THE IMPACT OF DESEGREGATION ON THE FLORIDA STATEWIDE

TWELFTH GRADE ACHIEVEMENT TEST SCORES OF BLACK AND WHITE STUDENTS IN A RURAL AND AN URBAN FLORIDA COUNTY

By ANNIE DELORIES SMITH

A DISSERTATION PRESENTED TO THE GRADUATE COUNCIL OF

THE UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA IN PARTIAL

FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA 1975

UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA

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3 1262 08552 7611

To my (^athzfi {^on. hli (U6AJ>tance., e.ncou/uigme.nt and uutpinjoitijon

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The writer wishes to express sincere gratitude to her coiranittee chairman. Dr. Ted Landsman. His thought- provoking questions and motivation were appreciated. He gave unselfishly of his time and was always available when needed. Special thanks to her other committee members: Dr. Simon Johnson, Dr. Harold Riker, and Dr. C. Lee Eggert.

A special thanks to Dr. Rod McDavis. No words can express the debt owed him.

To her mother, Lucy Gainous, without whose encour- agement, assistance and faith in her this would not have been possible, and to her sisters, Sharon and Beatrice, a very special thanks.

To her son, Tarrerice, who never quite understood why mama had to study so much and why he had to sacrifice many experiences with her, special recognition for his love

offered.

To Pierre who offered daily encouragement and reminded her that behind every dark cloud silver linings appear, a special thanks.

XXX

To Robert Feinberg and his staff who gave her invaluable assistance and without whose help this study would have been almost impossible.

To Dr. Nancy T. Baldwin who gaye her words of encouragement continuously, a special thanks.

Finally, to Gail and Gilda who were "substitute mothers" for her son many days and nights in order to enable her to study.

IV

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS iii

LIST OF TABLES vii

ABSTRACT ^^

CHAPTER

i PROBLEM AND PURPOSE OF THE STUDY 1

Introduction . 1

Purpose. . . . i. 3

Statement of the Problem 4

Questions to be Answered 4

Definition of Terms 5

Limitations of the Study 6

Organization of the Remainder of the

Study 6

II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE 7

Education, Desegregation and the Supreme

Court 7

Race, Intelligence and Academic Achieve- ment '. ' ' ^^

Segregation, Desegregation and Academic

Achievement 13

III DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 24

Design 24

Sample 25

Setting 27

Instrumentation • • 28

Scoring Procedures and Statistical

Analysis 29

Data Collection 32

Data Analysis 32

Hypotheses 34

TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)

CHAPTER ^^3±

IV FINDINGS 37

Discussion of Findings 66

V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ... 72

Conclusions '^

Recommendations ^5

BIBLIOGRAPHY . i ^"^

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH ^^

vx

LIST OF TABLES Table £§2®.

1 Composition of the Test Battery 30

2 Statewide Norms, 1973 31

3 Hypotheses Testing 36

4 Comparison of Means of Bladk-White, Urban-Rural and Segregated-Desegregated Students' Scores on

the Florida Statewide Twelfth Grade Test .... 40

5 Summary of Three-Way Analyses of Variance of Black-White, Urban-Rural and Segregated- Desegregated Students' Scores on the Florida Statewide Twelfth Grade Test 45

6 Statistical Analysis of Data for Segregated and Desegregated Groups on the Social Science and Natural Science Subtests of the Florida State- wide Twelfth Grade Test 47

7 Summary of One-Way Analyses of Variance of Black Segregated and Desegregated Students' Scores on

the Florida Statewide Twelfth Grade Test .... 48

8 Cell Means for Urban and Rural Desegregated Black Students' Scores on the Florida Statewide Twelfth Grade Test 50

9 Summary of One-Way Analyses of Variance of Urban and Rural Desegregated Black Students' Scores on the Florida Statewide Twelfth Grade Test .... 51

10 Summary of One-Way Analyses of Variance of Desegregated and Segregated White Students' Scores on the Florida Statewide Twelfth Grade

Test

53

11 Cell Means for Urban and Rural Desegregated

White Students' Scores on the Florida Statewide Twelfth Grade Test 54

vxi

LIST OF TABLES (continued) Table Page

12 Suniinary of One-Way Analyses of Variance of White Desegregated Urban and Rural Students* Scores on the Florida Statewide Twelfth Grade

Test 56

13 Cell Means for Urban Black Desegregated Stu- dents' Scores and Urban White Desegregated Students' Scores on the Florida Statewide

Twelfth Grade Test 57

14 Summary of One-Way Analyses of Variance of Urban Desegregated Black and White Students' Scores on the Florida Statewide Twelfth Grade

Test 59

15 Cell Means for Rural Black Desegregated Stu- dents' Scores and Rural White Desegregated Students' Scores on the Florida Statewide

Twelfth Grade Test 60

16 Summary of One-Way Analyses of Variance of Rural Desegregated Black and White Students' Scores on the Florida Statewide Twelfth Grade Test

62

17 Summary of One-Way Analyses of Variance of Black Desegregated Students' Scores and White Desegregated Students' Scores on the Florida Statewide Tewelfth Grade Test 63

18 Summary of One-Way Analyses of Variance of Black Segregated Students' Scores and White Desegregated Students' Scores on the Florida Statewide Twelfth Grade Test 65

vxii

Abstract of Dissertation Presented to the Graduate Council

of the University of Florida in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy

THE IMPACT OF DESEGREGATION ON THE FLORIDA STATEWIDE

TWELFTH GRADE ACHIEVEMENT TEST SCORES OF BLACK AND WHITE STUDENTS IN A RURAL AND AN URBAN FLORIDA COUNTY

By

Annie belories Smith

August, 1975

Chairman: Dr. Ted Landsman

Major Department: Counselor Education

A major purpose of this study was to investigate the impact of desegregation on the Florida Statewide Twelfth Grade Achievement Test scores of black and white high school seniors in a rural and an urban Florida county.

One thousand, four hundred sixteen students, all high school seniors, were divided into eight groups for this study. The groups were based on race, residence and school type. Group I consisted of 37 rural black segre- gated senior high school students; Group II included 151 rural white segregated senior high school students; Group III included 127 urban black segregated senior high school students; Group IV included 493 urban white segregated students; Group V consisted of 93 urban black desegregated students; Group VI included 52 rural black desegregated students; Group VII included 334 urban white desegregated senior high school students and Group VIII included 129 rural white desegregated senior high school students.

ax

The schools were divided into four categories: (1) urban segregated, (2) rural segregated, (3) urban desegregated and (4) rural desegregated. The desegregated rural and urban schools were selected from schools that were segregated during 1962 but were desegregated in 1970. School A was a rural black segregated school. School B was a rural white segregated school. School C was an urban black segregated school and School D was an urban white segregated school. Schools B and D were desegregated in 1970 and were used for the 1973 data.

Analyses of variance of the data revealed signifi- cant differences between black and white students' test scores, urban and rural students' test scores and segre- gated and desegregated students' test scores. The differ- ences were favorable toward white urban desegregated stu- dents' test scores.

CHAPTER I PROBLEM AND PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

Introduction

Frequently, when a group gathers and discussions arise relative to current events, queries come to the forefront concerning desegregation and its effect on children. Blacks or other minorities discuss the issue as it affects members of their community and whites con- template the degree of affect on white children. Some members of each group might raise the issue as it deals with either blacks or whites or both. Some would debate the issue of scholastic standards being lowered in for- merly all white schools. Others might question whether or not blacks will be able to achieve at higher levels. St. John (1975) asked the question: What does desegre- gation do for and to children? Researchers have ques- tioned whether students educationally disadvantaged as a result of segregated schools would 'or could benefit from desegregation.

Educators and sociologists argue the validity of the parameters used to denote cultural and socioeconomic

'1

backgrounds of the citizenry. Some contend that socio- economic lags are reflected in achievement and not race. Of the varying opinions that are discussed relative to the lack of economic and social advantages enjoyed by blacks over a period of time, the central question asked is, will these deficiencies effect black students' achieve- ment when they are placed in predominantly white cultural education centers?

Many individuals discuss argumentative ly whether or not there exists a genetic basis for differences in intelligence between the races which thereby effects academic achievement (Horton and Leslie, 1970; Jensen^ ly 1969; Council of the Society for the Psychological Study ^' of Social Issues, 1969; Stodolsky and Lesser, 1967).

The May, 19 54 Supreme Court decision prohibiting legally enforced segregation has given rise to many doubts, anxieties and apprehensions in members of both races. De- segregationists argue for desegregation and contend that segregation violates human values. Segregationists on the other hand would contend just the opposite. What really happens to academic achievement of students when blacks and whites are educated together?

Purpose

There has been a tremendous amount of specula- tion surrounding the affect of desegregating public school^. Twenty-one years have passed, since the United States Supreme Court's decision in Brown vs. Board of Education. Many school districts desegregated reluc- tantly, and many others desegregated due to court orders. Coleman (1975) stated, "I do not think it is appropriate to impose on school systems the requirement for a particu- lar racial composition of schools simply because of the fact that it increased blacks' achievement" (p. 20-A) . Jencks et al. (1972) stated that theories can be construc- ted to show that desegregation will make things better or that it will make them worse. Social scientists and law- yers have argued forcefully for legal desegregation. But will desegregation alone raise the educational achievement level of black students? Will desegregation alone lower the educational level of white students?

There is a need for more information on the black- white gap in achievement. Has the achievement level of black students increased since desegregation? Has the achievement level of white students decreased since de- segregation? Because possible differences in academic achievement between segregated and desegregated black and white students is one of the problem areas in

desegregated education, this study joins the many re- search efforts which have already contributed valuable information in seeking to present some facts in this

area . .

The purpose of this study will be to ascertain differences in academic achievement between black and white, black and black, and white and white students dur- ing and after segregation.

Statement of the Problem

This study investigated the impact of desegrega- tion on the Florida Statewide Twelfth Grade Achievemei^t^ .. Test scores of black and white students in a rural, and .an., urban Florida county.

Questions to be Answered

The following set of questions provides a summary of the problems that were investigated:

1. Are there significant differences between the achievement test scores of black stu- dents who attended predominantly black'

'schools and black students who "attended' , " desegregated schools?

2. Are there significant differences between the achievement test scores of white students

who attended predominantly white schools and white students who attended desegregated

schools? 3. Are there significant differences between achievement test scores of rural and urban black and white students?

Definition of Terms

Academic Achievement . —As used in this study, the knowledge attained in school subjects designated by scores on the Florida Statewide Twelfth Grade Achievement Test

scores .

Desegregation.— The process which results in com- bining a minimum of 15 percent black students and 85 per- cent white students in the same school.

Race.— AS used in this study, refers to blacks

and whites only.

Residence.— The county where the students actually lived during their senior year of high school.

Rural Population.— As defined for the United States census of 1970, includes all persons residing in rural territory of less than 2,500 population.

urban Population.— As defined for the United States census of 1970, includes all persons residing in incorporated or unincorporated places of 2,500 or above.

Limitations of the Study

This study was limited to twelfth grade students in an urban and a rural Florida county.

Another limitation of the study was differences in the Florida Statewide Achievement Test administered in 1962 and 1973. Although differences exist in the Florida Statewide Twelfth Grade Test for 1962 and 1973, the scores are consistent and comparable. The mean for 45,260 seniors who took the Florida Statewide Twelfth Grade Test in 1962 is 253 and the standard deviation is 129.51. The mean for 78,467 seniors who took the Florida Statewide Twelfth Grade test in 1973 is 253.19 and the standard deviation is 129.51.

Organization of the Remainder of the Study

Chapter II is a review of literature and includes the following sections: Education, Desegregation and the supreme Court;' Race, Intelligence and Academic Achievement; and Segregation, Desegregation and Academic Achievement. , Chapter III contains Design and Methodology, plus a de- scription of the Sample, Data Collection, Data Analysis, Hypotheses and a Comparison Chart for Hypotheses Testing. Chapter IV includes Findings and tables describing the findings. Chapter V contains the Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations of the Study.

CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

This Study investigated the impact of desegre- gation on the Florida Statewide Twelfth Grade Achievement Test scores of black and white students in a rural and an urban Florida county.

Due to the diversity of the related literature, the present chapter is divided into three sections:

1. Education, Desegregation and the Supreme Court

2. Race, Intelligence and Academic Achievement

3. Segregation, Desegregation and Academic Achieve- ment

Education, Desegregation and the Supreme Court

There has been a great deal of speculation on the effects of desegregating public schools. Twenty-one years have passed since the United States Supreme Court's ruling in Brown vs. Board of Education which- outlawed separate but equal facilities.

Leflar and Davis (1954) stated that the Supreme Court's views on racial segregation in public schools began

with Plessy vs. Ferguson in 1896. The Court upheld a Louisiana statute requiring separate railroad accommoda- tions for blacks and whites and referred to the pre- vailing practice of public school segregation as support- ing that conclusion. The Gong v. Rice decision in 1927 also upheld the theory of separate but equal. This de- cision maintained that a child of Chinese ancestry could be required to attend schools established f.or the minority race in Mississippi without being denied equal protection of the laws guaranteed by the Fourteenth Amendment.

Beginning in 1939, "separate but equal" began undergoing attrition in higher education. In the Missouri ^y. rel. v. Gaines case the Court held that the Equal Protection Clause gave to the plaintiff, a black man, a right to require the State of Missouri to furnish him facilities for legal education equal to those which the state furnished for persons of the white race. This de- cision was interpreted to permit a separate law school for blacks in Missouri. Another decision, Sipuel v. Board of. Regents in 1948, was essentially the same, but Oklahoma complied by admitting the black applicant to the existent white school at the University of Oklahoma. Two years later (1950) in Sweatt v. Painter the Court held that a makeshift separate law school for blacks begun by the State of Texas did not offer "substantial equality" in legal

educational opportunities for the black plaintiff when compared with facilities available to white students at the university of Texas Law School. In the case / McLaurin „ nwi.homa State Regents, 1950, the Court made the de- cision that the plaintiff, a black graduate student in education already admitted to the University of Oklahoma, was being denied equal educational opportunities by a system devi.ed to keep him away from his fellow classmates while he was in the same rooms and classes with them. Nevertheless, the Court did not say that segregation was

inequality.

in December, 1952, four public school segregation

cases were argued and submitted to the Supreme Court. These cases came from the States of Kansas, South Carolina, Delaware and the District of Columbia. Even though the cases had different facts they all had a coimnon legal question which was whether a state could exclude children from public schools just on the basis that they were black. When Chief Justice Warren delivered his opinion -. to the court on May 17, 1954, he stated,

in approaching this problem, we cannot turn the clock back to 1868 when the Amendment wal adopted, or even to 1896 f ^n JlegiLV. Ferguson was written. We must consider lublic education in the light of its full

development and its P^«s^"^Pl^'=^^i" "^^ can life throughout the Nation. Only m ?his way can it be determined if segregation In public schools deprives these plaintiffs of equal protection of the laws.

10

Today, education is perhaps the most iipportant function of state and local gov- ernments, compulsory school attendance laws and the great expenditures fo^ edu- cation both demonstrate our recognition . ofthe importance of education to our demo- cratic society. It i^^J^^^^i,i?if ?e- performance of our most ^f ^^^ P^^J^'^.^^ed Soonsibilities, even service m the armea f??ces It is the very foundation of good

c?t?'l;ship. Today, it i- - P^J^^JP^i^^ri strumentin awakening the J^Ud to cultural^, . values, in preparing him for later pro ^ fessional training, and m helping him to adjust normally to his environment. In these days, it is doubtful that any child may reasonibly be expected- to l^^^lf J^ ^^ life^if he is denied the opportunity of an education! Such an opportunity, where the state had undertaken to Pro^^-^J, ^^ ^^ l^^ right which must be made available to all

°" ircomrth;n to the question P-sented: Does segregation of ^^^ildren in public schools solely on the basis of ^ace,_even though the physical facilities and other "tangible factors" may be equal, deprive

the children of the "^i^o^^^y ^^^^ ° ^e- equal educational opportunities? We be

lieve that it does. The court not only laid down a rule of law: it altered an American way of life. Much has happened to blacks and whites and to education as a result of the Bro™ decision. This decision ranks as one of the most socially signifi- cant pieces of legislation in the history of America (Su*«n, Dean and Williams, 1958, . But as Askew (1972, stated, "It is time we forget the issues of the past and begin working together for a healthy system of public schools, one which provides each child not only with an 'equal' edu- cation—but with a quality education" (p. 5) .

11

In conclusion, the Supreme Court's 1954 decision stressed the symbolic message that segregation conveyed the fact that segregation had been a symbol to the black child that equal treatment could not be expected. De- segregation stressed just the opposite. St. John (1975) stated "the desegregated school symbolized the victory of the black community in winning equal protection of the law. The black child in this school should therefore develop a stronger belief in his ability to control his environment" (p. 89) .

Race, Intelligence and Academic Achievement

There are some social scientists and educators who claim that there are inherent ability differences between blacks and whites whidi thereby affect academic achievement. Horton and Leslie (1970) rejected this claim and stated that, "All important differences in personality, behavior and achievement are purely a result of environmental fac- tors" (p. 352). Jensen (1969) argued that the heritability of intelligence is quite high and environmental factors are not nearly as important as genetic factors in deter- mining the intelligence quotient of children. Jensen (1969) also suggested that "social class and racial vari- atioris in intelligence cannot be accounted for by differ- ences in environment but must be attributed partially to

12

genetic differences" (p. 2). The Council of the Society

for the Psychological Study of Social Issues (1969) issued

the following statement on race and intelligence:

As behavioral scientists, we believe that statements specifying the hereditary com- ponents of intelligence are unwarranted by the present state of scientific knowledge.

. . There are marked differences in intelligence test scores when one compares a random sample of whites and Negroes. , What is equally clear is that little defini- tive evidence exists that leads to the con- clusion that such differences are innate. The evidence points overwhelmingly to the fact that when one compares Negroes and whites of comparable cultural and educa-_ tional background, differences in intelli- gence scores diminish markedly; the more comparable the background, the less dif- ference. There is no direct evidence that supports the view that there is an innate difference between members of different racial groups. . . .(p. D

As early as 1934 Wilkerson studied the achievement differences between blacks and whites in three states using the Stanford Achievement Test. The findings showed that in all school systems studied, the general achievement level of black children tended to be lower than that of white . children, and academic achievement differed widely between rural and urban schools in the same state. Stodolsky and Lesser (1967) pointed out that black and white intelligence differences lessen when the variables of sex, age, grade, socioeconomic status and years in school were controlled in black and white students.

13

Ginzberg (1956) stated.

The achievement of Negro children during the elementary grades is low because they bring to school the handicaps growing out of a childhood characterized by poverty, family instability, inferior social status, - and isolation from the white community. There is evidence that the intellectual potential of Negro children growing up in deprived neighborhoods is already seriously stunted well before they reach school age. (p. 113)

in conclusion, the research has shown that when major variables are controlled there is little difference in intelligence and academic scores of children. There is little evidence to show that there are inherent ability differences between black and white children.

c;^ar^aation. Desegregation and Academic Achievement

implementation of desegration must be aimed at many segments of the American community. The issue of voluntary segregation poses a problem that deters desegregation. Carmichael and Hamilton (1967) argued that when black par- ents allow their children to attend majority white schools in white neighborhoods they are acting on the assumption that there is little of value existing in black communities, in order for black children to receive quality education, blacks must either move into white neighborhoods or send their children to predominantly white schools. Changes would occur in the lifestyles of blacks if school desegre- gation would succeed in raising the occupational level of

14

the black people. But the closing of black schools in the south has been accompanied by demotion of black per- sonnel. According to Hall (1974) "the problem of the displaced Black educator is one that has exacted a heavy toll in the ranks of Black principals, who have long been symbols of attainment, authority and respect in Southern Black communities" (p. 7). Poussaint (1970) stated that

since integration is nearly always a one- ^ way street that blacks travel to a white institution, then an implied inferiority . , ,^3 of the black man is inherent in the situ- ation, because it is he who must seek out , .. whites to better his position. This im- plies that only he can benefit and learn; . __,. Ihat he has nothing to offer whites; that blacks have nothing to offer ^^ites; that whites have nothing to learn from his pres ence. (p. 13)

Grain (1971) stated:

some proponents favor desegregation in order

to improve education for Negroes; others

favor it despite their belief that it is

irrelevant to the actual formal education

of the Negro; still others feel that any

effort. to integrate schools is time wasted

in a fruitless effort to obtain a symbolic

victory and urge that the same energies be^ __

transferred to improving the quality or

education in Negro schools, (p. D ; .;-:

one of the basic beliefs in American public edur cation is that all children should have an equal opportun- ity to attain an equal education. Educational opportuni- ties for students differ widely from rural to urban com- munities and from lower income communities and families to affluent communities and families. Differences in

15

educational opportunities create differences in academic achievement when measured by standardized instruments, one of the major reasons for the creation and existence of public schools has been to teach children skills such as reading, writing, addition, subtraction and specific concepts necessary for survival in society.

one way of assessing how well students have learned these skills is by using achievement tests to measure their performance in these areas, ^ Tests are -being used more and more in America today. Tests are required in order to gaik employment, entrance to college and even to the armed services. Even though students enter :first grade with 'different levels of skills and some leave twelfth grade better equipped than others they are usu- ally given identical standardized tests to measure their achievement. The jobs acquired, colleges entered and at- tainment of other goals are usually partially accomplished based on standardized achievement test scores. Coleman et al. (1966) stated that- there is probably a great dif- , ference in the validity of achievement tests as predictors of future success in life for students in urban and rural _ environments! "There is^probably a great dif ference_ in the validity of achievement tests as predictors of future suc- cess in life for minority and majority students. _Fitz- Gibbons (undated pamphlet) stated that "until fairly_

16

recently, most standardized tests were constructed by white middle-class people, who sometimes clumsily violate the feelings of the test-taker without even knowing it. In a way, one could say that we have been not so much culture biased as we' have been culture blind" (pp. 2-3).

Clark and Plotkin (1963) studied the academic records of more that 500 black students that attended in- tegrated colleges from 1952 through 1956. The aptitude scores of the black students, as measured by the Scholastic Achievement Test, were below the average of the national college population. Yet, significantly more of them com- pleted college with at least average grades than did the total general population. Clark and Plotkin (1963) pointed out that the performance of the students was far greater than standardized tests had predicted.

Coleman et al. (1966) compared the achievement levels of segregated and desegregated students. The re- sults of the study in summary form were:

1. The proportion of white students in a school . had a positive relationship toward students' performance, however the effect appeared to be less than, and largely accounted for, by characteristics of the student body other than racial composition.

17

2. The earlier black students began attending schools with white students the higher black students' achievement.

3. The majority of American children attend schools that are segregated. Among the minority groups, blacks are by far the most segregated.

4. Desegregation on the basis of race and socio- economic class improves student achievement under certain conditions and lowers achievement under certain conditions. Educational achieve- ment for both minorities and whites begins to improve when schools are 50 percent white or higher, and 50 percent middle class or above. Both blacks and whites suffer in achievement when the racial or class percentage drops below 50 percent for either group.

5. White students' achievement is less affected by school facilities, curriculum and teachers than minority students' achievement.

6. The quality of the school attended by the average black is lower than that attended by the average white, but the difference is less than generally assumed.

According to Jencks et al., the average white child scores at least 15 points higher on most standardized tests

IB

than the average black child. This is apparent among stu- dents when they enter school and it persists throughout school and college. Coleman et al. (1966) confirmed this when they stated, "For example, Negroes in the metropolitan Northeast are about 1.1 standard deviations below whites in the same region at grades 6, 9 and 12. But at grade 6 this represents 1.6 years behind; at grade 9, 2.4 years; and at grade 12, 3.3 years" (p. 21). It was further stated that few opportunities are provided in schools for blacks to overcome this difference in achievement test scores* " . . .In fact they fall farther behind the white majority in the development of several skills which are critical to making a living and participating fully in modern society" (p. 21) .

Armor (1972) in a reanalysis of the Coleman (1966) data found black. schools were more disadvantaged than white schools with respect to verbal achievement. The findings are summarized as follows:

1. In the first grades average black achievement in black schools is far behind white achieve- ment in white schools, approaching 1.5 stan- dard deviations in many regions.

2. In the sixth grades, the national averages show that black achievement is two standard deviations below white achievement.

19

3. The sixth grade black achievement within the majority white schools is higher than black achievement in majority black schools, but it is still almost 1.5 standard deviations below white achievement. 4. Although there are few whites in majority- black schools, they show the lowest achievement of any group. They have scores over 3 standard" deviations lower than whites in majority-white schools. It is apparent from the findings of this study that black- students lag behind whites in achievement even before they start school. It seems they start- school at a disadvantage. Subsequest analysis of the Coleman Report by McPart- land (1969) lends support to the conclusions regarding the" relationship between classroom composition and achievement. McPartland (1969) found that school desegregation is associated with higher achievement for black students if they are in predominaritfy white classrooms. " Subsequent to the findings of McPartland (1969) , Cohen et al. (1972)-^ ^ suggested that desegregation where minority group stu- " dents were not a majority appeared to improve the level of achievement for minorities. In both Pittsburg and Boston St. John and Smith (1970), St. John and Lewis- (1971) found arithmetic achievement related to the total number of whites who had attended the school rather than the current percent white.

20

Students of high ability level are generally more ready to benefit from desegregation. According to Katz (1964) a desegregated classroom is socially facilitating to high achievers but threatening to low achievers, whose probability of success is apt to be low and who often fear failure. When studying the effects of integration for previously segregated children, Denmark (1970) found that segregated black children do not achieve academically at the same level as white children and earlier desegre- gation is more beneficial in improving test scores than that which occurs in later school years. It was also found that black females improve more than black males in the integrated setting. Grain (1971), in a survey of 1,600 adult blacks living in the metropolitan Northeast, found that the effects of integration are stronger for men than for women. The northern and southern segregated schools show that females have attained higher levels of education than' males. There was also a large difference between the test scores of desegregated and segregated ,. females. Females in desegregated schools have a ten- dency to attend school longer and learn "more" while they

are there.

Alan Luneman (1973) in a cross-sectional and semi- longitudinal study in a Berkeley, Calif ornia, community that desegregated voluntarily, found that ethnic groups showed gains in achievement ranging from 1.6 to 5.3 points

21

on standardized achievement tests over a two-year period. These gains are equivalent in grade placement of one to four months. Black students who remained in the district for the three-year period tended to score slightly higher in the successive years of desegregation.

Two studies frequently referred to as evidence of the beneficial effect of the desegregated school system are Hansen's (1960) study in Washington, D.C., and Stalling's (1959) study in Louisville. Hansen (1960) reported- that after five years of desegregation, median city-wide' achieve- ment improved at all grade levels and in most subject areas for black children. White students also scored^ as well as they had scored under segregated conditions; '- Stallings (1959) in his report on academic achievement" of

black and white students both before and after desegre

gation found that the achievement of both groups was significantly higher after desegregation than before and that black students made greater gains than white students. Justin and Thabit (1974) conducted a study on achievement of black and white pupils before and after desegregation in Broward County, Florida. Their findings showed that-- the scholastic achievement of black and white pupils de- clined slightly initially but the decline was about the - - same for blacks and whites and was noted as insignificant.

Samuels (1958) conducted a study" in Indiana - J which sought to determine if learning proceeded at

22

comparable rates for black and white children when they were first desegregated in junior high schools and when black students in desegregated schools were compared with those in segregated schools. Samuels attempted to con- trol the variables of socioeconomic status and intelli- gence. It was found that after two years of desegrega- tion, the achievement gap between black and white stu- dents had been reduced significantly. This finding was attributed directly to desegregation.

Maynor and Katzenmeyer (1974) conducted a study in Hoke County, North Carolina. The California Achieve- ment Test was administered in grades six through 12 in order to provide baseline data. The California Achieve- ■ ment' Test and the California Test of Mental Maturity were administered as posttest measures. The findings showed that black students performed better after desegregation than they did before desegregation.

Faulk' (1972) reported that when desegregation took place in McKeesport, Pennsylvania, in Shaw Elementary School the black students at the desegregated school had an average achievement gain, as measured by the Iowa Test of Basic Skills, of nine months in a school year as compared to ah average achievement gain of six months in a school year at the predominantly black school. These data tend to support the premise that achievement of black students becomes higher in a desegregated school. As reported in

23

Racial Isolation in the Public Schools (1967) Wilson con- ducted a study on the relationship between a student's social class and school achievement. Wilson (1967) found that social class was a major factor related to the aca- demic achievement of children in elementary grades and children from poorer backgrounds are less likely than children from affluent backgrounds to have concrete plans for college. The U.S. Commission on Civil Rights (1967) pointed out that these results suggest that, "on the average, the social class of a student has a strong re- lationship to his academic success and aspirations"

(p. 81).

Taken together these studies seem quite consis- tent. If desegregation over any length of time raises black students' scores slightly perhaps the scores of black students are continuing improving. Many of the studies showed that desegregation is associated with higher achievement test scores only if it involves socio- economic as well as racial desegregation. There is little evidence to show that black students' test scores improve when the whites are as low on the socioeconomic scale as blacks. Even though the academic achievement of the black students is likely to improve when they attend desegregated schools this has not eliminated the achieve- ment gap.

CHAPTER III DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

Design

This study investigated the impact of desegre- gation on the Florida Statewide Twelfth Grade Achievement Test scores of black and white students in a rural and an urban Florida county.

The study does not lend itself to experimental investigation; therefore, it is ex post facto. Kerlinger (19 64) defines ex post facto research as a systematic empirical inquiry in which the researcher has no direct control of independent variables because their evidence has already occurred. In an ex post facto study neither experimental manipulation nor random assignment is pos- sible.

There are eight groups in this study. Groups I through IV, who were selected from rural and urban segre- gated schools in 1962, will be compared with Groups V through VIII, who were selected from rural and urban desegregated schools in 1973. The year 1962 was chosen because this was the last year that Florida Statewide

24

25

Twelfth Grade Achievement Test results were reported on a segregated school basis. The year 1973 was selected because this was the first year since 1962 that race of the students was recorded along with test results.

There are three major types of comparison of the Florida Statewide Twelfth Grade Achievement Test in this study. The first type of comparison involves black stu- dents only. The second type of comparison involves white students only and the third type of comparison involves black and white students.

Sample

This study involved a total of 1416 twelfth grade students from four Florida high schools in two counties. The schools were subdivided into four categories: (1) urban segregated, (2) rural segregated, (3) urban- de- segregated and (4) rural desegregated. The segregated rural and urban schools were selected from schools that were segregated during 1962. Of the four schools selected the two black segregated schools were no longer in exis- tence as senior high schools. This means that the only schools used during 1973 were the white segregated schools that -have since become desegregated.

A group of 37 black students and 151 white stu- dents who had attended rural segregated high schools in

26

1962 were selected from two schools in the same county based on the county's population. Then a group of 127 black students and 493 white students who attended urban segregated schools in 1962 were selected from two schools in the same county based on the county's population.

The next four groups were selected in much the same manner as the first four, with the major differences being the time of attendance, 1973, and both black and white students attended the same desegregated schools.

The 37 black students that comprise Group I weire seniors in school A, a rural black segregated school in 1962. The 151 white students who comprise Group II were seniors in school B, a rural white segregated school in 1962. The 127 black students that make up Group III were seniors at school C, an urban black segregated school in 1962. The 493 white students that are in Group IV were seniors at school D, an urban white segregated school in 1962. The 37 black students in Group I and the 151 white students in Group II are from schools A and B lo- cated within the same county. The 127 black students in Group III and the 493 white students in Group IV are from schools C and D, located within the same county.

Group V consists of 93 black students in school D, a previously segregated white urban school that is pres- ently desegregated. Group VI consists of 52 black students in school B, a formerly white rural segregated school

27

that is presently desegregated. Group VII is made up of 334 white students in school D, a previously white, urban segregated school that is presently desegregated. Group VIII consists of 129 white students in school B, a previously segregated white rural school that is presently desegregated. The black students in Group V and the white students in Group VII are from school D, the same urban desegregated school. The black students in Group VI and the white students in Group VIII are from school B, the same rural desegregated school.

In testing the eight groups for differences the results from the 1962 and 1973 Florida Statewide Twelfth Grade Test were used.

Setting

School D is an urban desegregated high school that has a total population of 1,800 students in grades 10 through 12. The school was constructed in the early 1900 's and was attended by predominantly upper middle class whites until 1970 when the school desegregated in compliance with a court order. School D is presently 17 percent black and 83 percent white. This percentage reflects the black- white ratio of the community. The students who attend this high school come from four desegregated junior high schools.

28

School B is a rural desegregated high school which has a total population of 1100 students in grades nine through 12. The school was constructed in the early 1900 's and served the entire white county high school population until 1970 when a court order forced the school to desegre- gate. The school is presently 22 percent black and 78 percent white. The students who attend this high school come from desegregated junior high schools.

Instrumentation

The instrument chosen for use in the present study was inaugurated in Florida in 1935 and since' 1940 has been sponsored and conducted by the Board of University Exami- ners. During 1962 the A.C.E. Psychological Examination, 1953 High School Edition; Cooperative English B2, Effec- tiveness of Expression, Form Y; Cooperative General -_ : -- Achievement, Form YZ— Social Studies, Natural Sciences and Mathematics tests were used. These instruments were validated by commercial testing companies and, approyed by-.s the Board of University Examiners.- Since 1963, . Educational Testing Service of Princeton, New Jersey has prepared, and validated special tests for the_ Florida program^ i... ._— .-

The Florida Statewide Twelfth Grade Testing Pro- gram is conducted in all Florida high schools each fall, to provide comparable ability and achievement data on all

29

seniors. The test is administered by the pupil personnel staff in the schools. Florida seniors must attain a score of 300 or above on the test in order to attend a state

university.

The complete battery consists of two booklets, in- cluding tests in five areas and the questionnaire. Table 1 shows the composition of each booklet, an indication of the test content, the number of items for each tests, and the time necessary to administer each section. However, after 1970 the Florida Statewide Twelfth Grade Achievement Test became optional rather than required for students. Therefore, some students choose not to take the test based on their future plans.

Scoring Procedures and Statistical Analysis

The answer sheets are processed at the University of Florida campus. All the tests are scored on a "Rights Only" basis— that is, an individual gets one point for . each item answered correctly. There are eight scores derived from the test battery. These are: Verbal Apti- :.- tude. Quantitative Aptitude, Total Aptitude, English, Mathematics, Natural Sciences, .and Social Studies. In addition, a Reading Index is computed by combining the score on the Verbal Aptitude test plus one-half the scores obtained on the English and Social Studies tests.

30

Table 1 Composition of the Test Battery

Title

student Questionnaire Aptitude Test

English Composition

Mathematics

Natural Sciences

Social Studies

Content

Verbal Analogies Math Comparison

Usage

Capitalization and punctuation Effectiveness of Expression

Arithmetic Algebra, Geometry

Biology, Chemistry Earth Science, Physics

American History, Western Civiliza- tion, Geography, Sociology

Items

73

60

60

60

Time

20 min.

50	20 min
50	20 min
35	15 min
20	10 min
30	15 min

40 min.

40 min.

40 min.

The statewide norm for the 1973 administration of the battery is found in Table 2. The information included in Tables 1 and 2 is based on the 1973 Florida Statewide Twelfth Grade Achievement Test. The same kind of infor- mation is not available for the 1962 Florida Statewide Twelfth Grade Achievement Test.

31

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Data Collection

The Board of University Examiners at the Uni- versity of Florida, Gainesville, Florida is responsible for disseminating, scoring, collecting and storing data for the Florida Statewide Twelfth Grade Testing Program. The data were collected from the test record books and computer tapes stored by the Board of University Exami- ners, Room 408, Seagle Building, Gainesville, Florida.

The data for this study were obtained from the test results of the senior high school students who comprise the eight designated groups. Data were se- lected based on county and school area population in 1962 and the number of black and white students who attended ' county schools in 1962. Any county with a school popula- tion of less than 30 black or white students in the county or in one school was excluded from selection. Based on county and school population two counties and four schools were selected by chance. Data from students with less than five complete test scores was not used.

Data Analysis

The results of the Florida Statewide Twelfth Grade Achievement Test were used as a basis for determining and comparing the impact of desegregation on achievement. A percentile rank based on the raw score was recorded for

33

the five separate subtests from which a total composite score was computed for each student.

The nine hypotheses are the result of taking all possible combinations of race, residence and school type. A 2 X 2 X 2 factorial analysis of variance design was used to compare and assess all of the variables and inter- actions simultaneously. This design makes it possible to assess the main effects of race, residence and school type on the Florida Statewide Twelfth Grade Achievement Test and it will also give information about interactions be- tween race, residence and school type. The design will answer the following questions: What is the main effect of achievement scores of segregated and desegregated stu- dents? what is the main effect on achievement scores of rural and urban students? What is the main effect on achievement scores of black and white students?

When the three independent variables: race, resi- dence and school type interact in their "effect" on achieve- ment this is called interaction. The design answers the following questions regarding interaction: What is the interaction effect of race and residence on achievement test scores? What is the interaction effect of residence and school type on achievement test scores? What is the interaction effect of race, residence and school type on achievement test scores? The level of significance is set at .05.

34

Hypotheses

This study tested nine specific null hypotheses related to the impact of desegregation on achievement test scores as measured by the Florida Statewide Twelfth Grade Achievement Test. The following hypotheses are based on the students who were attending segregated schools in 1962 and desegregated schools in 1973. The following subtests are included: English, social studies, natural science and mathematical science. The hypotheses are: _

1. There are no significant differences in stu- dents' achievement test scores related to race (black and white), residence (rural and urban) and school type (segregated and desegregated) .

2. There will be no significant difference in achievement test scores between segregated and desegregated black students.

3. There will be no significant difference in achievement test scores between urban and rural desegregated black students.

4. There will be no significant difference in achievement test scores between desegregated and segregated white students.

5. There will be no significant difference in achievement test scores between urban and rural desegregated white students.

35

6. There will be no significant difference in achievement test scores between urban desegre- gated black and white students.

7. There will be no significant difference in achievement test scores between rural desegre- gated black and white students.

8. There will be no significant difference in achievement test scores between desegregated black and white students.

9. There will be no significant difference in achievement test scores between segregated black and white students.

26

Table 3 Hypotheses Testing

Group	Residence	Race	School Type		School Name
I		Rural	Black	Segregated			A
II		Rural	White	Segregated			B
III		Urban	Black	Segregated			C
IV		Urban	White	Segregated			D
V		Urban	Black	Desegregated			D
VI		Rural	Black	Desegregated			B
VII		Urban	White	Desegregated			D
VIII		Rural	White	Desegregated			B
		Key	for Hypotheses Testing
Hypothese	s Number			Group
	2			I,:	[II	vs.	V,VI
	3				V	vs.	VI
	4			VII, VIII	vs.	V,IV
	5			1	^711	vs.	VIII
	6				V	vs.	VII
	7				VI	vs.	VIII
	8			V	,VI	vs.	VII, VIII
	9			T	III	vs.	II, IV

CHAPTER IV FINDINGS

A major purpose of this study was to investigate the impact of desegregation on the Florida Statewide Twelfth Grade Achievement Test scores of black and white students in a rural and an urban Florida county.

Setting

School D is an urban desegregated high school that has a total population of approximately 1,800 students in grades 10 through 12. The school was constructed in the early 1900 's and was attended by predominantly upper middle class whites until 1970 when the school desegregated in compliance with a court order. School D is presently 17 percent black and 83 percent white. This percentage , reflects the black-white ratio of the community. The students who attend this high school come from four desegregated junior high schools.

School B is a rural desegregated high school which has a total population of 1,100 students in grades 9 through 12. The school was constructed in the early 1900 's

37

39

and served the entire white county high school population until 1970 when a court order forced the school to desegregate. The school is presently 22 percent black and 78 percent white. The students who attend this high school come from desegregated junior high schools.

The nine hypotheses tested in this study are listed be low t

1. There are no significant differences in students' achievement test scores related to race (black and white) , residence (rural and urban) and school type (segregated and desegregated) .

2. There are no significant differences rin: . achievement test scores between segregated and desegregated black students r — "

3. There are no significant differences in achievement test scores between urban and rural desegregated black students.

4. There are no significant differences cin- a -e achievement test scores between desegregated and segregated white students. - ::r

5. There are no significant differences in achievement test scores between urban and rural desegregated white students.

39

6. There are no significant differences in achievement test scores between urban desegregated black and white students.

7. There are no significant differences in achievement test scores between rural desegregated black and white students.

8. There are no significant differences in achievement test scores between desegregated black and white students.

9. There are no significant differences in achievement test scores between segregated black and white students.

Hypothesis J

There are no significant differences in achievement test scores related to race (black and white) , residence (urban and rural) and school type (segregated and desegregated) .

Table 4 provides a comparison of mean scores for students who took the battery of achievement tests in their senior year (1962) after a segregated high school career as compared to those taking the battery of achievement tests in their senior year (1973) after a desegregated high school career. Race, residence and school type are indicated. The table includes the total test scores and the

40

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following subtests: English, social science, natural science and mathematics.

Both black and white students' scores (rural and urban) showed significant increases in total scores after desegregation. Black students' scores increased on all subtests except natural science where the scores decreased 2.^ points and social science where the scores decreased .4 points. The total score increased 19.5 points. White student^' scores increased on the English and mathematics subtests but decreased in the areas of natural science and social science. However, the total score increased 15.6 points. Rural students' scores increased on all subtests except natural science and the scores decreased

4.5 points. The total score increased 16.4 points. Urban students' scores increased on all subtests but natural science and social science. Social science scores decreased 2.6 points and natural science scores decreased

4.6 points. The total score increased 15.8 points.

For comparisons between segregated students and . desegregated students, the English score increased 17.7 points, the mathematics score increased 3.6 points and the total score increased 14.4 points. The social science score decreased 2.1 and the natural science score decreased 4.8 points. The null hypothesis is therefore largely rejected.

44

Three-way analyses of variance showed race, resi- dence and school type were significant at the p<.05 or better (all but one at p<.001) level on all subtests and the total test score. This is presented in Table 5.

Because of the decreases on the natural science and social science subtests "t" tests were performed to determine if these decreases between 1962 and 1973 in the areas of social science and natural science were statistically significant.

The "t" tests showed that the decreases on the natural science and social science scores were statisti- cally significant at the p<.01 level for all groups but the black students' decrease in social science. This is presented in Table 6.

Hypothesis 2

There are no significant differences in achieve- ment test scores between segregated and desegregated blacH students.

Table 7 provides analyses of variance of Groups I (rural black Segregated) and III (urban black segregated) combined and Groups V (urban black desegregated) and VI (tural black Segregated) combined. The analyses of vari- ance were significant at the .05 level on the total test scores and all subtests except social science. There

45

Table 5

Siimmary of Three-Way Analyses of Variance of Black-White,

Urban-Rural and Segregated-Desegregated Students' Scores

on the Florida Statewide Twelfth Grade Test

(Race X Residence x School Type)

		Sum of		Mean
Test	Source	Sguares	DF	Square	F
English	Main Effects	213007	3	71002	456*
	Race	86538	1	86538	556*
	Residence	15330	1	15330	98*
	School Type	122747	1	122747	789*
	Total	432231	1415	305
Social	Main Effects	64541	3	215i3	189*
Science	Race	49253	1	49253	434*
	Residence	12269	1	12269	108*
	School Type	435	1	435	3**
	Total	22601	1415	159
Natural	Main Effects	48804	1	16268	211*
Science	Race	35293	1	35293	458*
	Residence	4535	1	4535	58*
	School Type	5960	1	5960	77*
	Total	157958	1415	111

46

Table 5 (completed)

		Sum of		Mean
Test	Source	Squares	DF	Square	F
Mathematics	Main Effects	42223	3	14081	149*
	Race	33120	1	33120	251*
	Residence	3850	1	3850	40*
	School Type	6332	1	6332	67*
	Total	175515	1415	124
Total	Main Effects	1009693	3	336564	262*
	Race	784930	1	784930	6i2*
	Residence	132484	1	132^84	103*
	School Type	110123	1	110123	85*
	Total	2819569	1415	1992

♦Significance of F p<.001 ♦♦significance of F p<.047

47

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			•H	•H	•H	•H	3	3	3	3	4J cn
			o	o	O	o	+)	■p	■P	4J	2"'^
			0	o	o	0	Id	Id	Id	Id	c m
			CO	CO	CO	CO	2	2:	2	2	« «
	-									«

48

Table 7

Summary of One-Way Analyses of Variance of Black Segregated and Desegregated Students' Scores on the Florida Statewide Twelfth Grade Test (Black x School Type)

		Sum of		Mean
Test	Source	Squares	DF	Square	F
English	Main Effects	25024	1	25024	197*
	School Type	25024	1	25024	197*
f	Total	63899	308	'207
Social	Main Effects	14	1	14	i64**
Science	School Type	14	1	14	164**
	Total	26846	308-	87
Natural	Main Effects	512	1	512	10***
Science	School Type	512	1	512	10***
	Total	15287	308~	49
Mathematics	Main Effects	1023	1	1023	26*
*	School Type	1023	1	1023	26*
	Total	13011 '	-308-	42
Total	Main Effects	29355	-. 1	29355	* 35*
	School Type	. 29355 :	i:	29355	35*
	Total	282145	308	916

♦significant at p<.00l

♦♦significant at p<.999

♦♦♦significant at p<.002

49

were no significant differences between black segregated

and black desegregated students on the social science

test. Except for the social science test the null hypothesis is therefore rejected.

Hypothesis 3

There are no significant differences in achieve- ment test Scores between urban and rural desegregated black students.

Table 8 provides a comparison of means between Group ^ (urban desegregated blacks) and Group VI (rural desegregated blacks) . When comparing the means of urban desegregated blacks with rural desegregated blacks the black urban students' scores were higher on all subtests and the total test score was higher.

Table 9 provides analyses of variance of urban and rural desegregated black students' scores. The analyses of variance showed that there were significant differ- ences between rural black desegregated students' scores and urban black desegregated students' scores on all tests except natural science. The analysis of variance on the natural science test did not quite meet the p<. .05 level of significance. Except for the natural science test the null hypothesis is therefore rejected.

50

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51

Table 9

Summary of One-Way Analyses of Variance of Urban and Rural Desegregated Black Students' Scores on the Florida State- wide Twelfth Grade Test (Black Desegregated Residence)

		Sum of		Mean
Test	Source	Squares	DF	Square	F
English	Main Effects	1362		1362	9*
	Residence	1362		1362	9*
	Total	21592	144	149
Social	Main Effects	422	'-	422	6**
Science	Residence	422		422	6**
	Total	10185	144	70
Natural	Main Effects	136		136	3***
Science	Residence	136		136	3***
	Total '	5651	144	39
Mathematics	Main Effects	471		471	2^1****
	Residence	471		471	]^1****
	Total - 7	;: 6353	: 144 :	44	■,
Total	Main Effects	8252		8252	]^Qflr****
	Residence	8252		8252	2^Qfc*«**
	Total	117856	144	818

*Signif icance of F .003

♦♦Significance of F .013

***Signif icance of F .059

****Signif icance of F .001

♦♦♦♦•Significance of F .002

52

Hypothesis 4

There are no significant differences in achieve- ment test scores between desegregated and segregated white students.

Table 10 provides analyses of variance on the English, social science, natural science and mathematics subtests and the total test score between Groups VII (urban white desegregated) and VIII (rural white desegregated) combined and Groups II (rural white segregated) and IV (urban white segregated) combined. The results were significant at the p<.05 level on each subtest and the total test scores therefore the null hypothesis is rejected.

Hypothesis 5

There are no significant differences in achieve- ment test scores between urban and rural desegregated white students .

Table 11 provides cell means for white urban and rural desegregated students' scores. When comparing the mean scores between Group VII (urban white desegregated) and Group VIII (rural white desegregated) urban white desegregated students' scores were higher on each of the subtests and the total test scores. The differences

53

Table 10 Segregated^wnx^^ Grade Test (White x School Type)

T«ac:4'	Source	Sum of Squares	DF	Mean Square	F*
English	Main Effects School Type Total	92174 92164 287849	1 1 1106	92174 92174	520 520
Social Science	Main Effects School Type Tdtal	1212 1212 147745	1 1 1106	1212 1212 i33	9 9
Natural Science	Main Effects School Type Total	6590 6590 105183	1 1 1106	6590 6590 95	73 73
Mathematics	Main Effects School Type Total	4662 4662 129788	1 1 1106	4662 4662 117	41 41
Total	Main Effects School Type Total	65472 65472 1754321	•1 1 1106	65472 65472 1581	42 42

♦Significance of F p<.001

54

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H	CO	;z:	S	H

55

in the means were: English, 6.7 points; social science, 4.7 points; natural science, 4.2 points; mathematics, 5.4 points and the total score was 21.1 points higher for urban whites.

Table 12 provides one-way analyses of variance between iirban white desegregated students and rural white desegregated students on the English, social science, natural science and mathematics subtests and the total test .score. The results were significant on each of the subtests and the total score at the .05 level. The null hypothesis is therefore rejected.

Hypothesis 6

There are no significant differences in achieve- ment test scores between urban desegregated black and white students.

Table 13 provides a comparison of mean scores be- tween Group V (urban black desegregated) and Group VII (urban white desegregated) . When comparing the mean scores between urban black desegregated students and urbdh white desegregated students the means scores for urban white students were higher in the following areas: English, 19.0 points higher; social science, 13.2 higher; natural science, 11.4 points higher; mathematics, 12.3 points higher and the total test score was 55.9 points higher.

56

Table 12

Summary of One-Way Analyses of Variance of White Desegregated TbS and Rural Students' Scores on the Florida Statewide Twelfth Grade Test (White x Residence)

Test	Source	Sum of Squares	DF	Mean Square	F*
English	Main Effects	4250	1	4250	24
<	Residence	4250	1	4250	24
	Total	83482	462	180
Social	Main Effects	1997	1	1997	17
Science	Residence	1997	1	1997	17
	Total	54352	462	117
Natural	Main Effects	1655	1	1655	23
Science	Residence	1655	1	1655	23
	Total	34178	462	73
Mathematics	Main Effects	2725	1	2725	35
	Residence	2725	1	2725	35
-	Total	38524	462	83	■.
Total	Main Effects	41122	1	Ul22	33
	Residence	41122	1	41122	33
	Total	610423	462	1321

♦Significance of F p<.001

57

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58

Table 14 shows analyses of variance between urban black desegregated students ' scores and urban white desegregated students' scores on each subtest and the total test score. The analyses of variance showed that there were significant differences between the groups at the p<.05 level on each test. Therefore the null hypothesis is rejected.

Hypothesis 7

There are no significant differences in achieve- ment test scores between rural desegregated black and white students.

Table 15 provides a comparison of mean scores on each subtest between Group VI (rural black desegregated) and Group VIII (rural white desegregated) . When comparing the mean test scores between rural black desegregated students and rural white desegregated students the mean scores for Group VIII are higher on each of the subtests the total test score. The differences in means were: English, 18.7 points higher; social science, li.9 points higher; natural science, 9.2 points higher; mathematics, 10.6 points higher and the total test score was 50.5 points higher for rural desegregated whites than for rural desegregated blacks. The null hypothesis is rejected.

59

Table 14

Sununary of One-Way Analyses of Variance of Urban Desegregated Black and White Students ' Scores on the Florida Statewide Twelfth Grade Test (Urban, Desegregated x Race)

Test	Source	Sum of Squares	DF	Mean Square	F*
English	Main Effects	26358	1	26358	163
	Race	26358	1	26358	163
	Total	94965	426	222
Social Science	Main Effects Race	12566 12566	1 1	12566 12566	127 127
	Total	54596	426	54596
Natural Science	Main Effects Race	9456 9456	1 1	9456 9456	152 152
	Total	54596	426	128
Mathematics	Main Effects	10975	1	10975	155
	Race	10975	1	10975	155
	Total	40923	426	96
Total	Main Effects	22701	1	22701
	Race	22701	1	22701	210
	Total	684522	426	1606 >

♦Significance of F p<.001

60

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61

Table 16 provides one-way analyses of variance between Group VI (rural black desegregated) and Group VIII (rural white desegregated) on each of the subtests and the total test score. The analyses of variance showed that there were significant differences between rural black desegregated students' scores and rural white desegregated students' scores at the p<.05 level. The null hypothesis is rejected.

Hypothesis 8

There are no significant differences in achievement test scores between desegregated black and white students.

Table 17 ptovides analyses of variance between Groups V (urban black desegregated) and VI (black rural desegregated) combined and Groups VII (urban white desegre- gated) and VIII (rural white desegregated) combined on the English, social science, natural science and mathematics subtests and the total test score. The analyses of vari- ance showed that there were significant differences between desegregated black students' scores and desegregated white students' scores. The differences between the test scores of desegregated black students and desegregated white students were significant at the p<.05 level. Therefore the null hypothesis is rejected.

62

Table 16

summary of One-way Analyses of Variance of Rural Desegregated

^ack and White Students' Scores on the Florida Statewide

Twelfth Grade Test (Rural, Desegregated x Race)

Test	Source	Sum of Squares	DF	Mean Square	F*
English	Main Effects	12917	1	12917	74
i	Race	12917	■ 1	12917	74
	Total	43771	180	243
Social	Main Effects	5397	1	5397	48
Science	Race	5397	1	5397	48
	Total	25485	180	141
Natural	Main Effects	3140	1	3140	48
Science	Race	3140	1	3i4o	48
	Total	14832	180	82
Mathematics	Main Effects	4187	1	4187	63
	Race	4187	1	4187	63
	Total	15919	180	88
Total	Main Effects	94784	1	94784	76
	Race	94784	1	94784	76
	Total	316184	180	1756

♦Significance of F p<.001

63

Table 17

Summary of One-way Analyses of Variance of Black Desegregated

StSS^nts' scores and White Desegregated Students' Scores on the

Florida Statewide Twelfth Grade Test (Desegregation x Race)

Test	Source	Sura of Squares	DF	Mean Square	F*
English	Main Effects	41749	1	41749	240
	Race	41749	1	41749	240
	Total	146817	607	241
Social	Main Effects	19D31	1	19031	178
Science	Race	19031	1	19031	178
	Total	83565	607	137
Natural	Main Effects	13242	1	13242	201
Science	Race	13242	1	13242	201
^ '	Total	53071	607	87
Mathematics	Main Effects	16228	1	16228	219
	Race	16228	1	16228	219
	Total	61106	607	100	.
Total	Main Effects	341934	1	34l93'4	284
	Race	341934	1	341534	284
	Total	1070206	607	1763

♦Significance of F ,p<.001

64

Hypothesis 9

There are no significant differences in achieve- ment "test scores between segregated black and white students »

'■ Table 18 provides analyses of variance between Groups I (rural black segregated) and III (urban black segregated) combined, and Groups II (white rural segregated) and IV (white urban segregated) combined on the English, social science, natural science and mathematics subtests and the total test score. The analyses of variance showed that there were significant differences between segregated black and white students' test scores at the p<.05 level. Therefore the null hypothesis is rejected.

Summary

Analysis of this data showed that there are sig- nificant statistical differences in achievement test scores between race, residence and school type. Statistical analysis further revealed that there are significant differences in achievement test scores between segregated and desegregated black students' scores on each test except social science and between urban and rural black students on each test except natural science. There are significant statistical differences in achievement test scores between urban and rural desegregated white students and between

65

Table 18

Summary of One-Way Analyses of Variance of flack Segregated iSnts' scores and White Desegregated Students' Scores on the Florida Statewide Twelfth Grade Test (Segregated x Race)

Test	Source	Sum of Squares	DF	Mean Square 47081	F*
English	Main Effects	47081	1	293
	Race	47081	1	47081	293
	Total	176561	807	218
Social	Main Effects	32144	1	32144	238
Science	Race	32144	1	32144	238
'	Total	140977	807	174
Natural	Main Effects	23182	1	23182	254
Science	Race	23182	1	23182	254
	Total	96725	807	119
Mathematics	Main Effects	17619	1	17619	153
	Race	17619	1	17619	153
	Total	109864	807	136
Total	Main Effects	464120	1	464120	308
	Race	464120	1	464120	308
	Total	1677559	806	2078

♦Significance of F p<.001

66

desegregated black and white students. Further analysis also revealed that there are significant statistical differences in achievement test scores between segregated black and white students.

Discussion of Findings Race/ Residence and School Type

There were significant differences on each of the subtests and the total test score between race, residence and school type. The means revealed were in favor of white, urban ^ desegregated students on the English and mathematics subtests and the total test score. The segregated students scored better than desegregated students in the areas of social science and natural science. This could possibly be accounted for due to the changes in the social science and natural science curricula. Between 1962 and 1973 the social science curriculum was broadened in many senior high schools to include psychology and sociology courses along with history courses. The number of required high school units in social science also decreased. Since the number of units decreased many students may have elected not to enroll in social science courses after they had fulfilled their high school gradu- ation requirements in this area.

67

The natural science curriculum was altered between 1962 and 1973. Students who were classified as "high achievers" were encouraged to enroll in new and different science courses such &s biology (BSCS) , physical science (PSCS) , and chemistry study wherein average students were usually encouraged to enroll in general biology. Along with the new courses came changes in teaching methods. The traditional lecture "plus experimentation method was abandoned and the new inquiry plus experimentation method was in^vogue. ...-.= . "

Black Segregated— Black Desegregated -_ . _

Black students' scores increased on each of the subtests except social science and natural science. The social science score decreased by only .4 points but --s the natural science score decreased 2.5 points. However the total score increased by 19.5 points. The statistical analyses do not answer causative questions for the differ- ences in achievement between black segregated _and black desegregated students' scores but it appears that .the.- --r findings of this study corroborate the findings of :the Coleman Report tl966L which concluded that desegregation raised -the achievement level of black students and that :the proportion of white students in a school has a positive, - relationship toward students' performance. Grain (1971)

68

found that black students who attended desegregated schools scored higher on achievement tests than those who attended segregated schools. Coleman (1966) stated that a higher percentage of the achievement test scores of blacks in the South. is associated with the particular school they attend. Therefore the average black student's scores could suffer more in a school of low quality. Each group of black students was transferred from a segregated school with a lower budget, fewer facilities and a narrower range of course offerings to a previously all white school with a higher budget, more facilities and a broader range of course offerings. This corroborates another of Cole- man's (1966) findings that variations in the facilities and curricula of the schools make more difference in black students' achievement.

urban and Rural Desegregated Black and White

urban- desegregated white students' mean score for

the total test was 55.9 points higher than urban black

students' mean score. Even though this represents a large

gap between the achievement of black and white students,

it is smaller than the difference between urban segregated

whites and urban segregated blacks The total score for

urban white segregated students was 59.0 points higher

than the total score for black urban segregated students. The

total score increased for blacks since 1962 but there is still a

69

large gap to close before the total score for blacks equals the total score for whites. This small increase in the total score could possibly be attributed to the fact that many blacks were not guided into a college preparatory curriculum during the early years of school desegregation and t>robably did not enroll in many major Academic courses other than required courses. Also they came from schools that were less well equipped. Another factor which could have made some difference is the fact that even though schools were desegregated defacto ^segregation took place and many black students were tracked, grouped and placed in the same segregated situation-

The analyses of variance were significant on each of the tests except social science. Again, this exception could be attributed to the decrease in the number of high school units required in this area and broadening the offerings in this area.

Hansen (1960) found that after five years of de- segregation, median city-wide achievement improved, at all' grade levels and in most subject areas for black children. Stallings (1959) reported that achievement for black and white groups was significantly higher after desegregation than before and that black students made greater gains than white students. Jencks (1972) states that the average white student scores at least 15 points higher than the

70

average black student on standardized tests. Fitzgibbon (undated pamphlet) states that standardized test makers are white middle class people who have been culturally blind and this could be a disadvantage for black students. Cole- man (1966) however insists that standardized tests are not "nor are they intended to be 'culture free'" (p. 20).

White Urban—White Rural Desegregated

Urban white desegregated students' scores were higher oh each of the subtests and the total test score. This result could be attributed to the limited number of course offerings in rural schools and the vast number of different educational experiences that urban schools offer their students. Coleman (1966) states that there is probably a great difference in the validity of achievement test scores as predictors of future success in life for students in urban and rural environments. Differences in educational opportunities create differences in academic achievement when measured by standardized instruments.

White Segregated— White Desegregated

White desegregated students' scores increased 18.5 points in English, 4.1 points in mathematics and 15.6 points on the total score. This increase coincides with Stallings' (1959) findings that achievement scores for

71

whites increased after desegregation. The scores decreased in social science 2.1 points and natural science 4.9 points. Again this result could possibly be attributed ,, to the difference in curriculum changes and teaching methods in the schools. Also the Florida Statewide Twelfth Grade Test has not been mandatory for all seniors since 1970 and there is a possibility that low achieving, non- college bound students elected not to take the test.

CHAPTER V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The purpose of this study was to ascertain differ- ences in achievement test scores between black and white, urban and rural and segregated and desegregated senior high school students.

One thousand, four hundred sixteen students, all high school seniors, were divided into eight groups for this study. The groups were based on race, residence and school type. Group I consisted of 37 rural black segre- gated senior high school students; Group II included 151 rural white segregated senior high school students,- Group III included 127 urban black segregated senior high school students; Group IV included 493 urban white segre- gated students; Group V consisted of 93 urban black de- segregated students; Group VI included 52 rural black desegregated students; Group VII included 334 urban white desegregated senior high school students and Group VIII included 129 rural white desegregated senior high school

students .

The schools were divided into four categories: (1) urban segregated, (2) rural segregated, (3) urban

72

73

desegregated and (4) rural desegregated. The desegre- gated rural and urban schools were selected from schools that, were segregated during 1962. The schools used during 1973 were white segregated schools that became desegregated ih 1969. school A was a rural black segregated school, school B was a rural white segregated school. School C was an urban black segregated school and School D was an urban white segregated school. Schools B and D were used

for 19^3 data.

AnalyseV of variance of the data revealed signifi- cant differences between black and whi^e students^ test scores, urban and rural students ' test scores and= segre- gated and desegregates students'^ test scores. The differ- ences were favorable toward white urban desegregatTe^ ^stu- dents' scores.

- Conclusions _ ^ - .. - , ^

' A major conclusion reached as a result of the find- ings of this study is that desegregation has not had a neg- ative effect on total test scores for black and white stu- dents and urban and rural students^ JEt is recognized that several other factors could have caused changes in the Florida Statewide Twelfth Grade Test scores but since de- segregation a greater number of blacks have obtained higher

test scores. _ . ...

On the basis of the findings of this study, 10

other conclusions are offered:

74

1. There was a significant difference between black segregated students' total test score and black desegregated students' total test score. The score was higher for black desegregated students.

2. There was a significant difference in test scores between urban and rural desegregated black students. The scores were higher for urban desegregated black Stu- dents. .

3. There was a significant difference in test- _-. -_

scores between segregated and desegregated white students on the total test. The test score was higher for desegre- gated white students. -:-:::. ^ -.--i--

i 4. There was a significant difference in test .. scores between urban and rural desegregated white students. The test scores were higher for urban desegregated white

students .

5. There was a significant difference in achieve- ment test scores between urban segregated black and urban desegregated white students. The scores were higher for ^^_ urban desegregated white students. _

6. There was a significant difference in achieve- ment test scores between rural desegregated black and rural desegregated white students. The scores were higher for rural desegregated white students.

75

7. There was a significant difference in achieve- ment test scores between desegregated black and white students. The scores were higher for desegregated white

students.

8. There was a significant difference in achieve- ment test scores between segregated black and white students. The scores were higher for segregated white

students .

9. Black, white, urban and segregated students performed better on the social science test during segre- gation than during desegregation. Rural students' test scores increased not significantly in social science.

, 10. Black, white, urban and rural students had higher mean scores on the natural science subtest during segregation than during desegregation.

Recommendations

It is felt that this study would have been stronger had socioeconomic factors been taken into account. It is an established fact that socioeconomic factors have some relationship to achievement. A study similar to this one wherein socioeconomic factors are controlled would be

enlightening*

These findings have shown that the achievement of black and white students increased after four years

76

of desegregation. Nevertheless, white students' achieve- ment test scores are higher than those of black students' achievement test scores. A study in which -black and white students have been desegregated for 12 consecutive school years before taking the Florida Statewide Twelfth Grade Test is recommended.

An investigation of changes in the social science and natural science curricula and an item analysis of the Florida Statewide Twelfth Grade Test in the areas of social science and natural science are advocated.

The present curricula in natural science and social science should be re-evaluated by educators in the Florida

school systiem.

The fact that the differences in achievement test scores are much greater for white students than for black students could possibly indicate the need for more educa- tional support services for black students. The differ- ence between scores for black students and white students indicates a need for continuing the present special programs in the state universities that allow black students and ^ other minority students to gain admission to state universi- ties with less than the required entrance score of 300 on the Florida Statewide Twelfth Grade Test.

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Board of university Examiners. The Florida Statewide Twelfth Grade Achievement Test. Gainesville: University of Florida Press,

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Cohen, David; Pettigrew, Thomas F.; and Riley, Ro^^J^- ^- . ^ Race and the outcomes of schooling. In F. Mosteller and D. Moynihan (Eds.), On Equality of Educational Opportunity. New York: Vantage Books, 1972.

Coleman, James S.; Campbell, Ernest Q.; Hobson, Carol J. ; McPartland, James; Mood, Alexander; V\feinfeld, Frederic D. ; and York, Robert L. Equality of Kriucational Opportunity. U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare. Washington, D. C: United States Government Printing Office, 1966.

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BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH

Annie Delories Smith was born in Tallahassee, Florida, on July 3, 1944. She attended Florida A and M University and received a Bachelor of Science degree in history in 1964 and a Master's of Education degree in Guidance and Counseling in 1969. She received a Specialist in Education degree from the Univeristy of Florida in 1974.

She taught social studies in Broward County, Florida, from 1964 until 1967 and was a counselor in Dade County, Florida, from 1968 through 1973. She was a gradu- ate assistant in pupil personnel services at P. K. Yonge Laboratory School from 1973 until 1975.

She is the mother of a seven-year-old son, Tarrence. She is a member of the American Personnel and Guidance Association, American School Counselor's Association and , the Elementary School Guidance and Counseling Association.

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I certify that I have read this study and that in .y opinion ?t conforms to acceptable , standards of scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, m scope and quality, as a dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy.

Theodore Land^1n^rf7 Chairman Professor of Education and Psychology

I certify that I have read this study and that _^ in tny opinion !t conforms to acceptable.standards of scholarly

pLsentation and is fully adequate J-^J^^^P^/^^i^^Sophy: as a dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Pt^^lof °P"y V _

jO-.

Simon Johnson Assistant Professor pf Education

^ . YXj^y^K^^^

H^old C. Riker - Professor of Education

C. Lee Eggert Professor of EduV&tion

This dissertation was submitted to the Graduate Faculty of the College of Education and to the Graduate Council, and was accepted as partial fulfillment of the requxre- ments for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy.

August, 1975

Dean, College of Bducat ion

Dean, Graduate School