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UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
BULLETIN No. 545

Joint Contribution from the Forest Service, HENRY S. GRAVES, Forester
and the Bureau of Plant Industry, WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief

October 8, 1917

# | Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER

IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS:

THEIR LIFE HISTORY AND FORAGE VALUE

Sh SS ean Pee hee dlc.

By

ARTHUR W. SAMPSON, Plant Ecologist, Forest Service

CONTENTS

ai Page

i _ Object ofthe Study ........- 1 | Important Species . . . ... - ss 4
4 Character of the Range and Forage Summarys. °s°.- fae 2 Sa A Ee
ECAR ea tr cta oe? ool gtat- ee 2 | Appendix: Plan of Study ..... .,- 61

General Morphology of Grasses .. . A

WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
1917

Tae te oo ue ho hat ee SS

PREFATORY NOTE.

Early in its administration of the National Forests the Forest
Service was confronted with the problem of restoring the vegetation

on many areas on which the natural ground cover had been com- -

pletely or partially wiped out by destructive overgrazing before the
areas were included in National Forests. In order to secure the
fundamental information on which beneficial changes in the prac-
tice of grazing on such areas might be based the Forest Service
joined the Bureau of Plant Industry in 1907 in a cooperative project

of grazing investigations. Several important reports have been pub- —
lished, embodying the results of these various field studies, and the —

changes that have been made in the administration of grazing on
the National Forests in accordance with the results of the investiga-

tions have brought about conspicuous improvement in the ground ~

cover, great advance in the protection of watersheds, and important
increase in the number and quality of stock grazed. A part of the
original plan of investigation was to make a detailed study of the life
history of each important grazmg plant for the special purpose of
determining its reproductive season, irom the sending up of the flower

stalk to the maturing of the seed, and the period necessary to enable ~

the new seedlings to reach a size and vigor sufficient to withstand
moderate trampling by stock. In the course of these studies a very
large amount of detailed information about the important grazing

plants was acquired which could not be used in the more general’
reports already published. In the paper now presented for publica- |

tion a portion of this detailed information is given, in a form suited
to the needs of forest officers and of stock owners who desire to
familiarize themselves with the habits and requirements of the
plants upon which their animals subsist. Such knowledge is neces-
sary to the highest success in their business just as a knowledge of
the habits and requirements of cultivated plants is necessary to the
highest success in the business of the farmer. For the first time in
the history of grazing-plant literature the information needed te
accomplish this result has been acquired and presented for public use.
FREDERICK V. CovILue,
Botanst, Bureau of Plant Industry.

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Joint Contribution from the Forest Service, HENRY S.
GRAVES, Forester, and the Bureau of Plant Industry,
WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief

Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER. October 8, 1917

IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS:
THEIR LIFE HISTORY AND FORAGE VALUE.

By ArtHurR W. Sampson, Plant Ecologist, Forest Service.

CONTENTS.
Page. Page
Objechohthestudiya-s 9-05. eee ee 1 | Important species—Continued.

Character of the range and forage studied... - 2 Grasslike plants—Continued.
General morphology ofgrasses........-..---- 4 Raliliswantp Sed Ge emian 22a ss yes ee 32
AIM POGLATIUS PECIOS epee rere 4 Shee pised cone sass a es cee ee eee 33
GRASSES ie ig Se oe ae ae 4 IBIS TASS Wtae ie ee as Se Ea 34
Key to tribes and genera............ 5 IUUSH es setae se nied Bead Sine Ue eS oh 35
Mountain bunch grass ,.........---- 6 WO OG SUS Hee aay) eee lee 36
IROTCUPINELaASS ase nee eae ae ee 9 Nonerasshike plamts).= 2 .=....:---:2.---- 37
Mountainitimothvee asses. sees ee 10 MoumtarmOnio ns 2ie5 ne ya cn ase 38
Slender reed-grass..........-.-.----- 11 Halseshelloporeisere sess aie eee 39
Al pine\redtO pesca ss ss-5- cae oe Ae 12 IROnWAll OWoeeec oe ea es se cet 40
IPIN CSRS Eee eee eee se ane 13 Waildabuckwiheat =" sss se 2 2a ss 4]
Blue} OU Gree a ee eee 15 Gleranilthineenere ae me en eee ae 2
Muttedshair-crasse sess ee 16 IMINO WCCO eee eee ein = teas eens ses | 43
Slender hair-grass................--- 17 Will diCeleryee menses st ee en 44
Sorkeditrise tum te sss - eee 19 Skunkweed __....-: sei edge ok 45
Mountain June grass.............-- 20 En ohvhu Cklebernyee seen an eee 46
OMI OME ST ASSIS epee oe ys ye 21 SEVORSC TALIM eee seg he ES Ee 46
IDFR) Ota AR doo neeasueesaeee 22 iBlueibeardtoncwes. 2256. - 55-52-22 2= 47
Short-awned bromegrass.....-...--- 23 Moumtaimiel dens see =e eee 4S
Sotieheat saa oe 5 Se a 24 Vial @rlainyace sta wearin ek ice wy see 4Q
Matlimeadow-eTrasse ss. =2 soe 25 Mountain dandelion...._...........- 50
Bis pun Chyonassea sae a ee 26 Wioolivaweed S22~ careshe ene Cases 51
Mountain wheat grass .......+...._.. 28 Conehlowers ease aan eee 52
Smooth wildaywek ss. 29 BVGRROW meine Soe ee ae ee paneer 53
\Waone Opell s Sa esc udowensqeeueusee 30 IButhenweed =a. stc cos sma anes 54
Grasshike plants tae eae emes cee sa cee Sia SNOUT Atay emt ne ees ore ie peeing ee ee 55
Distinctions between grasslike plants Heolovicallirequirements: _...--=.--.-2-.- 55
DTNGOTASSESEI hae See ee 31 LOM SLOT eee ee ete eae Ree eee 56
Sedvesandsnwshese 2.25. sass 222 5-5 eS =e S00 SA ppendix: Welan Of shudy~ -- 2.2252. 22225--- 61

OBJECT OF THE STUDY.

Although practically all types of grazing lands support a variety
of plant species, only a certain proportion of the grasses and of the
other plants are important from a grazing standpoint. Some species,
owing to their wide distribution and abundance, as well as to the
relish with which they are cropped, are valuable forage plants;
others because of certain chemical contents either during the entire
season or at some period of it are poisonous, and therefore seriously
objectionable on the range; while still others, either through some
peculiar physical structure or because they contain a superabundance

95154°—Bull. 545—17——1

2 BULLETIN 545, U.-S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

of tannic acid, which renders them unpalatable are of little or no
value for copes.

In order to gain an intimate knowledge of the habits, requirements,
and life history of the more important species, a study was initiated
in 1907 by the Forest Service, in cooperation with the Bureau of
Plant Industry, upon the Wallowa National Forest in northeastern
Oregon. Data on the relative palatability of the different forage
plants were gathered by following bands of sheep and observing
their choice of feed as they grazed. Afterwards the relative value
of the individual range plants was determined by studying (1) their
abundance, distribution, time of flower-stalk production, aggressive-
ness, reproduction (both vegetatively and by seed), and seed habits;
and (2) their palatability and nutritiousness at various times during
the grazing season and their ability to withstand trampling. The
plan “of ony and the methods used are fully described at the end of
the bulletin.

While the results of the study are largely based upon observations
in the high mountains in Oregon between elevations of 5,500 and
8,000 feet, they should nevertheless be helpful to stockmen through-
out the West in revegetating the range, since many of the species
described are widely distributed, and the genera represented are
among those of first importance on most of the natural range lands of
the West.

A photograph of each important species in natural size accom-
panies its description, but where the general characters of two or
more species of the same genus are similar, a single photograph is
used. With the exception of Plate XX XVIII all specimens selected
for photographic purposes were either in flower or fruit, or both,
and care was taken to show the general character of the root sys-
tem, habit of growth, and external structure. Not only will these
photographs make possible, in practically every stance, the recog-
nition of the same species when met with in the field, but also other
species of the same genus will be recognized as congeneric, although
the specific name may not be known to the observer.

CHARACTER OF THE RANGE AND FORAGE STUDIED.

Between the lower and higher grazing lands of the mountains of
northeastern Oregon is a difference in elevation of about 7,000 feet.
Along with this wide altitudinal variation go widely different growth
conditions. Thus, according to the charnerer a the vegetation,
the lands studied may be cisciticd into four zones.”

1 The results of naturalrevegetation studies based upon observation of the plants described in this bulle-
tin are presented by the writerin U.S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 34, ‘“‘ Range Improvement by Deferred and Rotation
Grazing,’ 1913, and in the Journal of Agricultural Research, Vol. III, No. 2, “ Natural Revegetation of
Range Lands Based upon Growth Requirements and Life History of the Vegetation,” 1914.

2 Merriam, C. Hart, “Life Zones and Crop Zones of the United States,” U. 8S. Dept. of Agriculture,
Biological Survey Bul. No. 10, 1898.

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Bul. 545, U

Bul.

545, U. S.'Dept. of Agriculture.

GENERAL MORPHOLOGY OF GRASSES.

A. Rhizome or rootstock.

B. Shoot from rootstock.

C. Sheath.

D. Blade.

E. Culm.

F. Spikelike panicle of timothy.
G. Open panicle of bromegrass.
H. Glumes or scales—

First glume.

(2) Second glume.

I. Florets.

J. Natural size of complete brome spikelet. Plants one-third natural size.

PLATE II.

}

IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS. 3

1. A Transition zone or yellow-pine association occupying the

ey between 3,000 and 4,500 feet elevation.
. A Canadian zone or lodlaganlls- -pine association between 4,500

a 6,800 feet elevation.

3. A Hudsonian zone or white-bark pine association between
6,500 and 8,500 feet elevation.

4. An Arctic-alpine zone or aipine-meadow association from
8,000 feet elevation up.

Owing to the wide difference in the physical conditions in these
zones, numerous rather distinct range types occur. The time

_ during which each is grazed varies according to the location.

The Transition zone (yellow-pine association), owing to the open
character of the tree stand, supports a rather dense grass cover.
Big bunchgrass (Agropyron spicatum) occurs in pure stands on the
less elevated lands, and pine grass (Calamagrostis suksdorfii), blue
bunchgrass (Festuca idahoensis), little bluegrass (Poa sandbergw), and
mountain June grass (Koeleria cristata), named in the order of their
importance, are the most valuable species at somewhat higher
elevations. The majority of the important species are herbaceous.
This zone is among the first to be grazed in the spring, the lower
lands usually supporting stock early in March. By June 1 the forage
in the higher adjoining lands is preferred because of its greater
succulence.

The Canadian zone (lodgepole-pine association) is more densely
forested than the others. Also the forage, instead of being herbace-
ous, is mainly shrubby or of the “‘chaparral” type. The most im-
portant browse plants in this zone are fire willow (Sahx nuttalli),
black elder (Sambucus melanocarpa), high huckleberry (Vaccinvum
membranaceum), and wax currant (Ribes cereum). Since the physical
conditions in the Canadian zone are intermediate between those of
the Transition zone below and the Hudsonian zone above, few plants
are wholly confined to this region, and many of the species of the
transition zone are encountered here. The grazing period in the

Canadian zone comes approximately between May 15 and July 15.

The Hudsonian zone (white-bark pine association) is characterized
by scattered small clumps of woodland and a preponderance of
grassland. The most important forage species are mountain bunch-
grass (Festuca viridula), onion grass (Melica bella), porcupine grass
(Stipa occidentalis), wild celery (Ligusticum oreganum), and butter-
weed (Senecio triangularis).

While this region is not suited for early grazing, because of the
lateness of the growing season, it has as great an area and carries
about as many stock as both of the lower zones together. It includes

all the high summer sheep lands, except the few crests that are

grazed above timber line. The grazing period begins approximately
July 15 and continues through August and September.

4 BULLETIN 545, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The Arctic-alpine zone (alpine-meadow association), owing to its
small carrying capacity and inaccessibility, has little or no value for
erazing, and the character of its vegetation need not be discussed.

On the Wallowa National Forest the vegetation which furnishes
the greater part of the forage is distinctly herbaceous. It consists
primarily of grasses, sedges, and rushes, with a fair representation
of nongrasslike species commonly termed ‘‘weeds.’”’ While the
species are numerous, about 50 furnish virtually all of the range forage.

GENERAL MORPHOLOGY OF GRASSES.

In the discussion of the individual species it will be necessary to
refer to specific characters in a general way as a means of distin-
gvuishing one species from another. It is essential, therefore, that
the reader have a clear conception of what a true grass is. The
stems or culms are usually hollow except at the joints (nodes).
The leaves consist of two parts, the sheath, which surrounds the culm
usually like a split tube, and the blade. The minute flowers are
arranged in spikelets consisting of a shortened axis (the rachilla) and
from two to many 2-ranked scales, the lower two of which (the
glumes) are empty, while each of the others (the lemmas) bears in
its axil a flower inclosed in a 2-nerved scale (the palea). Lemma,
palea, and flower, together, are termed the floret. The spikelets may
be sessile (without a footstalk) along a jointed axis (the rachis), as
in wheat and rye, the whole constituting a spike, or on little stems
(pedicels) and arranged in panicles, as in mountain bunchgrasss and
smooth bromegrass. The head of timothy is a panicle with the
branches and pedicels greatly shortened. This is called a spikelike
panicle. Sometimes the lemmas or the glumes bear bristlelike
appendages termed awns. The ‘‘beard”’ of barley consists of awns.

Plate II has been prepared to illustrate characters which will fre-
quently be alluded to in the following discussion. In this illustration
cultivated timothy (Phleum pratense) and smooth bromegrass
(Bromus inermis) are used because they are well known to stockmen
and because they represent the morphology of two distinct and
important tribes of grasses.

IMPORTANT SPECIES.
GRASSES.

The grass family (Poaceae) contains about 3,500 known species.
They vary in size from small, mosslike individuals in the extreme
Polar regions to treehke growths of a hundred feet or more in the
Tropics. As a whole, no family of plants enjoys a wider distribu-
tion or grows in a greater variety of soils, and no other family
is as important economically. From a grazing viewpoint the
grasses are more valuable, all localities considered, than all other
plants put together.

The general taxonomic characters of grasses are shown in Plate II.

PLATE III.

Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

MOUNTAIN BUNCH GRASS (FESTUCA VIRIDULA).

D, the caryopsis or

?

lemma; C, palea;

A, glumes; B,

grain.

The specimen shown is in process of fertilization.

Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agricuiture. PLATE IV.

F-4G

PORCUPINE GRASS OR NEEDLE GRASS (STIPA OCCIDENTALIS).

The seedling shown is of about the average size attained at the end of the growing season.

AY

ZN

aN.

A.

IMG

te

AN

AN.

IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS. 5

Kry To THE TRIBES AND GENERA.

KEY TO THE TRIBES.

Spikelets upon pedicels in open or spikelike panicles, not in rows.
B. Spikelets with but 1 perfect flower (the rachilla prolonged behind the palea as
a. bristlein Calamagrosiis and Cinna): -....2.2..-...:.- Tribe Agrostideae.

B. Spikelets with 2 or more perfect flowers.

C. Glumes usually longer than the first floret; florets with bent awn on the back
(excep icy Mogleria) sata 8 wee? ye ee a oS ss Tribe Aveneae.
C. Glumes much shorter than the first floret, unawned or with a straight awn
FEOMML MENA Oxy s eee ene es LS Wee Tribe Festuceae.
Spikelets sessile, in opposite rows along a zigzag jointed rachis forming a spike;
leaf blades bearing a pair of earlike appendages at the base... ... Tribe Hordeae.

KEY TO THE GENERA.
Agrostideae.

Lemmas hardened, having a needlelike point at base and a long, usually twice
benta wma ber summits 0 ee ee et es Genus Stipa.
Lemmas thin and delicate, not needle-pointed at base, awnless or with a minute
awn from the back.
B. Spikelets in a dense spikelike head; glumes abruptly awn-tipped.
: Genus Phleum.
B. Spikelets in open or narrow panicles; glumes not awn tipped.
C. Floret raised on a little stalk; spikelets in a large nodding panicle.
Genus Cinna.
C. Floret sessile.
D. Floret bearing at base copious white hairs sometimes as long as the

lemma; rachilla extended behind the palea-..... Genus Calamagrostis.

D. Floret naked or nearly so; rachilla not extended behind the palea, the

lagtercoiten wantimges yo. to Sos eo de ce | Genus Agrostis.
Aveneae.

Lemmas awned.
B. Panicles open; lemmas convex, irregularly toothed or 2-lobed, awns arising

TEOMMDELOwstneMmmad dies ase =e ot eee ae ee be Genus Deschampsia.
B. Panicles narrow or spikelike; lemmas keeled, 2-toothed, the awn arising from
apovesthenmiddlens(- rie Ob ee. Ret eSias Gee Sais Genus Trisetum.

Lemmas not awned, panicles spikelike, culms pubescent below panicle.
Genus Koeleria.

Festuceae.

Spikelets with upper florets usually sterile, broad and folding about each other,
forming a club-shaped mass; glumes shining; lemmas papery, scarious margined.
Genus Melica.
Spikelets with upper florets not unlike lower ones in shape, but often reduced in
size.
B. Spikelets not over 5 mm. (4 of an inch) long; not awned.
C. Lemmas keeled, acute, the nerves not prominent....-....---.-- Genus Poa.
C. Lemmas convex, obtuse, the nerves prominent......-.- Genus Panicularia.
B. Spikelets 1 em. (2 of an inch) or more long, awned or awn-pointed.
D. Lemmas 2-toothed, usually awned just below the apex. ..Genus Bromus.
D. Lemmas entire, usually awned from the tip.....--.----- Genus Festuca.

6 BULLETIN 545, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Ho rdeane ;

A. Spikelets solitary at each joint of the rachis. -- ---.-- eee ae Genus Agropyron.
A. Spikelets 2 or more at each joint of the rachis.
B. Rachis continuous, awns erect, not over 2 cm. (2 of an inch) long.
Genus Elymus.
B. Rachis readily separated into joints, awns spreading, 4 cm. (13 inches) or more
long. (22223, 2225 Se ee eee Genus Sitanion.

Mountain Buncu Grass.
( Festuca viridula.)

The genus Festuca is well represented in the United States, about
30 native species being recognized.t Most of them are abundant in
the regions to which they are adapted, though three species have
been collected but once, two others but twice, and another species,
F. rigescens, has been found but once in North America.

Several North American species of Festuca are of great value for
forage and hay. Among these, mountain bunch grass, while not as
widely distributed as some others, for example, blue bunch grass
(F. idahoensis), is nevertheless the most valuable for grazing pur-
poses because of its greater palatability and nutritiousness. Next
in forage value are blue bunch grass (F. idahoensis) and red fescue
(F. rubra), of the West, and F. aliaica, an important range plant mn
Alaska. A number of the annuals are valuable for grazing purposes
in the semiarid regions, especially in the foothill areas of the South-
west, where the seed germinates late in the fall and growth contin-
ues through the winter. Under such conditions they often furnish

a first-class palatable forage at a time when nothing else is available.

While mountain bunch grass is usually abundant in the localities
in which it occurs, it has not a very wide distribution. Its natural
home is in the Hudsonian zone, where it occurs from the lower to
the higher limits, reaching well up to timber line. Wherever found
in the United States it is closely restricted to the higher elevations.
-On the Wallowa National Forest in northeastern Oregon, it is seldom
found below 6,500 feet. Of all the specimens examined in the Na-
tional Herbarium the lowest altitude reported was 5,000 feet.

While stockmen usually recognize the species when they see it,
and appreciate its forage value, it is sometimes confused with other
grasses, perhaps most commonly with blue bunch grass ( F.idahoensis).
The latter, however, is distinctly a plant of the Transition zone and
is seldom found where mountain bunch grass abounds. The rather
prominent awns and the ‘“‘bloom”’ on the leaves, which gives the
characteristic bluish tinge, readily distinguish blue bunch grass from
F. viridula.

1 Piper. Contr. U. 8. Nat. Herb., Vol. 10, p. 1. 1906.

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deals Bom pe viebets, Minter 1 I cineden greeAwe dips

Pr Sem

be SR eae

Bul, 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE V.

F-5G

LITTLE NEEDLE GRASS (STIPA MINOR).

Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

RN STR Re ona

ttl

MOUNTAIN TIMOTHY (PHLEUM

ALPINUM).

PLATE VI.

IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS. 7

Mountain bunch grass (Plate IIT) forms densely tufted hummocks
or bunches. It has coarse, deep, and spreading perennial roots;
erect, slender, and smooth culms from 1 to 2 feet high, slightly
thickened at the base; a preponderance of rather long inwardly rolled
Gnvolute), smooth or somewhat rough basal leaves; and open semi-
nodding panicles, composed of rather compressed spikelets, often of
a dark purple color, bearing 3 to 6 florets.

As indicated by its usual habitat, mountain-bunch grass stands
near the head of the list in drought-resistant qualities. Well estab-
lished plants subjected to the gradual drying process began wilting
excessively when the water content was reduced to 9.5 per cent, and
did not, as a rule, recover after the per cent of water dropped to
7. Such a low amount of water about the main roots would be
very unusual, of course, on the high range, but it shows the possi-
bilities of mountain bunch grass in dry situations.

Observations during 1907, 1908, and 1909 showed that the flower
stalks were sent up from July 5 to August 20, July 10 to August 25,
and July 3 to August 15 in the respective years. The seed crop for
these seasons began to ripen as early as August 5, and by September
5 practically the entire crop had matured. The seeds are dissemi-
nated almost immediately upon reaching maturity. Flower-stalk
production and seed maturity occur earlier upon coarser, less de-
composed soils, where the soil water is readily reduced through evap-
oration and where the temperature in the substratum is relatively
high.

Mountain bunch grass seed has a low viability. The average for
all laboratory tests made during the three seasons was 12.2 per cent.
Field tests in the natural habitat, with seed from the same source,
gave a much higher percentage of germination.

Upon the higher ranges mountain bunch grass is grazed ravenously
by all classes of stock. It is most highly relished at the time of
flower-stalk production, the entire aerial portion, including the succu-
lent leaves and the flower stalks, often being removed at that time
by asingle grazing. As the season advances, sheep discriminate be-
tween the leaf blades and culms, and when the plant has matured its
seeds the latter are rarely cropped. Ripening of the seed crop, how-
ever, impairs the plant’s palatability and nutritiousness but little.
As a rule, the leaf blades are not eaten so closely as earlier in the
season, and the fibrous stems or seed stalks remain untouched. But
little else of the forage is wasted.

The nutritive value of mountain bunch grass is indicated in Table 1,
which also presents an analysis of well cured timothy hay for com-
parison.

8 BULLETIN 545, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TaBLE 1.—Chemical analysis of mountain bunch grass and timothy hay.

Protein Ether
Material. : (nitro- | extract Gee
: gen). (fat) Bee
Mountain bunch grass:

Matured plant..2 e222 5 es ee ee ee 13.18 2.83 22. 20
GROWERS Pla mts See a eee eee ea gar eee On ne | 12, 24 3. 60 21.15
Matured flowerstalikce ae jee es eee re oS an ESS 4.18 1.30 38. 65
Tumothy Way oso. cso 2s eS ce ee ee a opera ie eg 6.78 | 2. 87 33. 40

It will be seen that there is comparatively little difference in the
nutritiousness of mountain bunch grass at the time the flower stalks
are being produced and immediately after the seed crop has ripened.
The greatest difference in the important constituents is found in the
ether extract (fat), which is 27.21 per cent greater in the younger
plants. This is partly offset by the fact that there is 7.68 per cent
more protein (muscle making nutrients) in the matured plants. The
latter also contain 4.96 per cent more crude fiber than the young
plants, the most indigestible portion of the forage. In the matured
flower stalks the protein (nitrogen) and the ether extract (fat) are
very low, while the indigestible (crude. fiber) material is very high.
This fact explains in part why the flower stalks are not grazed at
maturity.

Investigations have shown that well-cured grasses yield as much
nutriment as the same grasses when green. There is this distinction,
however, that ordinarily the cured forage is not as palatable as the
green. But since about half of the basal leaf blades remain green
until the end of the grazing season, the palatability and nutritive
qualities of mountain bunch grass remain comparatively high after
seed maturity.

A plant closely related to the one discussed is blue bunch grass
(F. idahoensis). Being confined almost entirely to lands of medium
elevation, and the herbage having a distinctly bluish color and the
awns on the culms and lemmas being about twice the length of those
of mountain bunch grass, the two are readily distinguished even
though both are distinctly bunch grasses.

The flower stalks of blue bunch grass begin to show about the first
week in June in the typical (yellow-pine) habitat and they continue
to be produced untilabout August 1. The seed matures, for the most
part, between June 25 and August 15. The seed tested for germina-
tion show a viability of from 11 to 21 per cent.

Blue bunch grass furnishes excellent forage for all classes of stock
from early spring until the early part of August, when it begins to
mature and the leaf blades become somewhat tough and dry. Even
at that time it is grazed to a greater or less extent by cattle and horses,
but only to a limited extent by sheep. All stock, however, relish

1 Wolff, E., Farm Foods, 1896, English edition, p. 155.

Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

SLENDER REED-GRASS (CINNA LATIFOLIA).

PLATE VII.

F-7G

PLATE VIII.

Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

ALPINE REDTOP (AGROSTIS ROSSAE).

IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS. 9

blue bunch grass in the autumn on account of the new growth result-
ing from the autumn precipitation. As a whole, it is a palatable
and nutritious grass, and, occuring as it does in abundance over well-
drained lands of medium elevation, its economic value is high.

PORCUPINE GRASS.

(Stipa occidentalis. )

The genus Stipa includes a large number of perennial grasses dis-
tributed throughout the world. Approximately 30 species are found
in the United States, mainly in the West. Many are valuable for
erazing purposes, while others are cut for hay.

Porcupine grass (Plate IV) is a perennial bunchgrass with coarse,
spreading, and deeply penetrating roots, capable of withstanding an
unusual amount of abuse. The leaf blades are mainly basal, some-
what involute (rolled inward), those of the culms shorter than the
basal ones, all rather rough and somewhat rigid, the sheaths shorter
than the internodes. The panicle is somewhat contracted, about 4
inches long; the spikelets one-flowered; the floret cylindrical, pubes-
cent throughout, with a sharp-pointed bent callus at the base. The
empty glumes are subequal, membranaceous, and the lemmas or
flowering glumes, which completely inclose the palets, are brownish
when mature and bear awns from 1 to 14 inches long, twice bent and
strikingly plumose or densely pubescent to the second joint or knee.

To judge from the tufted habit of growth and the involute leaf
blades and their texture, it might be expected that the moisture
requirements of porcupine grass would be about the minimum of the
species studied. An average of all moisture tests, however, showed
that pronounced wilting resulted in the characteristic soil type where
the water content varied from 9.5 to 11.5 per cent. In a soil contain-
ing 8 per cent of moisture a specimen failed to recover its form and
subsequently died. Fearing that some error had crept into the
results first obtained, several additional tests were conducted, but
the later results agreed with the first.

Porcupine grass inhabits only well-drained soils in open, exposed
situations in association with mountain bunchgrass, alpine redtop,
short-awned bromegrass, and other species. Its seedlings develop
somewhat deeper roots than do the majority of the species, and be-
cause of this fact they have thrived during dry periods in certain
places where other species able to exist in soil of slightly lower water
content have died.

The flower stalks are all produced within a month or less after the
first ones appear. They begin to show about July 15. The seeds
are, as a rule, well matured by September 10. In 1909, however,
they had ripened and were disseminated by August 30. Dissemina-
tion follows almost immediately upon maturity.

85154°—Bull. 545—17——2

10 BULLETIN 545, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The seed crop has a fair viability, the average for the three years
being 27 per cent. The highest germination, obtained in 1909, was
35 per cent. On the range this species is reproducing so abundantly
that it is very probable that a much higher viability results when the
seed is allowed to pass through the usual conditions after maturing.
The seed, too, has an effective means of getting into the ground
through the boring action of the awn, and this may account largely |
for the plant’s rapid invasion of many situations. It is among the
most promising species for restocking depleted ranges.

Although not to be compared with mountain bunchgrass in pala-
tability, porcupine grass is a good forage plant. It begins growth
early in the season and continues growing until late in the summer,
the leaf blades remaining green until September 1. Although their
texture is somewhat harsh and their edges slightly scabrous, the
plant is grazed with considerable relish by sheep, cattle, and horses,
though considered most desirable for sheep. Both cattle and horses
eat the flower stalks, even when. the seeds are approaching maturity,
and the long, rather bristlelike awns are likely to make sore mouths
or even to cause serious trouble in the throat, sometimes resulting
in what is termed ‘“‘temporary lump jaw.’ Other grasses, however,
may be more directly responsible for these bad effects. Sheep do
not consume the flower or seed stalks, but graze the leaf blades
closely.

A species closely allied to porcupine grass is little needle grass
(S. minor). It is very similar in general characters, ecological
requirements, and distribution, and for that reason will not be dis-
cussed in detail here. While as widely distributed as S. occidentalis,
it is not nearly so abundant. The plant is taller and may be dis-
tinguished at a glance by observing the awns, which are less than
half the length of those of S. occidentalis, and which, instead of being
plumose, are very slightly pubescent or merely roughened. Because
of its sparse growth, the plant is not especially valuable for grazing,
though eaten with relish by most classes of stock. (See Plate V.)

Mountain TIMOTHY.
(Phleum alpinum.)

The genus Phlewm contains about 10 annual and perennial species,
most of which are confined to the Temperate and Arctic regions.
Among them is the cultivated timothy, generally conceded to be the
most valuable forage and hay plant in the United States.

Mountain timothy is occasionally mistaken for the cultivated
timothy. While the two plants have somewhat the same general
appearance (compare Plates II and VI), the cultivated species, P.
pratense, usually grows from 2 to 4 feet high, while mountain timothy
as a Tule attains less than half that height; also the spike of the latter,

Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IX.

F-9@

VIEW SHOWING How CLOSELY SHEEP GRAZE PINE GRASS IN THE SPRING OF THE YEAR.

The fibrous woody roots and the fact that it forms a turf renders it almost proof against trampling and close
grazing. Pine grass is one of the hardiest and most prolific grazing plants in the Wallowa Mountains.

10

PLATE X.

Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Dcinides Makara

sage” rs
emacs Quin inant kek fae ORE eR RN OE ERD Ne :

F-10G

PINE GRASS (CALAMAGROSTIS SUKSDORFI!).
On the right is shown a pine-grass seedling of 2 months’ growth.

IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS. ial

about 1 inch long, instead of being cylindrical and having short awns
on the glumes like the cultivated species, is ellipsoid or ovate-oblong,
the awns about the length of the glumes.

Like the cultivated species, mountain timothy is a perennial plant
and has the sheaths of the upper portion of the leafy culms loose as
compared with the lower ones. The spikelike panicle is usually
purple in color, and the glumes of the spikelets are slightly fringed on
the back.

Mountain timothy is confined to alpine and subalpine regions. In
the region studied it is closely restricted to the Hudsonian zone. It
is a plant of turfy habit, growing in moist meadows and swales,
around springs, and along banks of streams. Often the stands are
dense and pure. In some places, however, the keenest competition
exists between the mountain timothy and certain sedges and rushes,
the result being that one species predominates here and another there.
Since it grows characteristically in boggy or nearly saturated soils,
mountain timothy wilts beyond recovery even though there may be a
rather high percentage of moisture in the substratum. The five
specimens tested for drought resistance persisted only until the water
content was decreased to an average of 14 per cent.

The flower stalks are produced later than those of vegetation in
drier situations, since the moister soils are slower in warming up in
the spring. Usually the stalks begin to appear about July 15, and
are all produced by the end of the first week in August. Mature seeds
can generally be found after August 15, and continue to ripen until
about the middle of September.

The fertility of the seed crop is considerably above the average for
a typical subalpine herbaceous plant. The average per cent for all
tests was 69.5, the maximum germination of 76 being obtained in
1909 and the minimum of 58.2 in 1907.

When compared with the average marsh or bog species, mountain
timothy ranks high as a forage plant. Early in the summer it is
considered by stockmen to be a bit too succulent or ‘‘washy,” but
since sheep naturally avoid its habitat, which is invariably moist at
that season, there is little demand for it then. As the season ad-
vances, however, the soil becomes drier, and the latter part of the
summer this grass is grazed with relish. Mountain timothy remains
green and tender unusually late in the fall, and, compared with other
species grazed at that time of the year, it is eaten with unusual relish.

SLENDER REED-GRASS.
(Cinna latifolia.)
The genus Cinna is represented by but three species in the United

States. Of these, slender reed-grass (Cinna latifolia) is the most
important in the localities studied.

12 BULLETIN 545, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Slender reed-grass is a rank growing perennial from 14 to 4 feet tall.
The culms, which are usually very brittle, are bent like a knee at the
lower joints. Like the sheaths, the leaf blades are rough, and are
especially broad and very flat (Plate VII). The panicle is long, often
exceeding 8 inches, open, and usually drooping.

The favorite habitat of slender reed-grass is in sparsely vegetated
forests which admit enough light for the undergrowth to succeed.
It is closely restricted to shaded situations with well-watered soils.

The inherent tendency toward shade is shown by the unusually
wide and flat leaf blades as well as the absence of basal leaves, while
the high water requirements are shown, among other things, by the
meager development of the root system, the absence of special con-
trivances to retard transpiration, and the restriction of the species
to wet sous. Growing in situations very similar to mountain timo-
thy, it has virtually the same water requirements. Failure to re-
cover from wilting took place in the mucky soil in which this species
grows when the moisture content in the case of one specimen was
13.5 per cent and in another 16 per cent.

The flower stalks were produced from July 5 to August 5, July 10
to August 15, and from July 5 to August 10 in 1907, 1908, and 1909,
respectively. Compared with the earliest appearance of the flower
stalks, the seed reached maturity at a relatively late date, the earliest
being about the last week in August. The crop matured evenly,
however, with approximately 15 days intervening between the time
the earliest seed matured and the major portion ripened.

The length of time required for a seed crop to ripen in nearly all
cases seems to influence the vitality of the resulting crop. An even
and comparatively short maturing period usually indicates, for a
given locality, seed of higher vitality than that which ripens at
wholly different dates. The average germination of the seed crop
of slender reed-grass for the three seasons was 86.8, and the mmimum
yearly average, 79 per cent, obtained in 1907.

Since slender reed-grass does not enjoy an especially wide zonal
distribution, and is closely restricted to moist situations, it supples
but limited forage. So far as palatability is concerned, however, it
ranks high, and since it remaims green and tender throughout nearly
the entire summer grazing season, the herbage is closely consumed.
Owing to the moist condition of its habitat in the early part of the
season, the plant is seldom grazed by sheep until August.

ALPINE REDTOP.
(Agrostis rossae.)

The genus Agrostis is composed wf about 100 species, most of which
are found in the North Temperate Zone.’ As indicated by its com-

1 Hackel, Edward, ‘‘The True Grasses,”’ p. 111, 1890.

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Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

MARSH PINE GRASS (CALAMAGROSTIS CANADENSIS).

A portion of the characteristic creeping rootstocks is shown.

12

PLATE XI.

PLATE XII.

Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

F~-12G

TUFTED HAIR-GRASS (DESCHAMPSIA CAESPITOSA).

13

IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS. 13

mon name, alpine redtop is typically a plant of the high grazing lands.
On the Wallowa National Forest it is not found below about 6,500
feet. It grows well up to and even a little beyond timber line, having
approximately the same distribution as mountain bunchgrass, with
which it is commonly associated.

This species, like a great many typical upland plants, is short,
rarely exceeding 8 inches in height (Plate VIII). Unlike cultivated
redtop, it is distinctly tufted instead of stoloniferous, and has a large
number of narrow basal leaves from one-third to one-half the length
of the culms. The panicle is rather contracted, about 2 inches long,
and the spikelets are purple-green merging into red, one-flowered,
with awnless glumes.

Alpine redtop seems best adapted to a well disintegrated basaltic
sou relatively rich in humus, characteristic of glades and open pla-
teaus. It wilts beyond recovery im soils of this type having a water
content of from 8.5 to as low as 7 per cent. Good stands have
often been seen in rather moist habitats, but, as a rule, it succeeds
best and is more commonly met with in well-drained soils. Being a
bunchgrass, it never completely covers the ground, but in certain
localities it is sometimes the main species.

The average time during which the flower stalks were sent forth
in 1907, 1908, and 1909 was four weeks. In 1907 they first showed
on July 5 and continued to be sent forth until August 15. The seed
crop was fairly well ripened at the end of the first week in September.

The germination power of the seed in 1907 was 29 per cent; in
1908, 38 per cent; and in 1909, 41 per cent. For an upland peren-
nial grass these figures are considerably above the average, and in
favorable situations the reproduction was good.

While not eaten with the same relish as are a number of its close
relatives, alpine redtop is grazed by sheep to a considerable extent,
particularly in the fore part of the season. After about August 15,
when all the flower stalks have been sent up, the leaf blades become
rather tough and unpalatable, and other plants are then preferred.
The shortness of its leaf blades, its scattered growth, and the compara-
tively short period during which it is eaten with relish affect its

importance as a forage plant.

PINE GRASS.

(Calamagrostis suksdorfit.)

The genus Calamagrostis, to which pine grass belongs, contains
about 130 species widely distributed throughout temperate and
mountain regions. Thirty-eight species, mostly native, occur in
North America, mainly in the West. Only three occur in the Southern
States, and six of those States are without a single species.

14 BULLETIN 545, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Botanically Calamagrostis is closely related to Agrostis, the genus
to which redtop belongs, but may be distinguished from it by the long,
soft, fine hairs on the callus or hardened base of the floret and by the
prolongation of the axis of the spikelet behind the palea.

Pine grass makes its most luxuriant growth in the Transition zone,
where it grows mainly under the relatively open forest of western
yellow pine (Pinus ponderosa). It is also found in the Canadian zone,
where it often ranks first in abundance and importance among the
grass species. In the Hudsonian zone it is found only in the warmer
situations of the lower altitudes. (See Plate IX.)

Pine grass (Plate X) may be recognized by its perennial character
and its abundant, well-developed, creeping rootstocks which produce
a continuous, closely matted sod or turf. The culms, somewhat
bunched, grow from 1 to 3 feet tall, and usually bear three short,
smooth leaves; the rather numerous lower or basal leaves are somewhat
involute, flexible, and smooth. The panicle, pale green until the
plant is mature, is contracted and densely flowered, the spikelet
bearing but one floret. One pronounced character by which the
species may be recognized at a glance is the ring of stiff hairs at the
junction of the sheath and blade.

The fibrous, widely spreading and deep root system, make it
possible for pine grass to grow in exposed situations where the soil
is relatively dry during most of the growing season. (Tests for
drought resistance show that this species usually fails to regain its
form after wilting notably in a soil containing an average water
content of 8.5 per cent. In the case of two specimens turgor was
regained in a soil which contained but 5.5 per cent of moisture.)

Owing to the warm and relatively dry situations generally inhabi-
tated by pine grass, the flower stalks begin to appear about July 1.
The number is comparatively small, and production continues until
September 1. On the higher areas flower-stalk production is invaria-
bly sparse, with the period of production extending from July 20 to
the end of the season. The seed begins to ripen on the lower ranges in
late July, and the period of maturity extends until the middle of
September. On the higher ranges the first seed ripens by August
10, and the maturing period lasts until unfavorable weather condi-
tions in September. Seed of the last flower stalks produced seldom
ripen.

In fertility, the seed of pine grass ' ranks about the highest of the
native species studied. The lowest vitality observed occurred in 1907,
when an average of 58.2 per cent was obtained. In 1908 and 1909
averages of 76 and 74.5 per cent, respectively, were secured. Seed
collected at different times in the Transition zone yielded the highest

1 The seed used in these tests was collected in the upper Canadian zone in the latter part of August of
each season.

Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XIII.

ES Aenean

F—13G

# SLENDER HAIR-GRASS (DESCHAMPSIA ELONGATA).

Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XIV.

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- SPIKED TRISETUM (TRISETUM SPICATUM).

IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS. 15

results in nearly every case, one germination test, the highest of all,
giving 98.5 per cent.

Among stockmen there is much diversity of opinion as to the forage
value of pine grass. While it may not be included in the category
of choice forage plants, except in the spring when it is young and
tender, yet it plays a valuable part on the range. In the spring of the
year the leaf blades are eaten with nearly as great relish as any of the
native grasses, and judging from the condition of the stock feeding
upon it, the species has high nutritive qualities. From early spring
to about the middle of July, on the lower ranges, all classes of stock
graze it closely and with considerable relish. In the latter part of
July, however, the tissues of the leaf blades become fibrous and
tough, the plant is not grazed with relish, and is then considered to
have a much lower nutritive value. In the fall of the year, after the
rains have started, it is again grazed to a limited extent, since the leaf
blades are somewhat softened by the precipitation.

BLUEJOINT.

(Calamagrostis canadensis.)

Bluejoint or marsh pine grass, because it is less abundant and less
important than pine grass, is not so well known to stockmen as the
latter. — Though its distribution is about the same, it does not inhabit
pine forests, but grows in marshes and swales and along moist stream
banks. The local name is derived from its resemblance to typical
pine grass, to which it is closely related.

The two species may readily be distinguished by the panicle (com-
pare Plates X and XI), which in pine grass is dense or contracted
and pale green, while in bluejoint it is very loose and open and tinged
with brown or pale purple. The latter does not have the character-
istic ring of stiff hairs at the junction of the sheath and blade. The
culms of marsh pine grass are erect, from 14 to 3 feet high; the leaves,
smooth, long, wide, and distinctly flat. It has rather shallow, lateral
roots. Reproduction by root stocks is prolific, and dense stands are
common in favorable situations.

The wide, flat leaves, shallow roots, and the situations in which
marsh pine grass grows indicate its inability to withstand drought.
The soil in which it occurs is well supplied with moisture, but is not
especially rich in organic matter. In some of the tests the plants
did not succumb until the water was reduced to nearly 11 per cent.
In the case of two tests the specimens recuperated from the wilted
condition when the soil contained an average of 14 per cent of
moisture.

The flower stalks begin to appear about June 25, and by July 20
are nearly all sent up. Mature seed can usually be found by August

16 BULLETIN 545, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

1, and by August 20 the main seed crop has ripened. The seed has
a high power of germination. The average for all tests made was
71.5 per cent, with a minimum germination of 59.5 per cent.

Owing to its rank growth bluejoint is better suited to cattle and
horses than to sheep, yet the latter eat the leaf blades, though rarely
the flower stalks even when young. Because of its restriction to
moist situations, it is not very abundant, and consequently fur-
nishes a comparatively small amount of forage.

TuFrTED Hatrr-GRASs.

(Deschampsia caespitosa. )

Tufted hair-grass (Deschampsia>caespitosa) is a member of the
same tribe as cultivated oats. Though from its general appearance
this fact would not be recognized, yet botanically they are closely
related. Tufted hair-grass is often mistaken for redtop, mainly
because of its loose panicle, but morphologically it is very different.
Redtop has but one flower in a spikelet, while tufted hair-grass has
two perfect flowers.

The genus Deschampsia is represented by about 20 species, adapted
mainly to the cold and temperate regions. About 6 species are
found in the western part of the United States.

Tufted hair-grass is a perennial tufted species with rather deep and
spreading fibrous roots. The culms are from 14 to 3 feet tall, erect,
and smooth, or in some specimens slightly rough, the leaves mainly
basal and very numerous, flat, and often ascending to half the length
of the culms. The spikelets, bearing two perfect flowers, are small
and shiny, and the panicle is open, the branches widely spreading.
Both the empty and the flowering glumes are shiny in appearance
(Plate XII). The latter are notched at the apex and bear a short
awn on the back.

This species is rarely found in dry situations, but grows abundantly
in moist meadows, canyons, and bottom lands, where it frequently
predominates. Concerning its density of stand and rankness of
growth F. Lamson-Scribner ' states that is has a record of producing
10,209 pounds of green and 3,318 pounds of dry hay per acre. The
minimum amount of soil water with which it will grow varies between
11.5 and 14.5 per cent. In soils containing less than this amount
of moisture the wilted leaf blades failed to regain their turgidity.

The first flower stalks appear about July 20, and their production
continues until about August 15. As with most species in moist
soils, the flower stalks are not produced as early as in the drier
situations. The time required for the development of the seeds is
rather prolonged, and well-matured seeds are rarely found until

1Economic Grasses, U. S. Dept. of Agr., Div. Agrost. Bul. 14, p. 32, 1900.

Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XV.

MOUNTAIN JUNE GRASS (KOELERIA CRISTATA).

Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XVI.

F-16Q

“3 ONION GRASS OR MOUNTAIN BLUEGRASS (MELICA BELLA).

IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS. 1L%

September 1. By about the middle of September the crop is usually
well ripened, and, for the most part, disseminated.

The germination per cent is about the average for an upland
plant, the average for all tests conducted during the three years of study
showing 26.4 per cent for the seed crop from the Hudsonian zone,
where the revegetation studies were made. Seed collected in the
Canadian zone germinated as high as 50 per cent. Some seed compa-
nies handle seed of this species grown in Europe, which as a rule has
a fair germinative strength. It is sold for about $22 per 100 pounds.

This species is an important forage plant because it occurs fre-
quently throughout the Hudsonian zone, is often met in the Canadian
zone, occurs in sufficiently dense stands to make it an appreciable
factor in meadow crops, and is eaten with relish. So far as texture
is concerned, it is always desirable for cattle and horses, but is often
too rank and coarse to be of the highest value for sheep. Neverthe-
less, as a rule, sheep graze it closely. Densely vegetated meadows of
this species grazed by sheep comparatively early in the summer when
the root leaves are tender may have the appearance of a newly-mown
lawn of bluegrass, so closely is the forage removed. Up to about
August 15 tufted hair-grass is highly relished, but after that date the
leaf blades take on a fibrous or somewhat woody texture which
greatly lessens their palatability. In the latter part of the grazing
season it is not usually grazed closely unless it has been cropped
earlier in the season, a condition which results in prolonging the
erowth of the vegetative parts. The aftermath is eagerly consumed
by all classes of stock, and especially by sheep. Observations indi-
cate that this species withstands trampling and close grazing better
than any other valuable forage grass in the region studied. This fact
is due both to the habit of growth of the plant and to the nature of
the situations in which it grows.

SLENDER Hatr-GRass.
(Deschampsia elongata.)

Slender hair-grass, though closely related botanically to tufted
hair-grass, differs widely from it in general appearance (Plate XIII).
Like tufted hair-grass it is a perennial and grows in tussocks, though
the latter seldom attain a diameter exceeding 4 inches, and more
often are only one-half that size.

Slender hair-grass bears the appearance of an annual grass in that
it is very shallow rocted and sends up a preponderance of slender
naked seed stalks. The latter are erect and from 8 to 16 inches tall.
At the base a prodigious number of narrow, rather smooth but very
short root leaves are produced. The panicle is long, often fully
one-third the length of the culm, and usually not widely branched.

85154°—Bull. 545—17——3

18 BULLETIN 545, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

In the region studied this species has_a wide distribution. It
occurs most abundantly and grows most luxuriantly in the Canadian
zone, though it is met with in a variety of situations in both the upper
and lower contiguous zones. In fact, the tendency of slender hair
orass to adjust itself to various sites is a marked characteristic. In
the well-aerated, finely disintegrated, basaltic soil of the plateaus in
the Hudsonian zone this species does not wilt notably until the
water content of the soil falls to between 8.5 and 10.0 per cent—a
relatively low figure. On the other hand, simultaneous drought tests
conducted in soils rich in organic matter, and where the plant had
had access to a high per cent of soil water at all times, resulted in
destructive wilting of the plant when the soil-water content was as
high as 15 per cent. In moist situations a meager root system is
developed, and on dry sites, while the root rarely penetrates deeply
into the soil, it spreads over considerable surface.

The flower stalks begin to appear about July 10 in the drier situa-
tions, and a week or so later in moist places. By August 1 the
majority have put in their appearance. Mature seeds are found as
early as August 5, while the bulk of the seed crop is matured by
August 25. The tests made for seed vitality were confined to the
year 1909, and showed an average of 41.5 per cent. On lower ranges
somewhat higher figures were obtained, 56.5 being the maximum.

The grazing value of this plant is relatively low, and in this respect
it does not compare favorably with tufted hair grass. Owing to its
shallow roots the plant is frequently pulled up. Sheep grazing on
this plant, especially early in the season when the soil contains a
high per cent of moisture and the roots are readily pulled out, start
masticating the leaf blades, but usually expel them when they find
that roots and clinging dirt form the dessert to their diet. After a
few experiences of this kind they crop it but little. Since the tussock
is small, horses often pull up the entire tuft, and after eliminating the
greater part of the clingirg dirt by shaking it vigorously and rubbing
it upon the ground, sometimes devour the plant. After about
August 15 the leaves become air dried, and slender hair grass is then ©
disregarded as a forage plant by all classes of stock.

Another species known as black hair-grass (D. atropurpurea) occurs
in scattered stand in open situations throughout the Hudsonian zone.
Being restricted to high elevations (it rarely occurs below 6,500 feet),
the flower stalks are not seen until July 15 and they continue to be
produced until about August 25. No seed is matured until about
September 1 and very little fertile seed is developed even in most
favorable seasons. Reproduction takes place vegetatively by means
of offshoots arising from root stocks.

Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XVII

LITTLE BLUEGRASS (POA SANDBERGII).

18

Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XVIII.

F-18G

SHORT-AWNED BROMEGRASS (BROMUS MARGINATUS).

The sheath on the basal portion of the culm was accidentally removed before the photograph was taken.

19

IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS. 19

The plant, being late in maturing and the herbage green and tender
throughout the season, is grazed with much relish by all classes of
stock from early spring until late autumn.

It occurs in dense stands only in small isolated’ patches and conse-
quently is not highly important as a range plant.

SPIKED TRISETUM.
( Trisetum spicatum. )

The genus Trisetum belongs to the oat tribe. and is represented by
about 8 species in the western United States, most of which occur in
the higher mountains.

The zonal distribution of Trisetum spicatum is typically Hudsonian,
though it occurs commonly above timber line and is found to a limited
extent on north and east slopes in the Canadian zone. The plant
occurs irregularly in scattered stands throughout the upland ranges
in exposed situations on well-drained soils. It is frequently asso-
ciated with slender hair-grass, but is more deeply rooted. As its habi-
tat indicates, spiked trisetum is not readily killed by drought. Most
specimens tested were able to regain turgor and, of course, absorb
water from the soil until its content was reduced to from 7.5 to 9.5
per cent. As a rule the plants died very gradually, probably owing
to the highly developed contrivances for protection against rapid
transpiration.

The plant is a perennial of tufted habit with deep and widely spread-
ing fibrous roots (Plate XIV). It may usually be recognized by the
soft downy pubescence on the sheaths and culms, which has given it
the local name ‘‘wool grass,” although this is a widely variable char-
acter, some individuals appearing nearly smooth. Most specimens
appear downy silvery white. The culms vary in height from 1 to 2
feet. From the crown arise a large number of short, flat, and rather
wide basal leaves. The panicle is spikelike and cylindrical in char-
acter, somewhat contracted and shiny. The lemma or flowering
glume bears on the back a ratherinconspicuous, slender, soft, divergent
awn. 7

The flower stalks appear about July 10, and a month later produc-
tion is usually complete. The seeds do not begin to ripen before about
August 25, and generally are not all matured by the time inclement
weather comes in the fall and prevents further development. As a
result, viable seed are produced only on the earliest flowering stalks.
In 1907 the seed crop averaged 11 per cent germination, and in 1909,
28 per cent. No tests were made in 1908.

While spiked trisetum occurs in scattered stands, it is widely dis-
tributed and furnishes more forage than is ordinarily thought. The
leaf blades are eaten in preference to many other species, so that little

20 BULLETIN 545, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

of the herbage goes to waste. In addition, the plant begins to grow
early in the spring and does not ripen until late in the fall, so that it
remains fresh and palatable throughout the season. Though it with-
stands trampling well, natural regeneration on protected ranges is
scant as compared with that of ne species whose seed crop has about
the same or even lower viability. 5

MouNTAIN JUNE GRASS.
(Koeleria cristata. )

Koeleria, though a genus of only about 15 species, has wide geo-
graphical distribution. In the United States mountain June grass is
the only representative of common occurrence and much economic
value.

Mountain June grass is a tufted perennial species, 1 to 2 feet in
height, the culms of which are usually pubescent just below the
panicle. The leaves, which are mainly basal (Plate XV), are unu-
sually numerous. They are flat or slightly inwardly rolled, vary in
texture from smooth to rough, and are often hairy. The panicle,
pale green in color, is spikelike when young, but during fertilization
is rather widely expanded. The lemmas or flowermg glumes are
glossy, and the plant can nearly always be recognized off hand by the
shiny character of the panicle.

This plant often inhabits very dry situations, though on the lower
ranges it matures comparatively early and so largely avoids the driest
part of the season. In the higher altitudes moisture is usually present
a few inches below the surface. Most of the plants tested wilted strik-
ingly, usually beyond recovery in a soil having from 10 to 13.5 per
cent water content. Thus the soil-moisture requirements in the par-
ticular soil type in which it grows are about the average.

The flower stalks on the upland ranges were put forth in 1907 be-
tween July 10 and 28; in 1908 between July 10 and 25; and in 1909
between July 5 and 25. The seeds begin to ripen about the latter
part of the second week in August, but the entire crop is not matured
until about September 10.

The germinative power of the seed is low. In 1907 an average of
three tests gave 16 per cent and in 1908 14 per cent. No test was
made in 1909. However, on the lower areas in the Transition zone,
for example, the seed was somewhat more viable, though there was
no marked contrast in the germinative power.

Mountain June grass is of considerable importance as a forage plant
in the region studied, and few species are more eagerly eaten. The
long, soft, and numerous crowded basal leaves are consumed by sheep,
cattle, and horses in preference to many more abundant forage plants
when green, and, like mountain bunch grass, the leaf blades but not
the flower stalks are eaten by sheep after the seeds have reached ma-

Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XIX

F-19Q

SoFT CHEAT OR CHESS (BROMUS HORDEACEUS).

20

Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XX.

F—20G

TALL MEADOW-GRASS (PANICULARIA NERVATA),

IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS. Dt

turity. It is found rather sparingly on the higher ranges, but is fairly
abundant in glades and sparsely timbered areas of medium moisture
in both the Canadian and Transition zones.

ONION GRASS.
(Melica bella.)

The species of the genus Melica, over 50 of which have been de-
scribed, are distributed throughout the temperate and subtropical
regions. Several are of value for grazing, but the genus as a whole,
contains few species of high economic importance.

Onion grass enjoys a rather wide distribution, growing luxuriantly
in the upper Canadian zone, but also succeeding well in the Hudson-
ian zone. It rarely occurs as the predominating species in a plant
formation, but appears in rather scattered stands in association with
such species as mountain bunch grass and short-awned bromegrass,
on well-drained souls. In its ability to exist in soils of low water con-
tent it is very similar to mountain bunchgrass, the plant wilting be-
yond recovery from this condition when the soil water is reduced to
from 6.3 to 8.5 per cent.

Onion grass is a perennial, bulbous at the base, fibrous rooted (Plate
XVI). Culms 1 to 2 feet tall, sheaths and blades smooth or slightly
rough to the touch. The panicle is sparsely branched, and the spike-
lets usually bear 5 flowers. The lower or empty glumes are shorter
than the scale of the floret, and both the glumes and the lemma, es-
pecially the part of the letter naturally exposed, are dark purple when
young, fading to hght brown upon the approach of maturity.

The flower stalks appeared from July 20 to August 10, in 1907,
July 15 to August 15 in 1908, and July 10 to August 15 in 1909. In
1908 matured seeds were not found until August 20, and in the other
two seasons the seed-maturing period was even later; in fact, this
function was so much delayed in many situations, particularly where
grazing had been carried on excessively, that a lene amount of the
seed failed to mature at all.

Germination tests showed the seed to have a low “vitality. In 1907
negative results were obtained, and in 1908 only 4 per cent germina-
tion was secured. In 1909 no germination test was made. From
these data and the fact that it is not regenerating on the range, the
species would seem poorly adapted to the revegetation of depleted
ranges.

Notwithstanding the fact that onion grass has a wide distribution
and ranks high in palatability, its scattered growth restricts its
value as a forage plant. It starts growth early in the spring and,
since it continues activities until late in the season, is relished through-
out the summer by all classes of stock, and especially by sheep.

22 BULLETIN 545, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

A species of the same common name, closely resembling Melica
bella and nearly as widely distributed and as important economically
in the region studied, is Melica spectabilis. In habit of growth and
general appearance the plants are very similar, both being bulbiferous
and growing to practically the same height. In contrast with the
rather dull spikelets of VU. bella, however, those of M. spectabilis
are bright in appéarance and the glumes are membranaceous; the
pedicels of the former are stiff and erect, whereas those of the latter
are slender and flexuous. The period of flower-stalk production
and seed maturity is virtually the same as in the case of M. bella,
and the viability of the seed crop is also very low.

LittLe BLUEGRASS.
(Poa sandbergit.)

The genus Poa is composed of about 150 species widely distributed
in temperate and cold regions. In the western United States about
75 species have been reported. The value of the bluegrasses for
hay and forage is well known. Cultivated Kentucky bluegrass is
closely related to little bluegrass.

Little bluegrass is distinctly a plant of the Transition zone, though
through its ability to adjust itself to more or less adverse conditions
it succeeds remarkably well on upland ranges and furnishes an
abundance of forage. While at higher elevations it often grows
luxuriantly in rich clay loam soils, usually it inhabits inferior shallow
soils. On typical scablands and rocky areas it is the most common
and characteristic species. Owing primarily to its ability to with-
stand drought and wide variation in temperature, the range of dis-
tribution of little bluegrass in the region studied is unusually
broad. It grows profusely in the lower lmits of the Transition
zone, about 2,000 feet, and is also common on ranges of 8,000 feet
elevation. On such situations it is almost invariably confined to
scablands and poorly disintegrated soils on the warmer south and
west exposures. In the tests made to determine its drought resis-
tance, little bluegrass did not show signs of complete wilting until
the soil water was reduced to between 6.5 and 7.8 per cent.

Little bluegrass is a perennial (Plate XVII) and grows in tussocks
not usually exceeding 8 inches in diameter. It has coarse, deeply
penetrating roots, which withstand trampling remarkably well;
smooth culms, shghtly decumbent at the base, 14 to 2 feet in height;
close erect panicles composed of spikelets of 3 to 5 florets; and a
superabundance of narrow, short, and rather flat, or sometimes
slightly folded, blue-green basal leaves.

The flower stalks of little blue grass are among the earliest to appear
on the range. This is due, first, to the character of the situations in

545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XXII.

Bul.

F-21G

Big BUNCH GRASS (AGROPYRON SPICATUM).

22

Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

MOUNTAIN WHEAT GRASS (AGROPYRON VIOLACEUM).

PLATE XXII.

IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS. 93

which the species grows on the higher ranges, and second, to the
inherent tendency of the species to complete its development at a
very early date in its lower zone. The flower stalks on the upland
ranges appeared from July 10 to August 1, July 10 to August 10, and
July 5 to August 5, in 1907, 1908, and 1909, respectively. The seeds
began to ripen in the latter part of July, and, except in 1907, the
seed crop had matured by August 20.

The seed crop developed in the high mountains has a low vitality,
the average for all tests made for the Hudsonian zone for the three
years being only 7 per cent. In contrast to this, seed grown in the
Transition zone showed average germination of 38.4 per cent.

As a forage for sheep, horses, and cattle early in the season, little
bluegrass can hardly be surpassed. The entire plant is readily con-
sumed until the seeds begin to reach full development. After the
seeds have matured, however, which they do early in the summer,
the plant is neglected for the more palatable tender species. In the
fall of the year, when the bulk of the range plants are air-cured,
little bluegrass again becomes one of the choice species.

Other bluegrasses occur in the mountains, but as a rule are so
scattered as not to merit special mention. The species most com-
monly met with, in order of their abundance, are P. brachyglossa,
P. paddensis, and P. ampla.

SHORT-AWNED BROMEGRASS.

(Bromus marginatus. )

The genus Bromus is closely related botanically to Festuca, to
which mountain bunchgrass belongs. In general, it differs in having
larger spikelets and a toothed apex on the lemma, or flowering glume.

Short-awned bromegrass (Plate XVIII) is a perennial species, and
on favorable situations almost invariably forms a dense turf. The
culms are erect and stout, from 3 to 4 feet in height, the sheaths
are usually clothed with scattered, rather long, soft hairs; the panicle-
is erect and somewhat narrow, of a purple cast, and from 4 to 8
inches long, with seven to nine flowered spikelets, the florets coarsely
pubescent, with two rather pointed hyaline teeth at the apex and
the midrib extending into an awn one-fourth inch long.

Short-awned bromegrass has rather a wide distribution in the
region studied, but grows most luxuriantly between 4,000 and 7,500
feet elevation, where it generally inhabits the better soils of medium
moisture content.

It grows in dry situations on open plateaus, in friable loam soils,
and in canyons, and often predominates on the banks of streams.
The plant did not wilt destructively until the moisture in the soil
was reduced to between 5.5 and 8 per cent.

94 BULLETIN 545, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The flower stalks begin to show about July 25, and by August 10
are usually all produced. Matured seeds have been observed as
early as August 10, and are usually pretty well ripened by Septem-
ber 1. Dissemination takes place almost immediately upon maturity.

Seeds of this species are above the average in germinating power.
Seed vitality for the three years beginning with 1907 was 38, 47,
and 58 per cent, respectively. On the lower ranges a germination
as high as 85 per cent was obtained.

The forage value of short-awned bromegrass 1s relative.y high.
Because of its rank growth and the coarseness of the culms, however,
it is more valuable for cattle and horses than for sheep, although if
grazed when young the latter class of stock often entirely consume it.
At a later period of growth the culms develop an abundance of crude
fiber, and sheep then consume only the leaf blades and the panicle
with its spikelets of developing grain. Horses are particularly fond
of the grain both in the matured state and when green, and stockmen
consider it equal to oats in nutritiousness. When this species is
grazed off early in the summer it continues to grow luxuriantly, and
at the close of the season has produced a second crop of leafy foliage
equal in palatability to the early crop. Under such treatment, how-
ever, no seed stalks are produced.

On the Wallowa National Forest a variety of short-awned brome-
grass, B. margynatus seminudus, and three other species, namely,
rattlesnake grass (B. brizaeformis), B. richardsonit, and soft cheat (B.
hordeaceus) have been collected. Because of the sparseness of all
these forms except the last, this will be the only one discussed.

Sort CHEAT.

(Bromus hordeaceus. )

Soft cheat or chess, an annual native to southern Europe, has
taken possession of deteriorated grazing lands in Washington,
Oregon, and certain localities in California. On the lower ranges of
the Wallowa National Forest, where germination occurs in the fall,
it produces a first-class early spring feed when little else is available.

Soft cheat (Plate XIX) has an erect growth. The culms, which
are often very hairy at the nodes, attam a height of from 1 to 2 feet
and are subtended by sheaths bearing long flexible hairs often of a
silvery-white luster. The leaves are long and narrow, somewhat
pubescent or smooth, and rather numerous for an annual species;
the panicle is narrow, contracted, and erect, the spikelets from 5 to
13 flowered. Extending from the lemma or flowering glume is a
stout, straight, or when old, slightly twisted awn, about 4 inch long,
somewhat flattened near the base.

Soft cheat is well adapted to the Transition zone, but grows
luxuriantly in the Canadian zone, and is occasionally met with in

Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

RED BUNCH GRASS (AGROPYRON

FLEXUOSUM).

F—23Q

PLATE XXIV.

Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

F-24Q

SMOOTH WILD RYE (ELYMUS GLAUCUS).

25

IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS. 25

the Hudsonian zone, though there it is of little forage value. It
makes its best growth on shallow clay loam soils, where, notwith-
standing its shallow roots, it remains green throughout the summer.
External hairy contrivances protect the plant from transpiration.

Wilting beyond recovery does not take place until the soil moisture
falls to or slightly below 5.5 per cent, a condition which very few
herbaceous species can withstand. Owing to its ability to succeed
in dry soils and to withstand long periods of drought, and because of
its good seed habits and aggressiveness, soft cheat is valuable as a
binder for exposed soils.

On the higher ranges in the Canadian zone, and in those parts of
the Hudsonian where it occurs, the flower stalks are mostly produced
by July 15. The seeds are usually matured by August 10. In the
Transition zone the seeds are ripened a month earlier. Seed col-
lections made on the upland ranges at an altitude of 6,000 feet
yielded an average germination of 48.2 per cent, while seed grown in
the Transition zone during the same seasons averaged 78.5 per cent.
This wide difference is doubtless due to the more favorable tempera-
ture in the lower zone.

Since the forage of soft cheat is produced exceptionally early, it
is of special value at that season, and the leaf blades are then eagerly
eaten. There is diversity of opinion among stockmen as to the
nutritive qualities of this grass. Many claim that it is a valuable
feed when supplemented with other species of grasses and weeds,
but owing to its ‘‘washy,” succulent nature in the spring of the year,
it is not conducive to putting on solid fat. Miners say that their
pack animals fatten quickly upon it when left at leisure, but when
grazing upon it exclusively they are unable to work without excessive
loss of flesh. After the seeds have ripened the plant is of very little
forage value.

Tatt Mreapow-Grass.
(Panicularia nervata.)

The genus Panicularia belongs to the same tribe as Kentucky
bluegrass and mountain bunch grass. It contains about 20 species,
most of which are found in North America. As its common name
implies, tall meadow-grass usually attains a good height. The leaf
blades are flat, smooth beneath, and rough above, and the sheaths
are rather rough throughout. At maturity the somewhat purplish
panicles with long flexible branches are usually drooping.

This species is closely confined to moist situations, and is able to
thrive in rather deep shade. It is almost invariably associated with
slender reed-grass and various species of sedges and rushes of high
water requirements. I+ occurs rather extensively in moist situa-
tions in the Canadian zone, and is often the chief species in favorable
spots in both the Hudsonian and Transition zones.

85154°—Bull. 545—17——--4

26 BULLETIN 545, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Since tall meadow-grass is entirely restricted to wet soils, the root
system is not extensively developed, and it requires a relatively high
amount of moisture to supply its needs. In its typical habitat it
wilted beyond recovery when the soil water was reduced to from
12 to 14.5 per cent.

The average period of flower-stalk production extends over about
three weeks, beginning about July 10, while by August 1 most of the
stalks have been sent forth. The seed begins to ripen about Au-
gust 20, and by September 10 the crop is practically all matured
and disseminated. Seeds are dropped immediately upon ripening.

The germinative power of the seed crop, as tested in 1908, gave
an average of 85 per cent, and since reproduction of this species seems
to be generally good, it is probable that the seed has a high average
vitality.

Tall meadow-grass (Plate XX), like a number of other species
with a high-water requirement, supplies only a limited amount of
forage. It is relished by all classes of stock, and is probably most
valuable as forage during August, since it is then less succulent than
earlier in the season. Up to August 1 the flower stalks are eaten
nearly to the same extent as the leaf buds, but after that period they
become somewhat tough and are not usually eaten by sheep. Horses
and cattle, however, continue to consume the entire plant until much
later in the season.

Another species, P. pauciflora, very commonly associated with
tall meadow-grass, has similar distribution and habits. P. pauciflora,
however, does not occur as abundantly and, consequently, is not as
valuable as a forage plant. It is readily distinguished by having 5
nerves on the lemma instead of 7, as in the case of tall meadow grass.

Bic Buncu Grass.
(Agropyron spicatum.)

The grass tribe, Hordeae, to which this and the following five
species belong, is of high importance in the West. The genus
Agropyron contains about 40 species, more than half of which are
found in the United States. Of these, many are highly valuable
for hay and forage.

Big bunch grass or blue bunch grass, as it is sometimes called
because of the characteristic blue-colored culms or stems, is a peren-
nial with deep fibrous roots. The culms, smooth and covered with
“bloom,” attain a height of about 12 to 18 inches in dry situations
where this grass characteristically occurs, while in deep rich soils of
abundant moisture a height growth of about 30 inches is sometimes
made. The leaf blades, about half the length of the culm, are mainly
basal and produced in abundance. They are flat when green, but
slightly rolled inwardly when the plant is air dry or suffering for lack

t EEE Sw ae et I a a a ee ee eee ~ —— —- —- -

Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XXV

F-25G

Ps WHITE FOXTAIL (SITANION VELUTINUM),

Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XXVI.

F-—26G

sa TALL SWAMP SEDGE (CAREX EXSICCATA).

IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS. Onl

of water. The spikes are somewhat compressed, slender, 2 to 4
inches long. The spikelets are flattened, and as shown in Plate XXI,
are long, narrow, erect or spreading, 3 to 6 flowered, 4 to 12 in
number. The glumes (empty lowermost two scales) are sharp-
pointed but awnless; lemmas (upper flowering scales) are usually
provided with stout, somewhat twisted awns 1% to 1 inch long.

The distribution and abundance of this grass are unusual. It
constitutes the controlling type of plant growth below the yellow-
pine zone, where it is depended upon to furnish the major portion of
the fall, winter, and spring forage. In a few localities in Montana
and Wyoming it grows so dense that it is of value for hay. It extends
even into the Hudsonian zone (usually in scattered stand, though in
favorable situations nearly covering the ground with a rank growth),
and even in this grazing type produces considerable herbage. This
wide distribution is due to its remarkable capacity to endure drought.
It is able to exist though for several days in a wilted condition, in

the basaltic-soil type of the higher ranges when there is but 5.5 to

7.5 per cent water. This accounts for the prevalence of big bunch
grass on scablands, benchlands, and gritty, poorly disintegrated soils
of low water content.

Flower stalks first show about August 1, appearing very irregularly
until perhaps September 1. Both the beginning and completion of
production are thus unusually late, and the delay in the appearance
of the flower stalks is reflected both in the time of seed maturity and
in the fertility of the seed. Fully ripened seeds are rarely found

before August 20. The seed crop continues to ripen irregularly as

long as the weather permits, but the bulk of the seeds do not reach
maturity. The seed that does mature germinates rather poorly.
The average for 1907, 1908, and 1909 was 16, 30, and 26.5, respec-
tively. On the lower ranges, however, seed is matured early and
evenly, and a germination of 80+ per cent is often obtained.

The large amount of herbage afforded by big bunch grass on the

lower ranges, and even in the upland grazing areas, places it well

toward the top of the list of important forage plants. No other
grass or forage plant is so abundant on the lower areas, nor supplies
so much feed. As a fall, spring, and winter feed it is preeminent.
When the fall rains come on, usually in September, big bunch grass
is awakened to growth, and for two months or more, depending upon
the altitude and physiography, continues its activities. This tender
and succulent herbage is ravenously consumed by all classes of
stock in the fall as well as during the winter and spring. About the
middle of June on the lower areas, however, the foliage becomes
somewhat tough and unpalatable and ceases to be of high value for
forage. On the higher ranges, owing to the delay in the growing
period and the absence of growth in the fall, the plant is grazed

28 BULLETIN 545, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

throughout the season, though it does not seem to be consumed with
the same eagerness as many other species.

MounTAIN WHEAT GRASS.
(Agropyron violaceum.)

Mountain wheat grass resembles in general appearance cultivated
wheat, though the two are not closely related botanically. Like
big bunch grass, this species is a densely tufted perennial with deep
and spreading roots. It is readily distinguishable from the former
species, however, by its awnless spikelets or the presence of a slight
rudimentary awn on the lemma. ‘The leaves are unusually numerous,
basal, flat, and somewhat rough, about half the length of the culms,
the latter attaining a height of from 1 to 2 feet. The spikes are
slender and short, the lower (empty) glumes being conspicuously
three-nerved (Pl. XXII).

Though common in both the Canadian and Arctic-alpine zones,
this species reaches its best development in the Hudsonian zone. As
would be expected from the extensive development of the root
system, it is best adapted to soils of medium moisture content. It
inhabits open exposed situations, and is usually associated with big
bunch grass, mountain bunch grass, and little bluegrass. In ecologi-
cal requirements it resembles these species closely. In the drought
tests it did not wilt beyond recovery until the soil water dropped
to between 6 and 7.5 per cent.

The flower stalks begin to show during the last week of July or
first days of August, and production is for the most part complete
within 3 weeks after their first appearance. As a rule the seeds are
ripened from about August 20 to September 1. Dissemination takes
place almost immediately after maturity.

As a rule, the vitality of the seed of most of the species growing in
the Hudsonian and Arctic-alpine zones reaching maturity on or
before September 1 is high, and in this respect mountain wheat
grass is no exception. In 1907, a very poor seed year for mountain
wheat grass, there was an average germination of 78 and in 1908
and 1909, respectively, an average of 96 and 82.5 per cent. From
these figures it would be expected that this species is regenerating
in favorable localities. Observations show that this is true where
the seed crop is worked into the soil through grazing or otherwise,
but where the surface layer is undisturbed the seeds, which are
large and have no awns on the flowering scales to bore them into
the ground, do not germinate.

Mountain wheat grass is greatly relished by all classes of stock.
Growth starts promptly in the spring, and the plant remains green
and palatable until late in the fall. It is eaten with the greatest relish

ee et

te —_— = — oo ‘Mb aamee MBER REE E RE PE PE PEM EE BOs Beet tees —_—__——_

Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XXVIII.

F-—27G

TALL SWAMP SEDGE IN A SATURATED SOIL ON MINAM MEADOWS, WHERE IT FINDS AN
IDEAL HABITAT.
28

Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XXVIII.

F-—28G

Ps SHEEP SEDGE (CAREX ILLOTA).

EDI EE ERE I EEE RR RR RE CEE CEE SEER BEES BERT SRE ieee

IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS. 29

up to about August 15, but considerably later in the season, even in
September, the basal leaf blades, though not the flower stalks, are
eaten close to the ground by sheep and cattle. Mountain wheat
grass is cropped in preference to a large number of species. It is
preferred in the latter part of the season, if not earlier in the year,
to big bunch grass, though its scattered growth and narrow zonal
distribution make it less important than the latter.

A species closely allied botanically to mountain wheat grass is
red bunch grass (A. fleruwosum), so named on account of its reddish-
purple panicles and bunched habit of growth (Pl. XXIII). Its
prominent awns and loose spikes, however, give a very different
appearance from the former. It is sometimes mistaken for smooth
wild rye (Pl. XXIV), though very different in structure. In its range
of distribution, ecological requirements, period of flower stalk pro-
duction and seed maturity, and in its forage value, red bunch grass
is very similar to mountain wheat grass, though in most situations it
does not remain palatable as late in the season.

SmootH Witp Rye.
(Elymus glaucus.)

The species belonging to this genus are generally known as rye
grasses because of their resemblance to the ordinary cultivated rye.
There are about 25 species of Hlymus, distributed mainly throughout
the north temperate regions.

Smooth wild rye is a perennial bunch grass with a strong root system
capable of withstanding more than the average trampling by stock.
It grows from 1 to 3 feet in height, the sheaths enveloping the culms
usually being smooth, the leaves abundant, smooth beneath, some-
times rough above. The spike, 2 to 5 inches long, is narrow and
slender, bearing numerous spikelets of three to six flowers. The
glumes (lowermost empty two scales) are narrow, sharp pointed and
rigid. The lemmas (upper flowering scales) smooth or slightly rough,
each bearing a straight rough awn one-fourth to one-half inch in
length.

This grass is distributed over a wide altitudinal range. It is most
abundant in the upper Canadian zone, is fairly common in the lower
Hudsonian zone, and is found to a limited extent in the Arctic-
alpine zone. As arule, its growth is not dense, but affords an abun-
dance of forage because of its wide distribution. In most cases it is
merged with mountain bunch grass, short-awned bromegrass, and
other species characteristically associated with the latter in glades
and parks. Smooth wild rye seems to be somewhat better able to
succeed in moister habitats than many of the plants associated with
it in exposed situations, and yet it withstands drought remarkably
well. In the drought tests it did not wilt beyond recovery in some

30 BULLETIN 545, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

instances until the soil moisture was reduced to 7.5 per cent, though
_ two species died when there was a water content of 9.8 per cent.

Flower stalks begin to appear during the first week in July and
continue until about the first week in August. The seed crop begins
to ripen as early as August 1 and continues throughout the month,
few immature seeds being found in September. The vitality of the
seed crop is about the average for upland grazing plants. The aver-
age germination for the three years of study was 21.2 per cent. ©
From this it would seem that many other species, such as moun-
tain wheat grass, which shows an average germination of 64 per
cent, would reproduce much more abundantly. Smooth wild rye,
however, is one of the most aggressive species on the high grazing
lands. The seedlings develop deep root systems, and a large per-
centage of the young plants succeed in rather adverse situations.

The grazing value of smooth wild rye is high. By many stockmen
the plant is considered rather too coarse for sheep, though it is
probable that its forage value in this respect is underestimated,
since observations show that sheep readily graze it. Sheep rarely
crop the flower stalks, because these are produced exceptionally
early, and their rapid height growth soon puts the best part of them
out of reach of the animals, and because the stalks are somewhat
coarser than sheep relish and become unpalatable early in the sea-
son. All things considered, however, this plant furnishes good
forage by the time the upper ranges are grazed, and the herbage is
consumed ravenously throughout the season. Horses are fond of
the flower stalks, and until the seeds are matured and disseminated
the spikes or flower heads also furnish choice feed. Cattle graze the
forage closely even after the seed has been disseminated.

Waite Foxtatt.
(Sitanion velutinum.)

White foxtail, often called wild barley, to which it is closely related,
is undesirable on the range because of its low forage value and its
aggressiveness on overgrazed areas.

The plant derives its name from the prominent awns, which, with
the entire spike, turn a light-straw color upon reaching maturity.
It is a tufted perennial grass from 1 to 2 feet tall, the culms rather
conspicuously spreading on the ground, the leaf blades mainly basal,
somewhat involute and rough, the upper surface pubescent. The
glumes are provided with long stiff awns, which, at maturity, are
strikingly divergent (Plate X XY).

White foxtail is most abundant in the Hudsonian zone. It is
also found on the lower grazing types, though not to the same extent
as on upland ranges. The situations most favorable to it are open
glades of rather poorly disintegrated soils with moisture content

Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XXIX

F-29Q

= MARSH OR WATER SEDGE (CAREX FESTIVA).

PLATE XXX.

Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

SN aD

F-30Q

MARSH SEDGE (CAREX VULGARIS BRACTEOSA).

31

IMPORTANT. RANGE PLANTS. 31

below the average. In the drought tests the individual plants wilted
excessively in soil varying in moisture from 6 to 8.5 per cent.

The flower stalks of white foxtail are among the earliest to appear,
and are practically all produced by August 1. Matured seeds are
found as early as August 15, and are practically all ripened by the
end of the first week in September. Unlike most species, the seeds
are not disseminated immediately upon reaching maturity, but per-
sist for some time unless they are brushed off by direct contact or
shaken off by some vigorous mechanical means. Wind is ineffective
in bringing about a wide distribution of the seed, but stock, especially
sheep, when they come in contact with matured plants, distribute the
seed crop broadcast, the awns attaching themselves to the wool.

Germination tests as well as observations on the reproduction of
this plant on the range indicate a high viability. In 1907 and the
two succeeding seasons an average of 43, 77, and 82.5 per cent of
the seed germinated under controlled conditions. The best repro-
duction is taking place on sparsely vegetated soils where the seed are
worked well manent the surface ad where STEe a with other
species Is not severe.

The forage value of white foxtail is always low. In the spring,
shortly after growth has started, the leaf blades are eaten by stock
of all kinds, but this period is so short as to be negligible. Even
before the majority of the flower stalks are produced the herbage
becomes tough and harsh, and stockmen claim that the mouths of
sheep become sore and tender if they graze it to any extent. As
soon as the seeds begin to ripen white foxtail is almost wholly dis-
regarded. If stock should consume any quantity, however, the awns
may cause sore mouths and big throats, and the barbs even get into
the eyes. Thus the plant is practically worthless, and the range
would be better off by its absence.

GRASSLIKE PLANTS.

DISTINCTIONS BETWEEN GRASSLIKE PLANTS AND GRASSES.

Stockmen, as a rule, do not distinguish between true grasses and
grasslike plants such as sedges and rushes. The latter, because of
their frequent occurrence in marshes, swales, along creek banks, and
in other moist situations, are commonly referred to as ‘‘ water grass,”
“wire grass,” ‘“‘swamp grass,” etc., but the three distinct groups of
oTasses, eae me rushes are almost invariably spoken of collec-
tively as “grasses.”

Sedges, Carex, may readily be distinguished from grasses in the
following simple ways:

1. The stems of sedges are triangular, jointless and solid, the
leaves 3-ranked, and the leaf sheaths closed.

392 BULLETIN 545, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

2. The stems of grasses are generally hollow, cylindrical, and
jointed, the leaves 2-ranked, and the leaf sheaths usually split.

Rushes (Juncus and Juncoides) are readily distinguished from
grasses and sedges by:

1. The flowers of rushes are regular and, though diminutive, simi-
lar in form to those of a lily, having a perianth composed of six
bractlike scales, and with three to many small seeds borne in a capsule
or small pod.

2. The flowers of grasses and sedges are not symmetrical, the
perianth being irregular and inconspicuous or obsolete, and are sub-
tended by husklike scales, each flower producing but a single seed.

SEDGES AND RUSHES.

It is the general opinion among ranchers that, as compared with
grasses, sedges and rushes are of low nutritive value. This idea is
generally true, but when a grass species occupying a typical marshy
bog is compared with sedges and rushes from a similar situation
chemical analysis has shown that the food value differs but little.
Practically all species of moist habitats are somewhat too succulent
or ‘‘washy,”’ notably in the spring of the year, and while they are
eaten with relish at that time they are doubtless more nutritious
later in the season.

A thousand or more species of sedges (Carex) have been described.
They are widely distributed and are most abundant in temperate
regions. In the United States approximately 500 species are found,
about half of which occur in the Western States. The rush genus
(Juncus) contains over 200 species. 7

TaLt Swamp SEDGE.

(Carex exsiccata.)

Because of its abundance, density of stand, and height growth,
this species is one of the best-known sedges on the Wallowa National
Forest. It ranges from 14 to 3 feet in height, has coarse leafy culms,
and broad, thick, flat leaves of a light-green color. The spikes,
developed sometimes as much as 4 inches below the staminate
flower clusters, are very short-stalked (Plate XXVI). The root
system is somewhat meager, and new growth takes place abundantly
through stolons and rootstocks.

The drought tests showed that this plant wilted destructively
when the rich organic soil in which it grows contained, in the one
case, 22.5 per cent of moisture and in the other 24 per cent. Ob-
viously, therefore, the species is distinctly of the marsh type. In
most perennial bogs, preferably in saturated soils, it grows pure, to
the exclusion of other species (Plate XX VII).

Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XXXII.

MARSH SEDGE (CAREX TOLMIEI SUBSESSILIS).

PLATE XXXII.

Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

F-32G

ELK GRASS (CAREX GEYERI).

33

IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS. 335"

In somewhat drier situations, such as over-irrigated meadows, it
often produces a conspicuous growth, and when associated with some
cultivated grass such as redtop, is cut for hay. Tall swamp sedge is
most common in the Canadian zone, but also occurs along the border
of the Hudsonian zone.

The flower stocks begin to push forth about June 20, and are all
out by the last week in July. The seed are comparatively slow to
mature, practically none being found until the last week in August,
while the entire crop is not ripened until September 15. In viability
the seed ranks low. The average germination obtained from the
tests made in 1908 and 1909 (no tests made in 1907) was 15.2 per
eent. Low vitality in the seed of this plant, however, is of little
significance, since the species propagates profusely by rootstocks.

Compared with many other species of its class, the forage value of
tall swamp sedge is high, and early in the season the herbage is eaten
with relish by sheep. Owing to the sheep’s dislike for bogs, how-
ever, Many areas densely covered with this species are not visited
until the soil becomes fairly dry. In the latter part of the summer
the leaf blades become tough and harsh, and sheep do not consume
them with the same eagerness as in the forepart of the season. Horses
are particularly fond of this plant. They graze it throughout the
season and seem to do well upon it for short periods, but, if left free,
withdraw to better-drained soils which afford a wholly different type
of herbage. Miners and campers state that their pack animals eat
tall swamp sedge readily, but are unable to do the usual amount of
work when grazed exclusively upon it. It is probable, therefore,
that its nutritive value is low.

SHEEP SEDGE.
(Carex illota.)

Of the bog forage plants of the genus Carex, sheep sedge is possibly
the most important. It is a stoloniferous perennial or densely matted
species about 1 foot tall, with culms usually exceeding by one-third
the numerous grasslike leaves. The latter are narrow and smooth,
and soft even when the plant is mature. Inconspicuous small
spikes crowded into small dark brown heads distinguish it from cer-
tain other associated species (Plate XXVIII).

Sheep sedge is confined to mountain meadows, and rather closely
to moist situations, though it persists in some which become com-
paratively dry later in the season. Conditions in the Hudsonian
zone are well adapted to its highest development. The leaf blades
wilted but recovered their form in the rich loam soil containing 14
per cent of moisture.

The flower stalks begin to appear about the middle of July and are
practically all sent forth during the following three weeks. Matured

— $5154°—Bull. 545—17—5

34 BULLETIN 545, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

seeds are found about August 20, and by the end of the first week in
September the whole seed crop has ripened. Data on the vitality
of the seeds were obtained only in 1909, when an average from three
tests gave 27.5 per cent germination.

As its common name implies, sheep sedge is a highly relished
sheep forage. The leaves are tender and juicy throughout the sum-
mer, and the plant seems to be consumed with about the same eager-
ness at all times during the growing season. Horses, too, graze this
sedge with unusual eagerness, consuming flower stalks with the same
avidity as the leaf blades. Since sheep sedge is restricted to moist
habitats it is, of course, not very abundant, but in favorable situa-
tions it holds its own remarkably well, and it is not uncommon to
find it predominating over other sedges and more fastidious species
almost to their entire exclusion.

Three other species, usually called marsh or water sedges, C. fes-
tiva, C. vulgaris bracteosa, and C. tolmier subsessilis, are, on account
of their general appearance, forage value, and distribution, often con-
fused with sheep sedge. Of these, Carex festiva resembles it most,
but differs in many minute characters (compare Plates XXVIII and
XXIX). The leaves of Carex festiva are much broader and coarser,
and are rough on the edge, and the color of the plant is light green.
The other two species, C. tolmiez subsessilis and C. vulgaris bracteosa
(Plates XXX and XXXI) have much more elongated spikes, of a
brown-black color, which alone should eliminate confusion. The
latter attains about twice the height of the former, and its culms are
more acutely angular. The forage value of all three species is prac-
tically the same, though C. vulgaris bracteosa 1s relatively less abund-
ant than the other two. (C. tolmiei subsessilis remains palatable to
stock for a longer period than either of the others, but is more abund-
ant in the alpine or upper subalpine regions, and therefore matures
later, being of little importance as forage when the other species are
of highest value.

ELK GRass.
(Carex geyert.)

Of the dry-land sedges, elk grass is by far the most abundant. It
occurs in the Canadian and Hudsonian zones, often as the predomi-
nating species on exposed hillsides, and is among the earliest of the
herbs to send forth its leaf blades. Many hillsides have been almost
wholly vegetated by this species.

Since elk grass produces new plants by stolons the growth is dense
and segments of a tuft are almost inseparable (Plate XXXII). The
slender, angled, rough culms, about 1 foot high, exceed but slightly
the harsh and rough-edged leaf blades. The spikes are slender,
borne at the summit of the culm, the staminate flowers usually
appearing above, and the pistillate (1 or 2 in number) below.

Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

PLATE XXXIII.

. ¥e a << oee —_

i 1 e i 2 3 ~
\ —- » on : ee SS
; : ‘ ee aw od ai 4 re
= 2 fg ms - of 7 Coan
wee ot ae G f AN

id Ze

RUSH (JUNCUS PARRYD.

34

PLATE XXXIV.

Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

F-34G

WooD RUSH (JUNCOIDES PARVIFLORUM).

35

IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS. 85

The very nature of the habitat in which elk grass succeeds indi-
cates its unusual ability to withstand low moisture conditions. The
soil in which it grows is a coarse gravelly one, which liberates the
water more readily than finer soils. Drought tests resulted in the
extensive wilting of all leaf blades of the plant only when the water
content was reduced to 6.5 per cent, and in some instances slightly
lower. This places elk grass very near the head of the list in its
ability to exist under adverse moisture conditions. Flower stalks
begin appear during the last week in June, and by July 20 practi-
cally all are out. About the time that the last flower stalks are sent
up matured seeds are found. By August 15 the seed crop is almost
entirely ripened and disseminated. The seed has about average
viability, the tests in 1907 and in the two subsequent seasons showing
germinations of 6, 26, and 32 per cent, respectively.

In the forepart of the season elk grass is grazed with a certain
amount of avidity, though practically every other grass species is
preferred to it. It is only eaten by sheep up to about August 1,
unless the stock are starved. After that date the leaves become so
tough, hard, and fibrous that even horses will not graze it if other
forage is available. Sheep always scatter widely when feeding upon
it, doubtless searching for more palatable food.

Rusu.
(Juncus parryi.)

Among the several species of rushes found on the highland ranges
Juncus parryi is commonly met with, and in value is typical of
other species which are abundant in the region studied.

Like most rushes of the drier situations, Juncus parryi is tufted,
and has woody, fibrous, deep-spreading roots capable of withstanding
an unusual amount of abusive grazing. The stems are thin and wiry,
from 4 to 10 inches long, and the cylindrical leaves are about half
the length of the flower stems (Plate XX XIII); the inflorescence,
usually 2 or 3 flowered, is surpassed by a bract similar to the leaves.

Juncus parryi is confined to the high ranges. In the Hudsonian
zone it occurs extensively in open, exposed situations on well-drained,
often poorly disintegrated soils. It is usually associated with elk
erass (Carex geyeri) and is just about as drought resistant, the
specimens studied not wilting beyond recovery until the soil-moisture
content was reduced to from 5.5 to 7 per cent. Above timber line
it is found in considerable abundance in association with typical
alpine species. , |

On the lowest areas on which the plant occurs the flower stalks
begin to show about July 10, and by August 5 nearly all have been
sent up. Matured seeds are usually not found before August 25.

86 BULLETIN 545, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The viability of the seed crop has not been determined. Other species
of the same genus growing in similar habitats have given results that
are comparatively low. (See Table 2, p. 58.)

The forage value of Juncus parry? is not especially high, resembling
that of elk grass more than any of the other species described. Like
the latter, this rush is eaten to some extent early in the season, but
soon becomes extremely tough and unpalatable. For this reason,
if other forage is available, it remains untouched by horses and
sheep. Since it is grazed to such a limited extent, practically nothing
is known of its nutritive qualities. |

A number of other rushes of minor importance occur throughout
the mountains, the majority in moist soils.

Woop Rusu.
(Juncoides parviflorum.)

This genus is closely related to the rushes and resembles them in
general character. It may be distinguished from the latter, how-
ever, by the leaf sheaths, which in this genus are closed and in the
rushes open. Further, the seed vessel or capsule of Juncoides bears
3 seeds while in Juncus the capsule is many-seeded. About 60 species
are on record and they are widely distributed.

Wood rush is a tufted, hardy, perennial plant, the stems, com-
monly 2 to 3 in a tuft, 1 to 2 feet high. Asshown in Plate XXXIV,
the grasslike flat leaves, usually about one-third the length of the
flower stems, are wide and sharp-pointed; inflorescence a loose panicle,
commonly 24 to 4 inches long, its lowest bract foliaceous, usually
less than } the length of the panicle; flowers borne singly or 2 to 3
together on the branches of the panicle on slender pedicels or stalks.

Wood rush is strictly a high-range plant, and while found to a
limited extent in the warmer situations of the Arctic-alpine zone
it is almost entirely confined to the Hudsonian zone. The densest
and most luxuriant growth occurs in the semihumid soils of exposed
situations, though it is often found in considerable abundance both in
well-drained soils and on forested areas. Its most common associate
is tufted hair-grass (Deschampsia caespitosa) and black hair-grass
(D. atropurpurea). In water requirements it 1s similar to the two
species of hair-grasses, neither of which may be classed as highly
drought resistant. It is usually unable to recover from a wilted con-
dition in its natural habitat when the water content of the soil drops
to between about 10 and 12.5 per cent.

Since the plant grows only on the higher and relatively moist soils,
the flower stalks seldom begin to show until July 20. Three weeks
later practically all have been produced. Matured seeds are found
about the time that the last flower stalks are sent forth, though the

PLATE XXXV

Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

16 OAM Op

as Mens t

0

F-35Q

MOUNTAIN ONION (ALLIUM VALIDUM).

36

Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XXXVI.

F-36G

SMALL WILD ONION (ALLIUM COLLINUM).

IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS. 87

main seed crop is not ripened until about September 1. The vitality
of the seed, according to tests made in 1908-1909, is low, an average
for the two seasons giving only 7.5 per cent. The plant regenerates
vegetatively to a marked degree.

No local species of the family to which wood rush belongs compares
with it in forage value, in which respect it is of much more importance
than certain species of grasses. It is relished by all classes of stock,
but because of being restricted to high mountain lands not usually
accessible to cattle and horses it is grazed almost entirely by sheep.
The relatively moist and cool soil which it characteristically occupies
tends to prevent rapid early spring growth, such as is made by plants
in the better-drained and warmer habitats. Wood rush is therefore
eaten with avidity when other species of high repute, as forage plants,
are well along towards maturity and eaten with little gusto. Both
sheep and horses have been observed to graze the leaf blades with
eagerness, in preference to certain grasses and forage weeds, late in
September.

Wood rush is able to withstand an unusual amount of trampling
and abuse in favorable habitats because of its density of growth.
This is due not to a particularly deep-root system, but rather to the
density of the roots which ramify through the superficial soil layer,
binding it so firmly as to prevent exposure of the roots by trampling.

NONGRASSLIKE PLANTS.

Besides the grasshke plants included in the preceding discussion,
there are a number of other plants which furnish a large amount of
the most valuable forage on the upland ranges. All classes of stock
prefer a variety of feed, and sheep probably utilize a greater number
of species than any other class. During certain periods of the year
and under certain conditions, even where there is an abundance of
comparatively palatable grasses, their choice forage is made up
almost wholly of weeds and browse. A band of sheep when passing
somewhat hastily over a range which supports an admixture of grasses,
sedges, rushes, weeds, willows, elders, and the like, first eat the tender
weeds and leaves of shrubs, while the grasses are not grazed, except
to a limited extent, until the other kinds of forage have been largely
consumed. On many of the upland ranges on the Wallowa National
Forest there is a superabundance of made and here and there a
number of shrubs, and since these ranges are accessible in the main
only to sheep, the areas supporting these nongrasslike species are
very closely cropped.

Owing to the great variety of this class of feed and the large number
of species grazed by sheep, only the species of first importance are
discussed. These have been arranged in families and according to
their botanical relationships.

38 BULLETIN 545, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

lUiMWeYeea yes SEB eA Go ood eh Scacos ses soeccacecooesceesoeooes- Lily.
Allium validum.
Allium platyphyllum.

Allium fibrillum.

Melanthaceaes 55255 22 eas i ee a gee ne Ese Bunchflower.
Veratrum viride.

Salicaceae@s:.2 255s. Sis ee Boa ee ee ee ee ene Willow.
Salix scouleriana.

Polygonaceaes: s.r 5055 aka a oe ee Se a eh eee ete eee Buckwheat.
Polygonum phytolaccaefolium.

Gerantaceae oo oo oso oo eee ee ne ne ee Geranium.
Geranium viscosissimum. opine

Qnagracea@> se: fyi seed ee ee eee Evening primrose.
Chamaenerion angustifolium.

Aplaceae..222 on 222555020 is ote Sake ee ep ae ee Parsnip.
Inigusticum oreganum.

Polemoniacede 23.2 2s 260 si eee see ee ee ee ee ee ene Phlox.
Polemonium pulcherrimum. .

Vacciniaicea@ss 5522 Seer teak ee eee Cee ea Ae Sere Blueberry.
Vaccinium membranaceum.

Menthaceae i122 32: ee ae a ee ee eee Mint.
Agastache urticifolia.

Scrophulariaceaé << 2 4.70522 eat ee ee Beardtongue.
Pentstemon procerus.

Caprifoliacease ! Jon. sa ie ae. ee se es ee Honeysuckle.

Sambucus melanocar pa.
Sambucus glauca.

Valerianacedes cosa ee ee Valerian.
Valeriana sitchensis.
Cichoriaceaes 2.2 2A See el er a ee Chicory.

FMieracium cynoglossoides.
Agoseris glauca.
Asteracese sooo. c cscs yi ce uke Seo Se ee a eee eee Aster.
Rudbeckia occidentalis.
Achillea lanulosa.
Senecio triangularis.

Senecio columbianus.
MouNTAIN ONION.

(Allium validum.)

Onions belong to the lly family. About 275 species have been
described, and 40 or more are found in the western United States.

Mountain onion, an account of its abundance, size, and the relish
with which it is eaten, is one of the most valuable of these plants.
It usually attains a height of 1 to 2 feet. The bulbs differ from those
of other local species in being narrow and much elongated. They
are provided with a rose-white, delicate covering. The rootstocks are
unusually stout, and the plant makes a bunched growth, producing
a heavy, dense rose-colored or nearly white flower cluster (Plate
XXXV). Mountain onion is restricted to the Hudsonian and timber-
line regions. It belongs to the group of plants which require a moist
or even wet soil throughout the year and occurs in wet meadows
and springy places within the altitudinal limits of its range. The

PLATE XXXVII.

Iture.

Icu

Dept. of Agri

S:

U.

545

Bul.

zy
are
4
0°

"ae

WER -2
Fruit

PANICLE
AND

I FLO

FALSE HELLEBORE (VERATUM VIRIDE).

38

Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XXXVIII.

F-38Q

FIRE WILLOW (SALIX NUTTALLI!).

One leaf is turned so as to show the venation and character of the under surface,
39

IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS. 39

minimum soil moisture content capable of maintaining it was found
to be between 14 and 16 per cent. As a usual thing this plant grows
in close association with marsh sedges and rushes, though it fre-
quently produces a dense growth that crowds out other species.

The flowers begin to unfold during the first week in July, and nearly
all are out by the end of the first week in August. Unlike grasses,
whose pollen is carried to the flower by the wind, flowers of this and
other onions obtain their interchange of pollen mainly through the
visits of insects. The seeds are comparatively late in maturing,
seldom beginning to ripen before the last week in August, and unfav-
orable weather conditions often prevent ripening. The average ger-
mination of the seed crop in 1908 and 1909 was 37 per cent. Con-
sidering the lateness of the maturmg period, these figures are above
the average.

The palatability of the mountain onion as compared with that of
other plants growing with it is pronounced. When sheep first visit
an area containing this particular onion in association with sedges,
rushes, and the usual plants of such habitats, the majority of the
other species are almost wholly disregarded until the onions have
been grazed off. Few, if any, of the marsh plants are eaten with
“more eagerness than mountain onion. The flowers are usually
cropped first, but the long flat tender leaves are apparently consumed
with about the same relish.

Several species of onion occur on the upland ranges, but they fur-
nish only a small amount of the range forage, though eaten greedily
by nearly all classes of stock. Of these species the small wild onion
(A. fibrillum) is the mostimportant. This is the earliest of the species,
doubtless from the fact that it is almost entirely confined to scablands.
Itis asmall plant (Plate XXXVI), usually not over 6 inches in height,
and has a cluster of white flowers which are expanded shortly after
the disappearance of the snow. It is valuable only as an early range
plant, and by August 1, hke most other onions in similar situations,
completes its growing period, dries up, and disappears. Wild onion
(A. platyphyllum) is another important high mountain form, very
similar economically and ecologically to A. fibrillum.

One objection to grazing sheep upon onion is that the mutton is
flavored by it. This objection is not serious, however, since the
plants are usually grazed early in the spring when there 1s little or
no output of mutton, and the flavor is soon lost when sheep are
put upon other forage.

FatsE HELLEBORE,
(Veratrum viride.)

False hellebore, sometimes known erroneously as skunk cabbage,
is a close relative of the lilies. In appearance it resembles the true
hellebore (Veratrum album), from which it derives its common name.

40 BULLETIN 545, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

False hellebore is a perennial herb, 14 to 6 feet tall. Just beneath
the ground the stalk becomes fleshy and much expanded, and from
this protrudes a number of rootstocks and from 35 to 40 coarse,
‘‘ropy,’ tough roots, the latter penetrating the soil to a depth of
about 20 inches. The stem is very stout and has an abundance of
short-petioled or sessile, acute and broad leaves; the panicle is elon-
gated, drooping, and provided with a profusion of green flowers (Plate
XXXVI).

False hellebore flourishes best in a comparatively wet soil. It
grows densely in marshy basins, along creek banks, and in swales of
nearly all kinds in the upland ranges of the Hudsonian zone. It
wilts notably, in most cases beyond recovery, when the soi water
content is reduced to from 11 to 14.5 per cent. The flower stalks
rarely put in their appearance until about August 5, and in certain
places the flowers do not unfold until September 1. The lower
flowers expand first, and the lower part of the panicle is the first to
mature the seed. Dissemination takes place shortly after maturity,
and since the seeds are flat, broad, and winged, they are well scattered.
The earliest seeds to ripen in 1909 (about August 25) showed an
average germination of 24 per cent. Those which matured after
September 5 had practically no viability.

The forage value of false hellebore varies with the time of year,
though in a way opposite from that of most grazing plants. Except
very early in the spring, prior to the expansion of the leaves, when
the young shoots are grazed by sheep to a certain extent, it is seldom
eaten until after one or two rather severe frosts. Usually not until
after August 15 1s any considerable portion of the plant grazed with
much relish on upland ranges, but later in the fall sheep eat it. In
many instances only 3 or 4 inches of the coarse stalk is left. The
leaves and pithy portion of the stalk are the parts relished.

Stockmen generally hold that this plant is poisonous if eaten
before it has been frosted. To what extent false hellebore has a
toxic effect on stock early in the season is not known, but no authentic
cases are on record where sheep have been poisoned by it. The
short rootstocks are no doubt poisonous, but late in the season, at the
time when the plant is generally grazed, the roots are rarely pulled up.

Fire WILtow.
(Salix scouleriana.)

In the region studied the willow family, including poplars or
aspens, furnish more first-class browse than any other group. Fire
willow, or Nuttall’s willow as it is sometimes called, is a common
invader of burned-over lands, where it is the most important
species.

Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XXXIX.

WILD BUCKWHEAT (POLYGONUM PHYTOLACCAEFOLIUM).

40

Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

eons ae

Z

GERANIUM (GERANIUM VISCOSISSIMUM).

A portion of the coarse root is shown on the left,
41

PLATE XL.

F—40G

yee 9 eeeah ont SO

IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS. 4]

Fire willow rarely develops into tree form in the region studied,
though elsewhere it often attains a height of from 15 to 25 feet and a
diameter of 8 inches. The leaves are of a light shade beneath, smooth,
and free from hairs on the upper surface. The midrib is prominent
and yellow (Plate XX XVIII).

This willow grows along mountain streams, in canyons, and on
gentle slopes in damp leaf litter or rather poorly disintegrated soils.
While it is sometimes sparsely scattered it more often grows in dense
clumps. On burned-over areas in canyons and on gentle slopes
where the soil has not been rendered sterile, it often produces dense
low thickets. On the Wallowa National Forest where it grows in
close association with snow bush or buck brush (Ceanothus velutinus)
in the Canadian zone, it forms what is known as chaparral. In the
Hudsonian zone it occurs more sparingly.

Male and female flowers are borne on different bushes, the seed
production, of course, being confined to the female ones. The seeds
ripen in the spring about the time the leaves have reached full
development. The little pods open up soon after maturity and
liberate the silky hairy seeds, which are widely distributed.

No tests were made of the viability of the seed of this species. It
produces an abundance of seed, but reproduction is mainly vegetative.

In the Wallowa Mountains fire willow is the preeminent browsing
plant. The low and spreading habit of growth adds greatly to its
value as a sheep forage, and the time at which the leaves are developed
renders it valuable as an early browsing plant. As high as sheep can
reach, the branches are stripped of their leaves, though the bark is
seldom eaten. Since this plant makes a comparatively rapid growth,
a portion of the branches are soon beyond the reach of sheep and
injury from severe grazing is unusual. In fact, the more sheep
browse on the willow the denser becomes the growth. This is due to
the vigorous and persistent sprouting of new branches as a result of
the trimming back of the young shoots through grazing. Even when
a bush is cut to the ground a number of young shoots are produced.

Witp BuCKWHEAT.
(Polygonum phytolaccaefolium. )

This plant belongs to the well-known buckwheat family; the genus
is represented by some 70 species in the United States. |

Wild buckwheat is a perennial with a coarse, fleshy, sparsely
branched but deep root. It attains a height of about 2 feet; the
stem is well supplied with comparatively large, oval-shaped leaves,
and panicles of rather small greenish white flowers (Plate XX XIX).

The species is mainly confined to exposed situations in the Hud-
sonian zone, though it occurs to a limited extent in both of the
bordering zones. It attains its best development on mountain

85154°—Bull. 545—17——_6

42 BULLETIN 545, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

slopes in a soil with the average amount of moisture.! While it
seldom grows pure, it is common enough in mixture with grasses of
various kinds to give character to the range.

Flower stalks appear from about the latter part of the second week
in July until August 5. Matured seeds are found as early as August
1, while the major part of the crop is matured by about August 25.
Though the seed crop is ripened early the vitality is not high. The
average germination obtained in 1908 and 1909 was 3 and 13.5 per
cent, respectively.

Since wild buckwheat inhabits comparatively dry situations, it
resumes growth early in the spring and by July 15 has produced an
abundance of leafy herbage which is greedily eaten by sheep. After
about the last 10 days in August, when the leaves begin to dry up,
the plant is no longer relished. In many places where the natural
reseeding experiments are being conducted good reproduction of this
species has been secured. It withstands trampling remarkably well,
and is promising as a plant for the revegetation of depleted ranges
under a system of deferred grazing. The nutritive qualities of wild
buckwheat are generally considered to be high.

GERANIUM.

(Geranium viscosissimum. )

Geranium belongs to the same family as the well-known alfileria
or ‘‘filaree,’’ which is so valuable for grazing in certain sections of the
country. It is a coarse, much branched, and leafy species (Plate
XL), from 1 to 2 feet high. Both the branches and the upper side
of the leaves are covered with fine hairs; the leaves are long petioled,
large and thick, deeply three-parted; the petals pmk or purple,
sometimes fading to barely white. The root is very coarse and tough,
and rather deep, but not branching.

In the Transition zone this plant is sufficiently abundant to be of
considerable value for grazing, and is nearly as common in the
Canadian zone, occupying open glades and parks and canyon bot-
toms and hillsides, in medium moist, preferably gravelly, loam soils
rather rich in humus. It rarely grows in dense stand, but in favor-
able situations is often conspicuous, especially durmg the flowermg
period. It is usually associated with Indian paint brush (Castilleja)
and yarrow (Achillea).

The flowering period extends over approximately one month. On
the lower ranges it is among the first of the perennial plants to bloom.

1 In determining the water requirenents of this species, it was almost impossible to obtain reliable data
by the methods used because of the deep “‘taproot’’ which, if only slightly injured, would result in death
to the plant within a few hours. An average of all tests attempted showed that it was unable to absorb
water at a rate sufficient to reestablish turgidity from the soil in which it grows when the content was

reduced to between 8 and 10 percent. Judging from the species with which it is associated and the habitat
in which it grows, these figures appear to be somewhat high.

PLATE XLI.

Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

‘5 iA A wD ia

F-41Q

FIREWEED (CHAMAENERION ANGUSTIFOLIUM).

42

. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XLII.

WILD CELERY (LINGUSTICUM OREGANUM).

IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS. 43

In the Canadian zone the flowers begin to unfold about June 20, and
by July 20 most of them have expanded. The seed matures from
about July 25 to August 15. In 1909 the seed crop from the Canadian
zone germinated 29.5 per cent. Reproduction on the range in
general is taking place slowly.

Geranium is one of the choice forage plants for cattle and sheep.
Since it grows in abundance on the cattle and sheep allotments, it is
equally valuable to both classes of stock. When it is young all but
the lower portion of the coarse stem is eaten, but later only the
flowers, immature fruits, and leaves are grazed. About the time
that the seed crop has matured the leaves dry up and the plant
loses much of its forage value.

FIREWEED.
(Chamaenerion angustifolium.)

Chamaenerion angustifolium is given its name, fireweed, because of
its prevalence on burned-over forest lands. This species is the most
valuable perennial grazing plant of the evening primrose family.
It attains a height of 2 to 5 feet, depending on the situation. The

_ cylindrical stem bears an abundance of long, slender, nearly entire,

thin leaves, and the inflorescence consists of a raceme of delicately
pink or nearly white, or sometimes purple, flowers developed at the
apex of the stem (Plate XLI). The long, slender capsules split into
four divisions at maturity, liberating the numerous minute seeds
provided with a tuft of long silky hairs, by means of which they are
carried great distances by the wind. |

In the Wallowa National Forest fireweed is most abundant on
burned-over areas in rather dry, often coarse, gravelly and even
sterile soils in the Canadian zone. It also occurs in both of the con-
tiguous zones, though never in pure stand. It is one of the first
species to invade heavily burned lodgepole-pine forests.

Fireweed is drought resistant, comparing in this respect with some
of the grasses which grow both in moist and in dry situations. The
plants were found not to wilt excessively until the soil moisture was
reduced to between 8.2 and 11.5 per cent, depending upon the par-
ticular soil type. In the moister places, where decayed vegetable
matter is more abundant, the moisture requirement figures are
higher.

The production of flower stalks, like the seed-maturing period,
continues for an unusual time. In the warmer situations flowers
begin to unfold as early as June 20, and in a few places buds are
found at the apex of the raceme as late as the early part of August.
The lower flowers are first displayed, and as the season advances
there is a gradual sequence or succession in the flowering toward the

44 BULLETIN 545, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

apex of the raceme. Accordingly, while the upper part of the raceme
is in full flower the lower portion often has well-developed seed pods.
In some cases the seed reaches maturity on the lower parts of the
raceme while buds are still forming on the upper portion. The seed-
maturing period begins about August 1 and continues until inclement
weather sets in.

While the viability of the seed is not high, the average for that
collected in 1908 and 1909 bemg 21.5 per cent, the earlier maturing
seed runs from 10 to 12 per cent higher than that maturing later.
The amount of seed produced is unusually large and reproduction is
very abundant.

When young, fireweed is eaten with great avidity. As the season
advances, however, the stem become fibrous and unpalatable, and
after August 1 only the flowers and leaves are grazed, the stem being
left quite naked. Few if any ‘‘weeds” are more relished by sheep
than fireweed. Horses, too, eat it to a limited extent, and cattle
graze it ravenously. Since it begins growth early in the spring and
is late in reaching maturity, it furnishes a much relished feed durmg
the greater part of the summer grazing period.

Witp CELERY.
(Ligusticum oreganum.)

Ligusticum oreganum, sometimes called wild parsnip, belongs tc
the same family as cultivated celery, parsnip, and carrot, and in the
region studied is called both wild celery and wild parsnip. It has the
characteristic parsnip aroma, and resembles the parsnip somewhat
in the appearance of the leaf (Plate XLID). It should not be con-
fused with the poisonous water hemlock, which is found in wet soils
and is sometimes called ‘‘wild parsnip.”

Wild celery is a smooth perennial with large aromatic, sparsely
branched roots. The leaves are numerous, nearly all basal, and com-
pound, being ternately (in three) then pinnately divided; the umbel
is made up of numerous rays with many narrow ee bracts sur-
rounding the flower cluster.

The plant i is distinctly one of the Hudsonian zone. It occurs on
all exposures and slopes, but prefers deep, loose, porous and friable,
well-drained soils of medium moisture content. Since it does not
regenerate by offshoots from running rootstocks, it probably is not
capable of forming, even under most favorable conditions, pure or
nearly pure stands. It is most commonly associated with mountain
bunchgrass, short-awned bromegrass, and other species inhabiting
the better soils or glades. Its water requirements are higher than
those of its associates. The plant wilts usually beyond recovery in a
soul whose water content varies from 8 to 9.5 per cent.

Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

SKUNK WEED (POLEMONIUM PULCHERRIMUM).
Only a portion of the creeping rootstock is shown.

PLATE XLIII.

Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XLIV.

HIGH HUCKLEBERRY (VACCINIUM MEMBRANACEUM).
Showing edible mature berries,

45

IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS. 45

The leafless flower stalks begin to show about the second week in
July, and are nearly all developed during the succeeding four weeks.
The seed crop matures, on the average, from about August 15 to
September 10, and is disseminated immediately afterward.

The seed has low viability. In 1907 and in the two succeeding
seasons a germination of 2, 6, and 11.5 per cent was obtained.
The plant, especially the fruiting parts, is very sensitive to frost,
which may account in part for the low viability of the seed, since
after August 15 frosts are frequent in the situations where it grows.
Reproduction is taking place sparingly on the range in general, and
even on the allotments that are in process of reseeding under deferred
grazing.

Wild celery may be utilized quite as early for grazing purposes as
the majority of the grasses, and furnishes ideal feed for sheep from
July 20 to August 25. Horses sometimes eat it, though only to a
limited extent. Unlike most plants, it is eaten with quite as much
relish late in the season as early in thesummer. After about August
25 it is not valuable for forage, the leaves being killed by frost,
leaving only the naked flower stalk.

SKUNKWEED.
(Polemonium pulcherrimum.)

Skunkweed, so called because the plant has an odor somewhat
suggestive of a skunk, is a fine hairy plant from 4 to 8 inches in
height, with sparingly branched slender stems, The leaves are basal
and compound, the oblong leaflets numbering from 7 to 15 or even
more. The corolla of the clustered flowers is blue, turning very
pale or nearly white before dropping. The root system is exception-
ally superficial and spreading (Plate XLIII). The plant grows in
tuftlike patches of shoots arising from creeping rootstocks. If a
single plant is pulled from the ground in a loose soil most of the

lateral roots, as well as the main root, come up with it.

' Skunkweed is confined almost exclusively to the Hudsonian zone.
While it often produces a conspicuous and luxuriant growth in the
open, it prefers the somewhat diffuse hight of open forest lands. In
exposed situations, where the soil type is relatively coarse in texture,
the plant does not succumb from excessive transpiration until the
soil-water content is reduced to 7 per cent, and in protected situa-
tions, where the soil texture is rather fine, death due to wilting comes
when the water content is reduced to 10 per cent.

The flowers begin to open during the second week in July and
bloom throughout August, though after the middle of the month
most have expanded. About August 20 the seeds begin to ripen,
and this continues as long as the season is favorable. The seed crop

46 BULLETIN 545, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

is comparatively fertile. Im 1908 and 1909 an average germination
of 41.5 and 32.5 per cent was obtained.

Since skunkweed grows above the range ordinarily grazed by cattle,
it furnishes only sheep forage. It is eaten ordinarily with about the
average amount of relish, and at times ravenously. It is best for
grazing purposes from about July 20 to the last week in August.
At the latter end of the season the foliage is frequently frostbitten
and dry.

HicgH HucKLEBERRY.

( Vaccinium membranaceum. )

High huckleberry is the most valuable grazing species of its family
in the region studied. Itis a much branched and leafy shrub from 1
to 4 feet tall (Plate XLIV), the twigs slightly angled, leaves thin,
not shining, short-petioled. The flowers are inconspicuous and soli-
tary, and the corolla, usually five-toothed, is greenish or purplish in
color. The berry, when mature, is purplish black. It is shghtly
acid and is highly valued as food.

High huckleberry is confined to the Transition and Canadian zones,
being most abundant in the latter. It is commonly found under
yellow pine, fire willow, and lodgepole pine, and accordingly endures
a considerable amount of shade. It is characteristic of strongly acid
or sour soils, and is rarely, if ever, found on limestone or even neutral
soils.

On the lower elevations the flowers begin to appear about June 1,
and by July 1 most of them have expanded. The berry begins to
develop dark pigment as early as July 15, and the ripening period
continues until about the first week in September, at which time
most of the berries are clinging. Since the berries are palatable to
both birds and animals, they are almost entirely consumed, and seed
distribution is thorough.

Sheep browse this plant with avidity, and it is grazed from about
June 15 to late in the autumn, though it is most palatable early in
the season.

Throughout the Canadian and Hudsonian zones and up to the
limits of tree growth another species, known as red huckleberry
(Vaccinium scoparvum), occurs in even greater abundance than the
high huckleberry. As a forage plant, however, it does not compare
with the latter, though it is grazed to a limited extent. This species
also is confined to acid soils.

HoRSEMINT.
(Agastache urticifolia.)
Horsemint is the most widely distributed representative of the

mint family in the Wallowa Mountains, and is of the highest value
for grazing.

PLATE XLV.

Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

HORSEMINT (AGASTACHE URTICIFOLIA).

46

Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XLVI.

BLUE BEARDTONGUE (PENTSTEMON PROCERUS).
A portion of the running rootstocks is shown.

IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS. 47

It is an erect smooth perennial plant from 1 to 3 feet tall, with
square stems and opposite, petioled leaves, the margins coarsely and
irregularly toothed. The flowers are clustered in a dense terminal
spike, the corolla pink-white or sometimes light purple. The root is
coarse, fibrous, woody, and rather spreading (Plate XLV),

Horsemint is widely distributed. It is met with occasionally in
the Transition zone, and is abundant in the Canadian and Hudsonian
zones. Though occurring but sparingly in the upper altitudes of the
latter zone, it is of considerable value for forage up to 8,000 feet.
The best development and densest stands are found in loose soils
of medium moisture on the glades in the upper Canadian and lower
Hudsonian. While it often predominates over associated species in
the better and moister soils, it almost always grows in scattered
stands, especially in shallow, coarse, gravelly clays.

The flowers begin to form about July 10, but all are not expanded
as a rule until August 20. Fertilization is largely effected through
insects, mainly bees. The two-lipped corollas drop soon after
fertilization.

Matured seeds are usually found by the last week in August though

the entire crop is rarely ripened until about September 10. The
matured, brownish-black, plump, hard-coated, oval seed-like nutlets
are not disseminated at once, but are readily expelled when the seed
cluster is vigorously shaken, shooting out some distance from the
parent plant. For a high-range plant the germination power of the
seed is about the average. In 1908 and 1909 representative samples
gave an average of 16 and 28.5 per cent, respectively. Where this
species is given a chance to reproduce, 1. e., on ranges where the seed
crop is allowed to mature prior to grazing, reproduction is taking
place, though sparingly. The actual amount of seed produced per
plant is relatively small, and since only about one-fourth is fertile
the species is succeeding as well as might be expected.
_ Horsemint begins growth early in the season and matures late
and consequently is relished by stock at ail times during the summer.
Both sheep and cattle eat it with much relish, though sheep graze it
with greater avidity. Horses eat it only to a limited extent, and it
can not be considered of value for this class of stock. Until the
flowering parts begin to drop the entire cluster is consumed, so that
early in the season the whole plant is eaten. After about August 10
only the leaves are grazed. Since younger leaves remain green some
little time after seed maturity, horsemint is preferred in the fall of
the year to some of the more valuable grasses and forage plants.

BLUE BEARDTONGUE.
(Pentstemon procerus.)

About 100 species of Pentstemon are found in the United States
and Mexico, many of them of value for grazing. Blue beardtongue

48 BULLETIN 545, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

is the most highly relished as well as the most abundant of the
various species on the high range lands of the Wallowa National
Forest.

Blue beardtongue is a perennial with conspicuous lateral running
rootstocks which send out a number of shoots reaching a height
of 4 to 12 inches. The whole plant is smooth and somewhat shiny;
the lower leaves are long petioled, smaller than those arising from
the middle of the stem; the upper leaves are small and without
leaf stalks (Plate XLVI). Thee flowers, usually 5 in a cluster, are
arranged in whorls. The bright blue corolla is lipped; the lower
lip bearded within. As in all beardtongues, one of the five stamens
is sterile, and in this species it is distinctly bearded also.

This plant is conspicuous in the Hudsonian zone, though it grows
in varying abundance at lower altitudes. Open parks and medium
moist meadows of deep, loose, but well-drained soils are the favorite
habitats. In moisture requirement it resembles wild celery (Ligus-
ticum oreganum), with which it is commonly associated. In the
characteristic soil type in which blue beardtongue grows, wilting
beyond recovery does not occur until the soil-water content is
reduced to from 10 to as low as 8 per cent.

The flowers begin to open about July 10, and all are out by August
15. About the time the last flowers expand the first matured seeds
are found, though, of course, on different plants. The seed tested
in 1909 showed a viability of 18.5 per cent. In previous years no
germination studies were made. Under favorable conditions on
protected ranges, however, reproduction is excellent, and it is appar-
ent that this plant will increase in abundance under the deferred-
orazing system.

Blue beardtongue seems to be eaten by sheep with more eagerness
than any of its allied species. Since its growth begins promptly in
the spring, it furnishes a fair portion of the valuable early forage.
The leaves, but not the stems, are eaten even after the seeds have
matured, though they are not as palatable as earlier in the summer.
The plant is of highest value for grazing between about July 15 and
August 20.

Besides the blue beardtongue three species of Pentstemon, P. deus-
tus, P. fruticosus, and P. venustus, all grazed at certaim times in the
season, are common in the Wallowa Mountains.

MountTAIN ELDER.
(Sambucus melanocar pa.)

Mountain elder is a shrub with stems 3 to 6 feet high rismg in
profusion from a common crown; twigs of one year old growth
smooth, shiny green-brown and slightly angled, the pith yellow-
brown; bark of the older branches rather thick, rough, dark yellow-

Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XLVII

F-47G

MouNTAIN ELDER (SAMBUCUS MELANOCARPA).

Observe the smooth bark of the young twig in contrast to the coarse bark of the older branch.

48

Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XLVIII.

F—48G

MOUNTAIN ELDER (SAMBUCUS MELANOCARPA).

- ecause of the palatability of mountain elder, sheep usually leave the lower branches quite bare of
oliage.

Dead clumps of mountain elder are often found on the range. Since the species is comparatively
short lived this condition may be due, in part at least, to age.

49

IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS. 49

brown; leaflets 5 to 9, smooth or slightly hairy, light green on the
lower side. As shown in Plate XLVII, the flower clusters are
convex, as broad as high, the flowers white, fruit shiny black,
without bloom. In the lower elevations this species is associated
with blue elder (S. glauca), which is readily distinguished by the
white pith in the year-old stems, the treelike form of the older
plants, the flat-topped flower clusters and the chalky bloom on the
black berries which gives them a bluish appearance—thus the name
blue elder.

Mountain elder is most abundant on hillsides, in the bottom of
mountain canyons, in ravines, and along brooks and mountain
streams in fertile, friable, gravelly soils of varying degrees of mois-
ture. It occurs in the Transition and Hudsonian zones, but is
more abundant in the Canadian, often in association with ninebark
(Opulaster pauciflorus), western larch, Douglas fir, and open stands
of lodgepole pine. It prefers open situations, though partial shade
does not prevent luxuriant growth.

The attractive white-flower clusters ‘begin to show about July 15
on the higher ranges, and earlier on the lower ones. About Sep-
tember 1 most of the berries have reached full development. These
are eaten by birds and a few mammals, a wide dissemination of the
seeds being thus insured. No germination tests were made of this
species, but observations on the range show that it is reproducing
well.

As a browse it is as valuable, though not nearly so abundant,
as willow. In localities where the two are associated elder is browsed
first. Because of its low branching habits and the unusual relish
with which it is browsed there is danger of mountain elder being
eaten too closely. A common example of such a condition is shown
in Plate XLVIII.

Mountain elder is also highly relished by sheep and is grazed with
relish at times by cattle. It occurs mainly in the Transition zone,
but never in great abundance, and therefore is not highly important
as a browsing plant.

VALERIAN.
( Valeriana sitchensis.)

Valerian is one of the most characteristic plants on old burns in
the Hudsonian and upper Canadian zones where the soil has not
been rendered sterile and the moisture conditions are about average.
It is a perennial and attains a height of from 1 to 2 feet; the stem is
slender with usually three pairs of pmnately compound leaves, the
lower long-petioled (Plate XLIX). The flower cluster is dense and
contracted, the corolla tubular and pinkish white; from the woody,

85154°—Bull. 545—17——7

50 BULLETIN 545, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

horizontal, creeping rootstocks long fibrous roots are developed.
The rootstock is peculiarly aromatic.

Valerian prefers a rather porous, somewhat gravelly, and com-
paratively deep fertile soil, but does not require a large amount of
moisture, as 1t made average development in such soil where the
minimum water content was only 9 per cent. Destructive wilting
came, however, when the water content was reduced to between
7 and 8.5 per cent.

The plant begins to flower profusely about July 15, and by August

15 nearly all the flowers have expanded. The seed crop matures |

from August 20 to the close of the season, some individual plants
never reaching maturity. The early-maturing seed in 1908 and
1909 germinated 21.5 and 26 per cent, respectively. On protected
ranges reproduction is taking place sparingly.

Both cattle and sheep are very fond of valerian at nearly any
time during the summer, but it grows in greatest abundance on
the sheep ranges. On burns covered with dead and down timber
sheep search for it and graze it quite as readily as the fireweed,
with which it is commonly associated. Early in the season the
flowers, leaves, and lewer portion of the stem are consumed; later
in the summer only the flowers and leaves are eaten.

Mountain DANDELION.
(Agoseris glauca.)

Mountain dandelion, so called because of its abundance on the
upland ranges and similarity in appearance to the ordinary dande-
lion, is a milky-juiced perennial from 4 to 8 inches high. In loose
souls it has a sparsely branched taproot, which penetrates to a depth
of 1 to 2 feet, but in rocky soils the root is usually branched. The
oblong basal leaves, generally tapering to the apex, are smooth and
somewhat shiny, while the flower stalk, about a third longer than the
leaves, is covered sparsely with coarse hair (Plate L). The solitary
head of yellow flowers is borne at the summit of a naked stalk; the
mature seeds bear a crown of copious, slender, simple, white, bristle-
like hairs.

While this species occurs to a limited extent on the lower ranges,
it is much more abundant on the grazing lands in the Hudsonian

zone. On open plateaus and well-drained glades of loose, gravelly, —

deep, clay loam it grows most luxuriantly. It is fairly drought
resistant, not wilting excessively in the finely disintegrated soil in
which it naturally occurs until the soil-water content is reduced to from
8 to 10 per cent. In favorable situations the stand is compara-
tively heavy, but ordinarily it is rather scattered.

The flower stalks begin to appear in the latter part of July, and by
August 15 nearly all are in evidence. This is somewhat later than the

Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

VALERIAN (VALERIANA SITCHENSIS).

50

PLATE XLIX.

F-49G

PLATE L.

F—S50G

UNTAIN DANDELION (AGOSERIS GLAUCA).

or
~

M

IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS. 51

average. The seed crop, too, is produced late. A few matured seed
heads are seen about August 10, but most of the seed reaches maturity
in September, often in the latter part of the month. Fortunately
this plant is very resistant to frost, and consequently the seed con-
tinues to develop after many other species, such as wild celery, have
been killed.

The vitality of the seed crop, taking into account that produced
both early and late in the Hudsonian zone, gave an average of 29,
38, and 41 per cent, respectively, in the three years of test.
Mountain dandelion is reproducing comparatively well on the range,
and promises to respond favorably to any system of protection which
will allow the seed crop to mature.

Sheep seek the plant in preference to many grasses and weedy
species. Each season it is eaten down to the ground, leaving only
the coarse base. In the early part of the summer, and even until the
seeds are nearly mature, the young, tender, juicy flower stalks, leaves,
and even the flowers, are eaten with avidity. Few other species
enjoy as long a growing season. In 1909 the leaves were still green
and highly palatable to sheep on October 1. The seeds are usually
not disseminated for a considerable time after maturity, but the
hairy appendages which are the means of affecting their dispersal by
the wind are not objectionable to stock.

Woo.ty WEED.
(Mieracium cynoglossoides.)

To see this peculiarly woolly plant, sometimes referred to as woolly
hieracium, one would hardly think of it as valuable for forage. Sheep-
men state, however, that the only objection is that it does not occur
more abundantly.

It is from 1 to 2 feet in height with numerous leaves arising from
the crown of the perennial, coarse and much-branched root, and an
abundance of leaves on the stem. ‘The dense covering of fine soft
hairs on the stem and leaves gives it a very distinctive character
(Plate LI).

It is unusual to find a dense ground covering of woolly weed. It
erows almost invariably with other weedy perennials, such as moun-
tain dandelion, blue beardtongue, and numerous grass species, among
which it seldom predominates. In soil and moisture requirements it
is almost identical with mountain dandelion. Individual plants
wilted beyond recovery in soil varying in water content from 8 to
10.5 per cent. These figures are similar to those obtained in the case
of certain bunch grasses with which woolly weed is associated.

The flower stalks are produced between July 15 and August 20,
the greatest number being sent up after August 1. The seeds begin

52 BULLETIN 545, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

to ripen about August 25, but owing to the late date of the flower-
stalk production only a small seed crop is matured. In 1908 and
1909 only 9.3 and 12.5 per cent, respectively, of the seed showed fer-
tility. From these figures and from observations on the range, it does
not seem likely that a marked increase in the species can be effected
by range protection and improved methods of handling.

If palatability and not abundance and distribution were taken into
account, woolly weed would rank among the most important range
plants. It is so closely grazed early in the summer that nothing but
the root remains. The coarse and comparatively deep root system
protects it from actual killing and under ordinary conservative hand-
ling of stock it may at least be expected to hold its own.

CONEFLOWER.

(Rudbeckia occidentalis. )

Of the several valuable nongrasslike forage plants, coneflower,
sometimes called “nigger head,” is one whose actual grazing qualities
are often underrated. It is a conspicuous plant, attaining a height
of 2 to 5 feet, and having numerous marginally toothed, somewhat
rough, ovate leaves, those lowest on the stem being petioled, and the
upper ones sessile. Numerous shoots are sent out from the coarse,
woody, fibrous perennial root, and the older plants have a bunched
growth. This plant, as shown in Plate LI, is usually not branched,
and the dense, rayless, oblong, brown head of flowers, resembling a
cone, is borne at the apex of the stem.

The most common and favorable habitats of coneflower are the
somewhat shaded banks, mountain swales, and hillsides where the
soil is moist but not saturated. One of its most common associates
is false hellebore, whose moisture requirements are almost identical.
Coneflower is occasionally met with on open, well-drained glades,
but never in abundance. In such habitats, in the characteristic
basaltic clay loam soil of the region, wilting of all leaves did not take
place until the soil moisture was reduced, on the average, to 14 per
cent. In the richer soils, those which are heavily impregnated with
organic matter, pronounced and long periods of wilting, usually
followed by death of the plant, were recorded when the soil con-
tained from 16 to 18.5 per cent water content.

Early in the season the “‘button”’ or flower head begins to develop
and by August 15 has virtually attained full growth. The seeds,
however, do not begin to ripen until about the last week in August
the ripening period extending well into September, and the seeds
remaining in the head until late in the autumn. The germinative
strength of the seed crop in the three years of test was 16, 24.5, and
11, respectively. Even in the most favorable situations the seed-
lings stand is rather sparse, but reproduction from roots is abundant.

| Bul, 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE LI.

F-61Q

fa WOOLLY WEED (HIERACIUM CYNOGLOSSOIDES).

PLATE LII.

Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

F-52Q

CONEFLOWER (RUDBECKIA OCCIDENTALIS).

IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS. 53

Coneflower furnishes a large supply of forage. The stems are
rather tough even when young, and only the flower heads and leaves
are eaten. As the plant attains its full height the seed heads are
generally above the reach of sheep. While in some localities the
stems are quite bare after the lands have been grazed, this is rather
the exception. In mixture with other palatable plants it is grazed
with relish, but when it furnishes the bulk of the feed, stock are apt
to scatter widely in search, of more desirable forage.

YARROW.

(Achillea lanulosa.)

Yarrow is one of the most widely distributed plants in the region
studied. It is found from the lower Transition to the upper Hud-
sonian zone, on intermediate ranges in such abundance as to be of
considerable grazing value throughout the mountains.

Wild tansy, as yarrow is sometimes called because of its resemblance
and close relationship to the tansy cultivated in gardens, is a peren-
nial with stems densely woolly, 12 to 24 inches high, terminating in
conspicuous flower clusters, convex in shape, and with white ray
flowers. The silky leaves, finely divided or dissected (Plate LITT),
are produced in abundance, as are also the leaves which originate
from the horizontal rootstocks.

This species while succeeding best in a comparatively light, well-
drained clay loam, does well in a variety of soils and situations. It
inhabits glades and open parks, however, where it gets the benefit
of full sunlight. In the lower situations it is scattered, and it does
not anywhere form a pure stand. On the upland ranges, however,
it usually forms great bunches or tussocks, as shown in Plate LIV.
It is comparatively drought resistant. Individual plants tested did
not wilt to a point causing death until the moisture content was
reduced to 12.3 in one case and 10 per cent in another.

The flowering period is unusually prolonged. On the lower ranges
the flower heads begin to show early in June, but in the Hudsonian
zone not until about July 20. In the mountain lands flowers which
were just beginning to open have been observed as late as September
15. As aresult, a large percentage of the seed crop in the high range
never reaches maturity. The earliest fully ripened seeds are found
about August 20. In 1908 and 1909 the germination tests averaged
16.5 and 39.2 per cent, respectively. Over 90 per cent of the seed
crop of 1909 from the lower ranges was fertile. On protected range
areas reproduction is very promising.

Both cattle and sheep seek out yarrow from among its associated
species and eat it with avidity. As a rule the unpalatable stems are

54 BULLETIN 545, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

deprived of their attractive flower heads and leaves early in the season.
Sheep prefer the plant to many abundant grasses, even during the
period when the latter are most palatable.

BUTTERWEED.
(Senecio triangularis.)

Senecio triangularis is not only the largest and most abundant of
the butterweeds in the region studied, but also the most palatable.
It grows from 2 to 5 feet tall, and has a leafy stem which terminates
in dense clusters of 20 or 30 bright yellow flowers. The leaves are all
petioled and toothed. Shoots are sent up in abundance from the
lateral running rootstocks (Plate LV).

Butterweed is closely confined to the higher ranges, being abundant
in the upper Canadian zone and throughout the Hudsonian zone. It
is distinctly a marsh plant and is closely restricted to situations with
wet or saturated soils. On creek banks, in the vicinity of springs,
and in swales of various kinds, it is often the chief plant. It was
found to wilt beyond recovery in a soil whose moisture content varied
from 11.5 to 14 per cent.

Usually the flowers do not begin to appear until about the last
week in July, and the blooming period continues until the last week
in August. The seed crop begins to reach maturity when the late
flowers are unfolding. The ripening period continues until inclement
weather, the latest flowers failing to mature seeds. The seed which
had ripened by September 5 germinated, in 1908 and 1909, 18 and
26 per cent, respectively. The later maturing seed has a notably
lower viability.

Early in the year butterweed is eaten with such avidity that almost
nothing is left. Until August 1 the lower part of the stem is the only
portion not consumed. As the season advances, however, only the
flower clusters, the upper rapidly growing terminal part of the stem,
and the leaves are grazed. Among late forage plants, butterweed is
one of the most highly relished. Since it is found only in moist situa-
tions, however, its amount is limited.

Another butterweed much relished by sheep is S. columbianus, often
called small butterweed. In the Wallowa National Forest this species
occurs in scattered stand on well-drained soils throughout the Cana-
dian and Hudsonian zones. It begins growth early and is of value
for grazing only in the spring. Sheep prefer it to grasses, and eat it
with such ravenousness that it has little opportunity to reseed under
the usual grazing practice. Its relatively small size (Plate LVI),
different habitats, and earlier flowering period, easily distinguish it
from Senecio triangularis.

PEATE EEN:

Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Y ARROW (ACHILLEA LANULOSA).

54

PLATE LIV.

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IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS. 55

EE SUMMARY.

ECOLOGICAL REQUIREMENTS.

The figures given in Table 2 represent the relative water require-
ments of the different important forage plants studied.!| Owing to
the importance of having the plants advanced to as nearly the same
point of development as possible when the drought tests were made
aerial conditions were slightly different. The error due to this fact,
however, is very largely offset by the duplcation of the tests in the
case of virtually all species.

It is a well-established fact that the amount of moisture remaining
in the soil when the plant wilts beyond recovery is determined by
the physical structure of the substratum. The object in making the
wilting coefficient determinations, then, is principally to show (1)
that certain species occupy quite different soil types, and (2) that
the soil types (textures) are widely contrasted as shown by the
notable difference in the wilting coefficients for the various species.
For example, mountain bunch grass (lestuca viridula) does not wilt
seriously in the soil in which it characteristically grows until the
water content is reduced to between 7 and 9.5 per cent. This plant
is adapted to coarser and less rich soils than is mountain onion
(Allium validum), for example, which is confined to exceptionally
black, mealy soils, and which wilts beyond recovery when the soil
moisture content drops to between 14 and 16 per cent. Owing to
the relatively small amount of moist soil found in mountain range
lands, it is evident that a species like mountain onion would not
occur nearly as abundantly as mountain bunch grass.

As a means of comparing habitat requirements, the species are
grouped in three classes as follows:

Class A, plants of high moisture requirement—those inhabiting
saturated soils, such as open marshes, wet meadows and bogs; class
B, plants of medium moisture requirement—those inhabiting rela-
tively heavy soils which are saturated during the early part of the
season, but later contain a medium amount of moisture; and class C,
plants of low moisture requirement—those occurring in well-drained
lands, open glades, and exposed situations.

It will be observed that practically three-fourths of the most
valuable forage species are dry-land plants. This fact is of high
economic importance, since the major portion of the range lands are
well drained and afford conditions favorable only to plants which
are comparatively drought resistant.

It is noted that a few species fall under more than one head so far
as concerns:their habitat requirements—that is, they are not strictly

1A resumé of the potent climatic factors under which these tests were conducted was published in the
Journal of Agricultural Research, Vol. III, No. 2, 1914, ‘‘ Natural Revegetation of Range Lands Based upon
Growth Requirements and Life History of the Vegetation,” pp. 95-102.

56 BULLETIN 545, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

confined to any one soil type. Such plants, however, do not afford
nearly the amount of forage those do which are found generally in
the more open habitat (usually referred to as drought-resistant
plants), where the soil is not finely disintegrated, is less well supplied
with organic material, and has a wilting coefficient notably lower.

A relatively small proportion of the range lands are wet throughout
the growing season; while bogs, marshes, and the like almost invari-
ably support a more luxuriant stand of vegetation than any other,
the herbage usually lacks in two essentials—palatability and nutri-
tiousness. Those who have observed stock as to their choice of forage
have noticed that sheep avoid marshes and wet habitats to a marked
degree; that cattle drift to the better drained lands for most of their ©
feed; and horses, if unaccustomed to marsh vegetation, such, for
example, as sedges and rushes, graze it eagerly for a couple of days,
after which they will not remain on the succulent feed if any other
is available. Campers and mountain workers have found that their
pack and saddle animals can not do the work when feeding on marsh
and bog vegetation that they can on drier feed. Also, stockmen
have found that fat made on succulent feeds is not of a solid char-
acter and in the case of long drives to market or of shipment shrinkage

is abnormally heavy.
LIFE HISTORY.

To aid the reader in comparing the different phases of growth, the
time of seed maturity, and the viability of the seed crop produced by
the various forage species discussed, the results are summarized in »
Table 3.

It will be seen that the time of the flowering period varies more
widely than that of seed maturity. This is due primarily to the
greater contrast between the moisture and temperature of the
soil during spring than in late summer and autumn seasons.
Growth, of course, starts more promptly and vigorously in the
better drained and consequently warmer soils than in the moister
and cooler situations. Owimg to the more uniform physical condi-
tions in a given life zone as the season advances, the seed maturing
period is much more uniform and is completed in less time than that
of flower-stalk production. All species and situations considered,
the flower stalks are mainly produced between July 5 and August 10,
and the seed matured between August 15 and September 1. While
the time of flower-stalk production and period of seed maturity are
influenced by the physical factors, even greater contrast is brought
about by weakening of the vegetation due to overgrazing. Plants
seriously weakened through abusive grazing are late in producing
flower stalks and in maturing the seed. In extreme cases no flower
stalks are produced, and, in general, such seed as is produced has
little or no germinative power. Plants less seriously weakened pro-

Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE LV.

F-—55G

BUTTERWEED (SENECIO TRIANGULARIS).

56

Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE LVI.

F-56G

a SMALL BUTTERWEED (SENECIO COLUMBIANUS).

rent ee

IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS. 57

duce a small amount of viable seed, while those which have not been
injured send up their flower stalks early, mature the seed crop before
killing frosts occur in the autumn, and produce fertile seed.

The data compiled relative to the life-history performances of the
different forage species have made possible the adoption of what is
known as the ‘‘deferred or rotation grazing system.’”’ This system
provides for the deferment of grazing on an allotment until the seed
crop has matured—the size of the area to be protected depending, of
course, upon the time at which the bulk of the seed crop ripens.
Subsequent to compiete revegetation, the area is grazed relatively
early, thereby providing for the protection of a similar area elsewhere
on the aliotment without m any way jeopardizing the grazing inter-
ests or by wasting any part of the annual forage crop during the time
required for revegetation. When the entire allotment has been
thoroughly restocked, each portion, subdivision or camp is restricted
from grazing but once in every three or four years, thus allowing the
plants to maintain a Maximum vigor and to provide an occasional
seed crop, which is essential to the mamtenance of a permanent
stand.

The details essential to revegetation by means of deferred and
rotation grazing have been given in previous publications.

85154°—Bull. 545—17——8

58 BULLETIN 545, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TaBLe 2.—Soil moisture requirements of native forage plants.

Name of plant. Soil-water
content at
| time of Class.
Local. | Scientific. Seite =
Per cent. |
ich huckiebervy2-. ---222 22-2 |, Vaccinium membranaceuit: .. 22.2 =- >. 2+ see 222
Mountain onion ---....._-----.----- | Alsumqatsdein SS ee eee 14.0-16.0 |
slender reed-prass. 2 <2. >= 2 ----- =" | Cmne latijolia: =. > 5228 re 5 13. 5-16. 0 A.
Tall meadow-frass. 2-2 52-8 ee ‘Panicularia nermia ie eee 12.0-14.5
Talliswamp sedge Se eee een COT EE CTSIBCIUA. =o ee ee 22. 5-24.0
Black han-crass2 225 | Deschampsia atropurpurea.__..._......-..- 12.5-14.7
Palsehellepores <--> eee Verairum oridess 2 se oe oe 11.0-14.5
Wire weed 4. 2-5 ee Tee Chamaenerion angustifolium -_..-.-.-..---- 8. 2-11.5
rre willOWess 225222 eee eee DS UIEE SCOULETULTIE 235 we ans ee ee 2252222252:
Porcupine STASSS 7 Pee ee ee SE DU OCCIUCTHALS = oo 9.5-11.5
SS ee ee ee ee Juncus MRETEENSUITUS - - -~------------------]------------|
Heishit ee ry ee Juncus orthophyllts =... - =... -=252-2222-- pete ee i B.
Small wild onion ==. 2) 2 Allium fibriilam oa" Oe ee er ce :
Smooth wid Tye2.. 52-2 = Wily TUS GUOQICUS - 26 ee ae P< 7-5= 9.8
W@ulied Nair-Crass 2 es eee Deschampsia caespitosa _--.----.-----.----- 11.5-14.5
Wald celeny << sent Figusiicum oreganum. -__-------=-=--=----- 8.0—- 9.5
Wild onions: 22 Se ee eee Allium platy pilin So Poe ee tS ee eens
Wiootrsh ie 2307 eee ee eee Juncoides parviflorum - ----_--.------------ 10. 0-12.5
Bucierweed 3-28 tee ee eee MD ENECID ITIGNGULGTIES eae oe ee ee 11-5-14.0
ConcHOWer toe eee ees Rudbeckia occulentahs_.- 2 = = | 16. 0-18. 5 A
Marsh pirie S6aSS. es ee Calamagrostis canadensis ._.....-..---------| 11.0-14.0 and
Mountain timothy... ___..2._.......- Phicam alpmaimn 22.52 So { 14.0 | B.
sheen sedee: 2223 = 2 oe Se Se | Carer lola ns ee ee ere | _ _ 4.0
Bip bunchigrasss* 22s eee Agropyron spictium __-_--------..---------- (5.5- 7.5
ipldebusviell srass-2 ee | parece ZU GRENSIS Soe en ee Reese ee 55
LTH {Petar g: Gere ep eee es ee eS TOK: (OMEN er | or
Gera 8 2 eee ee Geranium viscosissimMuM.___.__------------ ie ee Se
(EL Orem ces eee Agastache urticifolia....------..------------ Base 2ssece:
Little hluceriss 3) ee Poa sandbergu~ 522s eee es (Ge aks
Little needle grass=.:-_.5--2 22-25 [{Siipa minor. £207 eS ee | 9241.5
Mountain bunch grass--_--...-..---- | Festuca oIidulad © 322s ee [= 925-70
Mountain dandelion. ._____.__...__-- Avoseris glatica 2-3 ee a ee | _8.0-10.0
Mountain June grass............---- | -Kocleria Cristal = 2a eee on | 10.0-13.5 |
Mountain wheat grass--_-........--- | Agropyron violaceum —.._-.-5--.----=%-=.-- | 6.0-7.5
ONO GEASS eee ee ee i. Metica bella: 3. 2-2 2 Sateen | 6.3-8.5| C.-
(PING SEAS Le Ss Pee Se ae | Cala MUAGTOSUS SUESUOTIUY soe os eo ee 5.3- 8.5
Red bunch 'erass es oo wee | AgropyTon fleruosum __......---.-=2-2-2--- [oe eee |
RF Gol ey tela el es ey eee ee CoCr Cee ae Juncus conjusus ee ee ee Eee meine ape ERS Eee os = ease
APT Cl epee es eae oe ya eet JUNCUS POTTYE =e ee ee ee ee | 5.5- 7.0}
Sole cheats Ss. = ree ees IBVOTEUS ROTULOCEUS eee ee | 5.5 |
SS PIROGErIS@bIaMe Ss =e ee Trisetum Spreawwm 22 oa a | 7.5- 9.5}
ee bromegrass .___..____- oe us monpaatis PhS cee Man eS | 5.5- 8.0]
all: plucerass ee ee ee eee OE OTICHUGLOSSIL 5 eo Sos ee ee ee eet we
AWihhice foxtalls 21 3 ce Bee ee Sitanion velutinum .-_._-------------------| -6.0- 8.5 |
iWoolly-weed =~. a eee Heracium cynoglossoides ........-..-------- / = $.0-10.5 |
VaReOW coe eS ca ay Pan eee Achillea lanulosa = 3 -~ 2-2. 2 | 10.0-12.3 |
‘Alpine red topee 2-2 ee Agrostis rossdeé.----------------------------| “.0°-&5]|
Blue beardtongue..............=---- | Penistemmon procerus:-- =. 2 es Ee | $.0-10.0 | B
Skankweed-, 9) 2= eee | Polemonium pulcherrimum..___.._.....-.- | 7.0-10.0 || and
Slender inir-prass: <6 =a | Deschampsia elongata. -_---..-------------- | 8.5-15.0 | C.
Wild buckwheat....................| Polygonum phytolaccaefolium ae Sea i | 8. 0-10. 0 |
Witlerinnto 2 1a 8 ae Spe ae eer Valerian stichensiss. 25525) 20 ae | 7.0- 8.5

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BULLETIN 545, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
|
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IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS. 61
APPENDIX: PLAN OF STUDY.

In obtaining information on the individual forage species, consid-
eration was given as far as possible to the following points:

1. Name of plant, both Latin and common.
2. Distribution.
a. Characteristic zone.
b. Most typical habitat; abundance and density of stand.
3. Usual plant associations and communities.
4, Habit of growth.
a. Annual or perennial.
| b. Tufted growth, height growth, and character of herbage.
5. Character of root system.
a. Spreading fibrous root, or taproot with lateral rhizomes.
6. Depth of roots in soil.
6. Ecological requirements.
a. Soil and moisture preferences.
b. Drought resistance.
7. How flower stalks are sent up.
8. How fertilized.
9. When seeds are matured.
10. How and when seeds are disseminated.
11. Seed habits, strong or weak. Viability tests.
12. Period of germination.
13. Classes of stock which graze it.
14. Suitability for early or late grazing.
15. Palatability when green and when matured.
16. Time at which it is usually grazed.
17. Relative forage value.

Information on the points in the above outline was secured through
investigation extending over four successive years. The actual eco-
logical requirements of the various species could be determined only
through physical-factor measurements.

An important factor affecting the distribution, and more particu-
larly the succession of vegetation, is available soil moisture. Experi-
ments showed that the greatest physiological activity is manifested
at the time fertilization is taking place or immediately after the
completion of the flower-stalk production but prior to a pronounced
development of the seed.

The comparative ability of the various species to withstand
drought was determined by ascertaining for each species the amount
of moisture remaining in the soil when the plant had wilted to a
point from which it could not recover. Unless pronounced wilting
was actually in progress as a result of aerial and soil conditions, it
was necessary to bring it about by cutting off the water supply from
the plant. In making determinations in the field one of the methods
used was as follows: The plants to be tested were dug up, with the
roots undisturbed in their own soil, particular care being taken to
prune off as little of the root system as possible. The block of soil

62 BULLETIN 545, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

held together by the intertwining of the roots was wrapped in burlap
for purposes of transfer and immediately placed upon suitably cut
wire screen (see Plate I), which, when fitted and fastened together
around the soil body in the form of a basket, was placed in the hole
created by the digging of the plant. In this manner the plant was
not subjected to too rapid drying and its normal functions were
unimpaired. After the plant had fully recovered from any slight
disturbance due to digging, it was elevated slightly in order to
increase the rapidity of the drying process. The wire-basket method
made the plant portable, a very desirable feature in field work since
the plant could easily be removed from the field during showers and
when in a wilted condition prior to soil sampling and piaced under
shelter—in this case in a carefully-placed 14-ounce canvas ‘tent—and
thus protected from direct effects of wind and sun when the specimen
might recover its turgor if not wilted excessively.

The other method of ascertaining the water requirements was to
dig away the soil on all sides of the plant, leaving in place the central
core of soil supporting the roots, the size of which would depend upon
the spreading habit of the root system (see Plate I, fig. 2). This
method was used especially for certain species with deeply pene-
trating taproots, such as wild celery (Ligusticum oreganum) and wild
buckwheat (Polygonum phytolaccaefolium). These, it was found,
would not respond normally to the wire-basket method of treatment.
The drying process brought about in this way, owing to the fact that
the water supply was not wholly cut off from below, was slightly more
gradual than in the case of the wire-basket method, but the results
of the tests for species which did not have a distinct taproot, such as
grasses, proved to be virtually the same as those secured for the same
species by the wire-basket method. When the plant reached a con-
dition of pronounced wilting and turgor could not be recovered, two
representative soil samples were taken, weighed immediately to avoid
possible discrepancy due to evaporation, placed in a soil-drving oven
and subjected to a temperature not exceeding 212° F. for several
hours until they were dry, then reweighed. The difference between
the dry weight of the samples and the weight when taken at the time
the plant was in a wilted condition represents the amount of moisture
remaining in the soil at a time when the root hairs were unable, under
the conditions, to absorb moisture rapidly enough to maintain the
form of the plant and finally to recover its turgidity. The depth and
location at which soil samples were taken were regulated by the
depth of penetration and position of the roots. This operation was
followed by protecting the specimen from the direct effect of sun and
wind by placing a small tent shelter over it. In all cases the soil
moisture figures given are based upon specimens which failed to
recover their turgor, unless otherwise stated. All moisture require-

IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS. 63

ment determinations of species were made from two to four weeks
after the flower stalks began to show. ,

Since the character of the soil and the nature of the habitat play
an important role in the amount of water the substratum may yield
to the plant, the wilting of species was tested as nearly simultaneously
and under as nearly the same topographic features as possible. The
results therefore are comparable.

To ascertain the germination per cent of the seed crop, matured
seeds were collected in the fall of each year for three years from
typical situations, and germination tests were made in the seed-
testing laboratory of the United States Department of Agriculture.

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