile ; eyes small ; external
ears or auricles none ; body covered with imbricated, scaly, osseous plates,
having a few hairs interspersed among them ; tail of moderate size, or very
long, as large as the root of the neck at its base, slightly arched above and
flat beneath ; teats on the chest distinct ; fore feet five-toed, hind feet four
or five toed, the toes furnished with strong, curved claws.

3. ORYCTEEOPUS (Gr. opvaaw, I dig, and wovf, a foot). Head very
long and nose taper ; molar teeth six on a side in each jaw ; tongue
extensile ; ears very long and pointed ; fore feet four-toed, hind feet plan-
tigrade and five-toed, all furnished with very strong claws nearly resem-
bling hoofs, and fit for digging ; tail long and rounded ; skin very tough,
similar to that of the Pachydermata, and covered with a few coarse hairs.

MYEMECOPHAGIDA. — DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIES.

MYRMECOPHAGA — Ant-eater. The Ant-eaters are remarkable for the
extremely small size of their mouth, and the total absence of teeth ; their
tongue is covered with a quantity of stiflf, glutinous secretion, and when
thrust into an Ant's nest, these animals become entangled in it, and the
organ is then retracted into the Ant-eater's mouth. Their claws are well
adapted for tearing up the ground or covering of the nests which they seek
to rob ; but in walking, they are folded into the soles of the feet against
a large callosity, and the animal does not walk on the sole, but on the out-
side of the foot. Their motions are very slow ; some of them live entirely
on the ground, whilst others climb trees. They bring only a single young
one at a birth, which they carry about on their backs. They are found
only in America.

One of the species (M. Jubata), the Great Ant-eater, is represented on
Plate 14. This animal measures from the nose to the root of the tail four
feet, the tail itself is three feet. The eyes are rather small, deep set, and
the lids not furnished with lashes ; the ears small and round ; the hair on
the head very short. Tail round, covered with very large and crisp hairs
from twelve to eighteen inches in length, and falling vertically on either
side like a plume of feathers. The general colour of the head is grey and
brown ; of the upper part of the body and tail brown mingled with dingy
white ; chest and belly deep brown, inclining to black ; the fore legs dingy
grey; hind legs nearly black. Its only means of defence consist in
hugging its enemy, for which purpose, when attacked, it prepares for the
combat by sitting up on its haunches. Like the Sloth, when it has once
laid hold of its opponent, it fastens its long claws into it, and retains it till
life is extinct; and in this way it is said to be a match even for the
very Panthers of America. The flesh of this Ant-eater, although having a
strong taste, is eaten by the Indians.

Other species — the Middle Ant-eater, a foot long ; the Black Ant-eater,
and the Double-striped Ant-eater, about the same size ; the Lest Ant-eater,
and the Hinged Ant-eater, about the size of a Rat.

MANIS — Pangolin. The Pangolins live in burrows ; they feed on worms
and insects, principally on the termites and ants ; they are weak and
defenceless, so far as offensive weapons are concerned, but Nature has pro-
vided them with a coat of mail which protects them from injury ; and
when attacked they coil themselves up into a ball, like the common Hedge-
hog, and present a bristly surface, with which few animals are disposed to
meddle. They are found in Asia and Africa.

The Long-tailed Pangolin (M. Tetradactyla) is from two to three feet in
length ; the tail double the length of the body, and flattened ; the head
covered with small scales ; those on the body brown, larger, and their
edges carinated, placed in eleven longitudinal rows ; the under parts
covered with short, rough, blackish-brown hairs: claws brown ; the fore
feet have five, the hind feet only four toes. Native of Senegal.
(Plate 14).

The Short-tailed Pangolin (M. Pentedactyla), a native of the East
Indies, is about thirty-four inches long; and the Jaman Pangolin, found in
Java, measures thirty inches in length.

ORYCTEKOPUS. This genus, on account of its food, was long confounded
with the Ant-eaters, from which, however, it differs remarkably in having
molar teeth, and in its nails being flat instead of sharp and cutting. There
is but one species, the Ground Hog of the Cape Colonists (O. Capensis),
which is about four feet; the tail is two feet long and tapering towards its
tip ; in shape it has been compared to the Hog, but the resemblance is
not very close. They are much sought for as food by the Hottentots ; but
Le Vaillant says, that the flesh has a disagreeable taste, and smells
strongly of formic acid. Is found in the neighbourhood of the Cnpe of
Good Hope.

Family — WITH A SINGLE VENT ; Monotremata.

Genera.

Common Name.

Speciei.

Echidna ----- Hystrix - - - - Spiny Echidna.
Ornithorhynchus - - Paradoxus - - - Rufous Ornithorhynque.

The genus Pamphractus is also of this family.

CHARACTERS OF THE GENERA.

1. ECHIDNA. Snout or bill elongated, and terminating in a small mouth,
provided with a long extensible tongue ; teeth horny, and placed on the
tongue and palate ; feet short, five-toed, with very long stout curved claws,
fit for burrowing ; body covered with spines.

2. ORNITHORHYNCHUS. Muzzle much elongated in form of a duck's beak,
covered with horn, which increasing in thickness at the base, forms a kind
of collar about the forehead and chin ; true teeth none, but in their stead
resting on the gums, but not implanted in the jaws, some flattened,
quadrilateral, fibrocorneous substances, four in each jaw ; head small and
round; eyes small; no external ears; nostrils round, very close to each
other ; tongue large, broad, soft, fleshy, its edges furnished with tolerably
large and black horny papillae ; cheek pouches ; body nearly cylindrical ;
tail short, very wide, and flattened; legs very short and far apart; feet
five-toed, flat^nails, and enveloped in a very wide membrane, which extends
beyond the ends of the toes, forming a broad paddle with an irregular edge,
hind toes connected only as far as the nails ; on the inner hinder part of
the heel a strong, pointed hollow spur, connected with a poison-bag.

3. PAMPHRACTUS (Gr. irac, all, and <j>pa.Krof, armed). Maxillary teeth
sharp ; head narrower than the neck ; snout lengthened and sharp ; eyes
small ; auricles none ; body and legs covered above with imbricated scales,
naked beneath ; tail of moderate length and scaly.

MONOTREMATA. — DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIES.

ECHIDNA. This is one of the remarkable genera which have hitherto
been discovered in New South Wales only, and which are provided with
organs not found in any other known animals. The Echidna probably
form the connecting link between the Myrmecophagos and Ornithorhynchi.

The Spina Echidnce (E. Histrix), called also the Aadeated Ant-eater, is
about seventeen inches long, from the tip of the bill to the tail, and the
body of proportionable bulk ; the upper part is covered with short coarse
hair, from amongst which protrude numerous quills, similar to those of
the Porcupine, but shorter, and which seem arranged in rows. The fore
legs are short and thick ; the hind legs are longer and at the junction of
each hind leg with the foot is a small spur, slightly hooked.

There is another species called the Hairy Echidnas (E. Setosa), which
differs but little from the foregoing.

ORNITHORHYNCHUS. This curious genus was first brought into notice
by Blumenbach in 1803, and named by him from the remarkable form of
its muzzle.

The poisoning apparatus of this animal consists of the spur, which is
situated on the inner and hinder part of the metatarsus of the male, and
connected with a poison-gland, placed immediately under the skin and
close to the hip-joint. The gland consists of numerous lesser glands con-
nected together, and forming a mass about an inch long and half an inch
wide ; from it passes a canal, which descends behind the thigh and leg,

G 2

44

CLASS— MAMMALIA.

ORDER— P ACHYDERMATA.

and terminates in a bag deeply situated in the hollow of the foot. From
this bag another membranous canal passes to the spur, and is continued to
the orifice in that organ. The poison appears to be active in reference to
some animals, but according to M. Quoy's observations, it does not seem
to have any great influence on man, nor is it at Port Jackson generally
thought to be dangerous. In one of Mr. Darwin's excursions in Australia,
he fell in with some of those animals: he thus writes, — "In the dusk of
the evening I took a stroll along a chain of ponds, and had the good
fortune to see several of the famous Ornithorhynchus paradoxus. They
were diving and playing about the surface of the water, but showed so
little of their bodies, that they might easily have been mistaken for
Water-rats. Mr. Browne shot one : certainly it is a most extraordinary
animal ; a stuffed specimen does not at all give a good idea of the appear-
ance of the head and beak when fresh; the latter becoming hard and
contracted," p. 442. They are very active, swim and dive well, and live
principally in rivers and lakes, often rising to the surface to breathe.

Ornithorhynchus.

Two other species are known — the Rufous Omitharhinque and the
Dusky Ornitharhinque.

PAMPHRACTUS. The habits of this animal are not accurately known.

ORDER VH.— PACHYDERMATA. THICK-SKINS.

THIS order includes the Elephant, Rhinoceros, Tapir, Hippopotamus,
Horse, and Pig; all characterised by the thickness of their skins. (Gr.
ira\v(, thick, and Slppa, a skin.)

Family — TRUNKED; Proboscifera.

The nasal organ in the members of this family is elongated, supple, and
muscular. With it they carefully examine all objects brought before them,
it being an organ both of touch and smell ; hence the title proboscis from
the Latin probo, " I prove, test, examine;" and /era, "bearing."

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.

PLATE 15.
O*"CT«. Speeiw. Common Nime.

Elephas Indicus Indian Elephant.

Mastodon .... Giganteum .... Giant Mastodon.

CHARACTERS OF THE GENERA.

1. ELEPHAS. Incisive teeth in the upper jaw, projecting and forming
tusks; none in the lower; molar teeth consisting of three distinct sub-
stances, bone, enamel, and crusta petrosa, and succeeding each other, as
they are worn out, from behind.

2. MASTODON (Gr. /MUTTCC, a teat, and dSovc, a tooth). Incisive teeth
in form of tusks, their transverse section presenting internal, curvilinear
lozenges; molar teeth rectangular, consisting only of bone and enamel,
without any cement, their crowns, when unworn by mastication, studded
with large points in pairs, varying from six to ten, the hindmost having a

posterior stud, but when the points are worn down, presenting lozenges or
trefoils in the different species ; these teeth successive ; lower jaw of
greater comparative length than depth; neck short; seventeen pairs of
ribs ; limbs tall, five-toed.

PROBOSCIFERA. DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIES.

ELEPHAS. This genus includes the largest of the terrestrial animals,
which, although of very unwieldy proportions, is capable, when tamed, of
affording great services to man, and after death furnishes that important
and useful article in commerce called ivory.

The head of the Elephant presents a remarkable peculiarity in the
greatness of its depth, compared with its horizontal length, which propor-
tionably exceeds even that of man, and depends ujwn the great extension
of the cellular structure found in the upper and lateral parts of the bones
of the skull, and the length of the sockets in which the tusks are inserted.
In consequence of this, the opening of the nostrils, around which the root
of the trunk is attached, is situated nearly in the middle of the face, and
the bones of the nose are extremely small, to allow the free motion of that
organ. The eyes are small, and the ears large, rounded, and pendulous.
The trunk is the most remarkable organ possessed by this or any other
animal ; it consists of very numerous small muscles, interwoven in such
manner as to form two parallel tubes, connected with the openings of the
nostrils and the gristles of the nose, and so plentifully supplied with
nerves, that it is endowed with an exquisite sense of feeling, and capable of
performing very minute actions, even to the picking up of a pin ; so that
it may be considered to serve the animal not only as a breathing appa-
ratus, but also as a hand, to which the " small moveable hook," as Pennant
calls it, or rather the finger-like projection at its extremity, seems nearly to
assimilate it. The trunk is capable of extension and retraction, indeed of
motion in every direction : by means of it the Elephant collects ite food,
and conveys it to the mouth, and, in drinking, the water is first drawn up
into it, and then poured into its gullet ; functions which are necessarily
performed by it on account of the extreme shortness of the neck. The
mouth of the Elephant is furnished with grinding teeth, which very much
resemble those of the order Rodentia; they consist of three structures
differing in density and hardness, and therefore constantly presenting a
rough surface, for the trituration of the food previous to swallowing.

The most remarkable, however, of the Elephant's teeth are the tusks,
which are commonly known as ivory : these are absolutely incisive teeth,
being supported by those bones which in all quadrupeds form sockets for
the incisive teeth. The tusks specially differ from the other teeth in l«'ing
only shed once; the milk tusks never exceed two inches in length, they
are cut between five and seven months, and are shed between the first and
second year; soon after which the permanent tusks are cut, and gradually
increases in size.

The permanent tusks vary considerably in size ; in the female they are
small, but in the male they become very large, weighing from fifty to one
hundred and fifty pounds. The value of the Elephant's tusks is shown by
Mr. Gumming, in the account he gives of his trading engagements : —

" Although I voted the trading an intense bore, it was nevertheless well
worth a little time and inconvenience, on account of the enormous profit I
should realise. The price I had paid for the muskets was 161. for each
case containing twenty muskets ; and the value of the ivory I required for
each musket was upwards of 301, being about 3000 per cent., which 1
am informed is reckoned among mercantile men to be a very i'air profit."

Again Mr. Gumming says : —

"While reviewing my extraordinary good fortune' during the last week's
hunting, I could not help deeply regretting that I had not earlier thought
of pursuing the elephants at night with dogs and horses: if I had com-
menced with the dogs only a week sooner, I might have bagged eight or
ten first-rate bulls, which I knew wen: mortally wounded, but were,
nevertheless, not forthcoming. The ivory of these elephants would ha\e
brought me in upwards of 200/. ; and it was vexing to think that many,
if not all of them, were lying rotting in the surrounding forest."

FAMILY— P ROBOSCIFEKA. TRUNKED.

45

" When I shot an ordinary bull elephant, I was accustomed to say to
myself, ' Ah ! a good bull ; tusks at least fifty pounds each ; 4s. 6d. a
pound; bring me in 221. 10s. Capital day's work; help to pay for the
two horses that died last week, or the four that are bitten with ' tsetse,'
and must die in a week or two.' But if, on the other hand, I shot an
elephant with a pair of tusks of unusual size, perfection, or beauty, I at
once devoted them to my collection, and valued them at a tenfold price."

The height of Elephants which have attained their full growth is very
rarely above ten feet, and one wliich measured ten feet six inches, belong-
ing to the vizier of Oude, is mentioned by Mr. Corse as being remarkably
tall. The standard height for Elephants in the East India Company's
service is from seven feet upwards, measuring to the shoulder ; but the
curve of the back is much higher, particularly in the young animal, and
decreases as it advances to maturity ; so that the flattened back is a sure
indication of old age.

Elephants go with young twenty months and eighteen days, according
to the authority of Mr. Corse. When first born they rarely exceed thirty-
four inches in height, and gradually increase till between twenty and
twenty-four years of age, when they seemed to have arrived at maturity.
The parent does not seem particularly attached to its offspring ; for after
having been separated from it a few days, she will take no notice of it,
notwithstanding its cries and efforts to obtain its usual supply.

The sagacity of the Elephant has afforded much interest and amusement,
from the astonishing facts which have been brought forward by zoologists
in support of it. But if the subject be more closely inquired into, it will
be found that this animal does not much exceed the horse in this quality,
and, indeed, is far inferior to the dog.

Our plate contains a representation of the Indian Elephant (E. Indicus),
found in Southern India, Ceylon, Java, and Sumatra.

When tamed the animal is remarkable for its docility, which has been
mistaken by many naturalists for sagacity ; but at the rutting season they
must be kept low, or dangerous consequences may be the result, for at that
season they are subject to paroxysms of rage which impel them to acts of
violence.

The African Elephant (E. Africanus) is of less bulk than the Asiatic
or Indian Elephant. It is now employed in that quarter of the world, as
it still is in Asia, either for state, war, or carriage. At present they are
merely hunted for sport, or for the purpose of obtaining ivory. This sport
is attended with much danger, as the following extract from Mr. Cum-
ming's book, already referred to, abundantly proves : —

" We proceeded silently as might be for a few hundred yards, following
the guide ; when he suddenly pointed, exclaiming, ' Klow ! * and before us
stood a mighty herd of mighty bull elephants, packed together beneath a
shady grove about a hundred and fifty yards in advance. I rode slowly
towards them ; and as soon as they observed me they made a loud
rumbling noise, and, tossing their trunks, wheeled right about and made
off in one direction, crashing through the forest and leaving a cloud of dust
behind them. I was accompanied by a detachment of my dogs, who
assisted me in the pursuit.

" The distance I had come, and the difficulties I had undergone, to
behold these elephants, rose fresh before me. I determined that on this
occasion at least I would do my duty, and, dashing my spurs into ' Sun-
day's ' ribs, I was very soon much too close in their rear for safety. The
elephants now made an inclination to my left, whereby I obtained a good
view of the ivory. The herd consisted of six bulls ; four of them were
full-grown, first-rate elephants ; the other two were fine fellows, but had
not yet arrived at perfect stature. Of the four old fellows, two had much
finer tusks than the rest, and for a few seconds I was undecided which of
these two I would follow ; when, suddenly, the one which I fancied had
the stoutest tusks broke from his comrades, and I at once felt convinced
that he was the patriarch of the herd, and followed him accordingly.
Cantering alongside, I was about to fire, when he instantly turned, and,
uttering a trumpet so strong and shrill, that the earth seemed to vibrate
beneath my feet, he charged furiously after me for several hundred yards

in a direct line, not altering his course in the slightest degree for the trees
of the forest, which he snapped and overthrew like reeds in his headlong
career.

" When he pulled up in his charge, I likewise halted ; and as he
slowly turned to retreat I let fly at his shoulder, ' Sunday ' capering and
prancing and giving me much trouble. On receiving the ball the elephant
shrugged his shoulder, and made off at a free majestic walk. This shot
brought several of the dogs to my assistance which had been following the
other elephants, and on their coming up and barking another headlong
charge was the result, accompanied by the never-failing trumpet as before.
In his charge he passed close to me, when I saluted him with a second
bullet in the shoulder, of which he did not take the slightest notice. I
now determined not to fire again until I could make a steady shot ; but
although the elephant turned repeatedly, ' Sunday ' invariably disappointed
me, capering so that it was impossible to fire. At length exasperated, I
became reckless of the danger, and, springing from the saddle, I approached
the elephant under cover of a tree, and gave him a bullet in the side of the
head, when, trumpeting so shrilly that the forest trembled, he charged
among the dogs, from whom he seemed to fancy that the blow had come ;
after which he took up a position in a grove of thorns, with his head
towards me. I walked up very near, and as he was in the act of charging,
I (being in those days under wrong impressions as to the impracticability
of bringing down an elephant with a shot in the forehead) stood coolly in
his path until he was within fifteen paces of me, and let drive at the
hollow of his forehead, in the vain expectation that by so doing I should
end his career. The shot only served to increase his fury — an effect
which, I have remarked, shots in the head invariably produce; and
continuing his charge with incredible quickness and impetuosity, he all but
terminated my elephaut-hunting for ever. A large party of the Bechuanas
who had come up yelled out simultaneously, imagining I was killed, for
the elephant was at one moment almost on the top of me : I however
escaped by my activity, and by dodging round the bushy trees. As the
elephant was charging, an enormous thorn ran deep into the sole of my
foot, the old Badenoch brogues, which I that day sported, being worn
through ; and this caused me severe pain, laming me throughout the rest
of the conflict.

" The elephant held on through the forest at a sweeping pace ; but he
was hardly out of sight when I was loaded and in the saddle, and soon
once more alongside. About this time I heard Isaac blazing away at
another bull ; but when the elephant charged, his cowardly heart failed
him, and he very soon made his appearance at a safe distance in my rear.
My elephant kept crashing along at a steady pace, with blood streaming
from his wounds; the dogs, which were knocked up with fatigue and
thirst, no longer barked around him, but had dropped astern. It was
long before I again fired, for I was afraid to dismount, and ' Sunday ' was
extremely troublesome. At length I fired sharp right and left from the
saddle : he got both balls behind the shoulder and made a long charge
after me, rumbling and trumpeting as before. The whole body of the
Bamangwato men had now come up, and were following a short distance
behind me. Among these was Mollyeon, who volunteered to help ; and
being a very swift and active fellow, he rendered me important service by
holding my fidgety horse's head while I fired and loaded. I then fired six
broadsides from the saddle, the elephant charging almost every time, and
pursuing us back to the main body in our rear, who fled in all directions
as he approached.

" The sun had now sunk behind the tops of the trees : it would very
soon be dark, and the elephant did not seem much distressed, notwith-
standing all he had received. I recollected that my time was short, there-
fore at once resolved to fire no more from the saddle, but to go close up to
him and fire on foot. Riding up to him I dismounted, and, approaching
very near, I gave it him right and left in the side of the head, upon which
he made a long and determined charge after me ; but I was now very
reckless of his charges, for I saw that he could not overtake me, and in a
twinkling I was loaded, and, again approaching, I fired sharp right and

46

CLASS— M A M M A L I A.

ORDER— P ACHYDERMATA.

left behind his shoulder. Again he charged with a terrific trumpet, which
sent ' Sunday ' flying through the forest. This was his last charge. The
wounds which he had received began to tell on his constitution, and he
now stood at bay beside a thorny tree, with the dogs barking around him.
These, refreshed by the evening breeze, and perceiving that it was nearly
over with the elephant, had once more come to my assistance. Having
loaded, I drew near and fired right and left at his forehead. On receiving
these shots, instead of charging he tossed his trunk up and down, and by
various sounds and motions, most gratifying to the hungry natives, evinced
that his demise was near. Again I loaded, and fired my last shot behind
his shoulder : on receiving it, he turned round the bushy tree beside which
he stood, and I ran round to give him the other barrel, but the mighty old
monarch of the forest needed no more ; before I could clear the bushy tree
he fell heavily on his side, and his spirit had fled. My feelings at this
moment can only be understood by a few brother Nimrods, who have had
the good fortune to enjoy a similar encounter. I never felt so gratified on
any former occasion as I did then."

Notwithstanding our limited space, we feel tempted to introduce
Mr. Cumming's interesting account of the uses to which the natives
convert the several parts of this animal : —

"The manner in which the elephant is cut up is as follows: — The
rough outer skin is first removed, in large sheets, from the side which lies
uppermost. Several coats of an under skin are then met with. This skin
is of a tough and pliant nature, and is used by the natives for making
water-bags, in which they convey supplies of water from the nearest vley
or fountain (which is often ten miles distant) to the Elephant. They
remove this inner skin witli caution, taking care not to cut it with the
assagai ; and it is formed into water-bags by gathering the corners and
edges, and transfixing the whole on a pointed wand. The flesh is then
removed in enormous sheets from the ribs, when the hatchets come into
play, with which they chop through, and remove individually, each colossal
rib. The bowels are thus laid bare; and in the removal of these the
leading men take a lively interest and active part, for it is throughout and
around the bowels that the fat of the Elephant is mainly found.

" There are few things which a Bechuana prizes so highly as fat of any
description ; they will go an amazing distance for a small portion of it.
They use it principally in cooking their sun-dried biltongue, and they also
eat it with their corn. The fat of the Elephant lies in extensive layers and
sheets in his inside, and the quantity which is obtained from a full-grown
bull, in high condition, is very great. Before it can be obtained, the
greater part of the bowels must be removed. To accomplish this, several
men eventually enter the immense cavity of his inside, where they
continue mining away with their assagais, and handing the fat to their
comrades outside until all is bare. While this is transpiring with the sides
and bowels, other parties are equally active in removing the skin and flesh
from the remaining parts of the carcase. The natives have a horrid
practice on these occasions of besmearing their bodies, from the crown of
the head to the sole of the foot, with the black and clotted gore ; and in
this anointing they assist one another, each man taking up the fill of both
his hands, and spreading it over the back and shoulders of his friend.
Throughout the entire proceeding an incessant and deafening clamour of
many voices and confused sounds is maintained, and violent jostling and
wrestling are practised by every man, elbowing the breasts and coun-
tenances of his fellows, all slippery with gore, as he endeavours to force
his way to the venison through the dense intervening ranks, while the
sharp and ready assagai gleams in every hand. The angry voices and gory
appearances of these naked savages, combined with their excited and
frantic gestures and glistening arms, presented an effect so wild and
striking, that when I first beheld the scene I contemplated it in the
momentary expectation of beholding one half of the gathering turn their
weapons against the other.

" The trunk and feet are considered a delicacy, and a detachment are
employ. I on these. The four feet are amputated at the fetlock joint, and
the trunk, which at the base is about two feet in thickness, is cut into

convenient lengths. Trunk and feet are then baked, preparatory to their
removal to head-quarters. The manner in which this is done is as
follows : — A party, provided with sharp-pointed sticks, dig a hole in the
ground for each foot and a portion of the trunk. These holes are about
two feet deep, and a yard in width ; the excavated earth is embanked
around the margin of the hole. This work being completed, they next
collect an immense quantity of dry branches and trunks of trees, of which
there is always a profusion scattered around, having been broken by the
elephants in former years. These they pile above the holes to the height
of eight or nine feet, and then set fire to the heap. When these strong
fires have burnt down, and the whole of the wood is reduced to ashes, the
holes and the surrounding earth are heated in a high degree. Ten or
twelve men then stand round the pit, and rake out the ashes with a pole
about sixteen feet in length, having a hook at the end. They relieve one
another in quick succession, each man running in and raking the ashes for
a few seconds, and then pitching the pole to his comrade and retreating,
since the heat is so intense tliat it is scarcely to be endured. When all the
ashes are thus raked out beyond the surrounding bank of earth, each
Elephant's foot and portion of the trunk is lifted by two athletic men,
standing side by side, who place it on their shoulders ; and approaching
the pit together, they heave it into it. The long pole is now again
resumed, and with it they shove in the heated bank of earth upon the
foot, shoving and raking until it is completely buried in the earth. The
hot embers, of which there is always a great supply, are then raked into a
heap above the foot, and another bonfire is kindled over each, which is
allowed to burn down and die a natural death ; by which time the
enormous foot or trunk will be found to be equally baked throughout its
inmost parts. When the foot is supposed to be ready, it is taken out of
the ground with pointed sticks, and is first well beaten, and then scraped
with an assagai, whereby adhering particles of sand are got rid of. The
outside is then pared oft', and it is transfixed with a sharp stake for facility
of carriage.

" The feet thus cooked are excellent, as is also the trunk, which very
much resembles buffalo's tongue. The reason why such large fires are
requisite is owing to the mass of the flesh that must be baked. In raking
the sand on the foot, the natives are careful not to rake the red-hot embers
in with it, which would burn and destroy the meat ; whereas the sand or
earth protects it, imparting an even and steady heat. When the natives
have cut up the Elephant, and removed the large masses of flesh, &c., to
their respective temporary kraals around, they sit down for a little to rest
and draw their breath, and for a short time smoking and snuffing are
indulged in."

MASTODON. — The animals belonging to this genus are now extinct, at
least they have not been met with alive in any part of the world which has
been explored up to this time, but only in a fossil state, and till within
the last few years, it was believed only in a certain district of North
America. The diligent investigations of Cuvier, however, have proved
that they are found not only in North America, but among the fossil
remains of Europe. Humboldt has obtained specimens of the genus from
South America; and very recently, Dr. Buckland and Mr. Clift have
shown that they are found in Asia also, several parts of two new s]» ci. s
having been brought by Mr. Crawford from the Birman Empire, and
subjected to their examination.

The Gigantic Mastodon (M. Giganteum) measures about ten feet in
height and fifteen in length, so that in the latter dimension it is four feet
longer than an Elephant of the same height, which never exceeds eleven
feet. It appears almost certain that the Mastodon fed upon soft vege-
tables, roots, or aquatic plants ; that it was provided with a trunk ; that
in height it did not exceed the Elephant ; and that it was not made like
the Hippopotamus to live and swim about in the water, but was actually
a terrestrial animal.

Several species have been fount! in various parts of the world.

FAMILY— EPROBOSCIFERA. TRUNKLESS.

47

Head of Tap

Family — TRUNKLESS ; Eproboscifera.

Destitute of the nasal elongation, or trunk, with which the former family
is endowed.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.
PLATE 16.

Genera. Species. Common Name.

Rhinoceros .... Indicus .... Indian Rhinoceros.
Tapirus ..... Americanus ... American Tapir.
Hippopotamus ... Amphibius ... Hippopotamus.

Another genus of this family is the well-known Sus.

CHARACTERS OF THE GENERA.

1. RHINOCEROS (Gr. fiiv, the nose, and wpac, a horn). Incisive teeth either
deficient, or two in each jaw, or four in each jaw ; no cuspids ; molar seven
on a side in each jaw, compound and tubercular ; muzzle elongated, and the
upper lip lengthened and moveable ; upon the nose are placed one or two
solid horns ; eyes small and high up ; ears much shorter than the head,
with funnel-shaped bases ; body covered with thick, tough skin, sparingly
beset with hairs ; tail short ; feet three-toed, their joints enveloped in the
skin as far as the nails, which are short, rounded, upright, and face forwards.

2. TAPIRUS. Incisive teeth six and cuspid, two in each jaw, the latter
in the upper jaw very small ; molar teeth on each

side of the upper jaw seven, in the lower jaw six ;
upper lip and nose produced into a short, moveable,
depending trunk, at the extremity of which are
the broad transverse nostrils ; ears of moderate
size, oval; eyes small, dull; skin very tough, in
two species covered thinly with close, smooth,
short hair, in the third thickly with thick, long hair ; neck in some species
maned, in other not so ; tail very short ; two ventral teats ; fore feet four-
toed, hind feet three-toed, and the tips of all the toes enclosed in small
hoofs.

3. HIPPOPOTAMUS. Teeth not projecting beyond the lips, of which the
upper is large and thick ; incisive four in each jaw ; molars six on each side
in either jaw ; ears of moderate size and pointed ; body slightly studded
with hairs; tail short; mamma; ventral ; feet four-toed, enveloped in skin
and each bearing a small projecting nail.

4. Sus (Gr. CTUJ, a hog). Incisive teeth six in each jaw, or four in the
upper and six in the lower law ; cuspid

teeth differing in form and direction in

different species ; molar seven or five on a

side in each jaw; snout long, truncated,

and very moveable; eyes small; ears of

moderate size, pointed ; body covered with

bristles more or less coarse ; feet four-toed, Boar's Head!

the front two large and hoofed, the lateral hinder ones not reaching the

O

ground ; in some species there is only a single hind toe, and that on the
inner side ; tail short ; teats ten.

EPROBOSCIFERA. — DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIES.

RHINOCEROS. The animals forming this genus are of heavy proportions,
and two of them are next in size to the Elephant. Their neck is very
short, and the body stands higher on the limbs than in either Elephant or
Hippopotamus, although the belly is large and pendent; the tail is short,
and not reaching so low even as the hocks. The skin is very thick and
tough, resembling that of the Elephant, and sparingly covered with hair.
The head is small in proportion to the animal's size, and of a triangular
form. The aperture of the mouth small, and the upper lip pendent, ter-
minating in a point, and very moveable, so as to render it a prehensile organ,
which the animal employs in cropping the branches of trees or shrubs.

The most remarkable character, however, of this genus is. the horn or
horns upon its nose ; they are not deciduous, nor have they any bony core,
but are supported merely upon a projecting knob or process of the nose
bones, which is received into a corresponding hollow at the base of the

horn. Its structure consists of coarse hairs matted together with horny
substance ; these coarse hairs are placed parallel to each other ; their ex-
treme points on the lower half, and especially on the hind part of the front
horn and on the greater part of the hind one, project in many places, ren-
dering the surface irregular, and in some parts giving it a rough feel like
that of a brush ; the upper part of the horn, on the contrary, is smooth and
plain like that of Oxen. The length of the horn varies in different species ;
where there are two the anterior is always the longer.

This genus is found only in very warm climates in the old world, and
not unfrequently where Elephants are met with. They prefer marshy
districts, probably on account of the toughness of their hide, and are fond
of wallowing in the mire like Pigs. They feed on the leaves and branches
of trees.

These animals are divided into two sections: 1. Those with one horn;
and, 2, those with two horns.

The Indian Rhinoceros (R. Indicus), also called the Unicorn. This
animal is nine feet six inches in length, and four feet eight inches in height,
and its general colour is deep grey tinged with violet. It lives in shady
forests in the neighbourhood of rivers and marshy places. It grunts like a
Hog ; and after nine months' gestation brings one young at a birth, which is
about three feet in length, and has a callosity indicating the situation of the
future horn. Its flesh is eaten, and every part is esteemed medicinal ; the
horn especially is in great repute as an antidote against poison, and cups
made of it are considered to possess the same virtues. (Plate 16.)
The Javanese Rhinoceros is another species.

Of the second class, the African Rhinoceros (R. Africanus) is a specimen.
It is about eleven feet and six inches long, and seven feet high. It is
distinguished from the Indian species by the absence of incisive teeth ; by
its second horn, which is of small size, conical, and compressed ; and by
its skin not having any folds. It is a native of Africa, and was formerly
found in the neighbourhood of the Cape of Good Hope, but, as civilization
has advanced, it has retired into more sequestered districts.

Mr. Cumming thus describes the four species found in South Africa : —
" Of the Rhinoceros there are four varieties in South Africa, distinguished
by the Bechuanus by the names of the Borele or Black Rhinoceros, the
Keitloa or two-horned Black Rhinoceros, the Muchocho or Common White
Rhinoceros, and the Kobaoba or Long-horned White Rhinoceros. Both
varieties of the Black Rhinoceros are extremely fierce and dangerous, and
rush headlong and unprovoked at any object which attracts their attention.
They never attain much fat, and their flesh is tough, and not much
esteemed by the Bechuanas. Their food consists almost entirely of the
thorny branches of the wait-a-bit thorns. Their horns are much shorter
than those of the other varieties, seldom exceeding eighteen inches in length.
They are finely polished with constant rubbing against the trees. The
skull is remarkably formed, its most striking feature being the tremendous
thick ossification in which it ends above the nostrils. It is on this mass
that the horn is supported. The Black Rhinoceros is subject to paroxysms
of unprovoked fury, often ploughing up the ground for several yards with
its horn, and assaulting large bushes in the most violent manner. On these
bushes they work for hours with their horns, at the same time snorting and
blowing loudly, nor do they leave them in general until they have broken
them into pieces. All the four varieties delight to roll and wallow in mud,
with which their nigged hides are generally encrusted. Both varieties of
the Black Rhinoceros are much smaller and more active than the White,
and are so swift that a horse with a rider on his back can rarely overtake
them. The two varieties of the White Rhinoceros are so similar in habits,
that the description of one will serve for both ; the principal difference
consisting in the length and set of the anterior horn ; that of the Muchocho
averaging from two to three feet in length, and pointing backwards ; while
the horn of the Kobaoba often exceeds four feet in length, and inclines
forward from the nose at an angle of 45°. The posterior horn of either
species seldom exceed six or seven inches in length. The Kobaoba is thi-
nner of the two, and it is found very far in the interior, chiefly to the
eastward of the Limpopo. Its horns are very valuable for loading-rods,

48

CLASS— M A M M A L I A.

ORDER— P A C H Y D E R M A T A.

supplying a substance at once suitable for a sporting implement and ex-
cellent for the purpose. Both these varieties of Rhinoceros attain an
enormous size, being the animals next in magnitude to the Elephant. They
feed solely on grass, carry much fat, and their flesh is excellent, being
preferable to beef. They are of a much milder and more inoffensive dis-
position than the Black Rhinoceros, rarely charging their pursuer."

Mr. Gumming had many close interviews with those animals ; one instance
of which he thus records : — " In the evening of the 28th I shot an old bull
Koodoo. At night I watched die water near my camp with Kleinboy.
After a long time had elapsed an enormous old bull Muchocho, or White
Rhinoceros, came slowly on, and commenced drinking within fifteen yards
of us, and next minute a large herd of zebras and blue wildebeest. It was
long before the Muchocho would turn his side; when he did, we fired
together, and away he went with zebras and wildbeests concealed in a cloud
of dust. Next came an old bull Borele ; we fired together, and he made
off, blowing loudly, after charging round and round, seeking some object
on which to wreak his vengeance. Next came another Borele', and he got
two bullets into his person. The fourth that came was another old bull
Muchocho ; he ran forty yards and fell. And fifth came a cow Borele ;
she fell dead to the shots. Three other Rhinoceroses came about me, but
I was too drowsy to watch any longer, and fell asleep."

TAPIRUS. The animals forming this genus have some resemblance to the
Rhinoceros, at least in the thickness of their hide, which is often from two-
thirds to three-fourths of an inch thick ; but in their general form, except
in standing higher on the legs, they are more akin to the hog kind, from
which, however, they are distinguished by the small size of their cuspid
teeth, which do not show like the projecting tusks of the boar ; by the hair
in some species forming a sort of mane, which extends from the forehead
to the withers ; but principally by the development of the upper lip and
muzzle into a kind of short proboscis or trunk. This trunk though unsuited
for performing the delicate offices to which the Elephant's trunk is so well
adapted, is nevertheless of sufficient length to assist in gathering towards
its mouth, as the reaper's arm does the corn towards the sickle, the
vegetable food upon which principally it feeds. The Tapirs are shy,
retired animals, living in the marshy parts of deep forests, from which they
sally out at night, or during the earlier part of the day, in search of food.
They feed principally upon fruit, sugar-canes, and on the buds and shoots
of trees ; but even when at large they are very voracious and feed indis-
criminately upon whatever they meet with.

The American Tapir (T. Americanus) is about six feet in length from
the tip of the trunk to the origin of the tail, and three feet eight inches high
to the top of the shoulder. The female is larger than the male, and has
often so much white hair as to give her a light roan colour ; and in the
Cayenne species she has not any mane, which, however, is distinct enough
in the Brazilian. They feed on vegetables, and do great injury to the
sugar plantations especially ; several of them sallying forth together, or at
least a whole family, as the young follow their dam for a long time.
When anticipating danger they herd together, and although usually harm-
less, they become so fierce and bold that they seize hold of their enemy
with their teeth and pull him down so as to tear him more easily. The
inhabitants along the eastern coast of Brazil make use of the Tapir's flesh
for food, which very much resembles pork. (Plate 16.)

Other species — the Mountain Tapir and the Malay Tapir.

HIPPOPOTAMUS — River Horse. Of this genus there is known but one
living species (H. Amphibius), the size of which is equal, if not superior,
to that of the Rhinoceros. The Hippopotamus has a very heavy, unwieldy
form, the body being large and round, with the belly nearly touching the
ground on account of the shortness of the legs, which are very thick, and
terminated by large feet. The mouth is of great width, and the lips
thick and broad, especially the upper; they are beset with stiff, short
bristles. The teeth of the Hippopotamus are of a very close texture, and
extremely white, and on this account are preferred to ivory by the
dentistB in the manufacture of artificial teeth. The colour of the Hip]«>
potamus when it leaves the water is mouse colour, but when the animal

has become dry, the general colour is brownish black, a little lighter on the
belly.

The Hippopotamus, when undisturbed, is a mild and gentle animal,
extremely cautious and shy, and when ashore very timid, but in the water
is a dangerous antagonist, more especially at pairing time, when he be-
comes very savage, and occasionally destroys passengers who have acci-
dentally come upon him in crossing the fords.

The Hippopotamus is found only in Africa, and probably extended
formerly over the whole of that continent, excepting those countries situate
to the north-west of Mount Atlas ; it is most common in Southern Africa,
but even here is gradually being destroyed as civilization advances north-
ward. In Lower Egypt, where it formerly existed, it is not now found,
but only in Upper Egypt — nor is it very numerous here.

Sus — Smiie. The animals forming this genus are repulsive, from their
habitual disposition to wallowing in dirt and filth of all kinds, from their
morose and often ferocious temper, and from their unsightly form and gait.
Yet swine serve a most important purpose in the general economy of
nature, devouring the refuse which other animals will not touch, and con-
verting it into useful and valuable articles of food, and other purposes. Not,
however, that it feeds indiscriminately, for where it has opportunity, it as
readily selects those eatables which are more suitable to it as other animals.
The author of the "Pan Suecicus" has in the " Ama-nitates Academics."
of Linnseus proved this beyond contradiction, from a careful observation of
the different kinds of vegetable food chosen or rejected by different domestic
animals ; for he found that, whilst the Ox eats 276 and rejects 218, the
Sheep eats 387 and rejects 141, the Goat 449 and rejects 126, and the
Horse 262 and rejects 212, the Hog eats 72 and refuses 171 plants. The
females are usually very prolific, and litter once or twice a year, bringing
from six to ten pigs at a farrow, to which they are strongly attached, and
defend with as much courage as the male.

Swine are arranged into three sections, Hogs, Babyroussas, and Peccaries.

The first class embraces the Common Hog (S. Scrofa), from which have
sprung five varieties: — The Hog (S. Domesticus), of which there are
several breeds ; the Turkish Swine (S. Tursica) ; the Chinese Pig (S.
Simensis) ; the Guinea Hog (S. Porcus) ; and the Single-toed Pig (S.
Monongulus).

The second class includes the genus Barbarussa, and the third the
Peccaries.

The genus PHACOCHCERUS (Gr. ^awc, a wart, and x<"P°£» SWIM), is of
the family Setigera. These animals, commonly named Engalla, have great
resemblance to swine, but are more thick-set and clumsy in their make.
Their snout is extremely broad and flat, and their eyes so close to each
other that they can only see directly forwards ; these, together with the
wattle-like processes depending from the lower edge of the orbits of one
species, give them a very ferocious aspect. Whilst young they are lively
and good tempered, but as they arrive at their full age they become savage
and prefer solitude. They are natives of Africa and feed on vegetable
substances, grubbing up the earth in search of roots like Pigs.

Of the family Lamnungvia we have two genera : Lipura (Gr. At nrovpitf,
wanting a tail), the existence of which is not yet established, and Hyrax
(Gr. vc or OT/C, a pig), which seems to connect the clawed with the
hoofed animals, the structure of its molar teeth resembling that of the
Rhinoceros in miniature, and its plantigrade motion and general form with
the Cavice. There appears to be but one species (H. Setosus), the Rock
Badger of the Cape; Bristly Daman or Daman Israel. They are about
seventeen inches in length, are found in Abyssinia mid Egypt, and are used
as food by the Arabs of Mount Libanus and Arabia Petra>a. Mr. Brace
is probably correct in his opinion that this is the animal mentioned in
Psalm civ. 18, and in Proverbs, xxx. 26, under the name of Conies.

Of the family NASUTA there is one extinct genus — the l'<:l<i'»f/ierum
(Gr. wa\awv, ancient, and Oripiov, a beast), live species of which are enu-
merated by Cuvier, varying from the size of a hare to that of a horse.

FAMILY— S O L I P E D A. SINGLE-TOED.

49

Family- — SINGLE-TOED ; Sdipeda.

So called because they have but one external toe — an undivided hoof;
within the hoof, however, and beneath the skin, two toes are represented.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.

PLATE 17.
Genus. Species. Common Name.

Kquus

fCaballus ------ Horse.

< Asinus ------- Ass.

(Zebra Zebra.

CHARACTERS OF THE GENERA.

EQUUS. lu each jaw six incisive teeth with flat crowns ; cuspid teeth
small, conical, and standing apart by themselves in a gap between the
incisive and molar teeth, sometimes wanting in the upper jaw of the female ;
molar teeth twelve in each jaw, six on a side ; body covered with hair,
mane generally flowing; feet single-toed, and covered with an undivided
hoof; teats inguinal.

SOLIPEDA. DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIES.

In this genus are found two animals, the Horse and Ass, which from
the earliest periods have been domesticated by man, serve to the important
purposes of carriage and draught during life, and after death afford their
hair, skin, and hoofs, as articles of commerce.

They are vegetable feeders, and repay, by the improvement in their
breed and value, the pains which are bestowed upon them. They go with
young eleven months, and bring forth one young one at a time, which is
called a Foal.

The Horse in its wildest state is found about the Lake Aral, near
Kuzneck ; on the river Tom in the southern parts of Siberia ; in the
Mongolian Deserts ; and in the Kalkas, north-west of China. They live in
herds, and are extremely shy and vigilant, always having a sentinel on the
look-out whilst they feed, and upon the least alarm rushing off with great
rapidity. They are hunted by the Kalmucks on horseback ; and for the
purpose of arresting their speed these people are accustomed to fly hawks
at them, which fastening themselves upon the Horse, annoy him, and his
attention being diverted, in his attempts to free himself, his speed is dimi-
nished, and he is soon overtaken by his pursuer.

Horses are not found within the Arctic circle, but they exist as high as
Norway and Iceland, where they are small and of a peculiar variety. In
South America they are found wild in large herds ; these are not, however,
considered indigenous, but as the offspring of the horses introduced by the
Spaniards in their early visits to that continent.

In Arabia, Horses are found in the highest perfection, as if it were to
compensate for the attention and kindness with which they are treated
To the Arab, his Horse is as dear as his children : with them it shares his
tent, and is equally the object of his solicitude. During the day the Horses
are usually saddled, and at the tent door; but at night they rest under the
same covering, and amidst the family of their master : they are never beaten
or spurred, and are directed in their course merely by a slight switch.

The Horses most commonly used in this country for agricultural pur-
poses are the Cleveland Bay and the Suffolk Punch. The black Cart
Horse is also in common use, but from its unwieldy size is incapable of
doing so much work as smaller and more compact Horses.

Our engraving contains a fine figure of the Equus Cabidlus — the Generous
Horse of Pennant ; also one of the Ass (Equus Asinus).

The Wild Ass (Onager) of the ancients, and Koulan of the Tartars,
is the stock whence proceeds our domestic Ass. In the autumn they
migrate from Tartary into the warmer climates of Persia and India, where
they pass the winter, and afterwards return to their original habitation.
They are very shy and of great speed. They are hunted by the Tartars
for the sake of their flesh, which is by them much esteemed. Our
domestic Ass, however, has a dull, heavy look, his head stooping ; his ears
slouching; the mane short; the body covered with rough, ash-coloured
hair ; the tail naked and furnished only with a long tuft at its tip ; and the

shoulders marked with a black stripe. Despised and abused as he too
frequently is in this country, the^ Ass has a very different appearance
wherever he is well groomed and looked after ; in proof of which many
examples might be given.

The Ass is patient under ill usage, and persevering in labour ; indifferent
with respect to food, being contented with a thistle, or any other vegetable
it may meet with, but rather preferring plantain, for which it has been
observed to neglect every other herb in the pasture.

The Zebra rather resembles the Ass than the Horse (Plate 17), par-
ticularly in the shortness of the neck, the greater length of the head and
ears, and the extremity of the tail being alone furnished with hairs. But
the Zebra is remarkably distinguished from each of those animals by a kind
of dewlap or loose skin, which depends from the throat.

The Zebra is a beautiful animal : the ground colour of the coat is of a
yellowish white, and the muzzle brownish black ; the stripes on the fore-
head and mouth are reddish. Eight black stripes mark the neck, and
twelve the trunk, of which the last two or three join obliquely at the lower
part, to harmonise with the horizontal stripes on the thighs and legs, and a
similar disposition in front is observed near the lower part of the shoulder.
The cry of the Zebra is very peculiar, and by some said to resemble a post
horn ; it more frequently exerts it when alone than in company. Several
have been brought to England, but although commonly submissive to their
keeper, on the slightest irritation they will bite and kick with great
violence.

ORDER VIII.— RUMINANTIA. CUDCHEWERS.

THE animals belonging to this order are characterised by the faculty they
possess of returning the food, which they had recently swallowed, again to
their mouth, for a second and a thorough mastication. During this process
the animal is at rest. The Ruminant Animals are the most useful to man.

Family — CAMEL-LIKE ; Cameloida.

This family includes the Camels proper, the Llama, and the Musk ; the
first species resembles the Pachydermata more than the others ; while the
Musk differs but little from the ordinary Ruminantia.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.

PLATE 18.
Genera. Species. Common Name.

Camellus ----- Dromedarius Dromedary.

Auchenia ----- Llama ------ Llama.

Moschus ----- Javanieus ----- Java Musk.

CHARACTERS OF THE GENERA.

1. CAMELUS (Gr. KapiXos, from Heb. ^>D3, a Camel). Upper lip
divided, incisor teeth in the lower jaw ; cuspidate in one or both jaws, and
eighteen or twenty molar teeth ; the scaphoid and cuboid bones of the
tarsus distinct ; two toes, each bearing a claw or nail ; callosities on the
knees and chest ; stomach provided with a curious contrivance for holding
water.

2. AUCHENIA. A genus, according to Illiger, but a subgenus of
Camelus, according to Cuvier : see article CAMELUS.

3. MOSCHUS (Gr. pocrxot, a Musk). No incisive teeth in the upper, but
eight in the lower jaw ; in the upper jaw of the male two long cuspid
teeth extending far beyond the lips, curved backwards, and either rounded
or flattened on the outer surface ; none in the female ; molar six on each
side in either jaw with tubercular crowns, the first in the upper, and the
first two in the lower jaw, provided with cutting edges and points ; nose
long and narrow ; tail short, in some little more than a tubercle.

CAMELOIDA. — DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIES.

CAMELUS — the Camel. There is scarcely a single genus in the whole
animal creation more interesting and useful than that now under considera-

50

CLASS— M A M M A L I A.

ORDER— K UMINANTIA.

tion. It appears to form a connecting link between the Pachydermata and
the Ruminantia. The muzzle is long, and the bones of the face, particu-
larly at the fore part, very much flattened ; the upper lip divided. The
neck is long and slender, and is generally carried in a double curved direc-
tion, like the italicy reversed. The back bears one or two, or no hunches,
which has given occasion to Illiger to divide the genus into two — Camelvs,
or those which have one or two hunches, and Auc/tenia, which have them
not : this, however, is a matter of little consequence, as they resemble each
other in their great peculiarities.

Camels are harmless, inoffensive, and patient of fatigue and hunger ; they
serve for beasts of burthen in the East ; of their milk cheese is made, and
their wool furnishes many other parts of the Arabian economy ; their flesh
is also occasionally eaten. The Camel and Dromedary are natives of the
old, whilst the other species are only found in the new world.

Cuvier has divided them into subgenera, the Camels and the Llamas, the
latter of which are the Auchenia of Illiger.

The Camels, or those which have one or two hunches, include —

The One-hunched Camel (C. Dromedarius), commonly called the Drome-
dary ; it has but a single hunch, which rises nearly in the middle of the
back; it is a native of Africa and Asia, and is used commonly as a beast
of burthen in Egypt and Arabia : the African Dromedaries are the most
hardy, those of Arabia the swiftest The common sort travel about thirty
or forty miles a day, and they will carry a burthen of 1,000 or 1,200
pounds weight. Whilst being loaded they are accustomed to lie down,
and if there be put upon them more than they can bear, they will not rise
till part be taken off. They are also used for the saddle, but are rough
trotters. (Plate 18.)

The Bactrian Camel (C. Bactrianus) very much resembles the preceding,
except in having two hunches on his back ; one of which is just above the
shoulders, and the other on the loins : he stands about the same height as
the Dromedary, and is made use of for similar puqjoses.

Those without hunches (the Auchenia of Illiger) are the Llamas of the
new world (Plate 18). Cuvier states that the toes are not united by
membranes, as in the former species, but this is not correct. The Llama
(C. Llama) is about the size of a Stag, with a long shaggy coat of a
reddish-grey colour ; the back is straight, having no hunch. The neck is
much bent, and in rather an elegant form ; and the animal does not carry
the head in the awkward manner of the Camel.

This is the most important beast of burthen in the South American con-
tinent, and was the only one known to the natives previously to the arrival
of the Spaniards. They carry burthens to the weight of 100 to 150
pounds. They are docile, but move with great gravity when domesticated,
and no blows can force them to change their pace. If fatigued they imme-
diately lie down, and will not again move until rested, in spite of every
effort to impel them forwards. When angry, they eject their saliva on the
offender, even to the distance of ten paces. In the wild state they asso-
ciate in large herds, and, while feeding, one keeps watch on some high
pinnacle; on perceiving the approach of any one he neighs, and the whole
herd gallops off with great swiftness.

The species C. Vicunna is about the size of a Sheep, covered with a long
and very fine wool, of a dull purple colour ; the belly white ; shaped much
like the former, but much smaller.

MOSCHUS — the Musk. The animals which form this genus are all natives
of the East, and derive their name from the circumstance of one of them
furnishing the perfume musk, which is contained in a bag in the abdominal
region. They are timid animals, and extremely nimble.

The Thibet Musk (M. Moschiferus) is about three feet three inches in
length ; two feet three to the top of the shoulder, and two feet nine to the
top of the hunch in height ; hair thick and crisp, of various colours, but
principally brown ; tail a mere tubercle. They inhabit the kingdom of
Thibet, the province of Mohang Meng in China, Tonquin, and Bontan •
also about the Lake Bachal, near the Rivers Jenesea and Argun. They are
naturally very shy, love solitude, and live on mountains most wild" and
difficult of access. They are hunted, an occupation of great danger, for the

sake of their musk ; the bag containing which the hunters cut olF, and tie
up for sale.

The Meminna species, about seventeen inches long, is found in Ceylon.

The Napu Musk (M. Javauicus) is about twenty inches long and thirteen
hif;h, but is much higher behind than at the shoulder ; the top of tlie head
very flat ; the general colour is mottled-ferruginous ; the tail two or three
inches long, and while beneath. It is called Napu by the natives, is found
among the thickets on the sea-shore, and feeds principally on the berries of
a species of Ardisia; and, if taken young, can be easily tamed. (PI. 18.)

The Kanchil Musk cannot be tamed; it is so alert anil running as to
have given rise to the Malay proverb for a rogue, "as cunning as a
Kanchil." When caught in the nooses laid for them they feign death, but
the moment they are incautiously untied they start off and escape.

Family — SOLID-HORSED ; Sdidicornia.

The Stags (Cervus) and the Giraffes (Camelopardalis) constitute this
family.

Genera.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.

PLATE 19.

Species. Common Name.

I Alces - - - - Elk or Deer.

Cervus .-----/ Tarandus - - Rein-deer.

(Capreolus - - - Roebuck.

Camelopardalis - - - Giraffa - - - - Giraffe or Camelopard.

CHARACTERS OF THE GENERA.

1. CERVUS (Gr. Ktpac, a horn). Antlers solid, deciduous, and not
having any horny covering ; entirely wanting hi the female, except in one
species; tear-pits; feet bisulcated or cloven.

2. CAMELOPARDALIS (Lat. Camelus, a Camel, and Pardus, a Panther).
Horns short, slightly conical, not deciduous, covered with a velvet-like
skin, and tufted at the superior extremities ; bony tubercle between and
below the eyes ; neck very long and taper.

SOLIDICORNIA. — DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIES.

CERVUS — Deer. This genus of animals is the only one of the order
Ruminantia which possess deciduous horns, or antlers, as they should be
properly called, since they are mere bony processes, without any horny
covering at all ; in which respect they resemble the Camelopardalis, but
differ from it in dropping the antlers yearly, whilst in the Camelopard they
are never changed. The growth of the antlers begins early in the spring,
and they rise from the forehead of the animal at first covered by the skin ;
through this, however, the antler soon bursts, and it forms a kind of ring
at the root, which is called the bur of the horn ; it continues to grow, and
as long as the growth continues, the horn or antler is covered with a kind
of cuticle resembling velvet, which adheres firmly to it ; but, as soon as
the horn ceases to grow, the velvet separates, and is rubbed off, and the
antler is then said to be burnished. When the horn is completely formed,
the rutting season commences. The horn is generally shed between
January and March. The animals composing this genus are graminivorous,
living on herbage and the young shoots of trees; they are very timid,
except during rutting time, when they become very fierce and quarrelsome,
attacking one another, and even persons who may chance to come in their
way. They seldom produce more than one young one, wlu'ch is called a
Fawn. The female of this genus is named the Hind.

Deer are divided into three sections: 1, those with horns partially or
entirely flat; 2, those with rounded horns; and 3, those with small
horns.

The Moose Deer, or Elk (C. Alces), native of the forests of Europe,
Asia, and America, belongs to the first section (Plate 19). It is about
the size of a horse, and sometimes larger ; its shape is much less elegant
than the rest of the Deer tribe ; its neck short and thick, and furnished
with a kind of dewlap; head large, the upper lip very thick and broad;

FAMILY—C AVICOKNIA. HOLLOW-HORNED.

51

horns sometimes measuring as much as thirty-two inches in length;
shoulders high, and legs very long; the hair stiff and coarse, and of a
dark-greyish brown ; eyes and ears large ; hoofs broad ; tail short. The
female has no horns. The Elk frequents the margins of rivers and lakes
during summer-time, and gets into the water to avoid the innumerable
multitude of flies and musquitoes which torment it. It is more easily
tamed than any other kind of Deer, and will follow their keeper at his call
without trouble.

The Rein Deer (C. Tarandus) is about the size of our Stags, but shorter
and thicker in the leg ; the horns of both male and female are divided into
many branches; at first these are thin and pointed, but, as the animal
increases in age, they become palmated and denticulated ; the hair on the
body is of a dark-brown colour ; on the neck, brown mixed with white.
It is a dull-looking animal, and inhabits the frozen regions of Europe and
Asia. (Plate 19.)

The Rein Deer presents one of the most interesting proofs of the good-
ness of Providence towards his creatures : without it, the poor Laplander
would be almost at a loss for food and raiment ; but, possessing his Rein
Deer, he wants neither horse, nor sheep, nor oxen. At three or four years
old they are trained to labour, and continue serviceable four or five years,
at which time they are killed. The flesh of the Rein Deer serves for food
during the whole winter, and the tongues, considered a dainty, are sold
even into other countries. From the sinews are made thread, and, when
covered with hair, these are employed as ropes. From the skins are pre-
pared clothes, which are warm, and suited to the severity of the climate ;
they serve also for beds when spread on the leaves of trees.

Of course, as the Rein Deer constitutes almost the sole riches of the
Laplander, constant attention to its preservation and security is his prin-
cipal employment; each person possesses a flock or flocks of Rein Deer,
and it is not uncommon for one person to have five hundred in a single
herd. Every morning and evening during summer, the herdsman fetches
his Deer to be milked at his cottage, and this is filled with smoke, for the
purpose of driving away his tormentor, the gad-fly, and keeping the animal
quiet during milking-time. The female gives about a pint of milk daily,
which is thinner than that of the cow, but sweeter and more nourishing.

The female breeds at two years, is in season towards the latter end of
September, goes with young eight months, and generally brings two at a
time, which follow her for two or three years.

The Fallow Deer (C. Dama) is less than the Stag; it is found in all
Europe, especially in England.

The Red Deer or Stag (C. Elaphus) comes under the second section.
Its antlers are long, upright, and much branched, with slender brow
antlers ; colour generally of a reddish brown. It is common in Europe,
the north of Asia, Barbary, and North America, and is still found wild in
the Highlands of Scotland. It begins to shed its antlers in February or
March, and recovers them completely in July. It is very furious and dan-
gerous during the rutting season, which is in August.

The American Elk, Virginian Deer, and Spotted Axis (found in Ceylon),
are species of this section.

In the third section we find the Mexican Deer ; the Porcine Deer, native
of Borneo, &c. ; the Rib-faced Stag, from Ceylon and Java ; the Tailless
Roe, of Siberia; and the Roe Buck (C. Capreolus), figured on Plate 19,
native of Europe. The Roe Buck is not so large as the Fallow Deer ;
antlers upright, rugged, and trifurcated ; from six to eight inches in length ;
hair in summer very short and smooth; ends of the hair red, roots grey.
It lives in pairs in the forests. The flesh is considered better than that
of the Stag.

CAMELOPAED. The only known species of this remarkable genus is the
Camelopard (C. Giraffii), which is usually about sixteen or seventeen feet
in height to the top of the forehead. The body of the animal is short in
comparison with its extremities, not being longer from the front of the
chest to the back of the hind quarter than two-thirds of their length, which
in the male is about eight feet to the junction of the shoulder-bone with
the scapula. The hinder legs, though at first apparently much shorter

than the fore legs, are not much so, if at all ; and this appearance is pro-
duced in consequence of the great length of the withers or spinous processes
of the dorsal vertebrae, about six or seven feet in length. The chest is
rather prominent, and above it rises a long and taper neck, which is sur-
mounted with a small head, not larger than that of a thorough-bred Horse,
and in shape resembling that of the Deer. On the head are two short
horns, which are not deciduous, and seem to be processes of the frontal
bone, covered with a fine velvet-like skin, and terminating at their extremi-
ties in short tufts of hair, which, as well as the covering of the horn, are of
a dark-brown or black colour. The tail is about three or four feet in
length, and furnished with a tuft of long loose dark-brown hair, which
reaches below the hock. The hoofs are bisulcate. The general colour of
the animal is a rufous brown. (Plate 19.)

This animal is a native of Africa. Our oft-quoted author, Mr. Gordon
Gumming, has the following graphic account of this animal : —

" These gigantic and exquisitely-beautiful animals, which are admirably
formed by nature to adorn the fair forests that clothe the boundless plains
of the interior, are widely distributed throughout the interior of Southern
Africa, but are nowhere to be met with in great numbers. In countries
unmolested by the intrusive foot of man, the Giraffe is found generally in
herds varying from twelve to sixteen ; but I have not unfrequently met
with herds containing thirty individuals, and on one occasion I counted forty
together ; this, however, was owing to chance, and about sixteen may be
reckoned as the average number of a herd. These herds are composed of
Giraffes of various sizes, from the young Giraffe of nine or ten feet in height,
to the dark chestnutcoloured old bull of the herd, whose exalted head
towers above his companions, generally attaining to a height of upwards of
eighteen feet. The females are of lower stature, and more delicately
formed than the males, their height averaging from sixteen to seventeen
feet. Some writers have discovered ugliness and a want of grace in the
Giraffe, but I consider that he is one of the most strikingly-beautiful
animals in the creation ; and when a herd of them is seen scattered through
a grove of the picturesque parasol-topped acacias which adorn their native
plains, and on whose uppermost shoots they are enabled to browse by the
colossal height with which nature has so admirably endowed them, he must
indeed be slow of conception who fails to discover both grace and dignity
in all their movements."

Family — HOLLOW-HORNED ; Cavicarnia.

This family is far more extensive than the preceding; the diversities
existing in the form of the horn have suggested the classification of several
species.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.

PLATE 20.
Genenu Species. Common Name.

Antilope - - - -

Cervicapra - - - Common Antelope.

Oryx ----- jEgyptian Antelope.

Pygmsea - - - - Royal Antelope.

Picta White-footed Antelope.

Gnu ----- Gnu.

Capra

Ovis

Bos

PLATE 21. ;

Ibex - ...

JAmmon - - -

1 Montana - - -

Americanus - -

- Ibex Goat.

- Wild Sheep.

- Rocky Mountain Sheep.

- Bison.

CHARACTERS OF THE GENERA.

1. ANTILOPE (derivation uncertain; it is supposed to be a corruption of
avaXoirtif or avToXoiro, a word used by Eustathius to signify an animal
which had the horns long, and notched as if with a saw). Horns hollow,
supported on solid bony processes, curved, annulated, and not deciduous ;
eight broad incisor teeth in the lower jaw, but none in the upper; the
inside of the ears marked lengthways with three feathered lines of hair ;
limbs light and elegant.

H2

52

CLASS— M A M M A L I A.

ORDER— R UMINANTIA.

2. CAPRA (Lat. carpo, I crop). Horns bending upwards and back-
wards, almost close at their base ; chin generally furnished with a long
beard.

3. OVTS (Lat. avis, Sheep). Incisive teeth eight in the lower jaw,
forming a perfect arc, and touching each other by their sides, none in the
upper ; molar six on each side in each jaw ; forehead more or less arched ;
horns large, angular, furrowed transversely, spirally twisted, and turning
outwards ; no tear-pits or beard ; legs slender ; tail variable in length, pen-
dulous.

4. Bos (Gr. /3oOc, on Oar). Horns bending out laterally, and forwards,
upwards or downwards ; muzzle large ; no upper incisor nor any canine
teeth ; skin of the neck pendulous ; limbs large and unwieldy.

CAVICORNIA. — DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIES.

ANTILOPE. This genus forms, in the opinion of Pennant, " an interme-
diate genus, a link between the Goat and Deer ; agreeing with the former
in the texture of their horns, which have a core in them, and are never
cast ; and with the latter in elegance of form and swiftness." They form a
very large genus.

They live in large herds of two or three thousand, or in small parties of
five or six, and generally in hilly countries, browsing like goats, and living
on the tender shoots of trees. They are elegantly formed, active, restless,
shy, and uncommonly swift, running with vast bounds, and leaping with
surprising agility. The chace of them is a favourite diversion in the east,
where they are not only hunted with the greyhound and hunting leopard,
but also with the falcon, which is trained for that purpose. The pursuit
of the Chamois, which belongs to this genus, is a favourite diversion of the
Swiss ; and the fatigue and dangers they undergo in that chace are well
known.

The horns of the Antelope genus are composed of solid bony processes
attached to the os frontis, similar to those of the deer kind, but covered
with horn, and not deciduous : in other respects they are similar to that
genus ; generally, though not always, having the lachrymal fossae, or tear-pits.

They have been divided into sections from the form of their horns, both
by Pennant and Cuvier : the division of the latter is adopted here.

1 . Horns annulated, having a double or triple curve, and pointing for-
wards, downwards, or upwards.

Under this division we find the following : the Common Antelope (A.
Cervicapra), represented on Plate 20. This animal is rather smaller than
a fallow deer ; the horns, about sixteen inches long, are black, distinctly
annulated, and have three curves. The animal is of a reddish brown above,
and white below ; around the orbits of the eyes is white, which is con-
tinued into a white patch on either side of the forehead ; the muzzle is
black. The female is known by having no horns, and by a white stripe
on the flanks.

The Barbary Antelope (A. Dorcas), which measures about three feet
, nine inches from nose to tail, and two feet four inches high. " The fleet-
ness of the Antelope," says Pennant, " was proverbial in the country it
inhabited, even in the earliest times: the speed of Asahel (2 Sam. ii. 18)
is beautifully compared to the Tzebi ; and the Gadites were said to be as
swift as the Antelopes (translated ' roes ') upon the mountains. The sacred
writers took their similes from such objects as were before the eyes of the
people to whom they were addressed. There is another instance drawn
from the same subject. The disciple raised to life at Joppa was supposed
to have been called Tabitha, or Dorcas, from the beauty of her eyes ; and
to this day, one of the highest compliments that can be paid to female
beauty in the eastern region is Aine el Gazel, You have the eyes of an
Antelope."

The Flat-horned Antelope (A. Kevella), similar in form to the above ;
the White-faced Antelope (A. Pygarga), larger than the preceding; the
YeBoui Goat of the Chinese (A. Gutturosa), as large as the stag; the
Scythian Antelope (A. Saiga) ; the Senegal Antelope (A. Senegalensis) ; the
Gambian Antelope (A. Lerwia) ; and the Springbok (A. Euchore).

" The Springbok of the Cape," says Mr. Gordon Cumming, " is so termed

by the colonists on account of its peculiar habit of springing or taking
extraordinary bounds, rising to an incredible height in the air when pur-
sued. The extraordinary manner in which Springboks are capable of
springing is best seen when they are chased by a dog. On these occasions
away start the herd, with a succession of strange perpendicular bounds,
rising with curved loins high into the air, and at the same time elevating
the snowy folds of long white hair on their haunches and along their back,
which imparts to them a peculiar fairy-like appearance, different from any
other animal. They bound to the height of ten or twelve feet, with the
elasticity of an India-rubber ball, clearing at each spring from twelve to
fifteen feet of ground, without apparently the slightest exertion. In per-
forming the spring, they appear for an instant as if suspended in the air,
when down come all four feet again together, and, striking the plain, away
they soar again as if about to take flight. The herd only adopt this mo-
tion for a few hundred yards, when they subside into a light elastic trot,
arching their graceful necks and lowering their noses to the ground, as if in
sportive mood. Presently pulling up, they face about, and reconnoitre the
object of their alarm. In crossing any path or waggon-road on which men
have lately trod, the Springbok invariably clears it by a single surprising
bound ; and when a herd of perhaps many thousands have to cross a track
of the sort, it is extremely beautiful to see how each Antelope performs
this feat, so suspicious are they of the ground on which their enemy, man,
has trodden. They bound in a similar manner when passing to leeward of
a lion, or any other animal of which they entertain an instinctive dread.

" The accumulated masses of living creatures which the Springboks
exhibit on the greater migrations is utterly astounding, and any traveller
witnessing it as I have, and giving a true description of what he has seen,
can hardly expect to be believed, so marvellous is the scene.

"They have been well and truly compared to the wasting swarms of
locusts, so familiar to the traveller in this land of wonders. Like them,
they consume every green thing in their course, laying waste vast districts
in a few hours, and ruining in a single night the fruits of the farmer's toil.
The course adopted by the Antelopes is generally such as to bring them
back to their own country by a route different from that by which they set
out. Thus their line of march sometimes forms something like a vast oval,
or an extensive square, of which the diameter may be some hundred miles,
and the time occupied in this migration may vary from six months to a
year."

2. Horns annulated, having a double curve, differing in direction from
the preceding section, and having the points turned backwards.

Species — the Cervine Antelope, the Haute-beest of the Dutch (A.
Babalis), larger and more clumsy than the other species of Antelope, par-
taking of the stag and heifer, with a large head, broad thick nose, and a
reddish-brown coat : is common in Barbary and Northern Africa.

The Caama Antelope, Cape Stag of the Dutch (A. Caama), is very like
the preceding : common at the Cape.

3. Horns annulated and straight, or but slightly curved.

Species — the Copra Gazella (A. Oryx), called also the Egyptian Ante-
lope, and by the Dutch the Cape Chamois (Plate 20). The Oryx is thus
described by Mr. Cumming : —

" The Oryx, or Gemsbok, is about the most beautiful and remarkable of
all the Antelope tribe. It is the animal which is supposed to have given
rise to the fable of the Unicorn, from its long straight horns, when seen, en
profile, so exactly covering one another as to give it the appearance of
having but one. It possesses the erect mane, long sweeping black tail, and
general appearance of the Horse, with the head and hoofs of an Antelope.
It is robust in its form, squarely and compactly built, and very noble in its
bearing. Its height is about that of an Ass, and in colour it slightly resem-
bles that animal. The beautiful black bands which eccentrically adorn its
head, giving it the appearance of wearing a stall-collar, together with the
manner in which the rump and thighs are painted, impart to it a character
peculiar to itself. The adult male measures 3 feet 10 indies in height at
the shoulder.

" The Gemsbok was destined by nature to adorn the parched karroos

FAMILY— C AVICORNIA. HOLLOW-HORNED.

53

and arid deserts of South Africa, for which description of country it is
admirably adapted. It thrives and attains high condition in barren regions,
where it might bo imagined that a locust would not find subsistence, and,
burning as is the climate, it is perfectly independent of water, which, from
my own observation, and the repeated reports both of the Boers and
aborigines, I am convinced it never by any chance tastes. Its flesh is
deservedly esteemed, and ranks next to the Eland. At certain seasons of
the year they carry a great quantity of fat, at which time they can more
easily be ridden into. Owing to the even nature of the ground which the
Oryx frequents, its shy and suspicious disposition, and the extreme dis-
tances from water to which it must be followed, it is never stalked or
driven to an ambush like other Antelopes, but is hunted on horseback, and
ridden down by a long, severe, tail-on-end chase. Of several animals in
South Africa which are hunted in this manner, and may be ridden into by
a Horse, the Oryx is by far the swiftest and most enduring. They are
widely diffused throughout the centre and western parts of Southern Africa."
The Guinea Antelope (A. Grimmia), one foot and a half high; the
Oureh Antelope (A. Scoparia), and the Royal Antelope (A. Pygma-a), are
members of this section. The Royal Antelope is figured on Plate 20 : it
is not more than nine inches high, its horns are strong, short, sharp-pointed,
and perfectly black ; the female has none ; its colour is a bright bay, paler
beneath and on the insides of the limbs ; the legs are scarcely thicker than
a quill; being occasionally tipped with gold, they have been used as
tobacco-stoppers. They inhabit the hottest parts of Africa, and are said to
be so active as to be able to leap over a wall twelve feet high.

4. Horns annulated with a single curve, the points turned backwards.
The Blue Goat of the Cape (A. Leucophaea), larger than a Deer, and the

Equine Antelope (A. Equina), about the size of a Horse, are species of this
division.

5. Horns annulated, and having a single curve pointing forwards.
Species — the Swift Antelope (A. Dama), the Bed Antelope (A. Redunca),

the Cinereous Antelope (A. Elcotragus), and the Roebuck of the Seeds (A.
Arundinacea), so named from its frequenting reedy places.

6. Horns surrounded with a spiral wreath.

Species — the Impoof, Impophoo, Cape Elk of the Dutch, or Eland (A.
Oreas), is one of the most remarkable in this section. Pennant's descrip-
tion of it has been corroborated by Mr. Gumming, from whose work
(vol. i. p. 253) the following is extracted : —

" This magnificent animal is by far the largest of all the Antelope tribe,
exceeding a large Ox in size. It also attains an extraordinary condition,
being often burthened with a very large amount of fat. Its flesh is most
excellent, and is justly esteemed above all others. It has a peculiar sweet-
ness, and is tender and fit for use the moment the animal is killed. Like
the Gemsbok, the Eland is independent of water, and frequents the borders
of the great Kalahari desert in herds varying from ten to a hundred. It is
also generally diffused throughout all the wooded districts of the interior
where I have hunted. Like other varieties of Deer and Antelope, the old
males may often be found consorting together apart from the females ; and
a troop of these, when in full condition, may be likened to a herd of stall-
fed Oxen. The Eland has less speed than any other variety of Antelope ;
and, by judicious riding, they may be driven to camp from a great distance.
In this manner I have often ridden the best bull out of the herd, and
brought him within gunshot of my waggons, where I could more conve-
niently cut up and preserve the flesh, without the trouble of sending men
and pack-oxen to fetch it. I have repeatedly seen an Eland drop down
dead at the end of a severe chase, owing to his plethoric habit. The skin
of the Eland I had just shot emitted, like most other Antelopes, the most
delicious perfume of trees and grass."

A fair specimen of this species may be seen in the British Museum.
Mr. Adam White, in his "Popular History of Mammalia," informs us that
" in 1842 the Earl of Derby had three of those animals alive in his fine
menagerie, and he found that they stood this climate very well, both winter
and summer, without any other protection than a shed, to which they could
resort in cold weather."

The Striped Antelope (A. Strepsiceros) is a noble animal : it is as large
as a Stag, is very active, and leaps in an extraordinary manner. Dr. Forster
says he saw one leap ten feet high. Its spirally-twisted horns are described
by Sir W. C. Harris as ponderous, yet symmetrical.

The Spotted Goat of the Cape, or Harnessed Antelope (A. Scripta), and
the Forest Antelope (A. Sylvatica), belong to this section.

7. Horns smooth.

Species — the White-footed Antelope (A. Picta), figured on Plate 20, is
four feet high to the top of the shoulder, the horns short, pointed, smooth,
and of a blackish colour, bending a little forwards; the hair greyish,
with a large patch of white beneath the throat ; the feet, just above the
hoofs, marked by two white bands in the male, and three black, with two
white ones in the female ; a slight mane of black hair traverses the neck,
and a larger tuft of a similar colour is situated on the breast ; the female
has no horns, is smaller, and of a pale-brown colour. It inhabits the interior
of India.

The Hindostan Antelope (A. Trago-camellus) is not so elegant in form as
the other species : it resembles a Camel in many particulars. One seen by
Dr. Parsons was thirteen feet high.

The Chamois Antelope (A. Rupicapra) "is the only ruminating animal
of the west of Europe," says Cuvier, " which can be compared to the
Antelope." It is about the size of the common Goat, of a rufous-brown
colour, with the cheeks, chin, throat, and belly of a yellowish white, and a
streak of black passing from the eye down to the muzzle ; its horns, which
are straight, have their points suddenly curved back, like a fish-hook.

This is a very timorous animal ; it lives in small troops, in the middle
regions of very high mountains, skipping with great activity over the steep
rocks ; it feeds chiefly early in the morning and evening, during which time
a sentinel is on the watch, who alarms the herd by a shrill cry. The chase
of them is very laborious.

Under this section the Gnus (Catobeplas) have been placed ; but Colonel
Smith has separated them from the Antelopes in consequence of the differ-
ences which exist between them. Compare the figures on Plate 20.

The Gnu differs from the Antelope, even more than the Chamois, and at
first presents to the eye a monster made up of the parts of different animals ;
its body and hind quarters are similar to those of a small horse, covered
with brown hair ; the tail is furnished with long white hairs, also like the
Horse ; and on the neck is a fine straight mane, which is white at the
roots, but black at the edge ; its head is large, and the mouth square like
the Ox, the lips covered with short stiff' bristles, and from the nose up the
forehead runs an oblong square brush of stiff bristles ; round the eyes grow
several radii of strong white bristles. Both sexes are horned, and the horns
of the young are said to be straight. It is a fierce and dangerous animal,
living in large herds in the mountains north of the Cape.

" The Gnus and the Buffalo," says Dr. Andrew Smith, " rarely fly
immediately on their discovering noises or appearances which excite their
surprise or apprehension. Frequently the only result which follows the
discharge of muskets is a momentary halt, a gaze, a confused rush in no
given direction, and then a determined attempt to persevere in the direction
they had been pursuing, even though such should carry them nearer to the
position of their assailants."

CAPRA — Goat. This genus of animals is distinguished from the Sheep
by its vivacity and courage, by its horns not being twisted, and by its having
a long beard. Another distinction is the extremely offensive smell which
the Goat emits, and which does not belong to the Sheep. It is a very
useful animal, supplying food and raiment in no inconsiderable degree.

Species — the Caucasian Goat (C. jEgagrus) is larger in size than the
common Goat, and is one of the animals from which the Bezoars are
obtained: these were formerly considered very valuable in medicine as
alexipharmics ; in proof of which it may be mentioned that Tavemier sold
one, weighing four ounces and a quarter, for the sum of two thousand livres.

From this species is believed to have originated several varieties, of which
(1) the/rst is the Common Goat (C. Hircus), a native of every part of the old
world ; but it does not appear to have been known in America before that

54

CLASS-MAMMALIA.

ORDER— K U M I N A N T I A.

continent was visited by Europeans. It is a lively, sjiortive, wanton
animal, impatient of confinement, fond of solitude, and climbing lofty
rugged eminences ; it is easily tamed, and frequently kept in stables, from
a notion which grooms have of the strong scent which it emits being
invigorating to horses. It is of full age at a year, and the female at seven
months, and it becomes old at five years.

2. The Angora Goat, remarkable for its hair, which curls in long ringlets
of eight or nine inches in length, is of a silky texture and of a glossy silvery
whiteness ; it is the basis of our camlets, and is sent into this country in
the form of thread.

3. The Syrian Goat(C. Mambrica), characterised by the great length of
its ears, which hang down, and occasionally measure two feet long.

4. The African Goat (C. Depressa) ; 5, the Whidaw Goat (C. Reversa) ;
and, 6, the Capricorn Goat, natives of Africa.

7. The Ibex Goat (C. Ibex), figured on Plate 21, is known by its large
knotted horns, reclining backwards, and sometimes three feet long ; its
head is small ; the eyes large ; hair rough ; beard dark coloured ; general
colour deep brown, mixed with tawny; under parts white; tail short;
hoofs short. The females are smaller than the males, and their horns are
smaller and have fewer knobs. It inhabits the mountainous parts of the
European and Asiatic continents.

Ovis — Sheep. They are distinguished from the Goats by their arched
forehead, by the variation in direction and greater extent of curve of the
horns, and by not having any beard : beyond these there is no great dis-
tinction between the two genera. Their fur is wool ; but this varies in
texture according to the difference of climate, as in those which live in
warm climates it becomes hairy and very fine, and from such fleeces the
Cachemere shawls, formerly supposed to be manufactured of goats' hair,
are made. Sheep feed on vegetables, and live in flocks of greater or less
number, on high hills or on the tops of mountains. Corsica, Sardinia, and
other of the Mediterranean islands, are the parts in which the species most
anciently known exist, and whence it is probable our domestic Sheep are
derived : others also are found on the chain of the Atlas, in the mountains
of Siberia and Kamtschatka, and in America. Whilst in a state of nature
they are very strong and active, leap and run with great agility, and have
not the silly character they appear to bear in a state of domestication. The
people of the various parts of the world in which Sheep are found derive
many of the necessaries of life from them. Besides affording its flesh for
food and its fat for tallow, the wool in more civilized countries is manu-
factured into cloth, whilst the ruder Northern Asiatics wrap themselves up
in skins with the wool remaining on it. After the hide is dressed it is
made into leather, and by a different process into parchment. Even the
intestines are brought into use, and of them is manufactured the article catgut,
to which we are indebted for the melodious tones poured forth by a cremona.

The Wild Sheep (Ovis Ammon) is about the size of a small Deer; the
boms of the male are very large and strong, measuring two ells in length ;
the horns of the female not so large, hatchetshaped, nearly straight, and
greatly resembling those of our Common Goat. Argali is the name given
to this species of Sheep by the Kirgisian Tartars, probably from its fre-
quenting mountainous districts, as in their language Arga signifies a moun-
tain summit, and Giddsha a Ram, of which two words it seems to be
compounded ; and from the same cause the Kurilians call it Rikundanotsh,
or the Upper Rein Deer ; whilst the Russians designate it as the Stepnai-
daran, or Ram of the desert ; Kammenoi, or Rock Ram ; and Dihai, or
Wild Ram. It is found in the vast deserts which are called steppes, and
upon the mountainous chains of Asia, especially those which extend across
the plains of Tartary towards the north-east. Gmelin says that the southern
part of Siberia is their original country. They are lively and active ani-
mals, and are extremely fearful of man. (Plate 21.)

The Corsican Sheep (O. Aries), called also the Mauflon, is found in the
highest parts of mountainous districts, amongst the most inaccessible peaks,
but always in temperate or southern latitudes. They are fierce, dull, and
untamable animals. Cuvier and BufFon are of opinion that they are the
stock whence the several races of our Sheep have sprung.

There are several varieties : the Long-legged Sheep (O. Guineensis) ; the
Merino or Spanish Sheep (O. Hispanicus) ; the English Sheep (O. Anglicus),
the sub-varieties of which are very numerous ; the French Sheep (O. Gal-
licus) ; the Many-horned Sheep (O. Polyceratus), of Iceland anil Norway :
the Cretan Sheep (O. Strepsiceros), in Crete and Hungary ; the Long-tailed
Sheep (O. Dolichura), of Southern Russia ; and the Broad-tailed Slteep (O.
Laticaudata), of which there are several varieties.

Bos — Ox. Amongst the variety of animals \vliich have been provided
by the bountiful hand of Nature to supply the wants of man, there are none,
perhaps, on which the necessaries of life so much depend as on those which
compose this genus. From them we are supplied with milk, butter, tallow,
hides, and a variety of other articles, too numerous to be detailed here.

The animals which form this genus live hi herds ; the female generally
goes with young between nine and twelve months, and after she has calved,
hides her offspring in some unfrequented spot, to which she repairs two or
three times a day to suckle it ; should it accidentally be discovered, the
cries of the young animal soon bring the herd, which quickly oblige the
intruder to retire.

The species Bull (B. Taurus) is that from which it is supposed our
domestic animals are derived, and that the trivial points in which they
differ are depending upon accident, or the state in which they live. They
are found in all parts of the world, under very trifling differences, de]>ending
upon local circumstances. The wild species are to be found in small num-
bers in Poland, the Carpathian Mountains, Lithuania, and about Mount
Caucasus. The tame species, from which all the improved breeds have
originally been formed, are natives of Poland and Holstein, and are the
finest and largest. The smallest cattle are to be found in Scotland, and
very frequently both males and females have no horns.

The American Bison (B. Americanus or B. Urus), shown on Plate 21,
is considered the largest quadruped next to the Rhinoceros, and is very
wild. These animals are remarkably swift, so as easily to escape from the
Indians. They are hunted in various parts of America in different modes.

The Buffalo (B. Bubalus) very much resembles the common Ox ; it is,
however, distinguished from it by having the head smaller and ears larger ;
the horns are very large. They are found wild in India and Africa, more
particularly near the Cape of Good Hope. That daring African hunter,
Mr. Gordon Gumming, had several encounters with these animals, his
account of one of which we transfer to our pages : —

" After following the other two at a hard gallop for about two miles, I
was riding within five yards of their huge broad sterns. They exhaled a
strong bovine smell, which came hot in my face. I expected every minute
that they would come to bay, and give me time to load ; but this they did
not seem disposed to do. At length, finding I had the speed of them, I
increased my pace ; and going ahead, I placed myself right before the finest
Bull, thus expecting to force him to stand at bay ; upon which he instautlly
charged me with a low roar, very similar to the voice of a lion. Colesberg
[Mr. C.'s horse] neatly avoided the charge, and the Bull resumed his
northward course. We now entered on rocky ground, and the forest
became more dense as we proceeded. The Buffaloes were evidently
making for some strong retreat. I, however, managed with much difficulty
to hold them in view, following as best I could through thorny thickets.
Isaac rode some hundred yards behind, and kept shouting to me to drop
the pursuit, or I should be killed. At last the Buffaloes suddenly pulled
up, and stood at bay in a thicket within twenty yards of me. Springing
from my horse, I hastily loaded my two-grooved rifle, which I had scarcely
completed when Isaac rode up and inquired what had become of the
Buffaloes, little dreaming that they were standing within twenty yards of
him. I answered by pointing my rifle across his horse's nose, and letting
fly sharp right and left at the two Buffaloes. A headlong charge, accom-
panied by a muffled roar, was the result. In an instant I was round a
clump of tangled thorn-trees ; but Isaac, by the violence of his efforts to
get his horse in motion, lost his balance, and at the same instant, his girths
giving way, himself, his saddle, and big Dutch rifle, all came to the ground
together, with a heavy crash, right in the path of the infuriated Buffaloes.

ORDER— GET ACE A.

FAMILY— S PIKACULARIA. SPOUTERS.

55

Two of the dogs, which had fortunately that moment joined us, met them
in their charge, and, by diverting their attention, probably saved Isaac
from instant destruction. The Buffaloes now took up another position in
an adjoining thicket. They were both badly wounded, blotches and pools
of blood marking the ground where they had stood. The dogs rendered
me assistance by taking up their attention, and in a few minutes these two
noble Bulls breathed their last beneath the shade of a mimosa grove. Each
of thorn, in dying, repeatedly uttered a very striking, low, deep moan.
This I subsequently ascertained the Buffalo invariably utters when in the
act of expiring.

" Isaac did not soon forget his adventure with the Buffaloes ; and at
night over the fire he informed my men that I was mad, and that any man
who followed me was going headlong to his own destruction."

ORDER IX.— CETACEA. CETACEAN.

THIS order, the largest of all the orders of the class Mammalia, consists
of animals destitute of limbs on the hinder parts of their body. In their
general form they resemble the class Pisces ; and, with two exceptions
only, they are all inhabitants of the deep. Like the other orders of the
Mammalia, they have warm blood; they also breathe through lungs — the
wonderful structure of which, and the large reservoirs they possess for ar-
terial blood, enable them to remain under water a considerable time after
they have been to the surface for a renewal of atmospheric air. Their order
is named from the Latin Cete, " Whales."

Family — GRAZERS ; Herbivora.

The members of this family are distinguished from the Spiracularia by
the nature of their food ; the latter being, more or less, flesh-eaters, while
the former live upon vegetable productions.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.
PLATE 22.

Genera. Species. Common Name.

Manatus
Halieore -
Rytiua - -

Americanus - -
Dugong - - -
Stelleri - - -

- - American Manatee.

- - Dugong.

- - Steller's Rytina.

CHARACTERS OF THE GENERA.

1. MANATUS (Lat. manus, a hand). Head not distinct from the body;
neither incisive nor cuspid teeth ; molar teeth eight on each side in both
jaws, with square crowns having six tubercles in two transverse ridges;
eyes very small ; body oblong, very sparingly covered with hair, tapering
towards the tail, and terminating in an elongated, oval fin ; two pectoral
teats ; anterior limbs finniform, five-toed, furnished with four nails ; hind
limbs covered by the skin and not visible externally.

2. HALICOKE (Gr. aXioc, marine, and nopr), a maid). In the upper
jaw a pair of short conical tusks, occupying the place of the incisive teeth,
which are wanting in both jaws; no cuspid teeth; molars three on a side
in each jaw far back ; muzzle obtuse ; no auricles, but the auditory open-
ings very small, and at some distance behind the eyes; the fore legs
distinct, the feet enclosed in skin forming fins ; rudiments of hinder ex-
tremities are found in the muscles opposite the lumbar vertebrae, but do
not appear externally.

3. RYTIJTA (Gr. pime, a wrinkle). Neither incisive, cuspid, nor any
true molar teeth, but in the place of the latter a pair of bones with irre-
gular surfaces, one in the palate and the other in the lower jaw ; muzzle
obtuse ; no auricles ; body covered with a rough, fibrous, and thick cuticle,
of a lengthened form and tapering towards the tail ; teats pectoral ; fore
limbs arm-shaped, terminating in a hoof-like callus, but without any toes ;
hind limbs, if any, not visible externally.

. CETACEA. — DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIES.

MANATIS — the Manali. These animals live in herds near the mouths of
rivers, and are rarely seen at any distance from land ; they come into the

shallows to feed on a peculiar kind of grass, as they are entirely herbivorous,
but never come ashore. They are timid, but warmly attached to their
young, which they carry on their fins for some days after birth. The
Manatees are the animals which have been so often mistaken for Mermaids
by sailors, to which the position of their teats and their increased size
during gestation have led.

The species M. Americanus (Plate 22) is about twelve feet long : it is
found in the Amazon and Oronoque rivers, and also in the rivers of Cayenne
and the Antilles, but lately it has become scarce.

Another species is the M. Senagalensis, found at the mouths of the rivers
on the African coast. In length it does not exceed eight feet, which was
the principal point of distinction noticed between it and the preceding
species, till Cuvier observed a difference of formation in the skull.

HALICORE — Dugong. This animal, which is figured on Plate 22 has
a rounded body, diminishing towards the tail, which is broad, horizontal,
and crescent- shaped; the skin is thick, smooth, bluish above, and white
below, and sprinkled with a very few hairs.

The Dugongs are natives of the East Indian seas, and common at Singa-
pore ; they are caught about eight or nine feet in length, but when larger
generally escape, and therefore to what size they attain is not known. It
feeds on algae and other marine vegetables, which grow in these places,
browsing on them in much the same manner as a cow.

RYTINA — Stellerine. There is but one species known, the Trichechus
Borealis of Shaw, and the R. Stelleri of Illiger, who so named it from the
wrinkled appearance of its skin. (Plate 22.) It is about twenty-three feet
in length, and eight thousand pounds in weight. The body is covered
with a very thick hide, the cuticle of which resembles the bark of the
Quercus Annuosa rather than cuticle ; it is black, rough, wrinkled, so hard
and tough as scarcely to be cut with an axe, about an inch thick, and not
hairy. When cut through transversely it resembles ebony both in colour
and smoothness. The use of this thick covering is evidently not only to
preserve the vital heat, but also to protect them against the blows they are
exposed to when thrown about by the waves upon the rocks and among
the ice whilst in search of food.

These animals are fond of shallow, sandy places upon the sea-shore, but,
attracted by the sweetness of the water, they freely resort in herds to the
mouths of rivulets, always keeping the young and weakly in the centre of
the flock. Their conjugal attachment is so great that, if the female be
hooked, her mate will, after having made fruitless efforts for her release,
and in spite of the blows inflicted on him by the fishers, dash on shore to
her, though dead, with the swiftness of an arrow. And Steller mentions
that he saw a male visit his dead mate not only on the second day when
she was cut in pieces, but also on the third.

Family — SPOUTERS ; Spiracularia.

This family is distinguished by a peculiar nasal organization, enabling
them to eject from their nostrils, or blow-holes, large quantities of water
which rush in at their capacious mouths when opened to seize their prey.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.

PLATE 23.
Genera. Species. Common Name.

Delphinus - - - Dclphis - - - - Common Dolphin.

Monodon - - - Monoceros - - - Narwhal.

Physeter - - - - Macrocephalus - - Cachalot or Spermaceti Whale.

(Common Greenland or
Balaena - - - - Mysticetus - - -| whalebone whale.

Another Genus of this family : — Uranodon.

CHARACTERS OF THE GENERA.

DELPHINDS. Teeth in both jaws, single and generally conical.

MONODON (Gr. ^oVoc, single, and oJove, a tooth). Two teeth, of which
one is generally deficient in the extremity of the upper jaw, very 'long,
projecting, pointed and directed forwards in the axis of the body ; no other

56

CLASS— MAMMALIA.

ORDER— GET ACE A.

teeth; blow-hole single, and on the back of the head; pectoral limbs
webbed, no hind limbs.

PHYSETER (Gr. <pv<raw, I blow). Head of very great size ; in the upper
jaw no teeth, or if there be any very small ; lower jaw received within the
upper, and armed with from eighteen to twenty -four large conical pointed
teeth.

BAL.ENA (Gr. 0d\a«va, a Whak, according to J. Johnston, from
/3oAXw, to cast up, because the animal throws up water). Instead of
teeth, pendulous horny laminae, triangular and fibrous at their edges ; dis-
tinct frontal spiracles ; anterior extremities pinnated, posterior none ; tail
horizontal, with or without the dorsal fin ; two inguinal teats.

URANODOX (Gr. 6v[>av}), a palate, and olovs, a tooth). Forehead
high, very convex, and rising suddenly from the snout ; lower jaw larger
and longer than the upper; body lengthy, and its greatest girth in the
region of the pectoral fins, which are small and oval.

SP1RAC0LARIA. — DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIES.

DELPHINUS — Dolphin. The Dolphins are the most ferocious of the
order Cetacea. They have been divided by Cuvier into four subgenera,
the last of which differs very much from the others in having palatine
teeth, and but two teeth in the lower jaw : —

First, the Dolphins Proper, which have the mouth projecting so as to
form a kind of beak.

Sj>ecies — the Ddphin (D. Delphis), an animal about ten feet long, and
almost straight, the back being but slightly curved, and the body slen-
der ; the beak is flattened from above to below, and each jaw is provided
with from forty-two to forty-seven slightly curved conical teeth ; the
blow-hole is placed in the middle of the head ; skin smooth ; colour of the
back dusky, becoming lighter on the sides, and white on the belly. It
swims with great rapidity, and leaps so high out of water as occasionally
to throw itself upon a ship's deck. The position into which the Dolphin
puts himself at the time of taking its leap, probably first induced the
ancients to paint and engrave it in the unnatural form in which it may be
seen in most of their representations. They esteemed the Dolphin as a
sacred fish (Athenseus, vii. 7), and believed that it was the only animal
without a gall (id. viii. 12). (Plate 23.)

The narrow-snouted Dolphin (D. Rostratus), the front of the head of
which is more prominent, and the jaws more lengthened and slender than
in the other species.

The Great Dolphin (D. Tursio) is about fourteen feet long.

Second, the Porpesses which have not the mouth beaked, but short and
regularly prominent.

The Porpesse (D. Phocaaia) does not measure more than five feet ; its
body is very thick towards the head, but becomes more slender towards
the tail ; nose projects but little ; teeth between fifty and sixty in each jaw ;
eyes small ; blow-hole on the top of the head ; it is black above and white
below. They are very common upon our coasts, and are most numerous
during the Mackerel and Herring seasons, pursuing their prey with as great
eagerness as Dogs.

The Grampus (D. Orca) is the largest of the genus, attaining from
twenty to twenty -five feet in length ; it is remarkably thick in proportion,
one of eighteen feet measuring ten feet in diameter ; it is a very voracious
animal, and a great enemy to the Whale, which it pursues in herds, and
destroys.

Third, the Delphinapteres, which resemble the Porpesses, but have no
dorsal fin.

The Beluga (D. Leucus) is about the size of the Grampus ; it swims
very swiftly, and is a native of the northern seas, particularly about Davis's
Straits.

Fourth, the Bottleheads, now formed into a distinct genus: see URA-

NODON.

The Bottle Head (C. Bidens) resembles the Dolphin in appearance, but
is much shorter ; the pectoral and dortal fins are small. It is caught in
the northern seas and in the English Channel.

MOXODON — Narwhale. The general form of the Narwhale resembles
that of the Porpoise, but is rather longer in proportion.

The Narwhale (M. Monoceros) is about fifteen feet in length, exclusive
of the tusk, which is about five feet more ; the head is blunt, the body
rather conical with a ridge extending along the back, and probably supply-
ing the place of the absent dorsal fin ; some are grey, some black, and
others of a shining white or tinged with light grey, and marked with little,
unequal, irregular, black spots ; the under surface pure white, and quite
smooth. They are natives of the northern seas. (Plate 23.)

PHYSETER — Cachalot, or Spermaceti Whale. The animals forming this
genus are natives of the Polar seas, but like most others of this family they
pass into warmer seas for the purpose of breeding, and afterwards return
to their original abodes. Two important articles of commerce, viz., Sper-
maceti and Ambergris, are obtained from them. They are ranged in two
divisions.

First : without a dorsal fin. The 'Great-headed CacJialot, or Spermaceti
Whale (P. Macroceplialus) : the head of this animal is of remarkable size,
equalling one-third or one-half of the entire bulk of the animal. This
arises not from the size of the brain-case itself, but from a large cavity
situated above it, and which contains fat in different states of consistence,
and also the peculiar substance called spermaceti.

" The tongue," says Mr. Hunter, " is almost like a feather bed." The
eyes are small but prominent, so that the animal is able to pursue its prey
in a direct line. The orifice of the ear is extremely small. The nostrils
open by a single aperture near the fore and upper part of the head, and the
water ejected is not thrown directly upwards, but forwards in a curved
line, so that it falls before instead of upon the head of the animal ; but
when enraged it is said that the water is thrown up vertically ; they stay
longer under water than the Whales, and the larger the Cachalot is the
more frequently does it spout, and the longer does it remain under water.
The whole length of the animal is seventy or eighty feet ; its back is grey,
inclining more or less to blackish or greenish, and its belly whitish, as also
are the spaces around the eyes. It is found in all seas, but especially in
the Atlantic, washing the shores of Mexico and Peru, and the neighbouring
islands. (Plate 23.)

Besides the two kinds of fat which are found in all cetaceous animals,
viz., the internal, which is the least fluid, and is nearly of the consistence
of hog's lard, and the external, which is fluid, and known as train-oil, the
Cachalot has another totally different, called spermaceti. It is found in
smaller proportions than the other fat in every part of the body, except in
the head, where, though mixed with the oil, it is in much greater
quantity.

Ambergris, which is found upon the sea, the sea-coast, or the sand near
the sea-coast, especially in the Atlantic, on the coast of Brazil and Mada-
gascar, on the coast of Africa, the East Indies, China, Japan, the
Moluccas, and the Bahamas, is sometimes found in the bellies of Whales,
especially in the belly of the Spermaceti Whale. But it is remarkable
that all the Cachalots in which ambergris is met with appear torpid and
sick, and are constantly leaner than the others ; and when one of these is
hooked, the fishers immediately rip up the belly, and opening the intestines
from the vent upwards they find the ambergris in lumps of from three to
twelve inches in diameter, and from one to twenty or thirty pounds in
weight, at the distance of two, but more commonly of six or seven feet
from the vent, and never higher up in the intestines. When first taken
out it has nearly the same colour and disagreeable smell as the dung in
which it is found ; but on exposure to air by degrees it not only grows
greyish, and its surface becomes covered with a greyish dust like old
chocolate, but it loses its disagreeable odour, and after a time acquires the
peculiar smell agreeable to most persons.

In Asia and Africa ambergris is used not only as a medicine and as a
perfume, but also in cookery as a spice. Great quantities are bought by
the pilgrims travelling to Mecca, probably for offerings and to be used as
frankincense.

Second : with a dorsal fin. Three species are named — the High-firmed

FAMILY— S PIRACULARIA. SPOUTEHS.

57

Cachalot (P. Tursio), the P. Microps, and the P. Ortfiodon, natives of the
North Seas.

BAL.ENA — Whale. The head of this genus is remarkable for its great
size, being a third and sometimes half of the whole body ; the upper jaw
is furnished with plates of a horny structure, which arranged transversely
in several rows, and encompassing the outer skirts of the jaw, occupy the
place of the teeth in other animals ; they are thin and of a triangular shape,
having their edges armed with long thread-like processes, which hang down
loose in the mouth ; this structure is well known by the name of Whale-
bone, and is much used in commerce.

The spiracles, or blowholes, are curious parts in the economy of these
animals ; here it will be sufficient to mention, that the water having passed
into a bag situated at the external orifice of the nostrils, is driven by a
strong muscular effort through a straight passage at the top of the head,
which is sometimes divided by a membrane making the blow-hole double.

Beneath the skin is found the blubber or fat enveloping the whole body
of the animal ; it is of a yellowish-white, yellow, or red colour ; in some
old animals it is of a salmon colour, whilst in the young it is always of a
yellowish-white ; from this substance Whale oil is procured.

These animals are viviparous, bringing forth one at a time, which they
suckle and protect with great affection.

The Common \Vhale (B. Mysticetus) : the average length is from fifty
to sixty feet, and its greatest circumference about thirty or thirty-five feet

Marten says, " the whole fish is shaped like a shoemaker's last, if you
look upon it from beneath. The head is somewhat triangular, the under
part formed by the jaw-bones being flat, and measuring from sixteen to
twenty feet in length, and from ten to twelve feet in breadth ; the lips are
about the same length, and five or six feet high, having the appearance of
the letter U when looked at in front." " When the mouth is open it pre-
sents a cavity as large as a room," Mr. Scoresby says, " and capable of
containing a merchant ship's jolly-boat." Instead of teeth the mouth is
provided with numerous rows of fins, or whalebone, and each series or
" side of bone," as the whalers call it, is composed of more than 300
lamina?, which are generally ten or eleven feet long, and occasionally fifteen
feet ; these are broadest at the gum, and are there about ten or twelve
inches in breadth. The eyes are not larger than those of an ox, situated
behind the angles of the mouth on the sides of the head. The external
opening of the ear is but small, and has no auricle, so that some naturalists
have believed that the Whale has no external ear, but Mr. Hunter's exami-
nation has proved the contrary.

When the animal breathes a moist vapour is thrown up, mixed with
mucus, but no water is ejected unless the respiration be made underwater;
they make a great noise in blowing or breathing, which may be heard at a
considerable distance, and they blow loudest when frightened ; they respire
about four or five times in a minute, and throw up the vapour many yards,
which at a distance looks like smoke. The tail occupies a single surface
of eighty or a hundred square feet ; it is only five or six feet long, but from
eighteen to twenty-four or twenty-six feet in breadth, and is placed hori-
zontally ; its motions are rapid and universal, and by it the animal is prin-
cipally moved along, in the same way that a boat is sculled by a single oar.

Whales are believed to go with young about ten months, and the time
of delivery is presumed to be in February or March ; they very rarely have
more than one cub at a time. The maternal affection of the Whale, though
a dull animal, is very interesting ; the cub, being unaware of danger, is
easily harpooned; but the mother's attachment is such, that it frequently
brings her within reach of the fishers, and she not uncommonly falls a
victim to her parental fondness. A very striking instance of this is given
by Mr. Scoresby; he says, " In June, 1811, one of my harpooners struck
a sucker, with the hope that it would lead to the capture of the mother.
Presently she arose close by the ' fast boat,' and seizing the young one,
dragged about a hundred fathoms of line out of the boat with remarkable
force and velocity. Again she arose to the surface, darted furiously to and
fro, frequently stopped short or suddenly changed her direction, and gave
every possible intimation of extreme agony. For a length of time she con-

tinued thus to act, though closely pursued by the boats ; and inspired with
courage and resolution by her concern for her offspring, seemed regardless
of the danger which surrounded her. At length one of the boats approached
so near that a harpoon was hove at her. It hit, but did not attach itself.
A second harpoon was struck, this also failed to penetrate ; but a third was
more effectual, and held. Still she did not attempt to escape, but allowed
other boats to approach, so that in a few minutes three more harpoons
were fastened, and in the course of an hour afterwards she was killed."

The Whale is remarkably timid, setting off with the greatest agitation
on the least alarm ; its bitterest enemies are the Shark and Sword-fish, and
it avoids those seas where Sharks abound.

Other species — the Fin Whale (B. Physalis), the Pike-headed Whale
(B. Boops), and the Sharp-nosed Whale (B. Rostrata).

Of the Mode of Capturing Whales. — When a Whale is seen by the
watch in the crow's-nest, he gives notice to those on deck, who imme-
diately lower the boats and hasten to the place. If the animal lie basking
upon the surface incautiously, the boat is rowed upon it, and, before it
touches, the harpooner strikes it ; the animal immediately dashes off and
runs out with the line ; directly the Whale disappears a flag is set up in
the first boat, and the rest of the boats put out to its assistance, shouting
"a fall!" It remains under water about thirty minutes, and when it rises
is struck again and plied with the spears ; this is continued till, by repeated
attacks and attempts to escape, the animal becomes exhausted, and indi-
cates its approaching death by throwing up bloody mucus and air from
its blowholes, tinging the sea to a considerable extent with its blood.
When dead it turns on its side or back, and this is announced by the
delighted boats striking their flags and giving three cheers. The Whale is
then secured to the boats, and by them towed toward the ship, where it
is made fast on the larboard side. The head of the Whale is placed to
the stern of the ship, and the tail forcibly drawn towards the fore-chains ;
the right side-fin is fastened to the gunwale, and the animal is then ready
for the process of flensing, which is carried on in the following manner :
the men, having their feet armed with spurs, descend on the Whale, and
cut up the fat with blubber spades and knives into pieces of half a ton,
which being raised on deck are divided into smaller pieces, a foot square,
and thrust down a hole in the main hatches, where two men, called kings,
pack it in proper places, called the flens-gitt, in which it remains. They
first commence with the under jaw and belly, and having taken off the fin,
turn the Whale on its side, and the fat is again removed, together with the
left fin. The lips are then taken away, and the whalebone removed and
hoisted on deck, where it is split into "junks," having ten or twelve blades
of whalebone in each. They continue turning the animal, which in tech-
nical language is called " kenting," till all the blubber has been removed,
the tackle is then taken away and the carcass sinks.

When sufficient Whales have been taken to fill the flens-gut, they
proceed with the " making off" as it is called, or finishing ; this consists in
cutting up the blubber and putting it into casks ; for this purpose a long
trough, called the " speck trough," is placed on deck, having a hole in it, to
which is attached a canvas tube called a " lull" about a foot in diameter,
and long enough to reach to the hold, which is closed by a pair of nippers
(two sticks with a hinge at one end) ; along the trough blocks made of
Whales' tails are placed, on which the blubber is cut up into pieces about
four inches square, and pushed into the lull, from whence it is passed into
the tubs in which it is to be conveyed home. When the cask is full, the
lull is pressed close with the nippers, and the progress of the blubber
impeded till another tub is brought. And such is the conclusion of the
process till it arrives in England, where it is boiled and fitted for use.

URANODON — Bottlehead. Of this genus, which has also been described
by Lacepede under the name Hyperoodon, but one species (U. Bidens) is
known ; it varies from twenty to twenty-five feet hi length ; its skin smooth
and glossy; blackish, lead-coloured above, and whitish beneath. It is
occasionally found in the British Channel, and extends up into the North
Sea. According to Pennant they are very tame, follow ships a long way,
and make but little noise in blowing.

58

CLASS— AVES.

ORDER— AC C I P E T R E S.

CLASS II.— AVES.

Birds are separated from all other Vertebrate Animals by the beautiful organization which most of them possess for lofty and rapid
flight. They are produced from eggs ; hence they are called oviparous : they have warm blood, breathe through lungs, which are
attached to their ribs ; have a double respiration, — by their aorta, as well as by their pulmonary artery. Their heart has four
cavities, — two auricles, and two ventricles : they are bipeds, and their body is covered with feathers.

ORDER I.— ACCIPETRES. PREYERS.

THIS order occupies among Birds a position not very dissimilar to that
which the Carnivora sustains among the Quadrupeds. They have beaks
and talons, hooked and strong, by which they seize and tear their prey :
their muscular strength is very great, and the habits of many of them dis-
gusting. Their appellation comes from the Latin accipita, " a hawk," " a
plunderer."

Family — DIURNAL ; Diurna.

These are birds of powerful flight; their plumage is close, and their
quills strong : their eyes are directed sideways ; and they seek their prey
by day — hence they are called Diurnal.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.

Genera.

PLATE 1.

Species.

Common Name.

Monk Vulture.
King Vulture.
Egyptian Vulture.
Aloine Gvoaete.

PLATE 2.

f Peregrinus - - - Peregrine Falcon.

Kali <i ------- t Pennatus ... Booted Buzzard.

I Ossifragus - - - Sea Eagle.

Gypogeranus ----- Capensis - ... Cape Snake-eater.

CHARACTERS OF THE GENERA.

1. VULTUR; 2. SARCORAMPHUS ; 3. PERCNOPTERUS. Beak large and
strong, much deeper than its width, and its base covered with a cere ;
upper strongly curved at its tip ; lower slightly inclined inwards at its
tip ; nostrils naked ; head and neck more or less naked, sometimes covered
with short down, sometimes bare with a few scattered hairs ; sometimes
the upper and lateral parts of the head and neck ornamented with wattles
or folds of skin ; base of the neck generally surrounded with a ruff or
collar of lengthy feathers ; wings long ; feet strong ; middle toe very long,
and connected with the outer at its base ; claws slightly curved, and com-
paratively short.

The same characters generally apply to the three genera.

4. GYPAETOS (Gr. ytty, a Vulture, and atroc, an Eagle). Beak of
moderate size, thickish, strong, straight, arched, and hooked at the tip, and
the base cerigerous ; nostrils oval, and covered with stiff hairs or narrow
feathers inclining forward, and a tuft of hair forming a beard beneath the
lower mandible ; wings very long, the first quill shorter than the second,
and the third the longest ; tarsi short and feathered to the toes, of which
there are four, the three anterior connected by a short membrane, and the
middle one very long ; the talons slightly curved, strong, and very short.

5. FALCO (Lat. /air, a hook, or bUT). Beak hooked ; nostrils lateral ;
head thickly feathered ; upper margin of the orbit projecting, so as to make
the eyes appear sunken ; feet strong ; middle toe the longest ; upper part
of the toes scutulate, with strong, moveable, retractile, curved and very short
claws.

6. GYPOGERANUS (Gr. yity, a Vulture, and yt'pavoc, a Crane). Head
thickly feathered ; beak shorter than the head, thick and strong, curved
almost from the base, and hooked at the point, which is compressed ;
ocular circlet naked ; nostrils in the cere oblong, expanded, and open ; bend
of the wings protected with three bony tubercles : wings long ; legs very

long, the tibiae feathered, the tarsi more than twice the length of the front
toes, which are united at their roots by membrane, the skin beneath warty ;
claws slightly curved, strong, and sharp.

DIURNA. — DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIES.

VULTURE. The whole sub-family of Vultures have acquired an ill name,
though, as is not unfrequently the case, without cause ; for although their
habits are not of the most attractive kind, yet they are inoffensive, and of
great usefulness in warm climates, especially by the quickness with which
they discover, and the speed with which they remove, dead animal matter,
which, if left, would fester in the sun's heat, and render pestilent the sur-
rounding atmosphere. Though the Vultures have neither the disposition
nor courage of the Falcons, to attack living prey, and are destitute of the
strongly-curved and pointed beak and claws necessary for such purpose,
yet do their external characters sufficiently indicate their fitness for the
purposes to which they are destined. Their head and neck, small in com-
parison with their general size, and the neck often long and slender, are
bare or covered only with down, which is less soilable by the filthy carrion
in which, whilst feeding, they are immersed, than feathers would be. Their
beak, curved only at the tip, and unarmed with any tooth or festoon, is still
sufficiently sharp to tear their food to pieces, as are also their slightly-
curved claws, connected however with powerful legs covered only with
reticular scales, sufficient to hold tightly their inanimate prey. Their
flight, although gentle, is remarkable for its great height, as, notwithstanding
their large size, they soon rise, in whirls, so high in the air as to become
completely invisible ; whilst, on the contrary, where but now not a Vulture
can be seen, in a few minutes, on a fitting opportunity, as, for instance, the
death of an animal, the sky becomes darkened with them. To account for
the remarkable celerity with which they discover their prey, it has generally
been considered that the great development of their olfactory organs indi-
cates this faculty to depend on the delicacy of their scent. But of late
years the celebrated naturalist Audubon has maintained that they are
directed to their prey, whilst soaring watchfully aloft, by the extreme
sharpness of their vision.

Species — the Sociable Vulture (V. Auricularis) measures upwards of ten
feet in the expanse of the wings : it is a rare species. It is very common
in the Namaqua country, where it is called the Ghaip, and in the interior
of Southern Africa. The Pondicherry Vulture (V. Ponticerianus) is no
more than about two feet five inches in length, being scarcely larger than a
goose ; common in Bengal, Java, and Sumatra. The Imperial Vulture
(V. Imperials), rather more than three feet in length, a native of India.
The Crested Black Vulture (V. jEgyptius), about three feet and a half in
length; found on the high mountains of Africa, Asia, and Europe. The
Cinereous Vulture (V. Arrianus), three feet and a half in length ; found in
the mountains and forests of Hungary, of the Tyrol, Sardinia, the Pyrenees,
and of the south of Spain and Italy ; also found in India and Egypt. Tem-
minck says there is no difference between those of Asia and Africa and the
European species, and therefore quashes the several specific titles, Cinereus,
Bengaknsis, Vulgaris, Niger, and Cristatus, and employs the term Arrianus,
proposed by Picot la Peyrouse in his Zoolog. des Pyren.

The Griffon Vulture (V. Fulvus) is four feet in length, and more than
twice as much in the expanse of its wings ; it is found on the lofty moun-
tains of the old world. It generally makes its nest in the clefts of rocks ;
but in Sardinia builds on the highest forest oaks a nest of sticks alx>ut
three feet wide. When once set to its meal, it does not leave it for days,

FAMILY — D I U R N A . DIURNAL.

59

so long as a morsel of flesh remains,
gorging itself so completely, that, if
disturbed soon after its meal, it is in-
capable of rising till it has ejected the
contents of its crop.

The Indian Vulture (V. Indus), about
three feet and three inches in length, or
about the size of a turkey. Kolbe's
Vulture (V. Kolbii), rather less than
V. Auricularis, is a native of Africa,
India, and Java ; and the Angda Vul-
ture (V. Angolensis), native of the
western and northern parts of Africa. Griffon Vulture.

The Hooded or Monk Vulture (V. Galericulatus), shown on Plate 1,
is two feet five inches in length ; beak yellow ; its cere blue ; naked parts
of the head and neck red, rosy, or white, according to the quantity of blood
sent to the skin ; neck, back, scapulars, and belly pure white, often inter-
spersed with a few tawny feathers ; the collar of white feathers, separating
the neck from the chest, and rising upon the back, forms a sort of mantle
or hood of greater height than in the other species ; general colour of the
plumage blackish-brown : is a native of the western and northern parts of
Africa.

SARCORAMPHUS — Condor. This genus is one of a distinct character,
remarkable for their feeble snorting voice, caused by the absence of tracheal
muscles. The bird figured on Plate 1— the King Vulture (Sarcoramphus
Papa) — is the most beautiful, although one of the smallest of the family of
Vultures, being only about the size of a goose. Its dignified title is one
of comparison, having been given to it from the fact that the Gallinagos,
with which it is allied hi many particulars, immediately desert their prey
through fear on the approach of this bird, which is, as is well known, both
inferior in strength as well as in size to others of the Vulture family.

The plumage of the King Vulture is marked with bright colours, strongly
contrasted ; the head and neck are tinged with brilliant colours, as orange,
purple, violet ; the ruff on its neck is gray, the back and tail a bright fawn,
which becomes darker as age advances ; the eye is circumscribed with a
scarlet line, and the legs are dusky black or reddish. It is of the same
family as the Great Condor, concerning which so much has been written
by travellers in South America. Mr. Darwin's account is worth tran-
scribing : —

" April 27. — This day I shot a Condor. It measured from tip to tip of
the wings eight and a half feet, and from beak to tail four feet. This bird
is known to have a wide geographical range, being found on the west coast
of South America, from the Strait of Magellan along the Cordillera as far
as eight degrees N. of the equator.

" With respect to their propagation, I was told by the country people
in Chile, that the Condor makes no sort of nest, but in the months of
November and December lays two large white eggs on a shelf of bare rock.
It is said that the young Condors cannot fly for an entire year ; and long
after they are able, they continue to roost by night, and hunt by day with
their parents. The old birds generally live in pairs ; but among the inland
basaltic cliffs of the Santa Cruz, I found a spot where scores must usually
haunt. On coming suddenly to the brow of the precipice, it was a grand
spectacle to see between twenty and thirty of these great birds start heavily
from their resting-place, and wheel away in majestic circles. From the
quantity of dung on the rocks, they must long have frequented this clifl'for
roosting and breeding. Having gorged themselves with carrion on the
plains below, they retire to these favourite ledges to digest their food.
From these facts, the Condor, like the Gallinazo, must to a certain degree
be considered as a gregarious bird. In this part of the country they live
altogether on the guanacos which have died a natural death, or, as more
commonly happens, have been killed by the pumas. I believe, from what
I saw in Patagonia, that they do not on ordinary occasions extend their
daily excursions to any great distance from their regular sleeping-places.

" The Condons may oftentimes be seen at a great height, soaring over a

certain spot in the most graceful circles. On some occasions I am sure
that they do this only for pleasure, but on others, the Chileno countryman
tells you that they are watching a dying animal, or the puma devouring its
prey. If the Condors glide down, and then suddenly all rise together, the
Chileno knows that it is the puma which, watching the carcass, has sprung
out to drive away the robbers. Besides feeding on carrion, the Condors
frequently attack young goats and lambs ; and the shepherd dogs are trained,
whenever they pass over, to run out, and looking upwards to bark violently.
The Chilenos destroy and catch numbers. Two methods are used ; one is
to place a carcass on a level piece of ground within an enclosure of sticks
with an opening, and when the Condors are gorged, to gallop up on horse-
back to the entrance, and thus enclose them : for when this bird has not
space to run, it cannot give its body sufficient momentum to rise from the
ground. The second method is to mark the trees in which, frequently to
the number of five or six together, they roost, and then at night to climb
up and noose them. They are such heavy sleepers, as I have myself wifc-
nessed, that this is not a difficult task. At Valparaiso, I have seen a living
Condor sold for sixpence ; but the common price is eight or ten shillings.
One which I saw brought in had been tied with rope, and was much
injured ; yet the moment the line was cut by which its bill was secured,
although surrounded by people, it began ravenously to tear a" piece of earrion.
In a garden at the same place, between twenty and thirty were kept alive.
They were fed only once a week, but they appeared in pretty good health.
The Chileno countrymen assert that the Condor will live, and retain its
vigour, between five and six weeks without eating : I cannot answer for the
truth of this, but it is a cruel experiment, which very likely has been tried.

" When an animal is killed in the country, it is well known that the
Condors, like other Carrion- Vultures, soon gain intelligence of it, and con-
gregate in an inexplicable manner. In most cases it must not be overlooked,
that the birds have discovered their prey, and have picked the skeleton
clean, before the flesh is in the least degree tainted. Remembering the
experiments of M. Audubon, on the little smelling powers of carrion-hawks,
I tried in the above-mentioned garden the following experiment : the
Condors were tied, each by a rope, in a long row at the bottom of a wall ;
and having folded up a piece of meat in white paper, I walked backwards
and forwards, carrying it in my hand at the distance of about three yards
from them, but no notice whatever was taken. I then threw it on the
ground, within one yard of an old male bird ; he looked at it for a moment
with attention, but then regarded it no more. With a stick I pushed it
closer and closer, until at last he touched it with his beak ; the paper was
then instantly torn off with fury, and at the same moment every bird in
the long row began struggling and flapping its wings. Under the same
circumstances, it would have been quite impossible to have deceived a dog.
The evidence in favour of and against the acute smelling powers of Carrion-
Vultures is singularly balanced. Professor Owen has demonstrated that
the olfactory nerves of the Turkey-Buzzard (Cathartes aura) are highly
developed ; and on the evening when Mr. Owen's paper was read at the
Zoological Society, it was mentioned by a gentleman that he had seen the
Carrion-Hawks in the West Indies on two occasions collect on the roof of
a house, when a corpse had become offensive from not having been buried :
in this case, the intelligence could hardly have been acquired by sight. On
the other hand, besides the experiments of Audubon and that one by
myself, Mr. Bachman has tried in the United States many varied -plans,
showing that neither the Turkey-Buzzard (the species dissected by Professor
Owen) nor the Gallinazo find their food by smell. He covered portions of
highly-offensive offal with a thin canvas cloth, and strewed pieces of meat
on it ; these the Carrion- Vultures ate up, and then remained quietly standing,
with their beaks within the eighth of an inch of the putrid mass, without
discovering it. A small rent was made in the canvas, and the offal was
immediately discovered ; the canvas was replaced by a fresh piece, and
meat again put on it, and was again devoured by the Vultures without their
discovering the hidden mass on which they were trampling.

" When the Condors are wheeling in a flock round and round any spot,
their flight is beautiful. Except when rising from the ground, I do not

12

60

CLASS— AVES.

ORDER— A CCIPETRES.

recollect ever having seen one of these birds flap its wings. Near Lima, I
watched several for nearly half an hour, without once taking off my eyes :
they moved in large curves, sweeping in circles, descending and ascending
without giving a single flap. As they glided close over my head, I
intently watched, from an oblique position, the outlines of the separate and
great terminal feathers of each wing ; and these separate feathers, if there
had been the least vibratory movement, would have appeared as if blended
together ; but they were seen distinct against the blue sky. The head and
neck were moved frequently, and apparently with force ; and the extended
wings seemed to form the fulcrum on which the movements of the neck,
body, and tail acted. If the bird wished to descend, the wings were for a
moment collapsed ; and when again expanded with an altered inclination,
the momentum gained by the rapid descent seemed to urge the bird upwards
with the even and steady movement of a paper kite. In the case of any
bird soaring, its motion must be sufficiently rapid, so that the action of the
inclined surface of its body on the atmosphere may counterbalance its gravity.
The force to keep up the momentum of a body moving in a horizontal plane
in the ah* (in which there is so little friction) cannot be great, and this force
is all that is wanted. The movement of the neck and body of the Condor,
we must suppose, is sufficient for this. However this may be, it is truly
wonderful and beautiful to see so great a bird, hour after hour, without
any apparent exertion, wheeling and gliding over mountain and river."

PERCNOPTERUS. Neck feathered ; bill slender ; size moderate.

The species P. ^Egyptiacus is found in Spain, Portugal, Malta, Turkey, and
is common in Arabia, Persia, and Africa. Travellers speak of its utility in
removing much of the offal and filth of eastern towns, for which services
the superstitious Egyptians paid it divine honours, dignifying it with the
title of Pharaoh's Chicken. (Plate 1.)

GYPAETOS. The Gypaeti are remarkable for the keenness of their sight,
which enables them at an immense height to observe when a sheep (its
usual prey), separating itself from the flock, strays to the edge of a preci-
pice ; immediately the bird stoops upon it, and by its weight, together with
the force collected in its descent, tumbles it over, and, when thus disabled
by the fall, devours it. The stories related of its carrying off animals, and
even children, in its talons, are absurd, for its claws are ill adapted to that
purpose, and it never attacks an animal till it is disabled either by sickness
or the mode just described, or wheu it is young ; nor is it even averse to
dead animals, or parts of them.

The Ciypaetos.

The Alpine Gypaete (G. Barbatus) is the largest, and fortunately the
rarest bird of prey found in the Old World; it measures about four feet
and a half in length, and from nine to ten in width. It feeds upon Chamois
Goats, Sheep, Calves, and young Deer ; but when pressed by hunger will
devour carcasses. It is found in the Swiss AJps, is common in the Tyrol
and Hungary, but very rare in Germany and the Pyrenees ; and builds its
nest in the most inaccessible rocks, where it lays two rough white eggs,
spotted with brown. (Plate 1.)

This bird is the Lcemmer Geyer of the Germans, and was confounded
with the Condor by Cuvier, though their generic distinctions are suffi-
ciently obvious.

FALCO. The Falcons, as a genus, are all rapacious ; but they differ in
the kind of prey on which they feed, the methods which they employ in
taking it, and the facility with which they can be instructed for, and sub-
dued to, the use of man. Hence has originated the old division of this

Head of Falcon.

genus into the noble and ignoble birds of prey ; and it
may seem strange that the Eagle, the king of the birds, is
not to be found in the first. Large in size, however, as it
is, and powerful above all the other individuals of the
genus, it still is far short of the true Falcons, or even the
Hawks, in ardour of pursuit, and in the dexterity employed
by them to seize their prey ; for whilst these strike their victim on the wing,
and with a speed and certainty almost incredible, the Eagles are capable of
capturing such prey only as they can seize on the ground, — in this par-
ticular resembling the Buzzards and the Kites, the former of which are
remarkable for their indolence, and the little activity they exhibit in their
predatory pursuits.

All the species of this genus are monogamous, or living in pairs ; and
the male is a third less in size than the female, whence it has been called a
Tiercelet.

The Falcons are arranged into seven subgenera : —

1. Falcons — including such species as are remarkable for their courage,
whence they have been called the noble birds of prey. They are extivnirlv
docile, and on that account are chosen for the purposes of falconry, in which
they are trained at the order of their master to pursue other birds, and
return obedient to his call.

The Peregrine Falcon (Plate 2), also called the Passenger Falcon, belongs
to this division. It is about fifteen inches in length, and bears a great
resemblance to the Hobby. The upper parts are ashy blue, the head and
upper part of the neck are black, the beak is blue, the cere yellow, as is
also the skin encircling the eyes and the iris; the throat is white, and
slightly marked with delicate, longitudinal, black stripes, the other inferior
parts white, and striped transversely with brown ; the feet yellow. It is a
native of all the mountainous districts of Europe, and rarely seen in the
low grounds, but never in marshes.

The following are species of this division : — The Hobby, the Merlin, the
Kestril, natives of England ; the Jer-Falcon, the Lanner, and the Ingrian
Fakon, of Northern Europe; the F. Tinnunculoides and F. Aldrovandi,
east and south of Europe ; the Fishing Falcon, the Black-thighed Falcon,
the F. Punctatus, the Rufous-backed Kestril, from Africa, Mauritius, and
the Cape ; the Carolina Kestril, the Red-thiglied Kestril, of America ; and
the Hooded Falcon, the F. Chicquera, and F. Lophotes, of India.

2. Hawks — remarkable for the rapidity of their flight, but they do not
wheel in circles in the air except at pairing-time ; they seize their prey on
the wing ; are cunning and cruel ; they commonly live in the woods, and
particularly in those which are near rocky situations.

The Hawks are themselves divided into Gos-hawks and True Hawks.
Species of the former, varying in size from twelve to twenty-two inches,
are found in Europe, America, the Tropics, and in New Holland ; species
of the latter, which have the tarsi rather long, smooth, and scutellated, are
also widely extended, and under various appellations. The Sparrow-hawk
belongs to this class : it is about twelve inches long, is common in Europe,
and is very courageous ; it is occasionally taught to fly at Partridges and
Quails.

3. Eagles. These comprise the largest and most powerful birds of the
genus : they stoop upon their prey, and bearing it aloft in their claws, carry
it to their nest, where they tear it in pieces ; they rarely feed upon carrion,
except when pressed by hunger. Temminck thinks there exists no line of
distinction between the Eagles and the Hawks.

They are divided into True Eagks, Trite Fishing Eagles, Ospreys,
Harpies, and Hawk Eagles.

The Booted Eagle (Plate 2) is a species of the True Eagles. It is a
beautiful bird, but is of small size, the male measuring only seventeen and
the female eighteen inches. It is distinguished by a tuft of white feathers
at the insertion of its wings, its legs feathered to the toes, and its tail
entirely brown above ; native of the eastern parts of Europe.

The Sea Eagle (Plate 2) belongs to the True Fishing Eagles. It is
about three feet in length, and more than seven in width ; when young, its
plumage is brown, with a bright brown stripe down the middle of each

FAMILY— N O C T U R N A. NOCTURNAL.

61

The Kite.

feather ; but as the bird's age advances, the plumage assumes an uniform
brown ash colour, and the head and neck become pale, and incline to white.
It is found in many parts of Europe and America ; not unfrequently in
England, commonly Jiving either by the sea-shore or in the neighbourhood
of large lakes, where it feeds mostly on fish.

4. Kites. Tarsi short ; toes and claws weak, as is also the beak ; wings
very long ; tail forked. The great length of their wings, and their forked
tail, easily distinguish the Kites from

the other subgenera; their flight is
easy and graceful, and, owing to the
forked tail, they are enabled to form
sudden and rapid turns in the air,
which is requisite, as they prey upon
insects and small birds, which fly
very quickly, although but for a short
distance.

The Kite is very common in England ; it flies high and very mpidly,
but can see its prey from a great elevation, and drops upon it with much
velocity ; it feeds on small birds and other small animals, and so many
as twenty Moles have been taken out of one nest.

5. Cymindis. This subgenus, as at present formed, seems to comprise
individuals which differ very much from each other, but taken together,
form a connection between the Hawks and the Buzzards, more particularly
resembling the latter in the form of their feet.

6. Buzzards. These are divided into Buzzards with short tarsi, True
Buzzards, and Honey Buzzards. Their general characteristics are — beak
curved suddenly from the base ; upper mandible not toothed ; wings short,
the third or fourth remiges the longest ; tail even.

7. Caracaras. Ophthalmic region, throat, and crop more or less un-
feathered; in some hairy and in others quite bare. The propriety of
placing the Caracaras in the genus Falco has been doubted, on account of
the naked parts about the head, which rather assimilate them to the
Vultures, among which they have been ranged by Vieillot; butTemminck
and Cuvier think them best placed among the Falcons.

GYPOGERANUS — Secretary Bird (G. Capensis). In size the Secretary
Bird equals the Stork ; it has the root of the beak and the ocular region
covered with a bare orange-coloured skin ; the gape wide, and the back of
the head ornamented with a tuft of ten pendent feathers, which, having
been supposed to bear a resemblance to a pen stuck behind the ear of a
clerk, have given rise to its name Secretary Bird. The general colour of
the bird is greyish. It is found in the neighbourhood of the Cape of Good
Hope, where it builds its eyry on the top of a high thicket, lining it with
wool and feathers ; but towards Terra del Natal, where it is also found, it
builds in high trees. Its food consists principally of reptiles, which it
destroys by a stroke of its wings.

Family — NOCTURNAL ; Nockurna.

Unlike the Diurnal Family, these Birds are not endowed with the power
of strong flight. In seeking their prey by night they make no noise with
their feeble and downy wings : they have large heads, and their eyes,
which are large, and otherwise adapted for their nocturnal habits, are di-
rected forwards. If attacked by day, they are unable to defend themselves.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.

PLATE 3.
Genus. Species. Common Name.

Strut

INyctea - - - - Snowy Harfang, or Owl.

Aluco - - - - Brown Owl.

Flammea - - - White Owl.

Otus ----- Long-eared Owl.

CHARACTERS OF THE GENUS.

STRIX. Head large, fully feathered; face more or less flat, and sur-
rounded with a more or less perfect ruff or disc, of small close-set feathers ;

eyes very large, furnished with nictitating membranes, and contained in
very wide orbits; hides brilliant, beak compressed and curved from its
base ; nostrils lateral, round, or oblique ; wings rather pointed, varying in
length, but never exceeding the tail ; legs generally feathered to the claws ;
tail of moderate length and square ; three toes in front and one behind,
completely divided, the outer one reversible ; claws powerful and retractile ;
plumage soft and downy.

NOCTURNA. — DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIES.

The general appearance of the birds forming this genus is so marked,
that, as has been well observed by the editor of the second volume of the
" Fauna Boreali-Americana," " there is, as we believe, no one species yet
discovered, which even a common observer would not immediately pro-
nounce to be an Owl." They occupy an intermediate station between the
Falcons, which, together with themselves, form the Accipitrine order, and
with the Goatsuckers among Passerine birds.

The greater number of Owls are nocturnal or crepuscular, and are well
fitted for this kind of life by the enormous size of their pupils, which
enables them to see better during the duskiness of night, but in daytime
admits so much light into the eye as to render them almost blind. Some,
however, are not only able to bear daylight, but are even capable of
encountering the glare of the sun, and to hunt in daytime with the keen-
ness of Hawks; in such the irides are always bright yellow, whilst in
those which are nocturnal they are brown. They feed on living prey,
beetles, reptiles, small birds, and mice ; and some of the larger and more
powerful do not hesitate to get hold of turkeys, grouse, rabbits, and hares,
and even fishes ; but they never feed upon carrion except in extreme diffi-
culty, when nothing else can be procured. They build in holes of walls
or trees, and lay from two to four eggs ; these when hatched present young
covered with a downy coat, which do not leave the nest till they are com-
petent to provide for themselves. They moult but once.

This genus is divided into Earless and Eared Owls.

.FYrsJ.— EARLESS OWLS. Characterised by their rounded heads without
aigrettes, and by their broad face. These are separated into two sections,
dependent on the length of the tail ; then* habits also are distinct.

1. Accipitrine or Hawk- Owls.

Species — the Snowy Owl (S. Nyctea). Head small, beak black, and
entirely hidden by the bristly feathers at its base ; plumage snowy-white,
but more or less marked with brown spots or bars. According to Richard-
son it builds its nest upon the ground, and lays three or four white eggs,
two only of which are hatched. It is very common in the more northern
regions of both hemispheres. It feeds upon hares, rabbits, rats, lemmings,
which it strikes down with its foot, also upon grouse, especially the
ptarmigan. It flies swiftly, and its colour is well suited for concealment
in passing over the snowy regions. Its note is very hideous, resembling
the cries of a person in deep distress. (Plate 3.)

The Ural Owl (S. Uralensis) is nearly two feet in length ; the tail very
wedge-shaped ; head very large ; face wide, very fully feathered, and of a
whitish-grey, encircled with a broad band of white feathers, spotted with
black. In the young the ground colour of the plumage is pale greyish-
brown. It feeds upon mice, and small birds, and also seizes hares and
rabbits. It makes its nest in the hollows of trees and in the clefts of
rocks, and lays three or four pure white eggs.

The Little Hawk Owl (S. Funerea) varies from fourteen to eighteen
inches in length. It inhabits the Arctic circle both in the new and old
world, whence it occasionally descends southward, when compelled by
severity of weather and want of food.

The Fdconine Owl (S. Choucou) having folded wings reaching to the
middle of the tail, which is wedge-shaped, is found at the Cape of Good
Hope. Its flight is very swift.

The Variegated Owl (S. Nisuella) is about fourteen inches long ; general
colour of the plumage brown, varied with ferruginous-white and black
in irregular zones. Is found at the Cape of Good Hope.

62

CLASS— AVES.

ORDER— ACCIPETRES.

The Fasciated Owl (S. Lineata) is about the same size as the last species.
It is a native of Guiana, and also of Cayenne.

The Cinereous Out (S. Laponica) is the largest species known ; the male
is two feet in length, and the female from two feet four inches to two feet
eight inches in length. It is found in the woody districts between Lake
Superior and lat. 67° or 68° from Hudson's Bay to the Pacific.

2. Night Owls. These, with the preceding section, form Savigny's
genus Noctua : many of them are of small size, but their habits are gene-
rally nocturnal, and their motions slow and noiseless.

Species— the Barred Owl (S. Nebulosa) is about twenty inches in
length. It is a native of the Arctic regions, and is found in Sweden,
Norway, and North America. Its common food is mice and small game,
but occasionally it seizes on fowls, partridges, and young rabbits; and
Audubon was told that it also devoured fish. It is frequently observed
flying during the day, and according to Wilson sees more distinctly at that
time than many others of the same genus.

The Brown Owl (Plate 3), called also the Tawny Owl (S. Aluco),
measures fourteen or fifteen inches in length ; bill yellowish-white ; head
large and flattened towards the occiput ; irides dark-bluish black ; face
white, tinged and barred with brown; upper parts marked with large
deep brown spots, and with small ferruginous and white spots ; upon the
scapulars some large white spots ; under parts reddish-white, with trans-
verse brown bars. In the female the colours are much more red, and often
ferruginous-red, and the transverse barring of the wings and tail are alter-
nately ferruginous and brown. The first year's birds resemble the female,
and have the irides brown : such have been considered a distinct species,
and called S. Stridula, or Tawny Owl. This is one of the most common
of the British species, and is also spread over Europe, preferring especially
closely wooded districts, those particularly in which there is much fir,
holly, and ivy. They build in the hollows of old trees, or will occupy a
deserted crow's nest and lay four or five whitish eggs. During day it
remains hidden, being unable to see well in the light, but at night is
actively engaged in search of its prey — rats, mice, moles, rabbits, and young
hares, sometimes also pigeons, and even fish.

The Knocking Owl (S. Pulsatrix) is about seventeen and a half inches
long; head rather larger than in the Tawny Owl ; wings not quite reaching
the end of the tail ; legs strong, stout, and feathered nearly to the claws.
This is a very beautiful bird. Native of the Brazils.

The Pagoda Owl (S. Pagodarum), seventeen inches long, is found at
Pondicherry, where it is called Oume-Kblan.

The Little Owl (S. Passerina) is about nine inches in length, and the
size of a Jay ; it is the smallest European species ; cere olive-brown ; beak
much hooked, and rather curved at the sides. It is common in almost all
the warmer countries of Europe, but rarely higher than 55a of north lati-
tude : in England it is only an occasional visitant.

Tengmalm's Owl (S. Tengmalmi) is rather smaller than S. Passerina,
with which it is often confounded, but may be distinguished, according to
Yarrell, by the thickness and more downy character of its plumage, and by
the length and abundance of the feathers covering its short legs and toes.
This species, of rare occurrence in England, is found throughout the north
of Europe ; it is very common in North America, where it is found in the
woody country from the Great Slave Lake to the United States.

The Acadian, Ferruginous, Least, Occipital, Sonnerafs, Chestnut-winged,
Collared, Many-rayed, Cayenne, White-fronted, White-banded, Manges,
Cuckoo, Boobock, and the Spotted Owl, together with S. Passerinoides,
S. Hylophila, and S. Brama, are of this division.

The four following species, which have the beak curved only at the tip,
and the facial disc very fully developed, form the genus Strix, or True Owls
of Savigny.

The Barn Owl (S. Flammea). Thirteen inches in length ; beak straw-
coloured, lengthy; curving at the tip; irides yellow; face and throat
white; upper parts light ochreous-yellow varied with grey and brown
zigzags. (Plate 3.) Legs and toes covered with very short down, but
thin upon the toes ; claws yellowish-white, the middle one having its inner

edge imperfectly serrated. This is the most common species in this
country, is widely spread throughout Europe, Asia, and less frequently in
the northern parts of America ; it lives among old ruins, barus, church-
towers, and other secluded places, where it breeds, making its nest under
the eaves of buildings or in the hollows of trees, and lays three or five
whitish eggs. About twilight it leaves its retreat, and may be seen hunting
noiselessly and regularly over the fields and along the hedgerows in search
of mice, shrews, bats, and beetles, upon which it drops with great pre-
cision and swallows whole. Occasionally in its flight it utters loud
screams, whence its vulgar name of Screech Owl, and if disturbed when
perched, hisses and snores very violently. The S. Javanica of Gmelin is
merely a variety of this species.

The Pearly Owl (S. Perlata) very nearly resembles the preceding, and
is considered both by Wilson and Temminck as identical with it. Lich-
tenstein, however, considers it a distinct species. It is spread throughout
the greater part of South America.

The Chestnut Owl of Java, the Fork-tailed Owl of Mexico, and Say's
Burrowing Owl of Missouri, are also species of tin's section.

Second Section. — EARED OWLS. This division is easily distinguished
from the former, by a pair of little tufts of feathers placed more or less
forward upon the forehead, and which are generally, but not always,
capable of erection, and are known by the several names, horns, ears, or
aigrettes. They are further divided into two minor sections.

First : Eagk Owls. Tail rounded and longer than the wings ; legs and
toes feathered to the long, curved, and very sharp claws ; facial disc almost
imperceptible ; aural conch small, oval, and without an opercule. They
form Cuvier's genus Bubo ; are very strong and active ; do not wait till
darkness sets in, but are often seen prowling about before sunset, and in
the high northern latitudes are constantly on the wing in daytime during
the summer months, for which their bright yellow irides seem to fit them.

Species — the Great-horned or Eagle Owl (S. Bubo) : two feet in length.
Very common in the great forests of Hungary, Russia, Germany, and
Switzerland, but rare in France and England, and never in Holland. It is
also found in North America, Kamtschatka, and China, and often, according
to Temminck, at the Cape of Good Hope.

The American Great-horned Owl (S. Virginiana) : the male twenty, and
the female twenty-four inches in length ; the White-horned Owl (S. Arctica),
twenty-three and a half inches in length ; very similar to S. Virginiana ;
the Bengal Eared Owl (S. Bengalensis) ; the Sultan Owl (S. Sultanus) ;
the Supercilious Owl (S. Griseata), native of Cayenne ; the Noisy <hd
(S. Strepitans), native of Sumatra : also the Sumatran Owl (S. Sumatrana).

Second: Eared Owls. Tail square, and scarcely showing any con-
cavity beneath ; wings long ; the legs and toes feathered to the claws,
which are long and very sharp ; facial disc of moderate size, and complete ;
conch extending from the beak to the top of the skull in a semicircular
form, and provided with an opercule. They form the subgenus Otus of
Cuvier, are generally nocturnal, and prey upon mice and small birds ; some
live in the woods, and others in more open country, or on heaths.

The Eastern Great Horned Owl (S. Ascalaphus) is seventeen and a half
inches in length : is found in Africa, and common in Egypt.

The Long-eared Owl (S. Otus), fourteen inches in length ; aigrettes
consisting of eight or ten feathers, black, edged with yellow and white,
and about an inch and a quarter long ; beak black ; irides deep orange ;
upper parts ferruginous-yellow, irregularly spotted with deep brown and
ashy-grey ; under parts pale ochrish-yellow, marked with oblong blackish-
brown streaks. The female is distinguished by her white throat and fan ,
but the edges of the latter marked with brown, and the plumage generally
mottled with greyish-white. It is found in Europe, Africa, and America,
and is common in the wooded parts of this country, France, and Germany,
preferring, however, pine plantations and old ivy. This species does not
build any nest, but occupies those deserted by crows, magpies, wood-
pigeons, or squirrels, and lays four or five white eggs with rounded ends
earlv in the spring. They feed principally on mice and moles, but occa-
sionally on small birds, which they suqwise at roost. They are courageous

ORDER— PASS EKINA.

FAMILY— D ENTIKOSTRATA. TOOTH-BILLED.

63

birds, and if attacked, throw themselves upon their back, fight boldly with
their beak and claws, and at the same time hiss furiously. (Plate 3.)

Other species — the Short-eared Owl (S. Brachyolus), from twelve to
fourteen inches long ; the African Spotted Owl, sixteen inches in length ;
the Ijarge-beaked Owl (S. Macrorhyncha), nineteen inches long ; the Yellow-
cheeked Owl (S. Wilsonianus) ; the White-cheeked Owl (S. Leucotis), ten
inches long ; the Mottled Owl (S. Asio), ten inches long ; the Milky Owl
(S. Lactea), and about twelve additional species.

ORDER II.— PASSERINA. PERCHERS.

THE Birds composing this Order are very miscellaneous ; for they consist
of all those which have not the decided characteristics and habits of the
Poultry, Birds of Prey, Climbers, Waders, and Swimmers. They are not
restricted to one kind of food, for some feed on insects, some on fruits,
and some on grain ; nor do they possess the same powers of flight in
common. Among them the singing birds are found. This order is the
most numerous of all the orders of the class Aves.

Family — TOOTH-BILLED ; Dentirostrata.

The greater number of birds in this family feed on insects ; their upper
mandible is notched, and their beaks are stout and compressed.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.

Genera.

Lanius - - - -

Musicapa - - -

Tanagra - - - -

Turdus - - - -

Rupicola - -

Eurylaimus - - -

PLATE 4.

Species.

Excubitor - -

Grisola - - -

Vittata - - -

Polyglottus - -

Aurantia - - -
Javanicus.

Common Name.

(Great Cinereous Shrike or
( Butcher Bird.

- Spotted Flycatcher.

- Banded Tanager.

- Mocking Bird.

- Orange Rock-cock.

Other Genera of this Family : — Edolius, Malurus, Meliphaga, Menura,
Motacilla, Muscipeta, Myothera, Ocypteras, Oriolus, Pardalotus, Pastor,
Phibalura, Phyllornis, Pipra, Pitta, Platyrhynchos, Procnias, Ptilono-
rhynchus, Pyrrhocorax, Saxicola, Sparactes, Sylvia, Thamnophilus,
Timalia, Trichophorus, Tyrannus, Vanga.

CHARACTERS OF THE GENERA.

1. LANIUS (Lat. lanio, I tear). Beak of moderate size, strong, com-
pressed, straight; upper mandible curved; nostrils round, lateral, and
basal ; tarsus longer than the middle toe ; three toes in front, and one
behind ; wings of moderate length.

2. MUSCICAPA (Lat. Musca, a fly, and capio, I take). Beak of moderate
size, strong, angular, depressed at the base, tip curved, deeply toothed ;
nostrils ovoid, basal, lateral ; tarsi rather longer than the middle toe ; three
toes in front, the outer connected at its base with the middle, and one toe
behind.

3. TANAGRA. Beak conical, short and strong, trigonal at the base, ridge
curved, tip hooked down, toothed, and much longer than the lower man-
dible, which is straight ; wings rather short ; tarsus as long as the middle
toe, at the base of which the outer is connected but the inner is free.

4. TURDUS. Beak sharp, tip pointed and curved, the upper mandible
toothed towards its extremity ; tarsus longer than the middle toe, which is
attached at its base to the outer ; hind toe large ; claws large, but only
slightly curved.

5. ROTICOLA (Lat. rupis, a rock, and colo, I inhabit). Beak stout,
slightly vaulted, curved at the point, and toothed ; base of the bill as broad
as its depth ; lower mandible straight, toothed and pointed ; nostrils basal,
lateral, ovoid, partially open ; wings of moderate size ; tarsus as long as
the middle toe, and partially feathered ; inner connected to the middle toe
beyond the second joint, but the outer only at its root; hind toe very
strong, and armed with a stout claw.

6. EURYLAIMUS. Bill broader than the head ; under mandible thin ;
nostrils basal, transverse, oval ; wings and tail rounded.

The characteristics of the " other genera " partake, more or less, of those
already given : their number precludes our inserting them at length.

DENTIROSTRATA. — DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIES.

LANIUS — Shrike. The Shrikes are commonly found in all parts of the
world, except in South America, where they are replaced by the genera
Vanga and Thamnophilus, one single species only, the L. Collurio, being met
with there. They are powerful and cruel, the larger species carrying off
young birds in their beak, transfixing them on a thorn, and tearing them to
pieces before they eat them : the common food of the genus, however,
is beetles, small lizards, and other reptiles. They are very bold, and
defend themselves courageously if attacked by larger birds. Their flight is
precipitate, but irregular, and in their course they describe a low kind of
curve, and continually move then: tail. They are generally, but not always,
gregarious, and build in the woods and hedges, laying five or six eggs.
Their natural cry is very shrill ; but they seem to possess in many instances
the power of imitating the note of other birds.

The Great Cinereous Shrike (L. Excubitor) — Plate 4 — is about the size of
a Thrush, bill black, head, neck, and back light ash-coloured ; under parts
white; wings short and black ; legs black. This species is common in
Europe, and often found in England ; it feeds on Shrew-mice, Frogs, and
small birds, which it spits on a thorn, and tears to pieces; hence its
vulgar name Butcher Bird, by which it is known in the north of England.
In Germany it is called the Wurch-angel, or Suffocating Angel, from its
strangling the birds on which it feeds before tearing them to pieces.

The Shrike family include thirty-two principal species, the general cha-
racteristics and habits of which are alike.

MUSCICAPA — Flycatcher. A large proportion of the birds forming this
genus belong to warm climates, and exhibit great variation in the form of
their beak, dependent on the different kinds of insects upon which they
feed. In their habits the Flycatchers approach the Shrikes, being of a
quarrelsome and spiteful disposition, driving away from their haunts all
other insectivorous birds, and even chasing each other. They feed on flies
and other winged insects, which they take on the wing, but never on the
ground, and rarely even on the leaves of trees. In Europe, for the most
part, they live alone in the forests, upon the tops of the trees, and lay but
once a year.

They have been divided into geographical sections : — European, Asiatic,
African, American, and Oceanic Flycatchers.

The Spotted Flycatcher (M. Grisola) — Plate 4 — is one of the European
species. It is rather larger than the common Sparrow ; the upper parts
ashy-brown ; throat and middle of the belly white ; sides of the neck,
chest, and belly marked with longitudinal ashy-brown streaks. The Spotted
Flycatcher makes its appearance in England and France in the spring,
and leaves us about September, when the dipterous insects on which it
feeds become scarce. It is of a dull aspect, and naturally fierce ; never
sings, but utters a piercing, disagreeable cry. It lives in the woods, and
builds its nest of moss, wool, or hairs, intermingled with roots, in the
hollows of rotten trees, and sometimes in holes of walls, or even in bushes,
and lays five or six eggs, bluish white spotted with rust colour.

The White-collared Flycatcher (M. Albicollis), the Little Flycatcher
(M. Parva), and the Pied Flycatcher (M. Luctuosa), are of this division.

The Asiatic species are about sixteen in number ; the African ten ; the
American fifteen ; and the Oceanic about twelve.

TANAGRA. This extensive genus is entirely confined to America, and,
according to Temminck's and Prince Maximilian's observations, gradually
approach in form to the Grosbeaks, Shrikes, Flycatchers, Finches, and
Pies. They are birds of very beautiful colours, varying in size from that
of a Finch to that of a Starling. Some live in the thick woods, others in
open country studded with copses, and some especially prefer the bushes
on the banks of rivers or on the sea-coast. They are as various in their
disposition ; some are lively and active, others quiet and phlegmatic. They

64

CLASS— AVES.

ORDER-PASS ERIN A.

live sometimes in flocks, at other times singly or in pairs, and often sit
quietly upon the lower branches of underwood. They feed on berries,
seeds, fruits, and also on insects. Like most other of the bright-coloured
birds of tropical climates they have generally little or no voice beyond their
common call.

They have been divided into the Bullfinch Tanagers, the True Tanagers,
the Jacapa Tanagers, the Thick-beaked Tanagers, the Shrike Tanagers, and
the Tachyphonus.

The Bullfinch Tanagers, though called Euphonous, utter but a short call.
There are six principal species.

The True Tanagers embrace about thirty-four species, of which the
Filleted or Banded Tanager (T. Vittata) is one. It is five and a half inches
in length ; beak bkck ; head, nape, and upper part of the wings azure-
blue ; back deep violet-blue ; wings and tail bluish-black edged with light
blue ; throat yellowish-white ; other under parts rust-coloured ; legs
brown. The female is distinguished by the greenish-brown cast of the
upper parts of the body, and by the absence of blue except above the eyes
and at the flexure of the wings. Is a native of Brazil.

The Jacapa Tanagers include three species ; the Thick-beaked Tanagers
six ; the Shrike Tanagers also six ; and the Tachyphonus four.

TrjRDUS — Thrush. All the species are of moderate size, prettily formed,
and in the shape of their beak approach the Crows. The inner sharp edges
of the eyelids and the corners of the mouth are, in all the species, yellow
at pairing time. Buffon has divided them into Thrushes and Blackbirds.
They mostly live in flocks, and have a sameness of voice. But few are
stationary in any country, the greater number migrating northwards in
summer, and returning to the south in winter. They feed on insects,
worms, and berries ; the tough wing-cases of the former, and the shells and
stones of the latter, they reject from their gizzards in the shape of oblong
pellets. They all hop, and never walk. Some prefer the woods and
other rocky places. They are divided into three sections : — Wood
Thrushes, Mocking Birds, and Rock Thrushes.

The Wood Thrushes live in companies, and specially at their migratory
seasons. They constantly inhabit woods, bushes, and gardens, are very
similar in their habits and in their voice, are very amorous, and one species
readily follows the call of another. They build nicely-contrived nests,
breed twice a year, and then- eggs are mostly pale sea-green.

The principal species number about seventeen, in which the Throstle
and Blackbird are included.

The call of the Throstle, or Song Thrush (T. Musicus), is a hissing or
hoarsely-piped zipp, uttered often so low as to lead to the supposition that
the bird is far distant, although close at hand. When alarmed or uneasy,
their note, dak, dak, dak, dak, dak, is uttered in a higher tone ; and at sun-
rise and sunset, and often even later, when they resort to the water to
drink and bathe, the first which finds a suitable stream utters joyfully tic,
tic, tic, tic, ticki, dock, dak, and this being quickly responded to by the
party, consisting of ten or twelve, they cautiously begin to enter the water,
and so soon as one has ventured in, the rest quickly follow, and begin to
quarrel if they are scant of room. If disturbed whilst in a bush, it darts
out, merely uttering zipp, or dock, dock, by which it is distinguished from
the Blackbird. The male has a very beautiful song, which from March till
far into summer is heard in the woods, specially at morning and evening ;
it sits singing on the very topmost branch of the tree, above its usual
favourite perch. Previous to having young ones they sing during the day,
but most beautifully towards evening, and continue till twilight has passed,
after which they descend, but for a long while their beautiful tir, tir, tir, tir,
may be heard. Their song has some resemblance to that of the Blackbird,
but the tone is higher, the time quicker, the pauses between the strophes
shorter, but the entire song longer, more melodious and varying, and has
several distinct, very flute-like strophes, of which some resemble the
syllables tratu, trati, migam, migam, and kudubh, kudiet, each twice
repeated.

The Song Thrushes build in trees of no great height ; often in apple
and pear trees. The nest is pretty large, in which are laid from four to

six eggs of a bright sea-green colour, with many small, and a few large,
round, light rufous-brown spots ; sometimes there are only a very few and
small spots, and sometimes the eggs are spotless.

The call of the Blackbird (T. Merula), uttered either whilst sitting or
flying, is a tremulous tsrii, tsritsrii ; but sometimes merely tak, tak, or, in
a deeper tone, tuk, tuk, and, if very earnest, taktaktaktak, expressive of
pleasure, or of the approach of something which they fear to be danger-
ous ; and should this draw nearer, their voice changes to tir, tir, tir, tir, tirt
tir ! very loudly uttered, and, when they take wing, followed by a shrill,
quick gaig iggig giggi, gaigig giggiggi. In the evening, when sitting on a
low branch, or flying to the water, they utter the syllable tir, sustaining it
for a minute. If suddenly frightened, they dart ofF, crying out in a loud
tone tak, tak, gaigig, giggiggi, tak, tak, the middle syllables expressed very
quickly. The male Blackbird is one of our most beautiful songsters ; his
song consists of many strophes following at short intervals, among which
are some more staid chirping and hoarse notes, varied with clear whistles ;
but it is specially distinguished and heard at a great distance, by a loud
flute-like tratue, tratatoe, which has also been compared to the sounds
david, hans david. With this somewhat melancholy song they enliven the
quiet evenings of the early spring ; they sing also during the day, but
specially at morning dawn ; for the most part, however, their song is first
continuous towards evening, in the twilight, till the night is completely set
in, when they cease, or are only very rarely heard. From March to July
they sing incessantly, but principally on the evenings of hot and sultry
days. Blackbirds build in the woods where thickest, and in the neighbour-
hood of water, making their nest sometimes in a hollow tree, but if more
exposed, upon a small branch or in a thick bush. The female lays four, five,
or six eggs, of a greenish-grey colour, marked with pale-brown spots.

The Mocking Birds are all natives of America, and frequent the lower
brushwood near the ground, mounting higher only during spring and
breeding-time, when they sing to their mates. Their note is very loud ;
some possess great melody, but in others it is very harsh, grating, and kept
up. incessantly.

The species figured on Plate 4 (T. Polyglottus) is known as the Singing
Bird, Nightingale, or Mocking Bird. It is about nine and a half inches
long ; bill black ; upper parts dark- brownish ash ; sides of the neck,
breast, belly, and vent brownish-white ; wings and tail nearly black ; tail
cuneiform, the outer two quills white, the others only tipped with white.
The female lays four or five cinereous blue eggs with largo brown
blotchings. During the period of incubation, which lasts about fourteen
days, neither man nor brute is allowed to approach without being fii-rcvlv
attacked. But its vengeance is specially directed against the black snake,
the inveterate spoiler of its eggs and young, and so soon as its stealthy
approaches are noticed, the male darts at it like an arrow, striking it vio-
lently about the head with its beak, and as the snake's strength fails, the
Mocking Bird seizes, and lifting it up a little from the ground, beats it
with its wings until it has destroyed it. The motions of this bird are easy,
elegant, and rapid ; its voice full, strong, and musical, and capable, as
Wilson observes, of almost every modulation, from the clear mellow tones
of" the Wood Thrush to the savage screams of the Bald Eagle. Its own
note is bold, full, and varied almost endlessly, consisting of short ex-
pressions of two, three, or at most five or six syllables, generally inter-
spersed with imitations, all uttered with great emphasis and rapidity, and
continued for half an hour or an hour. As his song swells or dies away
he mounts and descends, or, as Bartram expresses it, " he bounds aloft
with the celerity of an arrow, as if to recover or recall his very soul,
expired in the last elevated strain." His imitations are so perfect, that he
not only deceives the sportsman, sending him in search of birds perhaps
many miles distant, but even birds themselves are often deceived by his
voice, and are either enticed by the fancied calls of their mates, or scared
away by the well-feigned screams of the Sparrow Hawk.

Besides the Mocking Bird there are five other species.

The Rock Thrushes are readily distinguished by the rufous colour of the
caudal quills, excepting the middle two, which are black. They live soli-

FAMILY— D ENTIROSTRATA. TOOTH-BILLED.

65

tarily, and always inhabit steep rocks and the stony parts of the highest
mountains, among the clefts of which they build. They feed almost
entirely on insects.

There are two species, natives of Italy, Switzerland, Hungary, France,
Spain, and Turkey.

RUPICOLA — Bock-cock. There are three species, two of which are
natives of America, but the third is found in Asia. They are grani-
vorous.

The Orange Bock-cock (R. Aurantiaca) is rather larger than a Wood
Pigeon : general colour of the plumage orange, which becomes more bril-
liant as the bird increases in age. The female is distinguished from the
male by her plumage being brown. The young male does not assume his
bright plumage at first, but has the brown colour of the female; and at
each month more orange is thrown out till it assumes at last the colours
described as those of the adult. It is a native of Guiana, and lives in the
deep clefts of rocks and in caverns.

The Peruvian and Green Bock Cocks are the other species.

EURYLAIMUS. The Javanese Eunjlaimus (Plate 4) frequents the most
remote and inaccessible wastes, covered with forests and abounding with
rivers and marshes. It builds its nest pendent from the branch of a tree
overhanging the water. Its general colour is purple ; forehead black ;
back of neck and wings dark brown ; bill variegated and striped ; tail-
coverts tipped with yellow ; tarsi dusky-yellow. Native of Java, Sumatra,
and the Indian Archipelago.

EDOLIUS. Found in the countries bordering the Indian seas, also in
Africa. They are about the size of our Thrush ; colour black or dark-
brown. The Hottentots call them Duywels, or Devil's Bird, from their cry
pia-griach-griach.

MALUKUS — Merion. These birds are divided into two geographical
sections — the African, and those of the Indian Archipelago and New Hol-
land. They are found in marshy districts covered with high grass and
reeds ; they are very swift, and run more than fly. One species, the Soft-
tailed Merion (M. Malachurus), is called by the colonists of Port Jackson
the Emeu Bird.

MELIPHAGA — Honey-eater. The birds of thisgenus are found only in
the South Sea Islands and the distant parts of India. Species about
eighteen.

MENURA. The species (M. Superba), the Superb Menura, is about the
size of a hen pheasant ; its general colour is brown ; prefers retired
districts ; and is remarkable for the lyre-like form of its tail. A native of
New Holland. Is called by the colonists the Wood Pheasant.

MOTACILLA — Wagtail. They live on the banks of rivers or in watery
meadows among the cattle, running round them, for the purpose of catching
the flies which settle about their legs, and perhaps also the larvae disturbed
by their steps, for which purpose they not unfrequently follow the plough ;
they are extremely active, and continually elevating and depressing their
tails ; whence has arisen their common appellation. They appear to be
connected with Wading-birds by the length of their legs, and by their
long scapulars, which when the wings are folded cover their tips.

The Grey Wagtail (M. Boarula) remains in England through the winter,
and is found throughout Europe, especially in the north.

MUSCIPETA — Flyseeker. The birds forming this genus are generally of
slender make, and therefore only capable of catching insects. Some are
furnished with crests on the head, or long feathers in the tail, and some
have a remarkable membranous circlet about the eyes. They are classed
geographically : the Asiatic eight species ; the African two ; the American
twenty-two ; and the Oceanic ten or eleven.

MYOTHERA — Palikour. The latter is the common title by which these
birds go in Guiana ; do not fly much on account of the shortness of their
wings, but they run or hop along the trees with great quickness. They
are found in South America and in Java, in the depths of retired woods in
the neighbourhood of large ant-hills, on whose tenants they principally feed.
General colour of the upper parts brown, grey or whitish beneath.

OCYPTERUS — Swallow-shrike. Six species, resembling the Shrikes in

courage and the Swallows in their length of wing and rapidity of flight.
Plumage varied black and white. Inhabitants of the East Indian isles and
Australia. They feed on insects.

ORIOLUS — Oriole. They differ from the Thrushes in the greater strength
of their beak and shortness of their tarsi ; plumage black and yellow. One
species, the Witwall (O. Catbula), is European, rare in England ; and
seven secies are found in New Holland and the East Indian isles.

PAKDALOTUS. This genus is closely allied to the Piproe, or Manakins,
from which it is distinguished by a dilated instead of a trigonal base.
There are seven species, some of which are inhabitants of South America,
some of New Holland, and some of Java.

PASTOR — Locust-eater. The name of this genus refers to their habit of
flocking together in large parties. Vieillot named the genus Acridotheres,
from the Grasshoppers on which they principally feed. All of them belong
to the old world, collect together, and live in large flights, like Starlings,
which they closely resemble in habits ; they are very fond of being among
cattle, on the backs of which they alight for the purpose of picking out the
ticks and other vermin ; are often seen on dunghills, and also feed upon
large insects, especially locusts.

The number of species is eight, only one of which has occasionally
visited England.

PHIBALURA. This genus, of which there is but one species, is connected
with the Piprse, by the form of its legs and beak and the distribution of
its plumage. From the Brazils.

PHYLLORNIS — Leaf-Bird. There are four species, common in Java,
Sumatra, and Borneo. Their size varies from five to seven inches ; general
colour green, tinged with brilliant yellow or marigold colour. Habits not
well known.

PIPRA — Manakin. All natives of South America. They live on the
borders of woods, and feed on insects.

PITTA. All tropical birds, exactly agreeing in their form and habits,
whether found in the new or old world. They are insect-eaters.

PLATYRHYNCHOS — Broad-beaks. Natives of Brazil : they have a pleasing
note, and feed on winged insects.

PROCNIAS. Similar to Swallows ; natives of tropical climes.

PTILONORHYNCHUS. Only two species ; inhabitants of the South Sea
Islands.

PYRRHOCORAX. A genus similar in size to Crows; found in Italy,
Switzerland, and Egypt.

SAXICOLA — Wheatear. The Saxicolce, by the breadth of the base of
their beak, are connected with the true Flycatchers, Muscicapoe, and by
their habits an almost direct passage to that section of the Thrushes, Turdi,
which live among the rocks. They are all found in the old world, are
shy, living only in pairs upon open moors, or in rocky districts, where, on
the least alarm, they hide either behind stones or in holes. The great
length of their legs renders them good runners, and they feed upon insects
and worms, which they catch upon the ground with great activity. In
Great Britain three species are found, but two of these are migratory ; and,
though generally they are found in the southern parts of Europe, and in
that part of Africa which borders or is near to the Mediterranean, yet some
species are found constantly remaining in high northern latitudes.

SPARACTES — Butcher. One species only known ; size of a Blackbird.

SYLVIA — \Yarbkr. The Warblers form a most extensive genus: in
Latham's arrangement two hundred and ninety-eight species were included.
They are spread over most parts of the world, and most of those found in
England are migratory, making their appearance in spring and leaving in
autumn. Several of them, especially those living in the woods, are the finest
songsters ; but their song does not last throughout the whole of their visit,
and is almost entirely at an end or materially altered after breeding-time
has ceased. The greater number are constant inhabitants of warm climates,
and breed twice a year, which some few species also do in this country.
The males generally have their colours brighter than the females, but the
colours themselves are the same; and in those which live among marshes
there is not any difference between the sexes even in that respect. They

66

CLASS— AVES.

ORDER— PASS ERIN A

feed upon worms and winged insects, which they do not take on the wing,
but hunt from rush to rush or from branch to branch.

The Sedge Warbler (S. Phragmitis) is one of the species known in
England : it frequents rivers and lakes where reeds and other water plants
abound. It comes to this country in April and stays till September. It
builds its nest sometimes amongst reeds, sometimes among rushes, and at
other times in hedge-bottoms. It lays four or five eggs of a pale wood-
brown colour, speckled all over with the same colour, but of deeper tinge.
It is almost constantly singing both day and night, may be heard at a great
distance commencing its song with chit, chit, chiddy chiddy chiddy, chit, chit,
chit; and if silent may be roused to sing by throwing a stone into the bush
where it has hidden itself. It is a very abundant species, and feeds on
aquatic insects, dragon-flies, slugs, and worms.

The Nightingale (S. Luscinia) is common in the southern, eastern, and
midland counties of England, rarely in the northern and western : it usually
arrives about the end of April or beginning of May, and has been frequently
heard annually on the very same day in some districts. The male precedes
the female by about ten days — a circumstance which Selby states is
common to most other summer visitants, and during that time sings
throughout the whole night for the purpose of attracting its mate ; but
when this is effected, the nocturnal music is hushed, to be resumed, how-
ever, with the earliest dawn, and continued throughout the day.

Bechstein, in his interesting and clever work on the " Natural History
of Cage Birds," states, that he has distinguished twenty-four different
strains, without including its little delicate variations, in the song of a fine
Nightingale, and that it is so articulate, so speaking, that it may be very
well expressed in writing. Nightingales frequent shady, cool, but not cold
districts, woods, plantations, and even hedge-rows, where the underwood
is thick and close to the ground ; but they do not prefer watery places, and
if found there, Bechstein says, it is on account of the thickets, and not for
the water. Here they build low, sometimes even on the ground, and
among the roots of trees where the grass and bushes are thick. The foun-
dation consists of loose herbage, rushes, and dry leaves, but the nest itself
is compactly formed of leaves, specially those of the oak, rushes and grass
matted together, and thinly lined with fine grass. In it are deposited,
towards the latter end of May, four, five, and sometimes six eggs, commonly
pure drab, but occasionally speckled, which are hatched in about a fortnight.
The young are fed with green caterpillars, probably the larvae of some moth,
or perhaps of a Tenthredo peculiar to certain localities.

So soon as the young birds are hatched, the song of the parent bird
becomes more and more rare, and after Midsummer ceases, and instead of
its melodious strains nothing now is heard beyond a single low croaking
note, to give warning of danger, or occasionally a sharp snapping noise
made with the beak, and held to be a note of defiance. The young, how-
ever, now begin to warble and attempt to imitate the parent song. They
leave this country in September, and even the southern parts of Italy not
later than the latter end of that month or the beginning of October, and
pass over to Northern Africa, Egypt, and Syria, where they winter.

The Black Cap (S. Atricapilla) arrives in England about the middle of
April, and sometimes earlier, but never till the larch trees are distinctly
green. The male rivals the Nightingale in its song, which is full, deep,
sweet, and loud, and, though it has less volume, strength, and expression,
is more pure, easy, and flute-like in its tones. The female also sings, but
her song very much resembles that of the Redbreast. The call is a kind
of tack, quickly and frequently repeated ; and when alarmed it utters a
hoarse disagreeable noise, similar to that made by a Cat when hurt.

The White Throat (S. Cinerea) is generally spread over Europe; it
comes here about the middle of April, and is seen fluttering about among
the bushes in fields, among brambles, thickets, the underwoods of low
mountains, among weeds and nettles, whence one of its provincial names is
the Nettle Creeper, and also in orchards. They leave us about the latter
end of September. It is a lively, active bird, constantly in motion, and
singing with all its power often far into the night : its song consists of
several strains rapidly succeeding each other, sometimes in soft, low tones,

occasionally broken in upon by louder and shriller notes, which are rather
harsh.

The Lesser White Throat (S. Curraca) is common in the neighbourhood
of London, but is rare in Cornwall ; is found also as high as Durham, but
becomes rare in Northumberland, and a few are found in Scotland. It is
very shy, and inhabits the thickest hedges.

The Dartford Warbler (S. Provincialis) is found, in England, most
abundant in Devonshire and Cornwall, and a'so about Oakingham in Berk-
shire, and is not unfrequent on the heathy commons near London. It
lives on open downs and commons contiguous to thick furze, in which it
finds the most secure shelter when alarmed, creeping from bush to bush
with great alacrity, and hiding itself in the thickest part. Its cry resembles
cha, cha, cha.

The Robin (S. Rubecula) seems to be strictly indigenous to Europe.
They live in pairs, but are otherwise unsociable and quarrelsome, two
seldom being found in the same garden, as they fight till the weaker is
driven away. The female lays from four to seven eggs, yellowish-white,
with wavy spots and streaks of brown. The Robin sings throughout the
year; most melodiously and brilliantly in spring, but in autumn and winter
it is little more than a mere warble. It has different cries, one of which,
tint, tiritit, tiritit, is heard morning and evening, or when the bird is
excited by any novel object; another, nip, nip, seems to be its call, for
Vieillot says it only needs to imitate this whilst sucking the finger to rouse
all the Robins in the neighbourhood. It is constantly in motion, and after
every hop utters the syllables sisri. The familiarity and confiding manners
of this species have, in many countries, obtained for it endearing appella-
tions ; thus, whilst in England it is called Robin Redbreast, in Germany it
is Thomas Gterdet, in Norway Peter Ronsinad, and in Sweden Tomi Liden.

The Red Start (S. Phcenicurus) is commonly spread over Europe, and is
found in most of the eastern, midland, and northern parts of England. It
comes to us early in April, and leaves about the latter end of September.
It is very familiar, building its mossy nest, lined with hairs, in exposed
situations in our gardens, in holes of walls and decayed trees, as if to court
attention, and lays from five to eight very pointed greenish-blue eggs.

The Wood Wren (S. Sibilatrix) is common throughout the greatest part
of Europe, lives in forests, especially beech woods, and utters its cry s, s,
s, s, r, r, r, r, fid, fid, fid, whilst fluttering and beating its wings. It
makes its nest in the hollows of trees, or among their roots, but often
builds on the ground in form of a little tower, concealing its nest, which
is made of moss and lined with fine grass and hair, under those trees which
which have the thickest foliage. It lays six eggs, white with reddish spots,
which form a circle around the broad end.

The Yellow Wren (S. Trochilus) arrives in this country about April, or
later if the weather be severe. It has a simple song, consisting of a few
prolonged and softly-modulated notes, which it sings whilst actively
employed in search of aphides and other insects.

THAMNOPHILUS — Batara, or Bush Shrike. Nine American species ;
four or five African. They feed on caterpillars, and are quiet and solitary.

TIMALIA. Approximates to the Thrush genus : two species are found
in Java and Sumatra ; one of which has a peculiar and pleasing note, con-
sisting of the five tones of the diatonic scale, C D E F G, slowly repeated,
to which it adds sometimes a sixth.

TKICHOPHOKUS — Bristle Neck. This genus approaches the Ocypteri ;
three species natives of Africa.

TYRANNUS — Tyrant. The Tyrants, which are all natives of Am
are fierce, courageous, and active, feed on insects generally, some species
also on dead carcases, according to Azara, and some fish like King-ti>hrrs
and eat Lizards, as noticed by Swainson. Usually they sit perched up-n
a twig, and dart upon such insects as come within their notice ; but some
chase their prey upon the ground. Most of the sjiecies live either in or
upon the borders of woods or thickets, but occasionally some are found on
the edges of streams.

VANOA — Raiidnrd. Two species found in the East Indies and New
Holland.

FAMILY— F ISSIROSTR ATA. WIDE-MOUTHED.

67

Family — WIDE-MOUTHED ; Fissirostrata.

The beak is adapted for catching insects : it is short, broad, and deeply
cleft. They are birds of passage, and their food consists chiefly of insects.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLKS.

Genera.

Hirundo - - - - ) Urbi

PLATE 5.

Species.
Rustica - -

Cypselus - -
Caprimulgus -

Esculenta -
jMurarius -

i Europaeus

\ Macrottipterus

Common Name.

- Chimney Swallow.

- House Martin.

- Esculent Swallow.

- Black Swift.

- European Goat-sucker.

- Leona Goat-sucker.

Another Genus is Podargus.

CHARACTERS OF THE GENERA.

1. HIRUNDO. Beak short, triangular, depressed, widely expanded at
the base, but compressed at the point ; the upper mandible slightly hooked
downwards, lower straight ; gape very wide, and reaching almost to the
eyes ; vibrissce short and few ; nostrils at the root of the beak, oblong,
partly covered by membrane ; wings long ; tail sometimes square, some-
times forked ; legs short and slender ; toes three in front and one behind,
the outer front toe united by membrane to the middle as far as the first
joint.

2. CYPSELUS. Wings long and narrow ; tail, consisting of ten feathers,
forked in some, nearly even in others; legs thickly feathered; feet short;
four toes pointing forward ; claws strong and curved ; middle and outer
toes three phalanges each.

3. CAPRIMULGUS. Beak short, but broad at its base, and often furnished
with bristles ; gape wide ; wings long ; tail generally square ; legs short,
with three toes connected at their base by membranes, and a toe behind.

4. PODARGUS. See under " Description of Species."

FISSIROSTRATA. DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIES.

HIRUNDO. Swallows are exceedingly active, being almost invariably on
the wing in search of insects, on which they feed whilst flying, and for this
purpose their wide mouth, which is continually open, admirably adapts
them ; their motions are extremely rapid ; turning short round upon their
prey with great quickness, they seize it so sharply that the snapping of
their beak makes a loud click. They are generally observed skimming
along the surface of water in search of their prey, which consists principally
of gnats, especially when they have young ones ; but when their breeding
time is over, they feed also on small scardbcri. As they dart along the
water, they may often be noticed dipping in their beaks to drink, and
dashing their breasts against it to bathe, and refresh themselves. The
quickness of their flight is very great. Spallanzani observes, that a pair of
Swallows flew from Milan to Pavia, a distance of eighteen miles, in thirteen
minutes.

Most of the Swallow kind build, about houses, nests composed of mud
and straw, which, becoming hard, last for many years, and vary remarkably
in the different species ; some few bore holes in sand-banks, and, lining
them with hay and feathers, there nourish their young. During the winter
the nests are deserted, but the same tenants invariably return to their old
habitation in the spring.

Swallows generally breed twice in the summer, and occasionally a third
time. Their latest brood is often destroyed by the cold weather setting in
before they are strong enough to escape it.

Swallows, like many other animals, possess an esprit de corps, which
induces them to flock together in order to repel a common enemy ; such is
the case when a Hawk is in sight, when they rise about him, as it were to
make up for their weakness by endeavouring to intimidate him with
numbers. They are also not slow to render assistance under other untoward
circumstances, of which M. de Nemours in his " Memoires " mentions a
very interesting example : " A Martin was caught by the leg in a slip-knot

of packthread, of which the other end was fastened to a gutter of the
College des Quatre Nations at Paris. At his cries all the Martins of the
large basin between the Tuileries and the Pont Neuf assembled about him,
and, after striking with their bills upon the packthread, succeeded in setting
him at liberty."

Swallows do not remain with us all the year round; they are the
harbingers of spring, and their departure indicates the approach of winter.

Swallows may be divided into Martins and True Swallows, the Martins
having the legs covered with down, whilst in the True Swallows they are
bare. The latter birds may also be divided into sections from the form of
their tails.

Of the Martins there are three species — the Window Swallow, or House
Martin (H. Urbica), shown on Plate 5, being the principal. It is about
four and a half inches in length ; the upper parts black, glossed with violet ;
the under parts white ; wings, tail, and tail-coverts dusky brown, glossed
with green on the edges ; legs and feet scantily covered with brownish-grey
down ; beak black. The Martin arrives about the latter end of April, and
builds its nest under the eaves of houses, and sometimes against the sides
of high cliffs near the sea. The hen lays six round white eggs, which are
hatched in about fifteen days ; and there is usually a second, and sometimes
a third brood. Whilst in the nest the parent birds, holding on by their
claws, feed their young ; which, when strong enough to fly, are fed whilst
on the wing with a very quick motion, which is hardly discernible, unless
the party watching be aware of the method.

Martins are chilly birds, and may be observed collecting early in the
morning on the ridges of high houses facing towards the east, in order to
warm themselves by the first rays of the sun. They have been observed
in England as late as the middle of October, and even in November. As
the time of their departure approaches, they collect in large flocks, which
increase daily till they swarm " in myriads," as Mr. White says, " round
the villages on the Thames, darkening the face of the sky, as they frequent
the islets of that river, where they roost."

The Chimney or Common Swallow (H. Rustica), figured on Plate 5, is a
species of the true Swallow. It is about six inches in length ; it is distin-
guished from all the other Swallows by the remarkable forkiness of its tail,
and the rusty red spot on the forehead and under the chin. The Swallow
builds a hemicylindrical nest of clay, open at the top, and lines it within
with feathers and soft grass ; the old birds commonly build against the
preceding year's nest, and in England most commonly in chimneys, whence
is derived their trivial name ; in Sweden they prefer barns, whence their
name Ladu Swala, or Barn Swallows ; but in other and hotter climates
they choose galleries, porches, or open halls.

The Chimney SwaDow appears in Europe about a fortnight before the
Martin, and immediately resorts to the haunts of men : it breeds earlier
than any other species, and lays about six eggs, white, marked with little
red spots ; but if the eggs be removed, it has been known to deposit as
many as nineteen. They have usually two broods, the former hatched
towards the latter end of June, and the latter about the middle of August.

The Sand Swallow, or Shore Bird (H. Riparia), lives in holes in sand-
pits, in banks of rivers and cliffs, and sometimes of trees, boring some feet
deep with its beak and claws, and lines its nest with straw and feathers.
Although it does not arrive till after the Martin and Chimney Swallow, yet
it brings out its young before that bird ; and generally has two broods, one
in June, the other in August.

The Esculent Swallow (H. Fuciphaga, or Esculenta) is about the size of
the Sand Martin ; the upper parts shining dusky black ; under pale ash ;
tail black. They are found in the isles of the Indian Archipelago, and
build in the hollows of the rocks, not only on the shore, but up the country.
Their nests form a large article of commerce between the islanders and the
Chinese, who highly esteem them as aphrodisiacs.

The True Swallows number about twenty-six species, of which the
Chimney and Esculent Swallows are species.

CYPSELUS — Swift. The genus Hirundo, according to the arrangement
of Linnaeus, included not only the Swallows but also the • Swifts, which

K 2

G8

CLASS— AVE S.

ORDER— PASSERINA.

differ remarkably from them in having all four toes placed in front, instead
of three before and one behind. In consequence of this circumstance,
Illiger instituted for them the new genus Cypsdus, to which Cuvier prefers
the term Apus, including the same species.

The species Cypsdus Murarius, or the Black Swift (Plate 5), is seen
constantly on the wing except during the seasons of sleep and incubation.
These birds pursue insects in flocks, sometimes mounting to a great height,
and uttering discordant screams. They rest by clinging with their strong
hooked claws to the surface of an old wall or rock, and they nestle in holes
in steeples, or other lofty buildings, or in rocks. They arrive in this
country in May, and depart about the end of August.

CAPRIITULGUS — Moth-hunter, or Goatsucker. These birds derive their
name from an old notion, that they suck the teats of Cows and Goats,
than which nothing can be more ridiculous, though it is believed by Buffon.
They resemble the nocturnal birds of prey in the dark colour of their
plumage ; they live upon insects, which they catch with great dexterity,
being furnished with a very glutinous saliva. They do not build nests,
but lay their eggs, two in number, on the ground ; are solitary birds, being
rarely seen together, and live in retired situations. They do not make
their appearance till twilight, and from their peculiar note may be easily
discovered.

The Night Jar, or European Goatsucker (C. Europaus), is a beautiful
bird, and the only one of the species native of Europe. It is about the
size of a Cuckoo, and somewhat resembling it in plumage; its general
colour is greyish-brown, spotted, and dashed with brownish-black. It
visits us in the spring, and generally leaves about November. In York-
shire it is known by the name of Churn Owl, in Shropshire by that of
fern Owl; and Charlton calls it the Dorrhaick, from its living very much
on that insect. It is insectivorous ; is fond of perching lengthways on
trees, and lays two oblong oval eggs.

The Leona Goatsucker (C. Macrodipterus) is rather larger but very
similar to the C. Europceus ; it has the tail rounded ; but it is very remark-
able for a single feather twice the length of the body, which springs out of
the middle of each wing-covert, and is not barbed but just at its extremity ;
on the inside the web is rather more than an inch in breadth, but on the
outside not more than a quarter of an inch ; its colour is the same as that
of the body, and crossed with five dusky bars ; legs small. Found in
Sierra Leone.

There are seventeen other species; some found in America, some in
Africa, and some in New Holland.

PODARGUS. Two species found in Java and New Holland. From the
strength of their beak and nocturnal habits, they connect the Goatsuckers
with the Owls.

Family — CONE-BEAKED ; Conirostrata.

The beak of these Birds is strong, thick, and conical ; it is adapted for
the kind of food upon which most of them exclusively subsist, viz., seeds
and grain.

Genera.

Alaucla -

Paras

Emberiza

Fringilla -

Loiia

Corythus

Paradises

Species.

Arvensis - -

Caudatus - -

Hortulana - -

Calebs - - -
Curvirostra

Knucleator -

Apoda - - -

Common Name.

- - Sky-lark.

- - Long-tailed Titmouse.

- - Ortolan.

- - Chaffinch.

- - Crossbill.

- - Pine Grosbeak.

- - Emerald Paradise Bird.

Other Genera of this Family: — Buphaga, Cassicus, Colius, Coracias,
Corvus, Glaucopis, Gracula, Myophona, Phytotoma, Ploceus, Psittacirostra,
Pyrrhula, Sturnus.

CHARACTERS OF THE GENERA.

1 . ALAUDA. Beak short, straight, conical ; mandibles of equal length ;
hinder toe and claw very long and nearly straight.

2. PARUS. Beak short, straight, conical, compressed, cutting, and
pointed ; nostrils basal, rounded, and hidden in feathers ; legs strong,
having three front and a hind toe perfectly distinct; the hind claw
strongest and most curved.

3. EMBERIZA. Beak conical, short, and straight, with the edges of the
upper mandible inclining inwards, and a hard prominence on the palate.

4. FRINGILLA. Beak short, thick, conical ; upper mandible convex,
and without crest or ridge ; nostrils basal, round, open, and covered by
the feathers of the forehead ; tarsus shorter than the middle toe ; hiud toe
as long as the inner, and its claw longer than those in front, curved, and
rarely straight.

5. LOXIA. Beak strong, thick, compressed and curved ; nostrils
rounded, lateral, and near the root of the beak ; feet having three divided
toes before and one behind, the claw on the latter longer than the others,
and curved.

6. CORYTHUS. Beak large; the point of the upper curved over the
lower mandible.

7. PARADISEA. Beak straight, moderate sized, quadrangular, pointed,
slightly arched ; lower mandibles straight and pointed ; nostrils basal,
marginal, and open ; legs strong ; tarsus much longer than the middle toe,
and the hind toe, which is strong, much longer than the others.

Only the generic characters of the illustrated examples are here given.

COXIROSTRATA. — DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIES.

ALAUDA — Lark. There are about a dozen species of the Lark, of
which the Skylark (A. Arvensis), and the Wbodlark (A. Arborea), an- ol
most interest to the inhabitants of this country.

The Skylark is so well known as scarcely to require description. The
beautiful little songster measures about seven inches, of which the tail is
three. It carries on its head a lengthened crest which it raises and
depresses at pleasure ; its plumage above is of a horny black, beneath it is
whitish ; irides greyish-brown ; back of the head and neck whitish-grey,
striped with dusky-brown ; lower part of the neck, breast, and sides,
dingy-white ; wing-coverts greyish-brown ; pinion-feathers dark brown ;
tail blackish-brown. The claws are long, especially the hinder claw, which
unfits the bird for perching, but they enable it to walk upon the grass
with ease, and to spring from the ground before the wings are expanded.
The food of the Lark chiefly consists of insects, worms, seeds, and oats.
It builds its nest on the ground, generally among long grass or young corn,
in which the female lays four or five eggs of a gneniBb-grey hue, mottled
with dark spots or dots. It is migratory, arriving in this country early in
February, and taking its departure in October. It is spread very generally
over Europe, and several parts of Asia and Africa.

The Lark sings occasionally while resting on a clog of earth, but gene-
rally whilst rising spirally from the ground into the clear blue sky; at
which time the eye of the observer follows it with admiring interest till it
is lost sight of except as a speck on the boundless expanse, the cheerful
and animated song of the sweet-soaring bird — " the messenger of morn "-
imparting, all the while, sensations of pleasure and calm delight.

The Woodlark is somewhat less than the former. Though its song is
truly sweet, it is not quite so thrilling as that of the Skylark, — its notes
are soft and plaintive ; it frequents woodland, hilly districts, where it
sometimes sings perched upon the branch of a decayed tree. Its song,
however, is generally poured forth when on the wing, which is sustained,
at times, for an hour without intermission. It builds its nest on the
ground like the Skylark ; its eggs are reddish-white, speckled with brown.
The Woodlark is found in every part of Europe.

PARUS — Titmouse. These birds are found over the whole world,
excepting in South America, New Holland, and the South Sea Islands;
but they are more numerous in the Northern than in the Tropical regions,
and the largest number are found in Europe. They climb the trunks of
trees and reeds by a succession of short and sudden flights, run up them
like the Woodpeckers, and dangle in all kinds of attitudes. In the summer
they are not much seen, as they retire to the forests for the purpose of

FAMILY— C ONIROSTRATA. CONE-BEAKED.

69

breeding ; but in winter they are common in the open country and our
gardens. They are morose, courageous, and extremely active ; feed espe-
cially on insects, of which they are great destroyers, and also upon seeds
and fruits, but they do not eat the whole seed, as they break a hole
through its shell and peck out the kernel ; small and weakly birds they
also prey upon, destroying them by repeated blows with their beak upon
the head. In form they are thick-set and strong, and their colours chaste
and quiet, except in one or two species. Most of them build in holes of
trees, but some make very curious nests, which they suspend either to the
branches of trees or among the reeds, like some of the aquatic warblers.

The Long-tailed Titmouse (P. Caudatis), figured on Plate 6, is a well-
known European species. It is about five and a half inches long, including
the tail, which is rather more than three inches. It is exceedingly quick
on the wing ; feeds on chafers, beetles, and spiders ; and in some parts of
the country it builds a very curious and elegant nest, called a featherpoke.

The genus is divided into three sections: — 1. Those with alar quill of
moderate length, twelve species ; 2. Those whose alar quill is short and
deficient, three species ; and 3. Those with beak straighter and more
pointed, five species.

EMBERIZA — Bunting. The birds which form this genus are many of
them natives of the British Isles ; they are granivorous, and the hard
structure on their palate enables them readily to break their food before
swallowing it.

The Ortolan Bunting (E. Hortulana), Plate 6, is rather smaller than the
Yellow Hammer ; it has the back of an olive colour ; the throat, bill, and
legs, yellow; wings deep brown, as is also the tail, except the outer
feathers, which are white on their inner edge. These birds are natives of
France, Italy, Germany, and Sweden, but not of England : they are
caught for the table, and considered fine eating.

The other species are: — The Yellow Bunting, the Reed Bunting, the
Snow Bunting, and the Common Bunting.

FRINGILLA — Grosbeak. We follow the arrangement of Temminck,
which includes all the subgenera noted by Cuvier, except Ploceus, adding
also some of the Buntings, Emberizw, and the Grosbeaks, which belong
to the Loxia of Linnaeus. The greater number of species belong to
warm climates, but many are found in England and other parts of
Europe, and afford us some of our most favourite and domestic songsters.
They live on grain and seeds, which they shell by nipping between the
mandibles before swallowing. They are excellent breeders, laying their
eggs many times in the course of the year : they are usually considered
great enemies to agriculture ; but it may be doubtful, whether the ravages
which the old birds commit on the corn fields are not compensated by the
immense destruction they make among the eggs and larva; of insects, in
order to support their young.

The genus is divided into three subgenera, from the form of the beak : —
1st. Broad-billed Finches, to which division belong the Sparrows, which
form the genus Pyrgita of Cuvier ; their beak not being quite so large as
in others : they form the connecting link with the genus Ploceus. There
are fourteen or fifteen species, of which the House Sparrow (F. Domes-
tica) and the Canary Finch (F. Canaria) are well-known species.

2. Short-billed Finches, of which the Chaffinch (F. Ccelebs), Plate 6, is the
most common species ; it is rather larger than the House Sparrow : fore-
head black ; crown of the head, back, and sides of the neck bluish-ash ;
sides of the head, throat, front of the neck, and chest vinaceous-red in
the male ; back and scapulars reddish-brown, tinged with olive ; wings
and tail black ; belly, thighs, and legs, white tinged with red ; legs
brown ; sides hazel ; beak blue, tipped with black. The plumage of the
female inclines to green and has no red on the breast. The Chaffinch is a
sprightly bird, common in England and throughout Europe ; inclined to
be pugnacious, the males frequently fighting with each other till one is
fairly beaten. Though commonly a bird of passage, it is nevertheless, to
be found in England throughout the year.

The number of species is about twenty-four, including the Linnets
(Vidua of Cuvier), and several of the genus Loxia of Linnaeus.

3. Finches with long beaks, including the Goldfinch (F. Carduelis), the
Parrot Finch (F. Psittacea), and the Lesser Redpde (F. Linaria). There
are nine species.

LOXIA — Crossbill. The remarkable peculiarity distinguishing the Cross-
bills is implied in their name, each mandible inclining towards its point in
an opposite direction to the other, so that as they are considerably curved
towards the point, they cross each other, and give the beak a very remark-
able appearance. The use of this peculiar structure has been well
described by Buffon : — " The bill hooked upward and downward, and bent
in opposite directions, seems to have been formed for the purpose of
detaching the scales of the fir-cones and obtaining the seeds lodged beneath
them, which are the principal food of the bird ; it raises each scale with
its lower mandible, and breaks it with the upper."

The Common Crossbill (L. Curvirostra), figured on Plate 6, is about six
inches long : the general colour of the plumage is dingy green. Quills of
the wings and tail blackish edged with green, the great and little coverts
edged with yellowish-white; legs brown. It is native of the Northern
regions and of the Alps and Pyrenees, whence it migrates during the
warmer seasons. It visits England in June.

The Parrot Crossbill, very rare in England, and the White-winged Cross-
bill, native of North America, are the other two species.

COEYTHDS — The Pine Grosbeak (C. Enucleator), and the Parrot-billed
Grosbeak (C. Psittaceus), constitute this genus. The former species
(Plate 6) is about nine inches in length ; general colour crimson rose ; the
beak and lesser wing-coverts black; greater wing-coverts tipped with
white ; belly straw coloured ; tail feathers black with pale edges ; legs
brown. Very common in North America, but occasionally, though not
often, seen in England.

PARADISEA — Paradise Bird. The Paradise Birds are called by the
natives of New Guinea, and the neighbouring isles, from which they are
brought, Manucodes, which, in their language,
signifies God's birds, on account of the wonder-
ful virtues attributed to them by the priests of
the country. And from their being but little
seen during incubation, a notion arose that for
the time they migrated to the terrestrial Para-
dise, and hence, perhaps, has originated their
generic name.

The Emerald, or Greater Paradise Bird (P.
Apoda, Lin.) about the size of a Thrush, mea-
suring thirteen inches from the tip of the beak
to the extremity of the tail ; upper part of the
body, chest, and belly, chestnut-brown ; forehead
velvet-like black glossed with green ; top of
the head and upper part of the neck citron-
yellow ; upper part of the throat golden-green ; front of the neck violet
brown ; sides of the body furnished with long feathers, which extend far
beyond the tail ; their barbs are loose and thread-like, of a yellowish-white
colour, spotted towards the tip with a little purplish-red ; caudal quills
ten, besides which two long horny pendicles covered with down, and beset
with rough liairs instead of barbs, and terminating in a point, pass from
each side of the rump to a considerable length forming a curve of nearly
two feet long ; beak homy ; legs lead-coloured. Is found in New Guinea,
and in the Islands of Arou, Tidor, and Waigiou. The Paradise Bird flies
with rapidity, and rises very high in the air, on account of the length and
suppleness of its feathers, and hence has been called the Ternate Swallow.

The Papuan, the Sanguine, the Magnificent, the King, the Superb, and
the Golden-breasted Paradise Birds, form, with the species just described,
the genus Paradise.

BUPHAGA — Beef-eater. There is one species the size of a Lark, native
of Africa. They alight on cattle and pick out the larva; of the Gad-fly,
hence it has got the name of Beef-eater.

CASSICA — Helmet-bird. The name Cassicus is assigned to it on account
of the base of the beak rising on the forehead and sloping out the feathers

Bird of Paradise.

70

CLASS— AVES.

ORDER— PASS ERIN A.

so as to give the idea of a helmet. These birds are gregarious, living
together in large societies like the Rooks ; they construct their nests in the
form of an alembic, the entrance being by a narrow neck, which is attached
to the branches of trees. They are generally natives of America, living
upon insects and maize, upon which they commit great depredations,
so that in some parts of the United States they have acquired the name of
Maize Thieves.

Cuvier has divided them into three subgenera, Cassicus, three species ;
Icterus, six species ; and Xantharnus, twelve species ; from some trifling
differences in the shape of the beak.

COLIUS — Coly. Size of a Thrush, natives of Africa and the Indies, live
on fruit.

CORACIAS — Batter. This genus belongs to the old world, and very
nearly resembles the Jay (Corvus Glandularis) in its habits, and the loose
feathers on the forehead ; their plumage is very vivid and beautiful ; their
note very unbarmonious. There are nine species, of which the Roller
(C. Gracula) is the only British species, and very rare here ; it is about the
size of the Jay ; is a very wild bird, although sociable with its own
species ; builds in birch trees, and feeds upon worms, grain, and roots. It
makes a chattering noise, whence its name Gamdus.

CORVTJS — Crow. The birds which form this genus do not differ from
the others in the family Conirostres ,'in any material circumstance, except
their size ; their internal structure being the same. With respect to their
habits, they are generally very cunning, and when domesticated are fond of
stealing and hiding things for which they have no use, as pieces of money,
&c. They build usually in trees, and lay from four to six eggs. As to
food, they live principally on the grubs of Chafers and other insects, and also
upon grain, but they are not such destroyers of seed as is commonly supposed.
They are divided by Cuvier into five subgenera, according to the arching of
the beak, the length of the tail, and the existence of a tuft.

The Crows form the first subgenera, which includes eight species.

The Raven (C. Corax) is the largest of all the birds belonging to the
Passerine order, and equals the Domestic Cock in size, being about two feet
in length. The Raven lives more retired than the other species of this genus,
amongst the woods in the neighbourhood of towns ; he feeds upon carrion
and other oflal, which he scents at a great distance, and he lives to so great
an age, that in many languages expressions are borrowed from him to desig-
nate longevity. They fly at a great height, and usually in pairs, during fine
weather, making a deep loud noise, different from their usual croaking. They
are much attached to their old habitations.

The Carrion Crow (C. Corone) is not half the size of the Raven, but
very nearly resembles it in colour ; its beak, however, is not so much arched,
nor the tail so square. They are more numerous than Ravens, and live in
pairs in the woods ; like them also they live upon carrion, worms, insects,
and different kinds of grain. Their croaking was considered by Virgil as
foreboding rain ; and like the Raven is believed to be a bird of ill omen.

The Rook (C. Frugelius). The Rook in size and plumage resembles the
Crow, but it differs from it in having the base of the bill covered with a
rough scabrous skin, which in the old birds is white. Rooks live principally
upon insects, or rather upon the grubs of insects, particularly that of the
Dor-beetle, or Cockchafer ; and it has been observed, that better crops have
been obtained from patches of ground on which Rooks have alighted in
search of food, than others from which they have been driven ; so that they
make ample compensation for the mischief they do in corn-fields. Rooks
are gregarious, and are the only birds of this genus which are so ; during
the day they are out in large flocks in quest of food, but at night they return
home to the rookery, which has been beautifully described by Virgil : —

' E pastu decedens agmine magno,

Corconun incrcpuit densis eiercitus all's.

The Jackdaw (C. Monedula) is a much smaller bird than the Rook, not
measuring more than thirteen inches in length. It is very common in Eng-
land, and builds in church towers or ruins, in large flocks ; it rarely builds
in trees, but has been occasionally found in Rabbit burrows. They are easily
tamed, and taught to speak some words.

The Magpies constitute the second division : they are not so large as the
Crows ; the upper mandible is more arched, and the tail long and cuneiform.

The Magpie (C. Pica) is notorious for its mischievous propensities, and is
very familiar ; it also may be soon taught to speak. It seems confined to
the temperate and northern regions. The number of the species is eight.

The Jays, Nutcrackers, and Temias, are the remaining subgenera.

The Jay (C. Glandularius), though one of our most common birds, is
remarkably beautiful ; it is about thirteen inches long ; neck, back, and breast
of a light cinnamon colour ; bill black; eyes white; the head-feathers white-,
streaked with black, and forming a tuft, which can be elevated or depressed
at pleasure ; lesser wing-coverts bay, greater barred with black, little blue
and white alternately ; tail black and edged with brown. The Jay builds
her nest on the top of underwood, laying a foundation of coarse sticks, and
afterwards the fine fibres of the roots of trees ; and the young follow the
parent till the following spring. They live upon acorns during the winter,
whence their specific name, but during summer make great havoc amongst
peas and cherries. Their note is very harsh, but when domesticated they
will soon imitate many words and sounds.

GLAUCOPIS — Wattle Bird. About the size of a Jay ; feeds on insects,
commonly walks ; is a native of New Zealand.

GRACULA — GraMe. About the size of a Thrush ; learns to talk ; found
in Java.

MYOPHONA. One species, twelve inches long, found in Java.

PHYTOTOMA — Plant-cutter. A mischievous bird, size of a Quail, native
of South America.

PLOCEUS — Weaver Bird. This genus of birds is named from the peculiar
dexterity with which they weave their curious and often very complex iii\-ts.
The size of their beak allies them with the Cassici, from which, however,
they are distinguished by having the commissure of the beak straight instead
of forming an angle.

There are thirteen species, or more, natives of Africa and South
America.

PsiTTACIROSTRA. Very nearly approach the Fringflloe and Psittaci :
found in the South Sea Islands.

PYRRHULA — Butt/inch. The birds included in this genus were sepa-
rated from the Grosbeaks of Linnaeus by Brisson, on account of the differ-
ence in the form of their beak. They are found in all parts of the world
excepting New Holland ; are least in number in Africa, but are numerous
in temperate and cold regions. Those which live in northern climes keep
close to the woods in summer, and approach the habitations of man only
during winter. They feed generally on grain, which they separate from
the husks, and are fond of the buds of trees.

The species are numerous ; some of which are natives of northern lati-
tudes, some of tropical climes, and some of temperate regions.

STURNUS — Stare or Starling. There has been much confusion in refer-
ence to the species belonging to this genus, many of which belonging to
those of Lamprotornis and Pastor were formerly included in it. From the
former of these genera the Sturni are distinguished by the beak being flat
above and not notched, instead of curved above and toothed ; by the second
and third alar quills being longest, instead of the fourth or fifth ; and by
the middle toe being connected with the outer instead of the inner toe.

The Starlings live and migrate in flocks from colder to warmer districts
as winter approaches, but return in spring, and are generally found about
marshy districts, feeding in the meadows amongst the cattle, upon in
principally, but also upon grain. They build their nests in the hollows of
trees, under the tiles of houses, and in holes in the wall, and are spread all
over the globe.

The first subgenus includes those without wattles, of which the Common
Starling (S. VulgarisJ, the Sardinian, the Louishm, th<- Magellanic, tin-
Chilian, the Pied, the Greenish, and the Red-headed Starling are the
species.

The Wattled Stare (S. Carunculatus), the Merops Caruncidatus (C. Pha-
roides), and the Certhia Carunculata (C. Musicus), form the second sub-
genus.

FAMILY— T ENUIROSTRATA. SLENDER-BEAKED.

71

Family — SLENDER-BEAKED ; Tenuirostrata.

The individuals of this family are distinguished by their long, slender,
and unemarginated bills : the bills are in some straight, in others more or
less curved.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.

Genera.

PLATE 6.

Species.

Common Name.

Sitta ..... Europasa - ... Nuthatch.

Xenops . - - - - Rutilans - - - -

Certhia ----- Familiaris - Common Creeper.

Tichodroraa - - Muraria - - Wall Creeper.

Trochilus. - ... Delalandii - - ... Delalandi's Humming-bird.

Upupa ----- Epops ----- Hoopoe.

Other Genera of this Family : — Cinnyris, Melithreptus, Pomatorhinus,
Synallaxis, Tinactor.

CHARACTERS OF THE GENERA.

1. SITTA. — Beak straight, depressed, cylindrical, conical, and sharp at
the point ; nostrils rounded, basal ; tail composed of twelve quills square
or slightly graduated ; feet furnished with three toes in front, the outer
connected at its base to the middle, and one behind having a very long and
curved claw.

2. XENOPS. — Beak short, slender, awl-shaped, compressed, pointed, tip
turned upwards ; upper mandible nearly straight, lower mandible very
much curved upwards; nostrils basal, lateral, ovoid, and covered with
membrane ; lateral toes nearly equal, the outer and middle ones connected
to the second joint, claws strong, compressed, and curved.

3. CERTHIA. — Bill slender, incurvated, sharp-pointed; tongue pointed
generally, but sometimes cleft; legs stout; toes three before and one
behind, which is the largest; claws hooked and long; tail composed of
eight feathers.

4. TICHODROMA. — Beak very long, slightly arched, slender, cylindrical,
its base angular, and point depressed ; nostrils basal, naked, and pierced
horizontally, half closed by membrane ; wings large ; tail rounded ; of the
front three toes the outer is connected to the base of the middle ; hind claw
very long.

5. TROCHILUS. — Beak long, thin, varying in different species from straight
to much curved ; upper mandible broad as the forehead, tip sharp ; lower
mandible almost completely hidden within the upper ; tongue long, ex-
tensile ; nostrils basal, marginal, very small, covered with a broad vaulted
membrane, and open in front ; wings long and sharp ; legs very short, the
tarsus shorter than the middle toe, and often feathered ; toes three in front,
the inner two slightly connected at their base, and one behind armed with
slender curved claws.

6. UPUPA. — Head furnished with a crest, consisting of a double row of
long feathers, capable of elevation or depression at will ; beak very long
and slender, compressed, trigonal and slightly arched ; nostrils basal, lateral,
ovoid ; wings of moderate length ; toes three in front, with short, slightly-
curved claws, and one behind with the claw nearly straight.

The general characteristics of the " other genera," will be found after
Description of the Illustrated Species.

TENUIRQSTRATA. DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIES.

SITTA — Nutfiatch. The birds forming this genus are considered by
most ornithologists to be found in all parts of the world, Sir William
Jardine excepted, who restricts them to Europe and South America. They
are extremely restless and active, running up andAown the trunks and
branches of trees with great rapidity in search *^plp on which they live,
and which they extract from the holes or cracks by Aeans of their strong
awl-like beaks. They also, however, feed upon tie kernels of nuts or
fruits, and hence the name Nuthatch; but Wilson is disposed to think that
the bird only breaks up the nuts in search of maggots often there con-
tained. It is certain, however, that they are also seed-eaters. They make
their nests in the holes of trees, or under the eaves of barns.

The European Nuthatch (S. Europa?a) is five inches and a half in length ;
all the upper parts ashy-blue ; throat white ; front of the neck, chest, and
belly, yellowish- ferruginous ; flanks and thighs chestnmVred ; middle two
tail-quills grey, lateral quills black; beak bluish-ash; legs grey. The
colours of the female are less brilliant, and the black streak above the eye
less distinct. They make their nest of old leaves in the hollow of a tree,
and, according to Montagu, choose the deserted habitation of some Wood-
pecker. The female lays from five to seven eggs of a greyish-white colour
spotted with brown, and sits close, being provided with food by her mate ;
she is, however, easily disturbed from her nest, and then utters a hissing
sound like a snake. In the spring the Nuthatch utters a loud shrill whistle.
If taken young they may be tamed, but are very impatient of confinement,
and often kill themselves in attempting to escape if caged when older. (PI. 6.)
XENOPS. — The individuals composing this genus climb as web1 as the
Woodpeckers (Picus), and Prince zu Weid says that he has never seen
them sit upright; they also tap the trees like the Woodpecker, but are
less lively and noisy than the Nuthatch. They are not shy, but like the
Creepers, approach the neighbourhood of human dwellings. There are
two species, the Xenops Genibartris and the species figured on Plate 6,
Xenops Rutilans. The former is five inches and a quarter long, the latter is
but four inches and a half, or three-quarters of an inch in length : the top
of its head is greyish-brown, streaked rufous; over each eye a rufous
streak ; upper parts and also the wings rufous-brown ; under parts greyish-
brown, with numerous white spots ; wings speckled ; legs dusky blue.

CERTHIA — Creeper. This genus has frequently been confounded with
the Humming Bird or Trochilus, but it differs from it in having the bill
sharp and pointed, however different the shape may be in the different
species : whilst in the TrocMi it is more or less blunt. They are sub-
divided into six subgenera : 1, Certhia, The True Creeper ; 2. Dendrocolaptes,
or Picucules; 3. Teichodramce, or Wall Creeper ; 4, Nectarina; 5. Diccea,
and, 6. Heorotarius, Honey-sucker. The species are numerous. One of
the species of the first division, the Common Creeper (C. Familiaris), Plate
6, is one of the smallest British birds ; it is five inches long and six and a
half broad; its bill is hooked — the upper mandible brown, the lower
whitish; general colour of the plumage brown above, streaked with black;
breast and belly white ; rump and tail tinged with red, the latter cunei-
form. The female is not so bright in its colours. It is a native of Europe,
Asia, and America, and is very common in England ; it runs upon the bark
of trees with as much facility as a fly walks upon glass, in search of insects
upon which it feeds. It has no song, but its note resembles zich zich
repeated deliberately.

TICHODROMA — Wall Creeper. This genus was included among the
Linnaan Certhiae till separated by Illiger ; from this, however, it is distin-
guished by the weakness of the stems of its caudal quills ; and the great
length of its hind claws. One species, the Wall Creeper (T. Phcenicoptera),
Plate 6, measures about six and a half inches in length ; beak and irides
black ; top of head deep ash ; nape, back, and scapulars pale-ashy ; throat
and front of neck deep black ; under parts blackish-ashy ; wing-coverts
bright red ; legs black. The female has the top of the head ashy like the
back, and the throat and front of the neck white, tinged with ashy. They
moult twice a year ; the males have their black throat only at their spring
moult ; after breeding-time these feathers gradually drop out, and after the
autumnal change the males are not to be distinguished from the females.
They are found in the southern parts of Europe upon low rocks, and rarely
upon those of moderate height.

TROCHILUS — Humming Bird. This most beautiful and minute section
of birds has been generally divided by the French naturalists, from Brisson
to Lesson, into two distinct genera, in consequence of some having the
beak straight and others having it curved; the only distinction which, the
latter writer admits, can be observed either in their organization or habits.
LinnsDus has, however, included all under one single kind, and has been, in
this respect, followed by Temminck, and also by Prince Maximilian.

The tongue of the Humming Birds has considerable resemblance to that
of the Woodpeckers (Picf) in its great extensibility, the branches of the bone

72

CLASS— AVE S.

ORDER— PAS SERIN A.

supporting it, winding round, as in the latter genus, upon the sides of the
back of the skull, and ascending upon its surface, and which, being acted
on by muscles, are depressed, and, straightening, project the tongue itself
to a considerable distance from between the mandibles. Hence, Prince
Maximilian observes, the epithet Flowerpecker would be much more appo-
site than that of Fly-bird, as it is called by the French. The tongue itself
is of a very peculiar form, well adapted, when introduced into the tubes of
flowers, to feel there the most minute insects, and to seize and carry them
back to their beak.

The Humming Birds are almost constantly on the wing : and during
summer they are seen plunging their long tongues into the bottom of the
flowers, and bringing them back loaded with honey or with insect food.
More rarely they settle on the petals of the flowers, and perform the same
actions. If wearied by a long flight, they rest upon some slender twig in
the shade of a dark foliage, and here their nest is usually found.

Humming Birds seem not to have any song ; they only utter occasionally
a little indistinct cry, which Buffon has rendered by the syllables screp,
screp ; but more faithfully expressed by Vieillot as fere, fere, uttered with
more or less power, and most commonly in a shrill tone. With two ex-
ceptions, and those of the straight-billed section, the Humming Birds are
found only within the tropics. Brazil, Guiana, the northern parts of Para-
guay, and the Antilles, possess them in great numbers. In India and the
Asiatic continent they are represented by the Ccerebce ; in Africa by
Cinnyris and Nectarinia ; in Australia and the Southern Pacific by Meli-
phaga, Myrzomela, &c. The most striking characters of the Humming
Birds have been described in glowing, but not exaggerated language, by
Buffon — "Of all living beings," says he, "they have the greatest elegance
of form and brilliancy of colours. Precious stones and metals polished by
art are not comparable to this bijou of Nature, who has placed them among
birds at the lowest degree in the scale of size, maxime miranda in minimis ;
her chef-d'oeuvre is the little Fly-bird, upon which she has heaped all those
gifts which, amongst other birds, she has only distributed. Swiftness,
rapidity, agility, elegance, and brilliancy of clothing all belong to this little
favourite. The emerald, the ruby, the topaz, blaze on its plumage, which
it soils not with the dust of the earth, and throughout its aerial life it
scarcely for a moment touches the sward. It is always in the air flying
from flower to flower : it has their freshness as well as brilliancy, lives on
their nectar, and dwells only in those climes where they are constantly re-
newed."

The species, which are numerous, are divided into — 1, The Straight-
beaded (the Ornismya of Lesson), and 2, The True Humming Birds (Tro-
chilus). The bird figured on Plate 6 (T. Lalandii) is a species of the first
division.

UPUPA — Hoopoe. But two species of Hoopoes are known, of which one,
the Common Hoopoe (U. Epops), is European. It is about eleven inches in
length, beak flesh-coloured ; irides brown ; feathers of the crest (which is
arched) rufous ; sides of the head, neck, chest, and belly pale buff; back
crossed with three half circular bands ; wing-coverts black ; tail-quills black,
with a well-marked white patch about their middle ; legs and toes brown,
with black claws. The female diners little from the male, except in the crest
being much shorter and the colours of the plumage less clear. The Hoopoe
(Plate 6) is found throughout the year on the northern coast of Africa; is
common in Italy from May to September ; and is found throughout Europe
at different times of the year, but principally towards the south ; it, how-
ever, migrates northward, and visits Germany, England, Holland, and other
northern climes ; but in this country it appears generally in the autumn,
after breeding-time has passed. They are fond of basking in the sun, and
express their enjoyment by uttering, in a quivering tone, the syllables vec,
vec, vec. Their call for another is a sharp note, and occasionally they utter
a sound closely resembling the words hoop, hoop, hoop,

CINSYRIS — Sugar Bird. This genus is separated from Cuvier's Certhia,
of which it formed a subgenus, in consequence of its forked tongue ; the
birds of which it is composed belong to Africa and the Indies, live upon
the nectar of flowers and insects, and have generally a pleasing note. Their

plumage is very beautiful, and generally more or less of a bright golden
green. There are about twenty-eight or thirty species.

MELITIIKKITUS — Honey-eaters. This genus was formed by Vieillot
from the Certhwe to include the Honey-suckers of the South Seas, and is
the same as Temminck's Drepams, They live on honey, on the honeyed
juices of plants, and on insects, and are found in the Sandwich Islands.

POMATORHINUS. — The peculiarity of this genus is observed in the horny
covering of its nostrils ; but according to Dr. Horsefield's observations it is
connected with the Toothbilled family by the strength of its beak, in which
respect it approximates to the Mdliphaflce of Lewin, or PhUedones of
Cuvier, as also in the connexion of its outer toes and the stoutness of the
hinder claw. In its own family it more nearly approaches that division of
the genus Cinnyris, which has the beak of moderate length.

The species are, the Mountain Creeper, found in Java ; the P. Turdinus,
and the P. Trivirgatus, natives of New Holland.

SYNALLAXIS. This genus forms a transition from the Anabates to the
Sylvia, resembling the former in the shape of their beak, which is, however,
less elevated, and, like them, having great similarity in the distribution of
their colours to the Woodpeckers, resembling thorn also in the shape of
their tongue, their tall heels, and their graduated tail ; but the general form
of their body and their habits are similar to those of the Sylvice. The
colour of their plumage is very uniform. They are all natives of South
America, from Brazil and Chili to the Straits of Magellan, inhabiting
the damp parts of thick woods and open plains covered with bushes and
thickets. They are lively, always in motion, creeping through the thick low
bushes, hopping upon the branches, and climbing around them like Titmice
in search of insects, their larvae, and eggs. Their flight is neither high nor
long sustained, but like that of the Sylvia?. Prince Maximilian says he has
never heard them sing, but only utter a short call.

TINACTOR. This genus, formed by Prince Maximilian zu Weid, forms
a decided transition from Myiotliera to Dendrocolaptes, but is readily dis-
tinguishable ftom them. The species T. Fuscus is found in the woods
along the river Itabapuana, between 21° and 22D South latitude, and be-
comes more numerous northward. They are commonly found suspended,
or climbing up the trunks of old trees ; but their climbing powers are not
very great, for they rarely go far up, and soon descend to the ground.

Family — TOE-TIED ; Syndactyla.

The outer toe of the Birds forming this Family is nearly as long as the
middle one, with which it is connected as far as the second joint.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.

PLATE 6.
Genera. Species. Common Name.

Merops ----- Apiaster - - - - Common Bee-eater.
Alcedo Ispida Kingfisher.

Other Genera of this Family : — Buceros, Ceyx, Prionites, Todus.

CHARACTERS OF THE GENERA.

1. MEROPS. Beak slenderish, tetragonal, and compressed, pointed, cutting,
slightly arched, and without any tooth ; ridge elevated ; nostrils basal,
lateral, roundish, open, but hidden in hairs projecting forward ; tarsi short,
four-toed, the outer joined to the middle by membrane as far as the second
joint, and that with the inner to the first joint, hind toe having a broad
base, its claw the smallest ; the first primary very short, the second longest
of all.

2. ALCEDO. Beak long, straight, stout, angular, somewhat compressed,
and laterally pointed ; tongue short ; tail sometimes short ; feet small and
weak ; the outer toe united to the next.

3. BUCEROS (Gr. ftovf, an Ox, and irc'pac, a horn). Beak very large,
hooked downwards, notched, and surmounted at its base by a large horny
appendage nearly as big as the beak itself, but varying in form, and of a

ORDER— SCANSOKI.

FAMILY— ZYGO DACTYL A. YOKE-TIED.

73

cellular structure within ; nostrils, close to base of beak, oval and patulous ;
ti'i't short, and toes distinct.

4. CEYX (Gr. KJJ£, a sea fowl). Beak very long, straight, pointed, and
angular ; inner toe not apparent.

5. PRIONITES (Gr. irpiwv, a saw). Beak strong, tough, convex above
and bent towards the tip ; edges of the mandibles toothed like a saw ;
nostrils basal, lateral, oblique, patulous ; wings short, the first three quills
graduated, the fourth and fifth the longest ; legs of moderate size ; lateral
toes of unequal length, inner toe very short, outer connected with the
middle as far as the second joint.

6. TODDS. Beak long, straight, obtuse, much wider than its depth, and
the ridge distinct ; tip of the upper mandible divided, the lower obtusely
truncated ; nostrils far from the base on the surface of the beak, patulous
and rounded ; legs of moderate length, the lateral toes unequal, the outer
connected to its third, and the inner to its second joint.

SYNDACTYLA. DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIES.

MEROPS — Bee-eater. The Bee-eaters have a great resemblance to the
Swallows, in the length of their body, their white throat, and long wings ;
and like them they are continually flying about in search of food, occasion-
ally perching on dead branches, but rarely upon the ground, for which the
shortness of their legs ill adapts them. Like the Kingfishers and many
Swallows, they burrow in banks, and at the bottom of their hole make a
nest of moss. They feed on Bees, Wasps, and other insects. If not
teased, they are easily approached, but are readily frightened by gun-shot ;
if any one come near their nests they plunge into them, uttering at the
same time shrill cries, and if the disturbance be repeated they leave them :
as they are fat and fleshy they afford good food, but on account of the
toughness of their skin must be previously flayed. The females and young
have the same colours as the male, but they are less vivid. They are con-
fined to the hot climates of the old world, and visit some of the southern
countries periodically as birds of passage.

The Common Bee-eater (M. Apiaster) is about eleven inches long and
seventeen in breadth ; the forehead whitish tinged with green ; back of
the head, nape, and top of the back chestnut, the remainder of the back
yellowish-red ; middle of the wings deep rust ; their quills and those of the
tail greenish-olive, the middle two of the latter being an inch longer than
the others ; from the angle of the gape a black line passes through the eye
and upon the ear ; the throat light golden-yellow, and bounded below by
a semicircular black collar ; under parts bluish-green ; beak black ; iris red ;
legs brown. The colours of the female more dull. This bird is occasion-
ally found in the south of Germany, Switzerland, and France, where it is
more common ; rarely in England ; frequently in the south of Europe ; and
in autumn it migrates towards Egypt. It feeds on Bees, Wasps, Drones,
Grasshoppers, Chafers, Gnats, and other insects, builds in deep holes pierced
in the banks of rivers, and lays five or seven purely white eggs. The cry
of the Bee-eater is described by some Naturalists as consisting of the syl-
lables yrulyrurural, by others as crou, crou, crow, accompanied, as Sonnini
states, with a cracking of the beak. As Grasshoppers are favourite food
of the Bee-eaters, the children in the Isle of Candia make use of them as
a bait, fastening them on a crooked pin to which a string is attached, and
thus as it were fish for the bird.

ALCEDO — Halcyon, or Kingfisher. The first portion of its name is taken
from the royal splendour of its plumage, and the second from its usual
food. It is easily distinguished from other British Birds by its large body,
short and thick neck, very long bill, diminutive feet, and short tail. The
Kingfisher is a truly handsome bird ; it is about seven inches long, of which
the tail is one inch and a quarter. The beak is a horny-brown colour ;
irides dark brown ; throat reddish-white ; a broad orange stripe extends
from the nostrils beyond the eyes ; the wing-coverts and tertials are dark
green studded with spots of verditer-blue ; scapular and back a brilliant
sky-blue ; cheeks and ear-covers pale chestnut ; under parts chestnut ; tail
dark blue above, blackish underneath. (Plate 6.)

The number of species is twenty-four, which are divided into three

subgenera, namely, — 1. Arrow-shaped tails; 2. Square tails; 3. Forked
tails.

BUCEEOS — HorMll. The birds which forms this genus are remarkable
for being allied with the Toucans by the size of their beak ; with the King-
fishers and Bee-eaters in the form of their feet ; and with the Raven genus
in their general habits. They live indiscriminately both on vegetables and
the smaller kinds of animals, and do not even despise carrion. Some of
them have the horny crest, whilst others either do not have it at all or
only very small, which has induced Cuvier to make two divisions, those
with crests seventeen species, and those without crests eight species.
They are natives of Java, the East Indies, Ceylon, and parts of Africa.

CEYX. This genus has been separated from the Alcedo or Kingfisher genus,
in consequence of the inner toe not coming through the skin ; but in other
respects, it is very similar to that genus. There are but two species, the
C. Tridactyltts and the C. Tribrachys.

PRIONITES. All these birds are natives of the hottest parts of America,
and are found in the forests, building in the holes of trees ; they live prin-
cipally on insects, and occasionally on small birds. There are four species,
one of which measures fourteen inches in length.

TODUS. Vieillot enumerates a considerable number of species in his
genus Todus ; Temrninck, however, restricts it to a single one, and places
all the rest among his Platyrhynchi, which are distinguished by the flat-
tened curved tip of their beak, by its ridge being indistinct, by the nostrils
being partially closed by a little feathered membrane, and by the connection
of the outer and middle toes to the first joint. That one is the Green Toddy
(T. Viridis), native of St. Domingo, where it is called the Ground Parro-
quet, from its green colour and its remaining almost always on the ground.

The Kingfisher is common throughout the greater part of Europe, and in
our country it remains throughout the year, its haunts being the vicinity of
streams, ponds, rivers, and brooks. It is a voracious though beautiful
bird ; hovering over the water, watching till some unwary fish rises near
the surface, it suddenly drops down and secures its prey. It devours not
only small fish but leeches and water-insects. It breeds in holes, either
excavated by itself or by the water rats ; the female lays from five to seven
eggs which she hatches, being supplied with food by her mate during the
period of incubation. The Kingfisher is solitary in its habits, preferring
quiet, secluded nooks, or other sheltered places, where it may be safe from
the intrusion of man.

ORDER III. — SCANSORI. CLIMBERS.

THE structure and arrangement of the toes in the various genera of this
Order, with the exception of the Trogons, are such, that they possess a
powerful grasp, of which certain of the genera avail themselves to climb
the trunks of trees in quest of food, which consists of insects or fruits.
Their outer toe is directed backwards, like a thumb. They nestle gene-
rally in the holes of decayed trees.

Family — YOKE-TIED ; Zygodactyla.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.

PLATE 7.

Genera. Species. Common Name.

i Macroura - - - - Long-tailed Jacaraar.

Galbula 1 Grandis - - - - Great Jacamar.

f Martins - - - - Great Black Woodpecker.

' " " I Tridactylus - - - Three-toed Woodpecker.

Yum Torquila - - - - Wryneck.

Picumnus - - - - Minutissimus - - - Smaller Picus.

Other Genera of this Family : — Bucco, Crotophaga, Cuculus, Muso-
phaga, Phosnicophaus, Pogonias, Pteroglossus, Ramphastos, Scythrops,
Tamatia, Trogon.

CHARACTERS OF THE GENERA.

1. GALBULA. Beak slender, long, straight, or slightly bent at the point,
and four-sided ; nostrils lateral, close to the base of the beak, and partially

74

CLAss-AVES.

ORDER-SCANS OKI.

covered by membrane ; legs short, toes in pairs, the anterior pair closely
connected by membrane ; the external hind toe shorter than the inner ;
daws arched ; wings moderate sized, the three first quills shorter than the
fourth and fifth.

2. Picas (Gr. n-ct'irw, / beat). Beak long, straight, and pyramidal, cut-
ting, and rather scissor-shaped towards the point ; nostrils basal, oval, and
o|>en ; in many species the head crested ; wings of moderate length ; tail
consisting of twelve quills, their webs coarse, elastic, and tapering to the
point ; legs strong ; toes two in front, connected to the first joint, and two
behind distinct ; more rarely only a single hind toe ; claws much curved.

3. YUNX (Gr. "vyl, a bird which utters a shrill cry). Beak short, straight,
of a flattened cone shape, slender towards its tip, and its ridge rounded ;
nostrils basal, naked, and partially closed by membrane ; wings of moderate
length ; feet with two toes in front, joined together, and two behind,
divided ; tongue projectile, with a horny tip.

4. PICUMSUS (Lat. Picus, a Woodpecker). Beak short, straight, conical ;
lower mandible of similar size and bulk with the upper, and both unnotched ;
nostrils basal, lateral, linear ; wings rounded ; tail very short ; tarsi short,
toes long and powerful, the front two connected as far as the first joint ;
the hind two divided, or only one single toe ; outer toes long and of equal
length, the inner short and equal also.

The general characteristics of the " other genera " will be found further on.

ZYGODACTYLA. — DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIES.

GALBULA. This genus is connected with the Kingfishers (Alcedo) by
the length and form of its bill, and the shortness of its legs ; it frequents
moist woods and lives entirely on insects. In some, which are natives of
America, the beak is quite straight, and among the Indian species some
have the beak shorter, larger, and a little curved ; thus connecting the genus
with the Bee-eaters (Merops) : their front toes are also more distinct.
Such are the Great Jacamar. (Plate 7.)

PIBUS — Woodpecker, This large group of birds is distributed all over
the world, except Australia ; but as they are especially adapted for climbing
trees, those countries in which large forests are common would naturally
induce a supposition that they should be found in greater numbers there
than elsewhere ; which turns out to be the case, as the greater number of
species are found in the tall and almost endless woods of America, and
among them are those species which more especially, by the greater deve-
lopment of their peculiar form, characterise the genus itself. Most of the
Woodpeckers are remarkable for the facility with which they run up the
nearly ]>erpendicular trunks of trees : the great length of their hind toes,
and the curving of their claws are particularly adapted for this purpose ;
and as in climbing the weight of the body is thrown much backwards, an
additional support or stret is provided in the tail feathers, which are very
strong and elastic, and which the bird has the power of depressing against
the trunk of the tree, so as to employ it as a rest and support, whilst it
moves one or other of its legs onwards. Some few species, however, do
not climb, but live almost entirely on the ground in open countries. The
teak also is an organ of great importance : in the larger species it is of con-
siderable size, and powerful muscles are attached to it, which enable these
birds to hollow out very large cavities in trees, wherein they make their
nests and deposit their eggs ; but the smaller species, in which the bill is
less powerful and more pointed, are obliged to content themselves with the
natural cavities in trees ; nor do they attempt to pierce the bark of trees,
beneath which insects and their larvae are found, as do the larger species,
but take only those which they can procure by thrusting their long and
extensile tongue into the clefts or other holes in the bark. When employed
in searching for insects, they strike their bill with considerable noise against
the bark, and which noise is commonly called tapping. The object of their
repeated strokes is to disturb the insects beneath, and to drive them to
those places where the bird can more readily get at them. It is a common
notion that the Woodpecker damages trees by perforating the bark ; this
however is incorrect ; on the contrary, his operations are advantageous, by

freeing the tree from the noxious insects, which but for him would destroy
it, and which indeed frequently do so, notwithstanding the assiduous war-
fare of the Woodpecker. Wilson, in his " American Ornithology," has been
the able advocate of these industrious lalxmrers, and has shown the folly of
dooming them to indiscriminate slaughter. " Here then," says he, speaking
of the Downy Woodpecker, " is a whole species, I may say genus, of birds,
which Providence seems to have formed for the protection of our fruit and
forest trees from the ravages of vermin, which every day destroy millions
of those noxious insects that would otherwise blast the hopes of the hus-
bandmen, and which even promote the fertility of the tree ; and, in return,
are proscribed by those who ought to have been their protectors, and incite-
ments and rewards held out for their destruction ! Let us examine better
into the operations of nature, and many of our mistaken opinions and
groundless prejudices will be abandoned for more just, enlarged, and humane
modes of thinking." Of the specimen from which Wilson drew his descrip-
tion (the Ivory-bitted Woodpecker), he mentions, that having shot it near
Wilmington, but only in the wing, it uttered a "piteous note, exactly
resembling the violent crying of a young child," and that his horse was so
frightened that he nearly lost his life. In passing through the town its
cries were so affecting, that every one, women particularly, hurried to the
doors with alarm and anxiety. When he had reached his inn, and had
locked the bird up in his room, after an absence of an hour he returned,
when it set up the same distressing cry, which seemed to have arisen in
consequence of its attempt to escape by pecking away the lath and plaster
near the window being discovered, and in which attempt, if undisturbed
for another hour, it would have succeeded. Wilson then tied a string round
its leg, and fastened it to a table, but on his return the bird had almost
entirely rained the mahogany table, on which it had wreaked its vengeance !
It nestles earlier in the spring than any other species, and Audubon has seen
it boring its hole in the beginning of March ; this is always made in a live
tree, generally an ash or hag-berry, and at a great height, and always with
regard to the situation of the tree and the inclination of its trunk. As they
prefer solitude, and are anxious to protect their hole from beating rains, it
is is therefore generally dug under the junction of a large branch with the
trunk, and in a spiral course. It is sometimes not more than ten inches
deep, but at other times three feet. Both birds work hard at their job,
one sitting outside to encourage the other, the place of which it takes when
tired. Sometimes there is but one brood, but occasionally there are two,
and the latter then appears about the 15th of August. Their food is prin-
cipally beetles, larvae, and large grubs.

The species are numerous, being about seventy-six, divided into Wood-
peckers with four toes, two in front and two behind, and Woodpeckers
with three toes, two before and one behind.

The Great Black Woodpecker (P. Martius), represented on Plate 7, is a
species of the first division : it is about sixteen or seventeen inches long ;
in the male the whole of the top of the head is bright red, but in the female
only a small patch on the back of the head. All the rest of the plumage
deep black ; beak bluish-white, with a black tip. Their flight is undulating,
and rarely for any greater distance than from tree to tree. It is a native of
the northern parts of Europe; is rare in Germany and France, and extremely
rare in England.

The Southern Three-toed Woodpecker (P. Tridactylus), a species of the
second division (Plate 7), measures nine inches in length; upper part of
the head bright red, rest of the head and upper parts of the neck and body
black, transversely barred with white ; upon the cheek a white band ; alar
quills white, marked with regular black spots like scales; the four middle
tail-quills black, the others varied with white and ferruginous ; throat, front
of the neck, chest, and belly white ; sides of the body and under wing-
coverts streaked with black ; legs ashy ; claws brown. The female has no
red badge on the head, nor any white markings on the back and rump.
This species is a native of Guiana, and very rarely penetrates the southern
parts of North America.

YUNX — Wryneck. This genus, although provided with similar feet to
the Woodpeckers, does not make use of its tail as a prop in climbing, for

FAMILY— ZYGOD ACT YL A. YOKE-TIED.

75

which, indeed, the weakness of its feathers is not suited ; it does not, there-
fore, run up trees with the same facility, but clings only to the tree whilst
it searches in the fissures of the bark for the insects on which it feeds.
Very commonly they are seen on the tops of ants' nests, the inhabitants of
which are their favourite food. Their tongue is long, with a horny tip,
but not armed with recurved spines as in the Woodpeckers, and is furnished
with a glutinous secretion from a pair of glands beneath the lower jaw, with
which they entangle their prey. The quickness with which the tongue is
projected and retracted is so great that the eye is unable to follow it ; and
Montague observes that when the bird is feeding, an ant's egg, which is of
a light colour and more conspicuous than the tongue, has somewhat the
appearance of moving to the mouth by attraction, as a needle flies to the
magnet.

The Common Wryneck (Y. Torquilla) is six inches and a half in length ;
its general colour is brown with black rays or speckles. The Wryneck is
very common during summer in the south-eastern counties of England ; is
rare in Cornwall, and not known in Ireland. It is very rare in the north
of England. In spring the male attracts the female by his full-toned call —
gui! gui! gui! gui! not much unlike the whistle of the Kestrel. It is not
unfrequently called the Cuckoo's Mate or Maid, from arriving about the
same time as the Cuckoo, in the first or second week of April, and leaves
us at the end of August or beginning of September. Its name, Wryneck,
has arisen from the odd movements of its head and neck, sometimes de-
scribing parts of circles, at others from side to side with an undulating
snake-like motion, whence, in some parts of England, it is called the
Snake-bird.

PICUMNUS. This genus was formed by Temminck on the Picus Minutus
of Latham, which differs from the Woodpeckers in having the tail rounded,
and the webs of its caudal quills not coarse nor worn away. Their habits
rather resemble those of the Creepers. The species are four — Minutissimus,
Cirrhatus, Emlis, and Abnormis.

The Picumna Minutissima (Plate 7) is about the size of our Wren ;
head golden, neck and chest marked with black and white zones; back
brown, marked with white spots ; the white part of the plumage tinged
with yellowish. It is found in Cayenne in company with the Creepers,
and, like them, runs up the trunks of trees, and suspends itself to their
branches.

Bucco (Lat. bucca, the cheek). These birds have derived their generic
name from the prominence of their bills at the base, which Brisson thought
had some resemblance to the cheek. The head is ornamented by five
bundles of stiff hairs or bristles facing forwards ; one on each side of the
nostrils and the base of the lower jaw, and the fifth under the chin. They
are found in Africa and the warmer parts of Asia and America, and are
very dull heavy birds. Cuvier has thought proper to subdivide them into
three: 1, the Barbicans; 2, the Barbets Proper; and 3, the Tamatias.

CROTOPHAGA (Gr. xporiav, a tike, and c/>ayw, / eat). The birds which
compose this genus are natives of the hot and damp parts of America ; their
legs are long ; they live on insects and grain ; congregate, and many pairs
lay their eggs in the same nest, upon which they sit close to each other in
order to hatch them. They are easily caught, and may be taught to speak.
The flesh is very rank.

CUCTJLUS — Cuckoo. Of this genus there is but one species found in
Europe, and from this the facts concerning the true Cuckoos have been
collected ; the others being natives of Africa and America. Some of them
neither build nests nor tend their own eggs, but deposit them in the nests
of other birds, and leave them to be hatched by their foster parent; whilst
others build nests, and sit on their own eggs, according to the usual habits
of birds. Cuvier has divided them into six subgenera, of which the first
alone can be considered as belonging to the true Cuckoos, or those which do
not hatch their own eggs. They are insectivorous.

1. Cuckoo Proper ; thirteen species. 2. Couas, which differ only from
the true Cuckoos in having the legs longer, but they are remarkable for not
laying their eggs in other nests than their own ; seven species. 3. Coucals,
the claw of whose outer toe is very long, and their outer hind toe capable

of great motion ; nine species. 4. Courols, beak large, pointed, straight,
compressed, and the upper mandible slightly curved at the tip; a single
species, which Temminck has converted into a genus. 5. Homy Guides,
beak short, thick, and conical, like that of the Sparrow ; tail cuneiform,
and slightly forked ; skin very tough ; three or four species. 6. Barbacous,
beak conical, long, slightly compressed, curved at the tip, and furnished at
the base either with silky feathers or rough hairs ; two species, which bear
a close resemblance to the Barbel.

The Common Cuckoo (C. Canorus) is the only one of the Cuckoo genus
which is met with in England, or indeed in Europe, and is but a bird of
passage ; it makes its appearance early in the spring, and leaves us about
the middle of July. To what countries they go to on leaving us is not
well ascertained, but it is certain that part of them visit Africa, as they are
met with twice in the year at Malta, in their journey backwards and for-
wards. They are rare in Italy, but common at Aleppo, and even in India.
The note of the Cuckoo is a call to love ; and he sits on the bare bough of
a tree, repeating his song, which he loses when the amorous season is over.
This note is so uniform, that the name seems to have been derived from it;
and thus we have in the English cuckoo, in the French cou-cou, in the Italian
cuculo, in the German kuckuk, the Latin cuculus, and the Greek KOKKV^.

That the Cuckoo does not hatch its own eggs, but deposits them in the
nests of other birds is well known ; and various reasons, depending on the
structure of the animal, have been assigned for this peculiarity, but all of
them without warrant ; as other birds which are formed nearly in the same
manner, tend their own eggs during the process of incubation. The egg
is seldom met with in any nest till the beginning of May, and then usually
in that of the Hedge Sparrow : it is also found in those of the Wagtail,
Titlark, Yellow Hammer, Greenfinch, and Whinchat. Dr. Jenner observed
that during the time the Hedge Sparrow was laying her eggs, which
took up three or four days, the Cuckoo continued to deposit one of hers
among them, and left it to the care of the Sparrow. This addition to
her charge rather disturbs the Sparrow's arrangements, and during the time
of incubation she occasionally either throws out her own eggs, to make room
for that of the Cuckoo, or she so injures, as to addle them ; but it is a
curious circumstance that she never throws out or injures the egg of the
Cuckoo. After the usual time of sitting, when some of her own eggs and
that of the Cuckoo are hatched, the young Cuckoo manages to turn out both
the young Sparrows and the remaining eggs, and gets the whole nest to
itself.

MUSOPHAGA — Banana-eater. All the Banana eaters, which have in
one instance been improperly called Plantain-eaters, belong to Africa, and
feed on the two species of Banana, Musa Paradisaica and Sapientum ; they
fly sluggishly, and move their wings very frequently without making much
progress ; but they vault from branch to branch of the forest trees, among
which they live, with great agility, and run up their trunks with much
quickness. They build in hollow trees ; both male and female participate
in the process of hatching, and their young ones follow them a considerable
time. There are six species.

PHCENICOPHAUS (Gr. (ftoivtZ, red, and 0<ioc, an eye). This genus, which
consists of four species, was included among the Cuckoos till separated from
it by Le Vaillant under the title of Malcoha, by which name one of the
species is known in Ceylon. It is distinguished from them by its strong
and much-curved beak, and by the nostrils being placed near the edges of
the upper mandible, which is very strong ; around their eyes is a bare
circle covered with little elevated papillae, in their appearance resembling
velvet ; the head is square and larger than in the Cuckoos, which, however,
they otherwise resemble in the form of their body, the shortness of their
wings, and the gradation of their tail. They feed only on fruit.

POOONIAS (Gr. irwyuiv, a beard) — Toothbill. The individuals forming
this genus were included among the Buccones till separated by Illiger, on
account of the different form of their beak. All of them are natives of
Africa. Eight species.

PTEROGLOSSUS (Gr. irnpov, a feather, and y\£>aaa, a tongue) — Aracari.
This genus, formed by Illiger on account of the feathering of the edges of

L2

76

CLASS— AVES.

ORDER— S C A N S O R I.

its tongue, makes part of the Ramphasti of Linnaeus, from which, however,
it is further distinguished by the beak being of smaller size, more tough and
solid, and by the tail being proportionally longer and distinctly graduated.
Like the Toucans they are natives of South America, and fly heavily ; but
notwithstanding they get to the tops of the highest trees, where they are
fond of perching, and continue throughout the day in constant motion,
carefully watching what is passing below them. They feed on fruit, and
occasionally also on young birds. When about to swallow their food they
give it a jerk into the air, and catch it open-mouthed. Eight species.

RAMPHASTOS (Gr. pd^i^oc, a beak) — Toucan. This genus is remarkable
for the great size of its bill, which in some species nearly equals the length
of the body ; but though bulky it is light, being made up of a delicate bony
texture covered with thin horn, and its edges are serrated or toothed like a
saw ; it differs according to the species in the greater or less convexity of
its sides, the sharpness or roundness of its culmen or upper edge, and the
smoothness or jaggedness of its cutting edges ; it also varies as to size and
colour according to age, even in the same species ; the naked space around
the eyes, except in three species, in which it is crimson, is of a slaty-blue,
which also colours the legs. Their tails are short and square, which dis-
tinguishes them from the Aracaris (Pteroglossus). Their form is narrow
and slender, but the size of their bill and the shortness of their tail give
them, when at rest, a clumsy and sluggish appearance, which, however, is
immediately lost when the bird is roused, its motions being then easy and
elegant. They have great similarity in colour, which has given rise to con-
fusion of the species ; their general colour is black, but in all the known
species the throat, upper and under tail-coverts differ from the ground colour ;
the front of the neck and upper part of the chest are either white or yellow,
bounded below by a crimson band varying in breadth and sometimes cover-
ing the whole chest ; the under tail-coverts are always crimson, and the
upper either crimson, white, or yellow.

This remarkable genus of birds is strictly confined to the tropical regions
of South America, where it occupies the same station as the Hornbills in
Asia and Africa, and the Rain-bird in New Holland.

In the " Zoological Journal," vol. ii., a very excellent paper has been
given by Mr. Vigors, in which the confusion involving many of the species
has been satisfactorily cleared. And this has been more completely followed
up by the arrangement of the genus in sections by Mr. Gould in his
" Monograph of the Ramphastidae."

SCYTHROPS — Channel-Mi. One species found in New Holland and in
the Southern Archipelago. Its length is about twenty-five inches, and it
feeds on the seed of the red gum and peppermint tree.

TAMATIA — Puff-bird. The Puff-birds, which generally measure eight
inches in length, are natives of the Brazils, and acquire their English name
from their large, bulky head being rendered still larger by raising the feathers
and giving it the appearance of a puff-ball ; but, when frightened, the form
of the head is altered by the sudden flattening of the feathers. Throughout
nearly the whole day they sit motionless on the branch of a dead tree,
except when an insect comes within their reach, upon which they raise the
head-feathers, and darting upon it, immediately return to the same branch,
upon which it is said they will sit for months. If compelled to leave their
retreat in search of insects, upon which they principally feed, their whole
manner exhibits great timidity, and they are continually ducking down to
avoid discovery. Five species.

TROGON — Cauroucou. " Splendour and brilliancy of plumage," says
Temminck, "are indeed the only gifts in which the Couroucous participate ;
elegance of form, nobleness of gait, quickness of flight, docility and sweet-
ness of manner, they have not." Their abundant plumage is very slightly
connected by its delicate quill» to an exceeding thin skin, so that the slightest
touch detaches considerable portions of it. Their irides are dusky and
scarcely visible, and the edges of the eyelids always coloured. Their tail is
narrow, long, and graduated. They are found in both the old and new
world ; all those of the latter being distinguished by many delicate denticu-
lations along the margins of both mandibles, whilst the former have but
one. During the daytime they sit perched on a branch of thick underwood,

and are scarcely visible, and even when observed do not take to flight, but
allow of being approached without fair and are easily token. D'Azzara
says they do not descend from their perch, but quietly sit and snap up such
insects as come within their reach. They feed also on some soft succulent
fruits, and only leave their cool and shady retreat at early morn and evening.
Their breeding-time occurs frequently during the year, and at these periods
the male leaves his solitude and utters a doleful cry, somewhat resembling
its name couroucou. The species are twenty, divided into two subgenera
— denticulated and non-denticulated beaks.

Family — PARROTS ; Psittadda.

These Birds are of beautiful plumage : they belong to the torrid zone,
and the species are very numerous. They have strong beaks, rounded, ami
curved ; their tongue is thick, and fleshy ; and they have a complicated
and muscular inferior larynx. They climb well, using both their claw- and
hooked beaks, and some of them their tails, for that purpose.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.

PLATE 8.
Genus — rsiTTACCS.

Sub-Genera.

Species.

Ara seu Macroceros - Aracanga

Conurus - - -

Psittacnla - -

Psittacus - - -

Plyctolophus - -

Microglossus - -

Solsticialis-

- Pileatus -

- Erythracus

- Nasicus

- Goliath. -

Common Name.

Scarlet Maccaw.
Angola-yellow Parrakeet.
Bonneted Psittacule.
Gray Parrot.
Long-nosed Cockatoo.
Gray small-tongued Parrot.

CHARACTERS OF THE GENEP.A.

PSITTACUS (Gr. ^araKri, a Parrot). Beak convex above and below,
compressed, short, thick, large and strong, and curved from the base ; upper
mandible very much hooked at the tip, more or less pointed ; lower man-
dible short, obtuse, and turned upwards at the tip, which is often worn
away and exhibiting two points ; tongue, in most, thick, round, and Ilcshv :
nostrils basal, roundish, patulous, and placed in the cere ; wings not of
great length but strong ; of variable form and length ; legs short and strong,
the tarsus generally much shorter than the outer toe ; front toes connected
at their base ; the soles of all the toes wide.

This very numerous and highly-interesting genus of birds is spread
extensively over the earth, being found between 42 of north and 55° of
south latitude, increasing greatly in number as it approaches, and diminishing
as it recedes from the Equator, so that the species found in the extreme
northern and southern latitudes are very few.

Parrots, in general, feed upon kernels, rarely meddling with the fruit
except to get at the kernel. One section of them, however, which are
found in Australia, differ in this respect, as they suck the vegetable juices
like many other New Holland birds, and have a peculiar kind of tongue for
the purpose. In domestication they may be taught to eat almost every-
thing, and even meat and bones. But the habit of eating meat often leads
to serious consequences, as when the bird cannot obtain this, which occa-
sionally becomes its favourite food, it will pluck its own feathers and suck
the stems, till it has pulled off all its feathery covering, except the wing
and tail quills, which would give it, if plucked, rather more pain than it
could very well bear. According to Vieillot, this habit arises from a
morbid itching of the skin, which induces the Parrot to pull out i
and does not depend on the kind of food upon which it has been fed. As
to fluids they take but little, but are easily taught to drink wine, of which
they soon become very fond, as was long since noticed both by Aristotle
and Pliny. Although living together in large societies, each male lias its
own female, by which he is always seen perched; and at breeding-time
each pair chooses its own particular residence apart from the others, in the
hollow either of a tree or rock, where the hen-bird makes her nest of dried
leaves, moss, or fragments of rotten wood. Four eggs are laid, and the
male, as well as the female, assists in the process of incubation. When

ORDER— GALL IN ACE A.

F AMILY— G A L L I N I D A. POULTRY.

77

first hatched, the young Parrots are entirely featherless, and covered only
with a dingv white down, from which, in the course of four or five clays,
the tubes of the feathers protrude. At the end of six weeks the feathers
having burst their tubes, the whole body is entirely fledged ; but the young
birds still remain in the nest, although nearly as strong as the parent, and
having their wings almost fully developed; if they venture to leave the
nest it is merely to perch on a neighbouring tree, where they are fed by
the old birds till they are two months old ; when, having attained their
full growth, and become capable of feeding themselves, they accompany
their parents to be taught the kind of food on which they are to subsist.
So soon as they have acquired this knowledge, the old birds drive them off,
and the younger and older members of this society form two distinct com-
panies which do not intermix, and are readily distinguished by the sports-
man, the former being very easily, the latter with great difficulty, surprised
or approached.

The colours of Parrots are generally very brilliant and distinct ; the
female differs in plumage from the male, as do also the immature birds for
two or three moults. Green is mostly the prevailing colour, next red,
blue, and lastly yellow ; the latter of which is considered by Dumeril to
occupy the place of white in most other birds.

Parrots live to a very advanced age : a bird of twenty or thirty years old
is by no means uncommon ; but, perhaps, the most remarkable as to
longevity which is on record, is that of a variety with a yellow tail of the
P. E>-ythracus, (Plate 8,) mentioned by Le Vaillant in his History, and
which was known to have been domesticated for seventy-three years.

The facility and distinctness with which Parrots generally learn to talk
have rendered them favourites with both polished and unpolished nations
from a very early period. But there is little chance of making the bird a
good talker unless it be taken very young ; as when more advanced in age
they can be taught but little, and that with great difficulty. All Parrots,
however, will not learn to talk ; some are unable to articulate other than
their natural note ; others will acquire a few words and no more ; but those
which talk best are the Amazon and the Grey Parrot.

This extensive genus, which consists of nearly two hundred species, is
arranged into six sections, with their generic distinctions ; thus leaving it
quite optional with the student to retain them in a single genus or to break
them up into several genera.

Section 1. Ara (Macrocerits of Vieillot). Beak strong, height from the
chin to the forehead doubling the length from the gape to the tip ; under
mandible bent inwards ; face naked or marked with feathery lines ; tail
longer than the body, much graduated and pointed.

The Scarlet Maccaw (P. Aracanga), Plate 8, is a species of this division :
it is two feet and ten inches in length ; the cheeks bare and wrinkled ;
general colour scarlet ; greater wing-coverts yellow, tipped with green and
blue ; alar quills blue above and red beneath ; lower part of the back and
rump light blue. Common in Guiana and at Surinam.

Section 2. Conurus. Tail of unequal length with the body, graduated
and pointed, but never square ; beak of moderate size ; face feathered except
in the first division, in which the ocular circlets are naked. All of them
are natives of the torrid zone.

One species, the Angola Yellow Parrakeet (P. Solsticialis), Plate 8, is
about eleven inches long; the general colour of the male is reddish-yellow
or orange, glossed here and there with jonquil ; beak blackish at its base
and tip, and grey in the intermediate space. It is found in Angola.

Section 3. Psittacula. Tail much shorter than the body, rounded,
sharp ; beak of moderate size ; face feathered ; body of small size. They
are found throughout the torrid zone.

The Bonneted Psittacule (P. Pileatus) varies from eight to nine inches
long ; beak red ; general colour brilliant green ; ocular circlets bare and
white ; head and fore part of the neck black ; hind part of the latter
ochrish-orange ; and each feather having a dusky edge; chest ochrish-
olive ; alar quills black, edged externally with green ; tail shortish, and
tipped with blue. The female has the head blackish-green. It is found in
Guiana, but is a rare species.

Section 4. Psittacus. Head large, not crested ; beak strong and hooked ;
face feathered ; body bulky ; and tail short and square.

They are all natives of the torrid zone; and, according to Humboldt, the
American species live in large societies.

Under this section the Grey Parrot (P. Erythracus) is found : it measures
about twelve inches in length ; general colour ashy-grey of varying shade,
and the edges of all the feathers edged with a lighter tinge ; lower part of
the belly and sides white ; tail red above and beneath, and the shafts of its
feathers black ; beak, legs, and tips of the primary alar quills black ; ocular
circlets and lore naked and covered with whitish powder. Is a native of
the western coast of Africa. It is the species most commonly domesticated
in Europe, as it talks extremely well, and becomes much attached to its
keeper. It is said to live a hundred years.

Section 5. Plyctolophus. Beak generally large, bulky, and much curved ;
ocular circlets bare ; head furnished with a folded or pendulous crest ; tail
short, square, and even-ended. They are found both in India and New
Holland.

The species P. Nasicus, or Long-nosed Cockatoo, (Plate 8,) is about fif-
teen and a half inches long, and remarkable for the great length of its upper
mandible ; it has also a very small frontal crest. Its general colour is
white, except the rose-coloured tint of its face, which becomes slightly-
tinged with red about the ocular regions; belly and under tail-coverts
reddish-yellow ; base of the caudal quills yellowish ; beak and legs ashy.
Is a native of New Holland.

Section 6. Microglossus. Beak very much curved ; tongue short, resem-
bling an oval tubercle ; head furnished with a crest of narrow feathers ; the
face naked ; tail square and even at its tip. All natives of Asia.

The Grey Small-tongued Parrot (P. Goliath) is more than two feet in
length; beak four and a half inches in length, and black; crest long;
general colour grey. Is a native of the East Indies, and forms the inter-
mediate link between the Aras and the Cockatoos.

ORDER IV.— GALLINACEA. SCRATCHERS.

THIS Order is so named, on account of the affinity subsisting between the
principal Family, Gallimda, and all the other Families. None of them sing :
they are heavy birds; their wings are short; and their stomach is a very
muscular gizzard.

Family — POULTRY ; Gallimda.

This Family includes not only the Domestic Cock and Hen, but the
Pheasants, Turkeys, and other Families more or less related to them in
structure and habits.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.

Genera.

PLATE 9.

Species.

Common Name.

t Sonnerati - - -

- Sonnerat's Cock.

( Macartney i - -
t Amherstiae

- Crested Cock.

- Amherst's Pheasant.

Gallu

" | Nycthemerus - - - Silver Pheasant.
Tragopan - - - - Satyms ... - Nepaul Horned Pheasant.
Cryptonyjt - - - - Coronatus - - - -

Other Genera of this Family : — Hemipodius, Lophophorus, Meleagris,
Numida, Opisthocomus, Pauxi, Pavo, Penelope, Perdix, Polyplectron,
Pterocles, Syrrhaptes, Tetrao, Tricanus.

CHARACTERS OP THE GENERA.

1. GALLUS. Beak moderate-sized, conical, and arched ; nostrils basal,
lateral, and expanded, but half closed with membrane ; forehead generally
furnished with a fleshy crest or comb, extending to the nose ; cheeks
wattled, a single fleshy process descending on each side below the man-
dibles ; legs provided with arched spurs ; four toes, three before and one
behind, a membrane Extending as far as the first joint of each ; claws

78

CLASS-AVES.

ORDER— GAL LINAGE A.

hooked, but broad and blunt, fit for scratching; the first three primary
quills shorter than the others, the first shortest of all.

2. PHASIANUS (Gr. ipatnt, a river of Colchis). Beak of moderate size
and strong, base naked, upper mandible vaulted, convex, and curved to-
wards the tip ; nostrils basal, lateral, and covered with an arched membrane ;
cheeks naked and warty ; wings short ; tail much graduated, conical, and
consisting of eighteen quills ; legs in the male armed with a conical spur ;
three toes in front connected by membrane to the first joint, one toe
behind.

3. TRAGOPAN (Gr. rpa-yot, a Goat). Beak large, short, strong, and
much curved ; upper mandible rather swelling, lower straight ; nostrils
basal, lateral, covered with the naked cere, and half closed by a large mem-
brane ; in the male the head is crested ; behind and above each eye a
slender fleshy hom curving backwards and downwards ; throat naked and
wattled ; the female has neither fleshy horns, wattles, nor nudities ; wings
short ; legs strong and short, in the male armed with spurs ; claws long
and straight.

4. CRYPTOSYX. General characters same as those of the Pheasants ;
the hinder claw is, however, wanting, and the tarsi are without spurs.

The general characteristics of the " other genera of tin's family" follow
the " Description of the Species " contained in the Illustrations.

GALLIXIDA. — DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIES.

CALLUS — Cock. The Domestic Cock (G. Domesticus) is too well known
to require a minute description. He is remarkable for the stateliness
of his gait, his courage, and vigilance, and his attention to his feathered
mistresses, which commence when he is about eight or nine months old.
He is extremely jealous, and very irascible, and, so long as he has strength,
will not permit the intrusion of any stranger into his domestic circle ; hence
originate the frequent combats which an ill-managed poultry-yard presents.
The disposition to fight is shown more especially among Cocks which have
not lived together in the same yard, as if to try their strength. But their
courage is often exerted in defence of their Hens against other birds.

The Cock generally becomes old and useless in the course of three years,
but those which are of larger size last much longer, as they do not come so
early to maturity. In his habits he is particularly clean, being continually
occupied in trimming and ordering his feathers with his bill. And although
his crowing is not the most melodious music, he takes especial care to be
the loudest, and outcrow if possible, any neighbouring Cock ; for which
purpose he may be seen listening with attention, and if he be answered,
replying in a shriller and louder note of defiance than before : this is re-
peated many times, till one or other is tired, or fairly beaten.

The Hen, like the Cock, is furnished with a comb and wattles, but of
less size, and less brilliant hue than his. She is, as is generally the case
with birds, smaller than the Cock, and her plumage more sombre : her tail,
although vertical, is not ornamented with the long feathers which pecu-
liarly distinguish him : neither does she crow, nor make any noise, but that
known as clucking, which is generally indicative of her having laid an egg,
except a harsh scream, which is common to both Cock and Hen when they
are frightened. Amongst themselves Hens are extremely quarrelsome and
violent, and if they find one which is either weak or maimed, attack her in
a body, and frequently destroy her. Her fecundity is very great, and she
will commonly lay two eggs within every three days throughout the greater
part of the year, except moulting-time, which occupies two months. After
having laid about twelve eggs, she prepares for sitting, a period which may
be distinguished by her cries and great uneasiness, and from the time it
commences, occupies twenty-one clays, during which time she rarely leaves
the nest; and, after the eggs are hatched, attends her little progeny with
the utmost care and attention, leading them about, finding food for them,
and collecting them under her wings on the slightest appearance of danger.
During this time she becomes exceedingly courageous, and will face almost
any animal who molests her in defence of her young.

It is observed that Fowls breed more freely in warm than in cold
climates, although even in the latter they live anft thrive : they are not

found in the northern parts of Siberia, and are kept in Greenland only as
rarities.

Sonnerafs Cock (G. Sonnerati), Plate 9, is about two feet four inches in
length, from the tip of the beak to the extremity of the tail ; it is therefore
about a third larger than our Domestic Cock. These birds are remark-
ably distinguished from every other species of Cock, in the size and flatness
of the quill of the feathers on the head and neck, forming a white stripe
throughout the whole length of the feather to the tip, where it becomes
expanded into a round film of a cartilaginous structure, very delicate and
highly polished. The female, always smaller than the male, has neither
comb nor wattles, and the throat is covered with feathers, in both which
points it differs strikingly from our Hens ; the plumage of the under parts
resembles that of the Cock, but the colours are duller. These birds are
found wild in the woody plains of Hindustan ; they strut along boldly, and
fight with great fury.

The Crested Cock (G. Macartney!) is about two feet long ; beak yellow ;
the head is ornamented with a tuft of feathers deprived of their barbs,
except at the tip, whence arise numerous small barbs, which are distinct,
and expand like a fan ; a naked, thick, violet-coloured membrane, which
forms the prolongation of the nostrils, extends over the sides of the head,
and encircles the eyes ; it rises up around the root of the beak, and forms
a loose membrane, which passes towards the occiput, and below each eye
produces a little process or beard ; the upper and under parts black, witli
shades of violet; the feathers on the sides edged with bright red; \vin_r-
coverts black, edged with golden green ; the broad feathers of the rump
are of a golden red, or colour of fire ; they are shaded with coppery rose
colour, and clouded with purple and violet, which also colour the upper
tail-coverts ; the four middle quill-feathers are of a bright red, and arched,
the others black ; legs grey, nails and spurs brown. The males generally
carry the tail in a horizontal position, but they often raise it ; its two planes
are not so vertical as in the common Cock. This beautiful bird was first
mentioned by Sir George Staunton, in his account of the Embassy of Lord
Macartney to China; it was met with at Batavia, in a menagerie, but is
found wild in the forests of the Isle of Sumatra.

PHASIANUS — Pheasant. Pheasants and Cocks were considered as 1»-
longing to the same genus, till the latter were removed by Brisson from the
former to constitute a new genus under the title Gattus. Pheasants are
distinguished by the bare patches on the sides of their head ; their tail is
long, narrow, and arching, and the middle two quills of much greater length
than the others. Their gait is different from that of the Cock, which carries
its head and neck erect, whilst the Pheasants stoop, and extend their neck
forwards. They are also less hardy, and cannot be brought up in confine-
ment without great care, instead of thriving like Fowls with little trouble.
The male Pheasants are remarkable for the beauty and brilliancy of their
plumage, are often furnished with crests, and their tails are very long; the
plumage of the female is more sombre, she never has any crest, and her tail
is always shorter. They are polygamous, and make a trifling nest among
the grass or in bushes. Pheasants are found in Asia and Europe, but neither
in Africa nor America.

The number of species is twelve, of which two are figured on Plate 9,
viz., the Silver or Pencilled Pheasant (P. Nycthemerus), and Amherst's
Pheasant (P. Amherstia?).

The former is about two feet eight inches in length ; the wings when
closed do not reach beyond the origin of the tail, which is long and very
cuneiform. Upon the head is a long crest of purplish-black, decomposed
feathers, falling back; the white plumage of the upper parts of the neck
and body is marked obliquely with very delicate black streaks ; the front of
the neck and under part of the body purplish-black ; wings and tail white
streaked with black, except the middle two caudal quills, which are quite
white; the irides reddish-yellow ; beak yellowish, but incliiiiiiL!; to brown
at its tip; legs bright lake, and the long sharp spurs white. The female
is of smaller size than the male. This species is a native of the northern
parts of the Chinese empire ; but it has been introduced into almost all the
countries of Europe, where, as it requires little more care than common

FAMILY— GALL I NIDA. POULTRY.

79

poultry, being the hardiest of the Pheasants, it has thriven well, and is
commonly called the Silver Pheasant. They pair towards the end of April,
and the female lays from eight to fourteen eggs, brownish-yellow inclining
to white, and spotted with brown. This species connects the Phasiani with
the Galli by the form and disposition of its tail feathers, and especially with
the G. Macartnei.

The general form of Amhersfs Pheasant, and the arrangement of its
plumage, and the tail, are similar to those of the Golden Pheasant ; the top
of the head is green, the crest feathers are crimson, and two and a half
inches long ; the pendent tippet white, and each feather marked with a dark
green circular band, and with a similarly coloured straight band near the
tip ; neck, back, shoulders, chest, and wing-coverts metallic-green, and each
feather tipped with velvet-black ; tail-coverts brown at the base, their centre
barred with green and white, and tip scarlet, and as they approach the
caudal quills become elongated to ten inches; the first caudal quill is
twenty-nine inches long, barred with green on a mottled-white ground, the
third and fourth measure thirty-eight inches, their inner web narrow, and
mottled with black and white, their outer much wider, and marked with
transverse, circular, dark-green bars on a ground the inner part of which
is greyish-white, and the outer light chestnut-brown. From Cochin
China.

TEAGOPAN. This genus of birds is intermediate to the Turkeys and
Pheasants, but in their general form correspond more closely to the latter.
They are, however, remarkably distinguished by their wattles, and by the
fleshy horns arising from the sides of the head. They are natives of the
mountainous districts of India and China.

The Nepaul Horned Pheasant (T. Satyrus) measures from twenty to
twenty-three inches in length ; beak brown ; in the male, the head furnished
with a crest of long narrow feathers, of which those from the front and
summit are black, and from the hind head rich scarlet maroon ; naked
ocular circlets, fleshy horns, and wattles mingled blue, purple, and red ;
throat, sides of the head, and nape black ; neck scarlet maroon ; back and
upper surface olive-brown, barred and zigzagged with black, and irregularly
spotted with white ; shoulders wood-coloured or scarlet maroon, as are
also the whole under surface, but numerously marked with white spots
encircled with black ; quills and tail blackish-brown ; legs light brown.
It feeds on grains, roots, the larvse of ants, and other insects.

CRYPTONYX. There are four or five species, of which the C. Caronatus
(Plate 9) is the most prominent, because the best known ; they are all
natives of India and its islands. They are nearly related to the Pheasants
in appearance and habits ; the circumference of the eye is naked ; the tail
is of moderate length, and plain ; and in the male of the illustrated species
a crest of long thinly-barbed rufous feathers rises from the head, and a few
long barbless stems spring up over each eyebrow. Its plumage is bright
green and blue ; whilst that of C. Niger is wholly black.

HEMIPODIUS (Gr. q/uovc, half, and irovt, afoot). This genus of birds,
described by Lacepede under the name Tridactylus, and by Illiger under that
of Ortygis, was included by Linnaeus among his Tetraows, and by Latham
in the Perdrices. They are the smallest of gallinaceous birds, not being
larger than a Thrush, and more nearly resemble the Quails, from which,
however, they are remarkably distinguished by their short tails, consisting of
ten quill-feathers. There is but little difference between the male and female
plumage. They are polygamous, but both young and old birds are solitary ;
they feed principally on insects, and are found on barren lands ; two or three
species in the southern parts of Europe, but the greater number in the warm
regions of Asia and Africa. They do not fly much, but run with great
speed ; and when pursued, commonly hide themselves under any tuft of grass
which may be in their way. The species are about ten in number.

LOPHOPHORUS (Gr. Xi'n.,1,, . a crest, and <j>ipia, I bear). This genus is
distinguished from the Pheasants, among which it had been placed previous
to Temminck's arrangement, by the much greater length of the upper man-
dible, which completely hides the lower. The legs are very remarkable in
being feathered not only to the knee, but in having a feathered stripe extend-
ing down the inside of the tarsus to the root of the spur ; the claws are long

and slightly arched, that of the middle toe is nearly three-quarters of an inch
in length.

MELEAGRIS — Turkey. There has been much difference of opinion as to
the region from whence Turkeys were first brought into Europe ; the earlier
ornithologists, as Belon, Rav, and Willughby, consider them to have been
derived from Asia ; but subsequently Buffon and others have denied their
existence as indigenous to Asia, and have affirmed that they were imported
by the Spaniards from America. Of Turkeys there are known but two
species, both of which, in their wild state, are natives of America, one of
which forms the stock of our domestic bird.

The domestication of the Turkey has produced several varieties ; the most
rare is the Tufted Turkey, of which the crest is sometimes white, at other
times black. Sometimes the whole plumage is entirely black, sometimes
white, at other times speckled, and these varieties are continued by breeding';
but a white or speckled Turkey is never met with in the wild state. Cross
breeds between the domestic and wild Turkey often occur in those districts
where the birds are common, and such are preferred for the table as com-
bining the fat of the former with the flavour of the latter.

Wild Turkeys are not very particular in their food; they eat maize,
berries, fruits, grasses, beetles, and even tadpoles, young frogs, and lizards,
but where it is to be had they prefer the pecan nut, and more especially the
acorn, on which they fatten rapidly. When the crop of acorns is very great
in a particular district, they are attracted to it from their usual haunts in
great numbers. About the beginning of October they assemble in large
flocks on the Ohio and Mississippi, and hence this is called by the Indians
the Turkey Month.

Turkeys in the domestic state are polygamous, one male being sufficient
for twelve or fifteen females ; the hens of two or three years old are most
careful of their brood. The hen Turkey lays about twenty-eight eggs, twice
a year, viz., in February and August, where the temperature is mild, but in
colder districts only once a year, in March or April. The eggs are laid
every other day, and when the hen has ceased she begins to sit ; those which
had been previously taken from the nest are then to be returned to it ; but
sixteen, or at most eighteen, are as many as she can manage, and care should
be taken that the first two which have been laid should not be included
among these, as they are generally unfruitful. She sits twenty -seven or
twenty-eight days, and during that time food should be placed by her, or she
will be liable to starve herself, fiom her indisposition to leave the nest.

NUMIDA — Pintado. The birds composing this genus are natives of Africa,
but some of them are now spread over almost the whole globe : they live
wild in the southern part of the African continent, congregating in large flocks
during the daytime about the marshes and rivers in search of food, and at
night roosting in the forests. The partial webbing of their feet adapts them
to the marshy districts in which they feed ; but the shortness of their wings
prevents them from flying well or to any great distance. They feed on land
and water insects, worms, snails, &c., and destroy buds and flowers. They
utter a shrill note similar to the creaking of a door on its hinges, and are very
restless and quarrelsome.

The species are — the Guinea, Mitred, and Carnal Pintado.

There can be no doubt that the Guinea Pintado is the bird which was
known to the Greeks and Romans by the name Meleagris, which, however,
has been applied wrongly by the older naturalists as the generic title of the
Turkeys, and has been so firmly established by use, that confusion only
would be excited by attempting any change. The following description of
the Meleagris given by Athenasus, after Clytus Milesius, a disciple of Aris-
totle, is strikingly characteristic of the Guinea Fowl, or Pintado : he says,
" They want natural affection towards their young ; their head is naked, and
on its top is a hard, round body, like a peg or nail ; from its cheeks hangs
a red piece of flesh like a beard ; it has no wattles like common poultry ;
its feathers are black, spotted with white ; it has no spurs, and both sexes
so nearly resemble each other as not to be distinguishable at sight."

OPISTHOCOMUS (Gr. o-itiaQtv, behind, and KOfiy, hair) — Sasa. There is
but one species ; rejected by Temminck from the gallinaceous birds, but
retained by Cuvier. It is about the size of a Peacock ; has on the back of

80

CLASS— AVES.

ORDER— G A L L I N A C E A.

its head a crest, reaching down to the middle of its neck, which it raises
when excited. Native of Guinea.

PAUXI. This, together with the genera Crax and Penelope, occupy in
the new the place of the Pheasants in the old world. They live in great
numbers in the spacious forests of South America ; and, when domesti-
cated, are quiet, and live on peaceable terms with other poultry. Their
gait is slow, though they can run with great speed. The upper mandible
is remarkable for an elevation which forms part of the jaw itself, and is
covered with a continuation of the horny beak ; in one of the species it is
somewhat globular, and in the other broad at the base and sharp above ;
immediately behind this crest are placed the nostrils, partly covered with
skin, and opening below.

PAVO — Peacock. Peacocks are remarkable for the brilliancy and variety
of their colours, in which they vie with the Humming Birds, or other of
the more lustrous birds of hot climates. Their head is ornamented with a
tuft of feathers two inches in length, the stems of which have but few and
scattered barbs, except at their tips, where they are full and close as usual.
The tail is of great length and width ; this, however, does not depend, as
is generally the case, on the length of the tail-quills, but on that of the
upper tail-coverts, which far exceed the former ; they are capable of being
expanded to a considerable extent in a circular form, either in a horizontal
or in a vertical direction, and in either case the quills beneath seem to
support them like a framework. When pleased or delighted, the Peacock
erects his tail and stalks about with a slow and majestic pace, frequently
turning himself round in a composed and graceful manner, so that the light
may better display the rich colours of his resplendent plumage. When dis-
posed for quiet, they generally perch on a high wall or among the branches
of trees, where they roost for the night.

There are two species, the Wild and the Japan Peacocks. From the
Wild Peacock (P. Cristatus), the stock of our Domestic Peacock, three
varieties have sprung: 1, the Domestic; 2, the White; 3, the Variegated
Peacock.

In their natural state, Peacocks exist only in the south of Asia and in
the Indian Archipelago, whence they have been spread over the warm and
temperate parts of the globe.

PEN-ELOPE. Although this genus in many respects resembles the Hoccos
and the Pauxis, still they exhibit some marked peculiarities. Instead of
collecting together in large coveys, as the just-mentioned two genera, they,
with the exception of a single species, live only in pairs, and are very rarely
met with in larger numbers ; for, so soon as the young birds can fly, they
leave the parent and become scattered about in the woods. They are
about the size of a Pheasant, have the tail long, slightly graduated and
rounded, and consisting of twelve quills. They build in trees ; and before
the young are fledged they leave the nest, and having reached the ground,
feed on worms and insects, and subsequently on grain. In their general
habits they bear much resemblance to Pheasants, coming out to feed
morning and evening, but hiding themselves during daytime in thick coverts
to avoid the heat of the sun. There are five species.

PERDIX — Partridge. The numerous individuals included in the genus
Perdix are arranged in four groups ; the first two from the arming of their
legs, the third from the form of the beak, and the last from the form of
the beak and the length of the first alar quill. The first subgenus consists
of the Francolins, the males of which have their legs armed with spurs ;
they live among the marshes and swamps on the borders of rivers, and
generally collect together at night and perch upon trees; their food is
principally the roots of bulbous plants, which, growing in a hard soil,
require the mattock-like beak possessed by these birds to dig them up.
The True Partridges form the second subgenus, and are characterised by
the callous tubercle which arms the legs of their males ; they are never
f mud in forests, but are inhabitants of meadows and plains, and they very
rarely, but never constantly, perch ; they live in families which are called
coveys, and, collecting together at night, huddle together on the ground
within a very small space; their food is green wheat, various kinds of
grain, seeds, and insects. The third subgenus, the Colins, forming the new

genus Ortyx of Stephens, have neither spur nor tubercle on their legs, but
their beak is much deeper than it is wide, and sometimes the upper man-
dible lias upon it a blunt tooth. All these are natives of America. Like
the Francolins, they perch among the trees at night to protect themselves
from the attacks of reptiles and other carnivorous animals, and for the
same reason they build in trees, which neither of the preceding subgi -tn ru
do. The Quails compose the fourth subgenus, the principal distinction of
which consists in the first alar quill being always the longest, whilst in the
others the first three are the shortest, and the fourth and fifth the lon^-st ;
the beak also, though still compressed, is wider than it is deep. Host of
them are migratory. Species about thirty-eight.

POLYPLECTRON (Gr. iro\«c, many, and TrXfjxTpov, a spur). The Poly-
plectron does not elevate the tail like the Peacocks, nor has it the large
dorsal feathers of which the Peacock's expanded tail is composed ; its tail
is wide, rounded, and not at all arched ; by the temples being unprovided
with the velvet-like feathers ; and by its legs being always furnished with
more than one spur, and varying from six to four, two of which arc some-
times connected to one base ; the most usual number of spurs is three, the
most rare six.

PTEROCLES (Gr. 7rrtpv£, a wing) — Ganga. This genus is considered by
Temminck as representing the Tetraones, in the countries under the torrid
zone, but distinguished from them by their slender form, by the lightness
of their body in proportion to their limbs, by the strength of their muscles
and the length of their wings, an organization suited to their long-continued
flights ; whilst their wide and short toes, with the elevation of the hind toe
above the ground, render them able to run with speed over the moving
sand. They are found, with the exception of one species, in the hot
countries of Asia and Africa, and are only accidentally seen in Europe.
Happy does the traveller consider himself when, toiling over the scorching
deserts, he meets with the Gangas, which indicate his approach to streams
and fountains of water. Living on the borders of the desert, either in
brushwood or on the dry plains scantily studded with bushes, they run
dailv over a considerable extent of ground in search of their accustomed
watering-places, and when these natural cisterns, or the streams which
feed them, are dried up, the Gangas do not hesitate to journey across the
shifting sands which most animals fear to encounter, and which all other
birds of this country avoid by passing along the coast. Some of them live
throughout the year, except at pairing-time, in large flocks, sharing alike
their dangerous migrations or the abundance which occasionally they meet
with ; but others of them, like the Partridges, live only in pairs with their
brood. There are ten species.

SYRRHAPTES (Gr. avppmr™, to sew together). This genus is so different
from the other Gallinacece that Cuvier thinks it doubtful whether it belongs
to the order ; it is founded on a species of Grouse discovered by Pallas.

TETEAO (Gr. rtrpautf) — Grouse. The Tetraones belong specially to
the northern parts of the globe, being found only in the north of Europe,
Asia, and America; their place is occupied in the sandy regions of Asia
and Africa by Temminck's Pterodes, or Land Grouse. The several sections
of the Tetraones themselves affect particular districts, and have somewhat
peculiar habits, although generally polygamous. Except during brei
time, all the species keep on the ground, in the deepest parts of the forests,
during daytime, but at night they roost in trees, to which also they resort
if disturbed. After having paired, and produced eggs, the males desert
the females, and generally live apart, the hatching and bringing up of the
broods being left completely to the hens. They feed almost entirely upon
buds, berries, and the young shoots of pines, spruce, and birch, and occa-
sionally, when these fail, on grain. The young are fed on worms, insects,
and ants' eggs, of which they are very fond. The True Grouse, distin-
guished by having the legs feathered down to the toes, arc distributed over
the more temperate climates, living in deep forests in mountainous districts,
the male bird usually alone, and the female with her brood apart from
others. The toes of these sections have their tinder-surface rough and
scabrous, with a pectinated or tooth-like row of processes on each side,
which enal.lcs them to trend more firmly (.11 the slip]" TV ground or fro/en

FAMILY— CO LUMBI DA. PIGEONS.

81

snow, and to grasp more tightly the branches of the ice-covered trees. The
Ptarmigans, on the contrary, which have their legs and toes feathered to the
claws, and even on the soles of their feet, are inhabitants of the polar regions,
for which the tliick down beneath their feathers admirably suits them ; they
alone, of the whole genus, live in large flocks, and only separate in pairs
when breeding-tune comes round with the spring.

The bodies of the whole genus are large and fleshy, are highly valued for
the pleasure they afford the sportsman, as well as for the table ; and they
have generally a peculiar flavour from the food on which they live. About
eighteen species.

TINAMUS. This genus was formed by Latham; but subsequently its
name has been changed by Illiger into Crypturus, on account of its tail
being concealed by the coverts : Latham's generic name is, however, very
tvi id-ally employed. They almost invariably live in thick woods, running
about during the day among the underwood, rarely fly, and then only for a
short distance, but some" are found among the high grass in the open fields.
At night they usually roost on the lower branches of trees, where, hidden
among the foliage, they are protected from the assaults of their four-footed
or winged enemies. Species about eighteen.

Family — PIGEONS ; Columbida.
The Pigeons form a connecting link between the Passeres and Galli-

nacea.

Genera.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.
PLATE 10.

Species. Common Name.

1 Carunculata - - - Carunculated Pigeon.

Coronata - - - - Crown-bird or Crowned Pigeon.

-, „. , ,

(Knas ----- otock-aove.

Leucocephalus - - White-headed Pigeon.

Wallia - - - - Abyssinian Pigeon.

Calva ----- Bald-fronted Pigeon.

CHARACTERS OF THE GENERA.

Vmago - ---

1. COLUMBA (Gr. KoXvpflaw, to swim). Beak moderate-sized, thin,
vaulted, slightly compressed, with a soft bulbous projection at its junction
with the jaws ; toes distinct, four in number, the inner the longest ; tail
having twelve quills.

2. VINAGO. General characters same as the Columba, or restricted
Pigeons ; their bill is stouter and more solid, and is laterally compressed ;
tarsi short ; feet large.

COLUMBIDA. — DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIES.

COLUMBA — Pigeon. This genus, which is very numerous, and which
furnishes so many of our poultry yards, may be considered as an easy
gradation from the Gallinacei to the Passeres ; they have the arched beak
of the former, and the nostrils are situated in a broad membranous space,
at the root of the beak, and covered by a cartilaginous scale, which is
prominent, and forms a bulbous projection at the junction of the beak with
the jaws ; the toes have no membrane at their base, but that produced by
the junction of their edges ; the tail is composed of twelve quills. They
are very good flyers, and perhaps the Romans derived their name from the
circumstance of their appearing to swim through the air. They live in
pairs, and seldom have more than two young ones at a time, breeding in
the wild state about twice in the year, and if the eggs be destroyed or re-
moved they lay again ; the male takes his turn with his mate in sitting
during the time of incubation ; and when the young ones are hatched, after
about fourteen days' sitting, they are fed by both the parent birds, for the
first few days with a substance resembling curdled milk, which afterwards
becomes mixed with the half-digested food thrown up from the gizzard. In
the domestic state they breed four, five, or six times, annually, and occa-
sionally as many as nine tunes ; in which case a single pair of Pigeons will,
according to Stillingfleet, produce in the course of four years 14,762 young

ones, or by Linnceus's computation more than 18,000. They live upon
pulse of different kinds, and go out into the fields to seek their food.

The species, which are numerous, are divided into three subgenera : —
1. Gallina Pigeons; 2. Common Pigeons; and 3. Columbars; of which
the genus Vinago has been formed.

The Illustrated Species (Plate 10) are the following:—

The Carunculated Pigeon (C. Carunculata), about the size of the Turtle
Dove ; bill red and tipped with black ; Torehead furnished with a red skin
extending to the ears ; under the throat a red wattle ; the eye surrounded
with a red skin ; the plumage generally of a deep grey ; tail short and
slightly cuneiform ; legs red, with crooked claws. Native of the interior
of the Cape of Good Hope.

The Great Crowned Pigeon (C. Coronata), nearly as large as a Turkey ;
upper parts of the body deep ash colour, shaded with purplish chestnut ;
at the bend of the wing a horny excrescence ; head, breast, and belly of a
dull blue, the former marked through the eyes with a black stripe ; irides
red ; beak black ; head-feathers in length about five inches, with loose
webs, forming a beautiful crest ; tail deep ash colour, but paler at its tip ;
legs dusky, and occasionally spotted with red. Native of the Moluccas
and New Guinea, and not unfrequent in Amboina, but they will not propa-
gate in Europe.

Brisson and BufFon have placed this bird among the Pheasants.

The Stock Dove (C. (Enas), [is, according to Colonel Montague, the bird
from which all our varieties of Domestic Pigeons spring ; it is about
fourteen inches long ; the head, upper part of the back, wings, fore part of
the neck, lower part of the back, rump, and upper tail-coverts, are dull ash
colour ; the back, and sides of the neck, green gold, glossed with copper ;
lower parts of the neck and breast vinaceous ; legs red, and claws black.
It inhabits many parts of England, living in hollow places in the rocks,
among ruined houses, or holes of trees. Among the varieties of this
species we find Tumblers, Jacobines, Croppers, Powters, Runts, Turbits,
Owls, Nuns, Carriers, Dragoons, cum multis aliis.

The White-headed Pigeon (C. Leucocephalus), figured on Plate 10, is
another species of the Common Pigeon.

The Carrier Pigeon (C. Tabellaria) is also deserving of notice ; it is of
a dusky colour, and has a number of remarkable tubercles about the eyes
and bill ; the irides are scarlet, and the legs red. The Carrier Pigeon has
long been employed for the purpose of speedily conveying letters from one
place to another, as it is said to travel at the rate of twenty-six miles an
hour. In an experiment made with one of these birds some years since,
the flight from Salisbury to London was accomplished in three hours and
seven minutes, a distance of eighty-three miles ; so that the bird must have
travelled at the rate of more than twenty-seven miles per hour. In 1819 a
Carrier Pigeon flew from Norwich to London, 109 miles, in four hours and
fifty-five minutes ; the same bird had arrived in London a short time before
from Bury, seventy-two miles, in three hours. This will give some notion
of the speed at which these birds fly, and may perhaps induce us to listen
with some attention to Lithgow's account of a Pigeon's flight from Babylon
to Aleppo, a thirty days' journey, in forty-eight hours. The use of the
Carrier Pigeon was well known to the ancients ; and we find Anacreon
describing it in his Ode, Etc Uepiffrepav, as his ready messenger to the boy
Bathyllus. But it served a better purpose when Brutus, shut up in
Mutina, contrived to correspond with Hirtius, who was without, at the
time his couriers were intercepted by Antony.

Formerly the Pigeon was employed by the English Factory at Scande-
roon, to carry intelligence of the arrival of their ships in that port to Aleppo,
a journey which it would perform in two hours and a half. Dr. Russel, in
his Natural History of Aleppo, states, that the Pigeon had a young brood
at Aleppo, and being sent down to Scanderoon in an open cage, from
which, as soon as she was set at liberty, she made her way with all speed
to her nest. The natives stated that the Pigeons were brought down at
once to Scanderoon without any education ; but Dr. Russel believed that
they were rather taught to fly short distances at first on the Scanderoon
road. He also observed that the Pigeon, when let loose, instead of

CLASS— AVES.

ORDER— GRALLATORIA.

making her way to the high mountains in the neighbourhood, towered
almost perpendicularly at once, as if to get its sight free from all obstacles.
Bochart, in his Hierozoicon, gives a similar account.

Maillet, in his Description de F Egypt, mentions the circumstance of a
Pigeon despatched from Aleppo to Scanderoon, which mistook its way,
and being absent three days, " had in that time made an excursion to the
island of Ceylon ; a circumstance then deduced from finding green cloves in
the bird's stomach."

Formerly when the execution of criminals took place at Tyburn, it was
customary to let Carrier Pigeons loose to inform their friends of the moment
at which the culprit was turned off; and Hogarth has made use of this
incident in the last picture but one of his Industry and Idleness, in which
Thomas Idle finishes his career.

The Dragoon Pigeon, or Dragon, as it is usually called, a cross-breed
between the Carrier and Horseman Pigeon, has the same inclination to
return home ; and has been known to come from Bury to London in two
hours and a half.

VINAGO. But few of the African species of this genus are known ; they
are inhabitants of extensive woods ; they subsist on fruit ; and their plumage
is generally vivid green, variegated with bright yellow.

The Wdalia Pigeon (V. Abyssinia) is eleven inches long; general
colour of the plumage green ; the belly of a bright yellow ; bill bluish
white; irides dark orange; toes red. It inhabits the lower parts of
Abyssinia in large flocks, being found, according to Mr. Salt, among
the Daro trees near a stream.

The Bald-fronted Pigeon (Plate 10) is another species of this genus.

ORDER V.— GRALLATORIA. WADERS.

THE individuals forming this Order are generally distinguished by part of
the tibia being naked, and by the elongation of the tarsi. The external
toe is commonly united to the middle one at the base by a short mem-
brane, and in some of the genera the thumb is altogether wanting. They
are also called Shore-birds as well as Waders.

Family — SHORT-WINGED ; Brevipennata.

The wings of the Brevipennata are so short as to render them incapable
of flight. The beak and regimen connect them with Gallinacea.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.

PLATE 11.
Genera. Species. Common Name.

Struthio Camelus Ostrich.

Rhea ------ Americana - - - Nandu.

Casuarius ----- Galeatus ----- Cassowary.

Dromaius ... - Ater ------ Emeu.

CHARACTERS OF THE GENERA.

1. STRUTHIO (Gr. irrpovOoy). Beak of moderate size, obtuse, depressed,
and rounded at the tip ; mandibles of equal length, weak and flexible ;
tongue short, thick, and slightly bifid at the tip ; nostrils oblong and open
near the middle of the beak ; eyes large, their lids furnished with lashes ;
wings unfit for flight, armed with two spines or barbless shafts, and covered
with long, soft, flexible feathers instead of quills ; legs very long and stout,
furnished with two toes in front, of which the outer is nailless, and half the
length of the inner, which is large and furnished with a thick, oblong, hoof-
like nail ; upon the chest and belly are large callous patches, and upon the
knees smaller ones of the same kind.

2. RHEA; 3. CASUARIUS; 4. DROMAIUS.

The characters distinguishing these genera from the Ostrich may be thus
briefly enumerated : the Nandu (Rhea), which is most nearly allied to the
Ostrich, is little more than half its size ; the barbs of its feathers are less
full ; it has only one very short spur to the wing, but it has three toes all
furnished with thick nails : the Cassowary ( Casuarius), also much smaller,
has a remarkable bony casque or protuberance upon the front of the skull,
has wattles upon the neck, has five barbless shafts to each wing, which are

so small as scarcely to be noticed, has not any tail-quills, lias the barbs of all
the feathers so short as to give the appearance of the whole body being
covered with coarse hair, and has three toes to each foot : the Emeu
(Dromaius) almost equals the Ostrich in size ; its plumage nearly re-
sembles that of the Cassowary, and like it the feet are thru -toed, but the
wings are mere rudiments, scarcely six inches in. length, have not any spur,
and are covered with the hair-like plumage of the body. Each of the>e
genera have their peculiar station ; for whilst the Ostrich is spread over
Arabia and the greater part of Africa, the Nandu is found only in South
America, the Cassowary in India, and the Emeu in Australia; thus, as it
were, giving a representative of this remarkable family to each of these large
districts of the earth.

BREVIPENNATA. — DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIES.

STRUTHIO (Camellus) — Ostrich — is generally from seven to eight feet in
height; beak horn-coloured, blackening towards its lip; openings of the ean
hairy ; the head, excepting its top, which is bare, and neck, which is slender,
is covered sparingly with whitish coarse down, so that the colour of the .-kin
is visible through it: in the male the lower part of the neck and the whole
body are covered with the deepest black intermingled with whitish leathers,
but in the female they are all brownish-grey; in both sexes the-e leathers
are loose,which give the bird an elegant appearance ; and instead of wing-
feathers, they have long, loose, undulating, snowy-white plumes, several of
them with black edges or tips, and similar plumes occupy the place of the
caudal quills ; the lower limbs are featherless, and covered only with down.
The strong legs are covered with tough reticulated skin-like scales ; the
inner toe is very large, tipped with a strong hoof-like nail, and connected by
a stout membrane to the outer. The Ostrich is more especially a native of
the sandy deserts of Arabia and Africa, and is very common near the Cape
of Good Hope. It pastures in large groups upon open plains, and very
commonly with Quaggas ; it feeds upon grass, seeds, fruit, and occasionally
also upon eggs and worms ; it also greedily swallows stones and pieces of
metal, which are necessary for the breaking up of its food in the gizzard,
and without which it could not be properly nourished. Cuvier mentions
that the weight of stones, iron, and cop] XT, which he found in the stomach
of an Ostrich that died in the Garden of Plants, at Paris, amounted to a
pound, which, however, is no great matter in comparison to the bulk of an
animal, whose weight exceeds three hundred pounds. They move in a
stately manner and are soon out of sight, although their pace seems little
more than walking, but when put to speed they would easily outstrip the
swiftest horses, saving their disposition to run hi circles of greater or 1. ss
extent When running they spread their wings, not however for the pur-
pose of flight, but as balances to prevent their toppling on one side. Their
disposition is very mild, and they rarely act on the offensive, soon become
tame after capture, and allow themselves to be rode without danger.

The nest of the Ostrich is, according to Burchall's account, a bare cavity-
scratched in the sand, six feet in diameter, surrounded by a trench equally
shallow, and without the smallest trace of any materials, such as L
leaves, or sticks, to give it a resemblance to the nests of other birds. \Yithin
the hollow are laid from twenty to thirty eggs (Lc Vaillant, however, says,
generally ten), and in the surrounding trench some others intended as the
first food for the young which are hatched from the eggs in the central
hollow. This curious provision was first noticed by Le Vaillant, and alt. r
him by De Bougainville. When first mentioned it was doubted, but other
travellers have since confirmed the assertion.

The eggs are large and heavy, containing, according to Burchall, about
twenty-four times as much as our common hen's eggs, and ireighing about
three pounds; the shells are very hard, and of a dingy white tinjj.. -d with
yellow. The time of year at which the Ostrich lays, and the length of
time she sits, are alike unknown ; but the well-known fact that in the same
district, and at the same time, there are Ostriches laying e^s, young ones
of two or three months old, and some as large as the parent bird, is no
proof against there being a regular breeding-time, an.l < ,m .^a-ily !*• ex-
plained bv the animal laving a^iin and nipun it her eggs be Abstracted as

FAMILY— P KESSIROSTKATA. FLAT-BEAKED.

83

already mentioned, and consequently the hatch is deferred beyond the usual
period. The Hottentot method of cooking these eggs consists in making a
hole at one end, into which a forked stick is introduced, and twisted about
till the yolk and white are perfectly mixed ; the shell is then placed on the
fire and constantly turned till the inside has acquired the consistence of a
boiled egg.

The flesh of the ostrich is used as food by the African tribes : it is dark-
coloured, coarse, tough, and resembling beef ; but the stomach is considered
the choice part, being most tender and delicate.

The feathers, so highly prized as ornaments of dress, are from the wings,
and not from the tail as generally supposed.

RHEA (Americana) — Nandu. Measures about four feet nine inches in
height ; upper and back part of the head blackish, and from the nape a
black stripe passes down the neck to its junction with the trunk, where it
expands and forms a collar surrounding its whole circumference ; the other
parts of the head and neck white ; general colour of the plumage of the
body white, except on the back, where it is leaden ; shoulders and scapulars
ashy, as are also the alar quills, except the primaries, which are white at
their roots and blackish in the middle ; legs flesh-coloured. It is found only
in South America. The fi-male begins to lay towards the end of August,
and the young begin to be hatched about the early part of November ; at
this time the mother's call resembles that of the human whistle. When
undisturbed, their walk is slow and majestic, carrying the head and neck
upright and the back rounded ; but in making their escape from their
enemies, their speed is so great that they outstrip the fleetest dogs and
horses, and when surprised are caught only with the lasso. Much caution,
however, is required in approaching them, even when hampered in the cord,
as they kick so violently as to break even stones. The Indians use their
larger feathers for making parasols, bags, and other ornaments.

CASUARIUS. The Cassowary (C. Galeatus) is not quite so tall as the
Ostrich but nearly as large ; it has upon the forehead a bony projection
covered with a thin plate of horn about an inch broad at the base and three
inches in height, resembling the casque of a helmet ; the beak is compressed
laterally, and the tips of the mandibles are slightly sloped ; the head is
covered with a bluish skin, having a few scattered black hairs which form
a circle round the external opening of the ear, which is very large ; this
blue skin, which extends to the middle of the neck, is studded with pits
and caruncles ; and on either side of the throat a wattle depends, which is
broadest below and of a reddish colour ; the eye is small, and the upper lid
studded with hairs like an eyebrow, which gives the bird a threatening
aspect ; the iris topaz-coloured ; the lower part of the neck is covered with
short feathers, which become longer as they pass along the back to the
rump ; the thighs are also feathered to the tarsus. The general colour of
both male and female is black ; the eggs are greyish-white thickly spotted
with green, and are carefully covered up in the sand by the parent. This
bird is a native of the south-eastern parts of Asia, the Moluccas, Sumatra,
Java, &c., but they are rare ; it has been introduced into Amboina, but is
not indigenous. Valentyn compares the voice of a Cassowary to that of a
young chicken. Though a very heavy bird, and considered by the natives
as stupid, it runs more quickly than the Ostrich, running a few steps and
then bounding forward on both feet ; it is very difficult to catch, and when
attacked it strikes violently with its beak and feet.

DROMARIUS (Ater) — New Holland Cassowary, the Emeu of the settlers.
Beak depressed ; a circle of naked skin surrounds the ear ; the head and
neck are covered scantily with feathers, particularly the throat, so that the
purple hue of the skin is easily seen ; it lias no prominence on the head,
nor has it spines or caruncles on the wings, which are shorter than those of
the Cassowary ; the plumage is of a dusky brown merging to black ; the
legs, which are of the same colour, are crenated behind, and the nails of
the toes are equal in size. It is very quick, surpassing in speed the best
Greyhound. It utters a deep clucking noise like a heavy stroke on a muffled
dram. The eggs are of a bright green, and about the same size as those of
the Cassowary. Is a native of New Holland ; its flesh is said to taste like
beef.

Family — FLAT-BEAKED ; Pressirostrata.

This family includes a number of genera having elongated tarsi, in which
the hind toe is either wanting or so short as not to reach the ground. The
bill is sufficiently strong to bore into the earth in search of worms.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.

Genera.

PLATE 12.

Species.

Otis ...

(Edicnemus

Charadrius -•

Vanellus

Hsematopus

Cursorius -

Dicholophus

Tarda - - -

Crepitans - -

Pluvialis - -

Melanogaster -

Ostralegus - -

Chalcopterus -

Cristata - -

Common Name.

Great Bustard.
Common Thick-knee.
Golden Plover.
Grey Sand-piper.
Pied Oyster-catcher.
Bronze-winged Courser.
Narcgrave's Cariama.

CHAEACTEES OF THE GENERA.

1. OTIS. Beak not as long as the head, straight, conical, compressed or
slightly depressed at the base ; point of the upper mandibles slightly arched ;
nostrils close to each other, oval and patulous, and far from the base ; wings
of moderate length, the third quill-feather the longest, the second not so
long, and the first the shortest of the three ; legs long, naked above the knee ;
feet three-toed, the toes short, united at their roots, and edged with mem-
brane ; claws flattened.

2. (EDICNEMUS (Gr. oiStia, I swett, and Kvriftr), a knee). Beak longer
than the head, straight, strong, slightly depressed at the base, and com-
pressed towards the tip ; ridge of upper mandible elevated, lower mandible
angular; nostrils in the middle of the beak, longitudinal, and perforated
tlirough and through ; wings of moderate length, the first quill-feather rather
shorter than the second, which is longest of all ; tail graduated ; legs long
and slender ; three toes in front, connected to the second joint by membrane
which is continued along the edges of the toes.

3. CHARADRIUS (Gr. -xapaoow, I excavate). Beak short, slender,
straight, and compressed, its tip obtuse ; nostrils linear, feet formed for run-
ning, three-toed, the outer toes connected at their base by membranes ; tail
rounded or wedge-shaped ; wings in some species armed with a spur.

4. VANELLUS. Beak short, slender, straight, compressed, and the tip of
both mandibles swelling, the base of the upper one very wide from the
lengthening of the nasal grooves ; nostrils lateral, pierced in the membrane
of the grooves ; wings pointed or large ; in some species the bend of the
wing armed with a long sharp spur ; legs slender, having three toes in front
and one behind, almost rudimental, and not touching the ground, the middle
and outer toes connected by a very short membrane.

5. H.EMATOPUS (Gr. aifiToeit, bloody, and irovt, a foot). Beak long,
slender, strong, straight, and compressed, tip square like a pair of scissors ;
nostrils linear, placed near the base of the groove in the upper mandible ;
wings of moderate length, the first quill-feather the longest ; legs strong and
muscular, having the tarsi reticulated, and three toes in front, of which the
outer is connected by membrane to the middle as far as the first joint, and
the inner to the middle by a short membrane ; all the toes edged with a
narrow membrane, and the nails short and slightly curved.

6. CURSORIUS. Bill, slender, conical, about the length of the head ;
mandibles arched, compressed at tips, which is sharp ; wings short ; legs
long ; three toes, without any thumb or palmature, middle toe the longest,

7. DICHOLOPHUS. Beak long, curved ; legs long, scutellated ; toes three,
short, and palmated ; thumb short.

DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIES.

OTIS — Bustard. The Bustards seem to form the connecting link between
the Gallinaceous and Wading birds, by the firm carriage and the connection
of the toes, together with their membranous edging of the former with the
long bare legs of the latter. They are shy, heavy birds, rarely flying, except
when they cannot escape pursuit by running, in which they are very swift,
and then they fly long and rapidly. They prefer sandy and rocky districts
far from water, and feed on herbs, grain, insects, and worms. There is but

M2

84

CLASS— AVES.

ORDER— GRALLATORIA.

one male to several females, and the latter become solitary when they begin
to lay ; they make their nests in hollow places among the corn, and the
young shift for themselves as soon as hatched. They moult twice a year,
and the colours of the male are more varied than those of the female.

There are eight species, which Temminck has divided into two sections :
those which have the beak compressed, and those which have it depressed
at the base.

The Great Bustard (O. Tank) is about three feet three inches in length,
but of less size according to the locality. On each side of the lower man-
dible a tuft of long, delicate, thread-like feathers ; the head, neck, chest, and
edge of the wings ash, with a longitudinal band along the middle of the
head ; back yellowish-rust streaked with black ; under parts white ; greater
quill-feathers black; tail consisting of twenty feathers white, tinged with
reddish for three-fourths of its length, and striped across with two black
bands ; beak bluish. The female is distinguished by not having the tufts of
feathers on the lower mandible, by the stripe on the head not being so dis-
tinct, and by the ashy colour of the head being deeper. The young are buff-
coloured varied with black above. The Bustard feeds on green com, clover,
and turnip-tops ; it makes its nest in rye or other corn, and lays two eggs of
an olive-brown colour, blotched with rusty and grey spots. It is found in
some parts of France, in Italy, and Germany, but less commonly in northern
than in southern countries. It is rare in England, was formerly found on
Salisbury Plain, but is now very uncommon, though it still exists in Nor-
folk. How the bird has acquired the cognomen Tarda seems difficult to
understand, as it runs extremely fast, and when put up flies many miles and
not very slowly. The males are very remarkable for being provided with a
large pouch which is capable of holding near seven quarts of water ; it opens
beneath the tongue and descends along the neck : it is supposed that this
apparatus is provided to enable the bird to carry water to the female whilst
sitting ; and Bewick states that it serves him also as a defence against the
predaceous birds by which he is occasionally attacked.

(EwcsEMns — Thick-knee. The Common Thick-knee (CE. Crepitans). All
the upper parts ferruginous-ash, with a longitudinal streak on the middle
of each feather ; belly and thighs pure white ; neck and chest tinged with
ferruginous and sprinkled with longitudinal brown streaks ; under tail-coverts
ferruginous, caudal quills, excepting the middle, tipped with black ; base of
the beak light yellowish, other part black ; ocular circlet and legs yellow.
Is very common in the south of Europe, rare in Holland, not unfrequent in
England, and a bird of passage in Germany ; lays two eggs of a yellowish-
brown colour tinged with green and marked with olive and black spots.

CHARADRIUS — Plover. The birds of which this genus is composed derive
their name from the circumstance of their generally depositing their eggs in
excavations in the ground. They live on open heaths, by the sides of hills,
and the neighbourhood of the sea-coast ; and their food consists of worms
and aquatic insects. This genus is considered by Bewick to form the link
between the land and water birds. About twelve species.

The Golden Plover (C. Pluvialis) is the size of a Turtle-dove ; general
colour — above, dark brown, or black spotted with yellow, as is also the neck,
but paler; belly whitish; tail marked with dusky and yellow bars; beak
and legs black. Common in this country, in the north of Europe, and
America. They fly in small flocks, making a whistling noise, by imitation
of which they may be enticed within gun-shot.

VANELLUS — Lapwing. This genus is distinguished from the Charadrii,
with which they are allied, by the similarity of their beak, by the existence
of a very small hind toe, which never reaches the ground, and is sometimes
scarcely discernible ; its presence, however, led Linnaeus to include these
birds in his genus Tringa, and it connects the genus with the other four-toed
Waders. They are migratory, leaving in cold weather and returning some-
times as early as February, travelling in large flocks by the union of many
coveys. They inhabit marshy districts, both in the neighbourhood of the
sea and fresh waters, feeding on worms, insects and their larvse, and slugs.
Those which are found in this country moult twice a year, and there is not
any distinction in the plumage of the sexes ; but whether the foreign species
are subject to a double moult is unknown. Cuvier divides the genus, which

includes about ten species, into two, by the names Squatarola (Bastard Lap-
wing) and VaneUus (True Lapwing).

The Grey Sandpiper (V. Melanogaster), figured on Plato 13, is ten inches
and a hah0 in length ; beak black ; irides blackish : its plumage undergoes
several changes according to the seasons and its age; but throughout tln-se
several changes, it greatly resembles the Golden Plover, C/iaradrius pluvialis :
it is, however, distinguished by the presence of the hind toe, and by the long
black feathers on the insides of the wings close to the body. This S]xrii-s
is found in the northern hemisphere, in Europe, Asia, and America. It is
met with in Egypt, and is also found in the Isles of Sonda and in New
Guinea. In this country it makes its ap]>earance, in its northward journey,
on the Norfolk coast during May, and returns southward in September.

The Crested Lapwing (V. Cristatus) is a species very common throughout
the old world. They are very numerous in the warrens of Norfolk, and in
the fenny districts of Cambridge and Lincolnshire. They make their ap-
pearance in England in February or early in March, soon spread over the
country, and remain with us till November. After pairing on their arrival,
they perform very curious evolutions in the air, darting upwards perpen-
dicularly to a considerable height, then throwing a summerset, they drop
nearly to the ground, and, after wheeling about rapidly several times, they
again tower. By the rapid movement of the wings in these exercises a loud
hissing noise is produced, and this is accompanied with a long uninterrupted
cry, very different from that of alarm, which has attached to them in this
country the name of Pee-wit, and in Germany the corresponding Kielitz.

H.SMATOPUS — Oyster-catcher. The Oyster-catchers are always found on
the sea-shore, following the tide in search of marine animals, which they
drag along the shore, and, if bivalves, open by means of their narrow,
wedge-shaped beak, which is admirably adapted for that purpose ; and they
also dig in the sand for worms. They both run and fly quickly, and have- a
long, shrill cry. Although assembling in large groups for their migration,
they live solitarily during the breeding season, and build in the marshes near
the sea.

There is but one English species, the Sea Pie, or Pied Oyster-catcher
(H. Ostralegus), which is about fifteen inches long, and two feet wide ; the
bill is a bright orange, as are also the naked ocular circlets ; the head, neck,
upper part of the chest, back, wings, and tip of the tail deep black ; the
under eyelids white, as also a crescent-shaped collar under the throat, which
latter is black in pairing-time in the spring ; all the under parts are beauti-
fully white ; hides crimson ; legs pale red like blood, whence the generic
name. They lay their eggs in open, dry situations, only sheltered by a few
blades of grass, which are left during the day to the heat of the sun, but at
night are carefully sat on by the hen. The young are easily tamed, and will
live among poultry. Although not good swimmers, they are not averse to
the water, on which they float rather than swim. Native of the British
coasts, and of the northern parts of Europe and America.

CrjRSORlUS — The Bronze-winged Courser (Plate 12) is a fair repre-
sentative of this African genus. These birds approximate the Bustard both
in habits and appearance ; they inhabit the arid inland tracts of Northern
Africa, where they run with great swiftness.

DlCHOLOPHUS. A South American bird; wild, and of very ret in ,1
habits, preferring the vast uninhabited plains to the neighbourhood of
human habitations. Hunters catch them with great difficulty, for the bird
as soon as it espies the approach of its enemy, which it can at a vast
distance, it immediately sets off with great rapidity.

The Dicholophus is related to the poultry, as is seen by the fact, that
notwithstanding its shyness in its wild state, it is easily tamed, and will
live sociably with its fellow-occupants of the poultry-yard.

Marcgrave's Cariama (D. Cristata), Plate 12, is larger than the H.
its plumage is yellow, with wavy streaks of brown ; a few disunited
feathers form a light crest, which overhangs the base of die bill ; space
round the eyes destitute of feathers, the skin being of a bluish colour ; the
naked parts of the leg, feet, and toes are orange. Its food, in its wild state,
consists of Lizards and insects ; and its voice is loud, like that of a young
Turkey. The flesh of the Dicholopliiis is much esteemed.

FAMILY— C ULTIROSTRATA. KNIFE-BEAKED.

85

Family — KNIFE-BEAKED ; Cultirostrata.

The beaks of this family are long, stout, and thick, and most generally
pointed and trenchant. The family is composed of the Cranes, Herons,
and Storks.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.

PLATE 13.

Genera. Species. Common Name.

Cancroma - - - - Cochlearia - - Boat-bill.

(Major ----- Common Heron.

Ardea ----- j Egretta - - - - Great Egret.

(stellaris - - - - Bittern.

PLATE 14.

Alba
- Senegalensis - -

Ciconia

Mycteria

Scopus ----- Umbretta - - -

Anastomus - - - - Lamelligerus - - -

Tantalus - - - - Lacteus - - - -

Platalea - - - - Aiaia -----

White Stork.
Senegal Jabiru.
Tufted Timbre.
Coromandel Erody.
Milky Tantalus.
Roseate Spoonbill.

Other Genera of this Family : — Grus, Psophia.

CHARACTERS OF THE GENERA.

1. CANCROMA (Lat. Cancer, a Crab). Beak long, broad, and ovate; the
upper mandible resembling in shape two spoons joined by then- edges, and
having a pointed tooth on each side of its tip ; the under mandible straight,
smooth, its tip abruptly acute.

2. ARDEA. Beak longer than the head, strong, and with its base broader
than high ; the upper mandible nearly straight, and having a little nasal pit
continued into a groove extending almost to its tip ; eyes placed in naked
skin reaching to the beak ; neck, slender, long, and furnished at the base
with elongated feathers ; legs slender, having four long toes connected as
far as the first joint by membrane ; the claw of the middle one remarkable
for having its inner edges serrated.

3. CICONIA. Said to be so called from the Cicones, a people of Thrace, in
which country the bird was abundant. Beak large, strong, straight, long,
conical, sharp-pointed, and not grooved ; nostrils close to its base ; tongue
very short ; mandibles thin and broad ; legs reticulated ; feet tetradactyle,
the three front toes connected to each other by membranes at their base,
especially the external toes ; the hind toe rests on the ground.

4. MYCTERIA (Gr. pvicrfip, a nose). Beak long, conical, compressed,
slightly curved upwards, smooth, strong, and pointed ; mandibles straight,
the upper trigonal, the lower much thicker and inclined upwards ; gape of
moderate size ; nostrils longitudinal and narrow ; head and neck more or
less bare ; tarsi reticulate ; front toes connected by membrane.

5. SCOPUS (Gr. o-Kta, a shadow). Beak compressed, blunt ; upper man-
dible surmounted with a distinct ridge ; nostrils in a groove, linear, long,
and partially closed with membrane ; legs of moderate length, four-toed, the
middle one shorter than the tarsus, the hind toe reaching the ground, the
toes webbed to the first joint.

6. ANASTOMUS (Gr. di/aoro^ow, I open the mouth). Beak longer than
the head, thick, compressed ; mandibles only touching at the base and tip ;
upper mandible nearly straight ; lower mandible convex downwards in the
middle ; nostrils near the base, lineal, lateral ; legs long and slender, in part
naked ; the three front toes united by a short membrane, the hind toe half
the length of the others, articulated on the inside and above them.

7. TANTALUS. Beak very long, straight to within three inches of its
tip, whence it gradually bends downwards ; tip compressed, cylindrical, and
notched or toothed ; edges of both mandibles sharp ; nostrils high on the
forehead, covered by an extension of the horny bill, but not opening into
any pit ; top of the head covered from the root of the beak with a hard,
horny, smooth hood, which is truncated opposite the ridge of the beak and
above the eyes ; from the comers of the mouth there is a naked, smooth,
broad band of skin ; chin, throat, and upper half of the neck devoid of
feathers, but covered with scales of cuticle ; wings rather long ; caudal
quills short, and concealed by the long coverts; legs very long; tarsus

twice the length of the middle toe ; the lateral toes connected by broad
truncated membranes.

8. PLATALEA (Gr. TrXarvg, broad). Beak very long, much flattened,
and expanded towards the tip in form of a spoon ; upper mandible fluted,
and transversely grooved at its base ; nostrils approximate, oblong, oval,
edged with membrane ; head and face partially or entirely bare ; wings of
moderate length, but wide ; legs strong and powerful ; three toes in front,
connected as far as the second joint by membrane ; hind toe long, and
resting on the ground.

9. GRUS (Gr. ye'pavoc, o. Crane). Beak compressed, thickish, straight,
as long or longer than the head, elongated at the point into a cone flattened
at the extremity; lateral edges of the upper mandible deeply grooved,
ridge sharp ; nostrils in the middle of the bill pierced from side to side
through the grooves, concave, elliptical, closed posteriorly by membrane ;
ophthalmic region and lore feathered ; legs long and strong, unfeathered to
some distance above the knees, and scutellated; hind toe short, hardly
reaching the ground ; of the front toes, the middle and outer connected by
a short membrane, the inner free ; nails short and flattish ; caecum single.

10. PSOPHIA (Gr. \l/o<f>iw, / make a hollow noise). Beak short, vaulted,
conical, curved, very much hooked at the point, longer than the lower man-
dible, compressed, and the ridge distinct at the base ; nasal pits wide and
expanded, the nostrils near the middle of the beak, open in front, and closed
behind by a naked membrane ; wings short and concave ; legs long and
slender ; middle and outer toe connected, inner toe distinct ; hind toe arti-
culated internally on a level with the other toes.

CULTIROSTRATA. — DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIES.

CANCROMA— The Boat-bill (C. Cochlearia) very much resembles the
Herons in its general structure and habits, but it is very remarkable for
the formation of its bill (Plate 13). Brisson considered it to resemble
two spoons joined at their edges, and he therefore called the genus
Cochlearius. Brown and others, however, thought that it had more the
appearance of a boat with the keel turned upwards, and therefore named
it Boat-bin. Linnasus gave it the name Cancroma, from the bird living on
Crabs. On either side of the ridge which runs along the top of the upper
mandible, is a long groove, at the root of which are placed the nostrils.
The bird is about the size of a fowl ; the beak is of a dusky colour, the
forehead whitish, and from the upper and back part of the head extends a
long black crest, which becomes narrow at the point, the longest feathers
being six inches in length ; the upper part of the neck bluish-white, the
abdomen reddish, and the back brown or grey ; the legs and thighs together
are about seven inches in length, and the bare part on the front of the
thighs and the legs are yellow ; the toes are four to each foot, long, and
slightly webbed. This genus inhabits the hot and marshy parts of South
America, living on the banks of rivers, where it sits upon the trees and
pounces down upon the fish, which form its principal support.

ARDEA — Heron. This genus frequents the banks of lakes and rivers,
living principally on fish, of which they destroy great numbers ; they build
in the same places in large societies, and migrate in flocks periodically ;
when flying the neck is folded on the back, and the legs extended ; the
sexes do not differ, but the young are very various, so as to render it difficult
to class them.

The species are so numerous that they have been arranged into four sub-
genera; but the distinctive features are so ill defined, and the points of
difference so unimportant, as not to deserve particular attention. The
species illustrated are three (Plate 13).

The Common Heron (A. Major). More than three feet high ; the fore-
head, neck, middle of the belly, edge of the wings and thighs white ; the
fore part of the neck studded with black and grey spots ; a deep black tuft
on the occiput ; the beak and insides of a deep yellow ; the legs brown,
and the naked space above the knee red. Their appetite is enormous, and
Willughby states that they will eat fifty small roach and dace in a day.
They usually obtain their prey by wading into the water, but oftentimes
dash at it whilst on the wing. Common in this country.

86

CLASS— AVE S.

ORDER— G HAL L AT O R I A.

Heron-hawking was formerly a celebrated sport, and a penalty of twenty
shillings was imposed on any person taking the eggs.

The Great Egret (A. Egretta) is entirely white, but much larger than
the preceding. Many of the feathers on the back are a foot and a half long,
extending beyond the tail ; the beak and irides are of a bright yellow ; the
legs green. It is common in Asia, some parts of Africa, and the south of
Europe : it is also found in America, which Stephens thinks may be another
species ; but Cuvier considers it as belonging to this.

The Bittern (A. Stellarus) is about two feet six inches long ; the general
colour of the plumage is a dull yellow, variegated with spots, or bars of
black ; the crown of the head black ; the tail short ; irides yellow ; legs
green. It lives, in the rushes of large marshes, a solitary life, continuing
whole days in the same spot, where they sit with the head erect, so that
they can see without being seen. They are very fierce, and when wounded
will lie on their back and fight furiously with their beak and claws.
Mr. Markwick, in relating a circumstance of this kind, states that the
Bittern he had shot repulsed the dogs, nor could it be taken till it was
fired at again and killed. The eggs which are laid in April are hatched in
about three weeks ; and whilst the young are bringing up, which is about
two months, the male makes a curious noise like the bellowing of a bull,
whence Brisson has named it Botaurus, from bos and taurus. It also makes
another singular noise during the autumn evenings after sunset, well known
as the Bittern's drum.

CICONIA — Stork. This genus differs from the Herons in not having the
beak grooved, and in having the toes more webbed, and not serrated ; and
from the Cranes in having the nostrils close to the base of the beak, instead
of being distant from it, and in having the hind toe bear upon the ground,
instead of being some distance from it.

The Ciconiae form a very interesting genus, on account of the readiness
with which they may be domesticated, their mild temper, and the service
they render in destroying the reptiles which in hot countries are so numerous
as to be a great inconvenience. They march unconcernedly about the fields,
and in the streets, picking up any offal with which they may chance to
meet, and on that account they are protected in Holland and Turkey. They
have no peculiar cry, except at the time of migration, but they make a
clacking noise by shutting the mandibles, which are broad and thin, smartly
and frequently. When the bird is irritated or alarmed, it throws the head
back in such a way as to make the beak parallel to the back, and strikes
the mandibles sharply against each other. They are migratory, not staying
in Europe later than August.

There are four species — the White Stork, common in Holland ; the Black
Stork, numerous in Hungary, Turkey, and Poland ; the American Stork,
native of the Brazils ; and the Gigantic Crane, the Argala of Bengal. This
last-named species is about five feet in height and seven in length, notwith-
standing which, and its immense beak, it is so great a coward, that a child
with a whip will put it to flight.

The White Stork (C. Alba) is larger than the Common Heron, being
rather more than three feet and a half in length from the tip of the beak to
that of the tail ; general plumage white, with black wing-feathers ; beak
and legs red ; the eyes surrounded with a fold of naked skin of a reddish-
black colour: the females resemble the males, but the young are dis-
tinguished by the brownish tinge of their wings and the dusk)' redness of
their bills. These birds are fond of the haunts of men, and may be said to
be almost domestic, as in Holland they are frequently seen building on the
roofs of houses, where the inhabitants often place boxes for them in which
they make their nests. They are good tempered and easily tamed ; and
although inclined to a grave air and mournful appearance, will, when
amused by the fondness of children, play about and seem to join in their
sports, an instance of which, related by Dr. Hermann, is worthy of notice.
" In a garden," says he, " where the children were playing at hide and seek,
I saw a tame Stork join the party ; run its turn when touched ; and dis-
tinguish the child whose turn it was to pursue the rest so well, as along
with the others, to be on its guard." They build their nests in belfries,
tops of trees, or other inaccessible places, so that their offspring may be

concealed ; and it is observed that they will return year after year to their
old haunts, as if thankful for the shelter afforded to them. They lay two
or four eggs at a time, which are rather larger than Goose's eggs, and of a
yellowish-white colour : the male supplies the place of the female occa-
sionally, during the time of incubation, when she leaves the nest to go in
search of food. After a month's sitting the young are hatched, and are
then covered with a brownish-coloured down: but the care of the parent
birds does not stop here, for one of them continues to watch over tin- young
whilst the other is out in quest of food, till they are able to leave their
nest. As a proof of their affection for their young, a celebrated story is
current in Holland, that when the city of Delft was on fire, a female Stork
in vain attempted several tunes to carry oft" her young ones ; and finding
she was unable to effect their escape, suffered herself to be burnt with
them.

MYCTERIA — Jabiru. This genus differs so little from the Cranes that
Temminck and Illiger include them in the genus Grus. In their liabits
they closely resemble the Cranes. There are three species, one of which,
the Senegal Jabiru (M. Senagalensis), is figured on Plate 14. This bird is
somewhat larger than a Swan ; the beak is red at the tip, and otherwise
white throughout, except a black spot at the base and a white stripe ou
each side ; the plumage white, except the scapulars, which are black, as
are also the neck and legs. It inhabits the western coast of Africa.

SCOPUS — Umbre. This genus, to which, from its umber colour, the
name Scopus has been applied, and rather oddly derived by Brisson from
oKta, a shadow, very nearly resembles the Ciconice, from which it is dis-
tinguished by the cutting ridge on the upper mandible, and by its lateral
grooves, in which the nostrils are placed. There is but a single species,
the Tufted Umbre (S. Umbretta), length twenty inches, of which the beak
is three and a half. The whole plumage is of a brown colour, similar to
the earth called umber, paler on the under parts, and palest on the shafts
of the neck feathers ; tail marked with three or four bars of a deeper hue,
and tipped with the same ; bill brown ; legs dusky. It is a native of the
Cape of Good Hope and Senegal.

ANASTOMUS— (called HIANS by Lacep., from hiare, to gape). This genus
was separated from the Herons by Illiger, on account of the open space
between the middle of the mandibles, and named by him in consequence
Anastomus. These birds nearly resemble the Storks in their mode of living ;
they are found on the banks of rivers and marshes, into which they enter,
but never attempt to swim.

Two species are found — the Indian Anastome (H. Typus), which is the
same as the Ardea Coromandeliana of Latham and Sonnerat. The other
is the African Anastome (H. Lamelligerus), which is remarkable for the
elongation of the shafts of the feathers of the neck, belly, and thighs, by a
shining black broad cartilaginous plate at the tip of each, which resembles
the feathers of G. Sonneratii (Plate 11).

TANTALUS — Scytfa-bill. This genus, according to the arrangement of
Linna?us and of Latham, included the genus Ibis, which has been separated
by Cuvier on account of the much weaker beak of the latter having no notch
in the upper mandible, and the nostrils opening into grooves, which extend
from its base nearly to its tip. The Scythe-bills are rarely found except
upon the swampy banks of rivers or ponds of fresh water, commonly in the
openings of woods. In their manners and gait they resemble the Stork,
and when gorged with food are as inactive as the Heron.

There are four species — the American Scythe-Mi (T. Loculator), about
three feet and two inches in length, or about the size of the Common Stork ;
the White-headed Scythe-bill (T. Leucocephalus), about three feet and a
half in length ; a native of the continent of India, and also of Ceylon ; the
African Scythe-bid (T. Ibis), about forty inches in length ; and the Milky
Scythe-bitt (T. Lacteus), figured on Plate 14. This species is only three
feet in length, and principally distinguished from th« l^nncr by its orange-
yellow beak being shorter and weaker; by its nostrils being ovoid instead
of roundish; by the summit of the head and the ocular regions only being
bare, and by the throat being less naked ; the bare part of the head is red,
marbled more or less with black, the other naked parts are red only; the

FAMILY— L ONGIROSTRES. LONG-BEAKED.

87

whole plumage pure, unclouded white, except the alar and caudal quills,
which are greenish-black or bronze ; legs red. It is found in the marshes
and on the river banks in the island of Java.

PLATALEA — Spoonbill. These birds live in flocks among wooded marshes,
near the mouths of rivers ; and rarely on the sea-shore, where they feed on
very small fish, spawn, and fresh-water shells, as well as small reptiles and
water-insects. They build sometimes in lofty trees, and sometimes in
bushes or among reeds.

The Roseate Spoonbill (P. Ajaja) is about two and a half feet in length ;
the beak is covered with hard scaly protuberances like the edges of oyster-
shells, which are whitish tinged with red, whilst the rest of the bill is black ;
top of the head and chin unfeathered, and covered with a greenish skin,
and the latter capable of dilatation, as in the Pelicans ; cheeks and occiput
covered with bare black skin ; ocular circlets orange ; neck covered with
short white feathers, tipped with crimson ; chest white ; from the upper
part of the chest springs a long tuft of hair-like feathers of a pale rose-
colour ; back white ; shoulders of the wings covered with long, hairy,
carmine-coloured feathers, as are also the upper and under tail-coverts ;
belly rosy ; tail-quills bright orange with reddish shafts ; naked part of the
thighs and legs dark dirty red ; toes very long, especially the hind one. Is
very common in South America, but chiefly found on the sea-shore and at
the mouths of rivers.

The White Spoonbill (P. Leucorodia) — a native of Europe, common in
Holland, and occasionally met with in England; and the Slender-beaked
Spoonbill (P. Tenuirostris), native of the Isle de Lugon, are the other species.

GRUS — Cram. The individuals composing this genus were included by
Linnaeus among his Ardeoe ; in which, however, the gape is deeply cleft,
extending as far as the eyes, the hind toe resting almost entirely on the
ground, and the claws strongly hooked ; in all which points the Cranes
decidedly differ. The flattened form of the nails of the Cranes also indicates
that they are not predaceous, which a knowledge of their habits proves to be
the fact, the principal part of their food consisting of vegetable substances,
although occasionally they feed on insects, worms, and reptiles.

Cranes are found in all parts of the world, but are migratory, preferring
the southern climates during winter, and the northern whilst the summer
lasts. In their progresses, they assemble in large groups ; and, forming
themselves into circular, triangular, or wedge-like figures, rise to so great a
height in the air as to be hardly visible, but their flight is discovered by the
loud noise they make. Cuvier has divided them into two kinds, from the
length of the beak: 1. Cranes with the beak longer than the head; and
2. Cranes with the beak not longer than the head. There are nine or ten
species.

PSOPHIA — Trumpeter. This genus appears, from its terrestial habits and
from the shortness and curve of its beak, to be connected with the Galli-
naceous order, whilst the length of its legs and the position of its hind toe
connect it with the more perfect of the Waders. One of the species, the
Gold-breasted Trumpeter (P. Crepitans), a native of South America, is very
fond of the society of man, and is among birds what the Dog is among
beasts ; it answers to the call of its master, runs along with him, is troubled
in missing him, and when it has found him again shows most evident marks
of pleasure ; nay, so jealous is it, that when any one approaches too near its
owner, it strikes at his legs. It is fond of having its head and neck
rubbed, and teases till this is renewed. It is very courageous, attacking
animals much larger than itself, and never quits till it puts them to flight.
It is also said to be employed in many parts of America in taking care of
the poultry-yard, and even in guarding Sheep, which it collects and brings
home in the evening. Its common cry resembles the shrill voice of the
Turkey ; but besides this it produces internally a peculiar deep and hollow
noise, resembling the syllables ton, ton, tou, ton, tou, tou, which is not
uttered either from the mouth or vent, although the latter was supposed to
be the organ for that purpose, and hence its trivial name Crepitans, or
Poule peteuse, as it is called by the French. It is said to resemble in some
n s]K>cts ventriloquism, and it seems, as it were, to be conducted externally
through the membranes and flesh.

Family— LOXG-BEAKED ; Longirostres.

The members of this family have a long, slender, and feeble bill, by
which they dig or rather bore into the mud for their peculiar food — worms
and small insects. The distinction between them and the Pressirostrata is

very slight and vague.

CHARACTERS OF THE GENERA.

1. HIMANTOPUS (Gr. Ifnat, a rein, and iroiif, afoot). Beak long, slender,
roundish, and pointed, the mandibles grooved from the base to their middle ;
nostrils lateral, linear, and placed in the grooves ; legs long and slender ;
feet three-toed, the middle connected to the outer toe by a broad, and to
the inner by a narrow membrane ; nails short and slightly curved ; the first
quill-feather the longest.

2. IBIS. Beak arched, long, slender, thick at the base, and quadrangular,
rounded at the tip, which is obtuse ; nostrils linear, extending from the root
to the tip of the beak, and dividing it into three portions, of which the
upper is the broadest and flattened ; head and throat bare, the latter and
the crop expansile ; legs longish and four-toed, the front webbed at their
base as far as the first joint, the hind toe very long, all provided with
claws.

3. LIMOSA (Lat. limits, mud). Beak thrice as long as the head, more or
less curved upwards, soft and flexible, depressed, and flattened towards the
point, which is obtuse and smooth ; the upper mandible longer than the
lower, both grooved throughout their whole length ; nostrils at the root of
the beak, linear, and pierced in the grooves from side to side ; legs long
and slender, above each knee a naked space ; three toes before and one
behind, the middle connected with the outer by membrane as far as the
first joint, the hind toe short, its tip just reaching the ground ; wings of
moderate length, the first quill-feather the longest.

4. NUMENIUS. Beak long, slender, arched, and compressed, its tip hard
and slightly obtuse ; upper mandible extending beyond the lower, rounded
towards the tip, grooved through three-fourths of its length ; nostrils lateral,
linear, and situated in the grooves ; space between eye and beak covered
with feathers; legs slender, naked above the knee; three toes in front,
connected as far as the first joint, one behind articulated on the tarsus, and
touching the ground.

5. PHALAROPUS (Gr. ^aXaplc, a marsh-bird, and wove, a foot). Beak
long, straight, slender, depressed at the base ; both mandibles grooved to
the point ; the tip of the upper obtuse, and curved upon the lower ; nostrils
basal, lateral, oval, prominent, and encircled with membrane ; legs slender,
and the tarsi compressed ; toes, three in front connected with membrane to
the first joint, the remainder of their edges fringed with scalloped, broad
membranes, one behind articulated on the inner side and membraneless.

6. RECURVIROSTRA (Lat. recurvus, bent back, and rostrum, a beak).
Beak very long, slender, weak, depressed throughout its whole length, with
its point flexible and curving upwards ; upper mandible grooved on its
upper, and the lower on its lateral surface ; nostrils long and linear ; wings
pointed ; legs long and slender, having three toes in front and a very short
one behind (connected as far as the second joint with a scalloped mem-
brane), attached high up on the tarsus.

7. RHYXCH^EA (Gr. pYyxoo, a beak). Beak compressed, longer than the
head, expanded and bent towards the tip ; mandibles of equal length and
slightly curved, the upper grooved throughout its whole length, the lowrr
only at its point ; nostrils lateral, linear, and pierced completely through ;
tarsus longer than the middle toe, naked and reticulated ; front toes uncon-
nected ; hind toe articulated on the tarsus above the others.

8. SCOLOPAX (Gr. <rireiAo7ra£, a bird which never sits on a tree). Beak
with its ridge elevated at the base, compressed, slender, long, straight, blunt,
and its tip swelling ; both mandibles grooved for half their length, and the
point of the upper longer than the lower, and its swelling part forming a
kind of hook ; head compressed ; eyes large and set far back ; nostrils
pierced longitudinally near the edge of the mandible, lateral, basal, and
covered with membrane ; legs slender and feathered to the knee ; three
toes in front, generally distinct.

88

CLASS— AVES.

ORDER— G RAL L AT O R I A.

9. STREPSILAS (Gr. <n-pfyo», / turn, and Xac, a stone). Beak of mode-
rate size, slender, straight, tapering conically to the tip, which is hard,
straight, and truncated ; nostrils basal, lateral, half closed by membrane,
and completely piercing through the beak, of which the nasal channel occu-
pies half the length ; legs of moderate size, slight, and a little bare above
the knees ; three toes in front, connected by a very short membrane, and
one behind touching the ground; wings acuminated, the first quill the
longest.

10. TOTAXT/S (Ital. tota.no). Beak of moderate length, oblong, slender,
straight, and rarely curving upwards, soft at the base, hard, solid, and
cutting at the pointed tip, and compressed throughout its whole length ;
both mandibles grooved only at then- base, and the tip of the upper curving
slightly upon the lower ; nostrils lateral, linear, and pierced in the grooves ;
legs long, slender, and naked above the knee ; three toes in front and one
behind, the middle and outer connected by membrane often so far as the
second joint.

11. TRINOA. Beak of moderate size, slightly arched, soft and flexible
throughout its entire length, compressed at the base, and depressed, dilated,
and blunt at the tip ; both mandibles grooved nearly to the point ; nostrils
lateral, conical, and piercing the membrane which covers the nasal groove ;
legs slender, and naked above the knee ; front toes completely divided and
edged with a narrow membrane; hind toe articulated on the tarsus.

LONGIROSTEES. — DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIES.

HIMANTOPUS — Long Legs. These birds have longer legs than any other
bird ; they measure, from the knee to the foot, about seven inches ; whilst
the body, when stripped of its feathers, very little, if at all, exceeds that of
a Thrush. Their wings are large, and they fly with great rapidity. They
are found in all parts of the world, more especially in Africa, but are by no
means numerous, and live either on the sea-shore or among the marshes,
feeding on worms and insects.

There are but two species known : — The Long-legged Plover (H. Melan-
opterus), and the Black-necked Long Legs (H. Nigricollis).

IBIS. Ibes are found in all parts of the world, except Australia, but
more especially in warm climates, from whence they sometimes migrate,
and are occasionally met with in Germany, Holland, and England. They
feed upon insects, worms, testaceous animals, and sometimes even on small
fishes. The Ibes perform a powerful and elevated flight, extending then-
neck and legs horizontally with their body, and occasionally uttering hoarse,
bass croakings. When they settle, they are observed huddling close toge-
ther, and for hours employed raking up the mud with their beak, advancing
very slowly, and not with the rapidity of the Curlew; and while thus
engaged they usually rest upon one leg only. They build mostly on high
trees, and feed their young in the nest till they can fly.

There are about fifteen species or more. The True Ibis (I. Religiosa),
about the size of a fowl, and the Glossy Ibis (I. Falcinellus), nearly two
feet in length, were adored by the ancient Egyptians, and of which nume-
rous mummies are found.

LIMOSA — Godwit. The Godwits are easily distinguished from the Wood-
cocks and Snipes, among which they were included by Linnaais, by their
curved beak, smooth at its point, by the more forward position of the eyes,
by their standing higher, and by the membrane connecting the middle with
the outer toe. And no less do they differ from them in their habits ; for
whilst the Woodcock lives almost entirely in the woods, and the Snipes
among the fresh marshes, the Godwits are found about the mouths of rivers,
and more rarely by the sea-side ; like the others, however, they feed on
worms, groping for them in the mud thrown up by the sea, for which pur-
pose their soft and sensible beak admirably adapts them. They are extremely
timid, being disturbed by the least noise, when they fly off, uttering a cry
which resembles the smothered bleating of a goat. During the daytime
they keep close, but at twilight are busily employed boring the mud with
their long bilk They do not remain long in the same place, so that it often
happens, that although they have been seen in numbers in the evening, the
next morning they are not to be found. Godwits are birds of passage,

making their appearance at the same time as Woodcocks ; they are subjected
to the double moult, and it is a curious circumstance that the females moult
much later than the males ; and it may also be noted that the females are
much the larger birds. The species number about eight or nine.

NUMENIUS — Curlew. The birds forming this genus were included by
Linnaeus among the Scolopaces, and by others among the Ibes, from both of
which, however, they distinctly differ both in form and habits. They are
very shy, frequent the sea-coast and districts covered with dry mud, but
always in the neighbourhood of water or marsh, feeding on earth-worms,
slugs, terrestrial and aqueous insects. During summer they retire to moun-
tainous and unfrequented parts, where they pair and breed. They emigrate
in large flocks, but during breeding-time live only in pairs ; their flight is
high and long continued. They moult but once a year; and the onlv dis-
tinction between the young and old birds is the slighter curve and shu;
of the beak of the former.

Species— the Curlew (N. Arquatus), two feet in length, and sometimes
more; breadth three feet and a half; bill five inches long, upper mandible
blackish-brown, lower flesh-coloured ; plumage light ash. It is a bird of
passage on the Dutch, French, and English coasts, and very common in
many parts of Europe. The Whimbrel (N. Phaaopus), a bird less common
on the English coasts than the Curlew. They visit Spalding, where they
are called Curlew Knots, in large flocks in April, but leave that place in
May. The Long-billed Curlew (N. Longirostris), and the Esquimaux Curlew
(N. Borealis), both known in the neighbourhood of Hudson's Bay.

PHALAROPUS. These birds are principally found in or near the great
lakes, and on the sea-coast of the Arctic regions. They form one of the
links connecting the Wading and Web-footed Orders, having the form of
the Sandpipers with some of the habits of the Gulls, and are covered with
a thick coat of feathers, the roots of which are embedded in down like those
of the Ducks. They run badly, but swim with much grace and swiftness,
and have no more dread of the waves of the sea than of those of rivers and
lakes. They feed on small insects and marine worms. They are not nume-
rous, and are generally seen only in pairs. There are four species.

RECURVIROSTRA. There are four species, one of each being found in
Europe, Africa, America, and New Holland. Their flight is rapid ; they
live on mud-banks at the mouths of rivers ; and their food consists of insects
and the spawn of crustaceous animals.

RHYNCHJ:A. Similar to the Woodcocks : colours bright ; native of
Madagascar, the Cape, and India.

SCOLOPAX — Woodcock, Snipe. This genus, which consists of thirteen
species, is composed of three sections : — 1. Woodcocks (Rusticolas). Whole
thigh feathered as in land birds ; eyes set far back and near the crown,
giving the head a square form ; belly barred. 2. Snipes (Scolopaces).
Lower part of the thigh featherless ; eyes and form of the head as in the
Woodcocks ; belly generally white and not barred. 3. Long-beaks (Macro-
ramphi). Middle and outer toes united by membrane as far as the first joint.

The habits of these sections vary in some degree ; those of the first pre-
ferring the swamps in woody districts, whilst the species forming the other
two sections are found in the open marshes, and some even upon the sea-
coast Their food consists principally of worms and beetles, which the
sensitive skin covering their beaks enables them to dig out of the soft mini ;
and their bills are further adapted for this mode of taking their food, which
is commonly called boring, by the adaptation of some muscles at the root of
the mandibles in such a manner as to open them at their tips like the forceps
used for the microscope. There is great similarity in the plumage of this
genus, which is subject to a double moulting annually, and is most brilliant
in summer-time. They mostly lead a solitary life, moving about in pairs.
A few remain stationary throughout the year, but the greater number are
birds of passage twice a year, moving from south to north in the spring,
and from north to south in the autumn. When :in -ivnl in the country where
they intend to winter, it is curious to observe that they are constantly
changing their stations, and this change seems dependent on the weather ;
so that whilst to-day they may be found in great numbers among the marshes,
yet to-morrow these tracts will be completely deserted, and the birds are

FAMILY— M A C R O D A C T Y L A. LONG-TOED.

89

found only on the highest moorland ranges, having chosen the twilight of the
preceding night to make their departure. The nest of the Woodcock consists
merely of a shallow hole lined with dried grass : early in spring the female
deposits four eggs of a yellowish-white colour, blotched with pale chestnut-
brown ; she sits very close, and will not leave her nest although very closely
approached. The young leave the nest as soon as hatched ; but on the
appearance of any danger the parent bird flutters her wings, endeavouring,
like the Partridge, to attract notice to herself whilst her young escape.

The earliest appearance of the Woodcock on its autumnal visit to this
country generally occurs towards the latter end of September or the be-
ginning of October ; few, however, of these remain, the greater proportion
passing onwards towards Portugal, and thence to their most southern des-
tination, Africa. Successive flights continue during the t\vo following
months, but as the distance they fly is continually shortening, they are
gradually spread over the whole country, at least in such parts of it as suit
their peculiar habits ; the south-western coasts of England and Ireland being
the districts first settled by them, whilst those which are found in the
northern counties rarely appear before the latter end of November or the
beginning of December.

STREPSILAS — Turnstone. This genus consists of a single species (8. In-
terpres), which was included among the Tringce of Linnaeus, although
without any similarity in the form of its beak or in its habits, till separated
by Illiger. It is spread nearly over the whole globe, but is generally migra-
tory, its principal breeding-places being the shores of Hudson's Bay and of
the Arctic Sea. It is rather more than nine inches in length.

TOTANUS — Sandpiper. This genus is distinguished from the Tringae and
Limosce, in which the lengthened nasal pits render their beak very flexible,
and, together with its soft tip, fit for probing in soft mud and feeling the
prey, by having the beak hard and its point sharp to adapt it for groping
among gravel and stones on hard ground. Their food is principally conchi-
ferous molluscs, insects, worms, and sometimes small fish. They move
about in small flocks, live indifferently on the edges of lakes and streams,
and in meadows adjoining fresh water, but rarely are found on the sea-coast,
or on muddy shores of rivers. They moult twice a year, but the summer
plumage differs from the winter only in the different distribution of the
spots and streaks, and sometimes merely in these being of brighter hue.
The females are rather larger than the males. When first disturbed they
are very noisy, a single bird giving the alarm to the rest; and they protect
their young by feigning lameness, so as to draw away the intruder from their
helpless charge. There are about thirteen species, which are divided into
True Sandpipers, and Sandpipers with the leaks turned up.

TRINGA — Sandpiper. Much difficulty has arisen in assigning a specific
character to the individuals belonging to this genus, on account of the great
variety of plumage arising out of its change of colours in their annual double
moult, the plumage of summer differing materially from that with which
each bird is clothed in winter. Hence have been described many species
which more close observation has shown to be merely the same bird differently
feathered at different times of the year. The principal variations of colour,
Si •!! iy observes, are from white to reddish-brown, and from grey to black;
and in this respect they are similarly circumstanced to the Numenii, Scolo-
paces, and Totani. The colours of the sexes are nearly alike, but the female
is largest. They live in small flocks in marshy districts, either near the sea,
or along the banks of rivers and lakes where they principally seek their food,
consisting of insects and their larva?, of worms, molluscs, and small bivalves,
upon the surface among the weeds when left by the recession of the tide ;
but they do not much employ their beak for boring, as it is less sensible
than in those birds which have this habit. They almost invariably resort to
high northern latitudes in the spring, for the purpose of incubation, and
return southward in autumn ; but some remain stationary throughout the
year. As in many other instances, so also in this, systematic writers have,
without any very satisfactory reason, subdivided the genus into many groups,
assigning to them generic characters scarcely distinguishable, and which in
reality are merely the gradations by which one genus is connected with
another. The species are in number about sixteen or eighteen.

Family — LONG-TOED ; Maerodactyla.

The Maerodactyla are characterised by the length of their toes, which
adapt them for walking upon aquatic herbage, and in some cases for swim-
ming. Their wings are short and flight feeble.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.
PLATE 15.

Genera. Species. Common Name.

Parra ----- Chinensis - - - - Chinese Jacana.

Palamedea - - - - Cornuta ----- Horned Screamer.

Megapodius - - - Freycineti - - - - Freycinet's Mankiro.

Porphyrio - - - - Pulverulcntus - - - Sultana-bird.

Chionis ----- Necrophaga - - - White Shealhbill.

Phcenicopterus - - Ruber ----- Red Flamingo.

Glareola - - - - Torquata - - - - Collared Pratincole.

Other Genera of this Family : — Fulica, Gallinula, Rallus.

CHARACTERS OF THE GENERA.

1. PARRA (the Latin name of an unknown bird). Beak as long as the
head, straight, slender, compressed ; base flattened, and extending back
from it upon the forehead a horny membrane ; mandibles of unequal length ;
nostrils oval, lateral, opening in a linear slit in the middle of the beak, and
perforating it; wings large, and armed with a spur; legs very long,
slender, and uncovered with feathers to near the trunk; toes very long,
slender, and entirely distinct from each other; claws straight, that of the
hind toe the longest, all grooved beneath.

2. PALAMEDEA. Head small, having on the forehead a delicate cylin-
drical horn ; beak short, thickish, conical, straight, curved at the point ;
upper mandible vaulted and the nasal pit large ; lower mandible shorter
than the upper and obtuse; nostrils distant from the base of the bill, oval
and patulous ; wings large, furnished with two long spurs ; legs short and
strong, the tibiae but little bare; toes very long, the lateral united to the
middle, which is the longest, by a short membrane, the hind toe the
shortest.

3. MEGAPODIUS (Gr. fiiyaf, great, and TroSc, a foot). Beak slender,
weak, straight ; lower mandible straight, its tip hidden within the elongated
edges of the upper ; nostrils distant from the base, and very near the tip,
ovoid and open ; ocular circlet bare ; neck with but few feathers ; tail
cuneiform, short, in one species there is no tail ; legs large, strong, set far
back on the body ; tarsi twice the length of the middle toe, covered with
large scales ; toes straight, hind one resting on the ground, the anterior toes
of equal length, the inner united at the base, the outer divided ; claws very
long, slightly curved, trigonal, and depressed.

4. PORPHYRIO (Gr. irop^irpa, purple). Beak short, strong, thick, conical,
and nearly as deep as it is long ; ridge of the upper mandible depressed and
dilated close to the skull ; nostrils lateral, nearly round, entirely open, and
placed near the ridge ; legs long, strong ; toes sometimes of great length,
all edged with very narrow membranes.

5. CHIONIS (Gr. x'<-"/> snow). Beak strong, thick, hard, conically con-
vex, compressed, curved towards the tip ; upper mandible half-covered from
its base with a longitudinally-folded and moveable horny sheath, projecting
a little beyond the anterior ridge of which, in the middle, are the nostrils ;
lower mandible smooth, and forming an open angle ; only a small part of
the tibiae naked; toes edged with a rudimentary membrane; the middle
and outer one lialf-webbed, the inner connected only at the base.

C. PHOSNICOPTERUS (Gr. <^iivil, red, and vrtpvE,, a wing). Beak naked
at its base, large, strong, of greater depth than its width, toothed and conical
at the tip ; upper mandible suddenly curved downwards upon the point of
the lower, which is widest ; nostrils longitudinal, in the middle of the beak,
piercing through it and near the ridge, and covered with membrane ; legs
very long, four-toed, the front three toes connected by membrane to the
nails, which are short and flat.

7. GLAREOLA. Beak short, thickish, compressed; upper mandible
curved at point, slightly arched ; gape wide ; nostrils basal, linear, oblique ;
wings long and pointed ; legs moderately long, four-toed, three before and

90

CLASS— AVES.

ORDER— GRAL LATORI A.

one behind, the latter touching the ground, the former connected by a short
web ; tail forked.

8. FDLICA. Beak straight, short, thickish, and compressed laterally ; of
greater depth than breadth at its base ; the upper edge of the upper man-
dible dilated into a broad, callous plate upon the forehead, and the lateral
edges grooved towards the base ; the upper mandible slightly arched, the
lower angular ; nostrils lateral and longitudinal, placed in the middle of the
beak, and partly covered by membrane ; legs long and slender, bare below
the knee ; toes very long, connected at their base, and covered with a broad
fin-shaped scolloped membrane ; nails shorter than the toe, and hooked.

9. GALUXULA. Beak short, compressed, conical ; deeper than its width
at the base ; the ridge of the beak sometimes expanding into a naked plate
on the forehead ; mandibles of equal length, much compressed at the tip,
the upper slightly curved, the lower angular ; nasal pits very large, nostrils
lateral, longitudinal, partly covered by membrane ; legs long, naked above
the knees ; toes very long, three before and one behind, those in front edged
with a narrow membrane.

10. RALLUS (Lat rants, thin). Beak long, slender, slightly arched, or
straight, compressed at its base, with its tip roundish ; the upper mandible
grooved, and the nostrils situated in it lateral, partly covered by membrane,
and perforated completely through ; wings rounded ; legs long, stout, and
bare a short distance above the knee ; front toes entirely distinct.

MACRODACTYLA. — DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIES.

PARR A — Jacana. The birds forming this genus are in the Brazils called
Jacanas, which signifies water-fowl, and in Paraguay Aquapeazos, from
their stepping lightly on the broad leaves of water-plants. They are noisy,
querulous, and active, moving about from morning to night. They run
with great speed along the weed-covered surface of pools, and upon high
grass, the length of their toes preventing them from slipping down, and
compensating in this respect, at least, for webs; but they are fond of
paddling up to their knees in the water. They feed on water-insects, are
monogamous, make their nest on the ground among the grass, and there
deposit four or five eggs. In consequence of the spur on their wings, or
the length and sharpness of the nails, these birds have been trivially called
Surgeons. The species are divided into two subgenera: 1, those with a
frontal membrane ; and 2, those without a frontal membrane.

The species are — the Common Jacana, rather larger than a Water Rail,
and much taller ; common hi all the hot parts of America ; the Bronzed
Jacana (P. JEnea), found on the Continent of India and in Java : in the
latter country it is called by the natives Pichisan, and in Bengal is known
as the Coudey, Peepe, Mowa, or Didpee; the Cinnamon Jacana, from
Senegal ; the Chilian Jacana (P. Chilensis) ; and the Gallinaceous Jacana,
found in the Celebes, and at Amboina, is a bird of passage.

The Chinese Jacana (P. Chinensis), Plate 16, is about twenty inches in
length, and as large as the Chinese Pheasant; head, throat, front of the
neck, and whig-coverts white ; the back of the neck ornamented with some
golden-yellow silky feathers; rest of the plumage chestnut, tinged with
vinous red, except a large white spot on the upper part of the wings and
the edge of the secondaries ; at the tip of some of the alar quills a little
pedicular appendage ; four of the caudal quills black, much longer than the
body, and elegantly curved.

PALAMEDEA — Kamichi. The Kamichis, in many respects, resemble the
Jacanas, but are of much larger size ; they are rather rare, and found only
in the inundated districts of South America ; never enter the great forests,
and but occasionally are seen perched on the dead branches of trees, as they
prefer the ground : their cry is very loud and can be heard at a considerable
distance, and is said to resemble vyhu, vyhu. They generally feed on
aquatic herbs and seeds, and, it is stated, also on reptiles. They never use
their offensive weapons, the horn and long claws, except in their contests
with each other during pairing-time, and when once mated they continue
monogamous during life.

The species represented on Plate 16 (P. Cornuta), or Horned Screamer,
is about the size of a Turkey, which it resembles in the shape of its body ;

it stands about' three feet four inches high, and the wings nearly roach the
tip of the tail, which is square ; the full-grown bird lias the plumage of the
neck, back, chest, wings, and tail, slaty-black; the belly is white'; the
frontal horn is moveable, three inches long ; the middle toe is four and a
half inches long, the outer, but two ; legs and feet black.

MEGAPODHJS. The Megapodes, of wliich there are five species, are found
in the Moluccas, the Papou, Marianna, and Philippine Isles ; in the latter
they are called Town, which in the Tagal language signifies to bun-,
because they deposit their eggs in the mud, and, covering them with mud
and leaves, leave them, like the Ostrich, to be hatched in the heat of the
sun. They live on the edge of the large forests bordering the sea-shore,
and at the least alarm betake themselves to cover, running with an unsteady
pace, and their flight is little more than fluttering along the ground.

One species, M. Freycinetus (Plate 16), the Mankirio of the Papous, is
about fourteen inches long ; the whole body is blackish-brown, becoming
lighter on the belly and wings ; the feathers on the head capable of eleva-
tion into a kind of crest ; the skin of the neck nearly naked ; the great alar
quills meet upon a little oval tail, not exceeding an inch in length ; the head
small, the beak about ten lines in length, brownish, with a white tip, and
surrounded by a black skin at its base, which, as well as the ocular circlet,
has a few scattered feathers upon it The tarsi stout, and two and a half
inches long, covered by deep brown scales ; of the three front toes, the
middle is the longest, measures two inches, is united to the inner by a
broad, and to the outer by a narrow membrane, the hind toe rests on the
ground throughout its whole length ; the nails black. This bird is found
in the Papou Isles.

PORPHYRIO — Water-hen. This genus is distinguished from the Galli-
nules by its body not being so compressed nor of so elegant a form ; by
the very strong beak, composed of a substance so hard, that it enables
them easily to break up the shells of seeds ; and by their legs, which are
furnished with very long toes, capable of speedy retraction, and armed
with claws, which enable them to grasp and carry their food to their
mouth. Their plumage is generally bright blue. They live constantly by
the soft waters, and also in the marshes and rice-grounds of the south of
Europe, walk with great elegance on the water, and run with speed' upon
land or on the tops of water-plants. As they prefer grain to water-pin ms
for food, they are found more upon land than are the Gallinules. The
species are — the Purple, eighteen inches long ; the Green-backed, seventeen
inches; the Black-backed, nearly sixteen inches; the Green, twelve; the
White, which is the largest, twenty ; and the Sultana-bird (P. Pulveru-
lentus), called also the Dusty Water-hen, fourteen and a half inches.
(Plate 16.)

CHIONIS — the VAOIN ALIS of Latham — Sheathbffl. This remarkable bird,
the Wldte Sheathbitt (Plate 16), was first discovered at New Zealand by
Forster, who gave it the name Chionis. It measures from fifteen to
eighteen inches in length, and is about the size of a large pigeon ; base of
the beak black, space between the beak and eyes, and around the latter,
covered with white or pale orange warty excrescences, but one above the
eye brown or black ; irides dull leaden ; entire plumage white, tubercle on
the bend of the wing blunt and blackish, legs reddish, claws black.

PHIENICOPTERUS — flamingo. These beautiful birds are found in all
parts of the world, living on the borders of the sea or of ponds, where they
feed on shell-fish, insects, and the spawn of fish. Their neck is of cor-
respondent length with their legs, and though the head is small their lirak
is very large, and in taking food they turn the beak, so that tlx> upper
mandible serves the office of a scoop. They migrate at least from Europe
every spring, and return in the latter part of summer. Their body is not
covered with down like the true swimming-birds, and although their feet
are webbed they rarely swim. They fly in flocks, forming, like the Geese,
an angular wedge, the sharp point of which is occupied by the leading
bird. And in walking they often place the flat part of their upper man-
dible on the ground, for the purpose of obtaining an additional support.

Species — the Bed Flamingo, figured on Plate 16; the Chilian Flamingo;
and the Lesser Flamingo.

ORDER— PAL M I P E D A.

FAMILY— B RACHYPTERA. DIVERS.

91

The Red Flamingo is about four feet four inches in length ; the head,
neck, tail, and under parts rose-colour, as also are the back and scapulars ;
wings bright red, the secondaries extending some inches beyond the
primaries, which are deep black; ocular circlet and base of the beak
whitish, middle of the beak blood-red, and its extremity black ; legs rose-
colour. The Flamingos are common in the warm parts of Asia and
Africa, also in Sardinia, Sicily,' and Calabria in the neighbourhood of the
marshes, and in the southern parts of Provence and in Spain ; very rarely
they are met with on the Rhine. They build their nests in shallow ponds,
where there is much mud, which they scrape together, making little
hillocks, like small islands appearing out of the water, a foot and a half
high from the bottom. They never lay more than two eggs, and seldom
Fewer.

GLAREOLA — Pratincole. The European species (G. Torquata), known
as the Collared, or Austrian Pratincole (Plate 16), is about the size of a
Blackbird ; bill black and short ; lower mandible red at the base ; upper
parts brown, inclining to rufous on the head and neck ; throat brownish-
buff, separated from the neck by a black line, which, commencing from
the front of the eye, descends before the auriculars, and encircles the
throat ; below it to the breast the feathers are pale reddish-brown ; under
parts, rump, and tail, white; primaries dark brown, secondaries paler,
tipped with white ; legs long, bare above the knee, toes brown.

FULICA — Coot. This genus is admirably adapted for the water, on
which it continually lives, very rarely coming ashore ; they are both excel-
lent swimmers and divers, and they live principally on aquatic vegetables.
The upper part of the plumage greyish-black, except the outer edges of
the wings and a spot under each, which are white ; under parts ashy-blue,
with a hoary tinge ; beak white, with a greenish tinge ; the callous frontal
membrane white, which inclines to red in the breeding season ; legs ashy,
but yellowish above the knee.

GALLINULA. The Gallimdai have their bodies much compressed ; they
stoop much forwards, which enables them to run with considerable speed,
not only on shore, but also along the leaves and weeds spread on the
surface of the water, and even among rushes, for which the great expansion
of thbir toes is admirably adapted. They live in marshy districts, and are
excellent divers ; their food is vegetables, and frequently also insects.

The species are — the Land-Rail or Corn-Crake (G. Crex) ; the Spotted
Gallinule (G. Porzana) ; the Olivaceous Gallinule (G. Pusilla) ; the Little
Gallinule (G. Baillonii) ; and the Common GoMimde (G. Chloropus).

The first-named species (Corn-Crake) is a native of Europe, and visits
Great Britain during the spring and summer months, but leaves it before
winter ; it is very common in the Isle of Anglesea and in Ireland. It runs
extremely fast, rarely takes wing, except when pushed to the last extremity,
when it flies but for a short distance, and then dropping, takes again to
running ; and if overtaken by the dogs, will sometimes squat and be passed
over by them in the eagerness of pursuit. In those districts where Quails
are found it appears about the same time with them, and has thence been
called the king of the Quails.

RALLUS — Rail. There is little real difference between this genus and
the Gallinules, except that in the former the beak is longer than the head,
whilst in the latter it is shorter; but even in this respect the transition is
so gradual that it is difficult to determine the limits of each. There are
about twenty species, of which only one is found in Europe.

Sir W. Jardine observes that the feathers of the forehead and crown of
the Rails are so formed as to defend them from the friction of the strong
grass and reeds among which they constantly run : the tip of the stem of
each feather being lengthened and widened into a flat sharp point resem-
bling a lengthened scale, and in one or two species the feathers consist only
of this stem, giving the whole forehead a horny appearance. The body of
the Rails is much compressed and very flat. They run much more than
they fly, and escape pursuit by swimming across narrow pieces of water.
They live in marshes covered with grass, reeds, and shrubs, in the neigh-
bourhood of fresh water ; and feed on worms, slugs, insects without wing-
cases, and on vegetables and their seeds. There is but one species.

ORDER VI.— PALMIPEDA. WEB-FOOTED.

THIS Order is characterised by the adaptation of their legs and feet for
swimming : their legs are placed far back on the body ; the tarsi is short
and compressed, and their toes are webbed. Their neck is longer than
their legs, by which they are enabled to dip far into the water in quest of
food ; and their plumage is close, downy, and unctuous.

Family — SHORT-WINGED, OR DIVERS ; Brachyptera.

These Birds walk with difficulty, owing to the backward position of their
legs, hence they maintain an upright posture when on land; their wings
are remarkably short and feeble ; they swim beneath the surface of the
water, their wings aiding them like fins.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.
PLATE 16.

Species.

Genera,

Podiccps - -
Podoa - -
Colymbus
Fratercula -
Alca ...
Aptenodytes -

Cornutus -
Senegalensis
Glacialia -
Mormon -
Impennis -
gonica

Common Name,

Horned Grebe.
Senegal Coot-grebe.
Northern Diver.
Puffin.
Great Auk.
Patagonian Penguin.

Other Genera of this Family : — Eudytes, Phaleris, Spheniscus, Uria.

CHARACTERS OF THE GENERA.

1. PODICEPS (Gr. TTOVS, afoot). Beak of moderate size, firm, compressed,
and rather of an elongated conical form ; tip of the upper mandible rather
inclined, of the lower angulared nostrils lateral, concave, oblong, closed
behind by membranes, open in front, and perforating from side to side ; no
tail ; legs long, set far back ; tarsi much compressed ; three toes in front
much flattened, connected at their base, and each encircled in a festooned
membrane ; claws broad and very flat.

2. PODOA (Gr. irovc, a foot, and ya, a fringe). Beak of equal length
with the head, straight, cylindrical, pointed, inclined towards the tip, .which
is notched ; edges of the upper mandible rather expanded ; lower mandible
straight, and angular towards the tip ; nasal groove large and long ; nostrils
lateral, and penetrating through the beak ; tail very wide ; legs short, and
set far into the belly ; tarsi round ; three front toes connected by a festooned
membrane ; hind toe smooth.

3. COLYMBUS (Gr. KoXvpflaa, I swim). Beak smooth, straight, com-
pressed, and pointed ; the nostrils linear ; tail none ; legs flat, thin, and ser-
rated behind ; feet tetradactyle, the outer toe the longest, the toes lobated.

4. FRATERCULA. Beak longer than the head, slender, and very much
compressed at the tip ; the lower mandible more or less curved and pointed ;
and the nostrils open in two tubes close to the surface of the beak.

5. ALCA. Beak of various lengths and form in the different species,
generally compressed ; feathers at the nostrils ; wings very short ; legs very
short ; toes three, fully webbed.

6. APTENODYTES (Gr. d, privative, nrjji'oc, winged, and Swnjc, winator).
Bill strong, straight, more or less bending towards the point; wings very
small, covered with compact short thick feathers, having broad shafts
pendulous and unfit for flight; legs short and thick, placed further behind
than in any other bird, throwing the weight on the tarsus, which is very
large like the sole of the foot of a quadruped, and containing three bones to
which the anterior toes are connected, which are webbed ; there is a loose
toe behind.

7. EUDYTES (Gr. tv, with ease, and Su'njc, urimtor). Bill thickish,
straight, slightly compressed, and gradually curved at the tip; upper man-
dible longest, but the edges of both inclined inwards ; nostrils linear, and
half closed with membrane; tongue long, pointed, and serrated near its
base ; wings and tail very short, the latter consisting of twenty feathers ;
legs compressed; feet turned outwards, four-toed, the middle one the
longest, the anterior three webbed to the claws, the back toe joined to the
internal leg or thin membrane.

N 2

92

CLASS— AVES.

ORDER— PALM IP ED A.

8. PHALERIS (Gr. ^a\//ptc, a sea bird). Beak much shorter than the
head, depressed, dilated at the sides, almost quadrangular, and notched at
the point ; lower mandible angular ; nostrils in the middle of the beak, mar-
ginal, linear, partly closed above and behind, and piercing through the beak ;
legs very short ; tarsi slender, and having only three toes, all in front, with
much-curved claws.

9. SPHEXISCUS (Gr. a^vlaKot, a little wedge). Beak shorter than the
head, compressed, very large, strong, hard, straight, curved at the tip, and
grooved obliquely ; the edges of both mandibles bent inwards, the lower
feathered at its base, and obtuse at the tip ; nasal pit very small, nostrils
opening in the middle of the beak ; wings unfeathered ; legs very short,
thick, and drawn up to the belly ; four toes in front, three of which are con-
nected, and the inner one having the very short thumb attached to it.

10. UEIA. Beak of moderate length, stout, straight, pointed, and com-
pressed ; upper mandible slightly curved towards the tip ; lower mandible
more or less angular ; nostrils basal, lateral, concave, and longitudinal, half
covered with a feathered membrane, and undivided ; wings short ; legs
short, retracted into the belly ; tarsi slender ; three toes in front completely
webbed ; no hind toe.

BRACHYPTERA. — DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIES.

PODICEPS — Grebe. The plumage of this genus varies considerably ac-
cording to age, and has caused great confusion in determining the species.
They swim with great readiness on the surface of the water, and are also
excellent divers, in the latter case employing their short wings as a pair of
oars. Their gait is awkward, owing to their legs being set so far behind
the centre of gravity that their body is with difficulty sustained in the upright
posture. They are common on the sides of rivers and ponds, where there
is plenty of flags and rushes, and more rarely are found on the sea-coast.
They feed on fish, on insects which have wing-cases, on worms, vegetables.
There are eleven species, one of which, the Horned Grebe (P. Cornutus),
is figured on Plate 17. This species measures from twelve to thirteen inches
in length; the crown and ruff, which are very wide, deep shining black;
above.and behind each eye a large tuft of ferruginous feathers, forming a pair
of horns ; space between the upper mandible and eye, the neck and chest,
brilliant ferruginous ; nape and upper parts blackish ; under parts white, and
the flanks tinged with ferruginous ; secondary alar quills white ; base of the
beak rose-coloured, the remainder of it black, except the tip, which is red ;
legs bkck externally, and grey on their inner side ; inner margin of the iris
yellow, the outer bright red. Till the young birds have become a twelve-
month old, they have neither horns nor ruff. It is more common in the
eastern and northern parts of Europe, but not nnfrequent in England, rare in
Germany, and only accidentally in France, Holland, and Switzerland. It
builds among the rushes, to which it attaches its floating nest, and lays three
white eggs spotted with brown.

PODOA. There are two species, the Surinam Grebe-coot (P. Surinamensis),
about the size of our Black-chinned Grebe, and the Senegal Coot-grebe (P.
Senegalensis), Plate 16. The upper part of the neck and body, wings and
tail are brown, inclining to black on the head and upper part of the neck ;
the sides of the latter, as also the back and flanks, spotted with black ; from
the beak a wliite stripe extends above the eye, along the side of the throat
and neck, the front of which is white, as are also the chest and belly ; tail-
quills graduated, stiff, rather narrow, and their stems orange-coloured ; beak
and legs red. Native of Senegal.

COLYMBUS — Grebe. These birds inhabit marshy districts, building their
nests among the rushes, but loose upon the water, with which they rise and
fall. Their flesh is very rank ; but in consequence of the beautiful metallic
lustre of their plumage, the skins are manufactured into muffs and tippets.
The species includes the Great-crested Grebe (C. Cristatus), which is about
the size of a Goose, and is very common in the fens of Shropshire and
Cheshire, and the East Fen in Lincolnshire, where they are called Gaunts.
It is a very careful nurse, feeding its young with small Eels, and when tired
carrying them on its back or under its wings. The Tippet Grebe, Pen., is
considered to be the young of this species.

This genus, according to Willughby and Linna-us, included both the
Grebes and the Divers, but they have been separated by Hrisson.

A notice of the Northern Diver, figured as Columbus Glacialis, will be
found under EUDYTES below.

FRATERCULA. The birds of this genus live in rabbit and rat holes, and
only come out at twilight, or during violent storms, when they follow tin-
wake of ships, and their flight is so rapid and their turnings so quick, that it
is almost impossible to follow them ; in clear weather, however, they are
rarely seen. In their general form and habits they resemble the Guil-
lemots (family Uria), and the Razor-bills (Auks, family Alca).

The Puffins (illustrated on Plate 1C) are extensively spread throughout the
northern circle, whence they migrate southwards in the beginning of winter.

The Puffin (F. Mormon) is black on the crown of the head, and upj>er
parts of the body, also a black collar surrounds the neck; the horny
appendages to the eyelids are leaden-grey; the cheeks pearl-grey; bill d.vply
furrowed, blue at the base, the rest of the bill orange ; legs also orange. Its
length is about thirteen inches.

ALCA. The birds of this genus are well adapted for swimming ; their
wings serve them as paddles rather than organs of flight. There arc several
species, of which the Great Auk (A. Impennis) is one. This bird (Plate
16) is larger than a Goose : it is a native of the arctic regions, l>cing fre-
quently found on the coasts of Norway and Iceland, Greenland, and Spits-
bergen. It breeds on the ledges of precipices, in caves and deep fissures :
the female lays but one great egg, which is spotted with purple. '1
birds are of a dusky-slate colour, throat black in summer and white in
winter ; under plumage white, bill and legs dull black. They live on fish
and various Crustacea — the lump-fish forming its favourite prey.

APTENODYTES — Penguin. The anterior extremities of the Penguin can
hardly be called wings ; they are neither adapted for flight, nor are they in-
tended for it, being solely employed by the bird hi " rowing itself along
with its finny wings as with oars," whilst the head and neck only appear
out of the water, in which respect it differs from all other birds which swim
on the surface. The feathers of these birds are very close, so that the w«-t
cannot penetrate, and they are generally extremely fat, whence the name
given to them by the Dutch, Pengouin, from pinguis, fat, and since employed
as a generic term by Pennant and Latham. It lives much at sea, and has
been found as far as seven hundred leagues from land; it rarely comes on
shore but to lay its eggs, and gets to its nest with difficulty by crawling on
its belly. The largest species known is the Patagonian Penguin (A. 1'ata-
gonica), measuring four feet three inches in length, and standing thnv ii-et
high ; the wings hazel ; the head, throat, and back of the neck brown ; the
back ash-coloured, the under parts quite white ; on each side of the neck is
a broad stripe of yellow, only seen when the neck is extended ; for as the
bird generally sits with the head shrugged between the shoulders, it appears
only as a thin necklace. It lives in large flocks in the neighbourhood of the
Straits of Magellan, as far as New Guinea, and feeds on fish, crabs, shell-
fish, &c.

EUDYTES — Diver. These birds very much resemble in the web of their
feet the family of the Totipalmes, and by the form of their bodies connect
them with the Grebes (Cdynibi), from which they have been separated.
They are natives of the northern regions, and rarely build in our climate, but
occasionally visit our coasts in winter. They are broad, flat, and long-
bodied, and swim in a squat position.

There are three species, the Northern, Black-throated, and Red-throated

Diver.

The Northern Diver (E. Glacialis, or, according to Linnatus, Colymbns
Glacialis), Plate 16, is about three feet six inches in length, and four tl-.-t
eight niches in breadth; it is said to weigh occasionally sixteen p.iun
probably this size and weight are exaggerated. The bill is long and black ;
head and neck deep black, glossed with green and purple. ; neck striped ;
the back black and spotted with white; breast and Wily white; quills and
tail black, as are also the legs, which an- set far back and adapted for swim-
ming. The Northern Diver inhabits the north of Europe, and seldom visits
us, except in very hard winters.

FAMILY— L ONGIPENNATA. LONG-WINGED.

93

PIIALERIS — StaricL The birds of this genus are about the size of a
quail ; they are found, some in North America, some in Japan, and some in
Northern Asia. They were formerly included in the genus Alca by Pallas,
but separated from it by Temminck on account of the quadrangular form
and less curving of the beak, which is not partially feathered as in the Alcce ;
to these, however, as well as to the Urics and Mormones, they are very
closely allied.

SPHENISCUS. This genus is distinguished from Aptenodytes, from which
it was separated by Brisson, by the shortness of its beak, by its upper man-
dible not being grooved longitudinally but obliquely, by its small nasal pit,
and by the base of its lower mandible being feathered instead of covered
only by a naked skin. There are four species.

URIA — Guillemot. The birds forming this genus have a general resem-
blance to the Divers, Colymbi of Linnaeus ; from which, however, they were
separated by Brisson, on account of the absence of the hind toe, and the
shortness of their wings. Their flight is but for a short distance, and only
just above the surface of the water. They dive extremely well, using their
wings as a pair of oavs, and continue under water for a considerable time,
where they are engaged in pursuit of fish, which they follow with great
speed. They live in high northern latitudes, in large flocks, migrating south-
wards during winter, but rarely below Great Britain ; and keep constantly
by the sea-side or upon the ice, only coming to land at breeding-time, when
they deposit their usually single egg in some hole or crevice of a rock with-
out the preparation of a nest. Five species.

Family — LONG-WINGED ; Lonffipenmta.

These Birds possess the capability of protracted flight ; they are met
almost on every part of the high seas : their wings are of great length ;
they want the hinder toe or thumb.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.

Genera.

Procellaria
Haladroma
Pachyptila
Dromedea
Larus - -
Rhyncops -

PLATE 17.

Species.

Hartie - -

Berardi - -

Vittata - -

Exulans - -

Marinus - -

Nigra - -

Common Name.

Hartie's Petrel.
Berard's Haladrome.
Broad-billed Pion.
Wandering Albatross.
Black-backed Gall.
Black Skimmer.

Other Genera of this Family : — Lestris, Sterna.

CHARACTERS OF THE GENERA.

1. PROCELLARIA (Lat. procella, a storm). Beak of moderate size, strong,
tough, sharp, depressed, and dilated at the base, but its point compressed
and arched, and both mandibles grooved and suddenly curved towards the
tip ; nostrils prominent on the surface of the mandible, united and concealed
in a tube opening by one or two apertures ; wings long ; legs of moderate
length or long, slender, and the tarsi compressed ; three toes in front, long,
and completely webbed ; instead of a hind toe a very sharp claw.

2. HALLADROM A (Gr. d\e, the sea, and Ipifua, I run). Beak strong, com-
pressed, straight, the tip hooked; a groove on each side of the upper
mandible; nostrils double; throat dilatable; wings long, fit for flying;
legs short, turned outwards, three-toed, webbed ; claws curved and sharp.

3. PACHYPTILA (Gr. Trayv, thick, and TTTI\OV, a feather). General cha-
racters the same as those of Procellaria, with which they were included by
Gmelin, till separated from them by Lacepede and Illiger on account of
the cartilaginous plaits on the inner edge of their mandibles similar to those
of the Duck tribe, and their imperfectly-webbed feet.

4. DIOMEDEA. Beak large, strong, and bending in the middle ; the upper
mandible hooked down ; nostrils opening forward, short, and covered with
a large convex guard ; no thumb to the foot ; tongue very small.

5. LARUS. Beak longish, compressed, strong, hard, and cutting, tip
curved; nostrils in the midst of the beak, lateral, narrow, longitudinal,

with one exception, the L. Marinus, in which they are roundish, and open
from one to the other ; legs slender, and naked above the knee ; tarsi long ;
the three front toes completely webbed ; hind toe small, high up on the
tarsus, and free ; wings long ; tail-quills equal.

6. RHYXCOPS (Gr. puy^oc, a beak, and jcorrrw, to cut). Beak long,
straight, and much compressed; upper mandible shorter than the lower,
slightly truncated, its sides closely approximated, so as to leave only a groove
in which the lower is received ; lower mandible much truncated, its sides
or branches only distinct close to the base, but otherwise closely approxi-
mated and forming a single plate, which is sharp beneath like a knife-blade ;
nostrils longitudinal, narrow, concave, patulous, and near the base in the
edges of the mandible ; wings very long, the second quill-feather much the
longest ; tarsi naked and reticulated, and longer than the middle toe, which
is connected to the others by webs ; hind toe articulated to the tarsus, and
its tip just touching the ground.

7. LESTRIS (Gr. Xijorpic, a roller). Beak of moderate size, strong,
hard, somewhat cylindrical, compressed, curved, and hooked at the top ;
nostrils narrow, diagonal, covered behind with a horny plate, and perforated
from side to side ; wings long ; the middle two tail-quills exceeding the
others in length ; legs slender, naked above the knee ; tarsi as large as the
middle toe ; three toes in front completely webbed, hind toe free, about
one-third the length of the middle toe.

8. STERNA. Beak longer than the head, nearly straight, compressed,
slender, and tapering ; mandibles of equal length, the upper rather inclined
towards the point, and the lower having a prominent angle towards its
middle ; nostrils rather behind the middle of the beak, linear, and commu-
nicating ; wings very long ; tail forked ; legs small, slender, naked above
the knee ; tarsus shorter than the middle toe, feet four-toed, the front three
connected by a more or less scalloped web, but the hind one free ; claws
sharp and arched, that of the middle thrice as large as those of the lateral
toes.

LONGIPENNATA. — DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIES.

PROCELLARIA — Petrel. The birds forming this genus seem naturally
divided into three sections from the peculiarity in then1 nasal organs : in the
first the nostrils open by a single orifice; in the second by two tubes; and
in the third by one tube with two apertures. They are mostly natives of
northern climes ; are rarely seen except in very tempestuous weather dnring
daytime, and only leave the deserted rabbit or rat holes in which they live
at twilight, or when the aurora borealis makes its appearance. They are
always found in the seas where cetaceous animals are numerous, many of
them feeding on the parasites with which that class are infested ; and in the
event of heavy storms they fly for shelter to the ships which may chance to
be within their neighbourhood, and hence have acquired the name of Storm
Birds, which is applied to some of their species more especially. Whilst
flying they keep so close to the surface of the water, rising and stooping
with the waves, that they have been thought to walk on the water, and
hence their name Petrel or Little Peter ; but it is very rare that they rest
on the surface of the sea, and if they do it is always with expanded wings.
They feed on the flesh of cetaceous animals, also on their parasites, and
mollusca, insects, and the worms which float on the surface of the water.
And they possess a peculiar power of ejecting from their nostrils an oily
fluid on any one who meddles with them.

They are divided into three sections, as already stated, viz., True Petrels,
Puffin Petrels, and Swallow Petrels. They vary in size from that of a Pigeon
to a Goose. The Giant Petrel is called by sailors Mother Gary's Goose.
Hartie's Petrel (Plate 17) is an illustration of the genus.

HALADROMA. The birds of this genus very much resemble the Petrels
in their general figure and beak, and the Cormorants in their pouch-like
throat ; but, like the Albatrosses, they have no hind toe. They are ex-
tremely good divers.

Berard's Haladrame or Petrel (Plate 1 7) is about eight inches long ; has
the head, cheeks, upper part of the neck and wings, the back and tail <l . ] ,
glossy black; upper part of the throat, chest, and belly white; on each

94

CLASS— AVES.

ORDER— P A L M I P E D A.

side of the body a black patch inclines' towards the middle of the chest ;
beak black spotted with white ; legs long and lead-coloured. Found in the
Falkland Isles.

PACHYPTILA. The species illustrated is the Broad-billed Prim (P. Vit-
tata), which is about the size of a small Pigeon, and thirteen inches in
length ; the upper part of the body ashy-blue, and becoming deeper on the
head and wings, through the latter of which, and across the back near the
base of the tail, passes one blackish band, and across the top of the tail
another ; the sides of the head and the under part of the body and wings
white ; the middle quills of the tail are rather longer than the outer, and
give it a rounded appearance ; beak and eyes leaden-blue ; the middle of
the upper mandible and the nasal tubes blackish ; the legs black. These
birds were seen by Captain Cook in the South Seas between 28° and 30°
of latitude ; numerous flocks of them followed him from the Cape of Good
Hope to 41°, then to 51°, and at last as high as 58°; and in this high
latitude they have also been noted by the French naturalists Lesson and
Gamot.

DIOMEDEA — Albatross. The birds composing this genus are the largest
of all the water birds ; they inhabit all the South and North Seas, and live
upon the spawn of fish and mollusca.

The Wandering Albatross (D. Exulans) is larger than a Swan, being
about three or four feet in length ; its bill of a dirty yellow ; crown of the
head pale cinereous brown ; body white, crossed on the back and wings
with blackish lines and spots towards the tail, which is lead-colour ; greater
quills black ; legs flesh-colour. The bud is known amongst the English
sailors by the name of Frigate Bird, and by the French as the Mouton du
Cap, on account of its white body and black wings. It makes its nest on
high ground, and lays many eggs, which are considered good eating. The
Albatross is very common without the Tropics, and is found not only
towards the South Pole, but even as high as Kamtschatka and Behring's
Straits, northward; it is also found about the Cape of Good Hope.

LARUS — GuU. The Gulls are spread very generally over the globe, but
are most numerous in the northern regions, and generally on the sea-shore ;
some species, however, are found on the inland lakes and the banks of
rivers. They commonly feed on fish, dead or alive, carrion, and offal ; and
in the north a large part of their food is derived from dead Whales and
other cetaceous animals, but some few species feed principally on insects.
They are exceedingly voracious, a natural consequence of their being often
exposed to long-continued privation, which they endure well, a proof of
which occurred in one who lived nine days without food ; and if one of them
finds any food, he is beset by his fellows, who drive him about and tease
him with loud screams till he drops it. In appearance they are dull, heavy
birds, and their gait is so also ; but their close plumage renders them ex-
tremely good swimmers, and in rough weather they may often be noticed
tossing on the waves, upon which they frequently repose : they are conti-
nually flying about, and are often met with at considerable distance from
land, and it is considered that their buoyancy enables them to rest as they
float on the surface of the sea. They frequent the months of rivers in winter-
time, and when, as occasionally, they go far inland, it is esteemed a sign of
hard weather. They are gregarious, but the young do not mingle with the
old birds, flocking together by themselves. They have a harsh, shrill cry
or scream, and hence arises the name Sea-Mew, which is not unfrequently
applied to them both in England and Germany, where they are called Mew,
or Mewen, and hence the French have derived their name for them, Mauve.
They build their nests either among the cliffs or merely in a hole scratched
on the beach. In the young birds, brown or ash colour predominates, and
they rarely attain their full plumage till the second or third year. The
plumage varies in the winter and summer ; for the head, which in summer
is in many instances of a black, brown, or dark colour, is in winter either
ashy or white. There are fifteen or sixteen species.

The illustrated species is the Black-backed GuU (L. Marinus), and is
nearly twenty-five inches in length ; top of the head, ocular region, back of
the head and neck white, but each feather streaked longitudinally in the
middle with light brown ; the upper part of the back, scapulars, and whole

wing deep black ; the rest of the back, the forehead, and all the under parts
white ; beak whitish-yellow, angle of lower mandible bright red ; naked
margin of the eyes red ; irides bright yellow, marbled with brown; legs
dirty white.

RHYNCOPS — Cutwater. This genus exhibits one of the most remarkable
forms of beak in the whole class of birds. (See Generic Character.) They
live on sand-banks and in salt-marshes, are found usually in parties of fifteen
or twenty pairs, and make their nest by forming slight hollows in the sand
at no great distance apart. They walk badly, and do not swim much, but
are continually on the wing, skimming over the surface of shallow water
near the shore where the fry of fishes and shrimps resort ; hence has arisen
the name of Skimmer applied to them by Pennant. They move along with
a slow, flapping flight, and with extended wings and bended neck, dip the
lower mandible, the mouth being at the same time open, and plough along
the surface of the water for the purpose of taking their food, which they
capture with as much ease as Swallows take their insect prey. From their
thus cutting through the water with their bill they were called by the
American Spaniards Rayador, or cutters, and hence probably originated
Catesby's name, Cutwater. They are found both in America and Africa.

Species — the Black Cutwater (R. Nigra), nineteen inches in length ;
breadth three feet eight inches when the wings are expanded ; upper man-
dible three and a half, and under mandible four and a half inches long, both
scarlet, tinged with orange and tipped with black ; upper part of the head,
neck, back, and scapulars deep black, as are also the wings ; forehead,
cheeks, throat, and under parts white ; tail-feathers black, broadly edged
with white, their coverts white on the outer sides, and black in the middle ;
legs and feet bright scarlet. It is found on both sides of the American
continent, and in both hemispheres.

LESTIUS — Skua. The Skuas are very courageous birds ; they attack the
Gulls, and compel them to drop the food they have fished up, which they
catch with great dexterity before it reaches the water. They fly in a very
peculiar manner, darting along, so as to be easily distinguished at a distance.
They are natives of the Arctic regions, the Orkneys, and Hebrides, and
rarely come southward.

STERNA — Tern. The Terns appear to assume among water birds the
place of the Fissirostral family of Passerine birds, especially the Swallows,
from the great length of their wings, their forked tail, and small feet, and
hence they have acquired the popular name of Sea Swallows. Some of them
feed entirely upon mollusca and small fishes, but others only upon winged
and aquatic insects ; the latter are rarely seen upon the sea-coast, to which
the former constantly resort. They herd together in large flocks, and their
nests are often so closely set that the sitting birds touch each other. They
undergo a double moult, but the change is confined to the region of the
head. Their distribution over the earth's surface is very general, as they
are found both in hot and cold climates, but from the latter they migrate
during winter. The species are numerous.

Family — SPLAY-FOOTED ; Steganopoda.

The Birds belonging to this family fly well ; their legs are short, and
their feet are converted into paddles by the union of the thumb with the
other toes — a single membrane connecting all.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.
PLATE 18.

Genera. Specie*. Common Name.

Pelecanus - - - Onocratalos - - - Common Pelican.

Carbo ----- Cormoranus - - - Cormorant.

Tachypetes - - - Aquilus - ... Great Frigate-bird.

Sula Alba White Gannet.

Platus ... - Levaillantii - - - Le Vaillant's Darter.

Phaeton - - - - Phoenicurus - - - Red-tailed Tropic-bird.

CHARACTERS OF THE OEKERA.

1. PELECANUS. Beak long, straight, wide, and much depressed ; upper
mandible very flat, its point armed with a very strong, much-curved, com-

FAMILY— S TEGANOPODA. SPLAY-FOOTED.

95

pressed hook; lower mandible consisting of two long, flexible branches
connected at the tip, and having attached throughout their whole length a
naked, pendulous skin in form of a bag ; nostrils basal, consisting of longi-
tudinal slits ; legs short and strong ; the hind toe articulated internally on
the same plane as the other three, and all connected in a single web ; claw
of the middle toe not serrated.

2. CARBO — a subgcnus of HALIEUS (Gr. aAtti/e, a fisher). Beak
generally exceeding the length of the head, straight and compressed ;
upper mandible much curved towards the point and hooked; its ridge
rounded; lower compressed; base surrounded by a membrane which
extends naked on the throat, and forms a pouch ; nostrils near the root
of the bill linear and hidden ; cheeks and throat naked ; wings adapted for
flying ; tail wedge-shaped ; legs short, strong, set far back, three toes in
front, and the fourth facing inwards completely webbed, the outer toe
directed almost immediately forwards ; claw of the middle toe serrated.

3. TACHYPETES (Gr. Taxyirlrrie, quick flying). Beak long, stout, cutting,
depressed at the base and swelling on the sides ; points of both mandibles
strongly curved, the upper ending in a very pointed hook ; nostrils in
grooves, linear ; orbits naked ; throat dilatable in the male ; wings very
long and narrow; tail long and deeply forked; legs very short; tarsus
rather more than a fourth as long as the middle toe, and only feathered half
its length ; three front toes half webbed, the thumb toe articulated inside
and directed forwards.

4. SOLA. Beak longer than the head, stout, large at base, straight,
compressed at tip, which is slightly curved ; edges of the mandibles ser-
rated ; nostrils basal, linear, covered posteriorly with membrane, and opening
behind the middle of the beak with a narrow oblong aperture ; face and
throat naked ; tail conical, and composed of twelve quills ; wings long ;
legs turned outwards, strong, short, and much drawn into the belly, four-
toed, three in front, of which the claw of the middle one is serrated, and the
hind toe attached to the inner side, all connected by membrane.

5. FLATUS (Gr. 7rXan)c, broad). Beak long, straight, slender, and pointed,
its tip finely toothed ; edges of the upper mandible dilated at the base, but
otherwise compressed and inclined inwards ; lower mandible shorter than
the upper ; nostrils linear and concealed in a slight groove ; wings long ;
tail very long; legs short, strong, and set far back; tarsus shorter than the
middle and outer toe which are of equal length, all the toes enclosed in a
single web.

6. PHAETON. Beak as long as the head, strong, bulky, compressed, cutting,
convex above, tip pointed, toothed on the edges ; nostrils basal, lateral,
covered above and near the base with naked membrane, and piercing
through the beak ; wings very long ; tail short, except two quills, which
are very long and slender ; legs very short ; anterior toes long, hind toe
short, and articulated on the inside, all included in the same membrane.

STEGANOPODA. — DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIES.

PELECANUS — Pelican. The size of the birds of this genus exceeds that
of the Swan, and it would be the largest of the water birds were it not for
the great length of the legs of the Flamingo, and the bulk of the Albatross.
Pelicans are very remarkable for the great size of their pouch, which consists
of a loose skin depending from the branches of the lower jaw, and which is
sufficiently large to hold two gallons and a half of water; hence it has
been called by the Egyptians the Water Camel: in consequence of the
flexibility of the lower jaw the bird is able to expand the orifice like the
mouth of a casting-net. In feeding, it takes up a large quantity of fish,
and, as might be supposed, at the same time much water, but it retracts
the pouch and gets rid of the water before swallowing its food. Pelicans
fly with considerable rapidity, much more than could be expected from
their size ; but this is explained by the fact of their bones and numerous
bags in the loose membrane connecting the skin and the body being filled
with air, which tends much, as in other quick-flying birds, to diminish
their specific gravity. They are also very remarkable for the power they
possess of perching on trees, in which respect, however, they resemble
some of the Geese, the Cormorants, and the Anhingas. Five species.

The Great Pelican (P. Onocrotalus), Plate 18, is about five or six feet
in length, and sometimes more; all the plumage white tinged with rose-
colour, except the quill-feathers, which are black ; the naked face roseate-
white; the pouch light yellow; legs fleshy colour; tail consisting of
twenty feathers ; from the back of the head extends a tuft of long and
slender feathers ; the hook on the tip of the beak red, resembling a blood-
stain, and hence probably has originated the legend of the Pelican feeding
her young with her own blood. It is a native of the eastern countries of
Europe ; is common in Hungary and Russia, in Africa, on the banks of the
Senegal and Gambia (where the Negroes call them Pokko), on the coasts
of Angola, Sierra Leone, and Madagascar; at Siam, in China, the Isles of
Sonda, the Philippines, and Manillas ; and in America, from the Antilles to
Louisiana, and the neighbourhood of Hudson's Bay, and also in the southern
parts of Australia.

CARBO (subgenus of HALIEUS) — Cormorant. Two divisions may be
fairly made of this genus — the True Cormorants, which have fourteen quill-
feathers to the tail, and the Shags, which have only twelve ; but, although
this seems to be the only difference, it is observed that they never associate ;
and, with regard to their breeding, the Cormorants build their nests on the
tops of the cliffs, whilst the Shags are content with holes in the rocks much
lower down. In character, the whole genus is sullen and heavy ; the eye,
however, is remarkably keen ; and when hungry they are very active, but
having satisfied themselves they squat lazily and inactively till hunger
induces their wonted activity in search of food.

The True Cormorant (Carbo Cormoranus) is usually about two feet and
a half, but sometimes it attains more than three feet ; the bill about five
inches long, of a dusky colour ; throat surrounded with a white collar, the
extremities of which reach below each eye ; the throat-pouch yellow ;
head, neck, chest, under parts, and rump iridescent greenish-black ; the
feathers of the back ashy-brown hi the middle, and edged with a broad
black margin ; the alar and caudal quills black, the latter fourteen in
number, stiff and strong ; the legs short, the outer toe about four inches
long, and placed almost directly forward. They are common in all the
northern parts of the world upon the sea-coast, and feed voraciously on
fish, more especially, it is said, on Eels. In Greenland, the natives make
use of their throat-pouch as bladders for floating their fishing darts.

TACHYPETES — Frigate Bird (T. Aquilus). The total length from the tip
of the bill to that of the tail three feet, of which the dirty yellowish-white
beak is four and a half and the tail sixteen inches long at its outer edge,
whilst the quills at the bottom of the fork are only seven and a half long ;
transverse extent when the wings are expanded six feet ten niches, including
five inches the width of the body ; the throat and lower part of the long
neck naked as far as the breast in the male ; the skin of this part bright
red, and granular whilst undistended, but when expanded with air during
flight it is smooth and about the size of a hen's egg. The general colour
of the plumage in the male is black, inclining to glossy green on the back,
and his feet are black ; in the female the plumage is more dusky, and she
has nearly the whole head and belly white, with bluish-white feet The
Frigate Bird, Man-of- War Bird, Sea Eagle, and Halcyon, by all of which
names it is known to sailors, is commonly found between the tropics, but
in summer frequently visits Carolina. " The most striking peculiarity of
this genus consists," as Mr. Burton has well observed, " in the disproportion
which exists between the wings and the other extremities ; a disproportion
so enormous as probably not to be found in any other, if we except the
Ostrich and Cassowary, (to which also the Emeu may be added,) where it
is reversed ;" the extreme extent from the tip of one to that of the other
expanded wing being six feet ten inches, whilst the extreme length of the
leg, from the true knee to the junction of the toes with the tarsal bone, does
not exceed three inches, of which the latter bone measures only half an
inch, and the hind limbs, indeed, are actually much shorter even than this,
from being much drawn up into the skinny covering of the belly ; the
consequence of which is that if the bird once drop to the ground it is
unable, from this extreme shortness of the legs, to raise itself up to flight,
and therefore when it settles, it always rests upon some high rock or

96

CLASS— AVES.

ORDER-PALMIPEDA.

other projection, from which, by throwing itself, it may be able to take
flight.

SULA — Gannet. This genus formed part of the Linnsean genus Pdecanus,
from which, however, it is distinguished by several characters, and has
therefore been separated by Brisson. It appears to connect Pdecanus with
Tachypetes and Phaeton.

The Gannets are almost constantly on the wing, but they rarely swim
nor ever dive, strictly speaking, although when pursuing their fishy prey
they drop down upon it from a considerable height through some feet
of water ; when on shore and at rest they use their caudal quills as a third
prop to give them support as do the Cormorants. During breeding-time
they collect in large flocks upon the rocks overhanging the sea. They have
acquired their French name Fou, and their common English one Booby, from
their presumed stupidity in allowing themselves to be attacked both by
man and by other birds.

The White Gannet (S. Alba), Plate 18, is from two feet seven to ten
inches in length ; beak ashy-blue at the base, but white at the tip ; irides
yellow ; naked skin surrounding the eyes light-bluish, but that beneath the
chin, and extending to the middle of the throat, is blackish-blue ; crown of
the head, occiput, and upper part of the neck pale ochrish-yellow, the rest
of the plumage milk-white, excepting the bastard wings, which are black ;
front of the tarsi and upper surface of the toes pale green ; toe membranes
blackish, the claws white. The female differs only in being smaller. The
plumage just described is the adult of three years.

The Gannet is common to the Arctic regions, both of the old and new
world, is very abundant in the Hebrides, Scotland, and Norway ; is a bird
of passage in England and on the Dutch coast, where it only occasionally
appears in very hard winters. Many of the young are taken on the Bass
Rock, at the mouth of the Frith of Forth, not only for their down, but also
for the flesh, which, although oily and rank, is, when roasted, much
esteemed in Scotland as a good whet before dinner. They afford con-
siderable profit, and hence, upon the Bass Rock, which lets for 601. or 701.
a-year, the old ones are not allowed to be destroyed ; and during the
months of May and June the rock is so thickly covered with nests, eggs,
and young birds, that it is scarcely possible to move without treading on
them. Their flocks are so great that when flying they darken the sky, and
their noise is such as to render it scarcely possible to hold a conversation.

FLATUS — Darter. These birds are found in the hottest parts of Africa
and America, living on the banks of rivers at some distance from the coast,
and feeding on fish. The small size of their head and their long slender
neck give them somewhat the appearance of a snake joined to the body of
a bird. According to Vieillot there are but two species, the White-bettied
and the Blackroettied Darter.

Le VaiUant's Darter (Plate 18) is that denominated the Black-bellied
Darter. It is about three feet in length ; head and neck light ferruginous,
or mingled with brown ; throat whitish ; a white streak passes from the
angle of the beak half down the neck ; the scapulars, which are very long,
and the secondary quills nearest the body, are marked longitudinally with
silvery-white, and their edges are deep black; part of the front of the
neck, the chest, and under parts shining-black ; the rest of the plumage
and tail entirely black. The female is only distinguished by being of
a lighter tint. It is found in Senegal, at the Cape of Good Hope, and the
Indian Archipelago.

PHAETON — Tropic Bird. The birds forming this genus are only found
between the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, and hence afford a certain
proof to the spectator that he is within the Equatorial zone. Our sailors
commonly call them Tropic Birds ; whilst the French give them the name
PaSle en queue, from the two long feathers resembling straws which project
beyond the other tail feathers. Their flight is very elegant, as they glide
along almost without moving their wings. Their food consists entirely of
fish, and their long tail-quills are used as ornaments among the South Sea
islanders.

The Red-tailed species (P. Phoenicians) is about thirteen inches in length
from the tip of the beak to the root of the tail, which measures five inches

more ; the general colour of the plumage is satin-like white ; in front of the
eye a large black spot, and behind it another smaller one ; the flanks iiiarkinl
with blackish ; legs white tinged with bluish ; front of the webbing of the
feet black. It is most common in the Indian Seas.

Family — PLAITED-BILLED ; Lamettirostrata.

The Lamellirostrata have a thick bill, covered with skin ; the edges of
the bill are furnished with small teeth ; they have a large fleshy tongue,
with denticulated border ; their wings are of moderate length ; they live
more commonly in fresh water than in the sea ; they have a very muscular
gizzard.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.

Genera.

Cygnus - -
Anser - - -
Cereopsis - -
Anas ...
Hydrobates
Mergtis - - -

PLATE 19.

>; -.

Common Name.

- Musiuus ... - Wild Swan.

Ferus - - -
Novae Hollandiaa
Clypeata - - -
Lobatos - - -
Mergansur - -

Wild Goose.

- New Holland Pigeon-goose.

- Shoveller.

- Lobated Duck.

- Goosander.

CHARACTERS OF THE GENERA.

1. CYGNTJS. Beak of the same breadth throughout, but of greater height
than width at its base, and sometimes tuberculated ; the edges of the man-
dibles denticulated, the upper mandible rounded, its point curved and
obtuse; the lower shorter and flat; nostrils in the middle of the beak;
space between the beak and eyes naked ; neck very long ; feet webbed,
and placed behind the centre of gravity of the body ; the middle toe the
longest.

2. ANSER. Beak about as long as the head, conical and elevated at the
base ; nostrils large, near the centre of the beak, and pierced through ; legs
long, in the middle of the body ; hind toe free, jointed on the tarsus.

3. CEREOPSIS. Beak short, elevated, obtuse, and covered with a cere, or
membrane ; nostrils on the cere ; legs long, and bare above the tarsal joint ;
feet webbed, but not so much as in geese ; large and ample wings.

4. ANAS. Bill broad at base, wide at the end, slightly hooked ; neck
not so long as that of the goose ; legs short, and placed back in the body.

5. HYDROBATES. General characters as above.

6. MERGUS (Lat mergo, I dive). Beak of moderate length, slender,
straight, roundish, with the base thicker, and the cire covered ; tip of the
upper mandible much curved and hook-like ; lower mandible smaller than
the upper; edges of both mandibles toothed like a saw, and the teeth
inclined backward ; nostrils lateral, elliptical, longitudinal, covered by a
common membrane, and perforated through and through ; legs short,
strong, turned out, retracted towards the belly ; tarsus a third shorter than
the middle toe; three toes in front completely webbed, the outer the
longest, hind toe free, about the length of one joint of the others, and rest-
ing on its tip ; wings moderately large.

LAMELLIBOSTRATA. — DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIES.

CYGNUS — Sawn. Swans live almost entirely on the water, the position
of their feet making them bad walkers and comparatively defenceless on
land, whilst on their own element they are very powerful. They live
principally upon grain and aquatic plants ; the little tooth-like plaits in
their mandibles enabling them to crop the latter substances, and at the
same time allowing the water to escape ; but they also eat frogs, leeches,
and small fishes. They are monogamous, living with a single female, and
build their nests on the ground by the water side ; the Cygnets, or young
Swans, swim as soon as they are hatched, and find their own food. Swans
ate very long lived, frequently, it is said, attaining the age of a hundred
years. They afford us the article called Swansdown, which is much
esteemed for its fineness, and employed in the manufacture of tippets and
mufls.

The Tame Swan (C. Mansuetus) is the largest of our English birds ; it

FAMILY— L AMELLIROSTRATA. PLAITED-BILLED.

97

is about four feet and a half in length from the tip of the beak to that of
the tail ; over the root of the upper mandible is a black callous protube-
rance, whence Bechstein has called it the Tuberculated Swan (C. Gibbus).
The female is not quite so large, and has the frontal protuberance less than
the male. They have become domesticated, and in our own country are
commonly seen in private grounds where there is much water, to which
they are great ornaments, no bird having command of such beautiful

attitudes.

" The Swan, with arched neck
Between her white wings mantling, proudly rows
Her state with oary feet."

Formerly they were highly esteemed in England, and it was ordered by
an Act of Edward IV. c. 6, that no one who possessed a freehold of less
clear yearly value than five marks should be permitted to keep any, other
than the son of our Sovereign Lord the King. And subsequently by an Act
of the llth of Henry VIII. c. 17, the taking of Swans' eggs was punished
by imprisonment for a year and a day, and a fine at the king's pleasure. It
is still felony to steal the eggs, but it is necessary in order to make the felony
that the bird should have been marked on the beak with a red-hot iron ;
these marks (of which in an old manuscript at Oxford as many as 304 are
enumerated belonging to various families) are different, that of the king
consisting of three vertical nicks. From this circumstance originated the
f-ustom of Swan-hopping, or Svxm-upping as it is called, according to the
Rev. Mr. Weston, in the " Archaaologia," xvi. 163, from the City of
London Companies going up the river Thames to brand their Swans. Mr.
Weston's opinion of the sign of the Swan with two necks having originally
been that of " the Swan with two nicks" may be noticed, en passant, as
explaining one of the numerous popular misnomers which have produced so
many curious and absurd sign-paintings.

The Swan, though inoffensive when not meddled with, is very pugnacious
when disturbed ; striking so violently with its wings, as to do material
mischief to any one who is so foolish as to provoke it when in the water.
Amongst their own species two males will frequently fight for a female,
and the contest does not terminate without the destruction of one of them.
The nests of Swans are built upon the ground, on the retired banks of
lakes or rivers, and are formed of dried leaves or rushes. The birds begin
to lay in February, and continue to do so every other day till they have laid
six or seven eggs : the time of setting is about six weeks, the female alone
remaining on the nest, and when she leaves it carefully covering up the
eggs wjth feathers and rashes ; during this time the male constantly tends
and protects her from injury. During the season of incubation they are
extremely dangerous, and very courageous. Dr. Latham mentions an in-
teresting anecdote on this subject : " At Pewsy in Buckinghamshire, whilst
a Swan was on the nest she observed a Fox swimming towards her from
the opposite shore, when she darted into the water, and having kept the
1-V.x at bay for a considerable time with her wings, at last succeeded in
drowning him in the sight of several spectators." The Cygnets are able to
walk in the next November ; and when they begin to swim, it is said that
the male parent holds them up by the head, and the female by the tail ;
but when they have acquired this accomplishment, the parents desert them,
ami they find mates amongst themselves.

The Wild Swan (C. Ferus), which was formerly called the Elk, Hooper,
or Whistling Swan, differs from the Tame Swan in having the beak black,
with the edges and root and the skin between the eyes and the irides
yellow ; the neck straight; the plumage white with a yellowish tinge, and
the bastard wing armed with a curved horny spur, which, however, is not
seen till the feathers are plucked ; legs black. But the great distinction
consists in the windpipe ; in this bird it is coiled up in the keel of the breast
bono which is very deep, whilst in that of the Tame Swan it is straight,
and the keel of the breast bone narrow.

It is to this species that the ancients imputed the melodious note which
h:i^ become proverbial (C. Musicus), Plate 19 ; but this is none other than
u iioetical fiction, originating in the Swan having been sacred to Apollo and
the Muses, and thence supposed to be musical. The song, such as it is, of

the Swan may be noted, according to M. Mongez, by mi fa and re mi,
upon the latter of which they rest for a long tune ; these cries are uttered
morning and evening, and whenever the bird is particularly excited.

Swans are very good swimmers, and move so fast in the water that a
person walking at a smart pace cannot keep up with them ; and they have
equal powers of flight, during which the motion of their wings produces a
loud sonorous noise, which may be heard at a great distance, and which
is considered by Sonnini to have given origin to the notion that Swans
sing.

ANSER — Goose. Some of the species of this genus so closely approxi-
mate to the Swans, that the difference cannot easily be distinguished.
There are several species, including the Snow Goose (A. Hyperboreus) of
North America ; the Grey-lay Goose (A. Cinereus), the origin of the tame
Goose, now rare in the British Isles ; the White-fronted Goose (A. Albifrons),
which visits us in winter ; the Bean Goose, which breeds in Ireland ; the
Canada Goose (Anser Canadensis) ; the Egyptian Goose, and the Bernide
Goose. The Wild Goose is figured on Plate 19. The genus is so well known
as not to require a lengthened description.

CEREOPSIS. The type of this genus is the bird (C. Nova HoUandiai),
figured on Plate 19. It is a beautiful bird : it possesses all the characteristics
which separate the Geese from the Ducks, and is about the size of a com-
mon Goose ; it is of a dingy gray colour, and has a broad patch of white
on the top of its head ; most of the wing-coverts are marked with round
dusky spots ; the naked part of the bill, which is very short, is black ; the
broadly-expanded cere is a light straw or lemon colour ; irides hazel ; legs
orange.

The New Holland Pigeon Goose frequents grassy districts and the shore,
but rarely enters the water. It is easily domesticated.

ANAS — Duck. Ducks very much resemble Geese in their general con-
formation and many of their habits. The divisions of this genus are : the
Scoters, the Garrots, the Eiders, the Pochards, the Shovellers, the Shield-
rakes, and the Mergansers. The Shoveller (A. Clypeata— the Ryncaspis of
Leach) is about twenty inches in length, and is a very beautiful bird. The
upper mandible of its long beak forms a perfect half cylinder, widened at
the end, and is of a leaden-grey colour ; head and neck green ; eyes yellow ;
breast white ; flanks rufous ; back brown ; wings varied with white, ash-
grey, and brown. It is a native of the northern regions, and being a bird
of passage visits this country in the spring. Its flesh is so excellent that
many consider it superior to that of the Wild Duck. (Plate 19.)

HYDEOBATES. The species, figured on Plate 19, is the Lobated Duck
(H. Lobatus), and exhibits the general characteristics and habits of the Duck
tribe, so well known.

MERGTJS — Goosander (M. Merganser). This bird is about two feet four
inches long, and three feet two inches wide ; the head and upper part of
the back black ; the lower part of the neck, chest, belly, wing-coverts, and
outer scapulars, white tinged with yellowish-rose colour ; the inner scapulars
and upper part of the back black, the lower part and tail ash ; primaries
black, great coverts edged with black; beak deep red, its hooked ex-
tremity black ; iris reddish-brown or red ; legs deep orange ; the male has
also a short, large, black tuft on the back of the head. The female is
known commonly as the Dun Diver, or Sparling Fowl.

The Goosanders bear great resemblance to the Geese, from which, how-
ever, they are distinguished by the narrowness and hooking of the bill ;
they live upon the water, and swim with their bodies deeply sunk and
their heads only above the surface ; they dive and swim under water with
great ease, and employ their wings as oars; their gait- is unsteady on
account of their legs being set so far back, but they fly with great quick-
ness and for a long time. They feed on fish and amphibious animals.
They live in the cold regions, and are noticed in the more temperate climes
only during winter, when they appear in great numbers. They moult only
once a year, the old males in autumn, and the females in spring : the young
males before their first or second moult resemble the females.

98

CLASS— KEPT ILIA.

ORDER— CHELONIA

CLASS III.— K E P T I L I A.

Reptiles are cold-blooded Animals. Their heart is so constructed, that at each contraction only a small portion of the blood is sent into
the lungs, while the greater quantity passes into the general circulation, without having been subjected to the process of respira-
tion in those organs : hence they are destitute of the vivacity and muscular energy of warm-blooded Animals, whether Mammalia
or Aves. Their movements are slow, and their habits sluggish : their digestion is destitute of vigour, and their sensations are
obtuse. Throughout the winter, in cold and temperate latitudes, they remain in a state of torpidity. They are either covered
with scales, or only with a naked skin : they can remain a long time submerged, owing to the smalhiess of their pulmonary vessels ;
and they are more varied in their form, gait, and characters, than the preceding Classes. The females have a double ovary, and
two oviducts : they never incubate their eggs.

ORDER I.— CHELONIA. TURTLES.

THE Turtles are better known by the appellation of Tortoises. They are
enveloped in two bony bucklers, the upper one being called the carapace
or shield, and the under one the plastron or breast-plate. They have a
heart with two auricles, and a ventricle with two chambers, communicating
with one another.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.

PUITE 1.
Species.

Genera.

Testudo - - -

Kinys ...

Sternothcerus -

Chelonia - -

Chelys - - -

Trionyx - - -

Grseca - - -

Scripta - - -

Trifasciatus -

Virgata - -

Matamata - -

Nilotica - -

Common Name.

Common Tortoise.

Written Fresh-water Tortoise.

Three-striped Box Tortoise.

Striped Turtle.

Matamata.

Nilotic Trionyx or Soft Tortoise.

CHARACTERS OF THE GENERA.

1. TESTUDO (Lat. testa, a shell). Back-plate and breast-plate firmly
united, the former arched, the latter nearly flat ; dorsal plates thirteen,
pectoral twelve ; head and legs retractile within the back-plate ; head deep,
obtuse ; jaws horny, serrated ; legs club-like ; toes immoveable, enveloped
in a common skin, five in front and four behind, their nails large, conical,
blunt, and attached around the front of the extremity of each foot.

2. EMYS. Breast-plate consisting of two equal-sized pieces moving on
each other, or of two unequal-sized pieces, of which the anterior only is
moveable, or of three pieces, of which the anterior and posterior move upon
the fixed middle piece ; beak homy ; scales of the disc thirteen ; toes
distinct, slightly webbed, and furnished with long, sharp claws.

3. STERNOTH<ERTJS. Characters as above ; that part only of the breast-
plate being moveable, which is anterior to its bony junction with the back-
plate.

4. CHELONIA. Bony covering too small to receive the head and feet ;
feet long, especially the fore feet ; toes united by a membrane. The several
pieces of the Plastron not well denticulated, the intervals of which are filled
with cartilage.

5. CHELYS. Envelope small; head and feet large; elongated nose;
mouth widely cleft.

6. TRIONYX. Back and breast-plate not completely sustained by bone,
but covered with a soft skin ; lips fleshy ; muzzle elongated and trumpet-
shaped; neck long and completely retractile; tail short, and the vent
opening at its extremity; feet not lengthy but webbed, each furnished
with three clawed toes.

CHELONIA. — DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIES.

TESTUDO — Land Tortoise. These animals are found in almost all parts
of the world except Australia, living in dry districts, and during winter
bury themselves deep in the earth. On account of the shortness of their
legs they move slowly and awkwardly. They feed on vegetables and fruit,
and lay but few eggs, which, however, have hard, unyielding, calcareous
shells, and are deposited in holes in the ground.

Tortoise : under surface.

The largest of the species is the
Tortoise (T. Indica), its back-plate mea-
suring from three feet to four feet five
inches; and the smallest and most elegant
of the family is the Geometric Tortoise,
which is generally about five and a half
inches in length, four in width, and three
and a half in height. The sizes of the
other species range between these.

The illustrated specimen, the Common Tortoise (T. Graeca), is from ten
to twelve inches in length, and lives in the woods or on elevated soils, is
very fond of warmth and sunshine, and feeds both on the roots of herbs,
fruits, insects, and worms, and also on snails, the shell of which it easily
breaks with its strong jaws. It is often kept in gardens, as it does no
mischief, but destroys noxious insects. In October, they bury themselves
as deep as two feet under ground, become torpid, and do not appear
again till April. They are long-lived. This species inhabits the islands
and the countries bordering on the Mediterranean, and it is the most common
in Europe. Their eggs are eaten as food, and the young ones also by the
Greeks, who consider them as much lenten fare as fish. It is this species
which was placed by the Grecian sculptor Phidias at the feet of his Venus,
as an emblem of gentleness.

EMYS — Marsh Tortoise. A most extensive family, numbering seventy-
four species, according to M. Bibron. Their general characteristics are
those of the genus Testudo ; their shell is, however, flatter, their toes are
more widely separated, and they are webbed, and armed with long sharp
nails. They tenant swamps, lakes, ponds, and small rivers, and owing to
the structure of their feet, they swim with considerable facility. They are
also active on land, but they do not venture far from the water. They
are carnivorous, preying on insects, frogs, newts, and even fishes. Some
of the species (e. g., the Alligator Tortoise) are large and ferocious, and
dangerous even to man.

STERNOTHffiRUS. The illustrated species, the Three-striped Tortoise,
(Terrapene Trifasciatus) has a long, narrow head, somewhat depressed,
with a lengthy beak ; from each nostril passes across the orbit to the back
of the head, where they join, a deep brown band; neck long, ashy above
and yellow beneath ; dorsal plate oval, broader behind, its margin slightly
indented, and the dorsal ridge carinated ; its horny plates very thin, slightly
wrinkled, and striated on their edge; marginal plates twenty-five; hind
part of the breast-plate notched, and so close to the back-plate as to render
the posterior aperture for the thighs very narrow ; tail long and slender ;
general colour of the back-plate light dull yellow, intermixed with ml and
black markings; breast-plate black, with a light edge and o nin . Tinw-
are three other species.

CHELONIA. The species are the KdiUe, or Green Turtle (T. Midas ) ; the
Imbricated Turtle, and the Hawk-billed Turtle (T. Caretta) ; also C. Mani-
losa and C. Lachrymata, nearly connected with the Edible Turtle, and the C.
Radiata and C. Virgata (Plate 1), closely allied to the Imbricated species.

The Striped Turtle (C. Virgata) has raised scales, with pointed lateral
angles, and radiating black lin

ORDER— CHAM PS I A.

FAMILY— CROCODILIA. CROCODILE.

99

All the individuals composing this genus are covered with scales, more
or less varied in colour and number, according to the different species ;
their feet are flat and webbed, and are thus adapted to serve the purpose of
oars.

CHELYS. This genus is distinguished from the Emydes by the characters
given above, and by the absence of the horny beak which characterise the
Testudina.

The Matamata (Plate 1) is a native of Cayenne; where it frequents
lakes and rivers, preying upon water-fowl, fishes, and insects. Its flesh is
eaten by the natives as a delicacy. The carapace is depressed, with a keel
down the centre, and a furrow on each side of it; the snout is flexible,
forming a double tube ; a horny lamina? defends the jaws ; two rows of
cutaneous fringes run along the back of the neck ; an ear-like membranous
prolongation extends forward on the sides of the head ; four membranous
fringes hang from the throat, and two from the chin. The length of the
full-grown animal is about three feet.

TRIONYX. The genera Trionyx and Chelonia are those alone of the
Chelonian order which have the ribs, although consolidated in the back-
plate, distinctly visible by their elevation on the inside of the shell, and by
their free projection beyond it ; they are distinguished, however, by the
absence in Trionyx of the bony belt which forms the disc of Chelonia ;
hence the skin, which extends some distance beyond the points of the ribs,
is flexible, and capable of being acted on by muscular radiations which pass
into it, for which purpose it is not covered with scales, but the whole
surface is enveloped in an epidermal tissue, which does not offer such oppo-
sition to motion as scales would. By raising or depressing, either separately
or together, these loose folds of extended skin, the animal is enabled to
swim with great swiftness, and in a very peculiar manner, rolling itself over
and over, so that, when moving upon the surface of the water, its back and
belly are alternately seen. They prey on fish, frogs, and even young
aquatic birds.

The Nilotic Trionyx, or Soft Tortoise (the T. ^Egyptiacus of Geoffrey), is
three feet in length ; back-plate somewhat convex, and rather prominent
along the ridge of the spine ; ribs occupying a fourth part of the space
beyond the bony support ; front of the soft part of the back-plate slightly
festooned and not tubercular; the other part of the skin leathery, striated,
and rough ; its colour green, and spotted with white ; breast-plate having
its two anterior appendices very widely separated ; it has also four callo-
sities ; legs short and webbed. It is found in the Nile, though not very
common, where it is called Tyrse, and feeds upon the young crocodiles so
soon as they have burst their shell.

Skeleton of Tortoise.

k I

a, clavicle ; b, scapula ; c, femur ; d, cervical vertebra; ; e, fibula ; /, caracoid bone ;
ij, dorsal vertebra; ; h, ribs ; t, sternal ribs ; k, pelvis ; /, tibia.

ORDER II.— CHAMPSIA. CROCODILES.

THE Crocodiles had been included in the great genus Lacerta, till Cuvier
separated and formed them into a distinct genus under the name Crocoddus,
the characters of which are : — tail flat on the sides ; hind feet entirely or
partially webbed ; tongue attached to the bottom of the mouth and not
extensible ; teeth numerous, pointed, and single ; body covered above with
strong hard scales, and below with soft broad scales ; the eyes protected
with three eyelids. Cuvier has also divided them into three subgenera,
Gavicds, Crocodiles, and Alligators.

Family — CROCODILE ; Crocodilia.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.
PLATE 2.

Genera.

Ramphastoma -

Crocodilus - -

Champsa - -

Species.

- Gangeticus

- Vulgaris -

- Sclerops -

Common Name.

- Indian Gavial or Crocodile.

- Nilotic Crocodile.

- Spectacle Alligator.

CHARACTERS OF THE GENERA.

1. RAMPHASTOMA, or GAVIALS. Snout slender, very long, and rather
larger at the tip ; teeth almost of equal size, the fourth lower tooth on each
side received into a notch or groove in the upper jaw ; the hind feet
webbed to the tips of the toes, and notched on their outer edge ; two
small holes in the skull behind the eyes.

2. CROCODILES (Proper). Head oblong and flattened ; teeth unequal,
the fourth on either side below received into notches, but not into holes in
the upper jaw ; in other respects like the Gavicds.

3. CHAMPSA — Alligator. Snout broad and obtuse ; teeth unequal, of
which the fourth on either side in the lower jaw enters into a hole in the
upper, but not a notch; the feet are only half-webbed, and not den-
ticulated.

CHAMPSA. DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIES.

Crocodiles are both the largest and most powerful of the Saurous
reptiles ; their body is better protected with scales, and the skin of the
back especially, is so well guarded by numerous horny shields as to resist a
musket-ball : from it the negroes are in the habit of making helmets. The
scales on the back form a middle longitudinal crest, extending through its
whole length, and the tail has the crest deeply denticulated, and double at
its root ; the anterior extremities have five, and the posterior four toes, of
which the three inner only are provided with nails or claws, but all are
more or less webbed ; the eyes are placed near each other on the top of the
head and above the face, are very moveable, and protected by a nictitating
membrane or haw, besides the eyelids ; the tongue is short and thick, but
cannot be protruded from the mouth, which led the ancients to imagine
that it was wanting ; the body itself is of a pyramidal form and tapering,
covered above with four or six rows of square tubercular scales, and below
with smooth, soft, transverse, broad, horny bands, or scuta. They lay
from thirty to sixty eggs, at two or three different periods, which they bury
in the sand, and leave to be hatched by the sun ; to these the Ichneumon is
a very great enemy, and the great increase of crocodiles is only kept down
by the havoc which this animal makes amongst the eggs; and hence,
perhaps, have originated the divine honours which were paid to it by the
ancient Egyptians.

The Indian Crocodile (Plate 2) is a native of the Ganges, and probably
of the neighbouring rivers, but is not considered to be dangerous to man,
living only on fish. Its head is very broad behind ; orbits very wide, and
much separated from each other ; the cranial holes large ; twenty-five teeth
on either side above, and twenty-eight below ; length of snout about an
eighth of that of the body ; two little scales only behind the head, followed
by four placed transversely, which are continued to those of the back.

The Nilotic, or Common Crocodile (C. Vulgaris), is the largest animal of
the genus, measuring about thirty feet in length. It inhabits the Nile and
Senegal, and probably the other rivers of Africa ; but at present it is found

02

100

CLASS— REPTILIA.

ORDER— SAURIA.

in the Nile, only in Upper Egypt, where the temperature is very high, and
where the animal never becomes torpid: when it comes down in the
streams which water the Delta, according to Pliny's account, it passes the
four winter months in the caverns without nourishment. The head of
this crocodile is about twice as long as its breadth ; the holes in the skull
are broader than their length ; the snout irregular and rough ; immediately
behind the skull are four little crested scales placed transversely, and behind
them, the neck-piece composed of six crested scales ; next to them are two
single scales, followed by sixteen transverse dorsal rows ; besides these, on
each side, is a row of seven or eight crested scales ; the crested scales on
the tail do not begin to be distinct till the sixth row, and then form two
crests, which unite about the seventeenth or eighteenth row, which is the
number of caudal rows always found. In consequence of the regularity of
the scales, Cuvier says that the back of the Nilotic crocodile appears as if
paved with quadrangular stones. The colour of the back is a .greenish-
bronze, speckled with brown ; whilst that of the belly is of a greenish-
yellow. The Crocodile lays, at three or four times, not far distant from each
other, about twenty eggs, in size nearly resembling those of the Swan,
which it buries in the sand, and having covered them, leaves them to be
hatched by the heat of the sun.

The Spectacle Alligator (C. Sclerops) is the most common Alligator in
Guiana and Brazil, and is remarkable for a bony crest between the orbits ;
on the back of the neck are four very strong transverse bands, which touch
each other, and join the dorsal bands. The colour of this Alligator is
greenish, brown above, and spotted with green, and pale yellowish-green
beneath.

Alligators grow to a large size, sometimes to the length of fourteen feet ;
they are natives of South America, where they were called Caymans by
the natives. They spend the greater part of night in the water ; but
during the daytime bask in the sun upon the sands, and generally run to
the water when they see either man or dog ; in the water they are not so
timid ; for, according to De la Borde's account, at Cayenne, they will often
attempt to get into the boats which pass along the river. It is said that
these animals form a kind of hillock on the bank of the river, in which they
deposit their eggs, to the number of sixty, at two or three different periods.

ORDER HI.— SAUKIA. LIZARDS.

THE order Sauria includes a vast number of animals, varying in size from
the large and predaceous Monitor (Tupinambis), down to the beautiful
Chameleon of lands bordering on the Mediterranean, or the harmless little
Lizard of our copses. Then- form and habits are also varied. Most of
them are distinguished by their Snake-like tongue — slender, extensible,
forked ; by their long body, and by their rapid gait ; by their five toes,
which are armed with claws, and by the scales under their belly being dis-
posed in parallel transverse lines. They are bright-eyed and adorned with
resplendent colours.

Family — LIZARD-LIKE; Lacertidae.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.

PLATE 3.

Genera.

Species.

Tupinambis - ... Nilotica
Lacerta -....- Ocellata •

Common Name.

- - - - Nilotic Ouaran.

- ... Eyed Lizard.

CHARACTERS OF THE GENERA.

1. TtTPTNAMBis. Head oblong, pyramidal; teeth in both jaws ; tongue
forked, extensible ; upper part of the body covered with very minute hex-
agonal or rounded scales, disposed in bands; belly covered with small
.square scales ; tail as long as the body, thick, cylindrical at its base, taper-
ing towards its tip ; in some there are, and in others there are not femoral
pores; hind legs longest and stoutest; all furnished with five distinct
slender toes, having little curved claws.

2. LACERTA. Head oblong, pyramidal, covered with a few scales ; palate
armed with two rows of teeth ; tongue forked, extensile ; aural opening

oblong, deep; a collar of transverse broad scales, separated by other smaller
ones from those of the belly, which arc square and disposed in from six to
ten rows ; upper part of the body covered with numerous transverse rows
of small scales ; tail as long as the body, the scales disposed in rings, without
either crest or keel above ; hind feet longer than those in front, all five-toed,
distinct, and armed with little claws, the little toe of the hind feet placed on
the side a little below the others ; under each thigh a row of little grains or
scaly tubercles, which are porous.

Other Genera of this Family : — Chalcides, Pygopus, Tachydronuis.

LACERTIDA.' — DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIES.

TDPINAMBIS. The species are numerous, and are divided into Ouarans
and Teyous; the former of which have the head, limbs, belly, and tail
covered with numerous small scales, which, ranged in a double row, form a
sort of crest upon the tail, in some species very distinct, but in others scarcely
visible ; no femoral pores. In the latter, the head is covered with angular
scales ; the throat skin is disposed in a double fold and overspread with
small scales ; the belly and the tail furnished with large rectangular scales ;
and on each thigh is a row of pores.

The Nilotic Ouaran (Plate 3) measures from three to three and a half
feet in length, of which the tail is one-half, according to Isidore St. Hilaire,
but Cuvier states that it sometimes measures five or six feet from the muzzle
to the tip of the tail. The upper part of the head is dusky, and the back
seems marbled only with green and black, but on closer observation, the
black is disposed in spots of various form, the greater number of which are
merely simple black lines, surrounding a paler space, in the middle of which
are found also some black scales ; under part of the body greenish ; sides of
the tail indistinctly banded with black and green. This species lives on tin-
banks of the Nile, and is often seen in the river itself. It is very predaceous,
attacking all the little animals it can master with great avidity ; and if irri-
tated hisses loudly, and endeavours to bite or to strike with its tail.

LACERTA. The true Lizards are distributed very generally over the earth ;
they are lively, elegant little animals, running and skipping alxmt with great
agility, and climbing trees and perpendicular walls as easily as if running on
a flat surface : in the warm weather they may be seen basking in the sun,
but when it becomes cold they return to their holes, where they remain
throughout the winter. They are monogamous, and exhibit great attachment
to each other. They feed principally on insects, but the larger species occa-
sionally rob birds' nests of their eggs, and even destroy the young. None
of them are amphibious, a mode of life for which their cleft toes and rounded
tail render them incompetent. Some persons have supposed Lizards to be
poisonous ; but the experiments of Laurenti, who exposed birds to the bite
of the Lacerta Viridis, have proved this to be an absurd opinion ; but when
attacked they bite severely. There are several species.

The Eyed Green Lizard (Plate 3) is the largest of the genus, being rather
more than a foot in length ; the belly is of a spotless light yellow ; the whole
of the upper parts, the neck, and limbs are covered with zigzag lines, points,
and circlets of a beautiful bright green on a black ground ; the sides are
bright green marked with eight or ten transverse double stripes; the tail
brownish, but deeper at its root, and speckled with numerous green dots.
This Lizard is found in all the southern countries of Europe, and not un-
commonly in Switzerland and France, occasionally even in Sweden and
Kamtschatka.

CHALCIDES. The generic term Chalcides was employed by Pliny t< > desig-
nate a species of Lizard, which had certain stripes on the back of a brassy
colour. The Chalcides seem to form a connecting link between the Sauria
and the Ophidia by their much-lengthened body, and the distance at which
the anterior are placed from the posterior extremities.

Chalcydes.

FAMILY— I G U AN I D A. IGUANAS.

101

PYGOPUS. This genus is nearly allied to Bipes, from which it is distin-
guished by its members having only a single toe to each.

TACHYDEOMUS. This genus of reptiles is distinguished from all other of
the Lizard family by liaviiig the body and tail verticillated. Their country
is not known.

Family — IGUANAS ; Iguanida.

The Iguanas bear a strong resemblance to the Lizards in their general
conformation ; their tail is long, their toes are few and unequal, and their
eye and ear are also similar ; but they have thick tongues, non-extensile,
and notched only at the tip.

Species.

Common Name.

Stcllio Vulgaris ----- Common Stellion.

Draco Lineatus Striped Dragon.

Iguana Tuberculata - - - Common Guana.

Anolis ----- Capensis ----- Cape Anolis.

Other Genera of this Family : — Basilicns, Polychrus, Sitana, Trapelus,
Tropidurus, Uromastix.

CHARACTERS OF THE GENERA.

1. STELLIO (Lat. stella, a star). Head broad and depressed; mouth
wide ; jaws armed with a single row of very small close-set teeth, but
none in the palate ; tongue short, fleshy, and not extensible ; eyes very
large ; eyelids short ; body full, low on the limbs, the belly dependent and
more bulky in the middle; no dorsal crest; tail varying in length; feet
of moderate size, and toes of nearly equal length, sometimes expanded
wholly or partially, sometimes webbed, their retractile nails contained each
in a groove.

2. DRACO (Gr. SpaKiav, a Dragon). Body covered with small scales;
two membranous wings ; head rounded, muzzle rather obtuse ; each jaw
provided with four small incisive teeth, and one long pointed cuspid, and a
dozen tricuspid molar teeth on each side ; a pendulous inflatable skin under
the throat, a smaller one on each side of the neck ; tail long, thin, and
flexible, covered obliquely with carinated scales, like the meshes of a net.

3. IGUANA. Head slightly resembling a cone with four faces ; jaws
furnished with numerous narrow, triangular teeth, two other rows on the
back of the palate ; tongue fleshy, broad, notched at its tip, extensile ;
under the throat the skin is pendulous ; body and tail encircled with
numerous rings, each composed of several small squarish scales, overlap-
ping each other ; along the ridge of the back and the tail a row of thin
lancet-shaped spines ; legs strong, toes five on each foot, deeply cleft, and
tipped with strong hooked claws ; a row of tubercular follicles on the
thighs.

4. ANOLIS. General characters same as before, with this distinguishing
peculiarity, that the skin of the toes widen under the antepenultimate
phalanx into an oval disk.

For a general description of the " other Genera" see further on.

IGUANIDA. DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIES.

STELLIO. In the flatness and breadth of the head of these animals they
have some resemblance to the family of Crocodiles among Saurous reptiles,
but still more to the Tailed Batrachians, viz., the Tritons and Salamanders :
the tongue is distinguished from that of the Crocodiles by its breadth and
the slight cleft of its tip, which is free and capable of protrusion from the
mouth, but it is not completely protractile as in the Skinks and Lizards,
and more nearly in this respect resembles the family of the Iguanas. The
eyes have only cutaneous folds supplying the place of eyelids, which are
capable of retraction behind the ball of the eye, distinguishing them from
all others of the Saurous reptiles ; in many of them the pupil is vertical
and linear in a strong light, just as is the pupil of the Cat.

The Common Stellio (S. Vulgaris) measures about a foot in length, and
is spread over the whole of the Levantine countries ; it is found concealed
in crevices of old walls, ruins, and masses of mouldering stones. Its general
colour is olive shaded with black, the under parts being yellow, or olive
yellow. It feeds on insects of all kinds. The Mahometans persecute and

kill it with religious zeal, because of a curious motion of its head, which
they suporstitiously believe is in mockery of their bending down in their
devotional exercises.

DRACO — Dragon. The three species composing this genus, the Striped
Dragon (D. Lineatus), D. Viridis, and D. Fuscus, are remarkable for the
pair of wings or membranous expansions attached to the sides of the body,
which are produced by the six upper false ribs being extended laterally
instead of encircling the body, and covered with membrane; they are
moveable like a fan, upwards and downwards, at the will of the animal,
but when at rest they remain in the horizontal position. They are found
in the hottest regions of Africa and India.

The Iguana.

The Dragon.

IGUANA. The Guanas
are natives of the Tor-
rid Zone, and vegetable
feeders; they are not
poisonous, but bite hard,
and will not quit their
hold till they have bitten
away the piece they
have caught in their
teeth. Five species are
enumerated.

The illustrated species (Plate 3) is the Common Guana (I. Tubercu-
lata), a native of Brazil, Cayenne, the Antilles, and the Bahamas ; it grows
to a considerable size, sometimes measuring six feet in length, including the
tail. Its flesh is eaten and esteemed by many as a luxury, it being delicate
and easy of digestion ; indeed it formed at one time a great part of the
subsistence of the inhabitants of the Bahama Islands. They feed on vege-
tables and fruit, and on a particular fungus which grows at the roots of
some trees. Their general colour is dark green, tinged with olive, and
occasionally with blue ; the tail is mixed alternately with brown and green,
and the sides of the neck are covered with tubercles.

ANOLIS. This is an American genus, of which there are, according to
Bibron, twenty-five distinct species. They are insectivorous, but sometimes
satiate their hunger with berries ; they are very timid, restless, and curious,
fond of music, of which boys take advantage in order to catch them, which
they do by throwing a loop over their head, having first arrested their
attention with musical sounds. They frequent woods and rocky places,
running or leaping with much agility ; they are small and of slender make :
their toes furnished with hooked claws assist them in climbing the branches
of trees, or in making their way over stones. The skin of the throat forms
a pendulous dewlap, capable of being inflated, which is always the case
when the animal is excited through fear or anger. In one species, the
Anolis Bvllaris, the dewlap when dilated is of a bright cherry red.

Cape Anolis (A. Capensis) is figured on Plate 3.

Cuvier has subdivided them into, 1. Broad-fingered; 2. Half-fingered;
3. Furrowed-fingered ; 4. Fan-fingered; and 5. Broad-tailed Geckos. See
Gecko.

BASILISCUS. This genus consists of two species, the Basilisk (B. Cucul-
latus), and the Ambonia Basilisk (B. Amboinensis). They have a sharp
scaly crest or fin supported by the vertebral spines, and extending more
or less along the back and tail, and attached probably to the spinous pro-
cesses of the vertebrae, and which is capable of being elevated or depressed
at pleasure.

102

CLASS— RE FT I LI A

ORDER— SAURIA.

POLYCHRCS. This genus is intermediate between the Againas and Geckos.
Like the Chameleon it has the power of changing the colour of its skin,
probably depending, as in that animal, on the great size of its lungs, which
extend throughout nearly the whole length of the body.

SITANA. General colour tawny, marked along the back with a row of
large, rhomboidal, brown patches. It is distinguished from the genus Draco,
to which it is nearly allied, by a large kind of dewlap which extends from
the throat nearly to the middle of the belly, and is twice as deep as the
animal's height ; its false ribs also do not project laterally to support the
skin and form the so-called wings of the Dragon.

TKAPELUS. General form and teeth similar to those of Agama ; scales
smooth, not spiny, and extremely small. They have been separated by
Cuvier from the Agama on account of the minuteness and smoothness of
their scales, and of the teeth resembling those of the Stellioms, to which
they are more nearly allied.

TROPIDURUS. The animal which forms this genus (T. Torquatus) is
distinguished from the Levant Stellion by the absence of the throat-sac, and
by the scuta which cover the top of the head. It is one of the most common
Lizards hi the eastern part of Brazil, and lives in dry, sandy, or stony dis-
tricts, where it is called by the general name Lagarta, or Lizard.

UROMATRIX. This genus, often called Bastard Stellions, is distinguished
from the Stellions by the flatness of its head, by the smoothness of its scales,
and by the pores on its thighs. The four teeth in the intermaxillary bone
of the young annual become subsequently consolidated into a single one.
The scales on the trunk are generally small, rhomboidal, smooth, equal
sized, and slightly imbricated, but occasionally there are found little granular
scales, intermingled with others of larger size. The toes are large, short,
cylindrical, covered above with one row, and on the sides with two rows of
rhomboidal scales, the first four toes of each foot graduated. The scales
covering the tail are quadrilateral, and of these the upper are almost all sur-
mounted with a triangular spine on one of their hind corners. They are
natives of Africa.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.

PLATE 4.
Family — GECKOS ; Geckotida.

The Geckos are nocturnal in their habits, hence they are furnished with
large eyes, the pupils of which, like those of Cat's eyes, shrink from the
light ; they have not the attenuated form of Lizards ; their gait is slow
and stately, their feet being of mean length ; their skin is granulated with
minute scales, and their tail has circular folds.

Genus.
Gecko

Species.
jEgyptiacus

Common Name.
- - Egyptian Gecko.

Family — CHAMELEONS ; Chamcekonida.

The family Chamaeleonida is one of the most remarkable among animals ;
the sympathy of the two sides of their entire system is of so diminished a
character that one side may be of one colour and the other of another ; or
one side may be asleep and the other side awake at the same time ; while
their eyes, which are large and nearly covered with the skin, act inde-
pendently of one another. The vastness of their lung is such that when
inflated with air, the animal is rendered transparent.

Chamaeleo - - - Vnlgaris ... - Common Chameleon.

Family — SCINKS ; Scincoida.

The Scink family are distinguished by their tongue, which is non-
extensile ; by the equality of the scales which overspread their body and
tail, and by the shortness of their feet.

Scincus ..
Seps

Bipes - .
Chirotes - -

.. Officinalis -

Tridactylns
.. Lepidopus
- - Propus.

.. Official Scink.

.. Three-toed.

.. Scaly-footed Biped.

CHARACTERS OF THE GENERA.

1. GECKO. Same as STELLIO above; but besides their distinct toes,
which are always furnished with t\vo or more nulls, they have not any
fringe on the sides of the body, tail, or limbs.

1. CHASLELEO (Gr. ^a/jiatXiov). (Skin capable of change of colour,
studded with scaly grains ; body compressed ; tail round and prehensile ;
head irregularly rhomboidal, presenting eight faces ; tongue long, vermiform,
and much expand.'!! at the tip; teeth trilobed ; eyes large, covered with
skin, which is pierced by a small hole in the centre opposite the pupil, mid
moveable independent of each other ; ear hardly visible ; feet pentedactvluus,
two of the toes joined together by a membrane extending as far as the
claws, and the other three united in like manner apart, so as to form two
distinct sets of toes on the same foot.

1. SCINCUS (Gr. <r«'y*:o£, SkinK). Body elongated, spindle-shaped, cylin-
drical, covered with imbricated scales ; head oblong ; jnws armed with
small close-set teeth; the tongue fleshy, and slightly forked at the tip;
tympanum more or less distinct, its anterior edge sometimes furnished with
a toothlike process; tail short or very long, cylindrical, and generally
covered with imbricated scales — in some species, however, it has transverse
plates on its under surface ; legs short and slender, having five distinct toes
of equal or nearly equal length, and terminated with short nails.

2. SEPS (Gr. O-J/TTO), / putrefy). Head small, obtuse, covered with
scuta; tympanal membrane distinct, and behind the maxillary joint ; tongue
thick, short, and cleft at tip ; neck, body, and tail long, slender, and cylin-
drical, covered with round imbricated scales ; front and hind limbs far
apart, slender and short, and terminating each in one, three, four, or five
very small toes ; viviparous.

3. BIPES. Hind feet only visible ; ears very distinct.

4. CHIROTES (Gr. x£',°> a hand). Two small feet before, none behind.

GECKOTIDA, CHAM^LEONIDA, SCINCOIDA. DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIES.

GECKO. This genus is said to derive its name, Gecko, from a peculiar
cry made by one of its species which inhabits Batavia, according to Bontius ;
it is of a thicker form
than the other lizards ;
the feet are very re-
markable, from the un-
der part of the toes
being covered with such
fine folds of skin, as to
enable them to walk on
the ceiling; their nails,
which are wanting in
some species, are re-
tractile in different ways,
for the purpose of preserving their points, and to give them a better grasp ;
the pupil of the eye contracts very much in the light, like those nocturnal
animals who pass the day in their holes. They are a very numerous genus,
and scattered over the warm countries of both continents. They have been
accused of being poisonous, in consequence of their dull air and partial
resemblance to the salamanders and toads ; but the charge is without
foundation.

The illustrated species, the Egyptian Gecko, is about eighteen inches and
a quarter in length, and is distinguished from the Wall Gecko by the
anterior edge of the external auditory passage being more distinctly toothed,
by the tubercles on the upper part of the body being smooth, conical, and
further apart, whilst those on the sides of the body and limbs are rather
small, and distributed in four longitudinal rows ; it is marked between the
two shoulders with four white spots disposed in a square, and widely but
irregularly surrounded with black ; sometimes the front two approach so
closely as to unite. It is a native of Egypt.

Gecko.

ORDER— OP HID I A.

FAMILY— SNAKES.

103

The Chameleon.

CHAM/ELEO. The Chamceleon was known to the ancients, and celebrated
for its Protean colours and the power of living upon air, which they
believed it possessed, as we find in Ovid —

" Id quoque quod ventis animal nutritur et aura,
Protinus assimilat tfti^it qiioscunque colores."

Its power of living on
air is, of course, fabulous ;
and it may be often seen
catching flies, by darting
out its long tongue, which
is expanded at the tip, and
covered with a strong glu-
tinous secretion for that
purpose ; the mechanism
by which the tongue is
thrown out is similar to that which belongs to the tongue of the Wood-
pecker.

It does not assume the colour of any substance near which it may be
placed, as supposed by the older naturalists; but its change of colour,
which is very frequent, has given rise to a notion, that it has no proper
colour of its own ; this, however, is not the case, as will be seen by ex-
amining the different species, each of which has its peculiar colour, to
which it returns in a short time after the accidental changes to which it is
subject.

The animal has the power of inflating considerably every part of the
body, even the paws and tail so as to double its size ; this is done by gentle
irregular efforts, and when completely filled with air it will remain so for a
couple of hours ; after which it returns to its natural size, though much
more slowly than it dilated.

It cannot run, but moves very slowly, resting a short time after every
step, as if to be sure its footing were firm.

It is a very harmless gentle animal, living among the branches of trees,
where it lies in ambuscade, to catch the unwary insects which may happen
to come within its reach. In the winter it hides itself in the clefts of rocks,
under stones, &c., and becomes torpid. It lays from nine to twelve eggs
of an oval shape, covered with a thin membrane, similar to that which
covers the eggs of the Sea Tortoises and the Iguana. This genus is found
in its native state only in Asia and Africa.

The Common Chamelion (C. Vulgaris) is about eighteen inches long, of
which the tail occupies half the length ; its general colour is an ashy brown.
A native of Egypt and Barbary ; and, according to Cuvier, of Spain also.

SCINCUS — SkinL This genus is easily distinguished from most others of
the Saurian reptiles by the elliptical or roundish scales, which are imbricated
like those of the Carp, except on the tails of a few species, and entirely cover
the body. Like the Lizards their head is covered with scaly plates, and
some have a row of pores upon the thighs. The head and neck run so
completely into each other that it is not possible to distinguish them. The
body varies in form in different species ; in some it is spindle-shaped, and
in others regularly cylindrical, more or less lengthened, so as to resemble
the Serpent family, and especially the Blind-worms, Anguis, with which
their internal structure possesses many similar characteristics. The tail
varies considerably, sometimes it is short, thick, and conical, at other times
very long, tapering, and extremely slender towards the tip. They are found
in the warmer climates of both the old and new world, inhabiting dry
and rocky places, fond of basking in the sun, and pursuing the small insects,
on which they feed with great avidity, especially those species which have
very long tails. They have lain, at least some of them, under the imputa-
tion of being venomous ; but as no authenticated instance has yet been
adduced of any injury having been sustained from them, it is not very im-
proper to consider this as a vulgar prejudice.

The species are divided into two classes : 1. True Skinks, having two
rows of palatine teeth, and a toothlike process on the anterior edge of the
tympanum ; 2. Skinks, without palatine teeth (the Tiliqua of Gray).

The Officinal Skink (Plate 4) belongs to the True Skinks : it is about six
or eight inches in length, of which not quite a third belongs to the tail.
The general colour is more or less deep ferruginous, marked with transverse
brown bands on the back, but becoming whitish on the under part of the
Imilv; after death the colour fades, and the animal then assumes die
yellowish-white or silvery appearance it possesses when brought to Europe.
It is found in Nubia, Abyssinia, Egypt, and Arabia, and is known to t he-
Arabs by the name El Adda.

SEPS. This genus is very similar to the Skinks, but distinguished by
the long slender form of the body, in which, as well in some other respects,
it resembles the Blind-worms, Anguis, but separated from them by the
existence of limbs, and by the tympanal membrane being visible. The
variation in the number of the toes is very remarkable.

The species Three-toed Seps (S. Tridactylus) varies in size according to
the country in which it is found : in France it does not exceed five or six
inches, but in Sardinia is more than twelve ; its colour is muddy or ashy
above, with two longitudinal coppery bands on either side ; the belly is paler.
It dreads the cold ; and at the approach of winter, in Sardinia, buries itself
about October, and does not reappear till spring. It is an old and vulgar
error that this animal is venomous, hence the name Seps, which was indis-
criminately applied by the ancients to this genus and to Chalcides.

BIPES — Biped. This genus resembles generally a snake, but on closer
inspection two small moveable appendages are found, one on either side of
the vent, in which Cuvier discovered on dissection an os femoris, fibra, and
fibula, with four metatarsal bones forming fingers, which, however, have no
phalanges.

The Scaly-footed Biped (B. Lepidopus) has a tail twice as long as the
body ; it has two lines of pores near the vent ; and its feet have the ap-
pearance of two small oblong scaly plates.

CHIROTES. This genus very much resembles the genera Amphisbcma
and Chalcides, in having the body covered with circular rows of quadran-
gular scales ; but it differs from the former in having feet, and from the
latter in only having the feet before.

The only species is the C. Mexicanus (C. Propus of Plate 4), it is com-
pletely provided with a brachial apparatus ; it is about eight inches long,
as thick as the little finger, flesh-coloured, and marked with more than two
hundred demi-rings on the back, and as many on the belly, which meet
alternately on the sides ; tongue but little projective, terminating in two
horny points ; tympanum covered with skin. Native of Mexico, and feeds
on insects.

ORDER IV.— OPHIDIA. SERPENTS.

OF all Reptiles the Serpent family most deserve the name : they are desti-
tute of feet, are of great length, and they move only by means of folds in
their elongated body, which they press backward against the ground.
From the well-known venomous qualities of some of the families of this
Order, a prejudice has arisen, and still exists, against all the families com-
posing it ; hence they are all viewed with feelings of horror and aversion.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.

PLATE 5.

Family — ANGUIFORMIA.

The family Anguida, or Anguiformia, are characterised externally by im-
bricated scales, which cover them entirely ; they have a bony head ; their
teeth and tongue resemble the Seps, and they have three eyelids. They
are, as Cuvier observes, Seps-lizards without feet.

Genus. Specie.

Pseudopus Pallasii.

Family— SNAKK*.

Snakes have neither sternum nor any vestige of shoulder; nor have
they a third eyelid nor a tympanum. The vertebra? are, however, articu-
lated by a convex surface received into a concavity of the adjoining bone ;
and the ribs encircle a great part of the trunk.

Amphisbatna ----- Alba.
Tortrix Scytale.

104

CLASS— REPTILIA

ORDER— OPHIDIA.

Family — SERPENTS, or Unpoisonous True Snakes.

Genera.

Boa - - -
Python - -
Acrochordus

Specin.

- - - Constrictor.

- - - Poda.

- - - Javanensis - -

Common Name.

- Java Oularcaron.
Other Genera of these Families : — Coluber, Ophisaurus, Typhlops.

CHARACTERS OF THE GENERA.

1. PsEUDOPUS. Tongue arrowhead-shaped, notched triangularly in front,
with granulous papilla? on the smaller portion, and filiform papillae on the
larger portion of it ; teeth on the palate ; intermaxillary teeth conical and
simple, maxillary teeth subcylindrical and subtubercular ; plates on the
head ; nostrils lateral ; neck destitute of a fold.

1. AMPHISB.ENA (Gr. fyj^te, both ways, and fiaivu, to go). Head
blunt, of uniform thickness with the body ; eyes extremely small ; muzzle
like an arched beak, covered with plates ; tongue broad, notched at the
apex, and covered with papillae; teeth simple, conical, and recurved;
nostrils small and lateral.

2. TORTRIX (Lat. torqueo, I twist). Scales hexagonal, rather larger on
the belly ; mouth small, jaws not dilatable ; no poison fangs ; tail short.

1. BOA (Gr. /Sows, an ox). Under part of the body and tail covered
with rows of transverse scales or scuta, containing not more than one in
each row ; head covered with large flat scales ; no poison fangs ; tail cylin-
drical and not provided with a rattle.

2. PYTHON (so named from the great Serpent slain by Apollo). Head
covered with small scales, except between and before the eyes, where they
are much larger ; in the lips two deep pits ; body long and cylindrical ;
abdominal scuta single ; subcaudal scuta arranged in pairs ; sides of the
body and tail edged with two longitudinal rows of scales ; vent transverse
and surrounded with a double row of small scales, on each side a spur.

3. ACROCORDUS (Gr. a.Kpo\opSii>v, a wart). Head flat, covered with
small scales ; teeth small and sharp, a double row in each jaw ; no poison-
fangs ; tongue short and thick ; mouth contracted ; under jaw shorter and
broader than the upper.

ANGUIFORMIA, SNAKES, SERPENTS. — DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIES.

PSEUDOPUS. The only species known is that figured on Plate 5, namely,
the Pseudapus Pallasii. Prince Lucien Buonaparte describes the head and
anterior part of the neck as being of a greyish- ash colour ; the ground
colour of the upper part of the body chestnut, verging to redness ; the
sides an ashy hue ; while the scales are dotted with a great number of
blackish points. The posterior limbs of this animal are reduced to the
merest rudiments, being represented by two small scaly appendages. The
scales of the body are square, thick, and semi-imbricated, and they become
osseous with age. They are found in the Crimea, in Istria, the Morea,
and the whole of the southern continent of Europe.

A Mi'iiisn.KN A. This genus is so called from the facility with which the
several species can crawl tail foremost as well as in the forward direction ;
hence the natives of Surinam, Cayenne, &c., imagine that they have two
heads. They are, in general, dull and inanimate animals, and being
awkward in their movements, their appearance is rendered very unattractive.
They are perfectly harmless, and if handled will merely twist their bodies,
and open their mouths, but make no attempt to bite. They bore into the
soft earth and feed on termites, ants, and insects. There are ten species,
one of which, the ^V^ute Amphisbcena (A. Alba), is figured on Plate 5.

TORTRIX. This genus was separated from Anguis, Lin. by Oppel, on
account of the scales beneath the body and tail being larger than on the
other parts, and from the shortness of the tail. There are three or four
species, all natives of America.

The Tortrix Scytale, Plate 5, measures from two to two and a half feet in
length ; ground colour white tinged with yellow, and encircled with about
sixty bands, black and broken. It is principally found in Cayenne and
Surinam, where, although harmless, it is much dreaded from its resemblance
to the Flaps Lemiiiscata. It feeds on worms, caterpillars, and flies.

BOA. The name given to this genus is derived either in consequence of
their great size, or from a fable of Pliny, who says, " that they attach them-
to the teats of cows, for the purpose of sucking their milk:" this
latter notion, however, is so ridiculous as to require no further comment.
The genus formerly included all serpents, venomous or not, the under part
of whose body and tail were furnished with single transverse scales, and
not possessed of anal claws, nor rattles on the tip of the tail ; but they are
now much reduced in number by the venomous serpents being excluded.
They are found principally in the Indies, living in marshy places. They
watch for their prey by the banks of rivers, and seizing it with their mouth,
throw around it several coils of their body and squeeze it to death. When
the animal is quite dead, the Boa unwreathes itself anil prepares to gorge
it, by first smearing it over with saliva, and then insinuating its jaws over
it, till by degrees it is entirely swallowed.

Cuvier has divided the genus into three subgenera, the Boas properly M .
called, the Eryx and the Erpeton.

The Boa Constrictor, Plate 5, is one of the largest animals of the genus,
lieing occasionally found of twenty-five or thirty feet in length ; it is recog-
nised by a long chain of large black spots, irregularly hexagonal, upon a
yellowish-grey or grey ground, extending along the back, and having on
either side numerous triangular spots with their points downwards ; the
head marked above with a large longitudinal band, and a smaller lateral
one crossing the eyes towards the neck. It inhabits India, Africa, and
South America.

PYTHON. This genus was separated from the Boce by Daudin on
account of the collar of scales surrounding the vent, and of the subcaudal
scuta being mostly or entirely in pairs instead of single. Cuvier thinks that
some of them acquire as great size as any of the Boa;. All of them are
natives of India.

The figured species, Plate 5, the Python Poda of Bengal, is about two feet
nine inches in length. The upper part of the head is flesh-coloured, as is
also an oblique streak on each side of the neck ; muzzle ashy ; on the occi-
put a brown mark, divided by a flesh-coloured stripe ; body and tail ashy.
marked with about thirty large, broad, brown spots, edged with black, of
various form and size ; sides similarly spotted, but each spot having a
white dot in the middle; under part of the tail varied with white and
black. It possesses great power in its body and tail ; and, Russell mentions,
would grasp the arm of the person who heid it by the neck so firmly as to
numb it.

ACROCHORDUS. A genus which derives its name from a remarkable
warty appearance of the skin, caused by the arrangement of the scales
separate from one another, and marked each with three ridges : these when
inflated give the appearance indicated by the generic name. The species,
A. Javanensis (Plate 5), has been described by Lacepede, Lescherhault,
and others : its average length is from six to ten feet ; its form is peculiar,
the body being gradually enlarged from the neck to the base of the tail,
which is both short and slender. Its throat is capable of enormous dila-
tation. It has no poison-fangs. The general colour of the animal is
black above, greyish-white beneath and on the sides, which are spotted
with black. According to Hornstedt this animal subsists altogether on
fruits, which if true is contrary to the habits of all other known specie:-.
Cuvier, however, doubts the assertion.

COLUBER. These, according to Cuvier's arrangement, include all those
Snakes which have the scales on the under part of the tail arranged in
pairs, at whatever part of the tail they may be found, either throughout
its whole length, at its base, or at its tip ; they are none of them venoi

OPHISAURUS. This, as well as the genus Anguis, forms the link con-
necting the two orders Ophidia and Sauria; like the latter order they
possess eyelids which the Snakes have not, and indeed seem to be little
different from the genus Seps, except in being deprived of feet. They are
found only in the New World, and are remarkable for the extreme fragility
of their tail ; they prefer the retired and swampy parts of extensive woods,
and feed on insects, worms, and other small animal-.

FAMILY— POISONOUS SNAKES.

105

TYPHLOPS. This genus has great resemblance in the disposition of its
scales to the Blind Worms, Angues. Their general form is very similar
to Earth Worms ; they live in the ground, and feed on ants and termites,
which is perhaps the reason of their eyes being protected with so thick skin.

POISONOUS SNAKES.

The Venomous Serpents are divided into two sections, viz., those having
poisonous isolated fangs, and those with fangs accompanied by several
maxillary teeth. The latter have a close resemblance in the construction
of their jaws to those of the Unpoisonous Snakes, their upper jaw-bone
being large, long, and furnished with a row of strong curved teeth ; while
in the former the jaw-bone is short, thick, and armed with one or two very
large curved hollow teeth. In the most deadly venom-snakes the poison-
fangs acquire a large size, and are more strongly curved backwards than
the ordinary teeth.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.

PLATE 6.
Family — FANGED POISONOUS SNAKES.

Genera.

Species.

Common Name.

Crotulus - - - - Horridus - - - - Banded Rattle-snake.

Vipera ----- Berus.

Cerastes - Hasselquistii.

Naja ----- Lutescens - - - Yellowish-hooded Snake.

Tnmeresurus - - Microcephalus.

family — FANGLESS POISONOUS SNAKES.

Pelamis vel Pelamides - - Bicolor - - - Bicoloured Sea Serpent.
Pseudo-boa seu Bongarus - Fasciatus.

Family — NAKED SNAKES; Nudes.

This family is composed of but one genus, the Ccecilians ; whose smooth
and viscid skin appearing naked, has suggested the title by which they are

designated.

Coecilia - - - - Glutinosa.
Other Genera of these Families : — Hydrophis, Trigonocephalus.

CHARACTERS OF THE GENERA.

1. CROTALUS (Gr. KporaXov, a rattle). Single transverse scaly plates
along the belly and tail ; extremity of latter furnished with a rattle, composed
of numerous rings of horn received within, and moveable upon each other ;
poison-fangs on each side of the upper jaw.

2. VIPERA (Gr. "nnrw, I hurt). Head depressed, vertex in some covered
with scuta, in others scaly; no depression before the eyes; body scaly
above ; abdominal scuta single, subcaudal in pairs ; solid teeth in the palatine
and inferior maxillary bones ; in the superior maxillary, poison-teeth only.

3. CERASTES. Nearly the same as Vipera.

4. NAJA (from the Indian word Nagou, a poisonous Snake). Poison-fangs
in the upper jaws, enclosed in a doubling of the gums, when at rest ; mouth
extensible ; nose truncated, back of the head wide ; head covered with large
scales; neck opposite the space included between the sixth and twelfth
abdominal scales dilatable into a kind of hood supported by the ribs ; beneath
the tail a double row of scales.

5. TRIMERESURUS (Gr. rpi/u'pijc, divided into three parts, and ovpa, a tail).
Upper jaw furnished with poison-fangs ; abdominal scuta entire ; caudal
scuta near the vent in pairs, towards the middle the same but larger, and
near the tip smaller pairs.

1. PELAMIS (Gr. TTT/XOC, mud). Body long, slightly cylindrical, and
terminating in a flattened, obtuse tail ; body, head, and tail covered with
small scales ; tongue short and thick ; vent single and without hooks.

2. PSEUDOBOA (Gr. i^eujj/c, spurious, and Boa, a kind of Snake). Body
covered with hexagonal scales ; ventral and caudal plates simple ; poison-
fangs short and prominent, when the mouth is closed received into cavities
in the lower jaw.

1. CCECILIA (Lat. axcus, blind). Body long and cylindrical, covered
with a finely-granulated skin ; head depressed ; eyes very small ; teeth
small, pointed, and numerous ; no poison-fangs.

FANGED, FANGLESS, AND NAKED SNAKES. — DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIES.

CROTALUS — Rattle Snake. Of this venomous genus fortunately there are
but few species, and these are all provided with a kind of rattle, whence
they derive their name, the noise of which gives warning of their proximity
to those who may accidentally come within their haunts. The body of the
Rattle Snake is of a lengthened cylindrical form, diminishing in size toward*
the tail, and covered above with numerous carinated scales, whilst the belly
is defended with narrow, single, transverse scales, extending from below the
neck to the tip of the tail. The head is large and fiat, of a triangular sliape,
and covered from between the edges with scales similar to those on the back,
whilst those on the muzzle and those which cover the eyes are larger, and
in the form of plates : the mouth is wide, and the upper lip pierced by a
little groove behind each nostril ; in the upper jaw on each side is placed
the poison-fang, which is curved and sharp, about an inch in length, with
a hole about the eighth of an inch from its point, through which the poison
is ejected ; the poison-fangs are contained in a sheath, and thrown out with
considerable violence at the pleasure of the Snake. The poison of the Rattle
Snake is very virulent, particularly if the Snake be in health.

An account has been given, by an American writer, of a farmer, who,
whilst mowing, accidentally trod upon a Rattle Snake, which bit him through
his boot, and he died very soon after. A few days subsequently one of his
sons put on the same boots, was seized with the same symptoms on pulling
them off in the evening, and died on the following day. His effects were
disposed of by sale, and a neighbour bought the boots ; after wearing them
he also was attacked with the same symptoms, but under medical treatment
recovered. In consequence of this, it was thought right to examine the
boots carefully, and in one of them was found the fangs of the Snake with '
the poison-bags still adhering to them, and it appeared that these three per-
sons had scratched themselves in pulling off the boots. Catesby states that
the danger more materially depends on the severity of the bite than on any
other cause ; that he has known persons bitten survive many hours, but where
the fang had pierced an artery or vein, inevitable death ensued in less than
two minutes.

The power of fascination ascribed to the Rattle Snake is now much ques-
tioned ; the opinion of Dr. Barton, of Philadelphia, that the story of fascination
has arisen from the fears and cries of birds and other animals, in protection
of their nests and young, being pretty generally adopted.

Rattle Snakes are viviparous ; they are affected by music ; are eaten by
the Indians, who watch them when asleep, and then pinning down their neck
with a forked stick, irritate them to bite a piece of leather, which they
forcibly pull from them till they have jerked out the poison-bags, and having
done that, they skin the animals, and cook them as we do Eels. They are
all natives of America, and have been subdivided into two subgenera, from
the head being covered either with scales, like those on the back, or with
scuta or broad plates.

Plate 6 contains an illustration of the Banded Rattle Snake (C. Horridus),
a member of the first division. It measures from five to six feet in length ;
general colour greyish, with a number of black lozenge-shaped spots, edged
with yellowish-white on the back ; tip of the tail black ; belly yellowish-
white and not spotted ; rings of the rattle from one to thirteen.

VIPERA — Viper. These animals are all oviparous ; and it is presumed by
Mr. Bell, that the membrane of the egg is broken in the act of parturition, for
he observes, " I have examined several in which the young have appeared
ready to be excluded, and have always found the investing membrane entire,
although so thin and soft as to be torn by the slightest force." They are
all poisonous, and some more highly so than other. In this country we
fortunately possess only one. During winter they retire to holes, and become
torpid, but as warm weather returns, they revive, shed their coats, and
during the heat of summer are very active, and most dangerous.

The Common Viper (V. Berus), figured on Plate 6, measures from eighteen
inches to two feet in length, of which the tail is less than one-ninth. Its
colours vary considerably, so that several species have been described, which
have proved to be merely varieties of the one under consideration. The

106

CLASS— RE PTI LI A.

ORDER— BAT EACH I A.

ground colour of the back and upper parts is sometimes dirty yellow, at
other times olive or pale ashy brown; and Bell observes, that after the .-kin
has been recently cast, the surface is sometimes iridescent. The varieties
are — the Red Viper, Black Viper, and Plumber Viper.

The Viper is found pretty generally throughout Europe, and is common
in many parts of England, frequenting chalk-pits, dry sandv wastes, and
thickets. It is said to be most numerous in the Western Isles, but in Ireland
is unknown. The Black variety is most rare, and is noted as having been
found only in Suffolk. During their hybernation, Vipers congregate together
in some retired spot, and are found tied up as it were in a knotted coil.
They feed on mice, frogs, and insects. The bite of this animal is much
dreaded, and produces in the human subject generally more frightful than
serious symptoms, though one instance is known in which a young man of
18 years of age died in St. Bartholomew's Hospital from this cause. The
severity of the symptoms varies according to the time of year, upon which
the virulence of the poison, or perhaps indeed its secretion, depends. The
bite is of little consequence if perpetrated when the animal has been roused
from its torpid state in winter. But, on the contrary, in the height of
summer, when the Viper is in its greatest state of activity, the poison is
correspondently strong.

CERASTES. The species figured on Plate 6 measures about two feet in
length, of which the tail is five inches ; the head obtuse, short, flattened, and
widening behind the eyes ; neck narrow ; body spindle-shaped ; above each
eye is a little horn, slightly curved and vertical, about two lines in length,
marked with four longitudinal grooves, and covered with a thin horny skin ;
lips edged with numerous small plates ; scales on the head and trunk oval
and carinated, those near the horns smaller than the others ; abdominal scuta
one hundred and fifty, caudal twenty-five pairs ; irides yellowish-green ;
upper surface yellowish-grey, marked with irregular deep transverse spots .
under parts yellowish-white. This species lives in holes in the sand in Egypt,
in Syria, and Arabia, and throughout the East. It is very voracious, and
often feeds till it becomes double its usual size, Bruce says the Jerboa often
becomes its prey.

NAJA — Hooded Snake. These animals possess a remarkable power of
expanding the neck into a kind of hood when irritated. This is effected by
inflation of the lungs ; and Dr. Russell says, that although the neck is thus
remarkably spread out, the expansion is not merely confined to that part,
but that it extends throughout the body, so that all the scales from the head
to the tail are separated from each other, and the skin is seen between them.
When disturbed they spring upright, raising themselves almost on the very
extremity of the tail. They are highly venomous, and cause death very
speedily after the infliction of their bite. The motions of these animals are
performed by two or three undulations of the posterior third of the body,
whilst the two anterior thirds are held erect, giving to the animal a very
majestic appearance. At present there are but two distinct species known ;
one of them, however, includes several varieties.

The Yellowish or Spectacle Hooded Snake (C. Lutescens) measures four feet
in length including the tail, which is about nine inches long ; and the circum-
ference of the body is about four inches ; the membrane of the hood, when
expanded, is about three inches wide, and upon it the scales are placed in
longitudinal rows, slightly separated from each other. The general colour
is yellowish or light brown, but in particular postures the scales assume a
bluish-ashy tinge, and those of the belly are white with a reddish tinge : the
colour of the skin beneath is white or pale orange. The most remarkable
character, however, of this species is the spectacle-like mark on the back of
the hood, consisting of two parallel black streaks, separated by an inter-
mediate white badge, marking out the rings of a pair of spectacles, slightly
separated from each other, black in the centres, and connected by a double
arc, the convexity of which faces backwards, and in each leg of the arc is a
small black spot. The form of the spectacles varies, and sometimes does
not exist at all. When the animal is at rest, and the hood not expanded,
these marks are not very striking ; but when enraged, and the hood inflated,
the scales become separated, and the spectacle figure, which is partly pro-
duced by the colour of the skin, becomes more distinct.

TRIMERESURUS. This i;enus is nearly allied to the Vipers: there are
but two species, that figured on Plate 6 being the more important one : —

T. Microcephalus, from five to eight inches in length, of which the tail is
one-eighth ; scales smooth, excepting four or five longitudinal rows on the
back, which have crests; tail very slender; colour uniform and dusky.
A native of New Holland.

PKLAMIS. The Pelamides have a near resemblance in their general form
ami habits to the Munenas, but possess neither gills nor fins, and their
motions in the water are effected solely by the undulating movements of
their tail, the flattened oar-like form of which is well adapted for sculling
them along. They teed on Mollusca, and perhaps also on small fishes.
The species are not numerous.

The Bicoloured Sea Serpent (Plate 6) is about two feet four inches in
length ; the head and body are black, with a longitudinal streak of sulphurous-
yellow passing from the cheeks along either side to within two inches of
the vent ; under part of the head and belly greyish-green, and marked on
the posterior half with little, rounded, black spots, whilst the whole tail is
irregularly badged with black, white, and yellow. This animal is seen but
rarely at Vizagapatam, where the fishermen wrongly consider it as venomous,
as it has no poison-fangs.

PSEUDOBOA. The illustrated species (P. Fasciata) is about five feet anil
five inches in length ; head small, scarcely broader than the neck, flat and
obtuse; in the upper jaw on each side a short fang ; in colour dark blue,
streaked obliquely on each side with yellow to the throat, which is also
yellow ; neck, trunk, and tail surrounded with numerous broad bands alter-
nately blue and yellow ; tip of the tail round, blunt, and blue. A native of
India. It is a very dangerous Snake, and its bite said to be inevitably mortal.

CCECILIA. This genus of animals was first distinguished and described
by Linnseus, and since his time has engaged the attention of other naturalists.
The skin seems to consist of an epidermis which is very porous, and from
which a quantity of viscid mucus is constantly flowing, and this becoming
dry gives the appearance of detached old scales. The two species best
known are natives of Guiana ; they are the C. Glutinosa (Plate 6), and the
C. Tentacvlata ; but very little is known of their habits.

HYDROPHIS (Gr. ii2wp, water, and '6<f>it;, a serpent). This group of ani-
mals are remarkable for their flat tail, which serves the purpose of an oar in
sculling them through the water. Their poisonous fangs are very distinct.

TRIGONOCEPHALUS (Gr. rpiyuvov, a triangle, and Kt<t>a\rj, a head). This
genus was included by Linnajus and others among his Colubri, but by Daudin,
Latreille, and Dumeril among the 1 iperce, but it has been formed into a
distinct genus by Oppel. In most diameters it agrees with the I!«ttl<-
Snakes (Crotali), except in not having the tail furnished with a rattle ; in
its general habits and its poisonous properties it closely resembles them.
Merrem prefers the generic title Cophias to this genus ; and Prince
Maximilian observes that the head is not triangular in all the species.

ORDER V.— BATRACHIA. FROGS.

THE Batrachians differ from the Tortoises, Lizards, and Serpents, in several
important particulars ; they either have no ribs, or but the rudiments of
them; they are destitute of scales and carapace; and they are furnished
with feet. These animals have two lungs ; and the young have gills like
fishes, which they lose on coming to maturity.

Family — TAILLESS ; Ecavdata.
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.

PLATE 7.
Genera. Species. Common Name.

Rana ----- Esculenta - - - - Edible Frog.

Ceratophria ... Varius ----- Honied Frog.

Hyla ----- Vulgaria - ... Tree Frog.

-, , iVulk'aris - ... Common Toad.

' IBombina - - - - Yellow-bellied Toad.

Pipa ----- Sorinarnensis - - Surinam Pipa.

FAMILY— EC AU DAT A. TAILLESS.

107

CHARACTERS OF THE GENERA.

1. RAMA (Celtic, ran, he cries out.) Head triangular, upper jaw armed
with a row of fine teeth on its edge, and an interrupted transverse row on
the palate ; a pair of extensible vesicles behind the angles of the lower jaw
in the male ; body of slender form ; anterior limbs furnished with four toes
distinct, posterior legs very long, powerful, and provided with five webbed
toes more or less completely ; skin generally smooth, but slightly granulated
on the belly.

2. CEUATOPHRIS. Head large ; skin granular ; tongue heart-shaped ;
upper eyelid prolonged into the form of a horn ; mouth wide ; limbs
short ; toes four ; webs small.

3. HYLA ; 4. BOFO ; 5. PIPA. Under the Linneean genus Roma are
included not only the True Frogs, but also the Tree Frogs, Toads, Pipas,
from which, however, they are

remarkably distinguished by the
following characters : the Tree
Frogs, Hyla, have a large ex-
expanded membrane at the tips
of their toes shaped like an
inverted saucer. The Toads,
Bufo, have a more bulky form, Skeleton of Frog,

shorter limbs, and no teeth in the jaws ; their ston is covered with nume-
rous warts, and behind each ear is a large mass of pores ; they crawl and
rarely leap. The Pipas, Pipa, have the body flattened, a broad triangular
head which has neither teeth nor tongue, the eyes are very small and placed
near the edge of the upper jaw ; the bony larynx is of enormous size ; each
toe of the fore foot is cleft at its tip into four small points, and the hind
feet are five-toed and strongly webbed.

ECAUDATA. — DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIES.

RANA — Frog. Like the other genera of this order, Frogs, when first
excluded from the egg, have not their perfect form, but undergo a series of
changes which are not complete till the lapse of one hundred days, and in
others, one hundred and forty days after the eggs have been first dropped
from the parent. Till the animal has assumed its perfect form, it is fur-
nished with a tail, which drops off in the last stage of the metamorphosis.
During a considerable period of its progressive change, it is entirely an
aquatic animal, and furnished with gills, and is also a vegetable feeder, but
as it approaches perfection, the gills are absorbed, lungs are produced, and
the Frogling, leaving the water, begins to feed on insects, which subse-
quently become its sole food. The progressive changes which the Tadpole
undergoes from the time it emerges from the shell, till it becomes a perfect
Frog, will be best understood by the following figures : 1. Tadpole just
born ; 2. Hinder feet produced ; 3. Anterior feet developed, and the tail
diminished ; 4. Animal perfectly formed, but with a tail ; 5. A perfect
Frog ; tail gone.

The apparatus of the tongue is very curious ; its base is attached to the
back of the lower jaw, and its tip, which is bifid, is directed backwards
when at rest ; by this position it is not only enabled to protrude its tongue
to a very considerable distance, but also to render it narrower or wider as
may suit its convenience. The tongue is bedewed with a very viscid
secretion, so that whatever it touches adheres to it. The eyes are very
prominent and convex, enabling them to see in every direction, both before
and behind, so that they easily perceive and escape from enemies, which
they have not strength to resist. Their skin is very smooth, and covered
with a slippery slime which renders them difficult to hold. Townson has

observed, from experiment, that the .skin has the power of absorbing fluids
to a very considerable extent, so as, he imagines, to preclude the necessitv
of the animal taking water by the mouth. He states, that if a Frog be
placed on moist blotting-paper, it becomes twice as heavy as before, in the
space of an hour and a half ; and, also, that fluids, instead of passing oft' by
the kidneys, are given off by transpiration through the skin.

Frogs are found in moist and marshy places among the wet grass, and
commonly by the water-side ; some prefer the water, and some the land for
the greater part of the day, but hide themselves during the heat, and come
out only towards the cool of the evening, and in the morning. During
winter-time they bury themselves in the mud at the bottom of ponds, and
pack very closely, as if to preserve the degree of heat necessary to support
life ; for, although they can bear a very low temperature, and even freezing,
according to Hearne's testimony, without the destruction of life, it is certain
they are much affected by the state of the weather, as they leave their
winter abode, and come to land earlier or later as the spring is warm or cold,
and return to it in autumn as the weather becomes cold.

Frogs are predaceous ; they feed on insects and their larvae, on worms,
small mollusca, and the spawn of fishes ; but they will not touch anything,
unless they observe it moving, and therefore presume it to be alive. They
do not hunt for their food, but sit quietly watching in some cool spot, till
their prey comes within five or six inches, when they dart on it with
unerring precision, and, striking it with their tongue, carry it into their
mouth, and swallow without masticating it. If, however, they swallow
anything which displeases, they vomit it up, as Roesel saw one do with a
wasp which he had offered it.

In England, Frogs are held en horreur, as M. Clocquet observes ; but in
France, and on many other parts of the Continent, some species are highly
prized as dainties for the table. The most approved is the Green Frog, also
called the Edible Frog (R. Esculents), which is not in season till July. It
is from two to three inches in length (Plate 7). The Brown Frog is also
eaten, especially in the central parts of France. The latter is in season much
earlier, and is generally exposed for sale in the markets, but no true
gourmand would think of a dish of Frogs before July. The whole animal
is not eaten, but only the hind quarters, which are skinned, and generally
served up with white sauce ; the taste is insipid, and not unlike the flesh of
Rabbits ; but they are not so commonly used for food in France as we
suppose. They are caught in nets, or with hooks baited with pieces of red
rag, which must be shaken to induce them to strike at it. They are de-
voured without mercy by snakes, fishes, and birds ; the Storks, especially,
are very fond of them, and were it not for them, Egypt would be overrun.
The species are numerous.

CERATOPHRIS. The Horned Frog (C. Varius) is ornamented with a
horn-like membranous prominence over each eyelid ; it is embellished
with various colours, and besides being a beautiful, is also an active little
animal. It is found in temperate and tropical countries.

HYLA. The Tree Frogs differ in nothing from the True Frogs, already-
described, but in the adaptation of their feet (see Generic Characters) for
climbing trees, or adhering to the surfaces of bodies. In summer they
climb trees in pursuit of insects, but in all other respects, their habits are
the same as the True Frogs.

BUFO — Toad. The animals forming this genus are bad leapers, their
hind feet not being elongated, like those of the Frog. They are ill-looking
little animals, being thick of body, squat, and covered with tubercles, and
they emit a fetid milky secretion from a swelling perforated with pores,
situated behind each eye.

PLite 7 contains representations of two of the species — the Common
Toad (B. Vulgaris) and the Yellow-bellied Toad (B. Bombina). The
Common Toad is a useful assistant to the gardener, by the ravages which it
makes among the beetles, caterpillars, earwigs, and slugs. The secretion
alluded to above is of an acrid nature, and is used as a means of defence
against the attacks of animals, who may venture to seize it in their mouths.
It is not true that the reptile spits poison ; nor is it embellished in the head
with a jewel, but it has instead two brilliant eyes. Dr. Buckland's opinion

p 2

108

CLASS-REPTILIA.

ORDER— B ATRACHIA.

of the alleged power of protracted existence peculiar to this animal, though
deprived of food and air, is " that they cannot live a year excluded totally
from atmospheric air; and from experiments made, by enclosing these
animals in cells cut out in oolite, that they cannot, in all probability, survive
two years, entirely excluded from food."

PIPA. Three species of this curious genus have been described; that
represented on Plate 7 being the principal.

The head of the Surinam Toad (P. Surinamensis), the Rana Pipa of
Liniid.-us, is distinctly separated from the neck, the loose skin of which
forms a kind of collar ; the head is of a dingy chestnut colour ; the body
wide, of a paler colour, and the back covered with granules, three longi-
tudinal rows of which are rather larger than the others, and which Seba
compares to pearls. In this species, Schneider has described the larynx as
bony and of enormous size, resembling in shape a triangular box, within
which are contained a pair of moveable bones, capable of closing the air
passages. It is found in Guiana, where, like the Common Toad of Europe,
it lives in dark, retired places, or on the banks of fresh water. The female
is there called pipa, and the male jprjpoZ. It is a very remarkable animal, on
account of the young undergoing their Tadpole changes on the back of the
mother, where they are placed by the male ; the skin then swells around,
and imbeds them, and there the young remain till they have undergone
their metamorphoses. During this period the mother lives in the water,
and when the young have become perfect, they leave their nests and shift
for themselves. The Pipa sometimes acquires eight inches in length, and
has great general resemblance to the Common Toad. The negroes and the
natives of Guiana make use of it for food, and consider its flesh very savoury.

Family — TAILED; Caudata.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.

PLATE 8.

Genera.

Specin.

Salamandra ... Maculosa - - -

Triton ----- Marmorata - -

Salamandrops ... Alleghanensis

Siredon - .... Aiolotl- - - -

Proteus ----- Anguinis - - -

Siren Lacertina - - -

Common Name.

Spotted Salamander.

- Marbled Newt or Eft.

- Menopome or Hellbender.

- Axolotl.

- Snake-like Proteus.

- Lizard-like Siren.

CHARACTERS OF THE GENERA.

1. SALAMANDRA. Head flattened ; ears concealed beneath the skin,
and without a tympanum ; jaws armed with numerous small teeth, and
two rows in the palate ; tongue adherent at the sides, reflected at the ex-
tremity ; body lengthened, lizard-shaped, covered with smooth, scaleless
skin largely provided with mucous pores ; tail long, and rounded ; four-
footed, the front feet having four and the hind feet five nailless toes ; gene-
ration ovoviviparous.

2. TRITON. Head flat ; small teeth hi jaws and palate ; body lengthy,
and crested in the male ; tail compressed, crested above and below ; toes
of fore feet cleft, of the hind feet sometimes distinct, sometimes webbed.

3. SALAMANDKOPS. Head broad and flattened ; in lower jaw a single
row of teeth ; upper two concentric rows, the inner semicircular and pala-
tine ; tongue free anteriorly ; operculum half way between the posterior
edge of the gape and the fore leg ; opercular cartilages three, the aperture
between the hinder two ; outer edge of the feet fimbriated ; four toes to
the fore, and five to die hind feet, the fourth and fifth of the latter webbed
and clawless.

4. SIREDON (Gr. trtipa, a chain, and ocov, a tooth). Head flat, large ;
muzzle rounded ; gape reaching to the eyes ; in either jaw a single row of
very small teeth, and upon the palate bones numerous close-set small teeth,
disposed in tin arched form ; eyes small, round, and far forwards ; bran-
chial apertures four on each side, large, with four semicircular arches, the
hindmost anchylosed to the trunk, the middle two armed on their inner
edge with two rows of sharp deuticules, and the posterior with one row,
but the anterior unarmed ; upon the outer side of the anterior three arches,

a narrow membrane ramifying into numerous hair-like processes ; gill-ilap
consisting of a fold of skin ; body narrower than the head, but stout, large,
and very broad, with a shallow crest commencing between the shoulders,
and running to the tip of the tail, which is much compressed, and there
joining with another crest commencing from the vent ; fore feet four-toed ;
hind feet five-toed, and all the toes pointed and nailli'ss.

5. PROTEUS. Muzzle lengthy and flattened ; edges of both jaws beset
with a row of pointed vertical teeth, but the upper jaw has a few placed in
a distinct row before the others ; eyes very small, body slender and bare,
the tail compressed vertically ; legs of equal length, toes three before and
two behind.

6. SIREN (Gr. trtipriv, a syren). Head small, muzzle rounded ; neither
intermaxillary bones nor teeth, except upon the palatine bones; eyes small,
round and subcutaneous ; no external ears ; branchial apertures three on a
side, and over each a fimbriated apjwndage or gill ; body eel-shaped, ter-
minating in a much-compressed tail ; anterior limbs only four-toed, un-
webbed, and nailless.

CAUDATA. — DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIES.

SALAMANDRA. The Salamanders are distinguished from the Lizards by
their shining, scaleless skin ; by the shortness of their limbs, and the un-
equal length of their nailless
toes; by the entire absence

of a third eyelid ; by the ear , -.

• » i '

being completely hidden, and «=^ — -~ 7j*sV ~2\. *

by the deficiency of its tym- ^fa/ *ffl^.

J J v* MI

panal portion, in place of

which the oval hole is covered The Salamander.

by a plate of cartilage ; by the jaws as well as the palate being armed

with teeth, and by the tongue adhering on the sides of the jaw, and being

reflected at its tip. As the straightness of the skinny covering of the

Salamanders would prevent its growth, they are continually shedding it ;

Latreille says, every ten days during the warm weather. The skin is not

shed entire, but in flakes, which, under the microscope, have a reticular

appearance.

The body of the Salamanders is largely covered beneath the skin with
glands, or follicles, which secrete and retain a considerable quantity of
milky fluid, of a very glutinous nature. According to Dr. Barton's observ-
ation it does not dissolve in water, but is readily soluble in spirits of wine.
When the animal is irritated it secretes this fluid in large quantities, and is
capable of ejecting it to some distance. This has given rise to the report
of these animals being poisonous, an imputation attached vulgarly to the
Toad, which is also capable of ejecting from its pores a similar excretion.
To man and the larger animals they certainly are not so; but such is not
the case with those of smaller size, for Laurent! has proved that Lizards
can be destroyed by it. He provoked two grey Lizards to bite a Sala-
mander, which, after making great efforts to escape from them, at last
ejected some of this fluid into their mouths ; one of them died immediately,
and the other was attacked with convulsions which lasted for a couple of
minutes, and then expired. A third Lizard, into the mouth of which some
of the same fluid was introduced, became convulsed, the whole of oin gida
of the body was paralyzed, and it very soon died.

Still they are really timid, harmless animals, which cannot be induced to
bite ; indeed their teeth are so weakly connected with the jaws, that any
forcible attempt to make them bite immediately detaches them ; and rather
than engage in any contest, they endeavour to avoid their tormentors l>v as
speedy a flight as their slow pace will allow.

But the most remarkable property attributed to this genus is its power
of living in or extinguishing fire. This has been held perfectly true for
ages, and even to a very late period there have been believers of and
vouchers for the fact ; but the truth seems to be that the effusion of lluid
from the Salamander's body, increased by the heat of the fire, would I' >r a
very short period defend it from injury, just as a damp cloth would inr a
time resist burning, but so soon as the moisture is evaporated both one and

FAMILY— GAUD AT A. TAILED

109

the other are naturally consumed. The power of resisting heat attributed
to the Salamander, led also to a report of cloth being made of their skins
which was incombustible ; this is mentioned by Marco Polo, in his work
" De Regionibus Orientalibus," but he states that this incombustible cloth
was really made of " minera qusedam terrae, quae fila producit, lanae haud
dissimilia," which was doubtless asbestos, known to the older writers as
" Salamander's wool ;" and of this material was probably the napkin " ex
Salamandra contextam," presented to the Roman pontiff by a Tartar king,
which was reported to be at Rome in Marco Polo's time, and used as a
wrapper to the head-cloth of our Lord there said to be preserved.

Not more than three or four Salamanders are found in Europe, and those
only in the warmer climates ; but very many have been met with of late
years, and described, in America.

The Spotted Salamander (S. Maculosa) is between six and seven inches
in length ; general colour dull-livid black, spotted and streaked with yellow ;
along the sides of the head and body are some rows of tubercles, which
consist of follicles secreting a kind of milky fluid, acrid, and capable of
being projected to some distance when the animal is irritated. They are
found in France, and in the warmer parts of Europe, but are not met with
in this country.

TRITON — Eft. This genus was separated by Laurenti from the Sala-
manders on account of their compressed, fin-like, instead of rounded or
quadrangular tail, and their aquatic habits. They are, moreover, distin-
guished from the Salamanders in being oviparous, instead of ovoviviparous.
They deposit their eggs either single or in patches of two to four, but still
distinct, on the corner of some plant standing in or on the water, to which
they are fixed by a clammy jelly, which also fastens the leaf together. The
larvae, when first hatched, have no feet; in which respect they resemble
the Tadpoles of Frogs and Toads, but they are distinguished from them
by the fore legs being first developed, whilst the complete number of toes
on the hind feet does not at first appear. At their very first escape from
the egg, and previous to the formation of the mouth, they have a fila-
mentous production in front of the gills and on the under surface of the
head, by means of which they fix themselves to water-plants. They are
carnivorous, feeding upon insects, worms, and small molluscs. As to their
tenacity of life, Dufay mentions the remarkable fact, that they may be
frozen up in the ice for a long time without being destroyed. Their capa-
bility of reproducing parts which have been injured or amputated is very
astonishing, and has been largely experimented on by Spallanzani ; so that
the tail and limbs are found restored after five or six successive amputations
in the same summer.

Many more species of this genus have been enumerated than really exist,
in consequence of difference of colour, both as to age and at different periods
of the year, having been described as distinct species. They are divided
into — 1. Efts with all the toes unwebbed ; 2. Efts with hind toes half-
webbed ; and 3. Efts with hind toes completely webbed.

The Marbled Eft (T. Gesneri or Marmorata) measures from eight to
nine inches in length, of which the fail is one-half; upper surface rather
pale olive-green, sprinkled with large brownish spots, or irregular mar-
blings, extending on the dorsal crest, which is not deep or dentated ; under
parts blackish or brownish, and sprinkled with numerous white granular
pores upon the sides, neck, and throat ; upper half of tail spotted or mar-
bled with deep brown, and separated by a white or reddish band from the
lower brown half. Is a native of the south of France, has a very fetid
odour, and lives in pools ; but sometimes, in hot and stormy weather, it
comes ashore, and trails itself with seeming difficulty to some shady spot
more or less distant. In winter it resorts in small parties to the holes in
rotten trees, probably for hybernation.

SALAMANDEOPS. The remarkable animal on which this genus is founded
was discovered by the French traveller, Michaux, in the Alleghany Moun-
tains. There is but one species : —

The Menopama (S. Alleghancnsis). It is about two feet in length, and
sometimes more ; of a very uncouth and disgusting form, is much dreaded
by fishermen, and believed by them to be poisonous. It is found in the

The Axolotl.

Ohio and Alleghany rivers; lives in the water, eats flesh, and spares nothing
it can devour. The Indians call it Tweeg, and by the Anglo-Americans it
is called Hellbender, Mud Devil, Ground Puppy, and Young Alligator.

SIREDOX — Axolotl. The curious animal upon which this gemn is
founded was first described by Francisco Hernandez, in 1651, under the
name of Axolotl. He speaks of it as
a kind of pond fish, covered with soft
skin, four-footed like Lizards, about
nine inches long and an inch thick,
but sometimes exceeding eighteen
inches in length. Since then, how-
ever, several descriptions of the rep-
tile have been given. It is found in
the Lake Tezcuco surrounding the city

of Mexico, and also in the mountain lakes and cold waters of that district.
It is eaten by the lower orders, and is called Ajolataor Ahdata. (Plate 8.)
PROTEUS. This remarkable genus, one of the two which form an inter-
mediate link between the Batrachian Reptiles and Cartilaginous Fishes, has
a general resemblance to the Salamanders, but has more vertebrae and
fewer ribs, and the form of its skull differs entirely. It is furnished with
a double respiratory apparatus, so that it is truly amphibious.

Considerable dispute has existed as to the Proteus being a perfect
animal. Hermann, Schneider, and Linnaeus considered it to be the larva
of some Salamander ; but after the most diligent investigation by Schneider
and Cuvier, they have come to the conclusion that it is a perfect animal,
and that it retains both kinds of respiratory organs throughout life.

The P. Anguinus (Plate 8) varies in length from nine to thirteen inches,
and probably depending on the animal's age ; its colour light red, and the
branchial appendages deep blood coloured, according to Dr. Schreiber's
account; but Sir Humphry Davy says, " it is of a fleshy whiteness and
transparency in its natural state, but when exposed to light its skin gra-
dually becomes darker, and at last gains an olive tint."

The Proteus was first discovered by Baron Zois in 1795, in the Grotto
of Maddalena at Adelsberg, and subsequently, though rarely, about thirty
miles distant, in the Sitticher See, thrown up with water from a subterra-
neous cavity. None were discovered subsequently till 1799, and it there-
fore seems that although the overflowings of the numerous lakes in this
district, which seem to communicate with one another, occur generally
once or twice every year, yet the appearance of the Proteus is always cor-
respondent with them. Sir H. Davy thinks there can be no doubt " that
their natural residence is in an extensive subterranean lake, from which in
great floods they sometimes are forced through the crevices of the rocks
into the places where they are found."

Mr. De Geen has given, in the " Journal of the Academy of Natural
Sciences of Philadelphia," another account of a second species of this genus,
which he calls the Proteus of New Jersey.

SIREN. The first mention of the curious animal which forms this genus
was made in a letter, dated May 18, 1765, from Dr. Garden, of South
Carolina, to Linnaeus ; since which period it has come under the observation
of several naturalists. Three species are described, one of which burrows
in the ground, another in the mud, and the last in both.

The first is the S. Lacertina (Plate 8), which measures from three to
three and a half feet long, the body resembling that of an Eel ; the head is
not separated from the trunk by any neck, is of a rounded form, and ter-
minating in a blunt muzzle ; the mouth rather small, and the upper project-
ing a little beyond the lower lip, but neither fleshy nor supported by bone,
as in fishes; the nostrils are two very small apertures near the edge of the
upper lip; the eyes, placed above the corners of the mouth, are small,
round, and are visible through the skin which passes over them, as they
have not eyelids ; no appearance of any ear.

The skin is smooth and not in the least scaly, but examination of it with
a glass presents numerous slightly-elevated points and corresponding depres-
sions. The general colour of the animal is deep blackish-brown, with
numerous small whitish points above and beneath of a paler colour.

110

CLASS— P I S C E S.

ORDER— AC ANTH OPTER YGI A.

CLASS IV.— P I S C E S.

This class of vertebrate Animals are inhabitants of the waters, in which element they live, move, and in general obtain their prey.
They are oviparous, have a double circulation, and breathe through the medium of water, for which they are provided with
branchiae or gills — an apparatus which separates the oxygen from the atmospheric air. They urge themselves forward by striking
the water right and left with their tail. Their fins, answering to arms, are called pectorals, and those corresponding with feet are
named ventrals. They are classed into two series — Bony Fishes and Cartilaginous Fishes.

BONY FISHES. PISCES OSSEI.

Bos? or ordinary Fishes are characterised by having bones in the skeleton ;
they are divided into Spinous arid Soft-finned Fishes.

ORDER I.— ACANTHOPTERYGIA. SPINE-FINNED.

THE Spine-finned Fishes include by far the greater number of Ordinary
Fishes. The families of which they are composed have been arranged into
one Order; they are characterised by spinal rays in the first dorsal, if
there be more than one dorsal, or spinal rays in the first part if there is
one dorsal only ; in some, instead of a first dorsal, there are free spines
without any connecting membranes. The first rays of the anal fin are
also spinous, and the ventrals generally have at least one spinal ray.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.

PLATE 1.
Family — PERCH; Percaida.

Genera.

Perca - -

Trachinus -

Mullus - -

Species.

Common Name.

- - Fluviatilis - - - - Perch.

- - Draco ------ Common Weever.

- - Barbatus ----- Smaller Red-beard.

Family — GURNALS; Trigloida.

The principal distinction between the family Trigloida and Percoida con-
sists in the extension of the suborbital bone (more or less) over the cheek
of the former family, and in its articulation with the operculum.

Trigla ... - Gurnaidus - - - - Red Gurnard.
Dactylopterus - - Mediterraneus.

Family — MAIGRES; Scicenida.

The Maigres differ from the Perches in the absence of teeth on the
vomer or palate : like the Perch family, their preorculum and operculum
are both notched.

Scuena - ... Umbra.

Amphiprion - - Ephippium - - - - Saddle-fish.

CHARACTERS OF THE GENERA.

1. PERCA (Gr. irtpioj, perch, so named because spotted with black).
Body oblong, compressed, generally covered with tough scales; mouth
tolerably wide, and teeth in the jaws, transversely across the vomer, gene-
rally, also, longitudinally in the palatines, and on the pharyngeal bones and
denticles of the gills ; gills wide, the membrane supported by rays never
less than five, rarely more than seven ; the opercule and preopercule differ-
ently armed ; ventral fins under the pectorals, and two dorsal fins generally
a little apart from each other.

2. TRACHINUS. Head and body lengthy and compressed ; eyes near
the tip of the short muzzle ; gape obliquely upwards ; bands of villous
teeth on both jaws, on the front of the vomer, on the palatine and ptery-
goid bones ; opercule armed with one long spine ; supra scapular bone
dentated ; first dorsal fin very short, and entirely supported with very sharp
spines ; second long, and all its rays soft ; pectoral fins very large.

3. MULLUS. Body oblong, head of moderate size and sloping gills; no
teeth in the upper jaw, but large flat teeth in the palate ; eyes large and
near each other ; beneath the middle of the lower jaw, a pair of long barbs ;
no spine on the opercule ; three rays in the brauchial membrane ; the head

and body covered with large and loosely attached scales ; dorsal fins two,
distinct from each other ; ventral beneath the pectoral fins.

1. TRIGLA (Gr. rptie. three)— on account of its three loose pectoral rays.
Head nearly square, covered with bony plates, muzzle cleft, forming two
projecting and denticulated lobes ; teeth in both jaws and in front of the
vomer very numerous, small, and pointed ; the suborbital and opercular
bones spiny, and a spine upon the shoulder ; dorsal fins two, the- rays of
the first spiny, and of the second flexible ; pectoral fins large and long, their
lower three rays detached and distinct ; gill aperture large ; branchial ravs
seven ; body lengthy and roundish ; caudal end of the lateral line forked.

2. DACTYLOITERCS. General characters same as Trigla; pectoral tins
fan-like and very large.

1. SCI.SNA. Head bulky, entirely covered with scales, supported l'\
cavernous bones ; under part of the lower jaw studded with ]>oies ; no teeth
on the tongue, vomer, or palatine bones ; edges of the jaws armed with
teeth ; preopercule denticulated ; opercule terminating in points ; bran-
chial rays seven ; dorsal fins two.

2. AMPHIPRION. Preorculum, and three operculum pieces denticulated,
the later produced on a single row of blunt teeth.

PERCOIDA; TRIGLOIDA; SCI^ENIDA. — DESCRIPTION OF SPECIES.
PERCA — Perch. All the large group of fishes of which this genus is
composed is predaceous as the pointed form of their teeth indicates, and almost
all live either in fresh-water lakes and rivers, or at the mouths of the latter
where emptying themselves into the sea. They are pretty generally spread
over the globe, and are much esteemed for food, being mostly of a fine
flavour, and easily digested. From some minor differences they have been
divided into five subgenera.

Skeleton of Perch.

The Common Perch (P. Fluviatilis) is about fourteen inches in length,
and occasionally eighteen or twenty inches ; its colour on the back is deep
green, golden lower down, dingy-white on the under parts ; from the back
descend five or six deep greenish bands, which gradually are lost on the
sides ; the first dorsal fin is violet, with a large black spot between the
twelfth and fourteenth rays, and sometimes it lias dark patches on other
parts; the second inclining to greenish-yellow; the pectorals transparent
and reddish-yellow ; the ventrals, anal, and edge of the caudal bright ver-
milion, the rest of the latter deep red inclining to black at its base.

TRACHINUS — Weever. The name Trachinus has been applied to the
genus by Artedi, from its trivial Italian name trascina or traschina, a pre-
sumed corruption of cpaKaivu, its modern Greek name. In Provence it is
called Araignee or Aragno, and in Spain Aragna or Aragniol, from tin-

FAMILY— SCI^ENIDA. MAIGRES.

Ill

Latin aranea, a spider. These trivial names render it probable that it is the
fish known to the older naturalists by the words draco and araneus, which
appears to be confirmed by the corresponding manners of both. Its French
name, Vive, is believed by Belon to depend on its long tenacity of life after re-
moval from water, and the English term Weever is probably only a corruption.

The Common Weever (T. Draco) is about twelve inches in length, and
even more ; irides yellow ; scales range in twenty-five oblique lines from
above, downwards and backwards between the gills and tail, and the lateral
line formed by a series of oval scales ; head brown, with darker spots ;
gill-covers striped with yellow ; back brown, sprinkled with a few azure-
blue spots ; sides and belly tinged and spotted obliquely with jonquil-
yellow on a pale brown ground ; first dorsal fin black to the fourth spine,
the rest white, as are also the second dorsal and anal fins, which are marked
longitudinally with a broad jonquil band, and the rays of the latter reddish-
grey; caudal fin whitish, spotted with jonquil, and edged with black.
The colours are most brilliant in old fish, but the blue and yellow fade very
soon after death. This species is found in the British Channel and in the
Mediterranean. It swims near the bottom, is sometimes taken in deep
water with the trawl net, and even by the hook attached to deep-sea lines.
It strikes violently with spines, so that it needs very careful handling ; for
the wounds, as Pennant states, are very painful, attended with violent
burning pain, and most pungent shooting, accompanied sometimes with
inflammation up to the shoulder.

MULLUS— Surmullet. The fishes belonging to this genus are remarkable
for the beauty of their colour, and the delicacy of their flavour, and were held
in high estimation by the ancients. Juvenal, in his Xth Satire, mentions one
as having been sold for 6,000 sesterces, a sum nearly equal to 47Z. sterling.
Seneca, in his XCVth Epistle, mentions another presented to Tiberius,
who thought it better worth sending to market than eating, and which
being bid for by Apicius and Octavius was carried ofi° by the latter at the
trifling cost of 5,000 sesterces, or nearly 39Z. And Suetonius, in his " Life
of Tiberius," mentions throe which together produced 30,000 sesterces, or
about 234?. of our money; an extravagance which induced the Emperor
to establish sumptuary laws, and to tax the provisions brought into the
market. Nor do these epicures seem to have been satisfied with the enor-
mous price of their favourite fish ; they delighted in having them brought
alive to table in large crystal vases, that they might enjoy the pleasure of
seeing the varying colours of the dying fish, and that it might be eaten as
fresh as possible. Galen mentions that the liver was considered the most
delicious part, and was mashed up in wine as a sauce for the whole fish.

Surmullets prefer rooting about near the shore like hogs in the sand, or
mud, leaving their marks in shape of round holes. They are very cunning,
and in the attempts to take them, the whole shoal often escapes by
leaping over the nets.

The Smaller Redbeard (M. Barbatus) is about eleven inches in length ;
it is distinguished by its vertical head, and by its deep and uniform red or
carmine colour; the under parts are silvery ; fins yellow. It is principally
found in the Mediterranean, and very rarely in the British Channel.

Other genera of this family : —

ATHERINA. The most common species is the A. Hepsetus, the Smelt
of Southampton.

BODIANDS. A sea-fish like the Tench ; it has spines only on the opercule.

CANTHARUS. About the size of a herring ; opercule neither spined nor
notched.

COTTUS — Bullhead. It lives under stones in the beds of rivers ; a few of
them are British species.

GYMNOCEPHALUS — Ruffe. Similar in form to the Perch.

MALTHE. Including the Sea-bat of South America.

PARALEPIS. Called Lussions, at Nice, from their resemblance to small
Pike.

PERCIS. Distinguished by its flat head ; resembles the TracMni. About
five or six inches in length.

PERCOPHIS. Remarkable for possessing the characters of the Perch
with the form of the Snake.

PLECTROPOMA. Resembles the Serrani ; the species are inhabitants of
the seas of hot climates ; varying from three to seventeen inches in length.

POLYNEMUS. Natives of the seas of hot countries ; varying from three
to fifteen inches in length ; are highly esteemed for the table.

PRIACANTHUS. Covered with rough scales on head and body ; from six
to fifteen inches in length ; good eating. The Bull-eye of St. Helena is
one of the species.

SERRANUS. This most extensive genus, is distinguished from Perca and
Lahrax by its single and lengthened dorsal fin, and is very remarkable for
the saw-like edging of its preopercule, which, in many of the species, be-
comes so fine as to be almost imperceptible. Risso states that these fish
swim with open mouth, and darting on, their prey with the rapidity of an
eagle, devour immense quantities of Herrings, Spari, and other fish which
consort in shoals.

SILLAGO. A genus formed from certain species of other genera not
previously known ; natives of the Indian and Australian seas. They vary
in length from six to twelve inches, and in appearance and flavour resemble
the whiting.

SPHYR.SNA. These are fierce, voracious, and active fishes ; varying in
length from four to thirty-six inches. The form of these animals, it was
supposed by Schneider, resembled a stake, hence their name <r<j>vpaiva, " a
stake."

THERAPON. Has the general form of the Perch ; some species are about
ten inches in length ; natives of the East Indian Seas.

TRICHODON. Well known to the Kamtschatkans ; its habits resembles
the Weevers in hiding itself in the mud, in which the female spawns.
It varies from seven to ten inches in length.

UPENEUS. All the species are natives of hot climates ; they were for-
merly included under Mullus. Some of the species are of similar form to
our Red Mullet. Vary from five to nine inches.

URANOSCOPUS. Solitary fishes, about a foot long, living in the mud ;
remarkable for the great size of their suborbital bones, and being armed
with a spine suitable for an offensive or defensive weapon. Found in the
Indian Seas.

TKIGLA — Gurnard. When these fish are taken from the water they
utter a sort of grunt, whence, perhaps, their French name, Grondins ; this
probably arises from the escape of the air from the swim-bladder by the
pressure of the hand. They are divided into two sections: 1. Gurnards
with their body nearly surrounded with transverse thread-like lines, or
ridges; and 2, those whose body is without transverse lines. The Red
Gurnard (Plate 1) is from twelve to sixteen inches long. Its general
colour is bright red, with the sides and belly silvery ; fins reddish-white.
It is a native of the Mediterranean and Atlantic, being found on the shores
of America as well as Europe, and is very common on our own southern
and western coasts. It feeds on crustaceans principally, and spawns in
May or June. The number of the species is about sixteen.

DACTYLOPTERUS. These fishes are in many respects allied to the Gur-
nards ; they are only about a foot in length ; are found in the Mediter-
ranean and Indian Ocean, and are celebrated for their power of springing
out of the water, and sustaining themselves for a time in the air. They
must not, however, be confounded with the true Flying Fish, of the genus
Exocetus. When pursued by the Corypheni, and other voracious fish,
these little animals expand their parachute-like pectoral fins, and spring
from the water, only to be devoured, probably, by the gulls ; or, on their
descent into the water, to be seized by the enemy from whom they had
just endeavoured to escape.

The illustrated species, D. Vdlitans, or Mediterramus (Plate 1), is
common in the Mediterranean Sea.

Other genera of this family :—

PERISTEDION. Closely allied to the genus Trigla ; they have, however,
broad scales on the under part of the body, forming a shield, which, being
connected with the upper scales, encircle the animal like a coat of mail.

PLATYCEPHALUS — Broadheads. Natives of the Indian Seas ; they
bury themselves in mud; vary from fifteen inches to two feet in length.

112

CLASS-? I S C E S.

ORDER— ACAN TH OPT E RY G I A.

PRIOXONOTUS. Closelv allied to the genus Trigla.

PTEROIS. Natives of India ; slightly distinguished from the Scorpsena?.

ScORi'.KXA. The great size and roughness of the head, and the soft
s]>ongv skin which they are generally enveloped, give to the Scorpcence a
frightful and disgusting appearance, whilst their prickles render them formid-
able ; hence the names of Sea Scorpion, Toad, and Devil have been freely
applied to them. They are found in the Mediterranean, Atlantic, Indian,
and South Seas.

SEBASTES. They have great resemblance to the Scarpcenee, except that
the head is less armed with tubercles, whilst, on the contrary, it is com-
pletely covered with scales.

SYNANCEIA. Their external form connects them with the Uranoscopi,
and is extremely hideous, and their filthiness has led the Indian fishers to
suppose them venomous.

— Afaigre. This genus, which includes a large number of species,
is divided into three sections — Maigres, Otolithes, and Corbs.

The species S. Aqvila (Umbra) belongs to the first subgenus. It varies
in length from three and a half to six or seven feet. Its colour is silvery-
grey, with a brownish tinge towards the back, and whitish on the belly ;
the first dorsal, the pectoral, and ventral fins are bright red, and the other
fins are reddish-brown. This fish is a native of the Mediterranean, and
occasionally, though rarely, taken in the British Channel. According to
Duliamel, the fishermen of Royan consider the appearance of the Maigre as
indicative of the approach of the Sardines, whilst at Dieppe it is held to
usher in the Herring ; a circumstance only explained by the predatory
habits of the fish inducing it to hover about the approaching shoals of its
finny prey. When moving together in great numbers they are said to
utter a very loud grunting noise, which may be heard from the depth of
twenty fathoms. Cuvier considers it certain that, according to the descrip-
tion left by Salvian, it is the same as the fish in his time called in the
Roman markets Umbrina, which name Salvian attaches to it, and believes it
the same as the famous Umbra of the ancients. It was then highly valued
as a table dainty, but by some chance has of late years been so scarce,
probably from shifting its ground, that Cuvier with the greatest difficulty
succeeded in obtaining a few specimens from the coast, the Parisian market
being unable to furnish any ; though in the sixteenth century so common
as to give rise to the proverb, 11 vient de la Rochelk, U est cliarge de
Maigre.

AMPHIPRIOX. The members of this genus, especially the species Ephip-
pium (Plate 1), are very closely allied to the Chsetodons, which see p. 113.

Other genera of this family : —

PR'EMXAS. Nearly resembling the Amphipriones.

PRISTIMOMA, SCOLOPISIDES, and UMBRINA. All closely related to the
Sciaena.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.

PLATE 2.

Family — BREAM ; Sparoida.

The figure of the family Sparoida resembles the Maigres ; they are
destitute of teeth in the palate, of scales on the fins, of notches in the pre-
orculum, and of spines in operculum. Their gill-rays are six, arranged in
the form of teeth.

tp«-m-r;i.

SpeeiM.

Common Name.

Sargu» .... Annularis - ... Ringed Sparus.
Deatez - ... Vulgaris ..... Sea Rorgh.

Family —

The Msenoidae differ from the Sparoida in the great extensibility of the
upper jaw, which is advanced or withdrawn by means of long inter-
maxillary pedicles.

Ma-na

ML. in- -

- - Vulgaris
Vulgaria

Cockerell.
Fickarell.

Family— SCALY FINS; Squammipennata.

The fins of the family Squammipennata are so covered with scales as
not to be easily distinguished from the rest of their bodies.

Genus. Specie*. Common Name.

Chactodon - - - Striatus ----- Streaked Chetodon.
Brama - ... Atropiu.

CHARACTERS OF THE GENERA.

1. SARGUS. Jaws slightly extensible; molar teeth disposed like a
pavement, in front incisive teeth similar to tlios<> of man ; dorsal fin single
and extended ; opercules neither spined nor denticulated ; height of the
body nearly equal to its length.

2. DENTEX (Lat. dens, a tooth). Jaws furnished in front with large
long-hooked teeth, on the sides with conical teeth; behind the front teeth
are small teeth arranged in tufts.

1. M^ENA. Five narrow teeth in jaws, and a row on the vomer ; great
extensibility of the upper jaw, under the control of intermaxillary pedicles.

2. SMARIS. Both jaws furnished with a narrow row of very fine teeth,
but none in the vomer; mouth protractile ; body spindle-shajici!.

1 . CHETODON. Teeth resembling hairs in length and fineness, and set
in rows ; body compressed, and very deep vertically ; dorsal and anal fins
covered with scales similar to those of the back.

2. BRAMA. Forehead very perpendicular ; tail forked and rigid.

SPAUOIDA ; M.ENOIDA ; SQUAMMIPENNATA. — DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIES.

SARGUS — Star-fish. The Sars are shore fish ; are common on the
southern coasts of France and elsewhere, but are not found in the British
Channel. They feed generally on small shell-fish and crustaceous animals.
There are about eighteen species.

The Annular or Ringed Spams (S. Annularis) is of slender proportions ;
the head a fourth of the total length of the body, which is seven inches ;
muzzle rather pointed ; the profile, being a continuation of the curve of the
back, gives to the body an oval form ; the protuberance between the eyes
slight; upper lip thick and not plaited, lower thin and without a tubercle;
incisive teeth vertical, wider, cut more square than in any other species,
and more closely resembling the incisive teeth of man ; molar teeth \vrv
numerous and closely set in three rows in the upper jaw, and in two or
three in the lower ; caudal fin cleft, and its two lobes rounded on their
inner edges. The back of this species is yellow, inclining to golden, and
each scale above the lateral line edged with greyish-brown ; the belly
silvery-grey ; the spot on the tail deep black ; dorsal and caudal fins grey
tinged with yellowish ; pectorals grey ; ventrals bright orange-yellow ; anal
fin orange. They are found in great numbers in the Mediterranean, as well
on the rocky coast of France, Tuscany, and Italy, as on the muddy shores
of Lower Egypt ; and they are also taken off the Canaries.

DENTEX. This genus has been separated by Cuvier from the Span, on
account of the difference in the form of the teeth ; he enumerates five
certain species, one of which, the Sea Rough (D. Vulgaris), is figured on
Plate 2. They are for the most part natives of the seas of hot climates.

Other genera of this family : —

BOOPS. The eyes of the fish belonging to this genus are very large,
whence the generic name from the Greek /&>iic, an Ox, and <Jv//, an eye.
They are natives of the Italian seas, and are herbivorous. One species, the
Boga of the Italians, was believed by Gessner to have the power of utter-
ing a cry, whence it got the name of Box, a corruption of /3oa£, from the
Greek fioaui, 1 cry ; but no one believes this story now.

CHEILODACTYLUS. Upper lip thick ; rays of pectoral fins like fingers ;
scales large.

ScATHARUS. Seven inches long ; oval ; scales small ; pectoral fins long.

M.ENA. Thfs genus is found in the Mediterranean : their body is shaped
like a herring, which is lead-coloured on the back and silvery on the belly.

SMARIS — Picarel. The Picarels are distinguished from the genus Mcena,
to which they are, in almost every respect, similar, by the absence of teeth

FAMILY— S COMBEROIDA. MACKERELS.

113

in the vomer. They are found in the Mediterranean and in the Atlantic,
living near the shore in muddy, weedy parts, and feeding upon small fish
and molluscous animals.

The Common Picarel (S. Vulgaris) is about eight inches in length ; head
pointed ; mouth not large ; inferior jaws has two cuspid teeth at its tip ;
eyes large; preopercule rather large, its limb prominent, and marked with
parallel vertical striae ; opercule of moderate size, connected with the sub-
opercule ; interopercule very narrow and indistinct, although separate from
the other pieces, all of which and the cheek are scaly ; branchiostegal
membrane narrow and supported by six rays ; body covered with strong
rough scales ; dorsal fin commencing with the second third of the length of
the body, and about half its depth in height, the membrane connecting its
eleven spiny and some branching rays very delicate ; anal fin supported by
three spiny and four soft rays ; pectoral fins long and narrow ; caudal
slightly forked ; the general colour of the fish is silvery-grey, deeper on the
back, and lighter on the belly. It is so abundant at Ivic,a, that it forms
more than half of the fishery.

CH^ETODON. The animals which compose this genus are all natives of
the Torrid Zone ; but it is a curious geological fact, that some of them have
been found near Verona in a fossil state in good preservation, such as the
C. Pinnatus, which is never found but in the sea of Japan or the coasts of
India and Arabia. The Chcetodons form beautiful subjects for painting, on
account of the elegance and variety of their colours. They are divided into
five subgenera, of the first of which the Streaked Chatodon (C. Striatus), is
a species (Plate 2). These have neither spines nor notches upon the
opercule ; the body is oval ; the dorsal spines following lengthways ;
thirteen spines to the dorsal fin ; tail rounded ; general colour yellow,
marked with four or five large transverse brown bands ; pectoral and caudal
fins blackish. The species are numerous.

BRAMA — Bream. Of this genus there seems to be but one species well
ascertained, viz., B. Rail (Schneid.) ; Sparus Raii (Bloch) ; B. Marina
(Ray) ; B. Atropus ; Sea Bream. It measures about two feet in length,
and has much the figure of the common Bream ; the mouth is directed
upwards ; the dorsal fin extends along the whole length of the back to the
tail, and is covered w-ith broad stiff' scales, as are also the anal and caudal
fins ; the teeth long and hooked ; the back black and becoming lighter by
degrees, till the belly is of a silvery colour; all the fins of a dingy red
except the dorsal, which is reddish at its base, but of a bluish-green above.
They are found, according to Lacepede, in the strait which divides England
from France, along the western French coast, and near the Cape of Good
Hope, and sometimes on our own coast. They are considered very good
for the table.

Other genera of this family : —

EQUES. Body cuneiform ; tail pointed ; mouth narrow.

FIATOLA. Abundant in the Mediterranean ; good for food ; form oval ;
single row of small teeth.

KURTUS. Four species, found in the Indian seas ; body oval ; lower
jaw shorter than the upper; fine teeth like velvet.

OSPHROXEMUS. Indigenous to China and Batavia ; it is a well-flavoured
fish ; is abundant.

SCORPIS. Only one species, found in New Holland.

ToxOTES. Only one species, nearly allied to the Chaetodons.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.

PLATE 3.

Family — MACKERELS; Scomberoida.

The Mackerels form a very large family, all of which are highly ser-
viceable to man, and for the capture of which many extensive fisheries
have been established. ,

Genera. Species. Common Name.

Scomber ... Scomber - - - - - Mackerel.
Xiphias - - - - Gladius ----- Sword-fish.

Zeus .... - Faber

Doree.

Family — BAND-FISH ; Tamiaida.
The Band-fish have a close resemblance to the Mackerels (Scomber).

Genera. Specie*. Common Name.

Tricliiurus - - - Lepturus .... Hairtail.

Stylephorus - - - Chordatus.

Cepola .... Eubescens .... Red Band-fish.

Family — THEUTYES; Theutida.

The Theutyes are, in some respects, like the Mackerels ; but they differ
from them in having trenchant spines on the sides of the tail, and a hori-
zontal spine before the dorsal.

Amphacanthus - - Guttatus.

CHARACTERS OF THE GENERA.

1. SCOMBER. Teeth pointed, a row in each jaw ; body spindle-shaped,
covered with small scales ; two dorsal fins far apart, the first continuous,
the second and the anal divided into several false fins; pectoral fins of
moderate size ; ventrals far forward ; each side of the tail furnished with
two little crests, but no keel ; most of them provided with an air-
bladder.

2. XIPHIAS (Gr. £i'0of, a sword). Body lengthy, and covered with
small scales ; lateral line unarmed ; upper jaw, consisting of the vomer and
intermaxillaries, lengthened into a long sword-like process ; no teeth, except
on the pharyngeal bones ; dorsal fin single and lengthy ; no ventral fins ;
on each side of the tail a strong keel ; branchiostegous rays seven.

3. ZEUS. Mouth projectile ; small teeth ; body oval, deep, and com-
pressed ; dorsal fin single, its spiny separated from its soft part by a deep
notch. In one section the surface is smooth ; the dorsal spines send up long
filamentous, membranous processes ; along the dorsal and ventral edges of
the body, on each side, a row of short, stout spines ; ventral fins under the
throat, lengthy. In the other section the surface is rough ; the dorsal fin
has no filaments, nor are the edges of the body spiny ; the ventral fins are
on the belly, shorter, with one strong spine, and the rest soft and branch-
ing ; in both the tail projects suddenly, and shallow from the body, and its
rays are branching.

1. TRICHIURUS (Gr. 6p!£, a hair, and ovpa, a tail). Head pointed, and
lower jaw projecting beyond the upper ; teeth strong, pointed, and cutting ;
body scaleless, lengthy, compressed, riband-shaped, and the tail prolonged
into a slender compressed thread ; dorsal fin extending along the greater
part of the ridge of the back ; instead of the anal fin a series of minute
spines are placed on the under part of the tail ; ventral and caudal fins
deficient ; branchial rays seven.

2. STYLEPHORUS (Gr. <rrv\oc, a column, and <t>ip<a, I bear). Head
lengthy, narrow, expanded behind, but terminating anteriorly in a very long
trunk, at the end of which is the mouth unfurnished with teeth ; eyes
lateral, large ; opercules very small, branchial rays five or six, and very
slender; body long, slender, and quadrangular on the back; dorsal fin
extending along nearly its whole length ; caudal supported by six rays, of
which the last is horizontal and twice as long as the body ; no ventral fins.

3. CEPOLA. Body and tail long and compressed in form of a riband ; belly
almost as long as the head ; besides the long dorsal fin they have a distinct
caudal and long anal fin ; mouth facing upwards on account of the shori .

of the upper jaw ; teeth strong and pointed, slightly serrated.

1. AMPHACASTHUS (Gr. a/jpi, on both sides, &Kav6vt, a thorn, and oipd,
a tail). Body compressed, oblong ; mouth small ; a single row of trenchant
teeth in the jaws ; other characters same as Scomber.

SCOMBEROIDA. — DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIES.

SCOMBER — Mackerel. Mackerel live in shoals, and make their appear-
ance very regularly at certain seasons in particular places ; they are very
valuable as articles of food, and are sought after with great avidity. The
scales covering their body are almost imperceptible. They are found both
in the old and new continent, but never lower than the Canaries. A very

114

CLASS-? I S C E S.

ORDER— AC AN T H OP T E R YG I A.

curious circumstance with regard to this genus is, that some are unprovided,
whilst the greater number are furnished, with an air-bladder.

The Mackerel (S. Scomber) is from one to two feet, of which the head
measures rather more than a fifth ; lips rather fleshy ; the cheek is covered
with some peculiar long-pointed scales directed backwards, which seem to
form plaits rather than scales ; the body covered with very small scales,
as it were blended in with the skin ; lateral line, passing along the upper
part of the body, straight from the head to the tail ; the colour of the back
is blue-steel, iridescent with green, gold, and purple, relieved with nearly
straight or undulating black lines ; sides and belly silvery, with purple and
gold glossings ; anal, and often the ventral, fins flesh-coloured ; the false
anal fins silvery, and all the other fins grey. Towards the latter end of
May, and during the months of June, July, and even in the early part of
August, Mackerel are caught full of roe, but they begin to spawn in June,
and, according to Bloch, 540,000 eggs have been counted in the roe of a
single female. Mackerel, according to Mr. Yarrell, feed probably on the fry
of other fish, and at Hastings follow towards the shore a small kind of
Clupea, commonly known there as Mackerel Mint, and which he suspects
to be the young of the Sprat. Mackerel are included amongst the fish
which are called migratory, and said to pass from the North Seas downwards
towards the south ; but it is more probable, however, that the migration
of the Mackerel, instead of being from north to south, is merely from deep
water, to which they had retired during winter, to the coast; and this
appears more likely to be the case, as they are taken nearly at the same
time in the Mediterranean, in the British Channel, and in the North Sea.
They have been met with as far south as the Canaries, but there is no
notice of their being found nearer the tropics. The largest are said to be
taken at the entrance of the British Channel, between Sorlingues and the
He de Bas, but their flavour is not so good as those of less size. Different
localities appear to have some effect on the edible qualities of this fish ;
those of the Channel are considered the best ; at Amsterdam it is esteemed
of little value ; and the Icelanders set so little store on it that they will not
take the trouble to fish for it. In England and France, however, Mackerel
are highly prized, and their great number render them an important article
of food to the poor of both countries.

XIPHIAS — Sword-fish. This remarkable genus was well known to the
ancients, and mentioned by Pliny and Ovid. It consists of but a single
species, for X. Imperatar, of Bloch, is stated by Cuvier to be merely a copy
of a bad figure of the known species so described by Aldrovandi.

The Sword-fish (X. Gladius) varies from
ten to fifteen feet in length ; profile inclining
gently towards the root of the sword, which
thence stretches horizontally forwards, some-
what trigonal and tapering to a sharp point,
its upper surface finely striated, the under smooth, with a slight central
groove, the edges delicately toothed : under jaw sharp ; sides of the head
vertical ; body covered with rough skin, slightly compressed in front,
rounded behind, and increasing in depth with, age ; upper parts bluish-black,
under silvery-white. In young Sword-fish, of twelve or eighteen inches
long, the body is covered with little tubercles in longitudinal rows ; these
first subside on the back and afterwards on the belly, so that when the
animal has acquired its full age they have entirely disappeared. It is very
common in the Mediterranean. It is found occasionally on the Spanish and
French coasts, and sometimes on our own ; it even enters our rivers,
of which an instance is mentioned by Daniels, in his " Rural Sports," of
one which, in the Severn, near Worcester, struck and killed a man who
was bathing, the certainty of which was proved by the fish being captured
almost immediately after. They attack with their long sword other fish,
on which they are said to prey ; but according to Bloch, they feed also on
vegetable substances. It is no uncommon thing to find the broken beak of
the Sword-fish sticking in a ship's bottom, which it may perhaps have
mistaken for a Whale. In the Mediterranean they are fished for as articles
of food from May to August. A man stationed on a rock gives notice of
the approach of the fish, upon which the fishermen row towards and

The Sword-fish.

endeavour to strike it with a small harpoon attached to a line, with which
it makes away, and often requires many hours' pursuit before it can be got
into the boat.

ZEUS — Daree. This genus is divided into two sections, or, not impro-
perly, genera, viz., 1. Doree (Zeus) ; 2. Boar-fish (Capros).

The Doree (Z. Faber), figured on Plate 3, is from twelve to eighteen
inches in length, and its greatest depth half as much ; head large, mouth
so extensile that, when projected, the hinder angle of the gill-flap is mid-
way between its tip and the root of the rays of the tail-fin ; the general
colour of the fish is olive-brown tinged with yellow, assuming, in different
lights, blue, gold, and white hues, but generally has a golden tinge,
whence, perhaps, the origin of its name, from the French Doree; upon
each side of the body a large, circular, black spot, with a surrounding white
ring ; the fin membrane, between the spines, dark-brown, but lighter
between the flexible rays. It is very common in the Mediterranean and in
the Bay of Biscay, also along the Cornwall and Devonshire coast, and on
that of Hampshire and Sussex. It has been taken both at Yarmouth and
off the shores of Cumberland. In Ireland it is caught off Londonderry and
Antrim, and along the Waterford coast. According to Couch, quoted by
Yarrell, the Doree is rather a wandering than a migratory fish, its motions
being chiefly regulated by the smaller fish on which it preys.

Other genera of this family : —

ATROPUS — The Brama Atropus, of Schneider.

CORYPH-ENA — Dolphin. Four subgenera ; in general voracious.

GASTEROSTEUS — Stickleback. Two species found in our streams.

LAMPRIS — Sing-fish. Found in the Chinese seas.

MONOCEROS — Sea Unicorn. From two to three feet long.

RHYNCOBDELLA. Three feet long ; found in the Indian seas.

SCYRUS. From ten to fifteen inches in length; found off the Coromandel
coast, also at Java and the Red Sea.

SERIOLA. An extensive genus ; they all live in deep water.

STROMATEUS. A large genus ; only one European species.

THTTNNUS — Tunny. These fishes are found in both the Atlantic and
Pacific Oceans, and also hi the Mediterranean and Indian Seas, but it is
disputed whether they are migratory, or,
living in the depths of seas, merely approach
the shores at breeding-time. Their flesh is
much esteemed, and along the southern coasts &
of Europe and the islands of the Mediter- Tun".v-

ranean afford extensive employment for fishers. Some of them were well
known to the ancients, and as highly valued as at present.

TETRAPTURUS — Faw-finned. Varies in length from four to nine feet ;
found in Sicily and off Sumatra.

THYRSITES, TRACHINOTUS, and VOMER.

TRICHIURUS — Hair-tail. This genus has great resemblance to tin
Lepidopi, from which, however, they are distinguished by the al
of the scales representing the ventral fins, by the spines in place of anal
fins, and by the entire want of a caudal fin, the tail itself tapering off to
form a very delicate hair-like filament, whence its generic title.

The Silvery Hair-tail (T. Lepturus) is from two to three feet in length,
and about one-sixteenth of this in depth, which it retains to the middle of
the body, whence it begins to diminish, and the last fifth of the entire 1<
resembles a narrow and compressed lash ; the forehead and upper part < >l
the muzzle are flat, and the sides of the head vertical ; the eyes are pla< :e<l
rather behind the middle of the head, and the gape reaches back opposite
their anterior margin. The general colour is very brilliant silvery ; the fins
yellowish-grey, and the edge of the dorsal dotted with blackish. This
species is generally distributed throughout the Atlantic.

STYLEPHORUS. The single species known of this genus, S. Chordatus,
is from ten to eleVen inches in length exclusive of the caudal process, which
is twenty-two inches more ; the body is about two inches in depth and one
in width; the colour is silvery; fins and caudal process brown. It has
been once caught in the Gulf of Mexico, between Cuba and Martinique, near

FAMILY— LAB YR INT H IFOR MIA.

115

ti small cluster of little islands, swimming near the surface about nine
leagues from shore. Of its habits nothing is known.

CEPOLA — Band-fish. This genus gets its name from the flesh separating
in flakes like an onion.

The Rubescent Band-fish (C. Rubescens) is about two feet in length,
though not so thick as one's ringer, and of a reddish colour, and marked
with some transverse irregular bands ; the body is almost pellucid. It is a
native of the Mediterranean.

Other genera of this family : —

BOGMARUS. Known to the Icelanders. GYMNETRUS. Found in the
Mediterranean. GYMNOGASTER. Closely allied to Bogmarus. LEPIDOPUS.
Found in the Mediterranean. REGALECUS. Allied to the Gymnetrus; known
to the Norwegians ; three species. XIPHOTHECA — Scabbard-fish. Rare on
our coast.

AMPHACANTHURUS. A genus of fishes so called because of the sharp,
moveable spine with which they are armed on each side of their tail, and
with which they defend themselves against the assaults of larger fishes. If
taken in the hand incautiously serious injuries may be the result. They are
termed Doctors by English sailors, because of their strong and lancet-
shaped spines. The teeth are trenchant and notched.

The illustrated species, A. Guttatus, is remarkable for the beautiful variety
of its colours. They are found in the warm parts of both oceans.

Other genera of this family : —

PRIODON. One species known (P. Annulatis), two and a half inches
long ; teeth sharp and serrated ; three short rays to the ventral fins. From
Timor.

PRIONURUS. Nearly allied to the genus Acanthurus ; teeth cutting and
jagged on their edge like a saw ; tail armed with rows of tooth-like
[dates.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.

PLATE 4.

family — LABYRINTHIFORMIA.

The upper membranes of the pharynx in the members of this family are
divided into leaves, small and irregular; between these there are cells
which the animals can fill and empty at pleasure. When out of the water,
th.-y moisten their gills with the water contained in those cavities.

Genera. Species. Common Name.

Anabas - ... Testtidineus - - - - Climbing Perch.
Ophicephalus - - Punctatus .... Dotted Snake-head.

Family — MULLETS ; Mugiloida.

Mugil .... Cephalus Mullet.

The Mullets are gregarious Fishes ; at the mouths of rivers they may be
seen in large troops. Their flesh is much esteemed.

Family — GOBIES ; Gobioida.

The Goby family live in small troops among rocks near the coast ; they
can exist for some time out of the water ; many of them are viviparous.

Blennius .... Ocellaris Butterfly-fish.

Anarrhicus - - - Lupus Wolf-fish.

Gobius .... Niger Black Goby.

CHARACTERS OF THE GENERA.

1. ANABAS (Gr. avaftaivu, to ascend). Head broad ; muzzle obtuse ;
mouth small; lateral line interrupted at its posterior third; gill-covers
denticulated ; dorsal and anal fins having numerous spiny rays ; body covered
with scales.

2. OPHICEPHALUS (Gr. o^ic, a snake, and «^n\f), a head). Head and
body covered with large polygonal scales; head depressed, obtuse, and
short in front, the vertex covered with irregular scales ; mouth wide ; teeth
rasp-like, and in a single row, with a few large and hooked ones scattered
on the sides ; gill-flaps smooth ; dorsal fin single and very long ; ventral
below the pectoral fins.

1 . MUGIL. Head flat, broad, depressed, covered with scales ; lips fleshy
and indented, the middle of the lower jaw forming a projecting angle, which
is received into a depression within the upper ; mouth toothless, except on
the edges of the tongue ; gill-flaps large ; body nearly cylindrical ; dorsal
fins short, the first opposite the anal ; pectorals not elongated ; branchial
membrane three-rayed.

1. BLENNIUS (Gr. jSXfxro, mucus or slime). Ventral fins before pectoral,
and composed generally of not less than two nor more than four rays ;
anal tubercle.

2. ANARRHICAS. General characters same as those of the Blenny, but
without ventral fins.

3. GOBIUS (Gr. Kiafttog, a Gudgeon). Ventral fins thoracic, united either
throughout their whole length or at their root, forming a disc or sucker ;
spines of the dorsal fin flexible ; body rather long ; branchial opening
narrow, and furnished with four rays : a little appendage behind the anus of
the male.

LABYRINTHIFORMIA, MUGILOIDA, GOBIOIDA. — DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIES.

ANABAS. So named by Cuvier because of their remarkable power of
living for a considerable time out of the water. These fishes are covered
with large scales, and by means of
their fins, tail, and gill-covers, get
upon land, and travel over a con-
siderable space of ground; and one
species, A. Scandens, or A. Testudi-
neus (Plate 4), known at Tranque-
bar as the " Tree-climber," ascends
palm and other trees. Their gills
are adapted for retaining water, the
pharyngeal apparatus being laby-
rinthiform, or divided into a number
of irregular lamina?, which form cavities for the retention of water, the
evaporation of which proceeds but slowly. They are natives of India and
the Indian Archipelago.

OPHICEPHALUS. The disposition of the scales on the head of this genus
resembling that of Snakes, lias given rise to its name. It contains but two
species — the 0. Striattts, which sometimes attains the length of four feet,
and the 0. Punctatus (Plate 4), which measures from seven to eleven
inches ; its general colour dingy-white, studded with numerous black spots ;
the fins also tipped with black. From the rivers of the Indian Isles.

Other genera of this family: — Polyacanthus, Many-spined; Spirobranchus,
Spiral-gills; Trichonotus, Hairy-backed; and Trichopus, Hairy-footed.

MUGIL — Mullet. There are seven species of this genus. The one figured
is the Common Mullet (M. Cephalus), which sometimes acquires ten or
twelve pounds in weight ; the back brownish or bluish-black, the belly
silvery, and striped longitudinally with eight narrow dusky streaks. It is
very common in the Mediterranean and on the western coasts of the Atlantic,
but rare in the British Channel.

Another genus of this family is Tetragonurus, a fish thirteen inches long,
and found off1 the coast of Nice.

Respiratory Organs of Anabas.

BLENNIUS — Blenny. This genus is remarkable for a viscid mucus, with
which it is covered, and whence it has derived its name. The body is
lengthened and compressed : there is generally but one dorsal fin, and both
dorsal and ventral are made up of six slender rays. They live in shoals
amongst the pebbles on the shore, swimming and leaping about. They are
veiy tenacious of life for a long while after having been taken out of the
water. The species, which are numerous, have been divided by Cuvier
into five subgenera, viz., Blennius proprius, Salarias, Clinus, Gunnellus, and
Opistognathus, principally from the arrangement of their teeth.

The Butterfly Fish (B. Ocellaris) is about six or eight inches long ;
head large ; mouth wide and jaws furnished with a single row of straight

116

CLASS— P I S C E S.

ORDER— AC ANT H OPT ERYG I A.

serrated teeth ; eyes prominent, and above both a small process resembling
a little ear ; the operculum is composed of a single piece ; the dorsal fin
extends almost to the tail ; the body has no scales ; general colour greenish
with irregular transverse bands of a dark olive ; the dorsal fin also green
with dusky blue and white spots, and from the fifth to the eighth ray of
the same is a beautiful spot like an eye, black in the centre with a white
margin, from which circumstance Ray named it Butterfly Fish. It inhabits
the Mediterranean.

ANARRHICAS. This genus is nearly allied to the Blennies ; the species
have round, smooth, blunt heads ; and their mouth is armed with conical
incisors and flat grinders.

The Wolf Fish (A. Lupus), called also Cat Fish, and Sea Cat, is a fero-
cious and formidable animal ; it measures six feet in length, feeds on Crus-
tacea and Mollusca, and is good eating ; it is of a light grey colour, marked
with vertical bands of a bluish-grey. It frequently destroys the fishermen's
nets, and when caught, defends itself with zeal to the last; and if the utmost
care is not observed, it will inflict serious wounds on its captors by its
powerful teeth and jaws.

GOBIUS — Goby. The fishes belonging to this genus are mostly of small
size, with a lengthened body, the head moderately large, the cheeks promi-
nent, and the eyes nearly approached to each other.

The Black Goby (G. Niger) is of slender form, and about six inches in
length ; the head large, and jaws armed with a double row of small teeth ;
colour deep olive, with darker streaks and spotted with black ; ventral fins
united, and forming a kind of funnel by which they fix themselves to the
rock, whence the name of Rockfish. They are found in the Atlantic, on the
British coasts, and the Asiatic seas.

Other genera of this family : —

CALLIONYMUS — Draganet. Destitute of an air-bladder; head much larger
than the body ; the principal species ( Yellow Gurnard) is from ten to twelve
inches long.

PERIOPHTHALMUS. Lower lid of eye moveable; from eight to twelve
inches long.

SALARIAS. Distinguished from the Blennies by their very small, fine
teeth : three species are named.

SICTDION. Approximates to the family Gobius.

ZOARCHUS. Nearly allied to the Blennies.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.

PLATE 5.

Family — ANGLERS; Pectoralipeda.

The family Pectoralipeda consists of two genera remarkable for the
peculiar structure of their fins, by which they are able to leap out of the
water when in pursuit of their prey ; some of them also leap over mud
like frogs.

Specie*. Common Nirne.

Lophius - ... Piscatorias ... - Common Angler.
Batrachus ... Surinamensis ... Surinam Toad-fish.

Family — WRASSES; Labroida.

The family Labroida are characterised by their thick lips, oblong scaly
body, and thickly-set gills.

Labrus .... Carneus Red Wrasse.

Scaruf - ... Creticus ----- Cretan Scarus.

Family — PIPE-FISH ; Avlostomata.

A long tube projects from the cranium of the Pipe-fish family, which
consists of two genera.

Fistularia ... Tabacaria .... Tobacco-pipe Fish.
Centriscus ... Scolopai ..... Sea Woodcock.

CHARACTERS OF THE GENERA.

1. LOPHTOS (Gr. Xo^ia, a neck provided with bristles erect like a cock's-
comb). See Description of the Species.

2. BATRACHUS (Gr. ftarpa\ot, a Frog). Head flattened horizontally,

larger than the body ; ventral fins straight attached under the throat ; first
dorsal fin short, supported by three spinous rays ; second dorsal long and
soft, opposite to which the anal fin, also soft ; mouth and gills very large ;
gill-flaps spined ; lips sometimes bearded.

1. LABRUS (Lat labrum, a lip). Form oblong; lips fleshy, double, one
of them attached to the jaws, the other to the sub-orbital bones ; gills five-
rayed, serrated ; maxillary teeth conical, the middle and anterior longest ;
pharyngeal teeth cylindrical and blunt, disposed on two broad plates above
and one below ; pores on me head in many instances ; the tail round or
forked.

2. SCARUS (Gr. trKalpm, I leap). Jaws composed of the intermaxillary
and preemandibular bones, convex, rounded, and furnished with teeth, dis-
posed like scales on their edge and anterior surface, and moving in succes-
sion from behind forwards ; pharyngeal teeth disposed on two plates in the
upper, and on one in the lower jaw, in some species merely transverse
laminae, in others pavementhlike ; lips fleshy ; body covered with large scales;
lateral line uninterrupted.

1. FISTULARIA. Head long and projecting like a tube, forming a third
or fourth of the whole length of the body ; the jaws placed at its tip ; opening
of the mouth narrow, and nearly horizontal ; body very long and slender ;
six or seven rays to the gills ; bony appendages extending backwards from
the head on to the body ; dorsal fin opposite the anal.

2. CENTRISCUS (Gr. Ktrrpov, a prickle). Muzzle tubular; body oval or
oblong, compressed laterally and sharp below ; gills composed of two or
three small rays ; first dorsal fin spiny ; ventral small and behind the pec-
toral ; mouth very small, placed obliquely and wanting teeth.

PECTORALIPEDA, LABROIDA, AULOSTOMATA. — DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIES.

LOPHIUS — Angler. The Common Angler (L. Piscatorius) is from four to
five feet in length, and having some resemblance in shape to a paper kite ;
the larger part being formed by the head and the bones supporting the pec-
toral fins, behind which the body tapers towards the tail ; it has a very
hideous aspect, its wide mouth opening upwards, and closely beset with
strong teeth ; immediately behind the head stand out laterally the broad,
expanded, pectoral fins, which are very remarkable on account of their moving
upon two bones, which have a very close resemblance to the fore arm of the
higher classes of the Vertebrata ; the ventral fins are placed beneath the throat,
are strong, and serve the purpose of trailing the fish along the bottom of the
sea ; the long spines upon the top of the head and front of the back are
believed to serve the purpose of snares, or rather baits, to assist the fish in
obtaining its prey ; the four hindmost of these, which have some little mem-
branous expansion at their root, are considered by Cuvier as answering to
the first dorsal fin. The external opening of the gills is single, and of a
semilunar shape, and placed beneath the root of the pectoral fins. Within
the mouth, near the gills, on each side, is a large cavity resembling the cheek
pouches of several of the Mammalia, and formed by the skin passing loosely
from the bony apparatus of the head and tongue to the arm-like piece of the
pectoral fins ; in these cavities, not unfrcquently, are found dog-fish or had-
docks, which, the Angler's appetite having been appeased, it stores up to
satisfy its future craving.

As the Angler, from his unwieldiness, is not a good swimmer, and there-
fore is unable to overtake its agile prey, it has recourse to stratagem : hiding
itself in the sand or mud among the marine plants, with its enormous mouth
widely extended, it moves about the long spines on its head and back, which
attract to the spot other fish in search of food, and these, when within its
reach, are snapped up by the Angler, whose mouth serves it instead of a
casting-net.

The Angler was known to the ancients ; Aristotle speaks of it by the
name fifirpa\oi; • the Latins called it liana Marina.

BATRACHUS — Frog Fish. This genus is named from the immense size
of the head, resembling that of the Frog. The species of which it is com-
posed inhabit the southern hemisphere, and lie in ambush in the sand tor

ORDER— HETRO-MALACOPTERYGIA.

FAMILY— CYPRINOIDA. CARP.

117

the purpose of catching those fish on which they prey. They may be sepa-
rated into two divisions ; 1, those with beards (Cirrhi), and 2, those without
beards on their lips.

The illustrated species, the Surinam Frog, or Toad Fish (Plate 5),
belongs to the latter division. It is about sixteen inches long; mouth
smooth ; anterior dorsal fin having three spines ; ventral having nine rays,
rounded ; scales oblong ; vent nearer the head ; lateral line straight. It
inhabits Surinam.

LABRUS. The numerous individuals composing this genus are very
generally distributed, some in the northern and others in the southern seas.
They are divided into several subgenera.

Plate 5 contains an illustration of one species, the Flesh-coloured Bergil,
or Red Wrasse (L. Carneus). It is destitute of pores on the head ; its body
is red, with three large black spots on each side ; dorsal, anal, and caudal
fins edged with blue.

SCARUS — Parrot Fish. The fishes forming this genus are usually known
by the name of Parrot Fish, on account of the form of their jaws and the
brilliancy of their colours. They are principally natives of the tropical seas.

The species S. Cretensis, or Cretan Scarus, is about thirteen inches in
length, the forehead depressed ; dorsal fin low, commencing immediately
behind the head, and extending along nearly the whole length of the back ;
tail crescent-shaped. According to Aldrovandi, the general colour of the
fish is greenish-yellow above, and the head and sides dusky-green; but
Cuvier says it is blue or red, varying with the season. It is taken off the
shores of Crete, and being pickled with the entrails undisturbed is used as
food by the natives. Cuvier considers it to be the Scarus of the ancients,
and by them esteemed as a great luxury.

Other genera of this family : —

LABRAX, a very voracious fish, found in the seas of Kamtschatka.

NovACUiuE and XIRICTHYS — Razor Fish. Both allied to the Labri.

FISTULARIA. The true Fistidariee have but one dorsal fin, composed of
single rays, as is also the anal ; and from between the two portions of the
caudal fin extends a thread often as long as the body ; the mouth is furnished
with small teeth ; the tube long and flattened. Among these may be enu-
merated— the Tobacco-pipe Fish (F. Tabaccaria), figured on Plate 5 ; the
F. Serrata, and the F. Immacidata.

CENTRISCUS — Trumpet Fish. The Sea Woodcock (C. Scolopax) is about
four inches in length ; has the first dorsal fin situated very far back, the first
spine of which is very long and strong, and attached by the cuirass to head
and shoulders ; the muzzle very long and slender, so as to give it the appear-
ance of a Woodcock's bill or the nozzle of a pair of bellows ; the general
colour of the fish is a delicate red ; it is covered with small scales, but has
some larger serrated scales on the back. Native of the Mediterranean, and
sold in the markets of Italy, where it is considered a dainty.

ORDER II.— HETRO-MALACOPTERYGIA. ABDOMINAL
SOFT-FINS.

THE Order Malacopterygii (Jointed-fin Fishes) comprises fishes which
have ventral fins suspended to the abdomen, behind the pectorals, and un-
attached to the shoulder-bones. They are the most numerous order of the
Class Pisces, including a large portion of fresh-water Fishes.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.

PLATE 6.
Family — CARPS ; Cyprinoida.

The Cyprinoida have shallow mouths, feeble jaws, sometimes without
teeth, pharynx toothed, and scaly body.

Genera. Species. Common Name.

Cyprinus - - - Carpio ----- Carp.
Cobitis - - - - Fossilis Muddy Loach.

Anableps - - - Tetropthalmus - - - Four-eye.

Family — PIKES; Esocida.

The members of the Pike family are characterised for their voracity ; all
of them are provided with an air-bladder; and they are destitute of an
adipose dorsal fin.

Genera. Specie*. Common Name.

Esox ----- Lucius ----- Pike.
Exocoetus . - - - Exiliens .... Flying-fish.

Family — SHEET-FISH ; Siluroida.

The Silures have no scales ; their skin is either naked or covered with
large bony plates ; they have a large air-bladder, and a strong articulated

spine.

Silurus - - - - Glanis ----- Sheet-fish.

Pimelodes - - - Cyclopura.

Loricaria - - - Cirrhosa.

CHARACTERS OF THE GENERA.

1. CYPRINUS (Gr. Kvirplvoe). Mouth small, jaws without teeth ; three
flat rays to each gill ; large teeth on the pharynx ; one dorsal fin ; body
covered with scales.

2. COBITUS (Gr. cbj/3(oc, gobius, a Gudgeon). Head small ; body
lengthened, almost of an equal thickness, and covered with small scales ;
mouth, small, placed underneath the tip of the muzzle, without teeth, and
provided with lips fit for sucking, and with cirrhi ; gill openings very
small, the gills having only three rays ; the ventral fins placed far back, and
above them a very small dorsal fin.

3. ANABLEPS. Two openings to each eye ; eyes prominent, placed
under a sort of roof formed by the side of the frontal ; characters in other
respects like the genus Cobitis.

1. Esox. Head flattened; upper jaw shorter than lower; mouth and
throat wide ; jaws, tongue, and branchial arches furnished with fine and
sharp teeth ; operculum and branchial orifice very large ; body and tail
long, compressed laterally, and covered with hard scales ; no adipose, and
only one dorsal fin placed opposite the anal, both of which are near the
tail.

2. EXOCCETUS (Gr. i^ia, extra, and KO'ITTI, cubile, so named from an opinion
given by Pliny, that it left the water to sleep ashore). Head almost entirely
covered with minute scales, and flattened both vertically and laterally ; each
jaw armed with small pointed teeth, and molar teeth in the throat ; pectoral
fins very broad, and long enough to reach the tail, which is forked ; single
dorsal fin opposite the anal.

1. SlLURUS (Gr. miu, I shake, and ovpa, a tail). Head large, naked,
broad, and depressed ; mouth at the extremity of the muzzle, and furnished
with teeth, either in a single or in several rows ; jaws furnished with bar-
bules, varying from four to eight ; lips thick ; eyes small, and in some species
almost imperceptible ; body compressed, scaleless, and freely lubricated
with mucus ; dorsal fin short and single ; anal fin very long, and nearly
reaching the tail.

2. PIMELODUS (Gr. Tr^itX)), fat). General characteristics nearly the
same as those of Silurus.

3. LORICARIA (Lat. lorica, a coat of mail). Head and body covered
with hard, angular scales ; mouth placed beneath the muzzle, small, lips
thin ; intermaxillaries small ; maxillaries transverse, ununited, furnished
with long, delicate, flexible teeth, hooked at the point ; those in the throat
blunt ; true opercules immoveable, their place supplied by two small,
external plates ; branchial membrane bearing four rays ; the first rays of the
dorsal, pectoral, and ventral fins, are strong spines.

CYPRINOIDA, ESOCIDA, SILUROIDA. — DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIES.

CYPRINUS — Carp. The Carps form a large, but not very interesting
genus ; they live in fresh water, and, as the structure of their teeth would
prove, principally upon vegetable substances. They have been divided
into the following subgenera: — 1. Carps; 2. Barbels; 3. Gudgeons;

118

CLASS— P I S C E S.

ORDER- H E T K O-M A L ACOP T E R Y G I A.

The Dorsal Fin.

4. Tench; 5. Cirrhines; 6. Breams; 7. Labeons ; 8. White Fish; and
9. Gonorhvnques.

The Carp (C. Carpio), a species of the first subgenus, is figured on
Plate 6. This fish is of a thick shape ; it is of an olive-green colour above,
and golden beneath ; the lips thick ; the angles
of the upper jaw are furnished with two beards
on each side, of which the lower are the
shorter ; the dorsal fin extends far towards the
tail, which is slightly bifurcated ; the scales are
very large. The Carp sometimes weighs as
much as twenty pounds, and reaches from four to five feet in length. It is
extremely tenacious of life, even when taken from the water.

COBITIS — Loach. There are but three species in this genus, and they
are all fresh-water fish ; they are the Groundling (C. Barbatula) ; the Spiny
Loach (C. Taaiia) ; and the Great or Muddy Loach (C. Fossilis), figured on
Plate 6.

ANABLEPS. Head flat ; snout blunt ; mouth wide, armed with small teeth ;
body cylindrical, and covered with strong scales ; gill-rays five ; no peduncle
to the intermaxillaries, which are suspended to the nasal bones ; pectorals
in part scaly ; dorsal small, and near the tail ; air-bladder large ; intestine
wide, without caxa.

The species Four-eyed (A. Tetrophthalmus), which inhabits the rivers
of Guiana, is the only species known. The cornea and iris are divided by
transverse bands, which give the animal the appearance of having four eyes,
whereas it has, in reality, only two. The two openings referred to above
affect not the singleness of the eye in this animal. The female produces her
young alive, and in an advanced state.

Other genera of this family : — Cyprinodon ; Poecilia.

Esox — Pike. ThePtke or Pickerel (E. Lucius), when in condition, is
of a green colour, spotted with bright yellow, and the gills of a bright

red ; but when out of season, the green
becomes grey, and the yellow spots
paler. It sometimes acquires the
length of eight feet in Lapland, but
the largest ever caught in England
weighed thirty-five pounds. The pike is extremely voracious, and may be
consided as the fresh-water Shark. They are often known to be destroyed
by attempting to gorge one of their own species larger than their swallow
will admit ; and Mr. Plott, of Oxford, has appended a note to Plott's
" History of Staffordshire," in which it is related, that a Swan, whilst feeding
under water, had her head gorged by a pike, and both were destroyed. It
appears to be as terrific to the small fish as the Hawk or Owl is to birds,
and when asleep the lesser fish may be seen swimming round them in
great numbers, and with much anxiety. Pikes live to a very great age :
Rzaczynski, in his " Natural History of Poland," mentions one of ninety years
old ; but this is far exceeded by Gesner's account of a Pike taken near
Hailbrun, in Suabia, in the year 1497, which bore a ring with a Greek
inscription to the following purport, " I am the fish which was first of all
put into this lake by the hands of the governor of the universe, Frederick
(Barbarossa) the Second, the 5th of October 1230." Its skeleton was
kept for many years at Mannheim. Pikes spawn in March or April. They
are used for the table, and by some persons considered good eating. They
are common in most of the European lakes, and in the north of Persia,
but the largest are taken in Lapland.

EXOCXETUS — Flying Fish. The fish belonging to this genus have the
power of supporting themselves upon their pectoral fins, in a flight out of
water, more completely than the Gurnards and others. Pursued by the
Corypheni and other voracious fishes, the defenceless Flying Fish ia com-
pelled to quit its native element, whence it has no sooner emerged than
fresh dangers await it from the ravenous Gulls and Frigate Birds, which
are attracted to their prey by the shining hue of their victim glittering
beneath the surface of the sea ; so that it may be truly said, in avoiding
Scylla the poor little wreteh falls into Charybdis. The Flying Fish is

The Pike.

not able to support itself long out of water, as the air soon dries its fins,
and it is again compelled to seek its native element, where its insatiate
enemy is ready to seize it, as soon as it descends.

Four species are described, one of which, the E. Exiliens. is figured on
Plate 6.

Other genera of this family : — Mormyrus ; Salanx.

SILURUS. The fishes composing this genus are found principally in Asia,
Africa, and America, living in ponds, tanks, and rivers. Northern Europe
produces but one species, and it is curious that they are not found either in
England or Jamaica. They are slow-moving fish, are predaceous, and do
not hunt, but lie in ambush for their prey, hidden either in the mud, or in
their holes, and playing the barbules on their heads till unwary fish come
within their reach, when they spring upon them. Their large, rounded
head is supposed to give them the appearance of Whales, and hence some
of them have been called River Whales. This resemblance is so great in
the American species, that Agassiz has thought proper to form them into a
new genus, by the name of Cetopsis.

The Sheet Fish, or Sly Silurus (S. Glanis), is the largest of the fresh-
water fishes of Europe, sometimes attaining the length of six feet, or even
more, and weighing as much as three hundred pounds : head shovel-shaped,
and of a deep green colour, having six barbules ; mouth very large, lower
jaw projects beyond the upper ; nostrils round, situated between the two
long barbules, and behind them are the eyes, small, and having the pupils
black, and the irides white ; the body is thick and long ; the back and
sides above the lateral line greenish-black, and below it pale green, the
whole body studded with irregular blackish spots ; belly yellowish-white ;
the dorsal fin has five rays, is of a yellowish colour, with a blue tip, so also
are marked the ventral fins, which have thirteen rays ; pectoral fins fur-
nished with eighteen rays, at their base and tips bluish, and in the middle
yellow ; their first ray is strong, bony, and denticulated within ; anal fin
supported by fifty rays, yellowish-grey at the base, and tipped with violet,
as is also the caudal fin. This fish is found in all quarters of the globe,
most commonly in fresh, and but rarely in salt water.

PIMELODES. These were removed by Lacepede from the genus Silurus ;
and from the great variety they exhibit are very difficult to arrange under
any one genus. Cuvier has divided them into four subdivisions ; viz., Bagres,
True Pimelodes, Synodons, and Ageneioses.

The species P. Cyclopum (Plate 6) is found generally about four inches
long, but some varieties do not exceed two inches ; the body is depre>-e<l,
of an olive colour, and marked with little black spots ; mouth at the extre-
mity of the muzzle, very wide, and furnished with only two beards attached
to the jaws ; eyes very small, and placed in the middle of the head ; skin
of the body and tail copiously besmeared with mucus. It is found in lakes
seventeen hundred toises above the level of the sea, in the kingdom of
Quito, and is the only fish there found above fourteen hundred toises. It
is called Prenaditta by the natives, and is remarkable for being continually
ejected from the craters and clefts of the volcanoes of Imbaburu, Sangay,
Cotopaxi, Tungaragua, and Cargueirazo.

LORICAEIA. These fish are natives of South America.

Other genera of this family : — Aspredo ; Malapterus.

The latter fish can communicate an electric shock like the Torpedo and
Gymnotus. It is found in the Nile, and in the rivers of Central Africa.

MaUplerus.

FAMILY— S A L M O N I D A. SALMONS.

119

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.

PLATE 7.

Family — SALMONS ; Salmonida.

The Salmon family is characterised by a scaly body ; they include the
Salmon and Trout. They are divided into two sections, namely, Migratory
and Stationary.

Genera.

Species.

Salmo Salar - •

Aigentina - - - - Sphyrana

Saurus ----- Fcetens

Family — HERRINGS ;

Clupea ----- Harengus

Gnathobolus - - - Aculeatus.

Porypterus - - - - Bichir.

Common Name.

- - - Salmon.

- - - Argentine.

- - - Fetid Saury.

Clupeoida.

- - - Herring.

CHARACTERS OF THE GENERA.

1. SALMO (Lat. salio, I leap). Head smooth ; mouth large ; teeth
conical, pointed, arming all the bones of the mouth, also the tongue and
branchial arches ; branchial rays ten or twelve ; body lengthy ; pectoral
and ventral fins of moderate size, the latter on middle of the belly, opposite
the true dorsal fin, and along their base a fleshy fringe ; opposite the anal
a spurious dorsal fin, consisting only of fat enveloped in skin ; caudal fin
attached to a very fleshy root.

2. ARGENTINE. Mouth small, and toothless ; strong-hooked teeth on
tongue ; small teeth before the vomer ; gill-rays six.

3. SAURUS (Gr. oWpct, a fish so called). Generic characters nearly the
same as Salmo. See also " Description of Species."

1. CLUPEA. Intermaxillary bones short and narrow ; sides of jaw made
up of the superior maxillary bones ; gills very large, and the anterior portions
of the branchise towards the mouth set with fine long teeth like those of a
comb ; body narrow and carinated below, at which part the scales are
disposed like saw teeth.

2. GNATHOBOLUS (Gr. yvadog, a jaw, and /3d\Xw, to cast). Mouth
vertical, closed by raising the lower jaw, opened by depressing it ; at which
time is protruded from the upper jaw a slightly-arched short lamina, which,
when the mouth is closed, recedes and rests upon the gill-covers; gill-
covers scaly in front, transparent posteriorly and resplendent ; head, body,
and tail compressed ; thorax carinated and armed with eight spines, as is
also the abdomen with a double row of twenty-eight ; dorsal fin small, and
placed far back ; anal long, and reaching to near the root of the tail ; no
ventrals.

3. PORYITERUS. Head covered with sharp bony plates ; sides of upper
jaw immoveable ; teeth like a rasp, with long ones in front ; body covered
with scales ; one gill-ray ; separate fins on back ; stomach large ; double
air-bladder, with large lobes, the left one opening freely into the gullet.

SALMONIDA, CLUPEOIDA. — DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIES.

SALMO — Salmon. The individuals composing this genus — Salmon and
Trout — are extremely voracious, and feed on living prey, which consists of
small fish, both of their own and other species, on aquatic insects and their
larva3, worms, small crustaceous animals, and the eggs of some Echino-
dermata. They are found in the temperate and northern parts of Europe,
Asia, and America, but seem to prefer the colder streams.

All the species are extremely active in their motions, and some traverse
considerable distances in the performance of certain of their animal functions.
According to the observations of M. Agassiz, the seasons have considerable
influence on the colours of the individuals forming this genus, which vary
so much at different times as to give rise to great difficulty in denning the
species. The peculiar kind of food on which they live is another cause of
the variety of colour among the same species.

Some of the genus are considered to be sea fish, though they cannot be
strictly so called, since they are spawned in fresh 'water, and only visit the
sea periodically for a short time ; indeed, some even of these remain con-

stantly in rivers, being there confined accidentally. But that their annual
visit to the ocean is of importance to their economy, is proved by the fact
that fish so restrained do not thrive or acquire their usual size. Others,
however, are naturally located in rivers and pools of fresh running water
which they never leave, and are therefore strictly fresh-water fish. They
are all edible fish, generally of high flavour, and highly esteemed. The
Salmon especially is most valuable, both on account of the large quantity
of excellent food afforded by it, and the great number of persons engaged
in its capture.

They are usually divided into two sections, the migratory or sea fish,
which annually visit the sea for a few months ; and the stationary or river
fish, which always continue in the fresh water; but, as to structure and
general character, there does not appear to be any material difference.

The Illustrated Species (S. Salar), the Salmon, belongs to the Migratory
Section. The length of the head is one-fifth of the total length of the
animal ; its dorsal surface is grey or bluish-black, inclining to a lighter tint
on the sides ; it is sometimes spotted with black, more especially in the
females, and at other times plain ; the belly silvery ; the dorsal, pectoral,
and caudal fins blackish, the fatty fin corresponding to that part of the
back on which it is placed ; ventral fins white on their outer, and more or
less dusky on their inner surface ; anal white.

During the summer months, Salmon are found in immense numbers
along the coast and at the estuaries of rivers, in which they rest a longer
or shorter time without any apparent reason, moving up and down with
the tide before they commence their regular ascent of the stream. The
reason of the entrance of Salmon into rivers seems to be for the purpose
of spawning ; and their stay at the estuaries, with frequent returns to the
sea, appears sufficiently accounted for by the necessity there is for the
animal's constitution being gradually accommodated to the great change it
is about to undergo in passing from salt water to fresh. This would seem
also to be proved by the fact that the fry and the fish which have spawned,
when about to return to sea, always remain for some time in the estuaries
before they proceed to the ocean.

About the middle of August the milt and roe, which in May had been
about as large as the finger, begin to swell rapidly, and towards the end of
the month have attained such size as materially to diminish the quality of
the fish ; for, as they increase, the walls of the belly, which had previously
been thick, lose the fat which had been deposited there in large quantities,
and to such extent that little more than the skin alone is left. From this
time (August) the male fish is called a Kipper, and the female a Baffgit.
When the fish have attained this condition, they begin to ascend the rivers,
and continue so to do through September and October, by which time they
generally reach the spawning-ground. The Salmon in its ascent continues
its course along the banks of the rivers, preferring the shallow water, and
making its way over mill-dams, weirs, and up cataracts with persevering
resolution, often for hundreds of miles, till it has reached the proper locality.
During its residence in fresh water, the fish undergoes a considerable change
in appearance, the male becoming striped on the cheek, with orange-coloured
marks like a Lahrus, and the body assuming a golden- orange tint, from
which circumstance they are called Red-fish ; whilst the females, becoming
very dark, are called Black-fish. The flesh also loses colour and becomes
paler. For spawning they select shallow running water at the top and
foot of fords, where the bottom is fine and gravelly, or low down in pools
,vhere the water begins to run, which assists them in moving the gravel.

The business of spawning occupies some time, as the fish are only
engaged in it early in the morning or at evening twilight. They go in
pairs, and after playing about the ground begin to make furrows, working
up the gravel against the stream for a distance of about twelve feet ; into
this furrow they both deposit the spawn, and as it drops the gravel is
turned over it by the male with his tail. Having reached the extremity of
the furrow, they sweep round to the point at which they had commenced,
and passing along its side form a second, which is in like manner filled
with spawn, and this process is repeated till a bed of eight or ten feet in
width is produced. The ova or eggs are at first about the size of mustard

120

CLASS— P I S C E S.

ORDER— LCEMO-M ALACOPT ER YG I A.

seed, but when about to be dropped are as large as field peas, and the
average number contained in the roe is from 18,000 to 20,000, but instances
have occurred in which as many as 26,000 have been found. If during
spawning time the male is destroyed, the female returns to deep water and
selects another mate, after which she returns and completes the exclusion
of the eggs. In about three or four months theory begin to rise from the
gravel beds ; but they keep in the eddy pools till they acquire strength
for their further movements, and then, being from two to three inches in
length, and from half an ounce to an ounce in weight, they are called
Smouts. They descend along the margin of the stream, as being easy
water, till they reach the tideway, when they leave the banks and run
into the deep water, where they are least disturbed by the action of the
tide, and are most free from observation. Here they remain for two or
three days, and then go off to sea.

The growth of the fry, whilst remaining in salt water, is very rapid, as,
when they return to the rivers about the middle of June, they weigh from
two to three pounds. Their growth, whilst on the coast and at the
estuaries, is very rapid ; and, according to Mr. Little's observations, during
the whole period of the fishery they continue increasing steadily at about
half a pound a week, so that by the end of August, which is the height of
the Grilse season in the Tweed, they weigh from six to eight pounds. In
September they become scarce, and it is believed drop down to the sea,
from which they return in the following year as perfect Salmon of eight or
nine pounds weight.

As to the mode in which Salmon leap up the falls, Agassiz says : " This
elastic tail is to these fishes a most powerful lever ; when wishing to leap
to a great height, they strike the surface of the water with a kind of double
stroke."

Salmon is, as is well known, a very important article of food, but is not
at all times in season. The fish which have just come up from the sea are
considered to be in finest condition ; they do not deteriorate for the first
twenty-four hours, but after that time gradually decline in flavour and
appearance.

ARGENTINE. The individuals composing this genus are found in the
Mediterranean Sea. The only known species is that figured on Plate 7 ;
viz., the Argentine (A. Sphynena), the digestive organs of which are like
those of a Trout ; the air-bladder is thick and much loaded with nacre —
the silvery substance used in counterfeiting pearls.

SAURUS — Saury. This is one of the genera into which the Linnsean
genus Salmo has been divided by modern zoologists. It is distinguished
from the True Salmons by the edge of its upper jaw being formed entirely
of the intermaxillary bones, and by not having any teeth in the vomer ;
from the Smelts, which have only eight rays in their branchial membrane ;
and from the Lavarets and Argentines, which have no teeth in the jaws.
Some are met with in the Mediterranean, but the greater number in the
Indian Seas and on the coast of Brazil. They are very predaceous. There
are about sixteen species.

The figured species, the Fcetid Saury (S. Foetens), is about twelve or
fourteen inches in length, and of a slender form ; head truncated ; mouth
wide ; nostrils round, single, and near the eyes, which are high up, and
separated from each other by a groove ; pectoral fins short ; anal long ;
rays of all the fins flexible and ramified ; back blackish ; sides and belly
silvery ; fins reddish-brown. It is caught on the coast of Carolina, where
it is called the Sea Sparrow Hawk, but is not common.

Other genera of this family : — Gasteropelecus, Hatchet-beUy ; Serrasalmo,
Serrated Salmon ; Sternoptyx, Folded-chest ; Tetragonopterus, Quadrangular-
fins ; and Thymallus, Grayling,

CLUPEA — Herring. This genus has been divided into several subgenera :
viz., 1. Herrings proper ; 2. Megalops; 3. Anchovies; 4. Thrissa; and
5. Notopterus.

The Herring (C. Harengus) — the Herring of commerce — is about ten
inches in length, the back of a greenish colour, thick ; the belly of a silver
hue, narrow and sharp, and the scales, as they meet each other at its edge,

forming an irregular surface like the teeth of a saw ; head small, lower
jaw the longer of the two ; sixteen or seventeen rays to the anal fin. They
are found in the highest northern latitudes, and generally as low down as
the northern coasts of France ; in one instance they have been caught in
the Bay of Tangier, but never more southward.

The most remarkable circumstance in the natural history of the Herring,
is its annual migration from the Arctic circle towards the south, as it is
presumed for the purpose of depositing its spawn, after which it returns to
its winter habitation, where ife> food, water-insects and mollusca, are more
plentiful. The term Herring is derived from the German word Heer, an
army ; and if reference be made to the habits of the fish, no term could
probably have been found more apposite ; for the numbers in which they
make their appearance is beyond calculation, and their motions are so
regular, that they would almost seem to be directed in their course by
some experienced guide.

Herrings are in full roe towards the end of June, and continue in per-
fection to the beginning of winter, when they begin to deposit their spawn.
The young Herrings make their appearance in shore in July and August,
being then from half an inch to an inch in length ; at which time they are
called in Yorkshire Herring Sile. What becomes of the Herrings in winter
is not well known ; it is certain, however, that the young are not taken
during that season, whilst the old Herrings are constantly caught all the
year round by the fishermen on the coast.

GNATHOBOLUS. But one species of this genus is known, G. Spinifer, or
G. Aculeatus (Plate 7). It is remarkable for its fine silvery hue, and hence
called by the French colonists of Cayenne the Sardine, of which fish, pro-
perly so called, it is a rival in the estimation of gourmands.

PORYPTERUS. These fishes are eatable : they are found in the African
rivers.

Other genera of this family: — Chirocentrus, Elops, Erythrinus, Lepi-
sosteus, Notopterus, Polypterus, Pristigaster, Thryssa, and Ludis.

ORDER III.— LCEMO-M ALACOPTERYGI A. THROAT-SOFT

Fixs.

THE families of this Order have the ventrals under the pectorals, and the
pelvis is suspended to the shoulder-bones.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.
PLATE 8.

Family — COD; Gadoida.

In the Cod family the ventrals, which are pointed, are inserted under the
throat.

Genera. Species. Common Name.

Gadus .... Morrhua .... Cod-fish.

Phycis - - - - Mediterraneus - - Mediterranean Fork-beard.

Family — FLAT-FISH ; Pleuranectoida.

The Flat-fish family have a most unsymmetrical head ; their eyes are on
one side, which side is uppermost when they are swimming.

Platessa - - - - Vulgaris ... - Plaice.
Rhombus - - - Megastoma - - - Whiff.
Soldi - - - - . Vulgaris - - - - Sole.

Family — SUCKERS; Discobolida.

The characteristic of the family Discobolida consists in the disc being
formed by the ventrals.

Lepidogaster - - Cornubiensis - - - Cornish Sucker.
Echeneis ... Remora - ... Common Remora.

< IIARACTERS OF THE GENERA.

1. GADUS. Scales and fins soft; seven round rays to the gills, which
are large ; ventral fins attached under the throat, pointed.

FAMILY— P LEURONECTOIDA. FLAT FISH.

121

2. PHYCIS (Gr. <f>vi;ts, a jixh, so called from being supposed to live
among sea-weed). Pectoral beards short ; body longish and compressed ;
second dorsal fin generally as long as the first ; anal fins two ; ventrals
supported by a single ray, often bifurcated at its tip.

1. PLATESSA (Gr. vXarvs, broad). Dorsal fin not extending further
forward than the upper eye, and as well as the anal fin separated by a gap
from the caudal ; in some the jaws are furnished with obtuse cutting teeth,
and the throat with teeth like paving-stones, in others the teeth of the jaws
are sharp, and those of the throat strong and pointed ; eyes generally on
the right side ; body rhomboidal.

2. RHOMBUS (Gr. po^/Joc, a rftoraft, to which geometrical figure these
fish have a resemblance). Eyes mostly on the left side; delicate teeth on
the jaws and in the pharynx; body compressed, deep vertically ; dorsal fin
commencing near the edge of the upper jaw, and extending nearly to the
tail ; anal fin commencing almost immediately behind the ventrals, and
nearly reaching the tail.

3. SOLEA (Lat. solum, the sole of a shoe). Both eyes and dark colour
on the right side ; mouth distorted to the left, on which side the head is
generally covered with cirrhi of greater or less length ; muzzle rounded,
and the upper jaw projecting more or less beyond the lower ; both jaws
furnished with delicate velvet-like teeth on the left side, but not on the
right : body oblong ; dorsal and anal fins extending to or nearly to the tail ;
in some species the pectoral fins extremely small.

1. LEPADOGASTER (Gr. Xeiras, a shell, and yaintp, the leUy). Pectoral
fins double, the anterior and outer larger than the inner; ventrals also
double, connected by membrane at their base, so as to form a saucer-like
hollow ; both pectoral and ventral fins connected by membrane with each
other ; dorsal and anal fins single ; body scaleless and smooth ; head de-
pressed, sometimes cirrhated ; mouth prominent and extensile ; branchial
rays four or five.

2. ECHKNKIS (Gr. 'i\tiv, to hold, and vave, a ship). Head surmounted
with a flat disc, composed of several pairs of moveable plates ; mouth
roundish, horizontal, lower jaw projecting, and furnished, as well as the
front of the upper jaw, with small teeth, set close, like a wool-card, whilst
those on the sides of the upper jaw are very fine, and ranged in a single
row ; eyes lateral ; branchiostegous rays eight ; body longish, the dorsal
fin single, soft, and opposite the anal.

GADOIDA, PLEURONECTOIDA, DISCOBOLIDA. — DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIES.

GADOIDA — Cod. This important genus has the body tapering, and
slightly compressed ; the head smooth and not scaly ; the jaws are fur-
nished with rows of teeth, and besides these a pair of processes on the
front of the vomer are covered with numerous sharp-pointed teeth, with
their points directed backwards ; the dorsal fins are generally either two
or three, but sometimes running into each other, so as to form a single fin.
These fish are furnished with a large air-bladder, which is commonly
known as the Sound. The structure of their teeth indicates their pre-
datory habits, and they are accordingly found living upon worms or small
fish of their own or other kinds. They form an important article of com-
merce, more especially when dried. They are divided into subgenera from
the number of their dorsal fins, viz. — 1. Cods ; 2. Whitings ; 3. Hakes ;
4. Lings; 5. Recklings; 6. Torsks.

The Common Cod-fish (G. Morrhua) is from two to four feet in length,
and weighs from fourteen to forty pounds. The larger fish are generally
coarse, and those of moderate size are most esteemed for the table. As tc
colour, the back and fins are ashy, spotted with yellow, and the belly
white ; the lateral line straight, broad, and white to the vent, but becoming
curved as it approaches the tail. Cod are most remarkably prolific ; accord-
ing to Lewenhoeck's patient examination, a middling-sized fish contains
nine millions three hundred and eighty-four thousand eggs. The Cod is found
only in the Northern Seas. The seasons for fishing are two : the first, or
shore season, begins on the 20th of April, and ends on the 10th of October,
when the boats fish in water from four to twenty fathoms; the second, or

bank season, begins in May and ends with September, when the boats ti-h
in water from thirty to forty fathoms.

PHYCIS — Fork-beard. This genus is distinguished from the Common
Fork-beard by its first dorsal tin being rounded, and not higher than the
second ; it measures from twelve to twenty inches in length, and is of a
blackish-brown colour. It is found in the Mediterranean, and is considered
good eating, and is common at Ivica, where it is called Mdlera.

Other genera of this family : — Lepidoleprus, Macrourous, Raniceps.

PLATESSA — Plaice ; Flounder. The individuals composing this genus
have been divided into two sections, viz., 1. With the throat teeth blunt and
ranged like a pavement ; and 2. With the throat teeth strong and pointed.

The Plaice (P. Vulgaris) is about three times as long as it is in
depth, and weighing from eight to nine pounds, and occasionally as much
as fifteen pounds ; between the eyes is a
row of six tubercles, extending back to
the commencement of the lateral line ;
ocular side of the body clear brown,
marked with bright orange spots, the
other side white. The best are caught
off the Sussex and Dutch coasts, although
generally in the North Sea and in the
Baltic. They feed on small fish, espe-
cially also on mussels and young cockles. They spawn early in February.

RHOMBUS — Turbot, Ray. This genus, which formed part of the Linnaan
Pleuronectes, till separated from it by Cuvier, is distinguished from the
Soles by not having the mouth twisted
to one side, and from the Flounders by
the great length of their dorsal fin. All
of them are predaceous, feeding upon
small fish, crustaceous and molluscous
animals. They are divided into two
sections from the position of their eyes
and the form of their tail.

The species named Whiff (R. Cardina vel Megastoma) is figured on
Plate 8. This fish is of an oblong form, measuring eighteen inches in
length by seven wide, and has some resemblance to the Halibut. It is
covered with large rough scales, and has the lateral line very much curved
at its origin, and after making a sharp angle runs straight on to the tail.
The upper surface is ashy-brown marked with white and blackish spots ;
the under white tinged with red. It is caught in the British Channel.

SOLEA — Sole. This genus is distinguished from the Plaice (Platessa)
by having no bony tubercles on the skin ; from the Halibuts (Hippoglossus)
by the small size of the teeth in its jaws ; from the Turbots (Rhombus) by
its eyes being on the right side, and the dorsal fin not commencing so far
forward, and both it and the anal reaching to the tail ; and from the Achirus
by having pectoral fins.

The Common Sole (S. Vulgaris) varies from twelve to eighteen inches in
length, and its greatest breadth not equal to half its length ; length of the
head half the breadth of the body; eyes small, the lower immediately
above the corner of the mouth, their brides yellow ; the rays simple, com-
pressed, and covered with scales the greater part of their length ; pectoral
fins just behind the upper part of the branchial opening, narrow, rounded,
and their middle rays longest ; ventral fins very small and just in front of
the vent ; anal corresponding to the dorsal, but not commencing till oppo-
site the root of the pectoral ; caudal fin slightly rounded ; lateral line
arched on the head, and thence running straight to the tail ; upper surface
brown, and the scales edged with a deep tinge, giving a reticular appear-
ance ; under surface white ; tip of the upper pectoral fin black. The Com-
mon Sole is found extending from the Scandinavian and Baltic Seas
southward, and along the Spanish and Portuguese coasts into the Mediter-
ranean, and also on the American coast ; it is also commonly found on the
Scotch, Irish, and English coasts, but those on the southern and western
coasts are most esteemed both on account of their size and flavour.

The Turbot.

122

CLASS— P I S C E S.

ORDER— APODO-M AL ACO PT ERYGI A.

LEPADOGASTER — Sucker. This genus is distinguished by having its
pectoral and ventral fins double, and in having the sucker or saucer-like
cavity double ; from this peculiarity they have been named by the French
Porte Ecuelle, or Saucer-bearers.

The Cornish Sucker (L. Ocelktus vel Cornubiensis) is four inches long ;
body reddish with dusky spots ; four cirrhi in front of the eyes ; the mark
behind them oval, deep purple, surrounded with a palish-brown ring, and
having a brilliant, blue, central spot

ECHENEIS — Sucking fish. Of the three species included in this genus,
the E. Remara is alone found in Europe, whilst the others are natives of
the Tropical Seas. They are bad swimmers, but this deficiency is sup-
plied by a remarkable organ placed on the top of the head,
which enables them to adhere to other large fishes, or to
ships' bottoms, so that without exertion they are conveyed
to such situations as are most appropriate for finding their
food. This organ is of a rounded form, and has a middle
crest, which extends from its anterior to its posterior edge ;
Disc of Remora. and from each side pass obliquely outwards several pairs of
solid bony plates, which are flat and serrated at their edges, and the whole
are kept together by a kind of pin.

The Common Remara (Plate 8) is about eleven inches long; colour
brown ; fins bluish ; irides brown, surrounded with gold ; and the interior

of the mouth of a deep carnation ;
the body, which is long and conical,
is covered with a soft viscous skin,
on which the scales are not seen
without difficulty till after death,

and the animal has become dry; the lateral line consists of a row of jutting
points.

The Remora has been fabulously gifted with the power of arresting the
course of ships by its attachment to their bottoms. Hence its Greek name
Echeneis, given by Aristotle ; and its Latin name Remara, of similar import.
One remarkable circumstance, however, with regard to the Remora has
been observed, viz., that it always swims on its back. On the western
coast of Africa they are known amongst the Dutch by the name of Dung
Fish, from their greedily swallowing whatever filth may be thrown from
the ship.

Another genus of this family : — Cyclopterus.

ORDER IV.— APODO-MALACOPTERYGIA.

TRAL FlNS.

WITHOUT VEN-

THE Order Apodo-Malacopterygia include those Fishes in which the
ventral fins are wanting: they constitute one natural family of several

genera.

Family — SNAKE-LIKE FISHES ; Anguilliformes.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.

Genera.

Anguilla - -
Conger - - -
Ophisurns - -
Murama - -
Sphagebranchus
Saccopharyni -
Gymnonotus •
Leptocephalus -
Ophidium - -
Ammodytes

PLATE 9.

Spade*. Common Name.

Acutirostris ... - Sharp-nosed Eel.

Vulgaris Conger.

Hyala Glassy Ophisore.

Meleagris.

Rostratus.

Harwoodii.

fquilabiatus - - - Banded Gymnote.

Morrisii ..... Anglesea Morris.

Imberbis ..... Beardless Ophidium.

Lancea Sand-lance.

CHARACTERS OF THE GENERA.

1. ANGUILLA. Have the dorsal and anal fins elongated beyond the tail,
so as to form a pointed caudal fin ; and some of them have the dorsal fin
commencing far behind the pectorals, with the upper jaw very short.

2. CONGEU. Dorsal fin arising either close to the pectoral fins or im-
mediately with them, and the upper jaw always the longer.

3. OPHISURUS. The dorsal and anal fins do not reach quite to the end
of the tail, which remains pointed and finless ; in some the pectoral fins
are of the ordinary size, and the teeth pointed.

4. MUR*NA (Gr. fivpaiva). Body snake-like, furnished with pectoral
fins, underneath which are the narrow lateral branchial aj>ertures.

5. SPHAGEBRANCHUS (Gr. a^ayri, a throat, and /3payxtai S^fc). Bran-
chial openings small, close to each other, and beneath the throat ; muzzle
long and pointed; pectoral fins rudimentary or deficient; vertical fins in
some commencing only near the tail ; body and tail nearly cylindrical.

6. SACCOPHARYNX (Gr. GOKKOS, a pouch, and ^tipuyj, a throat). Head
small, and flattened anteriorly ; the upper rather longer than the lower jaw ;
gape enormously wide ; teeth in the intermaxillary bones very fine, pointed,
and inclining backwards, sometimes also, but not always, in the lower
jaw ; tongue very small ; eyes small, and near the tip of the upper jaw ;
branchial apertures before and below the pectoral fins ; body scaleless,
compressed, serpentiform, and capable of great distension ; tail very long,
and becoming filamentous at the tip.

7. GYMNONOTUS (Gr. •yiytvoe, naked, and i/uJroc, the back). Gill opening
partly covered by membrane, situated in front of the pectoral fins ; anal fin
extending from the vent, which is immediately behind the pectorals, to the
tail ; no dorsal fin.

8. LEPTOCEPHALUS (Gr. XtTrroc, slender, and rc^ctAij, a head). Body
thin, compressed laterally ; dorsal and anal fins very small, and running into
the tail, no pectorals ; head very small, muzzle pointed ; teeth small ; sides
of the body marked with oblique lines running into the lateral line, which
is straight.

9. OPHIDIUM (Gr. fyiliov, the name of a fish, used by Pliny). Head
covered with large scales; branchial membrane and opercule very wide;
body and tail long, compressed, sword-shaped, and irregularly studded
with scales; dorsal, caudal, and anal fins connected; in some species the
lower jaw bearded.

10. AMMODYTES. Snout sharp ; upper jaw extensile, and shorter than
the lower ; dorsal fin with simple jointed rays ; anal fin ; forked caudal ;
fins not united.

ANGUILLIFORMES. — DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIES.

ANGUILLA — The True Eel. These Eels are recognized as fresh-water
fishes ; for though they migrate to the sea in the end of the year, where
they mature their young in the sludge, yet at the return of the season they
ascend the rivers again (according to some), accompanied by the countless
brood of the previous year. They are delicate fishes, and very abundant ;
the best in quality are found in the pure rivers of the chalk districts. There
are three species indigenous to the British Islands, viz., the S/iarp-nosed
Eel (A. Acutirostris), figured on Plate 9 ; the Broad-nosed Eel (A. Lati-
rostris) ; and the Glut Eel, or Snig (A. Mediorostris). The back is dusky
green, the belly whitish, inclining to yellowish or brownish, according to
the water in which they live ; sometimes they are speckled with deep brown.
They are found only in fresh water, but indifferently in streams or ponds ;
and they feed by night upon the spawn of fishes, insects, &c.

CONGER. This Eel occasionally attains the length of eight or nine feet,
and the thickness of a man's leg, and weighs a hundred pounds ; its back
dusky, the belly whitish, the lateral line consisting of numerous white dots ;
the dorsal and anal fins edged with black. It is found tliroughout the
European seas; its flesh is very coarse, and little esteemed.

OPHISURUS — Snake Eel. This genus is so called from its general resem-
blance to the snake form ; a portion of its tail is destitute of fins, and its
extremity has a pouch like a serpent. This Eel is about five or six feet
long, and as thick as a man's arm, with a slender, pointed muzzle ; brown
above, silvery beneath ; the lateral line dotted. Found in the Mediter-
ranean. One species, the Glassy Ophisure (O. Hyala), is figured on
Plate 9.

MUR.ENA — Eel. These Eels grow to the length of three feet, and

ORDEK— LOPHOBR ANCHIATA. HOOP GILLS.

123

sometimes to a greater length ; they are very voracious, and far from being
inviting in appearance ; their colour is mottled, brown, and yellow. Some
of the species have but one row of sharp teeth in each jaw, while others
have two rows ; some have two rows on the vomer, and a single one on
the jaws ; and others again have two rows on the jaws, and four, like a
pavement, on the vomer. The species M. Meleagris (Plate 9), M. Helena,
and M. Unicola, are of this genus.

SPHAGEBRANCHDS. This genus is distinguished from the Murcenae by
the close approximation of the gill openings, which are placed beneath the
throat, and each contain four branchial arches. In some species there are
not any pectoral fins, such as 8. Rostratus (Plate 9), about a foot long ;
the muzzle is projected into a tube-like form, and the orifice of the mouth
beneath the head ; each jaw is furnished with seven little teeth ; between
the eyes are two elevated lines rail of pores, and running to the tip of the
muzzle, at which there are a pair of barbs ; general colour brown. Is
found in the rivers of Surinam.

SACCOPHARYNX. The first description of this curious genus was given
in 1824 by Dr. Mitchell, and named by him, from " the pouch-like form
of the throat," Saccopharynx. Subsequently, in 1827, a Paper was read by
Dr. Harwood, before the Royal Society, giving an account of " a newly-
discovered genus of Serpentiform Fishes," to which he assigned the name
Ophionathus, from the general resemblance of its jaws to those of Serpents.
The species S. Harwoodi is four feet and six inches long ; colour pur-
plish-black ; the air-vessel twenty inches, its parietes extremely delicate,
and, when partially distended, it measured nine inches in circumference
below its union with the tail ; dorsal fin commencing about eighteen inches
from the snout, terminating gradually on the slender, tape-like tail, which
extends about twenty inches and a half beyond, and about the termination
of the dorsal fin a few other minute filaments arise ; anal fin, commencing
from the vent, terminates at about fourteen inches short of the tip of the
tail. Tongue almost entirely deficient ; teeth disposed above and below in
a single row — above only in the margin of the intermaxillary bones, below
along almost the whole length of the maxilla ; the jaws, when gently
opened, measured two inches and a half across, and three and a half from
above to below.

GYMNONOTUS. These fish in their general form resemble the Eels, but
differ from them in the situation of the branchial aperture ; they are all

natives of South America. The name by
which they were first designated was Gym-
notus, but it has been corrected by Schneider
to Gymnonotus. In this genus is found
the remarkable animal known commonly as
the Electric Eel (G. Electricus), but no other
species is possessed of its peculiar proper-
ties.

The use which the stunning power pos-
sessed by these animals serves, is to enable
them to procure their prey, and devour it at

their leisure ; for as their teeth are but small, and their intestinal canal very-
short, a small portion can only be taken at a time, and without this organ
the animal would be incapable of providing itself nourishment, which
consists of small fish and worms.

The illustrated species is the Evenlipped Gymnote (G. jEquilabratus) ; it
is about twenty-eight inches in length, body long, snake-like, compressed ;
the lips obtuse and of equal length ; the back is olive-green and the belly
silvery, marked with little reddish spots. It was discovered by Hnmboldt
in the great river of St. Magdalen. Resembles in its manners the Electric
Gymnote, but has no electric apparatus ; its air-bladder is single, and does
not extend along the tail.

LEPTOCEPHALUS. The species L. Morrisii (Plate 9) measures about
four inches, and is of a whitish colour, and almost transparent ; head much
below the level of the back ; eyes large, irides golden ; the branchial aper-
ture very wide. Found on the English and French coasts, and first dis-
covered by Pennant.

OPHLDIUM. This genus very much resembles the Mwcena and Arnmo-
dytes, but the junction of the dorsal, caudal, and anal fins distinguishes it
from the latter, as does the branchial apparatus from the former.

The Beardless Danzelle, or Ophidium (O. Imberbis), is, as its title implies,
destitute of beard ; its dorsal fin so small as to appear little more than a
fold of skin ; caudal fin slightly rounded ; general colour yellow. Is found
in the Mediterranean, on the southern coast of France especially, but also
in all the European seas.

AMMODYTES. The individuals of this genus have the body like the
former. There are two species ; the Sand Eel (A. Tobianus), and the
Sand-lance (A. Lancea), figured on Plate 9. Both species are found on
the sandy shores of Britain ; their stomach is fleshy and pointed ; they
have no ca?ca nor air-bladder ; they burrow in the sand, and are captured
by digging for them at low water. It is supposed that they contribute to
the support of the Salmon in the estuaries. The Sand-lance is thicker in
the body than the other species ; the intermaxillaries are larger, and the
dorsal commencing farther forward.

Other genera of this family : — Gymnothorax, Stemarchus, Synbranchus.

ORDEK V.— LOPHOBRANCHIATA. HOOP GILLS.

THE Fishes of this Order are distinguished by the tuft-like nature of their
gills, disposed along the arches of the jaws in pairs ; their body is also
covered with small plates, giving it an angular form.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.
PLATE 10.

Genera. Species. Common Name.

Syngnathus ... Typhlus - ... Needle-fish.
Pegasus - ... Draco Sea Dragon.

CHARACTERS OF THE GENERA.

1. SYNGNATHUS (Gr. avv and yvddog, jaws connected'). Head long,
both jaws produced united and tubular; body very long, slender, and
covered with indurated plates ranged in parallel lines ; no ventral fins ;
under the tail of the males an elongated pouch closes by two folding mem-
branes in some species.

2. PEGASUS. Muzzle much projecting, and of a tubular form, with the
mouth opening beneath ; body wide, depressed, and covered with scales
connected like the plates of a coat of mail ; branchial opening single ; ven-
tral fins behind the pectoral, which are sometimes very broad ; dorsal and
anal fins opposite each other.

LOPHOBRANCHIATA. DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIES.

SYNGNATHUS — Pipe-fish. The individuals composing this genus,
move in the water much in the same manner as Eels. They feed on
marine animals of very small size, also upon small Crustacea and the spawn
offish.

The Deep-nosed Pipe-fish (S. TypbJus) is thirteen inches in length ; jaws
compressed and deep, so that their upper and lower edges are nearly
on the same plane as the upper and under surfaces of the head ; body hex-
angular, the middle lateral angle on each side becoming the upper angles
of the quadrangular tail at the end of the dorsal fin, the middle of which is
nearly in the middle of the whole length of the fish ; the sculptured plates
are eighteen on a side between the shoulder and the vent, behind which
they are about thirty-seven ; the belly rounded ; anal fin very small, caudal
pointed, its two central rays the longest, and the others graduated. Its
general colour is olive-green, mottled and spotted with yellow, brown, and
yellowish-white. It is common along the Dorsetshire coast. Laroche's
S. Emdeletii and Risso's S. Viridis are, according to Yarrell, identical with
this species.

PEGASUS — The Sea Dragon (P. Draco) is from three to four inches in
length ; the body of a trigonal form ; the large expansion of its pectoral

124

SUB-CLASS— C HONDROPTERYGII. CARTILAGINOUS FISHES.

fins producing some resemblance to the Weevil. Bloch has fancied it forms
a connecting link between fishes and insects, as he thinks the Flying Fish
connects them with birds. The jaws are beset with small teeth ; the eyes
prominent, pupil black, surrounded with a yellow ring ; the upper part of
the body is studded with variously-disposed protuberances, and in the middle
of the under part is a prominent, longitudinal ridge, from which the ven-
tral fins arise ; these consist each of a long, single ray, and above each pec-
toral fin is a similar ray, perhaps serving rather the purpose of angling for
the fry of other fishes than as organs of swimming, as Bloch observes ; the
tail is quadrangular ; the general colour is bluish, and that of the protuber-
ances brown ; the pectoral fins are broad, and thus having a resemblance
to wings, whilst the scaly covering of the body resembles the Sea Horse,
they have been named after Perseus's famous winged horse Pegasus.

Other genera of this family : —

HIPPOCAMPUS — Sea Horse. These curious animals have derived their
title from their filaments resembling the hairs of a caterpillar, and the pecu-
liar curve which the neck and body assume in drying like the head and
neck of a horse.

SOLENOSTOMUS — Tubular-mouth. The large ventral fins uniting with each
other and to the body like an apron behind the pectoral fins distinguishes
this from the genus Syngnathus ; this apron serves the same purpose as
the pouch of that genus, viz. to support the spawn.

ORDER VI.— PLECTOGNATHI. FIXED JAWS.

Family — GYMNODONTA; Naked Teeth.

THE Gymnodonta have, instead of teeth, their jaws covered with a sub-
stance like ivory, laminated internally, and resembling the beak of a parrot.

Diodon ----- Hystrix .... Round Diodon.
Orthragoriscus - - Oblongus - ... Oblong Sun-fish.

Family — SCLERODERMATA ; Hard Skins.

Balistes .... CaprUcus - - - Mediterranean File-fish.
Ostracion - ... Triquetrum - - - Trunk-fish.

CHARACTERS OF THE GENERA.

1. DIODON (Gr. Sic, twice, and dSot/c, a tooth). Jaws projecting, and
together resembling the beak of a Parroquet ; the skin covered with large
sharp spines, moveable, numerous, and scattered over the whole surface of
the body.

2. ORTHRAGORISCUS (Gr. dpOpayopiWoc, sucking pig). Gills furnished
with membrane and opercule ; jaws undivided, bare, and toothless ; body
compressed, truncated behind, and not capable of inflation ; tail very short
and verticle ; no ventral fins ; dorsal and anal deep pointed and connected
with the caudal fin, which is in form of a narrow band.

1. BALISTES (Italian balestra, a crossbow). Eight teeth in each jaw ;
body compressed ; skin scaly or granular ; first dorsal fin spined ; second
soft and opposite the anal ; no true ventral fins, but the pelvis attached to
the bones of the shoulder, and sometimes having projecting processes.

2. OSTRACION (Gr. oarpaKov, a shelT). Body polygonal, and covered
along the head with regular bony plates, forming an inflexible coat of mail,
so that no part is moveable except the tail, the fins, the mouth, and a kind
of lip which is situated about the branchial aperture, all of which pass
through holes in this armour ; jaws each furnished with ten or twelve coni-
cal teeth ; to the gills there seems merely a cleft edge with a cuticular lobe,
but within there are an opercule and six rays ; no ventral fins ; dorsal and
anal single and very small.

GYMNODONTA, SCLERODERMATA. — DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIES.

DIODON. These fish, of which Lacepede enumerates five species, are
natives of the seas of hot climates, living upon the Crustacea and sea-weed.
Like the other fish of the same family, they have the power of inflating
the belly, which then gives them the appearance of a chestnut in its bristly
shell, hence the French call them Orbes Epineux.

One species, the Round Diodon (D. Hystrix), is figured on Plate 10.

ORTHRAGORISCUS. This genus consists of the species — JJiyiii/,
Short, and Oblong Sun-fish; the last of which is represented on Plate 10.

The Oblong Sun-fish (O. Oblongus) is about two feet and a half !
body twice as long as its breadth, and marked with small hexagonal figures.
Found in the Atlantic.

Other genera of this family : —

TRIODON — Three-toothed. It holds an intermediate place between
Diodon and Tetraodon, and by the long pelvic bone which sustains the
enormous dewlap, or fan-like disc of skin, it is connected with some of the
Bdistes.

TKTRAODON — Four-toothed or Globe-fish. The fishes of this genus m.
able to inflate the body like a balloon, by swallowing large quantities "t
air, which is received into a kind of
extensible crop, occupying the whole
length of the belly. When thus dis-
tended they turn belly upwards, float-
ing upon the surface of the sea, with-
out the power of directing their course ;
but they are not defenceless, as their

inflation erects the spines upon their skin. When caught they make a
sort of noise, probably by the escape of the air from their bodv. Their flesh
is considered to be poisonous.

BALISTES— the Mediterranean File-fish (B. Capriscus) is the only one of
this genus found in Europe, the others are all natives of the Indian and
American seas. The Bdistes are remarkable for the first dorsal fin, which
is composed -of two or more spines connected together on a single hone
attached to the skull. The generic title is derived from the trivial name
of the B. Capriscus, Pesce Balestra, so called by the Italians, from its sup-
posed resemblance to the trigger of a crossbow, for, says Salviau, it 1ms
three spines capable of voluntary erection and depression, and although you
press the foremost and greatest never so hard, it will not stir, but if you
depress the last and least of all never so softly, the other two immediately
fall down with it. Artedi applied the name Bdistes to this genus, from a
supposed resemblance of the spine of the B. Monoceros to the ancient
battering-ram. The English name, File-fish, was given to it by Dr. Grew,
in his " Museum Regalis Societatis," " from the likeness which the foremost
bone upon his back hath to a file." They are remarkable for the brilliancy
of their colours ; and their flesh, seldom much esteemed, is considered
poisonous at particular seasons.

OSTRACION — Trunk-fish. The remarkable covering of this genus bears
some analogy to the dorsal and ventral shields of the Tortoises, or rather
to the bony armour of the Armadillos, their hard covering being indeed
bony, and the several portions of which it consists being so well joined to-
gether, that the whole seems but a single bone, in shape of an oblong box
or coffer. These fish are found only in Tropical Seas, and in the Red and
Indian Seas, and in that which bathes the American coast. They feed on
Crustacea and Testacea, the shells of which they easily break down with
their teeth.

The species figured on Plate 10 is flie 0. Triquetrum, its body is trian-
gular, and without spines.

SUB-CLASS.— CHONDROPTERYGII. CARTILAGINOUS FISUES.

THE skeleton of the cartilaginous Fishes has no bony fibres, but the cal-
careous matter is disposed in grains. The sutures of tlie cranium are in-
distinct, and the maxillary and intermaxilliary bones are reduced to mer-
rudiments, their place being supplied by the palatine or vomer. Chon-
dropterygii comes from the Greek -^ovlpot, a cartilage, and VTC pv-yiov, a fin.

ORDER.— ELEUTHEROBRANCHIATA VEL BRANCHIS

L1BERIS. LOOSE GILLS.

THE gills are fiee, having a single wide opening and a gill-lid ; but without
gill-rays.

ORDKR— PYCXOBRANCHIATA. FAMILY— PLAGIOSTOMATA. TRANSVEKSE MOUTHS. 125

Family — STURGEONS ; Sturionida.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.
PLATE 11.

Genera. SjwHes. f'ommon Name.

t Sturio ----- Sturgeon.
Accipienser- - - {Ruthenu9 .... Sterlet4

Polyodon - - - Folium.

( Northern Chimaera, or King
\ of the Herrings.
f Southern Chimajra, or
Fish.

Monstrosa -

Chimara - -

I Southern Chim
(Callorhyncha - - -( Elcphant Fis

CHARACTERS OF THE GENERA.

1. ACCIPIENSER. Body long, angular, covered with longitudinal rows
of bony plates ; snout pointed ; mouth, which is under the muzzle, small,
tubular, and toothless ; palatal bones attached to the maxillaries form the
jaws ; eyes and nostrils on the side of the head ; no external ear.

2. PoLYODON. Elongated snout with broad margins ; upper jaw armed
with two rows of small teeth, and formed by the union of the palatals and
maxillaries, with a pedicle of two articulations.

3. SPATULARIA. Throat wide and furnished with small teeth ; branchial
ap'erture large, covered with a large gill-flap extending nearly to the middle
of the body ; skin smooth and scaleless ; dorsal fin single, falciform ; pec-
toral small ; ventral opposite the origin of the dorsal ; anal large ; caudal
crescentic, its upper lobe longest.

4. CHIM/ERA. Branchiae opening by a single aperture on either side ;
the jaws covered with hard undivided plates instead of teeth ; muzzle
prominent and pierced with pores disposed in regular lines ; first dorsal fin
above the pectoral, and armed with a strong spine, the second commencing
immediately behind the first, and extending to the root of the tail, which
is terminated in a thread-like form ; the males distinguished by trifid
osseous appendages attached to the ventral fins, on the front of the roots
of which are two spiny plates, and a small fringed crest on the head.

ELEUTHEROBRANCHIATA. — DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIES.

ACCIPIENSER — Sturgeon. The Sturgeons, both in their external form
and general internal organization, strikingly resemble the Shark family.

They are of large size,
some having been found
to measure from six to
eight feet in length, and

Sturgeon. to we'8h frora two to

three hundred pounds.

The Common Sturgeon (A. Sturio) is about six feet long; its eyes and
nostrils are on the side of the head, and barbules issue from the muzzle :
there is no "external ear, and the air-bladder is large, communicating with
the gullet by an extensive opening.

Along the northern coasts of Europe, and in some rivers which they
ascend, the Common Sturgeon is very abundant, and extensive fisheries are
established for its capture. The flesh is generally agreeable, and their eggs
and roe are made into caviare, while the finest isinglass is produced from
their thick air-bladders.

The Sterlet (A. Ruthenus) is about two feet long ; its flesh is highly
esteemed, and the caviare made from it is reserved for the Russian Court.

POLYODON (SPATULARIA of Dr. Shaw). The individuals of this genus
have a general resemblance to the Sturgeons ; but their gill-openings are
wider, and the gill-lid extends to hah0 the length of the body ; gape much
cleft; teeth numerous and small. The spinal cord is like that of the
Lamprey, also the spiral valve, which is common to most of the order.
They have an air-bladder, but the pancreas is partially divided into caeca.

There is but a single species known — the P. Folium (Plate 11); it is
found in the Mississippi, and of its habits little is known. The spatula-
like muzzle is about four or five times as long as its breadth, and upon its
upper surface has a middle keel-shaped ridge, which is gradually lost about
two-thirds from its base, resembling the midrib of a leaf, and the resemblance

is rendered more close by the reticular ridges observed on each side, and
hence Lacepede has given the specific name feuille, leaf; on its under
surface the membrane covering it forms a hollow in which the lower jaw is
received.

CHIMERA. Of this genus, which gets its name from its uncouth form,
there are but two species : —

The Northern Chimoera (C. Monstrosa), called by the Norwegians " King
of the Herrings;" measures about three feet long; is of a silvery colour
spotted with brown ; at night its eyes are brilliant like those of the Cat,
whence in the Mediterranean it is called the Sea Cat. It is often seen
lurking among the shoals of Herrings. The Norwegians salt its roe, and
express an oil from the liver, which they employ for certain diseases of the
eye ; of the tail they make pipe-pickers ; the flesh is not eatable.

The Southern Ckimoera (C. Callorhj-ncha), named by Cook the Elephant
Fish, is distinguished from the preceding species by a fleshy projection on
the muzzle in the form of a hoe, from which it has acquired the name given
by Cook. Its general colour is silvery; brownish on the upper parts.
Native of the Southern Seas. (Plate 11.)

ORDER.— PYCNOBRANCHIATA, VEL BRANCHIS FIXIS.

CLOSE GILLS.

THE gills of this Order are attached to the outer edge, having a separate
opening, through which the water from each gill escapes. They form two
families.

Family — TRANSVERSE MOUTHS ; Plagiostomata.
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.

PLATE 12.
Generm. Species. Common Name.

Squalus - - - - Carcharius - - - Whit* Shark.

Squatina - - - - Angelus - - - - Angel-fish.

Torpedo - - - - Narke ----- Spotted Torpedo.

Raja ----- Clavata - - - - Rough Ray.

Family — LAMPREYS, OR ROUND MOUTHS ; Cyclostomata.

Petromyzon - - - Marinus ... - Sea Lamprey.
Gastrobranchus - Caecus ----- Myxine or Hog.
CHARACTERS OF THE GENERA.

1. SQUALIS. Muzzle prominent; beneath it in front the nostrils, not
elongated nor with lobes; teeth cutting, pointed, and often serrated on
their edges ; inspiracles sometimes extremely small ; branchial apertures
either partially above the pectoral fins or entirely before them ; first dorsal
fin much in front of the pectorals, second opposite the anal ; caudal fin
with a second lobe beneath, giving it a more or less forked form.

2. SQUATINA. Mouth at the extremity of the muzzle ; head flat and
rounded in front ; eyes on the dorsal surface ; inspiracles ; body broad and
flattened horizontally ; pectoral fins large, extending forwards, but separated
from the back by a deep cleft, in which are the openings of the gills ;
dorsal fins behind the ventral ; no xanal fin ; cauda;' fin having one lobe
above and the other below the extremity of the tail

3. TORPEDO (Lat. torpeo, 1 numb). Teeth small and sharp; body
flattened, oval, and slightly notched in front; skin smooth and bare ; tail
short, thick, fleshy, and surrounded at its tip with an oblique terminal fin ;
dorsal fins two, small, and upon the root of the tail ; pectorals large ; space
between the head, gills, and pectoral fins filled on each side with an electric
organ, consisting of polygonal columns.

4. RAJA (Celt. roe). Body of a roundish form, flattened and very wide
from the junction of the pectoral fins with the muzzle ; ears and eyes on
the upper, and the mouth, nostrils, and gill apertures on the under surface ;
teeth small and close set in a tessellated form ; tail slender, furnished with
two small dorsal fins, and sometimes with an imperfect caudal fin.

1. PETROMYZON (Gr. irirpoc, a rock, and pluraia, I suck). Head thinner
than the body ; mouth beneath hollowed like a cup, its edge surrounded
by a fleshy lip, and its cavity beset with fleshy tubercles covered with very

126

SUB-CLASS— C HONDROPTERYGII. CARTILAGINOUS FISHES.

Shark.

horn, anil answering to teeth ; tongue beset with two rows of very
small teeth, and extensile ; on each side of the head seven branchial
nurtures, with a peculiar canal commencing immediately below the gullet
connected with them ; two dorsal fins distinct ; no anal fin ; tail fin con-
sisting of a longitudinal fold of skin above and below supported on very
delicate, indistinct rays.

2. GASTROBRANCHCS (Gr. yam-rip, ° tetty, and /3payxia> a 9®)- Open-
ings of the gills under the belly ; no fins except the caudal.

PLAGIOSTOMATA, CYCLOSTOMATA. DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIES.

SQUALUS — Shark. The Sharks are extremely ferocious, and of pro-
verbially gluttonous habits. They do not swim with great speed, their
progress being retarded in some degree by the position of their mouth requiring

them to turn on
one side when
about to seize
their prey. They
were formerly
said to be pos-
sessed of a fine
scent, but Quoy

and Gaimard have proved that this is not the case, and that rather their
vision is acute. They appear to be found in all seas, mostly upon the
coast, but between the tropics are often met with on the high sea. Their
habits are generally solitary, except when hunger draws them into bays or
other inlets, when they are seen in swarms. Their flesh is coarse and .
tasteless, but rarely eaten except from the tail. The liver is very greasy,
and large quantities of oil are obtained from it. The skin rough, and from
some species it is used in the manufacture of a sort of shagreen.

The White Shark (S. Carcharias) measures from twenty-five to thirty
feet in length ; the body spindle-shaped, and covered with hard granular

skin ; head large, muzzle
largely furnished with pores
which exude a glairy se-
cretion ; mouth large, wide,
and semicircular ; upper
jaw armed with six, and
the lower with four rows of
teeth, amounting to four or
Head of Shark. s;x hundred ; tongue short,

thick, and rough, as is also the palate ; eyes round, the irides pearly-white,
and the pupils blackish ; upper parts of the body brown, under parts
white, and two rows of black pores upon the sides.

SQUATISA — Angel-fish. The Angel-fish (S. Angelus) is from .five to
seven or eight feet long, and up to one hundred pounds in weight ; upper
.surface dark mottled-chocolate, under parts dirty white. From the sup-
posed resemblance of the pectoral fins to wings, the animal has acquired its
name of Angel-fish. It is not uncommon upon the British coast, where it
is known as the Angel, Monk, or Fiddle fish, from the size of its pectoral
fins, from the head being sunk within the pectoral as within a cowl, or its
siiajx! resembling a fiddle. It produces in the spring and autumn seven or
eight young ones. It is a very fierce and voracious animal.

TORPEDO — Cramp-fish. The space between the pec-
torals and the head is filled by an electric apparatus, amply
supplied with nerves, and consisting of numerous cells like
honeycombs, in the intervals of which a mucous fluid is
contained. The shocks are not so benumbing as those
by the Gymnotus. This remarkable numbing property
was known to the ancients.

The Torpedos are predaceous and live on sandy places,
where they bury themselves at a slight distance below tin-
surface by a quick flapping of their fins, which throws
Torpedo. the sand over them. They will live for twenty-four hours
out of water, but not longer.

The Spotted or Eyed Cramp-fish (T. Narke) occasionally measures about
twenty inches in length ; eyes black ; upper surface reddish-yellow, marked
with five large roundish spots azure blue changing to grey, eacli surrounded
with a broad brown circle, and arranged in a pentagonal form, accompanied
with numerous whitish spots ; under surface whitish ; spiracles dentated.

RAJA. The upper surface of the body, in all the individuals of this
genus, is more or less armed with spines, and in some species a distinct
row passes along the ridge of the back to the tip of the tail.

The Rough or Thornback Ray (R. Clavata) is more than two feet in

length; muzzle pointed ; skin shagreened ; up(ier

parts brown sprinkled with whitish spots, but

sometimes white with black spots. They are

common on the British sands, feed on flat-fish,

are very fond of Herrings and Sand-eels, and

sometimes eat crustaceous animals. They bring

forth their young in July and August, and before

these are old enough to breed they are commonly

called Maids.

Other genera of this family : — Rhina, Round-muzzle ; Rhinobatus, /Sharp-
snout; Selache, Basking-Shark ; Scyllion, Dog-fish; Scymnus, a kind of

Shark; Spinox, Prickly-Shark ; Trygon, Stingray ; Zygcena, Hammer-head.

Mouth of Lamprey.

PETROMYZON — Lamprey. The Lampreys are remarkably charaet. n>. .1
by the canal which leads from the cavity of the mouth beneath the gullet
to their bag-like gills, and which corresponds to the windpipe < >t
The mouth itself has much resemblance to a shallow
cup, which the animal is capable of exhausting so as
to attach itself firmly to any substance, whilst the
horny teeth contained in its surface either hold it
more tightly, or, if soft, break it into small pieces so
that it may more readily pass the narrow aperture of
the gullet; by this powerful organ they attach them-
selves to large fish, penetrate their skin, and devour
them. They are found in most of the European rivers.

The Sea Lamprey (P. Maximus) is about two or three feet in length ;
the head is of a greenish-brown colour ; the eyes round with a black pupil
and golden iris ; the
back and sides are
marbled with green

and blue, and the Lamprey,

belly white; the dor-
sal fins are orange marbled with brown, and the caudal bluish. Tin
sea-fish, but, like the Salmon, it leaves the salt water early in the spring,
and enters the mouths of rivers, probably for the purpose of spawning.
On its lirst arrival, and during March, April, and May, its flesh is firm and
highly flavoured, but after that time becomes flabby and unsavoury. It.
sometimes weighs as much as three pounds, and occasionally tour or six.

GASTROBIUNCHUS. In this genus the spaces between the branchial
arches open on each side into a single canal, which terminates beneath the
heart; mouth circular, surrounded with eight little beards, and hav
hole pierced through its upper edge; a single tooth is found on the top .4
the maxillary ray, but those of the tongue are strong, and disposed in tun
lateral rows; body cylindrical. Two species; one found in the Nort;
— the Myxme (G. Caecus), which often annoys the Turl><>t fUlicrns, Ky
attacking the fish that are hooked, and leaving nothing but the skin and
bones. The other — G. Dombey, on the Guinea coast, and considered h\
Schneider as merely a variety of the former.

PHISTIS — Saw-fish. This genus is of the family Selacia, and uas
formerly included in the genus Squali, till Linna-us removed it in the ve.u
1794, and placed it as it now stands. Th,

Onl,-i (Jii.i.lnnnaiK. .

M4MMALIA.

Sinii.i Sriiiiiopillicciis CeicopitJiccus

/v/,,,// v. Sin.ui.lir.

ri;,i.- I

Semnopithecu

Cynocephalus

('/•I/IT Qiiaclmm.iiia

MAMMALIA.

f n7i, TII (Ybus and Hapale

/•iiinil\ . Simiaida'

Plate 2.

C, Super. Royal Monkey.

( ./"////(•////.>•. Hunted M,inke\

C>Scatrats. Squirt-el .l/i>///,ri

Munker

H Kii.tiilin . .*//Xvi .//,•///>•!•

(Ma;

MAMMALIA.

fieriem. Lemur. Lichanotus. Stenops, (.)tobciuis,Tarsius.

I la u- i

-. l-Muurida*,

7' flti/irti/ti/.i ftn/1,,1

l'n/er. Cheiroptera

MAMMALIA.

. Pteropua.Molofeus.Phyilostaiiia, Erinaofiu.s. Sorc-i.Tiilpa .

Pf-itTE.-l

f amity fiucnvora.

M...

- . .

- .„• ,_^. .

flATK'i

: Scrcophaga .

tienaii-. Ursus . Nasua . IVocyon frnln.

fatrutr Hantij9.-a<l a.

Sa__ ~«r-To.v.-»;| ^s^r-'^s ^>

I'u -~:ii Brorm&f Coaii Minn 1 1

••>' . toncrimnus. ll\'/\'i'i-iin-.

Saimcojiia.ga .

a: .MepliilLs. Mustela. Viverra. Latra. Berpestes.

Fanufy

FINITE 6

. . Inifrirtin \[,-/>/iiti.\- . fS

Must" ffilfla. Jifrr Mill-tin

IT (ii-i-tfa. rtvrt.

/ ijtnriimon .

tirrr ihttf.

MAMMALIA.

trams. Cams.

Digiugrada

C^Iaaraharis. iVar Widen.) ITabet Doa

S55JS3S3CTK*

C^dureus Jackal

i I ,ui,krrt detiri?

Sai'cophaga .

MAMMALIA.

Hvsena. Kdis .

IT.tr

MAMMALIA.

I'lifx-M. Otaria. I rirlivclms

l',iniil\- I'iimata.

f tta' i~.<it<</s6ff

th'i/rl

MAMMALIA.

I'l-iirni . Didelpliis . JXisviirn.s. IVi-.uiH-lt-s

/'/..//•/.• l/>

Carol vora
FnuSivora

fur.* Ofastua
Porcutute fkr

.TTTIiirn

MAMMALJA .

Tlvpsyjjrymmi.s. JlidmatuiTis. A- T3ra.scoli.niv-,

fam . SrtJit-utja X KoHicnlin

!

.1' Jitsai.t.. -Warn/nil.

./ IF J.t>Hrri -,-ltif'

MAMMAJLIA

fientni . ( a.sUir. llypiula-iis , Myoxiis. Hyilromv.s.Mus.Dipiis

My 'Avfjl an, iritis Jiormauiti

('. fiber t't>nuin>n Ji M

Mu.r. Ratttis Blin* lint

D Jiicnlus .•KiiY/itiaii .IrrliiKi .

MAMMALIA

•Genera Pedetes. Arctomys. Ptennuys. l.opiiii.Uystrix

PLJTK . 13.

}finnl\< .

. Hemiclanculata

\,

Mpimu Alpine Marnwt

m^:

Pttr.Sabrinuj ffrratrr Flvimj . faatmil

fed.. Ctu>t?Lrif fape Jerboa. .

1. . Pusilhis faltina Naff .

/,. Tiiiii<lii.< Ciiiiiinon 1 In ir

// I 'risliita CiiiKiinni F»mi/iiiif .

i'li,i*L.iN,/s,;<r /Mm

J.WJ.orn Jfiilft

Kdcnlal.i

MAMMALIA.

I'l.M. 14

Gtnera .Bradvpus.Dasypus.MyiTnpcophii^-.i . M-.mis K-|M<|IK\ Onuiliorlivnciiiis

/,' ///i/i ulvlii* . Tlinr li'ftf S/(>th .

D.Novemdnctus.

M .Inlnilii limit .hit calcr.

•.x -

3f.Muamm.Zay tuili

/ ll/sfn.i . S/iiiiv r,,lii,l/in .

llftia

1'iili'r. I'li

MAMMALIA.

G&ntx . Klcplias .

Hatr

/V//////I . I'roboscifera

E.fndicus. Indian Elephant .

Tooth, of-Afrioan £lep/umt.

Tooth of Indian Elephant.

M (:iif,i/iti'/ir/i . (,'ii/it/itic Mastodon .

MAMMALIA.

l, i, i I-UIIIHU -i-i-os. I|||I|HI|).,|,UTIIIS T;

;l|nrus

l'r,lir I'.irhv.'lri in. il. i

AV/////I l-'.ji

-'3

'

TBppopotamm

7',ifit/-n.t .-IliiriH.i/i/t.i .•fm.-ru-iiH tapir

.1 * l

MAMMALIA

li )><•<!, i

MAMMALIA .

Cjilllfllls Allclli-uin . Mosi-ljils.

/•/..///-• /.v

.I/ .liirniiii-ti iiiiii Mi/.* A

./ // /:.'„

MAMMALIA

fiaifi-a .Cervus . Camclopiirdali.s .

. Runiinantia .

. 19
Family . Solidicornia. . "

, •'// '^',/Mr.'

OnUr Ruminatia

MAMMALIA.

Genera. Antilope

Famify Cavicomia

Han- 20

7 4 Ccn-itapra lomman .tn/r/npr . ? .1 i)ry:v .£grf>tian .intf/vpr 3 J fyymaa Rqvtit .
4 *•/ fifta HTiitefootai JitMapr. aj tinu tinuit .intdt'f

MAMMALIA

'eiifi-n Capra. Ovis . lios

Order, llumuiantia

ff..lTI -1

Kiniily (.'.-ivicoriiia

^

\\'il<t

O. Montana Rocty Mountain Sheqt .

, tindster.delin

J, W,L <r*ry.

A V K S . ri:,u- i

i>r,l,T . Arripiircs. I'lu/iilv Diuriur

ii Yuliiir Sarroramphus. IVirnnpimisX1 (ivpa

////////• Mi>nti<-/ni.\-. MotiA- \liltitrc.

./ // /.(•)!, 1 .V'

AVKS.

Bate 2

t'n/ir

•i/MJ/y Diiinias

(raiera faJco & Gypo£eraiius

'. Ouifhufw . Sm Eagle

F. Pfwiatiis . Rioted

<r . ('<tf>m.-i.t . .WXv Liter

-n ; ..-. -tit".

Accipitrra.

A V E S .

t. Strix.

''iiiuili/. Noetura »• .

1'late 3

Owl.

.»'.'Y'///.v. Lotifl flared Owl

. White Owl.

l>r,urn tyfll /•}*,*

AVE S .

ffrda: l',-is seres. Family. Deulirostres .

tifneni. Lamus. Muscicapa.. Tana&ra. Turdus. Rupicola. EurrJainius.

PLATE 4.

Ikn ."Vittata - Sanded Tamper. "

K . Auraniia - tfm/uje &>dc Code.

A V K S .

I'rili-r. I'nssrrcs

Kissirostres I'lair 5

o Canrinrtilgus
Cypselos .

Cyp Murarius. Slack Swift.

H.Mustica . Chimney Swalh

C.Muewdiptenu.Leana

H . F.Mih'nta . Ksculcnt .r«v////vr.

J.H.lmr? -.

f'.C fin. ,

Ottlcr

ATJE S .

Sin a Xenops. (Vrthift.'Briodmma . 'frocJrihis. Upiipa . Strops . Alt-edn

n rrE.6
Family. Tpmrirostres_Syndac1vl.i

.Mu,

Scajoaorea

AVKS.

. (i,lllllll,l I'll US YllllX I'll •lllllllll.s.

/ / . //
family. Zvx'"«ltii-tvlae.

< i. M.icri.ui-a Long -tailed ,/inii/ii<n

•i
hriim? Miiiiitirsiiiius

./ if /...„

(<rili i . Sc

AVKS.

Ava seu Macroaros.Conurus.l'situieula.Psjttacus.nyctolophus.MicroijIossus.

/'/../ 77. 8.
/•',iiinlv I'aittacida.

'.•,./„. /*•/<//'

Five Xi

Snittll /<»///////>/ l'irn>i

(i/l lllll.r

AYES.

d alias, HuMUOHU li ii;<n|<aji , Cryptoanac .

PLATE 9 .

•

^^ssasOet ;.,,«.•

' ,.^-v^;-^, «>,.,

<r. Macartnevi. Crc.i-ii'il Code.

t. SoiniiTnti . Soniieratj Coai

P. Anihci\sij»-.

*• x-?p/'

.

1

P. ISfyrthi'ini'ni.s . Si/wr

T. Satyms. Ni-pnuJ .//<•////»

('. Cnfonatiis

AVE S .

(.'nliunlm.'X ma

Finally. ( 'n| Minimi. i-

(' '"iirinirnlata. Carunauated Pigeon

I'. ( i »r<in;i ( :t l'/'tni'tii-ii t'ttit

g^¥r-

I'. 1,1-IK nccjlluilil . // 'hi 'tfflnnlfll- fl'/i'llf!

ft

$&

im

-•, Dettn*

./. »r fwrv. Sculpt

AVES.

H-.I . ('<isiiuriiis. l)p>miceius

11. I'll n.
Brevqjenneis

C. Galcatns t'<i.*.ioviary.

D.Atcr h'.iin-ii

/(,>,„• ,/,-/,„

(ii-allir

AVES.

i :,/,,-!„ Ous, Gvliontiuus. Chai-adrius. Vaiiellus. IJ.-i-uUAtopus, Cm sorius . I)n-liolo|.lius

/•/..in: 12

/•iiiin/v IY<-ssii-nstivs

Char lluviidis. in'lili-n /'/,.;,

Q'.. ri'fliit;llis. fi'wm,-// ///•/,•/

<>n/rr. Gralla>.

AVK S .
£nc9H.Cancrama & Aidea.

I'l.-il.- 13.

fiimi/r. ( ultrirostres.

AVES.

Ciccmia, Myctena. Scopus, Anastomus. Tantalus, Halalea

PI. ATE 14:

Family Ooitnroctrei

m

,

M Senegalensis. _ Senegal Jabiru

S Umbrella . _ Tu/ied L'mbre .

Platalea Ajaja _ Roseate Spoonbill

' I ' La c-1 ms . _ Milkv Tantalus

J-f^TIVr'

A LauielhgenLS .._ Coromarulel Erody

<'I,I,T C.ralla?.

AVKS.

Parra, Palamedea, Megapodius, Porptyrio. Chionis. Cdareola.ITicenicopcerus.

J'U'I'K 16.

faultily.

Parr. Chineasis. L'hiitfse Jacatta

Phcca Ituber. — fast f/M>nii:/<>.

C.

..'/'•///•/////•i. ,/,-hii

Order. Palmipedes.

AYES.

Genera. Podiceps, Podoa, Colymtnis. Fraiercola, Alca, Aptenodjtes.

Family Brachvpteres.

1' • Conrutus Borned Grebe

Podoa Seneg'alensis Senegal Coat- grebe

C. (TlaciaKs —Nortfia-n .Diver.

Ai. imprimis &reat Auk

Apt. Patag-onica -Fatagoman.

./ tf"/;. •»'•>. Sculp.

ral

Gen. IW-Hlaria, HaJa.li-.rn,;,

AYES.

l;>, J)i»u, <•<!<>;, l.arus, Illiviimps.

H. Berarfi_ Berards Jfaladro

r.-K-li. \ittata Broadbilled J'no

L.Marimis.. ///,;/•//,/,/,,/ //////

R.Nlgrs Hl:,ck Ski,,,,,,,.,:

Order Palmipedes.

AVES.

Son-. Pelecamis, Carbo, Tacljypetes. Srila. Flotus. Phaeton.

ajaxjt.

family. Stetjanopofles .

W. it heariiti; Jlrltn

C. Connoraims Canrwrant.

Pel. OnocTOtalus Conuntm ftlicdii

T. Ai|uilns Great Frwaie-bird, -.

P. Phoeiiirarus Red-tailed Tropic bird :

J Jt'. I^nirt: Saifp

JMrnipedes.

AVES.

Genera,. Cygnns. Ariser, Cereopsis, Anas, ffrdrotatcs. Mcrjnis

PLAIT,

iti'. Lamellirostres .

C . Musicus ttUcl Swarv.

Cer. Novas }±o\\axi.AiiE_JfeirJZiUandIfyeon, Goose

An. Clypeata Shoveller

H. Ldbanis Zohated- .Duck.

M Merganser _ Goosander.

(Ma- diploma

REP TIL I A

Testudo, Ernys, Stemothceras . Qidouia , Cketys.Trioiryx.

I. Grasca . Common Tortoise

S.Tr&a.tciatus. Tfirec striped £ox Tortoise

£.Scripta . Written Tortoise-

C . Vayatn. Striped Tortoise

('• Matamata. Junbricaled Tortoise

on of the snout

T.Jfdotuus. Nilotic diree toed Tortoix,-

CiuiS fyi

.nrLo

KEPT 1 1, 1 A

/'/;/, r Champsia

Flale 2

•i-iifrn . Champs a. Crocod 1 1 us. Rhamphostoma

IK Gtfrye-ticw. Indian Crocodile, or Gayial.

2.Crv.

e Crocodile,

3 Ch.. SoUrop*. Spectacled AllLqcOor

Heads of the, above

. Sauna

REPTIUA

Genav,, Tupdiianibis, Lacerta , Stcllio, J)raco, [^iiiuia.

. Caf>aisis. Cape Anolis.

S.iui in

REPTILIA.

Aww Geckotida. rii.uiirrhomcla.. Scincoidsu
i-i-ii Gecko Chameelio.Scincus.Sepg, Bipes, Cliirotcs.

Gecko .•KgTt-piiacus . fary

M" IMnu-s Mm

J H'/.,;:

IfKl'TILIA

]'seHdopiis,.Aiiiji]iisbaiia,Toilri.v,Jioa,iyil]Oii,Acruckonli]s

, Opliicha

StBradl,

REPTILLA

CroUlhis . \1iicra .('wastes , .Vaja .Trhncrcsunis , I'rlamicies , I'scuiUilion .

///////'/// . ViMH'Hmsa . \inla

Civt . Scn'idus. f!,i>i,/i'i/ Same Snake

!',•! .liii'i'li'i:

.1 1) t'Si'wrrl'ii .

c'/v//v

RKI'TILIA

Genera Rana , Ceratrophis, Hyia, Bufo, fipa .

PLATE 7.
Family Ecaudaia

V.ii ins-. Horned, Frog

'
Tadpole of Jt. Esculenta/ .

B Vulgaris, tbrnmaa/ Toad .

H. Pulgaris _ Tret. Frog .

B .Bambino,, Yellow bellied Toad .

P. Surinamensis , Surinam Pipa

Order, Batradria .

REPTILIA

Genem Sakmanara.TTiton.Salamandrops , Siredon.ProtetLs , Siren.

PLATE, s.

Family, Candata

.^ Marbled Jfevt .

S- ' Attegkarriensis Meghany Saltanandrops.

S. Arolotl AxoJctl

*-crty, dfkn .

P Anguimu, fnakelike Proteus.

V

JW.Lewry, Sculp

t>>-i/rf A' .i

PISTES.

Family. Percoides Tiigioidos Scioenoides.

_ ]j-i^l;i . I );ictyl'>j)l.-nL'i_Scioena.Ampliiprion.

Track Draco, _ (i>7nrm>n Weever.

Barbatus ^matter Reiltiaird

JJ. Mecbtaxamen

A K|>)ii[>|>ii!Mi i,<ililli'it.<h .

T.Bnadlev tletin

t

Order. Acanthqpterygii

PISCES.

Gen,: SarjfLis. Dentex,— Masna , Smaris,— Chotxxlou. )ir;iin.i

/•/..1.TE •>.

inn S|MJII|(|!-S. Mirnoidi-N, Sfiann

C. Striatius Streaked t'/m.

Mill.

.1 If l..;,,T ,.-,<*,:

Acamhopteiyyi.

PISCES PLATES.

ftim: Si oinberoides.Tsf-uioidrs.'rhpurres.
Scomber. Xiphias, Zeus. _ Trichiurus . Styiephoms.Cepola Amphacanthus.

S. Scomber. _^k Ma>~ktuvll .

.

Ar;uitlu)j)teiyg"ii.

In/urn.

PISCES.

hitmly. Labyriadufonaes:

, Ophi<:epbaLis_AlugLl_Bl<-nnius. .\ii;irr]ii<-|j;i.s.(«>l>ius.

.Anab. Testodincus

O. Vuw:\a!ius,--JJottaf .^i

M. C

B.

.Anarr. Lupus, H'uli'-fish.

VLATXJ.

ffrder Acanlhopterygii .

PISCES

ilv. PectoLalipedes.Labraides.AuLostaiues.
. tophius.Barrachiia_Labrus. Scarus.-Fislukum. Ceiitnscus.

B. Svriasaieasi*— Surinam Tumi lis/i

I.opli.

Lab

Wrasse.

Saints.

C . S colop ax - Sea, Woodcock

riscES.

lTrpi«itts . Cobitis. ^aabfc^rt Esu«x_ Eioetrtus -

H.1TK tf

SAiras fteekxles. Lonmra .

. Malacuptetrgii AI>(l<>iiri]i;ds.

PISCES.

n*i<ni. Salmc>,_Argi-iitui;i .Saiinis Clupea. Gaiathobdbis. Folypti-iiis.

I'l./ITK 7-

fti/nilv Salmomdes. C

A. S|>liyi7BUJl.

( > AruLeatus.

T llnnlln- ,M .

.1 II' I.nrn- ffiilfi

PISCKS.

Order. Malacopterrgii Sulibraduales. Family Gadoides, Fleuronectides, Uiscoboloides

Genera. Gadus, Phycis_Plalessa, Rhombus, Solea.Lepidogaster, Kcliencis.

PLATT: s

Fhy* MediterranexiS- Mediterranean. F0r]c-be

S Viilgaris _ Sole.

E. Remora.

L.Cornubiensis_ Cornish, Sucker.

.' forte, df ton*

sculp.

PISCES.

i Apodcs. //>///////

.AnguiUa.CtmgT-r, Ophisurus. Muneua, Sphauvbnmclius, Sacropliaryux.,tyymnonoUi!(. Lfploc^phalus, ( tjiliiiliiim. Amin<><l\ ir

n«; Acutirostris _ Sharpnostd EeL.

G. ^quilabiatiis _Evenbpptd Gymnote

\. - Mornsii Andfsea. Moms

Animod Laucea Sa/ul.-l.aunce.

Ophid Iraberbc— Beardless

PISCES.

(,'r/n-iti . Syrigiiiitlmx. I'C;^.I

/'I..1TRK1.

.»>•// Draoan.

.OrtJjni'^'oMsriisJidistes.Ostracian.

/'ii/nilv. Crvmnoduutos .S

Ost" Triquctci '/'m/ik fish .

Order. Qjonftropterygii br.niclnis lil>eris.

1'ISCES.

Ajccipenser, Polyodoii , Giiiuiera

Jf" /_/„/„„..,

i'i-i/i-/ Chondroptetvgn bouacbns fixis. FhmJy FLagiostomati, Cyelostomati

Squalus, Sqaatuia, Torpedo, Raja. fttrconj^zon. Gastrobtanclias.

Sqaal C£trcnana.s _ White. Shark

Squat. A:n£elns_ Ange/ fish

P. Marhms _ Sea lamprey

I', ( '(,.|-iis__ Mv.n/ir

'f.t't:

SECOND DIVISION.

INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS.

THE Invertebrate series of Animals include the Molluscs, Crustaceans, Insects, Radiated and Infusorial Animals ; none of which, varying
as they do from each other in several most important particulars, have an internal spinal arrangement.

CLASS V.— M O L L U S C A.

THIS very extensive division of animals are characterised by being invertebral, soft, inarticulated, acephalous, or furnished with a more
or less prominent head at their anterior part, most frequently having eyes or tentacula, or crowned at its summit with arms ;
mantle various ; sometimes with its edges free on the sides of the body, and sometimes having its lobes united so as to form a bag,
which partly envelopes the body ; branchiae various, rarely symmetrical ; circulation double, one particular, the other general or
simple ; heart unilocular, sometimes with two divided and widely-separated auricles ; no gangliar medullary cord, but scattered
and not numerous ganglia and various nerves ; body sometimes naked externally, and either destitute of solid parts within, or
covering a shell or hard bodies, sometimes furnished externally with a sheathing or enveloping shell. These animals have been
divided by naturalists into several Classes, Sub-classes, and Subordinate Groups.

MOLLUSCS are distinguished from Insects by the entire absence of any
jointed disposition of their external covering, which, on the contrary, is
either soft, consisting of an external skin, lined internally with muscular
fibres, as in the Cuttle-fish and Slug, forming a perfect envelope to the whole
animal, and, as in the former, furnished with arms or claspers ; or the
covering is partially of this kind, more specially collected into one particular
part of the animal, and forming its foot or locomotive organ, as in the Snail,
and partially a membranous bag, in which the viscera are contained, and
thence called the visceral bag, which is protected from injury by the enclo-
sure of a shell, as in the just-mentioned animal. To this covering of the
viscera, membranous as in the Snail, and all the Molluscs covered with a
shell or shells, or with a leathery envelope like the Ascidue, or skinny, with
a muscular lining, as in the Cuttle-fish, the term Mantle, pallium, has been
generally but loosely applied, for it gives the same name to things very
different. Again, the term Mantle is equally applied to the membranous-
like (laps of skin which turn off from the body of a Mollusc like the Oyster,
and enclose its sides as the covers include a book, and to the collar by which
the visceral bag of the Snail is connected with its foot, and still more
strangely to the shield-shaped portion of skin which protects the heart and
respiratory organ of the Slug. It would certainly be better to distinguish
these very different parts into, first, the visceral bag enclosing the intestines,
which, in the Naked Molluscs, as the Cuttle-fish, Slug, and the like, consists
of skin and muscle, and in those which are contained within a single or
univalve shell, as in the Snail, is membranous ; secondly, the collar which
surrounds the junction of the visceral bag with the foot, as in the Snails,
and all Univalve Molluscs ; and, thirdly, the mantle or leaf-like reflections
of the membranous visceral bag, observed in the Oyster and all Bivalve
Molluscs («'. e. such as have a pair of shells), and which serve the double
purpose of connecting and producing partially, if not entirely, the shells, the
interior of which they overspread.

SUB-CLASS — CEPHALOPODA. HEAD-WALKERS.

THIS class is generally held as the highest of the Molluscs, from its pre-
sumed approximation to the Vertebrate series, in its possession of some
internal cartilaginous masses, of which the principal is considered as a
rudimental brain-case or skull for the partial protection of the large nervous
ganglions supposed to be analogous, to a certain extent, with the brain of
vertebrate animals. The < 'i-phdopods are so named from having their limbs
or arms disposed around the head, pretty much like the petals of a flower
around its stamina. The arms, when expanded, stretch out in a radiated
form, and the junction of their roots produces a thick muscular ring or nip,
its area overspreads with a loose skin, in the centre of which is placed the

aperture of the mouth, containing a pair of horny jaws, their shape nearly
resembling that of a parrot's beak. The head and arms of the Cephalopod,
in its ordinary crawling motions, rest immediately, and more or less com-
pletely, upon the bottom of the sea in which they live, whilst the body or
trunk, consisting of the bag which encloses the viscera, rises above them
like a tree-stem above its roots : hence they may be justly described as
walking upon their head, a fact necessary to be remembered in connection
with the detail of their anatomical characters. But this movement is nut
the only one they are able to perform, for they have also the power of dart-
ing themselves through the water, or swimming, though not in the ordinary
acceptation of the term ; this motion being effected by the sudden expulsion
of the water contained in the cavity enclosing the gills, which jerks the
animal backwards.

Cephalopods are divisible into two sections, which have been named by
Owen, in reference to the number of gills, or branchice, with which they are
furnished ; hence those having four gills are called Tetrabranchiate, whilst
such as have but two are Dibranchiate.

The Tetrabranchiate section are connected with the Gasteropods by the
enclosure of their whole visceral bag within the outermost chamber of their
shell, and by the strong connection of the animal itself to the shell by means
of a pair of powerful muscles, arising from the cartilage which Owen calls
the body of the skeleton. Of this section the Pearly Nautilus is an
example.

The Dibranchiate section. All the Naked Cuttle-fish are examples of this
section.

ORDER— OCTOPODA (LEACH). HAVING EIGHT FEET.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.
PLATE 1.

ARGOSAUTA. Shell univalve, very thin, involute; the last turn very
large. A double tuberculated dorsal carina.

The species of this genus were all confounded by Linnaeus, in his Argo-
nauta Argo (the Paper Nautilus). The animal, which inhabits this beautiful
shell, is so nearly allied to the genus Octopus, or eight-armed Cuttle,
ailord but few marks of distinction. (See OCTOPCS.) Two of the arms of
the Argonauts are furnished with a large expanded membrane, by in,..
which the calcareous secretion is poured out for the enlargement or reparatii m
of the shell. The opinion that these, membranes, when expanded, served
the office of sails, enabling the animal to glide upon the surface of the
water in calm weather, is now exploded. The shell is of a thin pa py re-
appearance, white and semi-transparent. Its tonn is paitieularly
elegant, reseml >ling a kind of boat or vessel, and is marked throughout its
surface by numerous deep furrows. Few • lie conceived

128

CLASS— MOLLUSC A.

SUB-CLASS— CEPHALOPODA.

interesting than the poetical description given of this beautiful animal seute.l
in its pearly little vessel, its sails spread, and the remaining six tentacula
serving for its oars. On the slightest appearance of danger, it withdraws
itself into its shell, and is instantly submerged.

Illustrations : Argonauta varicosta, A. Argo. Exemplified in the Paper
Nautilus and Ocythoe Cranchii.

The Paper Nautilus, or Paper £wZor( Plate 1, fig. 3-8), lias from a remote
l>eriod — from before the days of Aristotle to the present time— been an
object of much interest to zoologists. It has been regarded as the first
instructor of man (by its own example) in the art of navigation ; and many
romantic and fabulous stories of its wonderful sailor-like skill have come
down to us from ancient times. A difference of opinion respecting the
shell occupied by this cephalopod, lias also added to its interest as an object
of zoological inquiry — some naturalists maintaining (among whom is Dr.
Owen) that the animal is itself the original fabricator of its shell, while
others (Dr. Leach, De Blainville, &c.) have asserted an opposite opinion,
viz., that the cephalopod is either a mere ]>arasite — as the Cancer Bar-
nardus, and other parasitical Crabs — or that it is nothing short of being a
piratical intruder, who, having dispossessed the projier owner, became the
lawless occupant of his dwelling. The former opinion is, however, now
generally admitted as correct ; for the experiments of Madame Power, and
the anatomical researches of Dr. Owen, have placed the matter almost
beyond dispute.

The characteristics of the Paper Nautilus are — body oblong and rounded ;
mantle adhering to the head posteriorly ; dorsal or first pair of arms

Paper Nautilus.

membranous and dilatable at the extremities ; funnel destitute of a valve,
but articulated at its base to the inner sides of the mantle by two ball-and-
socket joints ; heart branchial, with fleshy appendages ; no horny or testa-
ceous internal rudiments; body contained in an external, monothalmous,
and symmetrical shell, but not attached to it ; the animal deposits its eggs
in the spiral cavity of the shell. The molluscous animal inhabiting the
beautiful and fragile bark already described is named Ocythoe, one species
of which is shown on Plate 1 (figs. 1, 2).

The Ocythoe Cranchia is, according to Leach, of the family Decaccera,
having tentacular appendages, ten in number; it is found in Ouvn's
Teuthidoe. The animal is characterised by an elongated, sacciform body ;
natatory appendages, or fins, ten in number, circular and of small size,
pedunculated and nearly touching each other at their origin at the back :
dorsal piece altogether wanting (Plate 1, figs. 1,2).

The Cephalopod is furnished with three stomachs — an cesoplmgus, a
gizzard nearly as fleshy as that of birds, and a spiral and membranous cavity
in which the liver discharges its bile. The respiratory current passes through
a fleshy pipe or funnel situated in front of the neck and communicating
with the branchial. These organs are protected by the mantle under which
they are concealed. In the higher-organized Cephalopods three distant
hearts are found, while in those of the lowest organization only one heart is
discoverable. The eye, which is covered by a transparent portion of the
skin, is composed of numerous membranes ; the ear is a simple opening, in
which a membranous sac is suspended containing a limpid fluid, and a small
stony substance or otholithe. The skin of the naked species is changeable
like the skin of the Chameleon. Some of the Cephalopods are furnished
with a bag containing an inky secretion, which they carefully reserve till an
occasion arises necessary for its effusion, thus blackening the surrounding
water, under cover of which they generally effect their escape.

Four of the principal genera are as follow : —

LoLIGO. Body long, with two angular fins on the hinder part of the
back, on each side of the tail ; the support
cartilaginous, pen-shaped. This genus
was separated from the Sepia, or Cuttle-
fish of Linnaeus, by Lamarck ; they are '
usually called Sea-sleeves, and their bone
a Sea-pen.

The type of the genus is L. Media, the
Sepia loligo of Linnjeus, common on the
English coast.

One species, Loligopsis, is remarkable
for the extreme length and gracility of
its two arms.

NAUTILUS. Shell discoid, spiral, mul-
tilocular, with simple sides, the latter
equal; whorls contiguous, the last em-
bracing and concealing the previously-
formed ones ; septa transverse.

Type of the genus,
N. pompilius. This is an
extensive genus, consist-
ing of recent and extinct
species ; the former ma-
rine, and several of both
found on the coasts and
crags of Britain.

OCTOPUS. Body

fleshy, obtuse beneath,
and contained in a sac,
which has no wing-like
appendages, nor inter-
nal dorsal bone, or a
very minute one only ;
head distinct, furnished
with a terminal mouth,
armed with two horny
mandibles, and sur-
rounded with eight sim-
ple, elongated arms, fur-
nished with sessile suckers.

Type of the genus, the Sepia octopus, of Sowerby, the O. vulgari* of
Fleming. Several species, three of which are found on the British c>

a, portion of mantle ; 6, foot ; r, tentacula ; d, funnel :
e, eye ; /, siphon.

Pearly Nautilus; shell laid op

ORDER— F ORAMINIFERA (D'ORBIGNY). FULL OF HOLES.

129

SEPIA, or Cuttle-fish. Head surrounded with eight arms and two legs
or feelers; body fleshy, depressed, contained in a bag, which is obtuse
behind, and furnished with a narrow fin on each side throughout its whole
length ; mouth terminal, its mandibles resembling those of a parrot, very
large and powerful ; arms furnished with sessile suckers, legs with pedun-
culated ones ; within, near the back, is a spongy, calcareous, opaque bone,
varying slightly in form in the different species ; and in the abdomen is a
bag which contains an inky fluid.

The type of the genus, S. offidnalis, is abundant in the Atlantic and
Mediterranean Seas ; found, but somewhat rarely, in the British and Irish
Channels ; the dorsal plate is known by the name of Cuttle-fish bone, and
was formerly employed in medicine as an absorbent; the inky fluid of
some of the species had been erroneously supposed to be the pigment
employed by the Chinese in the composition of Indian Ink.

The AMMOXITES, or Siiake stones, are found in a fossil state. Septa
angulated ; margins undulated, or marked like
the leaves of an Acanthus. They are found
in beds of the secondary mountains, varying
in size from that of a pea to an ordinary-
sized cart-wheel. They are subdivided ac-
cording to the variations of their whorls and
syphon.

Of this section (Tetrabranchiate), the Pearly
Nautilus is an example. (Engraving on p. 128.)
In the Pearly Nautilus the mantle, so called by Owen, is attached to the
hind part of the head, before passing back to cover the viscera and form
the visceral bag, is produced into a large fold, concave posteriorly, over-
lapping the involuted convexity of the shell, and sending down on each
side a lengthy process, free and unattached, which he considers capable of
being expanded over the anterior margins of the shell's mouth. Close to
the basal angles of this mantle are the eyes, not sunken, but supported on
short pedicles, and thus indicating the position of the head cartilage, their
ganglions resting upon its dorsal extremities.

The skeleton of the Octopus, the largest animal of the Dibranchiate
section, is least developed : the head cartilage is of an irregular form, its

Ammonites.

Octopus or Poulp.

middle pierced by the aperture for the gullet ; its hind part contains the
so-called brain, and its membranous externally ; and laterally it supports a
pair of large ganglions ; in front it is thicker and harder, encloses the
remainder of the cesophageal nervous ring and the organs of hearing, and
on either side stretches out a plate, which gradually thins and supports the
eyes. From the under surface of the cartilage arise eight long muscular
arms of a trihedral form, and gradually tapering towards their tip ; upon
the base of which are two rows of circular suckers, of various size, and
about two hundred and forty to each arm. No contraction indicates the
neck, but the visceral bag rises above the head, is large and muscular, and
contains a pair of slender styliform cartilages, corresponding to the horny
belts of the Pearly Nautilus. In front of the visceral bag and near the
head is the aperture of the funnel, which is a perfect tube. The general

Calamary.

form of both kinds is lengthy, with a narrowed neck, distinctly separating
the head from the visceral bag, which is flattened from before to behind,
and the connection between which is so long that the head and neck can be
retracted and projected from the bag to a considerable extent.

In the Calamaries (LoLioo) and Cuttle-Jish (SEPIA), the so-called skeleton
acquires a more well-defined form, in connection with the horny pen-shaped
organ existing in the hind part of the visceral bag of the former, and the
calcareous plate occupying the same
portion in the latter. The form of
the head cartilage in the Arrow
calamary, Loligo sagittata, and in
the Common Cuttle-fish, Sepia offid-
nalis, is very similar, but in the
former is deeper from behind forwards, and in the latter widest from side
to side ; in the Cuttle also it is thickest. In shape it resembles a slouched
hat without the head, its concavity towards the mouth, and its convexity
facing the visceral bag. The number of the arms in both Calamary and
Cuttle are four pairs, short in the former, and nearly as long as the body in
the latter, their basal surface furnished with a double row of suckers. But
besides these, each kind is furnished with a pair of very long arms, of a
flattened cylindrical form, and expanding at their tip, each into a lozenge-
shaped surface, upon which part only suckers exist. The real use of these
long arms is probably to fix the animal, like anchors, to a particular spot,
whilst the short arms are employed only hi applying the food to the
horny, parrot-like mandibles, which project through the aperture of the
circular lip.

The visceral bag in the Calamaries and Cuttle-fish is of a lengthy form,
flattened from behind to before, but more cylindrical in the former; in
front it principally consists of a thick muscular structure, but on its
posterior surface this is either deficient or very thinly overspreading a
shining coat, which lines the whole of its interior cavity : this part of the
animal, however, is protected by the existence in the Calamary of a horny
body, which, from its resemblance, is called the pen, and, in the Cuttle-fish,
of a calcareous structure, called its bone, which was supposed by Spix to
be the analogue of the spine of Vertebrate animals ; an opinion long since
exploded. Upon the fore part of the neck of the Calamary and Cuttle-fish
is situated the funnel already referred to, in shape like a flattened conical
tube deprived of its tip, which forms its orifice just above the root of the
anterior arms. Its base is received within the front of the wide mouth of
the visceral bag, slightly connected to it by the thin external skin, and by
the lining membrane ; but more firmly by a pair of cartilaginous ear-like
sockets on the front of the base of the funnel, which receive into their
cavities a pair of oblong cartilaginous studs, projecting from the correspond-
ing surface of the visceral bag. Both are more distinct in the Cuttle-fish
than in the Calamar, as might be expected from the great extent of the
aperture of the visceral bag in the former than in the latter, and therefore
requiring a stronger connection.

ORDER— FORAMINIFERA (D'ORBIGNY). FULL OF HOLES.
THIS Order, which was established by M. D'Orbigny, consists of innu-
merable minute, foraminated, polythalamous, internal shells, the greater
number of which are microscopic. The name given by D'Orbigny to this
Order was suggested to him by the circumstance that the cells communicate
only by small holes (foramina). These shells exist in myriads on the sea-
coasts; they are also found in the chalk or tertiary formations in countless
multitudes. In De Blainville's arrangement the families of this order are
included among his Cettulada ; but in Owen's both classifications are
abandoned ; for that eminent naturalist having made the respiratory system
the foundation of his arrangement, was led to reject the Foraminifera from
the Molluscous series, because of their deficiency of any trace of Cephalo-
podous organization, as well as from the very low position they occupied
(when living) in the scale of creation. Hence, in Plate 2, we have indi-
cated their doubtful position by a significant sign (?).

130

CLASS-MOLLUSC A.

SUB-CLASS— GASTEROPODA.

ILLUSTRATIVK EXAMPLES.
PLATE 2.

NODOSARIA. Shell elongated, straight, or a little bent, subconical, noJose,
with bulgings at the place of the cells ; transverse septa perforated.

Type of the genus, N. radiada. Inhabits the Adriatic Sea.

Illustrations : Nodosaria kevigata, Margintdiiia raphanus, Pawnia flabel-
liformis.

TEXTULARIA. The genus Textularia consists of Microscopic Forami-
nifera, having numerous alternate chambers with marginal aperture. The
wall of each turn is complicated, extended, and united on each side to the
other discs.

Illustrations : Pdymorphina commutes, Textularia aciculata.

ROT ALIA. Shell orbicular, spiral, convex, or conical above ; flat, radi-
ated, and tubercular beneath, many-celled ; aperture marginal, triangular,
resupinate.

Type of the genns, Nautilus Beccaria. Several species (minute) are
found on the coasts of Britain ; others of a larger size occur in a fossil state.

Illustrations : Uvigerria pygmea, Bulimina marginata, Rosalina globularis,
Truncatulina refulgens.

POLYSTOMELLA. Shell disciform, multilocular, with contiguous turns
not visible externally, and marked with furrows traversing the whorls ;
aperture composed of several holes variously disposed.

Found only in a fossil state.

Illustrations: Plamulina araminensis, Dendritina arbuscula, Nonionina
vmbilicata.

MIUOLA. Shell ovate-globose or elongated, transverse, multilocular,
with transverse cells surrounding the pillar and alternately covering each
other ; aperture very small, situated at the base of the last whorl ; orbicular,
or oblong.

Chiefly fossil; minute, occurring abundantly in the works of certain
quarries near Paris, and in a recent state on fuci, near Corsica.

Illustrations: BUoculina buttioides, Triloculince trigonula, Qumquekculina
saxonun.

ORBICULINA. Shell subdiscoid, multilocular, with compound, contiguous
turns ; spire eccentric ; cells short, very numerous ; septa imperforate.

A fossil genus, containing several species, none of which are British.

Illustrations : Amphegistina Qyoii, Heterogystina depressa, Tabularia dis-
aoHtte.

SUB-CLASS— GASTEROPODA. BELLY-WALKERS.

THE whole of Cuvier's Cyclobranchiato, Scutibranchiate, Tubulibranchiate,
and Pectinibranchiate Gasteropods, and also both the Aquatic and Terrestrial
Pulmonibranchiate Gasteropods, excepting the single genus Vaginulus, are
furnished with a single or univalve shell, placed upon the dorsal surface of
the body, and varying remarkably in its position and size : thus in Parmacella
it is shallow and small, and on the middle of the back ; in Testcuxlla
(Plate 3) also small, and on the hind part of the back ; and in Limax
(Plate 3) on the fore part of the back, but remarkable in this genus as
being concealed by the skin : in all three genera it forms a vault over the
pulmonary cavity. Other and larger shells, as the Sea Ear, Haliotis, cover
almost entirely the whole dorsal surface of the animal. But in a very large
proportion of the Gasteropods, the organs of nutrition and reproduction are
always contained within a capacious conical or tubular shell, and even the
head and entire foot can often be retracted within it, as in the Snail.

The soft exterior covering of Gasteropods is divided into two distinct
parts, the foot and the visceral bag.

The Foot consists of a soft expanded tegument, containing within it a
large mass of longitudinal muscles passing from one end to the other, and
occupying its ventral surface. Its upper surface, when expanded in crawling,
forms a longitudinal hollow, which is perfected into a tube by a skinny
arch also, and which sometimes overlaps the foot like a fringe. This is
generally but too loosely called the mantle, from its supposed correspondence
to the mantle lining Bivalve Shells ; and sometimes designates all the upper

or dorsal surface of the animal which can be protruded from the mouth of
the shell, but at other times is restricted to the shield-like piece which
covers the lung of the Pulmoniferous Gasteropods, and either, as in the
Slug, includes the shell, or, as in Parmacella and Testacetta, has the little
shell resting upon it. From its fore part the head protrudes, and seems, as
in the Snail, to consist merely of processes of this dorsal tegument. In
Vaginulus, Testacetta, Parmacella, and Limax, the dorsal tegument is j>orfect ;
but in most other Gasteropods it is deficient either far forwards, as in the
Trachelipods, or farther back, as in the Limpets. Around this aperture is
attached the Visceral bag, membranous and varying in form, conical or con-
voluted, as in the Limpet and Snail, but distinctly corresponding with the
muscular visceral bag of the Cephalopods. Around the junction of the
visceral bag with the dorsal surface of the foot, a loose sort of membranous
girdle, enclosing the apparatus for secreting the shell, is placed ; this is the
collar, and analogous to the mantle of Bivalve Shells.

The primary form of all Univalve Shells is resolvable into that of a
simple hollow cone, of which the top is the tip or first-formed part of tin-
shell, and the base the last formed, which continually grows and forms the
open area of the cavity of the shell, the walls of which, included between
the base and the tip, are called the body of the shell ; these circumstances
are well exemplified in our Common Limpet, Pati-H<i \'n.l<iata. But from
this simple condition the cone gradually varies in different kinds of shells,
both in the comparative dimensions of its parts and in the direction which
its base, or recently-formed part, takes, whence arise the diversified forms
of shells. The technical name of the convolutions of shells is wliorls,
anfractus. In most instances shells, instead of revolving in the same plane,
and acquiring a disc-like form (hence called Discoid), grow obliquely
forwards, from right to left, so that the tip of the shell, whence the growth
had commenced, is generally to the right and above, and the aperture to
the left and below ; sometimes, however, the growth is from left to right,
and hence the terms right and left, or dextral and sinistral Shells. All
such Shells are said to form spires, which consist of all the whorls between
the tip and the aperture of the shell ; and in proportion as the whorl
flatter, wider, and shorter, as in the Helix Algira (Plate 3), or rounder,
narrow, and longer, as in the Scalaria, the shell is said to be turbinated or
spiral. Sometimes, as in the semirevolute Shells, the whorls are perfectly
distinct from each other, of which the False Wentletrap, Scalaria communis,
furnishes an example ; but more commonly they rest against each other, as
in the Snails.

The transition, in all its varieties, of different Shells from one form to
another, the difference of shape in the Shells themselves, and of their
different parts, and the peculiar forms assumed by the margin of the aper-
tures of Shells, and the direction which they take, are too numerous to be
considered here, although they form very important characters of the several
kinds. But it must be observed, that the interior of Univalve Shells
generally consists of a single cavity, and such are called Unilocidar or
Monothalamous. In some, comparatively few, however, the cavity is divided
by less or more perfect partitions ; such are called Chambered Shells ; and
if the number of the chambers be many, they are named Multilocular > >r
Polythalamous, of which the shell of the Pearly Nautilus, Nautilus Pomjiilitts,
a Cephalopod, affords a good example. The connection of an Univalve
Shell to the animal which it partially or wholly contains, is by its collar
just within the aperture; but in addition to this, muscular fibres also pass
from it to the foot, and, as in the Snail, from the lowest or basal extremity
of the columella.

ORDER— PULMONIFERA. AII:-HI:KATHERS.

THE arrangement of the Gasteropods rests almost entirely upon the con-
ditions of their respiratory organ : the greater number, being aquatic, are
furnished with gills, branchiae, whilst the remainder have lungs, pulmones,
and either live entirely on the earth's surface, or, living in water, are com-
pelled to rise to its sin-face, in order to inspire fresh air. Hence the
Gasteropods are divided into Branchiferous and Pulmoniferous ; the Com-

ORDER— GYMNOBRANCHI ATA VEL NUDIBRANCH I ATA. NAKED-GILLS.

131

mon Whelk, Buctinum undatum, is an example of the former, and the
Garden Snail, Helix hortensis, of the latter.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.
PLATE 3.

LIMAX. Body long, contractile ; above convex, beneath flat, with a long
foot the whole length of the body ; tentanula four, unequal, the two upper
long, with the eyes at the end.

This genus of naked, land, molluscous animals, was established by
LinnfEus, but restricted by Lamarck. They differ from the other mollusca
Snails by breathing free air in a pulmonary cavity lined with minute,
pulmonary vessels. They are usually called Slugs ; they differ from the
Snail in having no shell. They have been divided into two genera, one
being provided with a small shelly plate in the shield (arion, Plate 3),
while others have only a few crustaceous grains in that part.

L. maximus vel antiquarius (Plate 3) is the type of the genus. It is
common in cellars and damp places in England.

Illustrations : Arion antiqwrum, Umax variegatus.

TESTACELLA. Body lengthy, slug-like, with the foot not very distinct,
and furnished posteriorly with a very small, external, very flat, ear-shaped
shell, slightly spiral at its apex, and having a very large oval aperture, the
left edge of which is sharp and a little inclined inwards ; its four tentacules
intractile, and the posterior larger pair supporting eyes on their tips';
pulmonary aperture round, and on the right side near the top of the shell,
near to it the vent ; generative aperture beneath the right large tentacule.

This genus has in its form and size much resemblance to a small slug,
but is distinguished from it by the cloak, which is very extensible, being
placed far back on the body, and containing a very small shell, and by two
grooves which pass from the base of the tentacules to the shell ; its branchial
and anal apertures are also near the tail, instead of, as in the Slugs, being
near the fore part. They live constantly under ground, sometimes at a
depth of three feet, and are rapacious, feeding upon worms, which they
absorb head foremost and gradually draw in as digestion proceeds. Though
this mollusk was discovered by Dugue at Dieppe in 1740, yet it is to
M. Mauge, who brought home specimens from Teneriffe some years since,
the honour is due of having drawn the attention of naturalists generally to
this genus. There are three species (Roissy speaks of four), viz., T. Halio-
tideus, T. Scutulum, and T. Maugei.

Illustration : Testacella Maugei. The shell which covers the posterior
part of the pulmonary cavity is external, solid, auriform, with a large and
oval aperture : native of Teneriffe, naturalized at Bristol. This, it is sup-
posed, is the only carnivorous terrestrial mollusc.

HELIX. Shell globular or conical ; spire short, conical ; whorls rapidly
enlarging ; last generally keeled when young, and sometimes so when full
grown ; the mouth semilunar, the edge of the mouth reflexed and thickened
internally ; axis perforated, often covered when full grown.

The species of this genus are very numerous ; and every traveller who
takes the trouble to save the kinds which fall in his way, is almost sure of
adding to their number.

Several experiments have been made on the property which snails possess
of reproducing a part which may have been amputated. Spallanzani was
the first to observe, that when the head was cut off, it was, after a short
time, reproduced. Adanson, in a most positive manner, denied this fact,
after trying the experiment on fifteen hundred individuals ; but he admitted
that the wound would heal if the head was left attached by a portion of
the skin.

Like most terrestrial shells, only a few species Tiave been found fossil.
Brongniart has described seven species, found in the neighbourhood of
Paris.

Illustrations: Helix naticordes, H. japonica, H. algira, H. carocolla,
H. nux denticulate*,, H. albella, H. epistyllium.

BULIMUS (or BULIXAS). Shell oval, oblong, or turreted; aperture
entire, longitudinal ; margins very unequal, disunited above ; columella
straight, smooth, entire, and simple at the base.

The animals of this genus are all inhabitants of the land, and vegetable
feeders. The species consist of many of the land Testacea, which Linnaeus
placed in the genera Bulla and Helix. The animal has four tentacula, the
two larger of which, as in the Helices, bear the eyes on their summits. It
has no operculum. Its habits are similar to those of the Helices. Some of
the sheik of this genus are amongst the most beautiful and the largest of
the land division.

Illustration : Btdimus ovatus ; not less than four inches and a half in
length. There are several small species, natives of Great Britain ; as B.
acutus, montanus, obscurus, lubricus, fyc.

PUPA. Shell cylindrical, ribbed, blunt ; spire long, obtuse, composed
of whorls which gradually increase ; mouth sinuous, aperture rounded an-
teriorly ; peristoma reflected. The genus Pupa is composed of land shells
with plaited columella ; they are of variable form, and differ from the species
of Bulina in their spiral whorls, and in the plica? on the columella. They
differ from Clausilia (next genus) in the want of a clausium. They are
found in Britain, South of Europe, Mexico, West Indies, and in other
places.

CLAUSILIA. Shell fusiform, slender ; slightly obtuse at the apex ;
aperture irregular, ovate ; peristoma complete, free, reflexed.

The most curious circumstance belonging to these little animals, and
which distinguishes them from those of every other genus, is the existence,
in the adult, of a small shelly plate, serving as an operculum to the shell,
but fixed to the shell itself, and having no attachment whatever to the
animal ; it is found in the neck as it were of the shell, fixed in a groove in
the columella by a little elastic thread-like process ; when the animal pro-
trudes itself from the shell, it pushes aside this little plate, which, on the
animal's retiring, closes the aperture by its own elasticity. They are found
amongst moss, dead leaves, and on the bark of trees. There are not less
than four or five British species.

Illustration : Clausilia.

ACHATINA. Shell elongate, thin, white, turreted ; aperture moderate,
pyriform, or ovate ; outer lip thin, sharp, without any internal rib ; colu-
mella smooth, tortuous ; also so truncated in front as to form a notch at its
union with the outer lip.

The notch occasioned by the abruptly-truncated termination of the inner
lip, or pillar of the shell, is that by which we are enabled to distinguish the
species of this genus from those of Bulina, to which, in their general cha-
racters, they are allied.

These land shells are pretty generally diffused, but the largest and most
beautiful are found in tropical climates.

Illustration : Achatina Virginea.

PHYSA. Shell convoluted, oblong, with a prominent spire ; aperture
longitudinal ; peristome wanting in the body whorl ; pillar twisted ; margin
of the mantle loose, divided into lobes, and capable of being reflected over
the surface of the shell, near the mouth ; operculum wanting.

Type of the genus, Bulla fontindis, Linnaeus ; Lister. Three species,
found in lakes and slow-running streams ; one of them not uncommon in
England.

Illustration : Physa rivalis.

ORDER— GYMNOBRANCHIATA vel NUDIBRANCHIATA.
NAKED-GILLS.

SOME of the Gasteropods are entirely naked, such as the Doris, which
swims with its foot upwards, and is moved by the fringed overlapping edge
of its dorsal tegument, and by a pair of club-shaped tentacules on the back,
which serve as a pair of oars ; its branchial apparatus is situated around
the aperture of the vent, also on the back, and, being free, presents an
example of the Dorso-nudibranchiate Order ; whilst, on the contrary, the
naked branchial fringes which depend between the foot and overlapping
dorsal tegument of Phyllidia indicate the Infero, or Ventronudibranchiate
Order.

132

CLASS— M 0 L L U S C A.

SUB-CLASS— G ASTEROPODA.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.

PLATE 4.

DORIS. Body creeping, rarely floating, oblong, flat, convex, or sub-
prisraatical ; surrounded by a membrane from the head to the tail ; mouth
anterior and inferior, trunk-shaped ; tentaculse four, two anterior, placed on
the front of the body, retractile into a kind of calix or sheath ; anus on the
hinder part of the back, surrounded by the prominent gills ; gills lobed or
fringed ; aperture of the organs of generation placed on the right side.

Cuvier, in the fourth volume of the " Annals of the Museum of Natural
History of Paris," has given a very extended account of the anatomy of this
genus, illustrated with several plates ; he has divided the genus into three
sections, according to the shape of the body : —

1. Body compressed, much larger than the foot. 2. Body subhemi-
spherical, bordering the foot. 3. Body subprismatical, the mantle edging
the foot.

Illustrations : Doris trilobata, D. ladnata, D. nodosa, D. penrdgera, D.
limbata, D. tuberctdata, D. cornuta, D. atromarginata.

OXCHIDORUS. Differs but slightly from the Doris. Body oval and
tumefied above ; foot thick, oval ; tentacular appendages four ; labial ap-
pendages ; mouth covered with a veil.

This genus was established by Blainville, having separated it from the
Doris of Linnaeus and Gmelin.

Illustration : Onchidorus Leachii. The foot of this species is overlapped
by the borders of the mantle, also the head when contracted ; its organs of
respiration consist of minute ramifications circularly arranged, and deposited
in a cavity at the posterior and mesial part of the back. The figure num-
bered 9 is a side view ; No. 10, the under surface.

PERONIA. The body of this genus, like that of Onchidris, is tumefied
above, and oval or snboval in form ; the borders of the mantle overlap the
foot throughout its circumference ; tentacula two, and inferior ; labial
appendages two.

Illustration : Peronia Mauritiana. The figure represents the animal from
below. The respiratory organ is situated in a cavity at the posterior region
of die back, and its external opening is by a rounded mesial orifice, pierced
at the inferior and posterior parts of the borders of the mantle.

POLYCERA. Branchiae not expanded during repose, being covered by
two scales ; oval tentacula exceeding two in number ; body shell-less.

Type of the genus, Doris flam (Montagu). One species, a native of the
western coasts of Britain.

Illustration : Pdycera quadricarnis.

TRITOXIA. Mouth terminal, and encircled with tentacules ; body oblong,
creeping, pointed behind, convex above, with the gills arranged along the
whole length of the back in form of scales, tubercles, or vascular tufts;
under surface flat or grooved.

The form of this genus is parallelepiped, with the upper surface slightly
bagging throughout its whole length, the anterior extremity rounded, and
the posterior pointed. The back and sides are separated by two ridges,
forming four or five curves or festoons, with their convexity downwards,
and those which separate the sides from the foot are folded into much more
numerous curves. The mouth is placed anteriorly between the back and
the foot, covered by a wide, delicate, horizontal, semicircular, denticulated
membrane, and consisting of a longitudinal cleft, with a pair of lips ;
within it are a pair of curved horny jaws, compared by Cuvier to the shears
used for shearing sheep. The back is completely covered with round,
unequal, blunt tubercles, and at its fore part are a pah- of apertures, from
which the tentacules are projected, and in which they can be concealed ; but
they are not retractile, each forms a sort of crest, consisting of five processes,
and at their base the eyes are situated. From the edge of these apertures
the gills commence, and are continued along the upper ridges to the very
tip of the tail. The foot is rugous. Their habits have great resemblance
to those of the genus Doris. Whilst alive, their colours are generally
brilliant. Five or six species are known in the European seas, of which
the type is our —

Illustration : Tritonia Hombergti.

TETHYS. Body fleshy, semitransparent, oval, tapering to a point pos-
teriorly, and terminating in front in a wide semicircular cloak, which, like a
sail with a fringed edge, covers and overlaps the head ; the mouth trunk-
shaped, and beneath the cloak ; two projecting tentacules above the base
of the cloak ; upper part of the body swelling, under part flat, and furnished
with a large foot ; anal and generative apertures on the right side ; branchiae
external, prominent, naked, tufted, and disposed in two longitudinal rows.

This genus is remarkable for the large fringed cloak, which covering
overlaps the head, but contracting beneath forms a kind of neck. From
the funnel-shaped mouth can be projected a kind of cylindrical proboscis, or
trunk, with an aperture at its extremity. They are found in the Mediter-
ranean and the Adriatic.

The type of the genus, of which two species are described, is the —

Illustration : Tethys Leporim (Gmelin).

SCYLL.EA. Body gelatinous, oblong, greatly compressed on the sidos,
channelled beneath ; back with an elevated crest, with four alary processes
disposed in pairs ; branchiae external, expanded in fascicles over the internal
face of the dorsal processes ; head slightly prominent ; tentacula tw< >,
dilated above and narrowed towards their base.

Illustration: Scyllcea pelagica.

This is the type of the genus ; it inhabits the Atlantic Ocean.

GLAUCUS. In describing this genus, authors have almost universally
placed this animal upon its back, so that they describe the right side for the
left, and vice versa, which occasioned them to think that the organs were
placed in a different manner from any other Mollusca. The animals of this
genus are very much altered by contraction in spirits.

Their characters are: — Animal long, subcylindrical, gelatinous, behind
attenuated ; head short ; mouth trunk-like ; tentacula four, the upper eye-
bearing ; gills fin-like ; lobed radiately, three or four pair on each side,
placed horizontally ; the orifices of generation and vent on the right side.

Found in the Mediterranean, and other seas of warm climates, swimming
with great rapidity on the surface, in calm weather.

Illustration: Glaucus Atlanticus.

LANIOOENUS. Nearly allied to Edida.

Body naked, long, alwve convex, beneath tlat, ending in a kind of tail ;
head rather distinct; tentacula four, small ; gill pectinate in a short row on
each side of the back ; described by a single specimen, collected by Sir
Hans Sloane, in the collection of the British Museum.

Illustration : Lam'ogenus elfortianus of Blainville.

EOLIS. Body oblong, creeping, ending behind in a point, rather convex
above, flat and channelled beneath ; mantle not distinct ; head short, with
four or six tentacula ; gills
prominent, in the form of
scale-like leaves ; papillae
or beards placed in longi-
tudinal rows along the
back ; orifice of generation Eolis.

and vent on the right side.

Blainville has proposed to divide this genus into two, keeping the name
ofEdis for all the species which have scale-like or papillary gills, and that of
Cavdina for those which have these organs in the shape of beard-like fila-
ments.

1. ELOIDA. Gills scale-like.
Illustration : Elaida Cuvieri, E. Tergipes.

2. CAVOLINA. Gills filiform.
Illustration : Cavdina perigrina.

ORDER— TECTIBRANCHIATA. CovBBKD-oiLLB.

THKSK Gaotero|>ods, according to Cuvier, have the bronchia'

along the right side, or back, in a leaflet form, and covered, more or less.

by the pallium or mantle, in which a small shell is always contained.

ORDER— T E C T I B RAN C H I AT A. COVERED-GILLS.

133

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.

PLATE 5.

APLYSIA (also written, though not so correctly, Laplysia). A shell
horny, transparent, and in form of a shield, placed horizontally on the back,
its convex side being uppermost. Body not divided ; head supported by a
neck ; tentacula four, two hollowed-like ears, and having the eyes at their
base, the other two tentacula flattened ; — they sometimes have membranes
proper for swimming ; mouth a vertical slit, having two lateral subcorneous
labial plates ; branchia in the form of a plume, placed in a dorsal cavity,
and protected either by a free operculum at the right side, or by the ap-
proximated edges of the mantle.

The species of Aplysia are found in the Mediterranean, European and
West Indian seas; some are also found in our own seas. The name is
derived from a limpid liquor which it exudes when disturbed ; and on
account of a fancied resemblance between its appearance and that of a hare
crouching, it was called by the ancients Lepus martinis, or sea-hare. This
animal, which has considerable general external resemblance to the Slugs,
has a long narrow foot, from the front of which projects the head. The
development of the lateral borders of the foot is very great, so that they lap
over each other at the animal's will, on the dorsal surface of the body, upon
which is also a large semicircular valve-like piece of skin, including muscle,
arising from its left side only, and often forms a sort of canal, leading the
water to the branchial apparatus, which, like the lid of a basket, it almost
conceals, and hence arises the arrangement of this and similar animals in the
Tectibranchiate Order of Gasteropoda.
Illustration : Aplysia punctata.

PLEUROBRANCHUS (the Lamellaria of Montague). The animals of this
genus have an oval, fleshy body, covered by the mantle, which is strength-
ened by a thin, expanded, subspiral shell, flattened obliquely ; foot broad,
equally margined ; tentacula two, cleft longitudinally on the outside ; mouth
anterior, placed below, resembling a proboscis ; branchia? on the right side,
situated in a canal.

Type of the genus, Butta plumula. Four or five species, of which two
are found on the southern coast of England.

Illustrations : Pleurobranchus Peronii, Lamellaria memhranacea.
DOLABELLA. Body creeping, oblong, narrowed in front, club-shaped,
and enlarged behind, end obliquely truncated, so as to leave an oblique
orbicular plane ; edge of the mantle plaited, and lobed on the back ; tenta-
cula four ; half tubular, placed in pairs ; lid of the gills, enclosing the shell,
covered by the mantle, and placed near the hinder part of the back ; anus
dorsal, placed behind the gills, in the middle of the orbicular dorsal face.
Shell oblong, slightly arched, somewhat ear-shaped ; front narrow, thick,
callous, and somewhat spiral ; the other end broad, flattened, thin, and
rounded at the edge.

The Dolabellce are most nearly allied to the Aplysice, but they differ from
the latter in the animals being destitute of fin-like expansions, and in the
shape of the body, and in the shell being solid and calcareous, instead of
horny and flexible, as in the latter. They are stationary, and often form for
themselves a kind of cylindrical tube from the sand and slush of the sea-
shore. They are all found in the tropical seas.

The species D. Peronii is three or four inches long, and the whole body
covered with small fleshy tubercles. They are very difficult to be seen on the
shores, for they bury themselves a little depth in the slush.

In the D. Icews the skin of the animal is quite smooth, and the shell
nearly membranaceous.

Illustration : DolabeUa Rumphii. This species was figured by Rum-
phius, hence its name : it is most probably from the Molucca Islands.

NOTAECHUS. The species resemble in many respects those of Aplysia.
They have not, however, a cloak ; their lateral crests are united and cover
the back, leaving merely a small dorsal slit or fissure, which is in some
oblique, to conduct the water to the branchiae, which are very long ; foot
long and narrow ; operculum either rudimentary or wanting.
Illustration : Notarchus Cuvieri.
ACERA. Shell (in those which have one) exceedingly light and horny,

more or less convolute, oblique, wanting a visible spire, few whorls, and too
small to contain the animal. Branchiae covered with a cloak; tentacula
short, bent, and widely separated, forming together a sort of fleshy buckler,
beneath which the eyes are placed ; mouth, crescentrshaped, destitute of
sinus or canal.

Illustration : Acera carnosa.

BULL.EA. The animal of this genus scarcely differs from that of the genus
Bulla. The shell is more considerably enveloped in the substance of the
cloak, and there is no muscle of attachment. It is more open, much less
convex externally, and is but very slightly involuted. There is only one
species, Bidla aperta of former authors ; and there appears scarcely sufficient
reason for the separation which Lamarck has made. This animal possesses,
in common with Laplysia (Aplysia), the property of ejecting a liquor, when
it is alarmed or touched, which tinges the fingers of a blood colour. It is
not an uncommon inhabitant of the British coast.
Illustration : Bulla aperta.

BULLA. Body ovate oblong, rather convex, divided above into two
transverse portions; the cloak folded behind; head scarcely obvious; no
apparent tentacula ; branchiae dorsal, posterior covered by the cloak ; anus
on the right side ; the hinder part of the body covered by a shell which is
attached by a muscle ; shell univalve, ovate-globose, convolute ; no columella,
no external spire ; aperture the length of the shell ; the external margin acute.
There are several circumstances in the structure of the animals of this
genus which give them a considerable relation to Aplysia. From the more
important points of affinity, however, which exist between this genus,
Buttcea, and Acera, Lamarck has formed them into a distinct family under
the name of BuLleens. The stomach consists of two large flattened testa-
ceous pieces, which, with a smaller one, and united by a strong muscular
structure, serve the office of a gizzard in comminuting the food for digestion.
The shells of different species of Bulks differ remarkably from each other.
That of B. Ugnaria is very solid and testaceous, and finely coloured ; that of
B. acera, on the contrary, is so thin as to be perfectly elastic, and semitran-
sparent, is of a uniform horn colour, and appears scarcely to possess a trace
of carbonate of lime.

De Montfort has made a distinct genus of B. Ugnaria, to which he has
given the name Scaphander.

Illustrations: Butta Ugnaria, Bullina Guianensis.

UMBELT.A. Body very thick, oval, and furnished with a dorsal shell ;
foot very large, smooth, and flat beneath, everywhere projecting, cleft in
front, and attenuated behind ; head indistinct ; mouth at the bottom of a
funnel-shaped cavity in the anterior cleft of the foot ; two pairs of tentacules,
the upper posterior pair closely approximated, thick, short, truncated, and
cleft throughout their whole length, the interior of the cleft filled with
transverse folds ; the anterior pair very delicate, broad, in shape of a cock's-
comb, supported each by a pedicle on the sides of the mouth ; branchial
organs foliaceous, disposed in form of a long cord, occupying the whole of
the anterior and right side of the groove of separation, between the foot and
the mantle, and at its hinder end is the vent; shell exterior, orbicukr,
somewhat irregular, depressed, or quite flat, its upper surface scarcely
distinguished by a very minute tip ; edges sharp ; internal surface slightly
concave, and presenting a callous disc, indented centrally, and encircled with
a smooth limb.

The examination of the Mollusc belonging to this shell has been made by
Blainville, who, as is his usual practice, changed the name of the genus, and
applied to it that of Gastroplax, for Patella Umbetta, the Chinese Parasol
Limpet, because the specimens of the animal in the British Museum had
the shell (accidentally) cemented to the under side of the foot. Lamarck,
in his History, first corrected the error, by some drawing of the animal
which he had seen, and the fact has been verified by examining the Museum
specimen, which has been figured for the first time in the Plates of this
Work, under the name of Umbella Indica. Two species are described,
one from the Indian seas, U. Indica, Lam. ; Patella Umbellata, Gmel. ; and
the other from the Mediterranean, U. Mediterranea, Lam.
Illustration : Umbella Indica.

134

CLASS— MOLLUSCA.

SUB-CLASS— G ASTEROPODA.

ORDER— PECTINIBRANCHIATA. COMB-GILLS.
THIS Order is the most extensive of the several Orders into which the
Class Gasteropoda is divided ; it embraces many of those animals whose
shells are conical, and all which have spiral univalve shells. It constitutes
the Paracephalophora Dioica of Blainville.

The term applied to this Order is incorrectly written on our Plate : in-
stead of Pfenobranchiata, it should read Pecrintbranchiata.

THE TRICHOID TRIBE.
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.

PLATE 6.

MONODONTA. Shell oval or conoid ; aperture entire, rounded, with the
border disunited above; columella arched, and truncated at the base;
aperture with an operculnm.

Type of the genus, M. pagodus, Lamarck. There are several species,
all marine shells, inhabiting the tropical seas.
Illustration : Animal of Monodonta.

TROCHUS. Shell conical, with an elevated spire, sometimes shortened ;
its periphery more or less angular, often delicate and sharp ; aperture
transversely depressed; its edges disconnected above; columella arched,
more or less projecting at the base ; an opercule. Animal, gasteropodons ;
spiral ; head furnished with two tentacules, having subpeduncular eyes at
their base ; tongue armed with booklets ; respiratory cavity not furnished
with a syphon.

The animal of this genus is very similar to the Murices, but distinguished
by the absence of a syphon at the front of its respiratory cavity for the
introduction of water, and by the edges of its cloak being furnished with
lobes. Although the aperture is more or less square, the opercule is
always completely circular, slightly convex where attached, and concave in
the opposite direction. They are marine animals, living at a short distance
from the coast, in clefts of rocks, or wherever marine plants, corallines,
&c., are found. They are distributed throughout all seas. Gmelin enume-
rated eighty species, and though abstracting some for the formation of his
genera Solarium Rotdla, Lamarck still describes seventy-eight. Trochus
Imperialis, Gmel., may be taken as the type.
Illustrations : Trochus Henslawii, T. Emma.

This genus has been composed of some of the shells of the
The whorls are angulated and stellated.
Illustration : Imperata Gibberosus.

PALUDINA. Shell conical, with the whorls convex ; aperture rounded,
ovate, longer than broad, and angular at the apex ; pillar-lip simple ;
margin not reflected ; operculum horny, orbicular.

Type of the genus, Helix vivipara, Linn. The species of
this genus generally inhabit the fresh waters of Europe, and
bring forth their young alive ; the animal of the type has two
linear subulate tentacula, with eyes at the base ; the mouth
is triangular ; the foot nearly triangular ; and the branchia
are composed of tufted filaments.

Illustrations : Paludinafasciata, P. Costata.
Shell conical, of a somewhat turricular shape ; its periphery
never compressed; aperture round, perfect, its edges distinct above;
columella arching, flattened, its base not truncated ; furnished with an
opercule.

The shell of this genus is solid, often very thick and agreeably diversified
with brilliant nacrous colours; its twists are always round, never com-
pressed or sharp. The foot or ventral disc of the animal is shorter than
its shell, and is obtuse at both ends : the head is furnished with a pair of
pointed tentacules which support the eyes at the outside of their base.
Lamarck enumerates thirty-four species, of which seven are European.
T. Littoreus, Lin., may be taken as the type.
Illustration : Operculum of Turbo.

LITTORIXA, a genus of spiral, univalve, marine, or littoreal shells, allied
to Nerita, indicated but not characterised by Ferussac. Shell univalvu,
solid; spire short, conic, or retnse; mouth roundish, entire; inm-r lip

IMPERATA.
genus Trochus.

Paludina.

TURBO.

flattened, outer lip thin ; operculum horny, free, spiral ; spire of four
whorls; the animal pectenibranchous ; tentacula two, compressed, re-
tractile ; eyes sessile at the outer base of the tentacula.

The type of the genus is L. littoreus, the Turbo littoreus of Linnseus, the
common Periwinkle.

The species of the genus are numerous, and found on the shores of most
parts of the world. The animals have the faculty of living a considerable
time out of the water.

Illustration : Littorina littoralis.

PHASIANELLA. Shell conical, solid ; aperture entire, lengthened, con-
tracted by the projection of the body whorl ; columella smooth, attenuated
at the base; peristome incomplete; operculum calcareous ; animal with two
long conical tentacula, the eyes supported on pedicles at their base.

Type of the genus, Helix polita, Montagu. Of this beautiful genus, four
recent and a few fossil species have been discovered in Britain ; others
inhabit the Indian and Southern Oceans.

Illustration : Phasianella bidimoides.

AMPULLARIA. Shell roundish, ventricose ; spire short ; aperture high ;
operculum calcareous; columella umbilicated. Animal not unlike the
common pond snail (Paludina) ; tentacula long and slender ; eyes pednn-
culated ; air or water pouch (which is the chief peculiarity of this genus)
at the bottom of the respiratory sac, and at the side of the long branchial
comb.

This genus forms a division of Blainville's Ellipsostomata, which is
defined as a group of spiral univalve shells, containing the genera Melania,
Risson, Phasianella, Ampudaria, Helicina, and Pleurocerus. The genus is,
however, quite artificial, and contains land, fresh-water, mid marine Mbllusca,
breathing by two kinds of respiratory organs.

Illustration : Ampullaria solida.

MELANIA. Shell fluviatile, operculate, turreted; aperture entire, oval
or oblong, widened at the base, pillar smooth, arched within ; operculum
horny; animal respiring only water by protruding branchiae ; phytiphagous,
with two tentacula; its hinder extremity spirally convolute, enveloped in
the shell. All the species are exotic.

Illustration : Melania Bironensis.

NATICA. Shell operculated, subglobose, umbilicated, aperture entire,
semiorbiculate ; pillar lip entire, not entering the aperture, with a cavity or
callus behind, the latter varying the form of the umbilicus, and occasionally
closing it.

Type of the genus, Nerita glaucina, Linmeus. Rather a numerous
genus, consisting entirely of marine shells, adorned with beautiful colours,
and smooth ; eight recent, and several fossil species are found on the coasts
and crags of Britain.

Illustration : Natica Millepunctata.

NERITA. Shell solid, semiglobular, flattened below, not umbilicated,
furnished with an operculum ; aperture entire, semicircular ; inner lip
flattened, margined, often dentated ; the teeth or crenulations on the inner
face of the outer lip.

Type of the genus, N. littoralis, Linnsus.

The Neritce are all marine shells, and some of them are very prettily
coloured ; there are many species, only three of which inhabit the shores of
Britain. The type is the common Periwinkle.

Illustrations : Nerita undulosa, N. cariosa.

NERITINA. Shell thin, semiglobular or oval, flattened below, not umbi-
licated, furnished with an operculum ; aperture semicircular, the left margin
flattened; no teeth or crenulations in the internal face of the outer lip;
operculum with a lateral point.

Type of the genus, N. Jtuviatilis, Linnteus.

The Neritinae are river shells; the type is uluiiidant in the rivers of
England, especially in the Thames.

Illustration : Neritina Ovenii.

ORDER— P ECTINIBRANCHIATA. COMB-GILLS.

135

THE BUCCINOID TRIBE.

CERITHIUM. Shell turreted ; aperture short, oblong, oblique, terminated
at the base by a short truncated or curved canal ; never notched ; a slight
channel at the upper extremity of the right lip ; operculum small, orbicular,
horny.

The spire of the shell constitutes at least two-thirds of the whole length ;
the shell has the form of an elongated pyramidal cone, the surface is in
most species striated or tubercular, and in some varicose.

The animals of this genus walk on a small roundish disc or foot. The
head is truncated below, and edged with a crest or fringed border ; the
tentacute are two in number, acute, and at the outer part of the base, have
a small enlargement bearing the eyes. The type of the genus is C.palustre
(Slioiribus pal'ustris, Lin.). Lamarck enumerates thirty-six recent and sixty
fossil species.

Illustrations : Ceritluum Lamarckii, C. fuscatum, C. telescopium (oper-
cule of).

THE CAPULOID TRIBE.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.

PLATE 7.

CAPULA. See PILEOPSIS.

PILEOPSIS. Shell exterior, obliquely conical, bent forward, with the
summit nearly spiral ; aperture rounded, elliptical, with the anterior margin
shortest, the posterior larger and rounded ; under the hinder edge is an
elongate, bent, transverse, muscular impression. Animal with two conical
tentacula, the eyes at the base ; branchiae disposed in a row beneath the
anterior margin.

Type of the genus, Patella vel Capuim Hungarica, Linnaaus. The animals
of this genus are generally found on rocks, and shells in rather deep water ;
three species are indigenous, and a fourth is found in a fossil state.

The genus Pileopsis is sometimes called Capvdus.

Illustrations : Capulus Hungarians, Pileopsis mitrida, P. cremdata.

HIPPONIX. Shell univalve, conical ; apex recurved, subspiral, sublateral ;
spiral cone very rapidly enlarging ; mouth irregular ; muscular impression
horse-shoe shaped, submarginal. Animal tentacula two, conical ; eyes at
their outer base ; foot small, transverse, folded across the upper surface ;
reflexed, and attached to marine bodies, which it often covers with a shelly
deposit.

This genus of conical, somewhat spiral, univalve shells, was established
by Defranc, but since shown to be exactly synonymous with the genus
Capulus of De Montfort and Lamarck, belonging to the family Capulida;.
It has been very commonly referred to the Brachiopodes, to which it has
not the least resemblance, as has been proved by the dissection of the
animal, published by Blainville.

The animal has the peculiar property of secreting a shelly plate, which
closes the base of the shell, so as to give the shell somewhat the appearance
of a bivalve, to which class some naturalists have been inclined to refer the
genus.

The type of the genus is Patella Hungarica and Patella mitrata of
Linnsus ; Lamarck describes many fossil species from the Paris basin.

Illustration : Hipponix cornucopias.

CREPIDULA. Animal with the head forked anteriorly ; tentacula two,
conical, with the eyes at the outer side of their base ; mouth simple,
without maxilla, placed at the bifurcation of the head ; branchia solitary,
subpenicillate, projecting beyond the branchial cavity, on the right side of
the neck ; mantle never extending beyond the shell ; foot very small ; anus
lateral ; shell oval or oblong, convex externally, concave within ; spire much
inclined towards the margin ; aperture partly closed by a horizontal lamina.
I Separated from the genus Patella of Linnams. The shell not only covers,

but partly unsheathes the animal, by means of the lamina which partly
closes the mouth. It is not operculated.

Illustrations: Crepidula porcellana, C. Peruviana, C. unguis, Dispotea
Bironensis.

CALYPTILEA. Shell conoid, orbicular at the base ; vertex central, sub-
acute, imperforate ; cavity furnished with a convoluted lip, or spiral septum.

This genus of univalve shells was separated from the Patella of Linnaeus.

Patella G'hinensis, which is a British species, is a good example of this
genus.

Illustration : Calyptera Neptuna.

SIPHONARIA. Shell patelliform. elliptical, ribbed ; apex nearly central,
well marked, obliquely inclining towards the posterior margin; muscular
impression of a horse-shoe partly encircling the central disc but interrupted
in front ; a canal or siphon on the right side passing from the apex to the
margin, and which divides the right lobe into two. Animal oval, depressed ;
head two lobes ; tentacles wanting ; a narrow veil on the head ; mantle
crenulated on the borders ; branchia? situated between the foot and the
mantle in the form of a square membrane. The hood of the animal is
described by Quoy and Gaimard as being of considerable size, which is
rounded and furnished above with sessile eyes; it emits at pleasure a
viscous secretion of a white colour ; it has two salivary glands which open
into the oesophagus, and its liver has four lobes. The siphon, which some
of the species possess, distinguishes Siphonaria from Patella.

Illustrations : Siphonaria radiata, S. gigas, Gadinia qfra.

SIGARETUS. Shell somewhat ear-shaped, patulous, almost orbicular, the
left margin short, spiral ; aperture anterior, very wide, longer than broad,
the margins united ; mantle enveloping the shell, its anterior sinistral
margin notched at the branchial opening; tentacula two; eyes at their
outer base.

Type of the genus, Bulla haloitidea ; Montagu. Two species, both of
which are found on the coasts of Britain, though not very commonly.

Illustration : Sigaretus haliotideus.

CORIOCELLA. Distinguished from Sigaretus by a horny and membrauous-
like shell ; in all other respects similar.

Illustration : Coriocella nigra.

The PTEROPODOUS SUB-CLASS consists of but few animals, remarkable for
the wing-like expansions placed on each side of the narrow neck, which
connects the head with the visceral bag: these
organs, in Hyalea and Pneumoderma, are doubtless
the locomotive organs, for in the latter a pair of
distinct branching gills exist externally on the
caudal extremity of the body ; and in the former
the gills are situated on each side of the body in a
cleft of the visceral bag. But in Clio, the wings
serve both as locomotive and branchial organs,
presenting, under the microscope, as Cuvier ob-
serves, a very delicate, close, and regular vascular
network, connected with the internal vessels and
the heart ; neither is there any other organ which
has any resemblance to gills. Some genera, as Hyalea and Cleodora, con-
tain shells in the walls of their visceral bag, which others, as Clio, have not.

Hyalea.

SUB-CLASS— ACEPHALA. HEADLESS.

ACEPHALS. This remarkable class of Molluscous Animals is distin-
guished by the absence of any head, and by the toothless mouth being
almost always concealed within the folds of the mantle, which in different
form encloses the animal, and is itself enveloped by an external covering,
in one Order gelatinous or coriaceous, and in the others testaceous or shelly.
Their food consists generally of minute animals, which are brought to their
mouths by the currents in the surrounding water, excited by the motions of
the mantle. All the class are aquatic ; and upon the different form and
disposition of their branchiae or gills, their distribution, by Blainville, into
Orders depends.

1 . The Heterobranchiate Order :

These are the TU.VICATA of Lamarck (so distinguished on Plate 8), who
places them between his RADIATA and VERMES ; but admits that by one

136

CLASS— MOLL USCA.

SUB-CLASS— ACE P HAL A.

section (the Asddian) they are connected with the Molluscs. Cuvier,
however, observing that they are provided with a brain, heart, vessels,
liver, &c., considers them entitled to a higher place in the animal scale,
and has ranged them with his ACEPHALOUS MOLLUSCS (a disposition in
which Blainville also concurs), bat distinguishing them as Shell-less. They
exist either as single independent animals, capable of voluntary motion, as
the Salpce ; or are attached to rocks, sea-weed, &c., and are either sessile,
i.e., fixed by their broad base like Cynthia (Plate 8, fig. 1), or pedicellate,
i>., have a long pedicle, as Clavelina (fig. 2), for their attachment. Others,
of the genus Saljta, are remarkable for their capability of aggregating them-
selves together in one common cartilaginous mass, like the polypary of
AJcyomum. This mass may be either sessile, as Distama (fig. 4), or pedi-
cellate, as Sigittina (fig. 13), and in them it is simply indented with cells.
But in others, as BotryUus (fig. 8), the central part is hollowed out as a
shallow saucer-like cavity, into which the anal apertures of the several
animals disposed around it in a circular or oval form empty themselves.
The external layer varies materially in its character, and is either almost
gelatinous, as in Sigittina, or cartilaginous, as in PhaUusia. The internal
layer is either muscular throughout, as in Cynthia microcosmus, or mem-
branous, with some muscular bands stretching only over particular regions,
as in Phattusia sulcata, and in the different kinds of Salpce, or simply
membranous, as in Sigillina Australia.

2 and 3. The Polliobranchiate and Lamettibranchiate Orders, which include
the remaining living Acephals. The name assigned by Blainville to the
former Order arises from " the branchiaz being applied to the inner face of
the lobes of the mantle ;" while the Lamettibranchiate Order has its name
from the gills, branchiae, being disposed upon the body of these animals
like the leaves of a book.

As the animals belonging to these Orders are contained within a pair of
shells or valves, as they are called in zoological language, they are said to
be bivalves. It will therefore be necessary to give some account of their
form and characters.

The Valves (Conchol. Terms, Plate 1) are placed one on each side of
the animal, and united together by an elastic ligament, which, to a greater
or less extent, connects the inner edge of the upper or dorsal margin of one
valve with that of its fellow, the whole of which apparatus is called the
hinge. The anterior end of the valve is- called the oral extremity, from
being near the mouth, and the posterior end the anal extremity, from its
proximity to the vent of the animal. In most Bivalves the shells shut
closely, and no apertures'exist ; but in others, as the Itazorshell, Solen, both
ends are open, the valves together having the shape of a truncated, flattened
cylinder ; and in others, as Gakomma, the ventral margins do not touch.
The form of the valves varies considerably : they may be long, as in the
Piddock, Pholas (Conchol. Terms, Plate 1), and Mussel, Mytilus; or deep,
as in VulseUa; oval, as in Cytherea (Plate 1) ; rounded, as in the Scallop,
Pecten (Plate 1); thick, as in the Cockle, Cardium; compressed and very
delicate, as Tellina ; cylindrical, as the liazorshell, Solen; boat-shaped, like
the Ark, Area ; heart-sliaped, like the Cockle, Cardium ; wedge-shaped, as
the Wedgeshett, Donax ; tongue-shaped, like Vulsella ; beaked, when the
hinder extremity of the shell is much narrower than the front one, as in
Tellina frayilis ; or fan-shaped, when the hinder end is very broad and as
it were truncated, as in the Nacreshett, Pinna; eared, either singly or
doubly, when the edge of the shell nearest the beak or summit expands
into one ear, as in Unto delphinus, or into two, as in the Scallop. The
external surface of the valves is smooth, as in Cytherea Chume ; scaly, as in
the Oyster, Ottrea ; radiated, like the Scallop; ribbed, as the Cockle;
grooved, as the Aslarte Danmoniensis ; striated, as the Itazorshell ; or tes-
sellated, as the Reticulated Ark. According to their correspondence in
form, Bivalve shells are said to lie equivalve wlion lx>th ore alike, as in the
Mussel; or, when there is but little difference between them, subeqwvalve,
as in some of the Scallops ; but if one valve be (lat and the other concave,
as in the Oyster, they are called inequivalve. The internal surface of the
valve has a generally correspondent concavity with the convex exterior, but
it has also some peculiarities of it* own. Wlicn the ventral cavity rises

into the beak, it is said to be arched, fornicata, as in Isocardia ; when a
leaf-like process springs up from its bottom, as in the Arks, it is called
chambered, concamerata ; when a lengthened edge descends obliquely from
beneath the beak, so as nearly to reach the abdominal edge, as in Anatina,
then the valve is said to be solidified, solidijicata ; if, as in the Piddocks, a
curved hooking process stretches from the cavity of the beak into the hollow
of the valve, it is appendiculate, appendiculata. In the Terebratulce (Plate 1,
Lamplike-shells), the right or imperforate valve is furnished with a very
remarkable apparatus, consisting of a testaceous loop, commencing near the
hinge, stretching into the middle of the shell, and thence turning back upon
itself. They are also further remarkable for the aperture near the hinge of
the left valve, through which little muscles pass to be connected with the
pedicle, which is extended from it like the pedicle of the Barnade. Bivalve
shells are closed by the aid of muscular bands which pass from one valve
to the other, and their attachments are in pits, more or less deep, in the
concavity of the valves ; these pits are called muscular impressions. Some-
times there is but a single muscle ; each valve has then only a single im-
pression, as in the Oyster, such are called Monomyary valves ; or there may
be two muscles, one in front and the other behind, as in Venus, and many
others, such are named Dimyary ; in some, as Unio and Anodon, there are
three muscles, and the valves therefore Trimyary.

Another remarkable character of all the Acephalous Molluscs, excepting
the Heterobranchiate Order, is their possession of a true mantle, pallium,
which is really only an elongation of the common tegument of the animal
turned backward loosely upon itself: the Mollusc, therefore, besides its
close tegumentary investment, is included between the flaps of the mantle
like a book within its fly-leaves, and the connection of the external surface
of the mantle-flaps with the interior of the valves corresponds to that of the
fly-leaves with the book-covers. Such is the simple description of the
mantle ; but it must be recollected that though it envelops the animal as
far as its dorsal edge before its reflexion upon the valves, yet that in taking
this course it must wrap round the muscle or muscles connecting the
valves. This simple double-flapped mantle is easily distinguished in the
Oysters, Arks, and Scallops. But the mantle is subject to a variety of
form, as any one may satisfy himself by comparing the pallium of the Kazor
shell, Cockle, Mussel, and Scallop.

ORDER— HETEROBRANCHIATA.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.
PLATE 8.

CYNTHIA. A subgenus of Ascidcs according to Savigny, the generic
characters of which are : — body enveloped in a double tunic ; fixed to marine
bodies at the base. Exterior tunic somewhat coriaceous, forming an irregular
ovate, or cylindrical sac, perforated above by two unequal foramina, one
lower than the other. The interior, or proper tunic enclosing the body,
not entirely filling the external sac, to which it is united only at the foramina.

The species of Cynthia are sessile Ascidians, their branchial sac is plaited
longitudinally, and they are found either attached to submarine plants, or
floating about in the gulf of Suez.

Illustrations : Cynthia momus, C. canopus.

BOTRYLLUS. The common substance gelatinous or cartilaginous, encrust-
ing other bodies, and composed of systems which are round or elliptical,
raised above the common surface, and annular. Animals disused cither
in a single series, or in several which are regular and concentric. Branchial
orifice simply circular, and without rays ; intestinal orifice small
to a point, and envelojied in the border of the central cavity of the system.

There are several species found on our coasts, as B. conglomerates, &c.

Illustration : Botryllus polycyclus.

POLYCLINUM. Animals aggregated, biforous, sunk in a gelatinous mass,
flattened, rough with small papilla: ; the greater part disposed in a radiated
form round a centra! opening; mouth willi M\ tenlarula ; anal aperture not
apparent externally ; one gemmiferous sac hanging beneath the animal
terminating in a filament.

SUB-CLASS— CIRR HO POD A. ORDER— AC AMPTOSOMATA. SESSILE.

137

Type of the genus, P. vidaceus, Lamarck. Inhabits the European seas.

Illustration : Pdydinum constellatum.

SIGILLINA. Animal agglomerated, biforous, forming by their union a
common gelatinous body, elongate-conical, somewhat pedunculated, with
scattered tubercles ; animals not disposed in any particular or distinct
system ; tubercles of the surface with two pores ; mouth with six tentacula ;
anal orifice with six teeth.

Type of the genus, S. Australis, Lamarck. Inhabits the coasts of New
Holland.

Illustration : Sigulina Australis.

DISTOMA. Body common, sessile, half cartilaginous, polymorphous ;
composed of many animals generally placed in a circular disposition ; animals
placed in one or two ranges, at a coequal distance from their common centre ;
the brachial mouth furnished with six regular equal rays, the anal aperture
similar; the thorax small, cylindrical, netted with a papillary brachial
surface ; abdomen below, longly pedicelled, longer than the thorax ; liver
none ; ovary unique, sessile, lateral, occupying the whole of one side of the
abdomen.

Distoma ruhrum is the type. Distama varidosum was first found by
Gaertner on the stems of the Ficus Palmatus, on the coast of England.

Illustration : Distoma ruhrum.

SYNOICUM. Bodies long and vertical, united in small numbers, and
forming a kind of fluted cylinder, excavated at the extremity by a star-shaped
orifice, produced by the union of the anal orifices.

The characters of this genus are, the two mouths of each animal opening
at the bottom of a cavity more or less deep, formed by the union of their
coverings, which has only one external aperture, commonly furnished with
six tentacular papilla.

Illustration : Synaicum Turgens.

SUB-CLASS— CIERHOPODA.

THE Cirrhopodous Molluscs are enclosed in valves, four in some kinds
and five in others, and they are either sessile (immoveably attached) or
peduncular (can swing like a clock pendulum when attached to a particular
spot). The Sessile family (Acamptosomata of Leach) have their four valves
contained in a short calcareous tube, upper end open, lower closed either
by membrane, as in Coronula (Plate 9, fig. 7), or by earthy matter, as in
Balanus (/&. fig. 12) : in either case this base is penetrated by little conical
chambers, side by side, into which processes of the mantle pass, and fix the
tube to the rock ; whilst the moveable valves are supported on the upper
part of the mantle. In the Peduncular family (Camptosomata of Leach),
a long pedicle or foot proceeds from the mantle as it shuts up the lower
aperture of the five valves, as in the Barnacle, Pentalasmis (Ib. fig. 3).
The pedicle is covered externally with a hard horny cuticle, and contains
within a mass of muscular fibres attached by one extremity to the bottom
of the mantle, and by the other to its own base, by which it fixes itself.

ORDER— PEDUNCULAR. CAMPTOSOMATA.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.
PLATE 9.

PENTALASMIS. Shell conical, subtriangular, composed of five valves ;
animal compressed, peduncle elongated. This genus of Cirrhopods are
found attached to wood floating on the sea; they are distinguished by
numerous valves, and by their very much elongated pedicle. They consti-
tute the genus Anatifera of Lamarck, and the fapas Anatifer of Linnaeus.
They are generally to be found in most seas, and are abundant off the coast
of Africa. They attach themselves to the bottoms of ships.

Illustration : Pentalismus mdgaris.

CINEP.AS. Body pednnculated, wholly enveloped in a membranaceous
tunic, which is turgid, and open in front beneath the apex ; arms numerous,
slender, articulated, ciliated, protruded at the aperture; shell consisting of
fivn testaceous oblong valves, which are separate, and do not wholly cover
the Ixxly ; two placed at the sides of the aperture, the others at the back.

This genus was established by Dr. Leach, and, with the genus Otion,
to which it is somewhat allied, forms the family Clytidii.

Illustration and type : Cineras vittata.

OTION. Body supported on a tubular (xxluncle, enveloped in a mem-
branous tunic, ventricose above, with two tubes disposed in the form of
horns directed backwards, open at tlu-ir extremity, truncated and placed at
the summit of the tunic ; a lateral opening, with many articulnt'
arms ; shell with two small testaceous semilinear valves, adhering near the
lateral opening.

Illustration and type : Otion Cuvieri.

Inhabits the Northern Ocean, and has been found on the southern coast
of England.

SCALPELLUM. Shell flat, quadrated, composed of thirteen valves, six on
each side and one dorsal ; pedicle short and scaly.

The animal of this genus resembles that of IVntalasmis. There are two
species, one of which is found in the Straits of Magellan, and the other is
common in the European seas.

Illustration : Scalpdlum vulgare.

POLJJCIPES. Body supported on a long, tubular, tendinous, peduncle,
covered by a shell, composed of numerous unequal valvular plates, ihirtivii
or more in number, and the smallest placed low on tho sides ; the peduncle
itself dotted with rounded cimbriated scales.

Illustration and type : Pollicipes cornucopia.

Found in the seas of Europe and Britain ; not very abundant in the latter
country.

ORDER — SESSILE. Ac AMPTOSOMATA.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.

TOBICINELLA. Shell univalve, operculated, tubular, straight, slightly
attenuated towards the base ; banded circularly with transverse ribs, trun-
cated at both ends, open at the top and closed by a membrane at the base ;
opercule consisting of four unequal valves ; the inclosed animal projects from
the upper aperture; small, unequal, setaceous cirrhi.

The shell of this genus differs from that of all the other Cirrhipeds; it
appears open at both extremities, but during the life of the animal its lower
extremity is closed by membrane. The valves of its opercule are trapezoid,
obtuse, and moveable, inserted in the upper part of the inner wall of tho
shell. The animal attaches itself to the bodies of whales, and as it grows
penetrates through the skin to the subjacent fat.

Illustration and type : TubicineUa Lamarckii.

CORONULA. "Shell subcylindrical or subconic, depressed; base much
wider than the apex ; lips of the operculum very prominent, with two large
shelly valves before, and one small one on each side of the legs." Leach.

The opening of these shells is always regular, elliptical, slightly hexagonal ;
and the valves of the operculum, which rather belong to the animal than to
the shell, are inserted near the base of the internal parictes of the shell.
The substance of the shell is divided in the interior into a number of cells,
separated by their shelly plates, and arranged in a radiated position. The
base is not closed by a calcareous plate, but by a membrane formed by the
aatmaL

The Coronula;, like others of the family, are generally found on the surface
of inurino animals, as Whales, Turtles, &c., and they partially bury the base
of the shell in tho skin of the animal to which they :\re fixed, when; it is
siillieiently soft.

Illustration : Coronula diadema.

PYROOMA. A single conical shell, compressed and thick ; hollow ]•
with a small aperture, closed by an operculum of tw> v;il\. nf variable
form; supported by a cup-shaped base; grooved |« rpm.lictilarly within.

This genus has been established by S.-ivigny; it may be dist
from Creusia by the parietal cone, which is simple and not divided into
valves. It is found attached to Corals.

Illustration : Pyrgama canceUata.

CUKUSIA. Body sessile, subglobose, enclosed in an operculated shell;
three or four pairs of tentaculiform arms ; mouth at the upper and anterior

138

CLASS— INS EC TA.

ORDER— C OLEOPTERA. SHEATH-WINGED.

|>art of the body, not prominent ; shell sessile, fixed, orbiculate, convexo-
conical, four-valved ; valves unequal, united ; sutures distinct ; operculum
internal, bivalve.

This genus was established by Dr. Leach, and, excepting Pyrgama, is the
only one of the Balarddii with bivalve operculum. Type, C. Verruca.

Illustration : Creusia spinulosa.

ACASTA. A small genus formed by Leach from Balanus, but which
Sowerby has again reunited. They are found imbedded in sponges, have
a subconical shell which consists of eight unequal valves ; base cup-shaped
(an accidental character according to Sowerby) ; no internal plate ; shelly
part foliaceous. See also Balanus.

Illustration : Acasta Montagui.

BALAITUS. Body sessile, inclosed in an operculated shell ; arms nume-
rous, in two rows, unequal, articulated, ciliated, each composed of two
cirrhi placed on a peduncle, and capable of being exserted beyond the oper-
culum ; mouth not prominent, having four toothed transverse jaws, besides
four hairy palpiform appendages. Shell sessile, fixed, univalve, conical,
truncated at the apex, closed at the base with an adherent testaceous lamella.
Aperture somewhat triangular or elliptical : operculum internal, composed
of four valves, which are moveable, and inserted near the internal base of
the shell.

The shell of the Bdani is immoveable in all its parts ; it forms a cone,
generally more or less short and truncated, fixed, without any intermediate

peduncle, on marine bodies. It appears to be univalve, but is in fact
composed of six different portions, exclusive of the base, which are united
by a very exact suture, and are, as it were, soldered inseparably
together in old shells, especially in some of the larger species.
The animal would l>e exjwsiid to numerous injuries, were
it not for the operculum, which consists of four moveable
pieces, allowing the animal to protrude its cirrhi at pleasure.
The general form of the operculum is a short cone. The
manner in which the Balani increase their shells is not understood.
The species are very numerous, of which several are natives of our coast.
Lamarck enumerates nearly thirty, and there are probably many more un-
discovered, as well as others not yet properly distinguished. They are
found adhering to rocks, corals, shells, &c., and are frequently brought at
the bottoms of ships from different parts of the world ; in which situation
many very interesting species have been discovered.

Illustration : Balanus tintinabulum.

CONIA. Shell quadripartite, divisions equal ; operculum bipartite.

Type : Balanus porosus.

Illustration : Coma mdgaris.

CLISIA. Shell fourpartite ; valves of the operculum undivided.

Some species inhabit the coast of Great Britain, being found attached to
marine plants, Crustacea, and testaceous mollusca.

Illustration : Clisia verruca.

CLASS VI.— INSECT A.

AKTICTJLATED ANIMALS WITH AETICULATED FEET.

INSECTS form a very important Class among Articulate Animals. They are characterised by the division of their body into three principal
parts, the head, chest, and belly, caput, thorax, abdomen ; which are less determinately marked in some Insects, as in the Beetles,
than in the Wasps, in which the chest is connected by one pedicle in front with the head, and by another behind with the belly.
They are also furnished with three pairs of legs, and generally with two pairs of wings, all which are attached to the chest. No
Insect, however, is thus perfectly formed when first bursting from the egg, in which its animal existence commences, but passes
through two stages, during which it, in most instances, differs remarkably from the form which becomes its own in the third stage.
These changes are called the Metamorphoses of Insects, and are said to be Complete or Incomplete as the animal assumes a more
or less perfectly distinct form in its several stages : a familiar instance of the first kind is presented in the Silkworm, its chrysalis
or grub, and its moth or perfect grub, and its moth or perfect form ; of the second, the Common Cockroach, in which the animal
proceeds through its primary stages of nearly the same form throughout, except that it does not obtain wings till it acquires its
perfect form. The three stages of Perfect Metamorphoses are, — 1. The Larva, Caterpillar or Maggot ; 2. The Pupa, or Chrysalis,
which is remarkable on account of the animal becoming perfectly quiescent and ceasing to feed ; but during this state, a most
wonderful change is going on within its external covering, which leads to the production of 3. The Imago, or Perfect Insect. In
the Imperfect Metamorphoses, the larval stage is indicated by the absence of scutellum and wings in the Winged Insects ; the
second stage has been named by Lamarck the Nympha, and is distinguished in Winged Insects by the rudimental appearance of
wings, which are fully developed only in their perfect state. There is only space here to observe further, in reference to the
imperfect state of Insects, that the body consists of a series of rings, usually thirteen ; that some are headless, and that others have
heads, as the Maggot of the House-fly, and the Caterpillars of the Butterflies ; that some have not any feet, as the Maggot, and
that others have feet, some on the three rings immediately following the head, as in Cetonia Aurata, such being specially called
Larvae; and some, besides these, six horny legs, having membranous appendages called prolegs, on the ventral and anal segments.
as in the Silk Moth ; to such the name Caterpillars, ErucoK, is particularly attached.

ARRANGEMENT OF THE PLATES.

Plates I. and II. contain examples of the several orders as found in
Lamarck's arrangement; and the three succeeding Plates exhibit a more
extended and general classification. Definitions of orders in the first
arrangement are not repeated in the second.

LAMARCK'S ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
ORDER I.— COLEOPTERA. SHEATH-WINGED.

THIS class of insects include all those whose wings are covered by coria-
ceous elytra, or wing-covers.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.
I'LATE 1.

LUCANUS. No apparent lip ; languet divided into two long, silky 1-
chin covering, by its length, the larger part of the jaws.

Type of the genus is the common Stag Beetle, also our —

Illustration : Lucanus cervus, found in groves and amongst trees in th.
summer evenings.

LAMPYUIS. Thorax half circular, entirely hiding the head; mouth very
small ; maxillary palpi ending in a pointed joint ; the hinder extremity of
the abdomen phosphorescent, and the eyes large, especially in the males.

ORDER— H YMENOPTERA. MEMBRANOUS-WINGED.

139

The name Lampyris was given to the insect by the Greeks, from its
phosphorescent light. The females, which are apterous, are usually called
Glow-worms. The end of the body retains its luminous quality for a con-
siderable time after it is cut off from the body of the insect ; and it is said
that the luminousness of it appears to depend more on the softness and
moist condition of the part than on the life of the animal ; some experi-
ments declare that it crepitates when placed in hydrogen gas.

The type of the genus, which is also our —

Illustration : Lampyris noctiluca, is common in English hedge-rows in
the summer evenings.

CERAMBYX. Antenna? long, setaceous ; inserted into a notch in the
eyes ; head bent forwards ; palpi terminated by a thick, obconic, com-
pressed articulation.

Type of the genus, C. Cerdo, Fab.

C. Moschatus is one of the most elegant of our British insects. It is of
a metallic green colour, passing into rose or violet. It has a smell resembling
that of the rose.

Illustration : Ceranibyx.

ORDER II.— ORTHOPTERA. STRAIGHT-WINGED.
THESE are distinguished from the former Order by having soft, mem-
branous wing-covers much nerved; wings longitudinally folded, whence
their peculiar designation, given them by Olivier, opfloe, straight, and wrcpov,
a wing. They were included in the Coleoptera, by Geoffroy, but separated
from them by De Geer.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.

GRYLLOTALPA. Anterior legs very large, and adapted for burrowing ;
tarsi of the other legs of the ordinary form.

The name of Mole-Cricket has been applied to the species of this genus
because of the resemblance which their feet have to those of the mole.

Illustration : Gryllotalpa vulgaris.

BLATTA. Antenna? setaceous, inserted beneath the eyes ; labium
rounded before ; labium bifid ; body oblong, suboval, depressed ; thorax
nearly flat, smooth, shield-shaped, marginate, covering the head ; elytra
horizontal; abdomen furnished with two short conical appendages; feet
formed for running, tarsi with five joints.

The common Cockroach, B. orientalis, which is the type of this genus, is
but too well known in our kitchens.

Illustration : Blatta lapponica.

FORFICULA. Tarsi of three joints, wings plaited fan-like, and folded
crosswise, so as to be placed under the crustaceous elytra, which are united
by a straight suture ; body linear, ending in two hooks ; head exposed ;
antennae filiform, formed of twelve or thirteen joints.

The type is F. auricularia, the common Earwig, known to everybody ;
called also as in our—

Illustration: Forficula vulgaris.

GRYLLUS. Hind legs proper for leaping, wings and elytra horizontal,
the wings plaited longitudinally, and each forming in repose a kind of plate
prolonged behind the elytra ; tarsi of six joints ; antenna setaceous, con-
sisting of very numerous joints inserted between the eyes ; tongue four-
lobed, the two middle lobes very small ; lip entire ; the female with a pro-
minent ovipositor.

The bodies of the Crickets are large, and nearly of the same diameter
throughout ; their head is large, vertical, and rounded behind. The males
are provided with a small tambourine, placed at the inner part of their
elytra. They generally live on insects, and are often nocturnal. The most
common species in this country is the Gryllus Domesticus of Linnaus.

Illustration : Qryllus coerulescens.

MANTIS. Body long, narrow ; head exposed, with the front rounded,
not prolonged into a cone ; the antennae of both sexes simple ; the front
feet longer than the others ; tarsi all with five joints ; the elytra and wing
lying horizontally in repose.

The type of the genus is M. oratorio, Linnaeus.

Illustration : Mantis striata.

ORDER III.— NEUROPTERA. LACE-WINGED.

THE wings of the Order Neuroptera are not covered by elytra, as are
those of the Coleoptera ; but they are furnished with a great number of
nerves, which give them the appearance of net-work, whence their name,
vevpov, a nerve, and irrtpov, a wing.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.

MYRMELEON. Antennae shorter than the body, somewhat gradually
thickening towards their extremities, arcuated, and furnished at the tips
with a distinct little point ; palpi six ; labial longest, somewhat thicker at
their extremities ; eyes undivided ; abdomen very long, linear ; trunk short,
villose ; tibiae hairy, terminated by two strong spurs ; tarsi five-jointed.

The insects of this genus feed on other insects in all their states ; they
deposit their eggs in sandy places, and the larvae, when hatched, form an
ingenious snare for the purpose of capturing their prey.

Type of the genus, which is also our —

Illustration : Myrmeleon forrdcarium.

LIBELLULA. Wings extended horizontally in repose ; head nearly
globular, with very large contiguous eyes, the lips closing the mouth.

The type of the genus is L. depressa, Linnaeus. Found common on
heath and hedges near water.

Illustration : Libellula depressa (larvae of).

NEMOPTERA. Palpi six, short ; antennas setaceous, inserted between the
eye ; ocelli wanting ; head vertical ; clypens produced into a rostriform,
perpendicular lamina, bearing the trophi ; body elongate, narrow ; thorax
composed of two segments, the first very short, the second large ; wings
reticulated, extended, anterior ones somewhat ovate, posterior very long and
linear ; legs short ; tarsi elongate, composed of five slender, entire joints ;
claws elongate and simple.

Illustration : Nemoptera vulgaris.

ASCALAPHUS. Characters generally as those of Myrmelion. They are
distinguished by their long antennae, which are terminated by a knob ; their
abdomen is oval, and oblong; the thorax is nearly the length of the
abdomen, and their wings are somewhat shorter than those of the Myr-
melion. They are inhabitants of warm countries.

Illustration : Ascalaphus larbarus.

ORDER IV.— HYMENOPTERA. MEMBRANOUS-WINGED.
THESE insects have four veined, naked, and membranaceous wings ; the
females are provided with an ovipositor at the extremity of their abdomen,
which consists of a sting protected by two elongated processes, one on each

side.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.

SPHEX. Antenna? filiform, slender, approximated at their insertion,
often arched or spirally twisted ; upper lip very short ; mandibles either
simple or toothed at their inner edge ; four slender palpi ; promuscis more
or less long, trifid, flexed either in the middle or towards the tip.

The animals of this genus are carnivorous in their imperfect state, but
subsequently feed only on the juices of flowers. The female digs her nest
rather deep in the ground, where she deposits one egg, and puts beside it a
caterpillar or a spider, which she has previously killed, to provide nourish-
ment for the young animal as soon as hatched, and then carefully covers it
over with grains of sand, or even with a little bit of stone. This process is
successively performed in the same nest till she has completed her incuba-
tion. The type of those species which have the mandibles toothed, is S.
Sabulosa, Lin. ; and the type of those in which the mandibles are smooth,
is that shown in our —

Illustration : Sphex spirifex.

UEOCERUS (the SIREX proper of Geoffroy). Antenna; filiform or seta-
ceous, as long as the thorax ; palpi unequal, very short ; maxillary ciliated
and two or one-jointed ; labial thrice as long and more slender; eyes small ;
ocelli three ; thorax rather wider than the head ; wings with two marginal
and two submarginal areolets ; abdomen long, cylindric, terminating in an

T 2

140

CLASS— IN SEC TA.

ORDER -HEM IPT ERA. HALF-WINGED.

elongate point or style ; legs moderate, posterior pair slender in the females,
in the males with their tibiae and tarsi much dilated.

The insects of this genus are of large size ; nearly twenty species have
been discovered, of which at least six inhabit England.

Type of the genus, and —

Illustration : Urocerus (or Sirex) gigas.

POMPILUS. Antennae inserted near the hinder suture of the clypeus ;
generally convolated at the apex in the females ; subsetaceous, not broken ;
maxillary palpi longest, pendulous, the third joint stoutest, obconic or ovate,
the three terminal ones of nearly equal length, and almost equal with the
labial; labrum inserted beneath the clypeus, most frequently notched;
wings four, anterior with two submarginal areolets.

A very numerous genus, of which about twenty-five are found in England,
chiefly in sandy situations.

Type of the genus, and —

Illustration : Pampttus viaticus.

ORDER V.— LEPIDOPTERA. SOFT OR FEATHER-WINGED.

THE lepidopterous insects are thus characterised : Wings four, membrana-
ceous, covered with a farinaceous powder, formed of scales; the mouth
famished with a spiral trunk, formed of the lengthened jaws. This part
has usually been called the tongue, but Savigny, in his excellent work on
the examination of the mouth of insects, has fully established the fact that
it contains all the organs found in the mouths of those insects which gnaw
their food.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.
PLATE 2.

LYC/ENA. Antennae clavate, the capitulum arcuate, ovate-conic ; anterior
legs not abbreviated ; claws distinct and simple ; pupa smooth, braced, and
folliculated ; egg elongate conic ; caterpillar fleshy, having a furcate,
retractile organ in the neck ; chrysalis angulated, with two processes before,
fastened by a transverse thread.

Illustration : Lyccena dispar (in various stages).

HESPERIA. Antennae ending in a club or button, hooked at the tip ;
the lower palpi short, large, and covered with spines. Their bodies are
generally short, thick ; their heads broad, and the antennas far apart at their
insertion. These insects are commonly found in grassy places, especially in
damp shady places. A few found in Europe ; numerous in America.

The type is the Papffio alccea, Esper, the H. mdvcE of Fabricius.

Illustration : Hesperia comma.

NOCTUA. Antennae setaceous, gradually attenuated from the base to the
apex ; wings, during repose, mostly deflexed ; last joint of the palpi very
short and covered with scales ; flight nocturnal.

Illustration : Noctua delphinvla.

BOMBYX. Lamarck includes in this genus the Phalcenidce having bipec-
tinated antenna?, two short palpi, a very short tongue (in some species
being scarcely perceptible); a thick body, closely covered with hair or
wool, and wings either horizontal or deflected. The larvae have sixteen feet,
and the pupa is enclosed within a cocoon. Some of the Bombyces are
amongst the largest of the Lepidoptera. B. Atlas, for instance (belonging
to the Linnaean division Attaci), measures from tip to tip of the wings
upwards of eight inches. This magnificent moth is a native of Asia ; the
larva feeds on the orange ; the pupa is enclosed in a large strong cocoon.
The wings are yellowish and clouded, and there is a large transparent
silvery spot on each. Of the European Bombyces, the most beautiful is
the Phalcena Jwionia of Shaw, separated by him from the B. pavonia, of
which it is probably only a large variety. But the species to which the
greatest interest attaches is B. Mori, the silk-worm moth, from which the
whole of the European silk, and the greater part of that of China, is pro-
duced.

Illustrations: Bambyx dispar ; B.fureida.

ORDER VI.— HEMIPTERA. HALF-WINGED.

THE ordinal character of the insects composing the Order Hemiptera are —
Wings two, covered with elytra ; mouth proper for suction, without dis-
tinct jaws ; mandibles formed of a tubular, jointed, cylindrical, or conical
trunk, curved on the front of the chest, containing three bristles, forming
together a needle-like sucker.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.

FULGORA. Elytra of the same consistence ; tarsi of three joints ;
antemue placed under the eyes, of two or three joints, the last joint largest,
nearly globular, ending in a bristle ; beak long, of two or three joints ;
head acute ; head prolonged into a variously-formed beak ; ocelli three.

These insects are remarkable for the beautiful colour of their wings and
form. The protuberance of their head gives out an intense phosphorescent
light. They are found in warm climates.

The type is F. Lanternaria, of the East Indies.

Illustration : Ftdgoria canddlaria.

NAUCORIS. Antenna? very short, concealed in a cavity beneath the eyes,
quadriarticulate, cylindric, with the apex a little gracile; labrum large,
exserted, trigonal, flat ; rostrum triarticulate, shorter than the head, the
basal joint very short ; body ovate, considerably depressed, above flat, with
the lateral margins acute ; head transverse, rounded anteriorly, rather deeply
inserted into the thorax, this last transverse, subquadrate, a little narrowed
anteriorly, and deeply emarginate ; abdomen large, broad, acute behind ;
the lateral margin greatly depressed, somewhat membranaceous ; legs,
anterior short, four posterior compressed; femora with a double row of
denticulations ; tibia? and tarsi spinulous, and furnished with hairs on the
margin for swimming.

Several species ; two of them natives of England.

The type of the genus is shown in our —

Illustration : Naucaris cimicoides.

NOTONECTA. Antenna? very short, concealed beneath the eyes, atte-
nuated towards the extremity, four-articulate, the basil joint very minute,
round, large, cylindric, third more slender, subcylindric, a little attenuated
at the base, fourth half as long, more slender, conic-cylindric ; rostrum as
long as the head, conical, depressed, triarticulate ; body cylindric-ovoid ;
head vertical; eyes large, ovate; thorax transverse, a little narrowed in
front; scutellum distinct, trigonal ; elytra inclined; four anterior legs with
two strong claws at the apex; posterior with small claws, formed for
seizing ; tarsi all four-jointed.

The insects of this genus swim well, and upon their backs, whence the
name of the genus.

The type of the genus (Boat Fly) is our —

Illustration : Notonecta glauca.

Coccus. Antenna? filiform, of ten or eleven articulations in both sexes,
shorter than the body ; rostrum pectoral, conspicuous only in the females ;
males with two large incumbent wings ; females apterous, subtomentose,
fixed and becoming gall-shaped or shield-shaped after impregnation.

It is with a view to their importance as an article of commerce, arising
from their use in the arts, that the insects of this genus are particularly
interesting. When it is considered that the most brilliant dyes, and the
most beautiful pigments, as well as the basis of the most useful kinds of
cement, are their product, it will be acknowledged that to none of the
insect tribe, except perhaps to the Bee and the Gall-insect, are we more
indebted than to these singular and apparently insignificant little beings.
Kermes, the scarlet grain of Poland, cochineal, lac-lake, lac-dye, and all the
modifications of gum-lac, are either the perfect insects dried, or the secre-
tions which they form.

Type of the genus, C. Persicce, Fab.

Illustration: Coccus cacti.

APHIS. Antenna? setaceous, longer than the thorax, seven jointed ;
wings four, pellucid, longer than the body, the upper ones the largest ;
both males and females occasionally without wings, particularly the latter.
Abdomen furnished near the base with two horns or tubercles.

ORDER— A P T E R A . WINGLESS.

141

The insects constituting this remarkable genus are well known under
the name of Plant-lice. They infest almost every species of vegetable in
innumerable quantities, occasioning the leaves to curl up, and often pre-
venting the growth of the young shoots, by the punctures they make for
the purpose of procuring the juices of the plant, on which they live. The
injuries which these little insignificant animals sometimes occasion, are
much more considerable than would at first be imagined, from their ex-
treme tenuity, weakness, and inactivity ; but then- increase is so rapid and
extensive, as to render them formidable enemies. The finest of our fruits
are thus often nipped in the bud, or arrested in a subsequent period of
their growth ; and indeed scarcely any of our esculent vegetables are free
from their attacks. The hop-grounds in Kent would, in some seasons, be
rendered almost barren by their swarms, had not nature provided an effi-
cient preventive. This consists in the circumstance of their forming the
favourite food of the larva of the ladybird (Coccinella), and of several spe-
cies of aphidivorous flies, particularly of the genus Syrphus of Fabricius.
These larva? fix themselves by the tail, in the midst of a host of aphides,
and extend or contract themselves so as to reach their prey ; and on seizing
one, it is held up in the air, whilst all the juices of the body are sucked
out, after which the skin is dropped.

The species are very numerous, and but imperfectly understood, but
there is reason to believe, that very many plants nourish their own peculiar
aphides ; and it has been usual to name the species after the plants which
they principally inhabit, as Aphis Rosa?, A. Sambuci, A. Ulmi, £c.

Illustration : Aphis roses.

ORDER VII.— DIPTERA. TWO-WINGED.

THE characteristics of the order Diptera may, in general terms, be thus
stated : — Feet six ; wings two, ribbed and extended ; with two balancers
placed behind them, in the place of the second pair ; mouth consisting of
from two to six scaly bristle or lancet-like pieces shut in a sheath ; sheath,
in the form of a trunk or syphon, bent or jointed, often ending in two
lips, and generally furnished with a superior groove, and often provided
with two maxillary palpi, which are sometimes enclosed in the sheath.

Several of the insects of this order, belonging to the genera Tipida,
Samvlia, Tabanies, and Sternoxus, incommode us and other animals with
their suckers, which often perforate the skin and leave irritable wounds.
Some, as the (Estri or Gadflies, deposit their eggs in the bodies of domestic
animals, and even sometimes in those of men themselves. Others, in the
same manner, infest our meats, cheese, and eatables, or in the form of
larva?, attack plants, and make extensive ravages in them. But as a sort of
compensation for these various injuries, these insects consume and destroy
great quantities of putrid animal and vegetable substances, or dissipate the
fetid and stagnant waters.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.

ECHINOMYIA. Antenna? with intermediate joint longer than the third ;
the lateral hair simple, and hid when the insect is at rest.

The Echinomyia resembles in form the common house Flies ; but is
remarkable for the large size of its body, which is covered with scattered
long hairs, which are large, and, as it were, jointed at the base. The
wings are spread, and the abdomen is broader than long. The manners of
several of the species are comparatively well known : the perfect insects
live but a very short time, and are found principally on the flowers of um-
belliferous plants ; the females lay their eggs in the Caterpillars (larvae) and
grubs (pupcs) of various Lepidopteraus and some Coleopterous insects,
which they eventually destroy.

Illustration : Echinomyia f era.

CEROPLATUS. Antenna? longer than the head, subfusiform, compressed,
proboscis very short; palpi apparently without joints, very short.

These insects are remarkable for the form of their antenna?, which re-
sembles a rasp or file. The abdomen is elongate and fusiform. The
larva? feed on mushrooms.

Type of the genus, also our —

Illustration : Ceroplatus tipuloises.

THEREVA (of Latr.) Antenna? fusiform, or elongated into a conical
form at the tips ; palpi withdrawn into the oval cavity.

Type of the genus, T. plebeia.
• Illustration : Thereva crassipennis.

TABANUS. Antenna? as long or longer than the head, three-jointed, the
last joint awl-shaped and five-ringed ; proboscis shorter than the head, and
terminating in two large lips ; haustellum consisting of six sete ; palpi
nearly as long as the proboscis; head broad, transverse, sessile, in some
species furnished with stemmata, as well as large brilliant reticulated ejes,
but in others without stemmata ; abdomen sessile, of same breadth as the
thorax ; wings horizontal and widely separate at their tips.

The Tabard very much resemble large flies, and are remarkable for their
beautifully-coloured large eyes, which in the male are divided by a very
narrow line in front, but in the female this line is much wider, and hence
forms a good sexual distinction ; their haustellum is furnished with six
setae, forming terrible instruments for puncturing the hides of cattle and
horses, which they attack fiercely in spring and autumn, making wounds
bigger than that of a large needle, from which the blood flows freely in
large drops like tears. From the spreading of the lips of the proboscis the
wound cannot be seen whilst the insect is at work, but the pain is very
severe ; and that produced by the Burning or Sand Fly of America and
the West Indies, supposed to belong to this genus, is so great, that it has
been compared to the pain which would be produced by a red-hot needle
or by a spark of fire. It seems, however, that this sanguinary disposition
belongs especially to the females, as the males are often noticed feeding on
flowers. They seem to be spread generally over the globe.

Illustration : Tabanus niger.

DIOPSIS. Antenna? palette-shaped, each inserted on a prolongation of the
side of the head into the form of a horn; the eyes situated at the end of
these horns ; trunk membranaceous, two-lipped, retractile.

This curious genus was first noticed by Fabricius.

Illustration : Diopsis Ichneumonea.

ORDER VIII.— APTERA. WINGLESS.

THIS is the Order Suctoria of De Geer ; it includes one very well-known
genus — the common Flea ; distinguished from all other insects by its oral
sucker, which consists of three pieces inclosed between the articulated
plates, and forming a cylindrical or conical beak.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.

PULEX. Antenna? short, three-jointed, the two basal joints obconic, the
terminal obtuse; palpi four-articulate, porrect; tongue slender, filiform,
transparent ; maxilla? lateral ; head small ; body compressed, apterous ; legs
long, formed for leaping ; coxa? very much elongate and large ; femora short ;
tibia? pilose ; tarsi five-jointed.

Type of the genus, P. irritans (the Common Flea).

There are nearly fifty species of this troublesome and active little insect.

Illustrations : Pulex irritans, P. Chigoe.

SECOND ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.

THIS second arrangement is in accordance with the systems of recent
Naturalists. Only the principal genera illustrated in Plates III., IV., and
V. are noticed.

ORDER I.— COLEOPTEROUS INSECTS.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.

PLATE 3.

ANTHIA. Corcelet, nearly heart-shaped ; the head not narrowed behind ;
no obvious neck, palpi filiform, labrum oval, and projecting to the base of

142

CLASS— INSECTA.

COLEOPTEROUS INSECTS.

the last articulation of its palpi. Carabus 1 0-guttatus of Linnaeus belongs
to this genus, and is the Anthia decem-guttata of Fabricius, &c.

Illustration : Anthia quadriguttata.

ELAPHRUS. Elytra entire, or not truncated behind ; front pair of legs
slightly nicked on the lower part of the inner side, with a linear slit ;
tongue prominent, membranaceous, or rather horny, divided into three
lobes, the lateral of which are tooth-like, and the middle of the upper end
of the middle lobe is nicked ; jaws scarcely dilated externally ; antennas
insensibly enlarging towards the end, formed of short obconical joints ; eyes
large and prominent.

Several species are found in Great Britain ; they live on the banks of
rivers and ponds, searching for small insects. Their larvae and pupa are
quite unknown.

Illustration : Elaphrus idiginosus.

OMOPHROX. Antenna filiform, with the basal joint robust ; palpi six,
filiform, with the terminal joint nearly conic ; mandibles horny, ciliated,
and entire ; head oval, deeply inserted into the thorax, which is very short,
transverse, emarginate in front and lobate behind, the base nearly as broad
as that of the elytra ; the latter hard, entire, as long as the abdomen ; legs
slender, elongate ; anterior tibiae with a notch in front ; tarsi pentamerous.

The species of this remarkable genus frequent damp, sandy places, but
none of them have yet been detected in Britain.

Type of the genus, which is also our —

Illustration : Omophron limbatum.

NECBOPHORUS. Antennae rather longer than the head, slender at the
base, and terminating suddenly in a large ovate perfoliate club, composed
of four coarctate joints, the last of which is acuminated ; head with a dis-
tinct neck ; thorax suborbiculate, rounded behind, transversely-truncate
anteriorly ; elytra truncated in a straight line, with a marginal channel, not
carinated; body oblong, much longer than broad; tibia short, robust;
posterior trochanters sometimes with a spine at the apex ; anterior tarsi
dilated and furnished with long cilia in the males.

Seven of the twenty-seven species are found in England ; they frequent
carcases, especially of the smaller mammalia, which they bury beneath the
surface, and in them deposit their eggs, which become hatched in the putrid
remains, and their larvae reside in them until their period of change arrives,
when they seek for a spot in which to become pupa.

Type of the genus, Sflpha germamca. Linnaeus.

Illustration : Necropharus ixspitto.

TACHYS. Antennae submoniliform, increasing in size towards their tip,
and inserted before the eyes ; mandibles simple ; palpi in some filiform, in
others awl-shaped ; head deeply sunk in the thorax ; body lengthy ; elytra
tolerably large ; legs spiny.

Illustration : Tachys minuta.

DRILUS. Antennae of twelve joints, longer than the head, and thorax
pectinated on the inner side ; maxillary palpi projecting forwards ; thorax
transverse, rather broader than the head; body depressed, rather long;
head truncated; mandibles one-toothed, thin, horny; jaws simple, or at
least destitute of any internal appendix, supporting two club-shaped
palpi ; lower lip rounded, wings membranaceous, plaited ; tarsi all five-
jointed, the last joint heart-shaped.

These insects fly with facility, and are found on flowers, especially on
those of trees. They are parasitical on the common Snail.

Illustration : Drylus flavescens (of Olivier), common in England and the
south of Europe.

TILLUS. Antenna filiform, as long as the thorax, increasing in thick-
ness towards the tip, and toothed on the edge like a saw ; mandibles
slightly double-toothed; maxillary palpi filiform, last joint of the labial
large and hatchetshaped ; body lengthy and roundish; thorax narrower
than the wing-cases ; tarsi five-jointed.

This insect is not carnivorous, but frequents plants and flowers, upon the
juices of which it feeds. Two species are described, both European.

Illustration: Tittus mutSarius.

ULEIOTA. Antennae filiform, at least as long as the body, with lengthy

cylindrical joints ; upper lip projecting between the mandibles ; last joint
of the palpi sharpish at the tip ; body oblong, much depressed ; tarsi short.
These insects live beneath the bark of trees. The type of the genus is
Cerambix planatus. Linnnrus.

Illustration : Uletota flavipes.

MOLORCHUS. Antennas setaceous, nearly as long, or longer than the
body, basal joint stout, second minute, the remainder long, cylindric, a litt It-
elevate ; labrum minute, pilose, heart-shaped ; maxillary palpi quadriarticu-
late, the three basal joints small, the terminal one ovoid, compressed,
truncate; labial triartioulate, the two basal joints short, terminal longer,
ovate-truncate; elytra abbreviated, gaping at the apex; wings exposed;
legs unequal, anterior shortest, posterior longest ; femora very much clavate ;
tarsi four-jointed.

There are nine species, found in flowers, especially of the umbelliferous
kind ; two of them occur in Britain.

Illustration : Mdorchus abbreriatiis.

RHAGIUM. Antennas setaceous, shorter than the body, tin- Uisal joint
stout, second small, somewhat nodose, third longer than the fourth, which
is shorter than the fifth, the latter being longer than the third, the remaining
joints of nearly equal length, about as long as the fourth ; palpi four, with
the terminal joint thickened, short, obconic, truncate ; labium with divari-
cating, slender lacinia; head large, with a tumour behind the eyes, the
latter rounded ; thorax constricted within the base and apex, the lateral
margins with an acute spine ; elytra broad, with the shoulders considerably
elevated ; legs moderate ; femora rather stout ; tarsi tetramerous.

About twenty species, of which three are occasionally found in England,
frequenting the old stumps of decayed trees.

Illustration : Rhagium mordax.

CEROCOMA. Antenna club-shaped, or increasing considerably towards
the extremity ; of nine articulations, the last very large ; elytra horizontal.

These insects are remarkable for the great brilliancy of their colours.
They make their appearance towards the middle of summer, and principally
frequent radiated flowers, as the Camomile chrysanthemum, &c. They fly
easily, but walk little ; and on being taken, like many other Coleoptera,
counterfeit death.

Type of the genus, our —

Illustration : Cerocoma Schoefferi.

NOTOXUS. Antenna? subfiliform, inserted before the eyes, simple, eleven-
jointed, the articulations a little obconic, the second smallest, the remainder
somewhat equal, the last oval ; mandibles slightly curved, acute, cleft at the
apex ; palpi with the terminal joint securiform ; body oblong ; head natant,
united by a slender neck to the thorax, the latter heart-shaped, narrowed
and truncate posteriorly, with the anterior edge prolonged into a point in
form of a horn projecting over the head ; scutollnm minute ; legs rather
long ; tibia very short ; tarsi heteromerous.

Type of the genus, which is also our —

Illustration : Notoxus monocerus.

LOMECHUSA. Antenna forming a perfoliate or fusiform club, often shorter
than the head and thorax ; the palpi ending in an awl-shaped joint ; head
sunk into the thorax to the eyes ; legs not spinose.

The type of the genus is L. paradoga.

Illustration : Lomechsusa dentata.

PLATE 4.
COLEOPTEROUS INSECTS— (continued.)

ELOPHORUS. Mandibles not toothed at the end ; maxillary palpi rather
shorter than the antenna ; the last joint broad, oval, the club of the anteim;"
commencing with the sixteenth joint. All the species are small i:
living in water, and swimming on its surface, and living ujxm duck-meet,
conferva, and other aquatic plants.

Illustration : Elophorus aquations.

SCAPHIDIUM. Antenna longer than the thorax, slender at the base, with
an abrupt elongate club, composed of five somewhat hemispheric, nearly
equal joints, the terminal one rounded at the tip ; palpi four, filiform ; head
produced in front; thorax ample, margined on the sides; body robust,

ORDER— H YM E N OPT EROUS INSECTS.

143

accuminated at each extremity ; elytra margined, truncate ; scutellum dis-
tinct ; legs slender, elongate ; tibia; smooth.

Type of the genus, also our —

Illustration : Scaphidium quadrimaculatum.

NECEODES. Antenna; distinctly longer than the head, rather slender,
terminating gradually in an elongate, perfoliate club, composed of three
joints, the terminal ones obtuse ; head oblong with a distinct neck ; eyes
large, prominent ; thorax orbicular, with a narrow border ; elytra obliquely
truncate at the apex, tricarinated ; body elongate-oval, scarcely longer than
the elytra ; legs elongate ; tibiae channeled, slightly spinous ; posterior
femora of the males more or less thickened and clavate, sometimes denti-
culated ; anterior tarsi in the males more or less denticulated.

Two species, found in dead carcases of dogs, &c., chiefly in damp places ;
one of them inhabits Britain.

Type of the genus, which is also our —

Illustration : Necrodes (vel Silpha) littordis.

NITIDULA. Antennae very short, the basal joint orbicular, dilated, the
third longer than the fourth, the apex terminating in a large, abrupt, broad,
coarctate, perfoliated, three-jointed club ; palpi nearly equal, short, filiform ;
head small, inserted up to the eyes in the thorax, the latter more or less
emarginate on its anterior edge, the sides depressed, deeply margined;
elytra broad, entire, rarely truncate, subovate, glabrous, deeply margined,
and in general connecting the extremity of the abdomen ; body ovate, or
elliptic, broad, obtuse, somewhat depressed ; legs short ; tibiae broad, the
anterior elongate-triangular ; tarsi pentamerous, with the third joint dilated
and bifid, the following minute, indistinct.

The type of the genus is shown in our —

Illustration : Nitidula grisea.

ORDER II.— ORTHOPTEROUS INSECTS.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.

TEIDACTYLUS. Antenna? short, submoniliform, ten-jointed; eyes very
distinct ; thorax wider than its length ; anus furnished with four styliform
appendages ; anterior two pairs of legs broad, the first pair spiny at the top
and grooved to receive the tarsus when folded ; posterior legs having large
lengthy thighs, and slender, long shanks, covered externally with little
scales, and having, instead of tarsi, little moveable, narrow, hooked plates,
resembling fingers, varying from three to five in number ; when the latter,
the middle three are the longest.

This genus very nearly resembles the Mole-crickets, Gryllotalpa, but are
distinguished by the form of the antennas and of the legs. They live in
the mud on the banks of rivers. Two species are described, both European,
of which our —

Illustration : Tridactylus paradoxas is the type.

TRUXALIS. Antennae short, compressed, sword-shaped, joints indistinct,
attached above the line separating the eye ; head pyramidal with two
lengthened eyes, and three small smooth ones ; mouth at bottom of the
head, lower lip bifid ; body lengthy ; abdomen simple, covered by the
wing-cases as with a roof; hind legs much longer than the body, and fit
for leaping.

All the species of this genus (which belongs to the Cricket family) are
natives of warm countries.

Illustration : Truxalis nasuta.

ACEYDIUM. Same as GRYLLUS, p. 139.

ORDER III.— NEUROPTEROUS INSECTS.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.

RAPHIDIA. Antennae inserted between the eyes, remote, as long as the
thorax, filiform, consisting of nearly forty very short cylindric articulations,
the two basal ones being largest ; head obovate, elongate, attenuated be-
hind ; somewhat vertically indexed, abruptly narrowed at the base, which

resembles a collar; thorax with its anterior segment or prothorax very
much elongated, slender, nearly cylindric, being a little narrowed in front ;
second segment, or mesothorax, much broader and shorter; wings four,
equal, reticulated, deflexed ; abdomen elongate, compressed, soft ; apex
produced, in the male into two strong claws, in the female with a linear,
straight, compressed, slightly reflexed, acute ovipositor; legs slender;
tibiae cylindric, with minute spurs.

Type of the genus, R. ophiopsis, Linnaeus. Several species ; of which
about seven inhabit Britain.
Illustration: Rhaphidia notata.

EPHEMERA. Antenna? very short, ending in a bristle ; upper lip cover-
ing the mouth ; mandibles none, or veiy small ; palpi very short, scarcely
distinct ; tarsi of five joints.

The Ephemera are named on account of their exceeding short lives.
The perfect insects live only a few hours, for the purpose of perpe-
tuating their species, and then die. The larvae are longer lived, and when
the insect has gained all its parts, it undergoes another change of skin.
The type of the genus is the —
Illustration : Ephemera vulgata.

PANORPA. Antenna; setaceous, inserted between the eyes ; ocelli three,
disposed in a triangle on the front, the two hinder ones largest ; head ver-
tical, produced anteriorly into a perpendicular rostriform plate, receiving
the oral organs ; palpi subequal, filiform ; thorax with the anterior segment
very short, the second longer ; wings reticulated, equal, horizontal, ovate-
elliptic, placed one over the other during repose : body elongate, narrow ;
abdomen of the male furnished with a forcipated process ; legs elongate ;
tibia? with short spurs : tarsi with two bent claws, toothed within.
Type of the genus, and —
Illustration : Panorpa wlgaris.

ORDER IV.— TRICHOPTEROUS INSECTS.

THIS order was formed by Kirby and Spence, from the order Neurop-
tera ; and so named because, of the hairy covering with which their wings
and bodies are beset. They have the appearance of small Phalsenae.

Antennae inserted between the eyes, long, composed of numerous joints ;
head small, transverse, vertical ; ocelli two ; eyes prominent ; mandibles
wanting; palpi four, maxillary longest; wings ample, deflexed, pilose,
inferior folded ; legs elongate, spinose ; tarsi pentamerous, cylindric.

Illustration : Limnephilus griseus.

ORDER V.— HYMENOPTEROUS INSECTS.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.

BANCHUS, a genus of the family Entomotilles ; the family characteristics
of which are : abdomen pedicelled, not concave beneath ; lower lip as long
as the jaws ; antennas not bent, of seventeen to twenty joints. This family
contains, according to Dumeril, the genera Ichneumon, Fanea, Evania,
Ophion, Banchus. It forms part of the family Jchneumonidce.

The antenna? of the genus Banchus are filiform or setaceous, and the
abdomen is gradually narrowed to the tip.

One common British species is our —

Illustration : Banchus pictus.

EVANIA. Antenna? filiform, revolute, of twelve or thirteen joints,
toothed on the inner side ; maxillary palpi very long, of six unequal joints ;
the labial palpi four ; the lower lip with four divisions, the centre one of
which is deeply cut, its sheath broad, dilated on the sides ; head rather
flattened, narrower than the thorax; eyes oval; thorax broad, convex,
nearly cubical ; upper wings with one radial, and mostly two cubital cells,
of which the first is nearly square, and receives the recurrent nerve ; the
second recurrent nerve deficient ; abdomen very small, triangular, or oval,
compressed, joined to the thorax by a long, thin, arched pedicle, inserted
on the upper part of the thorax.

These insects are small, and very remarkable for the shortness of their

144

CLASS— INSECTA.

HEMIPTEROUS INSECTS.

abdomen. There have been only a few species described, of which the
following is the type —

Illustration : Evania appendigaster

SCOLIA. Antennae filiform, thick, straight, inserted rather below the
middle of the face, thirteen-jointed, and somewhat elongated in the males ;
fourteen-jointed in the females; mandibles stout; palpi short, filiform,
maxillary six jointed, labial four-jointed; eyes emarginate; wings four,
anterior with three submarginal areolets, with two perfect discoidal ones,
and an open one towards the apex ; the second submarginal areolet re-
ceiving a recurvent nervure ; abdomen elongate, slightly pedunculated ;
legs robust ; femora compressed ; tibiae robust, four posterior with acute
spurs at the apex, tarsi downy.

Type of the genus, S. hartorum.. A very numerous genus. None of
them occur in Britain.

Illustration : Scolia quadrimaculata.

MUTILLA. Antennae longer than the head, filiform, situated in the front
of the head, the first and second joints elongate ; maxillary palpi longer
than the maxilla;; head large; abdomen oval in both sexes, convex, the
second segment large; thorax cubical ; wings with one marginal and three
submarginal areolets ; wanting in the females.

Inhabitants of warm and temperate regions.

Illustration : Mvtitta coccinea.

ICHNEUMON. Maxillary palpi of five joints, mouth not produced into a
beak, joints of the maxillary palpi unequal ; antenna? filiform or setaceous ;
jaws two-toothed at the top ; ovipostor hidden or slightly produced ; abdomen
oval or depressed, formed of five, or more, apparent rings.

The type of the genus is /. sagittatarius of Fabricius.

The Ichneumons are more formidable to the larva; of insects than the
Ichneumon of the ancients, which was said to enter the Crocodile's mouth
while it was asleep and eat out its intestines; for the Crocodile could prevent its
entrance by keeping its mouth shut, but the larvae of insects can use no such
precaution, and it is almost impossible for them to escape entirely. The
female Ichneumon of those species is provided with a long ovipositor, which
it introduces, when about to lay its eggs, in a perpendicular direction into
every hole which is likely to contain one of its victims. They generally choose
those larvae which are about to change into their pupa state. The larva; of
the Inchenmons are small worms, destitute of legs, which live in the bodies
of other lame as intestinal worms do in the bodies of larger animals.
Others lay their eggs in the galls produced by the Tenthredoes. De Geer
described a species which deposits its eggs in the bodies of spiders ; and he
also observes, that the Plant Lice are also subject to the attacks of several
species of this family.

Illustration : Ichneumon manifestar.

MASARIS. Antennae compressed, eight-jointed, the terminal joint thickened,
obconic, in the male as long as the head and thorax united ; abdomen con-
siderably elongated ; thorax, with the first sequent, prolonged to the base of
the superior wings, which are longitudinally folded; lip long, filiform,
tubulose, with two elongated linear lacinia; beneath.

Type : M. vespiformis, a native of Barbary, found on flowers.

Illustration : Masaris apiformis.

OHDEK VI.— LEPIDOPTEROUS INSECTS.
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.

PLATE 5.

CKAMBUS. Tongue distinct ; the four palpi conspicuous ; inferior ones
large ; wings incumbent, giving a cylindrical appearance to the insect.
Type: C. carneus, Fabr.
Illustration : Crambos margaritellus.

ADELA. A genus of the section Tineites, the characters of which are :
antennae setaceous, simple, sometimes ciliated, and far apart at their insertion ;
palpi apparent ; trunk indistinct ; upon the clypeus a tuft of erect little
scales; wings long, inclosing the body. Larva six-footed, solitary, and
inclosing itself in a proper sheath.

Most of the insects of this section are very easily distinguished from the
Phalttena:, by their peculiar appearance and form ; they are the smallest,
most brilliant, and most richly ornamented of all the Lepidoptera, gold and
sihvr mingled with the brightest colours overspreading the wings of a great
number.

Tin- species of Adda have very long antenna*, with the eyes contiguous ;
palpi very small and pilose ; wings brilliant. They are found in wood, and
are called Japan Moths.

Illustration : Adda sultzella.

ORDER VII.— DIPTEROUS INSECTS.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPI.KS.

CERIA. Antennas considerably longer than the head, the second articu-
lation, with the terminal, forming an oval club, terminated with a very short
conical style.

Type : C. davicornis, Fabr.

Illustration : Cerai conapsoides.

HENOPS (Ogcodes of Latroille). Antennas very minute, biarticulafc*, inserted
in the superior margin of the mouth; head almost wholly occupied by the
eyes ; ocelli three ; proboscis concealed ; thorax convex ; abdomen robust,
gibbous ; legs simple ; onychii three.

Type of the genus : Musca gibbosa, Linnaeus. Three species of this sin-
gular genus only are known, two of which inhabit England.

Illustration : Hettops marginatus.

ANTHRAX. Palpi received into the cavity of the mouth ; proboscis
short, scarcely porrected.

Illustration : Anthrax moria.

ORDER VIII.— HEMIPTEROUS INSECTS.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.

TlNGIS. Antennas filiform, four-jointed, the third joint very long, and
the fourth large and oval ; trunk ensheathed at its base, with the edges of
the sheath much raised; body fiat and membranous; wing-cases much
reticulated, wide, and covering the sides of the abdomen.

This genus, formed by Fabricius, is very remarkable for the semi-
transparency of its thorax and wing-cases. They are natives of Europe.

The type of the genus is T. Cristata, Panz.

Illustration : Tingis vinarum.

LYG.EUS. Ocelli two, very far from each other ; antenna; always filiform,
inserted on the side of the head, just above the beak ; head not narrowed
behind, so as to form a neck narrower than the thorax ; thorax trapezoidal.

There are many species of the genus found in England.

The type is L. equestris, the Cimex equestris of Linnaeus.

Illustration : Lygccus militaris.

HYDROMETRA. Antenna; bristle-like, with the third joints much longer
than the others ; the front legs not folded ; head cylindrical ; trunk pro-
duced, in an inferior groove.

The type of the genus common in stagnant pools, is our —

Illustration : Hydrametra stagiiarum.

GERRIS. The four hinder legs inserted on the side of the thorax, far
distant at their origin, long, slender, with the two hooks of the end of the
tarsi very small, and placed in a lateral slit ; the second pair distant from the
first, which are very small, and serve the purpose of claws ; the antennas
filiform, sheath of the sucker of three valves.

These insects are of a blackish colour, and run with great quickness on
the surface of water, on which they move as if by jumps ; beneath they are
silvery-white. They are usually apterous, and they reproduce their species
in that state ; indeed, they only appear, like the Bed Bug, to gain their
wings under peculiar circumstances.

The type of the genus is our —

Illustration: Gerris lacustris.

CLASS— CKUSTACEA.

OHDER— B RACHYURA. SHORT-TAILS.

145

ORDER IX.— HOMOPTEROUS INSECTS.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.

LYSTRA. Head transverse, and not prolonged into a horn ; body long ;
elytra not enlarged behind as in the genus Flatta, nor narrowed into a point
as in Icyus.

The type, L. lunata, Fabricius, is found in South America.

Illustration : Lystra lannginosa.

FLATA. Antennae with three distinct joints, the second the largest,
cylindrical, ovoid or nearly globular, inserted immediately under the eyes ;
head generally transverse, and not prolonged, or at least only forming a blunt
point ; ocelli two ; wings very broad, and the elytra applied one against
the other by their hinder edge.

The females envelope their eggs within a white cottony substance, which
is placed at the end of the abdomen.

The genus has been divided into two sections, according to the colour of
their wings : — I. Wings variegated with colours, and II. Wings transparent.

Illustration : Plata allxi.

DELPHAX. Antennae inserted in a niche under the eyes, a little longer
than the head, the first joint shorter than the second.

The wings of this genus are usually very short ; and the habits of the
species are most probably very similar to the other Cicada.

Illustrations : Delphax pellucidus, D. dorsatus.

THRIPS. Antennae filiform, almost setaceous, eight-jointed, nearly as
long as the head and thorax ; beak very small, scarcely apparent, consisting
of a sheath, formed by a pair of three-jointed valves, between which is the
sucker, with a pair of very short filiform, three-jointed palpi ; body lengthy,
terminating behind in a kind of tail ; wing-cases and wings nearly similar,
linear, horizontal, and ciliated on their edges ; tarsi very short, two-jointed,
of which the second is vesicular, and not armed with clawlets.

These insects are the smallest of the Aphidian family, and some are
scarcely visible. They are natives of Europe, and live upon flowers and the
bark of plants.

Illustration : Thrips caeruleocdlis.

OKDEK X.— STREPSITEROUS INSECTS.

THE Strepsiterous, or Twisted-winged, Order of insects was established
by Kirby, and consisted of the genera Stylops and Xenos. In these genera
the soft coriaceous elytra are placed very near the head, not on the back,
however, but attached to the coxa? of the anterior pair of legs ; they are
widely separate from each other, and never come in contact, but recede
from the body, then curve towards, and a second time diverge from it.
Lamarck and Latreille, however, deny tliat the elytra, so called by Kirby,
are other than scales, because elytra never have such attachment, which
remarkable variation is the precise reason why Kirby forms his new Order.
Lamarck, however, does not consider them entitled to the rank of a distinct
Order, but makes them a section of his Dipterous Order.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.

STYLOPS. Antennae biarticulate at the base, and sending out two branches,
long, compressed, unequal, of which the upper is triarticulate.

This genus is distinguished from Xenos by the unequal length of the
antennae, and by the jointing of the upper one.

Illustrations : Stylops melitae, S. Kirtti, S. DaKi.

XENOS. Antennae three-jointed at the base, and thence cleft to their tip
into two branches of equal length, slender, semicylindrical, and jointless ;
eyes pedunculate and cellulous ; abdomen projecting, horny, with a fleshy
vent.

This curious genus, of which the larva is parasitic, and lives in the belly
of the Wasps called Polystes, was discovered by Rossi in the French species,
and subsequently by Peck, in P. Fuscata, an American Wasp, who says,
that the abdomen of such Wasps is so distorted by this larva, that he had no
difficulty in knowing them when on the wing. Rossi observes that it is
the fourth abdominal segment from which the Xenos in its pupa state
usually emerges — sometimes one, often two, and occasionally three, from
the same Wasp ; it emerges in its imago state in the month of August or
in September.

Illustration : Xenos vesparum.

CLASS VII.— CRUSTACEA.

THE covering of this Class of Articulated Animals is less solid than the envelopes of the majority of Testaceous Molluscs ; but their
skin is much tougher than the skin of the Naked Molluscs. In their respiratory, circulating, and locomotive organs they are
distinguished from three other Classes. In the arrangement of this Class, almost every writer of note has adopted views distinct
from the others ; hence the great dissimilarity of classification which exist in the several works published on those interesting
animals. In March, 1830, Milne Edwards read before the Royal Academy of Sciences a paper, in which the construction of the
oral organs is made the foundation of their division into two sections : the first including those of which the mouth is not furnished
with any special organs of mastication ; and the second composed of such as have proper masticating organs, viz., a pair of mandibles
and one or more pairs of maxillaries or jaws. Subsequently, however, in his excellent work, Histoire Naturelle des Crustaces,
1834, Edwards found it necessary to form a third section for the Xyphosuriau Crustaceans, which he had previously included in
his first section, to which they had little resemblance, and indeed are more nearly allied to the second, although sufficiently distinct
from it also to justify their formation into a distinct section. He therefore arranges the Crustaceans in the three Classes : 1. Suckers ;
2. Xyphosures ; 3. Masticators ; and these, with the exception of the second, he divides into several Orders : the Class Suckers,
including the Arane form, Lern form, and Syphonostemous Orders, and the Class Masticators, comprising the Entomostracous,
Branchiopodous, Trilobites (fossil), and EdrioptJialmous legions, with their several Orders, all of which are devoid of true branchiae
or gills, together with the Podopthalmous legion, and its Orders, which have perfect branchiae, and are the most highly developed
of the whole Class.

Ix Milne Edwards' classification of the Crustacean families, we find
placed in his PODOPTHALMOUS legion the short-tails (Brachyura), the long-
tails (Macroura), and the > footed^mouths (Stomapoda) ; his EDRIOPTHALMOUS
legions contain, among others, those with equal legs (Isopoda) ; and his
BRACHIOPODA are crustaceans destitute of true branchiae, but having their
thoracle extremities so formed as to serve the purposes of respiration.

The first Order of Crustaceans, according to Latreille, is the Decapoda,
the situation of whose gills, and the number of legs, form their essential
character.

This Order is formed of the genus Cancer of Linnaeus, excepting some
species with naked gills, and of the classes Kleistagnatha and Exocthnatha
of Fabricius, adding the genera Limtdus, SqtciUa, and Gammarus ; and it is

146

CLASS— CRUSTACEA.

the Mdaoostraca podopthcdma of Dr. Leach. They are the animals which
the ancients particularly noticed under the name of Crustacea, or Crustata.

Their bodies are usually more or less covered with a kind of shield or
shell formed of a single piece, and guarded below with a kind of breast-plate
(or plastron), divided transversely into segments, each carrying a pair of
true or jaw-like legs. The hinder part of the body, which Latreille calls
the post-abdomen, or Urogaster, but which is usually though erroneously
called the tail, is only an extension of the end of the alimentary canal, which
is defended by seven rings, which are hard above, and soft and membran-
aceous below, and carry on their lower part the false legs.

Latreille divided this Order into two sections according to their general
form: — 1. Brachyura or Crabs ; and, 2. Macroura or Lobsters.

ORDER I.— BRACHYURA. SHORT-TAILS.

TAIL short, applied to the chest; destitute of terminal fins, or fin-like ex-
pansions; gills solitary; the external aperture of the female organs of
generation between the third pair of legs.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE.

PLATE.

GRAPSUS. Antenna? four, short, jointed, hid under the hood ; eyes at
the angle of the hood, and shortly pedicelled ; body depressed, nearly square ;
fins clawed ; the two anterior legs ending in pincers.

The species of this genus, which are found in the West Indies, being
very finely coloured, are called the Painted Crabs. They live principally on
putrid animal substances.

The type of the genus is our first —
Illustration: Cancer pictus.

ORDER II.— MACROURA. LONQ-TAILS.

TAIL as long or longer than the thorax, incurved and furnished with two
little fins on the sides of the end of the tail ; gills united at their base ;
vulva on the first joint of the third pair of feet

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE.

PAGURUS. Antennae four, interior bifid at the apex, peduncle of the
interior longer than the setae, which are articulated ; legs dissimilar, formed
for walking, anterior didactyle, furnished with a finger and thumb ; tarsi of
all conic ; tail soft, furnished with hooks at the tip.

All the animals of this genus are parasitical, inhabiting the empty cavities
of turbinated shells ; they change their habitation with their growth, and
are called Soldier-crabs and Hermit-crabs.

Type of the genus, also our —

Illustration : Pagurus (vel Cancer) Bernardos.

ORDER III. — STOMAPODA. FOOTED-MOUTHS.

THESE have naked branchiae which adhere to the five pairs of appendages,
or fin-feet, attached beneath the abdomen ; the four fore-legs approach close
to the mouth, whence the name by which they are designated.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE.

SQUILLA. This genus belongs to the Umpeltate family of the Stomapodous
Order of the Malacostracous Crustaceans of Latreille and Edwards, and is
probably one of the most, if not the most, voracious of the class, as indicated
by its strong offensive weapons, the claw terminating its prehensile legs
being sickle-shaped, and armed with long teeth on one of its pieces, which
is received into a corresponding groove on the other. The dorsal shell, of
a squarish shape, is divided into three lobes, with a moveable triangular
plate on its anterior edge, but posteriorly it does not cover the three pair
of ambulatory thoracic legs, which therefore do not seem to belong to it.
The branchiae are placed along the lower edge of the body. The b/xly is
generally of a more elegant form, and more slender behind the dorsal shell
than in the other genera of the same tribe ; the tail is large, and long,

composed of six segments, the last of which bears some appendages which
spread out in a fan-like shape. Their false abdominal legs are in constant
motion, and they swim with great speed, impelling themselves by their
powerful tail. Lamarck enumerates seven species, of which our —

Illustration : Squilla mantis

is the type. Edwards names as many as sixteen, which he divides into
two sections.

ORDER IV.— ISOPODA. EQUAL-LEGS.

THESE Crustaceans are known as the Polygonata of Fabricius. They have
fourteen well-developed abdominal extremities, none of which are attached
to the head but to a distinct segment ; they are hooked at the tip and are
destitute of any vesicular appendage at the base ; the five first pairs are
lamellar, and subserve the purposes of respiration.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.

CYMODOCE. A form of the SpJueromdes, whose generic characters are :
• — Antennae four, small, and unequal, of which the outer two are rather
longest ; two sessile eyes ; body oblong, convex, with subimbricated trans-
verse sections, and contracting into a ball ; tail with two segments, the last
furnished with a pair of natatory scales attached to a single pedicle ; legs
fourteen.

In the Cymodocean Isopods, the leaflets of the fins are projecting and
directed backwards ; the sixth segment is not prolonged posteriorly, and in
a notch in the last segment there is placed a small blade.

Illustration : Cymodoce LamarcMi.

PORCELLUS. Antennae four, joints in the two lateral, which are setaceou s —
seven, in the intermediate, which are very small — two ; tail composed of
six segments, and having four appendages, the two external being larger
than the two internal ones. They are distinguished from the true Wood-
lice (Oniscus), by having seven joints in their antennae, in the latter the
number being eight.

Illustration : ParceUus asellus.

ORDER V.— BRANCHIOPODA. FOOTED-GILLS.
THESE Crustacea are for the most part microscopical. Their extremities
are lamellar, and membranous ; mouth composed of an upper lip, two
mandibles, a tongue and maxillae — in some one in some two. Their legs,
in general, are fitted for swimming.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.

POLYPHEMUS. Body short, globular, inclosed in a bivalve shell ; In MI!
divided from the body by a strangulation ; one eye, with two short, inar-
ticulated cirris beneath ; antennas large, resembling arms ; tail slender,
elevated over the back, and bifurcated ; legs eight.

Illustration : Polyphemus stagttalis.

Common in ponds and marshes in Europe.

DAPHNIA. Shell bivalve ; head apparently armed with two antenna? ;
legs eight or ten ; eyes solitary ; tail distinct. The most interesting s]>ecies,
and that which is considered the type of the genus, is shown in our —

Illustration : Daphrda pulex (of Muller).

Found very commonly in ditches and stagnant waters.

BRANCHIPUS. Antennae setaceous, two or four; eyes two, ]>e<liruhite,
compound, moveable ; two moveable horns situated on the front, having a
single tooth on the outer side, forked at the apex ; head distinct from the
body, which is soft, transparent, elongate, divided into eleven segments ; tail
long, sub-cylindrical, articulated, diminishing gradually, and terminated by
two ciliated fins ; feet formed for swimming, ciliated, in number rleveii pairs.

The animals of this genus are very remarkable for many peculiarities in
then- form and character. Unlike the Crustacea generally, they have no
shell. It appears that they undergo considerable changes of form, in their
successive stages of development. They are found in stagnant waters.

The type of the genus is shown in our —

Illustration : Dranchipus (vel Cancer) stagnate.

CLASS— A EACH N I DA.

ORDER— AC AR I DA. MITES.

147

CLASS VIII.— ARACHNIDA.

THE trunk or body of this Class, differing as to the solidity of its external covering in its several Orders, consists either of two distinct
though connected regions, or is but one undivided whole. In the former case, the anterior region includes the head and thorax
undistinguished from each other by definite boundary, and therefore called the cephalo-thorax, whilst the posterior region is the
abdomen.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.

PLATE — ABACHNIDA.
ORDER I.— THYSANOURA. FRINGED-TAILS.

FORBICINIA. (of Geoffrey), or LEPISMA (of Linnaeus). Eyes small, far
apart, composed of granulations ; body flattened, and ending in threads of
the same length, inserted on the same line, and not raised in leaping. Body
long, and covered with bright, silvery scales, which are longitudinally
striated ; they have lately been used as a test for the goodness of micro-
scopes.

Type of the genus, L. Saccharina, found in damp places.

Illustration : Forbicina vittata.

PODURA. Antennae short, straight, four-jointed ; palpi inconspicuous ;
body apterous, cylindric ; abdomen elongate, linear ; tail furcate, inflexed
beneath the abdomen.

Type of the genus, P. plumbea, found with the other species, which are
extensive in damp places, beneath stones.

Illustration : Podura villosa.

Our Plate contains figures of two species of the most common genera of
Parasites — human and ornithological : —

RIOINUS (Nirraidia of Leech). Antennas five-jointed, filiform; body
narrow ; head of moderate size, with the sides rounded, or unangular
anteriorly ; abdomen with the last segment entire and rounded in the males ;
tarsi curved, triarticulate, with two contiguous, parallel, bent claws.

Type of the genus, N. discocephalus, Nitzch. A numerous genus living
upon birds of all orders ; about fourteen species have been detected in
Britain.

Illustration : Ricinus pavonis.

PEDICULUS. Apterous; antennae short; mouth produced into a very
short, tubular haustellum ; thorax distinct, not narrower than the abdomen,
which is linear ; tarsi didactylous. Of this unsightly genus two species are
found in Britain.

Type of the genus, and —

Illustration : Pediculus humanus.

ORDER II.— ARANEIDA. SPIDERS.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.

MYQALE. Palpi projecting, pediform, inserted at the extremity of the
jaws ; mandibles robust, with their points bent downwards ; jaws two,
elongated ; labium small, quadrate ; eyes eight ; body large ; legs lone,
stout.

The species are of large size, but not very numerous ; they build their
nests of silky tubes or bags in holes in the ground, or in trees. The type
devours ants, and sometimes, it is affirmed, small birds ; the latter inhabits
South America.

Type of the genus, and —

Illustration : Mygak avicularia.

AKANEA. Eyes eight, disposed in two transverse lines near each other,
and bent somewhat backwards. Maxillas straight, longitudinal, of equal
breadth, apex rounded, inner angle truncated. Lip nearly quadrate, of
about equal length and breadth, becoming gradually a little narrower
towards the superior angles. The fourth and first pairs of feet of nearly
equal length, and longer than the second.

The habits of the different species of Spiders are, perhaps, as interesting
as those of almost any other tribe of animals ; and the ingenuity with which
some of them form then- beautiful geometrical web, has in all ages excited
the admiration of the most casual observers of nature, and supplied allusions
and illustrations to the moralist and the poet.

Illustrations : Aranea extensa, A. lobata.

ORDER III.— CHELIFERA. SCORPIONS.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.

SCORPIO. Head, thorax, and abdomen united, forming an elongate-ovate
mass; mandibles short, rounded, narrow, hirsute; legs twelve, anterior
pair extremely short, second pair much elongated, the last joint, thickened
at its apex, armed with forceps, the remaining four pair formed for walking,
and resembling each other ; eyes six or eight, two large approximating ones
on the disc of the thorax behind, and two or three small contiguous ones
on each side of the anterior lateral margin; breast with two pectinated
plates ; tail six-jointed, the terminal joint armed with an elongate, curved
spine, perforated near the apex for the passage of poison.

Type of the genus, S. Eurap&us, Scopoli. A numerous and disgusting
tribe of animals, very abundant in the hotter regions of the globe, though
in very warm summers individuals have been found in the ports of England.

Illustration : Scorpio rufescens.

CHELIFEK. Mandibulae short, apex didactylate ; palpi two, very long,
of five articulations, broken, having pincers at the apex ; maxillae two, con-
nivent ; eyes two or four, inserted at the sides of the thorax ; body ovate,
rather acute before, depressed; the abdomen ringed ; feet eight, the tarsi
with two claws.

These little animals, which in form somewhat resemble a minute scorpion
without a tail, are found under stones, the bark of trees, &c., or in houses
amongst old papers or in holes in walls. They feed on the carcases of
insects, or on any dried animal substances, and occasionally on Woodlice or
Flies, on which they are parasitic.

Type of the genus, and —

Illustration: Chelifer cancroides.

ORDER IV.— ACARIDA. MITES.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.

SMARIS. Palpi small, filiform, straight, simple ; mouth porrect, elon-
gated into a beak; eyes two; body oval, scaly; legs not formed for
swimming, eight in number, the anterior pair longest, four posterior some-
what remote.

The type of the genus, S. Sambuci, inhabits various parts of Europe, and
is taken occasionally in England.

Illustration : Smaridia fringfllaris.

SIRO. Body oval ; palpi two, five-jointed, the joints elongate ; mandibles
two-jointed, cylindrical, compressed, and forcipated ; eyes two, placed on a
peduncle on each side of the thorax ; legs eight, elongate, filiform ; tibiae
and tarsi two-jointed, terminated with a bent claw.

Found in France and England, at the roots of trees, beneath mosses.

Type of the genus, and —

Illustration : Siro rubens.

02

148

CLASS— M YRIAPODA. CLASS— A N N E L I D A. EARTH-WORMS, ETC.

CLASS IX.— M YRIAPODA.

THESE Animals are immediately distinguished from the Annelids by the presence of jointed legs, of which the number is so great that

they are commonly known as Centipedes or Millipedes.

MYRIAPODS are divided into two Orders, viz., SCOLOPENDR* and CHI-
LOGNATHOUS. Of the former, Lithobius is a representative ; and of the
latter, Pdydesmus, Glomeris, and Julus (proper), are presented as examples.
The rings which envelope their body are horny and more or less hard ;
are imDncateu or slightly overlapping each other, and are either entire and
cylindrical, as in Julus, or consisting of two semicircular pieces united by

Julus.

membrane, and depressed, as in Scolopendra. The number of rings varies,
increasing with the age of the animal, but in the Scdapendra it ranges between
fifteen and twenty-one. Neither ring is furnished with more than a single
pair of stigmata, or orifices of air-vessels, and sometimes only, the alternate
rings are so furnished, as in Scdvpendra. The row of pores on either side

Scolopendra.

of the body are for the secretion and discharge of an acrid and fetid fluid,
which serves as a sort of defence. The rings exhibit scarcely any difference
between each other excepting the head or skull, which upon its upper
surface presents only a shield-like disc, supports the eyes and the antennae,
and overhanging the parts composing the mouth, which consists, according
to Savigny, of a broad upper lip, of a pair of mandibles, a lower lip formed
by the junction of a pair of primary, and another of secondary maxillae ;
hence the term Chilognathous, or lip-jawed Order, applied by Latreille to
the Juli and their congeners.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.

POLYDESMUS. Antenna? seven-jointed, filiform ; the second joint much
shorter than the third ; body very long, linear ; segments laterally com-

pressed and margined ; legs numerous, each segment having two pairs ;
eyes obsolete.

The species of this genus are numerous beneath stones.

Type of the genus, and —

Illustration : Polydesmus camplanatus.

LITHOBIUS. Antennae setaceous, composed of nearly conical joints the
two first joints the largest ; lips broadly cut in front ; upper edge toothed,
and the eyes bent; legs fifteen pair, the upper half of many of the iiup*
hid under the other.

Type of the genus is L.forficatus ; the Scdapendra forficatus of Linnxus,
common in the gardens in summer.

Illustration : Lithobius vulgaris.

GLOMERIS. Body oval, oblong, cmstaceous, revolute, with a row of
small scales on each side, of eleven or twelve segments, the last the largest,
semicircular ; antennae enlarged at their tips.

Type of the genus, G. avalis. Found in the Ocean.

Illustration : Glomeris zonatis.

JULUS. Body cylindrical, very long, spirally twisted, formed of a great
number of narrow rings, most of which are provided with two pair of legs ;
rings not keeled on the side.

These insects do not, as might be expected from the number of their
legs, move with quickness ; their motion is rather to be compared to the
crawling of an earth-worm. When at rest, they generally lie on one side,
the body being contracted into a spiral form, with the head in the centre.
They are oviparous, and when they are first hatched their body is simple,
worm-like, without any legs ; in eighteen days they assume the shape of
their mothers, but at first their body is only formed of twenty-two rings
and twenty-six pair of legs ; on each successive change of skin the animal
gains several pair of legs, till the body is composed of fifty-five rings in the
males, and sixty-three rings in the females. The animal throws off the
skin, not only of the body but also of the whole head, and of the trachea
and digestive canals. They generally live in sandy places, and the smallest
of them amongst moss and under the bark of trees. There are only a few
species found in Europe ; the largest belong to America.

Several of the species are phosphorescent, and are often taken for glow-
worms.

Type of the genus, J. terrestris of Linnams.

Illustration : Julus sabulosus.

CLASS X. — A N N E L I D A. EARTH-WORMS, ETC.

ANNELIDS are the only Animals of the Invertebrate Series that have red blood. They are mostly cylindrical in form, as the Nereis,
Eunice, and Earth-worm, though some are found of an ovaloid shape, as the Sea-mouse. Their general covering consists of a
series of rings, or segments of soft tegument, varying in different genera from twenty to more than five hundred, connected by
thinner bands ; and all of them, except the Earth-worms, live in water. The Annelids form a small and singular Class of Animals.

ANNELIDS are thus divided : — Suctorial (Leeches) ; Terricdkws (Earth-
worms) ; Tubicctaus (Inhabitants of tubes) ; and Errantes (Wanderers).

The Leech (Hirudo) is too well known to require description ; it was
formerly found in several parts of England, but is now rare. It is said that
four or five of the principal London importers of medicinal Leeches bring
over from the Continent of Europe the amazing numlier of 8,000,000
annually. These are chosen from their having sharp, simple teeth, which
consequently make a wound easily healed ; whereas the other leeches have
generally blunt, or serrated teeth.

Leeches breed in streams ; live on animal substances ; are active during
the day, immoveable at night ; are affected greatly by clianges in the state

Leech.

of the atmosphere ; and can live for a long time without food, owing to the
slowness of their digestion.

The Earth-warm (Lumbricus) is chiefly remarkable for its power of

CLASS— E C H I N O D E R M ATA.

ORDER— E CHINOIDA. SEA-URCHINS.

149

reproduction, if the division be made near the head, or close to the extremity
of the tail ; for the body, remaining alive, renews
either of those extremities. But if the animal be
severed in the middle, life becomes extinct in a few
hours.

The Tubicolous Annelids are represented by the
genus Serpula, the generic characters of which are —
Animal inhabiting a solid, calcareous tube, more or
less irregularly twisted and fixed upon some extra-
neous substance ; its body elongated, slightly de-
pressed, and attenuated behind, composed of nu-
merous narrow segments, armed on each side with
a row of subulate and hooked bristles ; branchiae
terminal, fan-shaped, divided into numerous plu-
mose digitations ; mouth terminal, situated between
the branchiae, and surrounded by a pedicellate funnel
Group of Serpula. or club-shaped operculum.

Type of the genus, <S. wrmcularis (Linnaeus). Several species occur,
both recent and fossil ; of the former, five or six are found on the coast of
Britain.

The En-antes are formed for locomotion, thus presenting a striking con-
trast to the Tubicolous tribe. The genera are found to vary in size from

Xereis.

one or two inches to fifteen or sixteen feet. Some of the Errantes are
common around the coasts of England and Ireland. The Nerds belong to
this division.

CLASS XI.-ECHINODERMATA.

THE tubular feet with which the Star-fish, Sea-urchins, and Holothurise are furnished, led Cuvier to place them together in his Pedi-
cellate Order ; but their form and internal structure vary so considerably, that they are justly entitled to be ranged into an inde-
pendent Class, having three distinct Orders.

ORDER I.— ECHINOIDA. SEA-URCHINS.

THE Ecliinoid Order (printed Echidna by mistake on Plates 1 and 2).
This division is generally known by the name of Sea-urchins, or Sea-eggs,
their exterior consisting of a calcareous shell, which in some, as the Echini,
has a flattened spheroidal shape, its mouth, armed with five strong teeth,
being below, and the vent above. In others, as Galerites, it has a conical
form with swelling sides, the mouth is central in the base, and the vent at
its edge ; and in some, as the Spatangi, its inferior surface, of an oval shape,
flat or slightly hollowed, has towards its front margin a transverse toothless
mouth, and the vent near its hind edge, whilst its upper surface is more or
less convex.

Character of the group. Body not contractile, nor radiately lobed, mostly
globular ; skin hard, furnished with tubercles provided with mobile spines ;
digestive canal having a mouth and vent.

The shell of these animals is composed of numerous regularly-disposed
plates, united on all sides by a straight suture, and furnished externally with
rounded tubercles, on which the mobile spines are attached. The pieces
form twenty perpendicular bands, each composed of several horizontal penta-
gonal pieces ; the bands are placed symmetrically in pairs, uniting together
by a flexuous suture ; the projecting angles of one series being fitted into
the concave angles of the other. The pairs of bands are united together
generally by a straight suture, and the pairs are alternately broad and narrow.
The broad 1 ands are formed of a few pieces, and are always imperforated,
and the outer edge of the narrow bands, which consist of very numerous
long narrow pieces, are perforated by two or more series of minute holes
placed together in pairs ; these perforations form grooves in the covering of
the body, which Linnaeus compared to the walks in a garden, and called
Ambulacra ; and he distinguished the parts which are covered with tubercles
by the name of Arete pulvilli or beds.

The spines are attached to the base of the tubercles by a circular ligament,
lined with muscular fibres moving them in every direction.

The plates are placed between the two skins with which the body of
these animals are covered ; the outer of these skins is the thickest : it is
greatly thickened near the vent and mouth ; and the plates, which are com-
posed of fibres perpendicular to their surface, and increase in size by the
addition of particles to the inner side of the fibres, and by the formation of
new ones on the sides of the older, are kept separate from each other by a

small process of the skin being interposed between them, so that they never
become soldered together during the life of the animal.

The spines evidently grow by a deposition of matter placed on their outer
edge, more especially near the distal extremity ; the matter is perhaps depo-
sited by the processes of the outer skin, which forms the articulation, being
extended up the longitudinal grooves with which these spines are furnished.

The vent is surrounded by numerous small scale-like pieces attached to
the skin, which are generally regularly disposed, but vary in the different
families. In the typical families, where the vent is placed on the centre of
the back, just opposite to the mouth, it is surrounded by two series, each
formed of five pieces, which are attached to the body of the crustaceous
covering : the series of these plates which are next the body are the smallest ;
they are placed just at the top of the ambulacra, and each is perforated with
a minute hole, the use of which is quite unknown.

The mouth varies in the various families of the group in the Spatangidce ;
it is destitute of any hard parts, but is furnished with tentacula, compared
by some to the similar parts in the Holothurioe. In the ScuteUidoe it is fur-
nished with five triangular cellular bones, each provided with a blunt, arched
tooth at the inner angle, which apparently serves for crushing the food ;
while in the typical families this part is furnished with a much more compli-
cated apparatus, with short prominent teeth fit for biting their food. These
jaws were compared by Aristotle to a lantern ; they consist of ten conical
triangular bones, soldered together in pairs, containing between them a long
linear curved tooth. The teeth are externally convex, and furnished with
an internal central rib, and the end hardens as they are worn away by use.
These jaws are articulated together by the intervention of oblong bones
converging towards the centre, and furnished with five other linear arched
bones. The jaws are moved by muscles placed between them, and by otheis
attached to five variously-formed erect processes, placed on die oval edge of
the body of the crust, called auricuks by Blainville.

Breynius, in 1732, divided the Echini into seven genera, from the
position of their mouth and vent ; which arrangement Lamarck adopted,
but under other names. Klein subsequently divided them into nine sections,
containing twenty-two genera, of which he fonned two systems. Leske
published, in 1778, an addition to Klein ; in which he considered Klein's
sections as genera, and adopted the prior names given by Breynius. To
the genera of Breynius, Lamarck, who wrote from actual examination of
the class, has added a new genus, which he names Cassidtdus.

150

CLASS— E C H I N O D E R M A T A.

The following division was proposed by Mr. J. E. Gray, in the " Annals
of Philosophy" for 1826:—

I. Body globular, mouth and vent o|>]«.sit< •.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.

PLATE 1.

1. CIDARID*, containing the genera Diadema, Cidaris, and Astropyga.
Illustrations: Diadema fistularis, Cidaris imperialis, Astropyga radiata.

2. EcHlNlDjE, which contain the genera Echinus and Echinometra.
Illustrations : Echinus miliaris, E. elegans, E. sardicus, Echinametra mam-

millatus.

II. Body variously-shaped, vent posterior.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.
PLATE 2.

3. ScuTELLiDjE, which includes the genera Echinanthus, EchinanKhnius,
Eschiiwdixus, Echinocyamus, and Cassidulus.

Illustrations : Echinanthus subdepressa, Echinarachnius placenta, Echino-
discus digitata, Cassidulus Australis.

4. GALERITID*, having the genera Galeritis, Discoidea, Echinonaus,
Echinocarys, Echindampas, Echinobrissus.

Illustrations : Galerites albo-gaierus, Echinonaus minor, Echindampas
Koenigii, Echinocorys ovatus, Echinobrissus Breynii.

5. S PAT ANG ii>.«, contain ing the genera Echinodardium,Spatangus, Brissus,
On,.

Illustrations: Echinodardium atropos, Spatangus purpureus, Brissus uni-
color.

The species of Echinoida have been described and figured by Klein and
Leske, in their Echinodermata ; and their figures have been mostly copied
into the French " Encyclopedic Methodique."

The fossil species have been described by the same authors.

Many of them are used as food by people resident on the sea-coast, who
generally reckon them delicacies, especially when their ovaries, which are
very large, and nearly occupy the whole body, are full of eggs.

ORDER II.— STELLERIDA. STAR-FISH.

THE SteUerida, Asteroid, or Radiated Order (Radiata, on Plate 3), as the
name implies, is star-shaped ; the body or central part, containing the
stomach, having rays stretching out from its margin, of greater or less
length and number. Thus in one section of the genus Asterias, the body is
pentagonal, and the slightly hollowing out of its edges hardly produces
arms or rays, as in the Gibbous Star-fish, whilst in the other section of the
same genus, the body is deeply cleft, and the rays are of great length, as in
the Red Star-fish. In the Ophiwe, the arms are of great length, and in
Euryale, each arm, directly it stretches out beyond the body, divides into
two branches, and these again into others, which again and again divide,
assuming the appearance of interweaving branches of a tree, and which they
omploy for entangling their prey.

The general characteristics of the Order are:— Skin not irritable, but
mobile; body depressed and furnished with mobile angles or rays; diges-
tive cavity, with only one opening. Containing the genera Asterias, Opliium,
Euryale, and Cromatula.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.

PLATE 3.

ASTERIAS. Body suborbicular, flattened, the circumference star-shaped,
either angulated, lobated, or divided into distinct rays. Under surface of
the division having a longitudinal sulcns, famished at each side with
moveable spines and numerous foramina for the passage of retractile tubular
tcntacula. Month below, central, placed at the union of the sulci.

'1 ho animals of this genus are well known to our fishermen under the
names of Stir-fish and Sea-stars : and several species are excessively destruc-

tive to Oyster-beds. They increase l>v the internal formation of a kind of
buds or gemma;, which when fully formed are cast forth by the j«rent.
They possess the power of reproducing mutilated parts to a great degree,
so that not only a separated ]X>rtion is speedily re-supplied, but if an indi-
vidual be divided into as many parts as there are rays, provided a portion
of the mouth be attached to each, every ray will become a jjerfect Asterias.
The fishermen, by whom they are much dreaded, appear to be well aware
of this property, for if, in dredging for Oysters, any of these animals are
brought up, they immediately cut them into small pieces, and crush them
to atoms with thoir feet. The s[>ecies are numerous, and many of them
are natives of Britain.

Illustration : Asterias pulchella, A. cylindrica.

Oi'HiURA. Mouth simple, live-sided, placed beneath; body much de-
pressed, rounded, with five distinct, entire, squamous rays with very spinous
ridges, the latter with suckers; spines moveable.

Type of the genus, Asterias mgra.

Ten species, most of which are found on the sandy shores of Great
Britain.

Illustrations : Ophiura mutica, 0. iMmarckii, O. Squamosa, 0. lineolata.

EURYALE. Body orbicular, depressed, divided into five rays, separated
into two at the base, and repeatedly forked ; arms without any groove on
the lower surface, but furnished with a semilunar hole on each side of their
base, and a series of minute perforations on each edge.

The singular form of these animals generally attracts attention ; they are
usually found, like the Ophiurce, with their much-divided arms clasping the
stems of the marine Algol and Corallines. There are seven species.

The type of the genus is E. verrucosa, Lamarck — the Asterias Euryale
and Asterias Caput Medusa of Gmelin; found in the Indian Seas. This
is larger than most of the other species, and it is studded externally with
granular warts.

Illustration : Euryale simplex.

ORDER III.— HOLOTHURIA.

THIS Order differs from either of the other Echinodermous Orders in the
skin being entirely devoid of any earthy contents, but it is very thick and
strong, consisting of a whitish fibrous tissue, which interweaves in various
directions, leaving apertures for the passage of the dorsal tubes, which pene-
trate through several wart-like projections on the back, and for the protru-
sion of the feet upon the belly, which are in great numbers.

The characters of the restricted genus of this Order are : —Body free,
cylindrical, thick, soft, and very contractile ; skin coriaceous, generally papil-
lary ; mouth ter-
minal, surrounded
by laterally divided,
rather branchy, or
pinnated gills.armed
with bony or calca-
reous teeth ; vent
near the hinder ex-
tremity. The ani-
mal is of a tubular
form, and upon its

fore extremity is a Hnlutlmria.

crown of twenty tentacules disposed ill two rows, and having the extensile
mouth in the centre, each tentacule being cylindrical, and having its expanded
end fringed. A longitudinal section of the external skin exhibits the appa-
ratus by which both tentacules and feet are moved, and which has a
resemblance to that of the other Orders, but rather more simple.

They live on animal substances, which they draw to their mouth by theii
gills. Their stomachs are filled with pieces of coral, which are, perhaps,
useful in assisting digestion ; although not provided with lins. they swim
with great facility.

CLASS— E NTOZOA. I. \TESTINAL- WORMS. CLASS — ACALEPHA. SEA-NETTLES.

151

CLASS XII. — E NTOZOA. INTESTINAL-WORMS.

RUDOLPHI applied the name Entozoa to those Animals which live within the internal parts of others, and divided them, from their form,
&c., into the Cystic, Cestoid, Trematode, Acanthocephalous, and Naematoid Orders. These, however, have been reduced by
Cuvier to two, 1st, the Parenchymatous, including Rudolphi's first four, of which the body is filled with a cellulosity, or even a
continuous parenchyma, and in which the greatest development of alimentary organs appears merely as ramifying canals with
external apertures ; 2nd, the Cavitary or Naematoid, in which the external covering encloses a cavity, containing a distinct
alimentary canal with mouth and vent. Instead of these designations, Owen prefers the names Sterclminthous for the former, and
Ccelehninthous for the latter Order.

THE Sterelminthous Order have no distinct cavity for their alimentary ap- |
paratus, which consists of simple pores in their tegumentary covering, or
mere tubes continued from their mouths, without any other exit. They
exhibit very considerable difference in form, varying from the globular
shape of the Acephdocyst, to the lengthy, flat, tape-like Tcenia. The Tape-
worms are of considerable length, varying from three to ten feet, are flat,
and arc divided into segments, the hinder edge of one slightly overlapping
that which follows. The two genera infesting the human body are re-
markably distinguished from each other : the Tcenia solimn, which exists in
the English, Dutch, and Germans, has its fore part or neck narrow, and
merely marked by transverse rugse, but the greater part of the body consists

Tape-worm.

of oblong square segments : the head is small, wider than its length, has a
papilla, booklets, and four mouths. The Bothriocephalus lotus, which is
peculiar to the Russians and Swiss, is nearly of the same thickness through-
out, its segments are much wider than their length ; and its head, lengthy,
without booklets or mouth, has on each side a longitudinal cleft, or bothria,
by means of which their food is sucked up.

The characteristics of the genus Tcenia are : Body often of very great
length, jointed, and tapering towards its anterior extremity ; head squarish,
with four mouthlets, and sometimes with a trunklet; in each joint one or
two ovarian apertures.

The Coelelminthous Order include, among others, the Ascarides, one
species of which are of common occurrence in the human subject. They
are found not only in the intestines of man, and of the higher classes of
animals, but in those also of reptiles, and even of other worms. The sexes
are distinct, and the female is oviparous. The most important species,
because the only one which infects the human body, is Ascaris lurribricaides.
This species is not less than from six inches to nearly a foot in length, of a
whitish colour, shining, and somewhat hard and rigid in its structure.

The generic characters of the Ascarides are : — Body elongated, round,
often attenuated at the extremities ; three valves at the anterior extremity.
Mouth terminal, minute, covered by the valves.

CLASS XIIL— ACALEPHA. SEA-NETTLES.

THESE Animals are mostly of transparent, gelatinous structure, and hence commonly known by the names of Sea-blubber or Jelly-fish ;
or, from the stinging sensation they impart when touched, Sea-nettles : this property was observed by the ancients, and hence also
the name <U-aX>;0cu, applied to them by Aristotle. They are furnished with locomotive organs, are capable of translating themselves
from place to place, and most of them are highly phosphorescent.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.

PLATE — ACALEPHA.
Ehrenberg divides the Acalephs into three Orders : —

1. The Cterwphorous, or Crested Order, is characterised by longitudinal
rows of cilia or vibrating threads arranged in pairs, so as to form narrow
passages, which being connected with these locomotive organs are called
ambulacra. Their form is either a flattened spheroid, truncated at one
extremity like a deep cup, so as to form the aperture leading to the large
simple stomach, as in Beroe (Acaleph. Plate, fig. 1) ; or a much-compressed
ovoid, as in Mnemia, or a cylinder, with a pair of flatted wings, as in
Callianira (fig. 2), or a long flat ribbon, in the middle of which is the
stomach, as in the beautiful Cesium Veneris or Venus' girdle (fig. 3).

2. The Sciaphorous Order is distinguished from the other Orders by the
umbrella-shape of the body. This peculiar shape varies considerably :
sometimes, as in Berenice (fig. 4), it is nearly flat, sometimes semiglobular,
as in Geryania (fig. 5), sometimes the lower edge is everted, like a bell, as
in Oceania, or contracted, as in Pelagia (fig. 6). The body is deepest in
the centre, and gradually thin towards the margin, where the convexity and
concavity unite. The margin is sometimes entire, as in Eudora and Ephrya,
or lobed as in Cyanea, or fringed with tentacles few in number as in

Geryonia, or very numerous as in jEqwrea (fig. 7). The body of this
Order of Acalephs is a softish, jelly-like mass, loaded with water, trans-
parent, generally colourless, or varied with brilliant hues ; it is firmer about
the mouth and roots of the arms, and about the margin, tlian elsewhere.
When removed from the water, it soon dissolves almost entirely into a
saltish fluid, so that of an animal which had weighed fifty ounces, or even
twenty or thirty pounds, but a few grains remain. The motions of these
Acalephs are sometimes active, sometimes passive ; if desirous to move
forwards or upwards, they approximate the two halves of their margin
together, so that the convexity is bent still more like a bent bow, after
which the contraction suddenly ceases, and the animal is jerked onwards ;
having arrived near the surface, their umbrella remains outspread, and they
are borne along by the mere motion of the waves, till they choose to
descend, which is effected by contracting the whole disc and forming a ball,
after which they sink. In JEqvarea, the mouth which is circular is sur-
rounded with a simple rounded edge, which sometimes exhibits four or six
folds, or very slight notchings ; but in Aurelia (fig. 8), which has the mouth
cruciform, the edge is lengthened at each angle into a clasper, which is of
a somewhat trigonal form, rounded above, and hollowed slightly throughout
the whole length of its under surface or base. The many-mouthed or

152

CLASS— INFUSOKIA.

sucking Acalephs are of two kinds: 1. Those in which a simple cylinder
or pedicle depends from the centre of the concavity- of the body, as in
Geryonia (fig. 5). 2. Those in which from four to eight processes or
clas]>ers dip down, either distinct or connected together, as in Rhizostama
(fig. 9).

3. The Siphonapharous Order are remarkably distinguished by the absence
of any stomach or alimentary cavity, and are divided by Eschscholtz into
three families : —

1. The Diphydous Acalephs, so named from their seeming resemblance
to two animals connected together, which originates in their body being
composed of two somewhat conical pieces, the apex of the posterior being
received within the base of the anterior. These pieces Quoy and Gaimard
describe as having an independent life, and capable of living for some time
after their separation. The anterior segment of the animal is considered by
Eschscholtz to belong to the nutrient part, and the posterior segment he
thinks is the swimming organ. The sucking claspers, of which there are
about twenty, are rolled up when at rest into as many little balls, but when
outspread, form delicate threads three or four inches in length, as in Diphya
(fig. 10).

2. The Physaphorous Acalephs are characterised by a bladder containing
air, situated upon their upper extremity, by means of which they are floated
like hydrometers : hence Cuvier has applied to them the name Hydrostatic
Acalephs. The most simple form is that of Rhizophysa (fig. 11), in which
the transparent egg-shaped air-vesicle has its middle surrounded by hollowed

pieces of cartilage, and from its lower end floats loosely its long tubular
body, from the .sides of which project the simple clampers, which, as in the;
preceding family, serve the pur|K>se of suckers. In Physophora (fig. 12),
the tubular alimentary canal is short; at its upper end is the air-vesicle,
and below it two rows of hollow cartilaginous pieces, which are followed
by a collar of delicate flask-like bags, containing fluid concealing the origin
of the claspers, which surround the extremity of the bodv, and of which the
form and length are very variable and elegant. The Physalice (fig. 13) ditii-r
from the preceding, in having no cartilaginous organs ; their air-vesicle is
large and oblong, with thick semitranspaivnt walls ; its long axis is hori-
zontal ; at one end there is an aperture by which the air cat) escape, ami
upon its upper surface a beautiful crest extends nearly throughout its whole
length, whilst beneath are sent down numerous tentacules and sucking
organs.

3. The Veklidous Acalephs have within their soft substance a cartilaginous
or calcareous plate or disc, either circular or consisting of two pieces, by
the union of which an oblong body, either flat, or elevated to form a crest,
is produced. In Veklla (fig. 14) the disc is cartilaginous, consisting of
two pieces and oval; upon its upper surface is attached obliquely another
cartilaginous plate enveloped in muscular substance. In Porjiita (fig. 15)
the disc is round, calcareous, and marked above with concentric circles
traversed by radiating stripes, but has not any crest. The sucking organs
are in all the genera placed on the under surface, and the central one, which
is largest, has been considered analogous to a stomach.

CLASS XI V.— I NFUSORIA.

THIS Division of the Animal kingdom, formerly considered by microscopic observers as exhibiting the most simple forms of animal life,
has of late years been shown, by the observations of Bory de St. Vincent, and especially of Ehrenberg, in most instances to
consist of very complicated structures, and generally to be far advanced above many animals which much exceed them in size.

They are divided by Elirenberg into two Classes, the PoLYGASTRlC Class, in which the alimentary canal is divided into numerous
cavities or stomachs, and the ROTATORY Class, furnished with a remarkable organ, which, in its motions appearing to resemble the
turning of a wheel, is called the wheel organ. The latter class is more advanced in the scale of development than the former, but
it is convenient to consider them together, especially as they present many points in common as regards their covering and motive
organs.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.
PLATES 1 and 2.

External Covering. — In both Polygastric and Rotatory Classes some kinds
have no special covering, such are called by Ehrenberg, naked, nvda ; whilst
others, inclosed in a sort of armour, larica, he calls covered, laricata. Of
this covering or armour he describes five kinds : —

1. The Shell, testa testula, a firm skin, often furnished with little teeth,
horns, spines, points, or warts. Usually hi the Loricated Rotatory Infusories
it is depressed, as in Brachinous amphuxros (PI. 2, fig. 33), but sometimes
compressed, and resembling a bivalve shell, for which it has been often
mistaken, as in Odiums caudatus (PI. 2, fig. 26). 2. The Target, scutellum,
scutelMum, seems to be peculiar to the Polygastric Class : it is firm, round,
or oval, smooth edged and only covering the back of the animal, as in
Aspidisca denticidata (PI. 1, fig. 60) and Euplotes Charon (PI. 2, fig. 7).
3. The Pitcher, urcedus, is a membranous or firm covering, often cartila-
ginous, bell-shaped, cylindrical, or conical, closed at bottom, open and
expanded in front, within which the animal can either retract entirely, or
project itself from it : as in Difflugia, proteiformis, Vaginicda crystallina
(PI. 1, figs. 22 and 48), and Floscutaria ornata (PI. 2, fig. 16). Some-
times, as in Ophrydium versatile (PI. 1, fig. 46). 4. The Cloak, or Mantle,
lacerna, which exists only in the POLYGASTRIC Class, is a thick gelatinous
mass or skin, apparently the external layer of the animal itself, expanding
with age, and under the protection of which, the internal parts of the body
freely divide, according to certain normal proportions, and inclose other
individuals which become loose upon the surface of the parent. After a
time this membrane loses its individuality, becomes subservient to the wants

and will of the internal brood, and performs to them the office of a ti Ali-
mentary covering, as in Volvox globator (PI. 1, fig. 12). 5. The Bivalve
Target, larica bivalvis, exists only hi the large family Bacillaria, is of a quad-
rangular prismatic form, of a siliceous nature, and when drv splits into two
or more species, as in Navicula phamicentron and Bacillaria ndgaris (PI. 1,
figs. 28 and 29).

In most of the Infusories, a head, trunk, and tail are distinguishable.
1. In the Polygastric Class the Head is scarcely discernible, but in the
Rotatory it is readily distinguished, forms the anterior part of the body, and
supports the wheel organ, eyes, mouth, and masticating organs ; in it also
is the great nervous ganglion, which Ehrenberg presumes to be the cerebral.
The mouth is generally placed beneath, and not precisely at the anterior
extremity, which is formed by the projection of the forehead, distinguished
by the red eye-spots, and often also stretches like a proboscis beyond the
wheel organ, as in Rotifer macrurus and Philodina aculeata (PI. 2, figs. 29
and 30), or drops into the anterior upper edge of that organ, as in Furcidariu
gibba and Diglena graiulis (PI. 2, figs. 20 and 21 ). Sometimes, as in Bra-
chionus amphiceros (PI. 2, fig. 33), the forehead is divided into three lobes,
covered with little hairy styles. In Rotifer, the eyes stand far forwards on
the proboscis, but in Philodiiia, on the contrary, they are backwards aboxv
and behind the mouth. Sometimes the nape of the neck is indicated by a
narrowing, but more commonly by the base of the wheel organ or by die
]x>sition of the eyes. The mouth is often provided with a pair of lips,
which may be seen in both the POLYGASTRIC and ROTATORY Classes, as in
C/tilomonas volvox, Eugkna viridis (PI. 1, figs. 5 and 17), and in Melicerta
ringens (PI. 2, fig. 17). In the POLYGASTRIC Class, as in Lachrymaria

CLASS— POLYPS.

153

proteus (PL 1, fig. 50), the neck is very distinct, a long gullet passing from
the mouth to the stomach ; but it is scarcely if at all discernible in the
ROTATORY Infusories. 2. In the POLYGASTKIC Class the Trunk is less
readily distinguished than in the ROTATORY, where it begins behind the
base of the wheel organ, but its dorsal and abdominal surfaces are readily
distinguished by the apertures of the mouth and vent being on the latter.
The genera Enchelys, Coleps (PI. 1, figs. 49 and 53), are exceptions, as
their mouth and vent are in the very centre of their extremities, and the
absence of eyes affords no other guide. 3. The Tail is all that part of the
animal beyond the vent, and may be compared to the foot of Molluscs. In
the POLYGASTEIC Class it is most simple, as in Astasia hccmatodes and
Amphileptus fastida (PI. 1, figs. 16 and 59). In the Vorticellince (PI. 1,
fig. 44), a long process is sent out, on the tip of which is a sucker. Its
simplest form, in the ROTATORY Class, is a mere lengthening of the soft
body from the abdominal surface, with a sucking cup, patella, at its
extremity, by means of which it can fix itself, as in Glenophora trochus and
Pterodina patina (PI. 2, figs. 11 and 34); sometimes a long stiff shank
supports the sucking cup, as in Monura, Mmocerca, &c. ; but the greater
number of this class have the tail bifurcated, as in Icthydium podura, Chae-
tonatus maxitmis (PL 2, figs. 9 and 10), &c., and in the genera Furcularia
and Euclanis (PI. 2, figs. 20 and 25) these forked processes are of con-
siderable length. In Rotifer, Philodina (PI. 1, figs. 29 and 30), and some
others, the tail is capable of retraction within itself like the joints of a tele-
scope; and such are often armed with little horny points, sometimes in
pairs, as in Rotifera ; sometimes in triplets, as in Philodina.

Motive Organs. — The organs of ,motion in Infusory animals are either
simple or compound.

The most remarkable of the Simple Motive Organs are the Changeable
Processes, processus variaUles, which belong entirely to the POLYGASTRIC
Class, and result from the power which those animals possess, of protruding
at pleasure parts of their body into variously-shaped lobes and long tubes,
at one or many points at the same time or alternately, and hence arise the
protean changes for which many Infusories were so celebrated, but of which
the cause was not known till discovered by Ehrenberg. According to his
observation, this change of form depends upon the animal relaxing the part
to be protruded, and then, by the contraction of the rest, thrusting the
stomach and its contents against the relaxed part, and projecting it in a
finger or foot-like form, just as the hernial sac is produced by the intestine
being protruded from the belly. In this way is it that all parts of the
Anuelxe (PI. 1, fig. 21) can be thrust out into processes. But in the
Arcellince the projections can only be formed on the fore part of the body
and by the propulsion of a transparent fluid, not, as in the former case, of
the alimentary canal. The BaciUarice have also this remarkable property.
This power of changing form, and thrusting out processes, is well adapted
for pushing the animal along, in much the same way as a boat is pushed by
a pole. In many Infusories, stiff, straight, and long bristles, setae, are
observed, implanted in the animal substance, and are capable of slow eleva-
tion and depression. The Hairlets, cilice, by which the turnings about of
the Infusories are effected, are distinguished from the bristles by their bulb-

shaped base, which, moving slowly upon their seat by means of a pair of
muscles, produce extensive circular swinging of their point; this can be
well observed in the larger species of Stylonychia (PI. 2, fig. 4) and Kerona.
In the Polygastric Infusories they are often spread over the whole body, and
are arranged in distinct rows, generally longitudinal, but sometimes trans-
verse ; sometimes they exist only about the mouth, and, in the ROTATORY
Class, on no part except on the wheel organs. The whole body is only
covered with these cilia in the Naked Infusories, with one solitary exception,
the genus Coleps (PI. 1, fig. 53), the armour of which consists of numerous
little pieces, placed in rows, and the interspaces studded with cilia.
Booklets, uncini, are sometimes observed, either ranged upon the abdo-
minal surface, as in Stylonychia (PL 2, fig. 4) and Euplotes, and serving as
feet or claws, or occupying the place of an upper lip, as in Glaucoma Colurus,
and Scaridium. Thick, straight, and very moveable bristles, called styles,
styli, exist in both classes of Infusories, having a distinct articular connection
with the surface of the body ; they are very distinct in Oxytricha cicada
and Stylonychia pustulata (PL 2, figs 3 and 4), upon the hind part of the
body, and seem to be employed for feeling.

Compound Motive Organs belong specially to the ROTATORY Class of
Infusory Animals, of which they constitute one of the most remarkable
characters. They are formed by the collection and arrangement of nume-
rous cilia, or hairlets, about the front of the body, which turning or moving
upon their base independently of each other, produce an appearance so
closely simulating that of a wheel turning upon its axle, as to have led the
microscopist Baker to describe them as actually so formed, and hence has
been applied to them the name of Wheel Organs. The wheel organs are
either Monotrockous, i. e. have a simple connected ring of cilia, or the ring is
divided or manifold, as in the Sorotrochous Infusories. In the Monotrochous
section, the circle or wheel is of the most simple kind, and is placed near
the mouth, which is not contained within but on one side of it, interrupting
the ring, so that, instead of being circular, it has the shape of a horseshoe
closely set with cilia, between the heels of which the mouth is placed. If
the periphery of the wheel be regular, as in Ptygura melicerta, Ichthydium
podura (PL 2, figs. 8 and 9), such Infusories are called Holotrichous ; but if
it be indented and produced here and there into lobes, as in Microcodon
claws, Tubicularia najas, and Floscularia ornata (PL 2, figs. 14, 15, and 16),
such are said to be Schizotrochous. Two subdivisions of the Sorotrochous
are also observed, the two-wheeled or Zygotrochous, in which the wheel
organs are implanted on a pair of processes like arms, capable of protrusion
and retraction, situated close to each other, and between the mouth and
proboscis, as in Rotifer macrurus and Philodina acideata (PL 2, figs. 29 and
30). Those which have more than two wheel organs are called Polytrochous,
such as Hydatina brachydactyla, Euchlanis luna (PL 2, figs. 19 and 25).

The use of the cilia, whether simply disposed about the mouth or forming
wheel organs, is to produce a current in the water by means of which the
food is brought to the mouth, and also to serve the purposes of locomotion
by swimming, which in some genera, as in Philodina, is restricted to
crawling, like leeches, prior to the development of the wheel organs.

CLASS XV.— POLYPS.

ALTHOUGH in the living film which overspreads the Sponges, no distinct animal form can be observed, yet in that which envelopes the
several kinds of marine productions, commonly known as Madrepores, Corals, &c., and which have either a cartilaginous, horny,
or calcareous substance, distinct animal forms are seen, of a jelly-like, semitransparent nature, cylindrical in form, with an intestinal
cavity having a mouth surrounded by many lengthy processes or arms (whence their name POLYPS), and their opposite extremity
or foot attached to the cavities in which they reside. The whole animal is capable of motion, by the expansion and contraction
either of parts or the whole of its entire mass, and thus can project itself to a certain extent out of its chamber, expand its arms or
tentacules, and sway both them and its cylindrical body in all directions so as to bring it in contact with the prey it desires to
seize, around which it throws its arms, and clasping them conveys it to its mouth. The cavities in which these Polyps live are
called Poli/paries, which are either sunk in a mass of fleshy substance overspreading the axis or solid stem , supporting and giving

154

CLASS-POLYPS.

form to the whole animal structure ; or a quantity of earthy matter is deposited in this encrusting mass, and more or less solid
cavities produced in which 'the Polyps reside.

Some Polyparies are fixed, that is, their stems are attached by broad bases or roots to some stone, rock, or other substance proportioned
to their size. But there are others which, although residing in a common fleshy substance overspreading a solid axis, are un-
attached, that is, the whole mass floats loosely in the water. Some of the Polyps, however, are not contained in or attached to
any polypary cavity, but are naked, gelatinous, independent animals, moving about at their own pleasure ; these are called Naked
Polyps.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.
PLATE — POLYPS.

CORNICULARIA. Polypary fixed by the base, horny ; twigs simple, funnel-
shaped, erect, each containing a single polypus ; polypi solitary, terminal ;
mouth with eight pinnate tentacula, disposed in a single series.

Illustration: Carnicularia rugosa.

TUBIPORA. Polypary of rocky hardness, composed of cylindrical tubes,
straight, parallel, separate, but connected by external transverse collars ;
tubes jointed, and communicating by radiating and porous collars. This
polypary appears like a mass of minute organ-pipes banded together, and
hence its common name Organ Coral.

Type of the genus, and —

Illustration : Tubipora musicalis.

RENILLA. Body compound, free, flattened, kidney-shaped, pedicellate,
with one of its faces polypiferous, and with striated rays on the other ;
polyps with six rays.

Type of the genus, Pennwttda remformis ; it inhabits the American
Ocean.

Illustration : Renttta Americana.

TUBULARIA. Polypary slender, tubular, horny, attached by its base ;
the extremities of its stem and branches each lodging a polyp; mouth
furnished with two rows of naked, non-retractile tentacules, pouched at the
root This genus of Polyps is marine.

Illustration : Tubularia elytoidea.

CORALLTOM. Polypary fixed, plant-shaped, not jointed, covered with a
cortical crust ; central stem, branched, stony, solid, striated on the surface ;
crust consisting of a soft fleshy substance, containing the polypi ; when
dried, porous and hardened ; cells scattered, eight-valved ; tentacula eight,
ciliated, and radiate at the mouth of the polypi.

The only species of this genus is the /sis nobttis of Linnaeus, so well
known under the name of Red Coral (C. Rubrum), and which is manu-
factured into various ornaments. It is the production of the ocean in
general in warm climates.

Illustration : Corattium rubrum.

GORGONIA. Coral plamVlike, simple or branchy, branches sometimes
anastomising ; the axis longitudinally striated, hard, horny, and elastic ;
bark fleshy, and rarely chalky when dry ; often friable : polyps contractile.

The genus contains many species, which have been divided into sections
by Lamarck. The first, with the cellules superficial, prominent, granular,
and tubercular ; and in the second the cells cylindrical, or lip-shaped, and
very prominent.

The type of the genus and most common species is the Venus's Fan,
Gargania Flabettwn.

Illustration : Gorgama patula.

MlLLEPOEA. Stony, solid interiorly, polymorphous, branched or fron-
descent, furnished with simple pores, which are very minute, perpendicular
to the surface, and giving to them a finely-striated fracture.

Type of the genus, M. camplanata, Lamarck. Two of the species are
natives of the coasts of Britain.

Illustration : MUkpara spongitis.

BICELLARIA. Polyparium of a cretaceous substance ; cells arranged in
two alternate rows, their orifices, on one face of the polyparium ; dichotomous,
fixed by radical fibres, plant-like ; polyps hydriform ; tentacula eight.

Illustration: BiceUaria fastigiata.

SERIALARIA. Polypiferous mass branched, horny, with slender fistulous
stems, furnished with cylindrical, parallel, adjacent, projecting cells, in
linear masses, sometimes separate and sometimes continuous.

One species is found in the English seas, on fuci, below high-water mark.

Type of the genus, and —

Illustration : Senalaria lengidera.

CELLEPORA. This genus diners from the genus Mittepara, by having a
less stony structure, and being much less compact internally ; and from the
Fluctra in being less brittle, and having no flexibility.

Illustration : Cellepara hyalina.

LAOMEDIA. Coral flexible, branchy ; cellules stalked, scattered on the
stem and branches.

Illustration : Laomedia cKchotama.

PLUMULARIA. Stem not verticellated, horny, branched, with slender,
fistulous stalks ; cells sessile, uniformly distributed on one side of the
branch.

Type of the genus, Sertularia pluma.

Illustration : Plumularia secundaria.

SERTULARIA. Polypiferous mass horny, with slender fistulous stems,
and furnished with separate lateral, tooth-shaped cells, the latter projecting,
alternate, usually with a joint above and below each ; vesicles larger than
the cells.

Type of the genus, Serptda polygoruas.

Illustration : Sertidaria pumila.

CARYOPHYLLIA. Polypary stony, fixed ; the branches subturbinated,
longitudinally striated, each terminating in a cell composed of lamella?,
disposed in a stellated form. Body of animal elongated, and terminated
with eight feathery radiated tentacula.

Illustration : CaryophyUia sditaria.

MEANDRINA. Fixed, stony, forming a simple, convex, or hemispherical
mass ; surface convex, occupied by compartments more or less hollow,
sinuous, and furnished on each side with transverse parallel plates, which
adhere to the elevated crests.

The type, M. labyrinthica, is found in the American seas.

Illustrations : Meandrina limosa, M. Cerebriformis.

ZOANTHUS. Body fleshy, somewhat cylindrical, club-like at top, slender
below, and attached by its base along a fleshy creeping tube, from whence
it originates ; mouth terminal, and surrounded with retractile radiating
tentacules.

Illustration : Zoanthus Ellisii.

ASTREA. Coral stony, fixed, conglomerate, encrusting other marine
bodies, or aggregated into a subglobose mass ; the upper surface only
covered with orbicular or subangular, lamellatud, sessile stars.

Illustration : Astrea ananas.

OCOLINA. Polypiferous mass stony, generally fixed, branching ; the
branches smooth, thick, and very short; some of the star-like mouths
terminal, the others lateral and superficial, spread over the surface.

Type of the genus, Madrepora virginea; inhabits the Indian Ocean.

Illustration : Ocuiina varicosa.

ACTINEA. The several kinds of Sea Anemones, Actinice, are considered
to belong to the Polyps, of which they form the Fleshy Order ; their shap-
is that of a short hollow cylinder, highly contractile, the bottom or foot of
which is capable of fixing itself very firmly ; its sides are also contractile,
and have a coriaceous consistence ; a wide aperture on the upper surface

CLASS— POLYPS.

155

leads to the large stomach, which occupies the central part of the coriaceous
, >' '••":'' " • cylinder; between the mouth and the upper

edge of the cylinder an immense number of
tentacules are ranged in a circular form, which
can either be outspread like the petals of a
flower, or retracted so as to be scarcely visible.
These are the organs of prehension, but they
have also much more important functions.

VERETILLUM. Polypary stalk-like, perforated
longitudinally with four straight canals, which
open externally at its lower extremity, and have the polyp-cells terminating
in them, except at the lower fourth of their length, where the cells are de-
ficient ; polyps tubular, each with eight tentacules ranged about the mouth,
which leads to the stomach, and this opening into the polyp-cell.

Lamarck describes two species of this genus, one Indian, V. Phattaides,
and the other found in the Mediterranean, V. Cynomorium, of which a very
interesting account has been given by Rapp, in the Nov. Act. Phys. Med.
Acad. Cos. Leap. Car. vol. xiv., who denies that either this genus or
Pennatula float voluntarily, but says that they have their lower end
plunged in the sand at the bottom of the sea, and that when placed in a
vessel of water they may be observed moving about on its floor, but never
swimming. He observes also, that, unlike the Freshwater Polyps, which
expand themselves, and seem to enjoy light, the Marine Polyps prefer the
shade, and that the polyps of the Veretillum, although expanding them-
selves in a darkened room, yet when brought into sunlight quickly fold
themselves up. Their stalk is freely pervaded by sea-water through the
four longitudinal canals which run through it, and communicating not only
with the stalk-like polypary itself, but also with the cells in which the
polyps are contained, and even with the tubular cavities of the polyps
themselves. This genus is phosphorescent, and its luminous character
depends on a thin mucus which overspreads its whole surface.

Veretillum.

HYDRA. The animals composing this genus are remarkable for their
power of reproduction. Trembley, of Geneva, to whose investigations,
published in 1774, we owe nearly all the
knowledge we possess of their structure and
habits, found that if a Hydra were cut into
several pieces, — so many as forty, incredible
though it appears, — each part soon became a
perfect Hydra. This animal is destitute of
any crvity around the stomach. The mouth
(a) is surrounded by slender tentacula, armed
with stinging bristles, with which it secures its
prey, and conveys it to its mouth. The
Hydra is common in stagnant pools, where it
may be found attached to aquatic plants, or
carried about on floating bodies. Its stomach,
which consists of a simple sac, is capable of
Hydra. being contracted or distended into various forms,

a, mouth. It feeds on minute Crustacea or aquatic worms.

CAMPANULARIA. Polypary plant-shaped, filiform, branched, homy ;
branches tubular ; cups campanulate,-
toothed at the margin, supported on
long tortuous peduncles.

The Campanularus have consider-
able relation to the genus Sertvlaria
with which they were combined by
Linnaeus ; they are, however, readily
distinguished by the twigs not being
toothed at the sides by the little sessile
cups. In Campamdarice, the cups,
instead of being attached immediately
to the stem, are supported on foot-
stalks, which are of considerable length,
and tortuous at the base.

CORALLINA. Polypary fixed, plant-
shaped, much branched, consisting of a
central stem, incmsted interruptedly
with a dense, calcareous, cortical sub-
stance ; cells inconspicuous ; polypi un-
known.

There is still considerable obscurity

Campanularia .

with regard to the exact situation of the animals of this group of Corals in
the natural system, arising from the very
slight knowledge which is possessed of them.
They have, it is true, been seen by Lamouroux,
and by Ellis, but in so uncertain and unde-
fined a point of view, that the observations of
those Naturalists have thrown but little light
upon the relations which they bear to the
other groups. To the naked eye the cortical
substance of the Corallines in a dry state,
present not the slightest appearance of those
little cellules, which in other genera are known
to be the habitations of the animals ; it is, however, asserted, that when
recently taken from the sea, these pores may be observed over the whole
surface of the articulations.

PLUMATELLA. Stem cylindrical, branching; simple, fixed by the base,
at the extremities of the stems and branches terminated each by a polypus ;
the polypi, with a depressed mouth, and ciliated tentacula, disposed in a
single row.

Type of the genus, Tubularia repens, Mu'ller. Several species, inha-
bitants of the fresh waters of Europe ; two are found in Britain.

Corallina.

Plumatella.

156

CLASS-SPONGIA.

CLASS XVI.— SPONGIA.

NOTWITHSTANDING the various inquiries which have been made in regard to the Class of Sponges, but little is known as to their true
nature, beyond the anastomosing horny filaments of which their framework consists, and which, whilst the Sponge remains alive
in water, is overspread with a thin layer of glairy semifluid matter. In many instances, the elasticity observed in the Common
Sponge does not exist, an unyieldingness being imparted to the mass by the deposition in its interior of crystallized spicuk of
various form, consisting of calcareous or siliceous matter, corresponding in shape to the raphides observed in vegetable structures,
and which exhibit determinate forms in different species. The whole surface of the Sponge is studded with innumerable and
minute apertures which lead to canals in its interior, and these, gradually coalescing and forming larger and larger passages, ter-
minate in cavities which open by large and commonly projecting orifices upon the surface of the Sponge. Through the minute
orifices the water is absorbed into the Sponge, and is poured out of it in continuous streams by the large apertures. Locomotion
does not belong to the Sponges ; they are permanently fixed, excepting at their first production, when, according to Dr. Grant's
statement, the gemmules from which they are generated are furnished with cilia, and capable of moving about in the water till
they have selected a spot, where they attach themselves and remain throughout the rest of their existence.

LAMARCK has described one hundred and thirty-eight species of Sponges,
to which the editors of the last edition of his great work, Histaire Naturelk
des Animaux sans Vertebres, have added nine ; these he divides into seven
sections : — 1st. Sessile masses simple or lobed, forming either coverings or
inclosures; 2nd. Subpediculate masses, or those contracted at their base,
simple or lobed ; 3rd. Pediculate masses, flattened or fan-shaped, simple
or lobed ; 4th. Concave expanded, cup-shaped or funnel-shaped masses ;
5th. Tubular or pipe-shaped masses, not expanded ; 6th. Foliaceous masses
or divided into flattened lobes, leaf-shaped ; and 7th. Branching, shrub or
tree-like masses. Of these, however, some certainly are plants; and from
the observations of Dr. Grant it is perfectly clear that among the others the
types of 'three distinct genera are to be found, although it has not been
hitherto possible to distribute the whole into their proper places, on account
of the difficulty, and, in many instances, the impossibility, of obtaining the
species in a recent state, in which only can its true structure be properly
examined.

Whilst alive, the fibres of which the skeleton (as it may be called) of
the Sponge consists, are everywhere covered with a transparent, soft, and even
glutinous matter, which also spreads over the external surface, and lines the
cavities, penetrating from the pores and fecal orifices into the interior, and it
is in this soft matter that Lamarck considers the polyps of the Sponge reside,
the existence of which, however, has not hitherto been ascertained.

It is to Dr. Grant we are indebted for a knowledge of the fact, that the
fibres of which the skeleton consists are composed of three diflferent kinds
of materials, or rather, that of the three groups which he has at present
discovered in Lamarck's genus Spongia, each group exhibits a difference of

structure and material in the composition of its skeleton, and hence he has
divided them into the genera Sponges, Calcareous Sponges, and Siliceous
Sponges, or, as they are called by Blainville, who retains the old generic
name for the first, Spongia, Caldspongia, and Hcdispongia.

The species already determined to belong to this genus, as denned by
Dr. Grant, are distinguished by a skeleton or axis, consisting of cylindrical,
tubular, horny fibres, dissolving without efferves-
cence in acids, leaving no trace when rubbed on
glass, and, like burnt hair, emitting a horny
odour : when examined beneath a microscope,
they are shown as nearly of the same size, smooth
externally, translucent, and of a brownish-yellow
colour; tough, flexible, very elastic, generally .-ponge.

quite straight, and anastomosing freely with each other. Their diameter
is about a third of that of a human hair, one-half of which is occupied by
their internal cavity, and they unite at a distance varying from one-tenth
to a whole line, at all angles, dilating into small angular cavities, where
they meet, and communicating freely with each other, so as to form one
shut cavity throughout the whole Sponge, which, as they wind around the
canals and pores, cannot therefore be the cells of any polyps or other
animals causing the currents already mentioned. This part, the axis or
skeleton, is that which is employed in commerce, or preserved in collections.
But between all the fibres, when the Sponge is alive, there is another
substance, soft and transparent, which readily putrifies and washes away
after death, and it is probable that in it, if any where, is placed the resi-
dence of the animals by which the Sponge is formed.

anil Snake.

MOLLFSCA

ClatJ CKI'IIAI.OIMM'A.

Oratr OTTO?' MIA.

Tin- S.-iiling Cull I'- Kisli from tin- l':i|"'r Xauiilns

7. „' I >CJ t IHH .• 'r,/n:-l<n

um Ai >:'t i rmriautct

./. 7"/4<' niuni.il ,ur .t/'lhf .rhr/l. 2. rfif rfvnf arm j-hfu-ina the ,h'latari.m. .'1. Hie animal e.cpartfitd .rhtwinjf tht. S arna tttr anterior pair brtna dilatfj <u tfie end ti
il, f .!•/,/..'• ,-:'i/ir li,:<i\ in, n-k-tJ fy- thr iit,r of thi shell . 4. A. tht animal partly ivramatd,. 6. tfir animal quite atintrnctrii in the j-htJl 7.t. Ifu jidr l-tup vin ol'rtir
animal f,iiil\ iVnQmrttd in its .rfletl ; ttujluJi broken at the kee t ft> .rhfu the F-fci-*

Oass (•i'l

MOLLUSC A?

/omD. TEXTULAKIADA'.

J-'am.m RDTALIAD*

Jbml. NODOSOR1ADA'.

13. 15. Polymorphina c

28. Uvigerina fyqmta

26. W, Terralfiria aeteuZata .

.

FamM MUOLIDA'

ORBICI]LINAD£.
36

7. i1"! I'lfuinlina ~
Kim. IV 1'OLYSTOMELIJU)*.

ctntina orbujcuL

: ,.-,: 11,1

.'.'' •//. hu.:i!,i.'-:.i .its, , ',
'.rrf/f !/',.

. It -inn
. liitit/iti>riun

.
ifftiffraiafti .

MOJLLUBCA.

iii/'.r (iastrrnjMxla. V/'/x/cy hiliuouiforn .

t . //</////

/./ii/n.r
Varti'tMtiu:.

Bulimia

// Kf.i.dy/iniii .

/'/i/ui

/•fl-rt/l.f

i I? Mi/.' i.i-niii

, LEFADOPHGRA.

MOLLUSCA.

PLATE 4>.

Or<br, GYMNOHRANCH1A-

ONCHJUOKriJA',

J.W Low* sadp.

Clafs H

MOLLUSCA.III.

PLATE 5.

Order

family I.LAPLYS I AD£ . 1-3

1

4

Jf-J7. Umbrella Indira
ily A'. UMBhEI.LlD.C K-17

CU&t COt'FfLEOPHORA.

MOLLUSCA.

PLATE 6 .
Order, PTKNOBRANCHIA.

Ampiillaria Sc/tdti. .¥• its Opercnimn

24. ("erilliintii /7;.<-<-f/frssn .

14. Litturhia J.ittoralis

* Withers .M.

M O L LIT S C A . IV .

Kint'ilv I.CUKI'IlM'UDyE.

/WOT. II. CAI'IM.ID.'K.

A/w.IV. CRYPTO STOMIBfi .

;'.?
^

JVi:V. <',ii<!in'i;i .//A;.

^~

CLASS lUNH'Al'A

MOLLUSCA

PLATE S

••*--:-,

•V.i ~

';% '•''' *

8. 9 BottyUns

15J7 folydmuiu

CUfs. CIRJUPEDKS

Order. Campylosomata.

Plate 9

Jfy.J.

Gneras

fentalatmis

Ordtr. Acamtosomata.

Jtalpellusn,
vulgare

7>fVH7l bu MlJts l.

./ ft' /.,'

PLATE1/,

TERMS USKD IN COlfCHOLOGY.

SP1HAT, OR SITBSPHKA1. SHELLS.

.l/'im IVhfiJ-l.t trrr

N..B. a.. Summit or nucttus. b, Munnn <>r ' r>i<>nth .'/• /'?n.?fntn?. t: Tht inner ->r tv?HfrifH,i t<[> ,/ ffafsr hf) r.I\-,'nt, •><?#?. f. ffindtr eAyt of month..
y 77n- ht'ff'-tr -urur or innJ>i/tcn.\- ft Sptr.- i . First ' whar? . & B»,f\- nht>rt I Sulnrv rn . Mu.wtJur- i*tf>r?J~sitni .
t /*<•/» w« ////• n-hwfo.

M'.'H'ifh.r., ,/,./

PLATHIO

THE TERMS USJE3> IN COIfCHOLOGY.

I . SYMETRICAL UNIVALVE S .

SERIAL MtJLTIVALVES .

I.

Cbit,on»

'COttOKAL MULTIVAiVE S-

dersal vaJrt-

fd art a

Coronula . _

Iblycipes
I LAMPLIKBr SHELLS

'N. Tfa forte of the- varutu* shdls faat'uw the- sam*- nutnber or I*****- are sitn

INS EC TA.

CUu, MANDIBFLAIA.

PnJtr. l-Ol.l'.lU'l'l-.liA

Onkr. ORTOOPTERA.

?. Lampyris

Ceraiab^yx

BLalta Lappcniai.

Cnier. HYMEN OPTERA.

Head, of ftiyianihus triarupularis.

S E C T A .

Oat,- Q.

<Z<zer.HAUSTKLLATA
Ordtr. LEl'JDOPTF.SA.

tlrdei: BEMIPTERA.

^^^^^^

"V \

Tabuniu

IK ft EC TA.

t'r,t,'t CO/.KO/'rKH.I .

IBTS.KCTA.

tv roLEOPTERA.

f'l. I'M

Scajiudnim 4-m/it -111,1 tun,

ORTHOPTER^d .

Ill

INSECTA.

»/,•/• I.KI'IIIOI'TKHA.

<*SS$S5T>

JBP^l^H^

Harpipteryjc harpfllft

Thrips

. scttlp.

TERMS ITSBD IN ENTOMOLOGY.

ANTENNA:

..M.*»i/i- f]

temuttrA.

D. LEPIDOPTEROUS
I/wfct {imaginary.}

h bilrrhunlrL.
i Abdomen .
k froaoitfllunt.
I Orijucti

A. COLEOPTEROUS Insert.

3 Basal J)

4 Apical D?

D?

8 Ocfllut.
7 Fascia.

h Way*.

\ Anterutr fftntura .

k Atuerior ffh<r

.
Taryi.

^ Abdomen .

Wings, fonbrior.)
1 Anterior

Ic Jntn-ioi- tibiff 'tJfntairJ / 2.Natatorimis.
/ Posterior D ? I Simple J
ni Tar.n . /

5 . L abntxn. of L eistus

a Litbuil pnlfn

1. 3LMili,in' ft'.1

C tivr-.r

,/ l.tihrunt

f &Lril!<,

CRUSTACEA

family I. BKACHYURA.

Porcejliii

Famity 1. THYSANOURA

. MYRIAPODA.

E C H IN 0 1> E K M ATA .

i.riDAiuixe.

PLATE 1

6 . Kthinometra Mfutunilttilus

Family U. ECHINHXE.

KCHINIDA. 2

Iaaii2}> 3 . SCUTEI.I.IDjE
2

PLATE 2 .

1 . Kchinanthus

Echinodiscus Jliuitata.

. S

13 . Echinolarnpas J&enyii

J6.17&18. Echinoilardium Atropos

7 X-fi. Cafsidulus <:tustratis
famif.1- •/- . G A L E K I T I J5.E

. Kchmocorvs t^iihu
fam,.5. SPATANGID.C

18

19. Tentacula of Spatau^is

. Echiiianaus niinnr
15

15 . EchinobrLssus /'>nvnit
20

. Brilsus I'mri'li-r

RAD I AT A.

I'l.ATK 3 .
Oass STKI.KIUDA

Astfii-ias

.111 r/iw Species in. the British Jfusatin

ACALEPH^E.

C.JLlana Jefol,

J.TF. l.t'*i\' l.tdp

\Beroe

6. Velagia panofiyra.

?. Callianira trifiloptera . 3. Cestum Ventrij.
7. .-Ktjiiori'a FfrskafleJia . 8. Auii'lia awita.
'ioi'a Jistieha . L>. llivsalia

4. Berenice num.. 5. (>n-v»ni;i lir.fii/.
*). Khizostoma Cuvitri . IO. I)i[>k\a

i. W.Velclla i-\'ntn'<i. 1.) . H>i-|>il:i </;<y

INFUSORIA.

Pl.ATK 1
: F,ntfnnlrl,i
9

1. Mnri.i--.
' M'.n.i -. t.nttuLi

3. TTVeB^i. ^&•G^t«ttd^

1O. Syuen
t'Jinne iMiri!

i. Gtobator.

4. Spirwliscnis, fnlvits.
. /./////////
nittfod&f.
. Virith'.t.
.Tttuttf.
Utritiibtf.

Genera & Species.

.y. Syuedra . Ulna/.
32EohineIla..S)

£/. Desiuiilium. Sn'rirxij.

25. X . 1 1 1 1 1 1 i 1 1 i u 1 1 1 . /'/.^ - 1 • " A '//////

29. I !;n-i liiii i :i ,

30. I .-ihmi ;i . Entrvis.

3^. .Na

56. Cyrlidrum , GJaitcoma,
37, Ouptamamut , C

V/.l '.It-i itxti tli inn Ttilniltitutn.

42. S'tentor. Jfufteri .

43. TTrocentmm, Turbo.

4f>. ZiK

46. ( >] .1 1 IT< I i 1 1 1 1 1 . 1'.i

47. Tint uii nix

4^. Exidbelys.

SO. I . • 1 1 • h r vi 1 1 : i n : i / 'r< •(••*••••

1. T.i -i n •« i| it j i i s.

;W. Tracheliiw , Ovum,.
.W. HiiaJ ilia . Yerniicula
i>t>. C5ril*nl<rti,^iMt<//wVj/
.'/. Nas&ulji.

-V. ;\niphileptofl, FtLSct&las.

GO. , U- j i i < 1 L s c a, l)i-ntt,-tii ,!/,».

J. tt'. Lfwfry JcxUp.

0 ril/. i- 1'nlvan.itnau, fla.f L to 7.
Hnl,it,ma . . 8 to 34.

INFUSO RIA.

•*:'-'',

Fani. Kntrrvtidn
-- Mi>ft.'(rt"'Jiii • 'if

////.,- / /„ 7
i ff tn .'>/

f'I.ATK 2

^YuanflW**^

•'• f :n

34 1

"" .„-

,'J. Oxvtricha tii;iilti
•I Slvl(iiiv<-lii;i . /'Hxtit
."'. Dis '-HIM- phalli s, /ti'

("lia-tonotus. ,\!

/.'i i yplioiDiuli'H,
M. ttcrocodoD, /

GKNKRA AND SPECIES.

i^ Tnbicolaria. Xa/ajf.

]i>. F)i>sciiJaria , (irrtt>t<t

11 Mclire»*ta,. ffmtferfs

IK l.imnias i,-r,ii,>['h\'lli .

/!'.

I'/ Diglciui.

22. TfclophtJiabmus .

23. Cvclogl<ma , Lu

5. Euclilanis, f.ii

27. '-[iLiiri'M'. . ('hixtni'1

28. (VifHdina. AV/v/*v/.%-

20. Rotifer.
30. Fhilodina .
-^/. Noteus. (
32 Anuvaw..

POLYPS.

( la Is I CORALS. Zt'OI'HTTAKIA.

1 Oorim-ularia rn<}i>.\-n .

Ill SKA FLOWEKS X- STAK — t'OKAL. Z

l/~. Astii-ii .lii.ina.--.

11' • I'.,,!. „ ,t,llll

INDEX OF SCIENTIFIC NAMES.

ACALEI'IIA, 150.

Antilope, Scripta, 53.

Branchis Liberis, 124.

Centetes, 1 7.

Clisia, 138.

Dasypus Septemcinctus, 4.'.

Acamptosomata, 137.

Senegalensis, 52.

Brevipennata, 82.

Centetes, SemUpinosus, 17.

Clupea, 119, 120.

Dasyurus, :;i.

Acanthopterygia, 110.

Strepsiceros, 53.

Bucco, 75.

Setosus, 17.

Harengus, 120.

Dasyurnb Cynocephalus, 31 .

Acarida, 147.

Svlvatica, 53.

Buceros, 72.

Spinosus, 17.

Cobitis, 117, 118.

Macrourus, 31.

Aeasta, 138.

Trago-camellus, 53.

Bufo, 107.

Centriscus, 110, 117.

Barbatula, 118.

Maugei, 31.

Accipetres, 58.

Aphis, 140.

Bombina, 107.

Scolopax, 117.

Fossilis, 118.

Minimus, 31.

Accipienser, 125.

Aplysia, 133.

Vulgaris, 107.

Cephalopoda, 127.

Tania, 118.

Pencil latus, 31.

Kuthenus, 125.

Apodo-malacoptervgia, 122.

Bulimus, 131.

Cepola, 115.

Coccus, 140.

Rosmarus, 30.

— — Sturio, 125.

Aptenodytes, 91, 92, 93.

Bulinas, 131.

Rubescens, 115.

Coecilia, 106.

Tafa, 31.

Acephala, 135.

Patagonica, 92

Bulla, 133.

Cerambyx, 138.

Glutinosa, 106.

Ursinus, 31.

Accra, 133.

Aptera, 141.

Bulla;a, 133.

Cerastes, 106.

Tentaculata, 106.

Viverrimus, 31.

Achatina, 131.

Aracari, 75.

Ceratophris, 107.

Cwlogenus, 40, 41.

Decapoda, 14i.

Acrochordus, 104.

Arachnida, 147.

CALLIOXYNUS, 116.

Cercopithecus, 7.

Paca, 41.

Delphax, 145.

Javanensis, 104.

Aranea, 147.

Calocephala, 29.

.Ethiops, 7.

Coleopteia, 138, 141.

Delphinus, 55, 56.

Acrydium, 143.

Araneida, 147.

Calypteia, 135.

Cephas, 7.

Cotius, 70.

Bidens, 56.

Actinea, 154.

Araneus, 111.

Cameloida, 49.

Diana, 7.

Coluber, 104.

Delphis, 56.

Adela, 144.

Arctomys, 36, 38.

Camellus, 49.

Faunus, 7.

Columba, 81.

Orca, 56.

Ageneiosis, 118.

Marmotta, 38.

Bactrianus, 50.

— — Mona, 7.

Carunculata, 81.

Phoca-na, 56.

Aholata, 109.

Ardea, 85.

Dromedarius, 50.

Xemreus, 7.

Coronata, 81.

Rostratus, 56.

Alauda, 68.

Coromandeliana, 86.

Vicunna, 50,

Xyctitens, 7.

Leucocephalus, 81.

Tursio, 56.

Arborea, 68.

Egretta, 86.

Camelopardalis, 50, 51.

Petaurista, 7.

(Enos, 81..

Dendrocolaptes, 71.

Arvensis, 68.

Major, 85.

Giraffa, 51.

Ruber, 7.

Tabellaria, 81.

Dentex, 112.

Alca, 91, 92.

Stellarus, 86.

CampanuJaria, 155.

Sabanis, 7.

Columbida, 81.

Vulgaris, 112.

Impennis, 92.

Argala, 86.

Camptosomata, 137.

Cereopsis, 96, 97.

Colymbus, 91, 92.

Dentirostrata, 63.

Alcedo, 72, 73.

Argentine, 119, 120.

Cancer, 146.

Nova: Hollandia;, 97.

Cristatus, 92.

1'ii.aa, 71.

Ammodytes, 122, 123.

Sphyrana, 120.

Caucroma, 85.

Ceria, 144.

Conia, 138.

Dicholophus, 83, 84.

Lancea, 123.

Argonauta, 127 — 130.

Cochlearia, 85.

Cerithium, 135.

Conirostrata, 68.

Cristata, 84.

Tobianus, 123.

Argo, 128.

Canis, 22, 24.

Cerocoma, 142.

Conurus, 77.

Didelphys, 31, 32.

Ammonites, 129.

Varicosta, 128.

Aureus, 25.

Ceroplatus, 141.

Coracias, 70.

Brachyura, 32.

Amphacanthurus, 115.

Ascalaphus, 139.

Aviarius, 25.

Certhia, 71.

Gracula, 70.

C'ayopollin, 32.

Guttatus, 115.

Aspredo, 118.

Domesticus, 25.

—— Familiaris, 7 1 .

Corallina, 155.

Crassicaudata, 32.

Amphiprion, 112.

Asterias, 149.

Familiaris, 24.

Cervus, 50.

Corallium, 154.

Lanigera, 32.

Amphisba'im, 104.

Asteroid, 149.

Grains Hibernicus, 25.

Alces, 50.

Coriocella, 135.

Marsupial!?, 32.

Alba, 104.

Astrea, 154.

Leverarius, 25.

Capreolus, 51.

Cornicularia, 154.

Murina, 32.

Ampullaria, 134.

Atherina, 111.

Lupus, 25.

Dama, 51.

Coronula, 137.

Nudicaudat.-i, ::_'.

Anabas, 115.

Atropus, 114.

Molossus, 25.

Elaphus, 51.

Corvut, 70.

Opossum, 32.

Anableps, 117, 118.

Auchenia, 49.

Sanguinarius, 25.

Tarandus, 51.

Corax, 70.

Pusilla, 32.

Tetrophthalmus, 118.

Axolotl, 109.

Terrarius, 25.

Cetacea, 55.

• Corone, 70.

Tricolor, 32.

Anarrhicas, 116.

Terra; nova;, 25.

Ceyx, 73.

Frugelius, 70.

Virginiana, 32.

Lupus, 115, 116.

BADUU, 11.

Venaticus, 25.

Tribrachys, 73.

Glandularius, 70.

Digitigrada, 21.

Anas, 96, 97.

Balanus, 138.

Vulpes, 25.

Tridactylus, 73.

Monedula, 70.

Diodon, 124.

. Clypeata, 97.

Baltraa, 56, 57.

Zerda, 25.

Chffitodon, 113.

Pica, 70.

Hystrix, 124.

Anastomus, 86.

Boops, 57.

Cantharus, 111.

Pinnatus, 113.

Temias, 70.

Diomedea, 93, 94.

— — Lamelligerus, 86.

— Mysticetus, 57.

Capra, 52, 53.

• Striatus, 113.

Corvphana, 114.

Exiilans, 1>4.

Typus, 86.

Physalis, 57.

— vEgagrus, 53.

Chalcydes, 100.

Corythus, 68, 69.

Diopsis, 141.

Anatifera, 137.

— — Rostrata, 57.

Depressa, 54.

Chama-leo, 102.

Enucleator, 69.

Diptera, 141, 144.

Anguiformia, 103.

Balistes Capriscus, 124.

Hircus, 53.

Vulgaris, 103.

Psittaceus, 69.

Dipus, 36, 38.

Anguilla, 122.

Monoceros, 124.

Mambrica, 54.

Champsa, 99.

Cottus, 111.

Jaculus, 38.

Acutirostris, 122.

Banchus, 143.

Reversa, 54.

Sclerops, 100.

Couroucou, 76.

Sagitta, 38.

Latirostris, 122.

Basilicus, 101.

Caprimulgus, 67.

Vulgaris, 99.

Crambus, 144.

Distoma, 137.

— Mediorostris, 122.

Amboinensis, 101.

Europscus, 68.

Champsia, 99.

Crepidula, 135.

Diurna, 58.

Anguilliformes, 122.

Cucullatus, 101.

— - Macrodipterus, 68.

Charadrius, 83, 84.

Creusia, 137.

Dolabella, 133.

Anolis, Itil.

Batrachia, 106.

Capros, 114.

Pluvialis, 84.

Crocodilia, 99.

Doris, 132.

Bullaris, 101.

Batrachus, 116.

Capula, 135.

Cheilodactylus, 112.

Crotalus, 105.

Dorso-Nudibranchiate, 131.

— Capensis, 101.

Bathyergus, 39, 41.

Capuloid, 135.

Cheiromys, 40, 41.

Horridus, 105.

Draco, 101.

Anser, 96, 97.

Capensis, 41.

Caracarras, 61.

Cheironectes, 31, 32.

Crustacea, 14i.

Fuscus, 101.

: Albifrons, 97.

— Maritimus, 41.

Carbo Cormoranus, 95.

. Guianensis, 32.

Cryptonyx, 78, 79.

Lineatus, 101.

^-^ Canadensis, 97.

Bicellaria, 154.

Caryophylla, 154.

Cheiroptera, 9.

Niger, 79.

• Viridis, 101.

Cinereus, 97.

Bipes Lepidopus, 103.

Cassica, 69.

Chelifer, 147.

Ctenophora, 150.

Drilus, 142.

Hyperboreas, 97.

Blatta, 139.

Castor, 35, 37.

Chelifera, 147.

Cuculus, 75.

Dromarius, 83.

Anthia, 141.

Blennius, Clinus, 115.

Fiber, 37.

Chelonia, 98.

C'anorus, 75.

Ater, 83.

Anthrax, 144.

— Gunnellus, 115.

Casuarus, 82, 83.

Caretta, 98.

Cultirostrata, 85.

Antilope, 51, 52.

Ocellaris, 115.

Galeatus, 83.

Lachrymata, 98.

Cursorius, 83, 84.

ECAUDATA, 106.

Arundinacea, 53.

Opistognathus, 115.

Caudata, 108.

Midas, 98.

Cyclopterus, 122.

Echeneis, 122.

Babalis, 52.

Boa Constrictor, 104.

Cavia, 39, 41.

Virgata, 98.

Cyclostomata, 126.

Remora, !_'l'.

Caama, 52.

Eryx, 104.

Aperea, 41.

Chelys, 98, 99.

Cygnus, 96.

Echidna, 4:1.

— Catoblepas, 53.

Erpeton, 104.

Cobaya, 41.

Chilognathosis, 148.

Ferus, 97.

Hi.-tri.v, 4".

Cervicapra, 52.

Bodianus, 111.

Cavicornia, 51.

Chimsera, 125.

Gibbus, 97.

Setosa, 4::.

Dama, 53.

Bogmarus, 115.

Cavolina, 132.

Callorrhyncha, 125.

— Mansuetus, 96.

Echinida>, 149.

Dorcas, 52.

Bombyx, 140.

Cebus, 1, 5.

Monstrosa, 125.

Musicus, 97.

Echmodermata, 148.

Eleotragus, 53.

Boops, 112.

Apella, 5.

Chionis, 90.

Cymindis, 61.

Echinoida, 148.

— • Equina, 53.

Bos Americanus, 54.

— Ateles, 5.

Chirocentrus, 120.

Cymodoce, 146.

Ecliin.imya, 141.

Euchore, 52.

Bubalus, 54.

Arachnoides, 5.

Chirotes, 103.

Cynthia, 136.

Edentata. 4'J.

Grimmia, 53.

Taurus, 54.

Beelzebuth, 5.

Mexicanus, 103.

Cyprinodon, 118.

Edolius, tli. •

(Jutturosa, 52.

Urns, 54.

Coaita, 5.

Propus, In:;.

Cyprinoida, 117.

Eti'phas. 44.

Kevella, 52.

Botryllus, 136.

Fatuellus, 5.

Chloromys, 40, 41.

Cyprinus, 117.

Airicanu.% 45.

Leucophcea, 53.

Branchyptera, 91.

Fuscus, 5.

Chondropterygii, 124.

Carpio, 118.

Indicus, 45.

Lerwia, 52.
Oreas, 53.

Brachyura, 146.
Bradypus, 42.

Hypoxanthus, 5.
Marginatus, 5.

Ciconia, si.
Alba, 86.

Cypsehis, 67.
Murarius, 68.

Elaphrus, 142.
Eleutherobranchiata, l'J4.

Oryx, 52.

Didactylus, 42.

Mycetes, 5.

Cidarida:, 149.

Eloida, l:>2.

Picta, 53.

Tridactylus, 42.

Paniscus, 5.

Cineras, 137.

DACTYLOPTKRVS, 111.

Elophorus, 14'J.

Pygarga, 52.

Brama, 113.

Pentadactylus, 5.

CinguJata, 42.

Volitans, 111.

Elops, I'-'".

Pvgma-a, 53.

Atropus, 113, 114.

Personnatus, 5.

Cinnyris, 72.

Maphni.i, 146.

Emberiza, 68, 69.

— — Redunca, 53.

Marina, 113.

Ruber, 5.

Cirrhopoda, 137.

Dasvpus, 4'J.

Hortulana, 69.

liupicapra, 53.

Raii, 113.

Sciureus, 5.

Cirrhines, 118.

Mulita, 42.

Emvs, 'JS.

Saiga, 52.

Branchipus, 146.

Cellepora, 154.

Clausilia, 131.

Novemcinctus, 4-.

Eoli:., 1 :;•_'.

Scoparia, 53.

Branchis Fixis, 125.

Cellulacia, 129.

Claviculata, 35.

Octocinctus, 42.

Ephemera, 143.

158 INDEX.

Eproboscifera, 47.

Callus, 77, 78.

Hetrc-malacopterygia, 117.

Lemur, Albimanus, 8.

Mephitis, Chincha, 23.

Xaja Lntescens, 106.

Eques, 11:1.

Domesticus, 78.

Hians, 86.

Catta, 8.

I'utorius, 23.

Xandu, 83.

Equus. 49.

Macartneyii, 78.

Himautopus, 87, 88.

Collaris, 8.

Mergus, 96, 97.

Xasua, 19.

Aiinus, 49.

— — Sonnerati, 78.

Mclanopterus, 88.

Fulvus, 8.

— Merganser, 97.

Fuses, 21.

Cabullus, 49.

Garrulus, 70.

Nigricollis, 88.

Lemur, Mongooz, 8.

Meriones, 36, 38.

Rufa, 21.

Zebra, 49.

Gasteropoda, 130.

Hippocampus, 124.

Xigrifons, 8.

Merops, 72.

Xatica, I,i4.

Erinaceus, 15.

Gasteropelecns, 120.

Hipponix, 135.

Ruber, 8.

Apiaster, 73.

Xaucoris, 140.

Auritus, 15.

Gasterosteus, 114.

Hippopotamus, 47, 48.

Rufous, 8.

Microglossus, 77.

Nautilus, 128.

Europanis, 15.

Gastrobranchus. 126.

Amphibius, 48.

Tardigradus, 8.

Miliola, 130.

Pa]>er, 128.

Erythrinus, 120.

Coecus, 126.

Hirundo, 67.

Lepadogaster, 121, 122.

Millepora, 154.

I'ompilius, 128.

Esos, 117, 118.

Dombey, 126.

Fuciphaga, 67.

Ocellatus, 122.

Minx, 24.

Xecrodes, 143.

Lucius, 118.

Geckotida, 102.

Riparia, 67.

Lepidoptera, 140, 144.

Molluscs, 127.

Xeerophorus, 142.

Eudytes, 91, 92.

Gerris, 144.

Rustics, 67.

Lepidopus, 115.

Dibranchiate, 127.

Xemoptera, 139.

Glacialis, 92.

Glareola, 89, 91.

Urbiea, 67.

Lepisi'Steus, 120.

-— — Tetrabranchiate, 127.

Xerita, 134.

Eoryale, 149.

Torquata, 91.

Hohang Shua, 24.

Lepores, 40.

Molorchus, 142.

Ni-ritina, 134.

Eurylaimus, 63, 65.

Giaucopis, 70.

Holothuria, 150.

Leptocephalus, 122, 123.

Molossus, 12.

Xeuroptera, 139, 143.

Jaranicus, 65.

Glancus, 132.

Homoptera, 145.

Morrisii, 123.

— Abrasus, 12.

Xirmidin, 147.

Evania, 143.

Glomeris, 148.

Hyama Capensis, 26.

Lepus, 39, 40.

Alecto, 12.

Xitidula, 143.

Exoccetus, 117, 118.

Gnathobolus, 119, 120.

Villosa, 25.

Cuniculus, 40.

Cheiropus, 12.

Xoctilio, 13.

Exiliens, 118.

Aculeatus, 120.

Vulgaris, 26.

Pusillus, 41.

Xasatus, 12.

Xoctua, 140.

Exocthnatha, 145.

Spinifer, 120.

Hvdra. 155.

Timidus, 40.

Obscurus, 12.

N'l'lnsaria, 130.

Gobioida, 115.

Hydrobates, 96, 97.

Lestris, 93, 94.

Plicatus. 12.

Xotarclius, 1:>:1.

FALCO. 58, 60.

Gobius, 115, 116.

Lobatus, 97.

Libellula, 139.

Ruins, 12.

Xi.tonecta, 140.

Chiequera, 60.

Xiger, 116.

Hydrochajrus, 40, 41.

Limax, 131.

Rupelii, 12.

Xotopterus, 120.

Lophotes, 60.

Gonorhynques, 118.

Paraguayensis, 41.

Limosa, 87, 88.

Tennis, 12.

Xotoxus, 142.

Peregrinus, 60.

Gorgonia, 154.

Hvdrornetra, 144.

Lipura, 48.

Velox, 12.

Xovaculn?, 117.

Punctatus, 60.

Grscula, 70.

Hydromus, 35, 37.

Littorina, 134.

Monoceros, 114.

Xumenius, 87, 88.

Tirmunculoides, 60.

Grallatoria, 82.

Chrysogaster, 37. ;

Lithobius, 148.

Monodon, 55.

Borealis, 88.

Felis, 22, 26.

Grapsus, 146.

Coypu, 37.

Loemo-malacopterygia, 120.

Monoceros, 56.

Arquatus, 88.

— Borealis, 28.

Gryllotalpa, 139.

Leucogaster, 37.

Loligo, 128.

Monodonta, 134.

Lougirostris, 88.

Brucii, 29.

Gryllus, 139.

Hydrophis, 106.

Media, 128.

Monotremata, 43.

Phopopus, 88.

Caligata, 28.

Grus, 87.

Hyla, 107.

Sagittata, 129.

Mormyrus, 118.

Xuniida, 79.

Caracal, 28.

Gulo, 19.

Hymenoptera, 139, 143.

Lomechusa, 142.

Moschus, 49, 50.

Xycteris, 13.

Catus, 28.

— Americanos, 21.

Hypsiprymnus, 34.

Loncheres, 40, 41.

Javanicus, 50.

Xycticebus Javanicus, 9.

Celidogaster, 28.

Barbarus, 21.

Marinus, 34.

Longipennata, 93.

Memimna, 50.

Xycliceius, 13.

Cervaria, 28.

Mellivorns, 21.

Hypudanis, 35, 36.

Longirostres, 87.

Moschiferus, 50.

Chans, 28.

Septentrionalis, 21.

Alliarius, 36.

Lophius, 116.

Motacilla, 65.

„ „

Concolor, 27.

Ursus, 21.

— — Amphibius, 36.

Piscatorius, 116.

Boarula, 65.

O ]' 107

Discolor, 27.

Vittatus, 21.

Arvalis, 36.

Lophobranchiata, 123.

Mugil, 115.

OctoDus 118

— Javanensis, 29.

Gymnetrus, 115.

Gregalis, 36.

Lophophorus, 79.

Cephalus, 115.

Jubata, 28.

Gymnobranchiata, 131.

— Lemmus, 36.

Loricaria, 118.

Mngilohu, 115.

—^~~ \ ujtjaris, 128.
Oculini 154

Leo, 26.
Leopardns, 28.
Macrocelis, 28.
— Macroura, 28.

Gymnocepbalns, 111.
Gymnogaster, 115.
Gymnonotus, 122, 123.
jEquilabratus, 123

(Economus, 36.
Rutilus, 36.
Saxatilis, 36.
Hyrax Setosus, 48.

Loiia, 68, 69.
Curvirostrata, 69.
Lucanus, 138.
Lutra, 22, 23.

Mullus, 111.
Barbatus, 111.
Mura<na, 122, 123.
Helena, 123.

Oeypterus, 65.
Ocythoe Cranchii, 128.
<F.cli< nonius, 83, 84.

Maniculata, 28.
Mitis, 28.

Electricus, 123.
Gymnothorax, 123.

Hystrix, 39, 41.
Cristata, 41.

Marina, 24.

• Vulgaris, 24.

Meleagris, 123.
Unieola, 123.

~^^— * C repitans, 84.
Omophron, 142.

Onca, 28.

Gypaetos, 58, 60.

• Dorsata, 41.

Lycama, 140.

Mus, 35, 37.

OiK'hiiKirus, 132.
Onihitra, 36 38

Pajeros, 28.
Pardalis, 28.

Barbatus, 60.
Gypogeranus, 58, 61.

Fasciculata, 41.
Macroura, 41.

Lyga?us, 144.
Lystra, 145.

Dt'cumanus, 38.
Giganteus, 38.

Zibethicus, 38.

Pardina, 28.

— — Capensis, 61.

— Preheusilis, 41.

Musculus, 38.

piicepiaus, 5.

Pardus, 28.

MACRODACTYIA, 89.

Rattus, 38.

*^~^~ 1 unctatus, 113.

Rufa, 28.

H.EMATOPU8, 83, 84.

IBIS, 87, 88.

Macropus Minor, 34.

Sylvaticus, 38.

Striatus, 115.
Ophidia 103

Scrval, 28.
Tigrina, 28.

Ostralegns, 84.
Halieus, 95.

Falcinellus, 88.
Religiosa, 88.

Macroramphi, 88.
Macrorhyncha, 30.

Muscipets, 65.
Musicapa, 63.

Ophidium. 122, 123.

Tigris, 28.
Fiatola, 113.

Halmaturus, 34.
Brunii, 35.

Ichneumon, 144.

Icterus, 70.

Macroura, 146.
Majna, 112.

Albicollis, 63.
Grisola, 63.

• IniberbiSj I-'.!.
Ophisturus. Io4.
( )ii!iisiirns 1 ^**

Fiber, 36, 38.
Fiitularia, 116, 117.

— — — Eugenii, 35.
Fasciatus, 35.

Iguana, 101.
Tuberculata, 101.

Malapterus, 118.
Malthe, 111.

—— Luctuosa, 63.
Parva, 63.

Hyala. 122.

— — Immaculata, 117.

Gigas, 35.

Ignanida, 101.

Malurus, 65.

Musophaga, 75.

Q' - , * ' ^Q

Serrata, 117.

Labiatus, 35.

Imperator, 134.

Malachurus, 65.

Mustela, 21, 22.

Orbiculina 1 30

Tabaccaria, 117.

Ruficollis, 35.

Infusoria, 151.

Manatus, 55.

Africans, 23.

Oriolus 65

Flata, 145.

Rufogriseus, 35.

Insecta, 138.

Americanus, 55.

Canadensis, 23.

Fodienta, 33.
Forbicinia, 147.
Foraminifera, 129.

Hapale, 6.
Argentina, 7.
Auritus, 7.

Invertebrata, 127—156.
Isopoda, 146.
lulus, 148.

JSenegalensis, 55.
Manis, 42, 43.
Pentedactyla, 43.

Erminea, 23.
— Koina, 23.
Fur.), 22.

Orthoptera, 139, 143.
Orthragoriscus, 124.

Forficula, 139.
Fratercula, 91, 92.
Mormon, 92.
Fringilla, 68, 69.
— Canaria, 69.

— — Chrysomelas, 7.
— — Humeralifer, 7.
Labriatus, 7.

— — Leoninus, 7.
Leucocephalus, 7.

KLEISTAGNATHI, 145.
Koula Cinereous, 34.
Kurtus, 113.

Tetradactyla, 43.
Mankirio, 90.
Mantis, 139.
Marsupiala, 31.
Masaris, 144.

Martes, 23.
— Nudipes, 23.
I'utnrius, 22.
.Sarmatica, 23.
Sibirica, 23.

Orycteropus, 43.
Capensis, 43.
Osphronemus, 113.
Ostracion, 124.

Carduelis, 69.

. Melanurus, 7.

Mastodon, 44, 46.

Striata, 24.

Ot<iria 29 ^10

Calebs, 69.

(Edipus, 7.

LABEOUS, 118.

— — Giganteus, 46.

Vulgaris, 23.

Otion 137

— — Domestics, 69.

Pencillatus, 7.

Labrax, 117.

Matamata, 99.

Zibellina, 23.

Otis 83.

Linaria, 69.

— Rosalius, 7.

Labrus, 116, 117.

Meandrina, 154.

Mtitilla, 144.

— Tnnli fti

Psittacea, 69.

Rufimanns, 7.

' Carneus, 117.

Megalonyx, 42.

Mycteria, 86.

1 '11 lulj o*r.

Fulgora, 140.
Fulica, 90, 91.

Ursula, 7.
— Vulgaris, 7.

Labyrinthiformia, 115.
Lacerta, 100.

— Jeffersonii, 42.
Megalotis, 22, 29.

— — Senegalensis, 86.
Mygale, 15, 18.

Crassicaudatus, 9.

Helix, 131.

Lacertida, 100.

Erucii, 29.

Muscovitica, 18.

• a "

GADOIDA, 120, 121.

Hemiclaviculata, 39.

Lamer Geyer, 60.

Megapodius, 90.

I'yrenaica, 18.

~~ v'"!- -M5) * •

Morrhua, 121.

Hemipodius, 79.

Lagomures, 40, 41.

— — Freycinetus, 90.

Mygale, 147.

s.'l< tMC»s's, 9.

Galagos, 9.

Hemiptera, 140, 144.

Lamellibranchiate, 136.

Megatherium, 42.

Myophona, 70

0,.;,. CO - i

Galbula, 73, 74.

Henops, 144.

Lamellirostrata, 96.

— — Cuvieri, 42.

Myoptamus, 36, 38.

> ISj <J — j >>•*,

Galeopithecus, 9.

Heorotarius, 71.

Lamnungia, 48.

Melania, 134.

Bonariensis, 38.

• ' A mi non j 54.

Ruber, 10.

Herpestes, 22.

Lampris, 114.

Meleagris, 79.'

Myriapoda, 148.

~ • Aii^licus, j4.

Variegatus, 10.

-Egyptiacus, 24.

Lampyris, 138.

Meles, 19.

Myothera, 65. *

Sri ° ' rA

Galeriticbx, 149.

Edwardsii, 24.

Laniogenus, 132.

Labradorius, 21.

.Myoxns, 35, 36."

' l^olK'lnirAj o4.
( ;,,]! :.. .

Gallinacea, 77.

Griseus, 24.

Lanius, 63.

— Vulgaris, 21.

Avellanarius, 37.

•"" '• MHIJlCUSj .»-+.

Gallinida, 77.

— — Javanicus, 24

Collurio, 63.

Meliphaga, 65.

(ilis, 36.

™~ - 1 1 niiii'iisiSj j-t.

Gallinula, 91.
Baillonii, 91.
Chloropus, 91.

Major, 24.
Mungo, 24.
Rnbes, 24.

Excubitor, 63.
Laomedia, 154.
l.aplysia, 133.

M.-lithreptus, 72.
Melivolus, 19, 21.
Menopoma, 109.

Nitela. 37.
-Mvrmecophaga, 42, 43.
Jubata, 43.

LatuMdita, 54.

Polyceratus, 54.

Crex, 91.

Vansire, 24.

Larus Marinus, 93, 94.

Menura, 65.

Myrmeleon, 139.

Porzana, 91.

Hesperia, 140.

Lemur, 8.

Supcrba, 65.

PACIIYPF.KMATA, 44.

Pusilla, 91.

Heterobranchiate, 135, 136.

Albifrons, 8.

Mephitis, 22, 23.

NAJA, 106.

IVhyptiln, 93.

INDEX. 159

Pachyptila, Vittata, 94.

Phasianella, 134.

Plumularia, 154.

Pteropus, Titthxcheilus, 12.

Scaras, Cretensis, 117.

Sparactes, 65.

I'u^iirus, 146.

Pliasianus, 78.

Plyctolophus, 77.

Vulgaris, 11.

Scatharus, 112.

Sparoida, 112.

Paiamedea Cornuta, 90.

Amherstia;, 78.

Podargus, 67, 68.

Puffin, 92.

Sciaena, 112.

Spatangida;, 149.

Palliobranchiate, 136.

^^— > Nycthemerus, 78.

Podiceps, 91, 92.

Pulex, 141.

Aquila, 112.

Spatularia, 125.

Palmipcda, 91.

Phascolarctos, 33, 34.

Podiceps, Cornutus, 92.

Pulmonifera, 130.

Sciaphora, 150.

Spermophilus, 36, 39.

Paludina, 134.

Cinereus, 34.

Podoa, 91, 92.

Pupa, 131.

Scincus, 103.

Spagebranchus, 122, 123.

Panorpa, 143.

Phascologale, 31.

Senegalensis, 92.

Pycnobranchiata, 125.

Ofiinnalis, 103.

Rostratus, 123.

Paper Nautilus, 128.

Minima, 31.

Surinamensis, 92.

Pygopus, 101.

Sciurus, 36, 39.

Spheniscus, 92, 93.

Papio, 4.

Phascolomys, 33.

Podopthalmous, 145.

Pyi-goma, 137.

Vulgaris, 39.

Sphex, 139.

.Kthiops, 4.

Bassii, 33.

Podura, 147.

Pyrrhocoraz, 65.

Scolia, 144.

Sphyrama, 111.

Anubis, 4.

Phibalura, 65.

Poecilia, 118.

Pyrrhula, 70.

Scolopas, 87, 88.

Spiracularia, 55.

^^— Carbonarius, 4.

Phoca, 29.

Pogonias, 75.

Python, 104.

Scolopendra;, 148.

Spirobranchus, 115.

Comatus, 4.

Leptonvx, 30.

Pollicipes, 137.

Poda, 104.

Scolopisides, 112.

Spongia, l.MI.

Cynocephalus, 4.

Monachus, 30.

Polyacanthus, 115.

Scomber, 113.

Squalus, 125, 126.

Cynomolgus, 4.

Vitnlina, 29.

Polycera, 132.

QUADRUMAXA, 1.

Scomberoida, 113.

Carcharias, 126.

Hamadryas, 4.

Phcenicophaus, 75.

Polychrus, 102.

Scopus, 86.

Squatina, 125, 126.

I nuns, 1.

Phocnicopterus, 90.

Polyclinum, 136.

RADIATA, 149.

Umbretta, 86.

Angelus, 126.

Leucophanis, 4.

Phycis, 120, 121.

Polydesmus, 148.

Raia, 125, 126.

Scorpana, 112.

Squilla, 146.

Maunis, 4.

Phvllornis, 65.

Polygonata, 146.

Clavata, 126.

Scorpio, 147.

Steganopoda, 94.

Mormon, 4.

Phyllostoma, 10, 12.

Polvnemus, 111.

Rallus, 90, 91.

Scorpis, 113.

Stellerida, 149.

Nemestrinus, 4.

Bidens, 1:5.

Polyodon, 125.

Ramphastoma, 99.

Scutellida?, 149.

Stellio, 101.

Porcarius, 4.

Brachvotum, 13.

Folium, 125.

Ramphastos, 76.

Scyllam, 132.

Vulgaris, 101.

• R:\diatus, 4.

Brevieau'latum, 13.

Polyphemus, 146.

Rana, 107.

Scythrops, 76.

Stemnopata, 30.

• Rhesus, 4.

Cirrhosum, 13.

Polyplectron, 8'J.

Esculenta, 107.

Sebastes, 112.

Stenops Ceyloninus, 9.

Silenus, 4.

^^— Crcnulatum, 13.

Polyps, 153.

Raphidia, 143.

Semnopithecus, 1, 3.

Bengalensis, 9.

Sinicus, 4.

Elongatum, 13.

Polypterus, 120

Recurvirostia, 87, 88.

C'ristata, 3.

Stcnorhvncha, 30.

Speciosus, 4.

Hastatum, 12.

Polystomella, 130.

Regalecus, 115.

Kntellus, 3.

Sterna, 93, 94.

Paradisea, 68, 69.

Jamaicense, 13.

Pomatorhinus, 72.

Renilla, 154.

Malalophos, 3.

Sternarchus, 123.

Apoda, 69. j

- Lilium, 13.

Trivirgatus, 72.

Reptilia, 98.

Maurus, 3.

Sternoptvx, 120.

Paradolutus, 65.

Lineatum, 13.

Turdinus, 72.

Rhagium, 142.

Nasica, 3.

Nternothoerus, 98.

Paradoxurus, 22, 29.

Macrophyllum, 13.

Pompilus, 140.

Rhea, 82, 83.

Nemaeus, 3.

Stomapoda, 146.

Paralepis, 111.

Perspicillatum, 13.

Porcellus, 146.

Rhinolophus, 10, 13.

Pyrrhus, 3.

Strepsilas, 88, 89.

Parra, 89, 90.

• Planirostre, 13.

Porphyrio, 90.

Bihastatus, 13.

Senalaria, 154.

Interpres, 89.

.Enea, 90.

Rotundum, 13.

Pulverulentus, 90.

Clivosus, 13.

Sepia, 129.

Strepsiptera, 145.

Chilensis, 90.

Spectrum, 13.

Porypterus, 120.

Commersonii, 13.

Officmalis, 129.

Strix, 61.

Chinensis, 90.

Superciliatum, 13.

Premnas, 112.

Deform is, 13.

Seps, 103.

Aluco, 62.

Paras, 68.

Physaphora, 150.

Pressirostrata, 83.

Diodema, 13.

Tridactylus, 103.

Arctica, 62.

Caudatis, 69.

Physae, 131.

Priacanthus, 111.

Larvatus, 13.

Serialaria, 154.

Ascalaphus, 62.

Passerina, 63.

Physeter, 56.

Priodon, 115.

Minor, 13.

Seriola, 114.

Asio, 63.

Pastor, 65.

Macrocephalus, 56.

Annulatis, 115.

Nobilis, 13. •

Serranus, 111.

• Bengalensis, 62.

Pavo, 80.

Microps, 56.

Prionites, 73.

Speoris, 13.

Serrasalmo, 124.

. Brachiolus, 63.

Cristatus, 80.

Orthodon, 56.

Prionodontidaj, 24.

Trideos, 13.

Sertularia, 154.

Bubo, 62.

Pectinibranchiata, 134.

Tursio, 56.

Priononotus, 112.

Unihastatus, 13.

Setigera, 48.

Chouchou, 61.

Pectoralipeda, 116.

Phytotoma, 70.

Prionurus, 115.

Vulgaris, 13.

Sicydion, 116.

Flammea, 62.

Pedetes, 36, 38.

Picumnus, 74, 75.

Pristigaster, 120.

Rhinopoma, 10, 13.

Sigaretus, 135.

Funerea, 62.

Capensis, 38.

Abnormis, 75.

Pristis, 126.

Microphyllus, 13.

Sigillina, 137.

^ Griseata, 62.

Pediculus, 147.

Cirrhatus, 75.

Pristomoma, 112.

Rhombus, 121.

Sillago, 111.

Hylophila, 62.

Peduncular, 137.

Exilis, 75.

Proboscifera, 44.

Cardina, 121.

Silurus, 117, 118.

Javanica, 62.

Pegasus, 123.

Minutissimus, 75.

Procellaria, 93.

Khynchea, 87, 88.

chuns, 118.

Lack's, 63.

Draco, 124.

Picucules, 71.

Procnias, 65.

Rhyncobdella, 114.

Simia, 1, 2.

Laponica, 62.

Pelagia, 30.

Picus, 74.

Procyon, 19, 20.

Rhyncops, 93, 94.

Abelii, 3.

Leucotis, 63.

Pelamis, 106.

Martius, 74.

Cancrivorus, 21.

Nigra, 94.

Mormon, 5.

. Lineata, 62.

Pelecanus, 94, 95.

Tridactylus, 74.

Lotor, 21.

Ricinus, 147.

Pitheciis, 3.

Macrorhyncha, 63.

Onocrotalus, 95.

Pileopsis, 135.

Proteles, 22, 29.

Rodeutia, 35.

Satanns, 6.

Nebulosa, 62.

Pentalasmis, 137.

Pimelodes, 117, 118.

Proteus, 108, 109.

Rotalia, 130.

Satyrus, 3.

Nisuella, 61;

Percis, 111.

Cyclopum, 118.

Anguinus, 109.

Ruminantia, 49.

- Troglodytes, 2.

Is'yctea, 61.

Peristedion, 111.

Pinnata, 29.

Pseudo Boa, 106.

Rupicola, 63, 65.

Siphonaria, 135.

Otus, 62.

Perameles, 31, 32.

Pipx, 107, 108.

Pseudopus, 104.

Aurantiaca, 65.

Siphonophora, 150.

-^— Pagodarum, 62.

— — Bougainvillei, 32.

Surinameosis, 108.

Pallasii, 104.

Rusticola?, 88.

Siren, 108, Iu9.

Passerina, 62.

— Lawsonii, 32.

Pipra, 65.

Psittacida, 76

Rytiua, 55.

Lacertina, 109.

Pcrlata, 62.

Nasuta, 32.

Pisces, 110.

Aracanga, 77.

Stelleri, 5.

Siro, 147.

Pulsatrix, 62.

Obesula, 32.

Ossei, 110.

Erythracus, 77.

Ryzama, 24.

Sitana, 102.

Strepitans, 62.

Perca, 110.

Pithecia, 1, 6.

Goliath, 77.

Capensis, 24.

Sitta, 71.

Stridula, 62.

Fluviatilis, 110.

Capillamentosus, 6.

Nasicus, 77.

Europrca, 71.

Sultanus, 62.

Percnopterus, 58, 60.

Cheiroptes, 6.

Pileatus, 77.

SAOCOMYS, 36 39.

Smaris, 1 12.

Sumatrana, 62.

• .Egyptiacus, 60.

Hirsutus, 6.

Solsticialis, 77.

Athophilus, 39.

Vulgaris, 113.

Tengmalmi, 62.

Percoida, 110.

Inustus, 6.

Psittacirostra, 70.

Saccopharynx, 122, 123.

Smaris, 147.

Qralensis, 61.

Percophis, 111.

Leucocephalus, 6.

Psittacula, 77.

Harwoodii, 123.

Solea, 121.

Stromateus, 114.

Perdix, 80.

Melanocephalus, 6.

Psophia, 87.

Saccophorus, 36, 39.

Vulgaris, 121.

Struthio, 82.

Perioplithalmus, 116.

Monachus, 6.

Crepitans, 87.

Salamandra, 108.

Solenostomus, 124.

Camelhis, 82.

Peronia, 132.

Ocrocephalus, 6.

Pterocles, 80.

Maculosa, 109.

Solidicornia, 50.

Sturionida, 125.

Petaurista, 32, 33.

Ruribarbatus, 6.

Pteroglossus, 75.

Salamandrops, 108, 109.

Solipeda, 49.

Sturnus, 70.

Flaviventer, 33.

Rufiventer, 6.

Ptilonorhynchus, 65.

Alleghanensis, 109.

Sorex, 15.

C'arunculatus, 70.

Macrurus, 33.

Sagulatus, 6.

Pterois, 112.

Salanx, 118.

Araneus, 15.

Musicns, 70.

Peronii, 33.

Satanus, 6.

Pteromys, 39, 41.

Salaris, 116.

Brevicaudus, 16.

Pharoides, 70.

Pygmseus, 33.

Pitta, 65.

Pteromyzon, 125, 126.

Salientia, 34.

Collaris, 16.

Vulgaris, 70.

Taguanoicles, 33.

Plagiostomata, 126.

Maximus, 126.

Salmo, 119.

Constrictus, 16.

Stylephorus, 114.

Petromyzon, 125, 126.

Plantigrada, 18.

Ptcropoda, 135.

Salar, 119.

Etruscus, 15, 16.

Chordatus, 114.

Phacochoems, 48.

Platelea, 87.

Pteropus, 10, 11.

Salmonida, 119.

Flavescens, 16.

Stylops, 14o.

Phaeton, 95.

Ajaja, 87.

Dasymallus, 11.

Sarchophaga, 15.

Fodiens, 16.

Suiloi-ia, 141.

Phoenicums, 96.

— — Leucorodia, 87.

Edulis, 11.

Sarcoramphus, 58, 59.

Fosterii, 16.

Sula, 95, 96.

Phalaropus, 87, 88.

Tenuirostris, 87.

. Geoffroyi, 12.

Papa, 59.

Giganteus, 16.

. Alba, 96.

Phaleris, 92, 93.

Platessa Vulgaris, 121.

Griseus, 1 1 .

Sargus, 112.

Indicus, 16.

Sus, 47, 48.

Phalingista, 32, 33.

Platycephalus, 111.

i Javanicus, 11.

Annularis, 112.

Leucodon, 16.

Uomesticus, 48.

Cavifrons, 33.

Platyrhynchos, 65.

Kerandrenius, 11.

Sasa, 79.

Lineatus, 16.

Monongulus, 48.

— ^ Chrysorrhos, 33.

Plecotus, 10, 13.

Marginatus, 12.

Sauria, 100.

Myosnrus, 16.

I'orcus, 48.

Cookii, 33.

Barbastellus, 13.

Medius, 11.

Saurus, 119, 120.

Paiustris, 16.

Scrofa, 48.

Fuliginosa, 33.

Vulgaris, 13.

Melauocephalus, 12.

Fsetens, 120.

Personatus, 15, 16.

Riraensis, 48.

Gliriformis, 33.

Plectognathi, 124.

— — Minimus, 12.

Saxicola, 65.

Pulchellus, 15, 16.

Tursica, 48.

i Maculata, 33.

Plectropoma, 111.

Pallidus, 11.

Scalops, 15, 18.

Religiosus, 16.

Sylvia, 65.

Macroura, 33.

Pleurobranchus, 133.

Personatus, 11.

Canadensis, 18.

Renifer, 16.

Atricapilla, 66.

Nana, 33.

Pleuronectoida, 120.

— Phaiops, 11.

Scalpellum, 137.

Tetragonuras, 16.

Cinerea, 66.

Ursina, 33.

Ploceus, 70.

Poliocephalus, 11.

Scansori, 73.

Spah.x, 4(1, 41.

Curruca, 66.

Vulpina, 33.

Plotus, 95, 96.

Rubricollis, 11.

Scaphidium, 142.

Javanicus, 41.

Luscinia, 66.

Xanthopus, 33.

Plumatella, 155.

^— Stramineus, 12.

Scarus, 116, 117.

Tyfhlus, 41.

Phcenicurus, 66.

v2

160

INDEX.

Sylvia, PhragmitU, 66.

Taphozous, Lcpturus, 13.

Timalia, 66.

Tritonia, 132.

Ursus Arctos, 19.

Viverra, 22.

— — Provincialis, 66.

Longimaiius, 13.

Tinactor. 72.

Trochilus, 71.

Cinereus, 20.

Viverra, C'ivctta, 24.

Kubecula, 66.

Mauritianus, 13.

Tinamus, 81.

Lalandii, 7'J.

Euryspilus, 20.

Fasciata, 24.

Sibilatrix, 66.

Perforatus, 13.

Tingis, 144.

Oniismva, 7'-'.

Labiatus, 20.

Fossa, 24.

Trochilus, 66.

Rufus, 13.

Todus, 73.

Trochoid, 134.

Malayanus, 20.

Genetta, 24.

Synillaiis, 72.

Tapirus, 47, 48.

Viridis, 73.

Trochus, 1M.

Oraatus, 20.

Gracilis, 24.

Synanceia, 112.

Americanos, 48.

Torpedo, 125, 126.

Trogon, 76.

Polar, 20.

Hermaphrodita, 24.

Synbranchus, 123.

Tardigrada, 42.

Narke, 126.

Tropidurus, 102.

Indica, 24.

Syndactyla, 72.

Tarsi us. 9.

Tortrii, 104.

Torquatus, 102.

VAQINALIg, 90.

Zibetha, 24.

Syngnathus, 123.

Baneanus, 9.

Scytale, 104.

Truxalis, 143.

Vanellus, 83, 84.

Vomer, 114.

Kondolctii, 123.

Fuscomanus, 9.

Totanus, 88, 89.

Tubicinella, Ki7.

Melanogaster, 84.

Vultur, 58.

Typhlus, 123.
Viridis, 123.

— — Spectrum, 9.
Tectibranchiata, 132.

Toiot«s, 113.
Trachinotus, 114

Tubipora, 154.
Tubularia, 154.

Ventro-nudibranchiate,131.
Veretillum, 155.

— — jEgyptius, 58.
Angolensis, 59.

Synodoris, 118.

Tenuirostrata, 71.

Trachinus, 110.

Tunicata, 135.

Vertebrata, 1 — 127.

Arrianus, 58.

Synoicum, 137.

Terrapene Trifasciatus, 98.

Draco, 111.

Tupinambis, 100.

Vespertilio, 11, 14.

Auricularis, 58.

Syrrhaptes, 80.

Testacella, 131.

Tragopan, 78, 79.

Turbo, 134.

Barbastellus, 14.

Fulvus, 58.

Testudo, 98.

Satyrus, 79.

Turdus, 64.

Bcchsteinii, 14.

Galericulatus, 59.

TABAXCS, 141.

Gneca, 98.

Trapelus, 102.

— — Mcrula, 64.

Dasycarpos, 14.

Imperialis, 59.

Tachvdromus, 101.

Indica, 98.

Trichechus, 29, 30.

Musicus, 64.

Daubentonii, 14.

Indus, 59.

Tachypetes, 95.

Tethys, 132.

Rosmarus, 30.

Polyglottus, 64.

Discolor, 14.

Kolbii, 59.

Aquilus, 93.

Tetrao, 80.

Trichechus Borealis, 55.

Turnstone, 89.

Lavis, 14.

Ponticerianus, 58.

Tachys, 142.

Tetraodon, 124.

Trichiurus, 114.

Typhlops, 104.

Lcucogaster, 14.

Tajnioida, 113.

Tetragonopterus, 120.

Lepturus, 114.

Tyrannus, 66.

— — .Maxim us, 14.

XANTHORXUS, 70.

Talpa, 15, 16.

Tetragonorus, 115.

Trichodon, 111.

ilurinus, 14.

Xenops, 71.

Caeca, 17. "

Tetrapturus, 114.

Trichonotus, 115.

ULEIOTA, 142.

Mystacinus, 14.

Genibarbis, 71.

Vulgaris, 17.

Teitularia, 130.

Trichophorus, 66.

Umbella, 133.

Naso, 14.

Rutilans, 71.

Tamatia, 76.

Thamnophilus, 66.

Trichoptera, 143.

Umber, 112.

Nattereri, 14.

Xenos, 145.

Tamias, 36. 39.

Therapon, 111.

Trichopus, 115.

Umbrina, 112.

Nigricans, 14.

Xiphia, 114.

Tainias, 75.

Thereva. 141.

Tridactylus, 143.

Upeneus, 111.

Noctula, 14.

Gladius, 114.

Taaagra, 63.

Thrips, 145.

Trigla, 111.

Upupa, 71, 72.

Pictus, 14.

Xiphotheca, 115.

Vittata, 64.

Thryssa, 120.

Trigonocephalus, 106.

Epops, 72.

Pipistrellus, 14.

Xirictliys, 117.

Tandrek, 17.

Thunnus, 114.

Trimeresurus, 106.

Uranodon, 56, 57.

Polythru, 14.

Y rr xrv 7 A

Silky, 17.

Thylacinus, 31.

Microcephalus, 106.

Bidens, 57.

Pygm;cus, 14.

1 I NX, ft.
Tnmiiilla 71

Spiny, 17.

— — Harrisii. 31.

Tringa, 88, 89.

Uranoscopus, 111.

— - Serotinus, 14.

™ ••— 1 < >I I.JUI1 lu, i Ot

Tantalus, 86.

Thymallus, 120.

Trionyi, 98, 99.

Uria, 92, 93.

Vespertilio Vampyrus, 11.

/i:rs, 114.

Ibis, 86.

Thyrsites, 114.

jEgyptiacus, 99.

Urocerus, 139.

Vinago, 82.

Faber, 114.

Lacteus, 86.

Thysanoura, 147.

Triodon, 124.

Uromatrix, 102.

Abyssinia, 82.

Zoanthus, 154.

Leucocephalus, 86.

Tic'hodroma, 71.

Triton, 108, 109.

Ureus, 18, 19.

Vipera, 105.

Zoarchus, 116.

Taphozous, 10, 13.

Phcenicoptera, 71.

Gesneri, 109.

Americanus, 19. Berus, 105.

Zygodactyla, 73.

.

INDEX OF COMMON NAMES.

ACALEPHS, 150.

Bat, Painted, 14.

Cat, Pampa, 28.

DARTER, 96.

Eel, Sharp-nosed, 122.

Frog, Horned, 107.

Ctenophorous, 150.

• Parti-coloured, 14.

Peruvian, 28.

- Black-bellied, 96.

Snake, 122.

Frog Fish, 116.

Diphydous, 150.

Pygmy, 14.

Spanish, 28.

— — Le Vaillant's, 96.

Eft, 109.

Surinam, 117.

Physaphorous, 150.

Reddish-grey, 14.

Tortoiseshell, 28.

White-bellied, 96.

Marbled, 109.

Sciaphorous, 150.

• Serotine, 14.

Cat Fish, 116.

Dasyure, 31.

Egret, 85.

Siphonophorous, 150.

Serotine, Great, 14.

Cavy, 41.

Brush-tailed, 31.

Electric Eel, 123.

GAXXET, 96.

Velelidoas, 151.

Slender, 14.

Rock, 41.

Dog-headed, 31.

Elephant, 44.

White, 96.

Albatross, 94.

Spectre, 13.

Restless, 41.

— — Long-tailed, 31.

African, 45.

Garangan, 24.

— — Wandering, 94.

Vampire, 13.

Spotted, 41.

Maugean, 31.

Indian, 45..

Gasteropod, 130.

Alligator, 99.

Whiskered, 14.

Chamelion, 102.

Tapha, 31.

Emeu, 83.

Gavial, 99.

Ammonite, 129.

White-bellied, 14.

Common, 103.

Ursine, 31.

Engalla, 48.

Gazelle, 52.

Anastome, 86.

Bear, 19.

Channel-bill, 76.

Viverrine, 31.

Gecko, 101, 102.

African, 86.

Black, 19.

Civet, True, 24.

Yellow, 31.

FALCON, 60.

Broad-fingered, 101.

Indian, 86.

Bornean, 20.

Cobra di Capello, 24.

Daubenton's Tarsier,

Aldrovandi, 60.

Broad-tailed, 101.

Anchovies, 120.

Brown, 19.

Cock, 78.

Deer, 50, 51.

Black-thighed, 60.

Egyptian, 102.

Angel Fish, 126.

Cordilleras, 20.

Domestic, 78.

American, 51.

Fishing, 60.

Fan-fingered, 101.

Angler, 116.

Grisly, 20.

Crested, 78.

Fallow, 51.

Hobby, 60.

Furrowed - fingered,

Common, 116.

Juggler, 20.

Sonnerat's, 78.

Mexican, 51.

Hooded, 60.

101.

Ant-eater, 43.

Malay, 20.

Cod Fish, 120, 121.

Moose, 51.

Ingrian, 60.

Half-fingered, 101.

Acuelated, 43.

Maritimus, 20.

— — Common, 121.

Porcine, 51.

Jer, 60.

Wall, 102.

Black, 43.

Thibet, 20.

Hake, 121.

Red, 51.

Kestril, 60.

Gemsbok, 52.

Double-striped, 43.

Beaver, 37.

Ling, 121.

Rein, 51.

Lanner, 60.

Genet, 24.

Great, 43.

Musk, 38.

Rockling, 121.

Rib-faced, 51.

Merlin, 60.

Filleted, 24.

Lest, 43.

Bee-eater, 73.

Torsk, 121.

Roe-buck. 51.

— — Passenger, 60.

Gills, Close, 125.

Middle, 43.

Common, 73.

Whiting, 121.

Spotted, 51.

Rufous-backed, 60.

Loose, 124.

Ringed, 43.

Beef-eater, 69.

Colin, 80.

Tail-less, 51.

Fennec, 29.

Globe Fish, 124.

Armadillo, 42.

Berg-haas, 38.

Colugo, 10.

Virginian, 51.

Fennek, 25.

Goat, 53.

Apar, 42.

Biped, 103.

Red, 10.

Delundung, 24.

Ferret, 22.

African, 54.

Great, 42.

Scaly-footed, 103.

Coot, 91.

Desman, 15, 18.

Fiddle Fish, 126.

Angora, 54.

Nine-banded, 42.

Bittern, 85.

Cormorant, 95.

Pyrenean, 18.

File Fish, 124.

Capricorn, 54.

Peludo, 42.

Black Cap, 66.

True, 95.

Russian, 18.

Finch, 69.

Caucasian, 53.

Pichy, 42.

Boar Fish, 114.

Corn-crake, 91.

Dibranchiate Mollusks, 127.

Broad-billed, 69.

Common, 53.

Six-banded, 42.

Boat-bill, 85.

Courser, Bronzed-winged,

Diphvdous, 150.

Bull, 70.

Ibex, 54.

Three-banded, 42.

Bonv Fishes, 110.

84.

Diver, 92.

Chaff, 69.

Syrian, 53.

Twelve-banded, 42.

Booby, 96.

Couscou, 33.

Black-throated, 92.

Gold, 69.

Whidaw, 54.

Articulated Animals, 138.

Bream, 112, 113.

Golden-rumped, 33.

Northern, 92.

Parrot, 69.

'• Yellow, 52.

Ass, 49.

Bream (Carp), 118.

Large-tailed, 33.

Red-throated, 92.

Shnrt liilli.J AO

Goatsucker, 68.

— OMOlT-DUiea, DU.

Bristle-neck, 66.

Spotted, 33.

Dog, 24.

Fisher, 23.

European, 68.

BABOON, 4.

Broad-beak, 65.

Surinam, 33.

Beagle, 25.

Fishes, 110.

Leona, 68.

Anubis, 4.

Broadhead, 111.

Ursine, 33.

Bloodhound, 25.

Fitchet, 22.

Goby, 116.

Black-faced, 4.

Buffalo, 54.

White, 33.

Bull, 25.

Fixed Gills, 125.

Black, 116.

Common, 4.

Bullhead, 111.

Coypu, 37, 38.

Dalmatian, 25.

Flamingo, 90.

God's Bird, 69.

Dog-faced, 4.

Bunting, 69.

Mm, 37.

Domestic, 24.

Chilian, 90.

Godwit, 88.

Great, 2, 4.

Common, 69.

White-bellied, 37.

Faithful, 24.

Lesser, 90.

Goose, 97.

Grey, 4.

Ortolan, 69.

Yellow-bellied, 37.

Foxhound, 25.

Red, 90.

Bean, 97.

Hog-faced, 4.

Reed, 69.

Crab, 146.

Greyhound, 25.

Flycatcher, 63.

Bernicle, 97.

Lesser, 4.

Snow, 69.

Cramp Fish, 126.

• Harrier, 25.

Little, 63.

Canada, 97.

— — • Lion-tailed, 4.

Yellow, 69.

Eyed (or Spotted),

— Irish Greyhound, 25.

Pied, 63.

Egyptian, 97.

Pig-tailed, 4.

Bustard, 83.

126.

— King Charles's, 25.

Spotted, 63.

— — Goosander, 97.

Porcine, 4.

Great, 84.

Crane, 87.

Mastiff, 25.

White-collared, 63.

Greylay, 97.

Red-faced, 4.

Butcher, 65.

Gigantic, 86.

Naked, 25.

Flying Fish, 118.

Mother Gary's, 93.

Ribbed-nose, 4.

Bird, 63.

Creeper, 71.

Newfoundland, 25.

Flying Squirrel, 41.

Snow, 97.

Wood, 4".

Buzzard, 61.

Mountain, 72.

Pointer, 25.

White-fronted, 97.

. Wrinkled, 4.

Wall, 71.

Pug, 25.

Bay, 41.

Wild, 97.

Badger, 21.

. True, 71.

Shepherd's, 25.

Bristle, 41.

Grakle, 70.

American, 21.

CACHALOT, 56.

Crocodile, 99.

Shock, 25.

Dart, 41.

Grayling, 120.

Common, 21.

• Great-headed, 56.

Common, 99.

Spaniel, 25.

European, 41.

Grebe, 92.

Banana-eater, 75.

High-tinned, 56.

Indian, 99.

Terrier, 25.

Pretty, 41.

Coot, 92.

Band Fish, 113, 115.

Calamary, 129.

Nilotic, 99.

i Turnspit, 25.

Severn River, 41.

Great Crested, 92.

Rubcscent, 115.

Campagnol, 36.

Cross-bill, 69.

Water, 25.

Fly-seeker, 65.

Horned, 92.

Barbel, 117.

Garlic, 36.

Common, 69.

Dolphin, 114.

Folded-chest, 120.

Tippet, 92.

Barbet, 75.

Red, 36.

Parrot, 69.

Donzell, Beardless, 123.

Foot of Gasteropod, 130.

Grosbeak, 69.

Barbican, 75.

Rock, 36.

Crow, 70.

Doree, 114.

Fork-beard, 120, 121.

Parrot-billed, 69.

Basilisk, 101.

Social, 36.

Carrion, 70.

Dragon, Sea, 124.

Fossan, 24.

Pine, 69.

Amboina, 101.

Carp, 117.

Jackdaw, 70.

Dragonet, 116.

Four-tinned, 114.

Ground Hog, 43.

Bat, 9.

Barbel, 117.

Jay, 70.

Duck, 97.

Four-toothed, 124.

Groundling, 118.

Bechstein's, 14.

Bream, 118.

Magpie, 70.

Eider, 97.

Fox, 25.

Ground Squirrel, 39.

Blackish, 14.

Cirrhine, 118.

Nutcracker, 70.

Carrot, 97.

Black, 25.

Four-lined, 39.

— Common, 14.

Gonorhynque, 118.

Raven, 70.

Merganser, 97.

Brant, 25.

Hudson's Bay, 39.

Daubenton's, 14.

Gudgeon, 117.

Rook, 70.

Pochard, 97.

Cape, 25.

Line-tailed, 39.

Eared, 13.

' Labeous, 118.

Cuckoo, 75.

Shield-rake, 87.

Corsac, 25.

Striped, 39.

Fruit-eating, 9, 10,

Tench, 118.

Barbacous, 75.

Shoveller, 97.

Cross, 25.

Grouse, 80.

11.

White Fish, 118.

Common, 75.

Dugong, 55.

Cur, 25.

Land, 80.

Great, 14.

Cartilaginous Fishes, 124.

Coua, 75.

Fulvous-necked, 25.

Ptarmigan, 81.

Hairy, 14.

Cassowary, 83.

C'oucal, 75.

EAGLE, 60.

Greyhound, 25.

True, 80.

Hairy-armed, 14.

Cat, 28.

Courol, 75.

Booted, 60.

Karagan, 25.

Gudgeon, 117.

Hare-lipped, 13.

Angora, 28.

Honey Guide, 75.

Hawk. 60.

Mastiff, 25.

Guillemot, 93.

— Horse-shoe (various),

Booted, 28.

Curlew, 88.

Sea, 60.

Francolin, 80.

Guinea Pig, 41.

13.

Cape, 28.

Esquimaux, 88.

True, 60.

Frigate Bird, 94, 95.

(lull, 94.

Javelin, 13.

Chartreaux, 28.

Long-billed, 88.

True-fishing, 60.

Fringed-tail, 147.

Black-backed, 94.

Leafless-nosed, 9, 10,

Common, 28.

Cuttle Fish, 129.

Eel, 122.

Frog, 107.

Gurnard, 111.

12.

Domestic, 28.

Skeleton of, 129.

Broad-nosed, 122.

Edible, 107.

Red, 111.

Long-nosed, 14.

Evrn, 28.

Cutwater, 94.

Conger, 122.

Brown, 107.

Gvmnote, 123.

Mouse-coloured, 14.

Oceloid, 28.

Black, 94.

Glut (or Snig), 122.

Green, 107.

Even-lipped, 123.

162 INDEX.

HAIR-TAIL, 114.

Jay, 70.

Mai-re, 112.

New Holland Bear, 33.

Owl, Noisy, 62.

Pigeon, Carrier, 81.

Silvery, 114.

Jerboa, 38.

Manakin, 65.

Nightingale, 64, 66.

Occipital, 62.

Caruiu-iilated, 81.

Hake, 121.

Arrow, 38.

Mantle of Acephals, 136.

Norfolk Island Flying Squir-

Pagoda, 62.

— — Columbar, 81.

Halcyon, 73, 95.

Egyptian, 38.

Manul, 29.

rel, 33.

Pearly, 62.

Common, 81.

Halicore, 55.

Siberian, 38.

Man-of-war Bird, 95.

Nutcracker, 70.

Screech, 62.

— - Cropper, 81.

Halladrome, 93.

Jumping Hare, 38.

Marmot, 38.

Nuthach, 71.

Short-eared, 62.

Dragon, 82.

Berard's, 93.

Alpine, 38.

European, 71.

Snowy, 62.

Gallina, 81.

Hare, 40.

KALOXO, 11.

Bobac, 38.

Sonnerat's, 62.

Great Crowned, 81.

Alpine, 41.

Kamichi, 90.

Earless, 38.

OPOSSI-M, 32.

Spotted, 0:2.

Jacobin, 81.

^— American, 41.

Kangaroo, 34.

Hoarv, 38.

Cayenne, 32.

Sultan, 62.

Nun. 81.

Baikal, 41.

Banded, 35.

Maryland, 38.

Dwarf; :!2.

Siimatran, r>j.

Owl, 81.

Brazilian, 41.

Eugene, 35.

Mau'line, 33.

Large-tailed, 32.

Supercilious, 62.

Powter, 81.

Buck, 40.

Great, 35.

Quebec, 38.

— Mexican, 32.

Tawny, 62.

limit, 81.

Calling, 40, 41.
Cape. 41.

Lebrun, 35.
Lesser, 34.

Merion, 65.
Soft-tailed, 65.

Molucca, 32.
Murine, 32.

Tenginalm's, 62.
I'rai, 61.

Stock Dove, 81.
Turbit, 81.

Common, 40.

Moustached, 35.

Mite, 147.

Naked-tailed, 32.

Viirii-ijated, 61.

Waalia, 82.

Jack, 40.

Reddish-grev, 35.

Mocking Bird, 64.

New Holland, 33.

White-banded, 62.

White-headed, 81.

Little Chief, 41.

Red-necked/35.

Mole, 15, 16.

Porculiue, 32.

White-cheeked, 63.

Pintando, 79.

Moussel, 41.

Karagan, 25.

Blind, 17.

Short-tailed, 32.

White-fronted, 62.

Cornal, 79.

Ogotoma, 41.

Kestril, 60.

— Common, 17.

Touan, 32.

White-horned, 83.

Guinea, 79.

Polar, 41.

Carolina, 60.

Moll Bless, 41.

Virginian, 32.

Yellow-cheeked, 63.

Mitred, 79.

Prairie, 41.

Ked-thighed, 60.

. Zand, 41.

White-tailed, 33.

Ox, 54.

Pike, 118.

True, 40.

Rufous-backed, 60.

Molosse, Black, 12.

. Woolly, 32.

American, 54.

Pipe Fish, 123.

Variable, 41.

King Fish, 114.

Collared, 12.

Orang, 1, 2.

Buffalo, 54.

Deep-nosed, 123.

Harpy, 60.

King Fisher, 73.

Dusky, 12.

Black, 2.

Oyster-catcher, 84.

Plaice, 121.

Hatchet-belly, 120.

Kites, 61.

Egyptian, 12.

Dusky, 2.

Pied, 84.

Plant-cutter, 70.

Haute-beeste, 52.

Long-nosed, 12.

Outang, 1, 2.

Plover, 84.

Hawk, 60.

LAMPKEV, 126.

Plaited, 12.

— - Red, 2.

PALIKOCR, 65.

Golden, 84.

Dorr, 68.

Sea, 126.

Rufous, 12.

Oriole, 65.

Pangolin, 43.

Plover, Long-legged, 88.

Go«. 60.

Lapwing, 84.

— — Rupelian, 12.

Oruithorhynchus, 43.

Javan, 43.

Podge, 9.

— — Sparrow, 60.

Bastard, 84.

Shorn, 12.

Dusky, 44,

Long-tailed, 43.

Polecat, 22.

True, 60.

Grey, 84.

Slender, 12.

Paradoxus, 44.

Short-tailed, 43.

Ermine, 23.

Hedgehog, 15.

True, 84.

Swift, 12.

Rufous, 44.

Panther, 28.

Siberian, 23.

— Asiatic, 17.

Lark, 68.

Monkey, 1.

Osprev, 60.

Paradise Bird, 69.

Stout, 23.

Common, 15, 17.

Sky, 68.

Bearded, 6.

Ostrich, 82.

Golden-breasted, 69.

Porcupine, 41.

Long-eared, 15.

Wood, 68.

Bonnet, 4.

Otary, 30.

Greater, 69.

Brazilian, 41.

Radiated, 17.

Leaf Bird, 65.

Cat-like, 9.

Cinereous, 30.

King, 69.

Canada, 41.

Helmet Bird, 69.

Lemur, 7, 8.

• Cochin China, 4.

Crowned, 30.

Magnificent, 69.

Crested, 41.

Hepoona, 33.

Bengal, 8.

Four-fingered, 1, 5.

Falkland, 30.

Papuan, 69.

Long-tailed, 41.

Black, 33.

Cinereous, 8.

Fox-tailed, 6.

Lion-maned, 30.

Sanguine, 69.

Malacca, 41.

• Long-tailed, 33.

Collared, 8.

Green, 7.

Little, 30.

Suparb, 69.

Potoroo, 34.

Perous. 33

Rufous, 8.

Hare-lipped, 4.

Ursine, 30.

Parrot, 76.

Potto, 9.

Pigmv, 33.

Slow, 8.

Hideous, 6.

White-necked, 30.

Angola Yellow Para-

Pratincole, 91.

Squirrel-tailed, 33.

White-footed, 8.

Horned, 1, 5.

Yellow, 30.

keet, 77.

Austrian, '.I I.

Yellow-bellied, 33.

Leopard, 28.

Howler, 5.

Otter, 23.

— — Bonneted Psittarulc,

Puff Bird, 76.

Hereen, 38.

Cayenne, 28.

Jackaled, 6.

Brazilian, 24.

77.

Puma, '11.

Bay, 38.

Hunting, 28.

Malbrouc, 7.

Great, 24.

Grey Small- tongued,

Egyptian, 38.

Wild, 28.

Mustache, 7.

Lesser, 24.

77.

QlADRANGCI,AR-FlSS,120.

Tamarisk, 38

Ling, 121.

Preacher, 5.

Sea, 24.

— — Long-nosed Cockatoo,

Quails, 80.

Heron, 85.

Lion, 26.

-— Proboscis, 4.

Ouaran, 100.

77'.

Bittern, 86.

Arabian, 27.

Red, 1, 5.

Nilotic, 100.

Scarlet Maccaw, 77.

RACCOON, 20.

Common, 85.

Barbary, 27.

Short-tailed, 6.

Oustitis, 6, 7.

Parrot Fish, 117.

Common, 21.

Great Egret, 86.

Couguar, 27.

Silky, 1.

Black-tailed, 7.

Partridge, 80.

Crab-eating, 21.

Herring, 120.

Puma, 27.

Silvery, 7.

Hairy-eared, 7.

Colin, 80.

Radiate Animals, 149.

Hog Rabbit, 41.

Senegal, 27.

Spider, 5.

Pencilled, 7.

Francolin, 80.

Rasse, 24.

Honey-eater, 65, 72.

Lizard, 100.

Spotted, 7.

Whiteheadcd, 7.

Quail, 8d.

Rat, 37.

Honey-sucker, 71.

Eyed Green, 100.

Squirrel, 1, 5.

White-shouldered, 7.

True, 80.

African, 41.

Hoopoe, 72.

Loach, 118.

Striated, 1.

Owl, 62.

Pauxi, 80.

Alexandrian, 38.

— Common, 72.

Great, 118.

Varied, 7.

Acadian, 62.

Peacock, 80.

Bandicote, 38.

Hombill, 73.

Groundling, 118.

Vaulting, 7.

Accipitrine, 62.

Domestic, 80.

Black, 38.

Horse, 49.

Spiny, 118.

Weeper, 5.

— African spotted, 63.

lapan, 80.

Brazilian, 38.

Humming Bird, 71.

Lobster, 146.

White Eyelid, 7.

— American, 62.

Variegated, 80.

Brown, 38.

— — Straight-beaked, 72.

Locust-eater, 65.

• White-nosed, 7.

Barn, 62.

White, 80.

Cairo, 38.

True, 72.

Long-legs, 88.

Monkey-like Animals, 2.

Barred, 62.

Wild, 80.

— CA\K, 41.

Hysena, 22, 25.

Black-necked, 88.

Mouse, 38.

Bengal-eared, 62.

Pekan, 23.

C'araco, 38.

Hairy, 26.

Loose Gills, 124.

American Field, 38.

Boobock, 62.

Pelican, 95.

Economic, 36.

Striped, 25.

Lori, Slender, 9.

Barbary, 38.

Brown, 62.

Great, 95.

Indian, 36.

Tiger-wolf, 26

Slow, 9.

Bean, 38.

Burrowing, 62.

Penelope, 80.

lavan, 38.

Ludis, 120.

Beech, 38.

— — Cayenne, 62.

Penguin, 92.

Martinique, 38.

ICHNEUMON, 24.

Lyni, 28.

Common, 38.

Chestnut, 62.

Patagonian, 92.

Perchal, 38.

Edwards', 24.

Bay, 28.

Com, 38.

Chestnut-winged, 62.

Perch, 110.

Pouched, 39.

Egyptian, 24.

Booted, 28.

Dor, 36.

Churn, 68.

Common, 110.

Velvet, 38.

Great, 24.

Canadian, 28.

Dwarf, 38.

Cinereous, 62.

Petrel, 93.

Water, :!il.

Grey, 24.

Caspian, 28.

Field, 38.

Collared, 62.

Berard's, 93.

Rattlesnake, 105.

— — Indian, 24.

Fasciated, 28.

Frugivorous, 38.

Cuckoo, 62.

Giant, 93.

Banded, 105.

Red, 24.

Florida, 28.

Harvest, 38.

Eagle, 62.

Hastie's, 93.

Raven, 70.

Infusory Animals, 151.

Golden, 28.

Lineated, 38.

Eared, 62.

Puffin, 93.

Ray, 121.

Polygastric, 151.

Mountain, 28.

Little, 38.

Earless, 62.

Swallow, 93.

— '— Thornback, 126.

Rotatory, 151.

Muscovite, 28.

Meadow, 36.

Eastern, 62.

True, 93.

Razor Fish, 117.

Shell, &c., of, 151.

Persian, 28.

Oriental, 38.

Fasciated, 62.

Phalanger, 33.

Red Start, (jti.

Motive organs of, 151.

Portuguese, 28.

Pouched, 39.

Fern, 68.

Dusky, 33.

Keinora, 122.

Insects, 138.

Swedish, 28.

Short-tailed, 38.

Ferruginous, 62.

Dwarf, 33.

Rhinoceros, 47.

Square-tailed, 38.

Falconine, 62.

Kufous-grey, 33.

African, 47.

JAHIRU, 86.

MACAUCO, 8.

Wandering, 38.

Fork-tailed, 62.

Vulpine, 33.

Black, 47.

Senegal, 86.

Black, 8.

Mullet, 115.

Fasciated, 62.

Yellow-footed, 33.

— Indian, 47.

Jacana, 90.

Black-fronted, 8.

Common, 115.

Great-horned, 62.

Pharaoh's Chicken, 60.

Keitlon, 47.

Bronzed, 90.

Brown, 8.

Musk, 50.

Knocking, 62.

Pheasant, 78.

^— Kopaoba, 47.

Chilian, 90.

Red, 8.

Kancbil, 50.

Large-beaked, 63.

Amherst's, 78.

Mticliocn, -17.

Chinece, 90.

Ring-tailed, 8.

— Napu, 50.

Least, 62.

Golden, 79.

White, 47.

Cinnamon, 90.

White-fronted, 8.

Thibet, 50.

Little, 62.

— - Nopaul, Horned, 79.

Betin,

Common, 90.

Woolly, 8.

Musquash, 38.

Little Hawk, 62.

Pencilled, 78.

Ko.'k-rork, >;:>.

Gallinaceous, 90.

Mackerel, 113, 114.

Long-eared, 62.

Picarel, 112.

Green, 65.

Jackal, 25.

Madrepore, 152.

Mauge's, 62.

Common, 113.

— — Orange, 65.

Jackdaw, 70.

Magpie, 70.

NANDU, 83.

Milky, 63.

Pigeon, 81.

Peruvian, 65.

Jaguarondi, 28.

Maid, 126.

Nettle Creeper, 66.

Mottled, 63.

Bald-fronted, 82.

Rockling, 121.

INDEX. 163

Roller, 70.

Seal, Common, 29.

Shrike, Swallow, 65.

Stare, Sardinian, 70.

Tern, 94.

Walrus, 30.

Kook, 70.

Great, 30.

Singapooa, 9.

Wattled, 70.

Tetrabranchiate Molluscs,

Arctic, 30.

Rousette, 11.

Griffin, 30.

Siredon, 108, 109.

Star Fish, 112.

127.

Warbler, 65.

^Egyptian, 12.

Hare-tailed, 30.

Skink, 103.

Annular, 112.

Teyous, 100.

Dartford, 65.

Amplexicaudate, 12.

Harp, 30.

Skua, 94.

Starick, 93.

Thick-knee, 84.

Sedge, 66.

Black-faced, 11.

Hood-cap, 30.

Skunk, 23.

Sterlet, 125.

Three-toothed, 124.

Water Camel, 95.

Black-headed, 12.

Hooded, 30.

Striated, 23.

Stickleback, 114.

Thrush, 64.

Water Hen, 90.

Bordered-ear, 12.

Leporine, 30.

White-tailed, 23.

Stork, 86.

Rock, 64.

Black-backed, 90.

Common, 11.

Marbled, 30.

Slepez, 41.

American, 86.

Song, 64.

Dusty, 90.

Grey, 11.

Monk, 30.

Blind, 41.

Black, 86.

Wood, 64.

Green, 90.

Keraudren's, 11.
Kiodate, 12.

Proboscis, 30.
Rock, 30.

Sly Silurus, 118.
Snake, 105.

— - — Gigantic, 86.
White, 86.

Tiger, 28.
American, 28.

Green-backed, 90.
Purple, 90.

Masked, 11.

Rough, 30.

Fanged, 105.

Sturgeon, 125.

Brazilian, 28.

White, 90.

Middle, 11.

Small-tailed, 30.

Fangless, 105.

Common, 125.

Rimau Dahan, 28.

Wattle Bird, 70.

Pallid, 11.

Weddell, 30.

Hooded, 106.

Sucker, 122.

Royal, 28.

Weasel, 23.

^— Red-necked, 11.

White-clawed, 30.

Naked, 105.

Cornish, 122.

Titmouse, 68.

African, 23.

Steel-headed, 11.

White-tailed, 30.

Rattle, 105.

Sucking Fish, 122.

Long-tailed, 69.

Common, 23.

Straw-coliured, 12.

Serpent, 106.

Snake Stones, 129.

Suffocating Angel, 63.

Toad, 107.

Four-toed, 24.

Teat-lipped, 12.

Bi-coloured Sea, 106.

Snipe, 88.

Sugar Bird, 72.

Common, 107.

Jackash, 23.

Woolly, 11.

Sessile, 137.

Long-beaked, 88.

Sultana Bird, 90.

Surinam, 108.

Naked-footed.

Ruffe, 111.

Shark, 126.

Spider, 147.

Sun Fish, 124.

Yellow-bellied, 108.

Sarmatian, 23.

White, 126.

Sponge, 152.

Hispid, 124.

Toddy, 73.

Striped, 23.

Sheath-bill, 90.

Spoonbill, 87.

Oblong, 124.

Green, 73.

Three Striped, 24.

SAKI, 6.

White, 90.

Roseate, 87.

Short, 124.

Tooth-bill, 75.

Vison, 23.

Black-headed, 6.

Sheep, 54.

Slender-beaked, 87.

Striped, 124.

Torsk, 121.

Weaver Bird, 70.

Fox-tailed, 6.

Argali, 54.

White, 87.

Surmullet, 111.

Tortoise, 98.

Weever, 110.

Monk, 6.

Broad-tailed, 54.

Springbok, 52.

Smaller Redbeard,

Alligator, 98.

Common, 111.

Red-bearded, 6.

Corsican, 54.

Spring-haas, 38.

111.

Common, 98.

Whale, 57.

Red:bellied, 6.

Cretan, 54.

Squirrel, 39.

Swallow, 67.

Geometric, 98.

Mode of capture, 57.

White-headed, 6.

Dikoi, 54.

Alpine, 39.

Chimney, 67.

Indian, 98.

Common, 57.

Yellow-headed, 6.

English, 54.

Anomalous, 39.

Esculent, 67.

Marsh, 98.

Fin, 57.

Salamander, 108.

French, 54.

Beautiful, 39.

Sand, 67.

Soft, 98.

Pike-headed, 57.

Spotted, 109.

Kammenoi, 54.

Black, 39.

Window, 67.

Three-striped, 98.

Sharp-nosed, 57.

Salmon, 119.

Long-legged, 54.

Black-banded, 39.

Swallow, Shrike, 65.

Toucan, 76.

Spermaceti, 56.

Haggit, 119.

Long-tailed, 54.

Blackish, 39.

Swallow, Ternate, 69.

Tropic Bird, 96.

Wheatear, 65.

Black-fish, 119.

Many-horned, 54.

Cat, 39.

Swan, 96.

Trumpet Fish, 117.

Whiff, 121.

— ^ Kipper, 119.

Rikundonotsh, 54.

Clark's 39.

Tame, 96.

Trumpeter, 87.

Whimbrel, 88.

Red-fish, 119.

Stepnoidarah, 54.

Common, 39.

Wild, 97.

Gold-breasted, 87.

White Fish, 118.

Serrated, 120.

Sheet Fish, 118.

Congo, 39.

Swift, 67.

Trunk Fish, 124.

White Rhinoceros, 47.

Sandpiper, 88.

Shell of Infusorial Animals,

Double-banded, 39.

Black, 68.

Tunny, 114.

Common, 47.

Sapajou, 5, 6.
White-throated, 5.

151.
Shells of Gasteropoda, 130.

Elphinstone's, 39.
• Flying, 41.

Swine, 48.
— — Chinese, 48.

Tubular Mouth, 124.
Tnrbot, 121.

Long-horned, 47.
Whitethroat, 66.

Saurr, 120.

Shrew, 15.

Fox, 39.

Common, 48.

Turkey, 79.

Lesser, 66.

' Fetid, 120.

American Marsh, 16.

Golden-bellied, 39.

Guinea, 48.

Tufted, 79.

Whiting, 121.

Saw Fish, 126.

Beautiful, 16.

Great-tailed, 39.

Hog, 48.

Wild, 79.

Wolf, 25.

Scabbard Fish, 115.

Fetid or Common, 15.

Grey, 39.

Single-toed, 48.

Turtle, 98.

Wolf Fish, 116.

Scham-scham, 33.

Flaxen, 16.

Ground, 39.

Turkish, 48.

Hawk-billed, 98.

Wombat, 34.

Scorpion, 147.

Foster's, 16.

Hudson's Bay, 39.

Sword Fish, 114.

Imbricated, 98.

Woodcock, 88.

Screamer,Horned, 90.

Indian, 16.

Javan, 39.

Radiated, 98.

Woodpecker, 74.

Scyrus, 114.

Masked, 16.

Leschenhault's, 39.

TAMARY, 7.

Striped, 98.

Downy, 74.

Scythe-bill, 86.

Mouse-tailed, 16.

Madagascar, 39.

Black, 7.

Great Black, 74.

African, 86.
American, 86.

Muskv, 18.
Oared, 16.

Malabar, 39.
Ocular, 39.

Leonine, 7.
Red-tailed, 7.

UMBRE, 86.

Ti.Jiiw) Qfi

Southern three-toed,
74.

Milky, 86.

Perfuming, 16.

Plantain, 39.

Silky, 7.

lutted, oo.

Wood Rat, 32.

White-headed, 86.

Sacred, 16.

Prevost's, 39.

White-lipped, 7.

Woodshock, 23.

Sea Bat, 111.

Short-tailed, 16.

True, 39.

Yellow-faced, 7.

VALVES OF SHELLS, 136.

Woolly Jerboa, 9.

Sea Cat, 116.

.Small, 16.

Varied, 39.

Tanager, 63.

Vanga, 66.

Wrasse. Red, 117.

Sea Eagle, 95.

Square-tailed, 16.

White-banded, 39.

"Bull-finch, 64.

Rainbird, 66.

Wren, Wood, 66.

Sea Mew, 94.
Sea Horse, 124.

Tuscan, 1 6.
Water, 16.

White-striped, 39.
Stare, or Starling, 70.

^^— Euphonous, 64.
Filleted, 64.

Vertebrate Animals, 1-121.
Viper, 105.

Yellow, 66.
Wryneck, 74.

Sea Nettles, 150.

White ficcd 16

r'llilidn *7A

Black 106.

Sea Pie, 84.

White-toothed, 16.

—^^— v^miian, /u.
Common, 70.

— ^ JaCJlpa, D*t.

Shrike, 64.

— ^ Common, 105.

'

Sea Rough, 112.

White-collared, 16.

Greenish, 70.

Tactrvphonus, 64.

Plumber, 106.

ZEBRA, 49.

Sea Sparrow-Hawk, 120.
Sea Urchins, 148.

Shrew Mole, 18.
Shrike, 63.

Louisian, 70.
Magellanic, 70.

Thick-beaked, 64.
True, 64.

Red, 106.

Zebra Opossum, 31.
Zebra Wolf, 31.

Sea Woodcock, 117.

Great Cinereous, 63.

Pied, 70.

Tangalung, 24.

WAGTAIL, 65.

Zibet, 24.

Seal, 29.

Shrike, Bush, 66.

Red-headed, 70.

^tf

Tench, 118.

jjjto^

Grey, 65.

Zorilla, 23.

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L'Oi-OGY LIBRAB

Due end of SPRING quartei
Subject to recall after —

LD 21-32m-3 '74
(E7057slO)476— A-32

.General Library
ity of Califoroia
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